Class bri>yS^ 
 
 Book c > f^^ 
 
 Copyright N° . 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
Management and 
 Feeding of Sheep 
 
 By 
 
 Thomas Shaw 
 
 Lat$ Professor of Animal Hushondry at the 
 University of MiKnuseta 
 
 Author of 
 
 The Study of Breeds, Animal Breeding, Feeding Farm Animals, 
 
 The Management and leeding of (>attle. Soiling Crops 
 
 and the Silo, Dry Land Farming, etc. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 LONDON 
 
 Kecan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited 
 1914 
 
S4g 
 
 Copyright, 1914, by 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 Entered at Stationers' Hal! 
 LONDON. ENGLAND 
 
 Printed in U. S. A. 
 
 APR 29 1914 
 
 ©CI.A369i)06 
 

 To all students of the agricultural colleges who are 
 
 interested in the study of sheep, and to all persons 
 
 interested in growing the same, this book 
 
 is respectfully dedicated by the Author 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 The Authoi desires to acknowledge his indebtedness 
 to the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, and also to certain of the ex- 
 periment stations, for the aid received from publications 
 coming from these sources when writing this volume. 
 
 ▼I 
 
THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 That sheep husbandry in America is not yet beyond the 
 threshold of possible advancement cannot be gainsaid, 
 and that such is the fact is exceedingly unfortunate for 
 American agriculture. Great Britain alone has nearly 
 half as many sheep as all the United States. The reason 
 why the industry thus languishes cannot be discussed 
 here. This book has been written in the hope that it may 
 aid in some degree in giving this exceedingly important 
 industry that place which it should occupy in the agri- 
 culture of this continent. 
 
 Several excellent works on sheep have been written 
 in America, but in none of these has the discussion been 
 confined to feeding and management. In all of them the 
 breeds and breeding have been more or less dwelt upon, 
 and just to that extent has the space been curtailed that 
 could have been given to discussing feeding and man- 
 agement. No work has been written previously which 
 dwells solely upon these phases of sheep husbandry. That 
 there is room for such a work will be conceded by all who 
 have thought upon the question. 
 
 In writing this treatise, the Author has aimed to give 
 in orderly sequence and in simple language the subjects 
 discussed and everything pertaining to the discussion of 
 the various phases of these. The efifort has also been 
 made to discuss both feeding and management with such 
 fullness and comprehensiveness as would not be incon- 
 sistent with conciseness of statement. The breeds of 
 sheep, the general subject of breeding and the general 
 principles that relate to feeding are not dwelt upon, as 
 these have been discussed at some length in works pre- 
 viously written by the Author. 
 
 St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, 1914. 
 
 vll 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 Sheep as Improvers of Soil Fertility 
 
 PaK« 
 
 1. Why the Sheep Has a Golden Hoof 1 
 
 (a) Because it brings enrichment to the soil. 
 
 (b) Because it is the unchangeable foe of weeds. 
 
 (c) Because of the dual return given annually. 
 
 (d) Fertility is to be reckoned with profits. 
 
 2. What Sheep Remove from the Soil 3 
 
 (a) The fertility removed in carcass and wool. 
 
 (b) The fertility brought up from the subsoil. 
 
 (c) The enduring character of sheep pastures. 
 
 ;j. Why the Droppings of Sheep Are Valuable 5 
 
 (a) Because of their chemical constituents. 
 
 (b) Because of their readily available condition. 
 
 (c) Because of their even distribution. 
 
 (d) Because they are left where most needed. 
 
 4. Fertilizing Poor Land Quickly at Low Cost 7 
 
 (a) Grazing with sheep on pasture. 
 
 (b) Supplementing the pasture with concentrates. 
 
 (c) Using commercial fertilizers on the pastures. 
 
 (d) FertiHzing distant pastures by grazing them. 
 
 5. Sheep and Fertility in Paddocks 8 
 
 (a) The convenience of these in growing soiling food. 
 
 (b) Strewing coarse fodders over these when feeding 
 
 them. 
 
 (c) The frequent renewal of grasses in these. 
 
 6. Sheep and Fertilizer for Gardeners 10 
 
 (a) Gardeners fattening sheep in winter. 
 
 (b) When such feeding should be undertaken. 
 
 (c) Fertilizer may be thus obtained sometimes with- 
 
 out cost. 
 
 (d) Fertilizer for gardens from feeding stations. 
 
 (e) Sheep guano from the western ranges. 
 
 7. How Sheep Manure Takes Harm 11 
 
 (a) It may be injured by leaching. 
 
 (b) It may be injured by molds. 
 
 (c) The wisdom of applying it as early as possible. 
 
 ix 
 
JC TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 Sheep as Scavengers and Improvers of Crop Yields 
 
 Pago 
 
 1. Sheep as Weed Destroyers 13 
 
 (a) Weeds that sheep will not eat are rare. 
 
 (b) The stage at which they consume them best. 
 
 (c) Sheep as gleaners in pastures. 
 
 (d) Sheep as gleaners amid the stubbles. 
 
 (e) Sheep as gleaners in standing corn. 
 
 (f) Sheep as gleaners in by-places. 
 
 (g) Sheep as gleaners on the summer fallow. 
 
 2. Freeing Land from Weeds by Sheep 17 
 
 (a) When and how this may be done. 
 
 (b) The crops best adapted for such grazing. 
 
 (c) The benefits from such grazing. 
 
 (d) The difficulties that may be encountered. 
 
 (e) The Author's experience therewith. 
 
 it. Sheep as Destroyers of Brush 23 
 
 (a) The aid that they may thus render. 
 
 (b) How far they should be thus used. 
 
 (c) How to manage them when grazing brush. 
 
 4. Improving Grain Yields Through Grazing with Sheep__ 21 
 
 (a) The grain crops thus improved by grazing. 
 
 (b) When and where such results may he looked for. 
 
 (c) When and where such grazing may work harm. 
 
 5. Improving the Stand of Grass Through Grazing with 
 
 Sheep 27 
 
 (a) How newly sown grass is thus improved. 
 
 (b) When newly sown grass is thus improved. 
 
 (c) Where newly sown grass is thus improved. 
 
 (d) When such grazing would be injurious. 
 
 6. Improving Clover Seed Yields Through Grazing with 
 
 Sheep 28 
 
 (a) How such improvement is effected. 
 
 (b) Why sheep do this work most effectively. 
 
 (c) When such grazing may do harm. 
 
 7. Why Sheep Should be Kept on Nearly All Farms 29 
 
 (a) Because of the service they can render. 
 
 (b) A small flock kept almost without cost. 
 
 (c) The conditions are favorable to thrift. 
 
 (d) Why small flocks are not more numerous. 
 
 8. Sheep and Fresh Meat on the Farm 31 
 
 (a) They are specially adapted to furnishing such food. 
 
 (b) The mutton they furnish is a delicacy. 
 
 (c) The influence on the cost of living. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 Sheep for Wool, for Mutton and for Both Uses 
 
 Page 
 
 1. Classification Based on Use 33 
 
 (a) The divisions based on such classification. 
 
 (b) Where sheep are kept for these uses. 
 
 (c) Which shall be dominant determined by conditions. 
 
 2. The Wool and Mutton Producing Breeds 35 
 
 (a) Which are termed "wool producing." 
 
 (b) Which are termed "mutton producing." 
 
 (c) These distinctions are being modified. 
 
 3. The Influences that Affect Wool Production 37 
 
 (a) The chief of these are climate, food and care, 
 
 breeding and age. 
 
 (b) The influence of climate on wool. 
 
 (c) The influence of food and care on wool. 
 
 (d) The influence of breeding on wool. 
 
 (e) The influence of age on wool. 
 
 4. The Influences that Affect Mutton Production 41 
 
 (a) The chief of these are climate, food, breeding, care 
 
 and wool. 
 
 (b) The influence of climate on mution. 
 
 (c) The influence of food on mutton. 
 
 (d) The influence of breeding on mutton. 
 
 (e) The influence of care on mutton. 
 
 (f) The influence of wool on mutton. 
 
 5. The Wool and Mutton Breeds Contrasted 44 
 
 (a) The contrast as to size. 
 
 (b) The contrast as to form. 
 
 (c) The contrast as to hardihood. 
 
 6. Conditions More Favorable to Wool Production Mainly 45 
 
 (a) Rugged lands of but little value. 
 
 (b) Dry climates where vegetation is parched. 
 
 (c) Situations remote from market. 
 
 (d) Areas with but few inhabitants. 
 
 7. Conditions More Favorable to Mutton Production 
 
 Mainly 46 
 
 (a) Lands valuable and productive. 
 
 (b) Climates favorable to abundant growth. 
 
 (c) Locations near great centers of population. 
 
 3. Crossing Merinos on Mutton Breeds and Their Grades.. 48 
 
 (a) The results as shown in size and weight. 
 
 (b) The results as shown in wool production. 
 
 (c) The results as shown in hardihood. 
 
Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 9. Crossing Mutton Breeds on Merinos and Their Grades— 50 
 
 (a) The results as shown in size and weight. 
 
 (b) The results as shown in wool production. 
 
 (c) The results as shown in hardihood. 
 
 10. What the Aim Should Be in Wool Production 53 
 
 (a) To secure wool of a desired grade in largest 
 
 quantity. 
 
 (b) To secure its even distribution over the body. 
 
 (c) To secure even and highest quality in the wool. 
 
 11. What the Aim Should Be in Mutton Production 55 
 
 (a) To secure the most flesh compatible with normal 
 
 size. 
 
 (b) To secure highest development in the best parts. 
 
 (c) To secure highest quality in the mutton produced. 
 
