Glass \«Xl /\s Book W3 - f A3 ^ THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF Wayne and of Orleans Counties, New York A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF CORNELL UNI- VERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY F. WARREN ITHACA, NEW YORK I905 c$> ^ MAR 2a I <#08 > ^ Acknowledgments are due to the one thousand or more farmers without whose cooperation the work could not have been done ; to Professor John Craig, at whose suggestion I undertook the work, for man}- helpful suggestions and for reading the manu- script and proof ; to Director Iy. H. Bailey for man}- valuable suggestions and for reading the proof ; to Mr. Christian Bues, who was my co-worker in the field work in Orleans County, and who read the manuscript of Part I ; to Mr. Cornelius Betten for reading the manuscript ; and to Professor Bousteel and Mr. Whetzel for reading parts of the proof. Figures 44, 48, 75, 78, 79, 82, 92 and the figures in Part II were furnished byth'e' Department of Horticulture. Figure 85 was furnished by ProfessoV^Sfrrigerlaud. PART L THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF WAYNE COUNTY, NEW YORK. G. F. WARREN. $ CONTENTS. Page. INTRODUCTION 241-247 The field work 24 r The degree of accuracy of the reports 244 Method of making computations 245 Work in Orleans county «, 240 General observations on the work 24O CHAPTER I. The Magnitude of the Apple I ndustry 249-259 Fruit production per capita 249 Magnitude of the apple crop 250 Production of evaporated apples 25 [ Value of orchard products of the various states 25^ Exports of apples, 1851-1904 255 Area devoted to apples in Wayne county 256 Development of the commercial orchard 257 CHAPTER II. Tillage 261-272 Acreage of tilled and untitled orchards 261 Yiekis of tilled and untilled orchards 262 Does tillage pay ? 264 Results of treatment not immediately apparent 267 Methods of tillage 269 Methods of sod treatment 269 CHAPTER III. Fertilization 273-277 Fertilizers used 273 Fertilization and yield 274 Necessity of fertilization 274 Relative amounts of plant-food removed by the apple crop and by the wheat crop 274 Manure shipped in from cities 276 Manure secured by feeding cattle 276 Method of applying manure 277 Cover-crops 277 237 238 Bulletin 226. CHAPTER IV. Page. Pruning 278-288 Former methods of pruning 278 1 low wounds heal 27^, Removal of large limbs 279 '" Stub " pruning 280 Use of paint on wounds 283 Thinning the tops 284 Pruning should vary with the thrift of the trees 28; The best time to prune 285 1 low to treat crotches 286 Number of scaffold limbs 2S7 CHAPTER V. Spraying 289-294 The extent of the practice 289 Relation of spraying to yields and prices 289 Kinds of sprays used 290 The hest time to spray 292 Winter treatment for apple-scab 203 Method of applying the spray 293 Russeting of the fruit 293 Damage to foliage from spraying 294 CHAPTER VI. Renovating ax Apple Orchard ix Western New York. By Christian Bites 295-298 CHAPTER VII. Number of Trees per Acre and Distance Between Trees 299-307 Number of trees per acre 299 Trees planted too closely 200 Effects of close planting on yields and health 300 Top-grafting or pruning every other row 305 I low to thin 305 CHAPTER VI 11. Ace of the Orchards 308-312 Date of planting 308 Yields at different ages 3°8 Planting young orchards 3i° CHAPTER IX. Soils and Soil Problems 313-324 Topography — Topographical regions 313 An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 239 Page. Soils — The soil typo 315 Miami stony loam 316 Alton stony loam 316 Miami silt loam 317 Miami line sand 317 Ontario gravelly loam 317 Relation of the soil to yield of apples 317 Summary of the soil factor 318 Drainage — The natural drainage 319 Losses caused by lack of drainage 3_'o CHAPTER X. Elevations and Exposures 325-326 Sites 325 Relation of the sites and yields 325 Aspects, or exposures 325 Relation of the aspects and yields 326 CHAPTER XI. A Comparison of Rented Orchards with Those Managed p,v the Owner, 327-329 Census of rented orchards 327 Effects of the rental system on the orchards yij Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm 329 CHAPTER XTT. Varieties 330-332 The varieties grown 330 Variations within the variety — the selection of scions 330 CHAPTER XIII. Enemies oe the Apple 333-348 List of the more serious enemies yj>i The Apple- Scab Fungus — Its importance 335 What is the scab fungus ? 335 Relation of the weather to the development of scab t>?>7 Relative damage on different varieties of apples 338 Relation to other fungi 338 Treatment 339 Leaf Spot — Caused by the scab fungus 339 Other causes of leaf spot 340 Leaf-blister mite 340 240 Bulletin 226. Page. The Apple-Tree Canker — Description 341 The extent of the injury by canker 341 The cause of the cankers 344 Treatment 344 Collar Rot — Occurrence and description 345 The cause of the rot 346 Treatment 346 CHAPTER XIV. Yields, Markets and Prices 349 _ 355 Total yields in Wayne county 349 Average yields per acre / 349 Average yields per tree 349 Variations in yield 350 The evaporating industry 350 How the crop is disposed of 351 General considerations concerning marketing 353 Average prices 354 Average income per acre 354 SUMMARY 356 CONCLUSION 360 REFERENCES 361 INTRODUCTION. GENERAL METHOD OF WORK. The field work. — The field work was done between June 10 and Sep- tember 12, 1903. Nearly all of this time was spent in the apple orchards. In Walworth township. rs 1 ' ' A \ I x / 1 \ n i 'N \\ \ 1 1 H+^n^^n — ' — \ \ \ '■ \ '■ T"T" ' Vh u \ \ 1 h it v... i .J '• 1'r-srS y"*7 'TT •I r *■••■<'![ / .-•'! i '•.1 v .-ft 1 . «r « •■!._ •-'-*' \ | ■ S ' m " \ r" \ 1 1 1 vKA **ti«.-r M which is in the center of the west part of the county, every orchard as large as one acre was ex- amined. In nearly even- case the owner was inter- viewed for statistics on variety, age, fertilization, tillage, spraying, past troubles, yields, market, price, etc. The orchard was examined in order to determine the site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treatment, present condition of health and crop, pruning, diseases, insects, etc. A three-foot soil auger was a part of the outfit, and frequent borings were made to determine the physical condition of the soil, texture, structure and the drainage con- ditions. Samples for laboratory analyses were taken of the different soil types. In short, an effort was made to study whatever factors enter into the successful production of apples. All the information obtained was entered in the blank report provided for that purpose (see Fig. 38). These reports are preserved in the Department of Horticulture for reference for the future worker and are, of course, not open to the public. The position and approximate size of each orchard with its number is shown on the map prepared by the United States Geological 241 Fig. 37. — Map showing the location of Wayne and Orleans counties, New York. 242 Bulletin 226. u Si O < -si S 5 c - 5 -^ a t» n « be K£fc£H u < 0' ^ i i N O • i '" : j ^i J £"■ Si nTj : <| | : i ^ : ■v. : : : '-» : ■ i p : R 8: i S': I ; s. : r "' « i ; >i i OS; :' ^ i i O 5 ■ ^ : ~" ''~ : \ ■ ^j i • * ■ 1 i 1 IS* i o i I ! £i Z.\ s. . >rice s si Si bi i ^ I Si ^: «>i \i -"-j * : e : 4j > y, «»i-Si -^ o-> rt j : O s^i ■«: ? ctf $; : s § •-• ^ : %. : ^ "ft. §, ■a ^ ClH ffi o An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 243 Survey. These maps show the 20-foot contour lines on a scale of one inch to a mile (see Fig. 39). This method of locating" the orchard makes it possible to look it up at any time in the future. Very many other items were determined, some of which were entered under " general X & H Fig. 39. — A reduced photograph of the field map of Walworth township, showing the position and number of the orchards. This map was on a scale of four inches to the mile. observations," and some of which were recorded in a note-book kept for that purpose. In Ontario township, which lies between the lake and Walworth, every orchard as large as ten acres and a number of smaller ones were likewise examined. Nearly all the other orchards were seen, and a comparison made with those that were carefully recorded. 244 Bulletin 226. In Macedon township, which extends from Walworth to the southern boundary of the county, every orchard as large as ten acres and nearly all of those as large as five acres were examined. Practically all the other orchards of this town were examined sufficiently to be able to make comparisons with those recorded. These three townships gave a representative north and south section of the county. The differences in going north and south are very much greater than those from east to west. The degree of accuracy of the reports. — The results are based on all the orchards of Walworth as large as one acre, or 443 orchards con- taining 1,773^ acres ; and on 131 orchards of the remainder of the county containing 1,987^ acres. This is between one-fifth and one-sixth of the orchards of the county. Probably at least one-third of the orchards were examined more or less carefully. The careful records were made of the above number. The location, site, aspect, area, distance between trees, present treat- ment, pruning, present condition, present troubles, soil and soil condi- tions were determined by the observer, aided by any suggestions that the owner might give. The ages are a question of memory and sometimes of hearsay. The appearance of the trees would usually enable the inspector to avoid any large error. The past troubles except canker-worm, tent cater- pillar and scab or " fungus " are not often given, as they are not recognized by many growers. This does not by any means indicate that no other important enemies have been present. Some have left their effects so apparent that the observer could, without difficulty, fill in the past troubles. The varieties, methods of former treatment, spraying, fertilization, etc., are fairly accurate, except that the amount of fertilization is not often known. The market and price per bushel are quite accurate. The farmers are practically all glad to be able to help in the work of the Experiment Station. They understand that the reports are confidential, and therefore have no incentive to give too high yields. The only' limit to the accuracy is the memory of the grower. The apple crop is, however, the chief crop and is therefore well remembered. The yields are usually the result of measurement, as the people remember the number of bushels, or the number of pounds, or remember the income and price, from which the yield can be computed. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 245 The yields for 1903 were secured by letters to the growers. They doubtless average too high, for those who had a very small crop some- times considered it too small to he worth reporting. The records of the [0,02 yields arc the most complete and the most accurate of all. Method of making the computations. — Since every orchard in Wal- worth was examined, all computations have been made for this town hy itself, and separate ones made for the south and for the north parts of the county. In some cases Ontario and Macedon townships were each considered separately. Nearly all these computations when yields are concerned are made for the crops of 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903. ddie conclusions have almost invariably been the same for each year and for each part of the county. In this bulletin they have, in most cases, been summarized under two heads, Walworth and the remainder of the county. In computing yields under various methods of treatment, the yields of the orchards set before 1880 are ordinarily used. Trees set since that date have mostly not arrived at maturity. In computing any one item the others have generally been ignored. The justification for this lies in the fact that so many orchards have been examined that other items will balance. For example, in deter- mining the average yields for orchards having trees set at different distances apart, no attention has been given to the care of the orchard. There are orchards set at all distances that have been well cared for and others that are neglected. The large number examined makes an average of conditions. The danger of this method of making calcu- lations lies in possible coordinate factors. The man who tills his orchard may be the man who sprays. Some points of this kind are discussed under the different chapters. To test the method, some compu- tations have been made on the basis of sub-groups of orchards otherwise similarly treated. The results have sometimes been changed in absolute amounts, but have been unchanged in their relation to each other, or have been so slightly changed as not to alter the conclusions to which diey point. The independent calculations for Walworth township and for the north and the south parts of the county, furnish additional checks. There are usually twelve independent calculations — one for each of these divisions for each of the four years. WHien these results all 2 4-6 Bulletin 226. point to the same conclusion, they would seem to establish it beyond any reasonable doubt. In this report the results are frequently sum- marized in order to save space. There might seem to be some danger of a large orchard controlling the average, but in no case of any importance has such an orchard changed the relative order of the results. In making most of the computations, there were orchards for which the information or yields were not secured. These were, of course, omitted, just as an orchard that was not seen. The computations always include every orchard for which the particular data were secured. // ork in Orleans county. — During the summer of 1904, orchards to the number of 564, including 4,881 acres, were similarly examined in Orleans county. In this county the writer was assisted by Mr. C. Bues. Some of the pictures in this report were obtained in that county. Many references are also made to it, but all the tabulations are from Wayne county. The tables for the Orleans county work will be published later. General observations on the work. — The method of doing the work and the kind of information sought were much changed during the progress of the investigation. In the beginning the type of soil was thought to be of much more importance than it really is. The most important points were not considered in the first few reports. The relative importance of the different problems was better seen as the work progressed. The report blank ( Fig. 38 ) is very different from the first one used. Many improvements were made when similar work was started in Orleans county, but there are others that will be made if another count}' is studied. The succeeding pages may be said to be results of experiments of the past seventy-five years in apple-growing in Wayne county. " Every farm is an experiment station and every farmer the director thereof." But when these experiments are viewed singly, there are so many factors that the success or failure is as likely to be assigned to a wrong cause as to the right one. As a result we have the great diversity of opinion that exists among apple-growers. It is by studying and tabulating results from large numbers of orchards that important and unimportant factors can be properly correlated. The standards in this bulletin are not ideals, but are in all cases based on what successful men are doing. No one man is following all of them, but each one has been tried. It is impossible to give credit to each An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 247 farmer who has aided in the work, for that would mean to enumerate six hundred in Wayne county and an equal number in Orleans county, hut 1 can not refrain from mentioning' the willingness with which nearly every one gave the information about his orchard and about his successes and failures. It would be very hard to find a region where the farmers are more willing to cooperate with every enterprise of the experiment stations. In writing this bulletin. I have tried to keep in mind the many questions asked by the farmers, as well as to present the tables of the results of various methods of treatment. 248 Bulletin 226. Making apple barrels. Hauling the barrels to the orchard. CHAPTER I. The Magnitude of the Apple Industry. Fruit production per capita. — The commercial demand in the United States for fresh fruit has been created during the past fifty years. The small quantity of fruit that was produced half a century ago was largely used for wine and cider manufacture, but fresh fruit and canned fruit are now among the staple articles of diet for the laborer as well as for the wealthy. Table i shows that the value of the orchard products on the farm has increased from 33 cents per capita in 1850. to $1.11 per capita in 1900. If all fruits are included the value would he about fifty per cent greater, the amount for 1900 being $1.74 per capita (see Table 2). Much more than these amounts must be spent Table i. Relative increase of population and of value of orchard products from the census reports. Population. 185O 1 23, 191,876 i860 31,443,321 1870 38,558,371 1880 50,155,783 19OO 75,568,686 Per cent of gain in 10 years. 35-6 21.3 32.4 Gain in 20 yrs. 52.1 Value of Orchard Products. $7,723,186 19,991,885 38, OOO, ooo 3 50,876,154 83,751,840 Per cent of gain in 10 years. 159.O 90.0 33-9 Gain in 20 yrs. 64.6 'Values of orchar. -^duets are for the year preceding the census. = The value of orchai .1 products was not given for 1890. "' In 1870 the value of orchard products returned was $47,335,189. The reduction of this amount by the then existing premium on gold (25.3 per cent on the average for the twelve months of the census year. May 31. r869, to June 1, 1870) would yield about $38,000,000." Tenth Census, Statistics of Agriculture, page xxii. 249 250 Bulletin 226. by the consumer for the transportation, commissions and profits in- crease the cost several times. A larger proportion of the crop may now be exported, hut the great change has been in the creation of a home demand for fresh fruit, such as does not exist in any other country. The great fruit market of the world is the American work- man, and his staple fruit is the apple. The magnitude of the apple crop. — Of the total number of orchard trees reported in 1900, 55 per cent were apple, and these produced 83 per Table 2. Relative rank in fruit production of the ten leading fruit-producing slates, from the census of iqoo. Orch\kd Products. Total value. Percent. Rank. Total value United States California. . . . New York. . . Pennsylvania Ohio Illinois Michigan.. . . Indiana Missouri Virginia New Jersey. . 751,840 526, 786 542, 272 976. 464 141, 118 778,811 675, 845 3, 166, 338 •2,944,175 2, 662, 483 2. 594. 981 "4- 10, 7, 6. 3, 100 17 12 9 7 4 4 3 3 3 All Fruits. $I 3 I. 28. 15, 9, 8, 5, 5- 4, 4- 3. 423,517 280, 104 844. 346 884, 809 901,220 455,213 859, 362 630, 169 309,813 5C5,475 082. 788 Per cent. Rank. 100. 21-5 12. I 7-5 6.8 4-i 4-5 3-5 3-3 2-7 3-; 1 2 3 4 6 5 7 8 10 9 Leading fruit enmities in New York. Orchard Products. Total value. Niagara Orleans Monroe Wayne Ontario Dutchess . . . Ulster Westchester Columbia. . . Chautauqua. Per cent I of the N. V. crop. Rank. 078. 042 10 8.39, 722 8 768, 927 7 584, 254 5 497, 354 4 377,427 3 354, 262 3 306. 010 2 300. 645 2 296, 679 2 . 2 3 3 5 4 7 6 5 6 4 9 7 8 9 8 9 10 All Fruits. Per cent of the otal value. N. Y. crop. 1,184,482 7-5 875,270 5 5 928, 673 5 9 903, 875 5 7 730, 222 4 b 1 429, 679 ? 7 989, 024 1 2 329,419 2 1 434, 660 2 7 I , 620, 923 10 2 Rank. 6 4 5 7 10 3 15 9 i An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 251 cent of the total number of bushels of fruit reported. The average production of apples is about two to three bushels per capita. Of the crop of 175,000,000 bushels in 1899, the States of New York, P» Ov 100 OWO io^K 10 KvO VO ■* vd doo co 10 co -r oi rf n 1-1 00 r^ o\ >N •f t^oo 10 o co tj-vo -r m vo 00000 o .S MOO 14-OO LO 1-1 lo CO lo OvvO CM 00 00 1^ t^ o woo" to 00 "00" cd • — ;r^ VO00 CM lo w (N Ov O T rf O Ov •n O O T VO vo 1^ O co 00 VO vo VO 00 co t^OO IH OO O Is 4- O i-i covo vo 11-00 r^oo OV lo t^oo Tf CO CO 1-H 01 CO LO O 1-1 1-1 VO O VO ci w LO O t>. 1-1 H H M M" vo Ov T lo K 1- 1-1 CO OvvO lo Ov VO TOO IN 1-1 O co i-< LOOO M CvT t>» LO CO T O -1 IN >-< OV LO -f LO00 VO O LO00 1-1 lo -TOO OV00 4o\diMci Km fO^M 00 co ov t r^vo ov ov t-^ LO T CO covo 00 co 00 T rf - O 1-1 l-H VO CH t^vO OV T Ov Nh mco i-T of to of o LO C) o ion dh rt.„ bC'rt o In i n X "i H ■2 C lo 1-1 to O VO to Ov lo O0 O OVVO IN T co 01 TVO VO co co 1-1 ^r 1-1 >> 03 AS C tn U nl ■ -i a> ra „ « •as n 5 « g£,2 "3 ^ 5 S o c- >\ w <-\ ns rt nJ.S .« ^^; -'54 Bulletin 226. 00 «■; * « (O M Km U)t<) MM-;Kt d 4 d 4 Tt- "t LOCO mh f O NO Oi h H M Tf K t£ rv. oj On O OO -tNO [n, lo hi lt> oi >i CO O lo Tf O 1-1 On O -t m i-T u-AO NO ■* t O K 1-1 -tCC »o K OnnO 1-1 l^KlOOl 10 oT on 6\ l^lKN N i-< 01 ^f ooco on fo 01 On M CO tt o tt ^r 10 ro O ^i tNO lono oo 01 -tvo KOi-O co o o\ 01 Tf IO PO Tf d"itsH On mNO o\ 1-1 01 U u-> po O rf On TtKi^ t h 1-00 LO 01 NO CO of m 01 ro K l-H K pooo 00 01 MVO O Tf W-NO 00 lo 1-1 K K On 4 6 10 <- oi CO IT) _( O 1- 1-1 O NO "* PO On On O On •- f l OKN") 'i o'd o po KNO 01 OOO f O M Ol OlNOi »ooo 1-1 -t in oi no 'd- k tOiHtO NM <-n PO '.Kf " 1-1 Tf 0) M 000 PO O tOOO 00 O -tNO OONO K On On>0 oo lo oi M oi Tt LO "3" KNO "500 I- O 00 10 01 01 On po 00 t-^od - ■* -tO NO po P| NO K (fi 1-t 1— .2o5 in in c .12.2 ,-M JiJ^Slz;^ ~ en ^ u ca a a z & t. V V V U C £ £ fc £ £ On •NO rt po no NO 01 NO 00 PO ci 00 NO LOCO 1- •* -t- o o O o'od i-i O i-O 01 On K K PO TT On 00 On 1- On koo 01 00 h- Tfr LO OO k on NO NO ro O O O I-. ON On 00 NO On -too o o On m rt S.5 cfl l-H ^ n a'S. UQ O E . -1- O rS CJD E J-- •— i • — 1 CD p* o-e^ K z ^CCCPh 1 33 E — O O f 0£ c/) lo H Tt PO 01 PO t On tNO 00 ■* ONO NO C0~ 6 On KttO 00 1- NO NO MOO H H 1-1 On 0) 01 On PO oT M NO -tOO On NO CO K l-H co O -t00 On 10 O 01 NO NO to 00 On hh o 10 K to 00 U~; IN. 1-1 r-> 00 1-1 O E rt -E E be K t On 01 po 00 11 ONNO OO 0O00 NO t^NO CO KM -Tod On COCO O M -l-> u '-E +-. ° tn en ^ bo E E-E > An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York 255 Table 6. Exports of Apples* 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 i860 Annual average 1 861 1862 186} 1864 1865 1866 1867 1870 Annual average 1871 1872 1873 1874 i875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 Annual average. 881 885 Fresh. Barrels. 28, 842 l8,4II 45,075 I5>326 33-959 74. 287 33, 201 27,7H 32, 979 78, 809 Value. $71,367 43,635 107,283 5 1 , 766 107,643 [43.884 135,280 74, 303 99, 803 206, 055 38, 860 112,523 66, 767 174,502 183,969 120,317 51,612 29-577 19,874 t 38, 157 ^.589 49- 36, 241, 44, 276, 64, 417, 101, 505 • 407. 508 663 928 209 472 065 617 018 911 $104. 108 £269, 238, 364, 487, 481, 246. 142. 94, t 230, 363 923 628 140 334 118 023 748 013 $283,810 $136,693 198, 948 819.664 204,312 722, 247 221. 764 986, 1 12 386, 261 98o,455 1. 190, 560 214, 448 $584, 702 1 . 1 1 7. 065 176. 704 313,921 105. 400 668, 867 744, 539 591,868 489, 570 $2,301,334 539, 543 1,085,230 422, 447 1,572. 126 1,810,606 1,382,872 1.378,801 Ave'ge price. $2 $3 $2 68 73 Dried. Pounds. 2.841.532 892, O75 55U350 510.750 775- 700 t 836, 1 10 1,067.920 I. 150, 122 2.644.592 4.483.186 4- 234- 736 4,053,696 713,840 I4.3i8.052 4- 188, 173 7, 379, 836 3.158.367 4.632.460 Value. M46.05I 105. 548 55, 265 79, 922 121.910 t 79- 387 5I14.0S1 $79, 026 190, 560 272. 028 294, 893 3^6, 193 67.9I5 920, 292 260. 085 296, 794 192, 069 Average price. 22,62^,652 2,893,270 10,187,957 5- 558, 746 18,416,573 10,473,183 8, 130,396 II,803, l6l 51,247.891 228, 945 786. 800 394- 350 I , 062, 859 548, 434 413,363 812,682 U.UO/ .118 . 100 .156 • 157 t • 095 1. 107 f . 069 .072 .061 .070 .080 •095 .064 .062 .040 .061 $289,986 $0,063 )055 .079 .077 .071 .058 .052 :05I .069 ^Bulletin 64, and circular 16, Division of Foreign Markets. of Agriculture. t Record not kept. U. S. Department 256 Bulletin 226. Table 6 — Concluded. 1S89 1890 Annual average. 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 Annual average. 1901 1902 1903 1904 Kkesh. Barrels. 942, 406 453- 506 560. 385 135.207 938, 743 408, 014 78. 580 818,711 360. 002 . 503. 981 605, 390 380, 222 526, 636 575-549 883,673 459, 719 1,656, 129 2.018,262 Value. fo 249, 375 1,231,436 $1,397-377 $476, 2,407, 1.097, 242, 1-954, 930, 2-371, 1,684. 1,210, 1,444, 897 956 967 617 318 289 143 717 459 655 Ave'ge price. '2.39 2.72 $2.49 $1,382, 102 $2, 058, 964 1,628.886 4,38l,80I 5,446,473 $2.40 2.33 3-54 2.65 2. 70 Ukied. Pounds. 22, 102, 579 20,861,462 13.305-098 6,973,168 26, 042, 063 7,966,819 2, 846, 645 7,085,946 26,691,963 30.775,401 31,031,254 19, 305, 739 34,964,010 19,368.301 28, 309, 023 15,664,468 39, 646, 297 48,301,665 Value. si, 201,070 1,038.682 $773,508 $409, 605 [, 288, 102 482, 085 168,054 461, 214 L340,507 [.340,159 [ , 897, 725 [-245,733 2,247,851 Average price. $0,054 .050 058 5. 104 $I,5IO,58l 1.190,593 2.378.635 2, 791,421 059 049 061 059 065 050 044 061 065 064 056 053 076 060 058 Areas- — There are in Walworth township 1,773 V\ ^cres of orchard made up of areas as large or larger than one acre. This township con- tains about 34.3/2 square miles. There are, therefore, 51 acres of apples per square mile ; or a little over 8 per cent of the land is devoted to orchards. In Ontario township there are about 40 acres per square mile, in Macedon about 19 acres. With the exception of Walworth and prob- ably Marion townships, it may be said that the area devoted to orchards increases as we approach the lake. The total area devoted to apples in the county is about 21,000 acres. The area of the county is 621 square miles. This gives 33.8 acres of apples per square mile, or 5.3 per cent. The census shows that there are 305,299 acres of improved land in farms. The apple orchards equal 6.9 per cent of this area. According to the census report for 1899, there were 796,610 " trees of bearing age " in the county. This survey shows the average num- ber per acre to be 41.8. This number of trees would therefore repre- sent an area of about 19,000 acres. Probably 2,000 acres were not of bearing age, or have been set since 1899. This would seem to support An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 257 the above estimate, or perhaps the estimate substantiates the census returns, for this work should be much more accurate than the census. The average area for each proprietor in Walworth is 5.4 acres. This includes all orchards as large as one acre. In the remainder of the county such small orchards were not recorded, so that the average does not give an accurate idea of the average size. The average of those examined was 17.2 acres. The development of the commercial orchard. — Half a century ago the agriculture of Western New York was grain raising and general farm- Fig. 40. — Many of the public roads arc lined with apple-trees. ing. The orchards were " kitchen orchards." They were planted around the house or in some corner that could not be used for the regular crops. The busy farmer paid little attention to the trees. He merely gathered the apples, and gave about the same attention to the orchard that the boys gave to the chestnut tree. The apples were a clean gift. If there were enough for the kitchen and the cider barrel the farmer was satisfied. He had no quarrel with the worms or the scab fungus. The more worms the more cider apples, and since the farmer sometimes appreciated the cider barrel fully as much as he did the apple barrel, he was willing to share the crop with the insects. 258 Bulletin 226. About i860 men began to plant real commercial orchards. For the first time in the history of the new world, large commercial apple orchards were planted with a view to selling the fruit. It is no wonder that some mistakes were made. The old ideas gained from the kitchen orchard and cider manufacture were naturally carried over into the new industry. Little was really known about the apple-tree. No one knew much about insects and fungi, or how to treat them. Nor did they know how to market fruit. Transportation and markets had to be developed. The poor fruit and low prices discouraged many men. A few even cut down their orchards. But these years accomplished much. The cheap apples educated the taste of the public and created a demand for more apples. Together, the farmer and Experiment Station man have worked out methods of culture, and have learned how to control the enemies of the apple. But it takes time for new ideas to become established. The farmer is conservative. It is well that he is so. Because he moves slowly, he moves surely. He never needs to retrace his steps. We cannot ex- pect every one to accept all the new ideas in orchard treatment as soon as they are advanced. It has always required a generation of men to establish any new agricultural system. Changes must largely come through the new generation. Some mature men can readily adapt themselves to new conditions, but it is usually the young man, born under these conditions, who really accepts them. • The many neglected orchards are records of the agriculture of the past, the growing number that are well cared for are the forerunners of the new. In the next fifty years the lake counties of western New York seem destined to become one continuous fruit farm of apples, pears, peaches, cherries, plums and small fruits. The change from general farming to fruit farming has been very gradual. The decrease in the fertility of the soil and western compe- tition have forced men who were trained in grain farming and who preferred that work to become fruit growers. The grain crops have generally ceased to be profitable when grown for market. This has directed attention to the small apple orchard which has so frequently supported a family when the remainder of the farm gave no profit, or an actual loss. There are many men who still neglect the orchard to care for the field crops when there is not time to take good care of both, but others take the businesslike view and tend to the most profit- able crop first. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 259 All through this report the fewer orchards, poorer care, and less yields in the south part of the county are apparent. This difference may be due partly to the more favorable climate near the lake, but this factor is a minor one. The south part of the county has, in general, soils that retain their fertility longer than those in the north part. The grain crops consequently continued profitable for a longer time. The orchards arc- less profitable because less care is given to them. When equally well cared for they have given as good crops as have those in the north part of the county. The last few years have seen a rapid improvement in orchard management. Ten years ago there were few cultivated orchards ex- cept those in which crops were grown. Orchards were quite commonly considered to be an unprofitable investment. How could they be profitable when not tilled, pruned, fertilized or sprayed? But a gradual improvement has been taking place and has been reflected in the increased profits, until apples are now looked upon as the money- producing crop of the county. Nearly all orchards have received im- proved care in some respect. It may have been nothing more than a spraying or pruning, or an application of manure when all of these were needed, but the trees have almost invariably responded to any kind of improved care. Fourteen per cent have been distinctly renovated during the past ten years. These have been fairly well cared for in every way. The canker worm formerly devastated large numbers of orchards year after year. Spraying came into popularity in combating this pest. The canker worm is now almost exterminated, but the many other good effects of spraying have firmly established this practice. Even those orchards which are not sprayed must be greatly benefited, because the men who do spray help to keep the insect enemies of the entire neighbor- hood in check. But what has been done in the past ten years in renovating orchards is small in comparison with what remains to be done. The apple- consuming public is constantly demanding a better product. This means that the fruit-grower who can not or will not produce good apples must fall out of the race. Each year a large number of such men is giving place to energetic men who are not satisfied to grow anything but the best. Tt is these good fruit-growers that will insure the continued supremacy of New York apples. 