. . .{.\\ KmxCBq riHHHi m&sm WmwmmmMm tVBtii BIlIl 111111111 ' JSH&BKlKlffi liW) LIBRARY OF CONGRESS \0«L5 Shelf _<&& 1 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY CHIPS FROM A TEACHER'S WORKSHOP L. R. KLEMM, PH.D. FORMERLY SUPERVISOR OF GERMAN DEPARTMENT PUBLIC SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, O. ; PRINCIPAL OF A NORMAL DEPARTMENT, CINCINNATI, O.; AND SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HAMILTON, O. ; INSTITUTE CONDUCTOR, AND AUTHOR OF NUMEROUS SCHOOLBOOKS BOSTON LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS NEW YORK CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM 1888 Copyright, 1887, By LEE AND SHEPARD. All rights reserved. Educational Topics of the Day. TO CAPT. W. C. MARGEDANT, OF HAMILTON, OHIO, Cjjts iSooIt ts 33etifcatetJ IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OF HIS TRUE DEVOTION TO POPULAR EDUCATION, HIS ENTHUSIASM FOR RATIONAL TEACHING, AND THE WISE SUGGESTIONS, CHEERFUL ENCOURAGEMENT, AND WARM IMPULSE, WITH WHICH HE AIDED THE AUTHOR IN THE DISCHARGE OF HIS OFFICIAL DUTIES AS SUPERINTENDENT AND SELF-IMPOSED DUTIES AS JOURNALIST. L. R. KLEMM, Ph.D. PBEFACE. Many of the articles in this book appeared in- the lead- ing educational journals. They are here collected because they are thought of sufficient practical value to be thus preserved. In offering this book to the public, the author desires to have it understood that he does not undertake to present a complete system of education, but, beside some essays and historical dissertations, chips from his own educational workshop. Chips are useful for kindling fires. If these chips should help a little to kindle the fire of enthusiasm in the hearts of some teachers, they will be doing what they were intended for. Should the patient reader find a harsh word now and then in these articles, he may consider that they were written for the educational press; that is, for a purpose. To tone them down, would seriously change their character. Character is what a man is; his reputation, what people say of him. It is so with books. "Whatever reputation this book may get, the author does not propose to let that interfere with its character. He gives himself in the pages of this book, his mode of thinking and discussing, his manner of teaching ; and he sincerely hopes, that, though his manner may be found faulty, his sincerity of purpose, his good 5 6 PEE FACE. intention to benefit his young colleagues, will not be doubted. At present, the author is engaged in studying the schools in England, France, Holland, Germany, and Switzerland. After his return from Europe, he will offer a second volume, under the title, " Chips from Educational Work- shops in Europe." Hamilton, O., September, 1887. L. R. K. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE. OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. First Letter. Method and Manner 13 Second Letter. "Similia Similibus Curantur" . . . 17 Third Letter. Cause and Effect; or, How to Keep 24- Young Fourth Letter. The Old, Old Question 30 Fifth Letter. Sketch of a Good School 35 Sixth Letter. Stimulants in Teaching 40 Seventh Letter. Teachers' Examinations .... 45 Eighth Letter. Rapidity in Recitation 49 Ninth Letter. Continuity of Instruction 54 Tenth Letter. Why Take the Trouble ? 59 CHAPTER II. FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPER VISOR. A Pertinent Question Answered 67 The Medical Practice of a Teacher 75 I. A Weak Speller 75 II. The Rescue of a Dunce 78 in. A " Bad " Boy in Arithmetic 81 iv. A Boy " like Kaspar Hauser " S3 Discipline. — A Reformatory Class 86 Scenes from School-Life 91 Professional Supervision 95 Mechanical Virtues " A Case of Unintentional Cruelty 10- 7 8 CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. PAGE FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. Per-Cent System of Grading 107 Competition in School Ill Memorizing the Printed Page 114 Examination Questions 117 From the Frying-Pan into the Fire 121 The Outlook 126 Catch-Words 128 CHAPTER IV. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. I. Teach in Accordance with Nature's Laws . 133 II. Teach in Accordance with Psychological Laws 135 III. Teach Objectively; Appeal to the Senses . 137 IV. Teach Intelligibly 139 Methods of Teaching 142 Definitions 142 Didactic, Heuristic, and Systematic Methods .... 144 The Essence of Method 145 Analysis and Synthesis 147 Summary of Methods of Teaching ...... 151 CHAPTER V. THE ART OF QUESTIONING, AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. Hints to Beginners 155 The Socratic Method 159 Two Examples of Socratic Questioning .... 162 How the Mind Grows 165 A Review Lesson in Psychology 169 See, Do, and then Tell 172 A Proof Positive 177 CONTENTS. 9 CHArTER VI. PAGE ARITHMETIC. How to Teach Fractions 183 How to Teach Percentage 189 A Device, not a Method 193 Price-List of Commodities in the Schoolroom . . 197 Primary Arithmetic 199 Miss Celeste's Pennies 200 CHAPTER VII. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. The Poet Schiller 205 A Pertinent Question 215 German in the Schools 223 The Value of Grammar 228 Polyglot English 229 Misused Words 233 A Practical Composition Lesson 235 Spelling Taught Rationally 236 A Suggestion in Spelling 239 Garment and Substance of Thought 243 Miss Lottie's Three Boys 215 In Black on White 246 CHAPTER VIII. GEOGRAPHY. A New Departure in Teaching Geography. . . 251 History and Geography, the Siamese Twins . . 26S I. The Boundaries of Ohio and Indiana, etc. ... 268 II. The Boundaries of Pennsylvania and Delaware . 272 in. The Notch in the Northern Boundary 274 iv. The Boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee . 277 PaPvAllels and Meridians 282 10 CONTENTS. A Poser Life Contradicting the Schoolmaster One Way of Getting* at the Idea . Odd Questions Oddly Answered .. . Elementary Work. — The Zones . . PAGE 285 287 290 292 293 CHAPTER IX. HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Education in Rome 297 The Ancient Germans 307 An Interview between Pestalozzi and Dr. Bell . 315 Prussian Schools Seventy Years Ago ..... 320 Reformers and Promoters of Education during the Christian Era 323 CHAPTER X. HISTORY. Why, When, and How to teach History .... 341 Cause and Effect in History 356 A Glance into the Middle Ages 380 Inventions during the Middle Ages 387 Natural Calling, or Not? 391 A Bird's-eye View of Modern HiSTOR\ r .... 394 What is Nihilism? 402 A Talk with my Boys 405 Our Country 406 What I Heard from the Stump. . 407 CHAPTER I. OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHSK. EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. CHAPTER I. OPEN LETTEES TO A YOUNG TEACHER. FIRST LETTER. METHOD AND MANNER. My dear Young Lady, — You seek information upon a commonplace subject, which, I will admit in the beginning, is not commonplace at all. You ask, " How would you impart knowledge to normally endowed pupils ? What method would you prefer for young children?" Did you consider that I might say, my young friend, there is no such thing as imparting knowledge? Reserve yoxxv incredulous smile until you have heard my explanation. I mean to say that any one who uses the term imparting knoivledge speaks erroneousl}', as it is wrong to say the sun rises or sets : he does no such thing. To impart knowledge, evidently means, to convey, to make knowledge part of the learner. Now, this is the very thing which, I claim, is impossible. Compare the psychological process of learning, with the physiological process of digestion. True, this is 13 14 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. a homely illustration, and not the most aesthetic ; but it is the most available. Can you impart a beefsteak to another person? You cannot. You can cook it well, serve it daintily, offer it with one of your sweet smiles ; but make that beefsteak a part of his body you cannot. The person will have to do the biting, chew- ing, swallowing, digesting, and assimilating, himself. You may season the beefsteak admirably, you may make it palatable, you may do any thing and every thing to entice him to eat it ; but you cannot per- form the process of digestion and assimilation for him. It is exactly so in teaching. You cannot impart knowledge. All that you can do, and that, I insist upon it, you must do, is to make knowledge palatable, to serve it well, to select it with reference to the child's mental stomach, to prepare it so that the child will be enticed to partake of it ; but impart it you cannot. The child's intellect grows as a plant does, from inside outwardly, not from without inwardly. Therefore, if you should hear of any one of whom it is said that he understands the art of imparting knowledge, you may take it for granted that something else is meant ; namely, that lie understands the art of cooking and serving facts well. Really, my friend, the teacher is to be a good cook of mental food ; and it depends upon his professional training and his experience, whether he becomes a chef, and can make chefs-d'oeuvre, and deserves a salary such as is paid to a chef cle cuisine at Delmonico's or the Hoffman House, or a OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 15 Bridget who tortures the family with execrable experi- ments, and is finally degraded to scullery work. Do not feel down-hearted or insulted because I com- pare the teacher with a cook, for all similes are more or less lame. Remember that we may compare the teacher's profession with that of the physician, and 3*ou will feel consoled. Diseased digestive organs need specially prescribed diet, and so you will be obliged to diet pupils whose mental faculties are either in an acute or a chronic state of disease. Here, you see, we are approaching the domain of the physician. But, forsooth, there is more similarity between the cook and the teacher than we are willing to admit. I am very sorry to say that few chefs in teaching have ever reached the salary which chefs de cuisine in some large hotels in New York receive ; but it only proves the truth of what a lady of my acquaintance sometimes says, with a reproachful Jook across the table, when I find some dishes not suited to my palate : "Men are all stomach." As a rule, we prize our stomachs higher than our brains. Remember that when a man is obliged to economize, he begins by stopping his journals ; he thinks he can afford to dispense with mental food. When I say the teacher is like unto the cook, I do not mean to exclude the other, a more vital, part of his duty, which consists in training the child. He is to be at all times both a teacher and a trainer. I merely mention this to avoid a misunderstanding which might arise in your mind, as to the importance 16 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. of the teacher's profession ; but I answered your question, " How do } T ou impart knowledge? " And now your second question : ' ' What method do you prefer for young children? " I seriously think that you are not quite aware of what the word method signifies. When Shakspeare said, ' r Though this be madness, yet there is method in it," did he use the word "method" correctly? Or, when a corn-doctor advertises his method of cutting corns to be far superior to that of any other doctor, does he use the word ' ' method ' ' correctly ? Reflect upon these two cases, and then listen to this definition : Method is a way of reaching a given end by a series of acts which tend to secure it. There can be no question as to Shakspeare 's correct use of the word. In our days, the word " method " has fallen into disrespect by abuse. The educational journals are full of small, insignificant devices, all termed methods, which are nothing else than variations of one and the same thing. People confound mere mannerism with method. Let me quote an authority on this subject, — Dr. Soldan of St, Louis : — "Perhaps this difference between method and man- ner will appear better, if we use an illustration which is supported by the etymology of the word 'method.' Suppose it is proposed to establish' a connection between two cities. For this purpose, a road is made. This road will be used by all that go from one city to the other, and by all kinds of individuals : it is the same road for all, and not liable to be OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 17 changed by individual whims or notions. But the manner in which the road is used varies" very much : somQ will* walk, others will run, and others still will ride. The road, in our illustration, represents the method in pedagogics. It may be used by the most widely different individuals : the way in which people make use of it is the manner. Manner cannot be thoroughly specified or defined. Here the utmost freedom must be allowed to teachers and pupils, to develop their own individualities." SECOND LETTER. " SIMILIA SIMILIBCS CURANTUR." My dear Young Friend, — You desire my advice as to what to do in a case of chronic laziness in a pupil. It is very difficult to advise by correspond- ence, — just as difficult as it is for a physician to cure a patient without a proper diagnosis made in his presence. Still, there are general rules evolved from numerous analogous cases, principles deduced from practice, which, if applied, may cover the case in question. I should, therefore, when brought face to face with the necessity of punishing, try to apply the principles underlying all punishments and rewards. One of these is, Punishment should be in harmony with the offence. This sounds rather philosophic, but it is eminently practical in its application. According to this rule, you would "keep in " a child who came late in the 18 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. morning, as many minutes as its tardiness amounted to. According to the same rule, you would withdraw your confidence from a child who is given to prevari- cating. According to the same rule, you would cor- porally punish a child who has been found cruelly torturing an animal or a schoolmate ; that is, you would make him feel pain, so that he may understand pain. The homoeopathists in their medical practice follow the principle, " Similia similibus curantur" (like things are cured by like). Now, if you will bear in mind that a punishable child is a morally diseased child who is to be treated properly in order to be cured, you will see that there is a remarkable similarity between the teacher's and the physician's practice. Not that I mean to s&y that the teaching should -be done in homoeopathic doses. Heaven forbid ! Let us be allopathists in that. But in punishing, and more especially in rewarding, we must be homoeopathic by all means. Now, my dear young lady, I can imagine how your lustrous blue eyes fairly twinkle with the mischievous desire to nonplus me by asking, " If I am to apply the rule, ' Like cures like,' how am I to apply laziness in order to cure laziness ? Or, take a case of unclean - liness ? " It is a fairly victorious smile with which you propose this question ; yet, my young friend, your question is easily answered. Permit me to frame my answer in my own way, by first introducing it by general remarks. OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 19 Preaching about faults, and admonishing, never yet improved the morals and manners of any one, particu- larly not those of a child, who is not able to compre- hend your good intention or your doctrine. The child's ethical feeling is blunted by much fault-finding and blaming. There is scarcely a fault in human nature but which can be successfully eradicated in early youth, provided the proper remedy be applied, — a remedy suitable to the individuality of the child. We are very apt to use "heroic means," — brutal means, we mean, but dare not say so. It is a well- known fact, that the first boy in a numerous family is oftener punished corporally than all the other children. As the parents advance in years, their discretion and dire experience teach them better modes of training. And now to our case of laziness. I was not the oldest in a line of five children, nor the youngest, for which I offer thanks devoutly and fervently to Him who thus decreed it. I escaped the rod at one end of the line, and being spoiled at the other. I remember with remarkable vividness, that, when I was about ten years of age, I had a " spell of laziness." Not only was I lazy in school, but also at home. You know, or ought to know, that there are times in which a child (be it from physical or psychical causes) is more or less indolent ; a time in which he hates school, does his tasks carelessly if at all, and is bent upon things foreign to any thing like duty. Punishment-exercises, increased demands upon his activity (such as writing a list of words ten times) , only increase the unwilling- 20 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. ness to work ; corporal punishment makes the child morose and obstinate. Most teachers (and I use the word most, advisedly) stand before such a case as before an enigma whose solution ought not to be difficult. Listen to what my wise father did. When the first teacher's note came home, announcing my sliding into disgrace, he looked at me, but said not a word ; I noticed, though, that his watchful eye was ever upon me for a number of days. A week afterward another, this time rather lengthy, letter came by mail, set- ting forth my shortcomings and failings. My father read it to me, and then said, " I see, my boy, you are bodily weak. I think you are growing. I'll keep you home from school, and give you a chance to recuperate. You need not work at all until you come to the conclusion that it is better for you to work than to do nothing." Who could have been happier than I? I thought my father the wisest of mortals, and then proceeded to enjoy a chapter or two of " Robinson Crusoe ; " but, lo ! father mine took the book out of my hands, say- ing with a benign smile, but with a badly concealed twinkle in his eye, " Reading will hurt your eyes, and, when bending over the book, your back will suffer." Well, I "did not see it," but obeyed; taking up a kitchen-knife (you know that is always the sharpest in the house) to whittle a mast out of a chip to rig my boat. Again father mine interdicted, saying something of repose needed for the muscular system. Just then OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 21 mother needed coal in the kitchen, and called me to fetch her some. I jumped up with delight, ready to go to the coal-shed. But father mine sagely re- marked, I must not be disturbed, lest my growing bones might suffer ; and then went out with the coal- bucket. I began to doubt the wisdom of that father of mine. But then it was delicious to lie on the lounge, and do nothing, so I stretched myself ready for a nap. I had scarcely fallen asleep, when I was rudely awakened by a wet ice-cold cloth, which father mine had applied to my head, saying I evidently had a headache, and he meant to cure his dear boy. To make a long story short, I was not permitted to do any thing, — work was prohibited, amusement prevented. Yet I got through the first day without dying of ennui. I even got through the second day ; at the end of which my belief in father's wisdom was firmly re-established, for I now saw clearly that he meant to cure laziness by laziness, or like by like. Still, young as I was, I did not mean to be out- witted, and braved out another day ; but ask me not to describe it. I was not of a phlegmatic temper ; and you may imagine how I felt all through that long, weary day, which seemed to me to be the bigger half of eternity. On the evening of the third day I " caved in," and announced that I wt guessed " I was again strong enough to attend school on the morrow. My father's face beamed with happiness, that his dear boy should have been cured so soon ; he had been prepared 22 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. to hold the fort against "demon diligence" a week, but, if I thought my strength had returned, I might try school- work next day. And so I did ; but I carried a letter to my teacher in which the secret of my cure was not mentioned, for which omission I inwardly (very inwardly, rest assured) thanked my father. I remember well that one of my sisters was treated similarly when she had her spell of indolence. When she appeared in the kitchen, mother would, with much solicitude for her health, sa} T that steam might hurt her lungs. When she proceeded to sew for her dolls, it was said she must not exert herself. When she wished to take a walk with the other children, she was compelled to lie on the sofa, etc. With knowing glances I watched the course of treatment. It was amusing for me to see father and mother, act in harmony with a consistency which could not deserve a better purpose. It had the same salutary effect as in my own case. Now, my dear young friend, your victorious smile has disappeared, — almost, not quite, for yet you have something in petto. " What of the ivant of cleanli- ness? " you ask ; " how will you cure that? I cannot perceive what remedy will cure that, except good ex- ample." I knew a boy who was the terror of his mother on account of his criminal disregard of appearances. Dirty face, soiled and torn clothes, muddy boots, etc., — I need not further enumerate: the boy is by no means an exception. I advised her to apply my homoeopathic principle. She entered upon the idea OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACIIEB. 23 with enthusiasm, and was successful. This is the way she proceeded : — " Huo-o, your clothes are always torn; you are, therefore, accustomed to wearing torn clothes. I shall henceforth abstain from mending your pantaloons and jackets." The boy cared nothing, and soon wore out his best " Sunday-go-to-meeting suit," as well as his every-day clothes. When he called for a clean collar or a handkerchief, mother would offer him a soiled one, cast aside by his brother, as being good enough for him. The boy protested, but with no avail. Finally his clothes became dangerously dilapidated, especially his breeches at a certain unnamable place. He asked for a new pair ; an old pair cast off by his bigger brother was offered as "good enough for him." In short, the boy was soon convinced that cleanliness is next to godliness ; for his young playmates fell off from him like friends in need, of whom it is said that a hundred weigh no more than an ounce. The other boys disliked to play with such a wretched-looking fel- low ; and he soon learned the bitter lesson, that, despite all inner value, appearances play an important role in life. Well, I hope to have convinced you, my fair young friend, of the truth that " like cures like " in pedagogy as well as in medicine. Modify these examples, change the mode of procedure to suit the circumstances of school, and you have powerful levers for cases of lazi- ness and want of cleanliness. 24 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. THIRD LETTER. CAUSE AND EFFECT ; OR, HOW TO KEEP YOUNG. My happy Young Friend, — It is a serious ques- tion which you ask me in your reply to uiy last letter, — more serious than you in your sweet innocence think ; serious and important because it concerns the very essence of success in teachiug, as well as in every other domain of human activity. Pardon me if I quote your words : they are too pithily framed to be buried ignomiuiously in the waste-basket. u Do tell me how I can keep young. Our superintendent, a venerable old gentleman with a wrinkled face, as full of acidity as a persimmon, remarked sagery on the platform: 4 Teachers must endeavor to keep young.' I hadn't the heart to ask him for his own elixir, fearing he would prescribe a remedy which would make a mummy of me in fewer } 7 ears than it did of him. But he said it with such an air of conviction that I felt there must be some deep truth in it. Now } 7 ou, dear Doctor, have so happy a disposition, that if the advice had come from you I should have believed it implicitly. Do tell me the secret of preserving youth. Looking around at my numerous fellow-teachers, I notice many sour faces, which speak of disappointment, weariness, and an} T thing but serenity and preserved youth. Shall I be like them in a few years? " Well, my dear friend, Pindar, the great Greek poet and contemporary of Pericles, said that in the land of OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 25 the departed it was spring all the year around. If the teacher's work is to be successful, it must be done in continual spring air : neither in the icy atmosphere of cold reason and cutting sarcasm, nor in the withering heat of passion. While the brow of the merchant, artisan, or day-laborer may be clouded without greatly interfering with the progress of the work he is perform- ing, the countenance of the teacher must be sunshiny and bright. From her heart must forever issue forth a stream of cheerfulness, because her disposition is reflected in the susceptible souls of her pupils. It is said that interest acts upon the learner as sun- shine and moisture do upon the vegetable germ in the ground. Now, the most important source of interest is the love for the teacher. A sour, moody temper will effectually kill the affection of the pupils, while cheerfulness will awaken it. ''Cheerfulness," says Jean Paul, tk is the sky under which every thing flour- ishes exuberantly, save poison." While I readily grant that cheerfulness is not dependent upon age, I notice that it is more frequently found in youth. Your superintendent, therefore, is right in his advice ; and he is the more sincere in it since he, perhaps, feels the want of it in himself. Now, for the sources of this everlasting youth and vigor. I like to speak in similes. The Greek mythol- ogy speaks of a giant whom Hercules had to conquer. During the combat, Hercules observed that the giant lost his strength when he was lifted up from the ground, and that his strength returned when he touched 26 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. " Mother Earth " again. This is a proper illustration of your case. To remain young, means to preserve an interest in every thing and everybody surrounding you. This looks like a more formidable task than it really is. Teachers very frequently resemble the man who digs a hole into the ground, and throws the soil up around the edge of the hole. The deeper he digs, the higher becomes the embankment, and the smaller his horizon of vision. That is to say, being occupied with small thoughts, little things, weak and childish efforts, in- significant trifles (significant enough for both pupils and teacher in their work, but insignificant in regard to other things going on in the world) , they are apt to lose sight of what goes on in the community, among the people, — in fact, upon the world's stage. To avoid this atrophy of thought, you must be a diligent reader, and read at least one good daily paper, one bright, sparkling weekly educational journal, and several literary monthlies. The daily will keep you au fait with events in your immediate surroundings ; the educational journal will give j^ou wise advice, new thoughts and suggestions for your professional work, and will preserve you from sinking into that detestable swamp called self-sufficiency and self-satisfaction. A teacher who reads an educational journal, and profits by it, will never consider herself "finished." The excellent monthlies (I am not an agent, and therefore abstain from enumerating them) are so admirably conducted, that they set before you a palatable menu of historical, scientific, and other OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 27 literary essays, thought-bearing and therefore thought- awakening. Do not fall into the terrible mistake of reading journals, newspapers, weeklies, monthlies, etc., indiscriminately by the dozen. It weakens your intellect and your memory, as over-eating will weaken the digestion. You need to read good books, fictitious and otherwise. I trust to your good sense and still better taste, that you will not squander your time in reading trashy novels. So much for the intellect. Now for your emotions. To keep young, means to preserve the power to love, — love for children, and, for that matter, love for the grown folks too. Love for children necessitates that you should interest yourself in their homes : their private affairs are your affairs also. A knowledge of their home surroundings is absolutely necessary for you to understand their dispositions, their susceptibilities, their sensibilities, in fact, their entire beings. If some thoughtless person should consider you a crank for thus interesting your- self beyond the schoolroom in the children's affairs, let me comfort you by saying that the crank is one of the most necessary devices for mechanical motion. There is not a machine without a crank ; and woe to a body of teachers, a community, or any body of people, without at least one crank ! Be you the crank, the crank of never-wearying affection, interest, solicitude, kindness, and charity, to your school ; and the glow of enthusiasm and the warmth of maternal love will keep you young, though you may be covered with the mimic snow of age. 28 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. But, you may say, keeping young in mind and in heart is not keeping young in body. What shall I do to keep young in body ? The everlasting principle of cause and effect holds good in this also. It is said, " Mens sana in corpore sano;" and the opposite is true also. That is to say, happiness, a cheerful dis- position, and a bright mind, have their inevitable beneficial effects upon the body. They promote bodily health. Again a simile may illustrate a point. A hot-house plant withers when placed in the open air ; and, alas ! most schoolrooms are hot-houses, in the literal sense of the term. They are invariably over-heated. Keep the temperature to 65° F., and have the prudence to hang your thermometer, not ten or twelve feet above the floor, for safe keeping, as I found it some time ago in one of my schools, but only two or three feet above it ; in other words, in that stratum of air in which the children are compelled to abide. Not only the temperature, but also the composition of the air, should be considered. Therefore, ventilate your room. Ventilation is derived from ventus, the wind ; and therefore ventilation implies circulation or agitation of the air. As often as possible, therefore, change the air in your room completely. Yours and your pupils' rosy cheeks, elastic gait, gay spirit, bright looks, and happy disposition will be preserved. And last, but not least, don't worry. t; Sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof." Don't talk and think " shop " all the time. Nothing ages so much as OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 29 a burden of worry. Above all, do not worry about the results of examinations. Be social, but do not keep late hours. Engage in some work totally different from the work done in school. Hear a good concert now and then. Be happy, and seek the company of happy people. Seek the chance to laugh heartily as often as possible. I shall not engage in telling you what to do in cases of sickness, but will conclude with a little advice which may seem outlandish, but is eminently sound. As a rule, the Americans have very little imagination ; they pride themselves on being dry, matter-of-fact people. Look at the Germans, and see what happy people they are, even in old age ! It is one of the postulates of German education, that imagination must be fostered. In Germany, fairy-stories are indulged in in youth to a much greater extent than is done in this country. Goethe's mother was one of those happy persons who see even on the darkest cloud a rosy border, whose temper is never ruffled, who sing and laugh and dance through life, and who beautify the lives of ail who associate with them. She invented numerous fables and fairy-stories for her children, and liked to tell them to her boy Wolfgang. When she was well advanced in years, and her son had reached the high- est height of fame and glory, she was asked how it came that Wolfgang resembled her so much in thought and action. "Ah," said she, "Wolfgang and I were young together." Go thou, my dear young friend, and do likewise. 30 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. I cannot close my letter without a solemn word of censure. Reverence for old age will not make you old before your time, especially if that reverence is shown to a superior officer such as your superintendent. You may not consider your words, as quoted above, meant to be irreverent ; but they sound like it. 'Avoid even the appearance of irreverence. FOURTH LETTER. THE OLD, OLD QUESTION. My dear Young Lady, — You are in distress again, you say, because you fail utterly in suppressing noise in the schoolroom ; particularly is it " demon whisper" that will not down. You write, " Of course it would be foolish to punish the children for communicating ; but, having several grades of pupils in one room, I am compelled to leave one or two of them to themselves, that is, give them something to do, while my attention is engaged with another grade. Now, I cannot watch them constantly. Shall I appoint monitors to do the watching? If not, why not? " Your letter calls up in my mind a similar experience of my own. When I was young itf years, : — for young in heart and mind I propose to be till my dying day, — I taught a school in the countiy. My room was joined to another, and in these two rooms two teachers were engaged in teaching two hundred and sixteen pupils ; I had the u bigger half " of that number. Like your- self, I thought I had to suppress whispering and noise ; OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 31 and I employed even so-called heroic means to stamp it out of my school. Like yourself, I gave the pupils something to do, it mattered little what. I failed utterly. One day my colleague mildly suggested that I made my life and that of my pupils wretched to no purpose. "For," said he, "you try to suppress all noise, aiming at a quietude in which a pin may be heard falling. The school ought not to be like a churchyard, but like a workshop, in which work, hard work, and much work, is performed. Work implies motion ; motion implies noise. There must be always a certain degree of bustle and noise in a school. Where it is suppressed, I pity the children." Of course, this remark was so just and wise, that I concluded to profit by it ; and I have never since rued it. But you do not mean that kind of noise which is the inevitable companion of earnest work. You mean noise which is made unnecessarily, and is the outcome of mischievous intention. The old apociyphal writer Sirach wrote more than two thousand years ago upon the subject, suggesting to employ children in order to keep them out of mischief. Now, the difference between employment for the hand, and fruit-bearing work, is very glaring. In order to make the pupils do the work assigned, with interest, it is essential that the assigned task should be in strict harmony with what you have prepared with them : in other words, you must awaken interest. For instance, if they read a story in their reader 82 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. which the}' liked, it would be well to ask them to copy that story nicely for you. It is reasonable to suppose that they will go to work quietly, and do what is asked of them. If you have prepared the number lesson, as every lesson in arithmetic should be prepared, mentally, then set them to work to solve similar problems. Knowing how to go to work, it is again reasonable to suppose that they will make good use of their time. If they have had a lesson in orthog- raphy, such as words with ; ' ough," ask them to find a dozen or more words in their reader that contain "ough." Again it is reasonable to suppose that they will evince much interest in finding such words. If they had a lesson in geography on river-systems and kindred topics, ask them to trace the Mississippi, or whatever other river you may choose, and to write out the names of its tributaries in two columns ; the right tributaries in the right, the left tributaries in the left column. In fine, I mean, every task to be done by the hand should be prepared in an oral lesson preceding it. You may rest assured that every undefined or poorly understood task gives rise to disturbances of -various kinds, like communication in whisper, annoying ques- tions to the teacher, consulting of books and slates, etc. Acting upon this advice, you will find that the amount of whispering and noise will greatly decrease, if not vanish entirely. But be sure to make the tasks reasonably short. If they are too long, or if the OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 33 time allotted for them is too long for doing the work, the children will seek relief in all sorts of distractions, of which whispering is the favorite. It will never do to scold the pupils for seeking relief. Always look for the cause of the trouble in yourself. Teach rationally, assign tasks which you are sure can be performed, and you will not need to suppress the " demon whisper." Of course this mode of acting will not permit the teacher to sit on her throne of idleness, — that is, at her desk. She must be constantly moving. She must, even when hearing another class, keep an e}*e upon those who are quietly at work ; must even go through the aisles, and inspect the work going on, helping here a lame duck, suggest- ing there, mildly and quietly, reprove where it is necessary ; in short, act like the motive power in a machine. Oh, yes, I see a veil falling over } T our lustrous blue eyes ; and a reproachful glance strikes me, hy which you mean to convey, "How shall I be able to stand such exhaustive work? Will it not wear one out in a short while?" No, my dear, it will not: it is not near as exhaustive as one good round sally of reproof and scolding. Anger causes loss of vitality much sooner than those quiet, pleasant, helpful. wa}'S, and the quiet, willing work of the children. I am sorry to say that, if it should wear you out/ you must find consolation in the cruel statement, that the schools are not made for the better accommodation of teachers. As to monitors, do not appoint any. The}' cause 34 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. more mischief than can be righted. I have seen children grow absolutely wicked by acting as monitors. Rather appeal to their finer sense of honor,, than place one of their number over them to watch them. It engenders a feeling of pride in the monitor, and a feeling of resentment in those who are reported as transgressors. I have a personal and exceedingly unpleasant ex- perience with monitors, which leads me to be thus outspoken. When I was a bo} T , I went to a school whose teacher was master of the chair in a Masonic lodge. He was frequently called to assist at burials of brethren, and he always placed a monitor from out of our ranks over us. One day the monitor reported that Klem deserved punishment. Now, there happened to be two Klemms in that school, — one who spelled his name with one m; the second, myself, who spelled his name with two m's. The teacher grasped the nearest, and lammed him most furiously, saj'ing, " I will teach you rascals how to behave when I am out ! " I happened to be the unfortunate one. The monitor, harboring ill feeling against me, did not arrest the teacher's arm. He stood by without saying a word, until the process of inflicting a wholesome lesson was concluded. Then he coolly informed the teacher that he guessed he had better begin over again with the other Klem, who spelled his name with one m. It is barely possible that this incident prejudiced me against monitors in general . OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 35 FIFTH LETTER. SKETCH OF A GOOD SCHOOL. My interesting Young Friend, — In reply to my last open letter, you have the kindness to say that my personal reminiscences are interesting, and that you desire to hear more of them. I can imagine how brimful of laughter 30U must have been when you saw your stately friend whipped by mistake ; but I assure you, though the job was done well, it was not appreciated by me at the time. I cannot record another case of that kind, nor would it do to palm off every corporal punishment which fell to m}' lot as having been inflicted by mistake. Nor were all the teachers I had like the one I mentioned. In order to make these letters instructive as well as amusing, I will proceed to draw the outlines of what I consider a good school. The task is very easy. I will take you into the school which I attended from my tenth till my sixteenth year. There is a great cry heard in the land, that pupils are obliged to study too many branches. This is an erroneous statement. The difficulty lies elsewhere. It is not the number of branches, but the manner of studying them, that causes dissipation. Permit me to sketch the way we were taught in the school mentioned above. We had two languages, Latin and French. To-day I remember ver}' little of my Latin, but a good deal of my French. Why? The Latin was taught to us very much in 36 EDUCATIO'NAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. the way of a post-mortem examination. There was no Latin conversation, no Latin composition ; nothing but humdrum translation and veritable dissecting was done. Oar French teacher permitted no translations : all was life in his lessons. He talked to us in French ; we caught the pronunciation, made use of our limited vocabulary, and in a short while we boys used French as if it had been our mother- tongue. We had mathe- matics, but no text-book. We never saw a text-book of mathematics. All we were required to have was a ruler, a compass, and a number of note-books. The teacher supplied the subject matter. We had astro- nomical and physical geography, and as text-books nothing more than an atlas, and drawing-materials for drawing maps. The teacher was supplied with a tellurian, relief maps, and other appliances. We had geology, zoology, and botany, and a text- book, for all three branches no larger than a primer. The school was supplied with a set of illustrative charts, and a well-stocked museum of natural history, which contained a plentiful set of minerals, stuffed animals, an herbarium, and numerous preparations of papier-mache. We had anatomy and plrysiology, but no text-book for these branches. Instead of that we had a complete skeleton, a manikin, colored charts, and numerous preparations of papier-mache, plaster- of-paris, and rubber. We had history, and a teacher whose cheeks grew red with enthusiasm when he nar- rated to us the glorious deeds of ancient and modern nations. Our text-book contained sixty pages ; it was OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 37 a little pamphlet. Oh the wonderful moments when we listened to him with bated breath ! We were Greeks with Pericles, Carthaginians with Hannibal, Romans with Caesar, Goths with Theodoric, Franks with Charlemagne, Swedes with Gustavus, Prussians with Frederick, Englishmen with Marlborough, Ameri- cans with Washington. We had natural philosophy, and a laboratory in the basement. We had history of literature, aud a library of several thousands of the best books. We had rhetoric and elocution, without even knowing that we were studying these branches : it was done in a practi- cal way, that resulted in efforts not to be despised. We had drawing and singing ; we had gymnastics and excursions. In fact, our course of study was a very complex thing ; but we obtained a goodly stock of knowledge, and a fair degree of skill, because we were made to acquire them by self -activity. Here is an example of a lesson in zoology: The stuffed swan was brought into the class. The professor stated the characteristic features of the swimming birds ; then we were called upon to find these features in every other species or family of swimming birds, which latter were exhibited either in natura or in pictures. Then things were discovered, and accur- ately stated, which proved their dissimilarity. Thus, around that one stuffed bird was grouped all our knowledge of such birds. Afterward we had to write down what we had learned. And this latter pro- cedure was the best thing of all ; for it was taken 38 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. for granted that we knew nothing of a subject unless we could make it clear to others. Sometimes an oral statement was sufficient, but it had to be complete ; no essentials were permitted to slip our notice. When review week came, the pupils were allowed to catechise each other. Through all these studies there was notice- able the red thread of language-instruction. All in- struction was instruction in language ; and we were trained in an easy and elegant use of the mother- tongue without the paraphernalia of parsing and dis- secting, — simply by a careful use of the language. Each class made frequent excursions into shops, mills, factories, and into the woods. When we went into the woods, each one of us was armed with a small hammer for breaking minerals, pincers for dis- secting plants and blossoms, pins to fasten insects on cork or our hats, and a tin box hung over the shoulder by means of a strap. No one was without his note-book, in which he entered a sketch of the journey, and new names. Ten pennies (two and one- half to three cents) for a glass of milk at a farmhouse, and a roll of bread, was enough to keep body and soul together. What an indescribable charm these excur- sions had to us ! We fought the famous battle of Marathon over again, not in sunny Attica, but on a pasture or a stubble-field nearer home. I shall remember to my dying day, that, much to my regret, I had to attack the Pass of Thermopylae on the side of the Persians. In the Neander Valley we dug up remains of pre- OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 39 historic men. Our professor id history, then a man in the prime of life (may kind Providence grant him a happy old age!) stood in the midst of his pupils, and with glowing cheek, and the chest-tone of con- viction, told us how brave Frederick had defeated the French, and sent them flying across the Rhine ; and amid the ruins of the ancient Falkenburg he made clear to us the victory of modern thought, and civil virtue, over the old feudal system. All our knowledge was experience, not dry book- wisdom. Coming home from such an excursion, or from a visit in a factory, we could scarcely wait to get a meal, so eager were we to write down an account of what we had seen and learned. School was a perfect paradise to us. Our school-bag was not heavy. The intercourse between pupils and teachers was very pleasant, because the teacher shared all the hardships with us ; and a case of truancy was unheard of. And now I come to the best feature of our school. There was no rivalry among the pupils (the worst kind of mental dissipation) , except in this : that each one of us strove hard to be recognized as "Primus" of his class for good deportment. That was a great honor ; for to the "Primus" was intrusted the class-journal, that important book upon the leaves of which were immortalized the flower of the school. And there was no per-ceut system of marking and grading. Every examination consisted of compositions (except in mathematics). So, for instance, in physiology or any one of the branches we studied, a limited number 40 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. of themes were given out ; each pupil could choose one, and write as complete a dissertation as possible. These productions were not gauged on a scale of one hundred, for that would have necessitated little matter- of-fact questions which embraced nothing but bare facts. The examination papers were either satisfac- tory, or they were not ; in the latter case a second examination was required after a few weeks. It will easily be seen, that we were required to learn much ; but it will equally easily be seen, that we did learn a great deal more than we could have learned from books. But despite the multitude of studies, there were no mental cripples among us. Each one went to the limits of his capacity. All this was owing to the methods pursued. SIXTH LETTER. STIMULANTS IN TEACHING. My young Friend, — I was amused and astonished that my remarks about competition in school, and my slur at marking and grading, which you had found in my fifth letter, should have disturbed your mind. You ask me why I think that daily marking of pupils' work is an objectionable practice, amounting to a crime? I hasten to answer, and hope to show you the criminal aspect of the case. Now and then we find teachers who spend the better part of their school -hours in marking their pupils' work, and recording results. That this is OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 41 considered a perfectly legitimate practice, may be seen from the fact that class record-blanks are pub- lished in great number, which make this marking of lessons a special feature of school-work. The main argument of teachers who use such blanks is, that they need something to stimulate their pupils' activity. Some of them are firm believers in the temperance or abstinence cause, and if any one, drunkard or otherwise, in their presence should claim that he needs alcoholic drinks to stimulate his appetite, these truly virtuous teachers would be horrified to hear it : yet they do a similar thing in school, and do it with a vengeance. It is reasonable to suppose that a good healthy person needs no stimulants. Food is taken willingly, digested and assimilated readily, without the aid of stimulants ; provided, always, the organs of digestion are in prime order. It is only jaded appetites which crave stimulants. Now, if a teacher claims that without the use of marks and similar paraphernalia, such as rewards (praise, cards, presents) and punishments, she can- not make her pupils work and stud}', it is also reason- able to suppose that their intellectual appetites are jaded, — in other words, that they have been brought lip from the earliest primary grade on a diet of stimu- lants ; or, that the intellectual food she offers is so unpalatable, stale, or tasteless, that an artificial stimu- lant, such as a Worcestershire sauce of marks, is needed to make it "go down." Don't talk of ambition needing to be stimulated ! 