 (d) To meet the demands which the markets call for. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 Wool Described and Classified 
 
 1. What Is Meant by Wool 58 
 
 (a) The condition of wool. 
 
 (b) Wherein hair differs from wool. 
 
 (c) Wool and hair in the improved and unimproved 
 
 breeds. 
 
 2. The Discussion of Fiber in Wool 60 
 
 (a) The form, appearance and size of the fibers. 
 
 (b) The two parts of the fiber. 
 
 (c) The three layers which compose each fiber. 
 
 3. The Discussion of Yolk in Wool . — 62 
 
 (a) What is meant by yolk. 
 
 (b) The mission of yolk in wool. 
 
 (c) Influences that affect yolk in wool. 
 
 (d) The amount of yolk that is desirable. 
 
 4. How Wools Are Classified 64 
 
 (a) On the basis of the length. 
 
 (b) On the basis of diameter, in the fiber. 
 
 (c) On the basis of adaptation to use. 
 
 5. Short, Intermediate and Long Wools 65 
 
 (a) Short wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 
 
 (b) Intermediate wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 
 
 (c) Long wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll 
 
 Page 
 
 Superfine, Fine, Intermediate and Coarse Wool 66 
 
 (a) Superfine wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 
 
 (b) Fine wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 
 
 (c) Medium wool, whence obtained, and its uses. 
 
 (d) Coarse wool, whence obtained and its uses. 
 
 Carding and Combing Wools 68 
 
 (a) Carding wools, whence obtained, and their uses. 
 
 (b) Combing wools, whence obtained, and their uses. 
 
 (c) Delaine wools, whence obtained, and their uses. 
 
 Wool as Distributed Over the Body 70 
 
 (a) Where wool of the best quality is found. 
 
 (b) Where wool of the second best quality is found, 
 
 (c) Where wool of the third best quality is found. 
 
 (d) The further subdivision of these grades. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 Characteristics of Wool 
 
 The Leading Characteristics of Wool 73 
 
 (a) The chief essential qualities in good wool. 
 
 (b) The chief defects in wool. 
 
 (c) Influences from environment hurtful to wool. 
 Strength of Fiber in Wool 74 
 
 (a) Strength of fiber defined. 
 
 (b) Indications of strength in fiber. 
 
 (c) How secured and increased. 
 
 Length of Staple in Wool 75 
 
 (a) Length of staple in wool defined. 
 
 (b) Variations in length of staple. 
 
 (c) How secured and increased. 
 
 Thickness or Density in Wool 77 
 
 (a) Thickness or density defined. 
 
 (b) Variations in density. 
 
 (c) How secured and increased. 
 
 Crimp or Curl in Wool 78 
 
 (a) Crimp or curl defined. 
 
 (b) Variations in crimp. 
 
 (c) How secured and increased. 
 
 Softness or Pliancy in Wool 79 
 
 (a) Softness or pliancy defined. 
 
 (b) Variations in softness. 
 
 (c) How softness is secured and increased. 
 
XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 7. Color in the Staple of Wool 80 
 
 (a) Color in the staple defined 
 
 (b) Variations in the color of wool. 
 
 (c) How desirable color is secured and increased. 
 
 8. Uniformity of Fleece in Wool 81 
 
 (a) Uniformity in fleece defined. 
 
 (b) Variations in uniformity. 
 
 (c) How uniformity is increased and secured. 
 
 (d) How far uniformity is attainable. 
 
 9. Style or Quality in Wool 82 
 
 (a) Style or quality defined. 
 
 (b) Variations in style. 
 
 (c) How secured and maintained. 
 
 10. Closure of Fleece in Wool 83 
 
 (a) Closure of fleece defined. 
 
 (b) The benefits from such closure. 
 
 (c) The extent to which it should be sought. 
 
 11. Felting in Wool 84 
 
 (a) Felting wool defined. 
 
 (b) The causes that produce felting. 
 
 (c) How felting in wool may be prevented. 
 
 )^. Cloudiness in Wool 85 
 
 (a) Cloudy wool defined. 
 
 (b) The causes that produce cloudy wool. 
 
 (c) How cloudiness in wool may be prevented. 
 
 13. Stripy or Watery Wool 86 
 
 (a) Stripy or watery wool defined. 
 
 (b) The causes that produce stripy wool. 
 
 (c) How stripy wool may be prevented. 
 
 14. Break or Joint in Wool 87 
 
 (a) Break or joint defined. 
 
 (b) The causes that produce break or joint. 
 
 (c) How break or joint in wool may be prevented. 
 
 15. Kemp or Jar in Wool 88 
 
 (a) Kemp or jar defined. 
 
 (b) The causes that produce kemp or jar. 
 
 (c) How kemp or jar in wool may be prevented. 
 
 16. ToppiNESs, Broad Toppiness, Black Top and Clots in 
 
 Wool 89 
 
 (a) Toppiness, broad toppiness, black top, and clots 
 
 defined. 
 
 (b) The causes that produce these defects. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 
 
 Page 
 
 ToppiNESS, Broad Toppiness, etc. — Continued 
 
 (c) How these defects may be prevented. 
 17. Influences from Environment that Are Hurtful 91 
 
 (a) Injury from burs and how to prevent it. 
 
 (b) Injury from needle grass and how to prevent it 
 
 (c) Injury from substances when taking fodder. 
 
 (d) Injury from exposure or improper housing. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 Lambs from Birth Until Weaned 
 
 1. The Season When Lambs Should Come 93 
 
 (a) The influences that determine this. 
 
 (b) Milk lambs for the winter market. 
 
 (c) Winter lambs for the spring market. 
 
 (d) Lambs to be sold as breeders. 
 
 (e) Lambs to be finished in the autumn. 
 
 (f) Lambs to be finished in the winter. 
 
 2. The Dams When Nearing Parturition 95 
 
 (a) When important to know the exact time of this. 
 
 (b) How it may be known when the lambs will come. 
 
 (c) When and how to separate such dams. 
 
 3. Special Care at the Lambing Season 97 
 
 (a) Reasons why such care is necessary. 
 
 (b) Necessary in fields as well as in shed. 
 
 (c) It should be ungrudgingly given. 
 
 4. Giving Aid to the Dams in Labor 98 
 
 (a) When such aid may be necessary. 
 
 (b) Why it should be given skillfully and gently. 
 
 (c) It is better not given when all is well. 
 
 .5. Giving Aid to the Young Lambs 100 
 
 (a) Of no advantage when the lambs are strong. 
 
 (b) When aid will be helpful. 
 
 (c) How aid may be given. 
 
 (■>. Reviving Lames that May Have Been Chilled 102 
 
 (a) The methods of reviving them. 
 
 (b) The dangers to be avoided. 
 
 (c) When young lambs are chilled in fields. 
 
 7. Ewes Not Owning Their Lambs 103 
 
 (a) The causes that may lead to this. 
 
 (b) How to manage in such instances. 
 
 (c) Procedure when ewes lose their lambs. 
 
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 8. Rearing Lambs by Hand 105 
 
 (a) When such rearing may be necessary. 
 
 (b) The first milk given. 
 
 (c) The cost is usually excessive. 
 
 (d) How such cost may be reduced. 
 
 9. Supplemental Food for Lambs 107 
 
 (a) When supplemental food is needed. 
 
 (b) When supplemental food is given. 
 
 (c) What should determine its character. 
 
 (d) Grain more profitable fed direct than through dams. 
 
 10. Foods Suitable for Young Lambs 108 
 
 (a) Fodders for young lambs. 
 
 (b) Succulence for young lambs. 
 
 (c) Concentrates for young lambs. 
 
 11. The Lamb Creep 110 
 
 (a) The necessity for a lamb creep. 
 
 (b) The lamb creep in the shed. 
 
 (c) The lamb creep in the pasture. 
 
 12. Weaning Lambs and How It Is Done 111 
 
 (a) The age at which lambs should be weaned. 
 
 (b) Weaning should be abrupt rather than gradual. 
 
 (c) Grading the lambs when weaned. 
 
 13. Food FOR Lambs When Weaned 113 
 
 (a) The character of the pasture. 
 
 (b) When supplementary grain food is necessary, 
 
 (c) The best grain mixtures to feed. 
 
 14. Castrating Lambs 114 
 
 (a) When they should be castrated. 
 
 (b) Why they should be castrated. 
 
 (c) The best age at which to castrate. 
 
 (d) How to castrate lambs of different ages. 
 
 15. Docking Lambs 117 
 
 (a) Why lambs should be docked. 
 
 (b) When lambs should be docked. 
 
 (c) How lambs should be docked. 
 
 16. The Registration of Pure-Bred Lambs 110 
 
 (a) They should be given marks soon after birth. 
 
 (b) Why registration should be deferred for a time. 
 
 (c) Why pure breds should be registered the first 
 
 season. 
 
 (d) Why they should be ear-tagged when registered. 
 
TADLE OF CONTENTS XVll 
 
 Page 
 
 17. Miscellaneous Considerations 120 
 
 (a) Young lambs nursing to excess. 
 
 (b) Furnishing earth to young lambs. 
 
 (c) Water for young lambs. 
 
 (d) Nurse cows for delicate lambs. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 Feeding and Care of Breeding Ewes 
 
 1. Ewes from Weaning Until Bred , 122 
 
 (a) The age at which breeding should begin. 
 
 (b) From weaning until put in winter quarters. 
 
 (c) Food and care in winter. 
 
 (d) From winter until the mating season. 
 
 2. Management of Ewes at the Breeding Season 124 
 
 (a) Aim to breed when the system is building up 
 
 (b) How such a condition may be attained. 
 
 (c) Methods followed modified by conditions. 
 
 (d) Mating under extensive conditions. 
 