260 Bulletin 226. Picking the crop, The customary method. CHAPTER II. Tillage. Acreage of tilled and unfilled orchards- — About 30 per cent of the orchards that were set before 1880 were tilled in 1903. This percent- age is slightly below what it would have been in a favorable season. The very dry weather in the early spring prevented many from plowing. About half of the orchards of the county have been in sod five to ten years or more. The other half are tilled more or less. In the south part very few old orchards are tilled, — only 12 per cent in 1903. In the north part tillage is much more common. It is practiced more in Walworth township than in any other part of the county. Here less than one-third of the orchards are in sod permanently (see Table 7 and 8). Table 7. Treatment prior to IQ03. Trees set before 1S80. TREATMENT. Walworth. Remainder of the County. Entire County. No. or- chards. Acres. Per No. or- cein.' chards. Acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. Acres. Per cent. Tilled 5 years or more.. Tilled most years Sod most years, tilled 44 64 73 87 307 3 / 242 323 335 25 12 20 8 27 t8 219^ 208 195^ 852^ is 14 13 58 56. 72 91 145 527X 450 518^ 1187^ 20 17 19 44 Sod 5 years, or more. . . 28 58 Table 8. Treatment in 1903 of orchards set before 1880. Walworth. South Part County. Nor'h PartCounty. Entire County. TREATMENT. 0! rt S5-S- Acres. S5-S Acres. Oh 9j si Acres. 1 t/i Q--S 55 -8 Acres. Sod(not pastured) Sod (cattle pas- ture) 132 71 8 44 460 342 47 151 30 22 3 10 9 18 5 6 95 173^ 44 46 23 43 11 11 17 14 II 3 2l8^ 333 239 27 19 29 21 2 158 103 24 53 773 H 848^ 330 224 25 27 I T Sod (sheep pas- ture) Sod (hog pasture) 7 Total sod Tilled 255 124 1000 538y 2 65 35 38 6 358'A 49 88 12 45 17 343 71 30 338 147 2176 930'- 70 30 261 262 Bulletin 226. Crops were grown in 1903 in about one-third of the tilled orchards. About 8 per cent of the entire area, or 27 per cent of the tilled area, was sown to cover-crops, to be plowed under. The remainder were tilled without any crop, but a cover-crop of weeds was quite common. Three-fourths of the orchards set since 1879 were tilled in 1903. Crops were grown in all but 7 per cent of those that were tilled. The young orchard generally takes its place as one field in the crop rota- tion. This keeps it in sod about one-fourth of the time, in small grain one-fourth of the time, and in tilled crops half the years (Table 9). Table 9. Treatment in 1903 of orchards set since 1S79. Walworth. Remainder ok the County. Entire County. TREATMENT. No. or- chards. Acres. Per cent 19 5 No. or- chards. 4 4 Acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. Acres. Per cent. Sod (not pastured) Sod (pastured) 3 41 11% l6% 82 4 20 17 7 57% 93/2 9 15 Total sod 16 48 $2% 163K 24 76 8 16 98^ 312 24 76 24 64 151 475K 24 76 Tilled Yields of tilled and unfilled orchards. — Table 10 gives the yields for four years of orchards that have been tilled every year for at least five years previous to the crop reported, those that were tilled over half the years, those that were tilled occasionally but not half the time, and fors those that have been in sod every year for at least five years. It will be seen that the tilled orchards have given a uniformly larger yield than those in sod. the four-year average of the tilled ones being 80 per cent above that of the untilled. Perhaps the most striking point in the tables is the uniform agreement of the averages for each of the three parts of the county and for each of the four years. It should be remembered that these tables include every orchard set before 1880, for which reports of yields could be obtained, and that every orchard in Walworth was examined. There can be no further question as to whether the average sod or the average tilled orchard in Wayne county gives the larger yield. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 263 rt2 o rt S5-S S-8 -. On « vo tOOif) t^ On i-o 1-1 t^ w r^ 01 CO « O 01 IM 01 VO 01 On 01 O 01 ro 0 oi O ro O) 04 01 _" r»5 01 ro O) rt 55 -5 ! >> . >» ! >> ' • 03 • 03 • 03 • C • c • C ' ' O " : . ■ tn ■ 03 ■ 03 • o3 • - O • • • O • • • O • ■ • 1 • -O 1 •-o 1 c ■ •a ■ c £ s- 1 1- : 1 c - P - . O +J 03 vo P O >, *0 "O C vo ;— — "O "O rp — o o • n o S 5 years or most yea ost years, years or 1 5 years 01 most yea ost years any years 5 years 01 most yea ost years years or -0-0 p E "O "O P vo v w _ ° W -r-|.r- ~— — r^ .-.- O O hhtflt/i Hhww HHc/)^> ON ''I X O * = = ^H § 264 Bulletin 226. A part of this very great difference is' doubtless due to other factors. The man who regularly tills his orchard is more likely to fertilize, prune and spray well. To see how much of this difference is due to tillage and how much is due to other factors another classification was made. Table 1 1 shows the average yields of those orchards that have been fairly well cared for. They differ only in the factor of tillage. All have received some fertilization, have been fairly well pruned, are not diseased or in bad condition from any cause. Of these well cared for orchards the tilled ones gave an average of 35 per cent above the untilled. This tabulation doubtless gives too high a yield for the Table ii. Yield in bnslicls of tilled and sod orchards. Average for the entire county of trees set before 1S80. Orchards all well cared for. TREATMENT. Tilled 5 years or more Tilled most years. . . . Sod most years Sod 5 years or more. . 1 goo. igor. No. 25 Acres. Average yield. 348 No. 22 Acres. 175^ I77X 22 l8l 353 21 188 24 209 260 25 244/4 25 206 224 31 249 Average yield. 99 38 7^ 45 Table ii — Concluded. igo2. 1903. Four- TREATMENT. No. Acres. Average yield. 311 339 235 269 No. Acres. 345 99 'A 122 157^ Average yield. year average. Tilled 5 years or more. . . . Tilled most years Sod most years 38 38 46 47 40 1 # 26l^ 365 Vz 356^ 23 16 15 22 326 249 257 263 271 245 206 Sod 5 years or more 200 orchards in sod, for in making it all diseased ones were thrown out. Jn many cases these should have been included, for the disease fre- quently gets a foothold because the sod has lowered the vitality of the trees. The real difference due to sod will therefore lie between the 80 per cent shown by Table 10 and the 35 per cent shown by Table 11. Docs tillage pay? — These tables do not show that every sod -orchard should be tilled, but they do show that it would pay to till the average An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 265 one. If a sod orchard is giving good yields, and if the trees are mak- ing sufficient growth to keep up their vitality, it may be desirable to keep it in sod. By the liberal use of barnyard manure or straw mulch, an orchard may be kept in good condition without tillage. The trouble is that so many do not receive enough of either. The same results may be accomplished with much less manure if the orchard is tilled. If the orchard is in sod and is not yielding well, or if the trees are losing their vitality, even if the yield is still good, it will probably pay to till. Fig. 41. — One year's grozvth in a cornfield. A live-acre orchard planted by Jay E. Allis. Compare with Fig. 42. Whatever the best treatment of a thrifty orchard may be, there is no question about the advisability of tilling one that needs renovating or of tilling young trees (see page 309, and Figs. 41, 42, 43). There are some market! advantages of sod. It requires less work to leave the trees in sod. If the land is very stony, the tillage brings the stones to the surface and makes a bad place for the apples to fall. Sod is also better to haul spray rigs over. Perhaps the greatest advantage is in having a sod for the apples to fall on. This is par- ticularly desirable when the entire crop is to be shaken off for evapo- 266 Bulletin 226. rating. Cover-crops will, to some extent, take the place of sod, but it is difficult to get a good cover-crop under large trees. Apples usually color better on sod and are said to keep better, but are not so large. Some experiments are now being conducted on these points. Fig. 42. — One year's grozvth zvhen set in timothy sod. A 13-acre orchard in Orleans county. (Compare with Fig. //.') Here the trees are of secondary importance. Tillage, fertilization, pruning and spraying arc the chief factors that enter into good care of an orchard. ( )ne or more of these may some- times be omitted without seriously affecting the trees. Tillage may lessen the need for fertilization. Fertili- zation may help to make up for lack of tillage. Some years few insects or fungi attack the trees, so that spraying is not much needed. Very frequently a grower becomes impressed with the importance of one of these fac- tors and makes a hobby of it to the ex- clusion of all the others ; but the most successful man is the one who keeps a proper balance between all four, and who does not expect spraying to replace manure, tillage or pruning, or vice versa. Fig. 43. — A feiv furrows plowed along each tree rozv lessen the evil effects of sod. Would it not fay better to raise only filled crops 9 Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 267 Where' docs your orchard conic, in the table on page 350? Is it where you want it to be? If so, continue your present methods; if not, then try to find out where the trouble is. The results of good and bad treatment arc not always apparent the first year. — The great difficulty in determining what kind of treatment pays best in any particular orchard is the fact that it may be several years before the results are apparent in the difference in crops. If this fact were kept in mind by the orchardists, a very large part of the differ- Fig. 44, — Tillage v. neglect. The rows on the right ivere left in sod. those on the left were tilled. The trees were othenvisc similarly treated . and are of the same age. ence of opinion as to the best method of caring for an orchard would disappear. Very frequently a grower has followed a few years of good care by a period of neglect and has received an increased yield as a result. The trees may be making almost no new wood, and may be so lowered in vitality as to be easy victims of canker and other diseases. Yet the increased crop may have persuaded the grower thai this is the ideal treatment. No care can be good if it does not look out for the future of the orchard. Many orchards need treatment that will actually decrease the yield for several years, while care that will 268 Bulletin 226. greatly increase the yield may be destroying' the trees or shortening their period of life. The most profitable crop that could be grown in many orchards is new wood, and consequent new vigor in the trees. The returns may be more apparent in five or ten years than in the first year or two. Occasionally there is an orchard that is growing too Fig. 45. — One kind of "culture." This twelve-acre orchard could be renovated and made a good orchard. fast and that would be benefited by sod, but they are not common. A much larger number are dying back faster than new wood is being formed. In Fig. 44 is shown an experiment in orchard management that was carried on by T. G. Yeomans & Sons for many years. The trees on the left were tilled and fertilized. Those on the righl were fertilized the same An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 269 but were left in timothy sod. The trees in sod are so badly weakened that the land has been plowed and a start made toward renovating them. Methods of tillage. — Orchards are commonly plowed in the fall. This is frequently done so as to have less spring work. Early spring plowing would seem to be much more desirable for an orchard. The grass or weeds will hold the snow and leaves. In a few orchards the roots are so near the surface as to prevent plowing. Such an orchard may be tilled with a spading harrow, disk or, on sandy soils, with a spring-tooth harrow. The ideal system of tillage for most orchards is early plowing or disking, followed by clean tillage until about July 1st. Some kind of a cover-crop is then sown. This cover-crop will produce humus to be plowed under ; it furnishes a partial substitute for sod for the apples to fall on; it will help to remove surplus water during the latter part of the season and thus cause the fruit to color better. Fig. 61 and the frontispiece show orchards, that are receiving. this kind of treatment. Methods of sod treatment. — Many of the orchards that are in sod are pastured by cattle, hogs, sheep and horses. From some hay is cut ; from others the grass is not removed, — usually because there is not enough to pay for cutting. A very few farmers are trying the so-called mulch method of cutting the grass that grows in the orchard and leaving it where it falls or throwing it under the trees. There were not enough of them, nor had the work been continued long enough so that a statistical report could be made. Table 12 shows the yields for 1902, with the different methods of sod treatment. The number of orchards is not sufficient to give con- clusive results. It would appear that pasturing with cattle is the worst possible treatment for an orchard, a conclusion that is in Table 12. Yields in bushels for igoj.ivith various methods of sod treatment. Trees set before 18S0. TREATMENT. Pastured with hogs Pastured with sheep Pastured with cattle Sod, not pastured . . No. orchards. 22 15 54 47 Acres. 105^ 232 392 256^ Average yield. 271 2l6 159 185 270 Bulletin 226. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 271 accord with the appearance of the orchards thus pastured. Cattle rub on the trees, break the branches and browse the limbs as high as they can reach. The few dollars that it would cost to procure a regular pasture for them is lost many times over by the damage to the trees. Horses are not so frequently pastured in the orchards, but are equally injurious. In one case a good young orchard had nearly every tree stripped*of its bark by a span of horses. The orchard was worth about five times as much as the horses. Next in the scale of injuriousness to pasturing cattle in an orchard is the raising of hay in it. The hay crop grows in the spring at the time when the apple-trees make their growth. It therefore uses the plant-food and water at the time when the trees need it most. If the grass is left on the ground the mulch helps to preserve the moisture, and leaves the plant-food so that the damage is not so great. Sheep crop the grass close to the ground, and so to some extent prevent the large evap- oration that occurs in a hay field. The manure dropped by them is also of consider- able value. Fig. 46 shows an orchard that is pastured by sheep early in the season. This is one of the best sod orchards. Large applications of barnyard manure are used. Several of the limbs that show a lack of foliage are infected by canker. If sheep are allowed to run in the orchard during the latter part of the season, they frequently pick many apples. If prices are good, the apples eaten may be of more value than the sheep (see Fig. 47). Pasturing with hogs seems to give better yields than any other method of sod treatment. The hogs usually do considerable rooting, and so prevent the formation of a tough sod. In some cases the orchard that has hogs in it might almost be classed as a tilled orchard. The difference is also largely due to the manure. The hogs receive most of their food from outside the orchard, so that there is a constant addi- tion to the plant-food in the soil. Cattle and sheep are usually fed much less. Fig. 47. — Sheep have removed about a barrel of apples from each tree in this orchard. 272 Bulletin 226. Hogs frequently do considerable damage to the trees, particularly if the feed-yard is in the orchard. Around the place where they are fed they rub the trunks and roots, pack the soil so as to make it impervious to air, and sometimes bark the trees. It is well to remember that one good apple-tree is worth more than a hog, and that a small strip of bark removed will usually result in a decayed tree. There should always be a feed-yard outside the orchard. ' Hogs or sheep do considerable good by eating the apples that fall early, and so disposing of many worms. None of the methods of sod treatment equal tillage in average yields. A comparison of Table 12 with Table 10 shows the force of this statement. CHAPTER III. Fertilization. Fertilizers used. — The majority of orchards receive no commercial fertilizer or green manure, but are given a limited amount of barn- yard manure — usually much too limited. One-third receive no fer- tilizing of any kind. Sixty per cent receive barnyard manure, either alone or in combination with commercial fertilizer, green manure, etc. ; green manure is used alone or in combination in 12 per cent; commercial fertilizer is used alone or with other manures in 13 per cent (see Table 13). These figures show too high a percentage receiving some kind of fertilizer. In many cases only a little manure was applied, but the orchard was included with those receiving manures. In others the fertilization was given so long ago as to be of no consequence at present. Probably less than half the orchards receive enough to entitle them to be properly included with those receiving fertilization. Table 13. Summary of fertilizers used. All ages of orchards included. FERTILIZER. Used with UsKn Alone. Other Fertilizers. Total. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. 154 272 50 31 1101,72 1962^ 416 409 33-5 59-7 12.6 Barnyard manure Commercial fer- tilizer 214 10 14 1453.^ 103 H7)4 44-3 3.1 40 509 313 291^ 15-5 9-5 8.8 Green manure. . . 3-5 17 12.3 Orchards receiving no fertilization of any kind. Walworth South part of county . North part of county No. orchards. No. acres 117 21 16 453 241 407 l A 31-4 62.2 28.1 In many of the fertilized orchards the manure was used with a view to helping some crop planted in the orchard. Of course if it is applied, the apple-trees will make use of a part of it. 274 Bulletin 226. Fertilization and yield. — The records of the use of barnyard manure and fertilizers do not cover a long enough period to be used in com- paring crops before 1902. The average yields of fertilized orchards for the years 1902 and 1903 were 55 bushels above that of those that were unfertilized (see Table 14). Table 14. Yield in bushels for 1902 and 1903 for fertilized and unfertilised orchards. Trees set before 1S80. Fertilized . . Unfertilized 1902. 1903. No. orchards. Acres. 2, 1 16;4 692 Average yield. No. orchards. Acres. \,2ioy 2 343 # Average yield. 28l 231 292 II I 233 173 M7 44 Two-year average. 257 202 Necessity for fertilization. — The cultivated orchards demand much less fertilization than the untilled ones, for the tillage makes food that is in the soil available. There are, however, very few soils that do not need some material added at least in the form of green manure. Many of tbe less progressive growers fail to recognize the orchard as a crop that requires food as do otber crops. A common reply to the question of the kind of manure used was. " We don't raise anything in the orchard so we do not use any manure or fertilizer," the growth of wood, leaves, and apples not being recognized as a drain on the plant- food in the soil. But the number of those who recognize the orchard as a crop requiring food and care is rapidly increasing. The small, light- colored leaves, the very little growth, the small apples, are requests for food. The owner shoTild answer the demand with manure or tillage, usually with both. The amount of plant-food removed by the apple crop compared with that removed by the wheat crop. — The following tables, based on Bulletin No. 103 of this Station, show something of the demands made by the apple orchard. All the leaves were gathered from a medium-sized, mature apple-tree and were analyzed. The trunk, branches and the roots were also analvzed.* *Cornel! Bulletin 103. October, 1805. This bulletin is now nut of print. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 275 I mile 15. Plant-food in apple leaves. Total weight Total weight water Total weight dry matter Total weight nitrogen. ...... Total weight phosphoric acid Total weight potash Leaves of one tree analyzed. -6- 139 51 '" 92 5i " 96 " 37 " r 32 " Estimated for one acre of 35 trees. 33.6 lbs. 12.95 " 46 . 2 " Table \<>. 1'lant-food in wood and roots. Wood and roots of one tree analyzed. Estimated for one acre of js trees. Estimated amount removed per year.* Total weight Total weight water 5,251.4 lbs. 2,300.18 " 2.951.22 " 8.09 " 3-07 " 7-55 " Total weight dry matter Total weight nitrogen 283.15 lbs. 107.45 " 264.25 " 6.29 lbs. 2-39 " 5.87 " Total weight phosphoric acid... . Total weight potash *To get the estimate of the amount required for wood and roots each year, it was assumed that A of the mature tree was grown each year. Trees 45 years old are usually larger than the tree analyzed. Table 17, Composition of wheat. Water. Nitrogen. Grain 14 . 75% 2 . 36% Straw 1 2 . 56 .56 Phosphoric acid. 0.89% .12 Potash. 0.6l% • 5r Composition of apples. Water. Nitrogen. Phosphoric- acid. Potash. 85.3? O.I3'' 0.01^ O.I9^ 276 Bulletin 226. Table 18. Total plant-food removed in one year by wheat and by apples. Nitrogen. Phosphoric acid. Potash. 300 bushels of apples 19.50 lbs. 33 60 " 6 . 29 " 1.50 lbs. 12.95 " 2-39 " 28.50 Leaves 46.20 Wood 5-87 Total 59-39 lbs. 16.84 lbs. 80.57 28.32 lbs. 14.00 " 10.68 lbs. 3.00 " 7-32 12.75 Total 42.32 lbs. 13.68 lbs. 20.07 According to these estimates it requires, for crops of the size indicated, about four times as much potash, and more nitrogen and phosphoric acid, to grow the apples than is required to grow the wheat. In considering these tables there are several points to keep in mind. The apple roots go deeper into the ground and so have more soil from which to draw their food supply. If the ground has some kind of a crop growing on it, the leaves may be largely retained in the orchard. The amount of plant-food used by the wood is not very well known, as it is difficult to determine what an average growth is. But even the 300 bushels of apples, without any leaves or wood growth, require more potash and nearly half as much nitrogen as is required to produce the wheat and straw. Manure may be 'shipped in from the cities. — A few of the more pro- gressive growers have shipped in manure from Buffalo. This costs about $28 per car, but if applied when needed it gives a very large return. Some have feared to use it on account of the danger of getting weed seed. There seems to be no trouble in subduing any weeds that come with it when it is applied to the orchard. There may be some danger of animal diseases being carried in the manure. A much larger total of manure is secured from the many smaller cities and towns, but this is usually not obtainable in very large quantities. Manure may be profitably secured by the feeding of cattle. — A few growers have fed cattle during the winter in order to secure manure. This enables them to buy their fertilizer in the form of feed. The cattle usually give a fair profit. The manure obtained, added to this, makes An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 277 the practice quite profitable. It seems probable that more of this winter feeding will be done in the future. The expense of caring for stock in the winter is not very great. The fertilizing value of the feed is frequently over half of its cost.* Method of applying man 11 re. — Manure is almost always applied in a small circle around the base of the tree. This is a serious mistake. The roots of a bearing orchard occupy all the ground. Those from one row may extend beyond the next row. The small feeding roots are naturally most numerous at some distance from the tree, much as the active twigs are found at the ends of the large branches. The manure should therefore be applied to the entire ground. If any place is not covered, let it be that near the trunk. Professor Roberts has aptly likened the application around the trunk to putting the hay under the horse's feet. Cover-crops. — More orchards are in need of humus than are in need of the direct application of plant-food. For this reason the applica- tion of barnyard manure generally gives much better results than the use of fertilizers. This is particularly true of sod orchards. Tilled orchards usually do as well when green manure with potash and phos- phoric acid are used. On some of the stronger soils no fertilization of any kind may be needed for many years, if plenty of green manure is plowed under. Eight per cent of the mature orchards of the county were sown to cover- crops in 1902. Buckwheat was the most common, followed by crim- son clover and common red clover. Rye, large clover, cow-peas, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch were also grown. Buckwheat furnishes a large amount of humus and leaves the soil in a friable condition. It is not a legume, and so can not use nitrogen from the air. Crimson clover has generally done well, but some growers have had difficulty in getting a stand. One man has grown it every other year for fourteen years. Common red clover has been most satisfactory when a year of tillage has been followed by a year in which the clover is cut and left on the land to be plowed under the second year. Peas and oats have given good results in most cases. f *For tables of the value of the fertilizing elements in various feeds, see Cornell Bulletin 154. tFor a more extended discussion of orchard cover-crops, see Cornell Bulletin 198. CHAPTER IV. Pruning. The former methods of pruning. — Pruning was at first greatly neg- lected. Just as the majority of orchards were formerly left to fight their way in competition with other plants, so the limbs in each tree were allowed to fight with each other. Only a few orchards have been well pruned from the time of planting. In some pruning was almost entirely neglected for years ; in others it was done and is still Fig. 48. — Years of neglect followed by too severe priming. done in such a manner as to do more harm than good. There is a tendency among careless farmers to let the trees go for several years and then give them a "thorough trimming" (see Fig. 48), rather than prune some every year, as the careful grower does. Perhaps one-fifth of the orchards are now well pruned, and this number is being added to each year, as the number of real fruit-growers increases. The problem of pruning among the bearing trees of Wayne county is, therefore, not that of training an ideal tree from the time it is planted ; but the far more difficult problem of correcting the effects of former neglect. Ho-^< wounds heal. — Intelligent pruning is based on a knowledge of the causes of decay, and of the way in which wounds heal. 278 An Apple Orchard Survey ok Wayne County, New York. 279 The living and growing part of a tree is the cambium layer. This is a tissue lying upon the outside of the wood and beneath the bark. From its outside it produces bark, and from its inside it produces wood. It is this layer of young, tender cells that makes the bark " slip " so readily in early summer. The inner part of the tree is not active; its value to the tree is in supporting the living part. If this center part decays, the tree usually continues to grow till it breaks down (see Fig. 52). This dead inner wood is protected by the bark and living portion so that fungi and bacteria cannot reach it. When a large limb is removed the seal is broken and the dead wood is exposed. Having no life, it cannot resist infection by germs any more than a dead log can do so. The safety of the tree depends on having the wound healed over before it becomes infected. The wound heals by the growth of the cambium layer. If the wound is small it will usually be sealed up before the fungi get established; but if the dead stub is exposed for a long time the wood-rot fungi are almost certain to attack it and cause the trunk to decay. If the wound does then heal over, the mycelium of the fungi is established and may continue to grow within the tree.* The decay may reach into the living tissue, but its most serious effects are in so weakening the trunk as to cause it to break down. In order to avoid the rotten trunks that are so common in the majority of the orchards, three things should lie observed: 1. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is absolutely necessary. 2. When such limbs must be removed, the pruning should be so done as to favor rapid healing of the wounds. 3. Large wounds should be protected by paint till the tree can seal them. The removal of large limbs. — The ideal way would be to have the tree so pruned from the time it is planted that there would never be occasion for the removal of large limbs. But very many orchards were neglected so long that it may be necessary to cut out such limbs. Eighteen per cent of the orchards are still practically unpruned. In a neglected orchard some limbs may be damaged by neglect or lack of food. ( )thers die as a result of the shade caused by dense tops, or the trees being too close together. Even in a well cared for orchard an occasional limb will be broken by the wind, or by too heavy a load of fruit, or will die from other causes. But much of the removal of *Cornc!l Bulletin E93, Shade Trees and Timber-Destroying Fun$ 28o Bulletin 226. large limbs is done without cause. In the orchard shown in Fig. 48, the trees had too many of these as a result of neglect, but it would have been better to have thinned the tops by the removal of small branches than by cutting out the scaffold limbs. It takes more time to prune by the former method, but the time is well spent. The ulti- mate death of most trees can be traced to the careless removal of large limbs. The wound is too large heal, or the cut is made in ^H such a way that it can not ^B heal. Wood-rot fungi get a ^ foothold and soon the tree has a hollow trunk. The wind then breaks off the branches one by one till the tree is gone (see Figs. 5; and 54). Stub pruning. — Much can be done to prevent the fungi and bacteria fron getting a foothold. If the limb is c close to the body of the tree, and parallel with it, the tree will be able to heal wound of considerable size before decay sets in. 1 pruning should be done in such a manner no portion of the amputated branch is left a limb is cut an inch from the body the wound requires much longer to heal than it would if no stub were left. A stub several inches long seldom heals over. It has no life of its own, and so must depend on material that comes from other branches to heal it ; but a projecting stub is out of the line of move- ment of the sap — -it is sidetracked. Instead of healing over the end of the stub, a roll of new growth is thrown up around its base where the cut should have been made. In a little over sixteen per cent of the orchards examined bad stubs were left, varying in length from one or two inches to one foot. Fig. 49. — Long stubs left when pruning. These cause the trunks to de- cay and finally result in broken trees. