59th Cbro 2d Session HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BURHAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A. D. MELVIN, Chief ok BUREAU. SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Dr». PEARSON, MICH EN ER, LAW, HARBACGH, TRUMBOWER, I.IUTAKD, HOUOMBK. HU1DEKOPBR, STILl>. HOHLBR, INO \l»AMS. REVISED EDITION. WASHINGS »N: K \ M B NT PRINTING 01 •7- / 59th Congress ) 2d Session ( HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES I I kKXJMBNT 1 No. 795 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. A. D. MELVIN, Chief of Bureau. SPECIAL REPORT DISEASES OE THE HORSE!. Drs. PEARSON, MICHBNBR, LAW. B.ARBAUGH, TRUMBOWER, LIADTARD, HOLCOMBE, BUIDBKOPER, STILES, MOHLER, AM) ADAMS REVISED EDITION. WASHINGTON : GOV B K N M B N T PR I N T I NO P PICK, I 907. FEB 24 19C3 D. or D. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C, Aprils, 1907. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a copy of the Special Report on Diseases of the Horse prepared for reprinting in accord- ance with the following resolution, approved March 4, 1907: Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there be printed and bound in cloth two hundred and fifty thousand copies of the special report on diseases of horses, with accompanying illus- trations, the same to be first revised and brought to date under the supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture, one hundred and seventy-five thousand for the use of the House of Representatives, sixty thousand for the use of the Senate, and fifteen thousand for the use of the Department of Agriculture. As the work was thoroughly revised in 1903, it has been found necessary to make only a slight revision at this time. A brief chapter on "Osteoporosis, or big-head,' 1 by Dr. John R. Mohler, Chief of the Pathological Division of this Bureau, has been added. This report was first issued in 1890 and was at once accorded a hearty reception by the horse owners of the country. The limited edition that the Department was able to publish was very soon exhausted, and the demand was then turned upon Members of Con- gress. As a result of the continuous demand Congress has ordered reprints from time to time until the total editions, including that provided for by the above resolution, approximate 900,000 copies. Very respectfully, A. D. Melvin, Ch ief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 CONTENTS. Tlie examination of a sick horse, Page. By Leonard Pearson, B. S. , V. M. D 9 Methods of administering medicines, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 28 Diseases of the digestive organs, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 34 Diseases of the urinary organs, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 75 Diseases of the respirator y organs, By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S 104 Diseases of the generative organs, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S ]42 Diseases of the nervous system , By M. R. Trum bower, V. S 190 Diseases of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatics, By M. R. Trumbower, V. S 225 Diseases of the eye, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 251 Lameness, By A. Liautard, M. D.,.V. S 274 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, By A. A. Holcombe, D. V. S 369 Diseases of the skin, By James Law, F. R. C. V. S 431 Wounds and (heir treatment, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 459 General diseases, By Rush Shippen Huidekoper, M. IX, Vet 482 Surra, By Ch. Wardeli, Stiles, Ph. D 548 Osteoporosis or bighead, By John R. Mohler, V. M. D 554 Shoeing, By John W. Adams, A. B., V. M. D 559 Index 583 5 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Page. Plate I. Digestive apparatus 74 II. Bots 74 III. Intestinal worms 74 IV. Longitudinal section through kidney 76 V. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 88 VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 88 VIII. Position of the left lung 128 IX. Instruments used in difficult labor 166 X. Normal presentations 166 XI. Abnormal presentations ' (;,i XII. Abnormal presentations 166 XIII. Abnormal presentations 176 XIV. Abnormal presentations 176 XV. Anterior presentations 176 XVI. The nervous system 1 92 XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 228 XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 228 XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's eye 256 XX. Skeleton of the horse 288 XXI. Superficial layer of muscles 288 XXII. Splint ■ 288 XXIII. Ringbone 304 XXIV. Various types of spavin 304 XXV. Bone spavin 336 XXVI. Bone spavin 336 XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 336 XXVIII. The sling in use 336 XXIX. Anatomy of foot 372 XXX. Anatomy of foot 372 XXXI. Quarter crack and remedies 372 XXXII. Sound and contracted feet 3/2 XXXIII. Foundered feet -116 XXXIV. Ringbone and navicular disease 416 XXXV. Diseases of the skin 432 XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 448 XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 488 XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions. 532 XL. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers. 532 XLI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing cicatrices 532 8 ILLUSTRATIONS. TEXT I'll. I RES. Page. Fig. 1. Ground surface of a right fore hoof of the "regular" form 566 2. Pair of fore feet of regular form in regular standing position 567 .'!. Pair of fore feet of base-wide form in toe- wide standing position 567 -1. Pair of fore feet of base-narrow form in toe-narrow standing position. 568 5. Side view of an acute-angled fore foot, of a regular fore foot, and of a stumpy fore foot 568 6. Side view of foot with the foot-axis broken backward as a result of too lung a toe 570 7. Left fore hoof of a regular form, shod with a plain fullered shoe 574 8. Side view of hoof and fullered shoe 575 9. An acute-angled left fore hoof shod with a bar shoe 577 1 1). A fairly formed right fore ice shoe for a roadster 577 11. Left fore hoof of regular form shod with a rubber pad and "three- quarter" shoe • r >78 12. A narrow right fore hoof of the base-wide standing position shod with a plain ' ' dropped crease " shoe 578 13. Hoof surface i >f a right hind shoe to prevent interfering 579 14. ( iround surface of shoe shown in fig. 13 579 1."). Side view of a fore hoof shod so as to quicken the "breaking over" in a " forger " •">*() 1 6. Side view of a short-toed hind hoof of a forger 580 17. A toe-weight shoe to increase the length of stride of fore feet 581 18. Most common form of punched heel-weight shoe to induce high action in fore feet 581 SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE THE EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. By Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D., Dean of the Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, and State Veterinarian of Pennsylvania. In the examination of a sick horse it is important to have a method, or system. If a definite plan of examination is followed one may feel reasonably sure when the examination is finished that no important point has been overlooked and that the examiner is in a position to arrive at an opinion that is as accurate as is possible for him. Of course, an experienced eye can see, and a trained hand can feel, slight alterations or variations from the normal that are not perceptible to the unskilled observer. A thorough knowledge of the conditions that exist in health is of the highest importance, because it is only by a knowledge of what is right that one can surely detect a condition that is wrong. A knowledge of anatomy, or of the structure of the body, and of physiology, or the functions and activities of the body, lie at the bottom of accuracy of diagnosis. It is important to remember that animals of different races or families deport themselves differ- ently under the influence of the same disease or pathological process. The sensitive and highly organized Thoroughbred resists cerebral depression more than does the lymphatic draft horse. Hence a de- gree of fever that does not produce marked dullness in a Thorough- bred may cause the most abject dejection in a coarsely bred heavy draft horse. This and similar facts are of vast importance in the diagnosis of disease and in the recognition of its significance. The order of examination, as given below, is one that has proved to be comparatively easy of application and sufficiently thorough for the purpose of the readers of this work. It is recommended by several writers. 10 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. HISTORY. It is important to know, first of all, something of the origin and development of the disease, therefore the cause should be looked for. The cause of a disease is important, not only in connection with diag- nosis, but also in connection with treatment. The character of food that the horse has had, the use to which he has been put, and the kind of care he has received should all be inquired into closely. It may be found by this investigation that the horse has been fed on damaged food, such as brewer's grains or moldy silage, and this may be suffi- cient to explain the profound depression and weakness that are char- acteristic of forage poisoning. If it is learned that the horse has been kept in the stable without exercise for several days and upon full rations, and that he became suddenly lame in his back and hind legs, and finally fell to the ground from what appeared to be partial paralysis, this knowledge, taken in connection with a few evident symptoms, will be enough to establish a diagnosis of azoturia. If it is learned that the horse has been recently shipped in the cars or has been through a dealer's stable, we have knowledge of significance in connection with the causation of a possible febrile disease, which is, under these conditions, likely to prove to be influenza, or edematous pneumonia. It is also important to know whether the particular horse that is under examination is the only one in the stable or on the premises that is similarly afflicted. If it is found that several horses are afflicted much in the same way, we have evidence here of a common cause of disease which may prove to be of an infectious nature. Another item of importance in connection with the history of the case relates to the treatment that the horse may have had before he is examined. It sometimes happens that medicine given in excessive quantities produces symptoms resembling those of disease, so it is important that the examiner shall be fully informed as to the medica- tion that has been employed. ATTITUDE AND GENERAL CONDITION. Before beginning the special examination attention should be paid to the attitude and general condition of the animal. Sometimes horses assume positions that are characteristic of a certain disease. For example, in tetanus, or lockjaw, the muscles of the face, neck, and shoulders are stiff and rigid, as well as the muscles of the jaw. This condition produces a peculiar attitude, that once seen is subse- quently recognized as rather characteristic of this disease. A horse with tetanus stands with his muscles tense and his legs in a somewhat bracing position, as though he were gathered to repel a shock. The neck is stiff and hard, the head is slightly extended upon it, the face is drawn, and the nostrils are dilated. The tail is usually held up a little, and when pressed down against the thighs it springs back to its EXAMINATION OF A SICK HOBSE. 11 previous position. In Inflammation of the throat, as in pharyngo- laryngitis, the head is extended upon the neck, and the angle between the jaw and the lower border of the neck is opened as far as possible to relieve the pressure that otherwise would fall upon ili«' throat. In dumminess, or immobility, the hanging position of the bead and the stupid expression arc rather characteristic. In pleurisy, perito- nitis, and some other painful diseases of the internal organs, the rigid position of the body denotes an effort of the animal to avoid pressure upon and to protect the inflamed sensitive region. The horse may be dow n in the stall and unable to rise. This condi- tion may result from paraplegia, from azoturia, from forage poison- ing, from tetanus, or from painful conditions of the bones or feet, such as osteoporosis or founder. Lying down at unusual times or in unusual positions may indicate disease. The first symptom of colic may be a desire on the part of the horse to lie down at a time or place that is unusual or inappropriate. Sometimes disinclination to lie down is an indication of disease. Where there is difficulty in breath- ing, the horse know- that he can manage himself better upon his feet than upon his breast or bis side. It happen-, therefore, that in nearly all serious diseases of the respiratory tract the horse stands persist- ently, day and night, until recovery has commenced and breathing i-; easier, or until the animal falls from sheer exhaustion. Where there i- stiffness and soreness of the muscles, a- in rheumatism, inflamma- tion of the muscles from overwork, or of the hone- m osteoporosis, <>r realize that when he lies down he will he unable to arise. Abnormal attitude- are assumed in painful diseases of the digestive organs (colic). A horse with colic may -it upon his haunches, like a dog, or may stand upon hi- hind feet ami rest upon hi- knee- in front, or may endeavor to balance himself upon his hack, with all four feet iii the air. These positions are assumed because they give relief from pain by lessening pressure, or ten-ion. upon the sensitive structures. Under the general condition of the animal it i- necessary to observe the condition, or state, of nutrition; the conformation, so far a- it may indicate the constitution; and the temperament. By observing the condition of nutrition one may he able to determine to a certain extent the effect that the di-ea-e ha- already had upon the animal ami to esti- mate the amount of strength that remain- and that will he available \'<n the verge of collapse. The -kin i- moist, to a certain degree, a1 all time- in a healthy horse. This moisture is not in the form of a perceptible sweat, hut it i- enough to keep the -kin pliable and to cause the hair to have a -oft. healthy feel. In some chronic diseased conditions and in fever, the -kin becomes dry. In this case the hair ha- a harsh feel thai is quite differenl from the condition observed in health, and from the fact o| 14 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. its being so dry the individual hairs do not adhere to one another, they stand apart, and the animal has what is known as " a staring coat.'' When, during a fever, sweating occurs, it is usually an indi- cation that the crisis is passed. Sometimes sweating is an indication of pain. A horse with tetanus or azoturia sweats profusely. Horses sweat freely when there is a serious impediment to respiration; they sweat under excitement, and, of course, from the well-known physio- logical causes of heat and work. Local sweating, or sweating of a restricted area of the body, denotes some kind of nerve interference. Swellings of the skin usually come from wounds or other external causes and have no special connection with the diagnosis of internal diseases. There are, however, a number of conditions in which the swelling of the skin is a symptom of a derangement of some other part of the body. For example, there is the well-known " stocking,'' or swelling of the legs about the fetlock joints, in influenza. There is the soft swelling of the hind legs that occurs so often in draft horses when standing still and that comes from previous inflammation (lym- phangitis) or from insufficient heart power. Dropsy, or edema of the skin, may occur beneath the chest or abdomen from heart insuffi- ciency or from chronic collection of fluid in the chest or abdomen (hydrothorax, ascites, or anemia). In anasarca or purpura hemor- rhagica large soft swellings appear on any part of the skin, but usually on the legs, side of the body, and about the head. Gas collects under the skin in some instances. This comes from a local inoculation with an organism which produces a fermentation beneath the skin and causes the liberation of gas which inflates the skin, or the gas may be air that enters through a wound penetrating some air-containing organ, as the lungs. The condition here de- scribed is known as emphysema. Emphysema may follow the frac- ture of a rib when the end of a bone is forced inward and caused to penetrate the lung, or it may occur, when, as a result of an ulcerat- ing process, an organ containing air is perforated. This accident is more common in cattle than it is in horses. Emphysema is recog- nized by the fact that the swelling that it causes is not hot or sensi- tive on pressure. It emits a peculiar crackling sound when it is stroked or pressed upon. Wounds of the skin may be of importance in the diagnosis of internal disease. Wounds over the bony prominence, as the point of the hip, the point of the shoulder, and the greatest convexity of the ribs, occurs when a horse is unable to stand for a long time and, through continually lying upon his side, has shut off the circulation to the portion of the skin that covers parts of the body that carry the greatest weight, and in this way has caused them to mortify. Little, round, soft, doughlike swellings occur on the skin and may be scattered freely over the surface of the body when the horse is EXAMINATION OF A SICK EOBSE. 15 afflicted with urticaria. Similar eruptions, but distributed L< erally, about the size of a silver dollar, may occur as a symptom of dourine, or colt distemper. Hard Lumps, from which radiate welt- like swellings of the lymphatics, occur in glanders, and blisterlike eruptions occur around the mouth and pasterns in horsepox. THE I 'i:<. \ \s OF < n;< i LATION. The l i i—t item in t h i> portion of the examination consists in taking the pulse. The pulse may be counted and its character may be de- termined at any point where a Large artery occupies a situation close to t-he -kin and above a hard ti>sue. such as a lioiie. cartilage, or tendon. The most convenient place for taking the pulse of the horse i» at the jaw. The external maxillary arterj run- from between the. jaws, around the lower border of the jawbone and up on the outside of the jawbone to the face. It i- located immediately* in front of the heavy muscles of the cheek. It- throb can he felt most distinctly just before it turns around the lower border of the jawbone. The hall- of the iir-t and second or of the second and third fingers should he pressed lightly on the -kin over this artery when it.- pulsations are to he studied. The normal pulse of the healthy horse varies in frequency as follow- : Stallion 28 t<> :'.•_' beats per minute. Gelding ."..". to 38 beats per minute. Mar.- ::» to m beats per minute. Foal - to ■"• years old W to 50 beats per minute. Foal ''> tu L2 liiniitii- n|il 15 in 00 beats per minute. Foal •_' in i weeks old 7<> in '.»• beats per minute. The pulse i- accelerated by the digestion of rich food, by hot weather, exercise, excitement, and alarm. It is slightly more rapid in the evening than it is in the morning. Well-bred horses have a slightly more rapid pulse than sluggish, cold-blooded horses. The pulse should he regular; that i-. the separate beats should follow each other after intervals of equal Length, and the heat- should be of equal fullness, hi' volume. In disease, the pulse may become -lower or more rapid than in health. Slowing of the pulse may he caused by old age, great exhaus- tion, or excessive cold. It may he due to depression of the central oervous system, a- in dumminess, <>r be the result of the administra- tion of drugs, such a- digitalis or strophantus. A rapid pulse i- almo-t always found in fever, and the more severe the infection and the weaker the heart the more rapid i- the pulse. Under these con ditions, the hem- may rise to BO, 90, or even 120 per minute. When the pulse is above LOO per minute the outlook for recovery is not promising, and especially if this symptom accompanies high tempera- 16 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ture or occurs late in an infectious disease. In nearly all of the dis- eases of the heart and in anemia the pulse becomes rapid. The pulse is irregular in diseases of the heart, and especially where the valves are affected. The irregularity may consist in varying inter- vals between the beats or the dropping of one or more beats at regu- lar or irregular intervals. The latter condition sometimes occurs in chronic diseases of the brain. The pulse is said to be weak, or soft, when the beats are indistinct, because little blood is forced through the artery by each contraction of the heart. This condition occurs when there is a constriction of the vessels leading from the heart and it occurs in certain infectious and febrile diseases, and is an indication of heart weakness. In examining the heart itself it is necessary to recall that it lies in the anterior portion of the chest slightly to the left of the median line and that it extends from the third to the sixth rib. It exends almost to the breastbone, and a little more than half of the distance between the breastbone and the backbone. In contracting, it rotates slightly on its axis, so that the point of the heart, which lies below, is pressed against the left chest Avail at a place immediately above the point of the elbow. The heart has in it four chambers — two in the left and two in the right side. The upper chamber of the left side (left auri- cle) receives the blood as it comes from the lungs, passes it to the lower chamber of the left side (left ventricle) , and from here it is sent with great force (for this chamber has very strong, thick walls) through the aorta and its branches (the arteries) to all parts of the body. The blood returns through the veins to the upper chamber of the right side (right auricle), passes then to the lower chamber of the right side (right ventricle), and from this chamber is forced into the lungs to be oxidized. The openings between the chambers of each side and into the aorta are guarded by valves. If the horse is not too fat, one may feel the impact of the apex of the heart against the chest wall with each contraction of the heart by placing the hand on the left side back of the fifth rib and above the point of the elbow. The thinner and the better bred the horse is the more distinctly this impact is felt. IMhe animal is excited, or if he has just been exercised, the impact is stronger than when the horse is at rest. If the horse is weak, the impact is reduced in force. The examination of the heart with the ear is an important matter in this connection. Certain sounds are produced by each contraction of the normal heart. It is customary to divide these into two, and to call them the first and second sounds. These two sounds are heard during each pulsation, and any deviation of the normal indicates some alteration in the structure or the functions of the heart. In making this examination, one may apply the left ear over the heavy muscles of the shoulder back of the shoulder joint, and just above the point of EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 17 the elbow, or, if the sounds arc not heard distinctly, the loft fore leg may be drawn forward by an assistant and the right car placed against tho lower portion of the chest wall that is exposed in this manner. The first sound of the heart occur- while the heart muscle is con- tracting and while the blood is being forced from the heart and the valves are rendered taut to prevent the return of the blood from the lower to the upper chambers. The second sound follows quickly after the first and occurs during rebound of blood in the arteries, caus- ing pressure in the aorta and tensions of the valves guarding its open- ing into the left ventricle. The first sound is of a high pitch and is longer and more distinct than the second. Under the influence of disease these sound- may be altered in various way-. It i- not profit- able, in a work such as this, to describe the detail- of these alteration-. Those who are interested will find this subject fully discussed in the veterinary text -books. TEMPERATURE. The temperature of the horse is determined roughly by placing the fingers in the mouth or between the thighs or by allowing the horse to exhale against the cheek or back of the hand. In accurate examina- tion, however, these means of determining temperature are not relied upon, but recourse is had to the use of the thermometer. The ther- mometer used for taking the temperature of a horse is a self-register- ing clinical thermometer, similar to that used by physicians, but larger, being from .~> to 6 inches long. The temperature of the animal i- measured in the rectum. The normal temperature of the horse varies somewhat under differ- ent conditions. It is higher in the young animal than in the old. and i> higher in hot weather than in cold. The weather and exercise de- cidedly influence the temperature physiologically. The normal tem- perature varies from '.»'.». .">° to 101° F. If the temperature rises to 102.5° the horse Is -aid to have a low fever; if the temperature reaches 104 the fever is moderate: if it reaches 106 c it is high, and above this point it i> regarded a- very high. In some diseases, such a- tetanus or sunstroke, the temperature goes as high a- 108 or 110°. In the ordinary infection- diseases it doe- not often exceed 106 . A tem- perature of 107.5 C and above is very dangerous and must lie reduced promptly if the horse i- to be saved. THE ORG \\- OF RESPIRATION. In examining this system of organs and their function? it is custom- ary to begin by ooting the frequency of the respiratory movements. This point can be determined by observing the motion- of the nostrils or of the flanks; on a cold day one can see the condensation of the moisture of the warm air a- it come- from the lungs. The normal H. Dor. 7'.'.-,. 5»-2 2 18 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. rate of respiration for a healthy horse at rest is from 8 to 1G per min- ute. The rate is faster in young animals than in old, and is increased by work, hot weather, overfilling of the stomach, pregnancy, lying upon the side, etc. Acceleration of the respiratory rate where no physiological cause operates is due to a variety of conditions. Among these is fever; restricted area of active lung tissue, from filling of por- tions of the lungs with inflammatory exudate, as in pneumonia ; com- pression of the lungs or loss of elasticity; pain in the muscles con- trolling the respiratory movements; excess of carbon dioxide in the blood ; and constriction of the air passages leading to the lungs. Difficult or labored respiration is known as dyspnea. It occurs when it is difficult, for any reason, for the animal to obtain the amount of oxygen that it requires. This may be due to filling of the lungs, as in pneumonia ; to painful movements of the chest, as in rheu- matism or pleurisy ; to tumors of the nose and paralysis of the throat, swellings of the throat, foreign bodies, or weakness of the respiratory passages, fluid in the chest cavity, adhesions between the lungs and chest walls, loss of elasticity of the lungs, etc. Where the difficulty is great the accessory muscles of respiration are brought into play. In great dyspnea the horse stands with his front feet apart, with his neck straight out, and his head extended upon his neck. The nostrils are widely dilated, the face has an anxious expression, the eyeballs protrude, the up-and-down motion of the larynx is aggravated, the amplitude of the movement of the chest walls increased, and the flanks heave. The expired air is of about the temperature of the body. It con- tains considerable moisture, and it should come with equal force from each nostril and should not have an unpleasant odor. If the stream of air from one nostril is stronger than from the other, there is an in- dication of an obstruction in a nasal chamber. If the air possesses a bad odor, it is usually an indication of putrefaction of a tissue or secretion in some part of the respiratory tract. A bad odor is found where there is necrosis of the bone in the nasal passages or in chronic catarrh. An ulcerating tumor of the nose or throat may cause the breath to have an offensive odor. The most offensive breath occurs where there is necrosis, or gangrene, of the lungs. In some diseases there is a discharge from the nose. In order to determine the significance of the discharge it should be examined closely. One should ascertain whether it comes from one or both nostrils. If but from one nostril, it probably originates in the head. The color should be noted. A thin, watery discharge may be com- posed of serum, and it occurs in the earlier stages of coryza, or nasal catarrh. An opalescent, slightly tinted discharge is composed of mucus and indicates a little more severe irritation. If the discharge is sticky and pus-like, a deeper difficulty or more advanced irritation EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 19 is indicated. If the discharge contains flakes and clumps of more or less dried, agglutinated particles, it is probable that it originates within a cavity of the head, as the sinuses or guttural pouches. The discharge of glanders is of a peculiar sticky nature and adheres tenaciously to the wings of the nostrils. The discharge of pneumonia is of a somewhat red or reddish brown color, and, on this account. has been described as a prune-juice discharge. The discharge may contain blood. If the blood appears as clots or as streaks in the dis- charge, it probably originates at some point in the upper part of the respiratory tract. If the blood is in the form of a tine froth, it comes from the lungs. In examining the interior of the nasal passage one should remem- ber that the normal color of the mucous membrane is a rosy pink and that its surface is smooth. If ulcers, nodules, swellings, or tumors are found, these indicate disease. The ulcer that is characteristic of glanders is described fully in connection with the discussion of that disease. Between the lower jaws there are several clusters of lympathic glands. These glands are so small and so soft that it is difficult to find them by feeling through the skin, but when a suppurative dis- ease exists in the upper part of the respiratory tract these glands become swollen and easy to feel. They may become soft and break- down and discharge as abscesses; this is seen constantly in strangles. On the other hand, they may become indurated and hard from the proliferation of connective tissue and attach themselves to the jaw- bone, to the tongue, or to the skin. This is seen in chronic glanders. If the glands are swollen and tender to pressure, it indicates that the disease causing the enlargement is acute; if they are hard and insen- sitive, the disease causing the enlargement is chronic. The manner in which the horse coughs is of importance in diagno- sis. The cough is a forced expiration, following immediately upon a forcible separation of the vocal cords. The purpose of the cough is to remove some irritant substance from the respiratory passages, and it occurs when irritant gases, such as smoke, ammonia, sulphur vapor, or dust, have been inhaled. It occurs from inhalation of cold air if the respiratory passages are sensitive from disease. In laryngitis, bronchitis, and pneumonia, cough is very easily excited and occurs merely from accumulation of mucus and inflammatory product upon the irritated respiratory mucous membrane. If one wishes to deter- mine the character of the cough, it can easily l.e excited by pressing upon the larynx with the thumb and linger. The larynx should he pressed from side to side and the pressure removed the moment the horse commences to cough. A painful cough occurs in pleurisy, also in laryngitis, bronchitis, and bronchial pneumonia. Pain is shown by the effort the animal exerts to repress the cough. The cough is not painful, as a rule, in the chronic diseases of the respiratory tract. 20 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The force of the cough is considerable when it is not especially pain- ful and when the lungs are not seriously involved. When the lungs are so diseased that they can not be filled with a large volume of air, and in heaves, the cough is weak, as it is also in weak, debilitated animals. If mucus or pus is coughed out, or if the cough is accom- panied by a gurgling sound, it is said to be moist ; it is dry when these characteristics are not present — that is, when the air in passing out passes over surface not loaded with secretion. In the examination of the chest we resort to percussion and aus- cultation. When a cask or other structure containing air is tapped upon, or percussed, a hollow sound is given forth. If the cask con- tains fluid, the sound is of a dull and of quite a different character. Similarly, the amount of air contained in the lungs can be estimated by tapping upon, or percussing, the walls of the chest. Percussion is practiced with the fingers alone or with the aid of a special percussion hammer and an object to strike upon known as a pleximeter. If the fingers are used, the middle finger of the left hand should be pressed firmly against the side of the horse and should be struck with the ends of the fingers of the right hand bent at a right angle so as to form a hammer. The percussion hammer sold by instrument makers is made of rubber or has a rubber tip, so that when the pleximeter, which is placed against the side, is struck the impact will not be accompanied by a noise. After experience in this method of exami- nation one can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy whether the lung contains a normal amount of air or not. If, as in pneumonia, air has been displaced by inflammatory product occupy- ing the air space, or if fluid collects in the lower part of the chest, the percussion sound becomes dull. If, as in emphysema or in pneu- mothorax, there is an excess of air in the chest cavity, the percussion sound becomes abnormally loud and clear. Auscultation consists in the examination of the lungs with the ear a}> plied closely to the chest wall. As the air goes in and out of the lungs a certain soft sound is made which can be heard distinctly, especially upon inspiration. This sound is intensified by anything that accelerates the rate of respiration, such as exercise. This soft, rustling sound is known as vesicular murmur, and wherever it is heard it signifies that the lung contains air and is functionally active. The vesicular murmur is weakened when there is an inflammatory infiltration of the lung tissue or when the lungs are compressed by fluid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur disappears when air is excluded by the accumulation of inflammatory product, as in pneu- monia, and when the lungs are compressed by flirid in the chest cavity. The vesicular murmur becomes rough and harsh in the early stages of inflammation of the lungs, and this is often the first sign of the beginning of pneumonia. EXAMINATION OF A SICE HORSE. 21 By applying the ear over the lower pari of the windpipe in front of the breastbone a somewhal harsh, blowing sound may be heard. This is known as the bronchial murmur and is heard in normal conditions near the lower part of the trachea and to a Limited extent in the ante- rior portions of the Lungs after sharp exercise. When the bronchial murmur is heard over other portions of the Lungs, it may signify thai the Lungs are more or less solidified by disease and the blowing l)ron- chial murmur is transmitted through this solid lung to the ear from a distant part of the chest. The bronchial murmur in an abnormal place signifies that there exists pneumonia or that the Lungs are com- pressed by fluid in the chest cavity. Additional sounds are heard in the Lungs in some diseased condi- tions. For example, when fluid collects in the air passages and the air is forced through it or i- caused <<» puss through tithe- containing secretions or pus. Such sounds are of a gurgling or bubbling nature and are known a- mucous rales. Mucous rale- are spoken of a- heme Large or small as they are distinct or indistinct, depending upon the quantity of fluid that i- present and the size of the tube in which this sound is produced. Mucous rales occur in pneumonia after the solid- ified parts begin to break down at the end of the disease. Thej occur in bronchitis and in tuberculosis, where there i- an excess of secretion. Sometimes a shrill sound is heard, like the note of a whistle, fife, or flute. This i> due to a dry constriction of the bronchial tubes and it i- heard in chronic bronchitis and in tuberculosis. A friction sound i- heard in pleurisy. This is due to the rubbing together of roughened surface-, and the sound produced i- similar to a dry rubbing sound that i- caused by rubbing the hand- together or by rubbing upon each other two dry. rough piece- of leather. THE EXAMINATION OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT. The first point in connection with the examination of the organs of digestion is the appetite and the manner of taking food and drink. A healthy animal ha- a g I appetite. LOSS of appetite does not point i,, ;, special diseased condition, hut comes from a variety of causes. Some of these causes, indeed, may he looked upon a- being physio- Logical. Excitement, strange surroundings, fatigue, and hot weather may all cause loss of appetite. Where there is cerebral depression, fever, profound weakness, disorder of the stomach, or mechanical difficulty in chewing or swallowing, the appetite i- diminished or destroyed. Sometimes there i- an appetite or desire to eat abnormal things, such a- dirty bedding, root- of grass, -oil. etc. This de-ire usually comes from a chronic disturbance of nutrition. Thirst is diminished in a i_ r o<.d many mild diseases unaccompanied l>v distinct fever. It is seen where there i- greal exhaustion or depres- sion or profound brain disturbance. Thirst i- increased after pro- 22 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. fuse sweating, in diabetes, diarrhea, in fever, at the crisis of infec- tious diseases, and when the mouth is dry and hot. Some diseases of the mouth or throat make it difficult for the horse to chew or swallow his food. Where difficulty in this respect is expe- rienced, the following-named conditions should be borne in mind and carefully looked for : Diseases of the teeth, consisting in decay, frac- ture, abscess formation, or overgrowth; inflammatory conditions, or wounds or tumors of the tongue, cheeks, or lips ; paralysis of the mus- cles of chewing or swallowing; foreign bodies in upper part of the mouth between the molar teeth; inflammation of throat. Difficulty in swallowing is sometimes shown by the symptom known as " quid- ding." Quidding consists in dropping from the mouth well-chewed and insalivated boluses of food. A mouthful of hay, for example, after being ground and masticated, is carried to the back part of the mouth. The horse then finds that from tenderness of the throat, or from some other cause, swallowing is difficult or painful, and the bolus is then dropped from the mouth. Another quantity of hay is similarly prepared, only to be dropped in turn. Sometimes quidding is due to a painful tooth, the bolus being dropped from the mouth when the tooth is struck and during the pang that follows. Quid- ding may be practiced so persistently that a considerable pile of boluses of food accumulate in the manger or on the floor of the stall. In pharyngitis one of the symptoms is a return through the nose of fluid that the horse attempts to swallow. In some brain diseases, and particularly in chronic internal hydro- cephalus, the horse has a most peculiar manner of swallowing and of taking food. A similar condition is seen in hyperemia of the brain. In eating the horse will sink his muzzle into the grain in the feed box and eat for a while without raising the head. Long pauses are made while the food is in the mouth. Sometimes the horse will eat very rapidly for a little while and then slowly; the jaws may be brought together so forcibly that the teeth gnash. In eating hay the horse will stop at times with hay protruding from the mouth and stand stupidly, as though he has forgotten what he was about. In examining the mouth one should first look for swellings or for evidence of abnormal conditions upon the exterior; that is, the front and sides of the face, the jaws, and about the muzzle. By this means wounds, fractures, tumors, abscesses, and disease accompanied by eruptions about the muzzle may be detected. The interior of the mouth is examined by holding the head up and inserting the fingers through the interdental space in such a way as to cause the mouth to open. The mucous membrane should be clean and of a light-pink color, excepting on the back of the tongue, where the color is a yel- lowish gray. As abnormalities of this region, the chief are diffuse inflammation, characterized by redness and catarrhal discharge; local EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 23 inflammation, as from eruptions, ulcers, <>r wounds; necrosis <>i' the lower jawbone in front of the firsl back tooth; and swellings. For- eign bodies an- sometimes found embedded in the mucous membrane lining of the month or lodged between the teeth. The examination of the pharynx and of the esophagus is made chiefly by pressing upon the skin covering these organs in the region of the throat and along the Left side of the neck in the jugular gutter. Sometimes, when a more careful examination is necessary, an esoph- ageal tube or probang is passed through the nos ■ mouth down the esophagus to the stomach. Vomiting is an act consisting in the expulsion of all or part of the contents of the stomach through the mouth or nose. This act is more difficult for the horse than for most of the other dome-tic animals, because the stomach of the horse is small and does not lie on the floor of the abdominal cavity, so that the abdominal wall- in contracting do not bring pressure to hear upon it SO directly and forcibly, a- i- tin- ea-"' ill many other animals. Beside this, there is a loose fold of mucous membrane at the point where the esophagus enters the stom- ach, and this forms a sort of valve which does not interfere with the passage of food into the stomach, hut does interfere with the exit of food through the esophageal opening. Still, vomiting is a symptom that is occasionally seen in the horse. It occurs when the stomach is very much distended with food or with gas. Distention stretches the mucous membrane and eradicates the valvular fold referred to. and also makes it possible for more pressure to he exerted upon the -tom- ach through the contraction of the abdominal muscles. Since the distention to permit vomiting must he extreme, it not infrequently happens that it leads to rupture of the stomach wall-. This has caused the impression in the minds of some that vomiting can not occur in the horse without rupture of the stomach, hut this i- incor- rect, since many horses vomit and afterwards become entirely sound. A.fler rupture of the stomach has occurred vomiting i- impossible. In examination of the abdomen one should remember that it- size depends largely upon the breed, sex, and conformation of the animal, and also upon the manner in which the animal ha- been fed and the use to which it has been put. A pendulous abdomen may he the result of an abdominal tumor or of an accumulation of fluid in the abdom- inal cavity; or. on the other hand, it may merely he an indication Of pregnancy, or of the fact that the horse ha- been fed for ;i long time on bulky and innutrition- f I. Pendulous abdomen occurring in a work horse kept on a concentrated diet ig an abnormal condi tion. The abdomen may increase suddenly in volume from accu mulation of gas in tympanic colic. The abd en becomes -mall and the horse is -aid to he •• tucked up " from long-continued poor appe tite. a- in diseases of the digestive tract ami in fever. This condi 24 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tion also occurs in tetanus from the contraction of the abdominal walls and in diarrhea from emptiness. In applying the ear to the flank, on either the right or left side, certain bubbling sounds may be heard that are known as peristaltic sounds, because they are produced by peristalsis, or wormlike con- traction of the intestines. These sounds are a little louder on the right side than on the left on account of the fact that the large intes- tines lie in the right flank. Absence of peristaltic sounds is always an indication of disease, and suggests exhaustion or paralysis of. the intestines. This may occur in certain kinds of colic and is an un- favorable symptom. Increased sounds are heard where the intes- tines are contracted more violently than in health, as in spasmodic colic, and also where there is an excess of fluid or gas in the intestinal canal. The feces show, to a certain extent, the thoroughness of digestion. They should show that the food has been well ground, and should, in the horse, be free from offensive odor or coatings of mucus. A coat- ing of mucus shows intestinal catarrh. Blood on the feces indicates severe inflammation. Very light color and bad odor may come from inactive liver. Parasites are sometimes in the dung. Rectal examination consists in examination of the organs of the pelvic cavity and posterior portion of the abdominal cavity by the hand inserted into the rectum. This examination should be attempted by a veterinarian only, and is useless except to one who has a good knowledge of the anatomy of the parts concerned. THE EXAMINATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The great brain, or cerebrum, is the seat of intelligence, and it con- tains the centers that control motion in many parts of the body. The front portion of the brain is believed to be the region that is most important in governing the intelligence. The central and posterior portions of the cerebrum contain the centers for the voluntary motions of the face and of the front and hind legs. The growth of a tumor or an inflammatory change in the region of a center governing the motion of a certain part of the body has the effect of disturbing motion in that part by causing excessive contraction known as cramps, or inability of the muscles to contract, constituting the condition known as paralysis. The nerve paths from the cerebrum, and hence from these centers to the spinal cord and thence to the muscles, pass beneath the small brain, or the cerebellum, and through the medulla oblongata to the spinal cord. Interference with these paths has the effect of disturbing motion of the parts reached by them. If all of the paths on one side are interfered with, the result is paralysis of one side of the body. The small brain, or cerebellum, governs the regularity, or coordi- EXAMINATION OF A BICE BOBSE. 25 nation, of movements. Disturbances of the cerebellum cause a totter- ing, uncertain gait. In the medulla oblongata, which lies between the spinal cord and the cerebellum, arc the centers governing the circula- tion and breathing. The spinal cord carries sensory messages to the brain and motor impressions from the brain. The anterior portions <>f the cord con- tain the motor paths, and the posterior portions of the cord contain the sensory path-. Paralysis of a single member or a single group of muscles is known as monoplegia and results from injury to the motor center or to a nerve trunk leading to the part thai is involved. Paralysis v hemor- rhage in the brain, by profound exhaustion, or may result from a sat 1 1 rat ion of the system with the poison of some disease. Coma may follow upon cerebral depression, which occur- as a secondary state of inllammat ion of the bra in. Where the sensibility of a part is increased the condition is known as hyperesthesia, and where it is lost that is, where there is no feel ingor knowledge of pain the condition is known as anesthesia. The 26 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. former usually accompanies some chronic diseases of the spinal cord or the earlier stages of irritation of a nerve trunk. Hyperesthesia is difficult to detect in a nervous, irritable animal, and sometimes even in a horse of less sensitive temperament. An irritable, sensitive spot may be found surrounded by skin that is not sensitive to pressure. This is sometimes a symptom of beginning of inflammation of the brain. Anesthesia occurs in connection with cerebral and spinal paralysis, section of a nerve trunk leading to a part, in severe mental depression, and in narcotic poisoning. URINARY AND SEXUAL ORGANS. In considering the examination of the urinary and sexual organs we may consider, at the beginning, a false impression that prevails to an astonishing extent. Many horsemen are in the habit of pressing upon the back of a horse over the loins or of sliding the ends of the fingers along on either side of the median line of this region. If the horse depresses his back it is at once said u his kidneys are weak." Nothing could be more absurd or further from the truth. Any healthy horse — any horse with normal sensation and with a normally flexible back — will cause it to sink when manipulated in this way. If the kidneys are inflammed and sensitive, the back is held more rigidly and is not depressed under this pressure. To examine the kidneys by pressure the pressure should be brought to bear over these organs. The kidneys lie beneath the ends of the transverse processes of the vertebras of the loins and beneath the hind- most ribs. If the kidneys are actually inflamed and especially sensi- tive, pressure or light blows applied here may cause the horse to shrink. The physical examination of the sexual and generative organs is made in large part through the rectum, and this portion of the exami- nation should be carried out by a veterinarian only. By this means it is possible to discover or locate cysts of the kidneys, urinary calculi in the ureters, bladder, or upper urethra, malformations, and acute inflammations accompanied by pain. The external genital organs are swollen, discolored, or show a discharge as a result of local disease or from disease higher in the tract. The manner of urinating is sometimes of considerable diagnostic importance. Painful urination is shown by frequent attempts, dur- ing which but a small quantity of urine is passed; by groaning, by constrained attitude, etc. This condition conies from inflammation of the bladder or met lira, urinary calculi (stones of the bladder or urethra), hemorrhage, tumors, bruises, etc. The urine is retained from spasms of the muscle at the neck of the bladder, from calculi, inflammatory growths, tumors, and paralysis of the bladder. The urine dribbles without control when the neck of the bladder is weakened or paralyzed. This condition is seen after the bladder is EXAMINATION OF A SICK HORSE. 27 weakened from long-continued retention and where there is a partial paralysis of the hind quarters. Horses usually void urine five to seven times a day, and pass from 4 to 7 quarts. Disease may be shown by increase in the number of voidings or of the quantity. Frequent urination indicates an irri- table or painful condition of the bladder or urethra or that the quan- tity is excessive. In one form of chronic inflammation of the kidneys (interstitial nephritis) and in polyuria the quantity may be increased to 20 or 30 quarts daily. Diminution in the quantity of urine comes from profuse sweating, diarrhea, high fever, weak heart, diseased and nonsecreting kidneys, or an obstruction to the flow. The urine of the healthy horse is a pale or at times a slightly red- dish yellow. The color is less intense when the quantity is large, and is more intense when the quantity is diminished. Dark-brown urine is seen in azoturia and in severe acute muscular rheumatism. A brownish-green color is seen in jaundice. Red color indicates admix- ture of blood from a bleeding point at some part of the urinary tract, usually in the kidneys. The urine of the healthy horse is not clear and transparent. It contains mucus, which causes it to be slightly thick and stringy, and a certain amount of undissolved carbonates, causing it to be cloudy. A sediment collects when the urine is allowed to stand. The urine of the horse is normally alkaline. If it becomes acid the bodies in sus- pension are dissolved and the urine is made clear. The urine may be unusually cloudy from the addition of abnormal constituents, but to determine their character a chemical or microscopic examination is necessary. Red or reddish flakes or clumps in the urine are always abnormal, and denote a hemorrhage or suppuration in the urinary tract. The normal specific gravity of the urine of the horse is about 1.040. It is increased when the urine is scanty and decreased when the quantity is excessive. Acid reaction of the urine occurs in chronic intestinal catarrh, in high fever, and during starvation. Chemical and microscopic tests and examinations are often of great importance in diagnosis, but require special apparatus and skill. Other points in the examination of a sick horse require more discus- sion than can be afforded in this connection, and require special train- ing on the part of the examiner. Among such points may be men- tioned the examination of the organs of special sense, the examination of the blood, the microscopic examination of the secretions and excre- tions, bacteriological examinations of the secretions, excretions, and tissues, specific reaction tests, and diagnostic inoculation. METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. . By Ch. B. Micheneb, V. S. I Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] Medicine may enter the body through any of the following desig- nated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the air passages; third, by the skin ; fourth, by the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermic methods) ; fifth, by the rectum; sixth, by the genito-urinary passages; and, seventh, by the blood (intravenous injections). (1) By the mouth. — Medicines can be given by the mouth in the form of solids, as powders or pills; liquids, and pastes, or electuaries. Solids administered as powders should be as finely pulverized as possible, in order to secure rapid solution and absorption. Their action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that are without any disagreeable taste or smell are readily eaten with the feed or taken in the drinking water. When placed with the feed they should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on the feed. If mixed dry the horse will often leave the medicine in the bottom of his manger. Nonirritant powders may be given in capsules, as balls are given. Pills, or "balls" when properly made, are cylindrical in shape, 2 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. They should be fresh, but if necessary to keep them some time they should be made up with glycerin, or some such agent, to prevent their becoming too hard. Very old, hard balls are sometimes passed whole witli the manure without being acted upon at all. Paper is sometimes wrapped around balls when given, if they are so sticky as to adhere to the fingers or the balling gun. Paper used for this pur- pose should be thin but firm, as the tougher tissue papers. Balls are preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or nauseating; when the dose is not too large; when the horse is difficult to drench; or when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain medicines can not or should not be made into balls, as medicines requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless in small dose and diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deli- quescent, or efflorescent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc.. when required 28 METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 29 for immediate use. Gelatin capsules of different sizes are now obtain- able and are a convenient means of giving medicines in ball form. Liquids may be given as drenches when the dose is large, or they may, when but a small quantity is administered, be injected into the mouth with a hard-rubber syringe or be poured upon the tongue from a small phial. Pastes, or electuaries, are medicines mixed with licorice-root pow- der, ground flaxseed, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or a " soft solid." They are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the mouth and throat. They are given by being spread upon the tongue, gums, or teeth with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon. When balls are to be given Ave should observe the following direc- tions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above men- tioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given with the "balling gun" (obtainable at any veterinary instrument maker's) or by the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or gag may be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crush- ing the ball. Always loosen the horse before attempting to give a ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball without the mouth gag, as the horse always fights more or less against having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmly grasped with the left hand and gently pulled forward ; the ball, slightly moist- ened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand as far back into the mouth as possible ; as the tongue is loosened it is drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it. The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after balling. This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or its becoming lodged in the gullet. It is, very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons medicines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of liquids. When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use enough water or oil to dissolve or dilute it thoroughly ; more than this makes the drench bulky and is unnecesary. Insoluble medicines, if not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water, the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and smooth about its neck; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be better, because they are not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose is a small one the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while 30 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread out in such a manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter or the halter strap or a rope may be fastened to the noseband and thrown over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. Another way of supporting the head is to place a loop in the end of a rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth or tusks of the upper jaw, the free end to be run through a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to be fastened, as the horse might in that case do himself serious injury. The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be horizontal, or only the least bit higher. If the head is drawn too high the animal can not swallow with ease or even with safety. (If this is doubted, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the head as far as possible, and then try to swallow.) The person giving the drench should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth — on a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be intro- duced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when the base of the bottle is to be elevated, and about 4 ounces of the liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care being taken not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally removing them. As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat nor draw out the tongue when giving a drench. These processes in no way aid the horse to swallow and oftener do harm than good. In drenching, swallowing may be hastened by pouring into the nose of the horse, while the head is high^ a few teaspoonfuls of clean water, but drenches must never be given through the nose. Large quantities of medicine given by pour- ing into the nose arc liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine is irritating, it set- up an inflammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, and sometimes the lungs. Cattle are easily drenched by holding them by the nose with the left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right. Balls are not to be given to cattle, for they are likely to become METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 31 embedded in the great mass of food in the stomach and act tardily if at all. (2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages by insufflation, inhalation, injection, and nasal douche. Insufflation consists of blowing an impalpable powder directly into the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhalation, as is also medicated steam, or vapor. Of the gases used there may be men- tioned, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas and, occasionally, chlo- rine. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight room, where these gases are generated until the atmosphere is sufficiently impreg- nated with them. Volatile medicines — as the anesthetics (ether, chlo- roform, etc.) — are to be given by the attending surgeon only. Medi- cated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, iodine, creolin, compound tincture of benzoin, or other medicines have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus inhales the " medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this hot enough to scald the animal. The vapor from scalding bran or hay is often thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or " distemper." Infections are made into the trachea by means of a hypodermic syringe. This method of medication is used for the purpose of treat- ing local diseases of the trachea and upper bronchial tubes. It has also been used as a mode of administering remedies for their constitu- tional effect, but is now rarely used for this purpose. The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes- sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, since, as a rule, the horse objects very strongly to this mode of medi- cation. (3) By the skin. — Medicines are often administered to our hair- covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some medicines — as tobacco water, carbolic-acid solutions, strong creolin solutions, mercurial ointment, etc. — over the entire body, as poison- ing and death follow in some instances from absorption through the skin. For the same reasons care must also be exercised and poisonous medicines not applied over very large raw or abraded surfaces. With domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin to allay local pain or cure local disease. (4) By the tissue beneath the skin (hypodermatic method). — Medicines are frequently given by the hypodermic syringe under the skin. It is not safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners 32 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are pow- erful poisons. There are many precautious to be observed, and a knowledge of anatomy is indispensable. One of the chief precautions has to do with the sterilization of the syringe. If it is not sterile an abscess may be produced. (5) By the rectum. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when they can not be given by the mouth, or when they are not retained in the stomach: when we want a local action on the last gut; when it is desired to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels or to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation. Medicines are in such cases given in the form of suppositories or as liquid injections (enemas). Foods may also he given in this way. Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobro am opium (()]• whatever medicine is indicated in special cases). ;. introduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and \ these parts. They are nor much used in treating horses. Enemas, when given for absorption, should he small in qus neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from to 100° F. These, like foods given by the rectum, should he h duced only after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand ( copious injections of tepid water. Enemas, or clysters, if to aid action of physics, should be in quantities sufficient to distend th bowel and cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, m; given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor a -age. Stimulating enemas, as glycerin, should be administered afte* those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the pose of still further increasing the natural motion of the inte and aiding the purging medicine. Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a syringe or a pump. A very good "irrigator" can be bought tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly at hand on stock farm. It consists of a runnel about 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, which is to be furnished with a prolongation v ' •' piece of rubber host', such as small garden hose. 4 feet lo attached. The hose, well oiled, is to be inserted gently im turn about 2 feet. The liquid to be injected may then be p« the funnel and the pressure of the atmosphere will foi v il bowels. This appliance is better than the more com) ' expensive ones. Ordinary cold water or even ice-cold water is highly by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by ti heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. 33 (G) By the genito-urinar- 3SAGES. — This method of medication is especially useful in treating local diseases of the genito-urinary organs. It finds its chief application in the injection and cleansing of the uterus and vagina. For this purpose a large syringe or the irrigator described above may be used. (7) By the blood. — Injections directly into veins are to be prac- ticed by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are probably some other means of giving medicines — intratracheal injections, etc. H. Doc. 795, 59-2 -3 •• DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By Ch. B. Michkneb, V. s. [Revised in 19<»:> by Leonard l'earson, B. S., V. M. D. ] It will not prove an easy task to write " a plain account of the common diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment." of the digestive organs of the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of the food and drink of our animals, their quality, quantity, analyse-, etc. This, of itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to space, the endeavor must be made to give simply an outline — to state the most important facts — leaving many gaps, and continually check- ing the disposition to write anything like a full description as to cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of disease. These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock owners, and I must ask my professional brethren to bear this in mind when they are disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of the subject-. WATER. It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This prac- tice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- ter, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximity to manure heaps and cesspools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated with different poisons and contaminated with specific media of con- tagion produces death in very many instance.-. Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship voyages or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that each horse requires a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary somewhat upon the character of his food; if upon green food, less water will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain. The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the horse should receive water at least three times a day: when at work, more frequently. The rule should be to give in small quantities and often. There is a popular fallacy thai it' a horse is warm he should not be allowed to drink, many claiming that the first swallow of water 34 DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 35 " founders " the animal or produces colic. This is erroneous. No matter how warm a horse may be. it is always entirely safe to allow him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of hay and allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but sparingly. The clanger, then, is not in the " first swallow " of water, but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when warm if he is not restrained. "Water should never be given to horses when it is ice cold. It may not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing water troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water, even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. In reference to the purity of water, Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy- giene," classes spring water, deep-well water, and upland surface water as wholesome; stored rain water and surface water from culti- vated land, as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access and shallow-well water, as dangerous. The water that is used for drinking purposes for stock so largely throughout some States can not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an imper- vious clay subsoil. It is the custom to scoop, or hollow out. a large basin in the pastures. During rains these basins become filled with water. The clay subsoil, being almost impervious, acts as a jug. and there is no escape for the water except by evaporation. Such water is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent rains were it not for the fact that much organic matter is carried into it by surface drainage during each succeeding storm. This or- ganic matter soon undergoes decomposition, and, as the result, we find diseases of different kinds much more prevalent where this water is drunk than where the water supply is wholesome. Again, it must not be lost sight of that stagnant surface water is much more certainly contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the herd, thus endangering the remainder. The chief impurities of water may be classified as organic and inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and copper are also frequently found in water, and will be referred to hereafter. About the only examination of water that can be made by the aver- age stock raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness. Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell. 36 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. Chemical and microscopic examination Avill frequently be neces- sary in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., and can, of course, be conducted by experts only. FOODS AND FEEDING. In this place one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive discussion of the subject of foods and feeding, and I must content my- self with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food, preparation, digestibilit} 7 , proper time of feeding, quality, and quan- tity. Improper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over one-half of the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence the reader can not fail to see how very important it is to have some proper ideas concerning these subjects. KINDS OF FOOD. In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, corn fodder, roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed on nothing else. Stewart, in " The Stable Book," gives the following extract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of interest at this point : In some sterile couutries they [horses] are forced to subsist on dried fish, and even on vegetable mold : in Arabia, on milk, flesh balls, eggs, broth. In India horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritious. Few, perhaps no, oats are grown; barley ij rare, and not commonly given to horses. Tn Bengal a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon pea, called gram {Cicer arietinum), forms the ordinary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian corn or rice is seldom given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sugar-corn tops, and sometimes molasses are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed to produce animation and to fine the coat. Broth made from sheep's head is sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob tree are given to horses. For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica- tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader to Jordan's or Armsby's book on feeding animals, or to " Smith's Veterinary Hygiene." We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of the digestibility of foods; and by this we mean the readiness with which foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal economy. The age and health of the animal will, of course, modify the diges- tibility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, pre- serving, and preparing the foods. In the horse digestion lakes place principally in the intestines, and here, as in all oilier animal- and with all foods, it is found that a FOODS AND FEEDING. 37 certain part only of the provender is digested ; another portion is undigested. This proportion of digested and undigested food must claim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food, or bulky food containing much indigestible waste, a large portion of food must pass out unused, entailing not only the loss of this unused food, but also calling for an unnecessary expenditure of vital force on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in fact, too much food may make an animal poor. In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological functions performed by each one of them. Foods must be whole- some, clean, and sweet, the hours of feeding regular, the mode of preparation found by practical experience to be the best must be adhered to, and cleanliness in preparation and administration must be observed. The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse varies with the different foods. Hay and straw pass out of the stom- ach more rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats should be given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experi- ence confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insur- ing proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted, as are the grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feed- ing, as it washes or sluices the food from the stomach before it is fitted for intestinal digestion. The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commence- ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards the passage is sloAver, and several hours are required before the stom- ach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can not be performed on a full stomach. For such labor food must be given in small quantity and about two hours before they go to work. Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with bulky, innutritions food immediately before going to labor. The small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard day's work. This must never be done. If a horse is completely jaded, it will be found 38 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a long time. After a fast, feed less than the horse would eat; for if allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, and " colic " is almost sure to follow. The horse should be fed three or four times a day. It will not answer to feed him entirely upon concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the grains in their passage through the intestinal tract ; bulk also favors distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. For horses that do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feed- ing, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of feeding. Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous. When desirous of changing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to oats, a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed, this also must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If a horse is to do a small amount of work, or rest entirely from work for a few days, see that he receives a proportionate amount of feed. If this should be observed even on Saturday night and Sunday, there would be fewer cases of " Monday morning sickness," such as colics and lymphangitis. Foods should also be of a more laxative nature when the horse is 10 stand for some days. Musty or moldy foods. — Above all things, avoid feeding musty or moldy foods. These are very frequent causes of disease of different kinds. Lung trouble, such as bronchitis and " heaves," often follows the use of such food. The digestive organs always suffer from moldy or musty foods. Musty hay is generally considered to produce dis- order of the kidneys; and all know of the danger to pregnant ani- mals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. It has often been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cere- brospinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly to the different kinds of foods: Hay. — The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and, while it may not be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is difficult to digest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occa- FOODS AND FEEDING. 39 sional purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all, it should be mixed with old hay. Second crop, or aftermath. — This is not considered good hay for horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch cows, the claim being made that it increases the flow of milk. The value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in the curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds fall ; if left longer, it becomes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it should remain as short a time as possible in the field. If left too long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss of 15 to 20 per cent in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of course, upon the weather, thickness of the crop, and many other cir- cumstances; but it is well known that, in order to preserve the color and aroma of hay, it should be turned or tedded frequently and cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the mow if harvested too green, or when not sufficiently dried. Mow- burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the horse to fall off in condition. The average horse on grain should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those accustomed to grain with, or in addition to, their hay. Straw. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground or crushed grain. Wheat, rye, and oat straw are the ones most used, and of these oat straw is most easily digested and contains the most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the pea being preferable, according to most writers. Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the " soft concre- tions, 7 '' which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive tract. Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and sometimes fatal diarrhea following the practice of allowing horses or cattle free access to a pile of oat chaff. 40 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist in them in the host proportions. Oats are, besides, more easily digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. A. cording to Stewart, the best oats are one year old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright, and sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln- dried oats are to be refused, as a rule, for even though originally good tli is drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fer- mented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given either whole or crushed — whole in the majority of instances; crushed to old horses and those having defective teeth. Horses that bolt their feed are also best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer. The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay above mentioned, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the grain richer in nutritive materials at this time, but there is also less waste from " scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders, but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, already referred to, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden paralysis, and death. Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quanti- ties, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis (founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach and intestines and may even produce serious results. Maize (corn). — This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for young horses, us it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Coin on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with " lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is bet- ter given ground, and i'v<] in quantities of from 1 to '2 quarts at a, meal mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran, He very particular in giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I PREPARATION OF FOODS. 41 know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute indiges- tion than corn if these directions are not observed. Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of particular service during convalescence, when the bowels are slug- gish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. Potatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse in many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. Beets. — These are not much used as food for horses. Carrots. — These make a most excellent food, particularly during sickness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative prop- erties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. Some veterinary writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving carrots for some time. The roots may be considered, then, as an adjunct to the regular regimen, and if fed in small quantities are highly beneficial. Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nour- ishment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods and only eaten when there' is nothing else obtainable, while others are positively injurious, or even poisonous. None of the grasses are suf- ficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed are " soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. To growing stock grass is indispensable, and there is little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such horses in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest, and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year. It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a medicine, lessening the fever and favoring recovery. Wounds heal more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic dis- orders (chronic cough, for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. In my experience, grass does more good when the horse crops it him- self. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture, to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many other similar reasons. When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. preparation of foods. Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons : To render the food more easily eaten ; to make it more digestible ; to economize in amount ; to give it some new property ; and to pre- 42 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. serve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, i. c. removes the laxative tendency of most of them. The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or even boiled. Rye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Not only will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains (whole or crushed) fed with them is insured. Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay, straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. Such food is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it is mixed; and the mixing trough even, unless frequently scalded and cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be cut simply because it insures a greater consumption of it ; bad foods are dear at any price and should never be fed. I have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Xot only does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom- mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am inclined to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would be more frequent were it extensively fed. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Dentition.- — This covers the period during which the young horse is cutting his teeth — from birth to the age of five years. With the horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second, or per- manent, teeth than with the first, or milk, teeth. There is a tendency among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to the teeth of young horses. IVreivall relates an instance illustrative of this that i- best told in his own words: I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, anil so rapidly declined in con- DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 43 dition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions about his life. He had himself examined his mouth without having discovered any defect or disease, though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the difficulty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in consequence, filed, but without beneficial result. It was after this that I saw the horse, and I confess I was, at my first examina- tion, quite as much at a loss to offer any satisfactory interpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and discovered two little tumors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tusks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insuffer- able pain. I instantly took out my pocketknife and made crucial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite and, by degrees, his wonted condition. The mouths of young horses should be examined from time to time to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, causing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed with the forceps. Irregularities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late years, espe- cially in large cities, to have horses' teeth regularly " floated,' 1 or " rasped," by " veterinary dentists.''' In some instances this is very beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the character of the food, the rubbing, or grinding, surface of the horse's teeth should be rough. Still, we must remember that the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and that, from the fact of the teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may excoriate the tongue or cheeks to a considerable extent. This condi- tion can readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the fact that its fellow in the opposite jaw has been lost or does not close per- fectly against it. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated, it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the neces- sary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite common to find the tooth corresponding to the decayed one on the opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to such an extent that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be shortened by the tooth forceps, chisel, tooth saw, or rasp. In all instances where horses " quid " their food, where they are slobbering, or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully exam- ined. Horses whose teetli have unduly sharp edges are likely to drive badly; they pull to one side, do not bear on the bit, or bear on too hard and " big," toss the head, and start suddenly when a tender spot is touched. If, as is mostly the case, all the symptoms are referable 44 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be removed by the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious difficulty detected, or if the cause of the annoying symptoms is not discovered, an expert should be called. Toothache. — This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where there is decay of a tooth or inflammation about its root. Toothache is to be discovered in the horse by the pain expressed by him while feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is no foreign body found, we must then carefully examine each tooth. If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth, we can, in most instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from without. By tapping the teeth in succession with a hard object, such as a small hammer, the one that is tender may be located. The horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed or tapped upon. In most cases there is nothing to be done but extract the decayed tooth, and this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian. There is a deformity, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with prehension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper incisors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by fric- tion. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can be done except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise the "bars" of the upper jaw. they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this deformity should never be left entirely at pasture. DISKASES Or THE MOUTH. Lampas. — Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less prominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. The hard palate is composed of spongy tissue that fills with blood when the horse is feeding, and this causes the ridges to become prominent, and they then help to keep food from dropping from the mouth. This swelling is entirely natural and occurs in every healthy horse. "Where there is some irritation in the mouth, as in stomatitis or during teeth- ing, the prominence of the hard palate may persist, due to the in- creased blood supply. In such cases the cause of the irritation should be sought for and removed. By way of direct treatment, slight scari- fication is the most that will be required. Burning the lampas is bar- barous and injurious, and it should never be tolerated. It is quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stable- men that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 45 symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas." It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary," yet it is not the case. It may be put clown, then, as an affliction of the stable- man's imagination rather than of the horse's mouth. Stomatitis. — This in an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other substances. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is also hot and painful to the touch ; there is a copious discharge of saliva ; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases there are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. A bucket of fresh cold water should be kept constantly in the manger so that the horse may drink or rinse his mouth at will. In some instances it may be advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be fed unless steamed or boiled. A form of contagious stomatitis some- times occurs that is characterized by the formation within the mouth of small vesicles, or blisters. In this disease the horse should be isolated from other horses, and his stall, especially the feed box, and his bit should be disinfected. Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the above, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. In- juries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its covering membrane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would re- quire surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be followed. Plyalism, or salivation, consists in an abnormal and excessive se- cretion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth ; inflammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines as lobelia, mercury, and many others. Some foods produce this, such as clover, and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, such as nails, wheat chaff, and corncobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the cause is removed no further attention is necessary, as a rule. Astrin- gent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or b}^ means of a sponge. Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the pharynx or throat. It rarely exists unless accompanied by stomatitis or laryngitis, especially the latter. In those rare instances in which the inflammation is mostly confined to the pharynx are noticed febrile symptoms — difficulty of swallowing either liquids or solids ; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow ; there is no soreness on pressure over larynx (head of the windpipe). In- creased flow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular, 46 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. and cough only when attempting to swallow are the symptoms best marked in pharyngitis. In some cases the throat becomes gangrenous and the disease ends in death. For treatment wrap a wet sheet around the throat and cover this with rubber sheeting and a warm blanket. This should be changed three times daily: or the region of the throat may be rubbed with mercurial ointment twice daily until the skin becomes irritated, but no longer; chlorate of potash may be given in quantities of 2 drams four times daily, mixed with flaxseed meal or liquorice-root powder and honey, as an electuary. Soft foods should be given, and fresh water should be constantly before the horse. Paralysis of the piiaryxx, or, as it is commonly called. " paralysis of the throat." is a rare but very serious disease. The symptoms are as follows: The horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but will be unable to do so; if water be offered him from a pail he will appar- ently drink with avidity, but the quantity of water in the pail will remain about the same; he will continue trying to drink by the hour: if he can succeed in getting any fluid into the back part of the mouth it will come out at once through the nose. Foods also return through the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or any abnormal condition. These cases go on from bad to worse; the horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes very much emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lusterless, and death occurs from inanition. I 'reatmt nt is very unsatisfactory. A severe blister should be ap- plied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of water, by means of a sponge fastened to the end of a stick. Strych- nia may be given in 1-grain doses two or three times a day. This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the mouth or for the so-called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be dis- tinguished from the former, upon a careful examination of the mouth, by the absence of any offending body and by the flabby feel of the mouth; and from the latter by the animal appearing in per- fect health in every particular except this inability to eat or drink. Abscesses. — Abscesses sometimes form back of the pharynx and give rise to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper. Interference with breathing that is of recent origin and progression, without any observable -welling or soreness about the throat, will make one suspeel the formation of an abscess in this location. But little contents, and so obstruction results. The symptoms are as in other forms of obstruction colic. The history of DISEASES OF THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES. 57 the case is of much service in diagnosing the trouble. The treatment consists in the administration of laxatives. One may give 1 quart of raw linseed oil and follow it the next day with 1 pound of Glauber's salts dissolved in a quart of warm water. Strychnia may be given in doses of 1 grain two or three times daily. If the stagnant mass of feces is in the rectum, it must be removed with the hand. Abnormal growths, such as tumors or fibrous tissue, producing contraction or stricture may be causes of obstruction. The colic caused by these conditions is chronic. The attacks occur at gradually shortening intervals and become progressively more severe. Relief is anorded by the use of purgatives that render the feces soft and thin and thus enable them to pass the obstruction. But in time the con- tracted place is likely to close so far that passage is impossible and the horse will die. (3) Flatulent colic (tympanitic colic, wind colic, or bloat). — Among the most frequent causes of this form of colic are to be men- tioned sudden changes of food, too long fasting, food then given while the animal is exhausted, new hay or grain, large quantities of green food, food that has lain in the manger for some time and become sour, indigestible food, irregular teeth, crib-biting, and, in fact, any- thing that produces indigestion may produce flatulent colic. The symptoms of wind colic are not so suddenly developed nor so severe as those of cramp colic. At first the horse is noticed to be dull, paws slightly, and may or may not lie down. The pains from the start are continuous. The belly enlarges, and by striking it in front of the haunches a drumlike sound results. If not soon relieved the above symptoms are aggravated, and in addition there are noticed difficult breathing, bloodshot eyes, and red mucous membranes, loud tumultuous heart beat, profuse perspiration, trembling of front legs, sighing respiration, staggering from side to side, and, finally, plung- ing forward dead. The diagnostic symptom of flatulent colic is the distention of the bowels with gas, detected by the bloated appearance and resonance on percussion. The treatment for wind colic differs very materially from that of cramp colic. Absorbents are of some service, and charcoal may be given in any quantity. Relaxants and antispasmodics are also bene- ficial in this form of colic. Chloral hydrate not only possesses these qualities, but it also is an antiferment and a pain reliever. It is then particularly well adapted to the treatment of wind colic, and should be given in the same-sized doses and in the manner directed for spas- modic colic. Diluted alcohol or whisky may be given, or aromatic spirits of ammonia in 1-ounce doses at short intervals. A physic should always be given in flatulent colic as early as possi- ble, the best being Barbados aloes in the dose already mentioned. Injections, per rectum, of turpentine 1 to 2 ounces, linseed oil 8 ounces, may be given frequently to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the 58 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. bowels and favor the escape of wind. Blankets wrung out of hot water do much to afford relief; they should be renewed every five or ten minutes and covered with a dry woolen blanket. This form of colic is much more fatal than cramp colic, and requires prompt and persistent treatment. It is entirely unsafe to predict the result, some apparently mild attacks going on to speedy death, while others that appear at the onset to be very severe yielding rapidly to treatment. Do not cease your efforts until you are stire the animal is dead. In these severe cases puncturing of the bowels in the most prominent (distended) part by means of a small trocar and cannula or with a needle of a hypodermic syringe, thus allowing the escape of gas, has often saved life, and such punctures, if made with a clean, sharp in- strument that is not allowed to remain in the horse too long, are accompanied by little danger and do more to quickly relieve the patient than any other treatment. (4) Spasmodic, or cramp, colic. — This is the name given to that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the small intestines. It is produced by indigestible food; large drinks of cold water when the animal is warm ; driving a heated horse through deep streams; cold rains; drafts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribu- tion of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, nervous horses than in coarse, lymphatic ones. Symptoms. — These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment. Spasmodic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen to stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look back. He soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown by pawing, suddenly lying down, rolling, and getting up. During the period of pain the intestinal sounds, as heard by applying the ear over the flank, are louder than in health. There is then an interval of ease; he will resume feeding and appear to be entirely well. In a little while, how- ever, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again pass off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even now there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of colic evince the most intense pain; they throw themselves down, roll over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, and make frequent attempts to pass their urine. Only a small amount of water is passed at a time, and this is due to the bladder being so frequently emptied. These attempts to urinate are often regarded by horsemen as symp- toms of trouble of the kidneys or bladder. In reality they are only one of the many ways in which the horse expresses the presence of SPASMODIC COLIC. 59 pain. As a matter of fact, diseases of the bladder or kidneys of the horse are exceedingly rare. To recapitulate the symptoms of spasmodic colic : Keep in mind the history of the case, the type of horse, the suddenness of the attack, the increased intestinal sounds, the intervals of ease (which become of shorter duration as the case progresses), the violent pain, the normal temperature and pulse during the intervals of ease, the frequent attempts to urinate, etc., and there is but little danger of confounding this with other forms of colic. Treatment. — Since the pain is due to spasm, or cramp, of the bowels, medicines that overcome spasms — antispasmodics — are the ones indicated. Chloral hydrate may be used. This is to be given in a dose of 1 ounce in a pint of water as a drench. As this drug is irritant to the throat and stomach, it has to be well diluted. A com- mon and good remedy is sulphuric ether and laudanum; of each 2 ounces in a half pint of linseed oil. Another drench may be com- posed of 2 ounces each of sulphuric ether and alcohol in 8 ounces of water. If nothing else is at hand give whisky, one-half pint in hot water. Jamaica ginger is useful. If relief is not obtained in one hour from any of the above doses, they may then be repeated. The body should be warmly clothed and perspiration induced. Blankets dipped in very hot water to which a small quantity of turpentine has been added should be placed around the belly and covered with dry blankets, or the abdomen may be rubbed with stimulating liniments or mustard water. The difficulty, however, of applying hot blankets and keeping them in place forces us in most instances to dispense with them. If the cramp is due to irritants in the bowels, a cure is not complete until there is given a cathartic of 1 ounce of aloes or 1 pint of linseed oil. Injections into the rectum of warm soapy water or salt and water aid the cure. Rectal injections, clysters, or enemas as a rule should be lukewarm, and from 3 to 6 quarts are to be given at a time. They may be repeated every half hour if necessary. Great care is to be taken not to injure the rectum in giving such injections. A large syringe or a piece of rubber hose 4 or 5 feet long, with a funnel attached at one end, affords the best means by which to give them. The pipe of the syringe or the hose introduced into the rectum must be blunt, rounded, and smooth. It is to be thoroughly oiled and then carefully pushed through the anus in a slightly upward direction. Much force must be avoided, for the rectum may be lacerated and serious complications or even death result. Exercise will aid the action of the bowels in this and similar colicky troubles, but severe galloping or trotting is to be avoided. If the horse can have a loose box or paddock, it is the best, as he will then take what exercise he wants. If the patient be ex- tremely violent, it is often wise to restrain him by leading him with a 60 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. halter, since rupture of the stomach or displacement of the bowels may result and complicate the trouble. (5) Worm colic. — Parasites of many kinds reside in the intestinal canal of horses. There are three kinds of tapeworms, one long round- worm, and several kinds of smaller roundworms. Besides these are the hot-fly grubs and larva?. The intestinal worm most commonly seen is the long roundworm, known as Ascaris equorum. They are white or reddish in color and measure from 4 to 12 inches in length. In thickness they vary from the size of a rye straw to that of a lady's little finger, being thickest at the middle and tapering at both ends. They are found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the small intestines. (Sec PI. III.) Of the smaller roundworms, there may be mentioned Spiroptera iiii.sc/-o.sto///i/, which causes ulcers in the stomach: Gylichnostomum tetracanthum, Strongylus equinus, and Strongylus vulgaris, which live in the large intestines. The larva 1 of the last named burrow in the walls of the great mesenteric artery, causing aneurisms. The tapeworms, once seen, are easily recognized. They are white, fiat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. Tapeworms of the horse measure from a few inches to a foot in length. Symptoms. — Symptoms of intestinal worms are not always ob- served, even when many parasites are present. If the infestation is extreme, there may he slight colicky pains at times, or there may only he switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of the tail or rump against the stall or fences; the horse is in poor condition; does not shed his coat; is hidebound and potbellied: the appetite is depraved, licking the walls, luting the wooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his body, eating earth, and being particularly fond of salt; the bowels are irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. Some place much dependence upon the symptom of itching of the upper lip. as shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the Avail or stalls. Others again declare that whenever we see the adher- ence of a dried whitish substance about the anus, worms are present. The our symptom, however, that we should always look for, and cer- tainly the only one that may not deceive us. is seeing the worms or their eggs (by the use of a microscope) in the dung. Treatment. — Remedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more efficienl if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must be supplemented by a physic to carry out the worms. Among the hot worm medicines may be mentioned santonin, turpentine, tartar emetic, creolin. infusion of tobacco, and hitter tonics. To destroy tapeworms, areca nut. malefern. and pumpkin seeds are the best. If a horse i^ passing the long roundworms, the plan of treatment is to INDIGESTION. 61 give twice daily for three or four days a drench composed of turpen- tine or creolin 1 ounce and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on the fourth day by a physic of Barbados aloes 1 ounce, or one may give santonine 2 to 4 drams, with calomel 1 to 2 drams. This dose should not be repeated, and should be followed in six hours by 1 quart of lin- seed oil. If worms infesting the large bowels are present, injections into the rectum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, one-half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few days, and follow by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne in mind that intestinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition, and an essential part of treatment then is to improve the appetite and powers of digestion. This is best done by giving the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, gin- ger, quassia, etc., is to be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench. To improve the general condition one may give artificial Carlsbad salts, 1 tablespoonful in each feed, and each dose to have added to it 3 to 5 grains of arsenious acid. Bot-fly larvae do not require special treatment unless they lodge in the rectum, in which case they may be dislodged by injecting tobacco water. If plenty of rock salt is allowed for horses to lick, they will thus be protected against intestinal parasites to a slight but useful degree. Indigestion or gastro-intestinal catarrh. — There is ample rea- son for considering these conditions together from the facts that they merge insensibly into each other and usually occur simultaneously. This condition may be acute — that is, of sudden onset — or it may be chronic. The changes of structure produced by this disease occur in the mucous-membrane lining of the stomach and intestines. This membrane becomes red from increased blood supply or from hemor- rhage into it, it is swollen, and is covered by a coating of slimy mucus. In some especially severe cases the membrane is destroyed in spots, causing the appearance of ulcers or of erosions. The causes of indigestion are numerous, but nearly all are the result of errors in feeding. Some horses are naturally endowed with weak digestive organs, and such are predisposed to this condition. Anything that irritates the stomach or intestines may cause this disease. Foods that the animal is unaccustomed to, sudden changes of diet, imperfectly cured, unripe, or damaged foods are all fruitful causes, and so are worms. In suckling foals this condition may come from some disease of the dam that renders her milk indigestible or from overexertion or over- heating of the mare. Another prolific cause is bad teeth, making mastication imperfect, and thus causing the horse to swallow his food in a condition unfit for the action of the digestive juices. Working a horse too soon or too hard after feeding may cause either colic or 62 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. indigestion. Any condition that reduces the vitality of the horse, such as disease, overwork, poor food, or lack of care, may indirectly bring on indigestion by weakening the digestive organs. Symptoms. — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite; refusing all food at times, and at others eating ravenously; the appe- tite is not only irregular, but is often depraved; there Ts a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, such as wood, soiled bedding, or even his own feces; the bowels are irregular to-day. loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound; grain is often passed whole in the feces, and the hay passed in balls or impacted masses, under- going but little change; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, dry appearance and seems very tight (hide- bound). If the stomach is very seriously involved, the horse may yawn by stretching the head forward and upward and by turning outward the upper lip. There may be more or less colicky pain. In the chronic cases there is mental depression; the horse is sluggish and dull. The abdomen gradually becomes small, giving a "tucked up" appearance, or, on the other hand, it becomes flaccid and pendulous. Treatment. — One should commence with the food — its quality, quantity, and time of feeding; examine the water supply, and see, besides, that it is given before feeding; then carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth ; and, continuing the observations as best we may. endeavor to locate the seat of the trouble. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down ; if any are decayed they must be extracted; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting, the feed must then be given from a large manger where the grain can be spread and the horse thus compelled to eat slowly. Any irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that are operating as causes are to be removed by appropriate treatment, as advised elsewhere. If there is a tendency to distention of the stomach and bowels, with gas, during indigestion, the following may be used: Baking soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above quantity in a half pint of water and given as a drench. As a digestive tonic the following is good: Glauber's salts. 2 pounds; common salt, 1 pound; baking soda, one-half pound. Of this a heaping tablespoonful may be given in each feed. If diarrhea exists, the treatment advised below may be used. Diarrhea. — Diarrhea is i\\w to indigestion or intestinal catarrh or to irritation of the bowels from eating moldy or musty food, drinking stagnant water, diseased condition of the teeth, eating irritating sub- stances, to being kept on low, marshy pastures, and exposure during SUPERPURGATION. 63 cold nights, or low, damp stables. Some horses are predisposed to scour and are called " washy " by horsemen ; they are those with long bodies, long legs, and narrow, flat sides. Horses of this build are almost sure to scour if fed or watered immediately before being put to work. Fast or road work, of course, aggravates this trouble. Diar- rhea may exist as a complication of other diseases as pneumonia and influenza, for instance, and again during the diseases of the liver. The symptoms are the frequent evacuations of liquid stools, with or without pronounced abdominal pain, loss of appetite, emaciation, etc. Treatment is at times very simple, but requires the utmost care and judgment. If due to faulty food or water it is sufficient to change these. If it results from some irritant in the intestines, this is best gotten rid of by the administration of an oleaginous purge, for which nothing is better than castor oil, although raw linseed oil may be used if the case is not severe. The diarrhea often disappears with the ces- sation of the operation of the medicine. If, however, purging con- tinues, it may be checked by giving wheat flour in water, starch water, white-oak bark tea, chalk, opium, or half-dram doses of sul- phuric acid in one-half pint of water twice or thrice daily. Good results follow the use of pow T dered opium 2 drams and subnitrate of bismuth 1 ounce, repeated three times a day. It should be remem- bered in all cases to look to the water and feed the horse is receiving. If either of these is at fault it is at once to be discontinued. We should feed sparingly of good, easily digested foods. With that peculiar build of nervous horses that scour on the road but little can be done, as a rule. . They should be watered and fed as long as possi- ble before going on a drive. If there is much flatulency accompany- ing diarrhea, baking soda or other alkaline medicines may effect a cure, while if the discharges have a very disagreeable odor, this can be corrected by 1 ounce of sulphite of soda or dram doses of creolin in water, repeated twice a da}'. Be slow to resort to either the vege- table or mineral astringents, since the majority of cases will yield to change of food and water or the administration of oils. Afterwards feed upon wheat-flour gruel or other light foods. The body should be warmly clothed. kSuPERPURGATioN. — This is the designation of that diarrhea, or flux from the bowels, that, at times, is induced by and follows the action of a physic. It is accompanied by much irritation or even inflamma- tion of the bowels and is always of a serious character. Although in rare instances it follows from a usual dose of physic and where every precaution has been taken, it is most likely to result under the follow- ing circumstances: Too large a dose of physic; giving physics to horses suffering from pneumonia, influenza, or other debilitating dis- eases; riding or driving a horse when purging; exposure or drafts of cold air ; or giving large quantities of cold water while the physic is 64 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. operating. There is always danger of superpurgation if a physic is given to a horse suffering from diseases of the respiratory organs. Small and often-repealed physics are also to be avoided, as they pro- duce debility and great depression of the system and predispose to this disorder. When a physic is to be given one should rest the horse and give him sloppy food until the medicine begins to operate; clothe the body with a warm blanket; keep out of drafts; give only warm water in small quantities. After a horse has purged from twelve to twenty-four hours it can mostly be stopped, or " set," as horsemen say, by feeding on dry oats and hay. Should the purging continue. however, it is best treated by giving demulcent drinks — linseed tea and oatmeal or wheat-flour gruel. After this the astringents spoken of for diarrhea may be given. Besides this the horse is to receive brandy in doses of from 2 to 4 ounces, with milk and eggs, four or rive times a day. Laminitis " founder " is a frequent sequel of superpurgation and is to be guarded against by removing the shoes and standing the horse on moist sawdust or some similar bedding. Dysentery. — This disease, sometimes called "'bloody flux, ,, is an intestinal disease attended with fever, occasional abdominal pains, and fluid discharges mingled with blood. Discharges in dysentery are coffee colored or bloody, liquid, and very offensive in odor, and passed with much straining. It is rare in the horse, but is sometimes quite prevalent among foals. Causes. — Probably the most common cause is keeping young horses in particular for a long time on low\ wet, marshy pastures, without other feed (a diarrhea of long standing sometimes terminates in dys- entery) ; exposure during cold, wet weather: decomposed foods; stag- nant water that contains large quantities of decomposing vegetable matter; low, damp, and dark stables, particularly if crowded; the existence of some disease, as tuberculosis of the abdominal form. In suckling foals it may come from feeding the dam on irritant foods or from disease of the udder. In other foals it may be produced by exposure to cold and damp, to irritant food, or to worms. Symptoms. — The initial symptom is a chill, which probably escapes notice in the majority of instances. The discharges are offensive and for the mosl part liquid, although it is common to find lumps of solid fecal matter floating in this liquid portion; shreds of mucous mem- brane and blood may be passed, or the evacuations may be muco-puru- lent ; there is much straining, and, rarely, symptoms of abdominal pain: the subject lies down -,\ great deal: the pulse is quickened and the temperature elevated. Thirst is :i prominent symptom. In the adult, death rarely follows under two to three weeks, but in foals the disease may end in death after a few days. Treatment. — This is most unsatisfactory, and I am inclined to place GASTROENTERITIS. 65 more dependence upon the care and feed than any medication that may be adopted. First of all the horse must be placed in a dry, warm, yet well- ventilated stable; the skin is to receive attention by frequent rubbings of the surface of the body, with blankets, and bandages to the legs. The water must be pure and given in small quantities; the food, that which is light and easily digested. Medic- inally, give at first a light dose of castor oil, about one-half pint, to which has been added 2 ounces of laudanum. The vegetable or min- eral astringents are also to be given. Starch injections containing laudanum often afford great relief. The strength must be kept up by milk punches, eggs, beef tea, oatmeal gruel, etc. In spite of the best care and treatment, however, dysentery is likely to prove fatal. In the case of nurslings, the dam should be placed in a healthy con- dition or, failing in this, milk should be had from another mare or from a cow. Gastro-enteritis. — This condition consists in an inflammation of the stomach and intestines. Instead of being confined to the mucous, or lining, membrane, as in gastro-intestinal catarrh, the inflammatory process extends deeper and may even involve the entire thickness of the wall of the organ. This disease may be caused by irritant food, hot drinks, sudden chilling, moldy or decayed foods, foul water, parasites, or by chemical poisons. It may also complicate some general diseases, especially infectious diseases, as anthrax, influenza, rabies, or petechial fever. Long-continued obstruction of the bowels or displacement resulting in death are preceded by enteritis. The symptoms differ somewhat with the cause and depend also, to some extent, upon the chief location of the inflammation. In general the animal stops eating or eats but little; it shows colicky pain; fever develops ; the pulse and respiration become rapid ; the mucous membrane becomes red; the mouth is hot and dry. Pressure upon the abdomen may cause pain. Intestinal sounds can not be heard at the flank. There is constipation in the earlier stages that is followed later by diarrhea. The extremities become cold. Sometimes the feces are coated with or contain shreds of fibrin, looking like scraps of dead membrane, and they have an evil, putrid odor. If the disease is caused by moldy or damaged food there may be great muscular weakness with partial paralysis of the throat, as shown by inability to swallow. If chemical poisons are the cause, this fact may be shown by the sudden onset of the disease, the history of the adminis- tration of a poison or the entire absence of known cause, the rapid development of threatening symptoms, the involvement of a series of animals in the absence of a contagious disease, and the special symp- toms and alterations known to be produced by certain poisons. To H. Do<-. 795, r>!)-2 5 66 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. make this chain of evidence complete, the poison may be discovered in the organs of the horse by chemical analysis. In nearly all cases of gastro-enteritis there is nervous depression. The poison- that are most irritant to the digestive tract are arsenic, corrosive sublimate, sugar of lead, sulphate of copper, sulphate or chloride of zinc, lye or other strong alkalies, mineral acids, and, among the vegetable poisons, tobacco, lobelia, and water hemlock. The treatment will depend upon the cause, but if this can not be detected, certain general indications may be observed. In all cases food should be given in small amounts and should be of the most soothing description, as oatmeal gruel, flaxseed tea, hay tea, fresh grass, or rice water. The skin should be well rubbed with wisps of straw and alcohol, to equalize the distribution of the blood; the leg-. after being rubbed until warm, should be bandaged in raw cotton or with woolen bandages. The horse should be warmly blanketed. It i< well to apply to the abdomen blankets wrung out of hot water ami frequently changed; or mustard paste may be rubbed on the skin of the belly. Internally, opium is of service to allay pain, check secre- tion, and soothe the inflamed membrane. The dose is from 1 to -2 drams, given every three or four hours. If there is constipation, the opium should be mixed with 30 grains of calomel. Subnitrate of bismuth may be given with the opium or separately in 2-dram doses. Stimulants, such as alcohol, aromatic spirits of ammonia, or camphor may be given in 2-ounce doses, mixed with warm water to make a drench. If putrid food has been consumed, creolin may be administered in doses of 2 drams, mixed with 1 pint of warm water or milk. If there is obstinate constipation and a laxative must be employed, it should be sweet or castor oil, from 1 pint to 1 quart. For the various poisons the remedies are as follows: Arsenic, oxyhydrate of iron solution, 1 pint to 1 quart, or calcined magnesia one-half ounce in 1 pint of water; corrosive sublimate, the whites of a dozen eggs or 2 ounces of flowers of sulphur; sugar of lead, Glauber's salts. 1 pound in 1 quart of warm water, to be followed with iodide of potash, •"> drams at a dose, in water, three times daily for five days; sulphate of copper, milk, the whites of eggs, or reduced iron; sulphate of chlo- ride of zinc, milk, the whites of eggs, or calcined magnesia; lye or alkalies, as caustic potash or soda, vinegar, dilute sulphuric acid, and Linseed tea, with opium, 3 drams; mineral acids, chalk, or calcined magnesia, or baking soda: later give linseed tea and opium. Hemorrhoids, or piles. — These are rare, comparatively, in horses. They are diagnosed by the appearance of bright-red irregular tumors after defecation, which may remain visible at all times or be seen only when the horse is down or after passing his manure. They are mostly due to constipation, to irritation, or injuries, or follow from the HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 67 severe straining during - dysentery. I have observed them to follow from severe labor pains in the mare. Treatment. — Attention must be paid to the condition of the bowels; they should be soft, but purging is to be avoided. The tumors should be washed in warm water and thoroughly cleansed, after which scarify them and gently but firmly squeeze out the liquid that will be seen to follow the shallow incisions. After thus squeezing these tumors and before replacing through the anus, bathe the parts with some anodyne wash. For this purpose the glycerite of tannin and laudanum in equal parts is good. Mucilaginous injections into the rectum may be of service for a few days. Hernia, or rupture. — There are several different kinds of hernias that require notice, not all of which, however, produce serious symp- toms or results. Abdominal hernias, or ruptures, are divided into reducible, irreducible, and strangulated, according to condition ; and into inguinal, scrotal, ventral, umbilical, and diaphragmatic, accord- ing to their situation. A hernia is reducible when the displaced organ can be returned to its natural location. It consists of a soft swelling, without heat, pain, or any uneasiness, generally larger on full feed, and decreases in size as the bowels become empty. An irreducible hernia is one that can not be returned into the abdomen, and yet does not cause any pain or uneasiness. Strangulated hernia is one where the contents of the sac are greatly distended, or where from pressure upon the blood vessels of the imprisoned portion the venous circula- tion is checked or stopped, thereby causing congestion, swelling, in- flammation, and, if not relieved, gangrene of the part and death of the animal. According to the time or mode of origin, hernias may be congenital or acquired. Congenital scrotal hernia. — Not a few foals are noticed from birth to have an enlarged scrotum, which gradually increases in size until about the sixth month, sometimes longer. Sometimes the scrotum of a six-months-old colt is as large as that of an adult stallion, and operative treatment is considered. This is unnecessary in the great majority of cases, as this enlargement often disappears by the time the colt has reached his second year. Any interference, medicinal or surgical, is worse than useless. If the intestine contained within the scrotum should at any time become strangulated, it must then be treated the same as in an adult horse. Scrotal hernia is caused by dilatation of the sheath of the testicle, combined with relaxation of the fibrous tissues surrounding the in- guinal ring, thus allowing the intestine to descend to the scrotum. At first this is intermittent, appearing during work and returning Avhen the horse is at rest. For a long time this form of hernia may not cause the least uneasiness or distress. In course of time, however, the imprisoned gut becomes filled with feces, its return into the ab- 68 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. dominal cavity is prevented, and it becomes strangulated. While the gut is thus Oiling the horse often appears dull, is disinclined to move, appetite is impaired, and there is rumbling and obstruction of the bowels. Colicky symptoms now supervene. Strangulation and its consequent train of symptoms do not always follow in scrotal hernia, for often horses have this condition without suffering ineon- \ enience for years. Inguinal hernia is but an incomplete scrota] hernia, and. like the latter, may exist and cause no signs of distress, or, again, it may be- come strangulated and cause the death of the animal. Inguinal hernia is seen mostly in stallions, next in geldings, and very rarely in the mare. Bearing in mind that scrotal hernia is seen only in entire horses, we can proceed to detail the symptoms of both strangulated, inguinal, and scrotal hernia at the same time. When, during the existence of colicky symptoms, we find a horse kicking with his hind feet while standing or lying upon his back, we should look to the inguinal region and scrotum. If scrotal hernia exists the scrotum will be enlarged and lobulated ; by pressure we may force a portion of the contents of the gut back into the abdomen, eliciting a gurgling sound. If we take a gentle but firm hold upon the enlarged scrotum and then have an assistant cause the horse to cough, the swelling will be felt to expand and as quickly contract again. The history of these cases will materially aid us. as the owner can often assure us of preceding attacks of ,w colic," more or less severe, that have been instantaneously relieved in some (to him) unaccounta- ble manner. The colicky symptoms of these hernias are not diagnos- tic, but. probably, more closely resemble those of enteritis than any other bowel diseases. The diagnosis can, in many cases, be made only by a veterinarian, when he has recourse to a rectal examination; the bowels can here be felt entering the internal abdominal ring. Treatment of inguinal hernia. — If the reader can be sure of the existence of hernia, he should secure the horse upon its back, and. with a hand in the rectum, endeavor to catch hold of the wandering bowel and pull it gently back into the cavity of the abdomen. Pres- sure should be made upon the scrotum during this time. If these means fail a veterinarian must be called to reduce the hernia by means of incising the inguinal ring, replacing the intestines, and castrate, using clamps and performing the "covered operation." Ventral hernia. — In this form of hernia the protrusion is through some accidental opening or rupture of the abdominal wall. It may ocelli- at any part of the belly except at the umbilicus, and is caused by kicks, blows, hooks, severe jumping or pulling, etc. Ventral hernia i-- mosl common in pregnant mares, and is here due to the weight of the fetus or some degenerative changes taking place in the abdominal coats. It is recognized by the appearance of a swelling. HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. 69 at the base of which can be felt the opening or rent in the abdominal tunics, and from the fact that the swelling containing the intestines can be made to disappear when the animal is placed in a favorable position. Treatment of ventral hernia. — In many instances there is no occa- sion for treatment, and again, where the hernial sac is extensive, treat- ment is of no avail. If the hernia is small, a cure may be attempted by the methods to be described in treating of umbilical hernia. If one is fortunate enough to be present when the hernia occurs, and particularly if it is not too large, he may, by the proper application of a pad and broad bandage, effect a perfect cure. Umbilical hernia is the passing of any portion of the bowel or omentum ("caul' 1 ) through the navel, forming a "tumor" at this point. This is often congenital in our animals, and is due to the im- perfect closure of the umbilicus and to the position of the body. Many cases of umbilical hernia, like inguinal and scrotal of the con- genital kind, disappear entirely by the time the animal reaches its second or third year. Advancing age favors cure in these, cases from the fact that the omentum (swinging support of the bowels) is pro- portionally shorter in adults than in foals, thus lifting the intestines out of the hernial sac and allowing the opening in the walls to close. Probably one of the most frequent causes of umbilical hernia in foals is the practice of keeping them too long from their dams, causing them to fret and worry, and to neigh, or cry, by the hour. The con- traction of the abdominal muscles and pressure of the intestines dur- ing neighing seem to open the umbilicus and induce hernia. Acci- dents may cause umbilical hernia in adults in the same manner as ventral hernia is produced, though this is very rare. Treatment of umbilical hernia. — In the treatment of umbilical hernia it should be remembered that congential hernias are often removed with age, but probably congenital umbilical hernias less fre- quently than others. Among the many plans of treatment are to be mentioned the application of a pad over the tumor, the pad being held in place by a broad tight bandage placed around the animal's body. The chief objection to this is the difficulty in keeping the pad in its place. Blisters are often applied over the swelling, and, as the skin hardens and contracts by the formation of scabs, an artificial bandage or pressure is produced that at times is successful. Another treatment that has gained considerable repute of late years consists in first clipping off the hair over the swelling. Nitric acid is then applied by a small brush, using only enough to moisten the skin. This sets up a deep-seated adhesive inflammation, which, in very many cases, closes the opening in the navel. Still another plan is to inject a solution of common salt by means of the hypodermic syringe at three or four points about the base of the swelling. This acts in 70 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the same manner as the preceding, but may cause serious injury if the syringe or solution is not sterile. Others, again, after keeping the animal fasting for a few hours, cast and secure it upon its back; the bowel is then carefully returned into the abdomen. The skin over the opening is pinched up and one or two skewers are run through the skin from side to side as close as possible to the umbilical opening. These skewers are kept in place by passing a cord around the skin between them and the abdomen and securely tied. Great care must be taken not to draw these cords too tight, as this would cause a speedy slough of the skin, the intes- tines would extrude, and death result. If properly applied, an adhe- sion is established between the skin and the umbilicus which effectually closes the orifice. Special clamps are provided for taking up the fold of the skin covering the hernial sac and holding it until the ad- hesion is formed. Diaphragmatic hernia. — This consists of the passage of any of the abdominal viscera through a rent in the diaphragm (midriff) into the cavity pf the thorax. It is rather a rare accident and one often impossible to diagnose during life. Colicky symptoms, accompanied by great difficulty in breathing, and the peculiar position so often assumed (that of sitting upon the haunches) are somewhat character- istic of this trouble, though these symptoms, as we have already seen, may be present during diseases of the stomach or anterior portion of the bowels. Even could we pronounce, with certainty, this form of hernia, there is little or nothing that can be done. Leading the horse up a very steep gangway or causing him to rear up may possibly cause the hernial portion to return to its natural position. This is not enough, however ; it must be kept there. Peritonitis. — Peritonitis is an inflammation of the serous mem- brane lining the cavity of and covering the viscera contained within the abdomen. It is very rare to see a case of primary peritonitis. It is, however, somewhat common as a secondary disease from extension of the inflammatory action involving organs covered by the perito- neum. Peritonitis is often caused by injuries, as punctured wounds of the abdomen, severe blows or kicks, or, as is still more common, fol- lowing the operation of castration. It follows strangulated hernia, invagination, or rupture of the stomach, intestines, liver, or womb. Symptoms.- Peritonitis is mostly preceded by a chill; the horse is not disposed to move, and, if compelled to do so. moves with a stitF or sore gait : he paws with the front feel and may strike at his belly with the hind ones: lies down very carefully; as the pain is increased while down, he maintains during most of the time the standing position : he walks uneasily about the stall. Constipation is usually present. Pres- sure on the belly causes acute pain, and the horse will bite, strike, or kick if so disturbed; the abdomen is tucked up; the extremities are DROPSY OF THE ABDOMEN. 