 (e) Mating on the arable farm. 
 
 3. From the Pasture to Winter Quarters 126 
 
 (a) Methods of changing modified by conditions. 
 
 (b) What should be guarded against. 
 
 (c) Benefits from continued partial grazing. 
 
 4. Ideal Conditions for Wintering Ewes 128 
 
 (a) The ideal location for the shed. 
 
 (b) The ideal shed or stable. 
 
 (c) The ideal yard and paddock. 
 
 5. The Grading of the Flock 129 
 
 (a) When such grading may be necessary. 
 
 (b) How such grading may be accomplished. 
 
 (c) The size of the flock when graded. 
 
 6. Food Prior to the Time of Lambing 130 
 
 (a) The fodders that are suitable. 
 
 (b) The succulence that is suitable. 
 
 (c) The concentrates that are suitable. 
 
 7. Exercise for Breeding Ewes When Pregnant 133 
 
 (a) Why such exercise is necessary. 
 
 (b) How to secure the necessary exercise. 
 
 (c) The reserve pasture for winter grazing. 
 
XVlll TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Vuge 
 
 8. Caring for Ewes at the Time of Lambing 135 
 
 (a) Not much care called for on the pastures. 
 
 (b) Food for ewes during first days after lambing. 
 
 (c) Care of the udder after lambing. 
 
 (d) Grading ewes subsequently to lambing. 
 
 9. Food for Ewes Subsequently to Lambing 137 
 
 (a) Forage that is suitable. 
 
 (b) Succulence that is suitable. 
 
 (c) Concentrates that are suitable. 
 
 10. From the Shed to the Pastures 1.39 
 
 (a) The change should be gradually made. 
 
 (b) The reduction of the fodder. 
 
 (c) The reduction of the grain. 
 
 11. Management When on Pasture 141 
 
 (a) No additional food usually needed for dams. 
 
 (b) Soiling food may be fed if needed. 
 
 (c) Cheaper to furnish supplemental grazing. 
 
 12. Management When Weaning the Lambs 142 
 
 (a) The separation should be abrupt and complete. 
 
 (b) The care called for by the udder. 
 
 (c) A low diet best until the milk flow has ceased 
 
 13. Management of Ewes to Be Discarded 144 
 
 (a) When they should be sold at once. 
 
 (b) The cheapest method of fattening them. 
 
 (c) When they may be fattened in winter. 
 
 14. Miscellaneous Attentions More or Less Called for 144 
 
 (a) The ventilating of the sheds. 
 
 (b) The bedding of the shed and yards. 
 
 (c) Special feeding for ewes whose teeth are failing. 
 
 (d) Protection from cold storms, spring and autumn. 
 
 (e) Tagging and trimming called for. 
 
 (f) The paring of the feet of ewes. 
 
 (g) Dipping for ticks once or twice a year. 
 
 (h) The shed space called for by a breeding ewe. 
 (i) The great hazard from close housing. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 The Feeding and Care of Rams 
 
 1. Food from Weaning Until Winter 151 
 
 (a) Separating and disposing of the cull males. 
 
 (b) Suitable pastures from weaning until housing. 
 
 (c) Suitable concentrates from weaning until housing. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XIX 
 
 Page 
 
 2. Food and Care the First Winter 152 
 
 (a) Shelter and winter quarters for such rams. 
 
 (b) Food suitable for shearling rams. 
 
 (c) The number that may be kept together. 
 
 (d) Bringing strange rams together. 
 
 3. Stock Rams in Winter 153 
 
 (a) The quarters suitable for such rams. 
 
 (b) The food suitable for such rams. 
 
 (c) Why they should run with the dams. 
 
 4. Food and Care for Sale Rams in Summer ... 154 
 
 (a) The pastures that are suitable. 
 
 (b) Feeding supplementary food. 
 
 (c) The trimming of sale rams. 
 
 5. Food and Care for Stock Rams in Summer __.._... 155 
 
 (a) The pastures that are suitable. 
 
 (b) Feeding supplementary food. 
 
 (c) Preparing for the season of service. 
 
 6. Food and Management During the Season of Service 157 
 
 (a) The quarters for such rams. 
 
 (b) The food for such rams in shed or field. 
 
 (c) The management when in service. 
 
 (d) The service of which rams are capable. 
 
 'I. The Disposal of Rams 160 
 
 (a) The disposal of ram lambs. 
 
 (b) The disposal of shearling rams. 
 
 (c) The disposal of stock rams. 
 
 (d) The age to which rams may be profitably used. 
 
 8. Miscellaneous Attentions Called For 161 
 
 (a) Trimming the wool on sale rams. 
 
 (b) Trimming the feet of rams. 
 
 (c) The chalking of rams in field service. 
 
 (d) Isolating rams brought in from distant flocks. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 Pastures and Grazing Them By Sheep 
 
 1. The Best N.\tural Grazing Lands for Sheep 164 
 
 (a) Those that have good drainage. 
 
 (b) Those that produce herbage, fine and nutritious 
 
 (c) Those that have ample shade and living water. 
 
 (d) Extensive pastures Ijetter adapted to sheep than to 
 
 cattle. 
 
XX TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 2. Grass Pastures Permanent in Character 167 
 
 (a) The grasses that usually form these. 
 
 (b) The more prominent indigenous grasses. 
 
 (c) Why permanent pastures are not more used. 
 
 3. Grass Pastures'Temporary in Character 169 
 
 (a) The composition of these pastures. 
 
 (b) The duration of temporary pastures. 
 
 (c) Temporary and permanent pastures in conjunction. 
 
 4. Pastures Supplementary in Char.\cter 170 
 
 (a) The plants that may compose them. 
 
 (b) Combinations in which they may be grown. 
 
 (c) Succession in such pastures. 
 
 5. Pastures for Winter Grazing 174 
 
 (a) In the northern states and Canada. 
 
 (b) On the western ranges. 
 
 (c) In the southern states. 
 
 6. Grazing Sheep on Grass Pastures 176 
 
 (a) The breed should be adapted to the grazing. 
 
 (b) The character of the fencing called for. 
 
 (c) The closeness of the grazing admissible. 
 
 (d) Grazing sheep and other stock together. 
 
 (e) Protecting sheep from substances that adhere to the 
 
 wool. 
 
 (f) The ideal method of grazing grass pastures with 
 
 sheep. 
 
 (g) Renovating such pastures. 
 
 7. Grazing Sheep ON Supplementary Pastures 381 
 
 (a) The requisites for such grazing. 
 
 (b) Grazing on supplementary pastures only. 
 
 (c) When grazed along with grass pastures. 
 
 (d) Alternations in the grazing. 
 
 8. The Benefits From Supplementary Grazing 184 
 
 (a) An aid in removing parasites. 
 
 (b) Has great influence on the production. 
 
 (c) Renders substantial aid in destroying weeds. 
 
 (d) The influence on fertilization. 
 
 (e) Objections to the system. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Fattening Sheep While Grazing 
 
 1. Sheep Finished on Grass Pastures Without Grain 187 
 
 (a) The mutton much influenced by the grasses. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXI 
 
 Sheep Finished on Grass Pastures Without Grain— Continued 
 
 (b) The most suitable grasses for such finishing. 
 
 (c) Sheep that finish best on such grazing. 
 
 (d) Sheep finished on grazing in by-places. 
 
 2. Sheep Finished on Grass Pastures with Grain 189 
 
 (a) But little light can be obtained from experiments. 
 
 (b) Feeding grain to sheep in orchards. 
 
 (c) Introducing sheep when fruit is plentiful. 
 
 3. Finishing on Western Grain Fields 191 
 
 (a) Food gathered by sheep thus grazed. 
 
 (b) The difficulties to be overcome. 
 
 (c) Rape and turnips sown with the grain. 
 
 (d) Grazing unharvested grain crops. 
 
 4. Finishing Sheep on Rape 192 
 
 (a) Ideal conditions for such grazing. 
 
 (b) Introducing sheep to the pastures. 
 
 (c) Attentions called for in such grazing. 
 
 (d) Sustaining power in rape pastures. 
 
 (e) Feeding grain while grazing on rape. 
 
 5. Finishing Sheep on Corn 197 
 
 (a) Variety best fitted for such grazing. 
 
 (b) How the grazing should begin. 
 
 (c) Ideal conditions for such grazing. 
 
 6. Finishing Sheep on Peas 199 
 
 (a) When such grazing is practicable. 
 
 (b) How the crop is grown. 
 
 (c) How the grazing is conducted. 
 
 7. Finishing Sheep on Field Roots 200 
 
 (a) Where such grazing is possible. 
 
 (b) How it should be done. 
 
 (c) Feeding supplementary grain. 
 
 8. Finishing Sheep on Other Crops 201 
 
 (a) Grazing ofif cowpeas with sheep. 
 
 (b) Grazing off soy beans with sheep. 
 
 (c) Feeding pumpkins and squash to sheep. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 Fattening Sheep and Lambs in Winter 
 
 The Sources From Which Obtained 203 
 
 (a) Lambs grown on the farm. 
 
 (b) Lambs on other farms. 
 
 (c) Sheep and lambs grown on the range. 
 
XXU TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 2. Selecting Sheep for Fattening 205 
 
 (a) Form more important than breed. 
 
 (b) What to look for in form and weight. 
 
 (c) The preferences in regard to age. 
 
 (d) Where to purchase feeders. 
 
 3. Quarters Suitable for Feeding 207 
 
 (a) These are much dependent on the climate. 
 
 (b) Quarters suitable in northern areas. 
 
 (c) Quarters suitable in areas mild and dry. 
 
 (d) Quarters suitable in areas mild and moist. 
 
 4. Leading Sheep Up to Full Feeding 208 
 
 (a) Why increase should be gradual. 
 