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 281 There are two reasons for leaving - these long' stubs. One, I fear the more common one, is because it is easier to do so. But many farmers leave a long stub when a large limb must be removed because they think that the wound will be too large to heal, and by leaving the long stub they hope to keep the rot away from the tree. The rapidity with which fungi penetrate the wood after they get started refutes this practice. Success must come from preventing the start of decay, not from giving it a long dis- tance to travel be- fore it gets into the trunk. In one forty- acre orchard the owner left stubs about a foot long to serve as ladders ! His successor has gone through the orchard and cut these off and has done what was pos- sible to prevent further decay. In Fig. 49 is shown a tree with long stubs that will result in its death. Fig- 54 gives what will be the next step. The outside of this stub shows the seed-forming bodies (spore fruits) of the fungi ; but it does not look very bad, while the inside is so decayed that it only needed a good load of fruit to break the tree. Fig. 53 is another stub that will ultimately cause the death of the tree. The tape-measure shows how far the stick extends into the decayed hole. The decay, of course, goes much farther. Fig. 50 shows a decayed hole that was caused by leaving a large wound Fig. 50. — The decayed hole caused by wood-destroying fungi. (See Figs, jr and 5-?.) 282 Bulletin 22C. Fig. 51. — The same tree as Fig. 50. showing the extent of the decay. The tree was about 16 inches in diameter and had only about tzvo inches of sound zvood on the outside, a mere shell. The white mould is the mycelium of fungi. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 283 unpainted. The hole is now nearly closed, but it is too late, as will be seen by Fig. 51, which shows the inside of the same tree. There is only a few inches of undecayed .wood on the outside of the trunk. The white mould (mycelium) all through the trunk shows how badly decayed the tree is. The tree was a very thrifty one, and was apparently unaffected, but the rotted trunk was no longer strong enough to support it (Fig. 52). Paint should be used on the larger wounds. — Only a very few orchards were seen where paint was used. Painting the wounds should become SflRBKL. Fig. 52. — The rotten trunk resulted in the breaking of the tree. (See Figs. 50-,n.) an accepted practice. The paint does not help to heal the wounds, nor does it hinder healing, as some have supposed. It is to prevent the wood- rot fungi from getting a foothold. It acts as a partial seal till the tree can protect the wound in its own way — by healing over the place. It has a similar effect as it has on farm machinery. It protects from weather and prevents fungi and bacteria from causing decay. The cost of painting all the wounds above two inches in diameter is not great. If this is done, and if the larger ones are repainted every vear, the increased longevity of the tree will amply repay the cost. One good apple-tree will pay for 284 Bulletin 226. painting many wounds. Lead paint is the most satisfactory for this pur- pose, but any durable paint is probably good. Thinning the tops. — If the tops are so dense that air can not circulate through them it is almost impossible to spray well. The moisture remains long after every rain or dew, and so favors all kinds of fungous growths. The fruit will be of poor quality and poorly colored. Dense tops favor the development of insects and diseases, but not of apples. The frontispiece shows a well-pruned t re e. Noti ce that the light shines through the top in spite of the fact that there is a large crop of fruit and excellent foliage. Contrast this with Fig. 59. But even this latter orchard is better pruned than the average. Pruning should vary with the thrift of the trees. — If an orchard is so treated that the leaves are small and the growth very little, many more limbs should be left than in a thrifty orchard. Poor color of the fruit in tilled orchards could be im- proved to some extent if these trees were pruned more openly. The tree in the frontispiece shows ideal conditions. The air and light can filter through the top and reach every leaf and every apple. If this tree were not tilled or fertilized it could have about double the number of limbs without making the tops any denser. A neglected tree would be a mere skeleton if pruned as this thrifty tree is pruned. When is tlie best time to prune ? — As a result of a series of experiments in pruning at various times in the year Professor Bailey concludes as i •■-"■ ' M u§§ 1 •' j|f<<.&i 3Hff*r . Fig. 53. — The long stub continued. The tape shows hozv far the stick extends into flic rotten trunk. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 285 follows: "The conclusion, — and my general opinion, — in respect to the season of pruning', so far as the healing of wounds is concerned, is this : The ideal time is in spring, before growth begins (late February, March and early April in New York;) but more depends on the position of the wound in the tree and Fin. 54. — The long stub resulted in the broken tree. the length of the stub than on the time of year." :;c The best time to prune will gener- ally be the time when labor is least expen- sive. How to treat crotches. — The best way to treat a crotch is never to allow one to form ; but when one secures an orchard in which they are already formed he must do what is possible to correct the weakness. In Fig. 55 is shown a young tree with a bad crotch that will be quite certain to ruin it. One of the forks should be cut off. Fig- 56 Fig. 55. — The crotch which will probably cause the tree to split. One of the shows the trunk of an old tree similarlv leaders should be removed. pruned. Fig. 57, from the same orchard as *The Pruning-Book, fourth edition. 1902. 286 Bulletin 226. Fig. 56. — The result' of bad crotches. The tree can be saved for further usefulness by bolting the two halves together. Fig. 56, shows two of the split trees and several vacant spaces where broken trees 1 1 a v e been removed. Nearly one-fourth of the trees in this seven-acre orchard are already broken down, and as many more arc split. There are only a few orchards in the hun- dreds examined in which the trees were thus sys- tematical! v pruned to form crotches, but in a large number of orchards a few trees have them. The split trees and those that are in danger of split- ting can yet be saved by the use of bolts. A band put around a tree will girdle it, but a bolt put through it does no appre- Fig. 57. — The -final result of bad crotches. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 287 ciable damage. If two bolts that hook into a connecting chain of suitable length are used, the work can be much more easily done. The two holes are then not necessarily in the same line. The chain also* allows for variation in length. One bolt is put through one branch, the other is put nearly through the other branch, and the chain is hooked on at the proper length. The bolts arc then drawn up. Or bolts with hooks or rings on one end may be used and strong wire used to fasten them together. X umber of scaf- fold limbs. — In Fig. 58 is shown a tree with too man)' scaf- fold, or frame work, limbs. The time to avoid this is when the tree is young. Some of the smaller limbs might still be removed with safety if the wounds are kept well painted. Fig. 58. — Too many scaffold limbs. Half of these should have been pruned out when the tree was young. 288 Bulletin 226. The usual method of sorting in Orleans county-directly from the table. Picking from the table— a slower but more careful method of sorting. CHAPTER V. Spraying. The extent of the practice. — The fact that so many growers evaporate their entire crop gives rise to a general laxity in spraying. A little over 41 per cent of the trees set before 1880 were sprayed in 1903. One-third are seldom or never sprayed. In 1902 most buyers of apples for evaporating paid the same price regardless of the scab fungus. This fungus does not seriously damage apples for evaporating unless it is so bad that it stunts or distorts the apple or makes it crack. (See Fig. 81.) In 1902 it was very bad in many orchards. The clean apples were generally considered to be worth more, but were bought at the same price, as one man said, " in order to keep peace in the neighborhood." This puts a premium on neglect and prob- ably accounts for the large number who do not believe in spraying and for the considerable number of those who do spray but do not use the Bordeaux mixture. Effects of spraying on the yield and price. — The damage from insects and the apple-scab in 1903 was much less than usual. But even in this year of few insects and little fungus, when most people " saw nothing to spray for," spraying paid. The average yield of the sprayed orchards was 27 bushels more than that of the unsprayed. (See table 19). This was probably due chiefly to the prevention of the large loss caused by the bud-moth and to the loss from the codlin-moth. The bud-moth did considerable damage in many orchards, but its work was not com- monly seen, or if seen, was attributed to a bad wind that made many leaves turn brown at about the time when the bud-moth eaused the young shoots to die. The codlin-moth causes many apples to fall early in the season. A part of the difference may be due to other factors as the sprayed orchards averasreH a little better in other treatment. Table 19. Yield in bushels in 1903 of sprayed and unsprayed orchards. Trees sel before 1880. Sprayed . . Unsprayed No. of orchards. 66 107 No. of acres. 626% 673 Average yield per acre. 280 253 289 290 Bulletin 226. Table 20. Price per barrel of sprayed and unsprayed apples in 1903. Sprayed . . . Unsprayed No. of barrels. 8,430 6,365 Average price per barrel. $2 02 I 80 Table 21. Average price per bushel of sprayed and unsprayed apples in 1903. No. of bushels. Average price per bushel. Sprayed Sprayed, dried by grower . . . Unsprayed Unsprayed, dried by grower 110,445 63,145 96, 345 64, 305 $0 31.8 27.7 The average price per barrel of the sprayed apples was $2.02 ; of the unsprayed, $1.80. From the sprayed orchards 15 per cent of- the crop was barreled; from the unsprayed, 12 per cent. Without considering the apples that were evaporated by the grower, the average price of sprayed apples was 31.8 cents per bushel ; of unsprayed, 27.7 cents. If we count the apples that were evaporated by the growers as worth 20.7 cents, the average price paid for apples by the evaporators, then the income per acre from sprayed orchards averaged $77.84 ; from the unsprayed, $63. ( See tables 20 and 21.) Most of the sprayed orchards were sprayed but once. Apples from many of these brought no higher prices than unsprayed ones, but some of those that were well sprayed gave so much better yields and secured so much higher prices that they were able to raise the^verage as shown above. The kinds of sprays used.— Nearly one-fifth of the trees that were sprayed received applications of arsenical poison sprays only. The smaller orchards were quite commonly so treated. This one-fifth of the area included one-third of the number of sprayed orchards. In 21 orchards Paris green and water were used without any other materials. (See table 22.) In view of this and of the exceptionally favorable year the showing made by such spraying as was done is satisfactory. An Apple Orchard Survey oe Wayne County, New York. 291 Arsenic is coming to be quite commonly used instead of Paris green, particularly in the larger orchards. Tt stays in suspension better than Paris green and is somewhat cheaper. Arsenic was used in 58 per cent of the area and in 36 per cent of the number of sprayed orchards. Table 22. Spraying in 1903. Trees set before it Walworth. No. or- chards. Sprayed Sometimes sprayed not in 1903 126 Seldom or never spray'd 64 Sprayed. . . Un sprayed No. acres. 741 487X 2S7 l A Per cent. 50 33 Remainder of County. No. or- chards. 37 35 55 No. acres. 35 6Q8-4 406 Vz 882 y, 45 Per cent. Entire County. No. or- chards, [8l l6l 119 No. acres. 1439^ 893 H 1140 Arsenic Paris green. Poison only Poison and Bordeau: Trees set since 1879. 18 1 83 42 3 I 80 19 I 21 163 40 1 i2y 2 58 19 343 81 1 59 455^ 1 Poison used. 25 170 1 41 1 19 | 458^ 69 1 44 629^ | 58 | 241 | 59 ] 19 1 209^ 3i 1 77 450^ 1 Bordeaux mixture used. 33 122 30 8 74 1 1 4i 196 50 289 70 30 622 89 80 911 Per cent. 41 26 33 26 74 58 42 18 82 Six orchards were sprayed with lime, salt and sulfur for the San Jose scale. One of these did not have any of the scale within about ten miles, but the owner was afraid it might come. A few young orchards were sprayed with kerosene emulsion for aphids. Manv of the owners of these small orchards have used Bordeaux mix- ture at some time or other, and because one careless application did not keep the apples entirely free from fungus have concluded that the copper sulfate was of no value. Some even cite the effects of spraying with Paris green and lime as evidence that spraying does not affect the fungus. The failure of Paris green to kill the aphids, which were quite bad in 1903, is also cited to show the futility of spraying. ( )f course those who conduct apple-growing on a good business basis are not among these.* *There are three general classes of sprays: 1. Poisons. 2. Sprays that kill insects by contact. 3. Fungicides. The insects that chew are the only orchard enemies that we can expect to kill with Paris green, arsenic or other poisons of this nature. The lice, San Jose scale 292 Bulletin 226. When is the best time to spray? — The number of spray ings and the time to give them must be determined by the season and the objects for which a man is spraying. But many of the enemies, like the apple-scab, must be treated before they appear. The time of attack by this fungus varies to some extent in different years. (See page 335 for a discussion of the fungus.) In the 564 orchards examined in Orleans county in 1904 it was found that those apples that were not sprayed immediately after blossoming were invariably scabby, regardless of the earlier and later sprayings. To keep the fruit in the best condition more sprayings were needed, but this was by far the most important application. If there is much rain during the blossoming period and for two to three weeks following more sprayings will, of course, be necessary than in a dry season. No hard and fast rules can be given, but unless some special enemy threatens the crop the best times will be about as follows : If three sprayings are given, one just before blossoming, one immedi- ately after blossoming, and one from ten to fourteen days later, will gen- erally give the best results. If two are given, omit the first or third. The second and third are the important ones for the codlin-moth. If only one spraying is given it will usually do the most good if applied immediately after blossoming. For the bud-moth and case-bearer a spraying is needed just as the leaf buds begin to open. Do not expect too much from one spraying. If you give three thorough applications you will, under ordinary conditions, have a right to expect clean fruit. Some years, as in 1903, good fruit is grown without spraying; but these years can not be foretold. If we wait till the fungus shows, it is too late to spray. The most successful men spray every year. They consider spraying as insurance. They spray even if there is no crop, for they and other insects that suck their food, are not hurt by poisons for the very simple reason that they can not eat poison. We would not expect to kill a mosquito by putting poison on the hand and letting him suck the blood from under it — his food, the blood, is not poisoned. These insects feed in a similar manner. They suck the juices from the plant and do not take any material from the surface. They must be killed by kerosene; whale oil soap; lime, salt and sulfur, or by some other spray that kills by contact. Only those which are hit by the spray are killed. The various fungi are plants. We might call them weeds that have chosen to grow on the apple rather than on the ground. They can not eat Paris green nor are they killed by kerosene and such sprays. For them some fungicide, as Bordeaux mixture, must be used. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 293 consider that good, clean foliage is necessary in order to form the next year's fruit-buds and in order to store up food for the next year's crop. Winter treatment for apple-scab. — Quite a number of farmers are con- sidering the advisability of spraying for the scab before the buds open. This treatment will not take the place of later applications. If one gives it he should do so with the understanding that it is in addition to the later sprayings, and not a substitute for them. " When these are made the winter treatment does not bring sufficient additional benefit to justify the additional expense of making it against the scab alone, but it may pay when directed also against the canker disease and combined with some application which must be made against insects such as case-bearers or bud-moth. " It is known that the scab lives during the winter on the fallen leaves and in. the spring produces spores by means of which it spreads to the new foliage. Probably it may exist during winter to some extent 011 the bark of young twigs also. Granting that this is the case and that a large part of the fungus on the tree is killed by winter treatment, which is improbable, it is evident that when the new foliage appears it must be covered with some fungicide to protect it from the spores produced on the fallen leaves. * * *" * Method of applying the spray. — In order to do effective spraying there must be plenty of power back of the pump. Good work is sometimes done with hand pumps, but the tops of large trees are not often well sprayed, nor is the work usually as well done with these machines as when power sprayers are used. The power sprayer is rapidly displacing the hand pump. Many orchardists go through the orchard twice for each spraying — ■ always spraying with the wind. The first time through may be done at the most convenient opportunity. For the second wait till the wind has reversed. Three sprayings therefore require six trips through the orchard. This method secures thorough spraying for each side of the tree. Russeting of the fruit. — A sound and perfect fruit sometimes shows areas where the skin is reddish brown and rough. This is commonly attributed to too strong a spray. It is frequently caused in that way. but in 1903 and 1904 apples in many unsprayed orchards were russeted. It is caused by any irritation of the skin of the fruit. This is caused by too strong a spray, by late frosts that hurt the skin of the young apple. *Bulletin 170, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y 294 Bulletin 226. or by anything- else that irritates the skin. To prevent injury from the Bordeaux mixture plenty of lime must be used. Four pounds of blue vitriol to fifty gallons of water is sufficient for the later sprayings. This lessens the danger of russeting and seems to be effective in preventing the scab fungus. Six pounds to fifty gallons of water are ordinarily used for the first spraying. Damage to foliage from spraying. — The foliage is sometimes burnt by too strong a spray. This is particularly likely to occur in rainy weather. However, most of the spots on the leaves that are attributed to the spray arc not due to the spray, but to fungi. (See page 340.) Professor G. W. Cavanaugh gives the following suggestions about spraying in rainy weather : " In the preparation of Bordeaux mixture, which is made from a solu- tion of blue vitriol and lime, there is a definite chemical union brought about between the copper of the vitriol and the lime. In order that this union may occur, the lime must be in a water-slaked condition, chemically known as calcium hydroxide. Should the lime be air-slaked, i. e. in the form of carbonate of lime, this chemical union with the copper does not take place. The action of the carbonic acid of the air on water-slaked lime is to change the lime to the air-slaked form. " The chemical union between the lime and the copper in the Bordeaux mixture is not a very stable one. In fact, it is so weak that the carbonic acid of the air can, under certain conditions, break up the union and change even that lime which was combined with the copper into air- slaked lime. This, of necessity, frees the copper and puts it in a condi- tion similar to that where an insufficient amount of lime is used in the orignal mixture. This action of the carbonic acid of the air is facilitated if the mixture remains moist for a considerable time on the foliage. The result of this is a burning of the leaves by the free copper sulfate. When the mixture dries on the trees this action of the gas is so much retarded that no injurious results have ever been noticed. It therefore seems a wise precaution, during a wet season at least, to use more lime than the formula ordinarily calls for." CHAPTER VI. Renovating an Apple Orchard in Western New York. by christian bues. With the increase of our knowledge of the " how " of apple-production comes naturally a greater interest in the apple business. Out of a few apple-trees around the house has grown the commercial orchard. The manager of a large orchard enters the open market. He learns the value of business methods. He looks for opportunities in the business of apple- production. To plant young trees and nurse them into bearing age is a long-term investment. It should be profitable ultimately. But how shall he find an outlet for his energies while his trees are growing; how shall he improve his trade ; in short, where is the immediate opportunity for business? There are thousands of acres of apple orchards of bearing age in Western New York which are not giving the revenue that they ought to give. Man>- of these can be bought at a reasonable price. If the trees are in a fairly good state of health the renovation of such orchards may be profitable. YYe have heard a great deal during the last few years about this feature of fruit-raising. What are the actual facts? A concrete example will illustrate better than any amount of theory. In 1896 Mr. George Pettit bought a " run down " farm at Kenyon- ville, Orleans county, N. Y. The farm was neglected. Therefore the price paid was not high. Fifty-four acres were bought for $2,200. On the farm was an apple orchard of eleven acres, two acres of which had been drowned out. literally killed by standing water, when an outlet could be found not more than fifty yards away into the steep gorge of Oak Orchard creek. This left nine acres of orchard with which to work. The trees had been planted in the spring of 1864. i. e. they were thirty-two years old and should have been just entering into their prime of production. The soil on which this orchard stands is Miami silt loam. (See page 317.) On the remaining nine acres the drainage was not perfect. Because of lack of care the trees were older than their actual age would indicate. Pruning and feeding had been sadly neglected, and canker was rapidly unfitting many limbs for the bearing of a crop. Mr. Pettit tells me that it was in about as bad a state as regards care as it could possibly be. 295 296 Bulletin 226. The problem of renovation was undertaken with vigor. The water was drained off. the land was plowed, and thus the soil brought into such a condition that the plant-food would be available. The trees were freed of dead wood, the worst canker-diseased limbs removed, and the whole was disinfected by the liberal use of Bordeaux mixture and arsenic. Plant-food was supplied to produce the most essential crop — new wood. The following, tabulates the cultural method : 1896. Orchard was in sod; the grass was mowed. 1897. Orchard was plowed and beans were grown. 1898. Orchard was manured and beans grown again, followed by crim- son clover. 1899. Orchard was manured and crimson clover plowed under. 1900-1904. Orchard has been manured every year and buckwheat is grown, to be rolled down toward ripening time of the fruit. During the last three years every tree in the orchard received each year one-quarter of a load of manure, to which was added in 1904 for each tree 12 pounds of a good commercial fertilizer containing 8 per cent potash and 10 per cent phosphoric acid. Spraying has always been faithfully done, crop or no crop ; for Mr. Pettit knows that he must have a healthy vigorous tree before he can obtain a profitable crop. Here is the spraying program of the season of 1904: First spray : When blossom buds began to swell. Second spray : As soon as the blossoms dropped. Third spray : About two weeks after second spray. Fourth spray : A partial spray July 25. This had no apparent effect. The spray used was Bordeaux mixture and Paris green, slightly decreasing the amount of blue vitriol with each successive spraying. This orchard may well be called a " rejuvenated " orchard, for hardly any of the old tree-tops exist now. The Kings, Greenings and Russets have grown entirely new tops in the course of the eight years during which Mr. Pettit has handled the trees, and the Baldwins are doing so, although at a slower rate. I remember one particular Spitzenburg tree which tells the story of many hardships. By continued spraying and generous feeding the many old cankers are nearly overgrown by new wood, and a new top has been produced which looks vigorous and healthy and ready to do business for many years to come. Now if we want to renovate orchards for business, how does the account of this orchard balance? Is it worth while to borrow money in order to invest it in orchard renovation? Mr. Pettit kindly placed at my An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 297 disposal an itemized account for the season of 1904. The price charged for team and machinery is large enough to allow for " wear and tear." To the debit should be added interest on capital invested. Every hour of work done in the orchard by the proprietor or by his men has been charged to it. Apple orchard. Apple orchard. 1904. . Debit. 1904. Credit. June To 8 days' hauling and By 1,765 barrels of apples, No. 1, at spreading manure, at $1.50 $-,647 5° $1.50 $•- 00 By 75 barrels of apples, No. 2, To 3 days' teams for haul- at $1 "5 00 ing, at $2 6 00 — To 80 loads of manure, at $1.50 120 00 To lYz tons commercial fertilizer, at $20 30 00 To 2 days' pruning, at $2 . 4 00 To 3 days' hauling brush. 5 00 To 6 days' work, spraying, 3 men and team, at $7. 42 00 To 1 day dragging with 3 horses . 4 00 To 1 day dragging with 2 horses 3 00 To 2 days' spreading fer- tilizers 4 00 To 1 day dragging with 3 horses 4 00 To 1 day hoeing around trees 1 50 To 1 day with team 3 00 To 1 day cleaning out ditches 1 50 To iVz days' cultivating, at $4 6 00 June 20. To 3^2 days' spraying, at $7 ^4 50 To 1 day getting material. 3 00 To 30 lbs. Paris green, at 1 8c 5 40 To 400 lbs. blue vitriol, at 5%c 23 00 To 4 barrels of lime, at $1.25 5 00 To 1 pair of pruning shears 2 00 July 6. To 1 day of dragging.... 3 00 To V2 day sowing buck- wheat 1 00 25. To spraying 3 hours, at 70c 2 10 To spraying mixture 70 To 7 bushels buckwheat seed, at 75c 525 Aug. 13. To 4 hours' breaking buck- wheat 1 60 16. To dragging down buck- wheat, 1 horse 2 00 17. To dragging down buck- wheat, 1 horse 2 00 18. To propping trees, 2 men and team 3 00 2j. To propping trees, 2 men 2V 2 days 10 00 To 1,840 empty barrels, at 36c 662 40 To harvesting 1,840 bar- rels of fruit and hauling to the railroad, at 25c. .. 460 00 Balance 1,260 55 $2,722 50 $2,722 50 Thus our account for this year gives a net profit above expenses of $1,260.55. To do justice to the orchard it is fair to state that at the date 2y8 Bulletin 226. when the figures were received there remained about 1,300 bushels of apples in the orchard which might have been sold as evaporating stock had not the evaporators been rilled to their utmost capacity. How do the crops taken from the orchard compare with the original investment? It is not possible to give these figures net, as an itemized expense account is not available. The gross returns from the orchard are : 1896 $250 00 l< &97 12 00 1898 800 00 J 899 200 00 19 00 1,200 00 !9 01 300 00 19 02 2,000 00 i9°3 1,400 00 i9°4 2,722 50 It will be seen that there is a gradual general increase in the amount of the crop. Naturally there exists a corresponding increase in the cost of production and marketing. In a considerable percentage of New York orchards the renovating process has begun. It can not be done according to a fixed schedule. Conditions in one orchard are not often the same as in another. How- ever, the experiences of other men and close observation will soon lead one in the right direction. Two things are most needed. The first is the consideration of the orchard as a business proposition, with which we enter into an account and from which we want to exact a fair profit. We may have to wait a few years for the returns, but we must look for ultimate profits. The usual experience is that vigorously renovated orchards begin to give fair returns in about three years, but this depends on the condition of the trees and the manner of treatment. The second important factor is: the man who takes charge of the orchard should know and love an apple-tree. He should be able to put himself into its position and to realize the various influences which this or that line of treatment would have upon a living organism. Only then can he under- stand such things as why a soil needs draining and why parasites should be kept off. It is not so much any particular kind of soil that produces the apple, or any special brand of fertilizer, or any individual spraying mixture. The essential thing is the crop of thought raised in the well-cultivated mind of a nature-loving, m-an;: CHAPTER VII. Number of Trees Per Acre and Distance Between Trees. The trees arc planted too close together. — One of the greatest enemies of the apple orchard in Wayne comity, as in most other apple-growing regions, is the apple-tree. When the greater part of the orchards were planted, about forty years ago, there was a universal tendency to plant too closely. On 43 per cent of the area planted before 1880 the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less; 82 per cent are 35 x 35 feet or less. Only 18 per cent are over 35 x 35 feet; and a part of these were planted more closely but have been thinned. (See table 23.) Table 23. Distance between trees. DISTANCE APART, Planted before iS Planted since 1879. Average no. trees per acre. Not over 25x25 It . . 26x26 to 30x30 31x31 to 35x35 36x36 to 40x40 41x41 to 50x50 52 38 27 No. orchards. 55 198 143 73 No. acres. 151^ 1165^ 1195 534.^ Per cent. Average N no. trees orchards per acre. 70 51 37 27 19 27 24 3i 6 No. acres. Per cent 4 1 118K 18 148^ 22 328 50 61 9 Average number of trees per acre. Average distance apart Planted before i83o. Planted since 1879. 