71 fine and cold. The temperature is higher than normal, reaching from 102° to 104° F. The pulse in peritonitis is rather characteristic; it is quickened, beating from seventy to ninety beats pei minute, and is hard and wiry. This peculiarity of the pulse occurs in inflammation of the serous membrane, and if accompanied by colicky symptoms, and, in particular, if following any injuries, accidental or surgical, of the peritoneum, there is reason to think that peritonitis is present. Peritonitis in the horse is mostly fatal when it is at all extensive. If death does not occur in a short time, the inflammation assumes a chronic form, in which there is an extensive effusion of water in the cavity of the belly, constituting what is known as ascites, and which, as a rule, results in death. The treatment of peritonitis is to be somewhat like that of enteri- tis. Opium in powder, 1 to 2 drams, with calomel, one-half dram, is to be given every two, three, or four hours, and constitute the main dependence in this disease. Extensive counterirritants over the belly, consisting of mustard plasters, applications of mercurial ointment, turpentine stupes, or even mild blisters, are recommended. Purga- tives must never be given during this complaint. Should we desire to move the bowels, it can be done by gentle enemas, though it is seldom necessary to resort even to this. Ascites, or dropsy or the abdomen. — This is seen as a result of subacute or chronic peritonitis, but may be due to diseases of the liver, kidneys, heart, or lungs.' There will be found, on opening the cavity of the belly, a large collection of yellowish or reddish liquid; from a few quarts to several gallons may be present. It may be clear in color, though generally it is yellowish or of a red tint, and contains numerous loose flakes of coagulable lymph. Symptoms. — There is slight tenderness on pressure; awkward gait of the hind legs; the horse is dull, and may have occasional very slight colicky pains, shown by looking back and striking at the belly with the hind feet. Oftener, however, these colicky symptoms are absent. Diarrhea often precedes death, but during the progress of the disease the bowels are alternately constipated and loose. On percussing the abdominal walls we find that dullness exists to the same height on both sides of the belly ; by suddenly pushing or striking the abdomen we can hear the rushing or flooding of water. If the case is an ad- vanced one, the horse is potbellied to the extreme, and dropsical swellings are seen under the belly and upon the legs. Treatment is, as a rule, unsatisfactory. Saline cathartics, as Ep- som or Glauber's salts, and diuretics, ounce doses of saltpeter, may be given. If a veterinarian is at hand he will withdraw the accumula- tion of water by tapping and then endeavor to prevent its recurrence (though this is almost sure to follow) by giving three times a day saltpeter, 1 ounce, and iodide of potash, 1 dram, and by the applica- 72 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tion of mustard or blisters over the abdominal walls. Tonics, min- eral and vegetable, are also indicated. Probably the best tonic is one consisting of pewdered sulphate of iron, gentian, and ginger in equal parts; a heaping tablespoonful of the mixture is given as a drench or mixed with the feed, twice a day. Good nutritious foods and gentle exercise complete the treatment. DISEASES or THE LIVER. This organ in the horse is, in the United States, but rarely the seat of disease, and when we consider how frequently the liver of man is affected this can not but appear strange. The absence of the gall bladder may account to a certain extent for his freedom from liver diseases; as overdistention of this and the presence in it of calculi (stones) in man is a frequent source of trouble. In domestic animals, as in man, hot climates tend to produce diseases of the liver, just as in cold climates lung discuses prevail. Not only are diseases of the liver rare in horses in temperate climates, but they are also very obscure, and in many cases pass totally unobserved until after death. There are some symptoms, however, which, when present, should make us examine the liver as carefully as possible. These are jaundice (yellowness of the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, and eyes) and the condition of the dung, it being light in color and pasty in appearance. Hepatitis, ok inflammation of the liver. — This disease may be general or local, and may assume an acute or chronic form. The symptoms of acute hepatitis are: Dullness; the horse is suffer- ing from some internal pain, but not of a severe type; constipated_and clay-colored dung balls; scanty and high-colored urine; and general febrile symptoms. If lying down, he is mostly found on the left side; looks occasionally toward the right side, which, upon close inspection. may be found to be slightly enlarged over the posterior ribs, where pain upon pressure is also evinced. Obscure lameness in front, of the right leg mostly, may be a symptom of hepatitis. The horse, toward the last, reels or staggers in his gait and falls backward in a fainting lil. during one of which he finally succumbs. Death is sometimes due to rupture of the enveloping coat of the liver or of some of its blood vessels. Causes. — Among the causes that lead to this disease we must men- tion firsl the stimulating effect of overfeeding, particularly during hot weather. Horses thai are well fed and receive but little exercise are the best subjects Tor diseases of this organ. We musl add to these causes the more mechanical ones, as injuries on the right side over the liver, worms in the liver, gallstones in the biliary ducts, for- eign bodies— as needles or nails that have been swallowed and in their wanderings have entered the liver — and, lastly, in some instances, the DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 73 extension of inflammation from neighboring parts, thus involving this organ. Acute hepatitis may terminate in chronic inflammation, abscesses, rupture of the liver, or may disappear, leaving behind no trace of disease whatever. Treatment. — This should consist, at first, of the administration of 1 ounce of Barbados aloes or other physic. General blood-letting, if had recourse to early, must prove of much benefit in acute inflamma- tion of the liver. The vein in the neck (jugular) must be opened, and from 4 to G quarts of blood may be drawn. Saline medicines, as Glauber's salts or the artificial Carlsbad salt, is indicated. These may be given with the feed in tablespoonful doses. The horse is to be fed sparingly on soft food, bran mashes chiefly. If treatment proves successful and recovery takes place, see to it that the horse afterwards gets regular exercise and that his food is not of a too highly nutritious character and not excessive. Jaundice, icterus, or the yellows. — This is a condition caused by the retention and absorption of bile into the blood. It was for- merly considered to be a disease of itself, but is now regarded as a symptom of disorder of the liver. " The yellows " is observed by looking at the eyes, nose, and mouth, when it will be seen that these parts are yellowish instead of the pale-pink color of health. In white or light-colored horses the skin even may show this yellow tint. The urine is saffron colored, the dung is of a dirty-gray color, and con- stipation is usually present. Jaundice may be present as a symptom of almost any inflammatory disease. We know that when an animal has fever the secretions are checked, the bile may be retained and absorbed throughout the system, and yellowness of the mucous mem- branes follows. Jaundice may also exist during the presence of simple constipation, hepatitis, biliary calculi, abscesses, hardening of the liver, etc. Treatment. — When jaundice exists we must endeavor to rid the system of the excess of bile, and this is best accomplished by giving purgatives that act upon the liver. Calomel, 2 drams, with aloes, 7 drams, should be given. Glauber's salts in handful doses once or twice a day for a week is also effective. May apple, rhubarb, castor oil, and other cathartics that act upon the first or small bowels may be selected. We must be careful to see that the bowels are kept open by avoiding hard, dry, bulky foods. Kupture or the liver. — This is known to occur at times in the horse, most frequently in old fat horses and those that get but little exercise. Horses that have suffered from chronic liver disease for years eventually present symptoms of colic and die quite suddenly. Upon post-mortem examination we discover that the liver had rup- tured. The cicatrices, or scars, that are often found upon the liver indicate that this organ may suffer small rupture and yet the horse 74 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. recover from it. This result can not obtain, however, if the rent or tear is extensive, since in such cases death must quickly follow from hemorrhage, or, later, from peritonitis. Enlarged liver is particu- larly liable to rupture. Causes. — The immediate causes of rupture appear to be excessive muscular exertion, as leaping a fence, a fall, a blow from a collision, a kick from a horse, or sudden distention of the abdomen with gas. The symptoms of rupture of the liver will depend upon the extent of the laceration. If slight, there will be simply the symptoms of abdominal pain, looking back to the sides, lying down, etc.; if exten- sive, the horse is dull and dejected, has no appetite, breathing be- comes short and catching, he sighs or sobs, visible mucous mem- branes are pale, extremities cold, pulse fast, small, and weak or running down. Countenance now shows much distress, he sweats profusely, totters in his gait, props his legs wide apart, reels, stag- gers, and falls. He may get up again, but soon falls dead. The rapid running-down pulse, paleness of the eyes, nose, and mouth, sighing, stertorous breathing, tottering gait, etc., are symptoms by which we know that the animal is dying from internal hemorrhage. Treatment. — But little can be done in the way of treatment. Opium in powder, in doses of 2 drams every two or three hours, may be given, with the idea of preventing as much as possible all movements of internal organs. If there is reason to suspect internal bleeding, we should give large and frequent doses of white-oak bark tea, dram doses of tannic or gallic acid, or the same quantity of sugar of lead, every half hour or hour. Fluid extract of ergot or tincture of the chloride of iron, in ounce doses, may be selected. Cold water dashed upon the right side or injected into the rectum is highly spoken of as a means of checking the hemorrhage. Biliary calculi, or gallstones. — These are rarely found in the horse, but may occupy the hepatic ducts, giving rise to jaundice and to colicky pains. There are no absolutely diagnostic symptoms, but should one find a horse that suffers from repeated attacks of colic, accompanied by symptoms of violent pain, and that during or follow- ing tli'.M' attacks the animal is jaundiced, it is possible that gallstones are present. There is little or nothing to be done except to give medicines to overcome pain, trusting that these concretions may pass on to the bowels, where, from their small size, they will not occasion any inconvenience. Diseases of the pancrf.as and spleen. — Diseases of the pancreas and spleen are so rare, or their symptoms so little understood, that it is impossible to write anything concerning either of these organs and their simple diseases that will convey to the reader information of practical value. o5 ^ 'o ar/ir/i J 5 ( ITS. 1 Bots in the stomach. 2 Bots in the duodenum JULIUS BIEN SCON 1 PLATE III. Ojc-vlu /.» equL. Strongy-lujf equinus. lscariK IXOSURIA). This is primarily a disease of the nervous system or liver rather than of the kidneys, yet. as the most prominent symptom is the sweet urine, it may be treated here. Causes. — Its causes are varied, but resolve themselves largely into disorder of the liver or disorder of the brain. One of the most prominent functions of the liver is the formation of glycogen, a prin- ciple allied to grape sugar, and passing into it by further oxidation in the blood. This is a constant function of the liver, but in health the resulting sugar is burned up in the circulation and does not appear in the urine. On the contrary, when the supply of oxygen is defective. as in certain diseases of the lungs, the whole of the sugar does not undergo combustion and the excess is excreted by the kidneys. Also in certain forms of enlarged liver the amount of sugar produced is more than can be disposed of in the natural way, and it appears in the urine. A temporary sweetness of the urine often occurs after a hearty meal on starchy food, but this is due altogether to the super- abundant supply of the sugar-forming food, lasts for a few hours only, and has no pathological significance. In many cases of fatal glycosuria the liver is found to be enlarged, or at least congested, and it is found that the disorder can be produced experimentally by agencies which produce an increased circulation through the liver. Thus Bernard produced glycosuria by pricking the oblong medulla at the base of the brain close to the roots of the pneumogastric nerve, which happens to be also the nerve center (vaso-motor) which presides over the contractions of the minute blood vessels. The pricking and irritation of this center leads to congestion of the liver and the exces- sive production of sugar. Irritation carried to this point through the pneumogastric nerve causes saccharine urine, and. in keeping with this, disease of the pancreas has been found in this malady. The com- plete removal of the pancreas, however, determines glycosuria, the organ having in health an inhibitive action on sugar production by the liver. The same result follows the reflection of irritation from other sources, as from different ganglia (corpora striata, optic thalami, pon-. cerebellum, cerebrum) of the brain. Similarly it is induced by interruption of the nervous control along the vaso-motor tracts, as in destruction of the upper or lower cervical sympathetic ganglion, by cutting the nervous branch connecting these two. in injury to the spinal marrow in the interval between the brain and the second or fourth dorsal vertebra, or in disease of the celiac plexus, which directly presides over the liver. Certain chemical poisons also cause saccharine urine, notably woorara, strychnia, morphia, phosphoric acid, alcohol, ether, quinia, chloroform, ammonia, arsenic, and phlorizin. Symptoms. — The symptoms are ardent thirst and profuse secretion BACCHABMTE DIABETES (SWEET UBINE). 81 of a pale urine of a high density i 1.060 and upward), rapid loss of condition, scurfy, unthrifty skin, costiveness or irregularity of the bowels, indigestion, and the presence in the urine of a sweet princi- ple — grape-sugar or inosite, or both. This may be most promptly de- tected by touching the tip of the tongue with a drop. Sugar may be detected simply by adding a teaspoonful of liquid yeast to I ounces the urine and keeping it lightly stopped at a temperature of 70 in 80 £ F. for twelve hour-;, when the sugar will be found to have been changed into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The loss of density will give indication of the amount of -ugar transformed; thus a density of L.035 in a urine which was formerly 1.060 would indicate about 15 grains of sugar to the fluid ounce. Inosite. or muscle sugar, frequently present in the horse's urine, and even replacing the glucose, is not fermentable. It- presence may be indicated by it- sweetness and the absence of fermentation or by Gal- lois's test. Evaporate the suspected urine at a gentle heat almost to dryness, then add a drop of a solution of mercuric nitrate and evapo- rate carefully to dryness, when a yellowish residue i.- left that i- changed on further cautious heating to a deep rose color, which dis- appears on cooling and reappears on heating. In advanced diabetes, dropsies in the limbs and under the chest and belly, puffy, swollen eyelids, cataracts, catarrhal inflammation of the lungs, weak, uncertain gait, and drowsiness may be noted. Treatment is most satisfactory in cases dependent on some curable disease of liver, pancreas, lungs, or brain. Thus, in liver diseases, a run at pasture in warm weather, or in winter a warm, sunny, Avell- aired stable, with sufficient clothing and laxatives (sulphate of soda, 1 ounce daily) and alkalies ( carbonate of potas.-ium. one-fourth ounce) may benefit. To this may be added mild blistering, cupping. or even leeching over tin- last rib-. Diseases of the brain or pancreas may be treated according to their indications. The diet should be mainly albuminous, such as wheat bran or middlings, pease, bean-. vetches, and milk. Indeed, an exclusive milk diet is one of the very best remedial agencies. It may be given a- skimmed milk or butter- milk, and in the la-t case combines an antidiabetic remedy in the lactic acid. Under such an exclusive diet recent and mild cases are often entirely restored, though at the expense of an attack of rheumatism. Codeia. one of the alkaloids of opium, is strongly recommended by Doctor Tvson. The dose for the horse would be 10 to 15 grain- thrice daily. In cases in which there is manifest irritation of the brain, bromide of potassium. 4 dram-, or ergot one-half ounce, may be re- sorted to. Salicylic acid and salicylate of sodium have proved useful in certain cases; also phosphate of sodium. Bitter tonic- (especially mix vomica one-half dram) are useful in improving the digestion and general health. H. Doc. 7'.t."». .v.*-!' 6 82 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BLOODY URINE, OK HEMATURIA. Cause. — As seen in the horse. Moody urine is usually the direct result of mechanical injuries, as sprains and fractures of the loins, lacerations of the sublumbar muscles (psoas), irritation caused by stone in the kidney, ureter, bladder, or urethra. It may, however, occur with acute congestion of the kidney, with tumors in its sub- stance, or with papilloma or other diseased growth in the bladder. Acrid diuretic plants present in the food may also lead to the escape of blood from the kidney. The predisposition to this affection is, however, incomparably less than in the case of the ox or the sheep, the difference being attributed to the greater plasticity of the horse's blood in connection with the larger quantity of fibrin. The blood may be present in small clots or in more or less intimate admixture with the urine. Its condition may furnish some indication as to its source; thus, if from the kidneys it is more likely to be uni- formly diffused through the urine, while as furnished by the bladder or passages clots are more likely to be present. Again, in bleeding from the kidney, minute cylindrical clots inclosing blood globules and formed in the uriniferous tubes can be detected under the micro- scope. Precision also may be approximated by observing whether there is coexisting fracture, sprain of the loins, or stone or tumor in the bladder or urethra. Treatment. — The disease being mainly due to direct injury, treat- ment will consist, first, in removing such cause whenever possible, and then in applying general and local styptics. Irritants in food must be avoided, sprains appropriately treated, and stone in bladder or urethra removed. Then give mucilaginous drinks (slippery elm, lin- seed tea) freely, and styptics (tincture of chloride of iron 3 drams, acetate of lead one-half drain, tannic acid one-half dram, or oil of turpentine 1 ounce). If the discharge is abundant, apply cold water to the loins and keep the animal perfectly still. HEMOGLOBINURIA (AZOTURIA, AZOTEMIA, POISONING BY ALBUMINOIDS). Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-form- ing functions than of the kidney, but as prominent symptoms are loss of control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark- colored urine, the vulgar idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary organs. It is a complex affection directly connected with a plethora in the blood of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nervous and muscular disorder and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directly connected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized food (oats. bean-, pease, vetches, cotton-seed meal), and with a period of idleness in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely under constant daily work, BLOODY URINE, OR HEMATURIA. 83 even though the feeding be high, and the attack is usually precipi- tated by taking the horse from the stable and subjecting it to exorcise or work. The poisoning is not present when taken from the stable, as the horse is likely to be noticeably lively and spirited, but he will usually succumb under the first hundred yards or half mile of exer- cise. It seems as if the aspiratory power of the chest under the sudden exertion and accelerated breathing speedily drew from the gorged liver and abdominal veins (portal) the accumulated store of nitrogenous matter in an imperfectly oxidized or elaborated condi- tion, and as if the blood, surcharged with these materials, was unable to maintain the healthy functions of the nerve centers and muscles. It has been noticed rather more frequently in mares than horses, attributable, perhaps, to the nervous excitement attendant on heat, and to the fact that the unmutilated mare is naturally more excitable than the docile gelding. Lignieres has found in hemoglobinuria a streptococcus which pro- duced nephritis, bloody urine, and paraplegia in experimental ani- mals, including horses. Symptoms. — In the milder forms this affection may appear as a lameness in one limb, from indefinite cause, succeeding to some sud- den exertion and attended by a dusky-brown color of the membranes of the eye and nose and some wincing when the last ribs are struck. The severe forms come on after one or two days of rest on a full ration, when the animal has been taken out and driven one hundred paces or more. The fire and life with which he had left the stable suddenly give place to dullness and oppression, as shown in heaving flanks, dilated nostrils, pinched face, perspiring skin, and trembling body. The muscles of the loins or haunch become swelled and rigid, the subject moves stiffly or unsteadily, crouches behind, the limbs being carried semiflexed, and he soon drops, unable to support him- self. When down, the body and limbs are moved convulsively, but there is no power of coordination of movement in the muscles. The pulse and breathing are accelerated, the eyes red with a tinge of brown, and the urine, if passed, is seen to be highly colored, dark brown, red, or black, but it contains neither blood clots nor globules. The color is mainly due to hemoglobin and other imperfectly elabo- rated constituents of the blood. It may end fatally in a few hours or days, or a recovery may ensue, which is usually more speedy and perfect if it has set in at an early stage. In the late and tardy recoveries a partial paralysis of the hind limbs may last for months. A frequent sequel of these tardy cases is an extensive wasting of the muscles leading up from the front of the stifle (those supplied by the crural nerve) and a complete inability to stand. Prevention. — The prevention of this serious affection lies in re- 84 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. striding the diet and giving daily exercise when the animal is not at work. A horse that has had one attack should never be left idle for a single day in the stall or barnyard. When a horse has been con- demned to absolute repose on good feeding he may have a laxative (one-half to 1 pound Glauber's salts), and have graduated exercise, beginning with a short walk and increasing day by day. Treatment. — The treatment of the mild eases may consist in a laxa- tive, graduated daily exercise, and a daily dose of saltpeter (1 ounce). Sudden attacks will sometimes promptly subside if taken on the in- stant and the subject kept still and calmed by a dose of bromide of potassium (4 drams) and sweet spirits of niter (1 ounce). The latter has the advantage of increasing the secretion of the kidney-. Iodide of potassium in one-half ounce doses every four hours has succeeded well in some hands. In severe cases, as a ride, it is desira- ble to begin treatment by a dose of aloes (4 to 6 drams) with the above-named dose of bromide of potassium, and this latter may be continued at intervals of four or six hours, as may be requisite to calm the nervous excitement. Fomentations with warm water over the loins are always useful in calming the excitable conditions of the spinal cord, muscles, liver, and kidneys, and also in favoring secre- tion from the two latter. On the second day diuretics may be re- sorted to, such as saltpeter one-half ounce, and powdered colchicum one-half dram, to be repeated twice daily. A laxative may be re- peated in three or four days should the bowels seem to demand it, and as the nervous excitement disappears any remaining muscular weakness or paralysis may be treated by one-half dram doses of mix vomica twice a day and a stimulating liniment (aqua ammonia and sweet oil in equal proportions) rubbed on the torpid muscles. During the course of the disease friction to the limb- i- useful, and in the advanced paralytic stage the application of electricity along the line of the affected muscles. When the patient can not stand he must have a thick, soft bed, and should be turned from side to side at least every twelve hours. As soon as he can be made to stand he may be helped up and even supported in a sling. ACUTE INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS, OR ACUTE NEPHRITIS. Inflammations of the kidney- have been differentiated widely, ac- cording as they were acute or chronic, parenchymatous or tubal, sup- purative or not. with increased or shrunken kidney, etc.: but in a work like the present utility will be consulted by classing all under acute <>r chronic inflammation. Causes. — The causes of inflammation of the kidneys are extremely varied. Congestion occurs from the altered and irritant products passed through these organs during recovery from inflammations of other organs and during fevers. This may last only during the exist- INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 85 ence of its cause, or may persist and become aggravated. Heart dis- ease, throwing the blood pressure back on the veins and kidneys, is another cause. Disease of the ureter or bladder, preventing the escape of urine from the kidney and causing increased fullness and tension in its pelvis and tubes, will determine inflammation. Decom- position of the detained urine in such cases and the production of ammonia and other irritants must also be named. In elimination of bacteria through the kidney, the latter is liable to infection with con- sequent inflammation. The advance of bacteria upward from the bladder to the kidneys is another cause. The consumption in hay or other fodder of acrid or irritant plants, including fungi, the absorp- tion of cantharidine from a surface blistered by Spanish flies, the reckless administration of diuretics, the presence of stones in the kidney, exposure of the surface to cold and wet, and the infliction of blows or sprains on the loins, may contribute to its production. Liver disorders which throw on the kidneys the work of excreting irritant products, diseases of the lungs and heart from which clots are car- ried, to be arrested in the small blood vessels of the kidney, and injuries and paralysis of the spinal cord, are additional causes. Symjjtoms. — The symptoms are more or less fever, manifest stiff- ness of the back and straddling gait with the hind limbs, difficulty in lying down and rising, or in walking in a circle, the animal sometimes groaning under the effort, arching of the loins and tucking up of the flank, looking back at the abdomen as if from colicky pain, and ten- derness of the loins to pinching, especially just beneath the bony processes G inches to one side of the median line. Urine is passed frequently, a small quantity at a time, of a high color, and sometimes mixed with blood or even pus. Under the microscope it shows the microscopic casts referred to under general symptoms. If treated by acetic acid, boiling, and subsequent addition of strong nitric acid, the resulting and persistent precipitate indicates the amount of albumen. The legs tend to swell from the foot up, also the dependent parts beneath the belly and chest, and effusions of liquid may occur within the chest or abdomen. In the male animal the alternate drawing up and relaxation of the testicles in the scrotum are suggestive, and in small horses the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may reach the kidney and ascertain its sensitiveness. Treatment demands, first, the removal of any recognized cause. Then, if the suffering and fever are high. "2 to 4 quarts of blood may be abstracted from the jugular vein; in weak subjects or unless in high fever this should be omitted. Next relieve the kidneys so far as possible by throwing their work on the bowels and skin. A pint of castor oil is less likely than either aloes or salts to act on the kid- neys. To affect the skin a warm stall and heavy clothing may be supplemented by dram doses of Dover's powder. Pain may be 86 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. soothed by dram doses of bromide of potassium. Boiled flaxseed may be added to the drinking water, and also thrown into the rectum as an injection, and blankets saturated with hot water should be per- sistently applied to the loins. This may be followed by a very thin pulp of the best ground mustard made with tepid water, rubbed in against the direction of the hair and covered up with paper and a blanket. This may be kept on for an hour, or until the skin thickens and the hair stands erect. It may then be rubbed or sponged off and the blanket reapplied. When the action of the bowels has been started it may be kept up by a daily dose of 2 or 3 ounces of Glauber's salts. During recovery a course of bitter tonics (nux vomica 1 scruple, ground gentian root 4 drams) should be given. The patient should also be guarded against cold, wet, and any active exertion for some time after all active symptoms have subsided. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. Causes. — Chronic inflammation of the kidneys is more commonly associated with albumen and casts in the urine than the acute form, and in some instances these conditions of the urine may be the only prominent symptoms of the disease. Though it may supervene on blows, injuries, and exposures, it is much more commonly connected with faulty conditions of the system — as indigestion, heart disease, lung or liver disease, imperfect blood formation, or assimilation; in short, it is rather the attendant on a constitutional infirmity than on a simple local injury. It may be associated with various forms of diseased kidneys, as shrinkage (atrophy), increase (hypertrophy), softening, red conges- tion, white enlargement, etc., so that it forms a group of diseases rather than a disease by itself. Symptoms. — The symptoms may include stiffness, weakness, and increased sensibility of the loins, and modified secretion of urine (increase or suppression), or the flow may be natural. Usually it contains albumen, the amount furnishing a fair criterion of the grav- ity of the affection, and microscopic casts, also most abundant in bad cases. Dropsy, manifested in swelled legs, is a significant symptom, and if the effusion takes place along the lower line of the body or in chest or abdomen, the significance is increased. A scurfy, unthrifty skin, lack-luster hair, inability to sustain severe or continued exer- tion, poor or irregular appetite, loss of fat and flesh, softness of the muscles, and pallor of the eyes and nose are equally suggestive. So are skin eruptions of various kinds. Any one or more of these symp- toms would warrant an examination of the urine for albumen and casts, the finding of which signifies renal inflammation. Treatment of these cases is not always satisfactory, as the cause is DISEASES OF THE KIDNEYS AND BLADDER. 87 liable to be maintained in the disorders of important organs else- where. If any such coincident disease of another organ or function can be detected, that should be treated first or simultaneously with this affection of the kidneys. In all cases the building up of the general health is important. Hence a course of tonics may be given (phosphate of iron 2 drams, mix vomica 20 grains, powdered gentian root 4 drams, daily) or GO drops of sulphuric acid or nitromuriatic acid may be given daily in the drinking water. If there is any ele- vated temperature of the body and tenderness of the loins, fomenta- tions may be applied, followed by a mustard pulp, as for acute inflammation, and even in the absence of these indications the mus- tard may be resorted to with advantage at intervals of a few days. In suppression of urine, fomentations with warm water or with infu- sion of digitalis leaves is a safer resort than diuretics, and cupping over the loins may also benefit. To apply a cup, shave the skin and oil it; then take a narrow-mouthed glass, rarify the air within it by introducing a taper in full flame for a second, withdraw the taper and instantly apply the mouth of the glass to the skin and hold it closely applied till the cooling tends to form a vacuum in the glass and to draw up the skin, like a sucker. As in the acute inflammation, every attention must be given to secure warm clothing, a warm stall, and pure air. TUMORS OF THE KIDNEYS. Tumors, whether malignant or simple, would give rise to symptoms resembling some form of inflammation, and are not likely to be recog- nized during life. PARASITES. To parasites of the kidney belong the echinococcms, the larval, or bladder worm, stage of the small echinococcus tapeworm of the dog; also the Cysticercus fistularis, another bladder worm of an unknown tapeworm ; in these there is the possibility of the passage with the urine of a detached head of the bladder worm or of some of its micro- scopic hooklets, which might be found in the sediment of the urine and thus establish a diagnosis. Dioctophyme renale, the largest of roundworms, has been found in the kidney of the horse. Its presence can only be certified by the passage of its microscopic eggs or of the entire worm. Immature stages of roundworms, either Strongylus c,/i >ir anat< l\iy of kidney. PLATE VJ1. Phasphatic calculus, uric and nucleus. WSmr Calculus of oxalate of lime Hen cil casts. Some deprived of epithelium. Two are deeper coloi'ed //■a/// f he presence ofura/e of soda. Straight forceps •/ i a/cali . CALCULI AND INSTRUMENT FOR REMOVAL PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. 89 of the urethra between the seat of obstruction and the bladder is usually distended with urine, and feels enlarged, elastic, and fluctu- ating. Treatment.— Treatment may be begun by taking the animal out of harness. This failing, spread clean litter beneath the belly or turn the patient out on the dung heap. Some seek to establish sympa- thetic action by pouring water from one vessel into another with dribbling noise. Others soothe and distract the attention by slow whistling. Friction of the abdomen with wisps of straw may suc- ceed, or it may be rubbed with ammonia and oil. These failing, an injection of 2 ounces of laudanum or of an infusion of 1 ounce of tobacco in water may be tried. In the mare the neck of the bladder is easily dilated by inserting two oiled fingers and slightly parting them. In the horse the oiled hand introduced into the rectum may press from before backward on the anterior or blind end of the bladder. Finally, a well-oiled gum-elastic catheter may be entered into the urethra through the papilla at the end of the penis and pushed on carefully until it has entered the bladder. To effect this the penis must first be withdrawn from its sheath, and when the advancing end of the catheter has reached the bend of the urethra beneath the anus it must be guided forward by pressure with the hand, which guidance must be continued onward into the bladder, the oiled hand being introduced into the rectum for this purpose. The horse catheter. 3^ feet long and one-third inch in diameter, may be bought of a surgical instrument maker. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. Paralysis of the body of the bladder with spasm of the neck has been described under the last heading, and may occur in the same way from overdistention in tetanus, acute rheumatism, paraplegia, and hemiplegia, in which the animal can not stretch himself to stale, and in cystitis, affecting the body of the bladder but not the neck. In all these cases the urine is suppressed. It also occurs as a result of disease of the posterior end of the spinal marrow and with broken back, and is then associated with palsy of the tail. and. it may be. of the hind limbs. Symptoms. — The symptoms are a constant dribbling of urine when the neck is involved, the liquid running down the inside of the thighs and irritating the skin. When the neck is unaffected the urine is retained until the bladder is greatly overdistended, when it may be expelled in a gush by the active contraction of the muscular walls of the abdomen ; but this never empties the bladder, and the oiled hand introduced through the rectum may feel the soft, flabby organ still half full of urine. This retained urine is liable to decompose and give off ammonia, which dissolves the epithelial cells, exposing the 90 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. raw mucous membrane and causing the worst type of cystitis. Sup- pression and incontinence of urine are common also to obstruction of the urethra by stone or otherwise; hence this source of fallacy should be excluded by manual examination along the whole course of that duct. Treatment. — Treatment is only applicable in cases in which the de- termining cause can be abated. In remedial sprains of the back or disease of the spinal cord these must have appropriate treatment, and the urine must be drawn off frequently with a catheter to prevent overdistention and injury to the bladder. If the paralysis persists after recovery of the spinal cord, or if it continues after relief of spasm of the neck of the bladder, apply a pulp of mustard and water over the back part of the belly in front of the udder, and cover with a rug until the hair stands erect. In the male the mustard may be applied between the thighs from near the anus downward. Daily doses of 2 drams extract of belladonna or of 2 grains powdered Spanish fly may serve to rouse the lost tone. These failing, a mild current of electricity daily may succeed. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER ( CYSTITIS, OR UROCYSTITIS) . Cystitis may be slight or severe, acute or chronic, partial or general. It may be caused by abuse of diuretics, especially such as are irritat- ing (cantharides, turpentine, copaiba, resin, etc.), by the presence of a stone or gravel in the bladder, the irritation of a catheter or other foreign body introduced from without, the septic ferment (bac- terium) introduced on a filthy catheter, the overdistention of the bladder by retained urine, the extrication of ammonia from retained decomposing urine, resulting in destruction of the epithelial cells and irritation of the raw surface, and a too concentrated and irritating urine. The application of Spanish flies or turpentine over a too ex- tensive surface, sudden exposure of a perspiring and tired horse to cold or wet, and the presence of acrid plants in the fodder may cause cystitis, as they may nephritis. Finally, inflammation may extend from a diseased vagina or urethra to the bladder. Symptoms. — The symptoms are slight or severe colicky pains; the animal moves his hind feet uneasily or even kicks at the abdomen, looks around at his flank, and may even lie down and rise frequently. More characteristic are frequently repeated efforts to urinate, result- ing in the discharge of a little clear, or red. or more commonly floc- culent urine, always in jets, and accompanied by signs of pain, which persist after the discharge, as shown in continued straining, groan- ing, and perhaps in movements of the feet and tail. The penis hangs from the sheath, or in the mare the vulva is frequently opened and closed, as after urination. The animal winces when the abdomen is pressed in the region of the sheath or udder, and the bladder is found DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 91 to be sensitive and tender when pressed with the oiled hand intro- duced through the rectum or vagina. In the mare the thickening of the walls of the bladder may be felt by introducing one finger through the urethra. The discharged urine, which may be turbid or even oily, contains an excess of mucus, with flat shreds of membrane, with scaly epithelial cells, and pus corpuscles, each showing two or more nuclei when treated with acetic acid, but there are no microscopic tubular casts, as in nephritis. If due to stone in the bladder, that will be found on examination through rectum or vagina. Treatme?it implies, first, the removal of the cause, whether poisons in food or as medicine, the removal of Spanish flies or other blistering agents from the skin, or the extraction of stone or gravel. If the urine has been retained and decomposed it must be completely evac- uated through a clean catheter, and the bladder thoroughly washed out with a solution of 1 dram of borax in a quart of water. This must be repeated twice daily until the urine no longer decomposes, because so long as ammonia is developed in the bladder the protecting layer of epithelial cells will be dissolved and the surface kept raw and irritable. The diet must be light (bran mashes, roots, fresh grass), and the drink impregnated with linseed tea, or solution of slippery elm or marsh mallow. The same agents may be used to inject into the rectum, or they may even be used along with borax and opium to inject into bladder (gum arabic 1 dram, opium 1 dram, tepid water 1 pint). Fomentations over the loins are often of great advantage, and these may be followed or alternated with the appli- cation of mustard, as in paralysis; or the mustard may be applied on the back part of the abdomen below or between the thighs from the anus downward. Finally, when the acute symptoms have subsided, a daily dose of buchu 1 dram and mix vomica one-half dram will serve to restore lost tone. IRRITABLE BLADDER. Some horses, and especially mares, show an irritability of the blad- der and nerve centers presiding over it by frequent urination in small quantities, though the urine is not manifestly changed in character and no more than the natural amount is passed in the twenty-four hours. The disorder appears to have its source quite as frequently in the generative or nervous system as in the urinary. A troublesome and dangerous form is seen in mares, which dash off and refuse all control by the rein if driven with a full bladder, but usually prove docile if the bladder has been emptied before hitching. In other cases the excitement connected with getting the tail over the reins is a pow- erful determining cause. The condition is marked in many mares during the period of " heat.' 1 '' An oleaginous laxative (castor oil 1 pint) will serve to remove any 92 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. cause of irritation in the digestive organs, and a careful dieting will avoid continued irritation by acrid vegetable agents. The bladder should be examined to see that there is no stone or other cause of irri- tation, and the sheath and penis should be washed with soapsuds, any sebaceous matter removed from the bilocular cavity at the end of the penis, and the whole lubricated with sweet oil. Irritable mares should be induced to urinate before they are harnessed, and those that clutch the lines under the tail may have the tail set high by cutting the cords on its lower surface, or it may be prevented getting over the reins by having a strap carried from its free end to the breeching. Those proving troublesome when " in heat " may have 4-dram doses of bro- mide of potassium, or they may be served by the male or castrated. Sometimes irritability may be lessened by daily doses of belladonna extract (1 drain), or a better tone may be given to the parts by balsam copaiba (1 dram). DISEASED GROWTHS IN THE BLADDER. These may be of various kinds, malignant or simple. In the horse I have found villous growths from the mucous membrane especially troublesome. They may be attached to the mucous membrane by a narrow neck or by a broad base covering a great part of the organ. Symptopns. — The symptoms are frequent straining, passing of urine and blood with occasionally gravel. An examination of the bladder with the hand in the rectum will detect the new growth, which may be distinguished from a hard resistant stone. In mares, in which the finger can be inserted into the bladder, the recognition is still more satisfactory. The polypi attached by narrow necks may be removed by surgical operation, but for those with broad attachments treatment is eminently unsatisfactory. DISCHARGE OF URINE BY THE NAVEL, OR PERSISTENT I'RAC III S. This occurs only in the newborn, and consists in the nonclosure of the natural channel (uraehus), through which the urine is discharged into the outer water bag (allantois) in fetal life. At that early stage of the animal existence the bladder resembles a long tube, which is prolonged through the navel string and opens into the outermost of the two water bags in which the fetus floats. In this way the urine i- prevented from entering the inner water bag (amnion), where it would mingle with the liquids, bathing the skin of the fetus and cause irritation. At birth this channel closes up, and the urine takes the course normal to extra-uterine life. Imperfect closure is more fre- quent in males than in females, because of the great length and small caliber of the male urethra and its consequent tendency to obstruction. In the female there may be a discharge of a few drops only at a time, while in the male the urine will be expelled in strong jets coincidently with the contractions of the bladder and walls of the abdomen. DISEASES OP THE BLADDER. 93 The first care is to ascertain if the urethra is pervious by passing a human catheter. This determined, the open urachus may be firmly closed by a stout waxed thread, carried with a needle through the tis- sues back of the opening and tied in front of it so as to inclose as little skin as possible. If a portion of the navel string remains, the tying of that may be all sufficient. It is important to tie as early as possible so as to avoid inflammation of the navel from contact with the urine. In summer a little carbolic-acid water or tar water may be applied to keep off the flies. EVERS10N OF THE BLADDER. This can only occur in the female. It consists in the turning of the organ outside in through the channel of the urethra, so that it appears as a red, pear-shaped mass hanging from the floor of the vulva and protruding externally between its lips. It may be a mass like the fist, or it may swell up to the size of an infant's head. On examining its upper surface the orifices of the urethra may be seen, one on each side a short distance behind the neck, with the urine oozing from them drop by drop. This displacement usually supervenes on a flaccid condition of the bladder, the result of paralysis, overdistention, or severe compression during a difficult parturition. The protruding organ may be washed with a solution of 1 ounce of laudanum and a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a quart of water, and returned by pressing a smooth, rounded object into the fundus and directing it into the urethra, while careful pressure is made on the surrounding parts with the other hand. If too large and resistant it may be wound tightly in a strip of bandage about 2 inches broad to express the great mass of blood and exudate and diminish the bulk of the protruded organ so that it can be easily pushed back. This method has the additional advantage of protecting the organ against bruises and lacerations in the effort made to return it. After the return, straining may be kept in check by giving laudanum (1 to 2 ounces) and by applying a truss to press upon the lips of the vulva. (See E version of the womb.) The patient should be kept in a stall a few inches lower in front than behind, so that the action of gravity will favor retention. INFLAMMATION OF THE URETHRA (URETHRITIS, OR GLEET ). This affection belongs quite as much to the generative organs, yet it can not be entirely overlooked in a treatise on urinary disorders. It may be induced by the same causes as cystitis (which see) ; by the passage and temporary arrest of small stones, or gravel ; by the irri- tation caused by foreign bodies introduced from without ; by blows on the penis by sticks, stones, or by the feet of a mare that kicks while being served; by an infecting inflammation contracted from a mare 94 DISEASES OF THE HOESE. served in the first few days after parturition or one suffering from Leucorrhea; by infecting matter introduced on a dirty catheter, or by the extension of inflammation from an irritated bilocular cavity filled with hardened sebaceous matter, or from an uncleansed sheath. Symptoms. — The symptoms are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the sheath and penis; difficulty, pain, and groaning in passing urine, which is liable to sudden temporary arrests in the course of micturi- tion, and later a whitish mucopurulent oozing from the papilla on the end of "the penis. There is a tendency to erection of the penis, and in cases contracted from a mare the outer surface of that organ will show more or less extensive sores and ulcers. Stallions suffering in this way will refuse to mount, or having mounted w r ill fail to com- plete the act of coition. If an entrance is effected infection of the mare is liable to follow. Treatment in the early stages consists in a dos.e of physic (aloes 6 drams) and fomentations of warm water to the sheath and penis. If there is reason to suspect the presence of infection, inject the urethra twice daily with borax 1 dram, water 1 quart, using it tepid. Where the mucopurulent discharge indicates the supervention of the second stage, a more astringent injection may be employed (nitrate of silver 20 grains, water 1 quart), and the same may be applied to the surface of the penis and inside the sheath. Balsam of copaiba (1 dram daily) may also be given with advantage after the purulent discharge has appeared. Every stallion suffering from urethritis should be withheld from service, as should mares with leucorrhea. STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. This is a permanent narrowing of the urethra at a given point, the result of previous inflammation, caused by the passage or arrest of a stone, or gravel, by strong astringent injections in the early nonsecret- ing stages of urethritis, or by contraction of the lining membrane occurring during the healing of ulcers in neglected inflammations of that canal. The trouble is shown by the passage of urine in a fine stream, with straining, pain, and groaning, and by frequent painful erections. It. must be remedied by mechanical dilatation, with cathe- ters just huge enough to pass with gentle force, to be inserted once a day. and to be used of larger size as the passage will admit them. The catheter should be kept perfectly clean, and washed in a borax solution and well oiled before it is introduced. URINARY CALCULI (STONE, OK GRAVEL). These consist in some of the solids of the urine that have been pre- cipitated from the urine in the form of crystals, which remain apart as a line powdery mass, or magma, or aggregate into calculi, or stones, of varying size. Their composition is therefore determined in differ- STONE, OR GRAVEL. 95 ent animals by the salts or other constituents found dissolved in the healthy urine, and by the additional constituents which may be thrown off in solution in the urine in disease. In this connection it is important to observe the following analysis of the horse's urine in health : Water 918. 5 Urea 13. 4 Uric acid and urates . 1 Hippuric acid -_ 2<>. 4 Lactic acid and lactates 1. 2 Mucus and organic matter 22.0 Sulphates (alkaline) 1. 2 Phosphates (lime and soda) .2 Chlorides (sodium) 1. Carbonates (potash, magnesia, lime) 16.0 1000. The carbonate of lime, which is present in large amount in the urine of horses fed on green fodder, is practically insoluble, and therefore forms in the passages after secretion, and its microscopic rounded crystals give the urine of such horses a milky whiteness. It is this material which constitutes the soft, white, pultaceous mass that some- times fills the bladder to repletion and requires to be washed out. In hay-fed horses carbonates are still abundant, while in those mainly grain-fed they are replaced by hippurates and phosphates — the prod- ucts of the wear of tissues — the carbonates being the result of oxida- tion of the vegetable acids in the food. Carbonate of lime, therefore, is a very common constituent of urinary calculi in herbivora, and in many cases is the most abundant constituent. Oxalate of lime, like carbonate of lime, is derived from the burning up of the carbonaceous matter of the food in the system, one impor- tant factor being the less perfect oxidation of the carbon. Indeed, Fiistenberg and Schmidt have demonstrated on man, horse, ox, and rabbit that, under the fullplay of the breathing (oxidizing) forces, oxalic acid, like other organic acids, is resolved into carbonic acid. In keeping with this is the observation of Lehmann, that in all cases in which man suffered from interference with the breathing oxalate of lime appeared in the urine. An excess of oxalate of lime in the urine may, however, claim a different origin. Uric and hippuric acids are found in the urine of carnivora and herbivora, respectively, as the result of the healthy wear (disassimilation) of nitrogenous (is- sues. But if these products are fully oxidized, they are thrown out in the form of the more soluble urea rather than as these acids. When uric acid out of the body is treated with peroxide of lead it is resolved into urea, allantoin, and oxalic acid, and Wcehler and Frer- richs found that the administration of uric acid not only increased 96 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the excretion of urea, but also of oxalic acid. It may therefore be inferred that oxalic acid is not produced from the carbonaceous food alone, but also from the disintegration of the nitrogenous tissues of i he body. An important element of its production is, however, the imperfect performance of the breathing functions, and hence it is liable to result from diseases of the chest (heaves, chronic bronchitis, etc.). This is. above all, likely to prove the case if the subject is fed to excess on highly carbonaceous foods (grass and green food gener- ally, potatoes, etc.). Carbonate of magnesia, another almost constant ingredient of the urinary calculi of the horse, is formed the same way as the carbon- ate of lime — from the excess of carbonaceous food (organic acids) becoming oxidized into carbon dioxide, which unites with the mag- nesia derived from the food. The phosphates of lime and magnesia are not abundant in urinary calculi of the horse, the phosphates being only present to excess in the urine in two conditions — (a) when the ration is excessive and specially rich in phosphorus (wheat bran, beans, pease, vetches, rape cake, oil cake, cotton-seed cake) ; and (b) when, through the morbid destructive changes in the living tissues, and especially of the bones, a great amount of phosphorus is given off as a waste product. Under these conditions, however, the phosphates may contribute to the for- mation of calculi, and this is, above all, likely if the urine is retained in the bladder until it has undergone decomposition and given off ammonia. The ammonia at once unites with the phosphate of mag nesia to form a double salt — phosphate of ammonia and magnesia — which, being insoluble, is at once precipitated. The precipitation of this salt is. however, rare in the urine of the horse, though much more frequent in that of man and sheep. These are the chief mineral constituents of the urine which form ingredients in the horse's calculi, for though iron and manganese are usually present it is only in minute quantities. The excess of mineral matter in a specimen of urine unquestion- abty contributes to the formation of calculi, just as a solution of such matters out of the body is increasingly disposed to throw them down in the form of crystals as it becomes more concentrated and ap- proaches nearer to the condition of saturation. Hence, in consider- ing the causes of calculi we can not ignore the factor of an excessive ration, rich in mineral matters and in carbonaceous matters (the source of carbonates and much of the oxalates), nor can we overlook the concentration of the urine that comes from dry food and priva- tion of water, or from the existence of fever which causes suspension of the secretion of water. In these cases, at least the usual amount of solids i> thrown off by the kidneys, and as the water is diminished there is danger of its approaching the point of supersaturation, when STONE, OR GRAVEL. 97 the dissolved solids must necessarily be thrown down. Hence, calculi are more common in stabled horses fed on dry grain and hay, in those denied a sufficiency of water or that have water supplied irregularly, in those subjected to profuse perspiration (as in summer), and in those suffering from a watery diarrhea. On the whole, calculi are most commonly found in winter, because the horses are then on dry feeding, but such dry feeding is even more conducive to them in summer when the condition is aggravated by the abundant loss of water by the skin. In the same way the extreme hardness of the water in certain dis- tricts must be looked upon as contributing to the concentration of the urine and correspondingly to the production of stone. The carbon- ates, sulphates, etc., of lime and magnesia taken in the water must be again thrown out, and just in proportion as these add to the solids of the urine they dispose it to precipitate its least soluble constituents. Thus, the horse is very obnoxious to calculi on certain limestone soils, as over the calcareous formations of central and western New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, in America ; of Norfolk, Suffolk, Derbyshire, Shropshire, and Gloucestershire, in England ; of Poitou and Landes, in France; and Munich, in Bavaria. But the saturation of the urine from any or all of these conditions can only be looked on as an auxiliary cause, and not as in itself an efficient one, except on the rarest occasions. For a more direct and immediate cause we must look to the organic matter which forms a large proportion of all urinary calculi. This consists of mucus, albu- men, pus, hyaline casts of the uriniferous tubes, epithelial cells, blood, etc., mainly agents that belong to the class of colloid or noncrystalline bodies. A horse may live for months and years with the urine habit- ually of a high density and having the mineral constituents in excess without the formation of stone or gravel ; and again one with dilute urine of low specific gravity will have a calculus. Rainey, Ord, and others furnish the explanation. They not only show that a colloid body, like mucus, albumen, pus, or blood, deter- mined the precipitation or the crystalline salts in the solution, but they determined the precipitation in the form of globules, or spheres, capable of developing by further deposits into calculi. Heat intensi- fies this action of the colloids, and a colloid in a state of decomposition is specially active. The presence, therefore, of developing fungi and bacteria must be looked upon as active factors in causing calculi. In looking, therefore, for the immediate causes of calculi we must consider especially all those conditions which determine the presence of albumen, blood, and excess of mucus, pus, etc., in the urine. Thus diseases of distant organs leading to albuminuria, diseases of the kid- neys and urinary passages causing the escape of blood or the forma- H. Doc. 705, 50-2 7 98 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tion of mucus or pus, become direct causes of calculi. Foreign bodies of all kinds in the bladder or kidney have long been known as deter- mining causes of calculi and as forming the central nucleus. This is now explained by the fact that these bodies are liable to carry bacte- ria into the passages and thus determine decomposition, and they are further liable to irritate the mucous membrane and become enveloped in a coating of mucus, pus, and perhaps blood. The fact that horses appear to suffer from calculi, especially on the magnesian limestones, the same districts in which they suffer from goiter, may be similarly explained. The unknown poison which pro- duces goiter presumably leads to such changes in the blood and urine as will furnish the colloid necessary for precipitation of the urinary salts in the form of calculi. CLASSIFICATION OF URINARY CALCULI. These have been named according to the place where they are found, renal (kidney), vretral (ureter), vesical (bladder), urethral (urethra), and preputial (sheath, or prepuce). They have been otherwise named according to their most abundant chemical constit- uent, carbonate of lime, oxalate of lime, and phosphate of lime calculi. The stones formed of carbonates or phosphates are usually smooth on the surface, though they may be molded into the shape of the cavity in which they have been formed; thus those in the pelvis of the kidney may have two or three short branchlike prolongations, while those in the bladder are round, oval, or slightly flattened upon each other. Calculi containing oxalate of lime, on the other hand, have a rough, open, crystalline surface, which has gained for them the name of mulberry calculi, from a supposed resemblance to that fruit. These are usually covered with more or less mucus or blood, produced by the irritation of the mucous membrane by their rough surfaces. The color of calculi varies from white to yellow and deep brown, the shades depending mainly on the amount of the coloring matter of blood, bile, or urine which they may contain. Renal calculi.— These may consist of minute, almost microscopic, deposits in the uriniferous tubes in the substance of the kidney, but more commonly they are large masses and lodged in the pelvis. The larger calculi, sometimes weighing 12 to 24 ounces, are molded in the pelvis of the kidney into a cylindroid mass, with irregular rounded swellings at intervals. Some have a deep brown, rough, crystalline surface of oxalate of lime, while others have a smooth, pearly white aspect from carbonate of lime. A smaller calculus, which has been called coralline, is also cylindroid, with a number of brown, rough, crystalline oxalate of lime branches and whitish depressions of car- bonate. These vary in size from 15 grains to nearly 2 ounces. Less frequently are found masses of very hard, brownish white, rounded, STONE, OR GRAVEL. 99 pealike calculi. These are smoother, but on the surface crystals of oxalate of lime may be detected with a lens. Some renal calculi are formed of more distinct layers, more loosely adherent to each other, and contain an excess of mucus, but no oxalate of lime. Finally, a loose aggregation of small masses, forming a very friable calculus, is found of all sizes within the limits of the pelvis of the kidney. These, too, are in the main carbonate of lime (84 to 88 per cent) and without oxalate. Sym,ptoms of renal calculi are violent colicky pains, appearing sud- denly, very often in connection with exhausting work or the drawing of specially heavy loads, and in certain cases disappearing with equal suddenness. The nature of the colic becomes more manifest if it is associated with stiifness of the back and hind limbs, frequent passage of urine, and, above all, the passage of gravel with the urine, espe- cially at the time of the access of relief. The passage of blood and pus in the urine is equally significant. If the irritation of the kid- ney goes on to active inflammation, then the symptoms of nephritis are added. Uretral calculi. — These are so called because they are found in the passage leading from the kidney to the bladder. They are simply small renal calculi which have escaped from the pelvis of the kidney and have become arrested in the ureter. They give rise to symptoms almost identical with those of renal calculi, with this difference, that the colicky pains, caused by the obstruction of the ureter by the impacted calculus, are more violent, and if the calculus passes on into the bladder the relief is instantaneous and complete. If the ureter is completely blocked for a length of time, the retained urine may give rise to destructive inflammation in the kidney, which may end in the entire absorption of that organ, leaving only a fibrous capsule containing an urinous fluid. If both the ureters are similarly blocked, the animal will die of uremic poisoning. Treatment of renal and uretral calculi. — Treatment is unsatisfac- tory, as it is only the small calculi that can pass through the ureters and escape into the bladder. This may be favored by agents which will relax the walls of the ureters by counteracting their spasm and even lessening their tone, and by a liberal use of water and watery fluids to increase the urine and the pressure upon the calculus from behind. One or 2 ounces of laudanum, or 2 drams of extract of bella- donna, may be given and repeated as it may be necessary, the relief of the pain being a fair criterion of the abating of the spasm. To the same end use warm fomentations across the loins, and these should be kept up persistently until relief is obtained. These act not alone by soothing and relieving the spasm and inflammation, but they also favor the freer secretion of a more watery urine, and thus tend to carry off the smaller calculi. To further secure this object give cool 100 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. water freely, and let the food be only such as contains a large propor- tion of liquid, gruels, mashes, turnips, beets, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, succulent grasses, etc. If the acute stage has passed and the presence of the calculus is manifested only by the frequent passage of urine with gritty particles, by stillness of the loins and hind limbs, and by tenderness to pressure, the most promising resort is a long run at pasture where the grasses are fresh and succulent. The long- continued secretion of a watery urine will sometimes cause the break- ing down of a calcnlns, as the imbibition of the less dense fluid by the organic spongelike framework of the calcnlns causes it to swell and thus lessens its cohesion. The same end is sought by the long-con- tinued use of alkalies (carbonate of potassium), and of acids (muriatic), each acting in a different way to alter the density and cohesion of the stone. But it is only exceptionally that any of these methods is entirely satisfactory. If inflammation of the kidneys develops, treat as advised under that head. Stone in the bladder {vesical calculus, or cystic calculus). — These may be of any size up to over a pound in weight. One variety is rough and crystalline and has a yellowish white or deep-brown color. These contain about 87 per cent carbonate of lime, the remainder being carbonate of magnesia, oxalate of lime, and organic matter. The phosphatic calculi are smooth and white and formed of thin concentric layers of great hardness extending from the nucleus out- ward. Besides the phosphate of lime these contain the carbonates of lime and magnesia and organic matter. In some cases the bladder contains and may be even distended by a soft pultaceous mass made up of minute round granules of carbonates of lime and magnesia. This, when removed and dried, makes a firm, white, and stony mass. Sometimes this magma is condensed into a solid mass in the bladder by reason of the binding action of the mucus and other organic matter, and then forms a conglomerate stone of nearly uniform con- sistency and without stratification. Symptoms of stone in the bladder. — The symptoms of stone in the bladder are more obvious than those of renal calculus. The rough mulberry calculi especially lead to irritation of the mucous membrane and frequent passing of urine in small quantities and often mingled with mucus or blood or containing minute gritty particles. At times the flow is suddenly arrested, though the animal continues to strain and the bladder is not quite emptied. In the smooth phosphatic variety the irritation is much less marked and may even be altogether absent. With the pultaceous deposit in the bladder there is incon- tinence of urine, which dribbles away continually and keeps the hair on the inner side of the thighs matted with soft magma. In all cases alike the calculus may be felt by the examination of the bladder with the oiled hand in the rectum. The pear-shaped outline of the bladder STONE, OR GRAVEL. 101 can be felt beneath, and within it the solid oval body. It is most easily recognized if the organ is half full of liquid, as then it is not grasped by the contracting walls of the bladder, but may be made to move from place to place in the liquid. If a pultaceous mass is present it has a soft, doughy feeling, and when pressed an indentation is left. In the mare the hard stone may be touched by the finger introduced through the short urethra. Treatment of stone in the bladder. — The treatment of stone in the bladder consists in the removal of the offending body. In the mare this is easily effected with the lithotomy forceps. These are slightly warmed and oiled, and carried forward along the floor of the passage of. the vulva for 4 inches, when the orifice of the urethra will be felt exactly in the median line. Through this the forceps are gradually pushed with gentle oscillating movement until they enter the bladder and strike against the hard surface of the stone. The stone is now grasped between the blades, care being taken to include no loose fold of the mucous membrane, and it is gradually withdrawn with the same careful oscillating motions as before. Facility and safety in seizing the stone will be greatly favored by having the bladder half full of liquid, and if necessary one oiled hand may be introduced into the rectum or vagina to assist. The resulting irritation may be treated by an injection of laudanum, 1 ounce in a pint of tepid water. The removal of the stone in the horse is a much more difficult pro- ceeding. It consists in cutting into the urethra just beneath the anus and introducing the lithotomy forceps from this forward into the bladder, as in the mare. It is needful to distend the urethra with tepid water or to insert a sound or catheter to furnish a guide upon which the incision may be made, and in case of a large stone it may be needful to enlarge the passage by cutting in a direction upward and outward with a probe-pointed knife, the back of which is slid along in the groove of a director until it enters the bladder. The horse may be operated upon in the standing position, being simply pressed against the wall by a pole passed from before back- ward along the other side of the body. The tepid water is injected into the end of the penis until it is felt to fluctuate under the pressure of the finger, in the median line over the bone just beneath the anus. The incision is then made into the center of the fluctuating canal, and from above downward. When a sound or catheter is used as a guide it is inserted through the penis until it can be felt through the skin at the point where the incision is to be made beneath the anus. The skin is then rendered tense by the thumb and fingers of the left hand pressing on the two sides of the sound, while the right hand, armed with a scalpel, cuts downward onto the catheter. This vertical in- cision into the canal should escape wounding any important blood 102 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. vessel. It is in making the. obliquely lateral incision in the subse- quent dilatation of the urethra and neck of the bladder that such danger is to be apprehended. If the stone is too large to be extracted through the urethra it may be broken down with the lithotrite and extracted piecemeal with the forceps. The lithotrite is an instrument composed of a straight* stem bent for an inch or more to one side at its free end so as to form an obtuse angle, and having on the same side a sliding bar moving in a groove in the stem and operated by a screw so that the stone may be" seized between the two blades at its free extremity and crushed again and again into pieces small enough to extract. Extra care is required to avoid injury to the urethra in the extraction of the angular frag- ments, and the gravel or powder that can not be removed in this wax- must be washed out as advised below. When a pultaceous magma of carbonate of lime accumulates in the bladder it must be washed out by injecting water through a. catheter by means of a force pump or a funnel, shaking it up with the hand introduced through the rectum and allowing the muddy liquid to flow out through the tube. This is to be repeated until the bladder is empty and the water comes away clear. A catheter with a double tube is sometimes used, the injection passing in through the one tube and escaping through the other. But the advantage is more ap- parent than real, as the retention of the w T ater until the magma has been shaken up and mixed with it hastens greatly its complete evacu- ation. To prevent the formation of a new deposit any fault in feeding (dry grain and hay with privation of water, excess of beans, pease, wheat bran, etc.) and disorders of stomach, liver, and lungs must be corrected. Give abundance of soft drinking water, encouraging the animal to drink by a handful of salt daily; let the food be laxa- tive, consisting largely of roots, apples, pumpkins, ensilage, and give daily in the drinking water a dram of carbonate of potash or soda. Powdered gentian root (3 drams daily) will also serve to restore the tone of the stomach and s}^stem at large. Urethral calculus {stone in the urethra). — This is less frequent in horses than in cattle and sheep, owing to the larger size of the urethra in the horse and the absence of the S-shaped curve and vermiform appendix. The calculi arrested in the urethra are never formed there, but consist of cystic calculi which have been small enough to pass through the neck of the bladder, but too large to pass through the whole length of the urethra and escape. Such calculi therefore are primarily formed either in the bladder or kidney, and have the chemical composition of the other calculi found in those organs. They may be arrested at any point of the urethra, from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the tube beneath the anus, and from STONE, OK GRAVEL. 