 (b) The foods that are the most suitable. 
 
 (c) The time called for to reach full feeding. 
 
 5. The Fodders that Are Suitable 211 
 
 (a) The wide range of these fodders. 
 
 (b) Relative value in fodders. 
 
 (c) The condition of the fodders. 
 
 (d) How fodders should be fed. 
 
 (e) The amount of fodder consumed. 
 
 6. The Succulence that Is Suitable 213 
 
 (a) The sources of succulence. 
 
 (b) Silage and its place in fattening. 
 
 (c) Roots and their place in fattening. 
 
 (d) How to feed silage and roots in winter. 
 
 (e) Amounts of silage and roots to feed. 
 
 7. The Concentrates that Are Suitable 215 
 
 (a) Concentrates that may be fed. 
 
 (b) Combinations in which to feed them. 
 
 (c) How to feed concentrates. 
 
 (d) The amounts that should be fed. 
 
 (e) General observations relating to feeding. 
 
 8. Self-Feeders and Their Place 221 
 
 (a) What is meant by self-feeding. 
 
 (b) Constructing self-feeders. 
 
 (c) Where self-feeding is admissible. 
 
 (d) Foods fed through self-feeders. 
 
 9. Fattening Sheep on Sugar Beet Pulp 223 
 
 (a) Where such fattening is done. 
 
 (b) The fodder fed with the pulp. 
 
 (c) The grain fed with the pulp. 
 
 (d) Feeding the pulp dry. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXIU 
 
 Page 
 
 10. Feeding Sheep on Western Ranges 224 
 
 (a) The arrangement of the yards. 
 
 (b) The feeding of the hay. 
 
 (c) The feeding of the grain. 
 
 (d) The furnishing of water. 
 
 11. Fattening Sheep on Screenings 226 
 
 (a) What is meant by screenings. 
 
 (b) When screenings are most commonly fed. 
 
 (c) How screenings are usually fed. 
 
 (d) The future of such feeding. 
 
 12. Fattening Two Lots in Succession 227 
 
 (a) Where this may be feasible. 
 
 (b) The handling of the lirst lot. 
 
 (c) The handling of the second lot. 
 
 (d) The benefits from such feeding. 
 
 13. The Hazard to Breeding Flocks from Fattening 228 
 
 (a) Parasites may be introduced. 
 
 (b) Precautions when introducing the sheep. 
 
 (c) Such fattening not advisable on breeding farms. 
 
 14. All Sheep Should Be Fattened on the Farm 229 
 
 (a) The percentage of loss is less in small lots. 
 
 (b) Roughage is utilized that might otherwise be 
 
 wasted. 
 
 (c) The fertilizer may all be turned to good account. 
 
 (d) Profitable winter work is furnished to the farmer. 
 
 15. The Duration of the Fattening Period 231 
 
 (a) The time required for fattening. 
 
 (b) Fattening for short periods. 
 
 (c) Fattening for longer periods. 
 
 (d) High finish should be the aim. 
 
 16. The Increase from Sheep While Fattening 232 
 
 (a) Conditions that affect increase. 
 
 (b) The normal increase from feeding. 
 
 (c) Where profit comes from in such increase. 
 
 17. Profit from Fattening Sheep in Winter 23;i 
 
 (a) The conditions that affect profit. 
 
 (b) The relative profit from feeding lambs and 
 
 wethers. 
 
 (c) The profit from feeding aged ewes. 
 
 18. General Observation on Fattening 235 
 
 (a) The fattening process outlined. 
 
 (b) Indications of finish in the animals. 
 
 (c) Rations that are most desirable. 
 
 (d) Shrinkage of sheep in shipping. 
 
 (e)- Sheepy flavor in mutton and its cause. 
 
XXIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 Milk Lambs and How to Obtain, Grow and Market Them 
 
 Page 
 
 1. What Is Meant by a Milk Lamb 238 
 
 (a) The strict meaning of the term. 
 
 (b) The common acceptation of the term. 
 
 (c) Only grown during recent years. 
 
 2. The Essentials in a Milk Lamb 239 
 
 (a) Essentials in regard to growth. 
 
 (b) Essentials in regard to weight. 
 
 (c) Essentials as to the time of marketing. 
 
 3. How TO Obtain Milk Lambs 240 
 
 (a) From a limited number only of the breeds. 
 
 (b) From sheep whose breeding habit has been moditied. 
 
 (c) The sources are as yet limited. 
 
 4. How TO Change the Breeding Habit 241 
 
 (a) Two methods of changing. 
 
 (b) Changing by selection only. 
 
 (c) Changing by breeding and selection. 
 
 (d) The part that food plays in such change. 
 
 5. Experiment at the Minnesota Experiment Station 243 
 
 (a) The foundation stocks chosen. 
 
 (b) The sires used in service. 
 
 (c) The character of the feeding. 
 
 (d) The results that were obtained. 
 
 6. Milk Lambs from Other Than from Dorset Sires 244 
 
 (a) When other sires can be used. 
 
 (b) Which of these are suitable. 
 
 (c) Why the progeny must all be sold. 
 
 7. Where Milk Lambs Should Be Grown 245 
 
 (a) On farms located near shipping stations. 
 
 (b) Where suitable foods can be grown and stored. 
 
 (c) Not too distant from the place of consumption. 
 
 (d) Where the demand will exist for such lambs. 
 
 8. The Quarters Suitable for Milk Lambs 246 
 
 (a) The lambing pens called for northward. 
 
 (b) Feeding in a basement. 
 
 (c) Quarters in milder latitudes. 
 
 9. Care and Food for the Dams 247 
 
 (a) Grading may be necessary. 
 
 (b) The fodders and feeding them. 
 
 (c) The succulence and feeding it. 
 
 (d) The concentrates and feeding them. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXV 
 
 Pags 
 
 10. Care and Food for the Lambs 249 
 
 (a) The temperature called for. 
 
 (b) The exercise called for. 
 
 (c) The food called for. 
 
 (d) The place for feeding it called for. 
 
 11. Marketing the Lambs ^50 
 
 (a) Aim to secure the market beforehand. 
 
 (b) Fill the orders as promptly as possible. 
 
 (c) Shipping the lambs alive or dead. 
 
 (d) How to dress the lambs for shipping. 
 
 12. Management of the Dams When the Lambs Are Sold — 252 
 
 (a) Reduce the food for a time. 
 
 (b) Give much attention to udders of dams. 
 
 (c) Feed stimulating food before mating. 
 
 13. Disposing of the Dams to Be Sold 253 
 
 (a) Aim to sell soon after the lambs are sold. 
 
 (b) Food for these before selling the lambs. 
 
 (c) Food after selling the lambs. 
 
 14. Growing Milk Lambs Chiefly from Grazing 253 
 
 (a) The chance for this south and west. 
 
 (b) The crops for grazing. 
 
 (c) Management while grazing. 
 
 17. The Room for the Industry 254 
 
 (a) Where it may be easily overdone. 
 
 (b) The factors that develop consumption. 
 
 (c) The industry in mild latitudes. 
 
 CHAPTER Xni 
 Growing and Fitting Sheep for Exhibition 
 
 The Sources from Which Pure Breds Are Obtained 256 
 
 (a) To some extent they are grown upon the farm. 
 
 (b) To a greater extent they are obtained by purchase. 
 
 (c) The characteristics to be sought. 
 
 The Sources from Which Grades and Cross Breds Are 
 
 Obtained 257 
 
 (a) They are grown much more frequently than pure 
 
 breds. 
 
 (b) How to get them when thus grown by the ex- 
 
 hibitor. 
 
 (c) The leading essentials as to form. 
 
 (d) Relative popularity of the various grades. 
 
 (e) Why more than the number called for should be 
 
 bred. 
 
XXVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 3. The Quarters for the Ewes, Lambs and Wethers 260 
 
 (a) The quarters for the dams while nursing their 
 
 young. 
 
 (b) The quarters for the lambs while nursing. 
 
 (c) The quarters for the lambs subsequently. 
 
 (d) The quarters suitable for wethers. 
 
 4. Food for Dams While Nursing in the Sheds 261 
 
 (a) The fodders and feeding them. 
 
 (b) The succulence and feeding it. 
 
 (c) The concentrates and feeding them. 
 
 5. Feeding and Caring for the Lambs Until Weaned 262 
 
 (a) The value of a nurse ewe when obtainable. 
 
 (b) Supplemental milk from cows. 
 
 (c) The succulence fed and feeding it. 
 
 (d) Prompt attention to castration. 
 
 (e) The fodders fed and feeding them. 
 
 6. Grazing for the Dams Before the Time of Weaning 265 
 
 (a) Any grazing palatable and nutritious will answer. 
 
 (b) Succession in suitable grazing. 
 
 (c) Soiling foods in lieu of grazing. 
 
 (d) Concentrates for dams and lambs while grazing. 
 
 7. The Lambs Subsequently to the Weaning Season 266 
 
 (a) The fodders given until the fair season. 
 
 (b) The grazing that is admissible. 
 
 (c) The green food supplementary. 
 
 (d) The most suitable concentrates. 
 
 8. Trimming the Wool for the Fairs 267 
 
 (a) The nature of the trimming. 
 
 (b) The advantage of such trimming. 
 
 (c) How the trimming is done. 
 
 (d) The extent of the trimming. 
 
 (e) Peculiarities in the fleeces of sheep. 
 
 9. Washing and Smearing Sheep for the Shows 269 
 
 (a) The breeds that are washed. 
 
 (b) How the washing may be done 
 
 (c) The breeds that are smeared. 
 
 (d) The breeds neither washed nor smeared. 
 