43-6 31.6 33 ■ 2 30--' 41.8 32.3 A comparison with the recent plantings shows that many growers have learned not to plant so closely. Nearly two-thirds of the area set since 1879 has the trees 35 x 35 feet or over, the average distance being 36.2 feet or 2,^.2 trees per acre, as compared with a distance of 31.6 feet and 43.6 trees for the older orchards. Some growers have not yet learned the lesson, and need to have their attention called to it. Forty by forty feet is close enough for nearly all varieties. The Duchess, Wealthy and a few other varieties might perhaps be planted a little closer. Mature Baldwin and Greening trees should be at least 40 x 40 feet apart. LOFG. " 300 Bulletin 226. About one-fourth of the orchards in Walworth township were planted on the quincunx system with the rows 20 feet apart and the trees 40 feet apart in the row. This makes the trees in squares 28.4 x 28.4 feet, cornerwise of the field. Some nurserymen recommended this system with the idea of removing every other row, so as to leave the trees 40 x 40 feet. A few growers did this before much damage had been done by crowding, and may have secured enough fruit from the extra trees to pay for the increased labor which these trees necessitated. Outside of Walworth this system was much less used, but the trees averaged almost the same distance apart. Rather than blame the nursery- men who recommended the thinning system, as some have done, we should give them credit for being better informed than most persons of that time, for they recognized that mature trees would need to be 40 x 40 feet. Other persons planted equally close without having any idea that a part would need to be cut out. This system may be all right if carried out, but it is certainly not to be recommended to the general public. Few people have the courage to cut down good, thrifty trees. If they do thin them it is usually not done until the trees have been greatly damaged — all the lower limbs killed. It will be better for most persons to leave out half the trees and raise crops in the orchard for a few more years, or plant some short-lived fruit like peach-trees, that will die before the apple-trees need the room. Effect of close planting on yield and health. — The more trees per acre the less the yield. The average yield for four years of orchards where the trees are not over 30 x 30 feet apart is 186 bushels ; for those over 30 x 30 feet but not over 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels ; for those over 35 x 35 feet, 229 bushels. (See table 24.) The question is still more important than these figures indicate. In many orchards the trees are being ruined because they are so close together. In Orleans county more growers have removed half the trees, but few in Wayne county have yet done so, and more attention needs to be given to the question. Farmers usually fail to notice what is hap- pening until the trees have been greatly damaged. The decrease in yield does not call attention to the trouble till it is too late. When the tops begin to meet so as to shut out the light from the lower limbs it is time to cut out half the trees. (See Fig. 59.) If this is not done the lower limbs first bear inferior fruit, then no fruit, and finally die. The changes take place so gradually that the owner usually fails to realize what is An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 301 Table 24. Distance apart and yield in bushels. Trees set before 1880. DISTANCE APART. 1900. Not over 30x30 feet 31x31 to 35x35 feet. 36x36 to 40x40 feet. . 1 901. Not over 30x30 feet. 31x31 to 35x35 feet . 36x36 to 40x40 feet . 1902. Not over 30x30 feet. 31x31 to 35x35 feet . 36x36 to 40x40 feet . 1903. Not over 30x30 feet. 31x31 to 35x35 feet . 36x36 to 40x40 feet . Walworth. No. or- chards. 78 32 [8 83 41 33 154 77 50 65 29 27 285 % i40'/ 2 93 Aver- age yield. 282 389 332 310% 38 206 60 192 S3&X 3SOH 33$y 2 274 % 137 254/2 92 229 249 256 252 309 302 Remainder of County. No. or- chards. 22 18 6 23 21 44 34 11 23 12 5 305 Yz 217V2 8oy 2 334 Yi 255^ Aver- age yield. Entire County. No. or- chards. 100^ 81 604^ 682^ U5^ 342^ II2# 74^ 231 264 224 30 83 212 212 220 215 224 281 100 50 24 106 62 4i 198 in 61 5i 32 Acres. Aver- age yield. 59<># 358 173)4 64434 461 292^ 116034 1063 454 61634 249^ 329 256 314 282 34 75 220 226 249 232 271 296 Four-year average : Not over 30 x 30 feet 186 bushels 31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet 222 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet 229 It might seem that the closer plantings would include many old trees, but the change in the distance apart has been made largely since 1880. happening till some year he finds that instead of an orchard of well- rounded apple-trees he has a lot of forest trees with a bouquet of leaves at the top. In the end the bearing surface becomes the nearly level surface on the tops of the trees. This is a very small surface when compared with a succession of well-rounded tops. (See frontispiece.) If trees are 30 x 30 feet and are left till they interfere so as to kill the lower limbs, the bearing surface approaches the level surface on the top of the trees. Each tree approaches 900 square feet of exposure to sunlight, or bearing surface ; or two trees approach 1,800 square feet. This is what was done in the orchard shown in Fig. 60. The owner of this orchard started to cut out half the trees about ten years ago. He cut down one tree, but it seemed to make such a big hole that he decided to prune them instead. The 302 Bulletin 226. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 303 figure shows the result. Suppose half of the trees had been cut out at the proper time, they would then be 42.4 x 42.4 feet. This was done by Mr. Albert Woods in the orchard shown in Fig - . 61. These trees average about 32 feet high and have a spread of about 40 feet. The area of the surface of a well-rounded tree 32 feet high and having a spread of 40 feet is about 4,000 square feet. Trees of this size still lack 2.4 feet of meeting, and 30 per cent of the surface of the ground is ex- posed to light — none too much. In other words they are a reasonable dista net- apart, but the one tree has at least twice as much bearing sur- face as the two trees in the former orchard. This calculation as- sumes the tree to have a regular form and is, of course, hypothetical, but it clearly indicates that there are two reasons why trees that are planted too closely do not bear as much as do those that have more room : ( 1 ) They are not as healthy. (2) They do not have as much bearing surface. Trees that are too close together furnish favorable conditions for fungi and insects ; they are hard to spray ; the apples are more difficult to pick and are of poorer color and quality. Probably the most serious result is an indirect effect of the. death of the lower limbs. Trees are left until the large lower limbs die for want of light. These are then removed and the wounds are too large to heal. Tn time they cause the trunk to decay. (See Fig. 62.) Fig. 60. — A poor system of pruning. The best bearing zvood removed and the trees almost ruined rather than cut out half of them. (Compare with Fig. 61.) 3°4 Bulletin 226. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 305 Top-grafting or pruning every other row.- half of the trees a few years before cutting them out. Some men have top-grafted Most of those who have tried this would not do so again. It is some expense to do the grafting, and by the time the grafts are ready to bear well it is about time to cut the trees down. Some have cut back the tops of the trees to be removed, leaving the center part to bear a few years before remov- ing the tree. This seems to have paid in some cases, but has not always been satisfactory. Too much must not be expected of any such devices, for they do not relieve the condition under ground. The roots interfere before the tops do. When the tops begin to interfere it is high time to remove half the trees. How to thin. — If the trees are planted in squares the best way to thin is to cut out every other tree in each row. This is done by cutting out every other row diagonally. It leaves the trees in squares cornerwise of the field. (See Fig. 63.) It is interesting to note what removing half the trees would mean. Persons some- times think that doing so in an orchard that is 25 x 25 feet would leave the remainder 50 x 50 feet. As a matter of fact they would be in squares of 35.3 x 35.3 feet, when viewed from the corners of the field ; if 30 x 30 feet, and half removed, the remainder would stand 42.4 x 42.4 feet; if 33 x 7,3 feet, and half removed, they would be 46.7 x 46.7 feet. None of these distances is too great for large, mature trees. If 35 x 35 feet, and half removed, they would be 49.5 x 49.5 feet. Large Baldwin trees can make good use of this much room. One of the problems to be met in thinning is that, if every other tree is removed regularly, there will be some places where the tree to be cut out Fig. 62. — The large lower branches die because the trees are too close. The limbs are then re moved, and the next stage is a decayed trunk. Notice the holes in the second tree on the left. 306 Bulletin 226. is better than the one to be left ; or it may occur that the one which should be left is missing. Will it pay to leave a tree that would otherwise be removed if it comes next to a vacant place? This question must be Q fr c d e f g h 1 j k «iV -*~ ^ =fc- ^ ,*- A. w^ ^_ ^- _st \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ • \ / \ / \ / N / V*/ V-*/ V»/ V*/ v 7"\ " /"\ /-^ ">-\' ;*-\ "~" / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ .--* -— X — X * >* * ^ ■ — > \ / s • \ / \ /\ / \ / \ / \/ \ / \/ d-ft~ ^ - ^ ^ V Jfcr >£ .^ V- - /^\ 7*^ -- / \ "" 7*r - zV~ / \ / \ / \ /\ / \ / \ / \ / \ • \ / \ e^^^^^^^^^^^U \ / \ • \ / \ / \ / \ ' \ / \ / \ / \ / Z*^ /--^ 7^ / \ /^v / \ / \ /\ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / V / \ t^. *-- _)3£ ^ %. -« ^ * X -'^ \ / \ /\ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \/ h,-iL. ^1 -*, >ar ^ \£ ^ \C « 3£ jp. / \ / \ ' \ /\ /\ / \/ \/ \/ \ / \ ijt *- ^ h* ja^-«- X- * X -*- > \ ' \ /\ / \ / \ / \ ' \ / \ / \ / \/ j ^=- ^_ ***- ^_ ^ J^ ^_A )',< «*S* .^ J&, k^_ _^. XC - ^ ^- M ^- ^ .dfc- ^- LtGEN D --aftr- Trees Ffenooi^ed _^-^ Treea Left Standing m Tre-e s Missing Fir,. 63. — Diagram shozving half the trees removed. The doited lines show that the trees remaining are in squares cornerzvise of the field. answered as each case arises, but it is well to remember that if the tree is left it will damage one side of three other trees. Before cutting out the trees it will pay to make a map of the orchard and locate the vacant spaces and poor trees, and so determine which way of cutting will include the greatest number of these. In Fig. 63 the rows Ax Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 307 bb, dd, ff, etc., or the rows cc, cc, gg, etc., may be removed. Sometimes it will make a difference of several trees which is done. Suppose that the trees marked m are poor trees or missing; then by removing rows bb, dd, etc., five of these will be included. If the other set of rows are removed only two will be included, a gain of three trees by the former method — enough to much more than pay for the trouble of making the map. It requires courage to go into a fine apple orchard, one that has been watched over for years, and cut out good, healthy trees. But in many orchards the time has come when a choice must be made between two poor trees or one good one. If one has definitely made up his mind that his trees are crowding, perhaps the best way to thin them is to do as the owner of a fine Baldwin orchard of twenty acres did. He decided which rows should be removed. Then, to be sure that he would not repent and have some of the trees left, he went away on a two weeks' visit while the boys did the work. CHAPTER VIII. Age of the Orchards. Date of planting. — Few of the old orchards are now owned by the men who set them, or even by the descendants of these men. It is, therefore, difficult to get the exact age in all cases, but the reports are probably accurate enough to give reliable conclusions. Most of the trees set before 1850 were for the purpose of supplying the family wants. About this time growers began to set commercial orchards. The majority were set between i860 and 1875. The number planted decreased till 1895. Since then there has been a gradual increase. (See table 25.) The young orchards are nearly all in the north part of the county. Very few trees have been set in the south part during the last twenty-five years. (Some discussion of the reason for this will be found on page 259.) Table 25. Number of acres planted during each five-year period. The table includes oidy those orchards that are still living. Sonic of the earlier plantings have disap- peared. DATE OF PLANTING. Before 1840 1840-49 (10 years) . 1850-54 1855-59 1860-64 1865-69 1870-74 1875-79 1880-84 1885-89 1890-94 1895-1903 (8 years) No. of orchards. 18 33 42 45 153 9i 67 43 22 12 19 47 No. of acres. 73 i6 7 y 2 167 298^ 810X 717 450 380^ 194 54 377 Per cent. 2 4^ 4 l A 8 22 19 12 10 5 2 10 Yield at different ages. — The fact that apples are the chief source of income for so many farmers, and that practically every one considers them to be a paying crop, would seem to raise the question of why more orchards are not planted. The great deterrent to such planting is the long time that one must wait for returns. With the usual treatment of An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 309 Baldwin and Greening trees they do not begin to be profitable for nearly twenty years. A much less profitable crop that gives returns the first year can therefore compete with apples. If well cared for, the trees will usually pay sooner. But the very fact that it is so long before a revenue is secured causes the' owner to neglect the trees, so that the normal period is increased. The young orchard usuallv takes its place as a field in the crop rotation, and is therefore in sod or small grain half the time. One frequently sees young orchards in wheat-fields or hay-fields. " The short growth, knotty bodies and yellow leaves tell the story of shallow roots, dry soil, borers, and all the ills which everv farmer who follows such methods deserves to have Fig. 6.1. — Diagram showing the yield in bushels at different ages. fastened to his trees."* Grain and hay should never be grown in a young orchard. The first thing to grow is an apple-tree. Tilled crops are the only ones that can be grown without damaging the trees and lengthening the period before they are ready to bear. (See Figs. 41, 42 and 43.) Many of the orchards now being set are composed of Ben Davis, Hubbardston, Duchess and other early-bearing varieties, but Baldwin and Greening still hold a place. *Cornell Bulletin 72. 3io Bulletin 226. It is a long time to wait for Baldwins and Greenings to begin to bear, but they make up for this delay by continuing to be profitable for many years. The life of an apple-tree has commonly been spoken of as about forty to fifty years, but the maximum yield in Wayne county is not reached till forty-four years from the time of planting. (See table 26 and Fig. 64.) After this there is a gradual decrease. Several orchards set before 1820 are still profitable. With the better care that trees are now receiv- ing, their age of max- imum yield will doubtless be increased. It is probable that the returns for good treatment will be even more marked in pro- longing the life of the orchard than in in- creasing the annual yield. (See Fig. 65.) There are very few 45-year-old trees that have not seen some very rough treatment. They have gone a number of years with- out any fertilization or tillage. The canker- worm has feasted on them; cattle have damaged them. They have gone years without pruning, or, worse, have had large limbs cut off in such a way that the wounds can not heal. Some orchards of this age are composed of sound, thrifty trees that give promise of an increased yield for some years to come. Will it pay to plant young orchards? — From the ages at which the yields begin to decrease it would seem that in about twenty years a large Fig. 65. — Ninety-six years old and still young. This orchard contains about 145 of the original 270 trees set 96 years ago. Orchard of J. A. Kuck, Kuckville, Orleans county. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 311 part of the present orchards would cease to be profitable. It must be remembered that table 26 includes only those orchards that have survived. Many orchards set sixty-five years ago have entirely disappeared. Table 26. Age and yield per acre in bushels. 1900. 1901. DATE OF PLANTING. Before 1840 1840-49. . . . 1850-54.... 1855-59 1 860-64 .... 1865-69... 1870-74.. .. 1875-79.. ■ 1880-84.. • 1885-89.... 1890-95 No. orchards. 4 I 12 9 54 4i 26 12 9 1 4 No. acres. 10 10 43 33 278J4: 366 238 8iy 2 67 5 IS Vield. 215 200 245 368 347 293 219 255 164 80 50 No. orchards. 7 6 13 17 63 44 34 15 9 1 4 No. acres. 24/2 37 47 84^ 360^ 465 278/2 101 69 5 14 Yield. 83 38 34 67 57 55 61 64 6 o 36 Table 26 — Concluded. DATE OF PLANTING. Before 1840 1840-49. . . . 1850-54.... 1855-59 •••• 1860-64. . . . 1865-69.... 1870-74.... I 875-79 •••■ 1880-84.... 1885-89.... 1890-95 — No. orchards. 14 17 38 34 115 74 5i 25 9 6 10 1902. No. acres. 60 93 A 154 255^ 61234: 652 380^ U8% 120 26 2l l A Yield. 175 186 220 28l 232 212 222 204 133 42 29 No. orchards. I 3 13 12 54 25 23 11 7 1 1 1903. No. acres. 18 48^ i6i>< 284^ 274^ 211A 45^ 47^ 10 10 Yield. 210 267 224 312 236 238 261 286 155 140 100 Four-Year Average. Aver- age age. 64 59 49. 44 39 34 29 24 19 14 9 Yield. 171 173 l8l 257 2l8 200 191 202 115 66 54 The tabulation for each division of the county gives the maximum yield at this same age — 44 years. 312 Bulletin 226. It is difficult to tell just how much effect the better care will have in pro- longing the life of the trees, but it is quite certain that the well-cared-for orchards will continue to pay much longer than the average. But over half the orchards are not well cared for, and it is perfectly reasonable to suppose that many of these neglected ones will be gone in twenty years. The advisability of planting more orchards to take the place of these old ones is therefore worth considering. More immediate profit would come from the rejuvenation of the old orchard. CHAPTER IX. Soils and Soil Problems. Topography. Topographical regions.— Wayne county is divided into two distinct topographical regions: a very hilly or drumlin region, and a region of gently rolling land ; but each of these regions has a subdivision, so that we have four divisions (see Fig. 66) : (i) A drumlin area. (2) A region where the d r u m 1 i n s were once wholly or par- tially submerged. (3) A gently rolling glaciated area. (4) An area of roll- ing land that was formerly the old lake bed. The elevations above sea level vary from 246 feet, the level of the lake, to 670 feet, the top of the highest hill. During the glacial period the lake level was about 440 feet above sea level, or about the height of the " ridge ". This ridge was a sand-bar or lake shore line. The present sand-bar running across Sodus Bay probably appears somewhat as the ridge appeared during this period. (See Fig. 141.) This ridge is more or less continuous from Sodus Bay to Buffalo. It is a gravel formation ten to thirty feet high and about four rods wide on top. It makes a natural roadway and has always been used for that purpose. The Rochester and Sodus Bay trolley line, built on this nature- graded roadbed, has furnished a very important supplement to the rail- roads in marketing the fruit of the northern part of the county. During the glacial period the entire county was covered with a thick mass of ice. This ice was graduallv moved southward, and carried with it ~}tff"\^fc&j''v^- Fig. 66. — Topographical regions. I. Drumlin area. II. Region where the drumlins iverc once wholly or partially covered by the lake. III. Gently rolling glaciated area. IV . Old lake bed. 313 3H Bulletin 226. the stony material that now makes up the soil of the south part of the county. This material was deposited in the long hills, or drumlins, and in the sheet of stony material that occurs between them. The depth of this covering of glacial drift varies from a few feet to about one hundred and seventy-five feet. In many places between the hills the bed-rock is very close to the surface, what soil there is having been largely brought from the hills by the rains. In some places the bed-rock is still uncovered. Many of the small streams that drain the area run on this rock. In order to drain some of the lower land, the rock must be blasted out in order to deepen the streams. The drumlin area. — About two-thirds of the county is covered with a succession of the long north and south hills or drumlins. (See page 364.) Fig. 67. — Near Sodus Bay. A sandy soil. This was formerly the old lake bed. The hills in the foreground have been caused by subsequent erosion. These hills have a slightly northwest and southeast direction. They are from one-fourth of a mile to three miles long — usually a little over a mile — and are about one-fourth as wide as long. Their tops are from 450 to 670 feet above sea level, and rise from 75 to 175 feet above the valleys. These heights for such narrow hills give very steep east and west slopes. The north and south slopes occupy comparatively little of the area. The former are abrupt, the latter more gentle. The greater part of the elevated land, therefore, consists of very steep east and west slopes. The orchards are situated on these slopes and on some of the rolling land of lower levels. The soil type of the hills and the higher part of the lower land is the Miami stony loam. (See page 316.) The drumlin area that was once partly submerged. — In the northeast part of the county, east of Sodus Bay, there is a considerable area where An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 315 the drumlins were once islands or were covered by the lake at the same time when the ridge was formed. (See Fig. 67.) The sediment depos- ited in the quiet water that filled these lower places formed the Miami silt loam (see page 317), which has proved to be an excellent apple soil. The higher-lying land is mostly the Miami stony loam and Alton stony loam. Areas of Miami fine sand also occur. The gently rolling, glaciated area. — Between the ridge and the drum- lins of Marion and Walworth townships the soil was mostly removed by the glaciers. In many places the rock is so near the surface as to inter- fere with the growth of apples. The soil is a good apple soil where deep enough and where there is an outlet for the water. Area of rolling land thai was once the lake bed. — North of the ridge the land was once the old lake bed. The soil is formed from sedimentary deposits in the old lake and to some extent from deposits by the glaciers. It is now a gently rolling plain with a quite variable soil. (See Fig. 144.) In many places the drainage is poor, but there are many desir- able sites for orchards. The soil types used for apples are the Alton stony loam, Miami silt loam and Miami fine sand.* Soils. The soil types. — The chief apple soils of the county are the Miami stony loam, the Miami silt loam and the Alton stony loam. Apples are also grown on the Miami fine sand, the Ontario gravelly loam and on a phase of the Alton stony loam that has the bed-rock too near the surface. f *For a further discussion of the topography, geology and origin of soils, see Part II of this report. tFor a more extended discussion of soils, see the report of "A Soil Survey of the Lyons Area," a reprint from the "' Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1902." This gives a discussion of the soils and a soil map of all the county except the west tier of townships. It is sent free to all who apply to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. This report was not published at the time the orchard survey was made, so that the soil classification was independent of the Bureau of Soils, though following the same methods. More subdivisions were made in the orchard work, with the idea of combining, if the differences were found to be insufficient to warrant the separa- tion. The Miami stony loam, Alton stony loam and Miami fine sand were each divided into two subtypes. These divisions seem to be entirely unnecessary. One subdivision of the Alton stony loam, in which the bed-rock is so near the surface as materially to affect the production of apples, is retained as a distinct type. The Ontario gravelly loam was mapped by the Bureau of Soils with the Miami stony loam and Alton stony loam. This is kept as a distinct type. The smallness of the 316 Bulletin 226. The Miami stony loam is the stony soil that covers the drumlins and most of the rolling' land between these hills. It is a light brown loam, eight to ten inches deep, containing five to forty per cent of stone and gravel. The stones are usually small and well rounded. The subsoil is a brownish-yellow, stony loam. The proportion of stone and gravel usually increases at greater depths, but the reverse is sometimes true. The gravel is sometimes cemented together so as to form a gravel hard- pan. This occasionally occurs near enough to the surface to interfere with the growth of apple-trees. Table 27 gives a summary of the average mechanical analyses of four samples of this soil. Table 27. Mechanical analyses of the fine earth of Miami stony loam. Average of four samples, three of which were taken from the report of the Bureau of Soils. Organic matter - Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) Silt (0.05 — 0.005 mm) Clay (0.005 — 0.0001 mm) Soil. Per cent. Subsoil Per cent I .96 6. 44- 1. 13 7- 46. 39- 34- 11. 13- The Alton stony loam. — This type of soil occurs north of the drumlin area. The surface soil, to a depth of seven to ten inches, consists of brown sandy or silty loam. The subsoil is a yellowish-brown sandy or silty loam. The type contains ten to fifty per cent of stone, which gen- erally consists of more angular fragments than those in the Miami stony loam. It also contains more. fine sand or silt than that type. South of the ridge there are considerable areas of it that contain limestone frag- ments. Table 28 gives the averages of three analyses of this type. Table 28. Mechanical analyses of the tine earth of the Alton stony loam. Average of three analyses made by the Bureau of Soils. Soil. Subsoil. Per cent. Per cent. Organic matter 3 Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 5 Medium, fine and very line sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) 52 Silt ( o . 05 — o . 005 mm ) 30 Clay (0.005 — o. 0001 mm) 13 .61 4- 46. 31. 19. individual areas would make it difficult, if not impossible, to map it separately by the Bureau of Soils method. The Miami silt loam (called the Elmira silt loam in the Bureau of Soils report, but since changed to Miami silt loam) corresponds exactly with one of the classifications made by the writer. In general the soil types and the mechanical analyses agree remarkably well for results secured from inde- pendent work. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, Mew York. 317 South of the ridge, in the west part of the county, there are considerable areas of the Alton stony loam, where the soil rests on limestone rock that is so near the surface as to interfere with the growth of apples. The soil is too shallow to admit of good root-growth or to allow good drainage. The Miami silt loam. — This is a brown or yellowish-brown silt loam, eight or ten inches deep, underlaid by brownish-yellow or yellow silty loam. This type occurs on the rolling land near the lake and around Sodus Bay. (See table 29.) Table 29. Mechanical analyses of Miami silt loam. Average of four samples, three of which were analyzed by the Bureau of Soils. Soil. Subsoil. Percent. Percent. Organic matter 1 . 44 .32 Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) 1 . 1. Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) 22. 18. Silt Co. 05 — 0.005 mm) 64. 66. Clay (0.005 — 0. 0001 mm) 13. 14. Miami fine sand. — This type is a light brown sandy loam, eight or ten inches deep, underlain by light yellow sand, usually free from stones. Its chief occurence is north of the ridge. (See table 30.) Table 30. Mechanical analyses of the Miami fine sand. Average of three analyses- made by the Bureau of Soils. Organic matter Fine gravel and coarse sand (2 — 0.5 mm) Medium, fine and very fine sand (0.5 — 0.05 mm) Silt (0.05 — 0.005 mm) 14 Clay (0.005 — o.oooi mm) Ontario gravelly loam. — This is a brown gravel underlain by a light brown gravel or gravelly loam. The predominating characteristic is the gravel. Most of the gravel is less than one inch in diameter. It occurs in small deposits in the Miami stony loam and is the common type along the ridge. It is a very open soil — too well drained. Along the ridge it is nearly all planted to apples. The deposits of gravel that occur in the drumlins are frequently used on the public roads. (See Fig. 69.) Average yield on the different soil types. — Table 31 shows the average yields on the six different types of soil. The number of orchards on the last three types is not large enough to give positive results. The table Soil. Subsoil. 'er cent. Per cent 2.15 O.38 4- 3- 78. 85. r 4- 9- 3- 2 3i8 Bulletin 226. shows definitely that the Miami stony loam averages better than the Alton stony loam and that the soil with the bed-rock near the surface is by far the poorest of all. I believe that the four-year average shows the rela- tive merits of the soils quite accurately, except that the average for the Ontario gravelly loam seems to be a little too high. It is certain, how- ever, that this type usually gives a good yield. All previous discussions of apple soils, so far as I have been able to determine, would consider this a very poor apple soil. Table 31. Average yield in bushels on different soil types. Trees set before 1SS0. SOIL TYPE. Miami stony loam Alton stony loam Alton stony loam (bed rock near surface) Miami silt loam Ontario gravelly loam Miami fine sandy loam 1900. 1 901. No. orchards. Acres. Average yield. No. orchards. Acres. Il6 542^ 287 159 834X 24 182 255 20 144^ 8 35 2l8 5 26 7 125 379 6 115 2 17 474 7 35'A 5 4i 100 6 5i Average yield. 57 33 7 99 73 93 Table 31 — Concluded. SOIL TYPE. 1902. 1903. Four- No. orchards Acres. Average yield. No. orchards Acres. Average yield. average. Miami stony loam Alton stony loam Alton stony loam (bed rock near surface) .... Miami silt loam Ontario gravelly loam. . . Miami fine sandy loam . . 272 43 12 8 12 8 1419^ 358 66 1 29 63 y 2 63 234 215 151 260 295 353 132 19 5 3 2 7 788X 185 29^ 44 9 172 283 229 237 214 278 220 215 183 153 238 280 192 Summary of the soil factor in apple-production. — While the kind of soil is important, in this locality, it is evidently not the most important factor in apple-production and is not as important as the kind of treatment that the soil receives. The kind of care required varies with the soil. The Miami silt loam will doubtless produce a good crop with less manure An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 319 than is required on any of the other types. The Miami stony loam is next strongest. The other types require larger applications of manure, but give good results when so treated. These latter are more open and are more in need of humus. The soil with the bed-rock near the surface is entirely unsuited to apples. For the best production of apples, there should be at least six feet of well-drained soil in every part of the orchard. Drainage. The condition of the natural drainage. — In selecting a soil for an orchard, more important than chemical or physical composition is the Fig. 68.