103 that point down to the extremity of the penis. I have found them most frequently in the papilla on the extreme end of the penis, and immediately behind this. Symptoms of urethral calculus. — The symptoms are violent strain- ing to urinate, but without any discharge, or with the escape of water in drops only. Examination of the end of the penis will detect the swelling of the papilla or the urethra behind it, and the presence of a hard mass in the center. A probe inserted into the urethra will strike against the gritty calculus. If the stone has been arrested higher up, its position may be detected as a small, hard, sensitive knot on the line of the urethra, in the median line of the lower surface of the penis, or on the floor of pelvis in the median line from the neck of the bladder back to the bend of the urethra beneath the anus. In any case the urethra between the neck of the bladder and the point of obstruction is likely to be filled with fluid, and to feel like a dis- tended tube fluctuating on pressure. Treatment of urethral calculus may be begun by an attempt to extract the calculi by manipulation of the papilla on the end of the penis. This failing, the calculus may be seized with a pair of fine- pointed forceps and withdrawn from the urethra ; or, if necessary, a probe-pointed knife may be inserted and the urethra slightly dilated, or even laid open, and the stone removed. If the stone has been arrested higher up it must be extracted by a direct incision through the walls of the urethra and down upon the nodule. If in the free (protractile) portion of the penis, that organ is to be withdrawn from its sheath until the nodule is exposed and can be incised. If behind the scrotum, the incision must be made in the median line between the thighs and directly over the nodule, the skin having been rendered tense by the fingers and thumb of the left hand. If the stone has been arrested in the intrapelvic portion of the urethra, the incision must be made beneath the anus and the calculus extracted with for- ceps, as in stone in the bladder. The wound in the urethra may be stitched up, and usually heals slowly but satisfactorily. Healing will be favored by washing two or three times daily with a solution of a teaspoonful of carbolic acid in a pint of water. Preputial calculus (calculus in the sheath, or biloeular cavity). — These are concretions in the sheath, though the term has been also applied to the nodule of sebaceous matter which accumulates in the blind pouches (biloeular cavity) by the sides of the papilla on the end of the penis. Within the sheath the concretion may be a soft, cheesy- like sebaceous matter, or a genuine calculus of carbonate, oxalate, phosphate and sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, and organic matter. These are easily removed with the fingers, after which the sheath should be washed out with castile soap and warm water, and smeared with sweet oil. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. By W. II. Habbaugh, V. S. [Revised in 19<>:? by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be enu- merated in natural order as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, through which the air ]ms>es in the head; the sinuses in the head, communicating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the functions of breathing and swallowing; the larynx, at the top of the windpipe; the trachea, or windpipe; the bronchi (into which the windpipe divides), two tubes leading from the windpipe to the right and left lungs, respectively; the bronchial tubes, which penetrate and conve}' air to all parts of the lungs; the lungs. The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and lines the walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of inspiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the diseases under consideration. Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded bj^ the mucous membrane. Near the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of having been made with a punch; this is the opening of the lachrymal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities, or fissures, called the false nostrils. The nasal chambers are completely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition, the nasal septum. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by two thin, scrolllike turbinated bones. The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same membrane that lines the nasal chambers: their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the nostrils. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than 104 DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 105 the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as many of the causes can be avoided, it is both important and profitable to know and study the causes. CAUSES OF DISEASES OF RESPIRATORY ORGANS. The causes of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under a common head, Because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and consequently care should be taken at those periods to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have a sufficient supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong drafts can not blow directly on the animals. In ventilating a stable, it is best to arrange to remove air from near the floor and admit it through numerous small openings near the ceiling. The reason for this is that the coldest and most impure air in the stable is near the floor while that which is warmest and purest, and therefore can least be spared is near the top of the room. In summer, top exits and cross currents should be provided to remove excessive heat. Hot stables are almost always poorly ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature that a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of tem- perature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more econom- ical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow large quantities of manure to accumulate in the stable. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a horse is overheated, it is not safe to allow him to dry by evaporation; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treat- ment. When a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draft ; it is the best plan to walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over 106 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro- longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccus- tomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should be dried and cooled out and not left to dry by evaporation. When the temperature of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases of the organs of respiration fare most frequent. It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will often save the life of a valuable animal. If the owner properly con- siders his interests, he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable management. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by snagging on a nail or splinter or by the bite of another horse; or by getting " run into." or by running against something. Occasion- ally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is impossible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish, or scar, is due to the want of con- servative treatment. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse, the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hanging, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct apposi- tion and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as cir- cumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special surgeons' silk and needles for this operation ; good linen thread or ordinary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes attached to the opposite sides of the stall to prevent him rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days. except when at work or eating. TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. A small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency. Treatment. — If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out. nature will perform a cure. If the opening is made from the out- COLD IN THE HEAD ( NASAL CATARRH ). 107 side through the skin, it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him ; run the index finger of your left hand against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by running the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor; make the opening large. A little blood may flow for a while, but it is of no consequence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD, OR NASAL CATARRH. Catarrh is an inflammation of a mucous membrane. It is accom- panied by excessive secretion. In nasal catarrh the inflammation may extend from the membrane lining the nose to the throat, the in- side of the sinuses, and to the eyes. The causes are the general causes of respiratory disease enumerated above. It is especially common in young horses and in horses not acclimated. Symptoms. — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, congested, and irritable; it is of a deeper hue than natural, pinkish red or red. Soon a watery discharge form the nostrils makes its appearance; the eyes may also be more or less affected and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily detected by means of a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum or, roughly, by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of temper- ature in the horse it is only necessary to place the finger often in the mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. The animal may be dull; he sneezes or snorts, but does not cough unless the throat is affected; he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils, very often in a manner that may be aptly called " blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the discharge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick, mucilaginous state, of a yellowish white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetitie is lost and the animal becomes debilitated. Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to lead to something worse or become chronic, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for a time. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good food, will be of greater benefit than most medication. The value of 108 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pure air can not be overestimated, I nit drafts must be avoided. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam is considerable. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling water, so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. One may cause the horse to put his nose in a bag containing cut hay upon which hot water has been poured, the bottom of the bag being stood in a bucket, but the bag must be of loose texture, as gunny sack, or, if of canvas, holes must be cut in the side to admit fresh air. The horse may be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about fifteen or twenty minutes each time. Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass, if in season. If the horse evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is better to allow any kind of food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc., than to keep him on short rations. If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum three of four times a day, but do not administer purgative medicines, excepting of a mild character. For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the appetite is lost and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of pow- dered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench; do not pound the horse on the gullet to make him swallow; be patient, and take time, and do it right. If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter. If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nostrils con- tinues, give one-half dram of reduced iron three times a day. This may be mixed with damp feed. Common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent more danger- ous diseases. CHRONIC CATARRH < OK NASAL GLEET, OR COLLECTION IN Tilt: SINUSES). This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the membrane affected in common cold, the disease just described. Tt is manifested by :i persistent discharge of a thick white or yellowish white matter from one or both nostrils. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper food, and. as a consequence, has become debilitated. CHRONIC CATARRH ( NASAL GLEET ). 109 Other but less frequent causes for this affection are: Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses, and even blows on the head over the sinuses. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them and by tumors filling up the cavity. Symptoms. — Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, for the horse may have glanders, while, on the other hand, horses have been condemned as glandered when really there was nothing ailing them but nasal gleet. This affection is not contagious. It may stubbornly resist treatment and last for a long time. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which may signify that the sinuses on that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times and again little or none for a day or so. Such an intermittent dis- charge usually signifies disease of the sinuses. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The pecul- iar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the mem- brane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, study well the symptoms of glanders to enable you to be at least competent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlargement, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, or disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or by dropping the food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on the bones between the eyes, below the eyes, and above the back teeth of the upper jaw, a hollow, drumlike sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure or leave an impres- sion where it is pressed upon with the finger. Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in poor condition (in fact, in all cases) he should have the most nutri- 110 DISEASES OF THE HOKSE. tive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge. The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics and local medica- tion are of the most value. For eight days give the following mix- ture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered mix vomica, 1 ounce. Mix and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the food twice a day. Arsenious acid (white arsenic) in doses of from 3 to 6 grains three times daily is a good tonic for such cases. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the animal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger, so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed, and keep the discharge cleaned away from the manger and stall. The horse may be caused to inhale creolin vapor or the vapor of compound tincture of benzoin by pouring 2 ounces of these drugs into hot water and fumigating in the usual way. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth, the tooth must be removed. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity which can be attended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet where sinuses contain either collections of pus or tumors, the only relief is by the trephine; and, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non- professional. It would therefore be a waste of time to give the modus operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing, and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, namely, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this maimer, the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. TUMORS IN NOSE AND PHARYNX. Ill NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasion- ally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are obstructions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They vary much in size ; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The stem, or base, of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, and usually the tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down toward the nasal opening, it falls back into the phar- ynx. It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breathing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened mem- brane. The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other operations, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suitable forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment, or by cutting it off with a noose of wire. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, or by packing the nostrils with surgeon's gauze. PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the stem of the tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber, as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth), and the body of the tumor then falls into the pharynx. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breath- ing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The animal coughs, or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breathing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries point to the nature of the trouble. The examination must be made by holding the animal's mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach, it must be re- moved in the same manner as though it were in the nose. 112 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, namely, influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus, or tumor, in the nose. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing- — causing a rupture of a small blood vessel — also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream) and is not frothy, as when the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs, p. 13G.) In most eases bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold water are all that is necessary. If the cause is known, you will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal chambers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemor- rhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both nostrils are bleeding, plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemor- rhage is profuse and persistent, give a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in 1 pint of water ; or ergot, 1 ounce. INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. As already stated, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the superior extremity of the gullet, the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases — namely, influenza, strangles, etc. — and is probably always more or less complicated with inflammation of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, and it is discussed as such with the diseases of the digestive tract. SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jawbones just back of the root of the tongue. It may be considered as a box (some- what depressed on each side), composed principally of cartilage- and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is contin- uous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it: but in the horse this function is of little con- sequence. It dilute- and contracts to a certain extent, thus regulating the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 113 it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food Lappens to drop into it from the pharynx violent coughing ensues instantly and is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx. Inflammation of the larynx is a serious and sometimes a fatal dis- ease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as " sore throat." The chief causes are chilling and exposure. Symptoms. — About the first symptom noticed is cough, followed by difficulty in swallowing, which may be due to soreness of the mem- brane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the food or water onward to the gullet ; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce pain. In many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that water, and in some cases food, is returned through the nose. This, however, does not occur from laryngitis alone, but only when the pharynx is involved in the inflammation. The glands between the lower jaw- bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx induces coughing. The head is more or less " poked out," and has the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy char- acter; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respira- tion, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally the animal seems threatened with suffocation. Treatment. — In all cases steam the nostrils, as has been advised for cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continu- ously for hours — until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine, or compound tincture of benzoin, the vapor of which will be carried along with the steam to the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steaming the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box stall preferred), and should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best of all, grass, if in season, which should be fresh. The man- ger, or trough, should not be too high nor too low, but a temporary one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head. H. Doc 795, 50-2 -8 114 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the animal would rather forego satisfying what little appetite he might have than inflict pain by craning his head for food or water. A sup- ply of fresh water should be before him all the time ; he will not drink too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if pres- ent) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or four times during the twenty-four hours. A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of solution of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken to- gether, may be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to ear, and about G inches down over the windpipe, and in the space l>r tween the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or three days. If the animal is breathing with great difficult}-, persevere in steam- ing the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in every gallon of water he will drink ; even if he can not swallow much of it, and even if it is returned through the nostrils, it will be of some benefit to the pharynx as a gargle. An electuary of acetate of potash, 2 drams, honey, and licorice pow- der may be spread on the teeth with a paddle every few hours. If the pain of coughing is great, 2 or 3 grains of morphine may be added to the electuary. When the breathing begins to be loud relief is aiforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jaborandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth. In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of tracheotomy must be performed. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a more difficult task than performing the operation, which, in the hands of the expert, is simple and attended with little danger. The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examina- tion, to be least covered with muscles, about 5 or G inches below the throat. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an assistant hold the animal's head still. Grasp your knife firmly in the right hand, select the spot and make the cut from above to below directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold stroke is usually sufficient, but if it is necessary to make several other cuts to finish the operation, do SORE THROAT, OR LARYNGITIS. 115 not hesitate. Your purpose is to make a hole in the windpipe suffi- ciently large to admit the tracheotomy tube. It is quickly manifested when the windpipe is severed; the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is easily controlled by wash- ing the wound with a sponge and cold water, but use care not to get any water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If you have the self -adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated, sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downward toward the lungs. The immediate relief this operation affords is gratifying to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- tion, emitting a loud wheezing sound with every breath, with haggard countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, now breaths tranquilly, and may be in search of something to eat. The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the car- bolic acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by in- serting four or five stitches through the skin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the windpipe in the stitches. Apply the carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discon- tinued as soon as possible. It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especially when most urgentty required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the cartilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings over the neck. During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must not be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils 116 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. becomes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom and sig- nifies that the acute stage lias passed. At any time during the attack. if the horse becomes weak, give whisky or aromatic spirits of ammo- nia, 2 ounces in water. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal hack to work, hut give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise may he given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. The food should he carefully selected and of good qual- ity. Tonics, as iron or arsenic, may be employed. If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened to allow the escape of pus, hut do not rashly plunge .1 knife into swollen glands; wait until you are certain the swelling contains pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant appli- cation of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over them an application of the following: Biniodide of mercur}^ 1 dram; lard. 1 ounce; mix well. This may be applied once every day until the part is blistered. Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be con- sulted under their proper headings. After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous membrane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which are liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diagnosed nor topically treated by the nonprofessional. If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have dis- appeared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dis- solved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before feeding, three times a day for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, from ear to ear. and in the space between the lower jaw bones. The application may be repeated every third day until the part is blistered. SPASM OF THE LARYNX. The symptoms are as follows: Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes re- cover and he as well as ever. The treatment recommended is this: Three drams of bromide of potassium three times a day. dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water for a week. Then give 1 dram of powdered mix vomica (either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks. DISEASES OF THE THROAT. 117 CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. Neither of these diseases affects the horse. But these names are sometimes wrongly applied to severe laryngitis or pharyngitis, or to forage poisoning, in which the throat is paralyzed and becomes exces- sively inflamed and gangrenous. THICK WIND AND ROARING. Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud unnatural noise in breathing are said to have thick wind, or to be roarers. This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack of the acute disease. Thick wind is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to an}^ disease and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced in order to hold him back. Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting, or per- manent noisy respiration, but chronic roaring is caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs ; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during inspiration. In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the affected muscles lean into the tube of the larynx, so that when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction and the noise is produced. When the air is expelled from the hings its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not produced in the expiratory act. The paralysis of the muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of both sides are not supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in 118 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The disease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Dis- ease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course may interfere with its proper function. Enlargement of lymphatic- glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous sup- ply, and consequently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed, medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interrup- tion of the nervous supply. Before roaring becomes permanent the condition may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, if caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is, of course, not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference of the nerve supply. The administration of strychnia (mix vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic with the view of stimulating the af- fected muscles is treating only the result of the disease without con- sidering the cause, and is therefore useless. The operation of extir- pating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the only relief, and. as this operation is critical and can only be per- formed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that the name " roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases accompanied by a cough. The best way to test whether a horse is a " roarer " is either to make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft ground ; or, if he is a saddle horse, gallop him up a hill or over soft ground. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced, the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding pur- poses. The taint is transmissible in many instances. Grunting. — A common test used by veterinarians when examining " the wind " of a horse is to see if he is a " grunter." This is a sound emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or startled, or struck at. Tf he grunts he is further tested for roaring. Grunters are not always roarers, but, as it is a common thing for a roarer to grunt, such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. 119 until he is thoroughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, pleurodynia, or rheumatism, and other affections accompanied with much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of " grunter " being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. High blowing. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con- founded with " roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An ani- mal that emits this sound is called a " high-blower." Some horses have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. Whistling is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a horse called a " roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during a"n attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which passes away with the disease that causes it. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis or it may follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accompanied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted, the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaustion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually disappears, and he becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is accompanied by a persistent cough, which in some cases is husky, smothered, or muffled, while in other cases it is hard and clear. A whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest behind the shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be heard within. Treatment. — Rest is necessary, as even under the most favorable circumstances a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion and should not be compelled to undergo it. The animal should have much the same general care and medical treatment pre- scribed for the acute form. Arsenious acid in tonic doses (3 to 7 grains) three times daily may be given. As arsenic is irritant, it must be mixed with a considerable bulk of moist feed and never given 120 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. alone. Arsenic may be given in the form of Fowler's solution. 1 ounce three times daily in the drinking water. An application of mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. The diet should be the most nourishing. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes, scalded, oats. and. if in season, grass and green-blade fodder are the best diet. Tin: lungs. The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the tk 1 i<_^l it ^." , situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung consists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue. which can only be torn with difficulty. Each lung is divided into a certain number of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every one of these lobules. The little tube then divides into minute branches which open into the air cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the lung-. The air cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from one-seventieth to one two-hundredth of an inch: they have but one opening, the communication with the branches of the little bronchial tubes. Small blood vessels ramify in the walls of the air cells. The air cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the rest being complementary. It is here that the exchange of gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the cells are very thin; so. also, are the walls of the blood vessels. Through these walls escapes from the blood the carbonic acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts of the body: and through these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air cells, the oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere. CONGESTION OK THE LUNGS. Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moderate exercise. Very often what is recognized as congestion of the lungs is but a symptom of exhaustion or dilatation of the heart. The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting horses will give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condi- tion" to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther each day: the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. 121 said to be *' in condition." An animal so prepared runs no risk of being affected with congestion of the lungs, if he is otherwise healthy. On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe exertion of going fast or far, no matter how healthy he may be in other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stag- ger or even fall. Examination will show the nostrils dilated, the Hanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and the appearance of suf- focation. The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden and severe strain put upon them ; the heart became unable to perform its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which eventually became engrossed with the stagnated blood, constituting congestion of the lungs. The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not exhibit alarming symptoms until returned to the stable ; then he will be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and almost gasping; the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body and the legs and ears cold ; the breathing is both abdominal and tho- racic; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating very frequently, one hundred or so to a minute. The heart may be felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal may tremble all over the body. If the ear is placed against the side of the chest a loud murmur will be heard and perhaps a fine crackling sound. " One can scarcely fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case indicates the nature of the ailment. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are congested. It is also seen in connection with other diseases. Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the road, stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. If he is in the stable, make arrangements at once to insure an unlim- ited supply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. Let him stand still; he has all he can do, if he obtains sufficient pure air to sustain life. If he is encumbered with harness or saddle, remove it at once and rub the body with cloths or wisps of hay or straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in relieving the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated 122 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. there. If you have three or four assistants, let them rub the body and legs well until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are warm, if possible. When the circulation is reestablished, put band- ages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blan- ket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the blanket. Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated — brandy, whisky (or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and aromatic spirits of ammonia. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, given as a drench diluted with a pint of water, every hour until relief is afforded, is among the best remedies. Or, give a quarter of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quan- tity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or 1 ounce <>l* tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses have been given. If none of these remedies is at hand, 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given once, but not repeated. The animal may be bled from the jugular vein. Do not take more than 5 or G quarts from the vein, and do not repeat the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable stall, where he will not be subjected to drafts or sudden changes of temperature; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always in the stall, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, if in season, grass. When ready for use again the horse should at first receive moderate exercise only, which may be daily increased until he may safely be put to regular work. PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. Pneumonia is inflammation of the lungs. The chief varieties of pneumonia are catarrhal — already discussed in connection with bron- chitis, under the name of broncho-pneumonia — and the fibrinous or croupous variety. The latter form receives its name from the fact that the air spaces are choked with coagulated fibrin thrown out from the blood. This causes the diseased portions of the lungs to become as firm as liver, in which condition they are said to be hepatized. As air is excluded by the inflammatory product, the diseased lung will not float in water. The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and extends upward. The first stage of the disease consists of conges- tion, or engorgement, of the blood vessels, followed by leakage of serum containing fibrin from the blood vessels into the air passages. PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 123 The fluids thus escaping into the air cells and in the minute branches of the little bronchial tubes become coagulated. The pleura covering the affected parts may be more or less inflamed. A continuance of the foregoing phenomena is marked by a further escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration and softening when healing commences. The favorable termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a restoration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded material contained in the air cells and lung tissues becoming broken down and softened and absorbed or expectorated through the nostrils. The blood vessels return to their natural state, and the blood circu- lates in them as before. In the cases that do not terminate so hap- pily the lung may become gangrenous (or mortified), or an abscess may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety. Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in many instances it is due to neglect. A common cold or sore throat may be followed by pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated. An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength ; or he may be kept in bad quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable, where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out ; or the stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to drafts of cold air. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated by any constitutional disease, and especially during convalescence if exposed to any of the exciting causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, accidentally getting in the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. Pneumonia and pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especiallv during the prevalence of the cold north and northeasterly winds. Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may cause pneumonia. Symptoms. — Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by a chill, more or less prolonged, which in many cases is seen neither by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very dull appearance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a fever; if the thermometer is placed in the rectum the temperature will be found to have risen to 103° F. or higher. The pulse is fre- quent, beating from fifty or sixty to eighty or more a minute. There 124 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes in character as the disease advances; for instance, it may become moist, or if pleurisy sets in, the cough will be peculiar to the latter affection: that is, cut short in the endeavor to suppress it. In some cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with Mood, while in other cases it has the appearance of muco-pus. The appetite is lost to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, par- ticularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down, but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. However, if pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy, the horse may appear rest- less and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is rapid and difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the ribs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal; that is, the abdominal muscles are now T made to do as much of the work as they can perform. If pleurisy is not present there is little pain. To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear dangerously ill. as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as in colic, but a careful observer will discover at a glance that the trouble is something more serious than a cold. By percussion it will be shown that some portions of the chest are less resonant than in health, indicating exclusion of air. If the air is wholly excluded the percussion is quite dull, as that elicited by percussion over the thigh. By auscultation important information may be gained. "When the ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse, the respiratory murmur is heard more or less distinctly, according to the part of the chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia this murmur is louder and hoarser; and, also, there is heard a fine crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an absence of sound over that particular part. After absorption begins one may again hear sounds that are of a more or less moist character and resemble a bubbling or gurgling noise, which gradually change until the natural sound is heard announcing return to health. When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become intensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the flanks heave: the animal stares wildly about as if seeking aid to drive off the feeling of suffocation : the body is bathed with sweat : the horse staggers, but quickly recovers his balance; he may now, for the first PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 125 time during the attack, lie down ; he does so, however, in the hope of relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet ; he pants; the nostrils flap; he staggers and sways from side to side and backward and forward, but still tries to retain the standing position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as after an exhausting fight for breath he goes down; the limbs stretch out and become rigid. In fatal cases death usually occurs in from ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On the other hand, when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are ob- vious. The fever abates and the animal gradually improves in appe- tite ; he takes more notice of things around him ; his spirits improve ; he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down and rests. In the majority of cases pneumonia, if properly treated, terminates in recovery. Treatment. — The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be pro- vided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall where he may be exposed to drafts of cold air and sudden changes of temperature. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal com- fortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shut- ting off the ventilation. The animal should have an unlimited supply of fresh cold drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Rub the legs until they are warm and then put bandages on them from the hoofs up to the knees and hocks. If warmth can not be reestablished in the legs by hand rubbing alone, apply dry ground mustard and rub well in. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, the legs well rubbed, and the bandages replaced. Much harm is often done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful blistering com- pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot applications to the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If the weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable stable, the following method may be tried: Have a tub of hot water handy to the stable door; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin; do not allow it to sag down so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry blanket over the wet hot one and hold in place with three girths. The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is off being wetted and wrung the dry one should remain over the wet part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped the skin should be quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of alcohol rubbed over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the animal. 126 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tried on three or lour consecutive days. Unless every facility and circumstance favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner, do not attempt it. If the weather is very cold or any of the details are omitted, more harm than good may result. Mustard may be applied by making a paste with a pound of freshly ground mustard mixed with warm water. This is to be spread evenly over the sides hack of the shoulder blades and down to the median line below the chest. Care should be taken to avoid rubbing the mustard upon the thin skin immediately hack of the elbow. The mustard -covered area should be covered with a paper and this with a blanket passed up from below and fastened over the back. The blanket and paper should be removed in from one to two hours. When pneumonia follows another disease, the sys- tem is always more or less debilitated and requires the careful tise of stimulants from the beginning. To still further weaken the animal by bleeding him is one of the most effectual methods of retarding recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the nonprofes- sional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by anyone who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only less active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common opinion, often expressed by nonprofessionals, that aconite is a stimu- lant. Nothing could be more erroneous; in fact, it is just the reverse. It is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medi- cine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in breathing ; it weakens the action of the heart, and should not be used. Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, overcome it by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran, and lin- seed mashes, and, if in season, grass. If the costiveness is not relieved by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water three or four times a day. A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and, when in season, glass or corn fodder is preferable if the animal retains an appetite; but if no desire is evinced for food of this par- ticular description, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling water over good hay in a large bucket and allowing it to stand until cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is refused. Bread may be tried; also apples or carrots. If the animal can he persuaded to drink milk, it may be supported by it for days. Three or 4 gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in which may be stirred 3 or 4 fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some PNEUMONIA, OR LUNG FEVER. 127 horses will drink milk, while others will refuse to touch it. It should be borne in mind that all food must be taken by the horse as he desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the animal will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for food. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger; the very fact of it constantly being before him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggravate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is nothing to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food. Nothing is well done that is overdone. There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages and different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is useless to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have anyone at hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to drench. The heart should be kept strong by administering digitalis in doses of 2 drams of the tincture every three hours, or strychnia 1 grain, made into a pill with liquorice powder, three times daily. If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pronounced character are required. The following drench is useful . Rectified spirits, 3 ounces ; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; water, 1 pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit; or 6 ounces of good whisky diluted with a pint of water may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. During the period of convalescence good nutritive food should be allowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substi- tuted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this case, especially the iodide of potash. Likewise, the same general instructions apply here. The chief causes of death in pneumonia are heart failure from exhaustion, suffocation, or blood poisoning from death (gangrene) of lung tissue. The greater the area of lung tissue diseased the greater the danger, hence double pneumonia is more fatal than pneumonia of one lung. 128 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. THE WINDPIPE. The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible tube that extends from the larynx, which it succeeds at the throat, to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi — the tubes going to the right and left lung, respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is lined wit 1 ! a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite sensitiveness. The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be accidently fractured, or the tube may be distorted or malformed as the result of violent injury. After the operation of tracheotomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a result, or sequel, of the operation. In passing over this section attention is merely called to these defects, as they require no partic- ular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated that any one of the before-mentioned conditions may constitute one of the causes of noisy respiration described as " thick wind." GUTTURAL POUCHES. These two sacs are situated above the throat, and communicate with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. Normally, they contain air. Their function is unknown. One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are as follows: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches communicate with the pharynx, and through this small open- ing matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment fails, an operation must be performed, which should not be attempted by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the part. ■ :# ■-I. x:^ •"■•<--.; w DISEASES OP THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. 129 BRONCHITIS AND BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. When this inflammation extends to the air sacs at the termini of the smallest branches of the bronchial tubes, the disease is broncho-pneumonia. Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The special causes are these : The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occa- sionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes on common cold or sore throat. Symptoms. — The animal appears dull; the appetite is partially or wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is quickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a " barking cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist, rattling cough ; the mouth is hot ; the visible membranes in the nose are red ; the pulse is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the disease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. There is a discharge from the nostrils that is at first whitish, but later becomes creamy or frothy, and still later it is sometimes tinged with blood, and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscul- tation, or placing the ear to the sides of the chest, unnatural sounds can now be heard. The air passing through the diseased tubes causes a wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the augmented mu- cous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a col- lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is expectorated ; that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swal- lowed, and some is discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit, like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to the mouth. If in serious cases all the symptoms become aggra- vated, the breathing is labored, short, and quick, it usually indicates that the inflammation has reached the breathing cells and that catar- rhal pneumonia is established. In this case the ribs rise and fall much more than natural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleu- risy, the ribs are as nearly fixed as in the power of the animal to do H. Doc. 7!)f>, 50-2 9 130 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. so, and the breathing accomplished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wander listlessly about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with slimy mucus. The urine is decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge from the nose increases in quantity as the disease advances and in- flammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough becomes less rasping, but of more frequent occurrence, until it grad- ually disappears with the return of health. Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a nonexpert to discriminate between the two forms, and, further, it may as well be said here that the nonexpert will have difficulty in discriminating between bronchitis and pneumonia. Treatment. — The matter of first importance is to insure a pure at- mosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as com- fortable as possible. A well-ventilated box stall serves best for all purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy, as the season of the year demands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm, then wrap them in cotton and apply flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply dry mustard. Rub in thoroughly and then put on the bandages. Also rub mustard paste well over the side of the chest, covering the space beginning immediately behind the shoulder blade and running back about eighteen inches, and from the median line beneath the breast to within ten inches of the ridge of the backbone. Repeat the application to the side of the chest about three days after the first one is applied. Compel the animal to inhale steam from a bucketful of boiling- water containing a tablespoonful of oil of turpentine and spirits of camphor, as advised for cold in the head. In serious cases the steam should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day admin- ister an electuary containing acetate of potash (2 drams), with lico- rice and molasses or honey. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite, give the following drench: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Repeat the dose every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is hard to drench, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, PLEURISY. 131 3 drams ; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into a stiff mass; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and give as a ball. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giv- ing the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in the mouth, as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, which may prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are constipated, give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal. If the animal retains an appetite, a soft diet is preferable, such as scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass, if in season. If he refuses cooked food, allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, cob corn, oats, bread, apples, and carrots may all be tried in turn. Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of food, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld for a while. One or 2 gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established re- covery can not occur in less than two or three weeks, and more time may be necessary. Good nursing and patience are required. TVhen the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the dis- ease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treat- ment pursued. Give the following mixture: Reduced iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces ; mix well together and divide into sixteen powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of flax- seed tea and administered as a drench. If the cough remains after the horse is apparently well, give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the animal to work too soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain strength. This disease is prone to become chronic and may run into an incurable case of thick wind. PLEURISY. The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each containing one lung and a part of the heart. Each lung has its sepa- rate pleural membrane, or covering. The pleura is the thin glisten- ing membrane that covers the lung and also completely covers the in- ternal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary ob- server appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In health this surface is always moist. A fluid is thrown off by the pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the 132 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. chest and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be remembered that the lungs are dilating each time a breath is taken in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface of the pleura the continual dilatation and contraction and the conse- quent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause serious friction. Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the disease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in damp stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is, confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved secondarily when the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy. The most frequent cause of pleurisy is an extension of inflammation from adjacent dis- eased lung. It is a common complication of pneumonia. Pleurisy will be described here as an independent affection, although it should be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing diseases. The first lesion of pleurisy is overfilling of the blood vessels that ramify in this membrane, and dryness of the surface. This is fol- lowed by the formation of a coating of coagulated fibrin on the diseased pleura and the transudation of serum which collects in the chest. This serum may contain flakes of fibrin and it may be straw colored or red from an admixture of blood. The quantity of this accumulation may amount to several gallons. Symptoms. — When the disease exists as an independent affection it is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn round. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the act of breathing, but the abdomen works more than natural, both the fore feet and elbows may be turned out; during the onset of the attack the animal may be restless and act as if he had a slight colic; he may even lie down, but does not remain long down, for when he finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of PLEURISY. 133 restlessness disappear. Every movement of the chest causes pain, therefore the cough is peculiar; it is short and suppressed, and comes as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to sup- press it. The breathing is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature being elevated from 102° or 103° to 105° F. The usual symptoms that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty dark- colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps TO or more a minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold. Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. After effusion occurs, the sound produced by percussing over the lower part of the chest is dull. By striking different parts one may come to a spot of greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between the ribs, each space in succession beginning behind the elbow, until you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when the surfaces are dry and rough, one may hear a friction sound very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper together. The sound appears immediately under the ear and is dis- tinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is suc- ceeded by the exudation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls. Within two or three days the urgent symptoms may abate owing to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably within a week or ten days. If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convales- cence is delayed. In severe cases the pulse becomes more frequent, the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the legs. The accumulation in the chest is called hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called empyema. Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side or it may affect both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. 134 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Treatment. — The instructions in regard to the general management of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of pleurisy. Comfortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water,. the laxative food, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. The hot applications applied to the chest as directed in the treatment of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up while the symptoms show the animal to be in pain. During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, apply hot packs to the sides diligently. After four or five days, when the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, mus- tard may be applied as recommended for pneumonia. From the beginning the following drench may be given every six hours, if the horse takes a drench kindly : Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint. If the patient becomes debilitated, the stimulants as prescribed for pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will par- take of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best ; but if he refuses the laxative diet, then he should be tried with different kinds of food and allowed whichever kind he desires. In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the animal to lie down or paw, morphine may be given by the mouth in 5-grain doses, or the fluid extract of Cannabis indica may be used in doses of 2 to 4 drams. If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull and weak and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite the absorption of the effusion. An application of liniment or mild blister should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest. The following drench may be given three times a day, for seven or eight days, if it is necessary and appears to bene- fit : Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium, dissolved in the drinking water, an hour before feeding every night and morning for a week or two. Eydrothorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use of medicines alone, when the operation is performed of tapping the chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and canula. The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 135 artery is avoided by inserting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit, it is only so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely receives a passing notice here, as it is not pre- sumed that the nonprofessional will attempt it, although it is attended with little danger or difficulty in the hands of the expert. There have been described here bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as they occur as independent diseases, but it should be remem- bered that they merge into each other and may occur together at one time. While it is true that much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and types of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan adopted of advising plain, conservative treatment is considered the wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is supposed to know very little. PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. This is the state in which an animal is affected with pleurisy and pneumonia combined, which is not infrequently the case. At the beginning of the attack only one of the affections may be present, but the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or less affected by the spreading of the inflammation from the lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the ordinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not resort to it unless it is necessary to allay the pain. BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia all exist at once. It is impossible for one who is not an expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuro-pneumonia. SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the patient have been bad or the disease is of an especially severe type, when pneumonia terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large por- tion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ven- tilation, is among the most frequent causes of this termination. The 136 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. symptoms of suppuration in the lung are chronic pneumonia, a solidi- fied area of lung tissue, continued low fever, and, in some cases, offen- sive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils. MORTIFICATION. Gangrene, or mortification, means the death of the part affected. Occasionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treat- ment, pneumonia and pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, which is soon followed by the death of the animal. Perhaps the most common cause of this complication is the presence of a foreign body in the lung, as food particles or medicine. Rough drenching or drenching through the nostrils may cause this serious condition. HEMOPTYSIS, OR BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. Plethora and hypertrophy of the heart predispose to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneumonia, or it may fill up the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suffocating the animal. When the hemor- rhage is from the lung it is accompanied by coughing; the blood is frothy, of a bright red color, and comes from both nostrils; whereas when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs a gurgling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connec- tion with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours, 1 dram of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. But hemorrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffo- cation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. CONSUMPTION. Pulmonary consumption, or tuberculosis, has been recognized in the horse in a number of instances. The symptoms are as of chronic pneumonia or pleurisy. There is no treatment for the disease. DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 137 HEAVES, BROKEN WIND, OR ASTHMA. Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of heaves. Many horsemen loosely apply the term to all ailments where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well acquainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the exact cause. Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this affection of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and the forced breathing to emphysema, which always accompanies heaves. Heaves is usually associated with disorder of the function of diges- tion or to an error in the choice of food. Feeding on clover hay or damaged hay or straw, too bulky and innutritions food, and keeping the horse in a dusty atmosphere or a badly ventilated stable produce or predispose to heaves. Horses brought from a high to a low level are predisposed. In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally caused by an affection closely connected with it, After death, if the organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken- winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the vol- ume, as evidenced by floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. The important change found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary em- physema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular emphysema, which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls. The second form is called interlobular, or interstitial, emphysema, and follows the first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue be- tween the air cells or the tissue between the small lobules. Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect heaves. The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a certain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is difficult to describe, but the sound is short, and something like a grunt. When air is inspired — that is, taken in — it appears to be done in the same manner as in health; it may possibly be done a little quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is per- 138 DISEASES OE THE HORSE. formed that the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must be remembered that the lungs have lost much of their elasticity, and, in consequence, of their power of contracting on account of the de- generation of the walls of the air cells, and also on account of the paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs; therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially in the region of the flank, are seen to contract, then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellowslike movement at each expiration, a sort of jerky motion with every breath. The double expiratory movement may also be detected by allowing the horse to exhale against the face or back of the hand. It will be observed that the expiratory current is not continuous, but is broken into two jets. "When the animal is exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be applied to the chest. As before remarked, indigestion is often present in these cases. The animal may have a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be overloaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that form called " potbellied." The animal frequently passes wind of a very offensive odor. When first put to work dung is passed fre- quently; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the muscular system is soft. Round-chested horses are said to be predisposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. Certain individuals become very expert in managing a horse affected with heaves in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterina- rian is examining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing of heaves if the horse is so afflicted, but will not cause the symptoms of heaves in a healthy horse. All broken-winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. Treatment. — When the disease is established there is no cure for it. Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symp- DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. 139 toms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly reappear in their intensity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is al- lowed food of bad quality. Clover hay or bulky food which contains but little nutriment have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is aifected, as well as before. It has been asserted that the disease is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be confined to food of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad effect of moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of any kind can not be over- estimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is sufficient. This should be cut and dampened. The animal should invariably be watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. The animal should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Half a pint to a pint of thick, dark molasses with each feed is useful. Arsenic is efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best ad- ministered in the form of the solution of arsenic, as Fowler's solu- tion or as the white powdered arsenious acid. Of the former the dose is 1 ounce to the drinking water three times daily. Of the latter one may give 3 grains in each feed. These quantities may be cautiously increased as the animal becomes accustomed to the drug. If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be given once or twice a month, or a handful of Glauber's salt may be given in the feed twice daily, so long as necessary. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is of secondary consideration ; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest impor- tance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding pur- poses. A predisposition to the disease may be inherited. CHRONIC COUGH. A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory organs, - such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accom- panies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may succeed influenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a disease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treat- ment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the disease of which it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible, and the cough will cease. The treatment of the affections will be found under their appro- priate heads, to which the reader is referred. 140 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. PLEURO-DYNIA. This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles; that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not in- clined to turn around; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers, the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, cough, the friction sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the existence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts. WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OF THE CHEST. A wound penetrating the wall of the chest admits air into the tho- racic cavity outside of the lung. This condition is known as pneumo- thorax and may result in collapse of the lung. The wound may be so made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during the contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn part in such a manner as entirely to close the wound : thus a small quantity of air gains access with each in- spiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there may not even be an opening in the walls of the chest. In such cases the air may be absorbed, when a spontaneous cure is the result. But when the symptoms are urgent it is recommended that the air be removed by a trocar and canula or by an aspirator. It is evident that the treatment of wounds that penetrate the tho- racic cavity should be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid. 1 part in water 40 parts. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an incised wound, it should be closed with sutures or with adhesive plas- ters if torn or lacerated, adhesive plaster may be used or a bandage around the chest over the dressing. At all events, air must be pre- vented from getting into the chest as soon and as effectually as pos- sible. The after treatment of the wound should principally consist in keeping the parts clean with a solution of carbolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound THUMPS. 141 have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See Wounds and their treatment, p. 459.) If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as advised under that head. THUMPS, OR SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM. u Thumps " is generally thought by the inexperienced to be a pal- pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart is sometimes called " thumps," it must not be confounded with the affection under consideration. In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of respiration, the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and essential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. Thumps in the horse is similar to hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from palpitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed over the heart behind the left elbow, it will be easily demon- strated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the diaphragm and the beating of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the heart is usually much weaker and less perceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by causes similar to those that produce conges- tion of the lungs and dilatation or palpitation of the heart, and may occur in connection with these conditions. If not relieved, death usually results from congestion or edema of the lungs, as the breath- ing is interfered with by the inordinate action of this important muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment should be as prescribed for congestion of the lungs, and, in addition, antispasmodics, such as 1 ounce of sulphuric ether in warm water or 3 drams of asafetida. RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. Post-mortem examinations after colic or severe accident sometimes reveal rupture of the diaphragm. This may take place after death, from the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which dis- tend the intestines so that the diaphragm is ruptured by the great pressure against it. The symptoms are intensely difficult respiration and great depression. There is no treatment. DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. By James Law. F. R. C. V. S.. Professor of Veterinary science, etc.. in Cornell University. [Revised in 1003 by the author.] CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES. OB ORCHITIS. In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food, stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or •! ounces of Glauber's salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them to a healthy condition. When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent, when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and when the proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative instinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual inflammation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and pen- etrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland under rapid paces or heavy draft, compression of the blood vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same cir- cumstances, and, finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative functions, like rue. savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiana. may also be accessor}' causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain specific diseases like maladie du coit, glanders, and tuberculosis, local- ized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. Symptoms. — Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, strad- dling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, with more or less fever, elevated body temperature, accelerated pulse and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty urine limy be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy, pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the convoluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to 142 DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 143 suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with gangrene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sac and cavity of the abdo- men and pyemia may follow. Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of a purgative (1 to H pounds Glaubers salts), and the local appli- cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of belladonna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This band- age, of great value for support, may be made nearly triangular and tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same sur- cingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to re- lieve vascular tension. When abscess is threatened its formation may be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence of fluctuation the knife may be employed to give free escape to the pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily with a weak car- bolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to the resulting cavity. SARCOCELE. This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resulting from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural struc- ture of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small round cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The diseased testicle is enlarged, firm, nonelastic, and com- paratively insensible. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may be edematous (pitting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sac, the symptoms are masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the 144 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the dis- ease with hernia. • The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even this may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuber- culosis). HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, sper- matic cord, or walls of the sac. Symptoms. — The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating in water. By pressure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream and with a perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord or the scrotum is thickened and pits on pressure. Treatment may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has resulted from inflammation of the testicle or cord, astringent applica- tions (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then, if the liquid is not reabsorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe which has been first passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the sacs. VARICOCELE. This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the tes- ticle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in hydrocele, and, this failing, castration may be resorted to. ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting; in most such cases, however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the inguinal canal or abdomen (crypt orchid). In rare cases there may lie a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double mon- ster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second fetus have like- wise been found in the testicle or scrotum. DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate treatment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glan- ders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of arresting the disease. Finally, they may become infested with cystic tapeworms or larval stages of the armed roundworm (Sti'ongylus equinus) . DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 145 WARTS OX THE PENIS. These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and forefinger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with scissors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. DEGENERATION OF PENIS (PAPILLOMA, OR EPITHELIOMA). The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the penis has become diseased and indurated. The operation, which should be performed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving the urethra longer by half an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may become the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should be suspended in a sling. PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases from too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of mix vomica are given twice a day. Finally, a weak current of electricity sent through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daiiy, may prove successful. SELF-ABUSE, OK MASTURBATION. Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual instinct to the discharge of semen by rubbing the penis against the belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical II. Doc. 705, 50-2 10 146 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent the extension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the animal to desist through pain. MALADIE DU COIT, OR DOURINE. This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and affects stallions and mares. It has long been known in northern Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into Illinois in 1882 in a Percheron horse. From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of the external organs of generation, sometimes followed by the erup- tion of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across on the penis, the vulva, clitoris, and the vagina, and the consequent rupture of these vesicles and the formation of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance to the opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circu- lar white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive patches which persist for months. This, with the soiled tail, red, swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness and paralysis of the hind limbs, serves to characterize the affection. The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male, and thus propagate the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stu- pidity and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, but with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted ; the testicles are usually pendent and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby ; the skin, as in the mare, shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes partially paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath; swelling of the adjacent Lymphatic glands (in the groin), and even of distant ones, and of the skin appears, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows from the nose, as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin leads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and stupidity increase until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire docs not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat. except when food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. In mild cases an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such animals the disease is propagated to new localities to be roused into CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 147 activity and extension under the stimulus of service. The diseased nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer.) Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory. It belongs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out by the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that has had sexual congress with a diseased animal. CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a few weeks old at the expense of an imperfect development of the fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in the young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of accomplishing this limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of sebum being carefully removed from the bilocular cavity in the end of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from before backward, about three- fourths of an inch from and parallel to the median line between the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upwards through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds, when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions, and the latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. The testicle will now hang limp, and there is no longer any tendency to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two important indications — (a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and (b) providing for the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of vaseline and 148 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In applying the clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, and the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard- twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, and the clamp may be left thus for twenty-four hours; then, by cut- ting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened and the stump liberated without any danger of bleeding. Should the stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter on the second day in hot weather or the third in cold, and from that time a good recovery may be expected. CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, influenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that have been kept in close, ill ventilated, filthy buildings, where the system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS ( RIDOLINGS) . This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to descend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate anatomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural chan- nel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that channel between the abdominal muscles and the strong fascia on the inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic with a solution of mercuric chloride 1 part, water "2,000 parts (a car- bolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best torn through by the ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor healing of the wound by adhesion. CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. 149 PAIN AFTER CASTRATION. Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after cas- tration, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an adult) may be given. BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold water against the part. Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and the artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of muriate of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation of clot and the closure of the artery. STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre- venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure of the skin wound and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazelnut upward. If there is no material swelling and little protrusion, the wound may be enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from any connection with the skin and pushed up inside. If the swelling is larger, the mass constitutes a tumor and must be removed. (See below.) SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing sceptic 150 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound., and imprisonment of matter. Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic liquid freely applied. The most tense or dependent parts of the swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at intervals of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and anti- septics freely used to the surface. Fomentations with warm water may also be used to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not be allowed to close again at once. A free, creamlike discharge im- plies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. PHYMOSIS AND PARAPH YMOSIS. In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indi- cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre- liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, and in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated fluid, will enable the operator to return it. TUMORS ON THE SPERMATIC CORD. These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in castration, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence of infection (Staphylococcus botriomyces) . These tumors give rise to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and contract adhesions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner us the testicle, while if larger and firmly adherent to the skin and surrounding parts generally, they must be carefully dissected from the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impos- sible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be attempted by passing white-hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. CASTRATION OF THE MARE. 151 CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera- tion for hernia in geldings, see remarks on hernia. CASTRATION OF THE MARE. Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in the females of other domesticated quadrupeds and should never be resorted to except in animals that become unmanageable on the recur- rence of heat and that will not breed or that are utterly unsuited to breeding. Formerly the operation was extensively practiced in Europe, the incision being made through the flank, and a large pro- portion of the subjects perished. By operating through the vagina the risk can be largely obviated, as the danger of unhealthy inflam- mation in the wound is greatly lessened. The animal should be fixed in a trevis, with each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed under the body, or it may be thrown and put under chloroform. The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the roof of the vagina just above the neck of the womb, then following with the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on that side is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted off. It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the purpose. The straining that follows the operation may be checked by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protrusion of the bowels may be obviated by applying the truss advised to prevent eversion of the womb. To further prevent the pressure of the abdominal con- tents against the vaginal wound the mare should be tied short and high for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, after which I have found it best to remove the truss and allow the privilege of lying down. Another important point is to give' bran mashes and other laxative diet only, and in moderate quantity, for a fortnight, and to unload the rectum by copious injections of warm water in case it should threaten to become impacted. STERILITY. Sterility may be in the male or in the female. If due to the stal- lion, then all the mares put to him remain barren; if due to the mare, she alone fails to conceive. 152 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. In the stallion sterility may be due to the following causes: (a) Imperfect development of the testicles, as in cases in which they are retained within the abdomen; (6) inflammation of the testicles, re- sulting in induration; (c) fatty degeneration of the testicles, in stal- lions liberally fed on starchy food and not sufficiently exercised; (<7) fatty degeneration of the excretory ducts of the testicles (vasa dt f< - rentia) ; (e) inflammation or ulceration of these ducts; (/) inflam- mation or ulceration of the mucous membrane covering the penis; (g) injuries to the penis from blows (often causing paralysis) ; (h) warty growths on the end of the penis; (i) tumors of other kinds (largely pigmentary), affecting the testicles or penis; (/') nervous diseases which abolish the sexual appetite or that control the muscles which are essential to the act of coition; (Z) azoturia with resulting weakness or paralysis of the muscles of the loins or the front of the thigh (above the stifle) ; (/) ossification (anchylosis) of the joints of the back or loins, which render the animal unable to rear, or mount ; (m) spavins, ringbones, or other painful affections of the hind limbs, the pain of which in mounting causes the animal to suddenly stop short in the act. In the first three of these only (a, b. and c) is there real sterility in the sense of the nondevelopment or imperfect devel- opment of the male vivifying element (spermatozoa). In the other examples the secretion may be perfect in kind and amount, but as copulation is prevented it can not reach and impregnate the ovum. In the mare barrenness is equally due to a variety of causes. In a number of breeding studs the proportion of sterile mares has varied from 20 to 40 per cent. It may be due to: (a) Imperfect develop- ment of the ovary and nonmaturation of ova; (b) cystic or other tumors of the ovary; () acquired indisposition to breed, -cen in old, hard-worked mares which are first put to the stallion when aged: (//) change of climate has repeatedly been followed by barrenness; (o) hybridity, which in male and female alike usually entails sterility. STERILITY. 153 Treatment. — The treatment of the majority of these conditions will be found dealt with in other parts of this work, so that it is only- necessary here to name them as causes. Some, however, must be specially referred to in this place. Stallions with undescended testicles are beyond the reach of medicine, and should be castrated and devoted to other uses. Indurated testicles may sometimes be remedied in the early stages by smearing with a weak iodine ointment daily for a length of time, and at the same time invigorating the system by liberal feeding and judicious work. Fatty degeneration is best met by an albuminoid diet (wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, rape cake) and constant well-regulated work. Saccharine, starchy, and fatty food (potatoes, wheat, corn, etc.) are to be specially avoided. In the mare one diseased and irritable ovary should be removed, to do away with the resulting excitability of the remainder of the generative organs. An irritable womb, with frequent strain- ing and the ejection of a profuse secretion, may sometimes be cor- rected by a restricted diet and full but well-regulated work. Even fatigue will act beneficially in some such cases, hence the practice of the Arab riding his mare to exhaustion just before service. The perspiration in such a case, like the action of a purgative or the abstraction of blood just before service, benefits, by rendering the blood vessels less full, by lessening secretion in the womb and else- where, and thus counteracting the tendency to the ejection and loss of semen. If these means are ineffectual, a full dose of camphor (2 drams) or of salacin may at times assist. Low condition and anemia demand just the opposite kind of treatment — rich, nourishing, albumi- noid food, bitter tonics (gentian), sunshine, gentle exercise, liberal grooming, and supporting treatment generally are here in order. Spasmodic closure of the neck of the womb is common and is easily remedied in the mare by dilatation with the fingers. The hand, smeared with belladonna ointment and with the fingers drawn into the form of a cone, is introduced through the vagina until the projecting, rounded neck of the womb is felt at its anterior end. This is opened by the careful insertion of one finger at a time, until the fingers have been passed through the constricted neck into the open cavity of the womb. The introduction is made with a gentle, rotary motion, and all precipitate violence is avoided, as abrasion, laceration, or other cause of irritation is likely to interfere with the retention of the semen and with impregnation. If the neck of the Avomb is rigid and unyielding from the induration which follows in- flammation — a rare condition in the mare, though common in the cow — more force will be requisite, and it may even be needful to in- cise the neck to the depth of one-sixth of an inch in four or more opposite directions prior to forcible dilatation. The incision may be made with a probe-pointed knife, and should be done by a profes- 154 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. eional man if possible. The subsequent dilatation may be West effected by the slow expansion of sponge or seaweed tents inserted into the narrow canal. In such eases it is best to let the wounds of the neck heal before putting to horse. An imperforate hymen may be freely incised in a crucial manner until the passage will admit the human hand. An ordinary knife may be used for this purpose, and after the operation the stallion may be admitted at once or only after the wounds have healed. INDICATIONS OF PREGNANCY. As the mere fact of service by the stallion does not insure preg- nancy, it is important that the result should be determined, to save the mare from unnecessary and dangerous work or medication when actually in foal and to obviate wasteful and needless precautions when she is not. The cessation and nonrecurrence of the symptoms of heat (horsing) are most significant though not an infallible sign of conception. If the sexual excitement speedily subsides and the mare persistently refuses the stallion for a month, she is probably pregnant. In very exceptional cases a mare will accept a second or third service after weeks or months, though pregnant, and some mares will refuse the horse persistently, though conception has not taken place, and this in spite of warm weather, good condition of the mare, and liberal feed- ing. The recurrence of heat in the pregnant mare is most likely to take place in hot weather. If heat merely persists an undue length of time after service, or if it reappears shortly after, in warm weather and in a comparatively idle mare, on good feeding, it is less signifi- cant, while the persistent absence of heat under such conditions may be usually accepted as proof of conception. An unwonted gentleness and docility on the part of a previously irritable or vicious mare, and supervening on service, is an excellent indication of pregnancy, the generative instinct which caused the excitement having been satisfied. An increase of fat, with softness and flabbiness of muscle, a loss of energy, indisposition for active work, a manifestation of laziness, indeed, and of fatigue early and easily induced, when preceded by service, will usually imply conception. Enlargement of the abdomen, especially in its lower third, with slight, falling in beneath the loins and hollowness of the back are sig- nificant symptoms, though they may be entirely absent. Swelling and firmness of the udder, with the smoothing out of its wrinkles, is a suggestive sign, even though it appears only at intervals during ges- tation. A steady increase in weight (H pounds daily) about the fourth or fifth month is a useful indication of pregnancy. So is n swollen and red or bluish-red appearance of the vaginal mucous membrane. PREGNANCY. 155 From the seventh or eighth month onward the foal may be felt by the hand (palm or knuckles) pressed into the abdomen in front of the left stifle. The sudden push displaces the foal toward the opposite side of the womb, and as it floats back its hard body is felt to strike against the hand. If the pressure is maintained the movements of the live foal are felt, and especially in the morning and after a drink of cold water or during feeding. A drink of cold water will often stimulate the fetus to movements that may be seen by the eye, but an excess of iced water may prove injurious, even to the causing of abortion. Cold water dashed on the belly has a similar effect on the fetus and equally endangers abortion. Examination of the uterus with the oiled hand introduced into the rectum is still more satisfactory, and if cautiously conducted no more dangerous. The rectum must be first emptied and then the hand car- ried forward until it reaches the front edge of the pelvic bones below, and pressed downward to ascertain the size and outline of the womb. In the unimpregnated state the vagina and womb can be felt as a sin- gle rounded tube, dividing in front to two smaller tubes (the horns of the womb). In the pregnant mare not only the body of the womb is enlarged, but still more so one of the horns (right or left), and on compression the latter is found to contain a hard, nodular body, float- ing in a liquid, which in the latter half of gestation may be stimulated by gentle pressure to manifest spontaneous movements. By this method the presence of the fetus may be determined as early as the third month. If the complete natural outline of the virgin womb can not be made out, careful examination should always be made on the right and left side for the enlarged horn and its living contents. Should there still be difficulty the mare should be placed on an in- clined plane, with her hind parts lowest, and two assistants, standing on opposite sides of the body, should raise the lower part of the abdomen by a sheet passed beneath it. Finally the ear or stethoscope applied on the wall of the abdomen in front of the stifle may detect the beating of the fetal heart (one hundred and twenty-five per minute) and a blowing sound (the uterine sough), much less rapid and corresponding to the number of the pulse of the dam. It is heard most satisfactorily after the sixth or eighth month and in the absence of active rumbling of the bowels of the dam. DURATION OF PREGNANCY. Mares usually go about eleven months with young, though first pregnancies often last a year. Foals have lived when born at the three hundredth day, so with others carried till the four hundredth day. With the longer pregnancies there is a greater probability of male offspring. 156 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. HYGIENE OF THE PREGNANT MARK. The pregnant mare should not be exposed to teasing by a young and ardent stallion, nor should she be overworked or fatigued, par- ticularly under the saddle or on uneven ground. Yet exercise is bene- ficial to both mother and offspring, and in the absence of moderate work the breeding mare should be kept in a lot where she can take exercise at will. The food should be liberal, but not fattening — oats. bran, sound hay, and other foods rich in the principles which form flesh and bone being especially indicated. All aliments that tend to indigestion are to be especially avoided. Thus rank, aqueous, rapidly growing grasses and other green food, partially ripe rye grass, millet, hun- garian grass, vetches, pease, beans, or maize are objectionable, as is overripe, fibrous, innutritions hay. or that which has been injured and rendered musty by wet, or that which is infested with smut or ergot. Food that tends to costiveness should be avoided. "Water given often, and at a temperature considerably above freezing, will avoid the dangers of indigestion and abortion which result from taking too much ice-cold water at one time. Very cold or frozen food is objec- tionable in the same sense. Severe surgical operations and medicines that act violently on the womb, bowels, or kidneys are to be avoided as being liable to cause abortion. Constipation should be corrected, if possible, by bran mashes, carrots, or beets, seconded by exercise, and if a medicinal laxative is required it should be olive oil or other equally bland agent. The stall of the pregnant mare should not be too narrow, so as to cramp her when lying down or to entail violent effort, in getting up, and it should not slope too much from the front backward, as this throws the weight of the uterus back on the pelvis and endangers pro- trusions and even abortion. Violent mental impressions are to be avoided, for though the majority of mares are not affected thereby, yet a certain number are so profoundly impressed that peculiarities and distortions are entailed on the offspring. Hence, there is wisdom shown in banishing particolored or objectionably tinted animals, and those that show deformities or faulty conformation. Hence, too. the importance of preventing prolonged acute suffering by the pregnant mare, as certain troubles of the eyes. feet, and joints in the foals have been clearly traced to the concentration of the mother's mind on cor- responding injured organs in herself. Sire and dam alike tend to reproduce their individual defects which predispose to disease, but (he dam is far more likely to perpetuate the evil in he) 1 progeny which was carried while she was individually enduring severe suffering caused by such defects. Hence, an active bone spavin or ringbone, PREGNANCY. 157 causing lameness, is more objectionable than that in which the in- flammation and lameness have both passed, and an active ophthalmia is more to be feared than even an old cataract. For this reason all active diseases in the breeding mare should be soothed and abated at as early a moment as possible. EXTRA-UTERINE GESTATION . It is rare in the domestic animals to find the fetus developed else- where than in the womb. The exceptional forms are those in which the sperm of the male, making its way through the womb and Fallo- pian tubes, impregnates the ovum prior to its escape, and in which the now vitalized and growing ovum, by reason of its gradually in- creasing size, becomes imprisoned and fails to escape into the womb. The arrest of the ovum may be in the substance of the ovary itself (ovarian pregnancy), in the Fallopian tube (tubal pregnancy), or when by its continuous enlargement it has ruptured its envelopes so that it escapes into the cavity of the abdomen, it may become attached to any part of the serous membrane and draw its nourishment di- dectly from that (abdominal pregnancy). In all such cases there is an increase and enlargement of the capillary blood vessels at the point to which the embryo has attached itself so as to furnish the needful nutriment for the growing offspring. All appreciable symptoms are absent, unless from the death of the fetus, or its interference with normal functions, general disorder and indications of parturition supervene. If these occur later than the natural time for parturition, they are the more significant. There may be general malaise, loss of appetite, elevated temperature, acceler- ated pulse, with or without distinct labor pains. Examination with the oiled hand in the rectum will reveal the womb of the natural unimpregnated size and shape and with both horns of one size. Fur- ther exploration may detect an elastic mass apart from the womb, and in the interior of which may be felt the characteristic solid body of the fetus. If the latter is still alive and can be stimulated to move, the evidence is even more perfect. The fetus may die and be carried for years, its soft structures becoming absorbed so as to leave only the bones, or by pressure it may form a fistulous opening through the abdominal walls, or less frequently through the vagina or rectum. In the latter cases the best course is to favor the expulsion of the foal and to wash out the resulting cavity with a solution of carbolic acid 1 part to water 50 parts. This may be repeated daily. Where there is no spontaneous opening it is injudicious to interfere, as the danger from the retention of the fetus is less than that from septic fermentation in the enormous fetal sac when that has been opened to the air. 158 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. MOLES, OR ANIDIAX MONSTERS. These are evidently products of conception, in which the impreg- nated ovum has failed to develop naturally, and presents only a cha- otic mass of skin, hair, bones, muscles, etc., attached to the inner surface of the womb by an umbilical cord, which is itself often shriv- eled and wasted. They are usually accompanied by a well-developed fetus, so that the mole may be looked upon as a twin which has under- gone arrest and vitiation of development. They are expelled by the ordinary process of parturition, and usually at the same time with the normally developed offspring. CYSTIC DISEASE OF THE WALLS OF THE WOMB, OR VESICULAR MOLE. This condition appears to be due to hypertrophy (enlargement) of the villi on the inner surface of the womb, which become greatly increased in number and hollowed out internally into a series of cysts, or pouches, containing liquid. Unlike the true mole, therefore, they appear to be disease of the maternal structure of the womb rather than of the product of conception. Rodet, in a case of this kind, which had produced active labor pains, quieted the disorder with ano- dynes and secured a recovery. Where this is not available attempts may be made to remove the mass with the ecraseur or otherwise, fol- lowing this up with antiseptic injections, as advised under the last heading. DROPSY OF THE WOMB. This appears as a result of some disease of the walls of the womb. Out has been frequently observed as the result of infection after sex- ual congress, and has, therefore, been confounded with pregnancy. The symptoms are those of pregnancy, but without any movements of the fetus and without the detection of any solid body in the womb when examined with the oiled hand in the rectum. At the end of four or eight months there are signs of parturition or of frequent straining to pass urine, and after a time the liquid is discharged clear and watery, or muddy, thick, and fetid. The hand introduced into the womb can detect neither fetus nor fetal membrane. If the neck of the womb closes, the liquid may accumulate a second time, or even a third, if no means are taken to disinfect it or to correct the tendency. The best resort is to remove any diseased product that may be found attached to the walls of the womb, and to inject it daily with a warm solution of carbolic acid 2 drams, chloride of zinc one-half dram, water 1 quart. A course of bitter tonics (gentian 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily) shoulud be given, and a nutritious, easily digested, and slightly laxative diet allowed. DISEASES OF THE WOMB. 159 DROPSY OF THE AMNION. This differs from simple dropsy of the womb in that the fluid col- lects in the inner of the two water bags (that in which the foal floats) and not in the otherwise void cavity of the womb. This affection can occur only in the pregnant animal, while dropsy of the womb occurs in the unimpregnated. The blood of the pregnant mare con- tains an excess of water and a smaller proportion of albumen and red globules, and when this is still further aggravated by poor feeding and other unhygienic conditions there is developed the tendency to liquid transudation from the vessels and dropsy. As the watery con- dition of the blood increases with advancing pregnancy, so dropsy of the amnion is a disease of the last four or five months of gestation. The abdomen is large and pendulous, and the swelling fluctuates under pressure, though the solid body of the fetus c^n still be felt to strike against the hand pressed into the swelling. If the hand is introduced into the vagina, the womb is found to be tense and round, with the projecting rounded neck effaced, while the hand in the rectum will detect the rounded swollen mass of the womb so firm and tense that the body of the fetus can not be felt within it. The mare moves weakly and unsteadily on her limbs, having difficulty in sup- porting the great weight, and in bad cases there may be loss of appe- tite, stocking (dropsy) of the hind limbs, difficult breathing, and colicky pains. The tension may lead to abortion, or a slow, labo- rious parturition may occur at the usual time. Treatment consists in relieving the tension and accumulation by puncturing the fetal membrane with a canula and trocar introduced through the neck of the womb and the withdrawal of the trocar so as to leave the canula in situ. Or the membranes may be punctured with the finger and the excess of liquid allowed to escape. This may bring on abortion, or the wound may close and gestation continue to the full term. A course of tonics (gentian root 2 drams, sulphate of iron 2 drams, daily) will do much to fortify the system and counteract further excessive effusion. DROPSY OF THE LIMBS, PERINEUM, AND ABDOMEN. The disposition to dropsy often shows itself in the hind and even in the fore limbs, around and beneath the vulva (perineum), and be- neath the abdomen and chest. The affected parts are swollen and pit on pressure, but are not especially tender, and subside more or less perfectly under exercise, hand rubbing, and bandages. In ob- stinate cases rubbing with the following liniment may be resorted to: Compound tincture of iodine, 2 ounces; tannic acid, one-half dram; water, 10 ounces. It does not last over a day or two after parturition. 160 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. CRAMPS OF THE HIND LIMBS. The pressure of the distended womb on the nerves and blood vessels of the pelvis, besides conducing to dropsy, occasionally causes cramps of the hind limits. The limb is raised without flexing the joints, the front of the hoof being directed toward the ground, or, the spasms occurring intermittently, the foot is kicked violently against the ground several times in rapid succession. The muscles are felt to he firm and rigid. The cramp may he promptly relieved by active rub- bing, or by walking the animal about, and it does not reappear after parturition. < OXSTIPATION. This may result from compression by the gravid womb, and is best corrected by a graduated allowance of boiled flaxseed. PARALYSIS. The pressure on the nerves of the pelvis is liable to cause paralysis of the hind limbs, or in the mare of the nerve of sight. These are obstinate until after parturition, when they recover spontaneously, or under a course of mix vomica and (locally) stimulating liniments. PROLONGED RETENTION OF THE FETUS (FOAL). In the mare, though far less frequently than in the cow. parturition may not be completed at term, and the foal may continue to be carried in the womb for a number of months, to the serious or even fatal injury of the mare. II anion records one case in which the mare died after carrying the fetus for seventeen months, and Caillier i similar result after it had been carried twenty-two months. In these cases the fetus retained its natural form, but in one reported by (iohier, the bones only were left in the womb amid a mass of apparently purulent matter. Cans,. — The cause may be any effective obstruction to the act of parturition, such as lack of contractile power in the womb, unduly strong (inflammatory) adhesions between the womb and the fetal membranes, wrong presentation of the fetus, contracted pelvis (from fracture or disease of the bones), or disease and induration of the neck of the womb. The mere prolongation of gestation does not necessarily entail the death of the foal: hence the latter has been born alive at the four hundredth day. Even when the foal has perished, putrefaction does not set in unless the membranes (water bags) have been ruptured and septic bacteria have been admitted to the interior of the womb. In the latter case a fetid decomposition advances rapidly, and the mare usually perishes from poisoning with the putrid matters absorbed. At the natural period of parturition preparations are apparently made for that act. The vulva swells and discharges much mucus, the udder enlarges, the belly becomes more pendent, and the animal ABORTION. 161 strains more or less. No progress is made, however; there is not even opening of the neck of the womb, and after a time the symptoms subside. The mare usually refuses the male ; yet there are exceptions to this rule. If the neck of the womb has been opened and putrefy- ing changes have set in in its contents, the mare loses appetite and condition, pines, discharges an offensive matter from the generative passages, and dies of inflammation of the womb and putrid infection. In other cases there is a slow wearing out of the strength, and the mare finally dies of exhaustion. The treatment is such as will facilitate the expulsion of the fetus and its membranes and the subsequent washing out of the womb with disinfectants. So long as the mouth of the womb is closed time should be allowed for its natural dilatation, but if this does not come about after a day or two of straining, the opening may be smeared with extract of belladonna, and the oiled hand, with the fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, may be inserted by slow oscil- lating movements into the interior of the womb. The water bags may now be ruptured, any malpresentation rectified (see " Difficult parturition"), and delivery effected. After removal of the mem- branes wash out the womb first with tepid water and then with a solu- tion of 2 ounces of borax in half a gallon of water. This injection may have to be repeated if a discharge sets in. The same course may be pursued even after prolonged retention. If the soft parts of the fetus have been absorbed and the bones only left, these must be carefully sought for and removed, and subsequent daily injections will be required for some time. In such cases, too, a course of iron tonics (sulphate of iron, 2 drams daily) will be highly bene- ficial in restoring health and vigor. ABORTION. Abortion is, strictly speaking, the expulsion of the impregnated ovum at any period from the date of impregnation until the foal can survive out of the womb. If the foal is advanced enough to live, it is premature parturition, and in the mare this may occur as early as the tenth month (three hundredth day). The mare may abort by reason of almost any cause that very pro- foundly disturbs the system. Hence very violent inflammations of important internal organs (bowels, kidneys, bladder, lungs) may induce abortion. Profuse diarrhea, whether occurring from the reck- less use of purgatives, the consumption of irritants in the food, or a simple indigestion, is an effective cause. No less so is acute indiges- tion with evolution of gas in the intestines (bloating). The presence of stone in the kidneys, uterus, bladder, or urethra may induce so much sympathetic disorder in the womb as to induce abortion. In exceptional cases wherein mares come in heat during gestation, service H. Doc. 705, 59-2 11 162 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. by the stallion may cause abortion. Blows or pressure on the abdo- men, rapid driving or riding of the pregnant mare, especially if she i? soft and out of condition from idleness, the brutal use of the spur or whip, and the jolting and straining of travel by rail or boat are prolific causes. Bleeding the pregnant mare, a painful surgical oper- ation, and the throwing and constraint resorted to for an operation are other causes. Traveling on heavy, muddy roads, slips and falls on ice, and jumping must be added. The stimulation of the abdom- inal organs by a full drink of iced water may precipitate a miscar- riage, as may exposure to a cold rainstorm or a very cold night after a warm day. Irritant poisons that act on the urinary or generative organs, such as Spanish flies, rue, savin, tansy, cotton-root bark, ergot of rye or other grasses, the smut of maize and other grain, and various fungi in musty fodder are additional causes. Frosted food, indigestible food, and, above all, green succulent vegetables in a frozen state, have proved effective factors, and filthy, stagnant water is dangerous. Low condition in the dam and plethora have in oppo- site w T ays caused abortion, and hot, relaxing stables and lack of exercise strongly conduce to it, The exhaustion of the sire by too frequent service, entailing debility of the offspring and disease of the fetus or of its envelopes, must be recognized as a further cause. The symptoms vary mainly according as the abortion is early or late in pregnancy. In the first month or two of pregnancy the mare may miscarry without observable symptoms, and the fact only appears by her coming in heat. If more closely observed a small clot of blood may be found behind her, in which a careful search reveals the rudiments of the foal. If the occurrence is somewhat later in gestation, there will be some general disturbance, inappetence, neigh- ing, and straining, and the small body of the fetus is expelled, en- veloped in its membranes. Abortions during the later stages of pregnancy are attended with greater constitutional disturbance, and the process resembles normal parturition, with the aggravation that more effort and straining is requisite to force the fetus through the comparatively undilatable mouth of the womb. There is the swelling of the vulva, with mucus or even bloody discharge; the abdomen droops, the flanks fall in, the udder fills, the mare looks at her flanks, paws with the fore feet and kicks with the hind, switches the tail. moves around uneasily, lies down and rises, strains, and, as in natural foaling, expels first mucus and blood, then the waters, and finally the Ictus. This may occupy an hour or two, or it may be prolonged for a day or more, the symptoms subsiding for a time, only to reappear with renewed energy. If there is malpresentation of the fetus it will hinder progress until rectified, as in difficult parturition. Abortion may also be followed by the same accidents, as flooding, retention of the placenta, and leucorrhea. ABORTION. 163 The most important object in an impending abortion is to recog- nize it at as early a stage as possible, so that it may, if possible, be cut short and prevented. Any general indefinable illness in a preg- nant mare should lead to a close examination of the vulva as regards swelling, vascularity of its mucous membrane, and profuse mucus secretion, and, above all, any streak or staining of blood; also the condition of the udder, if that is congested and swollen. Any such indication, with colicky pains, staining, however little, and active movement of the fetus or entire absence of movement, are suggestive symptoms and should be duly counteracted. The changes in the vulva and udder, with a soiled and bloody con- dition of the tail, may suggest an abortion already accomplished, and the examination with the hand in the vagina may detect the mouth of the womb soft and dilatable and the interior of the organ slightly filled with a bloody liquid. Treatment should be preventive if possible, and would embrace the avoidance of all causes mentioned, and particularly of such as may seem to be particularly operative in the particular case. Where abor- tions have already occurred in a stud, the especial cause in the matter of food, water, exposure to injuries, overwork, lack of exercise, etc., may often be identified and removed. A most important point is to avoid all causes of constipation, diarrhea, indigestion, bloating, vio- lent purgatives, diuretics or other potent medicines, painful opera- tions, and slippery roads, unless well frosted. When abortion is imminent, the mare should be placed alone in a roomy, dark, quiet stall, and have the straining checked by some sedative. Laudanum is usually at hand and may be given in doses of 1 or 2 ounces, according to size, and repeated after two or three hours, and even daily if necessary. Chloroform or chloral hydrate, 3 drams, may be substituted if more convenient. These should be given in a pint or quart of water, to avoid burning the mouth and throat. Or Viburnum prunifolium, 1 ounce, may be given and repeated if neces- sary to prevent straining. When all measures fail and miscarriage proceeds, all that can be done is to assist in the removal of the fetus and its membranes, as in ordinary parturition. As in the case of retention of the fetus, it may be necessary after delivery to employ antiseptic injections into the womb to counteract putrid fermentation. This, however, is less requisite in the mare than in the cow, in which the prevalent con- tagious abortion must be counteracted by the persistent local use of antiseptics. After abortion a careful hygiene is demanded, especially in the matter of pure air and easily digestible food. The mare should not be served again for a month or longer, and in no case until after all discharge from the vulva has ceased. 164 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. SYMPTOMS OF PARTURITION. As the period of parturition approaches, the swelling of the udder bespeaks the coming event, the engorgement in exceptional cases extending forward on the lower surface of the abdomen and even into the hind limbs. For about a week a sej-ous fluid oozes from the teat and concretes as a yellow, waxlike mass around its orifice. About twenty-four hours before the birth this gives place to a whitish, milky liquid, which falls upon and mats the hairs on the inner sides of the legs. Another symptom is enlargement of the vulva, with red- ness of its lining membrane, and the escape of glairy mucus. The belly droops, the flanks fall in, and the loins may even become de- pressed. Finally the mare becomes uneasy, stops feeding, looks anx- ious, whisks her tail, and may lie down and rise again. In many mares this is not repeated, but the mare remains down; violent con- tractions of the abdominal muscles ensue; after two or three pains the water bags appear and burst, followed by the fore feet of the foal, with the nose between the knees, and by a few more throes the fetus is expelled. In other cases the act is accomplished standing. The whole act may not occupy more than five or ten minutes. This, to- gether with the disposition of the mare to avoid observation, renders the act one that is rarely seen by the attendants. The navel string, which connects the foal to the membranes, is ruptured when the fetus falls to the ground, or when the mare rises. if she has been down, and the membranes are expelled a few minutes later. NATURAL PRESENTATION. When there is a single foal, the common and desirable presentation is with the fore feet first, the nose between the knees, and with the front of the hoofs and knees and the forehead directed upward toward the anus, tail, and croup. (Plate X, fig. 1.) In this way the natural curvature of the body of the fetus corresponds to the curve of the womb and genital passages, and particularly of the bony pelvis, and the foal passes with much greater ease than if it were placed with its back downward toward the udder. When there is a twin birth the second foal usually comes with its hind feet first, and the backs of the legs, the points of the hocks, and the tail and croup are turned upward toward the anus and tail of the mare. (Plate X, fig. 2.) In this way, even with a posterior presentation, the curvature of the body of the foal still corresponds to that of the passages, and its expulsion may be quite as easy as in anterior presentation. Any presentation aside from these two may be said to be abnormal and will be considered under " Difficult parturition." DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 165 DIFFICULT PARTURITION. With natural presentation this is a rare occurrence. The great length of the fore limbs and face entail, in the anterior presentation, the formation of a long cone, which dilates and glides through the passages with comparative ease. Even with the hind feet first a simi- lar conical form is presented, and the process is rendered easy and quick. Difficulty and danger arise mainly from the act being brought on prematurely before the passages are sufficiently dilated, from nar- rowing of the pelvic bones or other mechanical obstruction in the pas- sages, from monstrous distortions or duplications in the fetus, or from the turning back of one of the members so that the elongated conical or wedge-shaped outline is done away with. But prompt as is the normal parturition in the mare, difficult and delayed parturitions are surrounded by special dangers and require unusual precautions and skill. From the proclivity of the mare to unhealthy inflammations of the peritoneum and other abdominal organs, penetrating wounds of the womb or vagina are liable to prove fatal. The contractions of the womb and abdominal walls are so powerful as to exhaust and benumb the arm of the assistant, and to endanger penetrating wounds of the genital organs. By reason of the looser connection of the fetal mem- branes with the womb, as compared with those of ruminants, the violent throes early detach these membranes throughout their whole extent, and the foal, being thus separated from the mother and thrown on its own resources, dies at an early stage of any protracted parturi- tion. The foal rarely survives four hours after the onset of partu- rient throes. From the great length of the limbs and neck of the foal it is extremely difficult to secure and bring up limb or head which has been turned back when it should have been presented. When assist- ance must be rendered the operator should don a thick woolen under- shirt with the sleeves cut out at the shoulders. This protects the body and leaves the whole arm free for manipulation. Before inserting the arm it should be smeared with lard. This protects the skin against septic infection, and favors the introduction of the hand and arm. The hand should be inserted with the thumb and fingers drawn to- gether like a cone. Whether standing or lying, the mare should be turned with head downhill and hind parts raised as much as possible. The contents of the abdomen gravitating forward leave much more room for manipulation. Whatever part of the foal is presented (head, foot) should be secured with a cord and running noose before it is pushed back to search for the other missing parts. Even if a missing part is reached no attempt should be made to bring it up during a labor pain. Pinching the back will sometimes check the pains and allow the operator to secure and bring up the missing mem- ber. In intractable cases a large dose of chloral hydrate (1 ounce in 166 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. a quart of water) or the inhalation of chloroform and air (equal proportions) to insensibility may secure a respite, during which the missing members may be replaced. If the waters have been dis- charged and the mucus dried up, the genital passages and body of the I'd us should be lubricated with lard or oil before any attempt at ex- traction is made. When the missing member has been brought up into position and presentation has been rendered natural, traction on the fetus must be made only during a labor pain. If a mare is in- clined to kick, it may be necessary to apply hobbles to protect the operator. PREMATURE LABOR PAINS. These may be brought on by any violent exertion, use under the saddle, or in heavy draft, or in rapid paces, or in travel by rail or sea, blows, kicks, crushing by other animals in a doorway or gate. Ex- cessive action of purgative or diuretic agents, or of agents that irritate the bowels or kidneys, like arsenic, paris green, all caustic salts and acids, and acrid and narcotico-acrid vegetables, is equally injurious. Finally, the ingestion of agents that stimulate the action of the gravid womb (ergot of rye or of other grasses, smut, various fungi of fodders, rue, savin, cotton root, etc.) may bring on labor pains prematurely. Besides the knowledge that parturition is not yet due, there will be less enlargement, redness, and swelling of the vulva, less mucous dis- charge, less filling of the udder, and less appearances of wax and probably none of milk from the ends of the teats. The oiled hand introduced into the vulva will not enter with the ease usual at full term, and the neck of the womb will be felt not only closed, but with its projecting papillae, through which it is perforated, not yet flattened down and effaced, as at full term. The symptoms are in- deed those of threatened abortion, but at such an advanced stage of gestation as is compatible with the survival of the offspring. Treatment. — The treatment consists in the separation of the mare from all other animals in a quiet, dark, secluded place, and the free use of antispasmodics and anodynes. Opium in dram doses every two hours, or laudanum in ounce doses at similar intervals, will often suffice. When the more urgent symptoms have subsided these doses may be repeated thrice a day till all excitement passes off or until the passages have become relaxed and prepared for parturition. Vibarnum pnmJfo/ium, in ounce doses, may be added if necessary. Should parturition become inevitable, it may be favored and any necessary assistance furnished. DIFFICULT PARTURITION FROM NARROW PELVIS. A disproportion between the fetus got by a large stallion and the pelvis of a small dam is a serious obstacle to parturition, sometimes PLATE IX. Haiiies.del after Fleming MS BIEN «.C0 I INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT LABOR. PLATE X after Flei Verlebro Sacral presentation NOKMAI . PR ESENTATIO .