 (e) Dipping show sheep. 
 
 10. Special Treatment for Merino Sheep 271 
 
 (a) The feeding essentially the same as for other sheep. 
 
 (b) The condition of wool sought. 
 
 (c) The confinement that is sufficient. 
 
 (d) The blanketing that is called for. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXVll 
 
 Page 
 
 11. Show Sheep in Transit to the Fairs 272 
 
 (a) Preparations for the fair circuit. 
 
 (b) Preparing the sheep for shipment. 
 
 (c) Food and care while in transit. 
 
 (d) Food and care while at the fairs. 
 
 12. Management Subsequently to the Fair Season 274 
 
 (a) Lambs to be shown as shearing wethers. 
 
 (b) Breeding rams to be shown again. 
 
 (c) Breeding ewes to be shown again. 
 
 13. The Exercise th.\t Is Required 276 
 
 (a) Yards may furnish exercise for sheep in fat classes. 
 
 (b) Pastures are greatly advantageous to breeding 
 
 sheep. 
 
 (c) Distant pastures may involve too much loss of 
 
 time. 
 
 14. Excessive Fatness to Be Avoided 277 
 
 (a) The degree of the fatness to be sought. 
 
 (b) The indication of over-finish. 
 
 (c) When finish is excessive. 
 
 15. The Age to Which Sheep May Be Shown 279 
 
 (a) They are seldom shown beyond the age of 3 years. 
 
 (b) The best age for showing sheep. 
 
 (c) The influence of showing on the breeding qualities. 
 
 16. Miscellaneous Observations on Showing Sheep 280 
 
 (a) Terms used when showing sheep. 
 
 (b) Shearing show sheep. 
 
 (c) Troughs for feeding show sheep. 
 
 (d) Trimming the feet of show sheep. 
 
 (e) Showing sheep at the bloom stage. 
 
 (f) Sheep before the judge. 
 
 (g) Determining the ages of show sheep, 
 (h) Services required from show rams, 
 (i) Ewe lambs at the fairs. 
 
 (j) How blankets are made. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 Washing and Shearing Sheep 
 
 Washing Sheep Before Shearing 286 
 
 (a) Arguments that favor washing before shearing. 
 
 (b) Arguments that favor shearing without washing. 
 
 (c) The change in practice during recent years. 
 
XXVIU TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 2. When Sheep Should and Should Not Be Washed 289 
 
 (a) When wool is manufactured at home it should be 
 
 washed. 
 
 (b) When certain breeds are shown they should first be 
 
 washed. 
 
 (c) When washing should be done. 
 
 3. The Different Methods of Washing 291 
 
 (a) Washing sheep in a box or tank. 
 
 (b) Washing sheep in a brook, pond or lake. 
 
 (c) Washing beneath an artificial waterfall. 
 
 4. Handling Sheep When Washing or Shearing Them 2'J3 
 
 (a) The necessity for gentle handling. 
 
 (b) How to catch, hold and lead sheep. 
 
 (c) Handling sheep in the water. 
 
 5. Tagging Sheep When Washed 296 
 
 (a) What is meant by tagging. 
 
 (b) When tagging should be done. 
 
 (c) The disposition of the tags. 
 
 6. Sheep Between Washing and Shearing 297 
 
 (a) The time covered by the interval. 
 
 (b) The object in thus waiting. 
 
 (c) Where grazed at such a time. 
 
 7. The Time and Place for Shearing 298 
 
 (a) Influences that bear upon the time of shearing. 
 
 (b) When the ordinary flock should be shorn. 
 
 (c) Shearing sheep that are being fattened. 
 
 (d) Shearing sheep twice a year. 
 
 (e) Where sheep may be shorn. 
 
 8. Methods of Shearing Sheep 300 
 
 (a) Methods of shearing by hand. 
 
 (b) Shearing by machinery. 
 
 (c) Stubble shearing of sheep. 
 
 9. Handling the Shorn Wool ' 305 
 
 (a) Trimming, folding and tying the fleece. 
 
 (b) Packing the wool when shorn. 
 
 (c) Marketing the wool. 
 
 10. Trimming the Feet of Sheep 307 
 
 (a) Why trimming the feet is necessary. 
 
 (b) When the feet should be trimmed. 
 
 (c) How the feet should be trimmed. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xxix 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 Providing Sheep with Water and Salt 
 
 Page 
 
 1. Sheep With and Without Water 309 
 
 (a) The erroneous view as to the need of sheep for 
 
 water. 
 
 (b) When sheep may not need water in summer. 
 
 (c) When sheep may not need water in winter. 
 
 2. Providing Water for Sheep in Summer 311 
 
 (a) The sources from which water is obtainable. 
 
 (b) Water obtained from streams. 
 
 (c) Water obtained from wells. 
 
 (d) Water obtained from ponds. 
 
 (e) Proximity of water to the grazing grounds. 
 
 3. Providing Water for Sheep in Winter 312 
 
 (a) Why brooks and ponds do not supply the need. 
 
 (b) Water from wells or cisterns. 
 
 (c) Water for all classes of sheep. 
 
 (d) Water for ewes nursing lambs. 
 
 (e) Water for sheep being fattened. 
 
 (f) Making water accessible to sheep. 
 
 4. Water and Good Health in Sheep 314 
 
 (a) The relation between these is intimate. 
 
 (b) Water furnished by ponds. 
 
 (c) Water from marshes. 
 
 (d) Water contaminated by yard seepage. 
 
 .■5. The Necessity for Feeding Salt 315 
 
 (a) Sheep inherently crave salt. 
 
 (b) The mission of salt in the animal economy. 
 
 (c) When feeding salt may not be necessary. 
 
 (d) Why salt should always be accessible. 
 
 6. Supplying Sheep with Salt in Summer 316 
 
 (a) How to make salt accessible. 
 
 (b) The objection to feeding it at intervals. 
 
 (c) Specially necessary when pastures are over succu- 
 
 lent. 
 
 7. Supplying Sheep with Salt in Winter 318 
 
 (a) How to make it accessible. 
 
 (b) The objections to adding it to the food. 
 
 (c) More salt wanted with succulent food. 
 
XXX TABLE OK CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 Shelter for Sheep Summer and Winter 
 
 Page 
 
 1. The Shelter Called for in Winter 319 
 
 (a) Protection from falling storms. 
 
 (b) Protection from winds. 
 
 (c) Protection from dampness. 
 
 (d) They do not suffer readily. 
 
 2. The Shelter Called for in Summer ?,-2l 
 
 (a) Protection from cold rains. 
 
 (b) Protection from excessive sunshine. 
 
 (c) Protection from flies. 
 
 3. Considerations in Locating a Sheep Shed 323 
 
 (a) Aim to locate on ground dry and porous. 
 
 (b) Aim to secure protection on the windward side. 
 
 (c) Aim to secure ample room for yards and paddocks. 
 
 4. Shelter that Is Not Costly 324 
 
 (a) A shed of poles covered with straw or hay. 
 
 (b) A shed with walls of baled straw. 
 
 (c) A one-story shed with walls of logs or sods. 
 
 5. The More Essential Features of a Permanent Sheep 
 
 House 226 
 
 (a) A building oblong in shape and not too wide. 
 
 (b) A structure of two stories. 
 
 (c) Facilities for convenient feeding. 
 
 (d) Divisions in the lower story. 
 
 (e) Warm lambing pens. 
 
 (f) Facilities for watering. 
 
 (g) Sunlight, yard room and paddocks, 
 (h) Ventilation without drafts. 
 
 6. A Building Oblong and Not Too Wide 328 
 
 (a) The benefits from this form of structure. 
 
 (b) The addition of suitable extensions. 
 
 (c) Locating the feed passage in the same. 
 
 7. A Structure of Two Stories 330 
 
 (a) It is economical in construction. 
 
 (b) It has much storage capacity for food. 
 
 (c) When the lower story may be a basement. 
 
 8. Facilities for Convenient Feeding 332 
 
 (a) Feed racks and locating them. 
 
 (b) A feed room and locating it. 
 
 (c) A root cellar and locating it. 
 
 (d) A silo and locating it. 
 
 (e) Feeding hay and furnishing litter. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXI 
 
 I'age 
 
 9. Divisions in the Lower Story 335 
 
 (a) Why such divisions are necessary. 
 
 (b) The number of the divisions called for. 
 
 (c) Movable partitions betw^een the divisions. 
 
 10. Warm L.a.mbing Pens 336 
 
 (a) The location of the lambing pen. 
 
 (b) How to secure sufficient warmth. 
 
 (c) The furnishings of the lambing pen. 
 
 11. Facilities for Watering 336 
 
 (a) How water may be supplied. 
 
 (b) Why tubs or buckets are suitable. 
 
 (c) Why troughs exposed are unsuitable. 
 
 12. Sunlight, Yardroom and Paddocks 337 
 
 (a) Where sunlight is specially important. 
 
 (b) The location and size of the yard. 
 
 (c) The location and size of the paddocks. 
 
 13. Ventil.\tion without Drafts 339 
 
 (a) When ventilation is a necessity. 
 
 (b) When artificial ventilation may not be needed. 
 
 (c) How ventilation may be secured. 
 
 14. Plans of Sheep Houses 341 
 
 (a) For an ordinary farm flock. 
 
 (b) For a large farm flock. 
 
 (c) For a large breeding flock. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 The Disposal and Marketing of Sheep 
 
 The Culling of the Flock 350 
 
 (a) The time for such culling. 
 
 (b) The nature of the culling. 
 
 (c) The extent of the culling. 
 
 The Disposal of the Culls 352 
 
 (a) On the ranges they must be sold. 
 
 (b) On the arable farm they may be fattened. 
 