42 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Every healthy organism will, at regular stated inter- vals, demand food, and develop an appetite. And so will a healthy youngster want intellectual food, without being stimulated by an appetizer in the form of a reward or punishment. Reward should only be given for any thing done in excess of duty, and punishment for neglect of duty. In all our teaching we should look toward the re- quirements of actual life. It is a well-known fact, that in life the simple performance of duty is not rewarded. It is not even fully paid ; and it seems extremely hazardous to accustom our boys and girls to expect a reward for simply doing their duty. Naturally, experienced teachers will say, in the foregoing argument, we presuppose our pupils to be normally endowed with intellectual appetites : expe- rience, however, teaches that that is a fallacy. To this I answer : Dyspepsia is not an hereditary disease, but invariably the sequence of maltreatment. That treat- ment may date back to infancy, but in some period of the child's life maltreatment has made the organs of digestion weak. It ma} r be granted, even, that there is a tendency to dyspepsia in the new-born child, just as there ma}' be a tendency to tuberculosis ; but with careful treatment the tendency could be overcome. Now T , view psychological organs as we do physiolo- gical ; and we may say, maltreatment, at some stage of the child's life, is the cause of this apparent neces- sity for using stimulants in teaching. No sane person, endowed with five senses, is left without an undying OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 43 desire to acquire knowledge. Now, feed the child with indigestible sole-leather, such as learning rules from the printed page before they are applied, tested, and experienced by the learner, and soon the neces- sity of stimulants will make itself felt. Pupils who are taught rationally, according to the laws of psy- chology, never need stimulants nor appeals to their ambition. Fancy a teacher marking hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, annually, recording results, finding averages, and cop}ing them on report cards to be sent home ! Does she not resemble the kornak on the elephant's back, pricking and stabbing the poor beast to make him hurry up? There is too much disregard for the dignity of the child exhibited in the schools of our country, which cries for redress. I have come to distrust a teacher who practises marking the pupils' exercises ; and in all my many years of experience I have discovered, in the end, that this distrust is well founded. He is invariably a person who finds it too laborious to acquaint himself with, and obey, the laws of psychology ; and who considers the position of a slave-driver more pleasant than that of a gardener of children, who knows that education is a growth. And now you, my dear young lady, will ask, and I should consider 3-011 a poor logician if you did not ask: " I understand you, then, to mean, that, from the very start in the earliest primary grades, the marking should be abandoned. But what would you 44 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. do in higher grades, where the marking and grading have become a custom? Would you suddenly abandon it there too? " A simile may answer you. In a sanitarium for inebriates, which I visited last year, I found this practice in vogue : Every inmate owned a bottle, which the physician had in charge. Every morning the bottle was filled with choice liquor, and whenever the patient desired a drink during the day, he went to the office, asked for his bottle (which was labelled with his name), and took his drink under the eyes of his medical adviser. But before he handed it back a pebble was thrown into the bottle, which decreased the .capacity of the bottle by just the size of the pebble. I was told that when the bottle is filled with pebbles the patient is usually cured of his immod- erate love for drink. Hand in hand with this slow but sure decrease of the quantity of liquor goes an increase of strength gained by suitable treatment, such as physical exertion, excellent, nutritious food, elevating conversation and occupation. This should show you the way out of the dilemma, my friend. Slowly, and with true conservative spirit, decrease the use of marks and grades. Let them slowly sink into disregard. Do not be hasty about it. Meanwhile make your teaching as interesting as 3 t ou can possibly make it. Pay due regard to the individual tastes of your pupils, and your school will inevitably become what it ought to be, penitentiary. OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 45 SEVENTH LETTER. teachers' examinations. My interesting Young Friend, — It is a pleasure to correspond with you, and I am very sorry that you forbid me to quote you because you fear to be de- tected. Fear not. If yours had been the ouly case in which my discretion had been appealed to, I might, perhaps, be found wanting ; but you know I am in the years of advanced principles, — as was said of the old maid, when the poet's politeness would not allow him to admit that she was old, — and with age discretion develops wonderfully. I understand, then, that your certificate runs out, and that in order to secure a new one you must subject yourself to an examination. But I understand, also, that you do not fear the ordeal, having prepared your- self thoroughly. Yet you are not without some mis- givings ; I fully understand that. Indeed, I should have them too : I have a vivid remembrance of some of the many occasions on which I trembled in my boots, for I am a much-examined man. Nor do I blame you for feeling uneasy at the approaching ex- amination, for teachers' examinations in this country are very much of a lottery. They are as different from teachers' examinations in Germany, as a game of keuo is from a game of chess. What is the certificate to signify? Certainly, the ability to teach, and a documentary proof of the fact 46 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. that you possess the necessary amount of knowledge. But ask yourself, Is the certificate which you now hold a documentary proof of your ability to teach? You may say, " Yes, because it distinctly states, iu black on white, that I have the requisite knowledge, and am therefore entitled to accept an appointment. Does not that mean I am able to teach? " No, my young friend, it does not. It merely means that you have the necessary amount of knowledge which you would need in case you were called upon to teach ; but it does not convey the idea that you have the ability to teach. Knowing is one thing, and being able to do is another. Knowing the multiplication-table does not carry with it the ability to teach it. Knowing how to analyze a sentence does not carry with it the ability to teach grammar and language. And even if it did, it would not make a disciplinarian of you. See what the law-students have to do. They go through a practical course in a lawyer's office. They go into court, and listen to the arguments and practices of full-fledged lawyers. They note the decisions of the judges. They copy briefs and other documents, and try their hand at composing them for the inspection of their masters. Then after several years of practical work of that kind, and after having acquired the neces- sary routine and amount of knowledge of the law, they present themselves before the board of examiners, and there are subjected to an oral as well as written ex- amination. When they are admitted to the bar, they have acquired not only the desired amount of knowl- OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 47 edge, but also a skill in applying it. Now, when you went before the board of examiners for the first time, you had no skill in teaching ; you came fresh from the seminary, and had to give proofs of your knowledge, but not of your skill in applying it. At present, after two years' experience, you have acquired a great deal of skill, and, perhaps, lost some of that vast ( ?) amount of dry knowledge. Now see what the physicians do. The case is simi- lar to that of the lawyers. Students of medicine have to attend the clinic. They are obliged to accompany the attending physician upon bis rounds through the hospital. They are asked to prescribe, and to state what they would do in this or that case ; in fine, are prepared in the only practical and successful way to become good physicians, — namely, in accordance with the well-known proverb, " Practice makes the master.'' I remember the examination I had to pass in Prussia. It was an ordeal, and there was no sham about it, real or otherwise. For several days we " aspirants " were examined orally in all the branches the course of study prescribed. This was done very searchingly. Then followed a day of written examinations, on which three dissertations had to be furnished. After that followed several daj's of teaching. Every candidate (aspirant) was assigned a lesson. To my lot fell the geography lesson, one in mental arithmetic, and one in singing. It is true,, the lessons were short ; but it does not take long for any rational examiner to see whether a person has the ability to handle a class and teach lucidly. 48 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. . Let me acknowledge that at that ordeal I quaked ; but much depended upon it, and therefore I conquered myself. As a matter of self-evidence the examiners did not mark us on a scale of one hundred. Their marks were as follows : veiy good, good, mediocre, poor, very poor. As a proof of the thoroughness with which the examination was held, I will betray the fact, that one of the young men, whom we considered the best of the students, a walking cyclopaedia, failed in the lessons which he had to give, and a certificate was denied him. Another who had given excellent lessons, and who was certainly a born teacher, failed in passing, because he could not solve the Pythagorean problem. All this may seem strange to you ; but when I compare our county teachers' examinations here in Ohio with the examinations held in Germany, I cannot help but wish that a revival would take place on this side of the Atlantic. Here only a written examination is required upon ten matter-of-fact questions in each branch, — questions as narrow as a razor ; such as, " Where was the conven- tion held that nominated Hayes for the presidency? " This question is not a fictitious one ; yet when a person has been successful in this written examination upon questions that are as remote from tile young teacher's actual duties in the schoolroom as the moon from the earth, she is awarded a certificate which says in sub- stance that Miss or Mr. So-and-so is entitled to teach for one, two, three, or five 3'ears, as the case may be, OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 49 implying therewith that she or he has the ability to teach. It is a terrible outrage, and one that has been the source of much mischief. A manufacturer does not ask an applicant for work whether he knows the names of certain tools and other things, but whether he can work with them. When I want a good shoemaker, I do not ask him whether he has knowledge of political economy, but whether he can make a shoe ; and the test to which I would subject him would be a very practical one. But strange be- yond comprehension it is, that this practical nation, this nation of common-sense, should be so short-sighted as to test applicants for teaching only in regard to the quantity of knowledge they possess, and not with refer- ence to their skill in applying it. EIGHTH LETTER. RAPIDITY IN RECITATION. My happy Young Friend, — Do not hesitate in giving utterance to a question like your last one. It is of more weight than it may seem to you. You ask, ' w Am I right in insisting upon the utmost swiftness in answering to the call for reciting? " I should say Yes, if you expect the answer to be a recital ; but I should emphatically say No, if the answer is not to consist of something which has been memorized. You see, as to quickness in answering the teacher's questions, or (to use a more technical term) as to rapidity in conducting recitations, I hold a somewhat 50 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. different opinion from that so frequently advocated in educational periodicals. . This is said with due respect for the conviction of others, and the arguments they present. Let us first ask, What is a recitation? It is, and, in the true sense of the word, can be, nothing else than a " verbal repetition of something learned or committed to memory" (Webster). Now, then, I grant willingly, that in a case where something is, or has been, learned by heart, this swiftness in answering the call for recital is proper, judicious, and profitable. It causes not only a skill in making use of these intel- lectual tools in an exact manner, but also assurance and self-reliance in the pupil. But the next question will be, How far is this memorizing by rote to go ? Or, what is to be learned by heart, so that it be "recited"? Why, multipli- cation-tables, and a few other things which are of insignificance in comparison with the vast amount of conversation between teacher and pupils which can- not be called, and should never be, a " reciting." A more advanced opinion is, that the results of teaching which will last beyond the school years are acquired in a different way : I mean, by comprehending facts, turning them this way and that wa} T , and by constantly applying them in different ways and forms. All this needs time, needs thought, or rather the act of think- ing, and in some cases even a moment's investigation by means of the senses on the part of the pupils. Almost every good thought is produced slowly ; it lias to be stripped of all the many fetters that seem to OPEN LETTEBS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 51 keep it tied down ; and, that done, it needs must be dressed in good language, neglige not being admissible. Will not the tendency to brilliant, rapid recital lead us back to the antiquated method of teaching, which had the enviable quality of not being a method at all? Will not this brilliant, rapid recital kill the thorough- ness advocated by pedagogical classics, with which they showed us how to unfold, to unveil, to develop the mind? It may be stated, in order to strengthen the argument, that, as far as instruction goes, the mind is the principal thing ; not grammar, reading, arithmetic, geography, botany, or physics, etc. The latter are means, not ends, of education; the ends are to strengthen the inborn powers of the children, of which memory is only one, and by no means the most important. Let the pupils forget the many details of these branches after they leave school ; their minds will have grown, and if the many details which we would allow the pupil to forget are obtained in the right way, and not merely learned by the tongue, they will not be lost after all. Riches thrown into our lap will soon diminish, and be squandered ; but what we have earned by hard labor, and saved under sacrifices, to that we cliug, and it clings to us. A kind of teaching which resembles this hard labor, by which the child's wits are brought to work, will, as may safely be affirmed, admit of no such rapid tw recital" as is so frequently advocated. Nor are, in my opinion, the brilliant pupils (those 52 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. who show off in a u recitation ") the ones that make strong men and women. Nay, I am led to think that the apparently dull ones win the laurels over the former. Here is an example : I know a gentleman who would be considered a rather poor pupil, if he sat among school-children, as far as this rapidity is con- cerned. Whatever he says, he says with hesitation, constantly weighing his sentiments ; his words some- times follow each other so slowly, that he resembles the miser who turns the penny in his hand several times before he gives it away. But see how precise he is in his statements ; see the absolute truth in them ; see the logic underlying them ! That man is a deeper thinker than scores of others ; he has a clearer insight into every thing his mind ever approached ; and, what is bearing upon the question under discussion, he has learned more, by grasping slowly, than a great many others who grasp quickly and forget quickly. Are we not, in our tendency to rapidity in teaching, falling into the same fault that is attributed to the whole nation, — fastness, superficiality? Have we not too much of that skimming reading, superficial think- ing, and blind following of authority, in this country? Are we not increasing it? Do not, my dear young- lady, regard these questions as conclusive arguments, but take them for what they are meant, — inquiries of a troubled mind, that wishes for deliverance from the painful sensation of hurrying open-eyed into danger. It seems to me there is a physical danger in this rapidity of conversation, also (I am " at loggerheads " OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 53 with the term u recitation"), in school. This danger consists in wearing out teachers and pupils. I know a vigorous, active, and in fact (to use a slang term) clashing teacher. Whenever I see her teach, 1 per- ceive that her nerves are so active that her finger-tips seem ready to dance fandango. May I not attribute the weariness and lassitude of the children to the fact that they are literally worn out when school is out? They cannot do work at home. Is not the absence of this mad rapidity the reason why pupils in Germany can be called upon to do a liberal share of their school- work at home? I merely strew this in as a suggestion. Perhaps I am wrong. And now a simile. A schoolroom with a teacher who strives for, and obtains, rapidity in teaching, resembles a hot-house. Every plant in it is beautiful to look at ; they all show off in dazzling colors of all kinds. If the children could remain in that schoolroom, it would be a good thing for — the schoolroom. But see the plants droop if you place them in another ground,' in another air, in other surroundings. The brilliancy vanishes, the blossoms and leaves soon drop, and the real valuable parts of the plants, the stems and branches, the root and germ of life, are preserved : they possess what will keep the plant alive ; they adapt themselves to the new surroundings ; they go through the process of acclimatization. So with the pupils. What has become part of their very selves, what has taken root in their minds, and what 54 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. has been slowly gathered by the memory after it went through the mill of reason, and comprehension, that — But why picture a thing which is self-evident, and not disputed? NINTH LETTER. CONTINUITY OF INSTRUCTION. My dear Young Friend, — Permit me to quote from your letter: "When addressing our Teachers' Institute on the subject of ' Principles of Method,' you mentioned one which I failed to understand. First, you dwelt upon the necessity of starting with sense-perception ; and my own experience furnished me with abundant evidence of its truth. Then you emphasized that symbols should follow, not precede, objects ; and your explanation of this principle was as lucid as your illustrations were impressive and con- vincing. But your third principle, 4 Instruction must be continuous,' remained obscure to me. May I ask you to explain it in the ' American Teacher,' a journal which offers the benefits of a normal school to us?" — Yes, with pleasure. The easiest way to satisfy you would be to send you to Webster, who defines continuity as being an uninterrupted connection, a close union of parts, a cohesion. "Law of continuity {Math, and Physics), the principle that nothing passes from one state to another without passing through all the intermediate states." Or, I might interpret by saying that prog- ress in school (and progress here implies that of OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 55 teaching as well as of learning) should be a step-by- step movement ; that there should be no break in the procedure which might cause disturbance. But that would not be sufficient. There is still a vagueness about these definitions. Let me say, then : By continuity of instruction I mean, that the matter of instruction should be given in genetic order. I mean that immovable and per- petual order established since the creation of the universe, which in philosophy is called the law of continuity, in virtue of which every thing that is done is clone by degrees infinitely small. It seems to be the dictate of good sense, that no change is made by means of leaps. Natara non operator per salt am (nature does not operate in leaps) ; and nothing in nature's own unhurried manner of growth can pass from one extreme to another, without passing through all the intermediate degrees. Now, what is true of nature's growth must hold good of the mind ; man existing not outside of, but within nature, being part of nature. So, then, all the items of each branch of study should be so pre- sented that they form a genetic order. Furthermore, all the different branches of study should have an organic connection with each other. And here come in the art and skill of the teacher, which no organi- zation, be it ever so wise, no text-book, be it ever so excellent, can replace. There must be a continuous adaptation, in fact, which mere text-book slaves can- not practice, even though they understand it. 56 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Thus, for instance, it would seem wise to choose the examples used in grammar from the material gained in other studies, as geography, history, arith- metic, as well as literature. In other words, we should feed our instruction in language from the material the child has at hand. In spelling, we should use new words which the child meets in all branches of study, and not only from a spelling-book, the con- tents of which are in no organic connection with the child's thought-material. In arithmetic, we should use problems taken from the child's home-experience, or such as afford an organic connection with the child's range of thought. In short, genetic order in each study, and organic connection between the different studies, will cause continuity of thought, which is a condition of mental growth, and therefore a condition of success in teaching. There certainly can be no doubt as to the desira- bility of connecting, logically and organically, all the matter of instruction, so that erratic leaping between distant points be avoided. But, my friend, that is but half the principle. So far, my explanations had reference to continuity in the matter of instruction only. The continuity of the child's mind is of even greater importance. If the child is not prepared to take the next step in an otherwise genetic train of thought, you will not be able to lift him up to it, since he must groio up to it. If he is not prepared to com- prehend the next thought, you cannot ingraft it. upon his mind, since the mind must develop thought within. OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 57 A thought, be it indigenous or not, cannot spring into life, or enter the child's mind, as a complete, finished thing. It necessitates the action of thinking not only of this one thought, but of several others which lead up to it. If I make any one a present of a dollar, which I may have earned by hard toil and labor, it requires no toil and labor on his part to take it, and enjoy its use. But I cannot give him a thought, without making him earn it ; that is, not without re- quiring him to go through the effort of thinking like myself, which will be impossible if the conditions are not the same in both minds. The " natural" method of teaching derives its name from the fact that it is in harmony with the laws of natural growth, expansion, development. Continuity of instruction refers to the progressing activity of the learner. He is to be led in such a manner, that he will not be obliged to make unnatural leaps, but will make steps according to the size of his own legs ; that is, his progress will be measured accurately by the capacit}^ of his comprehension. A train of thought which may seem unbroken to an adult is, perhaps, not so to a child. How often have I heard teachers say, " Can't you see that yet? Haven't I made that clear enough yet?" You may easily see, that, buying an article for ten cents, and intending to make a gain of twenty per cent, you would have to sell it for twelve cents. But a child will, necessarily, walk slowly before he comes to the same conclusion. There are many links be- 58 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. tween the first elementary idea of percentage, and the child's ability to see, as readily as the merchant does, what price must be put on the article to make a gain of twenty per cent. It cannot be urged too strongly, that the principle of continuity has to be applied both to the matter of instruction, and to the mind of the learner. The different degrees of comprehension among the pupils necessitate a constant adaptation of the matter to the mind, and in this the teacher's skill is tested. I know, my young friend, that this is any thing but an amusing letter ; but the subject it treats of does not admit of humor. A few words on c ' text- books " may close this letter. — Genetic and logical order is preserved, nay, highly cultivated, in our modern text-books ; but while each offers that order and development within its own rauge, it rejects, as it were, a connection with other branches of study. I have in mind the many books on grammar, that present the subject cut loose from all other, even kindred, subjects, such as composition and literature. The same holds good in text-books of geography, history, arithmetic, etc. Each book illustrates the continuity in the matter of instruction, which, of course, is one of its chief merits, a conditio sine qua non. But the books, of necessity, leave out of consideration the continuitj* of the child's mind, and therefore must be handled by a teacher who understands the child as well as his subject. The text-book must be again degraded to OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 59 its proper position, to that of a means of instruction. It cannot, and should not, replace the teacher, who alone can make the proper selection, with reference to the actual state of mind of his pupils. He alone can know what questions to ask, what matter to present, and in what manner to present it. The value of text-books has been over-rated. It may be unpleasant to hear it, but it must be said. In the same proportion in which the text-books grew better, the teachers grew worse. I think I can see a complete chain of cause and effect in this. Others say : In the same proportion in which good but poorly paid teachers stepped out of the profession, and were replaced by poorly prepared teachers, — in the same proportion the text-books, of necessity, grew better. I accept this as a more charitable ex- planation ; but wish to emphasize again, that the best text-book cannot replace the good teacher, because it disregards the continuity of the mind by presuppos- ing all minds alike. It cannot perform the functions of the good teacher, who, by continuous adaptation, fits the matter of instruction to the capacity of the learner's comprehension. TENTH LETTER. WHY TAKE THE TROUBLE? My despondent Young Friend, — Your letter is not as cheerful as your letters usually are. You say, you have been disappointed by not being promoted 60 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. as you had expected, and that you asked yourself why you should take the trouble of studying constantly and trying to improve yourself, when that improvement has no market value? It is a serious case indeed, and should be treated with sympathy and encouragement. Knowing that you can approach any question calmly and impartially, I will ask you to look at this one from a higher point of view than your own personal griev- ance will permit. Let me quote a passage from a recent writer : — tu It is an undeniable fact, that upon all domains of practical life, as well as in science, division of labor has become a necessity. And no one will deny that to this division of efforts may be traced back many grand performances of our times. But we are also aware, that the mechanic often sinks to the level of the machine, and becomes a mere mechanical worker, in consequence of this division of labor. And so there is imminent danger, that in the realm of thought and mental labor those who are chiefly occupied with sub- ordinate specialties will lose their comprehension of the whole, — will not see the great aim of that of which their specialty is a mere trifling part." The whole embraces the particular, and the latter derives its value from the former. The judgment of the specialist is easily prejudiced, and becomes warped. His line of argument is defective, not unfrequently totally faulty ; and the boundaries of his horizon are often congruent with the narrow boundaries of his native city or village. OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 61 Nothing is more dangerous, in science, than spinning oue's self into a cocoon of small and smaller circles of thought, and the miserable cry, u Do not disturb my circles!" when one approaches these narrow minds with demands of a loftier nature. Science can be kept young, can be constantly rejuvenated, if its disciples will, by way of inductive reasoning, rise from the par- ticular to the general, and go back, by way of deduc- tion, from the general to the particular. If any one should be conscious of this, it is the teacher. If he satisfies himself with doing his duty within the four walls of his schoolroom, he will soon degrade his art to a mere handicraft. No science de- serves to be called " associating science" more than our professional science " pedagogy." It is said, that he who thinks about education thinks about every thing. And if we consider this in the true sense in which it is meant, there can be no presumption in it. If you,' my young friend, are placed in charge of the a-b-c-darians, you should at least know the course of study of the whole range of grades following. But at whatever stage in the curriculum of a school, fate may place you, you should distinctly understand the con- nection between school and life, and the relations be- tween school and home. You should, at every step, know the true end and aim of education ; and be con- stantly, aware, that, whatever apparently trifling thing you are teaching, it must, like every other part of school education, have its bearings upon the future destiny of the child. I say this, because it is a world- 62 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. wide fallacy to think little is necessaiy to teach the young budding mind. I remind you of the Jesuits, whose schools, though built on totally different principles, and aiming at totally different objects, were noted for more than one hun- dred years for their wonderful results. The Jesuits placed young teachers, beginners in the profession, in middle and high grades of school, and promoted them downward according to their degree of proficienc}' and excellence. If this proves any thing, it proves that these shrewd, though in more than one regard des- picable, men knew the value of elementary education. It is an erroneous opinion that needs be fought, namely, that any teacher is good enough for the be- ginners. The best one is barely good enough for the youngest pupils. That, however, I trust, 3-011 know full well. What I mean to emphasize is, that you should foster an impa- tience with yourself, so that you will not sink into that self-satisfaction which is the arch-foe of all real prog- ress. Practice in the schoolroom is very apt to make you self-satisfied ; and if you do not earnestly strive forward and upward, you will, in the course of a few short years, have a lamentably small horizon of thought and vision. This danger is less imminent where you are called upon to teach a variety of subjects ; it is greatest if you are to be a specialist. Now, you do not and can not foresee where fate may place you, and what duties may fall to your share ; but that much you do or ought to know : that if in a OPEN LETTERS TO A YOUNG TEACHER. 63 few years your teachers and colleagues ask, " What has become of her? " the answer comes, " Lost to the cause, crushed by the machine, swept away into a for- gotten corner, heard of no more," — I say, you know, that, if this be said of you, it is j-our own fault. The vicissitudes of life may knock you about, fate may deal hard with you ; but I implore you to keep fresh within your heart and mind the source of rejuvenation, so that you be not dead to the profession, — so that no monu- ment in the heart of your teachers be erected, bearing the inscription, u Sacred to the memory of one who lost all that was valuable in her, — to wit, herself." Perhaps the hardest struggles, the fiercest battles which you will have to go through, will have to be fought with yourself. What the poet says is true, " Vor die Tugend haben die Gutter den Schweiss ge- setzt." (Before virtue, the gods have placed perspi- ration.) You may have been overlooked unintentionally by your authorities, or you may have been retained in your present position because you are best fitted for the pupils now under your charge. However this may lie, do not show resentment, not even disappointment ; and you will disarm any evil will on the part of those in authority over you, and arouse a sympathy which will bear high interest at a future occasion. But best of all, keep up your studies, never waver in your devotion to duty, and in your hope for better things to come, and higher, nobler aims to attain. Let me express the hope, that when your life's course 64 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. runs out, it may be said of yon, that which the poet expresses of a great man : ''The warm impulse he gave shall resist the empire of decay. He will live among us, and live when time is over and worlds have passed away. Cold in the dust the perished heart may lie, but that which warmed it once shall never die." CHAPTER II. PEOM THE EXPEKIEtfCE OP A SUPERVISOK. CHAPTER II. FROM THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. A PERTINENT QUESTION ANSWERED. The following correspondence will explain itself : — I. INQUIRY. Canton, O., Dec. 11, 1886. Dear Sir, — It is a general complaint, that very few young men graduate from our public high schools, — very few in comparison with the number of young ladies who graduate. It is believed that the proportion is not above one to four throughout the State of Ohio. Demand for explanation is usually met by a statement that the worldly circumstances of parents require the personal services and earnings of their boys at an early age. But the fact is, that very few of the sons of pro- fessional men, merchants, and others in favorable and easy circumstances, remain to graduate ; while the sons of poor men frequently do graduate. Inquiry among parents whose boys have left school before graduation leads to the belief, that in most cases the discontinu- ance has been against the wishes of the parents, and notwithstanding their earnest desire that their sons should remain and finish the course of study. The 07 68 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE DAY. worldly circumstances of the parents cannot be relied on as the true reason for this condition of affairs. Another reason has been given. It is, that boys from ten to fourteen years of age have taken an aver- sion to school and school-work from the sting of ignominy inflicted on them by cruel corporal punish- ments administered by their teachers. It is believed by some, who have given the subject thought, that great harm is being done to our educational system by the excessive corporal punishments on boys in school ; that the custom is an evil one, and has an inherent tendency to abuse ; that by its practice the teachers become cruel and heartless, and the boys sullen and revengeful ; that it breaks down their self- respect, stultifies their budding manhood, and makes the school where it is inflicted distasteful, if not hate- ful, to them, and they seek every excuse to be free from its disgraceful thraldom. Has this thought ever occurred to you in connection with your school- work? You are aware that, as men, we consider a blow a deep indignity. One of the marked distinctions, for centuries, between freemen and slaves, has been that a freeman may not be beaten as a punishment. The more refined and advanced the state of civilization, the deeper and more humiliating the sense of indignity felt from the infliction of blows. May not our boys have feelings and sentiments akin to our own? Nay, may it not be that many parents, sympathizing with the developing manhood of their boys, withdraw them from schools where cruel corporal THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 69 punishments are tolerated? A desire for education may be very strong in the human miud, but it is not a moving instinct like the desire to satisfy hunger. Wild animals will seek places where food is abundant ; but they will shun, if they starve, places where they know there is personal danger, though food may there be ever so abundant and desirable. Are our boys driven from school before graduation by the ignominy, or the dread of the ignominy, of personal violence at the hands of their teachers ? May I hope that this subject will receive your care- ful consideration, and that I may have, at the earliest practical moment, your views as fuliy as possible? Awaiting which, I am Very respectfully yours, JAMES J. CLARK, Member of Canton School Board. II. REPLY. Hamilton, O., Dec. 15, 18S6. Dear Sir, — In answer to your courteous letter of inquiiy, I wish to state that the fact, the causes of which you desire to investigate, is admitted. Though we find that the number of graduates among the boys as compared with that of the girls in our city is more than one-third, this does not materially alter the aspect of the case. I agree with you, that the argument concerning the worldly circumstances of parents is not satisfactory, inasmuch as it is not up- 70 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. held by facts in such number as to make them of sufficient weight. Again, I agree that the abridgment of the courses by voluntary " quituation " is hardly ever in accord with the parents' desire. Certainty, there must be other reasons for the undue proportion of female graduates over male graduates. You attribute the above fact to the toleration, or, let me say, to the application, of cruel corporal punish- ment at the hands of the teachers upon the boys from ten to fourteen years of age. You reason well ; and I agree that this explains, if not many, certainly some, cases of early withdrawal from school ; but permit me to say, in all candor, that you are playing on a harp with but one string. In the first place, corporal pun- ishment is not prevalent enough, so far as my extended experience goes, to be so potent a factor in the case under discussion. Moreover, boys who manage to get cruelly beaten (I am speaking advisedly, and, as I believe, with the proper choice of terms) are of a type who generally never enter a high school, and certainly never graduate. But, sir, your argument as to the degrading influence of corporal punishment, both upon pupils and teachers, is heartily commended. Personally, and in my official capacity, I regard only two offences properly punishable by corporal punish- ment. According to the just rule, that punishment should be in strict accordance with the offence, I be- lieve corporal punishment in place, (1) where a flagrant case of cruelty, either to animals or human beings, is to be dealt with, because bodily pain is the proper THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 71 remedy in that case ; and (2) in the case of open and violent resistance to authority, for we must not forget that the school is not a republic, and that the teacher is to be queen of the hive or governor of the class. For every other offence, be it against truth, order, honesty, decency, or whatever else, corporal punish- ment is improper. Moreover, since it acts like opium, if indulged in a few times, causing a craving for more, teachers become accustomed to it, and niake its appli- cation a habit. Whether my limitations of corporal punishment, as stated, find approval or not, this will certainly be granted by every right-thinking person : namely, that, the less of corporal punishment that is inflicted, the higher will be the type of the school, morally and intellectually ; also, that in some cases, as you most convincingly state it, boys are driven from school before graduation by the ignominy of personal violence at the hands of the teacher, and even by the dread of such ignominy. Permit me to recapitulate. First, I grant, that, in a few cases, the worldly circumstances cause an early withdrawal of the boys from school ; second, that, in a greater number of cases, the application of corporal punishment has the same effect. But that does not adequately explain the great falling-off in the number of boj's who try to acquire a higher education. The following causes will, in my judgment, explain the fact under discussion, better than the two contained in your letter of inquiry. 72 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. I. I remind you, clear sir, of the fact that in this country manifold opportunities are offered to boys at an early age, to earn, if not a livelihood, certainly a considerable amount of pocket-money. This is a temptation, which is not held out in many European countries, — a temptation to which many a tolerably good boy in this country succumbs. II. I remind you of this other fact, — that the too prevalent worship of the self-made man, in this coun- try, deplorable though it be, tempts the boj T to despise, as his father possibly may, systematic higher educa- tion, and to try to carve out his own future without it. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, such a boy fails and speedily sinks to the bottom ; never reaches the fame of the great self-made man who was his ideal, and is finally found on a level with men of whom thirteen do not even make a dozen. But the fact remains, that it is a great temptation. College- bred men are too often quoted below par, in this country. The river cannot rise higher than its source. Why should the boy think higher education necessary, or even desirable, when at the fireside, in the press, from the pulpit or the lecture-rostrum, on the stump, at the bar, — in fact, everywhere, — the fame of the self-made man is proclaimed? III. Permit me to call your attention to a third fact, not always known, and where known not infre- quently denied, for reasons too obvious to mention. It is this : that the course of study, the methods of teaching, and the mode of training, in the higher THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 73 grades of the grammar school, as well as in the high schools, are designed for, and shaped according to, the needs and wants of the girls, and not the hoys. While I grant, readily and cheerfully, that the girls have the right to the same amount of education that the boys claim, and which it is oar solemn duty to grant to them, I claim, most emphatically that the two sexes from twelve years of age and upward need a different training. I cannot go into details, but I should covet an opportunity to do so. Suffice it to say, that we measure the steps in our instruction, and the methods of our procedure, by the peculiar combina- tion of faculties in the girls, just as a father measures his steps by those of his child whom he takes out walking. There is a strong desire in the average boy for exertion and application of his powers, which is not complied with, at this age, in the schools as they now are. He is repressed, and made to progress as the girls do. He sits side by side with them ; they are held up to him as examples, whose frailty he, in his physical robust nature, despises. Moreover, in many cases he has not even a male example in his teacher. If he is a weak character, he becomes effeminate. If he is a strong character, he is soon filled with disgust, and quits school to find a better opportunity for the exertion of those powers which find no satisfaction in a girls' school. I know, dear sir, this will be considered rank heresy among many educational leaders in this country ; but it is my con- viction, and I have the courage of my conviction to 74 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. utter it. Do not be deceived by the flimsy argument that the girls are making more rapid progress than the boys. They are merely passive recipients of knowl- edge ; while a boy can argue himself into knowledge, when he has a male teacher who is ready to indulge him in that. The very presence of girls, however, debars him from such a course in a girls' school, for that is what most of our high schools are. Where boys and girls are separated in different buildings, usually a greater number of bo} T s graduate annually. This confirms the position just taken. IV. As I stated above, the undue proportion of female teachers Over male teachers is to be counted in when we look for the early withdrawal from school on the part of the boys. Boys at the critical age of fourteen to eighteen must have examples of manliness, of man's thoughts, of man's way of acting, of man's motives, of man's will-power and general conduct ; and, instinctively feeling this, they seek it outside of school. But I have sufficiently emphasized this under the last head, and will not dwell upon it further. Pardon the length of this reply ; but of what the heart is full, the mouth floweth over. Yours very respectfully, L. R. KLEMM, Supt. of Public Schools. THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 75 THE MEDICAL PRACTICE OF A TEACHER. I. A WEAK SPELLER. A superintendent, or, for that matter, every teacher, is more or less a physician of diseased minds, and ought to be able to give an account of cures he has effected, or a diagnosis of cases he has treated. In the following series of short articles, I will endeavor to describe a few cases which came under my observation, and which, as I cannot but say with pride, are in a fair way to recover even if not entirely cured. Miss A. — "There is a boy among my pupils who is an excellent arithmetician, gets up good lessons in geography and history, is alive to the niceties of expression, that is, is careful in the selection of his words, and construes his sentences well ; but is an indifferent reader, and a most wretched, abominable speller. What do you think, Mr. K., ought to be done in this case ? ' ' What remedies have you tried ? Miss A. — "I have pinned him down to his spell- ing-book till his eyes began to wander. I have appealed to his sense of duty, which is very keen ; but I saw that made matters worse, because it over- taxed his limited ability. Then I appealed to his ambition ; which proved to be perfect poison, for now the boy would try to master long strings of words, and 76 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TIIE BAY. thereby weaken his memory more than ever. Can •you suggest any thing better? " I suspect, my clear Miss A., that you have not inquired iuto the causes of this disease ; and I am sure, had you done so, you would have employed a totally different mode of treatment. Can you imagine the cause? Miss A. — "No, I haven't the most remote idea, unless it be want of attention or application at a former stage of his school career." No, I think we shall have to look elsewhere for the cause. Let me ask you to show him a rose-leaf or a clover-leaf, and then tell him to sketch it. Write a single word, such as u breakfast," on the board; let him see it, and then observe how correctly or incor- rectly he reproduces it from memory. Try him also in describing some object accurately. Please try these things first, and tell me to-morrow the result of your observations. (Next day.) Miss A. — " Why, he could not sketch the leaf, nor reproduce the word correctly, nor, in fact, could he describe a simple thing with any degree of accuracy." And what do you infer from these facts? Miss A. — "I should say his sense of form is wof ully neglected." Very good, my dear young lady. That is the whole argument in a nutshell. Now 2:0 further : Having no sense of form, he cannot have a memory for forms, just as little as a person who never in his life heard THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 11 a sound can have a memory for sounds. He has a memory for numbers and their relations, for historical, geographical, and other facts - ; but his form-sense is weak. Every word has its physiognomy, and spelling should therefore be learned by means of the sense of sight chiefl}*. Now for the remedy. Feed him on a diet of one, or, at best, a few words, for a few days ; use easy, common words, such as occur in his own vocabulary, and let him see them on the board, on paper, in print, in writing, etc. Set him to finding them ten times in his reader, and to copying them till he is perfectly familiar with them. Make him analyze, that is, split the words orally, write them from dictation, and use them in sentences of his own. Do this with a very limited number of words : in short, give him babies' diet, till his form-sense, and memory for word-pictures, are sufficiently strong to digest more. At the beginning, it may be painfully wearisome to you and to the boy, but the success which is sure to follow your endeavors will strengthen you both. You will find, also, that he improves in reading. Constant repetition, of course, is necessaiy for some time, until the boy has acquired the habit of ;t making personal acquaintance " with words. Somewhere in the earlier stages of his school-life his perception of word-forms was neglected, and left without stimulus ; or, perhaps, it was overworked, and thereby weakened. Well, the boy, according to latest reports, is on the 78 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. way to recovery. He draws well now, and his com- positions are, if not faultless, certainly fair specimens of orthography for a pupil of his age. IT. THE RESCUE OF A DUNCE. The following sketch may show that the teacher can undo much mischief caused by wrong treatment or want of natural aptitude. Miss C. — " Well, Hugo is a dunce, if ever there was one ! He is wretched in every branch of study, sits there like a log, and apparently has no interest in any thing going on in school. His progress is of the slowest kind, and I suspect he was sent to my room because he was too old to stay in Miss W.'s room any longer. I wish you would suggest a remedy in this case, Mr. K." What are his home surroundings? Miss C. — " They are not elevating, to say the least. I know from hearsay, that Hugo is pushed and knocked about, scolded constantly, and even whipped merci- lessly, by parents who do not understand the boy's absolute want of perception." Are you sure, Miss C, that the boy's apathy is the result of defective perceptive faculty? Miss C. — "I am, so far as it relates to school work. I can amuse him roj'ally by giving pictures into his hands. I even saw him smile over a simple outline sketch of a humorous scene. Come to my room, and watch him a while, will you?" I did, giving instructions to the teacher not to THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 79 notice him or me. I seated myself near Hugo, took a slate and pencil, and began to draw outline sketches of things which might amuse him. Soon I saw him imitating me, and that with a dexterity and artistic skill which fairly took my breath away. I smiled at him encouragingly, entered into a whispered conversa- tion with him concerning the pictures he drew, induced him to show me my mistakes in drawing, which he did readily and without assumption. Seeing in me a " hail fellow well met," he warmed and opened up his soul to me as he had perhaps never done in his life. There was a rich' and warm-hearted life under a crust of apparent apathy ; and I was determined to awaken it, and reconcile it with its surroundings. We two adjourned to my office ; and for a whole hour he conversed freely with me, showing no reserve, after seeing that I meant well. After reporting to Miss C. the substance and character of our conversation, she blanched, and cried out from the bottom of her troubled heart, "Have I misjudged the boy? Lord for- give me if I have ! " (Bless her impulsive heart !) Miss C. and myself agreed upon a plan for action with regard to the dunce, as Hugo had been called by everybody. For a number of weeks, we gave him the privilege of coming to the office whenever he felt like doing so. We gave him work to do, yes, but made all his work have relation to drawing. All his arith- metic was drawing and sketching, till slowly, but by perceptible degrees, his interest in other things was awakened. 80 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. One episode of his cure is very vividly imprinted in my memory. Hugo showed a decided dislike to read- ing. I argued with him, sa}ing that some day, when he would be a great artist, he would wish to read what people said about him ; he would want to read the criticisms made upon his work in the journals. "Well, queer as it may seem, and questionable as the incen- tive may have been from a moral point of view, it is a fact, that from that day the boy bent all his energy upon reading, till after a few months he read as fluently as most of his schoolmates who were con- sidered bright boys when he was " the dunce." One thing I greatly disliked in him ; namely, the way he revenged himself frequently. When other boys would use their fists freely, Hugo would rapidly draw a caricature of the person who he thought had intended to wrong him. Some of these caricatures are still in my possession, and I cannot but laugh when I come across them. There was such a fine vein of humor exhibited in these pictures, that I became easily reconciled with his mode of revenge. The boys soon feared Hugo's crayon more than they did his fists, and they " left him severely alone," or at least treated him gingerly, " right side up with care." To cut a long story short, the boy is now a very creditable pupil, though by no means a shining light in scholarly attainments ; he is fairly equipped for higher grades ; and if in future years Hugo should become a great painter, which is not at al) impossible, some of his schoolmates may be proud THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 81 « of having gone to school with him. Hugo has a very soft spot in his heart for Miss C. and myself, and I am happy over it. III. a "bad" boy in arithmetic. In the following article, another of the weaknesses frequently found among pupils is treated. Miss B. — " I have a good mind to shake 3 7 ou, Fred ! Don't you see that you made one error after another in the solution of this problem ? You ought to be ashamed of yourself, to be so L bad ' in arithmetic, and good in every thing else." I happened to hear this by no means uncommon speech, and became painfully aware of the fact that Fred, whom I had come to praise for his excellent work in map-drawing, needed a little extra attention. I inquired of the teacher afterward the particulars of the case. Here is her statement : — Miss B. — "Well, Mr. K., I love that boy as the apple of my eye. You need not be astonished ; I repeat, I love him. But 1 fear he is making use of my preference for him. There is no reason why he should be so slovenly in his work in arithmetic. He. is not too stupid to reason out a problem, — no, that isn't it, — but he is negligent in the execution. Don't you think a dose of ' heroic treatment ' might do him some good? Only don't make me give it to him, for I can't." Let us look into the symptoms before we prescribe the remedy. What makes him so brilliant in history 82 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. and geography? What, do you think, is the reason of his spirited reading, or of his meritorious efforts in composition ? Miss B. — "Well, I suspect he has more talent in those directions." Likely ; but that would scarcely account for his slovenliness in figuring, for you say yourself he is not stupid in reasoning out a problem. And then, look at his work in map-drawing ; see with what loving accu- racy he has treated the difficult map of Europe. There is not a slovenly line on that whole map. Don't you think it is in another direction where we'll have to look for his evident carelessness in dealing with numbers ? Miss B. — u Indeed, you lead me to suspect that it is not so much want of talent as want of interest." Very good ; I believe you are right. Interest, 3^011 know, acts upon the learner as sunshine and moisture do upon the germs in the ground. Cannot we agree upon a remedy which will arouse that interest? Sup- pose that you try this : link the intense interest he manifests in geography and other branches, with arith- metic, by giving him problems containing geographical, historical, or statistical dates, or any thing that touches those fields of knowledge in which he is interested. Tell him that much depends upon accuracy in cipher- ing:. I should be much astonished if he would not be very careful in the execution of his work. At least, let us try his preferences as levers. Miss B. — " I verily believe that that will. bring him around sooner than a shaking will." THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 83 And while we are about it, my friend, don't say a pupil is bad in this or t-hat study : say he is weak. Apply the word " badness " to cases of immorality. A disobedient, a cruel,' or an untruthful child may be called a bad child ; but a poor reader, a faulty speller, or an inaccurate arithmetician may be a very good child in point of morals. Miss B. took my words good-naturedly. The boy in question is now one of the most accurate and fault- less arithmeticians in his class, a proof of the wonder- ful influence interest manifests, be that interest in the teacher, or matter of instruction. IV. A BOY "LIKE KASPAR HAUSER." Miss D. — "Oh, Mr. K., I have a boy in my class who is a veritable Kaspar Hauser * when it comes to composition work. He hasn't an idea. Please to look over this paper." I did. This was the production. "A sunrise. The sun rises and sets. I have often seen him set, but 011I3* once rise. I guess I must have been too sleepy to get up early enough. Since it is too loug ago since I saw the sun rise, I cannot say an} T thing of how it looked, or whether it looks any different from the set- ting sun." Well, the spelling and penmanship are all right ; that is one redeeming feature. 1 We must request the reader to consult a history of educatiou, to learn the purport of this expression. It will pay him well. Or, let him read Gutzkow's romance, "The Sous of Pestalozzi," in which Kaspar Hauser plays a leading part. 84 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Miss D. — " Yes, I have no fault to find there ; but think ! this is a boy of fourteen years of age, and he is not able to say any thing of " — What he does not know. Pardon me for the inter- ruption ; but, I should think, you set him too hard a task. Suppose, Miss D., I should ask you to write a composition on the "Trekshnit 1 as a means of trans- portation in Holland," what would you say? Miss D. — "I 'am sure I should say, 'I can't do it,' never having seen a — what do you call it? — and not knowing whether it is a cart, a boat, or a balloon." Why, yes, that is hitting the nail on the head. You expected the boy to say something of the tranquillity of the early morning, of dawn, of the first faint glim- mer of light on the eastern horizon, of the awakening skylark, of the first brilliant rays shooting up to the zenith, etc., ad nauseam; and forgot that he knew nothing of these phenomena. An old German cook- book contains a curious recipe which begins: " In order to make Hasenpfeffer (ragout of rabbit), you must first catch your rabbit, then," etc. That's it pre- cisely ! The most necessary ingredient of a composi- tion is a thought to work out. Where that is wanting, no composition can be made ; though sauces and dips of all kinds may be employed, such a dish will remain without substance. A child who has something to say will sa} r it. A child of experience and thoughts will 1 Drag-boat. For explanation of this, see Oliver Optic's Dikes and Ditches, p. 333. THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 85 give utterance to them, though his linguistic talent be limited. So please furnish the rabbit. Dr. Ed. Feldner, a member of the Saxon parliament during the German rebellion of 1848 (often proudly termed "the revolution of '48"), and afterward principal of a well-reputed seminary at Detroit, Mich., once told me the following instructive incident of his life, which I will here reproduce for the benefit of young teachers : — "I was a boy fifteen years of age, and had won an enviable rank in school; only one thing fairly upset me. Once a month a subject for composition was given out, such as ' Thoughts of an Awakening Skylark,' or some such nonsensical trash. My report showed good marks in every thing, even in grammar; but in composition it said 'very poor.' My excellent father must have felt the cause of my failing in this particular, and when vacation began he gave me permission to make an excursion which might last several weeks. He furnished me with money, mapped out a route through the so-called Saxon Switzerland, and gave me a list of places at which I might stop over night. t; I was happy beyond expression, and readily promised to write as often as I felt like it. Oh, the bliss I enjoyed on that three-weeks' trip is still vividly imprinted upon the tablet of my memory ! I wrote home almost daily, giving an accurate account of what I had seen, with whom I had fallen in on the way, what they had said, what thoughts had been awakened 86 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. in my mind at the sight of this or that phenomenon or scenery. I did this in the evening, before going to bed. One whole letter I filled with a vivid description of a combat I had with a vicious dog when I ascended to a hayloft which was to be my bedchamber that night. u When I returned home, my father told me, with a touch of pride, ' Edward, I am glad you have im- proved in composition- writing.' — ' Now don't,' said I, ' you know I hate compositions.' — ' No, no, my boy ; I mean what I say : every one of your letters is a capital composition, and deserves a high mark. I sent your letters to Professor W., and convinced him that you are any thing but a dunce in composition- writing. He acknowledged to me that he had mis- judged you.' " If this story has any moral, it is : First catch the rabbit. DISCIPLINE. — A REFORMATORY CLASS. [From Annual Report to the Board of Education of Hamilton, 0.\ As a general thing, the discipline in the schools of smaller towns and villages is vastly better than in the schools of large cities. I was very pleasantly sur- prised when I came here, and noticed the well-man- nered children, the pleasant, genial smile they had for their teachers, and the politeness they showed me wherever they met me. The order in the different schoolrooms and houses varies a little, as a matter of course, but is generally good without being oppres- THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 87 sive. If we inquire into the frequency of corporal punishment, and observe minutely, we see that very few cases of such punishment are found necessary. When it is resorted to, it is almost invariably adminis- tered to the same pupils. Teachers should understand that a request cheerfully uttered is alwa} T s better than a stern command ; and as a rule you will find, wherever and whenever you enter a schoolroom, that a cheerful teacher has a cheerful set of children busily at work or attentively listening. The exceptions to this are but few. I abhor the death-like silence that is considered a result of good discipline in many schools all over the country. Life is motion, not rest. For this reason people who believe that in a school absolute quietude should reign, — a quietude in which a pin might be heard falling, — such people may find many a school sadly deficient in "discipline." People of common- sense, who know that life is motion, and that motion always causes some noise, will be well satisfied with what we consider good discipline. Col. Parker, of Quincy fame, once heard a guest whom he had con- ducted through his schools, remark, " But your classes are rather noisy." — "Of course," he replied : " our schools are work-shops, not funerals. Work alwa} T s implies noise." But while we have reason to be satisfied with the general order and discipline, and while we rejoice over the confidence and fidelity exhibited by the citizens of Hamilton toward our public schools, we must not be 88 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. blind to a fact which makes itself felt more and more disagreeably, as the school system grows. By far the greater majority of children come from homes in which the authority of the teacher is acknowledged and upheld. Only in rare cases I find a clashing of au- thority, as it were ; not between teacher and parents, for in these cases the parents have lost all authority, but between the boys and the rules of the schools. There is a small number of boys in our schools, and many outside of them, running the streets, who are unsafe companions for other children. I have investigated several cases by consulting the teachers and the parents. In every case, I found the reason of their bad conduct, in want of proper home-training ; in weak or indulgent parents, who cannot govern the domineering habits and violent tempers of their chil- dren. These boys defy the rules and regulations of school, come or stay away as it pleases them, and generally behave as though they were the lords of the realm. It cannot be denied, that the street and home training of some boys is in crime, rather than in virtue ; filthiness, rather than purity ; and parents have a right to demand of the authorities who assume the education of their children, that they be shielded from the influence of such as these. Now, the rules of the Board of Education concerning such black sheep are very well defined. We may pun- ish these boys corporally ; but it is always degrading the teacher and his school if corporal punishment is resorted to, and it is at best but a questionable THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 89 remedy. Or, we may, if punishment is of no avail, expel them. However, to expel them from school, and turn them upon the street, would be the worst remedy that could be conceived of. It would be simplyswelling the number of dangerous elements in the community, whose decrease is one of the mission- ary objects of the public schools. Some of these boys, if not all, ought to be in the house of refuge, or on the Reform Farm ; but commitment to these institutions is beyond the jurisdiction of the school authorities. . The only effectual remedy for cleansing our schools of these dangerous elements, and yet keeping them under our charge, is the establishment of an ungraded class, presided over by a teacher who is a strong disciplina- rian, and who can exert a moral influence over the boys which will last beyond the school hours. To this class the boys might be committed temporarily, until they show such marked improvement that they give assurance of better conduct in future, and may be re-admitted to the ranks of their former associates. One of the foremost educators of the country recommended the establishment of such a school in 1875. He then said, "This (reformatory) class should bear a title as little obnoxious as possible ; but it should be designed for those whose influence is found to be pernicious to their associates, and who are incorrigible by those means of discipline which seem to be used in the schools at large. Its principal purpose is to guard the masses of children under the 90 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. care of the Board, from daily contact, in the class-room and on the pla^ -ground, with children whose example tends to corrupt eveiy one about them ; to protect the young and the weak from those whose domineering habits or violent tempers make them unsafe compan- ions." It is often stated, and with just pride too, that the public schools are the crucible within which all the various nationalities of the community are fused into one homogeneous mass, alike in patriotic devotion and civil virtue. It is also stated, that the school is a state in miniature. If so, it is our solemn duty to shield the mass of children of law-abiding, virtuous parents, from contamination with vicious characters, just as the state authorities do, who single out crim- inals for the protection of societ}'. Our rules here keep children out of school who are likely to bring with them, from home, the germs of a contagious disease. Why, then, should we be obliged to admit, among the mass of children, so-called moral lepers? "We have reason to think that such tin ungraded class here in Hamilton will have about twenty to twenty-five pupils. No girl has ever been found to deserve commitment to such a reformatoiy. Permit me, gentlemen of the Board, to submit to your consid- eration the adoption of the following rules, which are in force in the schools of Cleveland : — I. Conditions of Admission. — Whenever, on due in- quiry and investigation, it shall appear to the principal of a school building, that the attendance of an}' pupil, THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 91 either by reason of incorrigibility or immoral conduct, is pernicious to the interest of the school of which he is a member, the principal shall refer the case in full to the superintendent, stating the reasons which may have led him to that conclusion ; and at the same time he shall notif} T the parents of said reference to the super- intendent. Thereupon the superintendent may, after a conference with the parents, transfer the said pupil to the "ungraded school;" but if objection to the transfer be made, on the part of the parent, the super- intendent shall suspend the pupil. II. Return to Graded School. — On sufficient evi- dence of good conduct, the superintendent may return a pupil thus assigned to the " ungraded school," back to the school from which he came, but not during the term in which he was sent. III. Studies. — The studies in this school shall, so far as the number of classes will permit, be the same as are required by the course of study prescribed for the corresponding grades of the intermediate and primary departments ; provided, that the branches essential to classification be not neglected. In all other particulars this school shall be governed by the rules as prescribed for the other schools of this city. SCEXES FROM SCHOOL-LIFE. " I am the maddest man you ever saw," said a man who came with a big club in his hand into my office one clay. — "Oh, no, sir, you arc by no means the mad- dest," said I ; k> I have seen madder men than you are. 92 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. You don't look like a brute, you have all the airs of a gentleman. But I suppose something very aggravating has happened, and that you seek my assistance." — " Then you are the superintendent, are you ? " — " Yes, sir : be seated, and tell me what I can do for you." — "Well, the thing is this. The principal of this build- ing whipped my boy, and I have pretty good reasons to think my boy did not deserve it." I held an in- vestigation instantly ; and very reliable testimony was brought out, revealing the fact that the boy had re- ceived his punishment for just cause. I need not reiterate the case here ; suffice it to say, that when I had dismissed the boys to their different rooms, and was alone with the father, he jumped up, shook my hand, and again said, " Sir, I am the maddest man you ever saw ; but while first I was mad at the teacher, now I am mad at my boy. He will catch it when he gets home." " Just look over this note, if you please," said Miss C, the other day. It was a fearfully coarse note, both in style and substance, of an equally coarse woman. Her boy had been spoken to about his fighting propen- sities, his use of slang, his cursing, and general med- dlesomeness. ' w How did you dispose of the case?" was my question. "Well, this being the third time punishment seemed necessary, I asked the mother to come to your office at this hour. I think you will find her up-stairs." I did find her there. Her appearance was that of a brutal, coarse nature, who had fire and THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPEBVISOB. 93 brimstone in her eyes. At my entrance she arose, put her arms akimbo, and addressed me as follows: "I want you to understand, Mr, Superintendent, that nry boy is not a bad boy ; he never tells a lie, and is as gentle as a lamb, and I don't understand why the teacher should pick at my boy all the time." I quietly interrogated her concerning the boy's playmates, and then sent for a number of them. Very few questions sufficed to establish the guilt of the boy in question indisputably. The teacher testified again, in presence of the mother, how hatefully the boy acted when he found that he could not have his own way. Then the ire of the mother got the better of her, and she began to abuse the teacher. I put a stop to that at once, asked the teacher kindly to withdraw, and I would set- tle the matter. Now I gave the mother to understand that if the boy should persist in his ugly behavior I would have him arrested, and brought before his honor the mayor, and I should move that he be sent to the Reform Farm. This quieted the woman wonderfully and quickly. She was, like every bully, at heart a coward. She soon began to cry, admitted the boy's badness, and promised to keep an eye on him in the future. She was a small, not pretty, but highly intelligent young teacher, who, not by a freak of nature, but by the absolute confidence of her superiors, had been as- signed to a C intermediate school. Among her pupils, was one who proved in every way a black sheep. He 94 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. came from what was known as a highly cultured family, which in this case meant a very conceited family. The father was a physician. One day this Dr. X. came to the schoolhouse, at once went to the room of the teacher in question, knocked, and asked to say a word to her in the corridor. She came out, and stood before this tall man with expectation in her face. This is the conversation that took place. "Miss G., I under- stand that you charge my boy with having prevaricated. How can you dare to do that? " — "I never said he prevaricated. I am sure I did not use that word, sir." — " Do you meau to say that }-ou did not accuse him of prevarication? " — "■ That is exactly what I mean." — ' l What did you say, then ? ' ' And this small, young, inexperienced woman of strong character looked up with her fearless steel-blue eyes, like a lion-tamer, straight into his enraged countenance, and said, u I did say he lied, and I can prove that he did." Not another word was said. Dr. X. turned, and left her and the house. My observations. — A boy of twelve years, healthy, strong, fine head, intelligent but defiant looks, regular though dirty face, frequently distorted by disdainful, ugly smiles, dilapidated appearance, clothes torn though of good material. Teacher's report. — Boy played tru- ant thirteen half days and ten whole days ; brings excuses from his mother which are evidently untrue, — such as, sore foot, when the boy played at the corners all day long ; sprained hand, when no sign of any such THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 95 casualty can be found, nay, when the boy himself is unable to state which hand was sprained ; and other like statements. Boy is not reliable, neither in word nor action ; is disobedient', unwilling to study or pay atten- tion. His father sometimes iu a fit of indignation lashes him with a cowhide till he (the father) is ex- hausted. Whipping in school is of no use ; boy calls it tickling. He demoralizes my school. Mr. Klemm, what shall I do with him ? A respectable-looking but emaciated woman with receding chin, tears in her eyes, pushes a boy into my office, saying, "There, mister, I have brought him. He won't mind me. What shall I do? He won't go to school. Can't you whip him, and make a good boy of him?" Boy. — " There, old woman, don't tell a pack o' lies about me, or I won't stay." Inquiry soon revealed the fact that the boy had been the terror of his school, had demoralized it till he had to be expelled. The teachers protested when they saw him. This is the shady side of school-life. PR OFESSIONA L S UPER VISION. A superintendent in the West has a rather charac- teristic way of exercising criticism upon the work of his teachers. He visits a schoolroom, sits down in ah unfrequented corner, and carefully observes what is going on. When he leaves he makes a pleasant re- 96 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. mark to the teacher, and, if the occasion seems to call for it, also to the pupils. Then he retires to his office, and fills out a blank like the one attached below, keeps this on record, and sends an exact copy to the teacher, — in closed envelope, of course. She there has it, black on white, what he thinks of her work, of her manner of teaching and managing. If she takes exception to any of the superintendent's remarks, she meets him at his office, and then and there the superin- tendent holds a " teacher's meeting " (a private one) ; that is to say, makes her understand what her mistakes are, by applying the test of principles. I full well understand that this method of criticising can be perverted into the most unpleasant fault-finding, just as every other good method can be misapplied. The method is all right ; it is only the manner of apply- ing it which may or may not make the thing successful. If the teachers know that their superior officer means well, that he is kind-hearted, and intends this for their own advantage as well as for that of the schools, they will receive this written criticism in the spirit in which it is offered. Not that he answers every query found below as often as he makes a visit. No : sometimes he finds it desirable to call the teacher's attention to a very weak spot in her management or mode of teach- ing, and therefore dwells on this point, leaving the other questions blank. A teacher gets, in the course of a year, about a dozen of these blanks, partly or entirely filled out by the superintendent, and can mark, pretty accurately, THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 97 whether she is gaining in skill of teaching and mana- ging, or not. The questions attached below are not the same as last year. He changes them from time to time, introducing a new feature now and then, drop- ping other points which have found their way into the comprehension of his corps of teachers, "with the im- pressibility of truth," as Friend Hailmann says. I offer these questions to my colleagues, because they seem to me in the highest degree suggestive. Though it may readily be guessed who the superintend- ent in question is, it is not desirable to publish his name. He is a modest man, and might feel embar- rassed if he sees his name in print. COPY OF THE BLANK. -Ward, Grade, - Teacher. Observations made by the Superintendent 188.. QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 1. Did the teacher possess the undivided attention of li pupils ? 2. Was h instruction interesting enough to secure attention ? 3. Was it objective ? did illustrate it sufficiently ? 4. Were the teachers statements unquestionable ? 5. Did they follow each other in logical order ? 6. Was the instruction clear and comprehensible to all? 7. Had it practical bearings upon actual conditions of life? 8. Did it seem to promise lasting results ? 9. Was the pupil's self-activity called into play ? 98 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 10. Was the teacher's manner of questioning correct ? 11. Did show proper regard to the pupil's indi- viduality ? 12. Was the object of the lesson secured by practical application ? 13. Did the teacher seem to have consulted the course of study ? 14. Did seem to have prepared h self for the lesson ? 15. Did aid the pupils in the development of new- ideas ? 16. Did guide the children in discovering their errors 17. Did the pupils speak in complete sentences ? 18. Did it seem as if the teacher asked the brighter pupils only ? 19. Was the teacher too talkative ? 20. Were mistakes in pronunciation and emphasis left uncorrected ? 21. Did the teacher always address h questions to the whole class ? 22. Did indulge in repeating the pupil's answer ? 23. Did say or do any thing which the pupils might have said or done themselves ? 24. Was the teacher's writing on the board commend- able ? 25. Did the class seem to make progress in their studies ? 26. In what branch of study did the class seem to be weak? 27. Was order maintained by harsh treatment ? 28. Did the teacher watch the class steadily ? 29. Did change h position unnecessarily ? 30. Did ignore faults and irregularities ? 31. Was the class quiet ? diligent ? THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 99 QUESTIONS. ANSWERS. 32. How was the order in coming and going, and handling books and utensils ? 33. Was the teacher just in praising ? reprimand- ing ? 34. Was consistent in all actions ? 35. Did practise self-command ? 36. What was the condition of the atmosphere ? tem- perature ? Eemarks : MECHANICAL VIRTUES. A father who had been annoyed considerably by notes . from the teacher which referred to his child's want of punctuality, inaccuracy, carelessness, and similar shortcomings, called at my office one day, and expressed his desire to have a friendly talk with me. He did not mean to complain, as he said, but desired information. Said he, " What is the use of insisting upon the chil- dren being in school punctually at nine ? And what is the use of insisting upon a uniform ruling of the slates and various other similar requirements? I fail to see their necessity. You know it is difficult for the whole household to adapt itself to the rules of school ; and it is oftentimes attended with much heart-burning and shedding of tears, when the child attempts to be prompt. Now, if there is any virtue in j-our require- ments and rules, I fail to see it." "Mr. M.," said I, "how have you become so 100 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. courteous a gentleman? for everybody who knows you admires your uniform kindness and politeness." — "Why," said he, u that was not difficult. I remem- ber when I was young, I was induced to take off my hat, and say, ' Good-morning,' i Good-day,' or whatever time of the day it ma}' have been. All that small coin of politeness is simply the result of habit, there is nothing more in it. But what has that got to do with the question that I asked ? ' ' u A great deal, for you have struck the keynote of my argument. Punctuality is acquired mechanically, by habitual practice ; so are exactness, promptness, and other virtues. Now, all these small mechanical virtues must be insisted upon in school, so that they ma}' grow into ethical laws which are obeyed without question, having become our second nature, so to speak. Out of ethical or moral virtues grow celestial virtues. The latter are far beyond the code of law, just as the me- chanical virtues are below it. 4t Let me show you, in a single instance, what I mean. We insist upon the boys practising politeness. This mechanical virtue, politeness, will, as the boy advances in age, develop into respect for others. Thie respect is something that comes within the pale of the code of civil law. The law does not demand polite- ness ; but it demands respectful treatment of others, for it punishes disrespect, at least lays the offender open to a suit for damages. Now, out of this moral virtue, respect for others, grows the celestial virtue, kindness, which is completely beyond the code of law. THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 101 The law can neither enforce politeness nor kindness, — in other words, neither a mechanical nor a celestial virtue. "Thus yon see, by this one example, why we are obliged to insist upon all those small virtues, which in themselves perhaps are worth little, but which are the fountain-head of greater virtues. Thus out of clean- liness grows purity ; out of accuracy, truthfulness ; out of punctuality, regularity and order ; and so on. If we allowed your child to come to school at whatever time it pleased, or if we allowed it to follow its own inclination in preparing work on the slate or on paper, we would soon notice a flaw in the child's education. "We teachers, you will know, are rather anxious that our schools should not be considered mere knowl- edge-shops, but institutions for the moral and civil training of children as well. There is also this other fact regarding our insisting upon punctuality, which I must mention. It is, that the child thereby learns that he is only one among a great number, who all have to obe3 T the same law. Equality before the law is a thing which no child can learn unless it attends a public school. The child taught privately at home will forever be selfishly inclined. However careful or consistent } T our home training may be, that one thing, civil virtue, can only be learned in a community, and the school is a state in miniature." Mr. M. arose, shook hands with me, and said, " I am convinced, and shall hereafter assist 3*011 in your endeavors so far as they concern my child." When 102 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. the gentleman had left my office, I compared this visit with others from ladies ; and I Could not help re- membering Charles Reade's common-sense advice to officials, which is to this effect: "If you would win over a man, argue with him : if a woman, persuade her." A CASE OF UNINTENTIONAL CRUELTY. It was one of those rare warm days in January, when my daily duties led me into a schoolroom at recess time. Out in the yard the boys and girls played to their heart's content, — shouted, ran, and followed the impulses of nature which invigorates itself by motion ; while in the schoolroom, the win- dows of which were closed, sat about twenty .pupils, bent over their slates, Cw doing sums." My first question to the teacher was, u What are these pupils doing? " Ans. — " They are kept in because they are backward in arithmetic, having been absent several weeks on account of measles and scarlet fever." How it is possible that any sane person can act thus, is almost inconceivable. I argued with the teacher, saying, — " Suppose two boys run a race. In the middle of the course one of the boys sprains his ankle : do you expect him to catch up? Again, these children have lost four weeks ; they are weak in body, tender in health, and the continuity of their instruction has been broken. I understand full well that they are backward in many studies ; but do you think that by THE EXPERIENCE OF A SUPERVISOR. 