A GUIDE SCIENTIFIC EXAimATION OF SOILS: COMPRISING SELECT METHODS OF MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND PHYSICAL INVESTIGATION. TRANSLATED EfiOM THE GERMAN OF Dr. FELIX WAHNSCHAFFE. WITH ADDITIONS BY WILLIAM T.^BRANNT, EDITOR OF " THE TECHNO-CHEMICAL RECEIPT BOOK." ILLUSTRATED BY TWENTY^U^ENGRAVINGS. DEC 12 1B91 P eFT L A D E L P H I A : HENRY CAREY BAIRU & CO., INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS. 810 WALNUT STREET. 1892. \^ Copyright by HENRY CABEY BAIRD & CO. 1891. Printed at the COLLINS PRINTING HOUSE, 705 Jayne Street, Philadelphia, U. S. A. PREFACE. This translation of Dr. Felix Wahnschafte's Anleitung zur wissenschaftliclien Bodenunter- sucliung, has been prepared in the belief that it will prove of interest to those engaged in scientific agriculture and the investigation of agricultural problems. Some of the methods of analysis described are in use in the laboratory of the Royal Prussian Geological Institute, whilst others have been taken from approved text-books, but in many respects modified by Dr. Wahn- schafife. Only methods yielding scientifically useful results, and of comparatively easy and rapid execution, have been selected. IV PREFACE. The chapter on " The Definition of the Soil," being of interest only to German readers, has been omitted, and a few trifling changes and additions have been made. WILLIAM T. BRANNT. Philadelphia, December, 1891. CONTENTS. I. Derivation and Formation of the Soil. PAGE Various modes of the superficial formation of the earth's crust; Forces active in soil-formation; Weathering 17 Transformation of decomposable minerals contained in rocks . . . . . . . . .18 Process of kaolinization ; Denudation of the soil . 19 II. Classification of Soils. Lorenz von Liburnau's system ; Primitive soils and de- rived soils ; Albrecht Thaer's system ; Difficulty of drawing sharp limits in the classification of soils . 21 Importance of the quantitative determination of the principal soil-constituents ; Clay the most important soil-constituent ....... 22 Loams ; Definition of the terms light and heavy soils ; Sub-soils ; True soils or top-soils . . . .23 III. The Object op Soil-Analysis. Soil-analysis from the geological and agricultural stand- points ; Absorption of carbon by the plant . . 24 Content of water in different parts of plants ; Chemical combinations found in plants . . . . .25 Elements necessary for the nourishment of plants ; Ele- ments occasionally found in the plant-ash . . 2G 1* y VI CONTENTS. PAGE Execution of a soil-analysis which is to satisfy all de- mands of agriculture ; Importance of complete exami- nations ......... 27 IV. Preparatory Labors for Soil-Analysis. Taking samples from the soil and storing and preparing them for analysis ....... 28 Taking specimens of salty or "alkali" soils; Depth to which samples should be taken . . . .29 Points which should be noted in taking samples . . 30 Labeling, drying, and storing samples . . .31 V. Mechanical Soil-Analysis. Granulating with the sieve . . . . .31 Characterization of the mechanical composition of a soil ; Preparations for the execution of the mechani- cal analysis ........ 32 Definitions of fine soil and fine earth ; Different opinions as to what constitutes fine soil and fine earth . . 33 Silt-analysis ; Apparatuses used for silt-analysis ; Noe- bel's elutriating apparatus . . . . .34 Products of elutriation obtained with Noebel's appara- tus ; Schoene's elutriating apparatus ; Definition of velocity of elutriation ...... 36 Schoene's elutriator ....... 37 Arrangement for the elutriating process . . .38 Formula for obtaining the elutriating velocity . . 41 Formulte for calculating a determined elutriating ve- locity 42 Products of granulation corresponding to elutriating ve- locities ......... 44 CONTENTS. Vll PAGE Orth's auxiliary cylinder ; Scheme of a table to be used for all analyses with Schoene's apparatus . . 45 Execution of the analysis with Schoene's apparatus . 46 Apparatus for elutriation with distilled water . . 47 Products obtained by the elutriating process . . 50 Scheme for entering the figures obtained by calculating the products of granulation and elutriation for the en- tire soil ........ 51 Hilgard's elutriating apparatus . . . . .52 Precautions to be observed in order to insure correct and concordant results ...... 54 Lowest velocity available ...... 55 VI. Determination of the Soil-Constituents. Determination of the content of calcium carbonate or of magnesia carbonate ; Volumetric measurement of the carbonic acid . . . . . . .56 Scheibler's apparatus for the volumetric measurement cf the carbonic acid ...... 57 Table for calculating the carbonic acid for Sclieibler's apparatus ........ 60 Table for calculating the carbonic acid, found with Scheibler's apparatus, to calcium carbonate . . 61 Determination of the carbonic acid by weighing from the loss; Mohr's apparatus modified by Laufer and Wahnschaffe ........ 62 Determination of the carbonic acid by direct weighing ; R. Finkener's apparatus . . . . .64 Geissler's potash apparatus . . . . .65 Determination of the carbonate of calcium and magne- sium by boiling with ammonium nitrate . . .67 Blast-lamp 71 Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE Determination of the humus substances ; Definition of humus; Neutral and acid humus; Definition of peat 72 Knop's method for the determination of l)umus ; Dr. R. Muencke's drying chamber . . . . .73 Determination of the carbon of the humus substances by elementary analysis . . . • . .78 Combustion furnace ....... 79 Determination of the loss by ignition . . .81 Determination of the content of clay . . . .82 Disintegration with sulphuric acid in a closed tube . 83 Tubular furnace ....... 84 Separation of the ferric oxide from the alumina ; Deter- mination of the iron as ferrous oxide by titration with potassium permanganate solution . . . .87 Standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution ; Purification of iron-ammonium alum or ammonio- ferric sulphate ....... 90 Formula for calculating the effective value of the potas- sium permanganate solution ; Calculation of the con- tent of clay in the total soil . . . . .92 Determination of the content of sand ; Petrographic de- termination of the coarser admixed parts of the sand 94 Thoulet and Goldschmidt's specifically very heavy fluids . 9o Kohrbach's specifically very heavy fluid ; Table of spe- cific gravities of various minerals; Determination of the content of quartz ; J. Hazard's method . .90 Determination of the elementary composition of the soil; Disintegration with sodium carbonate . . . 99 Disintejjration with fluoric acid ..... 100 CONTENTS. IX VII. Determination of the Plant-Nourishing Substances. PAGE Determination of the plant-nourishing substances in soil extractions ; Extraction of the soil with cold distilled water ; Preparation of the aqueous extract of the soil 102 Determination of the bases in the aqueous extract . 103 Covered water-bath ; Preparation of a number of weighed filters 106 Determination of the acids in the aqueous extract ; De- termination of chlorine . . . . . .108 Determination of sulphuric acid . . . . .109 Determination of nitric acid . . . . .110 Tiemann's modification of Schloesing-Schulze's method for the determination of nitric acid . . .111 Table for finding the tension of the aqueous vapor ; W. Wolf's method of determining the nitric acid by means of zinc in alkaline solution . . . .116 Determination of the ammonium chloride as ammonio- platinum after the conversion of the nitric acid into ammonium chloride . . . . . .117 Volumetric determination by the Knop- Wagner azome- ter of the nitrogen in the ammonium chloride after converting the nitric acid into ammonium chloride . 118 The Knop- Wagner azometer . . . . .119 Dietrich's table for the absorption of nitrogen in 60 cubic centimeters developing fluid (50 cubic centi- meters of bromine lye and 10 cubic centimeters of water) with a specific gravity of the lye of 1.1 and such a strength that 50 cubic centimeters cori-espond to 200 cubic centimeters of nitrogen, with an evolu- tion of 1 to 100 cubic centimeters of nitrogen . . 122 Special method in the examination of peat ; Extraction of soil with carbonated water . . . . .123 X CONTENTS. PAGE Precipitation of the phosphoric acid with ammonium molybdate and weighing as magnesium pyropliosphate 12G Determination of the phosphoric acid as ammonium phos- pho-molybdate, according to R. Finkener . .127 Finkener's drying stand . . . . . .128 Further treatment of the soil extract prepared with car- bonated water . . . . . . .129 Extraction of the soil with cold concentrated hydrochlo- ric acid ; Extraction of the soil with boiling concen- trated hydrochloric acid ...... 130 P^rlenmeyer boiling flask and sand-bath . . .131 Determination of some important substances for the nour- ishment of plants, which can either not or only parti- ally be determined in the soil extracts ; Determination of the total nitrogen in the soil ; Kjeldahl's method . 133 Determination of the nitrogen by combustion with soda lime ......... 135 Determination of the ammonia contained in the soil . 137 Schoesing's modified method for the accurate determina- tion of the ammonia in the soil . . . .138 VIII, Determination of the Substances in THE Soil Injurious to the Growth OF Plants. -" Proof of the presence of free humic acids in the soil . 139 Determination of common salt in the soil ; Determina- tion of ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric acid, and iron disulphide ; Methods used at the Prussian moor ex- perimental station at Bremen . . . . .140 Determination of the content of sulphur in the soil by ijinition . . . . . . . .1-11 CONTENTS. XI PAGE Fleischer's method of calculating the sulphuric acid present in a form injurious to plants ; Determination of the content of sulphur in the soil by disintegration with bromine . . . . . . .143 IX. Determination of Various Properties of THE Soil, which are dependent parti- ally on Physical and partially on Chemical Causes. Weight of the soil ; Determination of the specific gravity 144 Determination of the volume weight ; Apparent specific gravity of the soil ; Porosity of the soil . . .145 Behavior of the soil towards nourishing substances . 146 Testing the absorbent power of the soil with -^^ or yi^ normal solutions ; Salts suitable for these experi- ments ; Preparation of the ^^ normal solution ; Fesca's method of preparing monocalciura phosphate 147 Determination of the absorption . . . .148 Determination of the absorption-coefficient according to Knop 149 Behavior of the soil towards water ; Power of retaining moisture in the soil ; By experiments in the labora- tory ......... 151 Definition of the greatest or full capacity for water ; Zinc tubes used in determining the power of the soil to re- tain water . . . . . . . .152 A. Mayer's method for determining the power of the soil to retain water ; Determination of the water ca- pacity of the soil in its natural bed in the open field 154 Heinrich's modified method ; The evaporating power of the soil ; E. WolflP's method of determining the evaporating power of the soil ..... 156 i/ Xll CONTENTS. PAGE The filtrating power of the soil ; E. Wolff's method . 157 Capillary attraction of the soil ; Apparatus used for the purpose 158 Behavior of the soil towards gases ; The absorbent ca- pacity of the soil for aqueous vapor . . . 159 The absorbent power of the soil for the oxygen of the atmospheric air ; "W. Wolf's method . . .160 F. Schulze's method of determining the absorption-coef- ficient of the soil for oxygen ; G. Ammon's summary of his experiments ...... IGl The ventilating power of the soil ; R. Heinrich's method and apparatus used . . . . . . .162 Behavior of the soil towards heat ; Determination of the heat-absorbent power of the soil . . . . 1 63 On what the heating capacity of a soil is dependent . 164 The heat-conducting power of the soil; Wollny's de- ductions from his experiments . . . .165 Cohesion and adhesion of the soil ; R. Heinrich's method of determining the coherence of the soil in a wet state 166 R. Heinrich's directions for determining the adhesion of moist soils to iron and wood . . , . .167 X. General Rules for Soil-Analysis. Necessity of fixed rules in order to obtain comparable results . . . . . . . . .167 Summary of general rules to be applied to the examina- tion of soils . . . . . . . .168 Index 171 THE EXAMmATION OF SOILS. I. DERIVATION AND FOEMATION OF THE SOIL. The superficial formation of the earth's crust, which serves as the bearer and nourisher of plants, is effected either by the loosening and decomposition of the exposed rocks, or by the transport of coarse and fine materials worn from other rocks, or, finally, by the transforma- tion into humus of decayed vegetable remains piled up in large masses. The forces active in the first-mentioned mode of soil- formation are partially of a physical and partially of a chemical nature. Their co-operation is called xceathcr- ing, and will have to be considered somewhat more closely. First of all, it is heat which, by itself as well as in conjunction with water, prepares the rock for the further disintegrating process. In consequence of changes in temperature small cracks and fissures are gradually formed in the rock by the unequal expansion and contraction of the different minerals occurring: in it. When it rains the water flows down through all these cracks and lodges in countless minute fissures in the fiice of the rock. After a heavy rain, when the rock is filled with water, it may clear away and a sharp frost set in. 18 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. Every drop of 'water freezes and expands and bursts open the rock, splitting off' minute specks and scales or throwing down great lumps. In tlie summer there is no frost, and yet the rain may be at work washing moss and dust into tlie cracks already opened and forming a sponge ready to hold water that, freezing next winter, will act with still greater force. The dry dust sifted into the cracks and oi)enings in the rock will also cx- })and when wet and push off" small pieces, or start a great mass that last winter's ice left just ready to fall. These disintegrating agencies are still further aided by the root-growth of plants, by the burrowing of worms and other earth-delving creatures, and in no small de- gree by the generation of organic acids — humic, crenic, etc. — by organic decay. Furthermore, rocks containing decomposable minerals undergo a chemical process of transformation in which the oxygen of the atmospheric air and water, as well as the carbonic acid dissolved in the latter, are the chief agents. The oxygen converts the metallic protoxides in the rocks into oxides, and, since water is almost always present, into hydroxides. Ferrous oxide combined with silica is in this manner changed to ferric hydrate. By this process the texture of minerals containing ferrous silicate — as, for instance, many feldspars, certain micas, hornblende, and augite (pyroxene) — is loosened. Rocks distinguished by the occurrence in them of metallic sul- phides, to which among tlie sedimentary rocks chiefly belong the clay-slates, bituminous marls, and clays, are decomposed by the conversion of their metallic sulpliides, on coming in contact with moist air, into sulphates or vitriols. By the lixiviation of the latter by water, the DERIYATIOX AND FORMATION OF THE SOIL. 19 rock becomes porous and cellular, and finally breaks up into fragments. The process of kaolinization is due to the action of Avaters containing carbonic acid upon silicious rocks rich in alkalies (potash and soda) and alkaline earths (calcareous earth, magnesia). By such waters, M'liich acquire their carbonic acid, partially from the atmo- sphere, and partially from the organisms decaying upon the surface, the alkalies and alkaline earths are converted into carbonates and bicarbonates, while silica is sepa- rated. The carbonates and bicarbonates are soluble in water, and, together with the separated gelatinous silica, are carried away by the water, while a silicate of alu- minium containing water — the kaolin — remains behind. For this theory of the formation of kaolin we are in- debted to Forchhammer. It takes place, for instance, in orthoclase, which consists of one molecule potash, one molecule alumina, and six molecules silica, by the separation of four atoms silica and one atom potash, while the remaining alumina combines with two mole- cules silica and two molecules water to kaolin and clay. Denudation of the soil. — The rain falling on the wast- ing rocks sweeps away the minute specks and grains chipped off by the weather and carries them down to the nearest streamlet and brook. These fine bits of rock do not float, but are suspended in the water or roll along the bed of the stream. The ragged flakes and scales of stone crash and grind against each other. Ever}- rough corner is knocked oif, and all the pieces become rolled into smooth round particles. The brook is a mill. It is making, from the chips brought down by the rain, sand. A flood comes with more water, and larger pieces 20 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS, ol" rock arc puslied into the rapidly moving water, and tliese knocking, tumbling, and grinding over each otlier, are soon ground into smooth round pebbk's and gi-avcl. Onward rolls the confused mass of gravel, sand, and finer bits of rocks, grinding and polisliing each piece as it o;ocs. In time the stream comes to more level ground and runs slower and slower. The current, not being able to push the larger stones any further, leaves them all by themselves. Thus the trans- ported matter is gradually deposited as the current diminishes in velocity, the very finest particles being carried as long as the stream remains in motion. "When the river reaches a flat or level tract, and over which its waters can flow in flood with a slow motion, the sus- pended matter, consisting principally of sand and mud, is deposited and ccyastitutes the alluvium or new land, formed by such deposits at the river's mouth and along its banks. Though the soil is thus continuously Mashed away, still it remains nearly constant in quantity, since M'hat is taken away by denudation is made up from other causes, and tliis augmentation can evidently pro- ceed from nothing but the slow and constant disintegra- tion of the rocks. The rocks which weather most easily and rapidly do not always exhibit most soil ; very often the reverse. A pure limestone would show hardly any Aveathered band or soil, because the carbonic acid of the rain would almost at once dissolve and remove the particles it acts upon. Even in the case of igneous rocks, their com- jiosition may be such that those which weather the most rapidly would, likewise, show little of a weathered l)and, owino; to the same solvent action. CLASSIFICATIOX OF SOILS. 21 II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. Ijs conformity with Lorenz von Liburnau's system, soils may preferably be divided, according to their forma- tion, into two large principal groups, viz., primitive soils and derived soils. Primitive or original soils may be called such as have been directly formed by the weather- ing of exposed rocks, or, like peat, by the decomposition of vegetable remains in their original jjlace of location. According to the original structure, a distinction has to be made between primitive soils of the crystalline and of the sedimentary rocks, as well as of the peat forma- tions. Derived soils (deposited or transported soils) are such as have been transported either in a solid or liquid form by water, or, also, by the wind. For the further classification of soils it is preferable to make use of the physical system of soil classification proposed by Albrecht Thaer, the founder of scientific agriculture. He distinguishes the varieties of soil ac- cording to the predominance in them of the admixed parts of what may be called the principal soil con- stituents. From this result the following groups of soils: 1. Stony soils. 2. Sand soils. 3. Loam soils. 4. Clay soils. 5. Marl soils. 6. Lime soils. 7. Humus soils. The same experience met everywhere in nature that sharp limits cannot be drawn in the classification of animate, as well as inanimate bodies, shows itself in the 22 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. division of soils, the abovc-meutioned groups exhibiting veiy gradual transitions into eacli other, and even, like the day and marl soils, are already partially transition formations. A single principal constituent, be it sand, clay, lime, or humus, cannot afford to cultivated plants an adequately fertile soil ; the more uniformly all the constituents participate in the composition of the soil, the greater its value and yield will be. Hence, the quantitative de- termination of the principal constituents is an important task of scientific soil-analysis, since, on their proportions to each other, the value of the soil for cultivation de- pends. As is well known by a greater or smaller con- tent of clay, a sand-soil gains essentially in the power of holding water and in absorbent capacity. But the physical properties of a clay-soil are also improved by a content of sand, it becoming thereby more friable, more permeable, and more easy to cultivate. Of still greater importance to agriculture is a lime soil combined with sand and clay — hence, the more it apporaches a marl soil — while an extreme humus soil (peat) first re(piires special meliorations to make it fit for cultivation. It is not to be understood that in naming the varieties of soils after the princii)al constituent, the admixed part reaching the highest number of per cent, furnishes the name, this being the case only with sand and lijne soils. On the contrary, it is rather the physically most import- ant admixed part, which has to be considered as the guide in this respect, even if it is not represented by a relatively high number of per cent, in the composition of the soil. Thus clay is the most important soil constituent so long as its j)hi/sical properties arc not covered or invalidated by CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 23 another admixed imrt If, for instance, this is done by sand, a soil when no longer plastic, but only binding, has to be classed among the loam soils. With a still greater content of sand, the soil also loses its binding power, and we have then a sandy loam or a loamy sand. Loams which may be considered as typical soils are a mixtnre of sand, clay, and humus, which are spoken of as light when the sand predominates, and as heavy when the clay is in excess. These terms, light and heavy, do not refer to the actual weight of the soil, but to its tenacity and the degree of resistance it offers to the im- plements used in cultivation. Sandy soils are, in the farmer's sense of the word, the lightest of all soils, because they are the easiest to work, whilst in actual weight they are the heaviest soils known. Clay, though hard to work on account of its tenacity, is comparatively a light soil in weight. Peaty soils are light in both senses of the word, they being loose or porous and having little actual weight. Besides the soils proper which come immediately under cultivation, there are in most places a set of subsoils which differ from the true soils, and which cannot be ignored. The tfue soils, or, as they are sometimes called, the top soils, are usually of a darker color from the larger ad- mixture of humus, whilst the subsoils are lighter in hue, yellow, red or bluish from the greater preponderance of the iron oxides. The soils are more or less friable in their texture, whilst the subsoils are tougher, more com- pact, and more largely commingled with rubbish and stone. The soils are usually a little more than mere sur- face coverings, whilst the subsoils may be many feet in thickness. 24 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. • III. THE OBJECT OF SOIL-AKALYSIS. In the analysis of soils we may be guided by geological or agricultural considerations. From a purely geological standpoint, the determina- tion of the petrographic composition of the soil, as well as that of its relations to the mother rock — the weather- ing process — will chiefly be of interest. But, since the soil is of importance principally in an agricultural respect, it is also the object of most of the analyses of it to solve scientific and practical questions relating to agriculture as well as to a knowledge of the soil, and though the latter is an agronomic science, it must rest upon a geologico-petrographic basis. Those times in which the soil was simply considered the bearer, but not the nourisher of plants, and when it was believed that only its physical properties exerted an influence upon vegetation, have long since passed. To- day it is well known that, though the production of plants is niateriall}' influenced by these physical pro- perties, it does not exclusively depend upon it. One of its principal constituents — carbon — the plant absorbs directly from the atmospheric air, whilst all the remaining substances required for its nourishment and development, it obtains, partially directly and partially indirectly, from the soil. Since soil-analysis has for its object the determination of the nourishing matters of the THE OBJECT OF SOIL-ANALYSIS. 25 plant, the elementary substances of the latter shall be briefly discussed. All the living parts of plants contain a large quantity of water, which not only forms a principal constituent of the juice, but also saturates all membranes and the protoplasm. In the substance of all organized vegetable structures small particles of water are stored. This water, which is absolutely necessary for vegetation, escapes on heating the parts of plants for some time to from 212° to 230° F. The content of water, which is to be calculated from the decrease in weight, varies very much in the different parts of jilants, it amounting, for instance, in dry seeds to from 12 to 15 per cent., in juicy plants to from 60 to 80 per cent., and in aquatic plants and fungi up to 95 per cent. The plant obtains the water directly from the soil, since on account of its capillary structure it possesses, similar to a sponge, the capacity of absorbing and retaining, to a more or less degree, the water offered to it. In the parts of plants dried at 230° F. a large num- ber of chemical combinations are found, of which those representing chemical unions of carbon with other ele- ments are designated as organic combinations. By incineration the organic combinations are destroyed, while the inorganic combinations of the plant substance remain behind as a white ash. It may here be mentioned that in the incineration of the plants, the sulphur, which forms a constituent of the organic combinations, also reaches, by chemical processes, the ash in which it is found as sul- phate. Furthermore, tlie carbonic acid formed during incineration and which combines with the inorganic substances of the residue, must also be left out of con- 2G THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. sideratiou in aiuilyzing tJie ash. The organic combina- tions occurring in larger quantities in plants consist of carbon and hydrogen, or of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, or of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur. By experiments it has been determined tliat certain inorganic substances arc not accidentally admixed parts of the plant, but are absolutely necessary for its life and growth, and consequently for the formation of the above- mentioned organic combinations. The elements which are necessary for the nourishment of the plants may, according to their uses, be divided as follows : — Elements for the formation of the orr/anic combina- tions. — Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and Elements for the formation of the inorganic combina- tions. — Phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, cah-ium, mag- nesium, and iron. Besides these, some other elements are occasionally found in the i)lant-ash, as, for instance, sodium, lithium, manganese, silicium, iodine, bromine, and, very seldom, aluminium, copper, zinc, nickel, barium; but are of no importance in the nourishment of the plants. From the above it follows, that in examining the soil as to its content of plant-nourishing substances, the eight following elements, independent of oxygen and hydrogen, have to be taken into consideration, namely : nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine, potassium, cal- cium, magnesium, and iron. Since, as previously indicated, the thriving of the plant depends not only on the chemical composition of the soil, but also, in a high degree, on its mechanical mixture THE OBJECT OF SOIE-ANALYSIS. 27 and physical properties, a soil analysis which is to satisfy all demands of aoriculture has to be executed as fol- lows : — 1. The mechanical mixture of the soil must be quau- titatively determined. This examination may be desig- nated mechanical soil analysis. 2. The soil-constituents, sand, clay, humus, lime, have to be quantitatively determined. This is partially af- fected by the mechanical analysis and partially by chemical methods of analysis executed on the one hand, independent of the mechanical analysis, and on the other, in connection with it. 3. The content of plant- nourishing substances in the soil has to be determined by chemical analysis. 4. The substances injurious to the vegetable icorld must be taken into consideration. 