 (c) Culls are usually undesirable for feeders. 
 
 (d) Culls may be used with profit at home. 
 
 (e) The slaughtering of sheep at home. 
 
 The Disposal of Pure Bred Sheep and Lambs 353 
 
 (a) More commonly they are sold by private sale. 
 
 (b) Filling orders by mail. 
 
 (c) Disposal through public sales. 
 
XXXn TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 4. Fitting Sheep for Sale 355 
 
 (a) They should possess good flesh and bloom. 
 
 (b) They should be measurably trimmed. 
 
 (c) They should be carefully graded when sold in lots. 
 
 5. The Disposal of Grade Sheep and Lambs 35G 
 
 (a) On the farm they are usually sold as lambs. 
 
 (b) On the range they are sold as lambs or wethers. 
 
 (c) Lambs furnishing meat for the home. 
 
 6. Determining the Age of the Sheep 357 
 
 (a) Indications furnished by the teeth. 
 
 (b) Other indications of age. 
 
 (c) Variations in indications. 
 
 7. Preparing Sheep for Shipping 359 
 
 (a) Sheep that are shipped from the ranges. 
 
 (b) Sheep that are shipped from farm pastures. 
 
 (c) Sheep that are shipped from the feed yards. 
 
 8. Shipping Stockers from the Ranges 361 
 
 (a) The number that one car can carry. 
 
 (b) Grading before shipping. 
 
 (c) Better not unloaded in transit. 
 
 9. Shipping Finished Sheep in Carlots 363 
 
 (a) Securing cars for shipment. 
 
 (b) The number that one car will carry. 
 
 (c) Disposal at the stockyards. 
 
 10. Shipping Finished Sheep in Trainloads 364 
 
 (a) An unloading point near the market. 
 
 (b) When the sheep should reach it. 
 
 (c) How the sheep are handled subsequently. 
 
 CHAPTER XVni 
 Protecting Sheep From Dogs and Wolves 
 
 1. How Dogs and Wolves Affect Sheep Husbandry 366 
 
 (a) The losses from both sources are enormous. 
 
 (b) The greatest loss is the effect upon the industry. 
 
 (c) The loss from dogs is greater than from wolves 
 
 (d) That it is so is a blot upon our civilization. 
 
 2. How Dogs Worry Sheep 368 
 
 (a) They more frequently attack them at night. 
 
 (b) The usual mode of attack. 
 
 (c) The power of the dogs to worry. 
 
 (d) To detect the dogs is almost impossible. 
 
 (e) Losses additional to sheep killed or maimed. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXlll 
 
 Page 
 
 3. Protection by Legislative Enactment 369 
 
 (a) This has usually proved inadequate. 
 
 (b) The owners of dogs the more numerous. 
 
 (c) The influence of the sporting element. 
 
 4. Legislation that Will Protect from Dogs 370 
 
 (a) Taxing dogs to reimburse for losses. 
 
 (b) What experience has shown with reference thereto. 
 
 5. Protective Measures on the Farm 371 
 
 (a) Protection furnished by bells and goats. 
 
 (b) Protection furnished by corrals. 
 
 (c) Protection furnished by fences. 
 
 (d) Protection through the medium of firearms. 
 
 (e) Protection by means of poison. 
 
 6. Why Sheep Do Better When Not Corralled 373 
 
 (a) They travel only to secure food. 
 
 (b) They are less liable to contract disease. 
 
 (c) They can pasture more in the cool of the day. 
 
 7. The Dog Industry in the United States 376 
 
 (a) The number of the dogs kept. 
 
 (b) The cost of keeping a dog. 
 
 (c) The enormity of the waste incurred. 
 
 8. The Place for the Dog in Sheep Husbandry 377 
 
 (a) Under range conditions indispensable. 
 
 (b) In unfenced arable areas essential. 
 
 (c) The wonderful fidelity of shepherd dogs. 
 
 9. The Losses Incurred by the Wolves 378 
 
 (a) Where these losses are most serious. 
 
 (b) The two classes of wolves. 
 
 (c) The way in which they destroy. 
 
 10. Protective Measures Against Wolves 381 
 
 (a) Protection furnished by numerous bells. 
 
 (b) Protection furnished by trapping. 
 
 (c) Protection furnished through poisoning, 
 fd) Protection furnished through state bounties. 
 
 [e) Protection furnished by hunting. 
 
 (f) Protection furnished by fences. 
 
 ^; 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 The More Common Ailments of Sheep 
 
 Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Sheep 385 
 
 (a) Treatment less satisfactory with sheep than other 
 stock. 
 
XXXIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Prevention and Treatment of Disease — Continued 
 
 (b) The importance of preventive measures. 
 
 (c) Proper environment for and care of sheep. 
 
 2. Parasites that Prey Externally on Sheep 387 
 
 (a) The sheep tick and its life history. 
 
 (b) The scab mite and its hfe history. 
 
 (c) The sheep louse and its history. 
 
 3. Parasites that Prey Internally on Sheep 391 
 
 (a) The stomach worm and treatment. 
 
 (b) The tape worm and treatment. 
 
 (c) The lung worm and treatment. 
 
 (d) Nodule disease and treatment. 
 
 (e) Grub in the head and treatment. 
 
 4. Ailments from Digestive Sources 404 
 
 (a) Bloat and treatment. 
 
 (b) Overtaxed digestion and treatment. 
 
 (c) Diarrhea and treatment. 
 
 (d) Colic and treatment. 
 
 (e) Stretches and treatment. 
 
 5. Ailments Affecting the Organs of Respiration 41('. 
 
 (a) Catarrh and treatment. 
 
 (b) Bronchitis and treatment. 
 
 (c) Pneumonia and treatment. 
 
 (d) Pleurisy and treatment. 
 
 6. Ailments Arising from Reproduction 412 
 
 (a) Abortion and treatment. 
 
 (b) Retention of the afterbirth and treatment. 
 
 (c) Inversion of the womb and treatment. 
 
 7. Ailments that Affect the Limbs 414 
 
 (a) Common foot rot and treatment. 
 
 (b) Contagious foot rot and treatment. 
 
 (c) Broken limbs and treatment. 
 
 8. Ailments Peculiar to Lambs 417 
 
 (a) Indigestion and treatment. 
 
 (b) White scours and treatment. 
 
 (c) Retention of excrement and treatment. 
 
 (d) Wool balls and treatment. 
 
 (e) Navel disease and treatment. 
 
 9. Ailments Miscellaneous in Character 418 
 
 (a) Goiter and treatment. 
 
 (b) Ophthalmia and treatment. 
 
 (c) Tumors and treatment. 
 
 (d) Urinary troubles and treatment. 
 
 (e) Garget and treatment. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXV 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 Dipping Sheep for Ticks and Scabs 
 
 Page 
 
 1. The Objects Sought from Dipping Sheep 4ai 
 
 (a) The removal of external parasites. 
 
 (b) Improving the condition of the skin. 
 
 (c) Increasing growth in the wool. 
 
 2. The Two Classes of Sheep Dips 422 
 
 (a) Those that are proprietary. 
 
 (b) Those that are non-proprietary. 
 
 (c) Considerations when choosing between them. 
 
 3. The Basic Element in Sheep Dips 425 
 
 (a) Those with arsenic as the basic element. 
 
 (b) Those with carbolic acid as the basic element. 
 
 (c) Those with tobacco as the basic element. 
 
 (d) Those with lime and sulphur as the basic element. 
 
 4. The Dipping Plant 431 
 
 (a) For a large flock. 
 
 (b) For an ordinary farm flock. 
 
 (c) For a few animals. 
 
 5. The Season for Dipping 436 
 
 (a) It may be done at nearly all seasons. 
 
 (b) The best seasons for dipping. 
 
 (c) The frequency of the dipping. 
 
 6. Facts that Bear Upon the Work of Dipping 438 
 
 (a) The amounts of the dip called for. 
 
 (b) Renewing the supply when dipping sheep. 
 
 (c) The time that sheep should remain in the dip. 
 
 (d) Particulars that apply to dipping for scab. 
 
 (e) The necessity for gentle handling. 
 
 7. Care of the Animals Subsequently to Dipping 440 
 
 (a) The aim should be to change their quarters. 
 
 (b) When disinfecting former quarters is necessary. 
 
 (c) How disinfection is secured. 
 
 8. Removing Parasites by Other Methods 441 
 
 (a) By pouring liquids from a vessel. 
 
 (b) By applying unguents. 
 
 (c) By feeding sulphur. 
 
 9. How Far Dipping Is a Necessity 443 
 
 (a) When removing ticks and scabs. 
 
 (b) When cleansing the skin. 
 
 (c) How to render it unnecessary. 
 
XXXVl TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 Establishing a Flock and Improving It 
 
 Page 
 
 1. Important Considerations When Establishing a Flock__ 445 
 
 (a) The consideration of environment. 
 
 (b) The consideration of proximity to market. 
 
 (c) The consideration of food supplies. 
 
 2. Establishing a Pure-Bred Flock 447 
 
 (a) Who may engage in the work. 
 
 (b) Determining the choice of breed. 
 
 (c) The character of the foundation animals. 
 
 (d) The sources from which they may be obtained. 
 
 3. Establishing a Flock of Grades 431 
 
 (a) The essentials as to form in the females. 
 
 (b) Blood elements in the same. 
 
 (c) The sources from which they may be obtained. 
 
 4. The Sires Used in Grade Flocks 452 
 
 (a) They should always be purely bred. 
 
 (b) The factors that determine choice in breed. 
 
 (c) The character of the rams. 
 
 5. The Impkovement of the Flock 455 
 
 (a) The three factors in improvement. 
 
 (b) The part played by the sires. 
 