103 depriving them of their recess, and of that healthful, invigorating motion which is the result of play, they will catch up with the others? If there are any .pupils in your classroom whose bodily condition should be taken into consideration, it is these. Mens sana in corpore sano. How wearied and pale that little girl over yonder looks ! See how her nostrils twitch, her head jerks, and her hands tremble. Do let us try an experiment. Please let these children go to play with the others, and then let us observe how they look when they come back." The teacher did as I requested ; and the result of her observation after recess was, that she said, " Rest assured that will never occur again. My pupils shall have their recess, and I shall go and play with them." CHAPTER III. ITODAMEtfTAL EKKOKS IN TEACHING. CHAPTER III. FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. PER-CENT SYSTEM OF GRADING. It is a notable fact, that while people will not buy an exploded contrivance, or a worn-out machine, or manufacture goods for the market by antiquated methods, but insist on the latest improvements, they seem to be satisfied with antiquated methods in school, as they were applied by the proverbial school-keepers of yore. And while they hire in their workshops and factories nothing but skilled labor, they are not much troubled when they see persons employed as teachers who have not a clear idea of what such terms as methods, didactics, etc., imply. Poor talent is fre- quently tolerated because it is home talent. While people would ridicule any one who would travel with rheumatic post-horses, or carry his money in saddle- bags, instead of making use of express-trains and the many facilities offered by our system of banking, these same people permit their children, year after year, to travel by antiquated means through the cur- riculum of school. People who advocate good whole- some food, and who decry adulteration of food, allow their children to be fed with indigestible mental food, 107 108 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. in form of grammar rules which never did nor ever will develop mental faculties or linguistic skill, but which were considered a most necessary part of a scholar's outfit during the " good olden times." A superintendent cannot cure the evil radically ; all that is in his power is to apply palliative remedies. The great work of reform must be accomplished largely by the teachers. I deem it desirable to discuss some of the methods that ought to give way to better ones, and to suggest the latter. Per-Cent System of Grading. — This system of grad- ing the pupils, that is, determining their relative stand- ing in the class on a scale of one hundred, has greatly undermined the teacher^ value. It has brought it about, that pupils think that their close attention to every-day duties is not needed, that " studying up " at the close of the term will secure them the necessary 44 per cents." And this, to speak candidly, is argu- ing correctly. Since, according to the per-cent sys- tem, all examination questions must be matter-of-fact questions, so that they may be marked on a scale of one hundred, it will be easily seen that facts teiii- porarity stored up in the memory will serve the pur- pose of passing the examination. This is contrary to the principles of sound and rational education, which condemn such a method of acquiring knowledge as false and pernicious. In order to improve the teaching, and bring it back to sound and rational principles, we must take away the high pressure of the per-cent system ; first, by doing away with the FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 109 scale which suggests the mode of questioning ; second, change the mode of dry, matter-of-fact questioning, which conditions the mode of teaching ; third, change our mode of teaching in order to comply with the requirements of nature and actual life. The remedy I suggest is simple. Let the pupils' papers be examined by the teacher, and let her mark them "very good," "good," "satisfactory," or " poor ; " any similar expressions will suffice. This is recommended, not only for the reason specified above, but for the further reason that in this case the indi- viduality of the pupil may, and undoubtedly will be, considered. The per-cent system is not flexible : it submits every pupil to its cast-iron rule. It does not take the pupils' natural gifts into consideration, simply because the answers to questions like this one, " What seaport in Alabama?" can only be right or wrong. There is no alternative. Now, give five or ten of such questions, and let the memory of a boy who is to answer them be weak for geographical data ; and the likelihood is, that he comes out of such an ex- amination plucked and mortified, his spirit dampened, his interest gone, and his ambition will lead him to gather, only for temporary use, just such " tidbits of knowledge," and then try again. The same boy may have a very creditable amount of geographical knowledge ; only it is all connected organically with previous cognitions in form of associations of thought, and he would make a most creditable showing if he were asked to make an imaginary journey along the 110 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TUE DAY. coast of the Mexican Gulf, and state what countries, rivers, harbors, seaports, etc., he would touch. There is also an unpardonable injustice in saying, " This child has reached ninety per cent, the other only sixty per cent." Who knows but that the sixty per cent is the result of hard and earnest toil of a boy who may have labored under disadvantages which the other boy who reached ninety per cent never knew? Who knows but that the sixty-per-cent boy, if meas- ured by a hitherto unkuown scale, would far outrank the other in character, in steadfastness of purpose, in virtue, in tenacity, in moral strength, and in other regards? While the ninety-per-cent boy, perhaps, was surrounded by all the advantages which a home of culture and refinement offers, the sixty-per-cent boy, perhaps, could attend school but half the time, and had to help support the family ; and yet he reached sixty per cent! The injustice is so glaring that it cries for redress. There is also this to be argued against the per-cent system, at least so far as it is found in the primary grades : It is the using of terms which are incompre- hensible to the small child. He understands if we say an exercise is done well or not well. But to mark the child's work eighty-five per cent, sixty per cent, etc., is about as intelligible to him as marking it Popocatepetl or Parallelopipedon ; in other words, it is using a s}anbol where no symbol as yet is desirable. FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. Ill COMPETITION IN SCHOOL. The high pressure of the per-cent system on one hand, competition caused by too many examinations on the other, crushes out all individuality, and makes our boys and girls men and women of whom thirteen do not make a dozen. "Competition is a curse, because it treats children as if they were all endowed with the same aptitude," says a writer in a recent number of an educational journal. " Overwork on the one side," he says, " coupled with self-conceit ; despair on the other, coupled with the entire loss of energ}', — are the results of competition in our schools." He also remarks that " competition is immoral, because it is based upon the law of the survival of the fittest ; which, however natural it may be, is not a moral law." Now, as to the number of examinations, and as to their mode, the superintendent, by virtue of his posi- tion, has the decision in his hand. But that does not, and can not, remove competition from the schools entirely, since in some classes the teacher does noth- ing but examine all day. The following sarcastic statement is the gist of an article upon this subject from the pen of Superintendent Aaron Gove of Den- ver, a most accomplished leader of educational affairs in the West: "Teachers are not teaching; they are drifting. A pupil is assigned a task. Soon he is examined. When he has demonstrated the accom- plishment of his task, he is excused. The recitation is concluded. He is assigned another task. An exam- 112 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. ination determines its performance. So is composed the daily routine. He is tested, tried constantly. If he does not know a certain thing, he is asked to look it up in his text-book. At evening the father spends a tired hour in instructing. He wonders what teachers do during the day. The pupil learns that recitation is examination. He must present results, no matter how he obtained them. Ponies and keys are useful. The home furnishes a little poor help. The world has passed beyond the need of teachers. School is a place in which to sit and tell daily what has been learned from books. All requisites are in the book. Proper application on the part of the pupil will appropriate them. The chief duties of the adult person in the schoolroom are to prevent riot, and to examine pupils." Is this an exaggeration? God may grant it ! These daily examinations rob the pupil of that tranquillity without which no healthy mental growth is possible ; it defrauds the teacher of the opportunity of applying herself to the weaker pupils, and lend them a helping hand, because she spends her time in marking her pupils' work on a scale of one hundred, and to write examination questions on the board. The per-cent system subjects all the pupils of a class to the treatment of Strasburg geese, which are fed in close confinement — that is, noodled as the tech- nical term has it — till their livers are unnaturally large ; only that it is the memory of the children which, is thus noodled. FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 113 This mode of daily competitive examinations acts like mildew upon the work of pupils, and should speedily give way to teaching. It is but just to say, that many of our teachers have recognized the evil influence of the per-cent system and competitive examinations, and now spend their time in occupation for which they toere engaged by the authorities. Enter- ing a schoolroom, it can at once be seen whether such a teacher, or a mere school-keeper, holds sway. In the schoolroom of the teacher, the pupils are, as a rule, more eager to learn than in the one where daily exam- inations are held ; and that painful anxiety so often visible upon the pupils' faces, which blights all joys and pleasures of life, will not be found. The teacher bears in mind, that no two pupils are gifted alike by Mother Nature, just as little as she- produces two leaves exactly alike. The inevitable difference in apti- tude, in power of comprehension and application, found among children, is taken into consideration ; and each pupil is permitted and led to go to the limits of his capabilities. The school-keeper, on the other hand, who believes in grading on the scale of one hundred, spurs his pupils, drives and pushes them Irv means of competitive examinations, considering them all alike in natural endowments and capabilities ; and the short, but important, educational law, "Individualize," is unknown to him. 114 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. MEMORIZING THE PRINTED PAGE. Another, though not the last, and by no means the least, of the antediluvian fossils found in school-teach- ing, is the reliance of teachers and pupils on books ; rote-learning, or unproductive memorizing of text- books. When we see children learn by heart from the printed page such disconnected, though highly flavored, tidbits of information found almost on every page of the text-books of geography ; as, for in- stance, " Extensive forests of deciduous trees cover the greater part of this section." "The stone mountain in DeKalb County is a great cariosity." "Indian mounds of an unknown antiquity are found in Georgia." " ' Zenith ' and 'nadir' are two Arabic terms imparting their own signification," — we can- not but thank kind Providence for having gifted the human memory with the happy faculty of throw- ing off what has not gone through the mill of rea- son and understanding. What a frightful waste of energy is there in schools where such unpalatable and indigestible matter is set before the pupils who are told to " study " their geography lesson ! Or when we see children try to " figure out," or mechanically solve problems in arithmetic, by applying rules committed to memory from the text-book, instead of rules which are the direct result of practice and reasoning, we cannot but admit that there is more than one grain of truth in the indignant remark of a great lecturer : " Our coun- try has become great, not because of its public- school system, but despite of it." FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 115 Or when we hear children recite grammar rules, and prattle about numeral adjectives, correlative conjunc- tions, or causal adverbial clauses, or inseparable phrases, or subordinate propositions, or co-ordinate forms of conjugation, and the like, before they can give an intelligent account of an event, or even give utterance to a simple thought without doing violence to their mother-tongue, we cannot but stand in mute astonishment, and wonder at the incongruities which exist between the requirements of life and those of the schoolmaster. Memorizing the text-book is but a poor substitute for true knowledge. It is a sad mistake to think children of our primary and intermediate grades gain much valuable knowledge from text-books. Pupils of riper age and adults may, and unquestionably do, gain knowledge from" the printed pages : young children do not. There are two kinds of knowledge, — (1) that which has become part of our being, having been men- tally assimilated, as it were; and (2) that with which we stuff our pockets (our memory). Those who learn for the sake of passing an examination merely stuff their pockets. This is done much faster than in the other way. Those who chew their mental food, digest and assimilate it, may at times get discouraged at the seemingly small amount they gain ; but since they learn thoroughly, they can never lose it again, and in the end are the gainers. True knowledge is logically and naturally linked with previous cognitions. Such knowledge is experience, while the pupil who 116 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. stuffs his memory is ever obliged to fill it anew; his knowledge is of a fleeting Dature. Besides, he weakens his memory by mentally swallowing and not digesting. If we look at our psychological organs as we do at our physiological organs, we cannot fail to notice the striking resemblance. A person who learns b} T using his five senses, and is made to clearly understand the logical connection between new knowledge and previ- ous cognitions, will find himself gaining in intellectual strength. History and our own every-day experience tell us that it is these very persons who make their mark in the world, who prove to be the strongest and bravest in the battle of life. Says a gifted writer, in " Intelligence : " " The pro- test against mechanical education, against cramming and working for per cents, is timely, and cannot be too strongly put. The protest, however, is hurled prop- erly against a false method of imparting knowledge. If the mechanical methods were successful in convey- ing knowledge, the fact that they are mechanical would not stand against them. If you can cram knowledge into children, in God's name do it ; but you cannot. The student who is crammed is not intelligent : he does not know facts ; he gains neither information nor discipline. There is no mechanical way of pro- viding intellectual results. Dean Swift's Academy of Laputa is not what is, but only what Gulliver saw. Why should we try the experiment of writing a geometrical problem on a wafer, and compelling our pupil to swallow it, in order to impress the demonstra- FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 117 tion on his brain? The object of teaching is to store the mind with knowledge ; but it is also to develop mental power and moral character. The acquisition and retention of exact, systematic, true, good, and beautiful knowledge, creates a clear mind and a pure heart. Knowledge and power are one ; they coalesce and become wisdom, the prize that is precious above rubies." EX A MINA TION Q UES TIONS. Here is a set of questions of the old customary type : — What isthmus joins North and South America ? What cape projects into the Arctic Ocean ? What island east of Greenland ? What great river empties into the Gulf of Mexico ? What river empties into the Arctic Ocean ? What country south-east of Mexico ? What country north of New England ? What is the largest river in New England ? Which is the smallest of the Middle States ? What seaport in South Carolina ? And here is another set of similar. questions : — How many bones in the hand ? IS ame the bones of the skull. State composition of the bones. What is the office of the heart ? What are arteries ? Veins ? Name the digestive organs. How many teeth has man ? Describe the structure of the ear. Describe the structure of a muscle. 118 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. These are patent questions suggested, nay, required, by the abominable system of grading by per cents. If we do away with this mode of grading papers and pupils, we can ask questions of wider bearing, — ques- tions, the answering of which will permit the pupil to show his skill in applying language ; to give a full account of certain branches of knowledge, as far as he has mastered them ; and show be' not only ivhat he knows, but how he knows it. Acting upon this suggestion, it would be well to change the customary examination questions. Instead of such questions as the above, we might submit some like these : — Geography. — If you were to make a voyage from Copenhagen to Home, along the coast of Western Europe, what countries would you pass ? Mention all important rivers, the mouths of which you would pass on this voyage. Mention large, seaports, also the capitals of the countries you pass. Mention the moun- tain ranges and two important lakes situated in Western Europe. State what people inhabit these different countries, and what language they speak, etc. Suppose a straight line be drawn from Washington to San Francisco, state through what States and Territories this line would go. Mention large cities south and north of this line. Mention the different mountain ranges and large rivers the line will cross, etc. Describe the Ohio Valley; extent, rivers, watersheds, lakes (if any), canals, cities, manufactories, natural products, means of commerce, etc. Why is Salt Lake salt, and Lake Erie not ? Why are rivers on the east side of the Appalachian Mountains so much shorter than those on the west ? Why does the Miami River flow south? What States are drained by the Mississippi? Why is the climate of Oregon much warmer than that of Min- nesota ? Name the principal waters that wash the shores of FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 119 North America. How would you travel by water from Hamil- ton to New Orleans ? Mention the highest mountains in South America; the largest river; the largest state; four of the most important cities; two islands; two seaports, etc. Describe a journey: select your own point of destination. United States History. — Give a short account of the mound- builders. What led to the re-discovery of America by Colum- bus ? Describe the Spanish explorations in the South-west. State how the several Colonies were governed. Give a short account of William Penn and his colony. Give a short account of the French and Indian War. What were the causes of the Revolutionary War ? Define the terms "revolution" and "re- bellion." State some leading ideas of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. General History. — AYhat are the sources of our knowledge of Babylonian, Assyrian, and ChaLlrean history ? State what you learned of the culture of the Shemitic races. State the rise and fall of the Phoenician state ; a few dates. Give an account of the early history of the Hebrews ; three dates. State what you learned of the customs and culture of the ancient Egyp- tians. What did Solon and Pericles do, that they deserve to be classed among the greatest of men ? Describe the heroic death of Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans. Give a short account of the life and career of Tiberius Gracchus. State some causes of the downfall of the Roman Republic. Give an account of the Roman conquests in Gaul and Germany. Physiology. — Describe the teeth. State how they are pre- served, and what makes them decay early. State difference between teeth and bones. Give rules of hygiene of the bones. (Examples.) Describe the anatomy of the muscular system. Give a description of the anatomy of the circulatory organs. Give an account of the physiology of the digestive organs. State hygienic rules regarding the respiratory organs. [Note. — In making these statements, confine yourself to the essentials. Lead-pencil sketches in the margin, illustrating the subject matter, will greatly enhance the value of the work.] 120 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Natural Philosophy. — Describe the common lifting-pump and the force-pump. State the underlying principles. Describe the hydrostatic or hydraulic press. Principles. Describe an artesian well. Principles. Define: Matter, Inertia, Elasticity, Energy, Gravitation. Describe the formation of primary and secondary rainbows. State why, of all the colors, red is always at the top in a primary bow. Where is it in a secondary bow, and why ? Show why the image of an object is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front. Describe the human ear, and state the functions of its principal parts. Give one impor- tant law of acoustics. Describe an organ-pipe, also a string- instrument, and show how sound is produced. | Note. — Lead-pencil sketches in the text, illustrating the subject matter, will greatly enhance the value of the work.] Literature. — State in chronologic order what races inhab- ited Great Britain, or ruled over it. What are the components of the English language now? State King Alfred's literary influence. Give a sbort biographical sketch of Chaucer. State the plan of the Canterbury Tales. Give leading features of "The Faerie Queene." What is the literary importance of Edmund Spenser? What is said about the early theatres? What is commonly understood by the term "literature"? Give a brief account of John Milton's literary career. Give an account of Bacon's political success and disgrace. Give a brief synopsis of Shakspeare's " Hamlet." State Shakspeare's influence in the history of the English language. Give the titles of three historical, two semi-historical or legendary, and five fictitious plays of Shakspeare. The above questions are inserted merely to show the nature of the examinations that were held under my direction. They are suggestive both to teachers and pupils, and, it is to be hoped, may show the way out of the mire of mechanical memory-cramming, into rational teaching. In the high school, it should be FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 121 the custom to give out, at the end of each term, a limited number of themes from each study (except mathematics), and each pupil should be permitted to choose one of them, and to write as complete a dis- sertation as possible upon that subject. These essays are either satisfactory, or they are not. In the latter case, a second examination may be required. This procedure will make the gauging of children's intel- lectual depth by per cents impossible. It will make the teacher's instruction more rational and thorough. It will teach the pupils to learn well. But, above all, it will cause their power of application to grow. It will make a language lesson of every lesson, even in arithmetic, since it obliges them to express well what they have learned. Granted, that this is not making the work of the teacher easier ; but it need scarcely be asserted, that the schools are not maintained for the better accommodation of teachers. FROM THE FRYING-PAN INTO THE FIRE. During the last ten } r ears, school education in this country has received a new impulse ; and one of the most objectionable features of school work in former years, namely, the custom of subjecting pupils to the hardship of too many written examinations, has been frequently and savagely attacked. I ought to add, justly, because the evil effects of frequent written examinations can scarcely be estimated, particularly if their results are marked upon the scale of one hun- dred. There is a complete chain of cause and effect 122 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. in this matter. The scale used in marking necessi- tates a peculiar mode of questioning ; that is to say, little matter-of-fact questions must be asked, in order to gauge the answers on a scale of one hundred, or any other mathematical scale. Teachers, knowing the kind of questions to be asked, fashion their instruction to suit the requirements of the examination. Thus they lay undue weight upon the development of the memory, overloading the mental stomach of their pupils with facts which are very easily forgotten after the examination is over. Pupils, knowing by experience what kind of examinations are given, learn accordingly ; that is, acquire knowledge in such a manner as will assure them good results on examina- tion-day. All rational teaching is thus killed in the bud. It has come to be well understood, that the teacher is to be a teacher, 'and not a mere school-keeper and task-master ; and the better that fact came to be understood, the greater and more obstinate became the opposition and justifiable wrath against the stultifying examinations, the number of which was reduced at various points at first from ten to five, from live to three, and in some places even to one per year. Promotions were based partly upon the results of examinations, partly upon the recommendations of the teachers, who expressed their judgment by add- ing the word prepared, or doubtful, or unprepared, after the names of the pupils in the class-record. This mode was adopted some years ago in Hamilton, and FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 123 it works very well. It recognizes the teacher's value, and it shows the pupils that the faithful discharge of their daily duties will count when it comes to a final judgment at the close of the year. Of late, a very objectionable and detrimental step with regard to promotions has been recommended in various places. The fatal result of making promo- tions dependent upon written examinations, and the evil influence it has upon the daily work in the class- room, was at once conceded ; and, therefore, written examinations were abolished. In their stead, was put a system of daily marking. I need not describe this any further ; the word carries with it its own defini- tion. Teachers, principals, and editors of the daily press, intelligent and otherwise, highly applauded the new measure. The panacea of all educational evils seemed to have been found. Let us see whether the new plan can be recom- mended. Of what does it consist? Any good daily programme of school-work has no less than five lessons. I need not enumerate them. The teacher sits at her desk, pencil in hand, and the class-record before her. Let the first lesson be arithmetic. A certain number of problems are given out. They are worked. Now the work is examined, and the results are recorded, — so many 100's, so many 90's, so many 80's, etc., ad infinitum and ad nauseam. There is no time for teaching. The teacher is degraded to a mere marling machine. The hour is past. Perhaps geography is taken up 124 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. now. The lesson (the Lord forgive the irony of this term !) consists in hearing the pupils recite what they memorized from the printed page ; and as they pro- ceed, they receive their mark which is instantly recorded. Demonstrations on the board, and inves- tigation of maps, explanation, Socratic questioning, and all that is justly considered part of rational teach- ing, is prevented by the necessity of recording marks. Thus the spelling-lessons are merely recitations of words crammed and jammed into the memory, there to abide only for the time being ; and every pupil of common-sense will amend the Scripture word so as to read, " Sufficient uuto the day is the nonsense there- of." But I must stop here, or the fair reader will lay down the book, loathing the sight of the picture I am delineating. The monthly and term examinations are abolished, and daily examinations are put in their places. That's the long and the short of it, to use a little wholesome slang. From three, four, or five examinations per year, the number is raised to two hundred ; and this is what is called progress. Comenius, Pestalozzi, Locke, Rousseau, Diesterweg, and Horace Mann will turn in their graves when they hear of this wonderful progress. It will be said that this system of daily marking does not necessarily prevent rational teaching. No, it does not : but I have yet to see the horse that can walk straight in a circular treadmill ; and I have yet to see the pupil who will have eyes and ears for any FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 125 thing but his marks, if he knows that upon that tender thread bangs his chance of promotion ; and I have yet to see the teacher's character that can cope with an influence so deadening, with a routine so stultif} T - ing, and with a custom so degrading, as the daily examinations and daily marking. Examinations are very useful institutions ; it is only their abuse which makes them objectionable : but let them be examinations, not " examinationlets." Let there be a reasonable number of them, not two hundred a year. Do not make promotions dependent upon the examination wholly ; but let their results be accompanied by a recommendation from the teacher who knows the pupil, and has had opportunities to study him all the year round. Where the system of daily marking is adopted, the school authorities make a grave and serious mistake. They actually "kill" the school, and make of it a drilling institution ; and the art of teaching is thus degraded to a handicraft. How true are the words of a great American lecturer who said, " Every thing American is a fusion of dis- tant and antagonistic elements. Active intellect, practical skill, world-wide enterprise, meet side by side with dead conservatism in church and school, the most liberal ideas with devoted habits and meek creed in home and family; aggressive freedom, with conceited narrowness. Nothing can be praised in our wide realm without an abundance of damning excep- tions, and nothing denounced without a liberal share of cordial praise." But the daily marking of school- 126 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. work does not belong to those things which deserve cordial praise through being denounced, for there is not one iota of merit in it. THE OUTLOOK. There is in every nation, as in the life of every individual, a time of plasticity. During this time the human being develops his individuality. Certain qualities in him become fixed, and capable of being transmitted to his children. What is individuality in the person is type in the nation. The English settlers in America, cut loose from the mother country and its culture, dependent upon their own strength, in- genuity, and resources, soon drifted away from old established customs, thoughts, modes of life and action, adapted themselves to surrounding circum- stances, and developed a type peculiarly American. This type became so pronounced during the eighteenth century, that it asserted itself in violent opposition to England. The habits, thoughts, social relations, mode of life, manner of action, etc., were no longer colonial : they had become national. In the same way the mode of teaching and learning had developed certain peculiar traits, had become typical. We all know what caused the great abundance of self-made men: they were, and still are, typically American. ( Now, the typical American boy gained his knowledge as the man gained his fortune, — namely, without assistance. What he is and has, he is and has by his own exertion, attended by much waste of FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 127 time and energy. The self-made student acquires his knowledge from books, not through instruction. He does not learn a thing for the sake of knowing it, or for the sake of the discipline it affords, but merely toward securing other ends. Now, the modes of teaching of the typical American school of the earlier periods were legitimate : they were the exponents of life in America. That the typical American teacher of yore kept school, heard recitations, assigned lessons, examined, and tested daily and hourly, we can com- prehend — and pardon. But life, and the American people, have changed. The old American type is fast receding, since untold millions of immigrants have arrived. The Union is a gigantic crucible, within which the representatives of the different na- tions are fused to a homogeneous whole. Each nation adds some of its virtues, and, alas ! some of its vices, to the fusion. We are at present in a second era of plasticity ; we see it from changes going on within reach of our own o o o experience. Thirty years ago this country was song- less. Gen. Grant used to say: " I know only two tunes; one is Yankee Doodle, and the other isn't." The changes going on in our country in industrial pursuits, in art, in architecture, in habits and modes of living, are very perceptible, but need not be enu- merated here. And we are changing our mode of teaching and studying also. When the great influx of foreign elements ceases, the mixture in the cruci- ble will become clear, and the future type of the 128 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. American school will have been developed. It will not be European, rest assured ; neither will it be American, as that term is now understood. It is devoutly to be hoped that the pernicious marking system, immoral competition, constant testing, and soulless memorizing of the printed page, will not be leading features of the new American school. CATCH-WORDS. The historian who, in future years, will write the history of the common schools of our era, will un- doubtedly choose as a head-line these words : The era of pedagogical catch-words. Verily, we are in the midst of the time of educa- tional catch-words. We fail in strength to let go of mere words, and to struggle upward to deeds. We have exhumed all the worthy pedagogues of the past, have carefully examined and studied them, have lifted education to the lofty height of a science, have neatly labelled and systematized every branch of edu- cational theory and practice ; and to the uninitiated eye it is a sight worthy to make the heart glad. But, somehow, there seems to be a discrepancy between our theory and our practice, or theory must have grown beyond our heads. We have striven toward art, and have reached artificiality. We have sketched the imposing temple of education in grand, bold outlines, and then injured it by suffocating details. We have departed from nature, and opened the gates, nay, even the most sacred compartments of FUNDAMENTAL ERRORS IN TEACHING. 129 education to the very arch-foes of natural growth, — to routiuisra and mechanism. We have to thank our- selves for our want of success. We should confess this, and humbly whisper, " Lord, forgive us, for we knew not what we did ! ' ' We owe a great deal of our present indecision and helplessness to the catch- words that seemed comprehensible to every one by their popularity. And I dare say this popu- larity gave rise to the fatal belief that with having the word we had the thing. There is scarcely a teacher. who has not his or her own definite opinion as to the aim and end of popular education ; there are but few who could not, at length and with the air of conviction, interpret to laymen the principles of teaching according to Nature's laws, or profoundly explain the psychological influence of certain branches, or certain modes of instruction, upon the formation of character ; not one but seems to know all about moral and aesthetic culture. There is not a graduate of a normal school, not a teacher of one year's experience, but could make use of such catch-words as "the principle of objective teaching," " analytic and synthetic methods," and others. We have caught the words, and fought with them ; and, according to the verdict of immortal Goethe, "words are very convenient weapons." True, the actual results are not up to just expectations, and certainly not in harmony with the apparently profound knowledge exhibited in professional circles. Do not, fair reader, for Ti moment entertain the 130 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. idea that this state of affairs prevails' in our profes- sion only. It is the case in many other professions of our time. That the catch-worcls are not as easily detected, for instance, in the science and practice of medicine as they are in our profession, is owing to the fact that medicine is carefully guarded by a high wall of Latin, while we must speak plain English or German, as the case may be. CHAPTER IV. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OP TEACHING. CHAPTER IV. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING. (after Lindner's treatise.) I. TEACH IN ACCORDANCE WITH NATURE'S LA WS. This principle may be interpreted in two ways. First, viewed objectively, it may mean : In teaching, proceed as Nature does in all her work. She always awaits the proper time. She prepares her matter before she gives it shape. Her work is from within outwards. She begins her formations with general outlines. She never makes a leap, but proceeds step by step. She develops all her various and manifold forms from the smallest, imperceptible beginnings. She proceeds from the easy to the more difficult. She never does any thing uselessly. She never acts rashly, yet ever moves onward. She never isolates any thing, but keeps all in relation and connection. She invigorates herself by continuous motion. In a similar manner the teacher should proceed. His work must begin at the proper time. He must prepare and arrange the matter of instruction. He should not try to plant cognitions with empty words, but let them 133- 184 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. grow from the seed of sense-perception from within outwards. Outlines should precede the thorough treatise. All his procedures should be step-by-step motion, etc. In this way Comenius interpreted the term "teaching according to Nature's laws." But a deeper conception of this principle is gained if we interpret it subjectively, to wit : Proceed in teaching as the nature of the pupil dictates. This is the way Pestalozzi and Diesterweg understood this principle. Not nature in general, but the nature of the particular human being to be taught, should guide us. In all our endeavors to assist the development of that human being, his own peculiar combination of natural gifts dictates what to do. Pestalozzi's own words are : " The course of Nature in the development of the human race is immutable. There can be no different good ways in teaching : there is but one good one, and that is the one which is strictly in accordance with Nature's unchangeable laws." The teacher, as is now generally understood, even by a "pupil teacher" in the backwoods, has the duty to assist the process of development by suitable measures, commonly called teaching ; and to that end he must know the natural laws of mental development, because his work will be fruitless if he violates them. These laws are found in the science of psychology if we refer to the pupil or subject ; they are found in the science of logic if we refer to the matter or object of instruction. The principle, u teach according to Nature's laws," SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 135 is the most important in the science and art of teach- ing. All other principles are contained in it like germs. But as a principle of its own it is too gen- eral, too indefinite, to make it a rule for the practice of teaching. We must therefore proceed to more particular and definite ones. Note. — We say teaching is an art, and therefore in teach- ing we find the same relation which exists between Art and Nature in general. First, Art imitates Nature, and borrows its ideal - models from her; but it is also subject to Nature's un- alterable laws, particularly those laws which govern the matter used in Art. Thus the art of painting is subject to the laws of light and perspective, architecture to the laws of gravity, music to those of sound ; and it is literally impossible to devi- ate from them. According to Comenius' interpretation, the teacher is to be Nature's imitator; according to Diesterweg, he is Nature's servant. II. TEACH IN ACCORDANCE WITH PSYCHO- LOGICAL LAWS. Teaching will be agreeable to Nature's laws if it is done psychologically, that is to say, if it has proper regard to the laws of psychological development of the human mind. To this end it is necessary to regard the whole human being, and not merely a certain faculty. The instructor must stimulate all the powers of the soul ; not merely develop the memory for instance, or the imagination, or the intellect, alone, but also the emotions. Another postulate is, he should start from the standpoint of the pupil, and proceed from the known to the unknown. Similar maxims, equally important, 136 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. are : Proceed from the easy to the more difficult, from the near to the remote, from the concrete to the ab- stract, from the particular to the general, from the example to the rule, from the object to its symbol, from the idea to its name. Do not use words that convey no idea as yet. This is the procedure known in methodology as analytic and genetic procedure. The starting-point of the earliest instruction will always remain that range of experience which the child gains before it enters school ; the starting-point in every higher grade is on that level to which the pupil has been raised in the preceding grade. This secures continuity of instruction, one of the requisites of success; If the teacher were to disregard the standpoint of the pupil in any grade of the school curriculum, he would be in danger of either offering him knowledge as new which he has mastered before, or presupposing unknown things as learned, digested, and assimilated. In the former case the teacher would become tedious ; in the latter, incomprehensible. To give the argument concerning psychological laws in a nutshell, we will say, the instruction should be in strict accordance with the actual stage of development of the learner, at every step and at all times. Note 1. — Of the particular rules given for psychological procedure, only the first, namely, "from the known to the unknown," is applicable in every case. The recent crusade in New England against this maxim is too trifling to be considered. The other maxims are subject to limitations. Thus, it may SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 137 happen, that an easier part of a branch of study may follow a more difficult one; for instance, the chapter in geometry which treats of circles follows the Pythagorean problem. In many sciences the elementary ideas and fundamental definitions at the beginning of the study are the most difficult. While the rule says, "Proceed from the near to the remote,." it is very fre- quently the fact that the more remote, in geography for instance, is treated before objects nearer home. The sun, which is a very remote object, is spoken of and viewed before Australia is treated ; and in history, knowledge of the Orient is frequently offered before home history is treated. But no man of common sense will on that account object to the rule as it stands. Note 2. — The oft-quoted maxim, "from the simple to the complex," cannot be supported, because that which is gained by experience through the senses is not always simple. The more difficult general ideas are simpler than the particular ones gained by observation. III. TEACH OBJECTIVELY; APPEAL TO THE SENSES. The maxims derived from the second principle, all more or less peremptorily demand this: "Teach ob- jectively." Sensations and percepts are the building- material of concepts, cognitions, and ideas. The young child's range of experience, its mental horizon, is liter- ally filled with percepts, few of which have been formed into concepts. The } r oung child's mind is only capable of sensation, perception, and conception. That which is perceivable by the senses is that which is nearest, easiest, simplest. Hence the principle, " Teach objec- tively," is correct at least for elementary instruction. But it holds good also for every other step of in- 138 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. struction : for ideas without percepts are empty and meaningless ; they are garments without substance. Whenever new terms come up in instruction, the teacher should at once see to it that they are illustrated aptly, so that they are substantiated, so to speak, and organ- ically linked with previous cognitions. This was doubted by a young teacher, one day, in my presence ; and I led the doubter ad absurdum by asking him whether he thought pumpernickel should be recommended in a case of gout? A blank stare was the answer, until finally his question, " What is pum- pernickel?" broke the spell and his doubt. Such words as "arsenal," "tributary," "elevation," "con- stellation," and other words of Latin and Greek origin, do not convey a meaning unless an appeal to the senses or to ideas previously acquired has been made. The difficulty and want of success in teaching often results from the fact that the teacher is too abstract, that words are used for which the child cannot find objects of comparison or contrast in his "picture-book of experience," his memory. The objective teacher illustrates all new terms as far as" possible, either by showing the objects in natura, or by means of models, pictures, drawings, sketches, dia- grams, so that the terms may leave a residue of sense- perception in the memory. All the impressions which we gain from an object by means of the five senses form an idea. Thus, for instance, we have no clear idea of an apple unless we have perceived it through all the five senses. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 139 We see its color and form ; feel whether it is hard or soft, smooth or rough ; we taste it, and thus find whether it is sour or sweet ; we smell it, and distinguish, even when blindfolded, from the smell of a pear or plum. We even recognize it by the sense of hearing : an apple that rolls on the floor is recognized even by a blind person . To objective teaching belongs also the example of the teacher, the showing how to work whenever ac- complishments, such as penmanship, drawing, singing, etc., are the subject of a lesson. The teacher's copy on the board, his example in reading, drawing, nar- rating, translating, etc., all these may be considered as parts of objective teaching. Pestalozzi formulates the principle of objective teaching as follows : Anschau- ung (perception) is the absolute foundation of all cog- nitions ; that is to say, all cognitions are derived from perceptions, and can be traced back to them. IV. TEACH INTELLIGIBLY. Teach intelligibly, so that you are easily understood. This principle demands that the acquisition and reten- tion of the matter be made easy to the pupil. The teacher will be the more successful, the easier the pupil finds the act of learning. Though all principles of teaching should aim at this, a few maxims may be gathered under this head. 1. Teach the elements thoroughly, for in them most of the difficulties are heaped up. Remember, all beginnings are difficult. 140 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 2. Proceed slowly ; teach little, but be precise and exacting in 3-our demands. Do not hurry unduly, and never forget to lead the child back to the elements of knowledge, so that all cognitions be organically con- nected with previously acquired knowledge. Niemeyer says : " Appear to lose time in order to gain it ; do not proceed to the next step unless you are confident that the former has been reached." 3. Ideas should be illustrated by things and allu- sions to things lying within the mental horizon of the children. Comenius says, "A teacher is cruel who demands mental work of his pupils without previous explanation or drill resulting in the ability to do said work." 4. Keep within bounds in teaching. This is to be understood to mean, teach as little as possible for future oblivion. There are teachers who honestly strive to teach all they know. Beginners fall into this error quite frequently. Goethe says, " In der Beschrankung zeigt sicli der Meister." (A master proves himself such under restraint.) 