5. Experiments have to be made to gain direct in- formation in regard to certain properties of the soil, which depend partially on physical and partially on chemical causes. Such complete examinations are of great importance forjudging the soil, but it must be borne in mind that by them alone its value cannot be determined. The greater or inferior fertility of a soil depends not only on its mechanical and chemical composition, but also on various conditions outside of them; for instance, the more or less inclined, as well as the higher or lower location of the soil, the condition of the subsoil, the underground water, exposure to the sun, climate, etc. 28 THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. IV. PKKPARATOllY LABORS FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. Before entering upon the metliods of analysis it will l)C necessary to discuss the labors which must precede them. They consist in tahing sampler from the soil and storing (Old preparing them for analysis. In the same field different varieties of soil often occur, and some recommend that in collecting a specimen for analysis, portions should be taken from different parts of the field and mixed together, by which an average quality of soil would be obtained. But this is bad advice when the soils in different parts of the field are really unlike. Suppose one part of a field to be clay and another sandy, as is often the case in most countries, and that an average mixture of the two varieties of soil is submitted to the analysis; the result obtained will a])])ly neither to the one part of the field nor to the other, that is, it will be of little or no practical value. In taking samples it is, therefore, recommended not to select mixed average samples, but characteristic separate samples. After selecting a proper spot, pull up the plants grow- ing on it and scrape off the surface lightly with a sharp tool, to remove half-decayed vegetable matter not, as yet, forming part of the soil. Dig a vertical hole, like a post-hole, at least twenty inches deep. Scrape the sides clean, so as to see at what depth the change of tint occurs which marks the downward limit of the surfiice soil and record it. Take at least half a bushel of the PREPARATORY LABORS FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 29 earth above this limit, and, on a eloth or paper, break it np and mix it thoroughly, and put up at least a quart of it in a sack or package for examination. This specimen will ordinarily constitute the "soil." Should the change of color occur at a less depth than six inches, the fact should be noted, but the specimen taken to that depth nevertheless, since it is the least to which rational culture can be supposed to reach. In case the difference in the character of a shalloAv sur- face soil and its subsoil should be unusually great, as may be the case in tule or other alluvial lands or in rocky districts, a separate sample of that surface soil should be taken besides the one to the depth of six inches. Specimens of salty or " alkali" soils should, as a rule, be taken only toward the end of the dry season, when they will contain the maximum amount of the injurious ingredients which it may be necessary to neutralize. Whatever lies beneath the line of change, or below the minimum depth of six inches, will constitute the subsoil. But, should the change of color occur at a greater depth than twelve inches, the "soil" specimen should, never- theless, be taken to the depth of twelve inches only, which is the limit of ordinary tillage ; then another specimen from that depth down to the line of change, and the subsoil specimens beneath that line. The depth down to which the last should be taken will depend on circumstances. It is always desirable to know what constitutes the foundation of a soil down to the depth of three feet at least, since tJie question of drainage^ resist- ance to draught, etc., will depend essentially upon the nature of the substratum. But in ordinary cases ten or twelve inches of subsoil will be sufficient for the purpose 30 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. of examination in the laboratory. The specimen should be taken in other respects precisely like that of the surface soil, while that of the material underlying this " sul)soil" may be taken with less correctness, perhaps at some ditch or other easily accessible point, and should not be broken np like the other specimens.* At tlie same time when taking samples, the general condition of the soil should be noted and accurate in- formation gained chiefly in regard to the following points : — 1. The geological origin and petrographic nature of the soil. 2. The relations of the foundation of the soil to a depth of six feet if possible. 3. The thickness of tlu; surfiice soil. 4. The location of the soil above the level of the sea. 5. The inclination of the soil. 6. The height of the underground water. 7. The climatic conditions of the region. 8. The judgment of a practical agriculturist residing in the neighborhood in regard to the quality and yield- ing capacity of the soil. 9. The manner and quantity of manuring the soil has received in the preceding years. 10. The meliorations (marling, draining, irrigation, etc.) which may have been made. 1 1 . The lowest yields and rotation of crops. In fact, every circumstance that can throw light on the agricultural qualities or peculiarities of soil and subsoil should be carefully noted. * Soil Investigation, by E. W. Ililgard, in Tenth Census of the U. S., vol. 5. Cotton Production, Washington, 1884. MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. 31 It is recommended to unmediately label each sample. In summer, the sample is allowed to dry out slowly in the air, and in winter, in a moderately warm room until it shows a quite equal and constant weight. In this condition it is called air-dry soil. If the sample has to be kept any length of time, it is recommended to store it in wide-mouthed glass bottles hermetically closed, as otherwise it might undergo changes in the laboratory where vapors of ammonia and acids cannot always be avoided. Clayey and humus varieties of soils possess the property of absorbing ammoniacal vapors, and, hence, if the sample has for a long time remained unprotected in the laboratory, the analysis would show too high a content of nitrogen. V. MECHANICAL SOIL-ANALYSIS. The object of mechanical soil-analysis is the quan- titative determination of the proportional quantities of coarser and finer constituents composing the soil. To attain such a mechanical separation of the soil two mediums are employed — granulating with the sieve, and elutriating with water or silt analysis, A. Granulating with the sieve. — For the examination of soils with coarser constituents, granulation with the sieve should always precede silt-analysis, since such soils cannot be well brought into the elutriating apparatus, and, even if this were possible, would clog it. Sieves 32 THE EXAMIXATION OF SOILS. with round holes arc to be prcfcrral to squarc-moslicd sieves, they permitting more accnrate measurements. In order to sufficiently characterize the mechanical composition of a soil, ami to compare it with other varieties, the soil is divided into the following pro- ducts : — 1. Grains larger than 2 millimeters in diameter. 2. " from 2 to 1 3, " Ito 0.5 4. " " O.f) to 0.2 5. " 0.2 to 0.1 6. " 0.1 to 0.05 7. " 0.05 to 0.01 8. " smaller than 0.01 The sizes of grains Nos. 1 to 3, i. e,, to 0.5 millimeters in diameter, are obtained by sifting through sieves with holes 2, 1, and 0.5 millimeters in diameter; all otlier products of granulation are separated, as will be shown later on by silt analysis. For the execution of the mechanical analysis, spread the air-dry soil out upon a sheet of paper or in a shallow dish, and, after finely dividing it by rubbing between the hands, or by means of a wooden pestle in a mortar, weigh out a good average sample of 500 to 100 grammes. For weighing all the products of granulation ol)tained by sifting and elutriating, as well as for the physical ex- periments, an accurate balance nnist, of course, l;e used. The quantity weighed out for granulation is then passed, in a dry state, through the 2-millimeter sieve. Since the entire sample of soil has been weighed, it is only necessary to w^eigh the residue remaining in the 2- millimeter sieve. The quantity of soil which has passed throul-'i-it-J|-'l-Jk-'l-'lsDtatOtOls5fc3K)b0ba o mm. Paris inches and lines. en bO COOOQDC»QCCOGOQDC»OOCCCOCr)QOODao^"I^-J CO --0 no .-1 — 1 c; 0-. o> *. tt- cc bi iss 1-1 o o '^ --s CO o OCDQCGDOOQOQOOOCCQCCOacOOGOCOCnCrj-J-I --J -a 4^ ^5 tOCCCCCOOOCOODCOCmOoaoCOCDGOODCOQOWl-J p-'o«o«r>co~j-^iaimoi>(i.jxo3toto^oo5D CD 4x to tDtO^OQOQDOOCOQOCCGCCOOOCOOOQCQOOOCOOD 003055CK;0;^WCi04i-COI-'W50WC:Ol^ to tooco^cocncocooorBCoaJCCorjCcooooooco C-. :£> to Oi to ti c: "to bs cr. o Ji- ^J I-' i;^ to to c; O h- ' o -^1 CO in tOtOtO to tOCOCOOOQOQCCOCBCC'yDCCCBCOGCOO COlO^-^^-^OtOCOCO^l^l— . OSUiii-vt-iOtObOl— ' oi c; to oi CI to to 05 to CO ^1 h-" ji. Gooooocca) CO W to >-' 1— ' O to to CO ^1 ^ Ct C-. c.-< 0^ l4- Oi to to tOtOUitOtOtJ'COtOO'tOCO^lCJ-GCtOCntOCO to CO -I en CO tOtOtOtOtOtOtOCOCOCrODCKaDCOQOCy^Cr'ODCO tt. w CO lo t-" I-' o to to cc ^j ^i cr. t-T t-T 4^ 4i. 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O -I rf;^ Ji. h'-* tfc' 4^ OO OO 00 CO CO CO Oi to to to to to to 1— ' csj^coi— 'Ooo— au^kf^toi— 'Oco-jt:n4i-tOK-^cD rfi.OOtO-JH-'Cil— '-JCOCOrf^l-'CJiOOTI-'CTI-J— T o» -I CO 4;iJi,tt.4i4i.^J^rf^*.rfi.*>.4i4^*.4-4-J-4-4^ 4^ tP. Ji. rf:. 4^ OO 03 Oi 00 CO CO CO to to to Li li Li to — J U" ht- to 1—' CO CO Ci Oi 4^ to 1—' CD 00 cr. C'l 0- LO o Ol CO CO CO to -a to CO 4^ O '^ to C5 H- ' C. Li ~. Li CO Ol -J —I *^rfx4:v4^*^4i.4^4-4^*-4^4i-4^4-4-4-4-'J-4- l^4i.4_4^4i4i-COOiCOCOOOOOOitOLOLClilOLO QO -I CJi CO to O CO -J 0-. iJ> CO to O CO -I C-. 4- c; ^ 0-. O 4i- CO CO CO 00 CO Oi (-' C-. to -4 to -1 to -^ to CO -4 -J 4^ g s Si. I S5 62 THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. Fijr. 7. 6. Ddcrmhudion of tJic carbonic acid by tceighing from the loss. — This method consists in expelling, in a weighed apparatus, tlie carbonic acid bv dilute acids, again weigh- ing the api^aratus and calculating the content of carbonic acid in the substance from the loss in weight. An apparatus very suitable for this purpose is Mohr's, modified by Laufer and "NYahnschaife, Fig. 7. It consists of a small glass flask with a thin bottom and short wide neck, which serves for the rccejjtion of the sample of soil to be examined. The finely pul- verized material is dried by spreading it out upon a watch crystal and placing it in a drying chamber heated to 212° F. for one hour. It is then brought hot into a small glass tube also dried out at 212° F., and the latter closed with a cork. After cooling, the tube together with the cork is weighed, two or three grammes of the substance are poured into the glass flask, and the tube is ao;ain weighed. The difference between the two weighings corresponds to the weight of the initial sub- stance dried at 212° F. In the neck of the glass flask a hollow glass stopper provided with two tubulures is her- metically ground in. In the tubulures two glass tubes of different forms are also ground in. One tube is bent at a right angle, and then again upwards and widens above the second bend. It serves for the reception of calcium chloride, and is filled by first ])ushing in loosely a small cotton plug, placing upon the latter a layer of pieces of calcium chloride the size of pin-heads, then introducing DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. G3 another cotton ping and finally closing it with the glass stopper provided with two tnbnlnres. Over the end of the tnbe is drawn a small piece of rnbber tube, in the top of which a small glass rod is pushed. The other tnbe reaches nearly to the bottom of the vessel, and near the top it is provided with a glass cock for the admission of the acid into the apparatus. Above, the tube expands pear-shaped for the reception of the acid, and is closed in the same manner as the other tube by a glass stopper, rubber tube, and glass rod. The filling with dilute acid (1 part concentrated acid and 10 parts water) is effected by immersing the pear-shaped tube inverted in the acid, and, with the glass cock open, sucking the acid up until the pear-shaped receptacle is nearly filled. The cock is then closed, the tubulure dried with blotting-paper, and the rubber tube placed over it. Some distilled water is poured over the material in the flask. When all the tubes have been firmly placed in position, the apparatus is wiped off with a dry piece of leather, and, after stand- ing for half an hour, weighed. The rubber tubes are then removed, and the acid is allowed to run, drop by drop, into the flask. The carbonic acid having been ex- pelled, the bottom of the flask is heated with a very small flame by placing the flask upon an asbestos plate, whereby the acid pipe must remain closed. After heat- ing nearly to boiling, so that the carbonic acid absorbed by the water is expelled, allow the apparatus to cool, and then, in order to remove all the carbonic acid, draw a slow current of air through the apparatus by connect- ing the calcium chloride tube with an aspirator [E, Fig. 8). Now close the apparatus with the rubber tubes, let it stand for half an hour in the weighing-room, so that 64 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. it again acquires the temperature of tlie latter; lift, be- fore Aveighing, the rubber tube on the calcium chloride tube for the equalization of the air pressure, and weigh after replacing the rubber tube. By duly observing all precautionary measures and paying special attention that in heating, the fluid is not brought to the boiling point, the carbonic acid can, by this method, be accu- rately determined to ^-^ per cent. c. Determination of the carbonic acid by direct urif/h- ing. — This mode of determination consists in expelling the carbonic acid by hydrochloric acid and catching it in an absorption-apparatus which can be weighed. This method is used whenever the carbonic acid, even in very small quantities, is to be determined as accurately as possible. R. Finkener's apparatus, shown at Fig. 8, is very suitable for the purpose. Of the substance dried at 212° y., 0.5 to 2 grammes are weighed out and brought into a flask upon the neck, a, of which sits a tube secured to the flask by two copper wire rings connected by spirals. On one side the tube has an ascending joint, upon the end, c, of which sits the calcium chloride tube. The latter is 93 centimeters long, and has an ascending and a descending leg, cd and de, the latter of which is only filled with calcium chloride, while the former serves for the reception and condensation of the aqueous vapors escaping in boiling. The calcium chloride tube is also secured to the glass joint by means of rings and spirals. Above the glass joint is a glass stop-cock, B, and over it a funnel in the bottom, b, of which a knee-shaped tube is ground in. Below the glass stop-cock the funnel tube narrows and reaches nearly to the bottom of the DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 65 flask where it is bent upwards, so tliat during the evolu- tion of carbonic acid no bubbles can ascend in it. The end of the calcium chloride tube is connected by means of rubber tubing with a small Geissler potash-apparatus, Fig. 9. D, which is more plainly shown in Fig. 9. It is filled with caustic potash solution (1 part caustic potash to 2 parts water). The small wash bottles of this apparatus are filled three-quarters full by providing the upper end 5 b'6 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. of the tube with a riibl)cr tubing dipping in the caustic potash solution, and sucking with the mouth on the tube end of the calcium chloride tube. The wash bottles having been tilled, tlie rubber tubing is removed and the tube-end thoroughly cleansed with blotting-paper. The calcium chloride tube is then filled, and the a])pa- ratus, after having been wiped with a piece of Icatlier and closed with rubber tubing, is placed for some time in the balance in order to acquire* the temperature of the weio'liinjx-room. Some distilled water is tlien poured over the material in the flask, and after inserting the glass tube bent at a right angle in the funnel, a current of air previously freed from its carbonic acid in a potash wash bottle {A, Fig. 8), is conducted through the apparatus. For the conduction of the air it is best to use a small Bunsen water air-pump, the current of air being regulated by inserting the apparatus, E, seen in the illustration. This apparatus consists of an ordinary glass flask with a doubly perforated rubber cork. In the cork sit two glass tubes, the lower end of one of which is drawn out to a fine point, and dips about two centimeters deep into the w^ater in the flask. The other tube, which is even with the lower surface of the cork, is in direct communi- cation with the air-pump, and is provided with a glass stop-cock, the boring on the mouth of which is laterally indented, so that, even with a strong air pressure, small air bubbles can, at determined intervals, be passed througli the fluid in the flask. After sucking through about three times as much air as the apparatus contains, the tube is removed from the funnel, and, afl:er closing the glass stop-cock, B, the funnel is filled with dihite DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 67 hydrochloric acid (1 part acid to 10 parts water). The weighed Geissler potash-apparatus is then connected with the long calcium chloride tube and the acid allowed to run, drop by drop, into the flask. When evolution has somewhat abated, a very small flame is brought under the apparatus, while a slow current of air is passed through it. The fluid is now heated to just below the boiling point, when the flame is removed and the current of air somewhat augmented. The operation is finished when three times the volume of air which the apparatus contains is sucked through it. The potash apparatus closed at both ends with rubber tubing is allowed to stand half an hour in the balance and is then weighed, after beiug wiped with a piece of leather and removing the frictional electricity thereby produced with a metallic brush. If metallic sulphides are jjresent in the soil, which are decomposed by the acid and yield sulphuretted hydrogen, add first some chloride of mercury to the fluid. If, with the use of hydrochloric acid, chlorine should be evolved, which may happen in the presence of oxides of manganese, first let some concentrated stannous chloride solution run into the flask. After using the apparatus the condensed water in the ascending portion of the calcium chloride tube is re- moved by means of a flame, and the tube closed on both ends. By this means it can be used for a long time without the necessity of refilling it. d. Determination of the carbonate of calcium and magnesium by boiling loith ammonium nitrate. — If it is necessary to determine the proportion of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium, the following method, first 68 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. used by E. Laiifer, can be recommended. Bring one or two grammes of the material, pulverized as finely as possible and dried at 212° F., into a beaker-glass and pour 20 cubic centimeters of completely saturated am- monium nitrate solution over them. After covering the beaker-glass with a watch crystal, boil the fluid for half an hour, and, in case the salt should separate by the evaporation of the Avater, add some hot water. Am- monium nitrate possesses the proj^erty of converting the carbonates of calcium and magnesium into soluble nitrates, while the ammonium carbonate formed thereby is decomposed by boiling and escapes. C«(A^03)2 4- .%(A03)24-2(C03[A//,],). The soil is then allowed to'settle, and the supernatant hot solution decanted otf through a filter by placing the funnel in a copper hot-water funnel. Fig. 10, heated to 212° F., so that during filtration the ammonium nitrate cannot separate and clog uj) the funnel. The boiling with the solution is repeated twice ; the material in the glass is then washed with somewhat more dilute am- monium nitrate solution and the washing fluid also poured through the filter. In case the material is not to be further used, it is unnecessary to bring it entirely upon the filter. Washing with pure distilled water cannot be done, as otherwise the fluid running off is rendered turbid by the fine particles of soil which pass through the filter. Washing is finished when a drop running off* from the filter leaves no perceptible residue when evaporated upon a platinum sheet. The filtrate strono-lv diluted with water is heated to DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUEXTS. 69 boiling, compounded with a few drops of ammonia and the lime precipitated with ammonium oxalate. After standing for twelve hours the white precipitate of calcium oxalate has completely settled. The supernatant fluid is then poured off through a filter ; the precipitate is washed by several times decanting it with hot water in the beaker-glass and finally brought upon the filter. The portions of the precipitate adhering to the glass are removed with a glass rod over the lower end of which a piece of black rubber tubing has been drawn. The filter is now washed out with hot water, with the aid of the wash bottle. The operation is finished when a drop 70 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. running oft' leaves no pcreeptible residue wlien evaporated upon a platinum sheet. The oxalate of lime is dried in the drying stove (Fig. 12), at 212° F., then detached from the filter and brought into a weighed platimmi crucible, while the filter is folded together and incinerated upon the lid of the crucible. The ash is then brought into the platinum crucible, which is best effected with the aid of a pencil, and, after ])lacing the lid upon the crucible, the latter is gradually brought to ignition. In order to comjiletely convert the calcium carbonate formed by gentle igniting DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 71 into calcium oxide, it is necessary to subject the crucible for ten minutes to a strong beat over a blast-lamp (Fig. 11). Before weighing, cool the hot crucible and contents in a desiccator. Caustic lime being hygroscopic, weigh- ing must be effected as rapidly as possible. Generally speaking, it is best to weigh all hygroscopic substances twice, by allowing the weights of the first weighing to remain in the pan of the balance, then again heating the crucible and its contents, and again weighing after cool- ing in the desiccator. Since the difference amounts at the utmost to from one to two milligrammes, the weight can very rapidly be determined by two or three oscilla- tions of the beam of the balance. To find the corre- sponding quantity of calcium carbonate, multiply the number of weighed grammes of calcium oxide with the factor 1.786. The filtrate from the lime-precipitate is evaporated to about half its volume in a platinum dish, then brought into a beaker-glass and solution of sodium phosphate added. Then add concentrated ammonia sufficient to amount to one-third of the entire solution. With a moderate heat (77° to 86° F.), a white crystalline pre- cipitate consisting of ammonium magnesium phosphate = POJfgNH^ + e. The latter is filled with pieces of pumice previously saturated with blue vitriol and heated until the latter is dehydrated. By this means the sul- phuretted hydrogen and hydrochloric acid gas are re- tained. b. Determination of the carbon of the humus substances by elementary analysis. — The object of the method to be discussed here, which was first mentioned by Liebig, is to burn the carbon to carbonic acid by igniting together "with cupric oxide. Since, however, the humus substances of the soil always contain nitrogen which, by this mode of combustion, is converted partially into nitrous gas and nitrous acid, the method is accordingly modified. To effect this analysis by combustion, a hard Bohemian glass tube from 50 to 55 centimeters long is used. After being thoroughly cleansed, one end is drawn out and turned over in the shape of a beak, while the other end is fused together. The tube is heated upon the sand bath, and, after removing the air contained in it by sucking with a glass tube, it is filled half full with pure, freshly ignited and still warm cupric oxide, introduced through a previously heated metallic funnel, care being had that none of the cupric oxide reaches the beak- shaped portion. This is best prevented by loosely inserting, before filling, a cork of pure asbestos. Now pour some warm cupric oxide into a heated porcelain mortar and add 0.5 to 10 grammes of the finely pulve- rized fine soil, the quantity depending on the larger or smaller content of humus. The cupric oxide is intimately combined with the fine soil and the mixture also brought into the tube. Any particles adhering to the mortar are removed by rubbing them together with DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 79 some fresh cupric oxide aud adding this mixture to the other in the tube. Suppose the whole occupies a space of 5 centimeters in the tube. Then add 5 centimeters more of cupric oxide ; upon this follows a layer of 10 to 12 bright, fine copper wire shavings or a copper wire spiral of the same length. It is still better to use spirals of very fine silver wire, which, besides completely reducing the nitrous gas, also retain any chlorine present by the formation of silver chloride. The tube having been filled, rap repeatedly with it lengthAvise upon a table so that a channel is formed on top of the contents through which the gases of combustion can escape. The tube thus filled is provided with a calcium chloride tube which is joined by a forked glass tube. One end of this tube is connected with a water air-pump and the other provided with rubber tubing and a clip. While the combustion tube is being pumped out, dried air is allowed to enter by means of the clip through the calcium chloride tube, so that all moisture is thereby removed. The tube thus prepared is placed in a combustion furnace (Fig. 13), the empty space, about five centimeters long, being allowed to project from the furnace, while the perforated rubber cork closing the tube is protected by a piece of asbestos card-board. The tube is connected to a previously weiglied calcium chloride tube and the latter to the weighed Geissler potash-apparatus also, provided with a calcium chloride tube. Combustion should be conducted as slowly as possible. After the whole arrangement has been found perfectly air-tight, the front and back parts of the tube are heated, and, when red-hot, the portion of the tube containing the substance is gradually heated, the heat being so 80 THE EXAMINATION OF SOII^. roiiiilatod that one bubble per second passes through the potash-apparatus. The operation is finished as soon as Avitli strong- heat- ing the potasli sohition begins to pass back into the bidb nearest to the apparatus. The extreme point of the tube FiR. 13. is then broken oft' and the main gas-cock ck>sed. The bent-up portion of the tube must not be too strongly heated so that it can be connected by means of a rubber tube Avith a potash wash-bottle. A calcium chloride tube is inserted between the combustion tube and the j)otash ■svash-bottle, so that no moisture from the potash solution can reach the front caleium chloride tube. .Vfter con- necting the calcium chloride tube of the Geissler jiotash- apparatus with the aspirator described under "determina- tion of carbonic acid," a slow current of air is allowed DETERMIXATIOX OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 81 to pass through the combustion tube in order to expel all the carbonic acid from it. After finishing the operation, the Geissler potash apparatus and the U-tube of the calcium chloride tube are brought into the weighing-room and allowed to stand for half an hour to acquire the temperature of the room before weighing them separately. The water -weighed in the U-tube contains the entire hydrogen, that of the humus substances as well as that fixed to the other soil constituents. To calculate, from the quantity of carbonic acid ab- sorbed by the Geissler potash apparatus, the content of carbon in the soil, multiply it with the factor 0.273. If, however, the humus substance is to be determined, multiply the weighed carbonic acid by the factor 0.471. c. Determination of the loss by ignition. — If the sample of soil to be examined contains no clay, or only a very small quantity of it, the humus can be approximately ascertained by determining the loss by ignition. The fine soil dried continuously at 212° F. is poured into a previously weighed porcelain crucible, and the latter again weighed. Now heat the crucible very gradually by placing it obliquely upon a triangle and advancing it from the outer edge towards the small flame of a Bunsen burner. Then heat gradually after placing the lid upon the crucible, and regulate the combustion of the substance so that no small particles can be carried away by the draught. When combustion of the humus is complete, accelerate entire incineration by stirring with a stout platinum wire, the lower end of which has, by hammering upon an anvil, been given the shape of a spatula. 