 (c) What is accomplished by selection. 
 
 (d) What may be due to food. 
 
 6. Improvement Through the Sires 457 
 
 (a) Why successive sires from the same breed should 
 
 be chosen. 
 
 (b) The time called for to reach high development. 
 
 (c) The Minnesota station experiment. 
 
 (d) To what extent in-breeding may be practiced. 
 
 7. Improvement Through Selection 450 
 
 (a) Discard inferior females before they are bred. 
 
 (b) Ewes that should be discarded at the weaning sea- 
 
 son. 
 
 (c) The necessity for rejecting some will always exist. 
 
 S. Improvement Through Food 4()l 
 
 (a) Food adapted to the needs of the sheep. 
 
 (b) Food adapted to the needs of the breed. 
 
 (c) Food adapted to the requirements of the breeding. 
 
 9. When Crossing Is Legitimate 402 
 
 (a) When pure breeds may be crossed. 
 
 (b) Making more than one cross. 
 
 (c) Introducing an out cross. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS XXXVU 
 
 Pag« 
 
 10. Breeding for Single or Twin Lambs 464 
 
 (a) When to breed for one or the other. 
 
 (b) The part that breeding plays in such production 
 
 (c) The part that food plays in such production. 
 
 11. Much Should Be Left to the Good Shepherd 466 
 
 (a) His knowledge of the flock is most intimate. 
 
 (b) Usually he is a good judge of sheep. 
 
 (c) He may also be a good salesman. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Wg. Page 
 
 1. Panel of Movable Fence and Headpiece 21 
 
 2. Southdowns Noted as Mutton Producers 34 
 
 3. Yearling Rambouillets Grown for Wool and Mutton 36 
 
 4. Wool as Classified on the Sheep 70 
 
 5. The Shorn Fleece as Frequently Classified 72 
 
 6. Feeding Rack for Lambs 115 
 
 7. Shropshires on Iowa Agricultural College Farm 140 
 
 8. A Noted Prize- Winning Yearling Shropshire Ram 156 
 
 9. A Noted Prize- Winning Yearling Oxford Down Ram 159 
 
 10. Shropshires on Summer Grazing 165 
 
 :!1. Fattening Sheep in the Willamette Valley, Oregon 220 
 
 ?2. Typical Dorset Horn Ram 240 
 
 13. Iowa College Lambs in Charge of Keepers 258 
 
 14. Shearing Sheep by Machinery in Montana 302 
 
 15. Plan of Convenient Sheep Rack 330 
 
 16. Ground Plan of Sheep Barn 342 
 
 17. Ground Plan of Barn with Yard Protection 344 
 
 18. Ground Plan of Barn at Minnesota Experiment Station 346 
 
 19. Sheep Barn at Minnesota Experiment Station 348 
 
 20. Loading Sheep for Shipment at Columbus, Montana 360 
 
 21. Ground Plan of Dipping Plant 434 
 
 22. Dipping Vat for a Small Flock 435 
 
 23. Southdown Sheep 456 
 
 xxxlx 
 
CHAPTER I 
 SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 
 
 In discussing the influence which sheep exert on soil 
 fertility, the following points will be considered : (i) Why 
 the sheep has a golden hoof; (2) What sheep remove 
 from the soil; (3) Why the droppings of sheep are val- 
 uable ; (4) Fertilizing poor land quickly at low cost ; 
 (5) Sheep and fertility in paddocks; (6) Sheep and fer- 
 tilizer for gardeners; and (7) How sheep manure may 
 lose its fertility. 
 
 Sheep and the golden hoof — There are good reasons 
 for believing that long ages ago the statement had con- 
 gealed into a proverb, that "the sheep has a golden hoof." 
 The originator of the saying and the date of its origin 
 can never be known now. These have been lost amid the 
 dimness of a distant past. There is not much doubt, how- 
 ever, as to why sheep came to be so characterized. Un- 
 questionably they were so designated primarily because 
 of the favorable influence which they exerted on the fer- 
 tility of soil on which they grazed. But it would be cor- 
 rect to speak of them also because of the service which 
 they render in destroying the many forms of weed life, 
 and because of the dual returns which they give of meat 
 and milk every season. 
 
 That sheep do add materially to the enrichment of 
 the soils on which they graze cannot be questioned, since 
 it is a fact of general observation. Wherever sheep graze 
 on pastures they grow richer and more productive rather 
 than poorer and less productive, when grazed under 
 proper conditions. It is possible to graze pastures so 
 closely with sheep that the grasses may fail. This some- 
 times happens on the far western ranges where the 
 grasses have to fight for life because of the lack of mois- 
 
2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ture. But when such decrease follows in the yields of the 
 grasses it is not owing to any decrease in fertility, as may 
 be shown by increase in the returns from pastures prop- 
 erly grazed in the same areas. When pastures are broken 
 up that are grazed by sheep, the growth is more vigorous 
 than on grass pastures beside them of similar age and 
 similarly broken but that have not been so grazed. Even 
 when sheep graze amid the stubbles after grain has been 
 harvested, the favorable influence on the crops that follow 
 is frequently distinctly traceable. How sheep increase 
 the fertility of the land when they remove fertility in the 
 form of flesh, bones and wool is explained below. 
 
 Sheep are the inveterate foes of weed life in 
 nearly all of its forms. The weeds that sheep will not 
 consume upon the farm are few indeed, providing they 
 can have access to them while the weeds are young. 
 When tender and succulent, they will consume many 
 weeds in preference to grass. Almost the only class of 
 weeds that they will not eat when young are those that 
 are furnished with spines, as in the case of the thistle. 
 When weeds become woody, they will not consume the 
 stems unless under the constraint of hunger, but they will 
 in nearly all instances consume the seeds. The excep- 
 tions are seeds encased in pods that are furnished with a 
 defense in the form of prickles, as in the case of the 
 cocklebur and the burdock. It would be very interesting 
 to know the number of the weeds that a sheep consumes 
 in a day, in a year, or in a lifetime when given timely 
 access to the weeds. Sheep will also crop down the young 
 sprouts that spring up around the stumps of trees that 
 have been cut down, and in this way they hasten decay 
 in the stumps. 
 
 Sheep give a dual return annually. They give a re- 
 turn in lambs and also in wool. This is true at least of 
 the females that have reached the age for breeding. Other 
 meat-making animals give a return in meat, except in the 
 case of the dairy cow. This capacity to give a dual return 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 3 
 
 goes far toward giving the sheep a foremost place among 
 live stock on the farm in the profits which they give to the 
 owner. It has been claimed that under many conditions, 
 the fleece furnished annually by the sheep will pay the 
 cost of food and care for the entire year. In some in- 
 stances it will do more than this, thus leaving the value 
 of the lamb or lambs produced, less the food it has eaten, 
 as the net profit. But that is not all the profit, as will 
 now be shown. 
 
 When reckoning the profit from keeping sheep, it is 
 legitimate, of course, to include the influence which they 
 exercise on fertility and in checking the growth of nox- 
 ious forms of weed life. These influences are, in a sense, 
 intangible. It is impossible to put a money value upon 
 them, since no rules have been formulated for estimating 
 exactly the value of these influences, nor is it possible to 
 formulate them because of their intangible character. 
 Both, however, are material, and, especially on the arable 
 farm, they add greatly to the profits from keeping sheep. 
 That sheep are more profitable, as a rule, than any other 
 quadruped kept on the arable farm in proportion to the 
 investment and the labor involved, is the almost universal 
 testimony of those who have kept the different classes of 
 these upon the farm. 
 
 Fertility removed by sheep — The amount of fertility 
 removed by sheep is relatively small. They only remove 
 virtually what is transformed into flesh, bone and wool. 
 In flesh and wool the nitrogenous element predominates, 
 and this when removed can be much more easily replaced 
 on the arable farm than phosphoric acid and potash. The 
 most serious loss is that of phosphorus, since that cannot 
 be so easily replaced as the supply of nitrogen, and the 
 supply of potash in the soil is usually relatively more 
 abundant than that of potash. Sheep remove less of fer- 
 tility from the farm than other domestic quadrupeds, for 
 the reason that the droppings fall more constantly on 
 
4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the pastures, and for the further reason that the waste 
 from the droppings is much less, as is shown below. 
 
 Notwithstanding the fertility removed by sheep from 
 the soil in the ways just mentioned, the amount of avail- 
 able fertility in lands where sheep are grazed is increased 
 How, it may be asked, is this possible when all the food 
 which they consume comes from the soil, and a part of it 
 is taken away in the flesh, bone and wool sold ? There is 
 also some loss of fertility from the droppings through 
 washing. The loss in the droppings from the latter 
 source is usually slight, especially when the sheep are on 
 the pastures. The loss of fertility from other sources 
 named is evidently more than made up through fertility 
 brought up from the subsoil and made available near the 
 surface. The roots of all plants feed more deeply than is 
 usually supposed, including those of many of the grasses. 
 This will be at once apparent to those who observe the 
 length of the roots and rootlets suspended from grass 
 crowns underneath which the earth has been washed 
 away on the side of a cliff or ravine. They went far 
 down into the subsoil before they were thus laid bare. 
 In doing so they gathered food in the subsoil to support 
 growth above the surface. The elements of plant growth 
 in the subsoil are thus being gradually transformed from 
 inert to available forms in the subsoil, and when thus 
 transformed are sent upward to maintain leaf and stem 
 growth. These, in time, when consumed by sheep are 
 left upon the surface soil for its enrichment. The fertility 
 thus carried from the subsoil to the surface must be more 
 than the amount removed in the carcass and the wool of 
 the sheep grazed on the pastures, otherwise the fertility 
 of .the lands thus grazed would not be increased. 
 