\ S PLATE XII. !i-miii2 Transverse presentation -ZJpper view. after Fleming Slrntn-fthtlomuuil fnese/ttntioTt -ffead a/id f*'rrt engaged,. Haines, after Fleming. A BNOIUI A L F R E S K N TAT IONS. JULIUS 8I£N & CO NY DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 167 seen in the mare. This is not the rule, however, as the foal up to birth usually accommodates itself to the size of the dam, as illustrated in the successful crossing of Percheron stallions on mustang mares. If the disproportion is too great the only resort is embryotomy. FRACTURED HIP BONES. More commonly the obstruction comes from distortion and narrow- ing of the pelvis as the result of fractures. (Plate XV, fig. l 2.) Fractures at any point of the lateral wall or floor of the pelvis are repaired with the formation of an extensive bony deposit bulging into the passage of the pelvis. The displacement of the ends of the broken bone is another cause of constriction, and between the two con- ditions the passage of the fetus may be rendered impossible without embryotomy. Fracture of the sacrum (the continuation of the back- bone forming the croup) leads to the depression of the posterior part of that bone in the roof of the pelvis and the narrowing of the pas- sage from above downward by a bony ridge presenting its sharp edge forward. In all cases in which there has been injury to the bones of the pelvis the obvious precaution is to withhold the mare from breeding and to use her for work only. If a mare with a pelvis thus narrowed has got in foal inadvertently, abortion may be induced in the early months of gestation by slowly introducing the oiled linger through the neck of the womb ami fol- lowing this by the other fingers until the whole hand has been intro- duced. Then the water bags may be broken, and with the escape of the liquid the womb will contract on the solid fetus and labor pains will ensue. The fetus being small will pass easily. ti \ioks in run vagina and pelvis. Tumors of various kinds may form in tin 1 vagina or elsewhere within the pelvis, and when large enough will obstruct or prevent the passage of the fetus. Gray mares, which are so subject to black pig- ment tumors {melanosis) on the tail, anus, and vulva, are the most likely to suffer from this. Still more rarely the wall of the vagina becomes relaxed, and being pressed by a mass of intestines will pro- trude through the lips of the vulva as a hernial sac, containing a part of the bowels. Where a tumor is small it may only retard and not absolutely prevent parturition. A hernial protrusion of the wall of the vagina may be pressed back and emptied, so that the body of the fetus engaging in the passage may find no further obstacle. When a tumor is too large to allow delivery the only resort is to remove it, but before proceeding it must be clearly made out that the obstruc- tion is a mass of diseased tissue, and not a sac containing intestines. 168 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. If the tumor hangs by a neck it can usually be most safely removed by the ecraseur, the chain being passed around the pedicel and gradu- ally tightened until that is torn through. HERNIA OF THE WOMB. The rupture of the musculo-fibrous floor of the belly and the escape of the gravid womb into a sac formed by the peritoneum and skin hanging toward the ground, is described by all veterinary obstetri- cians, yet it is very rarely seen in the mare. The form of the fetus can be felt through the Avails of the sac, so that it is easy to recognize the condition. Its cause is usually external violence, though it may start from an umbilical hernia. "When the period of parturition arrives, the first effort should be to return the fetus within the proper abdominal cavity, and this can sometimes be accomplished with the aid of a stout blanket gradually tightened around the belly. This failing, the mare may be placed on her side or back and gravitation brought to the aid of manipulation in securing the return. Even after the hernia has been reduced the relaxed state of the womb and abdominal walls may serve to hinder parturition, in which case the oiled hand must be introduced through the vagina, the fetus brought into position, and traction coincident with the labor pains employed to secure delivery. TAVISTING OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This condition is very uncommon in the mare, though occasionally seen in the cow, owing to the greater laxity of the broad ligaments of the womb in that animal. It consists in a revolution of the womb on its own axis, so that its right or left side will be turned upward (quarter revolution), or the lower surface may be turned upward and the upper surface downward (half revolution). The effect is to throw the narrow neck of the womb into a series of spiral folds, turn- ing in the direction in which the womb has revolved, closing the neck and rendering distention and dilatation impossible. The period and pains of parturition arrive, but in spite of contin- ued efforts no progress is made, neither water bags nor liquids appear- ing. The oiled hand introduced into the closed neck of the womb will readily detect the spiral direction of the folds on its inner surface. The method of relief which I have successfully adopted in the cow may be equally happy in the mare. The dam is placed (with her head uphill) on her right side if the upper folds of the spiral turn toward the right, and on her left side if they turn toward the left, and the oiled hand is introduced through the neck of the womb and a limb or other part of the body of the fetus is seized and pressed against the wall of the womb, while two or three assistants turn the DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 169 animal over on her back toward the other side. The object is to keep the womb stationary while the animal is rolling. If success attends the effort, the constriction around the arm is suddenly relaxed, the spiral folds are effaced, and the water bags and fetus press forward into the passage. If the first attempt does not succeed it may be repeated again and again until success crowns the effort. Among my occasional causes of failure have been the prior death and decompo- sition of the fetus, with the extrication of gas and overdistention of the womb, and the supervention of inflammation and inflammatory exudation around the neck of the womb, which hinders untwisting. The first of these conditions occurs early in the horse from the detach- ment of the fetal membranes from the wall of the womb, and as the mare is more subject to fatal peritonitis than the cow, it may be con- cluded that both these sources of failure are more probable in the equine subject. When the case is intractable, though the hand may be easily intro- duced, the instrument shown in Plate IX, figure 7, may be used. Each hole at the small end of the instrument has passed through it a stout cord with a running noose, to be passed around two feet or other portion of the fetus which it may be possible to reach. The cords are then drawn tight and fixed around the handle of the instru- ment ; then, by using the cross handle as a lever, the fetus and womb may be rotated in a direction opposite to that causing the obstruction. During this process the hand must be introduced to feel when the twist has been undone. This method may be supplemented, if neces- sary, by rolling the mare as described above. EFFUSION OF BLOOD IN THE VAGINAE WALLS. This is common as a result of difficult parturition, but it may occur from local injury before that act, and may seriously interfere with it. This condition is easily recognized by the soft, doughy swelling so characteristic of blood clots, and by the dark-red color of the mucous membrane. I have laid open such swellings with the knife as late as ten days before parturition, evacuated the clots, and dressed the wound daily with an astringent lotion (sulphate of zinc 1 dram, carbolic acid 1 dram, water 1 quart). A similar resort might be had, if necessary, during parturition. CALCULUS (STONE) AND TUMOR IN THE BLADDER. The pressure upon the bladder containing a stone or a tumor may prove so painful that the mare will voluntarily suppress the labor pains. Examination of the bladder with the finger introduced through the urethra will detect the offending agent. A stone should be extracted with forceps. (See " Lithotomy.") The large papillary 170 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. tumors which I have met with in the mare's bladder have been inva- riably delicate in texture and could be removed piecemeal by forceps. Fortunately, mares affected in this way rarely breed. IMPACTION OP THE RECTUM WITH FECES. In some animals, with more or less paralysis or weakness of the tail and rectum, the rectum may become so impacted with solid feces that the mare is unable to discharge them, and the accumulation both by reason of the mechanical obstruction and the pain caused by pressure upon it will impel the animal to cut short all labor pains. The rounded swelling surrounding the anus will at once suggest the con- dition, when the obstruction may be removed by the well-oiled or well-soaped hand. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE WOMB. This occurs in the mare of specially excitable temperament, or under particular causes of irritation, local or general. Labor pains, though continuing for some time, produce no dilatation of the neck of the womb, which will be found firmly closed so as to admit but one or two fingers, and this, although the projection at the mouth of the womb may have been entirely effaced, so that a simple round opening is left, with rigid margins. Treatment. — The simplest treatment consists in smearing this part with solid extract of belladonna, and after an interval inserting the hand with fingers and thumb drawn into the form of a cone, ruptur- ing the membranes and bringing the fetus into position for extrac- tion, as advised under " Prolonged retention of the fetus." Another mode is to insert through the neck of the womb an ovoid caoutchouc bag, empty, and furnished with an elastic tube 12 feet long. Carry the free end of this tube upward to a height of 8, 10, or 12 feet, insert a filler into it, and proceed to distend the bag with tepid or warm water. FIBROUS BANDS CONSTRICTING OR CROSSING THE NECK OF THE WOMB. These, occurring as the result of disease, have been several times observed in the mare. They may exist in the cavity of the abdomen and coin] tress and obstruct the neck of the womb, or they nay extend from side to side of the vagina across and just behind the neck of the womb. In the latter position they may be felt and quickly remedied by cutting them across. In the abdomen they can only be reached by incision, and two alternatives are presented: (1) To perform embry- otomy and extract the fetus piecemeal and (2) to make an incision into the abdomen and extract by the Cesarean operation, or simply to cut the constricting band and attempt delivery by f he usual channel. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 171 FIBROUS CONSTRICTION OP VAGINA OR VULVA. This is probably always the result of direct mechanical injury and the formation of rigid cicatrices which fail to dilate with the re- mainder of the passages at the approach of parturition. The pre- sentation of the fetus in the natural way and the occurrence of suc- cessive and active labor pains without any favorable result will direct attention to the rigid and unyielding cicatrices which may be incised at one, two, or more points to a depth of half an inch or more, after which the natural expulsive efforts will usually prove effective. The resulting wounds may be washed frequently with a solution of 1 part of carbolic acid to 50 parts of water, or of 1 part of mercuric chloride to 1,000 parts of water. FETUS ADHERENT TO THE WALLS OF THE WOMB. In inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the cavity of the womb and implicating the fetal membranes, the resulting embryonic tissue sometimes establishes a medium of direct continuity between the womb and fetal membranes ; the blood vessels of the one commu- nicate freely with those of the other and the fibers of the one are prolonged into the other. This causes retention of the membranes after birth, and a special risk of bleeding from the womb, and of septic poisoning. In exceptional cases the adhesion is more extensive and binds a portion of the body of the foal firmly to the womb. In such cases it has repeatedly been found impossible to extract the foal until such adhesions were broken down. If they can be reached with the hand and recognized, they may be torn through with the fingers or with a blunt hook, after which delivery may be attempted with hope of success. EXCESSIVE SIZE OF THE FETUS. It would seem that a small mare may usually be safely bred to a large stallion, yet this is not always the case, and when the small size is an individual rather than a racial characteristic or the result of being very young, the rule can not be expected to hold. There is always great danger in breeding the young, small, and undeveloped female, and the dwarfed representative of a larger breed, as the off- spring tend to partake of the large race characteristics and to show them even prior to birth. When impregnation has occurred in the very young or in the dwarfed female, there are two alternatives — to induce abortion or to wait until there are attempts at parturition and to extract by embryotomy if impracticable otherwise. CONSTRICTION OF A MEMBER BY THE NAVEL STRING. In man and animals alike the winding of the umbilical cord around a member of the fetus sometimes leads to the amputation of the 172 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. latter. It is also known to get wound around the neck or a limb at birth, but in the mare this does not seriously impede parturition, as the loosely attached membranes are easily separated from the womb and no strangulation or retarding occurs. The foal may, however, die from the cessation of the placental circulation unless it is speedily delivered. WATER IN THE HEAD (HYDROCEPHALUS) OF THE FOAL. This consists in the excessive accumulation of liquid in the ventricles of the brain so that the cranial cavity is enlarged and constitutes a great projecting rounded mass occupying the space from the eyes upward. (See Plate XV, fig. 3.) With an anterior presentation (fore feet and nose) this presents an insuperable obstacle to progress as the diseased cranium is too large to enter the pelvis at the same time with the forearms. With a posterior presentation (hind feet) all goes well until the body and shoulders have passed out, when progress is suddenly arrested by the great bulk of the head. In the first case, the oiled hand introduced along the face detects the enormous size of the head, which may be diminished by puncturing it with a knife or trocar and cannula in the median line, evacuating the water and pressing in the thin bony walls. With a posterior presentation, the same course must be followed; the hand passed along the neck will detect the cranial swelling, which may be punc- tured with a knife or trocar. Oftentimes with an anterior presen- tation the great size of the head leads to its displacement backward, and thus the fore limbs alone engage in the passages. Here the first object is to seek and bring up the missing head, and then puncture it as above suggested. DROPSY OK THE ABDOMEN IN THE FOAL, OR ASCITES. The accumulation of liquid in the abdominal cavity of the fetus is less frequent, but when present it may arrest parturition as com- pletely as will hydrocephalus. With an anterior presentation the foal may pass as far as the shoulders, but behind this all efforts fail to secure a further advance. With a posterior presentation the hind legs as far as the thighs may be expelled, but at this point all progress ceases. In either case the oiled hand, passed inward by the side of the foal, will detect the enormous distention of the abdomen and its soft, fluctuating contents. The only course is to puncture the cavity and evacuate the liquid. With the anterior presentation this may be done with a long trocar and cannula, introduced through the chest and diaphragm; or with a knife an incision may be made between the first two ribs and the lungs and heart cut or torn out, when the diaphragm will be felt projecting strongly forward, and may be easily punctured. Should there not be room to introduce the hand DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 173 through the chest, the oiled hand may be passed along beneath the breast bone and the abdomen punctured. With a posterior presenta- tion the abdomen must be punctured in the same way, the hand, armed with a knife protected in its palm, being passed along the side of the flank or between the hind limbs. It should be added that moderate dropsy of the abdomen is not incompatible with natural delivery, the liquid being at first crowded back into the portion of the belly still engaged in the womb, and passing slowly from that into the ad- vanced portion as soon as that has cleared the narrow passage of the pelvis and passed out where it can expand. GENERAL DROPSY OF THE FETUS. In this case the tissues generally are distended with liquid, and the skin is found at all points tense and rounded, and pitting on pressure with the fingers. In some such cases delivery may be effected after the skin has been punctured at narrow intervals to allow the escape of the fluid and then liberally smeared with fresh lard. More com- monly, however, it can not be reached at all points to be so punctured nor sufficiently reduced to be extracted Avhole, and resort must be had to embryotomy. SWELLING OF THE FETUS WITH GAS, OR EMPHYSEMA. This has been described as occurring in a living fetus, but I have only met with it in the dead and decomposing foal after futile efforts have been made for several days to effect delivery. These cases are very difficult ones, as the foal is inflated to such an extent that it is impossible to advance it into the passages, and the skin of the fetus and the walls of the womb and vagina have become so dry that it is impracticable to cause the one to glide on the other. The hair comes off any part that may be seized, and the case is rendered the more offensive and dangerous by the very fetid liquids and gases. The only resort is embryotomy, by which I have succeeded in saving a valuable mare that had carried a colt in this condition for four days. CONTRACTIONS OF MUSCLES. The foal is not always developed symmetrically, but certain groups of muscles are liable to remain short, or to shorten because of per- sistent spasmodic contraction, so that even the bones become distorted and twisted. This is most common in the neck. The bones of this part and even of the face are drawn to one side and shortened, the head being held firmly to the flank and the jaws being twisted to the right or left. In other cases the flexor muscles of the fore limbs are contracted so that these members are strongly bent at the knee. In neither of these cases can the distorted part be extended and straight- 174 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ened, so that body or limbs must necessarily present double, and natural delivery is rendered impossible. The bent neck may some- times be straightened after the muscles have been cut on the side to which it is tinned, and the bent limbs after the tendons on the back of the shank bone have been cut across. Failing to accomplish this, the next resort is embryotomy. TUMORS OF THE FETUS, OR INCLOSED OVUM. Tumors or diseased growths may form on any part of the foal, internal or external, and by their size impede or hinder parturition. In some cases what appears as a tumor is an imprisoned and undevel- oped ovum, which has grafted itself on the fetus. These are usually sacculated, and may contain skin, hair, muscle, bone, and other natural tissues. The only course to be pursued in such cases is to excise the tumor, or, if this is not feasible, to perform embryotomy. MONSTROSITIES. Monstrosity in the foal is an occasional cause of difficult parturi- tion, especially such monsters as show excessive development of some part of the body, a displacement or distortion of parts, or a redun- dancy of parts, as in double monsters. Monsters may be divided into — - (1) Monsters with absence of parts — absence of head, limb, or other organ. (2) Monsters with some part abnormally small — dwarfed head, limb, trunk, etc. (3) Monsters through unnatural division of parts — cleft head, trunk, limbs, etc. (4) Monsters through absence of natural divisions — absence of mouth, nose, eyes, anus, confluent digits, etc. (5) Monsters through fusion of parts — one central eye, one nasal opening, etc. (0) Monsters through abnormal position or form of parts — curved spine, face, limb, etc. (7) Monsters through excess of formation — enormous head, super- numerary digits, etc. (8) Monsters through imperfect differentiation of sexual organs hermaphrodites. (!)) Double monsters — -double-headed, double-bodied, extra limbs, etc. Causes. — The causes of monstrosities appear to be very varied. Sianc monstrosities, like extra digits, absence of horns or tail, etc., run in families and are produced almost as certainly as color or form. Others are associated with too close breeding, the powers of symmet- DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 175 rical development being interfered with, just as in other cases a sex- ual incompatibility is developed, near relatives failing to breed with each other. Mere arrest of development of a part may arise from accidental disease of the embryo; hence vital organs are left out, or portions of organs, like the dividing walls of the heart, are omitted. Sometimes an older fetus is inclosed in the body of another, each having started independently from a separate ovum, but the one having become embedded in the semifluid mass of the other and hav- ing developed there simultaneously with it, but not so largely nor perfectly. In many cases of redundance of parts, the extra part or member has manifestly developed from the same ovum and nutrient center with the normal member to which it remains adherent, just as a new tail will grow out in a newt when the former has been cut off. In the early embryo, with its great powers of development, this fac- tor can operate to far greater purpose than in the adult animal. Its influence is seen in the fact pointed out by St. Hilaire that such redundant parts are nearly always connected with the corresponding portions in the normal fetus. Thus superfluous legs or digits are attached to the normal ones, double heads or tails are connected to a common neck or rump, and double bodies are attached to each other by corresponding points, naval to naval, breast to breast, back to back. All this suggests the development of extra parts from the same primary layer of the impregnated and developing ovum. The effect of disturbing conditions in giving such wrong directions to the developmental forces is well shown in the experiments of St. Hilaire and Valentine in varnishing, shaking, and otherwise break- ing up the natural connections in eggs, and thereby determining the formation of monstrosities at will. So, in the mammal, blows and other injuries that detach the fetal membranes from the walls of the womb or that modify their circulation by inducing inflammation are at times followed by the development of a monster. The excitement, mental and physical, attendant on fright occasionally acts in a simi- lar way, acting probably through the same channels. The monstrous forms likely to interfere with parturition are such as, from contracted or twisted limbs or spine, must be presented double; where supernumerary limbs, head, or body must approach the passages with the natural ones; where a head or other member has attained to an unnatural size; where the body of one f* (us 1ms become inclosed in or attached to another, etc. Extraction is sometimes possible by straightening the members and securing such a presentation as will reduce the presenting mass to its smallest and most wedgelike dimensions. To effect this it may be needful to cut the flexor tendons of bent limbs or the muscles on the side of a twisted neck or body; and one or more of the manipulations necessary to secure and bring up a missing member may be required. 176 DISK ASKS OF THE HORSE. In most cases of monstrosity by excess, however, it is needful to remove the superfluous parts, in which case the general principles employed for embryotomy must be followed. The Cesarean section, by which the fetus is extracted through an incision in the walls of the abdomen and womb, is inadmissible, as it practically entails the sacrifice of the mare, which should never be done for the sake of a monster. (See " Embryotomy," p. 182.) ENTRANCE OF TWINS INTO THE PASSAGE AT ONCE. Twins are rare in the mare, and still more rare is the impaction of both at once into the pelvis. The condition would be easily recog- nized by the fact that two fore limbs and two hind would occupy the passage at once, the front of the hoofs of the fore feet being turned upward and those of the hind feet downward. If both belonged to one foal they would be turned in the same direction. Once recog- nized, the condition is easily remedied by passing a rope with a run- ning noose round each foot of the foal that is farthest advanced or that promises to be most easily extracted, and to push the members of the other fetus back into the depth of the womb. As soon as the one fetus is fully engaged in the passage it will hold its place and its delivery will proceed in the natural way. TABLE OF WRONG PRESENTATIONS. Fore limbs. Anterior pres- entations. Posterior pres- entations. Head ■ Incompletely extended. Flexor tendons short- ened. Crossed over the neck. Bent back at the knee. Bent back from the shoulder. Bent downward on the neck. Head and neck turned back beneath the breast. Turned to one side. Turned upward and backward on the back. Hind limbs Hind feet engaged in the pelvis. Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. fBent on itself at the hock. '\Bent at the hip. Transverse Back of foal to side of pelvis. Inverted Back of foal to floor of pelvis. /With back and loins presented. I With breast and belly presented. Hind limbs Transverse presentation of body FORK LIMBS INCOMPLETELY EXTENDED. In cases of this kind, not only are the back tendons behind the knee and shank bone unduly short, but the sinew extending from the front of the shoulder blade over the front of the elbow and down to the head of the shank bone is also shortened. The result is that the tore limb is bent at the knee and the elbow is also rigidly bent. The condition obstructs parturition by the feet becoming pressed against the floor of the pelvis or by the elbow pressing on its anterior brim. Relief is to be obtained by forcible extension. A rope with a running PLATE XIII. and croup presenXattoTo. . interior presentation Hi rut - limb de i in linn . JULIUS BIEN (t CO ! AHNOH M AL PRE S E N TAT I O N S . PLATE XI V . Anterior presentation Head aimed on side. Anterior prese/itation Head turned, on ha, -J: AB NOR MAL PRE SENTATIONS, 5 = : - — -K - t DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 177 noose is passed around each fetlock and a repell'er (see Plate IX) planted in the breast is pressed in a direction upward and backward while active traction is made on the ropes. If the feet are not thereby- raised from the floor of the pelvis the palm of the hand may be placed beneath them to protect the mucous membrane until they have advanced sufficiently to obviate this danger. In the absence of a repeller, a smooth rounded fork handle may be employed. If the shortening; is too great to allow of the extension of the limbs in this way, the tense tendons may be cut across behind the shank bone and in front of the elbow, and the limb will be easily straightened out. This is most easily done with an embryotomy knife furnished with a ring for the middle finger, so that the blade may be protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) ONE FORE LIMP. CROSSED OVER THE BACK OF THE NECK. With the long fore limbs of the foal this readily occurs, and the resulting increase in thickness, both at the head and shoulder, offers a serious obstacle to progress. (See Plate XI, fig. 2.) The hand introduced into the passage detects the head and one fore foot, and farther back on the same side of the head the second foot, from which the limb may be traced obliquely across the back of the neck. If parturition continues to make progress the displaced foot may bruise and lacerate the vagina. By siezing the limb above the fetlock it may be easily pushed over the head to the proper side, when partu- rition will proceed normally. FORE LIMB BENT AT THE KNEE. The nose and one fore foot present, and on examination the knee of the missing fore limb is found farther back. (Plate XI, fig. 1.) First place a noose each on the presenting pastern and lower jaw, and push back the body of the fetus with a repeller, while the operator seizing the shank of the bent limb extends it so as to press back the knee and bring forward the fetlock and foot. As progress is made little by little the hand is slid down from the region of the knee to the fetlock, and finally that is secured and brought up into the passage, when parturition will proceed without hindrance. If both fore limbs are bent back the head must be noosed and the limbs brought up as above, one after the other. It is usually best to employ the left hand for the right fore limb, and the right hand for the left fore limb. FORE LIMB TURNED BACK FROM THE SHOULDER. In this case, on exploration by the side of the head and presenting limb, the shoulder only can be reached at first. (Plate XI, fig. 4.) By noosing the head and presenting fore limb, these may be drawn forward into the pelvis, and the oiled hand being carried along the H. Doc. 795, 59-2 12 178 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. shoulder in the direction of the missing limb is enabled to reach and seize the forearm just below the elbow. The body is now pushed buck by the assistants pressing on the head and presenting limb or on a repeller planted in the breast until the knee can be brought up into the pelvis, after which the procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. HEAD BENT DOWN BETWEEN THE FORE LIMBS. This may be so that the poll or nape of the neck, with the ears, can be felt far back between the fore limbs, or so that only the upper border of the neck can be reached, head and neck being bent back beneath the body. With the head only bent on the neck, noose the two presenting limbs, then introduce the hand between them until the nose can be seized in the palm of the hand. Next have the assist- ants push back the presenting limbs, while the nose is strongly lifted upward over the brim of the pelvis. This accomplished, it assumes the natural position and parturition is easy. When both head and neck are bent downward it may be impossible to reach the nose. If, however, the labor has only commenced, the limbs may be drawn upon until the operator can reach the ear, by dragging on which the head may be so far advanced that the fingers may reach the orbit; traction upon this while the limbs are being pushed back may bring the head up so that it bends on the neck only, and the further procedure will be as described in the last paragraph. If the labor has been long in progress and the fetus is jammed into the pelvis, the womb emptied of the waters and firmly contracted on its solid contents, the case is incomparably more difficult. The mare may be chloroformed and turned on her back with hind parts ele- vated, and the womb may be injected with sweet oil. Then, if the ear can be reached, the correction of the malpresentation may be at- tempted as above described. Should this fail, one or more sharp hooks may be inserted in the neck as near the head as can be reached, and ropes attached to these may be dragged on, while the body of the foal is pushed back by the fore limbs or by a repeller. Such repul- sion should be made in a direction obliquely upward toward the loins of the mother, so as to rotate the fetus in such a way as to bring the head up. As this is accomplished a hold should be secured nearer and nearer to the nose, with hand or hook, until the head can bo straightened out on the neck. All means failing, it becomes necessary to remove the fore limbs (embryotomy) so as to make more space for bringing up the head. If, even then, this can not be accomplished, it may be possible to push the body backward and upward with the repeller until the hind limbs are brought to the passage, when they may be noosed and delivery effected with the posterior presentation. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 179 HEAD TURNED BACK ON THE SHOULDER. In this case the fore feet present, and the oiled hand passed along the forearms in search of the missing head finds the side of the neck turned to one side, the head being perhaps entirely out of reach. (Plate XIV, fig. 1.) To bring forward the head it may be desirable to lay the mare on the opposite side to that to which the head is turned, and even to give chloroform or ether. Then the feet being noosed, the body of the fetus is pushed by the hand or repeller for- ward and to the side opposite to that occupied by the head until the head comes within reach, near the entrance of the pelvis. If such displacement of the fetus is difficult, it may be facilitated by a free use of oil or lard. When the nose can be seized it can be brought into the passage, as when the head is turned down. If it can not be reached, the orbit may be availed of to draw the head forward until the nose can be seized or the lower jaw noosed. In very difficult cases a rope may be passed around the neck by the hand or with the aid of a curved carrier (Plate IX), and traction may be made upon this while the body is being rotated to the other side. In the same way in bad cases a hook may be fixed in the orbit or even between the bones of the lower jaw to assist in bringing the head up into position. Should all fail, the amputation of the fore limbs may be resorted to as advised under the last heading. HEAD TURNED UPWARD ON THE BACK. This differs from the last malpresentation only in the direction of the head, which has to be sought above rather than at one side, and is to be secured and brought forward in a similar manner. (Plate XIV, fig. 2.) If a rope can be passed around the neck it will prove most effectual, as it naturally slides nearer to the head as the neck is straightened and ends by bringing the head within easy reach. HIND FEET ENGAGED IN THE PELVIS. In this case fore limbs and head present naturally, but the hind limbs bent forward from the hip and the loins arched allow the hind feet also to enter the passages, and the further labor advances the more firmly does the body of the foal become wedged into the pelvis. (Plate XIII, fig. 2.) The condition is to be recognized by introduc- ing the oiled hand along the belly of the fetus, when the hind feet, will be felt advancing. An attempt should at once be made to push them back, one after the other, over the brim of the pelvis. Failing in this, the mare may be turned on her back, head downhill, and the attempt renewed. If it is possible to introduce a straight rope car- rier, a noose passed through this may be put on the fetlock and the repulsion thereby made more effective. In case of continued failure 180 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the anterior presenting part of the body may be skinned and cut off as far back toward the pelvis as possible (see " Embryotomy ") ; then nooses are placed on the hind fetlocks and traction is made upon these while the quarters are pushed back into the womb. Then the re- maining portion is brought away by the posterior presentation. ANTERIOR PRESENTATION WITH BACK TURNED TO ONE SIDE. The greatest diameter of the axis of the foal, like that of the pelvic passages, is from above downward, and when the fetus enters the pelvis with this greatest diameter engaged transversely or in the nar- row diameter of the pelvis, parturition is rendered difficult or impos- sible. In such a case the pasterns and head may be noosed, and the passages and engaged portion of the foal freely lubricated with lard, the limbs may be crossed over each other and the head, and a move- ment of rotation effected in the fetus until its face and back are turned up toward the croup of the mother; then parturition becomes natural. BACK OF THE FOAL TURNED TO THE FLOOR OF THE PELVIS. In a roomy mare this is not an insuperable obstacle to parturi- tion, yet it may seriously impede it, by reason of the curvature of the body of the foal being opposite to that of the passages, and the head and withers being liable to arrest against the border of the pelvis. Lubrication of the passage with lard and traction of the limbs and head will usually suffice with or without the turning of the mare on her back. In obstinate cases two other resorts are open: First, to turn the foal, pushing back the fore parts and bringing up the hind so as to make a posterior presentation, and, second, the amputation of the fore limbs, after which extraction will usually be easy. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEG BENT AT HOCK. In this form the quarters of the foal with the hind legs bent up beneath them present, but can not advance through the pelvis by reason of their bulk. (Plate XI, fig. 3.) The oiled hand introduced can recognize the outline of the buttocks, with the tail and anus in the center and the sharp points of the hocks beneath. First pass a rope around each limb at the hock, then with hand or repeller push the buttocks backward and upward, until the feet can be brought up into the passages. The great length of the shank and pastern in the foal is a serious obstacle to this, and in all cases the foot should be protected in the palm of the hand while being brought up over the brim of the pelvis. Otherwise the womb may be torn. When the pains are too violent and constant to allow effective manipulation, DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 181 some respite may be obtained by the use of chloroform or morphia and by turning the mare on her back, but too often the operator fails and the foal must be sacrificed. Two courses are still open : First, to cut through the cords behind and above the hock and extend the upper part of the limb, leaving the hock bent, and extract in this way, and, second, to amputate the hind limbs at the hip joint and remove them separately, after which the body may be extracted. HIND PRESENTATION WITH LEGS BENT FORWARD FROM THE HIP. This is merely an aggravated form of the presentation last de- scribed. (Plate XIII, fig. 1.) If the mare is roomy, a rope may be passed around each thigh and the body pushed upward and forward, so as to bring the hocks and heels upward. If this can be accom- plished, nooses are placed on the limb farther and farther down until the fetlock is reached and brought into position. If failure is met with, then amputation at the hips is the last resort. HIND PRESENTATIONS WITH THE BACK TURNED SIDEWAYS OR DOWNWARD. These are the counterparts of similar anterior presentations and are to be managed in the same way. PRESENTATION OF THE BACK. This is rare, yet not unknown, the foal being bent upon itself with the back, recognizable by its sharp row of spines, presented at the entrance of the pelvis and the head and all four feet turned back into the womb. (Plate XII, fig. 1.) The body of the fetus may be ex- tended across the opening transversely, so that the head corresponds to one side (right or left), or it may be vertical, with the head above or below. In anjr such position the object should be to push the body of the fetus forward and upward or to one side, as may best promise to bring up the fore or hind extremities, and bring the latter into the passage so as to constitute a normal anterior or posterior presentation. This turning of the fetus may be favored by a given position of the mother, by the free use of oil or lard on the surface of the fetus, and by the use of a propeller. PRESENTATION OF BREAST AND ABDOMEN. This is the reverse of the back presentation, the foal being extended across in front of the pelvic opening, but with the belly turned toward the passages and with all four feet engaged in the passage. (Plate XII, fig. 2.) The most promising course is to secure the hind feet with nooses and then push the fore feet forward into the womb. As 182 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. soon as the fore feet are pushed forward clear of the brim of the pelvis, traction is made on the hind feet so as to bring the thighs into the passage and prevent the reentrance of the fore limbs. If it prove difficult to push back the fore limbs a noose may be passed around the fetlock of each and the cord drawn through the eye of a rope carrier, by means of which the members may be easily pushed back. EMBRYOTOMY. This consists in the dissection of the fetus, so as to reduce its bulk and allow of its exit through the pelvis. The indications for its adop- tion have been furnished in the foregoing pages. The operation will vary in different cases according to the necessity for the removal of one or more parts in order to secure the requisite reduction in size. Thus it may be needful to remove head and neck, one fore limb or both, one hind limb or both, to remove different parts of the trunk, or to remove superfluous (monstrous) parts. Some of the simplest opera- tions in embryotomy (incision of the head in hydrocephalus, incision of the belly in dropsy) have already been described. It remains to notice the more difficult procedures which can be best undertaken by the skilled anatomist. Amputation of the head. — This is easy when both fore limbs are turned back and the head alone has made its exit in part. It is more difficult Avhen the head is still retained in the passages or womb, as in double-headed monsters. The head is secured by a hook in the lower jaw, or in the orbit, or by a halter, and the skin is divided circularly around the lower part of the face or at the front of the ears, according to the amount of head protruding. Then an incision is made backward along the line of the throat, and the skin dissected from the neck as far back as possible. Then the muscles and other soft parts of the neck are cut across, and the bodies of two vertebra? (neck bones) are severed by cutting completely across the cartilage of the joint. The bulging of the ends of the bones will serve to indi- cate the seat of the joint. The head and detached portion of the neck may now be removed by steady pulling. If there is still an obstacle, the knife may be again used to sever any obstinate connections. In the case of a double-headed monster, the whole of the second neck in ust be removed with the head. When the head has been detached, a rope should be passed through the eyeholes, or through an artificial opening in the skin, and tied firmly around the skin, to be employed as a means of traction when the missing limbs or the second head have been brought up into position. Amputation of the hind limb. — This may be required when there are extra hind limbs or when the hind limbs are bent forward at hock or hip joint. In the former condition the procedure resembles that for removal of a fore limb, but requires more anatomical knowledge. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 183 Having noosed the pastern, a circular incision is made through the skin around the fetlock, and a longitudinal one from that up to the groin, and the skin is dissected from the limb as high up as can be reached, over the croup, if possible. Then cut through the muscles around the hip joint, and, if possible, the two interarticular ligaments of the joint (pubio-femoral and round), and extract the limb by strong dragging. Amputation of the fore limbs. — This may usually be begun on the fetlock of the limb projecting from the vulva. An embryotomy knife is desirable. This knife consists of a blade with a sharp, slightly hooked point, and one or two rings in the back of the blade large enough to fit on the middle finger, while the blade is protected in the palm of the hand. (See Plate XV, fig. 4.) Another form has the blade inserted in a mortise in the handle, from which it is pushed out by a movable button when wanted. First place a noose around the fetlock of the limb to be amputated, cut the skin circularly en- tirely around the fetlock, then make an incision on the inner side of the limb from the fetlock up to the breastbone. Next dissect the skin from the limb, from the fetlock up to the breastbone on the inner side, and as far up on the shoulder blade as possible on the outer side. Finally, cut through the muscles attaching the limb to the breast- bone, and employ strong traction on the limb, so as to drag out the whole limb, shoulder blade included. The muscles around the upper part of the shoulder blade are easily torn through and need not be cut, even if that were possible. In no case should the fore limb be removed unless the shoulder blade is taken with it, as that furnishes the greatest obstruction to delivery, above all when it is no longer advanced by the extension of the fore limb, but is pressed back so as to increase the already thickest posterior portion of the chest. The preservation of the skin from the whole limb is advantageous in various ways; it is easier to cut it circularly at the fetlock than at the shoulder; it covers the hand and knife in making the needful incisions, thus acting as a protection to the womb; and it affords a means of traction on the body after the limb has been removed. In dissecting the skin from the limb the knife is not needful at all points; much of it may be stripped off with the fingers or knuckles, or by a blunt iron spud pushed up inside the hide, which is mean- while held tense to render the spud effective. In case the limb is bent forward at the hock, a rope is passed round that and pulled so as to bring the point of the hock between the lips of the vulva. The hamstring and the lateral ligaments of the hock are now cut through, and the limbs extended by a rope tied round the lower end of the long bone above (tibia). In case it is still needful to remove the upper part of the limb, the further procedure is the same as described in the last paragraph. 184 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Tn case the limb is turned forward from the hip, and the fetus so wedged into the passage that turning is impossible, the case is very difficult. I have repeatedly succeeded by cutting in on the hip joint and disarticulating it. then dissecting the muscles back from the upper end of the thigh bone. A noose was placed around the neck of the bone and pulled on forcibly, while any unduly resisting struc- tures were cut with the knife. Cartwright recommends to make free incisions round the hip joints and tear through the muscles when they can not be cut ; then with cords round the pelvic bones, and hooks inserted in the openings in the floor of the pelvis to drag out the pelvic bones; then put cords around the heads of the thigh bones and extract them ; then remove the intestines; and finally, by means of the loose, detached skin, draw out the body with the remainder of the hind limbs bent forward beneath it. Reuff cuts his way into the pelvis of the foal, and with a knife separates the pelvic bones from the loins, then skinning the quarter draws out these pelvic bones by means of ropes and hooks, and along with them the hind limbs. The hind limbs having been removed by one or the other of these procedures, the loose skin detached from the pelvis is used as a means of traction and delivery is effected. If it has been a monstrosity with extra hind limbs, it may be possible to bring these up into the passage and utilize them for traction. Removal of the abdominal viscera. — In case the belly is unduly large, from decomposition, tumors, or otherwise, it may be needful to lay it open with the knife and cut or tear out the contents. Removal of the thoracic viscera. — To diminish the bulk of the chest it has been found advisable to cut out the breastbone, remove the heart and lungs, and allow the ribs to collapse with the lower free ends overlapping each other. Dissection of the trunk. — In case it becomes necessary to remove other portions of the trunk, the general rule should be followed of preserving the skin so that all manipulations can be made inside this as a protector, that it may remain available as a means of exercising traction on the remaining part of the body, and as a covering to protect the vaginal walls against injuries from bones while such part is passing. FLOODING, OR BLEEDING FROM THE WOMB. This is rare in the mare, but not unknown, in connection with a failure of the womb to contract on itself after parturition, or with ovnsion of the womb (casting the withers), and congestion or lacera- tion. If the blood accumulates in the flaccid womb, the condition may only be suspected by reason of the rapidly advancing weakness, DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 185 swaying, unsteady gait, hanging head, paleness of the eyes and other mucous membranes, and weak, small, failing pulse. The hand in- troduced into the womb detects the presence of the blood partly clotted. If the blood escapes by the vulva, the condition is evident. Treatment consists in evacuating the womb of its blood clots, giv- ing a large dose of powdered ergot of rye, and in the application of cold water or ice to the loins and external generative organs. Besides this, a sponge impregnated with a strong solution of alum, or, still better, with tincture of muriate of iron, may be introduced into the Avomb and squeezed so as to bring the liquid in contact with the walls generally. EVERSION OF THE WOMB. If the womb fails to contract after difficult parturition, the after- pains will sometimes lead to the fundus passing into the body of the organ and passing through that and the vagina until the whole inverted organ appears externally and hangs down on the thighs. The result is rapid engorgement and swelling of the organ, impaction of the rectum with feces, and distention of the bladder with urine, all of which conditions seriously interfere with the return of the mass. In returning the womb the standing is preferable to the recumbent position, as the abdomen is more pendent and there is less obstruc- tion to the return. It may, however, be necessary to put hobbles on the hind limbs to prevent the mare from kicking. A clean sheet should be held beneath the womb, and all filth, straw, and foreign bodies washed from its surface. Then with a broad, elastic (india rubber) band, or in default of that a long strip of calico 4 or 5 inches wide, wind the womb as tightly as possible, beginning at its most dependent part (the extremity of the horn). This serves two good ends. It squeezes out into the general circulation the enormous mass of blood which engorged and enlarged the organ, and it furnishes a strong protective covering for the now delicate friable organ, through which it may be safely manipulated without danger of laceration. The next step may be the pressure on the general mass while those portions next the vulva are gradually pushed in with the hands; or the extreme lowest point (the end of the horn) may be turned within itself and pushed forward into the vagina by the closed fist, the return being assisted by manipulations by the other hand, and even by those of assistants. By either mode the manipulations may be made with almost perfect safety so long as the organ is closely wrapped in the bandage. Once a portion has been introduced into the vagina the rest will usually follow with increasing ease, and the operation should be completed with the hand and arm extended the full length within the womb and moved from point to point so as to straighten out all parts of the organ and insure that no portion still 186 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. remains inverted within another portion. Should any such partial inversion be left it will give rise to straining, under the force of which it will gradually increase until the whole mass will be protruded as before. The next step is to apply a truss as an effectual me- chanical barrier to further escape of the womb through the vulva. The simplest is made with two inch ropes, each about 18 feet long. These are each doubled and interwoven at the bend, as seen in Plate IX, figure 4. The ring formed by the interlacing of the two ropes is adjusted around the vulva, the two ends of the one rope are carried up on the right and left of the tail and along the spine, being wound round each other in their course, and are finally tied to the upper part of the collar encircling the neck. The remaining two ends, belonging to the other rope, are carried downward and forward between the thighs and thence forward and upward on the sides of the belly and chest to be attached to the right and left sides of the col- lar. These ropes are drawn tightly enough to keep closely applied to the opening without chafing, and will fit still more securely when the mare raises her back to strain. It is desirable to tie the mare short so that she may be unable to lie down for a day or two, and she should be kept in a stall with the hind parts higher than the fore. Violent straining may be checked by full doses of opium (one-half dram), and any costiveness or diarrhea should be obviated by a suitable laxa- tive or binding diet. In some mares the contractions are too violent to allow of the return of the womb, and full doses of opium one-half dram, laudanum 2 ounces, or chloral hydrate 1 ounce, may be demanded, or the mare must be rendered insensible by ether or chloroform. RUPTURE, OR LACERATION, OF THE WOMB. This may occur from the feet of the foal during parturition, or from ill-directed efforts to assist, but it is especially liable to take place in the everted, congested, and friable organ. The resultant dangers are bleeding from the wound, escape of the bowels through the opening and their fatal injury by the mare's feet or otherwise, and peritonitis from the extension of inflammation from the wound and from the poisonous action of the septic liquids of the womb escaping into the abdominal cavity. The first object is to close the wound, but unless in excision of the womb this is practically impossible. In the last-named condition the wound must be carefully and accurately sewed ii]) before the womb is returned. After its return, the womb must be injected daily with an antiseptic solution (borax, one-half ounce, or carbolic acid, 3 drams to a quart of tepid water). If in- flammation threatens, the abdomen may be bathed continuously with hot water by means of a heavy woolen rag, and large doses of opium (one-half dram) may be given twice or thrice daily. DIFFICULT PARTURITION. 187 RUPTURES OF THE VAGINA. These are attended by dangers similar to those belonging to rup- ture of the womb, and in addition by the risk of protrusion of the bladder, which appears through the lips of the vulva as a red pyri- form mass. Sometimes such lacerations extend downward into the bladder, and in others upward into the terminal gut (rectum). In still other cases the anus is torn so that it forms one common orifice with the vulva. Too often such cases prove fatal, or at least a recovery is not at- tained, and urine or feces or both escape freely into the vagina. The simple laceration of the anus is easily sewed up, but the ends of the muscular fibers do not reunite and the control over the lower bowel is never fully reacquired. The successful stitching up of the wound communicating with the bladder or the rectum requires unusual skill and care, and though I have succeeded in a case of the latter kind, I can not advise the attempt by unprofessional persons. BLOOD CLOTS IN THE WALLS OF THE VAGINA. (See " Effusion of blood in the vaginal walls," p. 169.) INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB AND PERITONEUM. These may result from injuries sustained by the womb during or after parturition, from exposure to cold or wet, or from the irritant infective action of putrid products within the womb. Under the inflammation the womb remains dilated and flaccid, and decomposi- tion of its secretions almost always occurs, so that the inflammation tends to assume a putrid character and general septic infection is likely to occur. Symptoms. — The symptoms are ushered in by shivering, staring coat, small rapid pulse, elevated temperature, accelerated breathing, inappetence, with arched back, stiff movement of the body, looking back at the flanks, and uneasy motions of the hind limbs, discharge from the vulva of a liquid at first watery, reddish, or yellowish, and later it may be whitish or glairy, and fetid or not in different cases. Tenderness of the abdomen shown on pressure is especially character- istic of cases affecting the peritoneum or lining of the belly, and is more marked lower down. If the animal survives, the inflammation tends to become chronic and attended by a whitish muco-purulent discharge. If, on the contrary, it proves fatal, death is preceded by extreme prostration and weakness from the general septic poisoning. Treatment. — In treatment the first thing to be sought is the removal of all offensive and irritant matters from the womb through a caout- chouc tube introduced into the womb, and into which a funnel is fitted. Warm water should be passed until it comes away clear. To 188 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. insure that all of the womb has been washed out, the oiled hand may be introduced to carry the end of the tube into the two horns successively. When the offensive contents have been thus removed, the womb should be injected with a quart of water holding in solu- tion 1 dram permanganate of potash, or, in the absence of the latter, 2 teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. Repeat twice daily. Fomentation of the abdomen, or the application of a warm flaxseed poultice, may greatly relieve. Acetanilid, in doses of half an ounce, repeated twice or thrice a da}', or sulphate of quinia in doses of one-third ounce, may be employed to reduce the fever. If the great prostration indi- cates septic poisoning, large doses (one-half ounce) bisulphite of soda, or salicylate of soda, or sulphate of quinine may be resorted to. LETJCORRHEA. This is a white, glutinous, chronic discharge, the result of a contin- ued subacute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the womb. Like the discharge of acute inflammation, it contains many forms of bacteria, by some of which it is manifestly inoculable on the penis of the stallion, producing ulcers and a specific gonorrheal discharge. Treat in (at may consist in Hie internal use of tonics (sulphate of iron, 3 drams, daily) and the washing out of the womb, as described under the last heading, followed by an astringent antiseptic injection (carbolic acid 2 teaspoonfuls, tannic acid one-half dram, water 1 quart). This may be repeated two or three times a day. LAMINITIS, OR FOUNDER, FOLLOWING PARTURITION. This sometimes follows on inflammation of the womb, as it fre- quently does on disorder of the stomach. Its symptoms agree with those of the common form of founder, and treatment need not differ. DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 'congestion and inflammation of the udder. This is comparatively rare in the mare, though in some cases the udder becomes painfully engorged before parturition, and a doughy swelling, pitting on pressure, extends forward on the lower surface of the abdomen. When this goes on to active inflammation, one or both of the glands become enlarged, hot, tense, and painful; the milk is dried up or replaced by a watery or reddish serous fluid, which at times becomes fetid ; the animal walks lame, loses appetite, and shows general disorder and fever. The condition may end in recovery, in abscess, induration, or gangrene, and in some cases may lay the foun- dation for a tumor of the gland. Treatment. — The treatment is simple so long as there is only con- gestion. Active rubbing with lard or oil. or, better, camphorated DISEASES OF THE UDDER AND TEATS. 189 oil, and the frequent drawing off of the milk, by the foal or with the hand, will usually bring about a rapid improvement. When active inflammation is present, fomentation with warm water may be kept up for an hour and followed by the application of the cam- phorated oil, to which has been added some carbonate of soda and extract of belladonna. A dose of laxative medicine (4 drams Bar- bados aloes) will be of service reducing fever, and one-half ounce saltpeter daily will serve a similar end. In case the milk coagulates in the udder and can not be withdrawn, or when the liquid becomes fetid, a solution of 20 grains carbonate of soda and 10 drops carbolic acid dissolved in an ounce of water should be injected into the teat. In doing this it must be noted that the mare has three separate ducts opening on the summit of each teat and each must be carefully in- jected. To draw off the fetid product it may be needful to use a small milking tube, or spring teat dilator designed by the writer. (Plate VIII, figs. 2 and 3.) When pus forms and points externally and can not find a free escape by the teat, the spot where it fluctu- ates must be opened freely with the knife and the cavity injected daily with the carbolic-acid lotion. When the gland becomes hard and indolent, it may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment 1 part, vaseline 6 parts. TUMORS OF THE UDDER. As the result of inflammation of the udder it may become the seat of an indurated diseased growth, which may go on growing and seri- ously interfere with the movement of the hind limbs. If such swell- ings will not give way in their early stages to treatment by iodine, the only resort is to cut them out with a knife. As the gland is often implicated and has to be removed, such mares can not in the future suckle their colts and therefore should not be bred. SORE TEATS, SCABS, CRACKS, WARTS. By the act of sucking, especially in cold weather, the teats are sub- ject to abrasions, cracks, and scabs, and as the result of such irrita- tion, or independently, warts sometimes grow and prove troublesome. The warts should be clipped off with sharp scissors and their roots burned with a solid pencil of lunar caustic. This is best done before parturition to secure healing before suckling begins. For sore teats use an ointment of vaseline 1 ounce, balsam of tolu 5 grains, and sulphate of zinc 5 grains. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By M. R. Trumbowkk, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, P>. S., V. M. D.] THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous sj^stem may be regarded as consisting of two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a communication between the centers and the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions: First, the cerebrospinal system; second, the symjjathetic, or ganglionic system. Each is possessed of its own central and peripheral organs. In the first, the center is made up of two portions — one large and expanded (the brain) placed in the cranial cavity; the other elon- gated (spinal cord), continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The peripheral portion of this sys- tem consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- nected by nerve cords which extends from the head to the rump on each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the junctions. Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- tion of nervous matter, namel} 7 , the white or medullary, and the gray or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in consequence of which the principal nervous centers are well protected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two distinct forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to place the central nervous organs in connection with peripheral end organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic, or reflex, movements, and also 190 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 191 for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath — the neurilemma. Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves do not retract. Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon, any part of the nerve. Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them; they retain their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory, or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to organs of motion are termed motor, or centrifugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, as follows : It is intended to associate the different parts of the body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may excite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum — and it is cov- ered by three membranes, called the meninges. The outer of these membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is continuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord ; it forms two layers, leav- ing between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro- spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, or inner, the pia mater, is closely adher- ent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord, which it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, extending to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large in the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part join- ing the cord. The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cerebrum. The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, immediately above the medulla oblongata ; it is globular or elliptical 192 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cerebellum is composed of gray matter externally and of white matter in the center. The cerebellum has the function of coordinating move- ments; that is, of so associating them as to cause them to accomplish a definite purpose. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbances of tha equilibrium, but do not interfere with the will power or intelligence. The a rebrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base, and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. Only when they are intact are the process of feeling, thinking, and willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The spinal cord, or spinal marrow, is that part of the cerebro- spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of nerve trunks— cauda equina. A transverse section of the cord reveals that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray matter internally. The spinal cord. does not fill up the whole spinal canal. The latter contains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each by two roots, a superior, or sensory, and an inferior, or motor. The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special names, according to their functions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz ; 1. Olfactory. "• Facial. 2. Optic ■ 8. Auditory. 3. Oculomotor. '•»• Glosso-pharyngeal. 4. Pathetic. 10 - Pneumogastric. 5. Trifacial. H- Spinal-accessory. C. Ahduccns. 12. Hypoglossal. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the anatomical division's of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary inflammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the era- DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 193 nium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflamma- tion, except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes involved in the morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate in- flammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflam- mation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses — the cerebrum, cerebellum, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain — without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflamma- tion invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly called encephalitis; when the membranes alone are affected, it is called meningitis ; or the brain substance alone, cerebritis. Since all of the conditions merge into each other and can scarcely be recognized separately during the life of the animal, they may here be considered together. ENCEPHALITIS, MENINGITIS, AND CEREBRITIS (INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES). Causes. — Exposure to extreme heat or cold, sudden and extreme changes of temperature, excessive continued cerebral excitement, over- feeding with nitrogenous foods, direct injuries to the brain, such as concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, overexertion, sometimes as sequela? to influenza, pyemia, poisons having a direct influence upon the encephalic mass, extension of inflammation from neighboring structures, food poisoning, tumors, parasites, metastatic abscesses, etc. Symptoms. — The diseases here grouped together are accompanied by a variety of symptoms almost none of which, however, are asso- ciated so definitely with a special pathological process as to point unmistakably to a given lesion. Usually the first symptoms indicate mental excitement, and these are followed by symptoms indicating depression. Acute encephalitis may be ushered in by an increased sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contrac- tion of the pupils of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks these symptoms, hmvover, are not always noted. This condi- tion will soon be followed by muscular twitchings, convulsive or spasmodic movements, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated, convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where the brain substances are principally affected stupor and coma will be the prominent symptoms. Tn the former, condition the pulse will be quick and hard: in the latter, soft or depressed with often a dila- tation of the pupils, and deep, slow, stertorous breathing. The it. T><;r. 7!).",. nn-2 13 194 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. symptoms may follow one another in rapid succession, ami the disease approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute attacks the symptoms are better defined, and the animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improve- ment may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paral- ysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, succeeded by ;i decrease when coma becomes manifest. The violence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases there may be marked paral- ysis of certain muscles, while in others there may be spasmodic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal be- comes extremely violent early in the attack, and by rearing up, strik- ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, prop- ping himself against the manger or Avail, until he falls from inability of muscular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may go through a series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as trotting or walking, and, if loose in a stall, will move around in a circle persistentty. Earty and persistent constipation of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain; re- tention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Following these symptoms there are depression, loss of power and consciousness, lack of ability or desire to move, and usually fall of temperature. At this stage the horse stands with legs propped, the head hanging or resting on the manger, the eyes partly closed, and does not respond when spoken to or when struck with a whip. Chronic encephalitis or meningitis may succeed the acute stage, or may be due to stable miasma, blood poison, narcotism, lead poison- ing, etc. This form may not be characterized in its initial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal usually appears at first stupid; eats slowly: the pupil of the eye does not respond to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head or shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and sluggish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some variations, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encephalitis may affect an animal for ten daj^s or two weeks without much variation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. Tf im- provement commences, the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order in which they developed, with the exception of the paralytic effects, which remain intractable or permanent. Paralysis of certain sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 195 acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain or to exuda- tion into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. Softening and abscess of the brain is one of the terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. The symptoms are drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some cases the symptoms are analogous to those of apoplexy. The char- acter of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. Cerebral sclerosis sometimes follows inflammation in the struct- ure of the brain affecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappearance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis and may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Complete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. Lesions. — On making post-mortem examinations of horses which have died in the first stages of either of these diseases we will find an excessive engorgement of the capillaries and small blood vessels, with correspondingly increased redness and changes in both the contents and the walls of the vessels. If death has occurred at a later period of the disease it will be found that, in addition to the redness and en- gorgement, an exudation of the contents of the blood vessels into the tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. If the case has been one of encephalitis, there will usually be found more or less watery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the subarachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different cases. Exudations of a membranous character may be present and are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous effusion, there are changes which may be regarded as characteristic in the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indications of hemorrhages in connection with the membra- nous formations. Hematoma, or blood tumors, may be found em- bedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. The menin- gitis may be suppurative. In this case, a puslike exudate is found between the membranes covering the brain. In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of 196 DISEASES OF THE HORSK. abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, sur- rounded Avith a softened condition of the brain matter, and some- times we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development the walls of the abscesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older or chronic cases, the Avails of the abscesses are generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac, or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor. Treatment. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the membranes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and engorged blood vessels and the rapid accumulation of inflamma- tory products that endangers the life of the animal in even the very early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood vessels, the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to contend with later on. The leading object, then, to be accomplished in the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cere- bri is is to relieve the engorgement of the blood vessels before a dan- gerous degree of effusion or exudation has taken place, and thereby lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If the attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory prod- ucts and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set in, then the main objects in further treatment are to keep up the strength of the animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or stupor with increase of temperature and quickened pulse, we should apply cold to the head in the form of cold water or ice. For this pur- pose cloths or bags may be used, and they should be renewed as often as necessary. If the disease is still in its early stages and the animal is strong, bleeding from the jugular vein may be beneficial. Good results are to be expected only during the stage of excitement, while there is a strong, full pulse and the mucous membranes of the head are red from a plentiful supply of blood. The finger should be kept on the pulse and the blood allowed to flow until there is distinct softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following medicine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water and be given at one dose : Barbados aloe-. 7 drams; calomel. -2 drams: powdered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite. 'JO drops. The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible. When the animal becomes thirsty half an ounce of bromide of potash may be dissolved in his drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the action of the purgative. Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride, in DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 197 20-drop closes, should be given every hour and 1 dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. If this treatment fails to give relief, the disease will pass into the advanced stages, or, if the animal has been neglected in the early stages, the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injec- tion of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in 1 dram of water, every six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mus- tard. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be observed in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. • If the disease becomes chronic (encephalitis or meningitis), we must place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental treatment as special symptoms may demand. Iodide of potassium in 2-dram doses should be given three times a daj^ and 1 dram of calo- mel once a day to induce absorption of effusions or thickened mem- branes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in 1-dram doses, to which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. After the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment) may be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in 2-grain doses, in combination with the other tonics, may be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, bene- fit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. Many of the recoveries will, however, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predis- posed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is exposed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries, they have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, uremic poisoning, pyemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. Cerebral softening, abscess, and sclerosis are practically inaccess- ible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diagnosis is largely presumptive. CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN, OR MEGRIMS. Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the vessels, also called hyperemia, or engorgement. It may be active or passive — active when there is an undue determination of blood or diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. 198 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Causes. — Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of extreme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the heart, such as a small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood current, tumors or abscesses pressing on the vein in its course, and organic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, U merely a functional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the con- trary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplexy. Symptoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly and shake his head or stand quietly braced on his legs, then stagger, make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or to disease of the blood vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may be of slow 7 development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or im- perfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensi- bility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effusion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain, followed by paralysis and other complications. Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded w T ith blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes act mil compression, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post- mortem examinations this engorgement is found universal through- out the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged con- gestion may. however, lend to active inflammation, and in that case we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the intensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases where several attacks have occurred the blood vessels are often found permanently dilated. Treatment. — Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, SUNSTROKE. 199 the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. The horse should be bled freely from the jugular vein. If due to tumors or abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To revive the animal if he becomes partially or totally unconscious, cold water should be dashed on the head. Give a purge of Glauber's salts. If the limbs are cold, tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active cathartic and iodide of potassa will be indicated, to be given as prescribed for inflammation of the brain. Prevention. — Well-adjusted collar, with strap running from the collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling upgrade; regular feed and exercise, without allowing the animal to become ex- cessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free-and-easy movement of the head; well-ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. SUNSTROKE, HEAT STROKE, OR HEAT EXHAUSTION. The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclu- sively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the action of great heat combined generally with humid atmosphere. Exhaustion produced by a long-continued heat is often the essential factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track un- dergoing protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat exhaustion. Draft horses exposed to the direct rays of the sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, and rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sun- stroke. Symptoms. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very slow and irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. The temperature becomes very high, reaching 105° to 109° F. In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally perspiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery or bloodshot, nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color; the pulse is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousness and death. If recovery takes place, convalescence extends over a long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. Pathology. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital 200 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anemia, or want of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. There are also changes in the composition of the blood. Treatment. — ruder no circumstances is bloodletting permissible in sunstroke. Ice or ver}' cold water should be applied to the head and along the spine, and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 ounces of whisky should be given in 1 pint of water. Cold water should be showered upon the body of the horse from the hose or otherwise. This should be continued until the temperature is down to 103° F. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stim- ulants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become stronger and sloAver. In cither case, when reaction has occurred, preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during conva- lescence: Sulphate of iron, 1 dram; gentian. ."> drams; red cinchona bark, 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening. Prevention. — In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges or light sunshades on the head when at work, or the head may be sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper attention should be given to feeding and watering, .never in excess. During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ven- tilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease he should receive such treatment as will tend to build up the system. Horses should be permitted to drink as much water as they want while they are at work during hot weather. An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting causes. APOPLEXV, OR CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood vessels, with blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the predisposing and the exciting. The predisposing cause is degen- eration, or disease which weakens the blood vessel; the exciting cause is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensa- tion and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breath- ing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon be- comes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 201 sudden paralysis of some part of the body is the result. The extent and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extrava- sated blood ; hence these conditions are very variable. In the absence of any premonitory symptoms or an increase of tem- perature in the early stage of the attack, we may be reasonably certain in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the brain, or sunstroke. Pathology. — In apoplexy there is generally found an atheromatous condition of the cerebral vessels, with weakening and degeneration of their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substances may follow, or softening and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place and avoid all stimulating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be harmful than of benefit, and bloodletting in an apoplectic fit is extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened blood vessels, the animal remains subject to subsequent attacks. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone may press upon the brain, and, according to its size, the brain is robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extravasation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arach- noid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized paralysis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side of the body from the location of the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of 202 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose; by a blow on the head, etc. Train accidents during shipping often cause concussion of the brain. Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding imme- diately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal may rally quickly or not for hours; death may occur on the spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or stunning, the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insensibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble; the surface of the body cold, muscles relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable interval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Convalescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent im- pairment of some organs remains. Pathology. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which, if not sufficiently severe to produce sudden death, may lead to softening or inflammation, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished by dashing cold water on the head and body of the ani- mal ; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the animal gains partial consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the pos- sible rupture of blood vessels and blood extravasation, the reaction may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further treatment unless complications develop as a secondary result. Bleed- ing, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 203 this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is unconscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in inspiration. Prevention. — Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it fre- quently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain concussion when they strike the ground. ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN. This is a physiological condition in sleep. Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anemic, and fainting fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anemia, ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most frequent cause is found in plugging, or occlusion, of the arteries by a blood clot. Symptoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or epileptic fits occur. Pathology. — The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub- stance softened. Treatment. — Removal of the remote cause when possible. General tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous excitement. HYDROCEPHALUS, OR DROPSY OF THE BRAIN. This condition consists in an unnatural collection of fluid about or in the brain. Depending upon the location of the fluid, we speak of external and internal hydrocephalus. External hydrocephalus is seen chiefly in young animals. It con- sists in a collection of fluid under the meninges, but outside of the brain proper. This defect is usually congenital. It is accompanied by an enlargement of the skull, especially in the region of the fore- head. The pressure of the fluid may cause the bones to soften. The disease is incurable and usually fatal. Internal hydrocephalus is a disease of mature horses, and consists in the accumulation of an excessive quantity of fluid in the cavities or ventricles of the cerebrum. The cause of this accumulation may be a previous inflammation, a defect in the circulation of blood 204 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. through the brain, heat stroke, overwork, excessive nutrition, or long- continued indigestion. Common, heavy-headed draft horses are pre- disposed to this condition. The symptoms are an expression of dullness and stupidity, and rom their nature this di aase is sometimes known as " dumminess " or " immobility." A horse so afflicted is called a " dummy." Among the symptoms are loss of intelligence, stupid expression, poor mem- ory, etc The appetite is irregular; the horse may stop chewing with a wisp of hay protruding from his lips; he seems to forget that it is there. Unnatural positions are sometimes assumed, the legs being placed in clumsy and unusual attitudes. Such horses are difficult to drive, as they do not respond readily to the word, to pressure of the bit, or to the whip. Gradually the pulse becomes weaker, respiration becomes faster, and the subject loses weight. Occasionally there are periods of great excitement due to temporary congestion of the brain. At such times the horse becomes quite uncontrollable. A horse so afflicted is said to have " staggers.* 1 The outlook for recovery is not good. Treatment is merely palliative. Regular work or exercise and nutri- tious food easy of digestion, with plenty of fresh water, are strongly indicated. Intensive feeding should not be practiced. The bowels should be kept open by the use of appropriate diet or by the use of small regular doses of Glauber's salts. TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. Tumors within the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infre- quently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Among the more common tumors are the following: Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not very uncommon. Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying- loose within the cranium. Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently met with on post-mortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreciable symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the form of small, black nodules in gray horses, and in one instance are believed to have induced the condition known as stringhalt. Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal struc- tures of the brain. DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 205 Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the structure of the cerebellum. Treatment for tumors of the brain is impossible. SPASMS, OR CRAMPS. Causes. — Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate an excessive action of the reflex motor centers. Spasms may be induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by effete materials in the circulation, such as nux vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead preparations, or an excess of the urea products in the circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: Tonic spasm, when the cramp is continuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxations. Spasms may affect involuntary as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their development. Spasm of the glottis. — This is manifested by a strangling respira- tion ; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration ; extreme anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very dark colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. Spasms of the intestines. — (See " Cramp colic," p. 58.) Spasms of the neck of the bladder. — This may be due to spinal irri- tation or a reflex from intestinal irritation, and is manifested by fre- quent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. Spasm of the diaphragm, or thumps. — Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally occasioned by extreme and prolonged speeding on the race track or road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, and the contractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking character known among horsemen as "thumps." This condition may be distinguished from violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking movement of the body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no relation to each other. (See " Palpitation of the heart," p. 236.) Spasm of the thigh, or cramp of a hind limb. — This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors — generally in eold weather — or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, and attempts to flex 20G DISEASES OF THE HORSE. the leg arc unsuccessful; the animal stands on the affected limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, however, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — or it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dislocation of the stifle joint. In the latter the foot is extended back- ward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Spasms may affect the eyelids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno-maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. Treatment of spasms. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloro- form 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscle- will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single exter- nal muscles are affected. In spasms of the glottis, inhalation of sul- phuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest and the administration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypo- dermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nerv- ous system, the latter should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes relaxation very quickly ; therefore the animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or lauda- num given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will cer- tainly relieve the spasm when given internally, but the cramp may return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it does very quickly. Convulsions. — Although there is no disease of the nervous system which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. General, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body. with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irrita- tion of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self- limited in its duration. Suspending, as it does, respiratory move- ments, checking the oxygenation and decarbonization of the blood, the rapid accumulation of carbonic-acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitabil- DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 207 ity that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is instituted must be directed toward a removal of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. CHOREA, OR ST. VITUS DANCE. Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to pressure upon a nerve, cerebral, or spinal sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sud- den jerking up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walking. This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to increase with the age of the animal. In some the catching up of the affected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground like a pile driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect one of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the hip or thigh is seen occasionally, and is termed " shivering " by horsemen. Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. Treatment. — In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affec- tion, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 (ham; pulverized mix vomica, 1 dram; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce. Mix and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. Arsenic in the form of Fowler's solution is often beneficial. If the cause is con- nected with organic brain lesions, treatment is usually unsuccessful. EPILEPSY, OR FALLING FITS. The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice a year or they may be of frequent recurrence. Symptoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The animal suddenly staggers; the muscles become cramped; the jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue be- 208 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. come lacerated between the teeth; he foams at the mouth and falls down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the breathing may be temporarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on his feet in a feAv minutes after the return of consciousness. Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. After the recovery, 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic prescribed for chorea. PARALYSIS, OR PALSY. Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, by diminution of loss of the. conducting power or stimulation of the motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the complete and the incomplete. The former includes those in which both motion and sensibility are affected ; the latter those in which only one or the other is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial. The latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is desig- nated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the periphery of the center it is termed reflex paralysis. Causes. — The} r are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease of the blood vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the. parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed a general paralysis, and in nonfatal attacks is a frequent cause of the various forms of palsy. General paralysis. — This can not take place without producing immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, concussion, or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. Hemiplegia^ or paralysis of one side, or half, of the body. — Hemi- plegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of the brain, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from extra vasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to poi- sons in the blood or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflamma- tory character, it is seldom complete; it may affecl only one limb and one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off in a few days srfter the disappearance of all the other evidences of the PARALYSIS. 209 primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood vessels of the brain, or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the paralysis. Symptoms. — In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body, one side of the lips will be relaxed ; the tongue may hang out on one side of the mouth ; the tail curved around sideways ; an inability to swallow food or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be entirely lost or only partial ; the limbs may be cold and sometimes unnaturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the animal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is complete loss of power of movement, recoveries are rare. Paraplegia, or transverse paralysis of the hind extremities. — Pa- ralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury or inflam- mation affecting the spinal cord. (See " Spinal meningitis," p. 211, and ""Myelitis, p. 213.) It may also be due to a reflex irrigation from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion caused by blood poisons, etc. Symptoms. — When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its character, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the blood, it may be intermittent or recurrent. Paraplegia is not difficult to recognize, for it is characterized by a weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs and powerless tail. The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill- conditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruising, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and necessitate his destruction. Locomotor ataxia, or incoordination of movement. — This is charac- terized by an inability to control properly the movement of the limbs. The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. "When this is confined to the hind parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are " H. Doc. 795, 59-2 14 210 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure exerted on the base of the brain. Local paralysis. — This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very frequently overlooked in diagnosis. Facial paralysis. — This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblon- gata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. Symptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in chewing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. Laryngismus paralyticus, or roaring. — This condition is character- ized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertro- phied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar con- dition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by plastic exudation. Paralysis of the rectum and tail. — This is generally the result of a blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supplying the tail and part of the rectum and muscles belonging thereto. This facture would not be suspected were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. Intestinal paralysis. — Characterized by persistent constipation ; frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases implicating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affections or be due to reflex paralysis. Sud- den checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. Paralysis of the bladder. — This usually affects the neck of the blad- der, and is characterized by incontinence of urine; the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors growing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, etc. Paralysis of the optic nerve, or amaurosis. — A paralysis of eyesight may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the administration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. In amaurosis the pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but does not respond to light. SPINAL MENINGITIS. 211 Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paralysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from injury to the vaso-motor nerves of the esophagus, or loss of deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of nervous influence is impaired or suspended. Treatment for paralysis. — In all paralytic affections there may be anesthesia, or impairment of sensibility, in addition to the loss of motion, or there may be hyperesthesia, or increased sensibility, in -connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is marked anesthesia, or loss of sensibility, it may become necessary to secure the animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treat- ment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general external and internal treatment. Externally, fly blisters or strong irritant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemi- plegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck ; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a day until twitching of some of the voluntary muscles occurs; then discontinue it for several days, and then commence again with a smaller dose, gradually increasing it until twitching recurs. Iodide of potash in 1 to 2 dram doses two or three times daily may be em- ployed with the hope that it will favor the absorption of the clot or obstruction to the nervous current. In some cases Fowler's solution of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day in the drinking water proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the application of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should be observed in all cases. SPINAL MENINGITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOPING THE SPINAL CORD. Causes. — This may be induced by the irritant properties of blood poisons, exhaustion and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury to the spine, tumors, caries of the vertebra*, rheumatism, etc. Symptoms. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or 212 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convul- sive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or para- plegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal meningitis or myelitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same condition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum between the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the pia muter serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to be followed later on by strong blisters. The fever should be con- trolled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of veratrum viride every hour until the desired result is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vas- cular excitement of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the pain is very intense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hvpodermicalty. The animal must be kept as free from excitement as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease gener- ally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better some form of paralysis is apt to remain for a long time, and the 1 1 eatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exuda- tive products and a strengthening of the s}'stem and stimulation of the nervous functions. To induct' absorption, iodide of potassa in 2-dram doses may be given, dissolved in the drinking water, twice a day. To strengthen the system, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of mix vomica once a day may be given in the feed. Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the current should be weak, but be continued for half an hour two or three times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of the vertebrae, or some other irremediable cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 213 MYELITIS. OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, or degeneration. Symptoms. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected at the outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become edematous; vesicular eruptions appear on the skin; and frequently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time, until septicemia, pyemia, or exhaustion causes death. Pathology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others ; when due to mechanical injury, the inflammation may remain con- fined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are degenerated. Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL CONGESTION. This condition consists in an excess of blood. As the blood vessels of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, peremia of the cord and of the meninges usually go together. The symptoms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis and congestion. When the pia mater is diseased, the spinal cord is almost invariably affected also. Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. /Symptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case. and closely resemble the first sjnnptoms of spinal meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lower- ing of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region, it may cause inter- ference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region of the loins, there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the 214 DISEASES OF THE HOBSE. congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be complete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. Treatment. — Hot-water applications to the spine, 1-dram doses fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tincture of aconite root i20 drops every hour until the symptoms become amel- iorated. If no inflammatory products occur, the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANEMIA. This may be caused b} T extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal embolism or plugging of a spinal blood vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel ; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of periph- eral irritation of some nerve. Symptoms. — Spinal anemia causes paralysis of the muscles used in extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected, it precedes the weakness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and in- creased sensibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal con- gestion, is observed. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. Treatment. — If the exciting cause can be removed, the animal re- covers; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. SPINAL COMPRESSION. When caused by tumors or otherwise, when pressure is slight, it produces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and con- traction of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes complete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance of the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an in- creased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed sec- tion, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. Treatment. — When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflam- matory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from displaced bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood vessels, in connection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood may escape through the pia mater into the subarachnoid cavity, and large clots be formed. DISEASES OF THE SPINAL CORD. 215 Symptoms. — The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the com- pression of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia, accompanied by severe pain along the spine; usually, however, the paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or diminished sensibility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indi- cates that the spinal cord is compressed. Treatment. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna in half-ounce doses may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. SPINAL CONCUSSION. This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently severe to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle horses from jumping, or it may be produced by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal hemorrhage; generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until the animal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects follow from hemorrhage or compression, they have to be treated as heretofore directed. SPINAL TUMORS. Within the substance of the cord glioma or the mixed gliosarco- mata are found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the meninges and the vertebra;, being of a fibrous or bony nature, r.nd affect the spinal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we may find glioma, cancers, and psammoma, fibromata; and aneurisms of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. Symptoms. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irritation or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow develop- ment of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the 216 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. muscles or increased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is within the spinal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. Treatment. — General tonics and 1-drani doses of mix vomica may be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in 1-dram doses, three times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases. give some temporary benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. NEURITIS. OK INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve or b} T strangulation in a ligature when the nerve is included in the ligation of an artery. The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infil- tration of serum mixed with pus. Symptoms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve and absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. Treatment. — Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of mor- phia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided above and below the ligature. NEUROMA, OR TUMOR OF A NERVE. Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear after the lapse of months or even years. Neuroma usually develops within the sheath of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. It is oval. running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. Symptoms. — Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more especially after resting a while, and when pressure is made upon the tumor it causes extreme suffering. Treatment. — Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. [N JURIES TO -NERVES. These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, compression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irritation, which may result in tetanus, paralvsis, and other serious derangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some form of external violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessa- rily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary injury of them that the principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. FOKAGE POISONING. 217 It is often difficult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been inflicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treat- ment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. FORAGE POISONING, OR SO-CALLED CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. This disease prevails among horses in nearly all parts of the United States. It is most common in Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Certain localities are visited by it almost every year. This condition consists in a poisoning and de- pression of the nervous system from eating or drinking food or water containing poison generated by mold or bacteria. It has been shown to be due to eating damaged ensilage, corn, brewers' grains, oats, etc., or to drinking stagnant pond water or water from a well contami- nated by surface drainage. Horses at pasture may contract this dis- ease when the growth' of grass is so profuse that it mats together and the lower part dies and ferments or becomes moldy. In England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due to eating rye grass when it is ripening or when it is cut and eaten while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Penn- sylvania it was formerly known by the name of " putrid sore throat " and " choking distemper.' 1 A disease similar in many respects, which is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is commonly known by the name of " blind staggers," and in many of the Southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm-eaten corn. Horses of all ages and mules are subject to this disease. Symptoms. — The symptoms which typify sporadic, or epidemic, cerebro-spinal meningitis in man are not witnessed among horse-, namely, excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symp- toms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks the animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gait, partial or total inabil- ity to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight; twitching of the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. As a rule, the tem- perature is not elevated — indeed, it is sometimes below normal. This is soon followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of auto- matic movements as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness may bruise his head in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these eases usually takes place in 218 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. from four to twenty- four hours from the time the first symptoms be- come manifest. The pulse is variable during the progress of the dis- ease; it may be almost imperceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular; the respirations generally are quick and catch- ing. In the next form in which this disease may develop it first be- comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica- tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than normal; the bowels may be some- what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more perceptible; then sleepiness or coma may ap- pear; the pulse becomes depressed, slow, and weak, the breathing stertorous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inability to stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death fol- lows, painless and without a struggle. In the last or mildest form the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never entirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious move- ments. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and recovers. In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may be the most prominent symptoms; in others they may be altogether absent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swal- lowing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma remains absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis majr remain for some time, rarely persistent. One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. Trratment. — In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swal- low. If the condition of the animal will admit of a drench, give 4 to G ounces of whisky in '2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 219 vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse consciousness. In the second class of cases a purge should always be given, and the further treatment recommended is to give strychnia in 2-grain doses' twice or three times daily. If there is twitching of the shoulder muscles or gnashing of the teeth, this should be discontinued. The strength of the heart should be kept up with carbonate of ammonia or whisky. When the animal is unable to swallow, one-fourth-grain doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as they may be able to eat, and keep fresh, cool water constantly before them, supporting them in slings if necessary; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. Pathology. — Post-mortem examination reveals, in some cases, more or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain and effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space, both in the cranial and the spinal cavities. The brain and cord appear softened in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action existed. In other cases the post-mortem examination is entirely negative, no gross lesions being visible. Hygienic measures needful. — Whenever this disease appears in a stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well-ventilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive a laxative and be fed food and given water from a new, clean source. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon of water, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are replaced. A complete change of food is of the very greatest im- portance, on account of the belief that the cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and grass. TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs, and of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro-spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and persistent, yet mixed with occasional more intense con- tractions of convulsive violence. Causes. — This disease is caused by a bacillus that is often found in the soil, in manure and in dust. This germ grows only in the ab- sence of oxygen. It produces a powerful nerve poison, which causes the symptoms of tetanus. The germ itself multiplies at the point 220 DISEASES OF TI1K HOUSE. where it is introduced, bul its poison is absorbed, and is carried by the blood to all parts of the body, and thus the nervous system is poisoned. Deep wounds infected by this germ are more dangerous than superficial wounds, because in them the germ is more remote from the oxygen of the air. Heme, nail pricks, etc., are especially dangerous. In the majority of instances the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks and wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduction of setons, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a long time after the wound is healed — three or four months. In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presump- tion is that it is due to a specific genu. Horses with a nervous, ex- citable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more slug- gish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geldings, and geldings more than mares. Symptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute attack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner part of the eye of the membrana nictitans, or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, and the endeavor to do so will produce great nervous excita- bility and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw 7 and neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a still' manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the animal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually elevated and held immovable: the bowels become consti- pated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggra- vated until all the muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with a continuous tremor running through them: a cold perspiration breaks out on the body: the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used in respiration; the jaws are completely set, eyeballs retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils di- lated, and the animal presents a picture of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much a fleeted, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked: the nervous excitability and rigid- ity of the muscles are not so great. There is. however, always some si illness of the neck or spine manifest in turning: the haw is turned over the eyeball when the nose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may grad- ually increase in severity for a period of ten days, and then gradually TETANUS, OR LOCKJAW. 221 diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characteristics of acute tetanus become developed. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cramps almost solely con- fined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases we have complete trismus (lockjaw), and all the head symptoms are acutely developed. On the contrary, we may find the head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per- fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. Tetanus may possibly be confounded Avith spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the difficulty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. Prevention. — Where a valuable horse has sustained a wound that it is feared may be followed by tetanus, it is well to administer a dose of tetanus antitoxin. This is injected beneath the skin with a hypoder- mic syringe. A very high degree of protection may in this way be afforded. Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box stall without bedding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of other animals will not reach him ; if the place is moder- ately dark it is all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet about him, to prevent all unnecessary excitement and increase of spasm. Teta- nus antitoxin appears to be useful as a remedy in some cases, if given in very large quantities early in the disease; otherwise it is useless. Subcutaneous injections of carbolic acid in glycerin and water (car- bolic acid 30 grains, glycerin and water each 1 ounce) appear to be useful in some cases. Injections should be given twice daily. A cathartic, composed of Barbados aloes 6 to 8 drams, with which may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be given at once. This is best given in a ball form ; if, however, the ani- mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such cases one-quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the animal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes by the injection per rectum of the fluid extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may 222 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swal- low liquids, oatmeal gruel and milk should be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach it without special effort; even if he can not drink, the laving of the mouth is refreshing. Excellent success frequently may be obtained by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater pari of the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles and gives them rest and the ani- mal almost entire freedom from pain ; but it should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of any lasting benefit. Recently subcutaneous injections of brain emulsion have been rec- ommended. It is thought that the tetanus toxin will attach itself to the brain cells so injected and thus free the system of this poison. When it is due to a wound, the wound should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with carbolic acid. If from a wound which has healed, an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when the animal becomes excited from any cause. RABIES, HYDROPHOBIA, OR MADNESS. This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the result of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The development of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months — very rarely in two weeks. (See also page 545.) /Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this dis- ease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes appear staring, bloodshot; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will con- tinually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the bowels become constipated and he makes frequent attempts at urina- tion, which is painful, and the urine very dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat and drink, although swallowing appears to become painful toward the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors; finally, the hind limbs become para- lyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions supervene, followed LEAD POISONING. 223 by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency from the outset of the attack. Rabies may possibly be mistaken for tetanus. In the latter disease we find tonic spasms of the muscles of the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. Treatment. — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid animal, immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. PLUMBISM, OR LEAD POISONING. This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habit- ually drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors or in old paint barrels, etc. It has been met with in enzootic form near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from such works, lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on the grass and herbage which the horses ate. Symptoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the func- tions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs princi- pally. In whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly there will we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. If in the lungs, the breathing becomes difficult and the animal gets out of breath very quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring, also, is very frequently a symptom of lead poisoning. When it affects the stomach, the animal gradually falls away in flesh, the hair becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When the deposit is principally in the muscles, partial or complete paralysis gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symptoms resembling epilepsy may result, or coma and delirium develop and prove fatal. In lead poisoning there is seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiarly offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of potassa three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the sys- tem, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses and strichnia in 2-grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead poisoning all utensils which have entered into the supply of feed or water should be examined for the presence of soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works, great care must be given to the supply of uncontaminated fodder, etc. 224 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. UREMIA. Uremic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albumi- nuria, or when, from any cause, the functions of the kidneys become impaired or suppressed and urea (a natural product) is no longer eliminated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system and give rise to uremic poisoning. Symptoms. — Uremic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of the limbs or abdomen; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed; then drowsiness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Sud- denly extreme stupor or coma develops; the surface of the body becomes cold; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse slow and intermitting; the breathing labored, and death supervenes. The temperature throughout the disease is seldom increased, unless the disease becomes complicated with acute inflammatory disease of the brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. Treatment. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause. ELECTRIC SHOCK. Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon the animal system as a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric or lightning shock may be observed, one producing temporary contraction of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is pos- sible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored, or gasp- ing, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be contracted and sensitive. The tempera- ture is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominating symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory depression. Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermic-ally in one-quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, mill consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may also be useful in arousing the circulation; for this purpose whisky or ammonia water may be used. DISEASES OF THE HEART, BLOOD VESSELS, AND LYMPHATICS. By M. R. Trum bower, V. S. [Revised in 1903 by Leonard Pearson, B. S., V. M. D.] ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, situated a little to the left of the center of the chest. Its impulse is felt on the left side on account of its location and from the rotary movement of the organ in action. It is cone-shaped, with the base upward ; the apex points downward, backward, and to the left side. It extends from about the third to the sixth ribs, inclusive. The average weight is about 7 to 8 pounds. In horses used for speed the heart is relatively larger, according to the weight of the animal, than in horses used for slow work. It is suspended from the spine by the large blood vessels, and held in posi- tion below by the attachment of the pericardium to the sternum. It is inclosed in a sac, the pericardium, which is composed of a dense fibrous membrane lined by a delicate serous membrane, which is reflected over the heart; the inner layer is firmly adherent to the heart, the outer to the fibrous sac, and there is an intervening space, known as the pericardial space, in which a small amount of serum — a thin translucent liquid — is present constantly. The heart is divided by a shallow fissure into a right and left side ; each of these is again subdivided by a transverse partition into two compartments which communicate. Thus there are four cardiac cavities — the superior, or upper, ones called the auricles; the inferior, or lower, ones the ventricles. These divisions are marked on the out- side by grooves, which contain the cardiac blood vessels, and are generally filled with fat. The right side of the heart may be called the venous side, the left the arterial side, named from the kind of blood which passes through them. The auricles are thin-walled cavities placed at the base, and are connected with the great veins — the venae cavse and pulmonary veins — through which they receive blood from all parts of the body. The auricles communicate with the ventricles each by a large aper- ture, the auriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished with a remarkable mechanism of valves, allowing the transmission of blood from the auricles into the ventricles, but preventing a reverse course. The ventricles are thick-walled cavities, forming the more massive portion of the heart toward the apex. They are separated by a par- tition, and are connected with the great arteries — the pulmonary artery and the aorta — by which they send blood to all parts of the H. Doc-. 7!).-). 59-2 15 225 226 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. body. At the mouth of the aorta and at the mouth of the pulmonary ait civ is an arrangement of valves in each case which prevents the reflux of blood into the ventricles. The auriculo-ventricular valves in the left side are composed of two flaps, hence it is called the bicuspid valve; in the right side this valve has three flaps and is called the tricuspid valve. The flaps which form these valves are connected with a tendinous ring between the auricles and ventricles; and each flap of the auriculo-ventricular valves is supplied with tendinous cords, which are attached to the free margin and under- surface, so as to keep the valves tense when closed — a condition which is produced by the shortening of muscular pillars with which the cords are connected. The arterial openings, both on the right and on the left side, are provided with three-flapped semilunar-shaped valves, to prevent the regurgitation of blood when the ventricles contract. The veins emptying into the auricles are not capable of closure, but the posterior vena cava has an imperfect valve at its aperture. The inner surface of the heart is lined by a serous membrane, the endocardium, which is smooth and firmly adherent to the muscular structure of the heart. This membrane is continuous with the lining membrane of the blood vessels, and it enters into the formation of the valves. The circulation through the heart is as follows: The venous blood is carried into the right auricle by the anterior and posterior vena? cava?. It then passes through the right auriculo-ventricular opening into the right ventricle, thence through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. It returns by the pulmonary veins to the left auricle, then is forced through the auriculo-ventricular opening into the left ven- tricle, which propels it through the aorta and its branches into the system, the veins returning it again to the heart. The circulation, therefore, is double, the pulmonary, or lesser, being performed by the right side, and the systemic, or greater, by the left side. As the blood is forced through the heart by forcible contractions of its muscular walls, it has the action of a force pump, and gives the impulse at each beat, which we call the pulse — the dilatation of the arteries throughout the system. The contraction of the auricles is quickly followed by that of the ventricles, and then a slight pause occurs ; this takes place in regular rhythmical order during health. The action of the heart is governed and maintained by the pneumo- gastric nerve (tenth pair of cranial nerves) ; it is the inhibitory nerve of the heart, and regulates, slows, and governs its action. When the nerve is cut, the heart-beats increase rapidly, and in fact the organ works without control. When the nerve is unduly irritated the hold- back, or inhibitory force, is increased, and the heart slows up in the same measure. The left cavities of the heart, the pulmonary veins, ANATOMY OF THE HEART. 227 and the aorta, or systemic artery, contain red or florid blood, fit to cir- culate through the body. The right cavities of the heart, with the vena? cavse, or systemic veins, and pulmonary artery, contain dark blood, which must be transmitted through the lungs for renovation. The arteries, commencing in two great trunks, the aorta and the pulmonary artery, undergo division, as in the branching of a tree. Their branches mostly come off at acute angles, and are commonly of uniform diameter in each case, but successively diminish after and in consequence of division, and in this manner gradually merge into the capillary system of blood vessels. As a general rule, the combined area of the branches is greater than that of the vessels from which they emanate, and hence the collective capacity of the arterial system is greatest at the capillary vessels. The same rule applies to the veins. The effect of the division of the arteries is to make the blood move more slowly along their branches to the capillary vessels, and the effect of the union of the branches of the veins is to accelerate the speed of the blood as it returns from the capillary vessels to the venous trunks. In the smaller vessels a frequent running together, or anastomosis, occurs. This admits of a free communication between the currents of blood, and must tend to promote equability of distribution and of pressure, and to obviate the effects of local interruption. The arteries are highly elastic, being extensile and retractile both in length and breadth. During life they are also contractile, being provided with muscular tissue. When cut across they present, although empty, an open orifice ; the veins, on the other hand, collapse. In most parts of the body the arteries are inclosed in a sheath formed of connective tissue, but are connected so loosely that, when the vessel is cut across, its ends readily retract some distance within the sheath. Independently of this sheath, arteries are usually de- scribed as being formed of three coats, named, from their relative positions, external, middle, and internal. This applies to their struc- ture so far as it is discernible by the naked eye. The internal, serous, or tunica intima, is the thinnest, and is continuous with the lining membrane of the heart. It is made up of two layers — an inner, con- sisting of a layer of epithelial scales, and an outer, transparent, whitish, highly elastic, and perforated. The middle coat, tunica media, is elastic, dense, and of a yellow color, consisting of nonstriated muscular and elastic fibers, thickest in the largest arteries and be- coming thinner in the smaller. In the smallest vessels it is almost entirely muscular. The external coat, tunica adventitia, is com- posed mainly of fine and closely woven bundles of white connective tissue, which chiefly run diagonally or obliquely round the vessel. In this coat the nutrient vessels, the vasa vasorum, form a capillary network, from which a few penetrate as far as the muscular coat. 228 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. The veins differ from arteries in possessing thinner walls, less elastic and muscular tissue, and for the most part a stronger tunica adventitia. They collapse when cut across or when they are empty. The majority of veins are provided with valves; these are folds of the lining membrane, strengthened by fibrous tissue. They favor the course of the blood and prevent its reflux. The nerves which supply both the arteries and the veins come from the sympathetic system. The smaller arteries terminate in the system of minute vessels known as the capillaries, which are interposed between the termination of the arteries and the commencement of the veins. Their average diameter is about one three-thousandth of an inch. DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. In considering diseases of the heart we meet with many difficulties, depending much upon the position which this organ occupies in the animal. The shoulders cover so much of the anterior portion of the chest, and often in very heavy-muscled horses the chest walls are so thick that a satisfactory examination of the heart is attended with difficulty. Diseases of the heart are not uncommon among hor-^; the heart and its membranes are frequently involved in diseases of the respiratory organs, diseases of the kidneys, rheumatism, influenza, etc. Some of the diseases of this organ are never suspected by the ordinary observer during life, and are so difficult to diagnose with any degree of certainty that we will have to confine ourselves to a general outline, giving attention to such symptoms as may serve to lead to a knowledge of their existence, with directions for treatment, care, etc. Nervous affections often produce prominent heart symptoms by causing functional disturbance of that organ, which, if removed, will leave the heart restored to perfect vigor and normal action. Organic changes involving the heart or valves, however, usually grow worse and eventually prove fatal. Therefore it is necessary that we arrive at an appreciation of the true nature and causes, so that we may be able to form a true estimate of the possibilities for recovery or en- couragement for medical treatment. Disease of the heart may occur at any age, but it is Avitnessed most frequently in young horses, which, when being trained for fast work, are often subjected to excessive hardship and fatigue. Xervous or timid animals also suffer from such diseases more frequently than those of a sluggish disposition. Any cause which induces a violent or sudden change in the circulation may result in injury to the heart. Symptoms which may frequently denote disease of the heart are diffi- cult breathing or short-windedness, dropsies of the limbs, habitual coldness of the extremities, giddiness or fainting attacks, inability to stand work, although the general appearance would indicate strength and ability, etc. I I :>.. « $ * ^ ■- ? 