82 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. For the determination of loss by ignition Knoji nscs two grammes of fine earth, mixes the rcsidne from ignition with pure pulverulent oxalic acid and gradually raises the temperature until the oxalic acid just begins to decompose. This operation is repeated with one-half the quantity of oxalic acid until the crucible, after cool- ing and weighing, shows a constant weight. The crucible must not be too strongly heated, as otherwise a portion of the carbonic acid regenerated by the oxalic acid is again expelled. According to another metiiod, the residue from ignition is repeatedly moistened with ammonium carbon- ate and slightly ignited to regenerate the alkaline earths present in small quantity, then dried at 302° F., and, after cooling in the desiccator, weighed. If, however, larger quantities of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium are present, and heating has been carried on to a higher degree in order to destroy all organic substances, the oxides of calcium and mag- nesium cannot be regenerated, since, by the intimate mixture of the alkaline earths with dust-like silica, silicates are formed which cannot be reconverted into carbonates. In such a case, it is advisable to carefully bring the residue from ignition into a platinum crucible and heat the latter until all the carbonic acid is expelled and fusible calcium silicate has been formed. The car- bonic acid of the initial substance is determined in a special sample and deducted from the loss by ignition. The vesicular slag is best removed from the platinum crucible by dissolving it in fluoric acid. C. JDdcnnination of the content of clay. — Formerly the content of clay was frequently determined by elutriat- DETEEMIXATIOX OF THE SOIL-COXSTITUENTS. 83 ing the finest portion from the soil and designating this as clay. More accurate chemical investigations have, however, shown that a considerable quantity of quartz- flour is admixed with the finest portions, so that the content of clay determined by elutriation was always too high. The object is better attained by combining for the de- termination of the clay, the silt-analysis with a chemical examination. It has been shown- that with an elutriat- ing velocity of 0.2 millimeter the greater quantity of clay contained in the soil is elutriated, and with a velocity of 2 millimeters, the entire quantity, provided the sub- stance is previously thoroughly loosened by boiling. Hence, in investigating soils w'ith the intention of simultaneously determining the clay, elutriation will have to be effected from the beginning with distilled water in order to obtain the products of elutriation at 0.2 and 2.0 millimeters per second as pure as possible. If the clay alone is to be determined, it is best to at once elutriate the soil at 2.0 millimeters velocity. Soils containing only small quantities of coarse material may be pulverized in an agate mortar, and, without previous elutriation, be directly used for the determination of clay. If, however, in the mechanical analysis, the products of elutriation at 0.2 and 2.0 millimeters' velocity have been separated, they are, after drying and weighing, again combined and very carefully mixed in a dish. Disintegration with sulphuric acid in a closed tube. — This method of the determination of clay is based upon the property of pure clay or kaolin dissolving in hot sulphuric acid, while feldspars and quartz are not de- composed. In order that the action of the sulphuric 84 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. acid may be as uniform as possible, disintegration is best effected in a closed glass tube. For this purpose a hard Bohemian glass tube about 30 centimeters long, without the neck, is used. One end of the tube is drawn out to a capillary Avhich is thickened by fusion. The other end is also drawn out so that a neck is formed, which must, however, be wide enough for the convenient insertion of the weighing-tube. Before use, the tube is thoroughly boiled with a(|ua regia, rinsed with distilled water and dried. For the execution of the analysis, 1 or 2 grammes of the finely pulverized substance are continuously dried at 212° F. and brought hot into a lono; thin weiQ;hino:-tul)e closed with a cork. After cooling, the substance is poured into the Boliemian glass tube by pushing the weighing-tube down as far as possible so as to prevent any of the substance from adhering to the neck. The weighing-tube is then again weighed. By means of a pipette 20 cubic centimeters of dilute sulphuric acid (1 volume of concentrated acid to 5 volumes of water) are now brought into the Bohemian glass tube and the latter closed bv drawing; out the neck. Ifthesubstanceeontainscarbonateof lime, the sulpluiric acid has to be added very gradually, and the tube, before closing it, must be placed in boiling Mater, so that all the carbonic acid can escape. The closed glass tubes are now placed in a tul>ular furnace (Fig. 14), so arranged that it will hold four tubes. They are heated for six hours at 248° F., and when perfectly cold, are ojiened by drawing a ring around them with a diamond, and holding the point of a DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 85 recl-hot glass rod against the mark. The glass breaks off smoothly, and the contents can be conveniently emptied into a beaker-glass with the aid of a wash- bottle. The fluid is strongly diluted, and, in the presence of much calcium carbonate, compounded with some hydrochloric acid to dissolve the gypsum formed ; it is then covered with a watch crystal and heated to boiling. After allowing the substance to settle, the fluid is decanted off through a filter. Finally, the un- dissolved substance is also brought upon the filter and the latter washed out M'ith hot distilled water until a drop running oif from the funnel shows no perceptible turbidity when compounded with barium chloride solution. To oxidize the ferrous oxide the filtrate is compounded SG THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. with bromine water, and, after covering it with a watch crystal, boiled nntil the yellow coloring disappears and an odor of bromine is no longer perceptible. The flame is now removed, and the fluid, being con- stantly stirred with a glass rod, is compounded with dilute ammonia until it shows a slight ammoniacal odor, and a piece of red litmus-paper thrown in acquires a permanent blue color. The precipitate formed consists of aluminium and ferric hydrate = Al(OH)3 + Fe- (011)3. If too much ammonia has been added, the larger portion of it has to be expelled by heating the fluid for some time, the aluminium hydrate being some- what soluble in an excess of ammonia. Now, pour the fluid boiling hot, and without allowing the precipitate to settle, through a filter so arranged that filtration will be rapidly effected. The filter should only be filled with fluid up to, at the utmost, one centimeter from the edge, as otherwise the washing out of the pre- cipitate is very difficult. In filtering, the funnel should not be allowed to become entirely empty, as otherwise the gelatinous precipitate fixes itself firmly to the paper, clogging it up. After the precipitate has been trans- ferred from the beaker-glass to the filter and the particles adhering to the glass removed with a feather, the pre- cipitate is washed with hot water with the aid of a wash- bottle, until a drop running off shows no turbidity when com])oun(led with barium chloride solution. The precipitate of /'err /e o.vide and ahiininta is con- tinuously dried in the drying-chamber at 212° F., whereby it shrinks together so much that it can be almost com])letely detached from the filter. Now lay a sheet of white paper upon the table, place upon it a DETERMINATIOX OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 87 weighed platinum crucible aud bring the precipitate into the latter by rubbing the interior sides of the paper against each other. Any scattering grains fall upon the paper and are also brought into the crucible. The pre- cipitate being detached as much as possible from the filter, the latter is folded together, wrapped round with thin platinum wire and burnt in the point of the flame of a Bunsen burner. When the coal of the filter is completely burnt, add the ash to the precipitate in the crucible and strongly ignite the latter for some time, commencing however with a moderate heat, the crucible being covered with the lid. Then allow the crucible and its contents to cool in the desiccator, and weigh as rapidly as possible, since both the ferric oxide and aluminia are quite hygroscopic. After deducting the filter-ash, the quantity of ferric oxide and alumina = AlgOg + FcgOg dissolved by sulphuric acid is found. Separation of the ferrie oxide from the alumina, a. Determination of the iron as ferrous oxide by titration ivith potassium permanganate solution. — The ignited and weighed precipitate of ferric oxide aud alumina is care- fully, without scattering anything, poured from the platinum crucible into a small glass flask with a long neck. The particles adhering to the crucible are de- tached with a feather and w^ashed by means of a wash- bottle into the flask. Add to the water about an equal volume of pure hydrochloric acid and place the flask obliquely inclined upon the sand bath, which is suf- ficiently heated to bring the fluid to boiling. The oblique inclination of the neck of the flask is necessary to avoid loss by squirting in consequence of the bump- ing of the fluid during boiling. If, inside of a few 88 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. hours, the precipitate is not entirely dissolved, add to the strongly evaporated fluid a mixture of hydrochloric acid and water, and heat again until the entire precipitate is dissolved. If a few white flakes shoukl remain, they consist mostly of silica or titanic acid ; the quantity is, however, generally so small that no notice need be taken of them. When the solution in the flask is cold, com- pound it with dilute sulphuric acid, again place the flask in an oblique position on the sand-bath and heat, in order to expel the hydrochloric acid, and convert the chlorides of iron and alumina into sulphates, until the fluid is quite evaporated and clear as water. Dilute the cold solution with water, and compound it again with pure dilute sulphuric acid. In order to dissolve the iron in the ignited precipitate of iron and alumina, another method may be used, which, however, has the disadvantage that the substance has to be previously powdered in an agate mortar, whereby sligiit particles may readily be lost, again ignited in the platinum crucible and weighed. The powder is then compounded with ten times its quantity of previously fused potassium bisulphate and heated in the covered platinum crucible until the powder is com- pletely dissolved. After cooling, the melt is dissolved with hot water and compounded in a boiling flask with pure dilute sulphuric acid. Now add to the iron solution, obtained by either one of the two methods, pure granulated zinc, and j)lac-e a small funnel upon the boiling flask. Should the evolu- tion of hydrogen, which now takes place, be not suf- ficiently vigorous, it may be promoted by dipping the point of a glass rod in platinum chloride and after DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 89 allowing the drop adhering to it to drop off, injecting what remains on the rod into the flask by means of the wash-bottle. A vigorous evolution of hydrogen will at once commence. Hydrogen in a nascent state possesses^ as is well known, the property of converting ferric oxides into ferrous oxides, or, according to the more modern conception, of transforming the trivalent into bivalent iron. The reduction of the solution may also be i)romoted by placing the flask on a moderately heated sand-bath. When evolution of hydrogen has vigorously continued for about one hour, the solution is tested as to the com- plete reduction of the iron. This is efiected by taking, by means of a glass rod, a drop of the fluid from the flask and allowing it to run upon a white porcelain plate into a drop of freshly prepared, not too concentrated potassium sulphocyanate solution. If the latter is reddened, reduction is not finished and has to be con- tinued, with the addition of some zinc and sulphuric acid if necessary, until a repeated test shows no colora- tion of the potassium sulphocyanate solution. When the solution is completely reduced, pour it rapidly through a funnel in which a glass-wool cork has been loosely inserted. In doing this, a current of pure car- bonic acid should be conducted above upon the funnel, as well as into the beaker-glass beneath it, so that during filtering no oxidation of the solution by the oxygen of the air can take place. The flask, together with the zinc remaining therein, is rinsed with distilled water, and the rinsing water also poured through the funnel. The filtrate, which should not be hot, is further com- pounded with some dilute sulphuric acid, and the 90 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. solution is then titrated with previously standardized potassium permanganate solution. Standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution. — The potassium permanganate solution is prepared and standardized as follows : — Dissolve, with the assistance of heat, 1 gramme of pure crystallized potassium permanganate in distilled water, and add to the solution sufficient water to make 1 liter. The solution thus ])rej)ared will keep for some time in a glass-stoppered bottle, but should not be ex- posed to the direct light of the sun. The solution is standardized by measuring in a burette with a glass stop-cock as many cubic centimeters of it as are required for just imparting to a ferrous oxide solution of known content a violet color. For prepar- ing this iron solution iron-ammonium alum or ammonio- ferric sulphate is used. This salt, being seldom found pure in commerce, is purified by dissolving a quantity of it in hot distilled water to which a few drops of sulphuric acid have been added, until a film of salt commences to separate. The beaker-glass containing the concentrated solution is then placed in cold water and the solution constantly stirred with a glass rod, so that the salt sepa- rates as a fine crystalline powder. When the fluid is perfectly cold, it is separated from the salt by pouring it into a funnel provided with a platinum cone, which, by means of a doubly perforated rubber cork, is })laced upon a glass flask. Through the other perforation of the cork passes a glass tube which is connected with a water air-pump. When nothing more drips off, the glass flask is exchanged for another, and the precipitate rinsed with a mixture of two parts absolute alcohol and DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 91 one part distilled water. The salt is pressed between blotting-paper until perfectly dry. A solution of it must be reddened by potassium sulphocyanate. Of the perfectly dry ammonio-ferric sulphate, accu- rately weigh out two portions of 0.1 gramme each, and pour them into two beakers. Shortly before use, dis- solve the salt in 200 cubic centimeters of water to which some dilute sulphuric acid has been added. The burette provided with a glass stop-cock should have a capacity of at least 30 cubic centimeters, and be graduated into tenths of a cubic centimeter. It is filled to the point with potassium permanganate solution, and for more convenient reading a small float is put in it. The foot of the burette stand is best covered with a dead white glass plate, or, if such an arrangement cannot be had, a piece of white paper is placed under the beaker contain- ing the ammonio-ferric sulphate solution. Now allow the potassium permanganate solution to flow slowly from the burette into the ammonio-ferric sulphate solution, stirring constantly with a glass rod. The red color of the potassium permanganate solution at first disappears very rapidly, but later on more slowly, so that in order to hit the exact point, the solution must finally be admitted only drop by drop. When finally all the iron is oxidized, one drop suffices to very slightly color the fluid. The operation is finished when this coloration lasts a few minutes after stirring. Now, after waiting a short time to allow the fluid from the walls of the burette to run together, read oft' the number of cubic centimeters of potassium permanganate solution used. To control the correctness of the first reading, the 92 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. experiment is repeated with the other quantity of salt weighed out. Since the quantity of iron contained in the ammonio- ferric sulphate amounts to ^, or, to be more exact, to T-¥^1Tj ^^ '^^ necessary, in order to find the iron in the quantity weighed off, to divide the latter by 7, or, what is the same, to multiply it by the factor 0.14.3. To cal- culate the quantity of ferrous oxide equivalent to the quantity of salt weighed out multijily by the factor 0.184, and to find the ferric oxide with the factor 0.204. With the assistance of the figure found, the eflective value of the potassium })ermangauate solution is calcu- lated according to the following proposition : — Ccm. of potassium permanganate solution consumed : rFe g^ FeO =100 ccm : xg. The titration of the ferric oxide solution reduced by hydrogen is effected in exactly the same manner as the standardizing of the potassium permanganate solution just described. However, to obtain a sharp final re- action, the potassium permanganate solution must, towards the last, be very carefully added droji by dro]^. From the quantity of potassium permanganate solution consumed, the equivalent quantity of ferric oxide is then calculated. The percentage of ferric oxide deducted from the total percentage of ferric oxide and alumina gives the percentage of alumina by difference. 6. Calculation of the content of clay hi the total soil. — To find the content of clay in the soil, calculate for the quantity of alumina found the equivalent quantity of clay containing water, according to Forchhammer's DETEEMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 93 formula (Al2032[Si02] + 2H,0), by iiuiltiplying tlic weighed quantity of alumina by the factor 2.5294. Since the quantity of clay in the argilliferous particles (less than 0.05 millimeters in diameter) has been deter- mined, the percentage of clay in the total soil is calcu- lated. With very fine soils, especially loess and fat clammy soils, as well as such as, on account of their strongly humus nature, cannot be subjected to silt analysis, the disintegration with sulphuric acid in the tube will have to be at once executed with the total soil. With humus soils it will, however, be better to retain the method of disintegration with concentrated sulphuric acid by heating in an open platinum dish. It was formerly almost generally used for the determination of clay, though it does not yield as uniform results as disintegra- tion in the tube in which the concentration of the sul- phuric acid, its quantity, the temperature and time of action can be uniformly regulated. Fesca and others have frequently drawn attention to the fact that a portion of the alumina contained in the soil is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and is not referable to clay according to Forchhammer's formula. Fesca believes that this quantity of alumina soluble in hydro- chloric acid indicates zeoliti(; silicates. Though the correctness of this opinion is by no means proved, in very accurate and comprehensive soil investigations, it will be of interest to treat the argilliferous portions (less than 0.05 millimeter in diameter), witli hot concen- trated hydrochloric acid and to disintegrate the residue remaining thereby with sulphuric acid in the tube. However, for the approximate quantitative determina- 94 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. tion of clay as a soil constituent, it is better to calculate the total ahnninu in dust and finest disintegrable particles as clay for the entire soil. Most soils do not contain the clay in a pure form, as already shown by Forch hammer's clay formula, l)ut it is rather a collective term for all silicates more or less in a state of decom- position or already decomposed. For agricultural purposes, it is of importance to be able to express the content of clay, as well as that of humus, in fixed numerical values, and it does not much matter whether in each separate case an exact petrographic equivalent is thereby designated, especially not, when still further ex- periments regarding the physical properties of the soil are to be made. D. Determination of the content of sand. — According to its chemical composition, the soil-constituent, saml, may represent something of very dissimilar nature. Sand being a transported prodnct of the disintegration and elutriation of heterogeneous minerals and rocks, it shows many variations in its perfected state. However, the minerals disintegrating with the greatest difficulty, especially quartz, will always preponderate in it. If the mechanical analysis is carefully executed, and with grains more than 0.05 millimeter in diameter, the sand can, with an elutriating velocity of 2.0 inillimeters per second, be quite completely separated from the clayey particles, and, hence, by the mechanical analysis already described, the content of sand and its granulation are found. Petrographic determination of the coarser admixed jxtrts of the sand. — The petrographic determination of the coarser admixed parts of the sand is geologically of DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 95 importance, since it discloses the origin and formation of the soil. In an agricultural respect it is of value for judging the soil, as, for instance, in the presence of an abundance of feldspar, the soil possesses for the future a nearly inexhaustible reserve of plant-food, which be- comes only gradually available by the progressing de- composition of the feldspar. A certain amount of information regarding the nature of these admixtures is obtained by sorting out and test- ing the grains of sand of from 2 to 1 millimeters in diameter, and the o-i'avel over 2 millimeters in diameter. For this purpose moisten the sample to be examined with water and test the grains, best by INIohr's scale of hardness, as to color, lustre, and harduess, and further, as to cleavage, fusibility, and magnetic properties. Small limestones are recognized by the evolution of carbonic acid when treated with dilute hydrochloric acid. A further separation may be effected by bringing the admixed parts into specifically very heavy fluids. For this purpose, Thoulet prepares a solution of 2.77 specific gravity (at from 52° to 59° F.) by alternately introducing iodide of mercury and potassium iodide in water, and effects with it the separation of all bodies of higher specific gravity. By diluting the solution, bodies of slighter specific gravity may also be separated from each other. Goldschmidt dissolves 210 grammes of potassium iodide and 280 grammes of iodide of mercury in 25 cubic centimeters of distilled Avater and produces a solution of 3.196 specific gravity, upon which, for instance, fluor spar (specific gravity 3.1 to 3.2) floats. 96 THE I-:XAMlNATIOX OF SOILS. Rohrbach takes 100 parts of barium iodide and 130 parts of iodide of mercury to 20 cubic centimeters of water, heats in the oil bath to from 302° to 360° F., and filters. The solution has a specific gravity of 3.39, and topaz floats upon it. With the aid of such solutions and the following table of specific gravities, the distinct admixed parts of the sand obtained by sifting or elutriating can be sepa- rated and determined. Gypsum 2.2 to 2.4 Augite 2.88 to 3.5 Orthoclase . 2.53 " 2.58 Tourmaline 2.94 " 3.24 Albite . 2.G2 " 2.67 Ampliibole . 2.9 " 3.3 Oligoclase . 2.63 " 2.G8 Fluor spar . 3.1 " 3.2 Quartz 2.65 Rutile . 4.2 " 4.3 Calcareous spar . 2.65 " 2.80 Heavy spar . 4.3 " 4.7 Anorthite . 2.67 " 2.76 Pyrites 4.9 " 5.2 Black mica . . 2.74 " 3.13 Magnetic iron ore 4.9 " 5.2 Muscovite . 2.76 " 3.1 E. Determination of the content of quartz. — Since it is frequently of interest to determine the content of quartz in the sand, as well as the dust and the finest particles, J. Hazard has for this purpose proposed an indirect method, since no process is known for the direct se})a- ration of quartz in a mixture with orthoclase, albite, and oligoclase, it being always attacked in the disintegration of these silicates. The finely pulverized material is, according to Hazard, fused with 2 j)arts concentrated sul])huric and 1 })art distilled water, in a hard Bohemian glass tube, and for six hours exposed to a temperature of 482° F. in a tubular furnace, whereby any muscovite, biotite, garnet, tourmaline, talc, amphibole, hyperstliene, diallage, and pyroxene present is completely disintegrated, while DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 97 orthoclase, albite, aud oligoclase remain undecomposed. The contents of the glass tube are brought into a dish and the particles adhering to the sides of the tube re- moved by means of a glass rod provided with a piece of rubber tubing. Before filtering oif, the fluid is strongly diluted. The superficially washed-out residue is then brought together with the filter into moderatelv dilute potash lye, in order to dissolve the silica separated from the silicates, and then digested for one hour upon the water bath. The solution is diluted Avith water, filtered off and the substance upon the filter first washed with hot dilute potash lye, and later on, with hot dilute hydrochloric acid. The thoroughly dried filter, together with its contents, is incinerated in a platinum crucible and weighed. The procedure is now exactly the same as in the sili- cate analysis. The powder in the platinum crucible is mixed with five times its quantity of anhydrous sodium carbonate and first heated over an ordinary burner, and, later on, over a blast lamp, until the mass flows quietly aud no more bubbles of carbonic acid are evolved. The hot crucible is placed upon a cold iron plate, w'hereby, in consequence of "the rapid cooling off, the mass readily becomes detached from the sides of the crucible. The melt, as well as the crucible itself, is brought into a beaker, and, after pouring distilled water upon it and covering the beaker with a watch-ciystal, the contents are heated to boiling. Now, by means of a pipette, intro- duced through the lip of the beaker, add in small propor- tions concentrated hydrochloric acid in excess, and heat the fluid until no more effervescence takes place. Then add a few drops of nitric acid and evaporate the fluid, 7 98 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. together witli the silicate separated, in a porcelain disli upon a water bath to })iilverulent dryness. As soon as the fluid commences to become thickly-fluid, it has to be coustantly stirred with a glass pestle, so that no larger cubes of common salt can form. In order to separate the silica as a powder entirely insoluble in acids, it is necessary to expel the hydrochloric acid as (;ompletcly as possible. This is best eifected by adding, as soon as the powder in tlie dish becomes dry, some hot water and again evaporating, Avith constant stirring, to pulverulent dryness. After cooling, moisten the powder with hydro- chloric acid, pour hot water over it, and, after several times washing out the silica in the dish with hot water, bring it upon the filter and rinse it with hot water until a drop running off shows no turbidity when mixed with nitrate of silver. Before incinerating the filter with the silica in the platinum crucible, it must be completely dried at 212° F. It is advisable to finally ignite the silica over the blast-lamp, whereby it slags somewhat together and is no longer hygroscopic when -weighed after cooling in the desiccator. The filter ash is deducted after w^eighing. In the filtrate from the silica, alumina and calcareous earth are determiucd by successive precipitation with ammonia and ammonium oxalate according to the methods previously described (p. 08 and p. 86). For the orthoclase and albite, whose silica is contained in the total quantity of silica obtained from the soda melt, Hazard has calculated the equivalent quantity of silica from the alumina found and deducted it from the total quantity of silica. The remainder represents the quartz present in the soil. For othoclase and albite the proportion of alumina to silicate is 1 : 3.50878. DETERMINATION OF THE SOIL-CONSTITUENTS. 99 In the presence of lime the alumina equivalent to the lime is calculated according to Tschermak's formula for anorthite in the proportion of 1 calcareous earth : 1 .83214 alumina. The alumina thus obtained is deducted from the weighed total alumina, and the quantity of silica ref{uired for the albite and orthaclase calculated to the rest of alumina. For the alumina of the anorthite, the quantity of silica belonging to it and to be deducted from the total silica is calculated from the proportion 1 alumina: 1.16959 silica. E. Determination of the elementary composition of the soil. — If the soil to be examined is of homogeneous nature, as, for instance, may be the case with pure clays, marly sands, or sands of the subsoil, it may frequently be of interest to learn the elementary composition of the entire soil. For this purpose it is advisable to simul- taneously effect a disintegration with sodium carbonate, as well as with fluoric acid, the analytical results obtained being best controlled in this manner. a. Disintegration icith sodium carbonate. — For disinte- gration with sodium carbonate pulverize dust fine 1 to 2 grammes of the total soil in an agate mortar and dry the powder at 212° F. Then pour it from a weighing tube into a platinum crucible and mix it by means of a plati- num spatula with 5 or 6 times its weight of anhydrous sodium carbonate. The mass in the covered crucible is heated, first over an ordinary burner, and finally fused over the blast lamp until it flows quietly and no more carbonic acid escapes. The glowing crucible is placed upon a cold iron plate whereby the melt quickly con- geals and later on can be readily detached from the cru- cible. The dissolution of tiie melt in hvdrochloric acid 100 THE exami>;atiox of soils. and scj^aralion of .silica are effected in the manner given on p. 97. In the filtrate from the silica the alumina, ferric oxide, oxide of manganese, calcareous earth and magnesia are determined according to the methods pre- viously given. Such substances as titanic acid, sulj)liu- ric acid, chlorine and phosphoric acid which occur only in small quantities in the soil cannot be determined with sufficient accuracy in the quantity used, and^ therefore, need not to be noticed. If the substance used is free from organic or carbon- aceous matter, the content of ferrous oxide may be de- termined by disintegrating a special sample of the total soil with sulphuric acid in a closed glass tube (p. 84), separating the residue from the fluid by filtering in a current of carbonic acid and determining the ferrous oxide in the fluid by titration with potassium perman- ganate solution (p. 89). 