5. Separate the essentials from the non-essentials. Point at the former, and in reviewing lay stress upon them only. 6. Arrange systematically — that is, logically and methodically — the matter of instruction in parts and steps, so that the pupil can proceed by degrees without making undue leaps or being kept back. 7. Proceed from the object to its symbol, from the idea to the word ; never vice versa. Do not speak SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 141 of things of which the pupils have no conception as yet. Vainglorious talk in school is a crime. The language of the teacher should be simple, clear, com- prehensible. Note 1. — Like all the other principles, the foregoing must be accepted and followed with the limitations caused by the rela- tion of these principles to each other. Making learning easy should not be interpreted to mean to cripple the enthusiasm or self-activity of the pupil. This would violate principle No. 7. Note 2. — The maxim, "Make things comprehensible," should not lead us to exclude every thing the explanation of which is beyond a possibility. Many facts must be taken upon trust in childhood, as well as in later years. Even science can- not explain all known phenomena, and sometimes loses itself in useless speculations. All we can do is to classify these facts, and wait patiently, till by means of comparison and contrast a general law may be deduced, or cause and effect be discovered. Children often learn facts which remain totally uncomprehended by them, and we believe they are enriching their mind, while thef only overburden their memory. Not much damage is done thereby, except that mental dyspepsia is caused by thus con- stantly storing up facts which are not linked with previous cognitions; while healthy growth is caused when the facts are digested and assimilated, that is, recognized in their intimate relation to others. The acquisition of uncomprehended facts is not necessarily vicious in its effects, so long as these facts are not. in contradiction to cognitions gained previously. The un- comprehended fact may be true, though we do not see its causes and relations. For instance, we have not yet learned or com- prehended how the grass grows, but there is no contradiction between the facts and the known laws of nature. 142 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. METHODS OF TEACHING. DEFINITIONS. Method, in general, is the mode of procedure which follows certain rules applied with the intention of gain- ing a certain end ; or, " method is the way of reaching a given end by a series of acts which tend to secure it." Every practical performance may be conducted either irregularly, that is, arbitrarily and accidentally ; or regularly, that is, methodically. In this sense we speak of a method of swimming, riding, painting, eat- ing, etc. Method of teaching is the mode of procedure in teaching which follows given rules. It is the way upon which the teacher leads his pupils in order to make them reach the ultimate aim of instruction. It is the answer to the question, " How should the matter of instruction be arranged and treated, in order to be comprehended, digested, and assimilated easily and willingly by the pupil? " The answer to this question must of necessity differ as we refer to the (1) course, (2) form, (3) manner, or (4) means of teaching. The course of teaching, frequently called method, is so far objective as it disregards the peculiar manner of the teacher, and may be applied to all teaching, since it has reference only to knowledge and accom- plishment, that is, the matter to be taught, not to the varying conditions of the person to be taught. The SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 143 course of teaching, like the prescribed course of study, is soulless until interpreted and applied by% teacher who, by his form and mode of teaching, can animate it. The form of teaching has reference to the outer procedure ; that is, the mode of conduct and communi- cation on the part of the teacher toward the pupil. For this part of method, also, very well-defined rules can be and are applied. The manner of teaching, on the other hand, is purely subjective, since it depends upon the teaching person, and embraces the individual spirit of the teacher, his own peculiar manner, his own tone. Though this manner, strictly speaking, must vary with different individuals, there are still certain particulars which all have in common ; and only so far as they are com- mon to all or many, are they entitled to consideration in the following chapters. Note. — It is with reference to this part of methodology that the greatest mistakes are made. Teachers often advocate a trick, a device, a peculiar mannerism, as a new method. They simply confound manner with method of teaching. The means of teaching, lastly, are objects of nature, artistic representations, books, charts, apparatus, etc., used to assist the teacher in teaching, the pupil in learning. They are in intimate relation to the method pursued, be that inner or outer method of procedure ; objective or subjective method; course, form, and manner of teaching. 144 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. DIDACTIC, HEURISTIC, AND SYSTEMATIC METHODS. The didactic method is that procedure in which knowledge is communicated. This distinguishes it not only from the heuristic method, which aims at the self- active acquirement or finding of knowledge, but also from that procedure known as scientific presentation of knowledge ; that is, the systematic method. The heuristic method reflects the historic way by which the human mind has reached its present status of development. Since this way is by no means a straight line, but exhibits numerous errors and wind- ings from which the short-lived individual must be saved, the method, therefore, deviates frequently from its historic model. It is the object of the teacher to lead the individual upon the shortest road, in a certain limited number of years, to a point which the human race has reached by a roundabout way during the long course of many centuries. To this shortest road the systematic method seems to commend itself most, because it arranges all cogni- tions according to their inner, that is, logical, relation. It is that presentation of knowledge of which the mathematics offer brilliant examples or models. But this strictly systematic presentation, with all its defini- tions, divisions, classifications, and conclusions, is only suited for riper minds, for the highest or academic grades of school instruction, and not applicable in the lower grades, because it totally disregards of necessity the learner's individuality. SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 145 The method of teaching, then, — that is, the way in which the mind is to be approached, and the manner in which the matter of instruction is to be served, — must be guided by two considerations : first, the con- sideration for the subject of instruction, the pupil; and this is the psychological side of instruction, the aim of which is to make the pupil susceptible to the matter of instruction ; second, by the consideration for the objects of instruction, —that is, the nature of the matter, — and this is the logical side of instruction, which aims at preparing the matter; that is, making it palatable and digestive for the mental organs of the pupil. In all elementary teaching the first consideration is weightier than the second, although the latter should not be disregarded. In academic instruction the second consideration is the more important. Note.— A teacher of young pupils who disregards the psychological standpoint of the children, and lectures over their heads, as it were, is an abomination. That such " teachers " are not rare, can be seen from the often-repeated phrase, " Now, how often did I tell you that, and yet you do not know it!" THE ESSENCE OF METHOD. Since the teacher cannot, for obvious reasons, teach at once all the course of study prescribes, he is obliged to divide the matter, and proceed step by step. The disposition of the matter of instruction into a series of lessons, according to the time prescribed, is the course. 146 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Every lesson should form a methodical unit, having a previously determined object in view. In the pur- suit of this object, five stages must be distinguished : — I. The preparation ; that is, a repetition of what is known by the pupils of the matter under consideration. II. The presentation of the new; that is, that with which the pupils are to be made familiar. This may be either given, or found by self-active investigation. III. Connection of the new with cognitions pre- viously acquired, so that, for the purpose of appercep- tion, repetition and practice become necessary. IV. Condensation of general results obtained from examples and illustrations, and their formulation into good language or set rules, as the case may be. V. Application upon examples and cases of prac- tical life, so that what is learned may become the uudisputed property of the learner, over which he has absolute command and control, at any time, and under all circumstances. The course is by no means an indifferent thing, for much depends upon the order in which knowledge is presented to the learner, so that its component parts are thoroughly comprehended. The course, indeed, is so frequently considered as the method, that it leads many to an erroneous conception of the term tk method," as we shall see farther on. In the comprehension of the child, the matter of instruction must be so arranged that every following new cognition can be linked to previous cognitions. No fact must stand isolated ; but must form, in con- SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 147 nection with many others, an organic unit. That this depends upon the disposition of the matter, is clearly seen. Note 1. — A confused mass of knowledge offered, is the diametrical opposite of method. Life teaches in that way, and forms a chaos of cognitions and experiences. When the pupil comes to school, it is the teacher's duty to disentangle this ratking of cognitions, and establish order in the mind. Some people, notably auto-didactic scholars, never succeed in estab- lishing order in their minds : their ideas are never clear. The greatest art in teaching consists in descending to the standpoint of the child; to become a child among children, and uncon- sciously lift them to a higher level. He who can practise this great art needs not method. He is method personified; that is, proceeds methodically without being aware of it, and without making his pupils feel it. Note 2. — The course of teaching referred to in this chap- ter must not be confounded with the course of study as pre- scribed by school authorities. It is the guide of the teacher's own action from step to step. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. The method, or the road upon which teacher and pupils travel, is conditioned both by the starting- point and by the end in view. The starting-point in teaching is generally within the circle of experience and horizon of knowledge of the pupils. The teacher must begin here, lest his teaching be fruitless and use- less. He cannot always know the extent of this circle, and, therefore, is obliged to explore it to know just how high or how low the pupil stands. Whatever the teacher finds within this circle of expe- 148 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. rience will either appear as a ivhole, which may be analyzed into its component parts ; or as a number of parts, which will have to be linked organically to form a whole. The method may, therefore, take the form of dissection or dismemberment (analysis), or it may take the form of combination or joining (synthesis) , of the matter. In the former case we call the method analytic ; in the latter, synthetic. Now, the whole spoken of may be concrete or abstract ; that is, it may be a real thing, an object existing in time and space, or a mere notion, an idea, or, to speak more accurately, the contents of an idea. According to this, analysis, as well as synthesis, may be twofold : namely, real, when it refers to the object itself ; or ideal, that is, logical, when it refers to a conception or idea. Analysis of the object will furnish component parts which lie side by side when dismembered ; analysis of the idea brings out the characteristics within each other, and which, with regard to the original idea, are higher or lower concepts. Object-analysis is a real partition or dismemberment of an object, while thought- analysis is a logical abstraction. Object-analysis dissects : a tree, for instance, into roots, trunk, branches, twigs, leaves, and fruit ; a horse, into head, neck, trunk, and extremities ; a year, into seasons, months, etc. ; a product, into its factors ; a sentence, into its elements ; a word, into syllables and sounds. Object-synthesis combines the parts of an object in SOME PRINCIPLES AND METHODS. 149 order to produce it in its original form : thus, the different provinces or states, to form a union or empire ; the prismatic colors, to form the rainbow ; continuous adding of one, to make any number ; single acts, to form a period in history ; plants showing similarity and relationship, to form families and classes in botany. Object-analysis finds application everywhere, where any real object within the child's circle of vision and experience is to be explained by partition into its component parts. He who thinks of the whole, thinks also of the parts ; but the latter often remain obscure, and can only be understood by the analytic method. Thus, for instance, in the branch of instruction commonly called object-lessons, the child has a great multiplicity of concepts grown out of a still greater number of percepts, but they are mostly all obscure. Many a child has seen horses, and has no clear idea of a horse's hoofs and joints. This partition and distinc- tion is caused by the analytic method. In the same manner, the well-known home may be made the object of object-analysis ; certain projecting points, hills, rivers, bridges, settlements, cities, etc., may be singled out, and viewed according to their relative position and size. On the other hand, certain parts may be made starting points, and the whole the end in view. This is the case when the parts are that which is given by experience, and the whole that which is to be gained. This naturally calls for object- synthesis. 150 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. The attempt to extend geographical knowledge beyond the horizon of the home calls for -object-syn- thesis. This necessitates the use of imagination, in order to form the parts to something like a complete thing. Complete maps need to be analyzed ; outline maps require synthesis. A very popular method of his- torical instruction is that of object-synthesis, namely, a linking of facts which follow chronologically. Reading and arithmetic were originally taught by means of synthesis exclusively (by adding sounds to make words, and adding numbers to obtain others). In reading, the so-called phonic, or sounding-method, proceeds synthetically ; the word-method, analytically. The best mode in this case will always be a combina- tion of the two ; that is, to analyze words to obtain the material with which new words are made. The first year's work in arithmetic also should be analytic, as well as synthetic. Every new number should be obtained by synthesis, and then analyzed into its component parts and thus measured. (See G rube's procedure.) And thus I might go through the whole range of studies to show that the teacher can apply analysis and synthesis equally well. It will never do to exclude one, or even unduly favor the other. SUMMARY OF METHODS OF TEACHING. Inner Procedure, or the Method of Teaching WITH REFERENCE TO I. -THE PUPILS. all. The method may be Dogmatic, or communicating, whereby is or are taught only, — * — .main principles, points, fragments. Or it may be Genetic, that is, developing, and then it is either the Elementary genetic Socratic ^ method. % S 5 ™ « 5 s S * a o -g o i^ o fi ^ -o 1 The Socratic method is applied in the inner as well as in the outer procedure. See below. WITH REFERENCE TO II. -THE MATTER OF INSTRUCTION. The method may proceed from the whole, Analytic Method, that is, from the object, and then it is real-analytic, Explanatory procedure. or the idea; and then it is ideal-analytic, Inductive procedure, the parts, Synthetic Method, that is, from parts of the object, and then it is real-synthetic, Progressive procedure. the idea; and then it is ideal-synthetic, Deductive procedure. Outer Procedure, or the Manner of Teaching; that is, the mode of intercourse. It may be Monologic, when one speaks, and others listen. Lecture. Dialogic, 2 when teacher and pupils converse with little restraint. Socratic. Parliamentary. 2 Catechetic and dialogic modes readily blend. Catechetic, 2 when one asks, and others answer, repetitory questions, examinatory questions, developing questions. (Heuristic.) 151 CHAPTER V. THE AET OP QUESTIONING, AND PRACTICE OP TEACHING. 153 CHAPTER V. THE ART OF QUESTIONING, AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. HINTS TO BEGINNERS. Let me draw from my experience in the school- room, and offer young teachers, a few hints regarding the art of question ing, as it should be applied in the primary school, where above knowledge and its gar- ment, above skill in making use of it, should be con- sidered the growth and development of the child's inborn powers. Indeed, the primary school has performed its duty, when it has taught its pupils to teach themselves. First, Then, let me say, it is well to let individual pupils answer your questions, for only thus it is possible to learn the faults and failings in the knowl- edge and language of your pupils. Direct your questions to the class, but call upon individual pupils to give the answers. If an answer proves to be per- fect, call upon the class to repeat it in chorus. Thus you will be aiding the whole class in acquiring cor- rect knowledge, clothed in fitting garment. Much is sinned by having the whole class answer ad libitum. This resembles a bushel of chaff containing a few grains. 155 156 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. Second, As a most excellent exercise, ma} T be regarded the writing of a few perfect answers to some leading questions, either by the teacher or by the pupils. Thus another means is used for fixing in the mind that which has been developed in the preceding lesson. We are apt to forget that it is not so much knowledge, as it is ability and power, toward which we should aim. If this writing of a few answers is begun early, it may lead to accustom the children to express their thoughts in writing more readily than is done commonly. Third, This, however, is only possible if the teacher insists upon it, that the pupil's answer should in every case consist of a complete sentence, which embraces the teacher's question. I know full well that this has been termed pedantic ; but no one thus far has suc- ceeded in proposing any thing better for the purpose of facilitating clearness of expression, and exercise in correct speech. Many teachers hold, that insisting upon the pupil's answer being a complete sentence is a waste of time. It is true, in the beginning it claims much valuable time, like every other thing which is taught thoroughly ; but after some weeks it will be found a downright saving of time, because time in school is saved easiest where the answers are the garment of the most thorough and complete thoughts. Fragmentary answers will not allow the class to follow easily, and the language of the pupils will not be facilitated. I believe a few weeks will accustom a class to answer in complete sentences. THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 157 Fourth, Of course he who has no tact in question- ing, or who asks questions that are faulty in con- struction or poorly emphasized, wilt get poor and incomplete answers. The teacher's questions in the primary school mast possess three absolutely necessary qualities. They must be correctly formed, must be precise, and must be true questions. What question is correctly formed? Every ques- tion which has the interrogative word at the beginning, that is to say, which begins with "how," " where," " when," « who," » what," « why," or another inter- rogative pronoun. Ask, "Where does the squirrel live?" and not, "The squirrel lives where?" Such questions are as little instructive as is the practice of beginning a sentence, and having it finished by the pupil; as, for instance, » The swallow builds its nest near" — "the window." There is, however, little danger of faulty construction in English : much more so in other languages, where much depends upon correct construction. What is a precise question? A question is precise if it admits of but one answer, as a good riddle will have only one correct solution. What is a true question? Every question of correct construction, which is not only precise but well em- phasized. He who asks, wishes to learn something that he does not know as yet. In school, therefore, the pupils ought, by rights, ask, and the teacher answer. But since this is impossible, for obvious reasons, the teacher exchanges position' with the 158 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. pupils, and artificially places himself in the position of him who does not know what is asked for. The less the teacher»betrays that he knows what, he asks, the more will his question be a real, genuine question, and the more readily will the pupil answer. Now, since this make-believe is only possible through cor- rect emphasis, it is obvious that we should lay much stress upon this particular quality of a good question. I have met with teachers who are perfect masters in the art of questioning, and it is not astonishing at all to hear the brilliant answers of their pupils. No better proof of a teacher's mastership in this art was ever given, than by that conceited little boy, who came home from school and said, " I ain't a-going to that school any more." — u Why ? " asked his mother. " 'Cause our teacher don't know any thing. She asks us all the time. We must tell her every thing. To-day she even wanted to know what I had my boots on for ! ' ' There is one more requirement of a true question : namely, it must never be uttered in a tone, and accom- panied by a mien, from which the child is to imply that the teacher has doubts in the pupil's ability to answer. Be sure even children, who are little sensitive, feel it, and weak ones are discouraged thereby. Confidence begets confidence. A teacher who is anxious to per- fect herself in the art of questioning will do well, in case she receives no answer, to look for the cause in the nature of her question. If she finds that it is correct, she may perhaps find the cause in the want THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 159 of connection with the previous answer. Sometimes logic requires a connecting link ; sometimes it will suffice to repeat the previous answer. Whatever the reason of her want of success may be at the beginning, she should not lose her patience, for patience is a requisite of success in applying the developing method in the common school. THE SOCRATIC METHOD. It has been my enviable pleasure in life to be a member of a board of examiners. Grammar, and theory and practice, were among the branches assigned to me. I hardly ever resorted to a set of cut-and-dried questions., but almost invariably called for a composi- tion upon a practical question concerning school work. That composition would suffice to reveal the examinee's knowledge and skill in the use of the language, and in many cases it also revealed sufficient knowledge in pedagogy to warrant the issuing of a certificate. One day a number of normal-school graduates pre- sented themselves for examination, accompanied by a few teachers of several years' practice. As a subject for composition, I gave out, "How to ventilate a schoolroom." I do not know what motive prompted me at the time, but I recollect to have given the order that the composition was to illustrate the Socratic manner of teaching. The experienced teachers "threw up the sponge" at once, saying that they had prepared themselves for an old-fashioned examination, and were ready to 160 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE- BAY. answer a set of matter-of-fact questions in each branch, as had been the custom ; while the young ladies from the normal school quietly went to work without grumbling. It is queer, but undeniable, that the faithful discharge of duties in the schoolroom on the part of the teacher is liable to make him distrust- ful of himself and his accomplishments. The result of this examination showed that the experienced teachers all more or less satisfied me, while the young dam- sels all more or less failed in the attempt. Now, I wish it to be understood, that I do not say this to discredit the good work of the normal schools. Far from it, being a normal-school man myself. But this much 1 wish to emphasize, that experience in the schoolroom is the best normal school I know of. Alas ! it has to be maintained and supported at the expense of the little children with and upon whom the young teacher is experimenting. One of the composi- tions then furnished within the short space of an hour I wish to reproduce here. I give it with all its errors and shortcomings. It illustrates that experience is the best teacher, after all. VENTILATION" IMPLIES CIRCULATION AND AGITATION OF THE AIR. [A composition exhibiting the Socratic Manner of Teaching.} Question. —What is the purpose of the stove in this room ? Answer. — It is to heat the air in this room. Q._^rill the stove straightways send the heat into the far- thest corner? A. — No, it will heat the air in its immediate neighborhood first. THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 161 Q. — What will the air thus heated do ? A. — It will rise to the ceiling. Q. — Why will it do that ? A. — It is lighter than cold air. Q. — Can you give another proof of the fact, that light gases or fluids rise, while heavier ones fall? A. — Yes: if water is poured into a glass half full of oil, we will see that the water, being heavier, settles on the bottom, while the lighter oil rises to the top ; and that holds good also with air and other gases. Q. — Xow, then, if the heated air rises above the stove, what does the cold air farther away from the stove do ? A. — It will press forward and take the place vacated by the hot air. There will be a constant current of cold air near the floor toward the stove, and a constant rise of hot air upward. Q. — When will this current be slowest ? A. — When the air is pretty evenly heated in the whole room. Q. — What would have to be done to cool the air off, in case it became too hot to be comfortable? A. — Well, tbe source of heat might be diminished by shutting off the draught of the stove. Q. — Are there other means for decreasing the heat of the air in the room ? A. — Yes, by letting more cold air come into the room through the windows. Q. — Where would you open the windows, below or above ? A. — Of course, below. Q. — Why ? A. — So that there may be a fresh supply of cold air streaming toward our source of heat, the stove. Q. — Would you not also lower the upper sash, so as to let hot air escape ? A. — Yes, I believe that would be best. Q. — Would you lower the upper sash just as much as you would raise the lower ? A. — I believe it would be better to raise the lower sash less than the upper is lowered. Q. — Why ? A. — The cold air, being heavier, would press in with more force than the hot air could escape. Q. — What is the influence of heat upon matter? A. — It expands matter. 162 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Q. — Does it do the same with air ? A. — Certainly, air be- ing matter. And for this very reason it would be better to give the hot air more room to escape, than to the cold air to enter. Q. — We will not discuss that matter further. But tell me, is the necessity for cooling the air the only reason for letting in fresh air ? A. — Well, no: I think the oxygen in the air gets absorbed by so many lungs as are present in a schoolroom, and a fresh supply ought to be provided by a constant current. Q; — But would it not be rather uncomfortable to those per- sons sitting near the windows, to be subjected to the draught of the cold air ? Would it not be injurious to their health ? A. — Yes; but I think that might be obviated by letting the cold air in at a place where it would least incommode the persons in the room. Q. — Where could that be? A. — As near the stove as possible. Q. — Now, then, state how you would arrange the windows. A. — I would rai.se the loioer sash of that window which is nearest the stove, and I would lower the upper sash of that window which is farthest away from the stove. Q. — What purposes would be reached by doing so ? A. — An even current of fresh air would be occasioned thereby, which would not only bring new oxygen into the room, but would carry off the foul air ; and, besides, it would secure an even temperature. TWO EXAMPLES OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONING. The first is an imitation of Socrates' manner of conversation, by Dr. Watts, which is here reprinted for the sake of illustration. " If you would lead a person into the belief of a future state of reward and punishment after life, you might begin in some such manner of inquiry as this, and suppose the most obvious and easy answers : — THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 163 Question. — " Does God govern the world?" Answer.— " Surely, he who made it governs it." Q. —"Is not God both a good and righteous governor?" A. — "Both these characters doubtless belong to him." Q- — " What is the true notion of a good and righteous governor ? " A. — " That he punishes the wicked and rewards the good." Q, — "Are the good always rewarded in this life?" A. — " No, surely, for many virtuous men are miserable here, and greatly afflicted." Q- — " Are the wicked always punished in this life ? " A. — "No, verily: many of them live without sorrow, and some of the vilest of men are often raised to great riches and honor." Q. — " How, then, does God make it appear that he is good and righteous? " A.'— "I own, that there is little appearance of it on earth." Q. — " Will there not be a time, then, when the tables shall be turned, and the scene of things changed, since God governs mankind righteously?" A. — " Doubtless, there must be a proper time in which God will make that goodness and righteousness to appear." Q. — "If this be not before their death, how can it be done? " A. — " I can think of no other way, but by supposing man to have some existence after this life." Q- — "Are you not convinced, then, that there must be a state of reward and punishment after death?" A. —"Ah, yes ! surely, I see now plainly, that the goodness and right- eousness of God, as governor of the world, necessarily require it." The following example may show that it cannot but please a child to be taught in the way indicated : — A boy, ten years of age, once applied to me, say- ing, " I was told the earth was round as a ball. 164 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. I think I ought to believe it, for it was our teacher who told us ; but she said she was goiDg to prove it after we had tried to find proofs ourselves. Now, how am I going to find them? Will you help me?" The following conversation ensued : — Question. — "What form will the shadow of this book have if I hold it between the light and the wall ? " Answer. — " It will be a four-sided [rectangular he meant] shadow." Q. — "What form will the shadow of this pencil have?" A. — " Something like a thick, straight line." * Q. — " What form does the shadow of any object take? " A. — " Why, the same form that the object has." The reader will please notice that here was a fine opportu- nity to get off the track. If I had stopped to correct this statement, and had gone into the domain of an artist, I should not have reached my purpose. So, of course, I left the state- ment intact, and went on : — Q. — "Is the earth a body that could throw a shadow?" A. — " Yes; and a mighty big one it would be, I should think." Q. — " Have we ever an opportunity to observe its shadow? " A. — No, there isn't any wall." Q. — " Well, there is no wall on which the shadow could fall, but are there no objects in the sky that might be put into the shade if the earth should chance to get between them and the sun?" A. (after some reflection). — "Yes, I remember having heard that the eclipse of the moon is caused by the shadow of the earth." Q. — "What form had the earth's shadow on the moon?" A. — "I remember having seen it twice: the shadow was round [circular he meant] both times. Is it always so ? " Q. — " Yes, whenever it appears, it exhibits either a part of a circular round or a perfect circle. But tell me what bodies THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 165 always throw a circular shadow." A. — "Balls or spheres do that. Oh, now I see, yes ! the earth must be round like a ball : it must be a sphere." Q. — " But suppose that you take a plate : would not that too, if held in a certain position, throw a circular shadow?" A. — " Yes, that's so." Q. — " Would it always do that, no matter how you held it between the light and the wall ? " A. — "No, if you held it a little sideways, it would throw an oval shadow ; and if you held it so that the light struck the edge only, the shadow would narrow down to the shadow of a pencil." Q. — "Does our earth ever throw another shadow than a circular one ? " A. — " No : as often as I saw it, and as others observed it, the shadow was always circular." Q. — "What, then, do you learn from this fact?" A. — " Since the shadow of the earth upon the moon is always circular, and only balls or spheres can throw a circular shadow always, I see in that a proof that our earth is a sphere." I then went on and questioned the boy with regard to the fact that the earth has hardly ever the same position between the two heavenly bodies, sun and moon, and that, therefore, we could positively assert that the form of the earth could be nothing but a sphere. HOW THE MIND GROWS. It is a well-understood and convenient phrase to say the mind grows in concentric circles. The horizon of the child grows more extended as it gathers knowledge and experience, just as its horizon of vision grows more extended in proportion to the growth of the body. The baby's horizon consists of the four walls of the 166 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. nursery. The young child's horizon is bounded by the garden wall or the neighboring street. That of the child in the primary school is apt to be bounded by the limits of the town or city ; it is only in rare cases that the geographical horizon of a child extends beyond the Fig. 1. native city or town by the aid of imagination. The horizon of a thorough student of geography and astronomy is literally boundless. The course of study affords an illustration of this concentric growth of the mind, inasmuch as it arranges all studies concentrically. ( v See Fig. 1.) Here we notice, that what are object-lessons in the primary THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 167 grades become natural history, physiology, physics, and' chemistry in the upper and highest grades. The exer- cises of the child in number in the primary grade con- tain all the germs of the higher mathematics, and the child who measures the area of a triangle or trapezium lays a good foundation for the study of geometry or trigonometry. I need not further enumerate the stud- ies, or show how the mental horizon is widened in ever larger and larger circles. The foregoing illustration explains the matter fully. In justice to myself I will say that the arrangement of the branches of study given in this cut is not to be regarded as final, or even a correct copy of what may be found in the different courses of study. The latter vary in many instances. It is my object to merely show the principle underlying the course of study ; namely, every well-arranged course of study presup- poses mental growth in concentric circles. The yearly rings ma}' differ in width also. And after the reader has contemplated the illustra- tion sufficiently to see what it signifies, let him cast a glance at Fig. 2. This is to represent how erratically Nature executes the wonderful plans of the course of study. See how she causes protuberances and indentations. Notice how the child, in one year, rushes forward in one branch, and seems to make no headway in others. This cut is not to be interpreted as representing the results of Nature's work in every case. It is merely a fair sample of Nature's work as it is when it leaves the 168 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. hands of the teacher after a twelve-years' course of school education. The harmonious development of all the inborn faculties of mind, heart, and bod} 7 , is a beautiful and touching phrase ; but, I am sorry to say, nothing but a phrase. Fig. 2.— "A" Possible Result. Nature offers many examples of similar procedure. Look at the annual rings of a tree. The first few rings around the heart are almost mathematically correct ; but, as the tree grows thicker, protuberances and inden- tations are seen, often resulting from very insignificant causes. The bite of an insect, the bending of the trunk before the storm, a slight abrasure, and similar causes, may lead to an irregular growth. - THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 169 Similar trifling causes may warp the mental course of a child, and make it irregular. The love or the hatred of a teacher may give rise to an enthusiasm or an indifference in the pursuit of a certain branch of study, and at once we will see either great progress or retrogression in the branches he or she teaches. A few mild words of approbation or commendation ma} 7 prove a strong impetus, while a severe punishment or super- fluous praise may cause the contrary. Lucky or un- lucky unforeseen circumstances may influence the even and harmonious concentric growth of the child, and a very considerable bump or a hollow may be the result. We are much more children of chance than we are willing to admit. From the illustrations it may also be seen that some branches of study stand in intimate relation to each other. It is common practice to divide the different branches into linguistic (such as pertain to language), mathematical (which, in the earliest stages of school- life are purely arithmetical), scientific branches (which in the earlier stages are object-lessons) , and accomplish- ments (such as writing, reading, drawing, singing, etc.). A REVIEW LESSON IN PSYCHOLOGY. Our training class had a review lesson one day, of which I will give a summary, and will term it " The First Eighteen Years of Life." The diagram (Fig. 3) may serve as an illustration of the summary given. Intellectual life widens its horizon with every succeeding year. This is indicated by the diverging 170 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. lines. The parallel bars signify the years. The double lines in the diagram, which mark the boundaries between the different grades of school, are not indica- tive of any real marked difference in treatment of either subject or object of instruction, pupil, or matter of instruction, but are given to point out a difference which is one only in name. Eighteenth. \ _7) High Seventeenth. \ /( School Sixteenth. \ if or Fiftp.p.nth. \ / College. Fourteenth. \ '*• // Thirteenth. \ /( Grammar Twelfth \ if School. // Tent!) , \ ; ' /J Ninth. \ 1 J Primary Eighth. \ If School. Seventh. \ // Sixth. \ 1 1) Fifth. \ ill Fourth. \ J J [ Early Childhood Third. \ Second. \ m aadlnfanoy - First year of life. \ V Fig. 3. The first period of life is that of infancy and early childhood. The next four years are those of the primary school ; the next four, those of the intermedi- ate, often called grammar school ; and the last four, of the high school or college. The dotted line, begin- ning in the first year, and running up in a curve, is to indicate a division between receptive and creative activity. THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 171 Thus we find, that in the earliest period of life the mind is receptive to a greater degree, comparatively, than in any other period. It is the age of sensation. Sensations are caused by the outside world, formed into percepts, and these latter into concepts. Per- cepts and concepts are stored up, and thus memory is created ; but few, if any, clear ideas are formed. A recent writer terms the two kinds of activity of the mind, sense-action and thought-action. Well, very little thought-action occurs in this period ; but from the moment that the child enters school, the age of observation begins. The child's senses are trained, and it observes objects systematically, — their color, form, number, size, etc. The mental activity here is both receptive and creative, though not in equal pro- portion. The child learns to analyze and synthesize. All teaching in this period is done by means of objects or illustrations. The next following period is the age of abstraction, in which receptive and creative activity of the mind arc about equally divided. Symbols take the place of objects in teaching. The last stage of school life may be termed the age of reflection and generalization. Research in every direction is indulged in, and self-activity is stimulated. Comparatively few new things are learned in this period of life. Cognitions previously acquired are verified ; knowledge is systematically arranged ; gen- eralization and definition follow up the results of research and individual work. And if the student 172 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. enters a university, he goes even deeper into the mysteries of knowledge ; but it is not necessary to follow him there. The space on the left side of the dotted line, in the cut, is to indicate the amount of receptive activity engaged in during these years ; the space on the right, the amount of reflective or creative activity. It is not to be taken for granted that the life of every child that passes through our schools resembles this sketch. No two, on the contrary, are alike. The diagram is merely to show, in rough outlines, the principle underlying the manner of teaching in the dif- ferent grades. This being a brief summary, it is not necessary to apologize for its sketchiness. SEE, DO, AND THEN TELL. My friend Principal C, of Cincinnati, and I, met one day in the train on the way home ; and since we always "talk shop" when we meet, we were soon deep in a professional conversation which was highly interesting to me. Principal C. is not given to cant and small-talk ; his conversation is invariably freighted with profound thought, and amusing as well as instructive bits of experience of school-life. Said he on this occasion, "After reading all this interminable talk (pardon this incongruity) about methods, that now fills, if not the air, at least the spacious columns of our numerous professional jour- nals, I ask myself with wonder and astonishment, Is there any thing else in that, or any thing better, than THE AET OF QUESTIONING. 173 is my mode of procedure, which culminates in this short, pithy, but withal comprehensive, rule : ' First see, theu do, and then tell about it ' ? Boil down all that the advocates of modern teaching say about methods, and it will amount to nothing more than this: See, do, and tell." "Yes, friend C," said I, "undoubtedly you are right. Your rule is the gist and essence of many a sermon on the new education. As you and I, and unquestionably man}* others, understand it, it is a condensed code, comprehensive enough, and sensible enough, to satisfy any one who has caught the idea, that education is not a result, but an action, the result of which is culture ; any one who knows that the human being is not outside but within nature, and therefore subject to the laws of natural growth. But, sir, are you aware that the laconic garment of your rule is the source of great danger? See how easily it is misconstrued." " How so, friend K. ? how can it be misconstrued? I'll grant that it may be misunderstood, but I doubt that it will be purposely misconstrued." -* Well, I have a certain ichthyosaurus of a school- master in my mind (for whom you need not search very far), who would reply at once, if you pronounced your rule to him : ' That's exactly what I am doing. First, I make my pupil see the text in the book, that is, read it ; then I make him do, by learning it verba- tim et literatim; and lastly I make him tell, that is, recite it.' See, honey? " 174 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. " I declare, you are a veritable advocatus diaboll, brother K." " I tell you, friend C, you may pronounce a new law of pedagogy, or formulate an old forgotten or disregarded law anew, one which is purposely trodden under foot for the better convenience of ♦school- keepers, and the ichthyosauri and plesiosauri of our profession will prove to you, with an alacrity worthy of a better purpose, that it is ' exactly what they are doing.' They will denounce you as an impostor, be- cause what you propose is ' nothing new.' ' "Come now," said C, '-'I grant my pithy rule is not quite without its weak points. But I trust you do not interpret it wrongly. Let me hear how you would make this ' see, do, and then tell,' palatable to your teachers." " My interpretation, briefly stated, would be this : — "I. See. — All instruction in the common school should begin objectively ; it should first appeal to the senses, and not to the eye only. To use a homely illustration: We do not fully know an apple, until we have not only seen, but tasted, felt, smelled, and even heard it (fall or roll on the floor) . Every branch of study has a substratum of sense-percepts, from which will result those necessary primary concepts and ideas which, in turn-, will form the solid founda- tion of sound judgment or reasoning. As the mighty Pike's Peak is formed by the aid of imagination out of a modest elevation near home, viewed by the child thousands of miles away from the peak, so, out of the THE ART OF QUESTIONING. 175 simple ordinances and enactments of a city council, the child will construe the law-making activity of the United States Congress. All the knowledge offered to the child is elementary. The very name of the schools indicates as much : they are elementary schools. The school of life will widen the child's knowledge ; experience will build, upon the foundation laid in youth, a superstructure which will tower up as high as the foundation will permit. Make the first impres- sions deep, very deep, and they will be lasting ones. The text-book plesiosaurus is like unto the mau who intends to make an impression in a wax cake, and who softly strikes it with a peacock-feather. He does not succeed with the first stroke ; but patiently he repeats the stroke ten thousand times, and at last makes an impression visible to the naked eye. A sensible man applies a sledge-hammer, and lo ! with one stroke he makes a deep impression. A direct appeal to the senses will make a deep impression. Therefore real objects brought into the schoolroom are more serviceable than illustrations ; where their presence in school is out of the question, we may take the pupils out to them. Where all that is im- practicable, illustrations or other imitative representa- tions will serve better than mere verbal explanations or definitions. Give the pupils opportunities for seeing, that is, perceiving, observing, investigating, handling ; let them not be satisfied with mere hear-say evidence as found in books, — and oh the wonderful impetus the child-mind receives ! 