- — In the center of a 35-acre orchard that is on a hill. Several acres have been gradually killed and many more damaged by ground water. This land has grotvn up to weeds and gives no income. Ii could easily be drained. question of drainage. No well-drained soils were found in the county that were not producing good crops of apples when properly cared for. The majority of the orchards are on fairly well drained land. A large number would be benefited by underdrainage, but in some cases the bene- fit would not be great enough to pay. Some orchards have been set on such wet land that they have entirely failed ; others have one corner extending down into a low place where drainage is needed ; others are divided by small " draws " that need underdrains. Where the orchards are on steep hillsides it might seem as if underdrainage would be unnecessary, but there are many places where the seepage water calls for drains. In other places the long slopes accumulate such a large volume 320 Bulletin 226. of surface water that drains are needed. Fig. 68 shows a 35-acre orchard, in the center of which are several acres that have been drowned out. This orchard is on a high hill and has a fair slope, but it needs drainage. There is usually a strip of poorly drained land on each side of the " ridge ". Kettle-holes occur occasionally in the north part of the county. In a few orchards near the lake shore there are successions of parallel waves of land, making a few rods of good soil followed by some that needs drainage. In the northeast part of the county several orchards were examined the foliage of which was of a red- dish hue when viewed from a distance. Some of the leaves were quite red in the latter part of August. This seemed to be due to the lack of drainage. It was characteristic of foli- age in undrained places. Several farm- ers attributed this to a " new insect " that had " stung the leaves ". The Ontario grav- elly loam and the Miami fine sand drain too easily — that is, they do not retain enough water. On such soils tillage is particularly profitable. A cover-crop or barnyard manure is a necessity. They add humus and increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Tillage and humus will make any of these soils good for apples. (See Fig. 69.) Losses caused by lack of drainage. — Of the i,773/ / 2 acres of orchard land in Walworth, only 182 acres have any kind of underdrainage. Most of these have only a stone drain or two in a particularly wet place. A Fig. 69. — An excavation showing stratified Ontario gravelly loam. Too well drained! An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 321 few have tile drains. Fifty-four orchards, aggregating 232 acres, are reported as in need of drainage. This means that, in the opinion of the inspector, some tile drainage would pay. The average yield of these 54 Fig. 70. — A twelve-acre orchard, two acres of which arc dead, and two acres damaged by lack of drainage. Fig. 71. — The trees are all damaged by insufficient drainage. The grower continues to plant young trees and these are continually drowned out. It would pay better to "plant" tile drains. 322 Bulletin 226. orchards in 1902 was 203 bushels, 42 bushels below the average of the other orchards in this town. Of the 1,987^ acres inspected in the remainder of the county, 317 acres have some underdrains, but 831 acres need drainage in whole or in part. Perhaps five to eight per cent of the orchards of the county need under- drainage throughout. About thirty per cent need drainage in part. The great loss through neslect of drainage is not in the destruction or damage Fig. /_'. — A " draw " in a 140-acre orchard where the trees arc being gradually drozvned out. The tree in the foreground is dying but is bearing a large crop of little apples and few leaves. The owner considers it a phenomenal tree, but it zvill probably not bear many more crops. of the few entire orchards, but in the loss from the few small wet places in hundreds of orchards ; for there are hundreds of orchards that have from one to fifteen per cent of the trees drowned out or badly damaged. There is a low place, a " draw " (see Fig. 72), or a kettle-hole, or a place where the water seeps out, and a few trees are killed or damaged. These vacant places are in most cases waste land. If they were occupied by trees it would not add materially to the expense of caring for the orchard, An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 323 but would add very substantially to the income. Figs. 68, 70 and 71 show such areas of waste land, due to lack of drainage. Many of the trees that are not killed are badly damaged. In such places a few tile or a good stone drain would pay many times over. A manufacturer would not long allow any such loss. Why should a farmer give less attention to losses in his business ? Lack of drainage may not be apparent while the trees are young. It is a grow- ing evil, for as the trees get larger and the roots extend deeper, they get into poorly drained and poorly aerated soil. Fig. 73. — In the same orchard as Fig. 68, shozving the border line between the dead and dying trees. The trees are /5 years old. Their size can be seen by com- paring with the small boy. The gnarly horizontal spread of the limbs is characteristic of trees that are in the most poorly drained places. Fig. 74. — This orchard is ordinarily fairly well drained but in the wet seasons it suffers. The picture was taken Oct. to. 1904. At this date the leaves had all fallen, because of the wet soil. The leaves had been falling badly for tzvo months. 324 Bulletin 226. The trees may do very well till they are about old enough to bear, then some wet season they will be damaged or even killed. Those who propose to set new orchards should consider the question well before starting such an expensive and long-continued enterprise on soil that is not well drained naturally or artificially. It is not enough that the soil will raise an ordinary farm crop. The roots of such a crop do not go as deep as do apple-roots. Furthermore, if a corn crop is lost or damaged by water, it does not prevent raising a good crop next year. When an apple orchard is damaged one can not start over the next spring as if nothing had happened. The corn is an annual, a one-year invest- ment ; the apple, a perennial, a long-time investment. CHAPTER X. Elevations and Exposures. Sites. — The sites are classified as elevated, or well up on the hills ; moderately elevated ; slightly elevated, and low. Table 32 shows the areas of each division. Table 32. Sites of orchards. Table includes all ages of trees. Walworth. Remainder of Co. Entire County. No. orchards. Acres. No. or- chards. Acres. No. orchards. Acres. Elevated 158 133 147 790^2 495 'A 487X 34 9i 10 359 1488 140/ 192 224 157 1149^ 1983 J* 627^ Moderately and slightly elevated. Low Relation of the sites to yields. — The yields do not indicate any par- ticular advantage for any of the divisions. The four-year average in Walworth on elevated sites was 227 bushels ; moderately and slightly elevated, 224 bushels; low, 213 bushels. For the remainder of the county Fig, 75. — An orchard on the east side of a drumlin. the differences are about the same but are in the reverse order. Evidently the site is not a very important factor. The best site is doubtless one that is sufficiently elevated to give good opportunity for air and water- drainage, but not so high as to be sharply exposed to wind. Hie aspects or exposure. — The majority of the orchards in the drumlin area are on east or west slopes occupying the sides of the drumlins (see Fig. 75 and page 364). There are, however, many orchards on the rolling land of lower levels, and in the north part of the county, where there are 335 326 Bulletin 226. no drumlins, the land is rolling. Table 33 shows the predominance of east and west slopes in Walworth. Table 33. Aspect. Walworth. Exposure. No. orchards. Acres. N 2S 80 N. E 27 88 E : 84 V3 l 2 S. E 19 741^ S 26 giy 2 S. W 20 74 W 71 268 N. W 15 61 Level 45 129^ Rolling* 106 593 *Most of those classed as rolling are a combination of east and west slopes. The south part of the county has equally marked east and west slopes. The north part is rolling. The effect of aspect on yields. — The easterly slopes in Walworth gave a larger yield each of the past four years than have the westerly slopes. The difference in 1902 was 23 bushels per acre in favor of the easterly slopes. In each of the other years the difference was greater. The north part of the county does not show this marked uniform differ- ence. The differences are greater than one would expect. In each of the four years the northeast slopes have exceeded the northwest, the east have exceeded the west ; the only exceptions are that in two cases the south- east have failed to exceed the southwest. The four-year average in Walworth was 43 bushels in favor of easterly slopes. It seems safe to conclude that the easterly slopes have marked advan- tages over the westerly. This is due to the protection from the strong west winds which do considerable damage at times. In the first part of June, 1903, the leaves of the west rows in many orchards were badly injured by winds. In many cases the foliage looked brown from the distance. The outer part of most leaves was damaged and many entire leaves were killed. The effects were still apparent in July. These strong west winds also cause more loss from windfalls on the west sides of the hills. The orchards on the level exposures give the least yields of all, a difference that is probably due to poorer drainage. CHAPTER XL A Comparison of Rented Orchards with those Managed by the Owner. znsus of rented orchards. — Between twenty and twenty-live per cent of the area devoted to apples is rented. ( See table 34. ) The usual method of renting; an orchard is the share system. The renter takes entire charge of the orchard and delivers a certain share of the crop — usually half — to the owner. A cash rental is not uncommon, but is given in a much smaller number of cases. Many of the. renters do not remain on one farm longer than one or two years. Taele 34. 1 of rented orchards and of those n at rented. Trees s :S8o. Wal-- Remainder of County. Entire Cocnty. PROPRIETOR. No. r- chards. Acre- Per No - or " Acres ' Per N Acre,. cent _ chards Acres. cent _ chards Acres. Per cent. Owner 243 i.o8o3 + 81 85 i,45i 75 259^ 19 57 4*7% 25 101 2-5Vh 747 77 23 Renter 64 Effects of the rental system on the health of the orchard. — The large number of rented orchards gives rise to a serious problem in orchard management. When a man rents land for the growth of field crops, there is not only a definite basis for the rent but there is also an unwritten law that has established quite definitely how he should raise these crops. There are no such definite customs that determine the care which a rented apple orchard should receive. The greatest obstacle in the way of good care is the fact that the returns for good treatment do not come immediately. Good care of field-crops gives an immediate effect ; good care of an apple orchard may give less returns the first year than it gives several years later. A renter does not like to plow up a pasture that is of immediate value for the benefit of a future apple-crop. If he mows the grass, he is not likely to leave it for a mulch, unless it is not good for hay. The farm manure will bring him quicker returns if used on the field-crops. The greatest return which 32: 328 Bulletin 226. he gets from pruning may be in the fire-wood procured, and some of the pruning is therefore done so as to get the most wood with the least work. If he has no crop, he does not see the profit in spraying for the benefit of a future crop that he may not reap. All these points are emphasized when the renter is certain that he will not stay another year. Their effect on the tree is partially indicated by the average yields. This average for the past four years has been 174 bushels for the rented orchards and 210 bushels for those not rented. (See table 35.) Table 35. Yields of roiled orchards compared zvith those not rented. Trees set before 1880. Walworth. Remainder of County. Entire County. PROPRIETOR. No. or- chards. Acres. Aver- age yield. No. or- chards. Acres. Aver- age yield. No. or- chards. Acres. Aver- age yield. 1900. Owner 94 13 Il8 20 196 45 99 12 387X 75 % 607% 113 935 H 208 y 2 580^ 70 332 305 64 36 262 196 280 222 31 15 32 23 6l 28 33 9 542 242 y z 567 367^ 1 004'^ 395 Y 575'A 178^ 247 232 49 47 217 183 239 215 125 28 150 43 257 73 132 21 929 Y 318 480^ 1940X 604 1156X 248^ 283 249 57 45 239 187 260 Renter 1901. Owner Renter 1902. Owner Renter 1903. Owner Renter 216 Four-year average : Managed by owner 210 bushels Managed by renters 174 " The attitude of the renter is, on the whole, about as good as that of the owner of a rented farm. Owners are usually very slow to spend money on improvements, or in keeping up a place. Both men often squeeze the farm for the last penny and let the future look out for itself. In a very few cases the difficulty has been overcome by a contract with the renter, that he is to give the orchard certain definite care. One such contract calls for at least two sprayings and two cultivations. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 329 Suggestions and reflections on the rented farm. — Many renters would be glad to improve the orchard, but the pruning- and renovation of a neglected orchard is an expensive undertaking. ( >ne cannot afford to do this unless he has a lease for several years, or unless the owner helps to pay the cost. The owner does not like to spend money for such work, for he feels that he will likely have a poor tenant about the time that the orchard gets in good shape. Some have taken the broader view and have spent money in the renovation of the orchard. These have almost invariably been well repaid by the increased income. An owner who takes a pride in keeping up his place and who is willing to spend money, if necessary, in improving it, stimulates the renter by his own interest. Such a man also attracts the better class of renters. He may occasionally have a very poor one, but the average is certainly much above that found on the farm where the owner begrudges new shingles on the barn. The renter sometimes takes so much pride in his work that he will take good care of an orchard even if he does not expect an immediate return. This is also a good investment for such a man becomes known and can therefore secure a farm more readily and sometimes on better terms. Unquestionably the most effective way to bring the rented orchards up to the average is to give leases for a longer time. The commonest reason for not doing this is the fear that a shiftless tenant will secure the place and retain it. There is abundant reason for this fear, but if the renter changes every year or two, the chances of a bad one at some time are multiplied. Such a man may do more damage in one year than can be overcome in many years. A fairly good man, or even one that is below the average, if kept from year to year will give better results than a rapid succession of good and bad tenants. As one travels through orchard after orchard, he becomes more and more impressed with the desirability of maintaining the American ideal of every farm owned by the man who works it. But if the owner secures the best renter possible, gives him a lease of several years, requires good care of the orchard, and then is willing to bear part of the expense of renovating the orchard where this is necessary, the renter ceases to be a menace to the apple industry. CHAPTER XII. Varieties. The varieties grown. — Nearly all the bearing orchards are made up of a mixture of Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening, with a few trees of other kinds. There are more Baldwins than of all other varieties com- bined. Probably eighty to ninety per cent of all the trees are either Baldwin or Greening. The larger part of the balance are Tompkins King, Northern Spy, Twenty Ounce and Roxbury Russet. There are some trees of many other varieties but the numbers are so small as to be unimportant in comparison with the above kinds. Some of these less important varieties are : Hubbardston, Ben Davis, Esopus Spitzenburg, Wagener, Duchess of Oldenburg, Red Astrachan. The young orchards also differ much in varieties, but the larger part are planted to Baldwin, Ben Davis, Greening, Hubbardston. Other varieties that are being planted to a very limited extent are : Duchess of Oldenburg, Wealthy, Wolf River. Mann, Grimes Golden, Rome Beauty, Maiden Blush, Red Astrachan, Northern. Spy, Russets, Snow, Yellow Bellflower, Boiken, Mcintosh Red, Gravenstein, Sutton Beauty, Bis- mark, etc. Variations within the variety. — " We know that no two trees in any orchard are alike, either in the amount of fruit which they bear or in their vigor and habit of growth. Some are uniformly productive and some are uniformly unproductive. We know, too, that scions or buds tend to reproduce the characters of the tree from which they are taken. A gardener would never think of taking cuttings from a rose-bush, or chrysanthemum, or a carnation which does not bear flowers. Why should a fruit-grower take scions from a tree which he knows to be unprofitable ? " The indiscriminate cutting of scions is too clumsy and inexact a prac- tice for these days, when we are trying to introduce scientific methods into our farming."* Long ago men learned that two cows were not necessarily alike because they were both Jerseys. The man who would raise cattle from any indi- vidual merely because it belonged to the desired breed would be ridiculed. But there are as great differences between Baldwin apple-trees as there are between Jersey cows. *L. H. Bailey, Cornell Bulletin 102, Oct., 1895. 330 An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 331 Fig. 76. — The old " mother tree " from zvhich all of Mr. Smith's trees were grafted. It bears excellent apples and good crops of them. About 500 trees have been grafted from this lice. ??.:■*.'?' * '■• *j> * ^ma 4*^--' Ftg. yj. — Trees in Mr. Smith's young orchard. Top-ivorked with scions from the " mother tree." 2>$2 Bulletin 226. When the farmer has top-grafted his trees, as is sometimes done for other reasons, there has probably been more or less unconscious selection from good trees. Few nurserymen have yet paid any attention to the matter, nor are they likely to do so till fruit-growers are willing to pay for the increased work.* One good example of care in the selection of scions was seen in Orleans county. Fifty-three years ago Mr. Russell Smith of Albion grafted one tree to Baldwin. This proved to be so exceptionally productive that he grafted some of the other trees in the same orchard with scions from it. A few years later another orchard of three acres was planted. A large part of these trees were top-worked to Baldwin with scions from the original tree. In 1868 his sons, S. W. and William Smith, decided to plant ten acres more. They bought good Northern Spy trees for stocks and top-worked them to Baldwin. Most farmers would have taken the scions from the young orchard because longer and better-looking shoots could have been obtained, but they were not satisfied to do this. They went to the original " mother tree " for all the scions. This mother tree is still living and producing apples. "" It is literally bearing itself to death." (See Fig. 76.) The orchards grafted from it are all producing large crops. (See Fig. jj.) Of course there are plenty of good trees in New York that were budded or grafted with scions taken from young trees or that were taken indiscriminately from old trees, just as there are good cattle that were produced without any care in breeding. Some good ones will certainly be secured by accident, but the scientific fruit-grower eliminates all accidents so far as possible. He increases his chances for success when he secures good nursery-grown stock and top-works it from trees of bearing age — trees of known productiveness, vigor and quality. *J. H. Teats & Sons, of Williamson, are growing " pedigreed " peach trees. They have several good orchards, but have only a few trees that they consider good enough to bud from. Such a tree must be hardy, it must bear the best peaches and plenty of them. They find that the public is willing to pay more for .these trees than for trees where no selection has been practiced. CHAPTER XIII. Enemies oe the Apple. The more serious enemies. — The codlin-moth and the scab fungus are the most serious enemies of the apple in Western New York. The scab is not so injurious if the apples are to be evaporated, but it probably causes more loss than any other enemy when apples are to be barreled. It was very destructive in 1902, was of small importance in 1903, and was very prevalent in 1904. Of the insects that attack the tree, the canker-worm (commonly called " army worm ") has done the most damage, but it is now practically sub- dued. Probably the wood-rot fungi have done more to shorten the lives of the trees than any other enemy. These gain entrance through wounds and rot out the trunk so that the trees eventually break down. (See pruning, Chap. IV.) Canker of the limbs has done much damage and has killed a number of entire orchards. (See page 341.) The collar rot, " King disease," or " winter injury," as it is variously designated, is the worst enemy of King and Spitzenburg varieties. It is not so serious with other varieties. (See page 345.) In addition to these there are many kinds of insects and diseases that do a small amount of damage every year. In their ups-and-downs some- times one and sometimes another becomes serious. The bud-moth prob- ably did as much damage as any other insect in 1903. Aphids were the worst enemy of young trees and caused considerable damage in old orchards. They were worse on thrifty trees than on slow-growing ones. The best orchardists therefore suffered the most loss from them. The apple bucculatrix, or ribbed cocoon-maker of the apple, the apple weevil and the mites each did considerable damage in a few orchards. Table 36 indicates something of the relative importance of the various enemies in 1903. Table 36. Insect and fungous enemies of the apple in 190$. Injury. No. orchards. No. acres. Canker (Sphacropsis malorum) serious 87 5 2 6H considerable 83 729^2 Bud-moth (Tmctocera ocellana) serious 45 590^4 considerable yj 221 slight [48 61454 Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) serious 6r 333^4 considerable 45 631 slight all bearing orchards 333 334 Bulletin 226. Table 36 — Concluded. Injury. No. orchards. N'o. acres. Collar rot considerable 31 212 slight nearly all old orchards Aphis (Aphis pomi) serious 55 458 considerable 44 324^ slight ail orchards Scab ( Venturia inaequalis) serious 66 424^ considerable 68 440 slight all bearing orchards Apple-weevil (Anthonotnus quadrigibbus) serious 13 87^ considerable 13 79^2 slight 28 182 Apple bucculatrix ( Bucculatrix pomifoliella ) serious 7 73 considerable 9 1565/2 slight all old orchards Canker on leaves (Sphaeropsis malorum) serious 4 94 considerable 3 67 slight 1 4 Leaf-blister mites serious 4 25 l / 2 considerable 6 34 slight 56 2,72 l A Leaf spot {Phylloslicla sp.) serious 5 44 considerable 9 383^ slight nearly all orchards Leaf sewer (Phoxoptcris ncbcculana) serious 4 43 considerable 7 104 slight 33 719 Canker-worm ( Palcacrita vcrnata) serious 3 21 considerable 3 i2 l / 2 slight 3 27^ Tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa americana ) serious 1 10 considerable 2 6*/> slight 36 146^ Woolly aphis (Schiaoneura lanigera ) serious 2 6 considerable 4 22 slight nearly all orchards Fall web worm (Hyphaiitria cunea) serious o o considerable 2 2> l / 2 slight 27 479I/2 San Jose scale (Aspidiolus perniciosus ) serious o o considerable 1 4 slight 1 2 This table includes all the enemies that were found to be serious in any orchard, except borers and the wood-rot fungi. Many other insects and fungi were seen but were not doing any considerable barm. Common notions regarding orchard enemies. — It is interesting to note the enemies that have impressed themselves on the minds of the orchard- ists. In answer to the question as to what insects or diseases had damaged the orchard in the past, the canker-worm was mentioned for 173 orchards, scab for 120, tent-caterpillars for 112; codlin-moth came fourth. No other enemy was mentioned more than five times. Among those men- tioned were canker, borers, San Jose scale, pink rot, case-bearers, collar rot, leaf-roller, oyster-shell bark louse, aphids, handmaid moth, curculio, palmer-worm. Losses due to mice, sun scald and russeting of the fruit were also mentioned. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 335 The Apple-Scab Fungus (Venturia iiiaequalis). Importance of this disease. — The worst disease with which the apple- grower has to contend is the apple-scab, commonly called " the fungus." More questions are asked about it than about any other enemy of the apple, and there is great difference of opinion among farmers as to what it is and what to do about it. True, spraying has become an accepted practice and the best fruit-growers practically eliminate the scab, but the majority of farmers do not do so. The varying opinions are due to the fact that the fungus is invisible or inconspicuous until it " goes to seed." A knowledge of its life history is essential to any intelligent treatment of it. It has been frequently described, but the information is not yet sufficiently disseminated. I shall, therefore, attempt to answer some of the common questions that are asked about it. A few ques- tions are asked over and over again. "What is the fungus?" "What causes it?" " Why is it worse in wet seasons?" "Why are some varieties more affected than others?" What is the scab fungus? — "This apple-scab is no new pest. It has no doubt been seriously present FlG 7S _ Young ahplcs severely attacked ever since apples were grown in by the scab fungus. the country, causing many fail- ures of crops which were laid to the weather or the moon."* This fungus is a very small plant that grows as a parasite on the leaves and on the apple, — the apple is its soil. We might say that it is a weed that grows on the apple and allied fruits rather than on the ground. It lives over winter on the fallen leaves and perhaps to a very limited extent on the branches. " Scab makes its first appearance early in the spring, usually soon after the leaves begin to unfold, and it is while these and the fruit are in a young condition that the fungus can best infect them."f (See Fig. 78.) The seed (spore) falls on the • r -J!i.5Wifc *L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84. Jan., 1895. f'George P. Clinton. Bui. 67, Univ. of Til. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dec, 1901. 3& Bulletin 226. young apple or on the leaf and there grows, sending its roots (mycelium) into the tissues of the apple. At first the infected spot but it is sel- still later in the breaks through causes the black shows a n just reached outer skin of breaking away is invisible, later it causes the skin to take on a deep olive-green color, dom noticed until season when it the skin and scab. Fig. 79 apple that has this stage. The the apple is exposing the FlG - 79-— -The outer skin (cuticle) ruptured, b j ack f un g USj , . , , exposing the fungus. which has now gone to seed." In time the spores are blown and washed away and some of the fungus cells and dead tissue are more or less worn away so that the color may become a reddish-brown, due to the exposed dead corky tissue. The scab spots on the left in Fig. 80 show the spores and fungus cells beginning to leave from the center of the spot. The large scab on the right shows the rusty scar that is left after the disease tissue has scaled off. Farmers describe this change by saying that " the fungus leaves the apple," or " the fungus changes to rust." Ftp 9n Ti, a- a ,■ r Tf this takcs P lace before the riG. .So. — 1 he diseased tissue scaling oft- from the apple. apple is picked, the appearance An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 337 and keeping quality are not so seriously affected as when picked in the stage shown in Fig. 79, but the fungus may make some further growth around the edge of the scar if put in warm storage. Fig. 81 shows a Baldwin apple so badly attacked that it has become distorted and cracked. Most cases of cracking of the apple are due to this fungus. Fig. 82 shows three sections of apple-leaves. " In Fig. 1 the leaf is healthy. Observe the regularity of the three upper layers of cells. In Fig. 2, the brown fungus may be seen growing on the upper surface, and at this stage it has destroyed the upper or epidermal cells, although it is probable that the mycelium of the fungus first spreads just under the cuticle, on top of the layer of epidermal cells. Fig. 3 shows the fungus when it is better estab- lished, and it will be seen that all the cells of the leaf are disarranged, the chlorophyll or green grains being few in number, and the leaf has increased in thickness. This, Fig. 3, is a cross-section through one of the blister-like elevations which are shown on the leaf in Fig. 83. It will be seen that the fungus does not enter the deeper tissues of the leaf, although it disorganizes them by its parasitic effects. In Fig. 3, a spore can be seen at A, and two are shown broken off their stem or hyphae at B. In Fig. 2 the spores can be seen in process of formation at the ends of the threads, and at C one of the threads is cut off."* Relation of the weather to the scab fungus. — Nearly all fungi are fav- ored by wet weather; wheat rust, bean rust, potato blight, etc., are all worse in wet seasons. The wet weather does not create anv fundus Fig. 81. — Baldwin apple showing cracking due to the fungus. *L. H. Bailey in Cornell Bulletin 84. Jan., 1895. 33»- Bulletin 226. W >\'Hll -, '■*'■ ; 3.2 S*I* !'< / ~ • ] ■ any more than favorable weather creates a corn crop. A fungus can- not develop unless the spores get on the host plant any more than a corn crop can be grown without planting the seed. But there are usually plenty of spores on hand so that all they need is weather favorable to their growth. Unusually wet weather during the blossoming period favors the growth of the scab fungus. For the same reason it does more damage in shady, unpruned and undrained orchards. Dense tops prevent the evaporation of the moisture. Open tops allow the air to circulate freely, and they therefore quickly dry out after a rain or dew. Some varieties are more affected than others. — The Snow, Spitzenburg and Maiden Blush are particularly sub- ject to scab. The Greening and Twenty Ounce are more af- fected than the Bald- win. Golden Russet and Hubbardston are among the more resistant varieties. The difference is probably due to the more tender outer skins of some vari- eties. The fungus must penetrate the outer skin before it can do any damage. It is interesting to note that while the Greening apples are much more affected than the Baldwin, yet the Baldwin foliage is very much more affected than that of the Greening. Relation to other fungi. — The scab fungus is often confused with other fungi that secure a foothold in the wounds caused by the scab. Part of this confusion is doubtless due to the fact that the scab is almost always called " the fungus." It would be well if farmers would call it the apple-scab, in order to distinguish it from the hundreds of other fungi. The scab fungus causes the dark spots on the apple that may later change to rusty spots. It is never white. The white moulds that sometimes grow on these same spots are other fungi that could not have > ■ ' ■ V- > J * ***** J)<. **>• I Fig. 82. — Cross-sections of apple leaves. 1. Healthy leaf. 3. The tipper surface attacked by the scab fungus. 3. A later stage in the growth of the fungus. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 339 hurt the apple had the skin not been broken by the scab or by some injury. One of these, the pink rot, caused much damage in 1902.