6. Disintegration with Jfuoric acid. — Disintegration with fluoric acid is best effected by simultaneously com- bining with it a determination of loss by ignition. For this purpose 1 to 2 grammes of the finely pulverized substance dried at 212° F. are first gently heated in a ])latinum crucible and then vigorously ignited over the blast lamp. After cooling in the desiccator the loss by ignition is determined by M'cighing. The mass which is slagged together, and, in the presence of lime, often fused, is moisttned with distilled water and then strong fluoric acid is poured over it. The crucible is now cov- ered, and after placing in it a small platinum spatula of stout platinum wire to the handle of which a cork is secured, allow the acid to act upon the substance 2 or 3 days, stirring frequently, until a pasty mass is formed. PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 101 Then, with frequent stirring, evaporate the contents of the crucible to dryness upon the water bath, in order to expel the silica as silicon-fluoride. The crucible being held obliquely, the dry residue in it is moistened, with concentrated sulphuric acid in order to convert the fluorides into sulphates. The excess of sulphuric acid is expelled by heating the crucible placed obliquely so that a very small flame acts upon it from the edge ; this is done to prevent the substance from scattering. When the mass is dry, it is dissolved from the crucible by means of hydrochloric acid and water, and with the aid of a wash bottle brought into a beaker. When covered with a watch-crystal and boiled continuously, the mass should dissolve entirely clear. Now, for the oxidation of the ferrous oxide, add some bromine water, boil the fluid until the excess of bromine is completely expelled and determine the aluminia, oxides of iron and manga- nese, calcareous earth, magnesia, potash, and soda. VII. DETERMINATION OF THE PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. In the determination of the plant-nourishing sub- stances we may proceed either by separately determining the nourishing substances at tlie time present and avail- able in the soil, and those which only gradually become available, or by determining from the start the sum-total of those already present and of those which in a con- ceivable space of time may become active by processes of 102 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. weathering and decay. In the first case tlie processes taking place in nature will have to be imitated as closely as possible, this being apj)roxiniately effected by success- ively treating the soil with agents constantly increasing in strength. A. Determination of the plant-nonrishing substances in soil extractions. — The above-indicated requirements are best fulfilled by the following fluids, which in very com- prehensive soil investigations are successively allowed to act upon the soil : — 1. Cold distilled water. 2. Cold distilled water, one- quarter saturated with pure carbonic acid. 3. Cold concentrated hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1.15). 4. Boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid. If only the sum-total of the plant-nourishing sub- stances present and of those which will shortly become active is to be determined, the soil is directly treated with boiling; concentrated hvdrochloric acid, the other extractions being omitted. I. Kvtraction of the soil u-ith cold distilled water. — By treating the soil with cold distilled water, onlv the con- stituents soluble in water can, of course, be extracted. Such constituents, independent of humus substances, are chiefly chlorides, sulphates, and nitrates of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Hence, only these substances will have to be determined. The aqueous extract of the soil is prepared as fol- lows : Bring into a glass flask of 2 liters capacity, and which can be closed with a rubber cork, 500 granmies of air-dry fine si>il (less than 2 millimeters in diameter), and pour over it 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled water, less the volume which would escape in drying PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 103 500 grammes of fine soil at 212° F. For this purpose determine at the same time the water escaping from about 20 grammes of the same fine soil when continu- ously heated. First weigh the air-dry sample in a weighing-flask, then spread it out in as thin a layer as possible upon a watch-crystal, and heat it for 2 hours at 212° F. in a drying-chamber. Now, with the aid of a brush bring the dried substance, while hot, into the heated weighing-flask, close the latter hermetically, and let it cool in the weighing room. The determination of the water escaped at 212° F. can only be relied on when, after repeated drying and again weighing, no noticeable difference in weight is obtained. The quan- tity of soil weighed out for extraction is allowed to remain in contact with the water for two days, being in the meanwhile frequently shaken, and, after settling, the supernatant fluid is drawn ofi^by means of a siphon provided with a suction pipe. The fluid is then filtered tlirough a dry filter into two measuring flasks, one of 500 and the other of 300 cubic centimeters capacity. 1. Determination of the bases in the aqueous extract. — Evaporate the 300 cubic centimeters of the aqueous ex- tract ; which correspond to 150 grammes of fine soil dried at 212° F., in a small weighed platinum dish upon the sand bath, dry the residue at 212° F., and weigh it after cooling in the desiccator. Now, gently ignite the platinum dish, and after cooling in the desiccator, weigh H again. By this means the sum-total of the substances dissolved in water, as well as the incombustible matter contained therein, is learned. If the latter is less than 0.5 gramme, the separation of tlie alkalies and alkaline earths cannot be accurately carried out, on account of 104 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. the small quantity which would have to be weighed. It is, therefore, best to repeat the aqueous extraction with such a quantity of fine soil that tlie amount of extract intended for the determination of the bases con- tains at least 1 to 0.5 gramme of dissolved substances. The residue obtained by igniting is dissolved with the addition of some hydrochloric acid in distilled water and filtered in case traces of silica are found. The fluid is then heated to boiling, and traces of iron and alumina, which, as a rule, reach the fluid only by turbid filtering, are precipitated with ammonia. In the filtrate the cal- careous earth is precipitated in the manner given on pp. 67 and 68. The filtrate of calcium oxalate is evaporated in a capacious platinum crucible, and, after drying, moderately ignited to expel the excess of sal ammoniac. The pro- cess of drying can be essentially accelerated by constant stirring with a platinum spatula. The residue is taken up with a few drops of water, brought into a small beaker, and the solution, if not clear, is again filtered through a small filter. The magnesia is now precipitated by ammonium car- bonate, the solution of which is prepared as follows : Dissolve 230 grammes of sublimed sesquicarbonate of ammonia in 180 cubic centimetres of ammonia of 0.92 specific gravity, and add sufficient water to make the volume of the fluid exactly 1 liter. This solution must be added in consideral)le excess. If much mag- nesia is present, a voluminous precipitate is at first formed M'hich, on stirring is, however, completely re- dissolved. The fluid is now allowed to stand quietly for twenty-four hours, during which time a fine crystal- PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 105 line precipitate consisting of ammonium magnesium carbonate is formed. This salt is filtered off, washed with ammonium carbonate solution, and when a drop running off leaves no residue when evaporated upon a platinum sheet, dried at 212° F. in the drying chamber. The precipitate, together with the filter, is heated in the platinum crucible, and when the filter is carbonized, strongly ignited, the crucible being placed in an oblique position. The precipitate, which consists of magnesia, must be perfectly white after ignition. The filtrate from the ammonium mag-nesium carbonate contains the alhaUes. It is brought into a capacious platinum dish, which is covered with a watch-crystal and heated upon the water-bath. As soon as the decomposi- tion of the ammonium carbonate begins, the flame is made somewhat smaller to prev^ent the fluid from foam- ing over, and the latter is then heated until no more bubbles of carbonic acid escape. The watch-crystal is then removed and rinsed off with distilled water, and the fluid evaporated in a smaller weighed platinum dish upon the water-bath. The residue is moistened with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, again evaporated, and the covered platinum dish dried in the drying chamber at a temperature gradually raised to 392° F. By this means loss by the decrepitation of the water inclosed in the common salt while igniting the salt in the pla- tinum dish is avoided. The platinum crucible is only slightly ignited, the alkaline chlorides being volatile at a strong red heat. After cooling in the desiccator the platinum crucible is weighed. In this manner the sum total of the chlorides of potassium and sodium are learned. 106 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. To separate the potassium from the sodium, take up p.^ , . the chlorides with a few drops of water aud add soUition of platiuum eliloride iu excess. Now, in an atmosphere free from ammonia, evaporate tlie fluid on a covered water-bath (Fig. 15) until it possesses a syrupy consistency and the platinum chloride commences to separate in it in a crystal- line form. After cooling, add one })art of a mixture of 55 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 15 cubic centi- meters of ether, and allow the fluid to stand under a glass-bell for 12 hours, stir- ring it several times in the mean while. Then filter it through a weighed filter and wash the precipitate remaining upon the filter with some alcohol containing ether until the fluid running off is no longer colored. A greater number of weighed filters may be best pre- pared as follows : Treat several filters first with hydro- chloric acid, and, after thoroughly sweetening them with distilled water, dry them continuously at 212° F. in the drying closet. Then bring them hot into a weighing flask, also heated to 212° F., and weigh the flask after cooling. ]\v successively taking out the filters, and each time reweighing the flask, the weights of the filters are obtained, which are best noted upon them with a pencil. PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 107 The precipitate of potassium platinum chloride is thoroughly washed upon tlie filter, then dried at 212° F. brought hot, together with the filter, into a weighing tube and weighed after cooling. By deducting the weight of the weighing tube, and of the filter, from the weight last obtained, the quantity of potassium platinum chloride present is obtained. To obtain the equivalent quantity of potassium multiply by the factor 0.193. Instead of weighing the potassium platinum chloride upon a weighed filter, the salt may be decomposed and the potassium determined from the platinum obtained. In this case add to the precipitate in the filter some pure oxalic acid and ignite the mass in a weighed porcelain crucible provided with a cover ; finally, in order to reduce all the platinum, conduct a current of water upcm the crucible and allow the substance to cool in it. To remove the potassium chloride, the platinum is washed with water by repeated decantation, and, after drying and again igniting, weighed. To obtain the equivalent quantity of potassium, multiply the platinum by the factor 0.477. To obtain the sodium, calculate the potassium to potassium chloride by multiplying by the factor 1.584, deduct the potassium chloride fiom the sum of the chlorides, and nniltiply the sodium chloride thus ob- tained by the factor 0.530. If many sulj)hates are present among the soil-salts soluble in water, which may be the case with soils very rich in gypsum, it is better, after precipitating the mag- nesia with ammonium carbonate and evaporating the solution, to add a few drops of sulphuric acid and then ignite strongly in a weighed platinum dish. In doing 108 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. this, a small piece of ammonium carbonate has to be held by means of a pair of tweezers in the tlish in order to convert the acid alkaline sulphates into neutral. The alkaline sulphates being very refractory, ignition may finally be carried to an initial red heat. After weighing, dissolve the sulphates in water, compound them ^vith platinum chloride, and evaporate the solution to a syrupy consistency upon the water-bath. Now dis- solve the mass, according to Finkener's directions, in a mixture which, for 30 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid, contains 150 cubic centimeters of absolute alcohol and 35 cubic centimeters of anhydrous ether. When the whole has stood for one hour, bring the precipitate upon a weighed filter and wash it Avith a mixture of hydrochloric acid, alcohol, and ether, in the above-men- tioned proportions until the fluid runs off clear. Then, to remove the hydrochloric acid, wash with alcohol con- taining ether, dry the filter at 212° F. and weigh it, together with the potassium platinum chloride upon it, in the manner given on p. 107. To determine the sodium in this case, multiply the potassium by the factor 1.851, deduct the potassium sulphate thus obtained from the total of the sulphates, and multiply the remaining sodium sul2)hate by the factor 0.437. 2, I) dcr mi nation of the acids in the aqueous extract, a. Determination of chlorine. — If the aqueous extract of the soil contains no sulphuric acid or only a trace of it, which is recognized by filtering off a small sample of the supernatant water and compounding tiie clear filtrate with some nitric acid and barium chloride solution, the PLAXT-XOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 109 chlorine may first be determined. Otherwise the sul- phuric acid is first precipitated. Compound the 500 cul)ic centimeters of aqueous ex- tract mentioned on p. 102 with a small quantity of pure sodium carbonate and evaporate to about 100 cubic cen- timeters. In case anything lias been separated, the fluid is filtered, compounded with nitric acid and heated. From the boiling hot solution, the chlorine is precipi- tated with silver nitrate solution, stirring constantly with a glass rod, until the precipitate balls together and the fluid becomes entirely clear. The silver cliloride thus obtained is filtered off, washed with hot water, dried at 212° F., aud, after detaching it as much as pos- sible from the filter, brought into a previously weighed porcelain crucible. The filter is incinerated by itself upon the lid of the crucible aud then added to the silver chloride in the crucible. Since by incineration the par- ticles of silver chloride adhering to the filter have been partially reduced to silver, saturate the filter ash with a drop of nitric acid which is allowed to drop into the crucible from a glass rod. Then heat somewhat in order to dissolve the silver and add one drop of hydrochloric acid. The cnicible is then heated, first very moderately, and then gradually more strongly, and, when no more vapors of nitrous acid escape, so strongly that the silver chloride fuses together to a regulus. Now allow the crucible to cool in the desiccator, then weigh it and de- duct the filter ash. The quantity of the silver chloride found multiplied by the factor 0.247 gives the quautity of chlorine in the aqueous extraction (500 cubic cen- timeters equal to 250 grammes of soil dried at 212° F.). b. Detenninafion of Hulphnric, acid. — If the aqueous 110 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. extract of the soil contains sulphate, the sulphuric acid, as previously mentioned, is precipitated before the chlo- rine. Evaporate the oOO cubic centimeters mentioned on p. 107, to 100 cubic centimeters, filter, and into the boiling hot solution precipitate the sulphuric acid with barium nitrate solution. Since the heavy precipitate consisting of barium sul- phate generally carries down with it other salts, it must be ao-ain dio;ested for some time with dilute hydrochloric acid, after being M'ashed with hot water, dried and weighed. Then pour the supernatant hydrochloric acid through a very small filter and wash the precipitate, witliout taking it from the crucible, by decanting with hot water. Evaporate the filtrate and wash-water nearly to dryness in a platinum dish and bring the precipitate thereby separated also upon the filter. After washing, drying and incinerating the latter, add it to the other precipitate in the platinum crucible and ignite at a moderate red heat. Weigh the crucible after cooling in the desiccator. The barium sulphate multiplied by the factor 0.34.3 will give the weight of sulphuric acid (SO3) present. c. Determination of nitric acid. — Pour over 1000 grammes of the air-dry fine soil 2000 cubic centimeters of distilled water less the quantity of water calculated from the determination of the hygroscopic water which would escape from 1000 grammes of soil in drying at 212° F, AlloAV the soil to remain in contact with the water for forty-eight hours, shaking frequently. Then remove the supernatant clear fluid by means of a siplion provided with a suction-tube, and filter it through a dry filter into a liter-flask. One liter of this soil extract is PLANT-NOUEISHING SUBSTANCES. Ill equal to 500 grammes of soil dried at 212° F. Com- pound tliis quantity of aqueous extract with a small quantity of pure sodium carbonate and evaporate it to about 100 cubic centimeters upon the water-bath. Any precipitate formed is filtered off, washed, and tlie filtrate again evaporated to 100 cubic centimeters. For the determination of the nitric acid in these 100 cubic centimeters, it is best to use the method originated by Schoening and variously modified by T. Schulze as well as by Fruehling and Grouveu, Reichardt, and Tie- mann. It is based upon the reduction of the nitric acid by a solution of ferrous chloride in hydrochloric acid to nitric oxide, expelling the latter by boiling and collect- ing it. The chemical process takes place according to the following equation : — GFeCl^ + 2KXO3 + 8HC1 = 4Hp + 2KC1 4- SFe^Clg + 2NO; or : GFeCl^ + 2HNO3 + 6HC1 = 4Hp+3Fe2Cl6+ 2NO. This method can be especially recommended, since the accuracy of the result is not in the least impaired even by the presence of dissolved humus constituents, a. Tiemann's modification of Schloesing-Schidze's method for the determination of nitric acid. — Tiemann's modifica- tion has the advantage of yielding very accurate and reliable results with the use of an apparatus dis- tinguished for simplicity. The aqueous extract evaporated to 100 cubic centi- meters is brought into a glass flask, A (Fig. 16), of oue- half-liter capacity. It is closed by a doubly perforated rubber cork. Two glass tubes bent in the shape of a knee fit accurately into the perforations of the rubber cork. The tube, c b a, is at a, drawn out into not too 112 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. fine a point and projects about 2 centimeters below the rubber cork, while ejg is exactly even with the lower surface of tlie cork. Both these tubes are connected by means of thin black rubber tubing with the tubes, c d Fiir. 10. and , is filled with thoroughly boiled 10 per cent, soda lye prepared by dis- solving 12.9 parts of caustic; soda in 100 parts of water. The fluid to be examined for a content of nitric acid is first boiled for one hour, the tubes bcino; at first left PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 113 open and without g h dipping into the dish B, in order to expel the air from the flask A by aqueous vapor. The end of the tube efg*h is then brought into the caustic soda dish, without, however, dipping in the measuring tube, and the aqueous vapors are allowed to escape partially through the soda lye and partially through the tube abed. After a few minutes, the tube is pressed together, atg, with the fingers ; and when all the air has been expelled, the soda lye w^ill reascend in the vacuum of the tube g h, which is recognized by a gentle blow on the fingers. If this is the case, the tube behind the place pressed together is closed with the clip g, and the vapors are allowed to escape through abed. The fluid is kept boiling until evaporated to 10 cubic centi- meters. The gas flame is now removed, the rubber tubing immediately closed at c, with the clip, and the tube c d filled wdth thoroughly boiled water. Should an air bubble remain at c, it is removed by pressing Avith the finger. The measuring tube is now filled with thoroughly boiled soda lye, and, after closing the opening wdth the thumb so that no air bubbles can enter, the tube is inverted and immersed over the lower end of the tube g h into the soda lye. When the tubes c and g are pressed together by the external pressure of air, the nearly saturated solution of ferrous chloride or ferrous sulphate compounded with some hydrochloric acid is brought into a beaker on the upper portion of which 20 cubic centimeters are divided off by two strips of paper pasted on the outside. An- other beaker is filled with concentrated hydrochloric acid. Now dip the tube c d into ferrous chloride solution, 114 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. and, after opening the clip c, allow 15 to 20 cubic centiraetei*s to run into the flask. Then dip the tube e d into the concentrated hydro?liloric acid and let a small quantity of it rise twice until all the ferrous chloride is rinsed out of the tube abed. At 6 a small bubble of hydrochloric acid is frequently formed, which <;ompletely disappears on heating the flask. Now heat the flask very moderately until the rubber tubings begin to swell up somewhat ; then substitute the finger for the clip at g, and, as soon as the gas-pressure becomes somewhat sti'onger, allow the nitric oxide, expelled from the solu- tion by heating, to pass over into the measuring tube. The boilino; of the fluid is continued until an increase of the volume of gas in tlie measuring tube is no longer perceptible. By the vigorous absorption of hydro- chloric acid gas by the soda lye, a crackling noise is made, but the end of the tube g h being protected, as previously mentioned, by rubber tubing, its fracture need not be feared. AVhen the operation is finished, the tube g h is re- moved from the dish, the measuring tube closed beneath the soda lye with the thumb, and, after shaking it, together with the soda lye still in it, in order to remove any traces of hydrochloric acid, immerse it in a large glass cylinder filled with water of 59° to 64° F. The volume of nitric oxide can be read ofl" after twenty minutes. For this purpose immerse the measur- injr tube so far into the water of the cvlinder that the fluid in the measuring tube is at the same level with the fluid outside of it. In this case the nitric oxide is under the prevailing atmospheric pressnre as indicated by the barometer. PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 115 Before reading off the volume of gas the measuring tube should be placed as vertically as possible. In reading off the volume of gas, the centre of the dark zone formed by the water dra^ying up on the glass is taken as the actual surface of the water, and the quan- tity of nitrogen evolved noted in whole and tenths of cubic centimeters. The volume of every gas measured over water, hence in a moist state, is dependent on the temperature of the surroundings, the pressure of the atmosphere and the tension of the aqueous vapor. Hence, in reading off the volume of gas, the temperature of the water in the cylinder is noted as well as the lieight of the barometer, and the volume is calculated -with regard to the tension of aqueous vapor at 0° C. and a pressure of 700 milli- meters of mercury. The condition in which a dry volume of gas is, at 0° C, and a pressure of 760 milli- meters is designated as the normal condition. According to Mariotte's law, the volume of gas is in- versely as the pressure, and since the expansion of a gas by heat amounts for each degree C. to ^ts of the volume it occupies at 0° C, it follows, that in calculating the volume of gas to the normal state, the pressure exercised by the moist state must be deducted from the height of the barometer. ^ T:273.(.B-/) (273 + t).760 In this forujula To means the volume of gas at the normal temperature (0°C.), Fthe volume of gas read off at the height of the barometer B, and the tempera- ture t, while/ indicates the tension of the aqueous vapor in the millimeters of pressure of mercury at t° C. 116 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. The tension of the aqueous vapor is found from tlie followinjr table : — Tension in Tension in Tension in Tempera- millimeters Tempera- millimeters Tempera- millimeters ture, C. of pressure of ture, C. of i)rcssure of ture, C. of pressure of mereiiry. mercury. mercury. 0° 4.5 9° 8.5 18° 15.3 1 4.9 10 9.1 19 16.3 2 5.2 11 9.7 20 17.4 3 5 () 12 10.4 21 18.5 4 ti.O 13 11.1 22 19.6 5 6.5 14 11.9 23 20.9 (5 6.9 15 12.7 24 22.2 7 7.4 16 13.5 25 23.5 8 8.0 17 14.4 26 25.0 To calculate the nitric oxide found to nitric acid in ii;rainmes, multiply the number of cubic centimeters of nitric oxide calculated to the normal state by the factor 0.002418. b. W. Wolf's method of ddcrmlmng the nitric acid by means of zinc in alkaline solution. — This method, which is distinguished by simplicity and accuracy, is based upon the reduction of nitrates to ammonia gas by zinc in alkaline solution throngli the hydrogen formed thereby. Since the presence of humus substances impairs the e.xperiment, the 1000 cubic centimeters of aqueous ex- tract (p. 110) to be used for this purpose must, in case they show a brown coloration, be boiled with the addi- tion of some pure milk of lime, whereby the humus substances are separated. After filtering the latter oif, the excess of lime in the filtrate is precipitated by the introduction of pure carbonic acid and, after again filter- ing, the filtrate is evaporated to 100 cubic centimeters. PLANT-NOUETSHING SUBSTANCES. 117 Now brino' the fluid into a glass flask of about h liter capacity and compound it with soda lye, so that it con- tains about 14 grammes of soda. Close t]ie flask quickly with a perforated rubber cork and insert a cylindrical funnel tube in the perforation. Close the top of the funnel tube with a rubber cork through which passes an open glass tube. Bring into the funnel tube glass beads moistened with hydrochloric acid, so that the hydrogen evolved can escape free from ammonia. The evolution of hydrogen is induced by placing a spiral of sheet zinc and sheet iron soldered together in the fluid. This gas is allowed to act upon the nitrates 4 to 5 hours at an ordinary temperature. The rubber cork is then carefully withdrawn, its lower surface rinsed off' and, after rinsing the hydrochloric acid adhering to the glass beads into the flask by means of a wash-bottle, the spiral, which must also be rinsed off", is taken from the fluid with the aid of tweezers. Now quickly add some soda lye to the fluid, and connect the flask by means of the rubber cork with a glass receiver, in the other end of which a knee-shaped tube is inserted through a rubber cork. This glass tube reaches into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask containing about 10 cubic centimeters of pure dilute hydrochloric acid. The end of the tube in the receiver should not dip into the fluid, but be just above its surface. Now boil the fluid which contains the ni- trosren in the form of ammonia until one-half of it has been distilled into tlie receiver. The determination of the ammonium chloride con- tained in the distillate can be efifected in various ways : 1. Determination of the ammonium chloride as am- monio-platinum after the conversion of the nitric acid into 118 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. ammonium chloride. — The above-mentioned distillate, which contains the sal ammoniac is evaporated to a small volume upon the water-bath and compounded in excess with pure platinum chloride solution free from nitric acid. The whole is then evaporated nearly to dryness upon the water-bath and a mixture of 2 vol- umes of absolute alcohol and 1 of ether added. The residue remaining undissolved, constituting a heavy pale-yellow powder, is brought upon a filter previously weighed and dried at 257° F., and washed with alcohol containing ether, of the above-mentioned composition. It is then dried at 257° F. and weighed in a tarred weighing iiask. The result is not effected by a darker color of the precipitate. If the metallic platinum is to be weighed, it is only necessary to heat the ammonio-platinum in a crucible covered with a lid. Heating must, however, be effected very gradually as otherwise the escaping vapors of chlo- rine and ammonium chloride might readily carry away particles of platinum. After detaching the precipitate as much as possible, the filter is incinerated by itself and then added to the mass. To obtain the equivalent of nitric acid, multiply the ammonio-platinum by 0.241, or the })latinum by 0.547. 