176 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. "II. Do. — Perception leads over to concepts and ideas. The memory, being the receptacle in which the mind collects these concepts and ideas, offers material to the mind's creative power, imagination. Elementary or primary ideas gained by actual use of the senses are like seeds which grow and incite to action. A child who has seen that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles, by applying the angles of a pasteboard triangle to a straight line, is not likely to rest content after that. The demonstration has something so overpowering about it, that the pupil will try and demonstrate other geometrical problems in a similar way. The result of this keen observation will make him do, act, work. Vivid seeing is the root of knowledge ; action, its increase and application. By doing such an example as | of f [I mean, showing it by means of an illustration like the one in the mar- gin], the child will gain knowledge of fractions, such as is not gained by mere 'figuring.' A pupil who thus learns is not a passive receptacle of book-wisdom. His knowledge is experience ; he is a conqueror, and proud of his possessions. Certainly, the seeing alone will not create knowledge, nor will the doing alone do it; but both together will work miracles. And this leads me to the "III. Tell. — When a child gains knowledge by keen observation and by skilful application, he is bound to "o 1 1 CO 1 1 ! ! ! 1 I TI1E ART OF QUESTIONING. 177 tell all about it. Like Pallas from the head of Jupiter, so a thought formed in the mind wrestles for expres- sion. It is bound to be formulated. The proverb has it, ' Of what the heart is full, the lips will speak : ' and you may as well substitute ' mind ' for ' heart ; ' the proverb will hold good. However imperfect the child's language may be at first in the attempts at giving expressions to indigenous thoughts, the language im- proves wonderfully. The mere repetition of something committed to memory from the printed page makes only thoughtless prattlers ; the more thoughtless, the more pretentious the words are that are committed." " I like your explanation," said friend C. ; tc and it proves very forcibly how necessary is the vast amount of explanation and interpretation in the educational press. These journals are doing a noble work. We are onty just beginning to learn the art of teaching. Let us thank our stars that we are permitted to live to see it done." A PROOF POSITIVE. While doing institute work some time ago, I gave a lesson in psychology, showing that the assimilation of thought progressed more favorably if new ideas were linked to previous cognitions, that is, cognitions previously acquired ; that there was close affinity between certain items of knowledge and the memory, while the latter showed a decided hostility to others, which, in fine, it rejected as the stomach does cherry- stones. Naturally, I spoke less graphically than this, 178 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. elaborated upon ray theme in philosophic terms, and noticed painfully that my words had little, if any, effect; they certainly did not strike fire. I found no response in the eyes of my audience, some of whom seemed slightly bored. I paused, laid clown my note-book, and cast about for a remedy. And then I had an inspiration which I quickly resolved to act upon. I dropped my subject 44 like a hot poker," as the funny fellow has it, and requested the audience to propose a few conundrums to me. Some moments passed in hesitation, and then, being urged a little by others, a young, sprightly teacher asked with a mischievous smile, u Why is a young lady like a door-knob? " I knew the answer ; namely, u Because she is something to adore." This caused a ripple of laughter. I placed this question on the board. Another of my hearers, a rather wealthy old lady, owner of several houses, who had been induced to be present at this afternoon's lecture, proposed this : "What intimate relations exist between a tenant and his landlord ? " — " Parental relations. ' ' A venerable gentleman proposed this : ' ' Why is a bald head like heaven?" — tC Because there is no dyeing nor parting- there." Here T closed the list, and now showed that it was a handsome young man who remembered most readily a conundrum about a young lady ; the landlady" s memory was least sluggish in things which related to her •" pay- rental " relations; while the old gentleman TUE ART OF QUESTIONING. 179 quickly recalled a conundrum which reflected upon his billiard-ball skull. Are not these three facts illustra- tive of the psychological maxim I had stated, and which I then repeated? (See beginning of this arti- cle.) My audience laughed heartily : they understood now what I had aimed at. When I took up my theme I was listened to with undivided attention, and the sparks of comprehension visible in every eye were proofs positive of working minds which followed my train of thought. My lesson was a success that clay. CHAPTER VI. AKITHMETIO. CHAPTER VI. AEITHMETIO. HOW TO TEACH FRACTIONS. I start with the presumption, that the human mind grows in concentric circles, which, I admit, is nothing but a presumption ; for Dame Nature is much too erratic to permit a mathematically 'cor- rect expansion in every direction. Now, I claim an average of ninety degrees for n u ru- bers, alias arithme- tic (this consider- able portion of the child's horizon is claimed for argu- ment's sake only: it varies with different children). And, within this one-fourth of the mental horizon, I claim at least ten degrees for calculations involving fractional numbers. (See cut.) From this rather artificial exemplification we see that almost if not every part of arithmetic can, and ought to be, taught in the lowest grade of school. 183 184 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. We find that most young children know one-half and one-quarter. And this knowledge has been gained empirically ; for instance, when mothers cut the pie at dinner. Where there are several children in a family, the younger ones learn the fundamental facts of frac- tions from the older children. This knowledge is not scientific, the child could not define the term " fraction " as yet ; but it is clear enough for our purposes, which aim at a harmonious growth in every direction. In the second year we introduce a few more frac- tions, such as i, -J, J. In the third year we use actual weights and measures, allow the pupil to handle them, and to " play store." These measures give us oppor- tunities of introducing such fractions as f , f , §, f , etc., and we are not slow in making use of them. And so we go on widening the scope in the succeeding circles. The regular instruction in the fundamental rules of fractions properly begins in the fifth year of school, while in most schools it does not begin till the sixth year (C grammar) . In the grades in which fractions are taught, illustra- tions of various kinds should be applied. I know of no better means than colored paper cut in squares of about four inches. It costs but a trifle, if the paper is bought by the quantity and cut into shape by any book- binder or printer. For our purposes the squares would be greatly improved if certain lines dividing them into thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, etc., were mado by perforating the paper. Thus the process of folding could be done much more rapidly and accurately. ARITHMETIC. 185 (a) REDUCTION. Reducing to higher and lower terms is done thus : — This illustration is so convincing that it speaks for itself. Any child will see the ct true inwardness " and the mode of procedure in reduction of fractions, except one who cannot see through a barn-door even when it is wide open. (6) ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION. Adding and subtracting, and the necessary finding of a common denominator, is done in the good old- fashioned way, supplemented by such illustrations as the following : — 1. Example : Add § and f . y ■ -*; _i_5_9_1 l + 6— "B"— Ll 2- 2. Example : Subtract § from f . . ■'iiyi?M "f — "6"' 186 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. It is obvious, that I can show here only the bare outlines of nry mode of procedure ; but I covet an opportunity to show it as extensively as I do it in the schoolroom. (c) MULTIPLICATION. Here we have the following cases : — 3. Example: 3x|= what? 3xl = i, or2£. This answer can be made very obvious by taking two of the three fourths of the third sheet, and completing the first two squares ; one fourth will be left over. 4. Example: 3x2f. This explains itself, being a repetition of 3 x |, plus 3x2. 5. Example : f of 2 is also easily illustrated, namely, thus : Fold the -two sheets in halves, which gives four fourths of two, and take three of them. Or, fold each whole into four equal parts, which gives eight fourths ; then take three fourths of the first sheet, and three fourths of the second. Both give the same result. 6. Example : f of f is still easier, as it requires but one leaf. First fold it as it is seen in a, then as it is seen in b. 1 1 |x ! ■ ! Solution : XI- 12 2 _6_— 3. 10 — 5^ ARITHMETIC. 187 7. Example : £ of 2f is plainly seen in the follow- ing figure. Take three whole sheets, cut off one fourth of the third. The arrow across the 2£ indicates f of 2§. Solution : ~ Y 3 N/ 93 4 A - 4 3 v 11 4 A 4 13. — 9 JL 16 16 8. Example : X 92 is a mere repetition of exer cises similar to the preceding one, except that it takes more whole sheets to illustrate it. Solution: 3fx2|=JL 5 xf=- 1 I 2 ] o == 10. (C?) DIVISION. All examples in division of fractions can be illus- trated by means of our paper squares. Take these cases : — (1) J-f-2; (2) |-2; (3) *+J ; (4) 2+j ; (5) 1\ +j: (6)2^1; (7)i+f 9. Example: J-^2 = ^. It is easily seen, that it is the same as taking \ of J. 10. Example: j-5-2 = §. What is done with one-fourth in example 9, is now done with three-fourths. 11. Example: 2-j-J=8. It means how many times is J contained in 2 whole ones? Ans. 8 times. ; : tz 12. Example: 2-r-J = 2f. It means how many times are § contained in 2 ? Solution : 2 0* §-*-f, or 8-s-3=2§. 188 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. 13 E xampl e : -J-J 91 _i_ 1 10. It means how many times is J contained in 2|, or |, or *£-? Ans. 10 times. 14. Example: 2|— r-f. It means how many times are f of 1 con- jj tained in times. 2£, I, or -¥? Ans. 3 J 15. Example : f -j-f . This means how many times is § of a whole contained in f of a whole ? (It does n ot mean -| of f . ) Solve it thus. Divide each strip, that is, each fourth, into five equal parts, and each fifth of the square into four equal parts ; this gives us J J and -JJ. Now it is readily seen, that § is con- tained in f as many times as 12 is contained in 15, namely, 1J times. Solution : I — if— li- The example f of f would be a different thing, as is seen from this illustration. Solution : 3__9_ 5 — 20* The following illustration serves to make the last problem still clearer. Here we have three strips across, or f of a whole ; then we have 3 vertical strips, or f . The arrows in the third square crossing each other indicate | of | = -2 9 o* ABITHMETIC. 189 The reader will please consider, that all the intrica- cies of division in fractions cannot be treated in a short article like this. What I offer are only the elements. Pupils who thus base their knowledge on a firm foundation of sense perception, and who are accus- tomed to solve problems in reality, not merely in figures, obtain a clear insight into fractional numbers, and never find difficulty in using fractions. My pupils do not "learn " — that is, commit — any rules first, and operate according to them afterward, but learn to do examples first. With them, rules are the results ob- tained from practice, by "seeing, doing, and then telling about it." HOW TO TEACH PERCENTAGE. In my article on fractions, I stated that the child's mental horizon grows in concentric circles, and that every department of knowledge and science can be, and virtually is, taught in the earliest childhood. Only, we must well understand that in this the child's action is a purely unconscious action : as, for in- stance, the child who learns the ideas one-half and one-fourth empirically, by seeing a pie cut ; the child who learns familiar measures, as pint, quart, pound, ounce, yard, empirically, by using them at home, and when sent to the grocery on an errand ; the child who learns a little later that one-half is equal to five- tenths ; the child who learns that he pays six cents for the loan of one dollar, and similar things, — lays the foundation of all the departments of higher 190 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. arithmetic quite early, without learning rules such as text-books prescribe. The axiom, that new cognitions should be linked to those previously gained, should be borne in mind when attempting to teach percentage. Decimal frac- tions are taught by comparing them with vulgar or common fractions ; and the main point to be impressed is, that the denominators of vulgar fractions may be different, while that of decimal fractions is only ten, or a multiple of ten. The same relation which is found between decimals and common fractions exists between expressions couched in the term " per cents." and others such as, "One is to five as twenty is to one hundred," one being one-fifth of five, and twenty one-fifth of one hundred. In American schools all over the land, even where a more rational idea of grading pupils and their work has found an abiding place, the mode of marking on the scale of one hundred is not entirely gone out of vogue. While I denounce and condemn this mode unequivocal^, I would prudently make use of the knowledge which the mode conveys. Despite Super- intendent Marble's onslaught upon the maxim, " From the known to the unknown," I hold that it is better to build upon what the pupils know. They know that when they miss two words out of ten, their work must be marked eighty. They know that when they miss one out of twenty-five, they miss one twenty- fifth, or four-hundredths, and therefore their work is marked ninety-six. A RITIIMETIC. 191 The expression " per centum," of or from one hun- dred, is translated and explained. It is well to intro- duce the formal study of percentage with numerous questions in mental arithmetic : such as, — 1. Example: If you lose one out of five copper cents, what part of your money do you lose ? Answer, one-fifth. Express it on the scale of one hundred, or how many hundredths is that? Answer, twenty. In order to make this still clearer, I would draw a line, divide it in five equal parts, and shade one part. Then I would divide the same line in a hundred equal parts, thus showing them that one-fifth is equal to twenty hundredths or twenty per cent, and that twenty per cent is virtually the fraction one-fifth, expressed in higher terms. 2. Example : One-quarter of a pie is what per cent of the pie? Draw a circle representing the pie, divide it into four equal parts. (Make the pie large enough on the board.) Then divide each fourth into twenty-five equal parts, or the whole pie into one hundred, therein 7 showing that one-fourth is equal to twenty-five hundredths, or twenty-five per cent. 3. Example : Ask, if fifteen of sixty sheep are bitten by a vicious dog, and killed, what part of the 192 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. flock is killed? Clearly, one-fourth. Now, what is one-fourth of one hundred? Answer, twenty-five. Then the farmer lost twent\-five out of one hundred, or twenty-five per cent. 4. Example : If T buy a watch at eighty dollars, and sell it for one hundred, what per cent do I gain? I clearly gain one-fourth of what I paid for it, but one- fourth of one hundred is twenty-five ; therefore, I gain twenty-five of one hundred, or twenty-five per cent. These mental questions should be quite numerous. In order to facilitate this, I have resorted to the follow- ing very plain device, which speaks for itself. (The 100 circle is the standard of measurement.) ARITHMETIC. 193 I draw this figure on the board, and then ask in quick succession such questions as : — (a) What is five per cent of 240? of 140? of 120? of 80? of 20? etc. (6) Eight is five per cent of what? 10? 4? 1? 12? etc. (c) Twenty is what per cent of 200 ? 8 of 80 ? etc. There is an immense number of questions for mental drill in this device. A DEVICE, NOT A METHOD. Whether what I am going to describe in this article is an original invention, grown on home soil, or not, I do not venture to decide ; but I suspect it to be. At any rate, — honor to whom honor is due, — the Ham- ilton schools are the first in which the invention was put into operation. Here is an illustration of the device which will aid the explanation. It is called NUMERATION BOARD. oooooooooo oooooooooo The board is used in the first and second years of school. It consists of a board half an inch thick, about a foot wide, and five feet long. Grooves divide the surface of the board into four parts. The part on the right contains ten small holes, each just large enough to put a lead-pencil in. The secoud compart- 194 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. merit has ten holes, each of which is large enough to hold a bundle of ten pencils. The next compartment has ten holes, each of which is large enough to contain ten bundles of ten, or one hundred each. The fourth compartment, the last one on the left, contains only one hole, but large enough to contain ten bundles of one hundred each, or one thousand. This illustrates, better than any thing yet found, the process of numer- ation, and we use it thus : — The board, being large enough, is placed before the class, where it is easily seen by all the pupils ; and the teacher has a sufficient number of broom-corn stalks, of the thickness of a pencil, about six inches long. She calls upon a pupil to fill the ten small holes on the right. When that is done, she requires these ten to be taken out, bundled together, and fastened by a little rubber band. Then the bundle is placed in the first hole of the second compartment. This making of ten is continued until all the holes of the tens compart- ment are filled. In order to break the monotony, such exercises as : Two tens are equal to twenty, or are called twenty ; four tens, forty ; nine tens, ninety ; how many tens in eighty? in fifty? etc., may be wedged in. Then the bundles of tens are treated as the single stalks were treated; namely, made into bundles, with which the holes of the next compartment are filled ; and lastly, the hundreds are gathered up to make one large bundle of one thousand. The progress which the children make in learning to numerate is astonishing. After the figures are learned, ARITHMETIC. 195 their relative value, by virtue of position, is explained, first, by using naughts to (ill the vacant places, and slowly leading on to the fact that the naughts are not necessary to be written, and why not. I confidently believe that it would be carrying owls to Athens and soot to Pittsburgh, to go into a more minute explana- tion concerning the manner of using this board ; for every teacher of the primary grades will see at once the value and utility of this device. As to the cost of the board, and where to obtain it, I should say, "Do what we did." We applied to a carpenter, gave him the dimensions of the board and the size of the holes, by furnishing him such bundles as would have to fill the holes, telling him to make the holes just large enough to hold the single stalks and the bundles snugly. The board, being of " half -inch stuff," is very cheap. To bore the holes is mere play- work, and many a teacher who is skilful with joiners' tools can make such a board himself. The carpenter makes it for from thirty to fifty cents, according to the kind of wood he uses. It is strong, can easily be put out of the way by shoving it behind the wardrobe, and is light enough to be handled with ease. Instead of broom-corn stalks, little sticks may do, provided, of course, they are of the same thickness and length. Adding and Subtracting. — The board can also be of great use in illustrating the first steps in addition and subtraction, within the compass of one to one thou- sand. For instance : — The first case in subtraction, in which each digit of 196 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF TILE DAY the subtrahend is smaller than that of the minuend, explains itself. For instance : 534 minus 213. The second case, where the number of units or tens in the subtrahend is greater than that of the minuend, can be beautifully illustrated by loosening a bundle of the next higher order, and transferring the loosened objects to the next compartment to the right, — in short, untie a bundle of ten to make ten units. If then you have a minuend like the one in the cut (534), place under it the subtrahend 356. Now, it is evident that 6 can- not be taken from 4, and therefore you take a bundle of ten, which, together with the four loose ones, make fourteen units. From this six can be easily taken. That leaves us two bundles of ten, from which five tens cannot be taken. Again we proceed as before by untying a bundle of the next higher order, and so on ad infinitum. We are not selfish here in Hamilton, and do not propose to patent the device. We offer it for what it is worth to any one who thinks it worth trying. Let him try it, and God bless him for his enterprise and good-will to his pupils. ARITHMETIC. 197 PRICE-LIST OF COMMODITIES IN THE SCHOOLROOM. Not long ago I saw a problem on the blackboard, in which the price of a cow was called for. Several attending circumstances in the question made the latter rather involved ; and the answer to the problem proved to be, " Price of cow, six cents." That set me to thinking. Thought I, "Is it right to thus corrupt the child's conception of the eternal fitness of things?" I suggested to the teacher, to reserve a space of two feet square on her very spacious black- board, head it " Price List," and enter upon this space a few quotations of prices of commodities, such as flour, butter, eggs, pork, beef, and the like, and in- duce the pupils to consult the daily papers, in order to suggest changes occasionally. Thus, for instance, she would find butter quoted between twenty-five and thirty-five cents a pound during the winter, and twelve and a half to fifteen cents in the summer. She would find the price of flour per barrel, to vary between four dollars and a half and six dollars, as supply and demand dictated. This would be an indirect way of giving most useful information upon subjects intimately connected with the demands of after-life. It would, furthermore, establish a valuable and profitable connection between home and school. It would make teaching rational and practical. It would open the eyes of children to the value of money in general, and that of certain 198 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. commodities in particular. It would enable teacher and pupils to make original problems. And all this, without special effort and waste of time. It would, so to speak, link the school and its daily work, with life and its great tasks and demands. I was a young boy when I heard one of the greatest living teachers pronounce this truth: "Though the ship of school lies at anchor in the harbor, far away from the turmoil and strife of life, it nevertheless will be heaved and rocked by the ripples which are caused by the great waves and billows iff the open sea." Let us be practical. The problem in which a barrel of flour is said to cost five dollars can aid the pupil in acquiring arithmetical skill, just as effectually as one in which that barrel of flour is quoted at five cents, or fifteen cents, or sevent} r -five cents, or sixt}^five dollars. Lately, I took occasion to inquire into the effect of the procedure suggested, and I found it to be very beneficial. I found that one problem put on the board served as a model. The numbers were erased, and others were substituted, as the fluctuations of the market dictated. I found this practice in use, as low as the fifth school year, where the pupils had just learned the more intricate tables of denominate num- bers. I found that the}' knew the current prices of various kinds of coffee, of sugar, rice, cheese, flour, and the like. But what pleased me most was the deep interest shown by the pupils in their work ; for interest acts upon the learner, like sunshine and moisture upon the vegetable germ in the ground. ARITHMETIC. 199 PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. In every branch of study in the curriculum, knowl- ' 'edge and skill are to be aimed at, particularly in arithmetic. My idea is, that the children in the lower and lowest grades should gain their knowledge in numbers by handling objects. To the young child, six and four mean nothing, but six pencils and four pencils, balls, sticks, books, papers, etc., convey an idea. In other words, things should come before their symbols. I have, therefore, advised the fre- quent use of splints, toothpicks, lamplighters, buttons, etc., which are put into the hands of the pupils for the purpose of making arithmetical combinations and operations with actual objects. I have procured, at a broom-factory, broom-corn stalks, all cut the same size, and bundled them up in packages of ten and a hundred, in order to have some means of illustrating numeration. The teachers of the lower grades — bright, intelligent, enthusiastic young ladies— have taken up the idea, and procured large button-moulds, strung them on wires, and fastened them on the top edge of each pupil's desk. This plan works like a charm. I am prepared to assert, that, when children who are thus taught are promoted to higher grades, they will not regard arithmetic as a drudgery, but as a delightful occupation. From the concrete idea of number, they are unconsciously led to the abstract idea. And so every branch of study, even the most 200 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. abstract history, has a solid stratum of concrete knowl- edge, gained, or to be gained, by sense perception. But there is a wide difference between knowing a thing and applying it, between knowledge and skill. ' Knowledge results from experience, and after it is gained it must be made easily available by constant repetition. A child learns to comprehend the multi- plication-table by doing (handling objects) ; but the memory must be charged with the table, so that it is ever ready for use. There can be no question that a child may learn the table by dry routine-repetition ; but how much more pleasant it is so to learn it, that he knows what he is saying and doing ! All the fundamental processes in arithmetic can be illustrated either by objects, or, when the numbers become too large, by sketches drawn on the board. I must not indulge in enumerating the many ways in which this method may be carried out : space and time forbid. MISS CELESTE'S PENNIES. Miss Celeste Morrison, teacher in the Fourth Ward School, Hamilton, showed us one day how she taught arithmetic to little ones. They could make all combinations possible with numbers up to seven ; that is, add, subtract, multiply, and divide. They could tell how many twos, threes, there are in six. Now she introduced the number seven. One was added to the six, and the combinations possible within the number seven were then treated. The point ARITHMETIC. 201 brought out was, that a remainder was obtained more frequently than with any number below seven. The pupils worked with objects, — buttons strung on a wire, broom-corn stalks, marbles, pencils, and other things. But the brightest feature of the lesson was this : She took a little box, in which she had a number of one-cent pieces, two-cent pieces, nickel three-cent pieces, nickel five-cent pieces; and then followed a series of questions, the answers of which had to be performed, not only told. For instance : How many one-cent pieces will make seven? The child took seven one-cent pieces out of the box, and then said (always speaking in complete sentences), "Seven times one cent are seven cents." Question: "How many twos in seven?" The child picked up three two-cent pieces and a single cent, saying, "There are three twos in seven, and one over." Then three-cent pieces were used with which to measure seven. There being no four-cent pieces, two two-cent pieces had to serve in this case. Then a five-cent piece was applied in measuring (dividing) seven. This is but a little, insignificant device ; but to see the children busily engaged in this manner, seeing, doing, and then telling about it, is a pleasure of no mean character. Much attention is bestowed, in the primary grades of our schools, upon speaking in com- plete, well-rounded sentences ; that is, giving answers which embrace the questions. This practice will inevitably terminate in the habit of correct speech and logical speech. CHAPTER VII. LITEEATUEE AND LANGUAGE. CHAPTER VII. LITEKATUKE AND LANCHTAGE. THE POET SCHILLER. Oration delivered at the 125th birthday of Friedrich Schiller. Ladies and Gentlemen, — I was called upon to deliver the oration of the day in English, and I trust that it is unnecessary to excuse myself for speaking English in America. The founders of this beautiful edifice [Music Hall, in Hamilton, 0.,] the members of this association, call themselves " German- Ameri- cans," using the word " German " merely as an adjec- tive, and laying stress on the fact of their being Americans: they do not call themselves "American- Germans." This remark, I rest assured, is sufficient to explain the fact that the oration of the day is deliv- ered in the language of the country. Men who love the good and the beautiful, and help to further it, are worthy of our respect. . Men who are enabled by rare talents to accomplish extraordinary things, be this in the domain of art, or science, or industry, and who apply these natural gifts for the benefit of humanity, thereby becoming benefactors of their fellow-beings, — such men have a claim upon our gratitude, and we are morally obliged to show that we 205 206 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. esteem them and value their merits. Men, however, who, elevated and supported by their godlike genius, have, as it were, imprinted upon their people and their era their own signature ; have, with the omnipotence of their words, changed the time and entire realm of thought of their nation, and have given to their century a nobler idea of life and its purposes ; men who speak from out of their graves with greater eloquence than our contemporaries, — such men are not merely es- teemed, they are admired, loved, worshipped. We simply refuse to regard them dead. The birthday anniversary of such a man it is that we celebrate to-day. It is Friedrich Schiller, the favorite poet of sixty-five millions of German-speaking people. I must, for obvious reasons, refrain from narrating to you the events of Schiller's life. Any history of literature will furnish you the desired data. It is my intention to detain you a few minutes by stating the powerful influence of Schiller upon his own and following generations. So-called wiseacres, who are in the habit of looking back into the past, lamenting the fact that the good, clear, old times are gone forever, are apt to assert with a whining tone that our generation is wanting in poetic feeling and comprehension. The very fact that eighty years after Schiller's death, his dramas are acted upon this stage, four thousand miles away from his birth- place, and his poems are studied in the schools of America, proves them to be wrong. The same people poutingly turn back to the traditions of classic LITEBATUBE AND LANGUAGE. 207 antiquity, and find satisfaction in pointing out to us Schiller's frequent references to mythology* They forget that Schiller made use of classic forms merely to symbolically represent modern ideas. Modern pro- gressive thought has constantly to fight with such lovers of the dead past. We ask, What is Hercules to us? Nothing but a symbolic form for strength. What is Apollo to us ? Do we see in him the Grecian god? No, nothing but a marvellousl}' perfect and beautiful man. Representations of classic antiquity ma}* be praised for their ideal beauty, and most of them typify thoughts. They have, with us, lost their quality as subjects ; they have become attributes. We are not called upon to believe in Grecian or Roman deities. We are supremely indifferent to them. And is not belief, is not faith, is not conviction, the very essence of every man's life? Shake a person's faith and convictions, and with them falls his whole life's purpose. We have every reason to distrust men who have no convictions, but only interests. The Germans owe it among others to Schiller, that they are a nation with lofty ideals, firm convictions, intense faith, and strong belief. We modern people believe in man's eternal rights, in freedom of thought aud action, in the harmonious development of the race, in the everlasting and unshak- able laws of nature, in the moral foundation of state and society, in social equality, and pure justice. Give us, ye sculptors, the defenders of equal rights in bronze and marble. Erect monuments for the heroes who 208 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. fought for liberty of thought and action. Paint, ye artists, the statesmen who founded our modern states upon the basis of social equality and impartial justice. Exalt the men. who sacrificed themselves in wrestling with Nature till she revealed her secrets. Let us praise and exalt the thinkers who found the causal nexus between Nature's marvellous laws and man's varied actions. Sing, ye poets, of the spiritual heroes who gave to posterity ideals of beaut}' and truth. These are the saints of modern times and the living generation. To these latter-day saints we look up in dark and gloomy times. From them we derive our strength to carry on the war against the spirits of dark- ness. And when sculptors, painters, poets, and authors glorify our real heroes, Schiller's form will stand among them as one of the greatest of the great. Looking back upon Schiller and his era, I cannot refrain from mentioning a curious fact, which will tell you more than a lecture of two hours' duration. It is this : — Maj r I ask : When did Shakspeare's wonderful genius illuminate the English world of intelligence and poetry? It was when the wars between the red and white roses had terminated ; when, after the de- struction of the Spanish Armada, England had become the ruler of the sea ; when, under the gentle but firm sway of Queen Elizabeth, England had reached the summit of greatness and political development, — then it was that this marvellous poetic genius of England bloomed forth, a genius whose greatness it took the LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 209 world almost three hundred }'ears to comprehend. Again : When was it that Corneille, Moliere, and Racine, Voltaire and Rousseau, charmed the world of thought with their classic productions, with poetry and philosophy? It was when Louis XIV. and Louis XV. reigned over France ; when France was at its highest ; when the French armies had been victorious on the Continent, and France had reached the pinnacle of glory. Again : When did the classic epoch of Spanish literature occur, or that of Italy? Again the same answer comes : It alwa}s followed a period of the greatest national glory. And now we ask: When did Schiller live? During the second half of the last centuiy, when the political life of Germany was humbled into the dust, partly by foreign powers, partly by the selfish individual interests of over three hundred home-sovereigns ; when all national life seemed petrified ; when Napo- leon I. rode rough-shod over all that was dear to the Germans, and all that, had remained of their political independence. Schiller lived and composed during the miduight-hour of German history. Compare these facts, verified by eveiy — even the smallest — text-book of history, and then listen to these conclusions. While in every other nation, the poets basked in the sunshine of the political greatness and splendor of their nation, and glorified their coun- try's grand deeds, it fell to the lot of Schiller to act as a prophet in Israel : to stir up the people to deeds, to arouse the sleeping energy, to awaken anew the 210 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. crushed sense of patriotism, and spur to efforts upon all domains of activity the latent powers of the nation. This idea must be borne in mind when viewing Schiller, the prophet of the German nation. Goethe, in his funeral oration at Schiller's tomb, said, "He lived as a man, and as a mature man he departed from us. In that form in which one leaves the earth, he still lives and moves for us in the world of spirits. Achilles is, for us, still present as an ever- striving youth. That Schiller went away early, is for us also a gain. From his tomb there comes to us an impulse, strengthening us as with the breath of his own might, and awakening a most earnest longing to fulfil lovingly, and more and more, the work that he began. So, in all that he willed to do, and in all that he fulfilled, he shall live on forever, for his nation and for mankind." In this Olympic funeral oration, Goethe happily expressed the characteristic features of Schiller's influence, the very essence of Schiller, as we know him. I mean his everlasting youth, which never loses the strength to beget grand deeds. What other effect can it have, than to infuse into the young generation enthusiasm of the purest kind, when they hear his hero say, — " The land is ours, it is our own creation! By our own labor, ay, by a thousand claims, The land is ours forever ! Shall we bear it, That this the emissary of a foreign lord LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 211 Shall here insult us on our own free soil ? Is there no help for us ? Must we, then, hear it ? No ! there's a limit to the tyrant's power. When men, oppressed, can find no aid on earth To rid them of their burden, then they rise ! The people rise ; they stretch their hands to heaven, And thence fetch down their old eternal rights, There shining in the heavens, unchangeable, Imperishable as the stars themselves. Then Nature's own primeval rule returns; Man stands in battle, ready for the foe. 'Tis our last means; but when others fail, We draw the sword ! The best of all life's boons We will defend. In front of this our land, And of our wives and children, we will stand! " The poetic creations of very few select authors, possess this never-aging charm. They staud at the entrance of new epochs, and formulate with prophetic eyes the highest aims and purposes for centuries and centuries. These rare minds are the true heroes of mankind, because they are its educators. Such a hero was Schiller. One may assert without presumption, says a German authority, that never since Homer had arisen another poet who was so much of an educator of his people. To him, who had risen with such unexampled energy from the most unruly naturalism to the most ideal artistic form, I say. to him the younger generation in Germany, ever since the ap- pearance of " Wallenstein," has looked up as to a being of higher, nobler kind. Departing, he left as a valuable inheritance " Wilhelm Tell," a drama 212 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. which has proven of more than mere literary impor- tance. During the clays of doom, when Napoleon's policy was aimed at the annihilation of Germany, and seemed to be destined to be crowned with success ; at a time when a patriot like Stein could not lind a square foot of German soil to stand on ; at a time when a poet of great promise, a man of genius and heart, Heiiirich von Kleist, preferred suicide to a life of national misery and unutterable humiliation ; at a time when Germans were obliged to fight against Germans like bands of gladiators, and fertilized the soil of all the countries, from the Tajo to the Volga, with their blood, — it was at this time of oppression, miseiy, and disgrace, that the Germans found consolation in "Tell." Their patriotic feeling, their energy, their courage, their hatred of tyranny, were kindled, and henceforth asserted themselves. For a person who has eyes to see, Schiller's name is found on every page of that proud history of war, which began at the Katzbach, and terminated at Waterloo. Even to-day, Schiller's words as found in " Tell" are the catch-words in the great drama of life ; and wherever great deeds are done by Germans, you will find the secret motives happily expressed in words of Schiller. For, I repeat it, it is the power of youth, which, never dying, never loses the ability to engender deeds. Great as Schiller was in the dramatic art, he was equally great as a lyric poet. No German poet since Schiller has equalled his magnificent rhythm and rhet- LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 213 oric. The language has been made sweeter, clearer, more flexible ; it has been forced to reflect the manner of many new minds : yet in the qualities I mentioned, rhythm and rhetoric, Schiller is still the climax of performance. The tenderest strains, the most beautiful harmonious verses, ever composed in German, are Schiller's. A few metric translations may prove this : — " The minds of men, in a perpetual strife, Revolve from age to age, and find no rest; While Xature, in unfading youth and beauty, Obeys one everlasting law of duty. Upon her constant bosom, ever green, Beneath her sky of never-fading blue, Lived all the generations who have been, And still her children find her fresh and new. And the same sun, that o'er some Grecian hill Homer beheld, is shining on us still." And now, after having seen how lovingly his eye rests on mother Nature, listen to this description of the heavens. " ELYSIUM. " Gone is the wail and the torture ! Elysium's banquets of rapture Chase every shadow of woe ! Elysium seeing Endless the bliss and endless the being, As musical brooks through the meadows that flow. May is eternal, Over the vernal landscape of youth: The hours bring golden dreams in their races, The soul is expanded through infinite spaces, 214 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. ' The veil is torn from the visage of Truth. Here, never a morrow The heart' s full rapture can blight ; Even a name is wanting to sorrow, And pain is only a gentler delight." Can any thing be more beautiful than this descrip- tion of the heavens, where " even a name is wanting to sorrow, and pain is only a gentler delight " ? The real value and the immense circumference of Schiller's genius cannot be fully understood until we approach it with mature mind. The man, who, ripe in mind and judgment, returns to Schiller's works, will soon admire and love him. All his lofty words, which sound and re-echo in our ears like sweet remem- brances of youth, assume shape and form, and grow in importance. Schiller not only proposed the educa- tion of his people to idealism, but he actually began it by his poetic creations. He gave his nation, he gave to humanit}-, a loftier ideal of beauty, greatness, truth, and justice. When Goethe said with pride, "He was ours," we are justified in saying, " He still is ours." Ma} r our German-American youth study Schiller, and may the sublime ideas of this wonderful poet find their way into their imaginations and their hearts, and there create that longing for purity in thought and action, which alone will lift them to a higher level of existence. It will not make the young generation any less American than it is ; for beauty, truth, and virtue are not national, but belong to mankind and the whole world. And old men, covered with the mimic snow LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 215 of age, may they again turn to the dusty volumes of Schiller's works, and read of his prophecies and far- reaching truisms, and they will find consolation for the rest of their lives. It is not the dead that speaks to us : it is the immortal spirit of Germany's greatest poet. And as we are here assembled to commemorate the event of his birth, let us resolve to keep his mem- ory alive, and refuse to regard him dead. A PERTINENT QUESTION. AN ADDRESS. Why is it that native Americans, as well as English- men, find it so extremely difficult to acquire another language? I do not mean, learning to handle a few words or phrases, such as, " Je ne le sais pas," "Bon jour," " Ausgespielt," " Wie geht's?" or "Nix kumm 'raus," and the like, but really acquire thorough knowledge of another language, body and soul, idiom and all, and use it conveniently in rapid conversation. Why is it? Some have said, the tendency to "show and glittering results" prevents the American people from employing the necessary hard labor and study which are requisites of linguistic study. But I do not believe this ; for in other direc- tions the mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman races shows a zeal and perseverance that far out- shine those of other nations. Why is it, on the other hand, that the Russians, in fact all Slavic races, of whom we know that they 216 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT. lack the culture, refinement, and high degree of intelligence, which adorn the Germanic and Romanic races, — why is it that they, of all European nations, learn other idioms most easily, nay, with fabulous ease and accuracy? Why is it, that the Germans, second in rank, have such a prominent linguistic talent ? There have been scores of answers to this question, one even more absurd than the other. I will not repeat them. The answer I wish to give, I believe, comes nearer the truth than most others that I have heard. It was suggested to me by a gentleman who is in the enviable possession of seven languages, all of which he speaks with ease and accuracy. It is this : — Every one whose mother tongue is difficult to learn and to use, on account of its wealth of forms, that is, of different forms of inflection, and for other reasons, will necessarily acquire a linguistic training in early youth, which will enable him to grasp other idioms without great efforts. Let us briefly consider a few points: pronunciation, syntax, and inflection. Slavic languages have sounds, and combinations of sounds, that make Englishmen and native Americans fairly quiver when hearing them pronounced. If the latter be called upon to repeat a Russian, Bohemian, or Magyaric sentence, he simply calls it an outrage to his smooth and well-polished English tongue. I have particular reference to the consonants of these lauomases. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. . 217 We find it natural that people like the Russians find little difficulty in pronouncing the comparatively easy consonants of the English language, — save the slippery th, which is too much even for a Russian. On the other hand, the Russians find it difficult to pronounce the English vowels. For English is very rich in vowels. Where other laiisfuasjes have but one a, and only varying it in length, — ah, and a, — the English language has as many as seven, and so on with the remainder. How much influence this fact has upon an American in learning German, you can observe by the pronunciation of a word like " danke." By some nrysterious process, it becomes "donkey." As we know of people who are color-blind, I think there must be people who are deaf to certain sounds. Take the easy English syntax. Why, you may begin a sentence in English, and hardly know how to construct it to give full expression to your thought ; you may be sure 3011 will reach the end conveniently, without being obliged to repeat parts of it. This is chiefly due to the most excellent rule : Place the verb as near the subject as you can, — a rule of which almost the opposite is true in German. Here is an example. While in English you say, "Mrs. Hall would be pleased to see Mr. York at her residence to-morrow afternoon, if possible, immediately after services," this would have to be rendered in German construction : "Mrs. Hall would be pleased Mr. York to-morrow afternoon at her residence, if possible, after 218 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. services, to see." And this is not a very complex example. You will easily see, how much more complicated the arrangement of the members of a sentence must be in consequence of this requirement : In case a compound tense is used, the participle or infinitive must come last in the sentence. It necessitates, that the speaker must think the whole sentence over, before he begins it ; or that, if he begins it before it is completely developed in his mind, he must bear in mind the detached part of his verb, and utter it when its time comes. In Eng- lish you may well afford to begin expressing your sentence before you have fully developed it. It is like putting up a frame building : first put up your joists and scantling, then clapboards, siding, sills, etc. First put up subject and predicate, the main element of a sentence, and then attach as man}- phrases and clauses for ornament's sake as you like. This makes speaking easy, and this, too, is one rea- son why England and America have so many world- renowned orators. Now, it has been alleged, that what is said in such a convenient language could not be so profound as that which had to struggle hard to come to light. We find this to be untrue if we consider the well-known fact, that one of the few creative geniuses of the world, perhaps the greatest of all, Shakspeare, spoke no other language than his exquisite, homespun English. But the convenience the English language affords will unquestionably be the reason of its spreading over LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 219 more and more ground, and in some future time be- coming the language of the globe. For, the very qualities which the philologist of to-day may consider defects, will prove to be advantages over all other languages. If English could only be freed of its outrageous orthography, almost every thing else in English is easy ; and this very fact proves my argument to be correct. For the German, even if he be a thorough scholar, will find English spelling a stumbling-block. The English- man and native American, on the other hand, will ever find German spelling of trifling difficulty ; for the Ger- mans write, with a few insignificant exceptions, what they pronounce. German is veiy nearly a phonic language. The most important branch of German grammar, however, is not pronunciation, nor is it orthography, nor even syntax. It is etymology, or, as I will term it here, inflection. This is really the stumbling-block, not only of non-German-speaking students, but even of the Germans themselves. While there are in thou- sands of nouns in German four distinct cases, expressed by a shading of the word in each particular case, there are no cases at all in English nouns, for the posses- sive s is cunningly separated from the word by an apostrophe. You say, " the man, of the man, to the man, and the man," — it remains man, in whatever case 3'ou may use it ; while in German it is " der Mann, des Mamies, dem Mamie, den Mann, die Manner, der Manner, den Mdnnern, die Manner." 220 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Furthermore, in German not only nouns are declined, but adjectives, every imaginable kind of pronouns, articles, nay even some numerals. In English all these things are more or less omitted. Did 3'ou ever think how difficult it would be, if in English you had to vary the forms of the adjective before the noun? I could easily imagine your disgust if you had to do it. Let us try it. You have to drink colcles water, to bathe in coldem water, to admire the fresh- ness of colden ivaters, and admit that colcles water is the -best beverage. Or, suppose you were obliged, in speaking English, to decline all the pronominal adjectives. You would have to have as many forms of the possessive pro- nouns as the Germans, namely, thirty-two, where now you have eight. Or, think for a moment of the class which the chapter of gender affords the observing eye ; a chapter which is the most unruly you can think of. Thank your stars that you have nothing to compare with it ! * Or, please, imagine for a moment, you were to follow up the German conjugation to its fullest extent. Sup- pose that you would have to say, in conjugating " may," for instance, " I may, I might, I have might, I had might, I shall may, I shall have might." And now the subjunctive : " I maye, I mighte, I may have might, I might have might, I shall maye, I shall have might." This, of course, is all conjecture. Don't you think you have every reason to be thankful for not being obliged to do so? German etymology LITER A TV HE AND LANGUAGE. 221 alone is enough to frighten the adult student from studying it. Whether it is preferable to have so many different forms for one word, whether this will promote think- ing, I will leave out of consideration here. But it is a fact, that a great deal of talent, skill, study, and exercise is needed to master all these many difficulties. The child whose mother-tongue is so difficult, as I have stated, trains its mental faculties, or- rather, its linguis- tic faculties, by trying to master these difficulties. I am inclined to think that this struggling with the language is helping the mind in its development won- derfully. But this assistance is denied the English- speaking child. It grows up, stringing its words together like beads, or rather, building its sentences of unhewn stones, which (queer enough) alwa}^ fit ; while the German-speaking child Is obliged to hew and fit the blocks before using them. It is unquestionable, that linguistic talent is not developed where it is not exercised. We need not go to Darwin to hear that a talent, once strongly expressed in a minority of the race, seems to grow, till in the course of several centuries it becomes at last a striking feature of the nation. Nay, in our own families we can remember incidents that bear witness to the truth of this natural law. In short, whoever has a difficult, finely organized mother- tongue, and has been successful in mastering it (I mean to say this in Italics : who has been success- ful in mastering it), will find, it costs him almost no 222 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. effort to learn auother idiom, and even two or three ; and wherever the mother-tongue flatly denies early linguistic training, there the learning of another idiom is (especially in later years) a task beyond the strength of the one who undertakes to perform it. Do you know of a grown person who learned a second lan- guage after his twenty-fifth year of age? He may have learned a little of it, but he certainly did not master it. It is not my intention to anno}' the reader with many conclusions that may be drawn from these statements, — only one. If children of English-speaking parents (I do not say American parents, for that term covers many more) are to study German, let them begin when young. I might stop here, but it occurred to me, you might probably ask, If the Germans are really so much of a linguistic people, why is it that so many Germans in this country will, for instance, ask you to take a seat on the fire ; or tell you it is five minutes behind twelve o'clock; or assert that one thing is quite "extinct" from another ; or pronounce the smooth and beautiful sound th as harsh as a tt ? There are two answers to this query: (1) They began too late, after the organs of speech had lost their pliability, after the mind had developed so many other talents, that the linguistic germ had been stifled ; after their memory had grown strong in retaining other matters, and had become unfit for retaining linguistic matter. (2) They are not successful in learning Eng- LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 223 lish, because they never mastered their own (German) language. I have tried to demonstrate how enormous the number of difficulties is, that are to be surmounted. They come with no other instruction than that which a village or country school can afford them, and besides speak their simple and uninflected dialect, instead of' the finely organized High German of the educated classes of society. The German who never mastered his own language fully, of course, must be left out of consideration. GERMAN IN THE SCHOOLS. In many places in the West, German is taught in the lower schools. Being called upon to express my opinion on the question why that should be done, I answered as follows : — I cannot refrain from alluding to an objection which is often raised to the introduction of German in the public schools. It is said, that this is America ; that the national language is the English language, and that it should be the language of the whole people ; that the duty of the German people is to learn the English language, etc. These assertions are not men- tioned here that they may be controverted. No one thinks of denying them. Still we cannot say of the people of America as yet, that it is a homogeneous nation. One of the greatest American writers says, " The American composite character betrays its mixed origin ; every thing American is a fusion of distant and antagonistic elements. The language is mixed ; 224 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. the currents of thought are as cosmopolitic as are the elements of its people." However, that .need not concern us. We grant that the English language should be, if it is not as yet, the national language. But because it is the social and political duty that immigrants should learn this lan- guage as soon as possible after their arrival on the ■shores of America, because it should be taught to the children as the language of their country, seems to be no reason why the attention of our schools should be confined exclusively to it. There is an education, development of mind, and discipline of the intellect, in the study of a foreign language, which we ought to covet for our children, if it can be had by any justifiable means. "Among the modem languages," says Dr. Rickoff, "there is no other one that can be studied with so great a profit by the English-speaking child. German would be chosen by the philologist as shedding most light on the formation, force, and use of our own, the English. It would be chosen by the scientist as con- taining the richest treasures accumulated by the study and research of man. Furthermore, it is immediately available in the business intercourse of large masses of people, in the social intercourse of the German people among themselves, and between German par- ents and their children. Finally, inasmuch as the German people are to be found at the great centres of population in vast numbers, and inasmuch as then- number is destined to increase infinitely, and inas- LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 225 much as their children will learn the language of their mothers besides the English, we have but to perfect their knowledge of German in the public schools, to keep open a broad and deep channel through which the literature, the science, the art, of a people who know no superiors in an} 7 line of intellectual develop- ment, mechanical skill, or aesthetic culture, may be turned to account for the benefit of our national pros- perity and culture." Now, we well know that in the crucible it is invari- ably the precious metal which takes longest to dissolve. "VVe find on the lists of criminals, and other scum of society, a number of German names. If we inquire into these cases, we find, as I did in the police-courts and jails of Cincinnati and Cleveland, that such per- sons are the children of German parents who gave up their language, regarding it rather as an obstacle, and neglecting to teach it to their children. They have proven base metal in the composition. These parents, who could barely make themselves understood in Eng- lish, threw away a priceless treasure, were ridiculed by their worthless children for the poor English they spoke, hence lost hold upon their children's budding- characters, and soon found their control gone. And, on the other hand, look upon the astonishing prosper- ity of German families in which the German language is kept alive like a holy fire ; see what well-behaved children they raise, and notice the unmistakable influ- ence of the mother-tongue as an educational factor. If for no other reason, German should be temporarily 226 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. kept up for that alone. The English language does not suffer under it. The children breathe it with the air ; moreover, the study of the German assists the children in acquiring a thorough knowledge of the English. Of course there will be a time when German immi- gration ceases, and the present generation vanishes ; and then German may be found unnecessary as a medium of culture and education. There can be no doubt, that, in the " battle for existence " between the two languages, English will survive as the "fittest," being the easier of the two. But, however strong or weak other arguments may be in favor of German in the public schools, there is one which should put the question definitely at rest. It is, that, by the introduction of German into the public schools, the children of German parentage are drawn into them, and they learn to speak the English language correctly and purely ; and, growing up with the children of English-speaking parentage, they be- come one with them in patriotic devotion to American institutions. This is an argument which I wish to emphasize particularly. Private schools of all descrip- tions, in which the English language, and American history, and patriotism naturally take back seats, would flourish if we had not wisely drawn the German school population into our public schools, — "the crucible within which all nationalities are fused into one homo- geneous nationality, — the American." German in the public schools does not tend so much to Germanize America as it does to Americanize the Germans. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 227 Having clearly stated what the object is, it is an easy matter to answer the query, to what extent the German language should be taught. There should be no sham of any kind in the schools. Whatever is done in school should be done well or not at all. We should teach German as thoroughly and completely as any other branch of study. But our schools are, and needs must be, " elementary schools." The very name of our schools gives an indication of what is done in them. We do not try to make our pupils master any branch of study ; that would be a presumption : but we intend to thoroughly acquaint them with the ele- ments and rudiments, and to train them in the ready application of these elements. One more point, and then I will close. Figures show that the pupils studying German are not only not retarded in their English studies, but that a larger proportion pass the examination for promotion than of those who study English only. These statistics were compiled by non-German gentlemen, supervisors and superintendents of schools in Ohio and other W r estern States, and will be furnished if desired. The subject of "German in the public schools" has an interesting feature if viewed from a business stand- point. If German were abandoned to-day below the high school, we should not save a dollar to the com- munity, because our so-called German-English teachers are not supernumerarii, but regular class-teachers, who devote, at an average, no more than one-third of their time to German in each class. The remaining two- 228 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. thirds are given to the English studies. Now, if Ger- man below the high school costs nothing in money, and only about forty-five to sixty or ninety minutes a day in time, there seems to be no reason for objec- tion whatever. THE VALUE OF GRAMMAR. It is perhaps well to worry our pupils as little with grammar as possible, and, instead, give them more instruction in language. It is my idea, and I am happy to say not mine alone, that a child should first learn to think in a language, before it is obliged to think about the language, that is, about its construc- tion. But dispensing with grammar altogether is pouring out the child together with the bath. For grammar' is the logic of the elementary school; that is to say, what logic is to the higher and highest schools, that grammar is to our elementary schools. It offers opportunity for defining, classifying, and distinguishing, which will train the child in correct thought. To make a correct statement, is by no means so easy a thing to the average man or woman as seems desirable ; and a little grammar will assist in learning to do that. But I mean a little, a very little grammar, will suffice. Grammarians are apt to enhance the importance of this branch of study by claiming that the leading object of the stud}' of English grammar is to teach the correct use of the English language. This is wrong. Prof. Whitney of Yale College, the greatest linguist of America to-day, pronounces it " an LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 229 error, one which is gradually becoming removed, giv- ing way to the sounder opinion that grammar is the reflective study of language, for a variety of purposes, of which correctness in writing is only one and a sec- ondary, or subordinate one, by no means unimportant, but best attained when sought indirectly. One must be a somewhat reflective user of language, to amend even here and there a point by grammatical reasons ; and no one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good one by applying the rules of grammar to what he said." And Herbert Spencer remarks, ''There can be little question that good composition is far less dependent upon its laws than upon practice." POLYGLOT ENGLISH. . The polyglot nature of the English language makes it very difficult for the pupils of this country to learn the language as it ought to be understood after eight or twelve years of study. The want of consistency in the language is perfectly appalling ; and many, many words, polysyllabic in the bargain, stand like great, erratic blocks, literally without organic foundation such as a root. It is well known to the psychologist, that new cognitions are readily learned and willingly retained if linked to previous cognitions. How a child is to link the word conflagration with fire, however, is very difficult to conceive ; while in German it is Feuer and Feuersbrunst. Prohibition, hypocritical, convales- cence, magnanimity, metaphysical, incomprehensibility, and scores of other words, offer the same difficulty. 230 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. Some words like intimidation are more easily learned and understood. This word " intimidation " is traced back to intimidate, first, and that again is traced back to timid. There the child has a root to go to, a fountain-head, so to speak. But how few are the words of Latin, Greek, and French origin, that can thus be traced back ! How many, many applications are necessary before the child can comprehend the word humanity or humanitarianism ! If the word had consistently grown out from the Anglo-Saxon words man and friend, and had been built up somewhat in this shape, " men-friendliness " (the very translation of humanity) , even very young children could understand it instantly. This jumping from one compartment of the language to another retards the progress the child makes, or ought to make ; because the compartments are connected by no apertures, except such through which learned linguists can creep, who will trace back Latin, French, German, and English, to Sanscrit and more ancient Aryan languages. The child learns the word dog, and has a very clear idea as to its meaning. However, if it is to express any thing as dog-like, or pertaining to dogs, it must reach into the Latin compartment of the English lan- guage, and there find canine. And so I could go on ad infinitum, all through Webster or Worcester, much to the disgust and enlightenment of teachers ; but I should be obliged to write a book on language alone, and I have done that too often not to know the penalty connected therewith. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 231 "A little Latin, however, is a fine thing;" and a little can be learned by anybody, young or old, suf- ficient to make him understand the English language better. Thus, for instance, I should suggest to teach the meaning of Latin prefixes, such as ab, ad, con, de, clis, ex, ih, inter, pre, pro, re, sub, trans. They may be treated as is done in our schools and in Cincinnati. The following examples are taken from a pamphlet prepared by the teachers of the intermediate schools of Cincinnati four years ago. Ab. Signifies from or away. Abduct, to lead from. Abstain, to keep from. Abstract, 1 to draw from, divert, to turn from. A&ject, a&solve, absorb. Signifies to. Ad - Adhere, to stick to. Ascribe, to write or impute to. .Adduce, to lead to or bring forward. Attract, to draw to. Adjoin, allude, announce, accord, accede. Con. Signifies together or with. Concede, to agree with ; to yield. Contract, to draw together. Concur, to run together. Connect, to lie together. Concord, confer, compel, collusion. De. Signifies down or from. Deduce, to lead or draw from. Describe, to write down. Detract, to draw from. Detain, to hold/row*. Dejected, defer, delude, denounce, decapitate, decry. 1 Abs. —The form of a prefix is often changed so that its final sound may unite easily with the root. Thus ab becomes abs in extract and abstain; a in avert. Ad becomes a in ascribe; at in attract; al in a/lure; an in announce; and ac in accord. 232 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT Dis. Signifies to take away, from, off, or out; not ; asunder. Dishonest, not honest. .Discover, to take the cover off. Disarm, to take away arms. Distract, to draw asunder. Discord, dispel, discourage, disloyal. Ex. Signifies out, out of. Expei, to drive out. Educe, to lead out. .Extract, to draw out. Eject, to throw out. Exceed, excess, elude, enunciate, educate, export, excursion. In. Signifies in or into ; on or upon ; not. Incursion, a running in. Induce, to lead into. Inscribe, to write upon. Inject, to throw into. Inactive, insane, ignominious, immoral, irregular, iflegal, import. Inter. Signifies between or among. Intercede, to go between. Interjection, a word thrown be- tween. Interlude, a play between. Interpose, to place between. Intermix, intersect, intervene, interview. Pre. Signifies before. Precede, to go before. Precursor, one who runs before ; a forerunner. Predict, to tell before, to foretell. Prelude, a play before. Prefer, prefix, prevent. Pro. Signifies for, forward, forth, or out. Proceed, to go/orward. Produce, to lead forth. Propel, to drive forward. Pronoun, for a noun. Proscribe, project, provoke, protract, prolong. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 233 Re. Signifies back or again; anew. .Recede, to go back. .Remember, to bring back to mind. .Repel, to drive back. Reject, to throw back. .Reduce, refer, reform, repulse, reconquer, retake, remake. Sub. Signifies under, up. (Subscribe, to write under. Support, to uphold. Sustain, to bear up. Suffer, to undergo; to allow. Suspend, subtract, succeed. Trans. Signifies across ; over; through. Transfer, to carry over from one person or place to another. Transport, to carry oi-er from one place to another. Transcribe, to write oi-er ; to copy. Transmit, to send over. Transform, translate, transgress. MISUSED WORDS. The following examples are frequently touched up in the schools of Cincinnati. The teachers of the intermediate grade found it desirable to print a little pamphlet, a few years ago, which proved of great assistance to many teachers. I quote from it : — Invent. To contrive something not in use before. Discover. To reveal that which existed before, but was unknown. Bell ''invented" the telephone; Columbus "discovered" America. Discover, to uncover. Teach. To give instruction. Learn. To receive by instruction; to become experienced. Educate. To lead out and train the faculties of the mind. Instruct. To furnish the mind with knowledge. 234 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Love. To have affection for. We " love " a mother, a father, etc. Like. To be pleased with. We " like " a picture, good music, etc. Respectfully. In a polite manner and with esteem. Respectively. Applying individually to a group or a series. Example. — I would "respectfully" ask, etc. Yours "respectfully.'" Animals associate " respectively " each with its kind. The Northern and the Southern trains leave at 8 A. m. and 8 p. m. "respectively." Emigrant. One who leaves a country to settle in another. Immigrant. One who enters a country to settle. 1 Character. The " character " of a man is what he really is. Reputation. The "reputation" of a man is what people say of him. A man whose character is not good may, nevertheless, have a fair reputation. Balance. That which is added to make an equality. Remainder. That which is left after the removal of a part. Example. — The "balance" of an account. The "bal- ance" of power. The "remainder" of the company; the " remainder " of the week. Expect. Is often used incorrectly in sentences that refer to the past or the present: as, I "expect" he returned to New York; I "expect" John is sick. Use in such sentences, think, believe, or siqipose. "Expect" is to look out for, and, hence, always refers to the future; as, I "expect" good news within a week. Artist. One skilled in any of the fine arts. Artisan. One who has some mechanical employment. Common. Belonging alike to more than one. Mutual. Proceeding alike from each of the two parties con- cerned. Example. — He is our "common " friend. The two. friends gave a "mutual " pledge. 1 Abbreviation and corruption of "Ex-migrant" and "In-migrant." LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 235 A PRACTICAL COMPOSITION LESSON. There are teachers who think every thing must be taught by rote and rule. They are apt to forget the great educational force of habit and example. One day I attached to one of my examination questions, something like this : " Give the answer in the form of a letter." The teacher protested, saying the pupils had not been taught to write letters yet ; it was un- just to ask this. u And when will they be taught letter-writing?" I inquired. Answer. — " Why, let- ter-writing is one of the special features of the lan- guage course in the C intermediate grade." — "Then I must understand that you interpret the course to say that below that grade no letter-writing is to be done, and that you attribute to the author of that course so much short-sightedness as to think that only the pupils who reach the sixth year of school should at all be taught to write letters? What will the great number of pupils do who leave the school before they reach the C intermediate? Will not they swell the great mass of ignorance ; or, as they are properly called, the great army of the unwashed? Remember that we have frequently occasion to deplore, in order not to use the term ' ridicule,' the execrable notes sent us by many parents of our pupils ; fault}' in form, in spelling, in expression, in logic, in all and every thing ; and would you then doubt the necessity of early training#in letter-writing? " Of course the teacher was sensible enough to admit 236 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. the necessity. And now we devised a plan of making the exercise of letter-writing as little laborious as could be done. We agreed to do this : To put a letter on the board, and leave it there for several days, perfect in form as regards date, heading, paragraphing, and signature. This was to be copied by the pupils fre- quently, on slate or paper. After a few clays, one or more particulars of the letter should be changed so that the truth impressed itself upon the child's mind, that, whatever the contents of the letter might be, its form remained the same. More than one-half of what the child gains in school is gained by habit and example. If such a standard form as suggested were exhibited, our children would not enter the high school unable to write a simple note or letter. To be able to write letters, is one of the requisites of a business man ; in fine, no man or woman, however humble his or her station in life, should be left unacquainted with business forms. The example set by this one teacher has had good results. It was soon followed by other teachers ; and at present letter-writing is practised at intervals in all the grades of our schools above the lowest primary grades. It is another illustration of the ancient saying, " Non scJiolae set vitae discendum est." SPELLING TAUGHT RATIONALLY. Oral spelling in chorus, or by individual pupils, seems to me sheer waste of time. We do not learn to write orthographically by oral spelling. The way LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 237 to learn to spell (write correctly), is not to spell (to separate the letters orally). Spelling is an old Anglo- Saxon word, and means splitting. In some parts of Germany, the ancient homestead of the Angles and Saxons, the people still u spell holz" (split wood). The " Practical Teacher" is right in saying, "Oral spelling is not spelling : it is the oral description of a written word ; it helps spelling as oral descriptions help drawing and making. Most oral spelling is a terrible waste of time." What, then, is to be put in place of oral "word- splitting " ? I maintain that words, like human beings, have physiognomies. A person whom we pass on the street, merely glancing at him, will scarcely be remem- bered by us, though he may be described to us by others who know him intimately. However minute this oral description may be, in the absence of the person we are unable to form a vivid picture of his face and form in our memory ; in other words, we can not recall him. On the other hand, if we have met that same person frequently, if we have looked at his features atten- tively, if we have noticed him smile, speak with ani- mation, — in short, if we have had occasion to study the face, either intentionally or without intent, — it is not likely to escape our memory agaiu. The person can easily be called up in our memory ; and if we were skilful artists, we might produce a likeness on paper on short notice. Now let us suppose the person possessed a peculiar feature, such as a big scar on his 238 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. cheek, or a wart on his nose, or a very low forehead, or a receding chin, or pretty dimples, or what not, it will not be necessary to see him often ; this very peculiarity that struck our .attention will indelibly imprint a likeness of the face upon our memory. Now, it is exactly so with learning orthography. Each word has a physiognomy. Some words have plain faces, some have features peculiar to themselves ; but all are learned, not by describing them orally, but by using our sense of sight. Words of as many letters as they have souuds may be learned by seeing and pronouncing them. If the teacher dictates such words as paper, lamp, pencil, etc., and carefully pronounces every sound, they will be written correctly. But the number of such words is comparatively small in Eng- lish. Other words in which the number is greater than that of their sounds, as book, street, slate, ring, etc., will have to be observed more closely and oftener by the young learner. In order to make the peculiarity of these words come out, and strike the attention, it is well to mark them thus : book, street, slate, etc. This should be done on the board. Such words as, separate, eulogy, forfeiture, strj/chnine, gayety, eti- o^ette (I take a few out of the multitude hap-hazard), are often misspelled. If marked on the board as in- dicated, and left there a few days, it may be safely said that their peculiarities will be remembered or recalled. The secret of vivid knowing is vivid seeing. If every spelling lesson is conducted according to the principle LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 239 that we learn orthography more through sight than through the sense of hearing, I am sure we shall find little difficulty in obtaining good results. In higher grades, words may be grouped according to rules, but no rule should be given : it should invariably be dis- covered by the pupil. If the teacher put the following- words on the board in a column : " pavement, amuse- ment, chastisement, achievement, infringement," etc., and opposite to these, in another column, such as tv judgment, abridgment," and others, it will not be long till the pupils have discovered why the final e of "judge," for instance, in the second column, is dropped. This is mixing in a little brains in the other- wise dry study. At every stage of the course, however, this paradox remains true : " The more cra}on a teacher consumes, the better his instruction." A SUGGESTION IN SPELLING. Teachers who do not believe that oral spelling (" spelling down," spelling matches, and daily dicta- tion of a number of incongruous words from the spelling-book) did ever or will ever produce correct writers, that is, orthographers, and who have the courage of their conviction to say so, are often looked upon as miniature Bob Ingersolls. They are regarded as despoilers, who tear down without building up again. They are classed with the nihilists who be- lieve in Nirwana. Many a small soul trembles as his old-fashioned beloved spelling is attacked. In his 240 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. anguish he peevishly cries out, " Noli turbara circulos meos," without being any thing like Archimedes in depth of thought, in extent of vision, in sincerity of purpose, or fertility of ingenuity. A list of words without meaning to the child, isolated words without connection in thought-bearing sentences, are like pebbles in the stomach. You may sugar-coat pebbles till they are almost too thick to swallow, but that does not make them digestible. They will merely weaken the system. Do not say, fair readers, " Here is another specimen of a live nihilist," for I mean to suggest something in place of the spelling lesson of " ye olden time." Hitherto we were in the habit of dictating words from the spelling-book which the pupils had been told "to study." I need not explain how utterly futile this studying of often incomprehensible, always incongru- ous, and therefore indigestible words, is. The pupils may succeed, for the time being, to spell, that is, to split them ; but they cannot correctly build them up again, write, and properly apply them. It may be and it is argued, ' k Our fathers learned to write correctly by being thus taught : why should not we?" In the first place, they did not learn to write correctly because they spelled orally, but despite their spelling orally all through the speller from back to back. All who did learn to write correctly did so because they read much, and noticed the physiognomy of the words ; and, when writing, used dictionaries and other books of reference. In the second place, LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 241 if only that is right and worth} 7 of imitation which our fathers and forefathers did, then we deny the justice of progress of any kind. So, then, let the forefathers rest peacefully in their graves, and remember the poet's word : " Nur das Lebende hat Recht." There is something so ridiculous in the old-fash- ioned spelling exercises, that I cannot refrain from applying a homely simile which will throw light upon the procedure, and reveal its true inwardness. A simple-minded fellow enters the studio of a portrait- painter, and says, " Sir, I want you to paint my grandmother." — "With pleasure," replies the artist. "Bring her here; we must have several sittings to complete the picture." — " Well, but she's been dead these eighteen years ; if she were alive I shouldn't need her picture." Is it necessary to state that teachers often require words to be written with which the pupils are not familiar? Is that any thing else than asking the artist to paint a dead grandmother? But it is said some artists are able to paint a face they have seen but once. True ; and so certain children remember the physiognomy of words, and reproduce them after one glance. But exceptions are not the rule. Words (as well as faces) are better remem- bered if they are learned in proper surroundings. When we are brought face to face to a person who claims to have been introduced to us before, we ask, " Wliere was it I saw you? " Now, my suggestion is this : A reading lesson in the primary grades contains a certain number of new 242 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. words, with which it is the intention to familiarize the pupils. After the lesson is read, the teacher ma}' single out the sentences in which these words occur, and have these sentences copied verbatim. If the words are strewed all over the reading lesson, so~ that copying the whole lesson would consume too much time, the teacher may embrace the new words in a few short, neat sentences, write them on the board, and have them copied from there. Now she may call upon the class to underscore the new words on the slates, as she does on the board. When that is done, she may ask the pupils to moisten the tip of the fore- finger, and erase the first word underscored, leaving the remainder of the text intact. It is done. She now asks, "What word did we erase?" "How was it spelled?" "Insert the word again." This is done with every new word of the lesson. Sometimes it is found desirable to treat a word thus repeatedly. This is teaching orthography in the primary grades ; it is not the thoughtless testing in vogue nearly every- where in this country, a procedure which seems to aim at a plentiful crop of mistakes. One of my teachers to whom I had recommended this manner of practising orthography said, " Well, but they get a hundred per cent every day." She meant to say, " Well, but now the pupils do not make mistakes any more." God be thanked, they don't: that is exactly what we should aim at. Suppose that we were to grade the pupils daily in cleanliness : would we drag them through the gutter first, and LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 243 then wonder why they are not clean ? One ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure. Let the pupils only write correct physiognomies of words, and their memory will not retain any wrong ones. Do not permit any mistake to be made. Go through the aisles, while the pupils are at work, and correct, that is to say, "make right" what is found wrong. By thus vigilantly weeding out error, you will develop in the pupils an orthographical conscience, so sensitive that it will revolt against error as a moral conscience will against crime. Of course this advice is offered to primary teachers ; in higher grades, other modes of teaching orthography may prove more successful. GARMENT AND SUBSTANCE OF THOUGHT. Why is it, that the eight years' course of an American common school yields far less fruit than a course of six or seven years in a German Volksschulef Why is it, that pupils in the Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, and Hamilton schools, who have daily lessons in German beside their other English studies, are no whit behind their schoolmates who aim at a common English education only? It is no enigma to any one who comprehends the peculiar difficulties the English language affords. Reading and spelling Eng- lish are very difficult to learn. After the first year, there are literally no more difficulties in the mechani- cal part of reading for a child in Germany. But think of the enormous amount of time and energy 244 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAT. the English and American child has to expend in trying to master the mere garment of the thoughts of others. He finds little time and energy left for the substance of thought. The German language offers no obstacles in orthography, such as are found in English. The latter is full of pitfalls. Look at any of the numerous courses of study, for primary and intermediate grades. There we find reading, spelling, writing, grammar, and composition ; all these have reference to the garment and the forms of thought. Then we find geography, arithmetic, and a small pellet of home history ; these, in a measure, offer substance of, or material for, thought. When any one suggests that natural history, physics, physiology, and general history be inserted in the curriculum (all of which, by the way, are taught in the intermediate grades of German schools, only to a limited extent, of course), wise-acres raise the cry of over-pressure, and justly so perhaps. Are our children and chil- dren's children forever condemned to suffer from the iniquities of English orthography? Must they lose or waste precious years in early youth, in learning to wield the unruly instrument of English spelling? Think of the time and energy which might be saved if we wrote as ive pronounced, no more and no less. The recording angel must shed a silent tear of un- speakable misery, when he is obliged to record in English ; but then it is reasonable to presume that he, at least, writes phonetically, — a presumption which needs no Anclover theology to uphold it. LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 245 MISS LOTTIE'S THREE BOYS. Miss Lottie Phillips, teacher in the Fifth Ward School, Hamilton, the other clay gave a model lesson in reading, before the teachers of Hamilton, and astonished them all by her skill in applying sounding, instead of spelling, in teaching to read. First, she proved that the pupils had been taught the required number of complete words by the word-method ; then she practised analysis of such words as rat, man, and the like. This analysis was illustrated by placing three of the brightest little chaps in front of the class, charging one to say m (the sound m, not the letter em) when called upon; the next one, a; and the third, n. Then by placing them close to each other, so that their shoulders would touch, she made them sound the word man rapidly. The same was done with other words. Now she separated the boys, the middle oue re- maining in his place, while the others receded toward the right and left ; and every time they made a step, the word was pronounced over again, thus separat- ing the sounds farther and farther. After that was done, synthesis followed, and the two " end men " came back to their old position step by step, the three bo}'s pronouncing the sounds as often as a step was made, the sounds being drawn long enough to make them appear one word. Then other words were treated in like manner. Now the teacher changed the boys' positions, and 246 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. asked each to pronounce his sound. Of course, it was at once seen that that did not make the word man, or whatever word was before the class. Finally they assumed their former position, and once more the well-known words were pronounced. Then these words were found on the chart, on the board, in print and script form ; and it was quite obvious that the class enjoyed the lesson hugely. Call this play, if you please. If the children learn more by play than by joyless drudgery, I prefer play every time. I assure nrry readers it was visible to the naked eye, that there was every condition of success- ful teaching exhibited by teacher and pupil. IN BLACK ON WHITE. It is well known what an excellent schoolmaster James A. Garfield w r as. He possessed a skill in leading the students ad absurdum, rarely surpassed by any living teacher. When he was president of Hiram College, something was remarked about the slovenliness, carelessness, and general w T ant of exacti- tude, of the students in copying or quoting authorities. He desired to test this, and his genius hit upon a most admirable way of doing it. He copied a passage from Virgil on a slip of paper ; cut fifty more slips of the same size, and then handed one of the students his copy, and asked him to copy that for him quickly, to oblige him, because he had not time to do it himself. The student went to work, copied it hastily, and Garfield numbered this copy 1 in the corner. Then LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE. 247 he gave this copy, No. 1, to a second student, and asked him also to copy it. He did this so unostenta- tiously that student No. 1 was not aware of it. The second copy was given into the hands of the third, the third into the hands of the fourth, the fourth copy into the hands of the fifth, until finally the forty- ninth copy was put into the hands of the fiftieth student. The last ten or more boys had a broad smile on their faces while they copied the passage. The reason of this was well known to Garfield. When at last the fiftieth copy was handed to him (it may have taken a number of days, so as to accomplish this copying without revealing the intention), it looked more like Russian or Hebrew than Latin. It was literally incomprehensible. Every one of the copyists had made new mistakes, until finally the last copy proved incontestably, to both students and faculty, the justness of the remark about the boys' shiftless- ness and inaccuracy. This occurrence was an eye- opener for the whole college. Shall we add a moral? Yes, fair reader, it is this : Ti'} 7 it yourself with plain English, and convince your own boys and girls to what inaccuracy leads. CHAPTER VIII. GEOGRAPHY. CHAPTER VIII. GEOGKAPHY. A NEW DEPARTURE IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. [A Paper rend before the National Educational Association.] Permit me to depart from the customary method of procedure, by starting from the general, and going down to the particular subject, by first directing atten- tion to the fact that in teaching young pupils we should invariably start from sense-perception ; from that, the next step to conception and idea is easily taken, — never vice versa. Show the child the partic- ular, "the concrete thing; show him several similar facts, and offer an opportunity to abstract from them, to rise from the object to the idea. Every subject of instruction in the lower schools has a certain ele- mentary basis of sense-perception. The primary ideas resulting therefrom will be easily understood by the child, because by means of his five senses he can take them in, retain and assimilate them. If any thing be taught lacking this sound basis, — that is, any thing the elements of which cannot be perceived by the senses, — it has no business to be included in the course of study of the elementary schools ; it would, in fact, 251 252 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. be like the proverbial bladeless knife that had no handle. In a measure, this rule holds good in every branch of study, even in the most abstract philosophy. A few simple examples can explain what is meant. (1) You may never see South America, yet you may obtain a tolerably accurate knowledge of the topog- raphy of that continent. And it is sense-perception by means of which you gain this knowledge. You know what is signified by such terms as elevations and depressions, peaks and ridges, valleys and heights, plateaus and plains, coasts and banks, capes and in- lets, rivers and lakes, ba}'s and harbors, islands and peninsulas, llanos and pampas ; they are names of things the like of which have come under your own personal observation. And with the aid of illustra- tions your imaginative power may be fed sufficiently to obtain a pretty accurate idea of South America. (2) The artist who modelled the Venus of Milo may not have seen the original in reality ; but his power of im- agination was so great, that, starting from what forms of beaut} 7 he had seen, he combined them, and thus created the graceful figure which to this day has re- mained the ideal of beauty. (3) No one ever saw the ideal, that is, the absolutely perfect human being, of whom we all have a more or less definite idea. His eye must have the keenness of an eagle's eye ; his forms must vie in beauty with those of Apollo Belve- dere ; his strength must be superhuman ; he must be accomplished in all the arts, be a Mozart in music, a Raphael in painting, a Demosthenes in elocution, etc. ; GEOGRAPHY. 