* Treatment. — A sufficient number of thorough sprayings with the Bordeaux mixture will keep the apples prac- tically free from scab. The essential points are thoroughness and prompt- ness. Spraying after the scab becomes established does little or no good. Some men have been surprised to see the scab develop under spots where the spray was still visible. This simply means that the spraying was too late — the fungus was already in the apple. Since the spores do not all germinate at once, we should not expect one appli- Fig. 84. — Leaf spots probably caused by Phyllosticta sp. Fig. 83. — The scab fangas on the leaf. cation of Bordeaux to keep off all the scab any more than we would expect one cultivation of a corn crop to kill all the pigweeds. One application if made at the right time will, however, frequently make a great difference. Three spray- ings at the right times will nearly always keep the apples free from scab. Two will sometimes do so. A further dis- cussion of the method of summer treat- ment and of winter treatment will be found under spraying. (Pages 392 to 3940 Leaf spots caused by the scab fungus. — Fig. 83 shows the large blister-like eleva- tions caused by the scab. These spots usually occur on the upper surface, but are not confined to that surface. Late in the season they are nearly black, the color "Cornell Bulletin 207. 340 Bulletin 226. of the scab on the apple. Scab did considerable damage to the foliage in unsprayed orchards in 1904. Leaf spots caused by other diseases. — Fig. 84 shows the spots caused by a different fungus, probably Phyllosticta. These spots are of a reddish- brown color. They do not blister the leaf. This fungus did little damage in 1903, but in the wet season of 1904 it caused much damage to the leaves. Spraying seems to have had little or no effect in checking this disease. The so-called " yellow leaf " that caused the leaves to fall during July and August was partly due to this trouble and partly due to wet soil. Many orchards that are ordi- narily well drained were wet this year. (See Fig. 74.) Those that are ordinarily too wet were very bad in 1904. The leaf spot was generally much worse in the poorly drained orchards. In some orchards the scab on the leaf and the mites also caused leaves to fall. Leaf -blister mite. — Fig. 85 shows the under side of a leaf infested with the blister mite. This had not been reported as occurring on the apple until it was found during the orchard survey in Wayne county. Specimens were sent to Professor Slingerland, who wrote as follows Fig. 85.— Under side of leaf, showing leaf concerning them : ' The pear-leaf- blistcrs caused by mites. pest in many sections of the country blister mite is now a well-known but never before until last summer had we seen or heard of a similar pest in apple-leaves. Scattered through central New York there were many apple-trees with many of their leaves showing the corky blisters characteristic of these mites. We have not yet made a careful study of the mites to determine if they are the same as the pear species. The blisters in the apple-leaves differ slightly from those in pear, but this may be due to the different food-plants."* These mites were found in 53 orchards in 1903 and were found in many orchards *Bulletin 46. Division of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 341 in Orleans county in 1904. They were not ven bad in mure than a half dozen orchards in each county, but in a few orchards some trees had prac- tically every leaf affected. Their local distribution even in the severe cases seems to indicate that they do not spread rapidly. The ordinary spraying has no effect on them, because they live within the leaf where poison can not reach them. Tt is probable that kerosene emulsion applied before the buds open would kill them. Injuries clue to these three causes and to many other enemies that attack the leaves are quite commonly confused with each other and with spots that are sometimes caused by spraying. The Apple-Tree Canker {Sphaeropsis malorum Pk.). Description. — The black, rough bark and partially girdled limbs are so characteristic of this disease that it is easily recognized. ( See Fig. 86.) The diseased part may extend for several feet along the branch, or may be only a small spot. Usually it is five to ten inches long. The bark may be merely roughened and black (as in B, Fig. 86) or the limb may be partially girdled (as in A, Fig. 86). In the worst cases the dead limbs stick out all over the tree-top. (See Fig. 87.) Extent of the injury. — The canker causes more loss than any other disease except the scab fungus and, possibly, the fungi that cause the trunks to decay when improperly pruned. It was found to be very serious in 14 per cent of the orchards and was doing considerable damage in 19 per cent. Injuries of this character are less conspicuous but are much more serious than those that affect the leaves — canker attacks the tree directly. It does not often do much damage on young trees. It usually occurs on limbs two to three inches in diameter, but sometimes attacks the twigs or larger limbs. It very rarely occurs on the trunks, except on the Twenty Ounce. This variety is particularly subject to the disease. I have seen very few mature Twenty Ounce trees that were not badly infected. It is also serious on the Spitzenburg. The Baldwin is more affected than the Greening, Russet, King or Northern Spy. The same fungus occurs on the leaves, but does not seem to be serious. In Wayne county in 1903 it was found on the leaves in eight orchards and was doing considerable damage in seven of them. It was not found on the foliage of any orchard examined in 1904. On the leaf it shows a distinct series of concentric circles. One infected point may develop 342 Bulletin 226. w ^^ : '- 1 pfrjm m P. " , '^-S -^ ^ v& ■ ;)f V'-.V"-" '. :-i - ■ 1 ;;>§ |?N Pn^i #1* ■^ 4 2 ft ®%k ^w '% m 1 A' Fig. 86. — Canker of the apple-tree. In B only the outer bark is affected, shows the branch half girdled. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 343 344 Bulletin 226. to nearly half an inch in diameter. The brown rot of stored apples is also due to the same fungus. Cause. — The cause was not known until about six years ago, when it was worked out by Wendell Paddock of the Geneva station. * Until that time it was commonly attributed to sun-scald. Comparatively few fruit- growers are yet informed of the real cause. It is still attributed to sun- scald or lightning, or passes as " dead limbs " without any cause. Prac- tically no sun-scald has been seen in either of the counties studied. Air. Paddock found that the canker is caused by a fungus that grows on the bark and cambiumf layer of the tree. The black color of the canker is partly due to the spore-fruits of the fungus. Many of the spores (seeds) remain on the branches till spring or longer, when they are given off and disseminated. The fungus seems to be unable to pene- trate to the cambium layer through living bark. The cankers are thought to be formed by those spores that chance to fall in some slight wound and there germinate and produce more cankers. Sometimes the fungus grows for some distance on the outer bark without penetrating to the cambium. (See B, Fig. 86.) In such cases no direct injury is done to the tree, but spores are produced and disseminated so that a constant source of infection is maintained. Treatment. — With the exception of the Twenty Ounce, no orchard in which the trees have always been kept in a good growing condition has been found to be seriously affected. Something more than thrifty growth seems to be necessary in order to prevent the destruction of the Twenty Ounce. A few farmers in Wayne county and more in Orleans county have been treating the disease during the past few years and have had excellent results. The essential points of the treatment are : (1) Prune out the limbs that are badly diseased. (2) Spray the limbs with Bordeaux mixture. (3) Most important of all, get the trees to growing. Mr. G. D. Simpson of Carlton has carried the treatment a step farther. When pruning he scraped off the rough, diseased bark around each canker and gave a generous application of strong blue vitriol. This was undoubtedly a good thing, but the treatment given above seems to be invariably successful. *New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 163, Dec, i8qq. fTlie cambium layer is a tissue that lies between the wood and the bark. It is the tissue that produces the new wood and inner bark, An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 345 Mr. Albert Wood of Carlton Station has even grown new tops on his Twenty Ounce trees and has kept the new growth from becoming diseased by spraying the limbs and by keeping the trees growing. This variety is so subject to canker that it can not be kept healthy without constant vigilance. Collar Rot. Occurrence and de- scription. — In nearly every mature orchard one comes across some trees on which the bark around the base is dead and loose, or has fallen away. The injury usu- ally extends only 6 to 18 inches above the ground, but sometimes it ex- tends 3 to 4 feet up the trunk. As the area of dead bark increases, the tree may be entirely girdled. (See Fig. 88.) It is quite commonlv attributed to the hired man having hit the tree with the machinery when working in the orchard, and the injury does re- semble a wound made by hitting the trunk at the surface of the ground. But before the blame can be fixed on the hired man we must explain how he happened to hit all the King and Spitzenburg trees and missed most of the Baldwins and Greenings, also why the disease is as bad or worse in those orchards that have not been tilled. This disease is the worst enemy of the King apple. It lias sometimes been called the " King disease."- Probably the majority of all the trees ic. 88. — A Baldwin tree hilled by collar rot. Note the spot at base of tree. In this twenty-acre orchard about one-third of the trees are dead and one-third more arc badly affected. In this ease the very poor drainage has been largely responsible. ^Bulletin 191. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. 346 Bulletin 226. Fig. 89. — Collar rot of the Kvrcg, shozving diseased and cracked condition of bark. decay and frequently girdle the tree. Treatment. — Little can be done except to treat the wound as any other wound should be treated. If the dead bark is cleaned away and paint applied, it will delay the decay of the wood. In some cases this has preserved the wood and the wound has healed over. The effective treatment must be prevention. If hardy stocks are planted and top-worked to King or Esopus Spitzenburg, the trouble is avoided. (See Fig. 92.) The losses of Baldwin from this disease are not very great, but are enough so that it might pay to top-work them of this variety that are thirty years old are affected. It is nearly as serious on the Spitzenburg. The Baldwin is more affected than the Spy, Greening or Russets, but none of these are as badly affected as are the King and Spitzenburg. It seems to be worse on poorly drained land than on good soil. Cause. — The cause is not defi- nitely known. It is probably some- times due to winter injury, but this does not seem to account for it in all cases. Whatever the original cause, the wound once made be- comes infected by the wood-rot fungfi, which cause the trunk t;> Fig. 90. — Collar rot of the King. The same tree as in fig. So with the dead bark removed. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 347 also on some hardier stock, as the Spy. When we add to this the desira- bility of each grower selecting his own scions from productive trees, it will probably be well worth while to top-bud or graft. The planting of the King has almost ceased on account of prevalence of this disease. But it furnishes no reason whatever for abandoning this excellent apple. In the many cases where the Kings were top- Fir,. 01. — .1 row of Kings, all affected with collar rot. Dying gradually but surely. grafted, as suggested above, there has been no appearance of the trouble, or no more trouble than was usual for the variety of stock on which it was grafted. In view of tliesc facts, it seems fair to say that no King or Esopus Spitzenburg tree propagated in the ordinary way slwuld be set in Western Nezv York. If these varieties are desired, secure than by top-grafting on some hardy stock. 348 Bulletin 226. Fig. 92. — Collar rot avoided by top~working on Spy stock, CHAPTER XIV. Yields, Markets and Prices. Average yields. — The following tables give some of the chief points in the average yields : Table 37. Approximate total yield for entire county. Bushels. 1899 (U. S. Census report ) t. 394.000 1900 4,872.000 1901 672.000 1902 4,053,000 Table 38. . Iverage yield per acre. Trkes Set Before 1880. Trees Set Since 1879. Average. No. or- chards. Acres. Average yield. No. or- chards. Acres. Average yield. No. or- chards. Acres. Average yield. 1899* . . 19,000 1,686% 2,28l^ 3,067% 1,621% 73 1900 1901 1902 100 3 + I/I 293 385 I,496X 2,041% 2, 734% 252 34 222 18 25 31 190 240 333 46 22 74 189 318 416 200 229 32 206 265 *The yield for T.899 is for "trees of bearing age" and is taken from the census report. fThe average yield for 1903 is too large for it does not include young trees nor does it include orchards that Rave no yield. ! \ I ! I . E 39. Average yield per tree. Trees set before 1880. Bushels. 1899 (trees of bearing age) 1 - 75 1900 5 • 78 1901 .78 1902 5 01 Average 3-33 This calculation is for the number of trees that the orchards would contain if there were no trees missing. 319 35° Bulletin 226. Table 40. Average number of bushels raised by each grower in Walworth. Bushels. T900 1 ,700 1901 2IO 1902 1,200 The three-year-average yield in Walworth township is about thirty-four bushels above that of the entire county. This difference is due to the poorer care given in the remainder of the county, particularly in the southern part. Table 41. Variations in yields of orchards. The following table will give some idea of the distribution of yields that produced the averages in 1902, trees set before 1880. YIELD. Walworth. Remainder of County. Entirf. County. No. orchards. No. acres. No. orchards. No. acres. No. orchards. No. acres. 0-100 bushels 36 75 75 46 26 31 361 Yz 301 67^ 85 17 27 28 386^ 417^ T.AA X A 53 102 103 57 3i 36 578 779 657X 495 122 y 2 138 101-200 bushels 201-300 bushels 301-400 bushels 401-500 bushels II I94 5 " Over 500 bushels 5 53 The largest yield reported for the year 1902 was 1,000 bushels per acre from a four-acre orchard. Markets — the evaporating Industry. — The orchard industry of this county cannot be understood without a knowledge of the evaporating industry. How predominant this industry is can be seen by r ;ferring to table 42. The proportion of apples evaporated varies from year to year, being influenced by the quality of the fruit and the relative prices of green and dried apples. Probably seventy-five per cent of all the apples raised in this county during the past four years has been evaporated. A little less than half the evaporated fruit was evaporated by the man who grew it. That which is sold usually goes to some farmer's evaporator. The evaporators are almost as characteristic of the farm- yards as are the barns. They also occur in all of the villages, but the largest part of the evaporating is done on the farms. The industry is a rural one and seems likely to remain such for some years. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 351 Table 42. What becomes of the apple crop. HOW DISPOSED OF. 1900. 1901. 1902. I903. Bushels. Per cent. Bushels. Per cent. Bushels. Per cent. Bushels. Per cent. Evaporated by the grower Sold to be evapo- rated Picked and sold in barrels or in bulk. . 90, 650 92,641 33 33 12,175 14.094 9- 933 18,600 22 26 18 34 191,480 213,643 73,000 107,830 7-950 32 36 12 18 2 160,840 134,319 139,085 37 31 32 Part evaporated or sold to evaporate and part barreled, the proportion not given Otherwise disposed of 88.178 6,000 32 2 5,392 I If we apportion the yield that was partly barreled and partly evaporated then the percentage of the crop evaporated would be about as follows : 1900, 85 per cent ; 1901, 60 per cent; 1902, 75 per cent; 1903, 68 per cent. Table 43. Orchards from which the entire crop was evaporated or sold to evaporate — none were hand-picked. YEAR. No. orchards. 1900. 1901 . 1902. 1903 . 104 41 288 113 No. acres. 526^ 329^ 1657K 583 No. bushels. 151,700 17, 060 316,980 147,830 Per cent of the total yield. 57 31 45 34 In many cases the fact that the women and children of the household can help in the work, so reduces the expense that the small evaporator can successfully compete with the larger ones. The evaporating industry furnishes a good outlet for fruit that is not good enough to barrel. Tt should he encouraged by every possible means. The ease of preserving and the small space into which a bushel of apples can be condensed make this a very desirable way of reaching the cheaper trade in Europe and Asia as well as in our own cities. 352 Bulletin 226. A good harvest. Barreled and ready for storing. Hauling to the depot. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 353 The dried apples occupy only about one-seventh of the space occupied by the green apples from which they came. This makes a great saving in the cost of transportation. The Government can be of great assistance in helping to develop these markets. There should be a good future for the evaporating industry. But in order to secure and retain this trade the evaporator men must furnish a product that will keep. One of the reasons for the present low- price is undoubtedly the result of marketing what has been aptly termed " apple sauce." The stock is not dried sufficiently to> keep well. One reliable firm evaporated 52,000 bushels in 1903, which averaged 6.29 lbs. of dried stock per bushel. Their average in 1902 was h.85 lbs. The average of a number of small evaporators in 1903 was 7.45 lbs. The number of pounds dried stock that a bushel will give varies greatly with the variety of the apple. Y\ 'inter varieties average from one-fifth to one-seventh above the fall varieties. Russets give a larger product than Greening or Baldwin. Ben Davis and Twenty Ounce give less than these. The amount is said to vary in different years. But none of these factors account for the difference between 6.29 and 7.45 pounds. If the stock that was dried till a bushel gave only 6.29 pounds was prop- erly dried, what can we say of that which contained 1.16 pounds more water, or what of that where nearly 9 pounds of dried stock were secured from a bushel? The whole subject of evaporating and marketing deserves a careful study. It zcould pay to raise better fruit and barrel more of it. — Desirable as the evaporating industry is in disposing of poor fruit, there is little question that it would pay the growers to raise better apples and pick the best for barreling. From a third to a half of the crop, depending on the year, is sold to evaporate without thus selecting the best to barrel, that is, the entire crop is shaken from the trees for evaporating. (See table 43.) This includes a still larger proportion of the number of orchards, in some years as many as three-fourths, for it is more practiced in the small orchards than in the larger ones. A few growers, particularlv in the western part of the county, sell a part of their crop in Rochester to retail dealers or sell it on the streets. This is particularly profitable with apples of extra good quality. There are a number of secondary markets. One man used 50,000 bushels in 1902 for the manufacture of brandy. The vinegar works 354 Bulletin 226. of the American Fruit Product Company at Newark make about half a million gallons of cider and vinegar per year. Many others make smaller quantities of cider and vinegar. Prices. — Apples for evaporating are sold by the 100 pounds. The average prices and the prices of barreled apples are given in table 44. Table 44. Average price paid for apples to evaporate per 100 lbs. (2 bushels). Year. Price. 1900 $0 30 1901 64 1902 44 1903 41-3 Average frier per barrel. 1902 1 75 1903 1 85 Average price per bushel picked apples sold in bulk, 1903. . 44-2 Average price per pound for dried stock, 1903 -0504 Apples sold on the streets and to grocerymen in Rochester are quite variable in price, but usually bring two to three times as much as when sold to dry. The vinegar factories pay the lowest price of any market. The 1902 prices ranged from 12 to 20 cents per hundred. Income per acre. — The average gross income per acre for the entire county from orchards set before 1880 has been as follows: 1900, $37.80; 1901, $14.28; 1902, $48.18. The averages in Walworth township have been considerably better than the average for the county. If these incomes seem rather small, it must be remembered that averages include orchards that have received no care of any kind as well as those that have received the best possible treatment. Unfortunately the average expense can not be obtained, for very few men keep an account of the expense of caring for the orchard. In a very large number of orchards — the ones that lower the average yield and income — there is practically no expense except the use of the land and the expense of hauling the apples to the evaporator. Table 45 will give a better idea of the average income, as it gives the number of orchards for each difference of $10 in income. An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 355 Table 45. Average income per acre from orchards set before 1880, entire county. INCOME 1900. 1901. 1902. PER ACRE. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. Less than $10. . . $10 to $19 20 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 60 to 69 70 to 79 80 to 89 90 to 99 100 to 124 125 to 149 150 or more. . . . 14 14 16 30 21 23 25 I 1 5 2 9 2 5 I2I}£ l6l l64>< 186/2 IO3/2 88 134^ 74*; 13 6 144 8 14 10. 13 -3 13-5 15-4 8.5 7-3 11 . 1 6.2 1 . 1 0.5 11 . 1 0.7 1 .2 Il8 25 29 8 9 16 1 1 2 670^ 276 201 55^ 52 147 8 4 22>< 44-5 18.4 13-4 3-7 3-5 9.8 0.5 0.3 1-5 16 33 34 52 40 43 22 34 18 16 30 18 10 105^ 252/ 213/ 356'A 277 230/ 98 175H 138/2 85/2 135^ 140* 169 4 10 9 15 11 9 4 7 5 3 5 5 7 4 6 7 1 4 8 6 5 4 3 23^ 33 I2>4 1.6 2.2 0.8 8 9 1900. Average income per acre — entire county — trees of all ages Average income per acre — entire county — trees set before 1880 Average income per acre in Walworth — trees set before 1880 Average total income per grower in Walworth $34 35 37 80 49 50 255 00 1901. $13 44 14 28 17 22 88 20 1902. $44 70 48 18 52 58 264 00 SUMMARY. Extent of the Survey. — During the summer of 1903, 574 orchards, con- taining 3,761 acres, were examined in Wayne county. In 1904, 564 orchards, of 4,881 acres, were examined in Orleans county. The statistics in this report are based on Wayne county. The results from Orleans county we hope to publish later. Area planted to apples. — There are in W^ayne county about 21,000 acres of apple orchards. The total area of improved land in farms is 305,299* acres ; or, 6.9 per cent of the improved farm land is planted to apples. Varieties. — Baldwin and Greening are the leading varieties. Roxbury Russet, King, Northern Spy and Twenty Ounce are also rather exten- sively grown. The recent plantings have some of these same varieties, but there is a tendency to plant the earlier-bearing kinds. Rented orchards. — Between twenty and twenty-five per cent of the orchards are rented. The four-year average yield of those managed by the owner has been 210 bushels ; of those managed by renters, 174 bushels. Orchard renovation. — Nearly all of the orchards have been badly neg- lected, but during the past few years a large part of them have received more attention. Fourteen per cent have been distinctly renovated during the past ten years. Tillage and yields. — Twenty per cent have been tilled five years or more ; 44 per cent have been in sod at least five years ; the others have been tilled part of the time. Thirty per cent were tilled in 1903. The four-year-average yields have been : Tilled every year for at least five years, 266 bushels ; tilled most years, 229 bushels ; sod most years, 202 bushels ; sod at least five years, 148 bushels. Or the average yield of those that are regularly tilled is 80 per cent above that of those regularly in sod. A part of this difference is due to tillage and a part is due to the fact that the man who tills his orchard is likely to give it improved care in other respects. Taking only those orchards that are otherwise well cared for, the difference is reduced to 35 per cent in favor of tillage, the four-year-average yields being: Tilled every year, 271 bushels ; tilled most years, 245 ; sod most years, 206 ; sod every year, 200. Of the various methods of sod treatment, pasturing with hogs or sheep ^Twelfth Census Report. 356 An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 357 gave better yields than not pasturing or pasturing with cattle or horses ; but none of the methods of sod treatment equalled tillage in average yields. A few sod orchards are among the best producers, but the average is much below that of the tilled ones. Liberal applications of barnyard manure reduce the need of tillage. Very many orchards are in need of more growth in order to place the trees in a vigorous condition. Tillage is usually the cheapest and most effective way of producing this. Barnyard manure may also be needed. Fertilization and yields. — One-third of the orchards received no fer- tilization of any kind. The other two-thirds received more or less manure. Probably less than half received enough of anything so as to be classed as fertilized. Commercial fertilizers have been used in about twelve per cent and green manure (cover-crops) in about the same area. The average yield for 1902 and 1903 of fertilized orchards was 257 bushels ; for unfertilized it was 202 bushels. A few men have shipped in manure from Buffalo. Some have found that they can profitably buy cattle for winter-feeding, and thus secure manure. Cover-crops. — On most of the soils, humus is needed more than mere plant-food. Barnyard manure or cover-crops usually give better results than commercial fertilizers. _ Cover-crops were grown in eight per cent of the orchards in 1903. Buckwheat is the most commonly used. Crimson clover, red clover, rye, large clover, alfalfa, peas and oats, and vetch are also grown. Pruning. — The ultimate death of most trees is due to neglect of pruning coupled with a type of pruning that is worse than neglect. In sixteen per cent of the orchards, stubs from two to twelve inches long were left. Paint is rarely used on wounds. This treatment causes the trunks to decay and results in a broken tree. The important points in pruning are: (1) The limbs should be cut close to the trunk. (2) Large limbs should not be removed without cause. (3) Paint should be used on large wounds. (4) Pruning should be done every year rather than give the occasional "thorough trimming." Spraying. — Thirty-three per cent of the orchards are seldom or never sprayed ; 41 per cent were sprayed in 1903. Spraying gives less profit when fruit is grown for evaporating than when grown to barrel. In 1903 the damages from insects and fungi were small, but in this year the sprayed orchards averaged 27 bushels per acre 358 Bulletin 226. above the unsprayed and averaged better in price. The average income per acre from sprayed orchards was $77.84; from unsprayed, $63. In many cases only one spraying was given. Distance between trees. — A great loss is caused by the trees being too close together. When trees are too close, the lower limbs die and cause a loss not only in the crop, but the dead limbs lead to decayed trunks. In 43 per cent of the mature orchards the trees are 30 x 30 feet or less, the average distance being 31.6 feet. The four-year-average yields have been : Trees not over 30 x 30 feet, 186 bushels; 31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet, 222 bushels ; 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet, 229 bushels. If trees are too close: (1) They are not so healthy. (2) The fruit does not color well. (3) The trees have less bearing surface. (4) In- sects and fungi do more damage. (5) The cost of labor is greater. Orchards should be thinned as soon as the trees begin to interfere, before the lower limbs have been killed. Thinning should ordinarily be accomplished by removing every other row diagonally, first having deter- mined which way will leave the largest number of sound trees. Age and yield. — The maximum yield in Wayne county seems to come at 44 years after planting. This age will doubtless be greater in the future, for good care seems to give a greater gain in the longevity of the trees than in the yearly yield. Some orchards planted nearly a century ago are still profitable, but a large number of the neglected orchards that were planted about forty years ago will be of little value in twenty years. In the north part of the county, some young orchards are being planted to meet this contingency. Drainage problems. — About eight per cent of the orchards need drain- age throughout. Thirty per cent need drainage in part of their area. The greatest loss from poor drainage is not in the damage to entire orchards, but in the small undrained places that occur in many orchards. Fifty-four orchards in Walworth township were reported as need- ing drainage. These gave 42 bushels less yield per acre than the average of the township. Poor drainage not only affects the vigor of the tree directly, but it encourages canker, collar rot, etc. Land that is well drained for grain crops may not be well drained for apples. Soils. — The loamy soils are the best for apple production, but good apple crops are grown on quite diversified soils. The treatment that the An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 359 orchard receives is far more important than the kind of soil. This treatment must vary to some extent with the type of soil. A good apple soil in Wayne county may be said to be one that is well drained and deep. Site and aspect. — The elevation above the surrounding country does not have a marked effect on the yield. The easterly slopes give considerably better yields than the westerly, probably owing to the strong west winds. Enemies. — The most serious enemies of the apple are the scab fungus and the codlin-moth. Both of these can be controlled by spraying. The collar rot or King disease is a rot that kills the bark at the sur- face of the ground. It is worst on Kings, attacking nearly all the mature trees. It is also bad on the Spitzenburg and occurs to some extent on all varieties. It is usually worst on poorly drained soil. Little can be done except to treat the wounds as any wound should be treated. But the trouble can be avoided by planting hardy stocks, as the Spy, and top-working to King. If this is done, the trouble furnishes no reason whatever for abandoning the King apple. Canker is a disease attacking the limbs. It is doing considerable damage in one-fifth of the orchards of the county. If the trees had been well cared for, it would seldom have secured a foothold, except in the Twenty Ounce. It can be overcome, except in extreme cases, by pruning out the diseased limbs, spraying the limbs with Bordeaux mixture, and, most important of all, putting the trees in a healthy growing condition. Evaporating apples. — Wayne county is the home of the apple-evap- orating industry. The proportion of the crop that is evaporated varies from year to year, but averages about seventy-five per cent. Some growers pick the best apples to barrel, others shake off the entire crop for evaporating. In 1902 the entire crop was thus shaken from the trees in 45 per cent of the orchard area. A much greater profit would usually be made if the orchard were so managed as to produce a really No. 1 apple, and if more of these were then sold in barrels. Yields. — The average yields per acre for mature orchards have been : 1900, 252 bushels; 1901, 34 bushels: 1902, 222 bushels. Income per acre. — The gross average incomes per acre from mature trees have been: 1900, $37.80; 1901. $14.28: 1902, $48.18. CONDENSED CONCLUSION. Tillage, fertilization, pruning and spraying are the chief factors that enter into good care of an orchard. One or more of these may sometimes be omitted or poorly done without any serious results. To some extent tillage may replace fertilizers, or vice versa. A thrifty orchard may resist the attacks of disease. Some years there are few insects or fungi, so that spraying is not so much needed. A farmer fre- quently gets good results from some one of these factors and becomes so impressed w«th its importance that he makes a hobby of it, to the exclusion of all the others. But the most successful apple-grower is the man who keeps a proper balance between all four agencies and does not expect good care in one respect to make up for neglect in other ways. There is not a recommendation in this report that has not been success- fully carried out by some growers ; but few men have given attention to all the questions, though some of the most successful have come very near to doing so. But these factors are not all. The successful man must study; he must learn something of the life processes of the apple-tree ; he must know the most serious insect and fungous diseases, and why certain treatment is effective in combating them ; he must know something of the drainage, humus and other soil problems. No set of rules can cover all these points. The apple-grower must go into the orchard and get acquainted with his trees. As one farmer expressed it, he must go into the orchard occasionally and say to his trees, " Good morning ! Is there anything that you would like to-day?" There are many more or less successful farmers who never really see the apple-tree — they see only the crop. Any treatment that will temporarily increase the crop seems to them to be good, but this very treatment may be destroying the prospects for future crops. Nor is success in orcharding wholly dependent on a large crop. There is a business side to the question. Does it pay to grow cheap apples to be evaporated or to be sold at the lowest market price, or would it pay better to grow a first-class article that costs more and then commands the highest price? A few men in each county are known as growers of good apples. Some other men grow just as good apples and yet have no reputation. Sometimes it is because 360 An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County, New York. 361 their " firsts *' and "seconds " all get into one barrel, sometimes it is because the growers are not known. The grower of good apples should establish a business reputation that will bring buyers to him and make a competition for his product. Last of all, let me urge the advisability of keeping an account with the orchard and with the other important crops (as shown on page 297). See which crops really pay. If the apple orchard proves to be the most profitable crop, then give it first attention. BULLETINS FOR APPLE-GROWERS. The most progressive fruit-grower studies his business not only in his own orchard but in every way possible. To keep abreast of the progress made in orchard management he must know what other orchardists are doing and must be familiar with the results of experiment station work. The following are a few of the many free bulletins that are available to New York farmers, so long as the issues remain in print. The following bulletins are sent free to residents of New York on application to the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. : Bulletin 73. The Cultivation of Orchards. 