2. Volumetric determination by the Knop- Wagner azotometer of the nitrogen in the ammonium chloride after converting the nitric acid into ammonium chloride. — This method is based upon the process that a sal ammoniac solution is decomposed by sodium bromide solution, nitrogen being liberated : 3(BrONa) + 2(XII^C1) = 3(BrNa) + 3(OH,) + 2HC1 + 2N. The solution of sodium bromide is prepared as fol- PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 119 lows: Dissolve 100 grammes of caustic soda in 12-50 cubic centimeters of distilled water, cool the solution and add, with constant shaking, 25 cubic centimeters of bromine. This lye is gradually decomposed by light and must, therefore, be kept in a dark bottle. Fifty cubic centimeters of it are capable of evolving 130 to 150 cubic centimeters of nitrogen from sal ammoniac solution. The Knop- Wagner azotometer (Fig. 17) is arranged as follows : The bottom of the developing vessel is ce- mented in a metallic ring and loaded with lead. It is partitioned off into divisions by a glass wall not reaching quite to the top ; one of these divisions is filled with sal ammoniac solution and the other with bromine lye. It is necessary to constantly retain a determined propor- tion of volume of the two fluids. Hence, the distillate mentioned on p. 117 is evaporated nearly to dryness in a porcelain dish and, after filling a pipette, holding 10 cubic centimeters, with distilled water, a few drops are added to dissolve the sal ammoniac. This solution is poured through a long funnel-tube into one of the divis- ions of the developing vessel, the porcelain dish and funnel-tube being rinsed out with the water remaining in the pipette. Into the other division 50 cubic cen- timeters of bromine lye, prepared according to the direc- tions given above, are introduced by means of a pipette. The developing vessel being closed with a rubber cork, it is immersed in the cooling vessel so that the rubber cork is just covered with water. This cooling vessel, as well as the tall glass cylinder, is filled Avitli cool water of the same temperature. Through the rubber cork of the developing vessel passes a glass tube provided with 120 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. a glass stop-cock which is connected by means of rubber tubing with the graduated glass tube in tlie cylinder. Fig. 17. The glass stop-cock is loosened or taken out, and the communicating tubes inclosed in the glass cylinder are filled with water by compressing the rubber ball pro- vided with a hole, the clip being opened at the same time. By discharging the water through the clip, the lower meniscus of the surface of the water is exactly brought to the point of the graduated tube. After 5 minutes the glass stop-cock is firmly replaced, but so that the developing vessel remains in communication with the graduated tube. Now wait 5 minutes, and PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 121 then observe whether the surface of the Avater in the graduated tube has risen in consequence of the contrac- tion of the air due to cooling oif. This being the case the glass stop-cock is once more loosened, then firmly replaced and, after 5 minutes, the height of water in the graduated tube again observed. This is repeated until the water level remains constant at the point. The developing vessel is now taken from the cooling cylinder and, after discharging 20 to 30 cubic centimeters of water through the clip, the bromine lye is gradually allowed to flow into the sal ammoniac solution by in- clining the developing vessel. The evolution of nitro- gen is promoted by swinging the glass. The glass stop- cock is now closed, and, after vigorously shaking the de- veloping flask, the stop-cock is again opened and the developed nitrogen allowed to pass into the graduated tube, this operation being repeated three times. The developing vessel is now replaced in the cooling cylinder and brought into communication with the graduated tube by means of the glass stop-cock. After 15 minutes it has acquired the same temperature as before, and suffi- cient water is either discharged or added through the clip to bring the level in the two communicating tubes to the same height. Now read off" the number of cubic centimeters of nitrogen evolved, the temperature indi- cated by the thermometer in the cylinder, and the height of the barometer. Since the fluid in the developing vessel has absorbed a not inconsiderable quantity of nitrogen, it has to be taken into calculation. In order to utilize, for this purpose, the following table by Dietrich, it is necessary always to use exactly 10 cubic centimeters of the fluid 122 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. to be examined and 50 cubic centimeters of bromine Ive of the above-mentioned concentration, since the (juantity of gas absorbed also changes with tlie concentration and quantity of the fluid. Dietrich's table for the absorption of nitrogen in GO cubic centi- meters' developing fluid (50 cubic centimeters of bromine lye and 10 cubic centimeters of water), with a specific gravity of the lye of 1.1, and such a strength that 50 cubic centimeters correspond to 200 cubic centimeters of nitrogen, tcith an evolu- tion of 1 to 100 cubic centimeters of nitrogen. Evolved Absorbed com. ccm. 1 0.06 2 00.8 3 0.11 4 0.13 5 0.16 6 0.18 7 0.21 8 0.23 9 0.26 10 0.28 Evolved Absorbed cem. ccm. 11 0.31 12 0.33 13 0.36 14 0.38 15 0.41 16 0.43 17 0.46 18 0.48 19 0.51 20 0.53 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 21 0.56 22 0.58 23 0.61 24 0.63 25 0.66 26 0.68 27 0.71 28 0.73 29 0.76 30 0.78 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 31 0.81 32 0.83 33 0.86 34 0.88 35 0.91 36 0.93 37 0.96 38 0.98 39 1.01 40 1.03 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 41 1.06 42 1.08 43 1.11 44 1.13 45 1.16 46 1.18 47 1.21 48 1.23 49 1.26 50 1.28 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 51 1.31 52 1.33 53 1.36 54 1.38 55 1.41 56 1.43 57 1.46 58 1.48 59 1.51 60 1.53 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 61 1.56 62 1.58 63 1.61 64 1.63 65 1.66 66 1.68 67 1.71 68 1.73 69 1.76 70 1.78 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 71 1.81 72 1.83 73 1.86 74 1.88 75 1.91 76 1.93 77 1.96 78 1.98 79 2.01 80 2.03 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 81 2.06 82 2.08 83 2.11 84 2.13 85 2.16 86 2.18 87 2.21 88 2.23 89 2.26 90 2.28 Evolved Absorbed ccm. ccm. 91 2.31 92 2.33 93 2..36 94 2.38 95 2.41 96 2.43 97 2.46 98 2.48 99 2.51 100 2.5:5 Calculate first to the normal condition, according to the formula given on j). 115, the quantity of nitrogen read off in the graduated tube, taking into consideration the tension of the aqueous vapor. Then take from Dietrich's table the quantity of gas absorbed at the volume evolved. Add this to the quantity of nitrogen calculated to the PLANT-XOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 123 normal state and the equivalent quantity of nitric acid is obtained by muliplying by the factor 0.0048452. 3. Special method in the examination of peat. — Peat moors, which are to be cultivated, require special ex- amination. A determination of ash by carefully ignit- ing the substance dried at 212° F. will always have first to be executed. The content of carbonic acid in the ash is to be determined and deducted from the per cent, of ash. About 10 grammes of the ash are used for an aqueous extract, and the calcareous earth, magnesia, potassium, sodium, sulphuric acid, and chlorine contained therein are determined. The residue remaining from the aqueous extract is boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and, after separating the silica, alumina, ferric oxide, calcareous earth, magnesia, potassium, sodium, and phos- phoric acid are determined. The residue remaining thereby is, after boiling with sodium carbonate solution, designated as sand. 11. Extraction of the soil with carbonated icater. — Pour over 1500 grammes of air-dry soil in a flask 6000 cubic centimeters of water J saturated with carbonic acid, less the quantity of water escai)ing from the air- dry soil at 212° F. Then close the flask and shake. The water ^ saturated with carbonic acid is prepared by completely saturating, at an ordinary temperature and with a medium pressure of air, 1500 cubic centimeters of distilled water with carbonic acid and diluting with 4500 cubic centimeters of distilled water. The soil remains in contact with the water for three days, the flask being frequently rolled upon a soft support. The soil is then allowed to settle and 5000 cubic centimeters 124 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. of the supernatant clear fluid arc siphoned off in two separate portions, one of 1000 and the other of 4000 cubic centimeters. The two fluids arc then allowed to stand quietly in hermetically closed flasks for twenty-four hours, when they are filtered off clear without stirring up the sediment. During this operation the filtering funnel should be kept covered. The 1000 cubic centimeters, which correspond to 250 grammes of soil dried at 212° F., are now gradually evaporated to dryness in a small weighed platinum dish upon the water-bath. The residue is dried in the air- bath at 257° F., and quickly weighed after cooling in the desiccator. By this means the sum total of the sub- stances dissolved in the carbonated water is found. The mass is then moderately ignited, several times moistened with ammonium carbonate, again ignited, cooled in the desiccator, and once more weighed. In this manner the sum total of the refractory inorganic salts is obtained, and their content of carbonic acid can best be de- termined by the method given on p. 64. The determina- tion of the carbonic acid being finished, the fluid in the flask may further be used for the qualitative determina- tion of the presence of the various constituents. The greater portion of the carbonated aqueous ex- tract (4000 cubic centimeters corresponding to 1000 grammes of the soil dried at 212° F.) is also filtered. In case the filtrate is not entirely clear, E. W^olff pro- poses to evaporate .the fluid to 400 cubic centimeters, slightly over-saturate it, while still hot, Avith hydro- chloric acid, and to filter off the small quantity of in- soluble clay. To destroy the humus substances, as well as to oxidize the iron, the fluid is compoinulcd with a PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 125 few drops of nitric acid and evaporated to pulverulent dryness by heating it in a porcelain crucible, several times moistenino; the substance with water when it be- comes dry, and rubbing it to a powder with a glass pestle. The mass is then moistened with hydrochloric acid, and, after adding boiling water, the fluid is filtered to separate silica. In the filtrate, alumina, ferric oxide, phosphoric acid, calcareous earth, magnesia, sulphuric acid, potassium, and sodium are determined. The fluid is now heated to boiling and compounded with ammonia slightly in excess. A weighable precipi- tate oi ferric oxide will only be formed with acid humus soils. If, however, the precipitate is too small to be weighed, redissolve it by adding a few drops of hydro- chloric acid, compound the boiling-hot solution with a few drops of very dilute ferric chloride solution and again precipitate with ammonia slightly in excess. The precipitate contains the entire quantity of phosphoric acid dissolved in the carbonated water as ferric phos- phate (FePO^). Filter the precipitate oflF, wash it with hot water until a drop running ofi' from the funnel is no longer made turbid by silver nitrate, and then detach it as much as possible from the filter with a feather. The particles of the precipitate still adhering to the filter are dissolved with hot dilute nitric acid by allowing the latter to fall drop by drop upon the filter and placing the beaker containing the detached precipitate under- neath the filter. Wash the filter with hot water. Then heat the fluid in the beaker and add nitric acid until the precipitate is dissolved. The solution is evaporated to a small quantity in a porcelain dish and rinsed with as little water as possible into the beaker. 126 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. Precipitafion of the jjhosjihoric acid with ammonium molybdate and weighing as magnesium pyrophosphate. — The ammonium molybdate solution required for the pre- cipitation of the phosphoric acid is prepared as folloAvs : Dissolve 40 grammes of ammonium molybdate in 80 cubic centimeters of concentrated ammonia and 320 cubic centimeters of distilled water and slowly pour the fluid, with constant stirring, into a mixture of 480 cubic centimeters of nitric acid (1.18 specific gravity), and 120 cubic centimeters of water. Of the solution thus prepared, add an abundant qnantity to the fluid to be examined, and let the mixture stand for twelve hours at 104° F. During this time the phosjjhoric acid separates as ammonium phospho- molybdate in the form of a yellow granular crystalline precipitate. Now siphon off a small portion of the supernatant clear fluid, and test it as to whether a pre- cipitate is again formed after once more adding am- monium molybdate solution and standing for some time. If such is the case, the test sample is again added to the whole, and, after adding fresh ammonium molybdate solution, it is again allowed to stand for twelve hours at 104° F. The supernatant fluid is then poured off through a small filter, and the precipitate in the beaker repeatedly washed, by decanting, with a mixture of 100 parts of ammonium molybdate solution, 20 parts of nitric acid of 1.2 specific gravity, and 80 parts of water. To be sure that all the iron is in the filtrate, the wash-water running ofl' from the filter towards the end of the opera- tion should not yield a precipitate on being comjjoinided with ammonia. Now place the beaker containing the PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 127 washed precipitate under the funnel, dissolve any particles of the precipitate adhering to the filter in a few drops of concentrated ammonia, and wash the filter with a mixture of one volume ammonia and three volumes water. If the precipitate in the beaker does not dissolve entirely clear, the fluid must be again poured through the filter before washing the latter. To the clear filtrate add, drop by drop, hydrochloric acid until the yellow precipitate formed thereby only disappears after repeated shaking. Then precipitate the phosphoric acid as am- monium magnesium phosphate with magnesia mixture. The magnesia mixture is prepared as follows : Dissolve 1 part of crystallized magnesium sulphate and 2 parts of ammonium chloride in 8 parts of water, and 4 parts of ammonia. The precipitate is washed, as given on p. 71, with ammoniacal water, dried, ignited, and weighed as magnesium pyrophosphate. To calculate from this the phosphoric acid, multiply the weighed quantity by the factor 0.64. Determination of the pliosphoric acid as ammonium phospho-molyhdate, according to R. Finkener. — By this method the precipitation of the phosphoric acid with magnesia mixture is avoided, and it has the further ad- vantage that even in the presence of very small quanti- ties of phosphoric acid, a comparatively large weight is brought upon the balance. When the phosphoric acid has been precipitated, after adding 25 per cent, ammonium nitrate, with ammonium molybdate in the manner described on p. 126, the precip- itate is brought upon a small filter and washed with a solution of ammonium nitrate, which contains 20 per cent, of the salt and is previously mixed with -^-q its volume of nitric acid. Washing; is finished when the 128 THE EXAJriXATTON OF SOILS. solution running off is no longer immediately colored by yellow prussiate of potash. AVben the greater portion of the ammonium nitrate has been removed by washing with som€ water, the i)re- cipitate is injected by means of a wash-bottle from the filter into a weighed porcelain crucible. What adheres to the paper is detacJied with heated liquid ammonia, and after concentrating this solution by evaporating and oversatu rating it with nitric acid, it is also brought into the crucible. After the fluid is first evaporated upon Via. IS. the water-bath, the crucible is placed by means of a triangle upon Finkener's drying stand (Fig. 18), in which the flame is cooled off by three different wire screens placed one above the other. Only a moderate PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 129 heat is required for the expulsion of the ammonium nitrate. The operation is finished when a watch-crystal placed over the crucible is not tarnished. The ammo- nium phospho-molybdate remaining in the crucible con- tains for 1 part of phosphoric acid (P^^s) ^'^ parts of molybdic acid (M^Og). It is placed, while hot, in the desic- cator filled with sulphuric acid and, when cold, quickly weighed since it is hygroscopic. To calculate the salt to the equivalent quantity of phosphoric acid (PgOj) nnd- tiply the weighed quantity by the factor 0.03794. Further treatment of the soil extract prepared loith car- bonated water. — The filtrate from the precipitate with ammonia (p. 125) is heated to boiling and the calcareous earth precipitated with ammonium oxalate in the manner given on p. 68 et seq. After the calcium oxalate has been filtered off, evapo- rate the fluid to about 10 cubic centimeters, compound it with a few drops of hydrochloric acid until it shows an acid reaction, and precipitate the sulphuric add with barium chloride solution without, however, adding too large an excess of it. The precipitate, consisting of barium sulphate, is treated in the same manner as described on p. 109 for the determination of sulphuric acid in the aqueous extract. In the filtrate the excess of barium sulphate is pre- cipitated by a few drops of sulphuric acid, the precipi- tate filtered off and the fluid after being neutralized with ammonia is evaporated, with constant stirring, to dry- ness in a platinum dish. The ammoniacal salts are then expelled by igniting, the residue is taken up with some hydrochloric acid and water, and filtered in case some more barium sulphate has separated. From the 9 130 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS, very concentrated solution, the magnesia is precipitated by ammonium carbonate (compare p. 104 et seq.). Weigh tlic alkalies as sulphates and separate the potassium by precipitating with platinum chloride and taking up the precipitate with the mixture of hydrochloric acid, alco- hol and ether, in the manner described on p. 108. III. Extraetion of the soil icith cold concentrated hy- drochloric acid. — Pour over 200 grammes of aii'-dry soil in a cylinder, which can be closed with a glass sto]>per, 400 grannnes of pure concentrated hydrochloric acid and allow the latter to act upon the substance at the ordinary temperature of a room, for forty-eight hours, shaking the cylinder frequently. The hydrochloric acid is then much diluted, poured off through a filter, and the soil washed by repeatedly decanting it wath hot water until a drop running off from the funnel shows no reaction with silver nitrate. The separation of the dissolved substances is effected in the same manner as with soil treated with boiling- concentrated hydrochloric acid. IV. Extraction of the soil icith boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid. — Only in a few cases will it be pos- sible to simultaneously prepare the four extracts men- tioned on p. 102, they requiring much labor and time. Hence, as a rule, the experimenter will have to be satis- fied with one extract, and, in such a case, it is best to chose that with boiling concentrated hydrochloric acid, which, as previously mentioned, contains the sum-total of all the plant-nourishing substances available at the present and becoming active in thefidurc. Of sand soils weigh out 100 gi-ammes, and of clay >soils 50 grammes of the air-dry fine soil. Bring the PLANT-XOUEISHING SUBSTANCES. 131 Fig. 19. weighed out quantity into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask and pour over it, in the first case, 200, and in the latter, 100 cubic centimeters of pure concentrated hydrochloric acid of 1.15 specific gravity. Put the boiling flask upon a sand-bath (Fig. 19), and place u[)on it a small funnel, o, with a short tube, using, however, the pre- caution of inserting between the neck of the flask and the funnel a small piece of a glass rod, 6, bent at an angle of 45°, so that in boiling the vapors can escape unrestrained, and the scattering of the fluid through the funnel tube is prevented. The soil is boiled with the acid exactly one hour. Then add a large excess of distilled water, stir with a glass rod, and allow the soil to settle. AVhen the supernatant fluid is clear, pour it off through a filter and wash the soil in the boiling flask by decant- ing with hot water until a drop run- ning off from the filter shoAvs no turbidity with silver nitrate. The clear filtrate is compounded with some nitric acid, and, to separate the dissolved silica, is then brought to dusty dryness in a porcelain dish upon the water-bath. The separation of the silica must be very carefully done, as otherwise it will erroneously affect the determination of phosphoric acid. The filtrate from the silica is compounded hot with ammonia, the ferric oxide and alumina being thereby precipitated. Then add a few drops of acetic acid ]32 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. imtil the Huid shows a slight acid reaction and boil again. The precipitate which, as a rule, is considerable, is brought upon two large rapidly filtering filters, thoroughly washed with hot water, and then detached as much as possible from the filters with the aid of a feather. The particles adhering to the filters, as well as the detached precipitate, are dissolved in hot dilute nitric acid. Bring the solution into a flask of 500 cubic centimeters capacity, and take 100 cubic centimeters of it by means of a pipette for the determination of iron and alumina. The remaining 400 cubic centimeters are evajjorated to a small quantity and used^ for the de- termination of phosphoric acid according to the method described on p. 127. In the 100 cubic centimeters, pre- cipitate the ferric oxide and alumina with ammonia, weigh the ignited precipitate, dissolve it in hydrochloric acid or potassium sulphate, and determine the iron by titration with potassium permanganate solution in the manner described on p. 87 et seq. The total filtrate of the principal precipitate is com- pounded with ammonium sul})hide, whereby the man- ganese is precipitated as manganous sulphide. The precipitate is filtered, washed with water containing am- monium sulphide, and, after drying, incinerated, together with the filter, in a weighed crucible. Now add some flowers of sulphur, heat the crucible in a current of hydrogen and let it also cool in it. The green residue in the crucible consists of mangauous sulphide (M„S), M'hich, after cooling in the desiccator, is weighed. The equivalent quantity of manganous oxide is obtained by multiplying the manganous sulphide by the factor 0.877. PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 133 The filtrate from the precipitate with ammonium sul- phide is over-saturated with hydrochloric acid and boiled until the, at first, milky sulphur separated, balls together on the bottom, and the supernatant fluid is clear. The sulphur is filtered oif, the filter washed, and the calcare- ous earth, magnesia, and alkalies are determined in the filtrate in the manner gis'en on p. 104 et seq. If the quantity of silica separated in soluble form in the extract with hydrochloric acid is to be detern^ined, the silica which has been dissolved in the hydrochloric acid and separated in an insoluble form in evaporating the latter, must be weighed as well as that remaining in solu- ble modification in the soil. For this purpose repeatedly boil the soil-residue from the extract with hydrochloric acid with concentrated sodium carbonate solution to Avhich some soda lye has been added. Then filter off the soil and over-saturate the filtrate with hydrochloric acid by covering it with a watch crystal and slowly adding the acid drop by drop. The fluid is then evoporated to dusty dryness, the residue taken up with hydrochloric acid, diluted with distilled water and the silica, separated in an insoluble form, ignited and weighed in the manner described on p. 97 et seq. B. Determination of some important substances for the nourishment of plants, which can either not, or only partially, be determined in the soil-extracts. 1. Determina- tion of the total nitrogen in the soil. a. Kjeldahl's method. — This process was devised by J. Kjeldahl, of Copenhagen. It is based upon the theory that the sub- stance, which is to be used dry, is so altered by boiling for some time with an abundant quantity of concen- trated sulphuric acid, that by the succeeding oxidation 134 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. with dry pulv'erulent potassium permanganate, all the nitrogen is converted into ammonia. A modified pro- cess adapted for the investigation of soils is as fol- lows : — The substance dried at 212° F. is poured from a long thin weighing tube into a boiling flask of 100 cubic centimeters capacity, care being had that no substance remains adhering in the neck. With humus and peat soil 0.5 to 1 gramme of the finely pulverized soil is used, and with humus sand soils and fat and clammy soils 2 to 5 grammes. Then add 20 cubic centimeters of a mixture of 16 volumes of pure concentrated sulphuric acid, 4 of pure fuming sulphuric acid, and 2 grammes of anhydrous phosphoric acid, place the boiling flask in an oblique position upon the sand-bath and boil the fluid until it has acquired a wine-yellow color. Then remove the flame, and, after cooling somewhat, add to the solution, while still hot, an excess of dry pulverulent potassium permanganate in small portions until the solution has acquired a blue-green color. After cooling, the solution is brought into a boiling flask holding one liter (Fig. 20), and diluted with distilled water to 200 cubic centimeters. The boiling flask is connected by means oi' a rubber cork with an obliquely ascending glass tube expanding to a bulb, which enters a glass receiver. From the other end of the receiver a tube leads into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask which contains some pure dilute hydrochloric acid in which, however, the tube need not to dip. Now open the rubber cork, add to the fluid 80 cubic centimeters of soda lye which con- tains 50 grammes of caustic soda, and quickly replace the cork upon the boiling flask. Now distil the fluid PLANT-NOURISHING SUBSTANCES. 135 for half an liour, (luring which time the ammonia is completely expelled and absorbed by the hydrochloric acid in the receiver. The hydrochloric acid is evapo- rated to dryness, rinsed with 10 cubic centimeters of Fis. 20. distilled water into the developing vessel of the Knop- Wajyner azotometcr and the nitrogen determined volumetrically by decomposing the sal ammoniac with bromine lye (compare p. 118). b. Determination of the nitrogen by combustion icith soda lime. — For this determination use a tube of hard 51fitlU. glass of the form shown in Fig. 21. Before drawing the tube out it is tlioroughlv cleansed, and, after heating, 136 ' THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. dried by sucking out tlie air. Now first slip into the tube a loosely fitting plug of asbestos, previously ignited, and then a layer of 3 to 4 cubi(! centimeters of soda lime free from nitric acid previously moderately heated in a porcelain dish, and which, for use, should have a temperature of 104° to 122° F. Now weigh out 1 to 10 grammes of fine soil finely i)ulverized and dried at 212° ¥., and mix it in a porcelain mortar with some warm, finely pulverized soda lime and about J gramme of pure cane sugar. Introduce the mixture, while warm, into the combustion tube, forcible pressure being care- fully avoided. The mixture is followed by a layer of soda lime used to rinse the mortar. Then add enough granulated soda lime to fill the tube to about 4 centi- meters of the open end and place another plug of ignited asbestos at the end. In the tube is inserted, by means of a rubber cork, the end of a Will-Varrentrapp ai)])a- ratus, which is previously filled, by means of a pipette, to one-quarter of its volume with pure distilled water, and 1 cubic centimeter of pure concentrated hydrochloric acid, as shown in Fig. 21. The hydrochloric acid used must first be tested as to its purity ; and should leave no residue after evaporating with platinum chloride and taking up the mass with alcohol. Before placing the tube in the combustion (uniace, a free passage is formed fi)r the evolved gases by a few gentle taps. The tube is then gradually heated com- mencing at the fore part nearest the cork and j)rogress- ing slowly towards the tail. Care must be taken to keep the fore part of the tube at a moderate red heat throughout the process. The addition of sugar is claimed to promote the conversion of the nitrogen into ammonia. PLANT-NOUEISHING SUBSTANCES. 