253 he must be a thinker far beyond any philosopher of ancient or modern times ; in point of morals he must be as unblemished as the very stars above. Where is he to be found ? Yet he exists in our im- agination ; and he is a creation, every part of which has its origin in reality. (4) Take history. You were not present at the downfall of the Roman republic ; yet from what is told you, and from what you have experienced yourself, you can form a vivid picture of the state of things at the time of Caesar. And your knowledge of the events that happened two thousand years ago in Rome will be the more vivid, the clearer your ideas are of the political institutions of your own country. Analoy and comparison are impossible when there is nothing in your mind with which to compare. Not having a standard measure, how will you measure a distance? Every iota of instruction, every idea, every rule, must be based upon, or lead back to, perceptions previously gained ; and where these are wanting, they must be supplied. This is a condition of rational instruction sine qua 7ion. In the special subject under discussion in this paper, the question arises : Have our pupils the necessary basis of sense-perception when they take up the study of geography, say in the third school-year? I think not ; and in the way in which geography is taught commonly, we do not even offer facilities for gaining sense-perception. Do not say, "Ay, but we do; for we start from the schoolroom, and gradually widen the 254 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. horizon of observation." Despite this assertion, I repeat : The method in vogue is faulty, inasmuch as it fails to establish, first of all, a sound basis of sense- perception. The average teacher begins to build before he knows upon what foundation he builds. To prove my assertion, I could bring in evidence enough to convince even a jury composed of proverbial court- house rats. A few facts may suffice, however. Of ninety pupils in a grammar school in Hamburg, only thirty-eight had seen the sun rise ; only eight had ever noticed the Milky Way. Out of a thousand chil- dren, when entering the public schools of Berlin, only six hundred and thirty-eight had seen the evening red, only four hundred and sixty -two the setting sun. I am prepared to give many more instances of ignorance of common daily occurrences and facts, but my time is limited. Of five hundred and two children that en- tered the schools of Plauen, Saxony, last year, only ninety-two had seen the sun rise, and a hundred and fourteen had seen the sun set. You may be tempted to say, '„' These frightful examples of ignorance were found in Germany. God be thanked, they cannot be found in enlightened America." This is but poor consolation. I claim these cases have been systematic- ally enumerated in Germany, because there teaching is a profession, and people there are accustomed to treat educational questions with scientific thorough- ness ; while in this country, as Hon. Henry Barnard of Connecticut says, "The business of education is pursued with an utter lack of system, with complete, GEOGRAPHY. 255 unsympathizing, independent, self-dependent isolation of effort." I am confident that our American children, if examined, would be found to exhibit the same de- plorable want of information. Dr. Stanley Hall has proven this satisfactorily to all who are not prejudiced. My own experience, during twenty years in the school- rooms of this country, is in substance the same. The greatest error, then, which prevails in the teach- ing of geography, is the lack of preliminary steps. In every other branch of study, even the most inferior teacher proceeds somewhat rationally ; but geography usually begins, I am sorry to say, with the introduction of the text-book. Ritter, the father of modern geographical science, says, "The most natural method is the one which makes the child familiar with reality first, which lays a sound foundation of geographical knowledge gained through actual observation of that part of nature which surrounds the child. Here he is to learn to see. Whether he lives in the cit}' or in the hamlet, on the mountain or in the valley, it is certainly not within the four walls, not from maps, and not from the text- book, but in nature alone, that knowledge of nature will be gained b} T him. Nature ever remains the same ; she knows no typographical errors, no blunders in drawing, no want of discretion. Nature's teaching is always perfect. This elementary method combines all the requirements of science : it furnishes the stratum of concrete knowledge, from which abstract ideas are drawn. Amid nature, the child learns to know the 256 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. country in all its various conditions, and learns to recognize it even on the flat-surfaced representation, — the map. If this genuine elementary instruction be given, all difficulties of subsequent instruction in geography are removed." I know I am not sa}ing an} r thing new. Other peo- ple have spoken of the necessity of laying the founda- tion correctly, but what I desire to do is to show you how this can be done. During the summer, I fre- quently take my children into parks and out into the country. Let me describe one of these excursions. One morning we started out due east, which direction was fixed by the rising sun. We roamed about till we found the source of a brooklet. Here I began my lesson on watersheds, river-systems, etc. Here the children saw the very beginning of a water-course. They noticed the water trickling from beneath the roots of large trees, till it increased enough in bulk and force to run along in the form of a creek. Here they learned by actual observation what a watershed is, seeing one spring descend on the one side of a ridge, another on the opposite side. We then followed the brook, saw it grow deeper and wider by the influx of other springs. In following it, we sometimes cut across the fields where certain curves in its course would have prolonged the excursion unnecessarily. Every curve, hill, and valley was carefully sketched on a slate as we proceeded. When we reached the end of the brook, we saw where it emptied into the tribu- tary of a larger river. Ascending a hill, we could see GEOGRAPHY. 257 the river meander through the country, could see that it was bridged over in the neighborhood of the city. And on this excursion we noticed hills, rocks, slopes, plateaus, woods, meadows, fields, plains, valleys, paths, high-roads, railroads, farmhouses, and settle- ments. The observations were all carefully noted down on our slates, and the names were repeated, and thus fixed in the memory. The children learned to distinguish the different kinds of grain, many kinds of trees, certain minerals, birds, and insects ; and thus we mingled a little natural history with our geographi- cal lesson. At home we had a review lesson, which proved incontrovertibly that this kind of instruction is the most successful of all. We may call this an ideal lesson in geography. Circumstances, as they prevail in our schools, make it next -to impossible to follow this example. All things considered, however, I dare say, if a teacher of a Third Reader grade would take her pupils out of town, and take a position on the top of a hill if there is any within reach, and then and there point out the different things to be seen, I am sure the children would learn more real geography in one half-hour than they could in a year from the printed page. Some cities are favorably situated for such instructive excursions ; and if the school authorities were asked for permission, I believe they would not refuse it. If, however, this ideal instruction in geography be considered impracticable, we might substitute some- thing in- place of nature, something imitative of 258 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. nature, by which to form that primary basis of sense- perception, without which instruction in geography will never have lasting results ; something better than the flat-surfaced representation, the map. We can make the hills and the valleys, the capes and the ridges, the plains and plateaus, the water-courses and water-sheds, by procuring a large baker's pan of gal- vanized sheet-iron ; and with clay, sand, gravel, a few sticks and twigs, and water, we can mould mountains, hills, and show lakes, rivers, etc., and thus create a fancy representation which offers, in a measure, what nature itself offers. In this way, too, we can lay out a city or village, a whole state or continent, in the rough. In short, by way of imitation, we can establish all the primary ideas desirable for a thorough comprehension of the subsequent instruction in geog- raphy. We must dismiss from our mind the erroneous idea that we may take for granted the existence of certain elementary ideas in our pupils. Rather pre- sume too little than too much. Again I state that I am saying nothing new. I only intend to lead up to a point which will be new. A large pan, such as I have described, ought to be furnished b} T the school authorities, to every Second and Third Reader grade. Then, when the preliminary steps to the study of geography have been taken, we may introduce such relief maps as are now patented in this country. They show elevations and depres- sions and water-courses in superficial projection. They are made of papier-mache, and are covered with GEOGRAPHY-. 259 slating or other cleansible substances, adapted to receive obliterative marks made with slate or lead pencil or crayon, and may be used as slates. These maps serve to bridge over the chasm between nature and the flat-surfaced representation, — the ordinary map. Let me submit to your earnest consideration these questions : Has not geographical knowledge, for ages, been wrested from overstocked maps? Had not the child to search painfully among a bewilderiug mass of data and facts, for those that were to be committed to memory? Was not a systematic progress, step by step, impossible? Now, just as little as a teacher would give into the hands of a child a copy of Webster's Unabridged when he is to begin the study of reading, just as little can it be rational, in geog- raphy, to place before the child such a map. We must grade the matter of instruction in geography, just as we grade the matter in reading, in arithmetic, and other branches. Relief maps of this kind would facilitate this grading, as well as present opportunities for the gradual upbuilding of a geographical knowl- edge, as gained item by item by the child. They can be made as cheap as common maps, and will therefore meet the formidable objection of cost, raised against relief maps heretofore. Upon these maps may be entered, as upon a slate, the data to be learned. And thus the child is made self-active : it learns by doing. When the lesson is completed, the marks and names entered upon it are carefully 260 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. erased with moist sponge, and we are ready for a new or for a review lesson. And now we ascend to the higher grades, the Fourth or Fifth Reader classes. Thus far, I understand, few teachers, if any, use a text-book in teaching geogra- phy. From this grade upward, the text-book is used everywhere. I am not in sympathy with this. I can- not recommend any text-book that contains more than maps and illustrations. It should contain no text ; should, in fact, be no text-book, but an atlas pure and simple. Why? I shall state farther on. And as to the wall-maps, I have my serious doubts as to their usefulness in their present condition. A wall- map to be used in the Fourth or Fifth Reader grade should have recorded upon it nothing but what belongs by right to a picture or representation of nature ; and therefore it should contain no lettering, no names. Permit me to present to your consider- ation a map which I made for my own children. I procured a portable blackboard, drew the map by means of the pentagraph, and colored the water- courses pale blue. In order to make it less destructi- ble, I gave it a waterproof, cleansible surface. Let me show you how the map may be used. It contains, as you will notice, only the outlines of the continent, exhibiting terra Jirma in black ; oceans, lakes, and water-courses in blue ; and no name whatever. The teacher, pointer and colored crayon in hand, pointing to the sources of two rivers that run in almost opposite directions, draws out by a few leading GEOGRAPHY. 261 questions, that here must be a water-shed. Children who have been taught as I indicated at the beginning of my discourse are able to thus reason from effect back to cause. Knowing that water seeks its level, they will, with great decision and accuracy, fix upon the map all important water-sheds of the country; These are marked with crayon by the teacher himself, or by pupils under his direction. By degrees, the map is stocked with all the elevations to be learned. This takes very little time, aud has the great advan- tage of concentrating the pupils' attention. Every name thus learned, both of mountains and rivers, is written on the board : the name of the main river in the middle ; below it., on the left, its left tributaries ; on the right, its right tributaries. These names are left on the board a few days. They are spelled and copied. The names of elevations thus learned are grouped and treated likewise. The coast-line, islands, capes, inlets, peninsulas, etc., are pointed out, marked with crayon, and named. Thus crayon and pointer are ever kept busy in bringing out new points. The coast line and general configuration of the continent may be taken for one lesson, the rivers for another, and so on. After the lesson is over, all marks are erased ; and now the pupils are called upon to mark points themselves and thus learn by doing. Thus we may suppose topographical facts of the most vital importance to have been learned. In a subsequent lesson, a little green-crayon dust, laid on with the finger-tip, may indicate fertile valleys ; white 262 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. dots or lines, snow-covered mountain ranges or peaks ; various depths of the sea, and other things, may be marked, and the topography is disposed of. Now political boundaries are marked. So, for instance, a State is " cut out " by white or colored crayon ; canals and trunk-roads are entered upon the map ; and I need not say that the location of cities forms a most valuable and entertaining lesson. The fact that whatever geographical data are spread upon the map may be easily and safely removed without the least injury to body or surface of the map, gives an opportunity for the pupils to be self- active ; and these "practice maps" are therefore a most welcome medium of instruction. They are also distinguished from others now in use, by containing no lettering, and therefore present a more perfect image of the country portrayed. The names on the map used by children are like ponies and keys in arithmetic, and only disfigure the map, and confuse the mental picture. These "practice maps" do not displace the ordinary printed maps, so long as our teachers are not omniscient. When the pupils have thus learned geograplry by degrees, it is well to permit them to consult liberally stocked maps. Primer and reading charts naturally precede the dictionary and complete works of authors. To give due honor to truth, we all labor more or less under the delusion that a map is good when it contains much; that it is poor when it contains little. In the common sense of the term, the word " good" is GEOGRAPHY. 263 not misapplied. The map of a military leader must contain every turnpike, path, hamlet, brook, creek, bridge, marsh, grove, hill, etc., if it is to be a good map. A commercial map, if it come up to the mer- chant's idea, must contain all the information of value to him : I need not enumerate these things. The geometer, again, has a different standard of value. And so have we ours. A map for the schoolroom should contain what the children are to learn ; cer- tainly very little if aught more. To give into the hands of children, or hang up for use, an overstocked map, is like giving the children a lexicon instead of a reader. In teaching literature, we give them selec- tions, and object to complete works of authors. In history, we use mere skeletons of data and facts, and supply the remainder by word of mouth. In every branch of study, we leave the limits of the matter of instruction to the discretion of the teacher. Why not do so in geography? Why should we put up with overloaded maps? I have asked the question elsewhere, and the timid answer came : u We have to take what the publishers offer us." I do not believe this need be the case. The publishers are merchants. The steady force of the law of supply and demand, and the sleepless in- stinct of gain, determine what they should offer for sale. If such maps as these " practice maps " were wanted by a great number of teachers, you may depend upon it, the}' would make their appearance in due season. No : the fault lies with the teachers, and 264 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. with the unnatural and irrational method of teaching in vogqe all over the country ; it lies with the school- authorities, who in many cases labor under the common error that the more a map contains, the more perfect it must be. Sensible teachers have helped themselves by resort- ing to the blackboard. They sketched or drew the outlines of the map, traced the water-courses with blue crayon, and then proceeded as indicated before, — that is, spread upon the map by degrees all information of value, until the pupils' knowledge was extended enough, and their comprehension developed enough, to make sensible use of printed maps. But I have noticed in these cases a great waste of time, much un- avoidable inaccuracy on the part of the teacher, and many misconceptions on the part of the pupils. I have little to say upon the subject, as far as it concerns the upper grades of the grammar school and the high school. There maps may be used which are liberally furnished with information, provided rational instruction has preceded in the lower schools. Teach- ers of higher grades have just cause for complaint. Their pupils have not acquired a knowledge of geog- raplry as they should have done. The memory (evi- dently the faculty upon which we have to rely most in teaching geography) retains willingly only that which has gone through reason and understanding. What- ever the mind does not grasp is difficult to remember. Not every thing to be learned can be understood, how- ever : still we may make it palatable and digestible by GEOGRAPHY. 265 connecting with it incidents of interest. So, for in- stance, a child who hears the laughable story which led to the naming of Cape Finisterre, and the trivial reason for the naming of Cape Cod, or Cape Farewell, or Cape Verd, etc., will not easily forget these names. All this is so self-evident, that I feel as if I paid small compliment to you by repeating it. But I do it to point out the utter absurdity of learning geography from the printed text. Here are a few tidbits of information as found in some geographies : — "Zenith and Nadir are two Arabic words impart- ing their own signification." (How lucid!) "Land is either level or diversified by t elevations or depres- sions." (How wonderfully clear to children this must be!) "Commerce consists in the exchange of com- modities." (Is it possible?) "North America, lying in three zones, and traversed by lofty mountain ranges, is marked by astounding varieties of climate and pro- ductions." (Will not this cause mental dyspepsia?) " Extensive forests of deciduous trees cover this sec- tion." " Indian mounds of an unknown antiquity are found in Georgia." Verily, we cannot thank kind Providence enough for having gifted the human mem- ory with the happy facult}* of throwing off what has not gone through the mill of reason and understand- ing. What a frightful waste of energy is there in schools where such unpalatable and indigestible mat- ter is set before the pupils who are told to " study " their geography lesson ! I cannot refrain from quoting Goethe ; the tempta- 266 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. tion is too great. We find in "Goetz von Berlich- ingen " the following conversation. Goetz, Lord of Jaxthausen, returns home, and meets his son Carl. Carl. " Good-morning, father! " Goetz (kisses him). "Good-morning, boy! How have you all spent your time ? ' ' Carl. "Well, good father. Auntie says I was right good." Goetz. "Indeed?" Carl. " I have learned a great deal." Goetz. "Indeed?" Carl. " Shall I tell you the story of the good boy?" Goetz. " After dinner ; not now." Carl. " I know something else." Goetz. ' ' What may that be ? " Carl. "Jaxthausen is the name of a village and castle on the river Jaxt, belonging to the Lords of Ber- lichingen for the last two hundred years." Goetz. " Do you know the Lord of Berlichingen?" . (Carl looks at him in mute astonishment.) Goetz (aside). "The boy has become so learned, that he does not know his own father." (To the boy.) " To whom does Jaxthausen belong? " Carl (reciting). "Jaxthausen is the name of a village and castle on the river Jaxt ' ' — Goetz. "I did not ask for that." (Aside.) "I knew all the paths, roads, and fords, before I knew the name of river, castle, and village." Now I do not mean to accuse the teachers of to-day GEOGRAPHY. 267 of teaching with such results as Goethe here describes it to have been clone in the Middle Ages. But I mean to state, that we are constantly subjected to the temp- tation to thus teach geography, as long as we have text-books. What can a teacher mean when assigning a lesson in such a book? What else than to commit verbally to memory such and such a page? That this is literally true, is seen the next day, when he " hears his classes." He conducts recitations. What is a recitation? Webster and Worcester say, " A recitation is a repetition of something committed to memory." Now, I certainly do not denounce recitations in geog- raphy, or in any other study, for I want my pupils to frequently repeat what they have learned ; but I expect and require them to do it in their own words. A defi- nition wrought out in the mind of the child by his own self-activity, even if it do not cover the entiret}' of the subject, is vastly better than one committed from the printed page. To sum up. The ideal method in the lower grades, of course, is to let the children make the acquaintance of Mother Nature herself. That being out of the question in many cases, we can imitate her, and mould those objects which will give the primary notions and ideas absolutely necessary for the subsequent abstract instruction. When these primary ideas are well estab- lished, when the child has become acquainted with the. position of the schoolhouse, yard, and neighborhood, with the cardinal points, with the city and its vicinity, with the river, or the lake, as the case may be, wheu 268 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. he has gained some definite ideas of distance, when he is able to comprehend the relation between reality and its representation, then such practice-maps as I have described, both relief and flat-surfaced maps, and, in the absence of these, the blackboard, may be used. We must remember that "a good teacher is known from the intensity of attention with which the pupils follow his instruction, and from the amount of crayon he uses." And, as to text-books, let them be atlases, containing no text whatever. The maps should be elementary maps, not overstocked with data and letter- ing of all kinds, tending to blur the child's image of the respective country or section. Let these maps be accompanied by illustrations of cities, landscapes, vegetable productions, animals, modes of communica- tion, occupations, buildings, etc. But do aivay with the terrible temptation to make the pupils thoughtless prattlers. HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY, THE SIAMESE TWINS. I. John. — "Teacher, I wonder why the southern boundaiy of the State of Michigan is not one continued straight line." Answer. — "Well, my boy, thereby hangs a tale. Do you know the boundaries of the former North- western Territory ? " John. — " Yes, sir : it was all the land north of the GEOGRAPHY. 269 Ohio, east of the Mississippi, south of the lakes, and west of Pennsylvania." Answer. — "When, in the year 1802, a sufficient number of people had settled in that part of the North- western Territory now known as the State of Ohio, to ask for admission into the Union, the request was granted by Congress. It made very little difficulty to settle the boundaries of the new State. The western boundary of Pennsylvania was a surveyed line : that naturally became the boundary also of Ohio. On the south they had the Ohio River as a boundary, because south of that the States of Virginia and Kentucky were situated. On the north Lake Erie was a natural bound- 270 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. ary. All that remained to be settled was a western and partly also a northern boundary. Now, that partial boundary was found by drawing a straight line from the most western extremity of Lake Erie to the most southern extremity of Lake Michigan [see the above cut]. The western boundary was found by starting at the Ohio River near the mouth of the Big Miami River and going northward on a line with the meridian until the line was struck which was drawn between the two lakes, Erie and Michigan. Thus the boundary of Ohio was settled, and the people were satisfied. "When, fourteen years later, in 1816, the Territory of Indiana expressed the desire to be admitted into the Union as a State, Congress complied with the request, suggesting that the surveyed line between the two lakes — namely, between the two extremities of the two lakes — be taken for the northern boundary, and that from the point of the most southern extension of Lake Michigan a line be drawn on a line with the meridian until the Wabash River was reached. [These lines will be found in the above cut as represented by solid black lines.] But the people then residing in the Territory clamored for a more equitable adjustment of the boundary of the new State. ' For,' said they, 4 the lines suggested defraud us entirely of lake-front.' This was a well-founded objection ; and therefore the northern boundary was extended somewhat toward the north, and the western somewhat toward the west. [Indicated in the above cut by dotted lines.] This GEOGRAPHY. 271 gave the State of Indiana a sufficient stretch of lake- front ; and the present town, Michigan City, situated there, proves the wisdom of the step taken by the boundary commission. " When, some years afterward, the Territory of Illinois was to be admitted into the Union, the old originally surveyed line between" the two lakes, it was suggested, should be extended to the Mississippi River, and thus the northern boundary of Illinois settled. This met with the same objection mentioned above. The people of Illinois claimed a portion of lake-front : therefore the northern boundary of Illinois was estab- lished considerably north of the original line." John. — " That sounds reasonable ; but why should the so-called Superior peninsula [see cut, the shaded portion of land] belong to the State of Michigan ? It seems as if by rights it should belong to Wisconsin." Answer. — "Well, my boy, thereb}- hangs another tale. In the year 1835, the State of Ohio and the Territory of Michigan had quite a heated dispute over certain boundary questions. A strip of land was claimed by both. Both governors called out the militia, and war was declared between the two ' great powers ; ' but it did not come to any blows. Congress mediated, and settled the dispute by offering Michigan the peninsula south of Lake Superior, and promising the Territory admission into the Union as a State. The government of the Territory accepted the terms, and relinquished its claim upon Ohio. This ridiculous squabble made a great furore at the time, but is now 272 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAT. forgotten, as every other squabble will be forgotten. The histories do not speak of it, since history is a narration of memorable events ; and, no memorable event having happened in connection with this occur- rence, history has had nothing to record. Yet withal Michigan owns that peninsula, my boy, and don't }'ou forget it." II. John. — "Here is another odd corner, professor. What is the object of this triangle? " (pointing toward the triangle belonging to the State of Pennsylvania, bordering on Lake Erie, on which the city of Erie is situated.) Answer. — "Well, nvy boy, there is but little of a GEOGRAPHY. 273 tale connected with that. When the original Colonies, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Caro- lina, and so on, settled their boundaries, they took certain parallels for boundary-lines. It so happened that the northern boundary of Pennsylvania reached Lake Erie at the same point where now its western boundary reaches it. This deprived Pennsylvania entirely of lake-front ; and in order to acquire some, it was obliged to purchase from the Colony of New York, afterward State of New York, that strip of land known as the Pennsylvania triangle* It was of great importance to the State that it should have lake- front ; for at the time, when there were no railroads, navigation on the lakes, rivers, and canals was of greater importance than it is now, although at present navigation may be greater than it used to be. What Pennsylvania paid for the strip of land, is immaterial." John. — "But there is another oddity about the boundaries of Pennsylvania. I notice that there is between Delaware and Pennsylvania a perfect arc. Is not that rather an arbitrary way of establishing a boundary ? Answer. — " Yes, I think it is, and 'arbitrary' is the proper term in this case ; for, when a dispute arose about the establishment of that boundary (the survey- ors at that time were not of the highest type of civil engineers, and had very rude instruments), some one applied a compass on the map, setting one foot of it at a certain projection on the banks of the Delaware River, and described a perfect arc. This arbitrary 274 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. line happened to be such a happy compromise, which divided all claims equally, that it was immediately adopted by the contesting parties. " And now, my boy, look at Alabama. Why should Florida claim so much coast which apparently belongs to Alabama? And why, again, should it deprive Georgia entirely of an approach to the Gulf of Mexico? There is a question for you to settle. You can easily answer it by consulting the history that refers to the acquisition of Florida by the United States. Do it, and report to-morrow." III. John. — "I discovered a curious ' freak of nature,' professor, if so I ma}' be permitted to call it. It is a 4 horn' on the northern boundary of the United States, which seems so out of place, that I cannot account for it. It appears, the boundary crosses one section of GEOGRAPHY. 275 the Lake of the Woods, and encloses a triangular peninsula, and then goes southward till it reaches the forty-ninth parallel, along which it proceeds till it touches the Pacific. I am strongly tempted to ask, 'why is this thusly?' " Answer. ■— " Well; my boy, every historical event leaves its traces behind. It is in history very much as it is in nature, and cause and effect are ever noticeable. I will deviate a little, and give you an illustration from the Darwinian theory. You know that during the last century the coats of soldiers were worn in a fashion which required two buttons in the back of the coat. The front of the skirt was folded back, and fastened by two buttons. You will recollect having seen a picture of Frederick the Great, or of Washington, in their uniforms ; and there you will have noticed the fashion referred to. In our time, that fashion has disappeared, and the skirt of the frock-coat is per- mitted to fall. The buttons still remain, for no prac- tical use that we can see. They are a remnant of a former fashion, just as the small bow which we fasten to our shirt-collar by a hook is the remnant of a cravat which used to be several yards long, and was wound around the neck ever so often. " Now, this horn on our northern boundary is also a remnant, or, let me say. a witness, of certain historical events of interest to us as Americans. Let me first say, that the sources of the Mississippi River were not known at the time when the Mississippi was made the boundary betweeu the great French possession, called 276 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. Louisiana, and our original thirteen States : perhaps it was supposed to rise from the Lake of the Woods. It was settled by the boundary commission, convened in Paris, that the boundary between Louisiana and the United States should be the Mississippi River ; and the line should be followed till it reached a point 49° 40' ; that is, forty-nine degrees and forty minutes north latitude. It is interesting to hear wh}* the forty- ninth degree of latitude was chosen ; namely, because it is the latitude of Paris. Now, if you will please notice, my boy, this horn is exactly forty minutes of a degree in length. That forty minutes has never been called in question. " But another thing greatly agitated the minds of the citizens of the United States during Polk's admin- istration. It was the boundary between the land west of the Rocky Mountains, and British America. The United States had claimed some territory north of this line, as far as Alaska, latitude 54° 40' ; and Great Britain had claimed the territory south of this line to the Columbia River. A large party in the United States preferred war with Great Britain to giving up the American claim. They demanded ' Fifty-four forty, or fight.' But by a treaty both Great Britain and the United States gave up part of their claims, and took a middle line as the boundary." "A veiy alliterative battle-cry, to be sure," says John. "You know yourself what parallel was finalty agreed upon as a compromise. But the curious thing that I GEOGRAPHY. 277 call 3'our attention to is, that the triangular part cut off by the horn referred to is not approachable from the United States, except by water. [Consult the foregoing cut.] " Now, John, just look back into history. Think of the dark clays at the time of the birth of our Union. See the sturdy, honest, enthusiastic Ben Franklin, in his simple Quaker garments, at the sumptuous court of Louis XVI. in the gay city of Paris, fighting with the tenacity of a true Yankee for his own country and for as much territory as could be wrested from England Spain, and France. That little notch in the Canadian boundary is a memento of a noble time, full of prom- ise ; of great men full of noble virtues. It is a relic of 1783." IV. John. — " Is there a tale connected with the notch in the boundary between Kentucky and Tennessee, professor? It seems odd that the straight line from the coast to the Tennessee River, some seven hundred miles in length, should not have been continued till it reached the Mississippi River." Ansiuer. — " Well, my boy, this notch, as you call it, certainly troubles all common ideas of the eternal fitness of things. But there is no exciting tale con- nected with it, unless an example of wise, not to say shrewd, statesmanship may excite our curiosity. The line between Kentucky and Tennessee is not at all a straight line, not even from the Cumberland Moun- tains to the Tennessee River, but is very irregular, 278 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY. varying between 3G° 31' 25" and 36° 40' 45"; though our school geographies and maps represent that line as being so beautifully straight, that it might make a mathematician's heart glad. I searched a long time for the cause of the irregularity referred to, until, by GEOGRAPHY. 279 the rare kindness of a friend in Tennessee, I was put in possession of facts which explain it. " Capt. U. C. Garrett of Nashville published a pam- phlet, some years ago, entitled ' The Northern Bound- ary of Tennessee,' from which I glean the following essential points : — " 'The territory now occupied by the two States — Kentucky and Tennessee — was formerly part of the States of Virginia and North Carolina. Kentucky is the daughter of Virginia, Tennessee the daughter of North Carolina. It is not necessary to refer back to the colonial history, and see how the dividing line was shifted repeatedly. Suffice it to say, that it had been finally fixed at thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude, as early as the year 1728. After three hundred and twenty-nine miles of this boundary (begin- ning at the coast of the Atlantic) had been surveyed from time to time, and marked, no other step was taken in the location of the boundary until after the beginning of the Revolution. I quote Capt. Garrett : — " 'In 1779, urged b}' pressing demands from their Western settlers, the legislatures of the two States (Virginia and North Carolina) found time, in the midst of the Revolutionary struggle, to appoint a commission to extend their boundary. The commis- sioners, Henderson and W. B. Smith on the part of North Carolina, and Walker and Daniel Smith ou the part of Virginia, met in September, 1779. They failed to find the point at which a former commission ended their line on Steep Rock Creek. Memoranda 280 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE BAY, of agreement were entered on the books of both parties to the effect that the point of observation was in north latitude 36° 31' 25", and in west longi- tude 81° 12". They ran due south one mile to a point supposed to be in latitude 36° 30', " to the satisfaction of all." " ' From this point they ran a line, which they supposed to be due west, about forty-five miles to Carter's Valley. Here a disagreement occurred, and the two surveying parties separated, running parallel lines about two miles apart ; the line of the Carolina commissioners, generally known as Henderson's Line, being north of the line of the Virginia commissioners, commonly called Walker* s Line. The Carolina com- missioners continued their line as -far as Cumberland Mountains. At this point, they abandoned the work, after sending a letter of protest against Walker's Line. The Virginia commissioners continued to Tennessee River, and then, although not authorized to extend the line beyond Tennessee River, proceeded to mark its termination on the Mississippi ; but did not survey the intervening distance. u ' In consequence of the failure to make due allow- ance for the variation of the needle. Walker's Line de- flected continuously to the north. Either on account of the imperfection of their astronomical instruments, or from a failure to test their work by a sufficient num- ber of astronomical observations, the commissioners seemed not to detect, or at least did not correct, this constant northward deflection. Walker's Line first GEOGRAPHY. 281 touched Tennessee near latitude 36° 34', and reached Tennessee River near latitude 36° 40', more than twelve miles too far north in a direct line, or about seventeen miles by way of the river. This fact has been established by subsequent surveys with more accurate instruments. Henderson's Line, running two miles north of Walker's Line, was still further wrong.' " The line really varies from the coast to Tennessee River, between latitude 3G° 2*9' 54" and 36° 40' 45", a difference of about eleven minutes. O.f course, when subsequently the two States (Kentucky and Tennessee) were obliged to adjust the annoying disputes arising from these irregularities, it was finally agreed upon to accept ^Walker's Line as far as Tennessee River, and from there to the Mississippi locate the boundary upon the latitude 3G° 30'. This caused the " notch." The agreement was arrived at only after several years of bickering and contention between the two States. The many changes from the true line 36° 30' can be accurately seen on the latest map* of the General Land Office. But even this map fails to give location to the V-shaped notch marked in the foregoing sketch- map. I am unable to account for it, nor does Capt. Garrett mention it. This little, and perhaps, for all practical purposes of school education, insignificant trifle, is not the only one found on the map. Massa- chusetts shows a similar oddity in its southern line. The mention of this may, perhaps, induce some one 282 EDUCATIONAL TOPICS OF THE DAY. of the readers of this article to give a reason for the notch, or "show cause why the line should not be straight. ' ' PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS. This subject needs an introductory lesson. The following suggestions have been found very service- able. Clear the board. Make a large parallelogram. B Then make a dot within the figure, it is immaterial where. Ask the class to locate the dot. The answer will come, "It is difficult to tell." Some one will venture to say, "It is a little toward the right-hand upper corner," which is too indefinite a statement. Then make a number of parallel vertical lines which divide the figure into strips, and number the lines, beginning with 1 . Again make a / a 3 ne who has notified us of the fact. Mr. Bailey's travels possess, accordingly, a value of their own for the reader, no matter how many previous journeys in the mother country he may have read." — Rochester Express. Sold by all booksellers, and sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of price LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston R OOKS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST ....'... • • « • * TO VOUNG MEN AND WOMEN HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW His Life, His Works, His Friendships. By George Lowell Austin. Profusely illustrated. Cloth, $2.00. New edition. Formerly published by subscription. " We have here a clear and popular presentation of the poet's literary life. The details of his personal and private life, or at least so much of it as belongs by right strictly to his family, has been avoided, and that properly. What the public have a right to know is found in this volume, in a style that is easy and pleasing. 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Paper, 8vo 25 Eulogy of Garrison. Paper, 8vo 25 Lost Arts Paper, 8vo 25 Daniel O'Connell. Paper, 8vo 25 Labor Question. Paper, 8vo 25 LIFE AND DEEDS OF GENERAL U. S. GRANT By Rev. P. C. Headley and George Lowell Austin. Profusely illustrated. Cloth, $1.50. The materials for the early years of the subject of this popular biography were furnished by the immediate friends and relatives of his family. The events bearing upon the war history are based upon the recognized authorities, and will stand the test of military criticism. The work is intensely interesting, and exceedingly popular. Oliver Optic's OUR STANDARD BEARER Or the Life of General Ulysses S. Grant, his youth, his manhood, his cam- paign, and his eminent services in the reconstruction of the nation his sword has redeemed, as seen and related by Captain Bernard Gallygasken, Cos- mopolitan, and written out by Oliver Optic. A new edition, with supple- mentary chapters, containing the political life of the general, his travels abroad, his sickness and death. Cloth; illustrated by Thomas Nast and others, elegantly bound, $1.50 " It is written in Mr. Adams's happiest vein, and is a most unique and interesting presentation of a subject upon which volumes have been written and read." Sold by all booksellers, and sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of price LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston IH^nlBllIli RRflBBT IIshIH&HHHHHe 1111 SvXSfi LIBRARY OF CONGRESS % 019 809 830 9 HBHBBpaMMH ■II Mil MM