93. The Cigar Case-Bearer. 142. The Codling-Moth. 153. Impressions of Fruit-Growing Industries. 155. The San Jose Scale. 170. Tent Caterpillars. 198. Orchard Cover-Crops. 207. Pink Rot, an Attendant of Apple-Scab. 214. The Ribbed Cocoon-Maker of the Apple. 216. Spraying for Wild Mustard and the Dust Spray. 217. Spray Calendar. Bulletins in the following list are sent free to residents of New York on application to the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. : Bulletin 122. The Pistol Case-Bearer. 163, 185. The New York Apple-Tree Canker. 167. A Fruit Disease Survey of the Hudson Valley in 1899. 170. Diseases Injurious to Fruits. 362 Bulletin 226. Bulletin 191. A Fruit Disease Survey of Western New York in 1900. 196. Spraying in Bloom. 220. Two Unusual Troubles of Apple Foliage : Frost Blisters ; and Spotting and Dropping of Leaves Caused by Spraying. 235. Two Decays of Stored Apples. 239. Thinning Apples. 248. New York Apples in Storage. 258. A Study of the Chemistry of Home-Made Cider Vinegar. 193, 194, 202, 209. 213, 228. San Jose Scale. Publications sent free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. : Soil Survey of the Lyons Area, New York. Extract from the Yearbook for 1901. 230. Commercial Apple Orcharding. Extract from the Yearbook for 1902. 266. Top-Working Orchard Trees. Extract from the Yearbook for 1903. 317. Relation of Cold Storage to Commercial Apple Orcharding. Farmers Bulletins. Bulletin 113. The Apple, and How to Grow It. 127. Important Insecticides: Directions for their Preparation and Use. 146. Insecticides and Fungicides : Chemical Composition and Effectiveness of Certain Preparations. 161. Practical Suggestions for Fruit Growers. 181. Pruning. 187. Drainage of Farm Lands. 208. Varieties of Fruit Recommended for Planting. PART II THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF ORLEANS COUNTY NEW YORK An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York, By G. F. Warren. General statement and acknowledgments. — This Bulletin is a supplement to Bulletin 226, " The Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne County," which discussed apple-grow- ing in both counties, the conclusions in it being based on obser- vations made in both counties and on the statistics gathered from Wayne county. In this Bulletin the tables from Orleans county are presented, but the discussions are not re- peated except when new or contradictory conclusions are shown. It is therefore expected that the reader of this Bulletin will have at hand Bulletin 226. Nearly half of the field work was done by Mr. Christian Biies, who not only assisted in the investigation but gave many valu- , , . , Fig. 158. — Twenty-ounce. A profitable apple ivhere able suggestions on the thg frw h wU CQred foy methods of work. I wish to thank the five hundred or more farmers who so willingly placed at our disposal the statistics about their orchards and told us of their successes and failures. I might mention in particular the help given 464 Bulletin 229. by S. W. Smith, William A. Lafner, J. N. Stebbins, Albert Wood and many others, but no such list can be properly given without including four or five hundred names. The acknowledgments must therefore be to the apple-growers of Orleans county. The field work. — The work of gathering the statistics was done between August 24 and October 22, 1904. This later period than was spent in Wayne county allowed a more careful study of the condition of the fruit at the time of picking and the relation of the quality to prices. The yields for 1904 were secured by letter. A total of 564 orchards, containing 4,881 acres, were examined. Methods of work. — The field equipment, as in Wayne county, consisted of a soil auger, camera, notebook, blanks for re- ports, bicycle, etc. Mr. Biies and myself were together each evening and worked together in the field frequently, so that the work was kept on a uniform basis. The methods of mak- ing computations were carried out as formerly described, except that in computing average yields all bearing orchards were included. But there was an average of only eight orchards set since 1879 whose yields were secured, and these yields were not low (table 17). The average yields are therefore comparable with those in Wayne county for orchards set before 1880. In all com- putations, a barrel is taken as three bushels. This is a little high, but is necessary as it is the measure generally used by farmers. In Carlton township, which is the middle one of the three townships bordering on Lake Ontario, every orchard as large as five acres, and most of those above four acres, were examined. In the remainder of the county most of the orchards above eight or ten acres and many smaller ones were examined, the average size being nine acres. The investigation covered the entire county. Fig. 159. — Baldwin: The leading commercial apple of Western A T cu> York. An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 465 Area planted to apples. — The census of 1900 shows that there were at that time 629,401 apple-trees of bearing age in Orleans county. Since the average number of trees per acre is 41.5 (table 15), the total area of trees of bearing age must have been about 15,200 acres. Adding to this the 1,300 acres of young trees (8 per cent of the total area, see table 16), gives a total of 16,500 acres of apples in the county. The entire area of the county is 399 square miles, so that there is an average of 41 acres of apples per square mile. The area of improved land in farms is 205,279 acres.* Of this area, 6.9 per cent is planted to apples. Nearly all of the orchards are in the north two-thirds of the county. A total of 1,530 acres were examined in Carlton township, which has an area of about forty-six square miles. The area of apples in this township is probably nearly 2,000 acres, as only orchards as large as four or five acres were examined. Tillage. Acreage of tilled and untitled orchards. — About eleven per cent of the mature orchards have been tilled every year for at least five years ; 33 per cent have been in sod for at least the same period ; the others have been tilled more or less (table 1). Table r. Treatment prior to IQ04. Mature orchards. TREATMENT. No. orchards. No. acres. Per cent. 29 22,2 5 34 260 y 2 6 97 857'A 20 186 1,617 37 65 635 15— 92 770^ 18 Tilled 10 years or more Tilled 5 years or more Tilled over half of preceding 5 years Sod over half of preceding 5 years. . Sod 5 years or more Sod 10 years or more Twenty per cent were tilled in 1904. About half of the remainder were pastured and half not pastured. A marked contrast with Wayne county is shown in the very large area pastured by sheep. The area given as pastured by cattle is doubtless too small, as some orchards that had been used as a cattle pasture early in the season were not so used at the time of the survey, and were not reported as having been so used (table 2). Thirty-six per cent of the young orchards were in sod in 1904, and 9 per cent were sown to grain crops. The remaining 55 per cent were * Twelfth Census, 1900. 466 Bulletin 229. tilled, usually planted to beans or potatoes (table 3). This shows that many farmers are coming to realize that the young- orchard should not be considered as one field in the crop rotation, and that tilled crops are Table 2. Treatment in 1904 of mature orchards. TREATMENT. No. orchards. No. acres Per cent. Tilled with cover-crop Tilled without cover-crop . . Sod, sheep pasture Sod, sheep and hog pasture Sod, hog pasture Sod, cattle pasture Sod, grass cut and left Sod, not included in above . Total tilled Total sod 13 89 102 30 62 20 56 141 127^ 745^ 981 249 432^ 192^ 627% . 132 102 411 873 3,614^ 3 17 22 5 10 4 14 25 20 80 the only ones that should be grown in it. Needless to say, the young trees that are in sod are usually making a very poor growth as compared with that of those that are tilled. Probably more damage is done to young trees by sod than by all other causes. Some of those that are in Table 3. Treatment in 1904 of young trees — set since 1895. TREATMENT. Tilled, planted to a cultivated crop Tilled, sowed to grain crop Sod, hay cut Sod, grass and weeds not cut No. orchards. No. acres. 31 5 9 4 216^ 33Vz 107 33 l A Per cent. 55 9 27 9 sod are plowed along the rows or are mulched around the trees so that the damage is lessened. Yields of tilled and sod orchards. — As shown by table 4, the five-year average yield of orchards that have been tilled ten years is 86 per cent larger than that of those that have been in sod ten or more years, and those tilled five years gave 34 per cent larger yield than those in sod five years. This computation, like all others, was made for Carlton and for the remainder of the county separately. But the conclusions shown were the same in each case, therefore the totals only are given. An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 467 Undoubtedly the tilled orchards have fared better in general care. Neglected orchards are likely to be -in sod. This table therefore shows too great a difference in favor of tillage. To eliminate other factors, another computation has been made in which all neglected orchards were thrown out. This excluded about half of the orchards that are regularly in sod and excluded some from all classes. FlG. 160. — York Imperial. Prized in Pennsylvania as a winter apple. Of questionable value in Orleans county. Table 5 includes only those orchards that are fairly well cared for. All have received some fertilizer and some spraying. None are badly damaged by lack of fertilization, spraying, or drainage, or badly damaged by disease or other causes. Of these fairly well cared for orchards, those that have been tilled ten or more years gave 45 per cent larger yield than those in sod ten or more years, and those tilled five or more years gave 15 per cent larger yield than those in sod the same period. This tabula- tion doubtless gives too favorable a showing for the sod orchards, tor some of the diseased ones thrown out were diseased because of the sod treatment. 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Effect of tillage on the quality of the fruit. — Apples from sod orchards are frequently more highly colored than are those from tilled orchards, but are not necessarily so. Tillage may make it a little more difficult to secure good color, but there are many tilled orchards that give highly colored fruit. Drainage and feeding are important factors. Fig. 161. — Jonathan. Combines high quality and handsome appearance. Many farmers think that apples from the sod orchards have a better flavor and keep better. If these views are correct, the differences are certainly not very great. The increased size of apples from tilled orchards usually more than makes up for any such differences. Apple- buyers frequently discuss this question, sometimes favoring one kind of treatment and sometimes the other. But more conclusive than their dis- cussions or than farmers' opinions are the actual prices paid. It will be seen by tables 4 and 5 that, if there is any difference, the tilled orchards exceed the untilled by a slightly larger per cent in average income than in average yield. That is, the ruling prices per bushel have been a little higher from tilled orchards than from those in sod. An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 471 Methods of sod treatment. — Sod orchards pastured with sheep and hogs have given a much better average yield than those not pastured, or than those pastured by cattle (table 6). Probably one reason for the extremely low average for those pastured by cattle is that in Orleans county, cattle are not commonly allowed in any but neglected orchards. Table 6 includes orchards that have been in sod most of the time as well as those regularly in sod. By comparing with the corresponding years in table 4. it will be seen that none of the methods of sod treatment equals tillage in average yields. The corresponding yield for tilled orchards, Table 6 Yield in bushels with various methods of sod treatment. METHOD OF 1902. 1903. I904. TREATMENT. No. or- chards. No. acres. Av'ge yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. Av'pre yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. Av'pe yield. Pastured with hogs. . . . Pastured with sheep. . . Pastured with cattle. . . Not pastured 34 44 9 70 236 447 l A 92 670^ 280 288 99 209 34 85 10 98 233 854 % 102 Ji 887 264 228 168 208 21 37 7 60 131 343 69 567 393 309 192 235 Three-year average per acre : Pastured with hogs 312 bushels Pastured with sheep 308 Pastured with cattle 153 Not pastured 217 that is the three-year average for orchards that have been tilled five to ten years and more, is 350 bushels. A few growers are trying the so-called mulch method of cutting the grass and throwing it around the trees. Theoretically this would seem to be undesirable since the great demands for water and plant-food that are made by growing the hay come at the time when the apple-trees need the moisture and food for their own growth. But practically there is a much more serious difficulty. There are comparatively few orchards in which anything like enough hay can be grown to furnish an efficient mulch. For most orchards, additional straw and hay must be obtained from outside the orchard. Does tillage pay? — After examining tables 4 and 5, and the correspond- ing tables from Wayne county, one is forced to the conclusion that if there is a method of sod treatment that is as good as tillage, the average farmer has certainly not yet found it. Both counties show that the best 472 Bulletin 229. sod treatment thus far generally tested is to pasture with sheep or hogs and give liberal applications of barnyard manure. There are many sod orchards that are giving good yields. Some of these are producing well, but are having their period of productiveness shortened by sod ; some are yielding well and are thrifty. Of the seventy orchards that have been in sod five to ten years or more and that reported Fig. 162. — Fall Pippin. One of the old household favorites. the yields for 1904, only 14 gave yields equal to the average of the tilled ones. The average proportion for the five years has been the same. That is, one in five of the sod orchards give as good yields as the average tilled ones. Not nearly this number could be said to be very successful. To be called successful the orchard should certainly be in the better half of the tilled ones — not merely equal to the average, which has been low- ered by the neglected orchards. Allowing for the trouble and cost of plowing, the loss of pasture, etc., it would still seem that about four-fifths of the sod orchards would pay better if tilled. Many who have tried tillage have made the mistake of tilling too late in the season. Much of the objection to the practice would not exist were it not for this mistake. If a cover-crop is sown early in July, the trees An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 473 may be somewhat checked in growth so that the fruit will color better, and a good floor can usually be secured by picking time. If buckwheat is sown, it should be harrowed down before picking time. If clover is sown, it may need to be mowed. Some very successful orchards are tilled until early in July, then seeded to clover. The next year this clover is mowed and left as a mulch to be plowed under the following spring. This gives an alternation of tillage and light clover sod. From the results ob- tained in the few orchards where it has been systematically tried, it seems safe to strongly recommend to those who wish to continue sod treatment that they go through the orchard once each way with a disc or cutaway harrow early in every spring. This does much to prevent the formation of a compact soil and a tough sod. It may be advisable to sow a little clover at the time of discing. Fig. 163. — BclOloivcr. An old-time favorite of quality. rood Fertilization. Fertilizers used.- — Formerly large numbers of orchards were neglected, and received little fertilization of any kind, but now 93 per cent are reported as receiving some kind of fertilization. Not all of these receive adequate applications, for this area includes all that are reported as having received any, regardless of the amount and frequency. The most striking feature is the liberal use of barnyard manure by the majority of the grow- ers. It is used by 91 per cent. A very large number report that all the manure produced on the farm is used in the orchard. 474 Bulletin 229. Commercial fertilizers, including wood ashes, have been used in 24 per cent of the area. These are usually applied in combination with manure. Fertilizers without nitrogen or low in nitrogen are usually used. Some- times the phosphorus is also omitted. Cover-crops. — Cover-crops were reported as having been used in 3 per cent of the area examined. They have probably been used more than this indicates. Many kinds have been tried, but the majority of the men who use cover-crops favor common red clover or buckwheat. Crimson clover, rye, vetch, rape, alfalfa and others have been used to some extent. Table 7. Summary of fertilizers used on mature orchards. FERTILIZER. UsED ALONE. Used with other fertilizers. Total. Xo. or- chards. No. acres Per cent. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. No. or- chards. No. acres. Per cent. None 43 457 108 15 304K 3,755 999 1 33) 2 7 9i 24 3 Barnyard manure Commercial fertilizers. Green manure — cover- 350 II 2, 738 83>4 66 2 107 97 15 1,017 915^ 133^ 25 22 3 Kinds of commercial fertilisers. FERTILIZER. Potash or ashes Phosphorus with potash or ashes Complete fertilizer. . . No. acres. 414 158 404 As already suggested under tillage, it would seem to be desirable to replace some of the manure by tillage and cover-crops. In estimating the profitableness of various methods, farmers usually underestimate the cost and value of manure. But unless tillage and cover-crops are used, the danger is that too little rather than too much manure will be applied. A very few orchards have possibly received a little too much. Pruning. In about half of the orchards the pruning is good or fair. In 1 1 per cent it is entirely neglected. Very long stubs were left in 17 per cent, and rather bad stubs in 7 per cent more. In 7 per cent the large lower An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 475 limbs have been cut off because the trees were too close together. Paint has been used on the wounds in 16 orchards. The points that need to be considered are the same as those in Wayne county, and arc discussed in Bulletin 226. They are: 1. The branches should be cut close to the limb. 2. Large limbs should not be removed unless it is necessary. If the trees are too close together, half of them should be removed rather than spoil the entire orchard by cutting off the large lower limbs. 3. Paint should be used on all large wounds, and renewed yearly until the wounds are healed over. 4. Pruning should be done every year rather than give the occasional " thorough trimming." Table 8. Pruning. QUALITY OF WORK: OTHER FEATURES. No. orchards. No. acres. Per cent. Good Fair Poor or neglected None Tops too dense Long stubs left Few stubs left Large limbs removed because trees too close together Paint used on wounds 121 175 161 57 931^ 1,424 1,562 503 21 32 35 11 65 104 40 4i 16 520 746^ 406 307 l A 12 17 9 7 2 Spraying. Methods of spraying. — Nearly all the orchards are sprayed occasion- ally. Sixty-one per cent were sprayed in 1904. Only two of the orchards set since 1895 were sprayed in 1904. One-fifth of the area was sprayed with arsenic and Bordeaux mixture. Nearly all the remainder was sprayed with Paris green and Bordeaux. A few growers used prepared mixtures, but none were seen who found these satisfactory (tables 9 and 10). Effects of spraying on yields and prices. — Spraying has practically eliminated the canker-worm from the county. At present the codlin- moth and the apple-scab (commonly called " the fungus ") are the most serious enemies. In 1904 fungous troubles were worse than usual, though not as serious as in some years. 476 Bulletin 229. In order to get an accurate estimate of the damage done by the scab, the percentage of the apples thus affected was determined for each orchard. This was done by counting and examining apples in each. Every apple that had any scab spots was counted as scabby. Those orchards given in table 1 1 as having 0-5 per cent scab gave practically perfect fruit — the real No. 1 apples. Those reported as having 6-25 per cent scab gave Table 9. Spraying, IQ04. HOW SPRAYED. No. orchards. No. acres. Per cent. Seldom or never sprayed Usually sprayed, but not sprayed in 1904. Sprayed once Sprayed twice Sprayed three times Sprayed four times 64 143 98 126 53 7 Total unsprayed. Total sprayed... 207 284 565 1,226 944 Y* 1,249^ 521 58 1. 791 2, 773 12 27 21 28 11 1 39 61 Table 10. Kinds of sprays used in 1904. TREATMENT. N'o. orchards. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. Arsenic and Bordeaux mixture Prepared mixtures Bordeaux mixture only Paris green only 219 46 6 3 1 No. acres. 424 41 32 7 Per cent. 79 18 2 1 very good fruit. From those having over 50 per cent scab, it was prac- tically impossible to put up real No. 1 apples. In practically no unsprayed orchards were over half of the apples free from scab. In nearly all such orchards about ninety per cent were scabby. In 56 per cent of the orchards sprayed once, the apples were not over half scabby. The percentage decreased with the number of spray- ings. Over half of those orchards that were sprayed three times were practically free from scab. These facts will not agree with the opinions of some of the owners of unsprayed or poorly sprayed orchards. Many such men do not recog- nize the scab ; or if they do, they think that when the diseased tissue peels An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 477 off, leaving the rusty-colored spot, the scab has left the apple (Bulletin 226, page 2>Z7). A still larger number see the scab but underestimate its importance, thinking that the scabby apples keep as well as others and are therefore as good. Such apples do not often keep as well as others, but the serious error in this reasoning is that it leaves out of account the value of beautv in selling fruit. Even if the scabby apple should Table ii. Relation of spraying to the apple-scab fungus in 1904. 0-5 St Scab. 6-25 % Scab. 26-50^ Scab. METHOD OF SPRAYING. No. or- chards. No. acies. I'erct. of ihe area. No. or- chards. No. acres. Perct. of the area. No. or- chards. No. acres. Perct. of the area. 2 35 3i 5 II 340 295^ 33 I 57 57 21 44 13 I 228 430 169 15 25 35 32 26 5 26 26 7 1 55 272^ 245 l A 42^ 10 3 30 Sprayed twice Sprayed three times.. . Sprayed four times .... 20 8 17 Total 73 679^ 79 842 65 625^ Table ii — (Concluded). METHOD OF STRAYING. Unsprayed Sprayed once Sprayed twice Sprayed three times Sprayed four times. Total 51-75 % Scar. No. or- chards. 41 No. acres. 170 117 123^ 4 4I4>< Perct. of the area. 10 13 IO I 76-icojC Scab. No. or- chards. 169 34 9 1 213 No. acres. 1551 292 I03>^ 10 1956^ Perct. of the area. 87 32 happen to keep as well and should taste as well, it would still be a cheap- selling product. To be No. 1, apples must be attractive to the eye. Many growers have honestly considered that their fruit was practically free from scab, when not more than five or ten apples in a hundred were free from it. In order that the question of opinion might not enter into the work, the percentage of scab was determined by counting. Table II shows the results. 478 Bulletin 229. Relation of spraying to yields and prices. — Table 12 shows that the sprayed orchards give a much higher yield and income per acre than the unsprayed. The difference in income is due to the larger yield, larger percentage of the crop barreled and higher price per barrel. It will be seen that those sprayed three times gave 31 per cent larger yield and 51 per cent larger income than those not sprayed. Table 12. Spraying and yield and income per acre, 1904. HOW SPRAYED. Yields. No. or- chards. No. acres. Av'ge yield. Per cent. of crop barrel- ed. Incomes. No. or- No. acres. .Av'ge cnards. income. Unsprayed Sprayed once Sprayed twice Sprayed three times Sprayed four times. 100 49 90 40 6 9i7^ 504 921^2 426 43 245 307 343 2,22 569 71 71 75 83 77 94 46 84 37 6 S6i/ 2 468 864 y 2 406 43 $92 116 127 139 211 Table 13. Spraying and yield and income per acre, 1904. Orchards all well cared for. HOW SPRAYED. Unsprayed Sprayed once Sprayed twice Sprayed three times Sprayed four times. Yields. No. or- chards. 43 33 70 27 6 No. acres. 38l 352 701 247^ 43 Av'ge yield. 328 346 374 414 569 Per cent of crop barrel- ed. 66 74 78 87 77 Incomes. No. or- No . acr e S . .Av'ge chards. income. 54 30 64 25 6 449^ 316 644 236^ 43 $103 139 143 184 211 A part of the difference in yield and income is due to other factors. The unsprayed orchards are likely to be somewhat neglected in other respects. To eliminate this factor, another classification was made after all neglected orchards were thrown out. Table 13 includes only those orchards that are fairly well cared for. They are not badly diseased or damaged from any cause. This shows a marked difference in the percentage of the crop barreled and in average yield and income; the average income per acre being: unsprayed, $103; sprayed once, $139; sprayed twice, $143; sprayed three times, $184. Allowing for the cost of the extra barrels required, for the cost of spray- An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 479 ing and for a possible difference due to other causes than spraying, there is certainly enough difference left to give a large profit from the practice. The relation of the scab to the average yield and price. — It will be seen from table 1 1 that some of the orchards that were sprayed twice or three times had as much scab as some that were sprayed only once. Another clas- sification was made on the basis of results obtained, rather than on the number of spray- ings. Table 14 is a summary of these results, when the orchards were grouped according to the freedom from scab, regard- less of how that freedom was se- cured. As would be expected, this shows a greater difference than is shown by table 12. Those orchards that were practically free from scab gave 54 per cent larger yield and 61 per cent larger income than those with over three-fourths of the apples scabby. A large part of the difference in income is due to the fact that from the Fig. 164. — Ben Davis. The commercial standard of the Middle West. Table 14. Relation of scab to income and yields, IQ04. PER CENT OF SCAB. Average yield per acre — bushels. Average income per acre. Per cent of the crop barreled. 0- 5 6- 25 26- 50 5i- 75 76-100 382 319 325 284 248 $143 102 105 87 81 75 72 68 70 480 Bulletin 229. former, 81 per cent of the crop was barreled, while from the latter, only 70 per cent was thus sold. The difference in yield is partly due to the poorer care given to unsprayed orchards, and is partly due to direct loss caused by worms and scab. The scab probably caused many apples to fall early in the season. Throughout the season it caused some apples to crack and drop. The time to spray. — As will be seen from table 11, nearly half of those farmers who sprayed only once accomplished little in preventing scab. One-sixth of those who sprayed twice accomplished little, still having over fifty per cent scab. Of the 95 orchards sprayed once, only two were practically free from scab; while of the 126 sprayed twice, 35 were prac- tically free from scab. None of the unsprayed orchards had less than 25 per cent scab, but nine-tenths of those sprayed three times had less than this amount. The table seems to show that : 1. All unsprayed orchards were badly infected with scab in 1904. 2. Marked results were accomplished by one spraying in half the cases. 3. While two sprayings were sufficient in 27 per cent of the orchards, three was the only safe number. 