137 Combustion is finished when no more black carbonace- ous particles are perceptible in the substance. Now break off the point of the ascendino; tube and at the same time put out the gas. Then by means of an aspirator connected by rubber tubing with the end of the AVill- Varrentrapp apparatus draw a slow current of air through the apparatus. Now pour the fluid from the Will-Varrentrapp apparatus into a porcelain dish, rinse out wdth water, and evaporate nearly to dryness. By now taking the residue up with some water, the greater portion of tarry substances formed by combustion re- mains in the dish. The fluid containing the sal ammo- niac is evaporated nearly to dryness in a small dish upon the water-bath, and the nitrogen determined either volumetrically in the Knop- Wagner azotometer (see p. 118 etse<]) or weighed as ammonio-platinum (see p. 117). 2. Determination of the ammonia contained in the soil. — As a rule soils contain but small quantities of ammoniacal gas and ammoniacal salts, they being gener- ally rapidly oxidized to nitric acid. To determine them, it is best to fill the soil taken from the field in its natu- ral moist condition into a wide-necked glass flask, close the latter hermetically and use the soil for analysis as soon as possible after being taken from the field. The methods based upon distilling the soil compounded with water with soda lye or manganic oxide and catching the escaping ammonia in a receiver do not yield accurate results, since after the expulsion of the ammonia already formed, the nitrogenous organic substances are also at- tacked and constantly yield small quantities of ammonia. The following method can, however, be recommendcid : 138 THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. Schlwsin(/'s modified method for the accurate determi- nation of the ammonia in thesoil. — Introduce 100 grammes of the soil into a liter flask, and at the same time deter- mine, from the loss, the water which escapes at 212° F. from about 20 grammes of the sample used, so that later on the content of ammonia can be calculated to sub- stance dried at 212° F. Pour over the soil in the flask, 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water, and add from a burette concentrated hydrochloric acid, until any carbonic acid])resent is com- j)letely expelled, and the fluid contains an excess of hy- drochloric acid. To the measured quantity of hydro- chloric acid, previously tested as to its purity by eva])o- rating with platinum chloride, add sufficient distilled water to make exactly 400 cubic centimeters of fluid. Then close the liter flask with a rubber cork, shake vig- orously and allow the soil to settle, for which 6 to 1 2 hours are required. The supernatant clear fluid is then quickly poured through a dry, folded filter, and 200 cubic centimeters of the filtrate, corresponding to 5 grammes of the soil used, are taken out with a pipette. Evapo- rate these 200 cubic centimeters to 10 cubic centimeters in a room free from ammonia and rinse them into a half liter flask, so that the fluid amounts to about 100 cubic centimeters. Now add concentrated soda lye until it is present in excess, introduce some granulated zinc into the flask and distil ofl^ one-half of the fluid through a receiver into an Erlenmeyer boiling flask, which con- tains some dilute hydrochloric acid for the reception of the ammoniacal gas. AYhen distillation is finished, the distillate is evajjorated nearly to dryness and the nitro- INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 139 gen volumetrically determined in the Kuop- Wagner azotometer. If, now, the cubic centimeters of nitrogen calculated to the normal condition are multiplied by the factor 0.001525, the content in grammes of ammoniacal gas (NH3) in 50 grammes of the soil used is obtained. VIII. DETERMINATION OF THE SUBSTANCES IN THE SOIL INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. The presence of certain substances in the soil may essentially influence the growth of plants, and in many cases render it even entirely impossible. Among these so-called poisons to cultivated plants may be included : Humic acids showing an acid reaction, too large quantities of common salt, free sulphuric acid, ferrous sulphate, and iron bisulphide. In many cases the establishment of the presence of these substances suffices without the necessity of their quantitative determination. Their presence can be partially shown in preparing the aqueous extract for the determination of the plant-nourishing substances. 1. Proof of the presence of free humic acids in the soil. — If the aqueous extract of a humus soil shows a distinct acid reaction towards litmus-paper ; and when the presence of sulphuric acid cannot be established by barium chloride, the acid will have to be traced back to humus substances. Soils showing this phenomenon generally also suffer from too much moisture, and the 140 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. field will have to be sufficiently drained by ditches or raised by carting sand u])()U it. Liming and marling will also be of advantage for fixing the humic acids. 2. Determination, of the content of common salt in the soil. — A^oelker's and Grandeau's investigations have shown that a soil becomes unproductive when its con- tent of common salt exceeds 0.1 per cent. In discussing the aqueous extract for the estimation of the plant- nourishing substances, the determinations of the content of chlorine and sodium have been considered. In most cases the quantity of chlorine found can be directly calculated to sodium. 3. Determination of the ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric acid, and iron disulphide. The occurrence of ferrous sulphate (greeii vitriol) or free sidphuric acid is dependent on the presence of iron disulphide in the soil. Iron pyrites which, according to Fleischer's investigations, are occasionally found in the soil, yield by their oxida- tion through oxygen free sulphuric acid and ferrous sul- phate = FeSj -I- 7 O = SO3 4- FeSO^. These combina- tions will always be formed when not sufficient bases, especially lime, are present for their saturation. The presence of iron disulphide in the sands under peat moors has several times caused complete failures in the establishment of the Rimpau moor-dam cultivation, in which such sand was brought upon the moor. Hence, it is of importance to examine the moor soil to be cultivated, as well as the sand to be used, in regard to these injurious substances. In the Prussian moor experimental station at Bremen, the following methods are used : — Of the moor or sand to be examined, an aqueous IXJUEIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 141 extract is prepared and tested for the presence of ferrous oxide by adding solution of red prussiate of potash. The presence of ferrous oxide is immediately recognized by the blue coloration of the fluid. Any acid reaction is determined by litmus paper. In the aqueous extract of 100 grammes of soil, potas- sium, sodium, calcareous earth, magnesia, ferrous or ferric oxide, chlorine, and sulphuric acid are determined, and the bases calculated to the acids present. The excess of sulphuric acid can be designated as free. a. Determination of the content of sulphur' in the soil by ignition. — Ignite 20 grammes of the fine soil extracted with water and dried in a Bohemian glass tube in a cur- rent of air, whereby any iron pyrites present are decom- posed and the sulphur is transformed into sulphuric and sulphurous acids. First slip a plug of glass-wool into the tube (Fig. 22), then pour the substance loosely upon it and insert another plug of glass-wool. The tail end of the tube communi- cates with a vessel filled with water which serves for controlling the current of air to be used in the combus- tion. The fore part of the tube is drawn out, bent at a right angle downward and connected with an absorb- ing vessel filled with potash lye free from sulphuric acid. By means of the aspirator attached to the absorbing vessel a current of air can be constantly conducted through the combustion tube. Between the absorbing vessel and the aspirator is first a funnel tube with glass beads moistened with potash lye, and next a bulb tube containing some neutral litmus solution, which during the operation should not change its color. The tube is placed in a combustion furnace and gradually heated to 142 THE EXAMIXATIOX OF SOILS. a reel licat, comnioncing at the tail and progressing slowly towards tlie fore part. When the tube is ignited throughout its whole leugth, the })roduets of distillation condensed in the drawn out portion of the tube arc finally, by means of a flame, forced down as far as pos- sible, so that -when the operation is finished they can be readily rinsed out with the wash-bottle. The potash lye is oversaturated with hydrochloric acid, compounded with bromine, to convert the sulphurous acid into sul- phuric acid, and the bromine removed by boiling. Now precipitate the sulphuric acid with barium chloride, ob- serving the precautionary measures given on p. 110, since the heavy precipitate in the concentrated common salt solution generally carries alkali down with it. AVith peats it is advisable to ignite the substance in a current of oxygen. By igniting the soil in a tube the entire quantity of sulpjmric acid contained in it is not obtained, but in the INJURIOUS TO THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 143 investigations of the moor experimental station at Bremen this metliod has proved itself as sufficiently accurate. From the above-mentioned methods, Fleischer calcu- lates the sulphuric acid present in a form injurious to plants as follows : — 1. Present as free acid (the residue of sulphuric acid which remains after calculating the acid to the bases of the aqueous extract). 2. Sulphuric acid contained in ferrous sulphate (calcu- lated from the content of ferrous oxide in the aqueous extract). 3. Sulphuric acid which may be formed from iron disulphide (obtained by igniting the soil extracted with water). 6.' Determinalion of the content of sulphur in the soil by disintegration with bromine. — Fuse 5 to 10 grammes of the finely powdered soil extracted with water with 20 cubic centimeters of distilled water and 5 cubic centime- ters of pure bromine free from sulphuric acid in a Bohe- mian glass tube, and gradually heat, with frequent shaking, to 158° F. upon the water bath. By the bro- mine the sulphur present is oxidized to sulphuric acid. When eutirely cold the tube is opened in the manner described on p. 84, the contents are rinsed into a beaker, diluted with water, and heated until an odor of bromine is no longer perceptible. Now filter the soil off, and precipitate the sulphuric acid in the filtrate in the above- mentioned manner. The sulphuric acid obtained from the aqueous extract is then deducted from the total sul- phuric acid, and the rest calculated to sulphur by multi- plying it by the factor 0.4. 144 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. In the presence of large quantities of gypsmn tin's method is not available, as, in this case, all the sulphates are not extracted by the aqueous extract. IX. DETERiMINATION OF VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL WHICH ARE DEPENDENT PARTIALLY ON PHYSICAL AND PARTIALLY ON CHEMICAL CAUSES. A. Weight of the soil. — We distinguish the specific gra v- ity, and the absolute volume or liter iceight of the soil. For determining them the following methods are suitable : — 1. Determination of the specific gravity. — A thin glass flask of about 100 cubic centimeters capacity, and pro- vided with a ground-glass stopper, drawn out to an open capillary tube, is filled up to the end of the capillary tube with distilled water of 60.8° F. The flask being carefully cleansed with a piece of leather, is then accu- rately weighed upon a chemical balance. The flask is then emptied, and a weighed quantity (about 20 gram- mes) of the soil dried at 212° F., and boiled with dis- tilled water is, when cold, introduced, and sufiicient water of 60.8° F. added to entirely refill the flask. It is then weighed. By adding the weight of the soil used to the weight of the flask filled with water and deduct- ing therefrom the weight of the flask filled with water and the soil, the difference expresses the weight of a volume of water which is equal to that of the quantity of soil nsed. Since, by this means the proportion of the PROPERTIES OB^ THE SOIL. 145 weiglits of equal volumes of soil and water are fouud, the specific gravity of the soil can, therefrom, be de- duced by dividing the weight of the soil with the weight of the water it has displaced. 2. Determination of the volume ivcight. — The volume or liter weight can be determined in two ways, by bringing the soil into a measuring vessel, either in an air-dry state, or saturated with water. Only the first-mentioned method is, according to R. Heinrich's experiments, required for soils containing but little humus, it yielding nearly the same results as saturation with water. For this purpose fill a measuring cylinder of 100 cubic centimeters capacity, with air-dry soil pulverized as uniformly as possible, by introducing the soil in small portions and compacting it by gently tapping the vessel upon a cork support until a diminution in volume no longer takes place. According to the kind of soil, one-half to one hour will be required for this process, care being taken that during the operation the measur- ing vessel is always filled with soil up to the mark. De- termine at the same time with a special sample the hygroscopic water which escapes at 212° F., the volume weight ascertained by weighing being always referred to substance dried at 212° F. By dividing the volume weight of the soil with the weight of the same volume of water the apparent specific gravity of the soil is obtained. By now dividing this apparent specific gravity with the specific gravity of the soil, the quotient expresses the porosity of the soil, /. e., the space which in soils in a dry state (its volume being put = 1) is occupied by 10 146 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. particles of air. This porosity is frequently calculated to 100 parts by volume of the soil. To determine the volume of a soil completely satu- rated with water, vigorously shake, according to E. Wolff, 25 to 30 grammes of finely pulverized, air-dry soil, whose volume Aveight is known, in a graduated tube with water containing 1 per cent, of sal ammoniac, and allow to settle. The volume is read off after twenty- four hours. lu the calculation the proportion existing between the volume of soil in a saturated state and the same volume of soil in a dry state is fixed by taking the latter as the unit. B. Behavior of tlie soil towards nourishing substances. — The power of tiie soil to retain separate substances presented to it in solution is termed absorption, and is dependent partially on chemical, and partially on ])hy- sical causes, though opinions differ in this respect. It has been ascertained that the soil takes up more from concen- trated than from more dilute solutions, and that the absorbed substances can be again partially withdrawn from the soil by washing with much water. The content of luuuus and clay has great influence upon the ab- sorbent ])o\ver of the soil, the latter, it is claimed, being also essentially increased by zeolitic minerals. The greater or smaller absorbent power of a soil being generally in direct proportion to its fertility, a determi- nation of this important property is of great value, since it has a bearing on practical agriculture, especially as to the rational treatment and application of farm-yard manure and the economical use of artificial manures. In order to imitate nature as closely as possible, very dilute nourishing solutions must be used for such experi- ments. PEOPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 147 1. Testing the absorbent pou-er of the soil ivith j^ or y-^ normal solutions. — For making these experiments the following salts are very suitable : Ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, magnesium sulp)hate, and monocalcium phosphate. Ammonium chloride, calcium nitrate, and magnesium sulphate can be readily prepared as chemically pure anhydrous salts, and in this state weighed in a closed weighing tube. The y^^ normal solution of these salts is prepared as follows : Weigh out exactly jig- of their molecular weight in grammes, which is equivalent to jIq of the atomic weight of hydrogen = 1, and dissolve it in 1000 cubic centimeters of distilled water of 60.8° F. The quantities of salt required for 1 liter are as follows : Ammonium chloride= 5.35 grammes, potassium nitrate = 10.11 grammes, magnesium sulphate=6.00 grammes. Since calcium nitrate forms a very deliquescent salt, and, therefore, cannot be directly weighed, a solution somewhat more concentrated than -^-^ normal solution is prepared. In every 20 cubic centimeters the content of calcium monoxide is determined by gravimetric analysis, and the mean of two determinations taken if their first decimals agree. Now calculate the quantity of nitric acid equivalent to the calcium monoxide, and compute with how many cubic centimeters of water the solution pre- l^ared will have to be diluted in order to contain 8.2 grammes of calcium nitrate in 1 liter. To determine the absorption of phosphoric acid, mono- calcium prosphate (CaH4[POj2+H20) is very suitably used, this soluble phosphorus salt being introduced into the soil by the superphosphates of commerce. For its preparation Fesca proposes the following method : Com- 148 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. pound a solution of commercial sodium phosphate with glacial acetic acid, precipitate it with calcium chloride solution, and wash the precipitate by decanting until the wash water shows no reaction with silver nitrate. Then bring the precii)itate in a moist state into cold concen- trated phosphoric acid until saturated. From the filtered solution, in a heated room, the monocalcium phosphate separates in crystals in 2 to 3 weeks. The crystals are rinsed oif with anhydrous ether, pressed between blotting paper, and dried over sulphuric acid. This salt being soluble without decomposition only in a very dilute solution, Fesca made his absorbent experi- ments with a iTj^o atomic solution which contained in 1 liter of water 2.5 grammes of monocalcium phosphate corresponding to 1.4 grammes of phosphoric acid (P^Oj). The coarser admixtures of the soil possessing no ab- sorbent power, soil passed through a 0.5 millimeter sieve is always used. For the determination of the absorption, 50 grammes of the soil are left in contact with 200 cubic centimeters of the normal solution for 48 hours, with frequent shaking, at a uniform temperature of 62.6° F. The soil is then allowed to settle, and after pouring the super- natant clear solution through a dry filter, the substance, the absorbed quantity of which is to be learned, is deter- mined in 100 cubic centimeters of the filtrate. Experi- ments have shown that in most cases it suffices to deter- mine the absorbent power of the soil for potassium^ phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. In order to proceed as uniformly as possible it is best to follow Fesca's pro- posal to use exactly 400 cubic centimeters of normal so- lution for 100 grammes of substance. The absorption- PEOPEETIES OF THE SOIL. 149 coefficient, i. e., the. quantity of the absorbed substance in milligrammes is always referred to 100 grammes of air- dry fine earth (less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter). 2. Determination of the absorption-coefficient according to Knop. — The following method for the rapid deter- mination of the absorption-coefficient has been proposed by Knop. He always uses for the experiments air-dry fine earth, by which he understands the portion of the soil which has passed through a wire sieve with 400 meshes to the square centimeter. When using a sieve with round holes, the soil passed through holes 0.5 milli- meter in diameter, though somewhat coarser than the material used by Knop, will, according to Fesca, be found suitable for the experiment. In case the soil is very binding it is boiled with water and passed through a sieve with holes 0.5 millimeter in diameter with the aid of a stiff brush. For the experi- ment use 50 or 100 grammes of the perfectly air-dry fine earth and add 5 or 10 grammes of elutriated powdered chalk. Pour ov^er this mixture in a cylindrical vessel, which can be effectually closed, a solution of ammonium chloride so prepared that one cubic centimeter of it on being decomposed with sodium bromide evolves exactly 1 cubic centimeter of nitrogen (in the normal state). Such a solution is obtained by dissolving exactly 5 grammes of freshly sublimed sal ammoniac in 1040 cubic centimeters of water of 63.5° F. Now add to 50 grammes of fine earth 100, or to 100 grammes of fine earth, 200 cubic centimeters of this sal ammoniac solu- tion and let the soil remain in contact with it, with fre- quent shaking, for 48 hours. Then allow the soil to settle and pour the supernatant clear fluid through a dry 150 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. filter. From the filtrate take quickly, by means of a pipette, 20 or 40 cubic centimeters, and, after adding one drop of pure hydrochloric acid, evaporate nearly to dry- ness in a small porcelain dish upon the water-bath. Rinse the sal ammoniac remaining in the porcelain dish Avith 10 cubic centimeters of water into one of the divis- ions of the developing flask of the Knop- Wagner azot- ometer, decompose it with 50 cubic centimeters of bro- mine lye, and determine the nitrogen volumetrically. The volume of nitrogen read oif is, with due considera- tion of the tension of the aqueous vapor, the height of the barometer, and the temperature, calculated to the normal condition, and the nitrogen which remains ab- sorbed in the 60 cubic centimeters of fluid (see p. 118 et seq.) added. In case the soil possesses no absorption, 20 or 40 cubic centimeters of nitrogen must be obtained. Knop understands by absolution the loss of nitrogen which 200 cubic centimeters of sal ammoniac solution suffer Avhen in contact with 100 grammes of soil. Hence, the cubic centimeters of nitrogen determined in the azotometer must be deducted from the number of cubic centimeters of sal ammoniac solution used, and the difference calculated to 100 grammes of air-dry soil less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter. Forjudging the fertility of a soil the determination of Kuop's absorption-coefficient is of great value, since, though in exceptional cases an entirely unproductive soil may happen to possess great absorption, a soil with slight absorption can never be classed with very fertile soils. Knop considers absorptions of from to 5 degrees as insufficient, of from 5 to 10 as sufficient, while those of PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 151 from 10 to 10 higher degrees progressively increase the vahie of tiie soil. In the valuation of the soil by absorption, it must always be borne in mind that it would be entirely wrong to judge the soil by this property alone, since a single property favorable for the soil may, as regards its value, be entirely nullified by others exerting an unfavorable in- fluence. C. Behavior of the soil towards ivater. 1. The poicer of retaining moisture in the soil. — The amount of moisture retained by a soil is generally in direct ratio to its con- tents of organic matter and its state of division. A proper degree of fineness in the particles of the soil is very important to obtain, especially if it is subjected to drought. During dry weather plants require a soil that is both retentive and absorptive of atmospheric moisture, and that soil which has this faculty will evidently raise a more vigorous crop than one without it. Regarding this condition of retaining moisture, the materials which are most influential in soils may be arranged in tlie fol- lowing order : Organic matter, marls, clays, loams, and sands. For the determination of the power of the soil to retain moisture the following methods may be men- tioned : — a. By experiments in the laboratory. — Pour over 100 grammes of the air-dry fine soil 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water and effect the thorough saturation of the soil by stirring with a glass rod. Now rinse the soil with 100 cubic centimeters of water, admitted from a pipette, upon a filter satui'ated with water. The water ruunino; off is caught in a graduated cvlinder of 200 cubic centimeters capacity, and when nothing more drips 152 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. off, the quantity is read off in cubic centimeters. The difference between the quantity of water used (200 cubic centimeters) and that caught corresponds to the quantity of water retained by the soil. This behavior of the soil, Nvhich corresponds to its comparatively highest degree of looseness, has been designated the greatest or full capacity for ivater. It is calculated for 100 parts l)y weight, as well as for one liter of the soil dried at 212° F. This full capacity may also be determined as follows: Stir up 100 grammes of the air-dry soil (less than 2 millimeters in diameter) in the above-mentioned manner with any desired quantity of water in excess, and bring the whole with the aid of a wash-bottle into a previously weighed funnel in the point of which a small filter is in- serted. Cover the funnel with a watch crystal, and when, after standing for some time, no more water drips off, weigh it. Both these methods arc quite suitable for very pervious soils, but with very clayey or humus soils have the disadvantage that the dripping off of water already ceases when the mass in the filter is still in a thinly-pasty condition. Since, in order to obtain accurate comparable results, it is necessary for the samples of soil to be always in the same state of looseness, a method for laboratory experi- ments has been proposed by which this is sought to be attained as nearly as possible. For this purpose cylin- drical tubes of zinc sheet (Fig. 23), exactly 16 centi- meters long and 4 centimeters in diameter, are used. Their volume would, therefore, be 201.06 cubic centi- meters. The bottom of the tube consists of fine nickel wire gauze. Below the gauze a piece of zinc tube perforated PROl'ERTIES OF THE SOIL. 153 on the sides is soldered over it. Before use a piece of moistened fine linen is placed upon the wire gauze bottom, and after tying a piece of rubber over the lower end, the lower portion of the cylinder is filled with water Fia;. 23. up to the gauze bottom. Ts^ow pour 200 cubic centimeters of water of 60.8° F. into the cylinder and make a mark exactly over the level of the water. The edge of zinc sheet above this mark is filed off, so that the cylinder with the linen rag has a capacity of exactly 200 cubic centimeters, and may, at the same time, be used for the determination of the volume weight of the soil. After placing the moist linen rag in the cylinder the latter is first weighed and then filled, constantly tapping it against a soft support, with the uniformly divided air-dry soil. The soil is finally accurately leveled with a knife. The cylinder is again weighed and then placed in a glass dish containing water, so that the gauze bottom dips about -4 to 5 millimeters in the water. Over several tubes thus prepared a heavy glass bell shutting out the air is placed. In this manner the soil is then allowed to absorb water from below until saturated. According to the condition of the soil, its saturation with moisture will l^e observed on the surface in a longer or shorter time. The cylinders are allowed to remain under the glass bell until after 154 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. repeated weighing, for which i)urpose they are placed in a shallow porcelain dish, they show an approximately constant Aveight. In weighing the temperature and height of the barometer are to be observed. The in- crease in weiglit corresponds to the total quantity of water absorbed which can be directly calculated for the volume of soil. Another method corresponding still more to the natural conditions has been used by A. Mayer. He uses two glass tubes 0.75 and 0.25 meter long, and 2 centimeters in diameter. The upper shorter end is con- nected with the longer by a short rubber tube. The lower end of the long tube is closed by tying a piece of linen over it. The tubes are then filled with air-dry fine soil, they being gently tapped against a soft support during the operation. Then pour enough water upon the soil transitorily to establish its full capacity for water. By now waiting for some time the column of water sinks down. When no more water drips oif be- low, the rubber tube is disconnected, and on this place a sufficient quantity of soil is taken out, quickly weighed, and the water retained by it determined by drying at 212° F. With the assistance of the apparent specific gravity (p. 145), the capacity for water of the weight of soil can be calculated to the volume of soil. To the smallest quantity of water retained by the soil thus obtained, Mayer has applied the term absolute capacity for water. On account of their very slight permea- bility this method cannot be used \\ith very clayey soils. h. Determination of the loater capacity of the mil in its natural bed in the open field. — The following process was PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 155 devised by R. Heinrich, and deserves to be preferred to the experiments in the laboratory. To saturate the soil in its natural bed in the field, a round sheet-metal cylin- der, 20 cubic centimeters in diameter and 40 centimeters long, is used. The lower end of the cylinder consisting of strong sheet iron is sharpened and forced into the soil by means of the feet. For this purpose the cylinder is on both sides provided with a ledge, while to diminish the fall of the water to be poured in and not to mechan- ically reduce the soil to mud, a fine sieve is placed in the upper portion of the cylinder. When the cylinder has been firmly forced into the soil so that no water can run out on the side, it is entirely filled with water. The w'ater is then allowed to soak into the soil, the latter being covered with a board or sheet of parchment paper to protect it against evaporation and other influences. Sample taking is effected after 18 to 24 hours, since only then, according to Heinrich's experiments, the quantity of water retained remains constant for some time. After removing the cylinder, dig out with a spade the soil up to the centre of the spot terminated by the cylinder, using, however, the precaution of gently forcing the surface of the spade away from the sample to be taken. The uppermost layer of soil, from 2 to 4 centimeters thick, is removed, a piece cut out of the centre with a knife, brought into a powder flask of known weight and hermetically closed. The quantity of water which the soil retains is determined by continuous drying at 212° F. of the weighed sample in the flask and calculated to 100 grammes as well as to 1 liter of soil. Small stones over 0.5 centimeter in diameter contained in the sample are later on sorted out and their weight deducted. The 156 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. small quantity of water adhering to these stones need not be noticed. The method just described has later on been modified by Heinrich so that the soil is lifted out to the sub-soil and the cylinder placed upon the sub-soil. The top soil is then replaced in its former position outside the sheet- metal cylinder, while the rest of the soil is rubbed through the sieve with as little water as possible, so that all the coarser stones remain behind. For the determination of water the soil is, after about 24 hours, lifted out with a gouge-bit, the lower opening of which corresponds to a surface of 1 square centimeter. 