5; 3 § to Q 5 S >. |t *•« £ s $ q 'J y. 5 z — 71 w X -L- z I — pd w H < - n, DISEASES OP THE HEART. 229 INFLAMMATORY DISEASES OF THE HEART. This will embrace myocarditis, endocarditis, and pericarditis. MYOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE OF THE HEART. The heart muscle sometimes becomes inflamed as a complication or result of the existence of general or febrile and of infectious diseases. Severe influenza or infectious pneumonia is not infrequently followed by myocarditis. By extension of inflammation of the endocardium or pericardium the muscle of the heart may become involved. Over- exertion or especially hard work continued for a long time may cause this muscle to become inflamed. Symptoms. — Inflammation of the heart muscle is shown by inabil- ity to contract forcibly; this results in a rapid but weak, soft pulse and irregular heart sounds. The pulse may be quite irregular as a result of the irregular, tumultuous action of the heart. There is great general weakness, shortness of breath, and rapid respiratory movements. In some cases, where the muscle is very much softened and weakened, or, perhaps when an abscess forms in the wall of the heart, the course of the disease is very rapid and terminates suddenly from paralysis or rupture of the heart. Alterations. — The heart muscle has a brownish or yellowish, boiled appearance, and is so brittle that it tears easily. There may be a spotted appearance of the muscle from the intense changes in struc- ture in small areas; these small areas may be due to suppuration, in which case they have the characteristics of small abscesses. This last condition is seen in pyemia (blood poisoning). If the disease is of long duration, the fibrous tissue in the wall of the heart may increase to such an extent as to produce an unnatural hardness of the wall. Treatment. — In this disease the nutrition and strength of the heart should be kept up as much as possible with good food, good care, and heart tonics and stimulants. The horse should be tempted to eat such foods as he will take ; he should be kept in an air}^ box stall ; his legs should be well rubbed as often as necessary to keep them warm and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. Internally, the horse may have strychnia in 2-grain doses twice daily, whisky in 4-ounce doses every two to four hours, digitalis in the form of the tincture in doses of 1 dram every three to six hours. Artificial Carlsbad salts in heaping tablespoonful doses in the feed may be given three times daily for a couple of weeks. Rest is of the greatest importance and should be allowed for a few weeks after recovery seems to be complete. ENDOCARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LINING MEMBRANE OF THE HEART. USUALLY INVOLVING THE MUSCULAR STRUCTURE. Endocarditis frequently occurs as a complication of rheumatism, some of the specific or zymotic fevers, specific poisoning, etc. This is a more frequent disease among horses than is generally known, 230 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. and often gives rise to symptoms which, at first, are obscure and unnoticed. In influenza we may find the heart becoming involved in the dis- ease, in consequence of the morbid material conveyed through the heart in the blood stream. In view of the fact that many affections, in even remote portions of the body, may be traced directly to a primary endocardial disease, we shall feel justified in inviting special attention to this disease. Endocarditis may be acute, subacute, or chronic. In acute inflam- mation we find a thickening and a roughened appearance of the endo- cardium throughout the cavities of the heart. This condition may be followed by a coagulation of fibrin upon the inflamed surface, which adheres to it, and by attrition soon becomes worked up into shreddy- like granular elevations; this may lead to a formation of fibrinous clots in the heart and sudden death early in the disease, the second or third day. Subacute endocarditis, which is the most common form, may not become appreciable for several days after its commencement. It is characterized by being confined to one or more anatomical divisions of the heart, and all the successive morbid changes follow each other in a comparatively slow process. Often we would not be led to sus- pect heart affection were it not for the distress in breathing, which it generally occasions when the animal is exercised, especially if the valves are much involved. When coagula or vegetations form upon the inflamed membrane, either in minute shreds or patches, or when formation of fibrinous clots occurs in the cavity affected, some of these materials may be carried from the cavity of the heart by the blood current into remote organs, constituting emboli that are liable to sud- denly plug vessels and thereby interrupt important functions. In the great majority of either acute or subacute grades of endocarditis, whatever the exciting cause, the most alarming symptoms disappear in a week or ten days, often leaving, however, such changes in the interior lining or valvular structures as to cause impairment in the circulation for a much longer period of time. These changes usually consist of thickening or induration of the inflamed structures. But while the effects of the inflammation in the membrane lining the walls of the ventricles may subside to such a degree as to cause little or no inconvenience, or even wholly disappear, yet after the valvular structures have been involved, causing them to be thicker, less flexible than normal, they usually remain, obstructing the free passage of the blood through the openings of the heart, thereby inducing secondary changes, which take place slowly at first, but ultimately seriously im- pair the animal's usefulness. What was but a slight obstruction to the circulation during the first few weeks after the subsidence of the cardiac inflammatory attack becomes in process of time so much in- DISEASES OF THE HEART. 231 creased as to induce increased growth in the muscular structure of the heart, constituting hypertrophy of the walls of the ventricles, more particularly of the left, with corresponding fullness of the left auricle and pulmonary veins, thereby producing fullness of the cap illaries in the lungs, pressure upon the air cells, difficult or asth- matic breathing — greatly increased in attempts to work — until in a few months many of these cases become entirely disabled for work. Sometimes, too, dropsical effusions in the limbs or into the cavities of the body result from the irregular and deficient circulation. De- rangement of the urinary secretion, with passive congestion of the kidneys, may also appear. Endocardial inflammation is seldom fatal in its early stages, but in many cases the recovery is incomplete, for a large proportion is left with some permanent thickening of the valves, which constitutes the beginning of valvular disease. Symptoms. — Endocarditis may be ushered in by a chill, with sud- den and marked rise in temperature. The pulse rapidly decreases in strength or may become irregular, while the heart beats more or less tumultuously. In the early stages soft-blowing sounds may be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side, which correspond in number and rhythm to the heart's action. Excessive pain, though not so great as in acute pleuritis, is manifested when the animal is compelled to trot; very often difficulty in breathing, or shortness of breath, on the slightest exertion develops early in the attack. When the valves are involved in the inflammatory process the visible mucous membranes become either very pale or very dark colored, and fainting may occur when the head is suddenly elevated. When the valves of the right side are affected we may find a regurgitant pulsation in the jugular vein. Occasionally it happens that the heart contracts more frequently than the pulse beats — that is, there may be twice as many contractions of the heart in a minute as there are pulse waves in the arteries. The pulse is always very fast. In some cases we find marked lameness of the left shoulder, and when the animal is turned short to the left side he may groan with pain, and the heart's action become violently excited, although pressure against the chest wall will not produce pain unless roughly applied. The animal is not disposed to eat or drink much; the surface of the body and legs is cold — rarely excessively hot — and frequently the body of the ani- mal is in a subdued tremor. In nearly all cases there is partial sup- pression of the urinary secretion. The symptoms may continue with very little modification for three or four days, sometimes seven daj^s, without any marked changes. If large fibrinous clots form in the heart the change will be sudden and quickly prove fatal unless they become loosened and are carried away in the circulation ; then apoplexy may result from the plugging of arteries too small to give 232 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. further transmission. Jf the animal manifests symptoms of im- provement, the changes usually are slow and steady until he feels apparently as well as ever, eats well, and moves freely in his stall or yard. When he is taken out, however, the seeming strength often proves deceptive, as he may quickly weaken if urged into a fast gait, the breathing becomes quickened with a double flank movement as in heaves, and all the former symptoms reappear in a modified degree. An examination at this stage may reveal valvular insufficiency, car- diac hypertrophy, or pulmonary engorgement. In fatal cases of endocarditis death often occurs about the fourth day, from the formation of heart clot or too great embarrassment of the circulation. Endocarditis may be suspected in all cases where plain symptoms of cardiac affection are manifested in animals af- fected with influenza, rheumatism, or any disease in which the blood may convey septic matter. Acute endocardial inflammation may be distinguished from pleu- ritis by the absence of any friction murmur, absence of pain when the (best wall is percussed, and the absence of effusion in the cavity of the chest. It may be distinguished from pericarditis by the absence of the friction sounds and want of an enlarged area of dullness on percussion. Treatment. — The objects to be attained by treatment will be to remove or mitigate as much as possible the cause inducing the disease; to find a medicine which will lessen the irritability of the heart with- out weakening it; and, last, to maintain a free urinary secretion and prevent exudation and hypertrophy. So long as there is an increase of temperature, with some degree of scantiness of the urine, it may be safe to believe that there is some degree of inflammatory action exist- ing in the cardiac structures, and as long as any evidence of inflam- matory action remains, however moderate in degree, there is a ten- dency to increase or hypertrophy of the connective tissue of the heart or valves, thereby rendering it almost certain that the structural changes will become permanent unless counteracted by persistent treatment and complete rest. The tincture of digitalis, in 20-drop doses, repeated every hour, is perhaps the most reliable agent we know to control the irritability of the heart, and this also has a decided influence upon the urinary secretion. After the desired impression upon the heart is obtained the dose may be repeated every two or three hours, or as the case may demand. Tincture of strophanthus, in 2-dram doses, will quiet the tumultuous action of the heart in some cases where the digitalis fails. Bleeding, blistering, and stimulating applications to the chest should be avoided. The}'' serve to irritate the animal and can do no possible good. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be given in the drinking water every four hours for the first five or six days, and then DISEASES OF THE HEART. 233 be superseded by the nitrate of potassa, in half-ounce doses, for the following week, or until the urinary secretion becomes abnormally profuse. Where the disease is associated with rheumatism, 2-dram doses of salicylate of soda may be substituted for the chlorate of potassa. To guard against chronic induration of the valves, the iodide of potassa, in 1 to 2 dram doses, should be given early in the disease, and may be repeated two or three times a day for several weeks. When chronic effects remain after the acute stage has passed this drug becomes indispensable. When dropsy of the limbs develops, it is due to weakened circulaj tion or functional impairment of the kidneys. When there is much weakness in the action of the heart, or general debility is marked, the iodide of iron, in 1-dram doses, combined with hydrastis, 3 drams, may be given three times a day. Arsenic, in 5-grain doses twice a day, will give excellent results in some cases of weak heart associated with difficult breathing. In all cases absolute rest and warm stabling, with comfortable clothing, become necessary, and freedom from work should be allowed for a long time after all symptoms have dis- appeared. PERICARDITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE SAC INCLOSING THE HEART. Causes. — Pericarditis may be induced by cold and damp stabling, exposure and fatigue, from wounds caused by broken ribs, etc. Gen- erally, however, it is associated with an attack of influenza, rheuma- tism, pleuritis, etc. Symptoms. — Usually the disease manifests itself abruptly by a brief stage of chills coincident with pain in moving, a short painful cough, rapid and short breathing, and high temperature, with a rapid and hard pulse. In the early stages of the disease the pulse is regular in beat; later, when there is much exudation present in the pericardial sac, the heart-beat becomes muffled, and may be of a double or rebounding character. By placing the ear against the left side of the chest behind the elbow a rasping sound may be heard, cor- responding to the frequency of the heart-beat. This is known as a friction sound. Between the second and fourth days this sound may disappear, due to a distension of the pericardium by an exudate or serous effusion. As soon as this effusion partly fills the pericardium, percussion will reveal an abnormally increased area of dullness over the region of the heart, the heart-beats become less perceptible than in health, and in some cases a splashing or flapping sound may become audible. If the effusion becomes absorbed, the friction sound usually recurs for a short time; this friction may often be felt by applying the hand to the side of the chest. In a few cases clonic spasms of the muscles of the neck may be present. In acute pericarditis, when the effusion is rapid and excessive, the animal may die in a few days or 234 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. recovery may begin equally as early. In subacute or in chronic cases the effusion may slowly become augmented until the pressure upon the lungs and interference with the circulation becomes so great that death will result. Whether the attack is acute, subacute, or chronic, the characteristic symptoms which will guide us to a correct diagnosis are the friction sound, which is always synchronous with the heart's action, the high temperature with hard, irritable pulse, and, in cases of pericardial effusion, the increased area of dullness over the cardiac region. When the disease is associated with influenza or rheumatism, some of the symptoms may be obscure, but a careful examination will reveal sufficient evidence upon which to base a diagnosis. When pericarditis develops as a result of or in connection with pleuritis, the distinction may not be very clearly definable, neither will many recover. When it results from a wound or broken rib, it almost in- variably proves fatal. ) Pathology. — Pericarditis may at all times be regarded as a very serious affection. At first we will find an intense injection or accu- mulation of blood in the vessels of the pericardium, giving it a red and swollen appearance, during which we have the friction sound. In twenty-four to forty-eight hours this engorgement is followed by an exudation of sero-fibrinous fluid, the fibrinous portion of which may soon form a coating over the internal surface of the pericardia] sac, and may ultimately form a union of the opposing surfaces. Generally this adhesion will only be found to occupy a portion of the surfaces. As the serous or watery portion of this effusion is ab- sorbed, the distinctness of the friction sound recurs, and may remain perceptible in a varied degree for a long time. When the serous effusion is very great, the pressure exerted upon the heart weakens its action, and may produce death soon ; when it is not so great, it may cause dropsies of other portions of the body. When the adhesions of the pericardial sac to the body of the heart are extensive, they gen- erally lead to increased growth, or hypertrophy, of the heart, with or without dilatation of its cavities ; when they are but slight, they may not cause any inconvenience. Treatment. — In acute or subacute pericarditis the tincture of digi- talis may be given in 20 to 30 drop doses every hour until the pulse and temperature become reduced. Whisky or carbonate of ammonia may be given regularly as stimulants. Bandages should be applied to the legs; if the legs are very cold, tincture of capsicum should be first applied; the body should be warmly clothed in blankets, to pro- mote perspiration. When the suffering from pain is very severe, 10 grains of morphine may be given by the mouth once or twice a day; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce, in drinking water, every six hours; after the third day, iodide of potassa, in 2-dram doses, may be sub- stituted. Cold packs to the chest in the early stages of the disease DISEASES OF THE HEART. 235 may give marked relief, or, late in the disease, smart blisters may be applied to the sides of the chest with benefit. If the disease becomes chronic, iodide of iron and gentian to support the strength will be indicated, but the iodide of potassa, in 1 or 2 dram doses, two or three times a day, must not be abandoned so long as there is an evidence of effusion or plastic exudate accumulating in the pericardial sac. Where the effusion is great and threatens the life of the patient, tapping by an expert veterinarian may save the animal. VALVULAR DISEASE OF THE HEART. Acute valvular disease can not be distinguished from endocarditis, and chronic valvular affections are generally the result of endocar- dial inflammation. The valves of the left side are the most subject — the bicuspid or mitral and the aortic or semilunar. The derange- ment may consist of mere inflammation and swelling, or the edges of the valves may become covered by the organization of the exudation, thus narrowing the passage. Valvular obstruction and adhesions may occur or the tendinous cords may be lengthened or shortened, thus obstructing the orifices and permitting the regurgitation of blood. In protected cases the fibrous tissue of the valves may be transformed into fibro-cartilage or bone, or there may be deposits of salts of lime beneath the serous membrane, which may terminate in ulceration, rupture, or fissures. Sometimes the valves become cov- ered by fibrinous, fleshy, or hard vegetations, or excrescences. In cases of considerable dilatation of the heart there may be atrophy and shrinking of the valves. Symptoms. — Valvular disease may be indicated by a venous pulse, jerking pulse, intermittent pulse, irregular pulse; palpitation; con- stant abnormal fullness of the jugular veins; difficulty of breathing when the animal becomes excited or is urged out of a walk or into a fast trot; attacks of vertigo; congestion of the brain; dropsical swell- ing of the limbs. A blowing, cooing, or bubbling murmur may some- times be heard by placing the ear over the heart on the left side of the chest. Hypertrophy, or dilatation, or both, usually follow valvular disease. Treatment. — When the pulse is irregular or irritable, tonics, such as preparations of iron, gentian, and ginger, may be given. When the action of the heart is jerking or violent, 20 to 30 drop doses of tincture of digitalis or of veratrum viride may be given until these symptoms abate. As the disease nearly always is the result of endo- carditis, the iodide of potassa and general tonics, sometimes stimu- lants, when general debility supervenes, may be of temporary benefit. Very few animals recover or remain useful for any length of time after once marked organic changes have taken place in the valvular structure of the heart. 236 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ADVENTITIOUS GROWTHS IX THE HEART. Fibrous, cartilaginous, and bony formations have been observed in some rare instances in the muscular tissue. Isolated calcareous masses have sometimes been embedded in the cardiac Avails. Fibrinous coagula and polypous concretions may be found in the cavities of the heart. The former consist of coagulated fibrin, separated from the mass of blood, of a whitish or yellowish white color, translucent, of a jellylike consistence, and having a nucleus in the center. They may slightly adhere to the surface of the cavity, from which they can easily be separated without altering the structure of the endocardium. They probably result from an excess of coagulability of fibrin, which is produced by an organization of the lymph during exudation. They are usually found in the right auricle and ventricle. Polypous concretions are firmer than in the preceding, more opaque, of a fibrous texture, and may be composed of successive layers. In some instances they are exceedingly minute, while in others they almost fill one or more of the cavities. Their color is usually white, but occasionally red from the presence of blood. They firmly adhere to the endocardium, and when detached from it give it a torn appear- ance. Occasionally, a vascular communication seems to exist between them and the substance of the heart. They may be the result of fibrinous exudation from inflammation of the inner surface of the heart or the coagulation of a portion of the blood which afterwards contracts adhesion with the heart. These concretions prove a source of great inconvenience and often danger, no matter how formed. They cause a diminution in the cavity in which they are found, thus narrowing the orifice through which the blood passes, or preventing a proper coaptation of the valves, which may produce most serious valvular disease. Symptoms. — These are frequently uncertain; they may, however, be suspected when the action of the heart suddenly becomes embar- rassed with irregular and confused pulsations, great difficulty of breathing, and the usual signs dependent upon the imperfect arterial- ization of the blood. Treatment. — Stimulants, whisky, or carbonate of ammonia may be of service. PALPITATION OF THE HEART. This is a tumultuous and usually irregular beating of the heart. It may be due to a variety of causes, both functional and organic. It may occur as a result of indigestion, fright, increased nervousness, sudden excitement, excessive speeding, etc. (See " Thumps," pp. 111. -JO.").) Symptoms. — The heart may act with such violence that each beat may jar the whole body of the animal: very commonly it may be DISEASES OF THE HEART. 237 heard at a short distance away from the animal. It can usually be traced very readily to the exciting cause, which we may be able to avoid or overcome in the future and thereby obviate subsequent attacks. Kest, a mild stimulant, or a dose or two of tincture of digi- talis or opium will generally give prompt relief. When it is due to organic impairment of the heart it must be regarded as a symptom, not as a matter of primary specific treatment. SYNCOPE, OR FAINTING. Actual fainting rarely occurs among horses. It may, however, be induced by a rapid and great loss of blood, pain of great intensity, a mechanical interference with the circulation of the brain, etc. Symptoms. — Syncope is characterized by a decrease or temporary suspension of the action of the heart and respiration, with partial or total loss of consciousness. It generally occurs suddenly, though there may be premonitory symptoms, as giddiness, or vertigo, dilated pupil, staggering, blanching of the visible mucous membranes, a rap- idly sinking pulse, and dropping to the ground. The pulse is feeble or ceases to beat; the surface of the body turns cold; breathing is scarcely to be perceived, and the animal may be entirely unconscious. This state is uncertain in duration — generally it lasts only a few minutes; the circulation becomes restored, breathing becomes more distinct, and consciousness and muscular strength return. In cases attended with much hemorrhage or organic disease of the heart, the fainting fit may be fatal; otherwise it will prove but a transient occurrence. In paralysis of the heart the symptoms may be exactly similar to syncope. Syncope may be distinguished from apoplexy by the absence of stertorous breathing and lividity of the visible mucous membranes. Treatment. — Dash cold water on the head; administer a stimu- lant — 4 ounces of whisky or half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia. Prevent the animal from getting up too soon, or the attack may immediately recur. Afterwards, if the attack was due to weakness from loss of blood, impoverished blood, or associated with debility, general tonics, rest, and nourishing food are indicated. HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART, OR CARDIAC ENLARGEMENT. Hypertrophy of the heart implies augmentation of bulk in its muscular substance, with or without dilatation or contraction of its cavities. It may exist with or without other cardiac affections. In valvular disease or valvular insufficiency hypertrophy frequently re- sults as a consequence of increased demand for propelling power. The difficulties with which it is most frequently connected are dilata- tion and ossification of the valves. It may also occur in connection with atrophied kidneys, weak heart, etc. It may be caused by an increased determination of blood to the organ or from a latent form 238 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. of myocarditis, and it may arise from a long-continued increase of action dependent upon nervous disease. All the cavities of the heart may have their walls hypertrophied or the thickening may involve one or more. While the wall of a ventricle is thickened, its cavity may retain its normal size {simple hypertrophy) or be dilated {eccen- tric hypertrophy), or it may be contracted {concentric hypertrophy). Hypertrophy of both ventricles increases the length and breadth of the heart. Hypertrophy of the left ventricle alone increases its length ; of the right ventricle alone increases its breadth toward the right side. Hypertrophy with dilatation may affect the chambers of the heart conjointly or separately. This form is by far the mo.-t frequent variety of cardiac enlargement. When the entire heart is affected, it assumes a globular appearance, the apex being almost obliterated and situated transversely in the chest. The bulk may become three or four times greater than the average heart. Symptoms. — In hypertrophy of the heart, in addition to the usual symptoms manifested in organic diseases of the heart, there is a pow- erful and heaving impulse at each beat, which may be felt on the left side, often also on the right. These pulsations are regular, and when full and strong at the jaw there is a tendency to active congestion of the capillary vessels, which frequently gives rise to local inflamma- tion, active hemorrhage, etc. If the pulse is small and feeble at the jaw, we may conclude that there is some obstacle to the escape of the blood from the left ventricle into the aorta, which has given rise to the hypertrophy. In case of hypertrophy with dilatation, the im- pulse is not only powerful and heaving, but it is diffused over the whole region of the heart, and the normal sounds of the heart are greatly increased in intensity. Percussion reveals an enlarged area of dullness, while the impulse is usually much stronger than normal. Dropsy of the pericardium will give the same wide space of dull- ness, but the impulse and sound are lessened. An animal with a moderate degree of enlargement may possibly live a number of years and be capable of ordinary work; it depends largely upon con- comitant disease. As a rule, an animal affected with hypertrophy of the heart will soon be incapacitated for work, and it becomes useless and incurable. Treatment. — If the cause can be discovered and is removable, it should be done. The iodide of potassa, in cases of valvular thicken- ing, may be of some benefit if continued for a sufficient length of time; it may be given in 2-dram doses, twice a day, for a month or more. The tincture of digitalis may be given, in cases where the pulse is weak, in doses of 2 teaspoonfuls three times daily. This remedy should not be continued if the pulse becomes irregular. General tonics, freedom from excitement or fatigue, avoidance of l)ii Iky food, good ventilation, etc., are indicated. DISEASES OF THE HEART. 239 DILATATION OF THE HEART. This is an enlargement, or stretching, of the cavities of the heart, and may be confined to one or extend to all. Two forms of dilata- tion may be mentioned — simple dilatation, where there is normal thickness of the walls, and passive, or attenuated, dilatation, where the walls are simply distended or stretched out without any addition of substance. Causes. — Any cause producing constant and excessive exertion of the heart may lead to dilatation. Valvular disease is the most fre- quent cause. General anemia predisposes to it by producing relaxa- tion of muscular fiber. Changes in the muscular tissue of the heart Avails, serous infiltration from pericarditis, myocarditis, fatty degen- eration and infiltration, and atrophy of the muscular fibers may all lead to dilatation. Symptoms. — The movements of the heart are feeble and prolonged, a disposition to staggering or vertigo, dropsy of the limbs, very pale or very dark-colored membranes, and difficult breathing on the slight- est excitement. Treatment. — General tonics, rich food, and rest. FATTY DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. Fatty degeneration may involve the whole organ, or may be limited to its walls, or even to circumscribed patches. The latter is situated at the exterior, and gives it a mottled appearance. When generally involved it is flabby or flaccid, and in extreme cases collapses when emptied or cut. Upon dissection the interior of the ventricles is observed to be covered with buff-colored spots of a singular zigzag form. This appearance may be noticed beneath the pericardium, and pervading the whole thickness of the ventricular walls, and in ex- treme cases those of the fleshy columns in the interior of the heart. These spots are found to be degenerated muscular fibers and colonies of oil globules. Fatty degeneration is often associated with other morbid conditions of the heart, such as obesity, dilatation, rupture, aneurism, etc. It may be connected with fatty diseases of other organs, such as the liver, kidneys, etc. When it exists alone its pres- ence is seldom suspected previous to death. It may be secondary to hypertrophy of the heart, to myocarditis, or to pericarditis. It may be due to deteriorated conditions of the blood in wasting diseases, excessive hemorrhages, etc., or to poisoning with arsenic and phosphorus. Symptoms. — The most prominent symptoms of fatty degeneration are a feeble action of the heart, a remarkably slow pulse, general debility, and attacks of vertigo. It may exist for a long time, but is apt to terminate suddenly in death upon the occurrence of other dis- eases, surgical operations, etc. It may involve a liability to sudden death from rupture of the ventricular walls. 240 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. Treatment. — Confinement in feed to oats, wheat or rye bran, and t iniothy hay. Twenty drops of sulphuric acid may be given in drink- ing water three times a day, and hypophosphite of iron in 2-dram doses, mixed with the feed, twice a day. Other tonics and stimulants as they may be indicated. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. This may occur as the result of some previous disease, such as fatty degeneration, dilatation with weakness of the muscular w 7 alls, etc. It may be caused by external violence, a crushing fall, pres- sure of some great weight, etc. Usually death follows a rupture very quickly, though an animal may live for some time when the rent is not very large. WEAKNESS OF THE HEART. This may arise from general debility, the result of exhausting dis- ease, overwork, or heart strain, or loss of blood. It is indicated by a small, feeble, but generally regular pulse, coldness of the body, etc. Treatment. — This should be directed to support and increase the strength of the animal by tonics, rest, and nutritious food. Car- bonate of ammonia mr y be given to stimulate the heart's action and to prevent the formation of heart clot. CONGESTION OF THE HEART. Congestion, or an accumulation of the blood in the cavities of the heart, may occur in consequence of fibrinous deposits interfering with the free movements of the valves, usually the product of endocar- ditis or as a result of excessive muscular exertion. Symptoms. — Great difficulty of breathing, paleness of the visible mucous membranes, great anxiety, frequently accompanied by a gen- eral tremor and cold perspiration, followed by death. It usually results in death very quickly. CYANOSIS OF NEWBORN FOALS. This is a condition sometimes found in foals immediately after birth, and is due to nonclosure of the foramen ovale, which allows a mixture of the venous with the arterial blood in the left cavities of the m heart. It is characterized by a dark purple or bluish color of the visible mucous membranes, shortness of breath, and general feeble- ness. Foals thus affected generally live only a few hours after birth. DISEASES OF ARTERIES, OR ARTERITIS AND ENDARTERITIS. Inflammation of arteries is rarely observed in the horse as a pri- mary affection. Direct injuries, such as blows, may produce a con- tusion and subsequent inflammation of the wall of an artery ; severe muscular strain may involve an arterial trunk; hypertrophy of the heart, by increasing arterial tension, may result in the production of a general endarteritis. Septic infection may affect the inner coat DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 241 and ultimately involve all three, or it may be the result of an inflam- mation in the vicinity of the vessels, etc. Inflammation of arteries, whatever the cause may be, often leads to very serious results in the development of secondary changes in their walls. Arteritis may be acute, subacute, or chronic ; when the inner coat alone is affected it is known as endarteritis. Symptoms. — Arteritis is characterized by a painful swelling along the inflamed vessel, throbbing pulse, coldness of the parts supplied by the inflamed vessel, sometimes the formation of gangrenous sloughs, suppuration, abscess, etc. In an inflammation of the iliac arteries we find coldness and excessive lameness or paralysis of one or both hind limbs. Pathology. — In acute arteritis we find swelling along the vessel, loss of elasticity, friability, and thickening of the walls; a roughness and loss of gloss of the inner coat, with the formation of coagula or pus in the vessel. Subacute or chronic arteritis may affect only the outer coat (periarteritis), both the outer and middle coat, or the inner coat alone (endarteritis) ; and by weakening the respective coats leads to rupture, aneurism, or to degenerations, such as bony, calcareous, fatty, atheromatous, etc. It may also lead to sclerosis or increase of fibrous tissue, especially in the kidneys, when it may result in the condition known as arterio-capillary -fibrosis. Chronic endar- teritis is fruitful in the production of thrombus and atheroma. Arteritis may be limited to single trunks, or it may affect, more or less, all the arteries of the body. Arteries which are at the seat of chronic endarteritis are liable to suffer degenerative changes, consist- ing chiefly of fatty degeneration, calcification, or the breaking down of the degenerated tissue, and the formation of erosions or ulcerlike openings in the inner coat. These erosions are frequently called atheromatous ulcers, and fragments of tissue from these ulcers may be carried into the circulation, forming emboli. Fibrinous thrombi are apt to form upon the roughened surface of the inner coat or upon the surface of the erosions. Fatty degeneration and calcification of the middle and outer coats may occur, and large, hard, calcareous plates project inward, upon which thrombi may form or may exist in connection with atheroma of the inner coat. When there is much thickening and increase of new tissue in the wall of the affected artery, it may encroach upon the capacity of the vessel, and even lead to obliteration. This is often associated with interstitial inflammation of glandular organs. Treatment. — Carbonate of potassa in 1-dram doses, to be given in 4 ounces liquor acetate of ammonia every six hours; scalded bran sufficient to produce loosening of the bowels, and complete rest; externally, applications of hot water or hot hop infusion. H. Doc. 705, 59-2 10 242 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. ATHEROMA. Atheroma is a direct result of an existing chronic endarteritis, the lining membrane of the vessels being invariably involved to a greater or less degree. It is most frequently found in the arteries, although the veins may develop an atheromatous condition when exposed to any source of prolonged irritation. Atheroma may affect arteries in any part of the body; in some instances almost every vessel is diseased, in others only a few, or even parts of one vessel. It is a very common result of endocarditis extending into the aorta, which we find perhaps the most frequent seat of atheroma. As a result of this condition the affected vessel becomes impaired in its contractile power, loses its natural strength, and, in consequence of its inability to sustain its accustomed internal pressure, undergoes in many cases dilatation at the seat of disease, constituting aneurism. In an atheromatous vessel. calcareous deposits soon occur, which render it rigid, brittle, and sub- ject to ulceration or rupture. In such vessels the contractility is de- stroyed, the middle coat atrophied and beyond repair. Atheroma in the vessels of the brain is a frequent cause of cerebral apoplexy. No symptoms are manifested by which we can recognize this condition during life. CONSTRICTION OF AN ARTERY. This is usually the result of arteritis, and may partly or wholly be impervious to the flow of blood. When this occurs in a large vessel it may be followed by gangrene of the parts; usually, however, col- lateral circulation will be established to nourish the parts previously supplied by the obliterated vessel. In a few instances constriction of the aorta has produced death. ANEURISM. Aneurism is usually described as true or false. True aneurism is a dilatation of the coats of an artery over a larger or smaller part of its course. Such dilatations are usually due to chronic endarteritis and atheroma. False aneurism is formed after a puncture of an artery b\ a dilatation of the adhesive lymph by which the puncture was united. Symptoms. — If the aneurism is seated along the neck or a limb it appears as a tumor in the course of an artery and pulsating with it. The tumor is round, soft, and compressible, and yields a peculiar fluctuation upon pressure. By applying the ear over it a peculiar purring or hissing sound may sometimes be heard. Pulsation, syn- chronous with the action of the heart, is the diagnostic symptom. It is of a slow, expansive, and heavy character, as if the whole tumor were enlarging tinder (lie hand. Aneurisms seated internally may occupy the cavity of the cranium, chest, or abdomen. As regards the DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 243 first, little is known during life, for all the symptoms which they pro- duce may arise from other causes. Aneurism of the anterior aorta may be situated very closely to the heart or in the arch, and it is very seldom that we can distinguish it from disease of the heart. The tumor may encroach upon the windpipe and produce difficulty in breathing, or it may produce pressure upon the venae cavse or the thoracic duct, obstructing the flow of blood and lymph. In fact, whatever parts the aneurism may reach or subject to its pressure, mav have their functions suspended or disturbed. When the tumor in the chest is large, we generally find much irregularity in the action of the heart; the superficial veins of the neck are distended, and there is usually dropsical swelling under the breast and of the limbs. There may be a very troublesome cough without any evidence of lung affec- tion. Sometimes pulsation of the tumor may be felt at the lower part of the neck where it joins the chest, When the aneurism occurs in the posterior aorta no diagnostic symptoms are appreciable ; when it occurs in the internal iliac arteries an examination per rectum will reveal it. There is one form of aneurism which is not unfrequently over- looked, affecting the anterior mesenteric artery, primarily induced by a worm — Strongylus vulgaris. This worm produces an arteritis, with atheroma, degeneration, and dilatation of the mesenteric arteries, asso- ciated with thrombus and aneurism. The aneurism gives rise to colic, which appears periodically in a very violent and often persistent type. Ordinary colic remedies have no effect, and after a time the animal succumbs to the disease. In all cases of animals which are habitually subject to colicky attacks, parasitic aneurism of the an- terior mesenteric artery may be suspected. Pathology. — Aneurisms may be diffuse or sacculated. The diffuse consists in a uniform dilatation of all the coats of an artery, so that it assumes the shape of a cylindrical swelling. The wall of the aneu- rism is atheromatous, or calcified ; the middle coat may be atrophied. The sacculated, or circumscribed, aneurism consists either in a dila- tation of the entire circumference of an artery over a short portion of its length, or in a dilatation of only a small portion of one side of the wall. Aneurism may become very large; as it increases in size it presses upon and causes the destruction of neighboring tissues. The cavity of the aneurismal sac is filled with fluid or clotted blood or with layers of fibrin which adhere closely to its wall. Death is pro- duced usually by the pressure and interference of the aneurism with adjoining organs or by rupture. In worm aneurism we usually find large thrombi within the aneurismal dilatation of the artery, which sometimes plug the whole vessel or extend into the aorta. Portions of this thrombus, or clot, may be washed away and produce embolism of a smaller artery. The effect in either case is to produce anemia of the 244 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. intestinal canal, serous or bloody exudation in its walls, which leads to paralysis of the intestine and resultant colicky symptoms. Treatment. — The only treatment advisable is to extirpate or ligate the tumor above and below. RUPTURE OF AN ARTERY. Endarteritis, with its subsequent changes in the walls of arteries, is the primary cause of rupture in the majority of instances. The rup- ture may be partial, involving only one or two coats, and will then form an aneurism. If complete, it may produce death when it in- volves a large vessel, especially if it is situated in one of the large cavities permitting an excessive escape of blood. Rupture may be produced by mechanical violence or accident. Symptoms. — In fatal rupture associated with profuse bleeding, the animal becomes weak, the visible mucous membranes become blanched, the breathing hurried or gasping, pupils dilated, staggering in gait, syncope, death. When the hemorrhage is limited, the symptoms may not become noticeable ; if it is near the surface of the body a round or diffuse swelling or tumor may form, constituting a hygroma. If the rupture is associated with an external wound the bleeding artery should be ligated, or where a bandage is applicable, pressure may be applied by tight bandaging. As a secondary result of rupture of an artery we may have formation of abscess, gangrene of a part, etc. Treatment. — "When rupture of a deep-seated artery is suspected, large doses of fluid extract of ergot may be given to produce contrac- tion of the blood vessels. Tannin and iron are also useful. The animal should be allowed to have as much water as he desires. After- wards stimulants and nourishing food are indicated. THROMBUS AND EMBOLISM. By thrombosis is generally understood the partial or complete clo- sure of a vessel by a morbid product developed at the site of the obstruction. The coagulum, which is usually fibrinous, is known as a thrombus. The term embolism designates an obstruction caused by any body detached and transported from the interior of the heart or of some vessel. Thrombi occur as the result of an injury to the wall of the vessel or may follow its compression or dilatation: they may result from some alteration of the wall of the vessel by disease or by the retardation of the circulation. These formations may occur during life, in the heart, arteries, veins, or in the portal system. When a portion of fibrin coagulates in one of the arteries and is cur- ried along by the circulation, it will be arrested, of course, in the capillaries, if not before; when in the veins, it may not be stopped until it reaches the lungs; and when in the portal system, the capil- laries of the liver will prevent its further progress. The formation of DISEASES OF THE ARTERIES. 245 thrombi may act primarily by causing partial or complete obstruc- tion, and, secondarily, either by larger or smaller fragments becoming detached from their end, and by being carried along by the circula- tion of the blood to remote vessels, embolism; or by the coagulum becoming softened and converted into pus, constituting suppurative phlebitis. These substances occur most frequently in those affections characterized by great exhaustion or debility, such as pneumonia, purpura hemorrhagica, endocarditis, phlebitis, puerperal fever, hemorrhages, etc. These concretions may form suddenly and pro- duce instantaneous death by retarding the blood current, or they may arise gradually, in which case the thrombi may be organized and attached to the walls of the heart, or they may soften, and frag- ments of them (emboli) may be carried away. The small, wartlike excrescences occurring sometimes in endocarditis may occasionally form a foundation on which a thrombi may develop. Symptoms. — When heart clot, or thrombus, exists in the right side, the return of blood from the body and the aeration in the lungs is impeded, and if death occurs, it is owing to syncope rather than to strangulation in pulmonary respiration. There will be hurried and gasping breathing, paleness and coldness of the surface of the body, a feeble and intermittent or fluttering pulse, and fainting. When a fibrinous coagulum is carried into the pulmonary artery from the right side of the heart, the indications are a swelling and infiltration of the lungs and pulmonary apoplexy. When the clot is situated in the left cavities of the heart or in the aorta, death, if it occurs, takes place either suddenly or at the end of a few hours from coma. Pathology. — When a coagulum is observed in the heart it may be- come a question whether it was formed during life or after death. The loose, dark coagula, so often found after death are polypi. If the deposition has taken place during the last moments of life, the fibrin will be isolated and soft, but not adherent to the walls; if it be isolated, dense, and adherent or closely intertwined with the muscles of the papilla? and tendinous cords, the deposition has oc- curred more or less remote from the act of dying. Occasionally the fibrin may be seen lining one of the cavities of the heart, like a false endocardium, or else forming an additional coat to the aorta or other large vessels without producing much obstruction. Thrombi, in some instances, soften in their centers, and are then observed to con- tain a puslike substance. If this softening has extended considerably an outer shell, or cyst, only may remain. The sources of danger exist not only in the interruption of the circulation of the blood, but also in a morbid state of the system, produced by the disturbed nutrition of a limb or organ, as well as the mingling of purulent and gangrenous elements with the blood. Treatment. — The urgent symptoms should be relieved by rest, 246 DISEASES OF THE HOUSE. stimulants, and the use of agents which will act as solvents to the fibrinous clots. Alkalis are specially useful for this purpose. Car- bonate of ammonia may be administered in all cases of thrombus, and should he continued for a long time in small doses several times a day. In cases of great debility associated with a low grade of fever, stimulants and tonics, and nitro-inuriatic acid as an antiseptic, may be beneficial. DISEASES OF VEINS, OR PHLEBITIS. Inflammation of veins may be simple or diffuse. In simple phleb- itis the disease of the vein is confined to a circumscribed or limited portion of a vein; in diffuse it involves the vein for a long distance; it may even extend from a limb or foot to the heart. Causes. — Phlebitis may be induced by contusions or direct injuries, an extension of inflammation from surrounding tissue, such as in abscess, formation of tumor, or malignant growth. It is often due to embolism of infective material, gangrenous matter, etc. Blood- letting from the jugular vein is occasionally followed by dangerous phlebitis. Symptoms. — The symptoms vary according to the extent and sever- ity of the inflammation. In most cases the vein is swollen, thick- ened, and indurated to such a degree as to resemble an artery. A diffused swelling, with great tenderness, may extend along the af- fected vessel and the animal manifest all the symptoms connected with acute fever and general functional disturbance. Pathology. — The disease is only serious when large veins are a fleeted. The coats undergo the same changes as in arteritis; clots of blood and lymph plug the inflamed vessel, and, if the inflammatory process continues, these are converted into pus, which ruptures the vessel and produces a deep abscess ; or it may be carried aw r ay in the circulation and produce metastatic abscess in the lungs or other remote organs. In mild cases the clots may become absorbed and the vessel restored to health. Phlebitis in the course of the veins of the limbs frequently leads to numerous abscesses, which may be mistaken for farcy ulcerations. A very common result of phlebitis is an oblitera- tion of the affected portion of the vein, but as collateral circulation is readily established this is seldom of any material inconvenience. Treatment. — Phlebitis should be treated by the application of a smart blister along the course of the inflamed vessel; early opening of any abscesses which may form; the animal should have complete rest, and the bowels be kept loose with bran mashes. "When the fever runs high, half-ounce doses of nitrate of potassa may be given in the drinking water, which may be changed in two or three days for 1-diain doses of the iodide of potassa. If the animal becomes de- bilitated, carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, and powdered gentian, 3 drain-, may be given every six hours. DISEASES OF THE VEINS. 247 VARICOSE VEINS, VARIX, OR DILATATION OF VEINS. This may be a result of weakening of the coats from inflammatory disease and degeneration. It may also be due to mechanical obstruc- tion from internal or external sources. It is sometimes found in the vein which lies superficial over the inside of the hock joint, and may be due to the pressure of a spavin. Occasionally it may be observed in stallions, which are more or less subject to varicocele, or dilatation of the veins of the testicular cord. Hemorrhoidal veins, or piles, are occasionally met with, generally in horses which run at pasture. Varicose veins msij ulcerate and form an abscess in the surrounding tissues, or they may rupture from internal blood pressure and the blood form large tumors where the tissues are soft. Treatment. — Stallions which manifest a tendency to varicocele should wear suspensory bags when they are exercised. Piles may often be reduced by astringent washes — tea made from white-oak bark or a saturated solution of alum. The bowels should be kept loose with bran mashes and the animal kept quiet in the stable. When varicose veins exist superficially and threaten to produce incon- venience, they may be ligated above and below and thus obliterated. Sometimes absorption may be induced by constant bandages. AIR IN VEINS, OR AIR EMBOLISM. It was formerly supposed that the entrance of air into a vein at the time of the infliction of a wound or in blood-letting was extremely dangerous and very often produced sudden death by interfering with the circulation of the blood through the heart and lungs. Danger from air embolism is exceedingly doubtful, unless great quantities were forced into a large vein by artificial means. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. Purpura hemorrhagica usually occurs as a sequel to debilitating diseases, such as strangles, influenza, etc. It may, however, arise in the absence of any previous disease in badly ventilated stables, among poorly fed horses, and in animals subject to exhausting work and extreme temperatures. The disease is probably due to some as yet undiscovered infectious principle. Its gravity does not depend so much upon the amount of blood extravasated as it does upon the dis- turbance or diminished action of the vaso-niotor (outers. Symptoms. — This disease becomes manifested by the occurrence of sudden swellings on various parts of the body, on the head or lips, limbs, abdomen, etc. These swellings may be diffused or very mark- edly circumscribed, though in the advanced stages they cover large areas. They pit on pressure and are but slightly painful to the touch. The limbs may swell to a very large size, the nostrils may become almost closed, and the head and throat may swell to the point of suf- 248 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. location. The swellings not infrequently disappear from one portion of the body and develop on another, or may recede from the surface and invade the intestinal mucous membrane. The mucous lining of the nostrils and mouth show more or less dark-red or purple spots. There may be a discharge of blood-colored serum from the nostril-: the tongue may he swollen so as to prevent eating or closing of the jaws. In the most intense cases, within from twenty-four to forty- eight hours bloody serum may exude through the skin over the swollen parts, and finally large gangrenous sloughs may form. The temperature is never very high, the pulse is frequent and com- pressible, and becomes feebler as the animal loses strength. A cough is usually present. The urine is scanty and high colored, and when the intestines are much affected a bloody diarrhea may set in, with colicky pains. Some of the internal organs become implicated in the disease, the lungs ma}' become edematous, extravasation may occur in the intestinal canal, or effusion of serum into the cavity of the chest or abdomen; occasionally the brain becomes affected. A few- cases run a mild course and recovery may commence in three or four days ; generally, however, the outlook is unfavorable. In severe cases septic poisoning is liable to occur, which soon brings the case to a fatal issue. Pathology. — On section we find the capillaries dilated, the connec- tive tissue filled with a coagulable or coagulated lymph, and frequently we may discover gangrenous spots beneath the skin or involving the skin. The lymphatic glands are swollen and inflamed. Exten- sive extravasations of blood may be found embedded between the coats of the intestines, or excessive effusion into the substance of the lungs. Treatment. — Diffusible stimulants and tonics should be given from the start. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 dram, fluid extract of red cin- chona bark, li drains, and tincture of ginger half an ounce, with half a pint of water; thin gruel or milk should be given every four or six hours. But especial care should be exercised to avoid injury by drenching. If the horse has difficulty in getting the head up and swallowing, smaller doses must be given with a small hard-rubber syringe. Sulphate of iron in 1-dram doses may be dissolved in water and given every six hours. Chlorate of potassa, in 2-OUnce doses, may be given every eight or twelve hours. Colloidal silver may be administered intravenously in doses of from 5 to L2 grains. Wash- ings with lead and alum water arc 1 useful and may be repeated several times each day. If the swellings are very great, they may be incised freely ami the resulting wounds should be washed at least twice daily with a warm 3 per cent solution of creolin or other good antiseptic. Tracheotomy may be necessary. Complications, when they arise, must be treated with proper circumspection. DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. 249 DISEASES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. The lymphatic, or absorbent, system is connected with the blood- vascular system, and consists of a series of tubes which absorb and convey to the blood certain fluids. These tubes lead to lymphatic glands, through which the fluids pass to reach the right lymphatic vein and thoracic duct, both of which enter the venous system near the heart. Through the excessively thin walls of the capillaries the fluid part of the blood transudes to nourish the tissues outside the capillaries; at the same time fluid passes from the tissues into the blood. The fluid, after it passes into the tissues, constitutes the lymph, and acts like a stream irrigating the tissue elements. Much of the surplus of this lymph passes into the lymph vessels, which in their commencement can hardly be treated as independent structures, since their walls are so closely joined with the tissues through which they pass, being nothing more than spaces in the connective tissue until they reach the larger lymph vessels, which finally empty into lymph glands. These lymph glands are structures so placed that the lymph flowing toward the larger trunks passes through them, undergoing a sort of filtration. From the fact of this arrangement lymph glands are subject to inflammatory diseases in the vicinity of diseased struc- tures, because infective material being conveyed in the lymph stream lodges in the glands and produces irritation. LOCAL INFLAMMATION AND ABSCESS OF LYMPHATIC GLANDS. Acute inflammation of the lymph glands usually occurs in connec- tion with some inflammatory process in the region from which its lymph is gathered. Several or all of the glands in a cluster may become affected, as in strangles, nasal catarrh, or nasal gleet, diseased or ulcerated teeth, the lymph glands between the branches of the lower jaw almost invariably become affected, which may lead to sup- puration or induration. Similar results obtain in other portions of the body; in pneumonia the bronchial glands become affected; in pharyngitis, the postpharyngeal glands lying above the trachea be- come affected, etc. Symptoms. — The glands swell and become painful to the touch, the connective tissue surrounding them becomes involved, suppuration usually takes place, and one or more abscesses form. If the inflam- mation is of a milder type, resolution ma}^ take place and the swelling recede, the exudative material being absorbed, and the gland restored without the occurrence of suppuration. In the limbs a whole chain of the glands along the lymphatic vessels may become affected, as in farcy, phlebitis, or septic poisoning. Treatment. — Fomentation with hot water and the application of camphorated soap liniment or camphorated oil may produce a revul- 250 DISEASES OF THE HORSE. sive action and prevent suppuration. If there is any indication of abscess forming, poultices of linseed meal and bran made into a paste with hot water should be applied, or a mild blistering ointment rubbed in over the swollen gland. As soon as fluctuation can be felt a five opening must be made for the escape of the contained pus. The wound may subsequently be washed out with a solution of chlo- ride of zinc, 5 grains to the ounce of water, three times a day. LYMPHANGITIS. Specific inflammation of the lymphatic structures usually affects the hind legs ; ver}' seldom a fore leg. This disease is very sudden in its attack, exceedingly painful, accompanied by a high temperature .and great general disturbance. ('mixes. — Horses of lymphatic, or sluggish, temperament are pre- •disposed to this affection. It usually attacks well-fed animals, and in such cases may be due to an excess of nutritive elements in the blood. Sudden changes in work or in the habits of the animal may induce an attack. Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in by a chill, rise in temperature, and some uneasiness; in a very short time this is followed by lame- ness in one leg and swelling on the inside of the thigh. The swelling gradually surrounds the whole limb and continues on downward until it reaches the foot. The limb is excessively tender to the touch, the animal perspires, the breathing is accelerated, pulse hard and quick, and the temperature may reach 106° F. The bowels early become constipated and the urine scanty. The symptoms usually are on the increase for about two days, then they remain stationary for the same length of time; the fever then abates: the swelling recedes and be- comes less painful. It is very seldom, though, that all the swelling leaves the leg; generally it leaves some permanent enlargement, and the animal becomes subject to recurrent attacks. Occasionally, the inguinal lymphatic glands (in the groin) undergo suppuration, and pyemia may supervene and prove fatal. In severe cases the limb be- comes denuded of hair in patches, and the skin remains indurated with a fibrous growth, which is known by the name of elephantiasis. Treatment. — The parts should be bathed freely and frequently with water as hoi as the hand can bear and then fomented with vinegar ami water, equal parts, to which add 2 ounces of nitrate of potassa for each gallon. This should be applied frequently, after the hot water for the first day. Afterwards, the leg may be dried with a woolen cloth and bathed with camphorated soap liniment. Inter- nally, administer artificial Carlsbad salts in 2 to 4 ounce doses three times daily. Feed lightly and give complete rest. This treatment, if instituted early in the attack, very frequently brings about a re- mark-able change within twenty-four hours. DISEASES OF THE EYE. By James Law, F. R. C. V. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., Cornell University. [Revised in 1903 by the author.] We can scarcely overestimate the value of sound eyes in the horse, and hence all diseases and injuries which seriously interfere with vision are matters of extreme gravity and apprehension, for should they prove permanent they invariably depreciate the selling price to a considerable extent. A blind horse is always dangerous in the sad- dle or in single harness, and he is scarcely less so when, with partially impaired vision, he sees things imperfectly, in a distorted form or in a wrong place, and when he shies or avoids objects which are com- monplace or familiar. When we add to this that certain diseases of the eyes, like recurring inflammation (moon blindness), are habitu- ally transmitted from parent to offspring, we can realize still more fully the importance of these maladies. Again, as a mere matter of beauty, a sound, full, clear, intelligent eye is something which must always add a high value to our equine friends and servants. THE EYEBALL. A full description of the structure of the eye is incompatible with our prescribed limits, and yet a short description is absolutely essen- tial to the clear understanding of what is to follow. The horse's eye is a spheroidal body, flattened behind, and with its posterior four-fifths inclosed by an opaque, white, strong fibrous membrane (the sclerotic), on the inner side of which is laid a more delicate friable membrane, consisting mainly of blood vessels and pigment cells (the choroid), and that in its turn is lined by the ex- tremely delicate and sensitive expansion of the nerve of sight (the retina). The anterior fifth of the globe of the eye bulges forward from what would have been the direct line of the sclerotic, and thus forms a segment of a much smaller sphere than is inclosed by the sclerotic. Its walls, too, have in health a perfect translucency from which it has derived the name of transparent cornea. This trans- parent coat is composed, in the main, of fibers with lymph interspaces, and it is to the condition of these and their condensation and com- pression that the translucency is largely due. This may be shown by compressing with the fingers the eye of an ox which has just been killed, when the clear transparent cornea will suddenly become 251 252 DISEASES OP THE HORSE. clouded over with a whitish blue opacity, and this -will remain until the compression is interrupted. The .interior of the eye contains three transparent media for the refraction of the rays of light on their way from the cornea to the visual nerve. Of these media the anterior one (aqueous humor) is liquid, the posterior (vitreous humor) is semisolid, and the intermediate one (crystalline lens) is solid. . The space occupied by the aqueous humor corresponds nearly to the portion of the eye covered by the transparent cornea. It is, however, divided lino two chambers, anterior and posterior, by the iris, a contractile curtain with a hole in the center (the pupil), and which may be looked on as in some sense a projection inward of the vascular and pigmentary coat from its anterior margin at the point where the sclerotic or opaque outer coat becomes continuous with the cornea or transparent one. This iris, or curtain, besides its abun- dance of blood vessels and pigment, possesses two sets of muscular fibers, one set radiating from the margin of the pupil to the outer border of the curtain at its attachment to the sclerotic and choroid, and the other encircling the pupil in the manner of a ring. The action of the two sets is necessarily antagonistic, the radiating fibers dilating the pupil and exposing the interior of the eye to view, while the circular fibers contract this opening and shut out the rays of light. The form of the pupil in the horse is ovoid, with its longest diameter from side to side, and its upper border is fringed by several minute black bodies (corpora nigra) projecting forward and serving to some extent the purpose of eyebrows in arresting and absorbing the excess of rays of light which fall upon the eye from above. These pigmentary projections in front of the upper border of the pupil are often mistaken for the products of disease or injury, in place of the normal and beneficent protectors of the nerve of sight which they are. They may, like all other parts, become the seat of disease, but so long as they and the iris retain their clear, dark aspect, without any tints of brown or yellow, they may be held to be healthy. The vitreous or semisolid refracting medium occupies the posterior part of the eye — the part corresponding to the sclerotic, choroid, and retina — and has a consistency corresponding to that of the white of an i.'