4. Much of the spraying is done at such a time or in such a manner that it is of little value. Perhaps the most striking point in this table is the difference in results from the same number of sprayings. Some of the difference is prob- ably due to the weather conditions following the application, but most of it is due to thorough spraying at the right time as contrasted with careless work, or work done at the wrong time. In 1904 that fruit that was not sprayed immediately after blossoming was invariably scabby. This one spraying was not enough, but it was the most essential one. Farmers frequently put off spraying a few days because they are too busy. This, of all farm operations, must be done at the right time. The seeds (spores) of the scab grow when conditions are favorable. They do not wait for the farmer. Unlike weeds, they are not readily killed when once established. After the mycelium of the scab is within the apple it is safe from the influence of sprays. Since it must be killed by contact, it is evident that every apple must be sprayed on all sides. The results from spraying would be still more striking if only those orchards that were thoroughly sprayed at the right times were included. An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 481 Three sprayings are usually sufficient for the codlin-moth and scab in Western New York. The applications should be made : T. Just before the blossoms open. 2. Immediately after the blossoms fall. 3, Ten to 14 days after the second. Dulletin 226 gives a fuller discussion of scab and its treatment. Fig. 165. — Rome Beauty. Needs thinning and good care to give sice and color. Number of Trees per Acre. As in Wayne county, the trees in the old orchards were planted too close together. The favorite distance was 33 x t,t, feet. Half of all the orchards were planted at this distance. The average distance was 32.4 x 32.4 feet. Only 5 per cent were over 35x35 feet. (In some orchards half of the trees have been cut out so that table 15 shows 13 per cent over 35 x 35 feet.) 482 Bulletin 229. In the young- orchards, 40 x 40 feet is the commonest distance — 57 per cent are set in this way. The average distance is 36.6 x 36.6 feet, but this includes some that have been set more closely with the idea of removing half. Much damage has resulted in the old orchards from this close planting. In 347 acres, 8 per cent of the total area, half of the trees have been removed, but there is 15 per cent more in which half of the trees should be removed. That is, in one orchard in seven, half of the trees ought to be cut out. In some this should have been done 10 years ago. Some Table 15. Distance between trees. Trkes set before 1890. Trees set since 1895. DISTANCE APART. No. orchards. No. acres Per cent. No. orchards. No. acres. Per cent. Not over 25 x 25 feet 26 x 26 to 30 x 30 31x31 to 35x35 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 22 1-24 308 37 4 143 I,02I>^ 2,667 4M^ 177 3 A 3 60 9 4 I I 34 3 5 35 61 .», 261^ 25 I 9 16 67 6 41x41 to 50 x 50 Average number of trees per acre. Average distance apart Trees set before 1890. 4i-5 3-2-4 Trees set since 1895. 32-5 36.6 have been almost ruined by the death of the lower limbs or by cutting these limbs off. But in nearly all of this 15 per cent it would still pay to cut out half of the trees. In those orchards where damage has not yet been done, the trees should be removed as soon as they begin to inter- fere, before they have been damaged. For a further discussion of thinning, see Bulletin 226. Age of the Orchards. Date of planting. — Comparatively few orchards were set before i860, and these orchards were usually small ones, set more for the purpose of supplying the family than for raising fruit to sell. Over eighty-one per cent of the orchards were planted between i860 and 1879. Planting then An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 483 practically ceased till 1899. It then began again, and has constantly increased (table 16 ). The young orchards are largely in the north part Table 16. Number of orchards planted during cadi five-year period. The table includes only those orchards that are still living. Some of the earlier plantings have dis- appeared. DATE OF PLANTING. 1805-19 (15 yoarsi 1820-29 (10 years) 1830-39 (10 years) 1840-49 (10 years) 1850-54 (5 years) . 1855-59 1860-64 1865-69 1870-74 1875-79 1880-84 1885-89 1890-94 1895-99 1900-04 No. of orchards 5 10 7 8 30 19 105 129 113 69 15 5 6 43 No. of acres. 22 Ji 5I# 28^ 32 147'-' 109 937 1,301 939 M 732 'A 97% 22 356 Per cent. 0-5 I . I 0.6 0.7 3-i 2.3 19-5 27.0 19-5 15-2 2.0 0-5 0.0 0.7 7-4 of the county. Fifteen per cent of the total orchard area of Carlton township has been set since 1895. Age and yield. — The t maximum yield seems to come at about 45 to 50 years from the date of planting (table 17). The tabulations for Carlton Table 17. Age and yield per acre in bushels, entire county. DATE OF 1900. 1901. 1902. PLANTING. No. or- chards No. acres. Av'tre yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. A\-'ge yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. Av'tre yield. 1805-29 1830-39 1840-49 1850-54 1855-59 1 860-64 1865-69 . , , , 1870-74 1875-79 1880-84 1885-89 4 1 20' 2 2 ' , 2 45^ 5i 397 383 352'A 208% 23 3 140 l80 255 415 241 24I 260 210 225 130 4 20',' 40 7 3 4 18 17 72 87 68 47 9 3 36', l8K 16 98 101 709 Y 874 Y 583 Y 504'-' 53^ 11 180 86 1 8 9 4i 37 4i 22 2 1 1 2 11 63 12 67 42 '■■ 434 48 505', 43 389 28 249', 3 32 3 11 50 73 84 53 55 69 80 94 68 229 351 310 271 270 248 174 165 300 4 8 4 Bulletin 229. Table 17 — Concluded. DATE OF PLANTING. 1805-29 183O-39 1840-49 1850-54 1855-59 1860-64 1865-69 1870-74 1875-79 1880-84 1885-89 1903. No. or- chards. 9 2 6 19 19 91 III 97 55 12 4 No. acres 48^ I2/ 2 25 104 109 860 I,046>< 831 605 8o>4 18 Av'ge yield. I84 102 252 246 339 245 255 234 207 170 216 1904. No. or- chards I 7 14 5i 65 57 28 5 1 No. acres 25/ Av'ge yield. 226 90 515 688^ 579/ 305/3 25/ 4 332 355 336 283 291 210 204 125 Five-year average. Av'ge age. 81 67 57 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 Av'ge yield. 156 175 283 266 229 225 210 179 153 l62 No orchards set between 1890 and 1894 were seen. Those set since 1894 have given no yields worth considering. In no year has the average reached one-fourth of a bushel per acre. and for the remainder of the county, when made separately, show the maximum yields to come at this same age. There are several orchards from 75 to 100 years old that are still profit- able. There are other old trees, but few entire orchards. Most of the orchards have had trees set in at later dates, so that the orchards could not be used in this tabulation of yields. It must, of course, be remem- bered that most orchards set in the early part of the century have disappeared. Topography. Orleans county is divided into two rather distinct topographical regions : the old lake bed and a glaciated region. Over one-third of the county lies north of the ridge and was formerly the old lake bed. The ridge was a sand bar or the old lake shore line. This is the same ridge that crosses Wayne county and extends from Sodus Bay to Lewiston. The entire county is gently rolling. There are comparatively few hills, and these are not very high. The general slope is to the north, the rise being from 246 feet, the level of the lake, to about 650 feet, the general level in the south part of the county. The highest elevation in the county is 737 feet. In many parts of the county there is not enough slope to give good natural drainage. A strip north of the ridge about two miles wide is particularly level. In the south and southeast parts of the county there An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 485 are considerable areas of swamp land. The south one-third has few orchards, largely because of the poor drainage. In all parts of the county drainage is the great soil problem. My impression is that one-third of the land should be underdrained. There are no such marked elevations or steep slopes as in Wayne county ; consequently, the question of the direction of the slope is of less importance. The most essential factor is good drainage. Fig. 166. — Sutton Beauty. Resembles highly colored Baldwin. A fairly early and regular bearer. Soils. The soil types. — There are four types of soil on which apples are com- monly grown: the Miami fine sand, Dunkirk clay, Miami stony loam, and Miami fine sandy loam.* Small areas of several other types of soil are devoted to apples. In general, the soils are quite free from stones ; but there are areas both north and south of the ridge that are quite stony. Miami fine sand. — This is a light brown or brownish-yellow fine sandy loam, underlain by a light yellow fine sand. It is generally free from stones, has a good natural drainage and is easily tilled. It occurs in all parts of the county, but is commonest south of the ridge and about half way between the ridge and the lake. * For soil analyses and further description of these types, see Bulletin 226. 486 Bulletin 229. Miami fine sandy loam. — This is a variation of the fine sand that con- tains enough fine particles to give it a slightly loamy character. Dunkirk clay. — This type is light brown, yellowish-brown, or some- times a reddish-brown clay loam, 8 to 10 inches deep, underlain by choco- late-colored, yellowish-brown, or reddish-brown clay. The subsoil is Table 18. Relation of yields to soil types. 1900. 1901. 1902. No. or- chards. No. acres Aver- age yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. Aver- age yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. Aver- age yield. Miami fine sand Miami fine sandy loam Dunkirk clay 52 21 63 41 476'/z 152 510 431 235 3M 277 215 67 28 80 37 638^ 194 405^ 92 89 87 67 106 47 132 72 955 379^ 1 197 7S7 l A 253 261 256 206 Miami stony loam Table 18 — Concluded. 1903. 1904. Five-year aveiage yield. No. or- chards No. acres. Aver- age yield. No. or- chards. No. acres. Aver- age yield. Miami fine sand 146 6l 165 87 1240 500 y 2 1514 912^ 242 239 221 240 80 31 112 56 755^ 278^ I028>2 623^ 344 331 270 315 233 247 222 Miami fine sandy loam .... Dunkirk clay Miami stony loam 209 frequently mottled. This type is most common near the lake, but occurs in all parts of the county. It is a heavy soil and very frequently needs drainage. Miami stony loam. — This soil is a brown stony loam containing from 10 to 40 per cent of stone, and contains considerable sand. The subsoil is of a yellowish-brown color and contains less stone and sand. Yields on the different soil types. — Table 18 shows the average yields on the different soil types for the past five years. The sandy loam gave the largest five-year average, followed by the fine sand, then by the clay. But the differences are not great enough nor are they uniform enough in the different years to indicate any particular advantage for any type. An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 487 The trees on the sandy soils have a tendency to grow faster, and the fruit seems to grow a little larger. Orchards on the sandy soils are likely to be older before they begin to bear. A suggestion of this is given in the practice of girdling the trees. Some years ago large numbers of trees in orchards on the sandy soils were girdled by running a saw around the trunk. Few on the Dunkirk clay were so treated. The sandy soils are easier to work and are better drained than the heavier soils, but they require more manure. As a result of the work in both Orleans and Wayne county, it seems that while a light loam is doubtless best, any well-drained soil in these counties will raise good apples. The sandy soils are certainly better than most of the publications on apple-growing would lead one to believe. Fig. 167. — Maim. Greening type, keeps well, bears irregularly. Drainage. — A careful study was made of the effect of poor drainage on the orchards. The number of missing trees that had been killed by water was usually counted and a careful estimate was made of those that were badly damaged, and of those that, while not so seriously injured, would still probably pay for tile drainage. A loss of about 8 to 10 per cent can be traced to this cause ; 2.3 per cent of the trees have been killed and 9.4 per cent more have been so badly damaged that they are of very little value. According to the opinion of the inspectors, about 20 per cent would pay for underdrainage — all those marked poor, damaged or dead in table 19. This does not mean one orchard in five, but one-fifth of the area. Sometimes a whole orchard is damaged, but usually only a part of the orchard needs drainage. The subject of tile drainage is one that is worthy of careful thought on the part of Orleans county farmers, not only for orchards but for farm crops. 4 88 Bulletin 229. Rented Orchards. More than one-fourth of the orchards are rented, and in about half of these rented orchards the tenant changes every year (table 20). The rented orchards average much below those worked by the owners. Where Table 19. Drainage. CHARACTER OF DRAINAGE AND EFFECT ON TREES. Good Fair Poor Trees badly damaged. Trees killed the leases have been given for a longer period, the differences are not so great. Even if each tenant were a good orchardist, the rapid changes would soon spoil an orchard, for each man comes with different ideas of pruning and orchard management. Table 20. Orchards rented and orchards worked by owner. No. orchards. No. acres. Per cent. Rented 143 36» 1,273 3, 122 J^ 27 73 Worked by the owner Years of te nnre. First year Second year Third and fourth years. Five or more years Per cent. 49 26 10 15 Average tenure, 3.3 years. Enemies of the Apple. The scab probably caused more loss than all other enemies of the apple in 1904. It is discussed under Spraying. A leaf-spot, probably Phyllos- ticta, did much damage in many orchards, particularly where the drainage An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 489 was poor. Much of the falling of the leaves, called the " yellow leaf," was due to this cause. The damage was not quite as serious as table 21 might indicate. The diseases that attack the tree directly, as the canker Fig. 168. — Roxbury Russet. One of Mr. Albert Wood's " money-makers." and collar rot, are the worst enemies of the tree itself in orchards where these diseases occur. These and a few other diseases are fully discussed in Bulletin 226. Table 21. Principal enemies of the apple in 1904. Apple-scab (Vcnturia inaequalis) see table under Spraying. No. orchards. No. acres. Apple-scab on the leaves slight 53 440 considerable 55 442 serious 34 294^ Canker (Sphaeropsis malorum ) slight 92 809 considerable 74 613J/2 serious 49 450M2 Collar rot slight 56 462 considerable 22 204V2 serious 16 159 Leaf-spot (probably Phyllosticla sp.) slight 100 785 I /2 considerable 127 105754 considerable to serious 151 1429^ Codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonclla ) slight all orchards considerable 47 433 *-2 serious 55 443^ Leaf-blister mites slight 11 115 considerable 4 50^2 serious 4 3i ! /2 Injuries usually slight, due to the following, were also recorded: Leaf-hopper, borer, leaf-miner, leaf-sewer, bud-moth, aphid, tent caterpillar, tussock-moth, tortricid, cuculio, Aspidiotus forbes!, rose bug, fall web-worm, oyster shell bark- louse, woolly aphis, pink rot, San Jose scale, etc., etc. 49Q Bulletin 229. Yields, Markets, Prices and Incomes. Yields. — The following tables will give some of the chief points. In computing yields one barrel is taken as three bushels. This is a little too high an estimate, but this basis had to be used as it is the one used by farmers and on which many of the yields were reported by them. Table 22. Approximate total yield for the entire county. Bushels. 1889 (U. S. Census report) 321,726 1899 (U. S. Census report) 1,391,630 1900 3,663,000 1901 958,000 1902 3,770,000 1903 ' 3,405,000 1904 4,317,000 The estimates for the last five years were obtained by multiplying the approximate area of 15,200 acres (page 465) by the average yields (table 23). To determine the number of barrels, compare these yields with the per cent barreled (table 26). The yield for 1904 may be too high as there may have been a tendency for those who had a small crop not to reply to the letter requesting that year's yield. Table 23. Average yield per acre in bushels. YEAR. 1899 (U, 1900 . . . 1901 . . . 1902 . . 1903 . . . 1904 . . . S. Census report) , No. . orchards. 176 212 356 485 283 No. acres. I,58l^ 1,972 3, I94>4 4.344/^ 2, 869K Average yield. 92 241 63 248 224 284 Table 24. Average yield per tree. Bushels. 1899 2.2 1900 5-8 1901 ' 1 -5 1902 6.0 1903 5-4 1904 6.8 Average 4-6 These results were obtained by dividing the average yields per acre (table 23) by the average number of trees per acre (table 15). An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 491 Table 25. Classification of yields. YIELD per acrh: in BUSHELS. to 100. . 101 to 200. . 201 to 300. . 301 to 400. . 401 to 500. . 501 to 600. . 601 to 700. . 701 to 800. . 801 to 900. . 901 to 1000. Over 1000. . No. or- chards. 36 26 53 26 23 10 1 3 1900. 391 252 416;^ 192^ i6 5 y 2 88 45 21'A Per cent. 24.8 l6.0 26.4 12.2 10.5 5-6 2.8 1.4 0.4 1901. No. or- chards. Il8 30 8 3 3 No. acres. 1213 264 65; 18 27 Per cent. 76.4 16.6 4.1 I . I i-7 1902. No. or- chards. 56 93 89 53 28 22 9 4 No. acres. 6l2 875 805^ 455 240 a 153 63A i7 l A 25 Per cent. 18.8 26.9 24.7 14.0 7-4 4-7 2.0 0-5 0.8 Table 25 — Concluded. YIELD PER ACRE IN BUSHELS. to 100.. 101 tO 200. . 201 tO 300. . 301 to 400. . 401 to 500. . 501 to 600. . 601 to 700. . 701 to 800. . 801 to 900. . 901 to 1000. Over 1000.. 1903. No. or- chards. 71 124 137 62 38 13 6 1 5 No. acres. 674 1 169 1248^ 497/z 292 107^ 37 65 28^ Per cent. 16.4 28.4 30.3 12. I 7-i 2.6 0.9 1.6 0.7 1904. No. or- chards. 29 49 55 52 49 22 12 5 5 2 1 No. acres. 298^ 538^ 631 A 508^ 399^ 239^ 77 X A 29 A 2S% SA Per. cent. 10.8 19-5 22.8 18.4 14.4 8.7 2.8 1 . 1 0.9 0.3 0.3 Five-year average per cent. 29.4 21-5 21 .7 11. 6 8.2 4-3 i-7 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.1 Markets. — The characteristic feature of the apple industry in Wayne county is the evaporator; in Orleans county it is the sorting-table. In Wayne county a large part of the crop goes to the evaporator without sorting out the best apples ; in Orleans county too much of it is barreled. Few, if any, farmers in Orleans county run their own evaporators. This may partly explain the low price paid for apples to be evaporated (com- pare table 27 with table 44 in Bulletin 226), but the difference is largely due to the fact that in Orleans county only the culls and drops are usually dried. It seems that each county might learn much from the other. Wayne county should spray better and then sell more of the crop in barrels. Orleans county should sort much more closely and then keep 49< Bulletin 229. the poor apples to evaporate. When put in the barrel, these only detract from the price paid and lower the reputation of the grower and of the county. There is at present a strong tendency to put up only one grade, the farmers thinking it is best to keep the poor apples at home. But in practice this frequently seems to mean that, instead of keeping the " seconds " at home, both " firsts " and " seconds " get into the one barrel. If apples were more carefully sorted, the culls would be worth more and might approach the price paid in Wayne county for apples to evaporate. If the evap- orators refused to pay this, some of the farmers might follow the Wayne county example, and put up their own evaporators. Perhaps no question is of greater importance than this one of the quality of the fruit. It is a county question. One man may raise the best of fruit and may sort and pack it carefully, but it is very hard for him to get its real value if his neighbors raise poor fruit. Buyers continually mention and honestly lament the fact that the price must be so largely determined for the community. The good apples sell the poor ones. It Fig. 169. — Wolf River, of the Alexander type. Table 26. Hozv the crop is disposed of. HOW MARKETED. Sold in barrels Sold in bulk Sold to evaporate Sold to vinegar factory. Otherwise disposed of . Bushels. 325,821 19, 700 9,968 Per cent. Bushels. 112,962 3,708 4.440 Per cent. Bushels. 683,415 59,131 79, 406 Per cent. 83.I 7.2 9-7 An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 493 Table 26 — Concluded. HOW MARKETED. Sold in barrels Sold in bulk Sold to evaporate Sold to vinegar factory Otherwise disposed of . Bushels. 819, 204 32, 104 128,096 4,450 7,200 Per cent. 82.7 3-2 12.9 0.5 0.7 Bushels. 627,231 17,909 153,109 53,626 17,720 Per cent. 72.1 2. I I7.6 6.2 2.0 To get the number of barrels, divide the number of bushels by 3. Those sold in bulk were nearly all sold to be barreled. The table indicates too small a proportion sold to dry or for vinegar as the farmers pay little attention to these. This is particularly true for crops before 1903. The 1904 report is probably correct in this respect. Of the 72.1 per cent barreled in 1904, 64.3 per cent were "firsts" and 7.8 per cent were " seconds " or " drops." is exceedingly difficult to pay $2 per barrel to one man and then buy of his neighbor at $1.50. When a buyer offers these prices he is met by the unanswerable argument that, " My apples are as good as my neighbor's," and he is quite likely to offer $1.75 to both men. Every effort should be made to persuade the man who raises poor fruit, to improve his product not only for his own good but for the good of the whole county. The County Fruit Growers' Association is doing good work along this line. Prices. — Table 27 gives the average prices for the past five years. The price per barrel in 1904 is too low, for it includes only those that were sold when the reports were received, about January 25th. At this time 18 per cent of those that were barreled were still held by the farmers. These were worth more than the average price. Table 27. Average price paid to the grower. Price per barrel Price per bushel sold in bulk Price per 100 pounds (2 bushels) sold to dry Price per 100 pounds (2 bushels) sold for vinegar pl.41 .224 .178 $3-15 .382 51-79 • 273 .218 $1.85 .2,01 154 $1.46 .260 .194 .148 In 1904 the average price of firsts was $1.49 per barrel; of seconds and drops, $1.15. 494 Bulletin 229. Expenses and income per acre. — Table 28 gives the average gross income per acre for the past five years, and table 29 shows how these incomes were distributed. Fig. 170. — One of the original Hubbardstons of Western N. Y. in the orchard of Mr. T. B. Wilson, Hall's Corners, Ontario county, N. Y. Unfortunately, the average expense per acre can not be secured, as few farmers keep any record of expenses. The largest expense is tor barrels, picking, packing and marketing the fruit. One orchard of 9 acres, for which an itemized account was kept in 1904, gave a total expense of $339.55 for tillage, pruning, fertilization, spraying, labor, etc. The cost of barrels, picking, etc., was $1,122.40 (Bulletin 226, page 297). This made an expense of $37.73 per acre for raising the crop up to the time of picking, not including interest on the land. Probably not over five to An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 495 ten per cent of the orchards cost this much, hut it would pay to spend this amount in nearly all orchards. The average grower probably spends from one-fourth to one-half this amount. There are many neglected orchards in which there is practically no expense up to the time of picking. Table 30 gives an approximate estimate of the cost of barrels, picking, packing and marketing. It includes only that part of the crop that was •sold in barrels. Barrels cost 34 to 38 cents in 1904, cost as much or more in 1903, and cost less formerly. It costs about 25 cents per barrel for all labor connected with marketing, 10 to 12 cents of which is paid for picking. This gives a total cost of about 60 cents per barrel, which, of course, varies from year to year with the cost of labor and of barrels. It is probably a little low for 1903 and 1904. Table 28. Average gross income per acre. 1900 $122 00 1901 58 00 1902 1 34 00 1903 126 00 1904 1 16 00 Table 29. Classification of incomes. 1900. 1901. 1902. INCOME PER ACRE. Mo. or- Per No. or- Per No. or- Per chards. No. acres. cent. chards. No. acres. cent. chards. No. acres. cent. $ to$ 25. . 17 169 IO.4 94 877^ 44.2 29 287^ 8..S 26 to 50. . 24 308^ 19. 1 32 293^ 14.8 30 341 X A 10. 1 Si to 75.. 15 109 6.8 21 203 10.3 41 371 A 11. 76 to 100. . 27 221)4 13.7 18 213^ 10.8 38 304 9.0 ior to 125. . 28 239 14.8 15 H3^ 5-7 60 558 16. S 126 to 150. . 15 130^ 8.1 II 104 5-3 34 297 8.8 151 to 175. . 13 90 5-b 5 46 'A 2.3 3i 307 9.1 1 76 to 200 . . 18 122^ 7-7 5 38 1.9 25 184 5-4 201 tO 225 . . 7 87/2 5-4 2 7% 0.4 17 139A 4-i 226 to 250. . 4 25 i-5 1 18 0.9 12 85 2-5 251 to 275.. 4 43 2.7 3 32 1.6 10 97 2.9 276 to 300. . 4 24 l A i-5 0.4 1 1 84 61 2-5 1.8 301 to 325.. 1 6 1 8 0.4 6 326 to 350. . 2 7 l A 0-5 0.6 5 7 1 35 69,^ 6 1 351 to 375. . 1 9 2 1 376 to 400. . 401 to 425 . . 2 79 17 13 7 23 2.3 0.5 0.4 426 to 450. . 1 23 i-4 2 451 to 475. . 476 to 500. . 3 1 Over $500.. . . 6 0.3 2 0.7 496 Bulletin 229. Table 29 — Concluded. 1903. 1904. Five-year average PER ACRE. No. orchards. Xo. acres. Per cent. No. orchards. No. acres. Per cent. per cent. $ to $ 25.. 28 206 4-9 17 192 6-5 14.9 26 to 50. . 44 504 12.0 37 415 14 1 14.O 51 to 75.. 50 439^ IO.4 36 344^ II 7 10. 76 to 100. . 63 680 y 2 l6.2 3i 419^ 14 3 12.8 101 to 125. . 62 S7A l A 13.6 44 434 14 8 131 126 to 150. . 54 515 12.2 26 275^ 9 4 8.8 151 to 175.. 47 37i 8.8 30 248 8 4 6.8 176 to 200. . 34 268/2 6.4 18 283 9 6 6.2 201 tO 225. . 29 253/2 6.0 14 116^ 4 4.0 226 to 250. . 18 140K 3-3 15 110/ 3 8 2.4 251 to 275.. 12 78 1.9 4 i6y 3 b 1.9 276 to 300. . 8 67/2 1.6 3 nyi 5 1 .2 301 to 325. . 3 22/ 0.5 4 41 1 4 0.9 326 to 350. . 5 29 0.7 2 15 5 0.5 351 to 375.. 3 16 0.4 1 5 2 0.7 376 to 400. . 401 to 425 . . 6 1 0.1 2 9 0.2 2 11 4 0.6 426 to 450. . 451 to 475.. 476 to 500 . . 0.3 1 0.2 5 I4# 0. 1 0.3 0.3 0.2 Table 30. Approximate cost per acre of barrels, picking, packing and marketing that part of the crop that was sold in barrels. 1900 . 1901 . 1902 . 1903. 1904. No. barrels required. 74 19 69 62 68 Approximate cost. $44 II 41 37 41 Fig. 171.— Baldwin. The standard apple of Western New York. SUMMARY. Extent of the survey. — Altogether, 564 orchards, containing 4,881 acres, were examined in Orleans county in the summer and fall of 1904. There are approximately 16,500 acres of apples in the county. Varieties. — Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening are the leading vari- eties. Roxbury Russet, Tompkins King, Twenty-Ounce, Hubbardston, Northern Spy, Duchess of Oldenburg and a few other varieties, are also commonly grown but are all secondary in extent to the Baldwin and Greening. Tillage. — Eleven per cent of the orchards have been tilled five or more years ; 33 per cent have been in sod five or more years ; the others have been tilled part of the time. The five-year average yield of orchards that have been tilled ten years is 86 per cent larger than that of those which have been in sod ten or more years, and those tilled five years gave 34 per cent larger yield than those in sod five years. A part of this difference is due to tillage and a part is due to the fact that the man who tills his orchard is likely to give it improved care in other respects. ' Of the orchards that were well cared for in other respects, the ones that have been tilled ten or more years gave 45 per cent larger yield than those that were in sod ten or more years, and those tilled five or more years gave 15 per cent larger yield than those in sod the same period. The average prices per bushel have been a little larger from tilled than from sod orchards, so that there is a slightly greater difference in income per acre than in yields. Of the various methods of sod treatment thus far tried, pasturing with hogs or sheep gave the largest average yields. One-fifth of the sod orchards are as good as the average tilled ones, but no method of sod treatment equals tillage in average yield or income. Fertilisation. — Many farmers apply all or nearly all the manure from the farm in the orchard. Ninety-one per cent of the area is given some manure. Commercial fertilizers or wood ashes have been used in 24 per cent. The fertilizers used usually contain no nitrogen or are low in nitrogen. 497 498 Bulletin 229. Cover-crops. — Cover-crops have been used in three per cent of the area. Common red clover and buckwheat are the most commonly used. Crimson clover, rye, vetch, rape and alfalfa are grown by some. Pruning. — Poor pruning, resulting in rotten trunks, is the cause of the premature death of many trees. The important points in pruning are : (1) The limbs should be cut close to the trunk. (2) Large limbs should not be removed without cause. (3) Paint should be used on large wounds. (4) Pruning should be done every year, rather than give the occasional " thorough trimming." Spraying. — Sixty-one per cent of the orchards were sprayed in 1904. One-fifth of this area was sprayed with arsenic and Bordeaux mixture. Nearly all of the remainder were sprayed with Paris green and Bordeaux mixture. In practically none of the unsprayed orchards were over half of the apples free from scab. In 56 per cent of those sprayed once, 82 per cent of those sprayed twice, and 97 per cent of those sprayed three times not over half the apples were scabby. None of the unsprayed orchards had less than 25 per cent of scab, but one-fourth of those sprayed once, two- thirds of those sprayed twice, and nine-tenths of those sprayed three times had less than this amount. The yields, per cent of the crop barreled and the income per acre are all much larger from sprayed than from unsprayed orchards. Those sprayed three times gave 31 per cent larger yield per acre and 51 per cent larger income than those not sprayed. A part of the difference is doubtless due to other factors, for the unsprayed orchards are likely to be neglected in other ways. Taking only those orchards that have been well cared for, the average income per acre is: unsprayed $103; sprayed once, $139; sprayed twice, $143; sprayed three times, $184. Distance between trees. — The average distance between trees in the bearing orchards is 32.4 x 32.4 feet. Only five per cent were planted over 35 x 35 feet. In nearly three-fifths of the young orchards the trees are 40 x 40 feet. In fifteen per cent of the bearing orchards half of the trees should be removed. Age of the trees. — Eighty-one per cent of the orchards were planted between i860 and 1879. Planting then practically ceased til! 1899, since when it has been constantly increasing. The young orchards are largely in the north part of the county. They now amount to about eight per cent of the total apple orchard area. An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans County, New York. 499 The maximum yield seems to come at 45 to 50 years from the date of planting. Soils. — The loamy soils seem to be best for apple production, but good apples are grown on quite sandy soils. The clay soils are likely to need drainage in order to fit them for apple-growing. A loss of about 8 to 10 per cent of the apple-trees is due to poor drainage. Yields. — The average yields per acre have been: 1900, 241 bushels; 1901, 63 bushels; 1902, 248 bushels; 1903, 224 bushels; 1904, 284 bushels. The five-year average yield has been over 200 bushels in half the orchards. Markets. — Seventy to 90 per cent of the crop is sold in barrels. Most of the remainder is sold to be dried or is sold to vinegar factories. Prices. — The average prices per barrel have been: 1900, $1.41; 1901, $3.15; 1902, $1.79; 1903, $1.85; 1904, $1.46. The price per bushel for those sold to dry has averaged about 11^2 cents during the past five years. Those sold to the vinegar factories average about jy 2 cents per bushel. Income per acre. — The average gross incomes per acre have been: 1900, $122; 1901, $58; 1902, $134; 1903, $126; 1904, $116. In half of the orchards the income has averaged over $100 per acre for the past five years. / J I THE APPLE INDUSTRY OF Wayne and of Orleans Counties, New York A THESIS TBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF CORNELL UNI- VERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY G. F. WARREN ITHACA, NEW YORK I905 no