2. The evaporating power of the soil. — In determining the evaporating power of the soil, it must also be sought to imitate as closely as possible the natural conditions by exposing a sufficiently thick layer of soil to the alterna- ting influence of the direct rays of the sun and to the shade. It is best to use for this purpose the cylindrical zinc tubes with sieve bottoms described on p. 152. According to E. Wolff, they are surrounded with a narrow shell of thick paste-board, and, after being filled with soil in a state of full water capacity, are placed alongside each other in a small wooden box whose shiftable lid is pro- vided with apertures corresponding to 'the diameter of the cylinders, so that the lateral radiation of the sun is en- tirely shut out. This box is placed in the open air, the zinc tubes being taken from the paste-board shells every 24 hours and their decrease determined by weighing, whereby the temperature of the surrounding air, its moisture, the height of the barometer at the time being, and the cloudy or cloudless state of the sky have to be noted. Since the weight of the air-dry soil used, as well PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 157 as the largest quautity of water retained by it, is known, the evaporating capacity can be given either in per cent, of the substance dried at 212° F., or in per cent, of the total quantity of water absorbed. 3. The filtrating poiver of the soil. — By the filtrating power of the soil is understood its property of allowing the water to percolate in a longer or shorter time. To de- termine this, a square zinc box 25 centimeters high and 3 centimeters wide, provided below with a funnel- shaped piece with discharge-pipe, is, according to E. AVolfF, employed. The discharge-pipe of the funnel- shaped piece is closed with cotton, projecting somewhat from the pipe. The funnel-shaped piece is filled with coarse quartz sand. The cotton and sand are saturated with water, when the apparatus is weighed. Now bring into the box, tapping it constantly against a soft support, a layer of air-dry soil 16 centimeters thick, and weigh. Then pour water over the soil and again weigh the box when no more dripping oif takes place. Thus the full water capacity is obtained. Now pour upon the soil, without stirring it up, a layer of water 8 centimeters deep and determine how much time it takes until no more dripping off from the dis- charge-pipe takes place. The filtering capacity of this layer of soil 16 centimeters thick, and in a state of full water capacity for a column of water 8 centimeters high, is given in feet. Since, however, in repeating the ex- periment more time is almost always consumed in filter- ing than in the first trial, the experiment has to be repeated five or six times, and the mean of the results taken. For very clayey soils this method is not available, since 158 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. the M^ater poured upon the soil remains standing without running- otf. The experiment may also be made by each time allow- ing exactly 50 centimeters to drop into a graduated cylinder and noting the time thereby consumed. 4. CnpiUary attraction of the soil. — To determine the capillary attraction by experiment, the lower ends of glass tubes each 100 centimeters long and 2 centimeters in diameter, arc closed with fine muslin by drawing a rubber ring over them, D (Fig. 24). Fill the tubes, tapping them gently, with air-dry fine soil (less than 2 millimeters in diameter), and insert them 1 to 2 centi- PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 159 metres deep in a glass dish, B (Fig. 24), containing water. It is recommended to nse for the experiment the stand A (Fig. 24), which is arranged for ten tubes, C, which, in order to keep them suspended in the water, are above secured by rubber rings, E. With the aid of a meter rule it is now ascertained how much time the fluid consumes in ascending 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 centimeters, and in what time the maxi- mum ascent is reached. The water absorbed by the soil from the glass dish B must constantly be replaced. The experiment may also be made by measuring the heights to which the fluid has risen in 24, 48, 72, 96, 120 hours. When the experiment is finished, it is also of interest to cut up the tubes into pieces 1 decimeter long, and to separately determine the content of water in them. It may here be remarked that the tubes of 100 centimeters length may also be used for the purpose of determining how deeply and rapidly a column of water of determined height (for instance, 10 centimeters) penetrates from above into the air-dry soil. D. Behavior of the soil toicards gases. 1. The absor- bent capacity of the soil for aqueous vapor, — To determine the saturation-degree of the soil in a space filled with aqueous vapors, bring 10 grammes of the air-dry soil into a shallow zinc box with a bottom-surface of 25 square centimeters, spreading it out as uniformly as possible. After Aveighing the box with the soil, place another weighed box of the same size, but empty, to- gether with the first, upon a tripod under a glass bell dipping in water. In the glass bell hang a thermo- meter, and at each weighing read oif the temperature. 1<)0 THE EXAMINATIOX OF SOILS. After 24 hours weigh the zinc box filled witli soil, as well as the empty one, and deduct the increase in weight of the latter from the increase in weight of the former. Repeat the weighings at intervals of 24 hours, until, with the same conditions of temperature, an approxi- mately constant weight is obtained. The moisture retained is calculated for 100 grammes of the soil dried at 212° F., and designated as the absorbent capacity for aqueous vapor. 2. The absorbent power of the soil for the oxygen of the atmospheric air. — The absorbent power of the soil for oxygen is traceable to chemical and physical causes. Its fixation chemically is effected by the oxidation of ferrous oxide combinations, metallic sulphides, and humus sub- stances which may be present in the soil. The physical absorption is dependent on the condensation of the gas upon the surface of the particles of soil. The chemical fixation of the oxygen preponderates by far, and from it a judgment can frequently be formed regarding the con- dition of the humus substances, they being found in the soil in a more or less readily decomposable state corre- sponding to the greater or smaller absorption of oxygen. According to W. Wolf, 50 or 100 grammes of soil are compounded with so much distilled water that the soil to be examined contains 20 per cent, of it. The soil is enclosed, together with an accurately measured quantity of air, in bottles of 500 centimeters capacity, and the change in the volume of air in from 8 to 14 days ob- served, the quantity of carbonic acid formed in place of the oxygen, which has disappeared, being at the same time determined. If simply the absorption-coefficient of the soil for PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 161 oxygen is to be determined, thoroughly moisten, accord- ing to F. Schulze, 25 grammes of soil in a small flask with quite concentrated potash lye, connect the flask with an azotometer in which a determined volume of air is shut off" by mercury and repeatedly shake the flask during the experiment. The decrease (after one to four days) in the volume of air contained in the entire apparatus gives the quantity of oxygen absorbed. G. Ammon, in his article " Untersuchungen iiber das Condensationsvermogen der Bodenkonstituenten flir Gas,"* sums up the most interesting results of his ex- periments as follows : — 1. The condensation of the gases by the soil is de- pendent on physical and chemical processes. 2. The absorption of gas in the soil brought about by chemical processes is of greater moment than that caused by surface attraction. The former is principally effected by the ferric oxide and next by the humus sub- stances. 3. The gases in being condensed by the soil are either absorbed as such, or they suffer thereby chemical changes. 4. The gases are generally condensed in a higher de- gree the more readily, they otherwise change their aggre- gate state and the more readily they are decomposed. 5. The condensation of the gases in the soil is the greater, the finer, under otherwise equal conditions, the particles of soil are. 6. The largest quantities of gases are condensed by the soil at a temperature between zero and 10° C, while * WoUny, Forscliungeu auf dem Gebiete der Agiikultur-Physik. Band II., 1879. 11 162 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. from that point on, the quantity of gases absorbed de- creases with the rise and fall of temperature. 3. Tlie ventilating power of the soil. — The ventilating power of a soil, i. e., the greater or smaller resistance opposed by diiferent soils in a wet state to the passage of the air, has been justly considered, by R. Heinrich, as a very important property forjudging of it. A\'hether drainage can be carried out in a field or not is solely dependent, it is claimed, on this property. The experiment is made, according to Heinrich, as follows : After the soil has been saturated by means of the sheet cylinder described on p. 155, under determina- tion of the water capacity in the open field, and a con- stant water capacity has been obtained, a square box o strong zinc sheet C (Fig. 25), 100 square centimeters in cross-section and 20 centimeters higli, is 10 centimeters deep sunk into the soil. On the outside of the box, 10 centimeters from the bottom, a strip of zinc sheet, 5 cen- timeters wide, is soldered on at a right angle, so that by this means the box can be forced by the foot into the soil to the above-mentioned depth, and, therefore, in- closes a cube of earth of 1000 cubic centimeters. The portion of the box above the soil serves as an air- chamber and is connected with the flask B, of ten liters capacity, by a tube soldered on, on the side. By the ad- mission of water by means of a siphon from the flask A, standing at a higher level, into the flask B, the air in the latter is compressed and forced through the soil. The flask B is provided with a manometer, D, by which the air-pressure can be measured. By raising or lowering the water reservoir A, the air-pressure can be increased or decreased at will. PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 163 In making the experiment, water is allowed to flow in until the manometer shows the desired pressure. Then shnt off the water by closing the clip and wait one or two minutes. If the pressure decreases during Ihis • Fi2. 25. tim admit more water until the first pressure has been again attained. By continuing the experiment in this manner, the time required to force 10 liters of air, at a determined height of the manometer, through 1 liter of soil is ascertained, E. Behavior of the soil towards heat. 1. Determina- tion of the heat-absorbent poioer of the soil. — A cylindrical glass vat 4 centimeters high and 16 centimeters in diameter, covered outside with thick asbestos pasteboard, is entirely filled with air-dry fine soil, then placed in a wooden box the lid of which is provided with an aper- ture corresponding to the cross-section of the glass vat 164 THE i:XAMrNATION OF SOILS. and exposed for (J hours to the direct rays of the sun. By a maximum thermometer, imbedded 1 centimeter deep in the soil, tlie temperature to which the soil during this time has been heated is then ascertained. The ex- periment is repeated under as equal conditions as pos- sible by imbedding the thermometer 2, 3 and 4 centime- ters deep and determining the maximum temperature to which the soil has been heated. The heating capacity of a soil is dependent on various conditions. The specific heat of the soils, i. e., their dif- ferent behavior regarding the absorption of varying quantities of heat units to increase their temperature 1° C, will have to be taken into consideration, further their color and their more or less inclined position. With soils saturated with moisture as found in the field, their greater or smaller content of water is, how- ever, of the greatest importance as regards the absorp- tion of heat. While 1 kilogramme of water requires 100 units of heat to be raised 1° C, an equal Aveight of clay requires only 17.8, and an equal weight of sand only 12.8 units of heat for the same increase in temperature. To this, it must further be added, that a moist soil is con- siderably cooled off by the evaporation taking })lace on its surface. Hence, a field suffering from moisture may always be designated as cold. Investigations regarding the maximum and minimum temperatures of the soil in a day, week or month are of great value when the results are compared with the tem- peratures of the air at the time being and referred to the plant-production of the soil. It is best to use for this ])ur[)(jse maximum and minimum thermometers accord- PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL. 165 ing to the Six-Kapeller system, which are imbedded 1, 2, 5, 10 centimeters deep in the soil. 2. The heat-conducting 'power of the soil. — The heat- conducting power of the soil is determined by filling, with constant tapping against a soft support, a thin spherical glass flask of 1 liter capacity with air-dry fine soil and at the same time fixing the bulb of a mercurv thermometer in the centre of the flask. The latter is then brought into a drying chamber provided with a gas-pressure regulator and heated to 212° F. Now accurately observe the time required to heat the soil to its centre from its original temperature to 212° F. The experiment may also be made by heating the soil in the same vessel to 212° F. and, determining, by the thermometer sticking in the soil, the time required for the soil to cool off to its initial temperature. From his experiments Wolluy has deduced the follow- ing general results : — 1 . During the warmer season of the year and with warm weather, a compact soil is on an average warmer than a loose soil. 2. During the colder seasons of the year (spring and fall), and also in the warmer season, whenever there is a sudden and considerable fall in the temperature, a c!om- pact soil is, on an average, colder tlian a loose soil. 3. During the warmer season of the year, and with warm weather, a compact soil is considerably warmer during the day, but commonly colder during the night than a loose soil. 4. At ihe time of the daily maximum of the tempera- ture of the soil the difference mentioned under 1 is greatest, but at the time of the daily minimum, either 1(36 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. very small or an equalization or even an inverse ratio takes place. 5. In a compact soil the variations in temperature are considerably greater than in a loose soil. 6. The causes of the above-mentioned phenomena are due to the better heat-conducting power of a com- pact soil as compared with a loose soil. F. Cohesion and adheaion of the soil. — To determine the degree of firmness with which the particles of soil in a dry state cohere together, knead, according to the method proposed by SchUbler, the soil together with water and shape the mixture in a mould to rods 5 centi- meters long and 1 centimeter wide. After completely drying the rods in the air, the pressure required to cut them through is determined by placing weights upon a suitable apparatus provided below with a dull edge. Another method to determine the coherence of the soil in a wet state was devised by R. Heinrich. The soil is uniformly saturated with water so that the con- tent of water amounts to exactly 50 per cent, of the highest water-capacity of the experiment in the labora- tory. The soil is then pressed between two sheet-iron plates, one side of which is in the centre provided with a hook. The layer of soil between the sheet-iron plates should be from 5 to 10 centimeters. The upper plate is then suspended from a thread, while to the low^er a small basket is secured, into which sand in small portions is introduced until the column of soil tears apart. The plate torn away, together with the basket and the ad- hering soil, is then weighed. Their weight corresponds to the force required to break up the coherence of a layer of earth one decimeter in cross-section. This method GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL- ANALYSIS. 167 is, of course, only available for soils in which the ad- hesion to the iron plate is greater than the coherence of the soil. Regarding the adhesion of moist soils to iron and wood, the sample to be examined is, according to Hein- rich's directions, also moistened with 50 per cent, of water of its highest water capacity, and after bringing it into a larger vessel, the surface of the soil is leveled as much as possible. A plate of sheet-iron or beech wood one square decimeter in cross-section is then pressed firmly upon the soil, so that a complete contact of the soil with the metal or wood takes place. To the hook of the plate is fastened a cord which runs over a pulley and carries a small basket. The latter is loaded with sand until the plate tears loose from the soil. The force required to overcome the adhesion corresponds to the weight of the basket and of the portion of cord reaching to the summit of the pulley, less the weight of the plate torn off and the other end of the cord. X. GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. It is, of course, self-evident that in the examination of determined varieties of soil not all the methods dis- cussed in the preceding sections will need to be emploved. The course of soil-analysis cannot be regulated accord- ing to a pattern with fixed limits, but must, in each case, be adapted to the questions to be decided. How- ever, in order to obtain comparable results, it is necessary 168 THE EXAMINATION OF SOILS. to agree on certain fixed rules. Proceeding from the point of view that the chief purpose of soil-analysis is to be of service to agriculture and forestry, the general rules to be applied to the examination of soils and the question which deserves special consideration shall here be briefly summed up : — 1. The profile of the entire soil, as far as of importancic for the nourishment of plants, must be included in the examination. This, in most cases, will embrace the top- soil and the more shallow and deeper subsoils. 2. Whenever possible, accurate analyses by graining with the round-hole sieve and elutriating with Schoene's apparatus should be executed with the three above- mentioned layers of soil, and always with the top-soil if not derived from moor-soil. From such analyses im- portant conclusions regarding the physical properties of the top-soil and subsoil can be drawn, and a thorough knowledge of the mechanical mixture of the soil is of great value forjudging it. For the mechanical analysis the "air-dry total soil is to be used. 3. For judging the subsoil, it is further of import- ance to determine its content of carbonate of lime, as well as of clay, the latter by disintegration of the clayey particles, less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter, with sul- phuric acid in the closed tube (p. 83). 4. If the layers of the subsoil are to be utilized for meliorating purposes, they must be examined as to the substances useful and injurious to the growth of plants contained in them. Of the useful substances, it will be primarily necessary to determine the content of car- bonate of lime and phosphoric acid, and of the injurious GENERAL RULES FOR SOIL-ANALYSIS. 169 ones, the presence of ferrous sulphate, free sulphuric acid, and iron disulphide. 5. In all chemical and physical examinations of the top-soil, fine soil less than 2 millimeters in diameter, dried at 212° F., is to be used, and the results must be referred to it. 6. In regard to the separation of the soil-constituents, the content of lime, clay, humus, and sand in the fine soil of the top-soil, dried at 212° F., is to be determined. 7. Exclusive of moor-soils, the determination of nitrogen is only to be executed with top-soils. 8. For the determination of the plant-nourishing substances the extraction with boiling concentrated sul- phuric acid is preferably to be used, and, as a rule, only the top-soil (fine soil less than 2 millimeters in diameter) need to be considered. In making the experiment, calcareous earth, magnesia, potash, phosphoric acid, and sulphuric acid must first of all be determined. How- ever, the substances not belonging to the actual plant- nourishing substances, such as silica, alumina, ferric oxide, oxide of manganese, and sodium must also be taken into consideration. 9. For the determination of Knop's absorption- coefficient, air-dry fine earth less than 0.5 millimeter in diameter is to be used. The experiments can only be executed with top-soils, for the judging of which they are of great importance. 10. Of the physical examinations the water capacity (if possible in the open field) and the capillary attraction are chiefly to be considered. INDEX. ABSORBENT power of the soil, testing the, 147-149 Absorption-coefflcieut, definition of, 118, 119 determination of the, 119 -151 Acid, carbonic, determination of, by direct weigh- ing, 61-67 of the, by weigh- ing from the loss, 62-61 volumetric measurement of the, 56-61 fluoric, disintegration with, 100, 101 free sulphuric, ferrous sulphate and iron disulphide, deter- mination of the, 110-111 hydrochloric, extraction of the soil with, 130-133 nitric, determination of, 110- 123 phosphoric, absorption of, 147, 118 Finkener's method of de- termining, 127-129 precipitation of the, with ammonium molybdate, 126, 127 sulphuric, determination of, 109, 110 disintegration with, 83-87 Acids, determination of the, in the acpieous extract, 108- 123 free humic, proof of the presence of, in the soil, 139, 140 Adhesion and cohesion of the soil, 166, 167 Alkali soils, taking specimens of, 29 Alluvium, formation of, 20 Alumina, separation of the ferric oxide, from the, 87-94 Ammonia, determination of the, in the soil, 137-139 Ammon, G., summary of his ex- periments, 161, 162 Ammonium chloride, determina- tion of, 117, 118 molybdate, precipitation of the phosphoric acid with, 126, 127 nitrate, determination of the carbonate of calcium and magnesium, bv boiling with, 67-72 phospho- molybdate, determi- nation of the phosphoric acid as, 127-129 Analyses, scheme of a table for, 45, 46 Analj'sis, elementary, determina- tion of the carbon of the humus substances, by, 78- 81 silt, 34-55 Aqueous extract, determination of the acids in the, 108-123 of the bases in the, 103-108 vapor, absorbent capacity of the soil for, 159, 160 table for finding the ten- sion of, 116 BASES, determination of the, in the aqueous extract, 103-108 Behavior of the soil towards water, 151-159 Bennigsen's elutriating flask, 34 Blast lamp, 71 172 IXDEX. Boilino; flask, Erlcnmeycr, 131 Bremen, methods used in tlie Prus- sian moor experimental station at, UO-143 Bromine, disintegration with, 143, 144 CIALCIUM and magnesium, car- ' honate of, determination of, G7-72 carbonate or magnesium car- bonate, determination of the content of, 50-72 Capillary attraction of the soil, 158, 159 Carbon, absorption of by the plant, 24 Carbon of the humus substances, determination of the, 78-81 Carbonate, calcium or magnesium, determination of the content of, 56-72 of calcium and magnesium, determination of, (i7-72 sodium, disintegration with, 99, 100 Carbonic acid, determination of, by direct weigh- ing, 64-67 of the, by weigh- ing, from the loss, 62-64 Finkener's table for cal- culating, 59-61 volumetric measurement of the, 56-()l Chlorine, determination of, 108, 109 Chissiflcation of soils, 21-23 Clay, calculation of the content of, in the total soil, 92-94 determination of the content of, 82-94 importance of, as a soil-con- stitueut, 22, 23 soils, 21 Cohesion and adhesion of the soil, 166, 167 Combustion furnace, 79 DENUDATION of the soil, 19, 20 Derivation and formation of the soil, 17-20 Determination of the plant-nour- ishing substances, 101-139 of the soil-constituents, 56-101 of tlie substances in tlie soil injurious to the growth of plants, 139-144 of various properties of the soil, 144-167 Dietrich's table for the absorption of nitrogen, 122 Drying stand, Finkener's, 128 stove, 70, 73-75 EARTH, fine, 33 superlicial formation of the crust of the, 17 Elementary composition of the soil, determination of the, 99- 101 Elements found in plants, 26 to be considered in soil-analy- sis, 26 Elutriating apparatus, 52-55 Ililgard's, 52-55 Noebel's, 34-3() Sehoene's, 36-52 cylinder, Kuehn's, 34 process, precautions to be ob- served in the, 54, 55 products obtained bv the, 50, 51 space, cylindrical, determina- tion of the diameter of the| 40 velocities, products of granu- lation corresponding to, 44 velocity, formulas lor calcu- lating the, 41-44 Elutriation and granulation, cal- culating and entering the products of, 51, 52 definition of velocity of, 36 products of, obtained with Noebel's apparatus, :>() with distilled water, apparatus for, 47-52 Elutriator, Sehoene's, 37, 38 Erlenmeyer boiling flask, 131 Evaporating power of the soil, 156, 157 Ii^ERRIC oxide, separation of the, frona the alumina, 87-94 INDEX. 173 Ferrous oxide, deterniiuation of the iron as, 87-90 sulphate, free sulphuric acid and iron disulphide, deter- mination of the, 140-144 Fesca, definition of fine soil by, 33 Filters, weighed, preparation of, 106 Filtrating power of the soil, 157, 158 Fine earth, 33 soil, 33 Finkener's apparatus, 64-67 drying stand, 128 method of determining phos- phoric acid, 127-129 tables for calculating the car- bonic acid, 59-61 Fluids, specifically heavy, 96 Fluoric acid, disintegration with, 100, 101 Forchhammer's theory of the form- ation of kaolin, 19 Formation and derivation of the soil, 17-20 Formulas for calculating the elu- triating velocity, 41-44 Funnel, hot water, 68 Furnace, combustion, 79 tubular, 84 GASES, behavior of the soil to- wards, 159-163 'Gein, 72 Geissler potash apparatus, 65 General rules for soil-analysis, 167- 169 Goldschmidt's specifically heavy fluid, 95 Granulating witli the sieve, 31-34 Granulation and elutriation, cal- culating and entering the pro- ducts of, 51, 52 Heavy soils, definition of, 23 Heinrich's method of determining the adhesion of soils, 167 of determining the coherence of the soil, 166, 167 of determining the water capacity of the soil in the open field, 155, 156 of testing the ven- tilating power of the soil, 162, 163 Hilgard's elutriating appaiatus, 52-55 Hot-water funnel, 68 Humic acids, free, proof of the presence of, in the soil, 139, 140 Humus, acid, 72 definition of, 72 determination of the, by igni- tion, 81, 82 neutral, 72 soils, 21 substances, determination of, 72-82 of the carbon of the, 78- 81 Hydrochloric acid, extraction of the soil with, 130-133 INORGANIC combinations, ele- ments for the formation of, 26 substances in plants, 26 Iron, determination of the, as fer- rous oxide, 87-90 disulphide, ferrous sulphate, and free sulphuric acid, de- termination of the, 140-144 HAZARD'S method of determi- ning the content of quartz, 96-99 Heat-absorbent power of the soil, 163-165 Heat, behavior of the soil towards, 163-166 Heat-conducting power of the soil, 105, 166 KAOLINIZATION, process of, 19 Kjeldahl's method of determining nitrogen, 133-135 Knop, definition of fine earth and fine soil by, 33 Knop's eluti'iating cylinder, 34 method for the determination of humus, 73-78 174 INDEX. Knop's metliod of dpterniiiiiiijrthc ahsorptioii-coetticient, 14!)-151 Knnp-Waj>iier azotometer, deter- iiniiatioii of the nitrogen, by the, 118-123 Kuehn's elutriating cylinder, :M LABORATORY, experiments to determine the power of the soil to retain moisture, in the, 151-151 Laufer's method of obtaining small grains, 45 Liburnau, Lorenz von, system of soil classification of, 21 Light soils, definition of, 23 Lime soils, 21 Loam soils, 21 Loams, light and heavj' , 23 MAGNESIUM carbonate or cal- cium carbonate, determina- tion of the content of, 56- 72 pyrophosphate, weighing the j)hOBphoric acid as, 126, 127 Marl soils, 21 Mayer's method of determining the power of the soil to retain moisture, 154 Mechanical soil-analysis, 31-55 Minerals contained in rocks, trans- formation of, 18, 19 table of specific gravities of, 96 Mohr's apparatus, 63-64 Monocalcium phosphate, prepara- tion of, 147, 148 Muencke, K., drying chamber, de- vised by, 70, 73-75 NITRIC acid, determination of, 110-123 Nitrogen, determination of the, by combustion with soda-lime, 135-137 of the, by the Knop- Waguer azotome- ter, 118-123 of the total, in the soil, 133-137 Dietrich's table for the absorp- tion of, 122 Nitrogen, Kjeldahl's method of de- termining, 133-135 Noebel's elutriating ajjparatus, 34- 36 Normal solutions, preparation of, 147 Nourishing substances, behavior of the soil towards, 146-151 OBJECT of soil-analysis, 24- 27 Organic combinations, elements for the formation of, 26 in plants, 25, 26 Orth's auxiliary cylinder, 45 Oxide, ferric, separation of the, from the alumina, 87-94 Oxygen, absorbent power of the soil for, 160, 161 PEAT, definition of, 72 special method in the exami- nation of, 123 Phosphate monocalcium, prejiara- tion of, 147, 148 Phosphoric acid, absorption of, 147, 148 determination of the, as ammo- nium phospho- molybdate, 127- 129 Finkener's method of determining, 127-129 precipitation of tlie, with ammo- nium molybdate, 126, 127 Plant, absorption of carbon by the, 24 elementary substances of the, 25, 26 Plant-nourishing substances, de- termination of the, 101-139 Plants, content of water in, 25 determination ol' some import- ant substances for the nourishment of, 133-139 of the substances in the soil injurious to the growth of, 139-144 elements found in, 26 INDEX. 175 Plants, inorganic substances in, 26 organic combinations in, 25, 26 Porosity of the soil, 145 ,14G Potash apparatus, Geissler, 65 Potassium permanganate solution, determination of the iron by titra- tion with, 87-90 solution, standard- izing of the, 90- 92 Preparatory labors for soil-analy- sis, 28-31 Prussian moor experimental sta- tion at Bremen, methods used in the, 140-143 Q UARTZ, determination of the content of, 96-99 ROCKS, disintegration of, 17, 18 Rolirbach's specifically heavy fluid, 96 Rules, general for soil-analysis, 167-169 SALT, common, determination of content of, in the soil, 140 Salts suitable for testing the ab- sorbent power of the soil, 147 Salty soils, taking specimens of, 29 Sand, determination of the con- tent of, 94-96 petrographic determination of the coarser admixed parts of, 94-96 soils, 21 Scheibler's apparatus for the volu- metric measurement of carbonic acid, 57 Schloesing's method for the deter- mination of the ammonia in the soil, 138, 139 Schloesing - Schulze's modified method for the determination of nitric acid, 111-116 Schoene and Wolff, E., definition of fine earth bj', 33 Schoene's elutriating apparatus, 36-52 Sieve, granulating with the, 31-34 Silt-analysis, 34-55 Soda-lime, determination of the nitrogen by combustion with, 135-137 Sodium carbonate, disintegration with, 99, 100 Soil, absorbent capacity of the, for aqueous vapor, 159, 160 power of the, for oxygen, 160, 161 Soil-analysis, execution of a com- plete, 27 general rules for, 167-169 mechanical, 31-55 object of, 24-27 preparatory labors for, 28-31 Soil, behavior of, towards gases, 159-163 of the, towards heat, 163- 166 of the, towards nourishing substances, 146-151 of the, towards water, 151- 159 calculation of the content of clay in the total, 92-94 capillary attraction of the, 158, 159 characterization of the me- chanical composition of a, 32 coherence and adherence of the, 166, 167 Soil-constituents, determination of the, 56-101 Soil, denudation of the, 19, 20 derivation and formation of, 17-20 determination of the ammonia in the, 137-139 of the content of common salt in the, 140 of the el ementarj' compo- sition of the, 99-101 of the full capacity of the, for water, 152 of the specific gravity of the, 144, 145 of the substances in the, injurious to the growth of plants, 139-144 of the sulphur in the, 141- 145 of the total nitrogen in the, 133-137 of the volume weight of the, 145, 146 ]7r, INDEX. Soil, determination of the water capacitj' of the, in tlie open field, lo-l-150 of various properties of the, 144-107 drj'ing and storing samples of, 31 evaporating power of the, 156, 157 extraction of the, with car- 'bouatert water, ri.'5-ll-iO of the, with cold, distilled water, 102-123 of the, witli hydrochloric acid, 130-133 Soil-extractions, determination of plant-nourishing substances in, 102-133 Soil, filtrating power of the, 157, 158 fine, 33 forces active in the formation of the, 17 further treatment of the, ex- tracted with carbonated water, 12!), 130 granulation of the, by the sieve, 31-34 greatest or full capacity of the, for water, 152 heat-absorbent power of the, lfi3-165 heat-conducting j)ower of the, 165, 166 points to be noted regarding the, 30 porosity of the, r45, 146 proof of the presence of free humic acids in the, 139, 140 testing the absorbent power of the, 147-149 the apparent specific gravity of the, 145 transportation of, by water, 19, 20 value of the, for cultivation, ventilating power of the, 102, 1()3 weight of the, 144-166 Soils, classification of, 21-23 clay, 21 definition of light and heavy, 23 dei)osited or transported, 21 derived, 21 Soils, humus, 21 lime, 21 loam, 21 marl, 21 primitive or original, 21 sand, 21 stony, 21 sub, 23 taking specimens of, 28-30 top, 23 true, 23 Specific gravity of the soil, deter- mination of the, 144, 145 the apparent, of the soil, 145 Stony soils, 21 Sub-soil, importance of the exami- nation of the, 168, 169 Sub-soils, 23 Sulpliate, ferrous, free sulphuric acid and iron disulphide, deter- mination of the, 140-144 Sulphur, determination of the, in the soil, 141-145 Sulphuric acid, determination of, 109, 110 disintegration with, 83-87 free, ferrous sulphate and iron disulphide, determination of the, 140-144 11ABLE, Dietrich's, for the ab- sorption of nitrogen, 122 for analyses, scheme of a, 45, 46 Finkener's, for calculating carbonic acid, 59-61 Thaer, Albrccht, system of soil classification proposed by, 21 Thoulet's specifically heavy fiuid, 95 Tiemann's method for the deter- mination of nitric acid, 111-116 Top soils, 23 True soils, 23 Tubular furnace, 84 VELOCITIES, elutriating, pro- ducts of granulation corres- ])Oiidiiig to, 44 INDEX. 177 Velocity, elutriating, formulas for calculating the, 41-44 Ventilating power of the soil, 162, 163 Volume weight of the soil, deter- mination of, 145, 146 WATER-BATH, covered, 106 Water, behavior of the soil towards, 151-159 Water capacity of the soil, deter- mination of the, in the open field, 154-156 carbonated, extraction of the soil with, 123-130 cold distilled, extraction of the soil with, 102-123 content of, in plants, 25 Water, determination of the full capacity of the soil for, 152 distilled, apparatus for elutri- ation with, 47-53 greatest or full capacity of the soil for, 152 transportation of soil, by, 19, 20 Weathering, 17 Weight of the soil, 144-146 Wolf's, W., method of determining the nitric acid, 116-118 Wolff, E., and Schoene, definition of fine earth by, 33 Wolff's, E., method for determin- ing the evaporating power of the soil, 156, 157 Wollny's deductions from his ex- periments on the heat-conduct- ing power of the soil, 165, 166 12 Oj^T^LOOTJE OF Dracliical and Scientific Boo\^ PUBLISHED BY Henry Carey Baird & Co. 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Illustrated, l2ino. .......... $i-50 NYSTROM. — A New Treatise on Elements of Mechanics : Establishing Strict Precision in the Meaning of Dynamical Terms; accompanied with an Appendix on Duodenal Arithmetic and Me- trology. By John W. Ny.strom, C. E. Illustrated. 8vo. $2.oa NYSTROM.— On Technological Education and the Construc- tion of Ships and Screw Propellers : For Naval and Marine Engineers. By John W. Nystrom, late Acting Chief Engineer, U. S. N. Second edition, revised, with addi- tional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. l2mo. . i?l.5Q O'NEILL. — A Dictionary of Dyeing and Calico Printing: Containing a brief account of all the Substances and Processes in use in the Art of Dyeing and Printing Textile Fabrics ; with Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By Charles O'Neill, Analy- tical Chemist. To which is added an Essay on Coal Tar Colors and their application to Dyeing and Calico Printing. By A. A. Fesquet, Chemist and Engineer. With an appendix on Dyeing and Calico Printing, as shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867- 8vo., 491 pages I3.50 fJRTON. — Underground Treasures: How and Where to 1' ind Them. A Key for the Ready Determination of all the Useful Minerals within the United .States. By James Orton, A.M., Late Professor of Natural History in Vassar College, N. Y.; Cor. Mem. of the Academy of Natural .Sciences, Philadelphia, and of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York; author of the "Andes and the Amazon," etc. A New Edition, with Additions. Illustrated if 1. 50 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. OSBORN.— The Metallurgy of Iron and Steel: Theoretical and Practical in all its Branches ; with special reference to American Materials and Processes. By H. S. Osborn, LL. D., Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania. Illustrated by numerous large folding plates and wood-engravings. 8vo. ...... ;fS25.oo OSBORN. — A Practical Manual of Minerals, Mines and Min^ • ing: Comprising the Physical Properties, Geologic Positions, Local Occur- rence and Associations of the Useful Minerals; their Methods of Chemical Analysis and Assay : together with Various Systems of Excavating and Timbering, Brick and Masonry Work, during Driv- ing, Lining, Bracing and other Operations, etc. By Prof. H. S. Osborn, LL. D., Author of the '* Metallurgy of Iron and Steel," Illustrated by 171 engravings from original drawings. 8vo. $^-$0 OVERMAN.— The Manufacture of Steel : Containing the Practice and Principles of Working and Making Steel. A Handbook for Blacksmiths and Workers in Steel and Iron, Wagon Makers, Die Sinkers, Cutlers, and Manufacturers of Files and Hard- ware, of Steel and Iron, and for Men of Science and Art. By Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, Author of the " Manu- facture of Ijon," etc. A new, enlarged, and revised Edition. By A. A. FesqI/jCT, Chemist and Engineer. i2mo. . . ^1.50 OVERMAN.— The Moulder's and Founder's Pocket Guide : A Treatise oru Moulding and Founding in Green-sand, Dry-sand, Loam, and Cement; the Moulding of Machine Frames, Mill-gear, Hollow* ware. Ornaments, Trinkets, Bells, and Statues; Description of Moulds for Iron, Bronze, Brass, and other Metals; Plaster of Paris, Sulphur, Wax, etc. ; the Construction of Melting Furnaces, the Melting and Founding of Metals ; the Composition of Alloys and their Nature, etc., etc. By Frederick Overman, M. E. A new Edition, to which is added a Supplement on Statuary and Ornamental Moulding, Ordnance, Malleable Iron Castings, etc. By A. A. Fesquet, Chem- ist and Engineer. Illustrated by 44 engravings. l2mo. . ^2. DC PAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION-.' 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Perkins. i2nio., cloth 81.25 PERKINS AND STOWE.— A New Guide to the Sheet-iron and Boiler Plate Roller : Containing a Series of Tallies showing the Weight of Slabs and Piles to Produce Boder Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and the Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron ; the Thickness of the Bar Gauga in decimals ; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an inch; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh II2 lbs. ])er bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected by G. H. Perkins and J. G. Stowe. 82.5a POWELL— CHANCE— HARRIS.— The Principles of Glass Making. By Harry J. Powell, B. A. Together with Treatises on Crown and Sheet Glass; by Henry Chance, M. A. And Plate Glass, by II. G. Harris, Asso. M. Inst. C. E. Illustrated i8mo. . 8i-5a PROCTOR.— A Pocket-Book of Useful Tables and Formulae for Marine Engineers : By Frank Proctor. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Full -bmind pocket-book form ...... Si-5o REGNAULT.— Elements of Chemistry: By M. V. Regnault. Translated from the French by T. Forrest Betton, M. D., a«id edited, with Notes, by James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and William L. Faber, Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700 wood-engravings. Com- prising nearly 1,500 pages. In two volumes, 8vo., cloth . 87-50 RICHARDS.— Aluminium : Its History, Occurrence, Properties, Metallurgy and Applications, including its Alloys. By Joseph W. Richards, A. C, Chenust and Practical Metallurgist, Member of the Deutsche Chemische Gesell- schaft. Illu'^trated . 85-00 RIFFAULT, VERGNAUD, and TOUSSAINT.— A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Colors for Painting : Comprising the (higin, Definition, and Classification of Colors; the Treatment of the Raw Materials; the best Formula; and the Newest Processes for the Preparation of every description of Pigment, and the Necessary Apparatus and Directions for its Use; Dryers; tho Testing. Application, and Qualities of Paints, etc., etc. By MM. RjFKAULT, Vergnaud, and ToussAiNT. Revised and Edited by M. HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. f. Malepeyre. Translated from the French, by A. A. FesqUCT; Chemist and Engmeer. Illustrated by Eighty engravings. In one vol., 8vo., 659 pages .....•• *7'5^ tOPER.— A Catechism of High-Pressure, or Non-Condensing Steam -Engines : Including the Modelling, Constructing, and Management of Steam- Engines and Steam Boilers. With valuable illustrations. By Ste- phen Roper, Engineer. Sixteenth edition, revised and enlarged. iSmo., tucks, gilt edge ^2.00 gOPER. — Engineer's Handy-Book: Containing a full Explanation of the Steam-Engine Indicator, and its Use and Advantages to Engineers and Steam Users. With Formulae for Estimating the Power of all Classes of Steam-Engines ; also. Facts, Figures, Questions, and Tables for Engineers who wish to qualify themselves for the United Stales Navy, the Revenue Service, the Mercantile Marine, or to take charge of the Better Class of Sta- tionary Steam-Engines. Sixth edition. l6mo., 690 pagbs, tucks, gilt edge .......... ipS-S^ ROPER.— Hand-Book of Land and Marine Engines : Including the Mrxlelling, Construction, Running, and Management of Lanr' :nid Marine Engines and Boilers. With il'ustrations. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Si.xth edition. i2mo.,tvcks, gilt edge. $3-50 ROPER. — Hand-Book of the Locomotive : Including the Construction of Engines and Boilers, and the Construc- tion, Management, and Running of Locomotives. By Stephen Roper. Eleventh edition. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge . $2.50 ROPER. — Hand-Book of Modern Steam Fire-Engines. With illustrations. By STEPHEN RoPER, Engineer. Fourth edition, i2mo., tucks, gilt edfje ....... $3-S^ ROPER. — Questions and Answers for Engineers. This little book contains all the Questions that Engineers will be asked when undergoing an Examination for the purpose of procuring Licenses, and they are so plain that any Engineer or Fireman of or dinary inteliigence may commit them to memory in a short time. By Stephen Roper, Ens^ineer. Third edition . . . i^3-°^ ROPER.— Use and Abuse of the Steam Boiler. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. Eighth edition, with illustrations. i8mo., tucks, gilt edge ....... $2.00 ROSE. — The Complete Practical Machinist : Embracing Lnthe Work, Vise Work, Drills and Drilling, Taps snd Dies, Hardening and Tempering, the Making and Use of Tools, Tool Grinding, Marking out Work, etc. By Joshua Rose. Illus- trated by 356 engravings. Thirteenth edition, thoroughly revised and in great part rewritten. In one vol., l2mo., 439 pages $2.^0 «OSE.— Mechanical Drawing Self-Taught: Comprising liistructions in the Selection and Preparation of Drawing Instruments, Elementriry Instruction in Practical Mechanical Draw- «4 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. '"g> together with Examples in Simple Geometry and Elementary Mechanism, including Screw Threads, Gear Wheels, Mechanical Motions, Engines and Hollers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 330 engravings. 8vo, 313 pages .... $4.00 ROSE.— The Slide- Valve Practically Explained: Embracing simple and complete Practical Demonstrations of th^ operation of each element in a Slide-valve Movement, and illustrat- ing the effects of Variations in their Proportions by examples care- fully selected from the most recent and successful practice. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 35 engravings . $1.00 ROSS. — The Blowpipe in Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology: Containing all Known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many Work- ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By LlKUT.- CoLONEL W. A. Ross, R. A., F. G. S. With 120 Illustrations. i2mo ,^2.ao SHAW.— Civil Architecture : Being a Complete Theoretical and Practical System of Building, con- taining the Fundamental Principles of the Art. By Edward Shaw, Architect. To which is added a Treatise on Gothic Architecture, etc. By Thomas W. Silloway and George M. Harding, Architects. The whole illustrated by 102 quarto plates finely engraved on copper. Eleventh edition. 4to. ....... §10. 00 SHUNK. — A Practical Treatise on Railway Curves and Loca- tion, for Young Engineers. By W. F. Shunk, C. E. i2mo. Full bound pocket-book form $2.00 SLATER.— The Manual of Colors and Dye Wares. By J. W. Slater. lanio ^3-75 SLOAN. — American Houses : A variety of Original Designs for Rural Buildings. Illustrated by 26 colored engravings, with descriptive references. By Samuel Sloan, Architect. 8vo. ...... ^1.50 SLOAN. — Homestead Architecture: Containing Forty Designs for Villas, Cottages, and Farm-houses, with Essays on Style, Construction, Landscape Gardemng, Furniture, etc., etc. Illustrated by upwards of 200 engravings. By .Samuel Sloan, Architect. 8vo. ........ ^3-5o SLOANE. — Home Experiments in Science. By T. 0'CoNt)R Sloane, E. M., A.M., Ph.D. Illustrated by 91 engravings. i2mo. ....... i$i.50 SMEATON.— Builder's Pockei-Companion : Containing the lOlcineiils of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the suliject. By A. C. Smkaton, Civil Engineer, etc. l2mo. . . ;?i.30 3MITH. — A Manual of Political Economy. By E. Peshink Smiiii. A New En, lo which is added a full Index. I :mo ........ $l 25 HENRY CAREY Ly\TRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 2J SMITH. — Parks and Pleasure- Grounds : Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public Parks, and , Gardens. By Charles H. J. Smith, Landscape Gardener and Garden Architect, etc., etc. l2mo. .... ^2.0Q SMITH. — The Dyer's Instructor: Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing .Silk, Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woolen Goods ; containing nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and Handkerchiefs, anti the various Mordants and Colors for the different styles of such work. By D/VVID Smith, Pattern Dyer. i2mo. . . . $2.00 SMYTH. — A Rudimentary Treatise on Coal and Coal-Mining. By Warrington W. Smyth, M. A., F. R. G., President R. G. S, of Cornwall. Fifth edition, revised and corrected. With iiumer- ous illustrations. i2ino. ...... $^'7^ SNIVELY.— Tables for Systematic Qualitative Chemical Anal, ysis. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. 8vo. . . . . $1.00 SNIVELY.— The Elements of Systematic Qualitative Chemical Analysis : A Hand-book for Beginners. By John H. Snively, Phr. D. l6mo. $2.00 STEWART.— The American System : Speeches on the Tariff Qiiesti »8 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. WARE.— The Sugar Beet. Including a History of the Beet Sugar Industry in Europe, Varieties of the Sugar Beet, Examination, Soils, Tillage, Seeds and Sowing; Yield and Cost of Cultivation, Harvesting, Transportation, Conserva. tion. Feeding Qualities of llie Beet and of the Pulp, etc. By Lewh S. Ware, C. E., M. E. Illustrated by ninety engravings. 8vo. WARN.— The Sheet-Metal Worker's Instructor: ¥oT Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and Tin-Plate Workers, etc. Contain- ing a selection of Geometrical Problems ; also, Practical and Simple Rules for Describing the various Patterns required in the different branches of the above Trades. By Reuisen II. Warn, Practical Tin- Plate Worker. To which is added an Appendix, containing Instructions for Boiler-Making, Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids, Rules for Calculating the Weights of different Figures of Iron and Steel, Tables of the Weights of Iron, Steel, etc. Illustrated by thirty- two Plates and thirty-seven Wood Engravings. 8vo. . ^3.00 VARNER. — New Theorems, Tables, and Diagrams, for the Computation of Earth-work : Designed for the use of Engineers in Preliminary and Final Estimates of Students in Engineering, and of Contractors and other non-profes. sional Computers. In two parts, with an A]3pendix. Part I. A Prac- tical Treatise; Part II. A Theoretical Treatise, and the Apjx-ndix. Containing Notes to the Rules and Exainples of Part I. ; Explana- tions of the Construction of Scales, Tables, and Diagrams, and a Treatise upon Equivalent Square Bases and Equivalent Level Heights. 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Illustrated by 78 engravings. 5" -50 WATSON. — The Modern Practice of American Machinists and Engineers : Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills, L•^t"tle Tools, Cutters for Borir.g Cylinders, and Hollow-work generally , with the most Economical Speed for the same ; the Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vise, and on the Floor. Togetnti HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. 29 with Workshop Management, Economy of Manufacture, the Steam. Engine, Boiltrs, Gears, Belting, etc., etc. By Egbert P. Watson. Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. i2mo. . . . Jjte.50 ?VrATSON.— The Theory' and JPractice of the Art of Weaving by Hand and Power : With Calculations and Tables for the Use of those connected with the Trade. By John Watson, Manufacturer and Practical Machine- Maker. 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Together with a Model Specification involving a great variety of instructive and suggestive matter. By George WiGHTWiCK, Architect. A new edition, revised and considerably enlarged ; comprising Treatises on the Principles of Construction and Design. By G. Huskisson Guillaume, Architect. Numerous Xliustrations. One vol. i2mo. ...... ;g2.00 JVILL. — Tables of Qualitative Chemical Analysis. With an Introductory Chapter on the Course of Analysis. By Pro* 'essor Heinrich Will, of Giessen, Germany. Third American, from the eleventh German edition. Edited by Charles F. Himes. Ph. D., Professor of Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa 8vo. . . • ^I-SCJ WILLIAMS.— On Heat and Steam: Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and Explo- sion. By Charles Wye Williams, A. I. C. E. Illustrated 8vo. WILSON. — A Treatise on Steam Boilers : Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By RoBERt Wilson. 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ANDERSON. 52 Illustrations. l2mo $1.50 BEAUMONT.— Woollen and Worsted Cloth Manufacture: Being a Practical Treatise for the use of all persons employed in the manipulation of Textile Fabrics. By Robert Beaumont, M. S. A. With over 200 illustration's, including Sketches of Machinery, Designs, Cloths, etc. 391 pp. i2mo $2.50 BRANNT.— The Metallic Alloys : A Practical Guide for the Manufacture of all kinds of Alloys, Amal- gams and Solders used by Metal Workers, especially by Bell Founders, Bronze Workers, Tinsmiths, Gold and Silver Workers, Dentists, etc., etc., as well as their Chemical and Physical Properties. Ed'ted chiefly from the German of A. Krupp and Andreas Wildberger, with additions by Wm. T. Brannt. Illustrated. l2mo. $3-00 BRANNT. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vine- gar and Acetates, Cider, and Fruit- Wines : Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Canning and Evaporation; Preparation of Fruit-Butters, Jellies, Marmalades, Catchups, Pickles, Mustards, etc. Edited from various sources. By William T. Brannt. Illustrated by 79 Engravings. 479 pp. 8vo. $5.00 BRANNT.— The Metal Worker's Handy-Book of Receipts and Processes : Being a Collection of Chemical Formulas and Practical Manipida- tions for the working of all Metals; including the Decoration and Beautifying of Articles Manufactured therefrom, as well as their Preservation. Edited from various sources. By WiLLiAM T. Brannt. Illustrated. i2mo. ^2.50 HBNRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE, 31 DAVIS. — A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Bricks, Tiles, Terra-Cotta, etc. : Including Hand- Made, Dry Clay, Tempered Clay, Soft-Mud, and Stifif-Clay Bricks, also Front, Hand-Pressed, Steam-Pressed, Re- pressed, Ornamentally Shaped and Enamelled Bricks, Drain Tiles, Straight and Curved Sewer and Water-Pipes, Fire-Clays, Fire-Bricks, Glass Pots, Terra-Cotia, Roofing Tiles, Flooring Tiles, Art Tiles, etc. By Charles Thomas Davis. Second Edition. 217 Engrav- ings. 501 pp. 8vo $5.00, EDWARDS. — American Marine Engineer, Theoretical and Practical : With Examples of the latest and most approved American Practice. By Emory Edwards. 85 illustrations. i2mo. . . ^2.50 EDWARDS. — 600 Examination Questions and Answers; For Engineers and Firemen (Land and Marine) who desire to ob- tain a United States Government or State License. Pocket-book form, gilt edge ........ i?i-5o POSSELT.— Technology of Textile Design : Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of Weaves for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the Litest Inventions for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix, showing the Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the Manufac- ture of the various Textile Fabrics. By E. A. Posselt, Head Master Textile Department, Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, with over looo illustrations. 293 pages. 4to. $5-00 POSSELT.— The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained: With an Appendix on the Preparation of Jacquard Cards, and Practical Hints to Learners of Jacquard Designing. By E. A. Posselt. With 230 illustrations and numerous diagrams. 127 pp. 4to ^3.00 RICH. — Artistic Horse- Shoeing : A Practical and Scientific Treatise, giving Improved Methods of Shoeing, with Special Directions for Shaping Shoes to Cure Different Diseases of the Foot, and fur the Correction of Faulty Action in Trotters. By George E- Rich. 62 Illustrations. 153 pages. l2mo ^i.oo RICH ARDSON.— Practical Blacksmithing : A Collection of Articles Contributed at Diflerent Times by Skilled Workmen to the columns of " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," and Covering nearly the Whole Range of Blacksmithing, from the Simplest Job of Work to some of the Most Complex Forgings. Compiled and Edited by M. T. Richardson. Vol. I. 2IO Illustrations. 224 pp. i2mo. . . . j^l.oo Vol. II. 230 Illustrations. 262 pages. 12010, , , ^1,00 32 HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO.'S CATALOGUE. RICHARDSON.— The Practical Horseshoer: Being a Collection of Articles on Horseshoeing in all its Brancheir which have aj^peared from time to time in the columns pf " The Blacksmith and Wheelwright," etc. Compiled and edited by M. T. Richardson. 174 illustrations. ..... ^i.oo ROPER. — Instructions and Suggestions for Engineers and Firemen : By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i8mo. Morocco . ;^2.oo ROPER. — The Steam Boiler: Its Care and Management: By Stephen Roper, Engineer. i2mo., tuck, gilt edges. ^2.00 ROPER.— The Young Engineer's Own Book: Containing an Explanation of the Principle and Theories on which the Steam Engine as a Prime Mover is Based. By Stephen Roper, Engineer. 160 illustrations, 363 pages. l8mo., tuck . ^3.00 ROSE. — Modern Steam- Engines: An Elementary Treatise upon the Steam-Engine, written in Plain language ; for Use in the Workshop as well as in the Drawing Office. Giving Full Explanations of the Construction of Modern Stean^- Engines: Including Diagrams showing their Actual operation. To gether with Complete but Simple Explanations of the operations of Various Kinds of Valves, Valve Motions, and Link Motions, etc., thereby Enabling the Ordinary Engineer to clearly Understand the Principles Involved in their Construction and Use, and to Plot out their Movements upon the Drawing Board. By Joshua Rose. M. E. Illustrated by 422 engravings. 4to., 320 pages . . ^6.00 HOSE.— Steam Boilers: A Practical Treatise on Boiler Construction and Examination, for the Use of Practical Boiler Makers, Boiler Users, and Ins]iectors; and embracing in plain figures all the calculations necessary in Designing or Classifying Steam Boilers. By Joshua Rose, M. E. Illustrated by 73 engravings. 250 pages. 8vo. .... ^2.^0 SCHRIBER.— The Complete Carriage and Wagon Painter: A Concise Compendium of the Art of Painting Carriages, Wagons, and Sleighs, embracing Full Directions in all the Various Branches, including Lettering, Scrolling, Ornamenting, Striping, Varnishing, and Coloring, with numerous Recipes for Mixing Colors. 73 Illus- trations. 177 pp. l2mo. ...... ^I.oa VAN CLEVE. — The English and American Mechanic : Comprising a Collection of Over Three Thousand Receipts, Rules, and Tables, designed for the Use of every Mechanic and Manufac- turer. By B. Frank Van Cleve. Illustrated. 500 pp. i2mo. I2.00 WAHNSCHAFFE. — Guide for the Scientific Examination of the Soil : By Dr. Fkux Wahn.schaffe. Translated from the German by William T. Brannt. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. 8vu. (In preparation.^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS DDDEt.7E74TE