 That lands grazed by sheep do increase in available 
 fertility cannot be gainsaid. The fact has been so fre- 
 quently observed that it cannot be questioned. Sheep 
 have grazed upon the Cheviot Hills for generations, and 
 on grasses unstimulated by the addition of fertilizers from 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 5 
 
 outside sources, and yet the pastures on these hills are 
 more rather than less abundant than they were decades 
 ago. This fact finds demonstration in the comparison of 
 the carrying power of the grasses. Since lands that are 
 judiciously grazed by sheep from year to year become 
 richer, the question naturally arises as to what will be the 
 limit of the enriching process, or as to whether it has any 
 limit. The answer to both questions will depend upon 
 the amount of plant food available and inert in the strata 
 of soil and subsoil in which the plants feed. It will be 
 observed that the increase in fertility through such graz- 
 ing, at least where legumes are absent, comes through 
 transformation of fertility. Such transformation relates 
 first to change in form, and second, to change in place. 
 Now, if the supply of these nutrients is sufiicient for 
 indefinite use, there will be similar increase in fertility in 
 the lands thus grazed. If, on the other hand, the supply 
 is insufficient for such use indefinitely, then a time would 
 come when the power of such lands to carry sheep would 
 grow less, unless aided from some outside source. Hap- 
 pily, the supply of inert plant food materials in the soil 
 is sufficient to sustain plant growth indefinitely, in some 
 forms at least, otherwise the prairies could not have main- 
 tained for long centuries in undiminished volume the 
 grasses that grow upon them. 
 
 Sheep manure valuable — The droppings of sheep are 
 valuable, first, because of the chemical constituents ; sec- 
 ond, because of the readily available condition ; third, be- 
 cause of the even way in which they are distributed on 
 the soil ; and fourth, because they are distributed where 
 most needed. In all of these respects it would probably 
 be correct to say that the droppings of sheep are more 
 valuable than the droppings of any other class of quadru- 
 peds kept upon the farm. This is certainly true when 
 these influences are considered together. 
 
 The analyses of the fertilizer obtained from the differ- 
 ent classes of domestic animals will, of course, vary with 
 
6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the food fed. For this and other reasons it would be 
 only possible to state approximately the relative value of 
 these. Roberts has given much thought to this question 
 and his investigations have led him to conclude that the 
 average value of a ton of farm manures from horses, cows, 
 sheep and swine ranks as follows : 
 
 Horses $2.49 
 
 Cows 2.43 
 
 Sheep 4.25 
 
 Swine 3.20 
 
 In this estimate the nitrogen in the manure is rated 
 at 15 cents a pound, the phosphoric acid at 7 cents and the 
 potash at 4j^ cents. The superior value of sheep manure 
 is thus clearly apparent from the standpoint of chemical 
 analysis. Add to this the other points of superiority, and 
 the showing is very pronounced in favor of sheep manure. 
 
 The readily available condition in which the drop- 
 pings of sheep are found adds greatly to their value. 
 When they fall on the soil it is usually in the form of 
 detached particles. These come in close contact with the 
 soil. The first shower which falls upon them carrie-.? 
 down more or less of the manurial constituents into th(; 
 soil. This is all the more readily accomplished because of 
 the finer and more thorough grinding which sheep give 
 to their food than other domestic quadrupeds. The drop- 
 pings of other animals fall in masses, hence much of their 
 bulk does not come in close contact with the soil. The 
 loss from these, therefore, by washing and leaching is 
 much greater than from the droppings of sheep. It is 
 also much greater from oxidation and from pests that 
 prey upon them. 
 
 As the droppings of horses and cattle fall in masses, 
 they destroy vegetation beneath them, and they overfer- 
 tilize the ground for a short distance around, and there 
 is also waste from the causes named. But the droppings 
 of sheep scatter when they fall. Sheep travel much when 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 7 
 
 they graze, and because they do they distribute their 
 droppings much more evenly over the entire area grazed 
 than other classes of stock. Because of this, it would 
 probably be correct to say that sheep v^hile grazing will 
 distribute manure about as efifectively and as evenly as 
 though it had been distributed by a manure spreader. 
 This adds greatly to the value of the manure, since the 
 cost of drawing and distributing farmyard manure is 
 relatively high, sometimes so high as to make its use 
 prohibitory when it has to be drawn far. 
 
 The droppings are also distributed by sheep where 
 they are most needed. Sheep instinctively seek the 
 higher ground when they are at rest. Because of this, 
 the proportion of the droppings left on these is usually 
 much greater than that left on the lower lands. The lat- 
 ter are usually much less in need of fertility than the 
 former, hence the distribution thus effected fertilizes most 
 the land that is most in need of fertilization. 
 
 Sheep and quick fertilization — Lands low in fertility 
 may be quickly fertilized by grazing sheep on them un- 
 der certain conditions of management. The grazing will 
 in itself add to the available fertility, even though the 
 food eaten should be only grass. It will add more quickly 
 to the available fertility if the land is plowed and some 
 crop is sown on it to provide grazing. The more fre- 
 quently such crops are sown, the more will be the increase 
 in the available fertility, even in the absence of applied 
 fertilizers, hence the wisdom in trying to grow more than 
 one crop on such land each season. 
 
 Whether the grazing is furnished by grasses or 
 grains, the fertilizing may be much hastened by feeding 
 concentrates to the sheep thus grazed. This may some- 
 times be done with profit when grazing sheep are suckling 
 their lambs. It may usually be done with profit when 
 grazing sheep that are being fattened. The fertilization 
 thus added is proportionate to the richness in manurial 
 elements of the foods and to the amount of the same. 
 
8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 The fertilization may be hastened by the judicious 
 use of commercial fertilizers. When these are applied in 
 addition to the concentrates fed, the increase in fertility 
 will be proportionate under normal conditions. When 
 these influences act in conjunction, the fertilization is 
 rapid, and it is virtually without waste, especially when 
 grass pastures are thus grazed. As the grasses that 
 cover the soil almost entirely prevent waste in the fer- 
 tilizer applied, there is not only increase in the top 
 growth from the application of the fertilizer, but there 
 is proportionate increase in the root growth, a fact of 
 much significance when the pastures are broken, be- 
 cause of the extent to which root growth adds fertility 
 to the soil. There is probably no method that will im- 
 prove worn lands more quickly and more cheaply with 
 reference to fertilization and also to their mechanical con- 
 dition. 
 
 Such a method of fertilizing arable lands distant 
 from the farmsteading is entirely practicable, and it is 
 eminently satisfactory. It would be too costly to ferti- 
 lize them by applying farmyard manure, because of the 
 cost of labor involved. Fertilization through commercial 
 fertilizers would be slower and less satisfactory, \\nien 
 practiced as outlined, it should be safe, relatively, cheap 
 and eminently satisfactory. 
 
 Sheep and fertility in paddocks — A sheep paddock, as 
 is generally known, is a small inclosure located near the 
 farmsteading. more roomy than a yard and much less so 
 than a field. It is, in a way. an indispensable adjunct of the 
 arable farm. It furnishes in summer grazing grounds for 
 temporary use or for the more permanent occupancy of 
 rams or of other animals that may be in the process of 
 fitting for shows. It may also in some instances be de- 
 voted to the growing of soiling foods or of pastures other 
 than grasses. When used, as they sometimes are in win- 
 ter, as yards for feeding certain fodders, the soil becomes 
 very rich, and in consequence it becomes well fitted for 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY 9 
 
 the kinds of production just referred to. When soiling 
 food is grown for sheep, it is greatly important, as a 
 matter of economy in labor, that it shall be grown near 
 at hand to where it is to be fed. The feeding of such 
 foods to sheep is usually limited to the needs of those 
 that are being fitted for the shows, hence a limited area 
 such as a paddock furnishes will usually suffice for such a 
 use. Paddocks, because of the richness of the soil 
 through the droppings of the sheep, and because of their 
 proximity to the sheds, have pre-eminent adaptation for 
 the growing of such foods. 
 
 In the winter or after the ground has become frozen, 
 certain fodders are sometimes fed in one or more of these 
 paddocks. They are simply strewn over the ground from 
 day to day, and the place of strewing is changed daily. 
 They are thus fed, in part, as a matter of convenience, 
 and also in some instances to encourage the sheep to 
 take exercise while picking them over. Corn and sor- 
 ghum fodders are frequently fed thus. When so fed, un- 
 less when they are present in excessive quantities, the 
 most convenient way to get rid of them is to bury them 
 with the plow. In this way the removing of a product 
 that is difficult to handle is obviated, and the soil becomes 
 filled with humus imbedded in the rich covering of fer- 
 tility that encircles it. When the seed of soiling crops is 
 sown on such land, the growth is usually of a most vig- 
 orous kind. 
 
 The occasional plowing of paddocks has the further ad- 
 vantage that it renders them much less liable to harbor 
 disease in certain forms. It is thought, and with much 
 countenance of support, that the hazard to sheep from 
 grazing in paddocks is much reduced when the soil is 
 frequently turned over with the plow. It has been thought 
 that the germs of such ailments as tapeworm and stom- 
 ach worm are sometimes taken into the stomachs of 
 lambs by grazing on the vegetation of paddocks that have 
 not recently been plowed. 
 
lO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Sheep and fertilizer for gardeners — As is well known, 
 gardeners require a large amount of fertilizers. In some 
 instances they have found that they can obtain it more 
 cheaply by feeding sheep in winter than in any other way. 
 It may be ; in fact, it usually is, that both the food and the 
 sheep are purchased. In the fattening process large 
 quantities of the fertilizer are made and so near to the 
 place of application that, when all things are taken into 
 account, it is much more profitable to obtain it thus than 
 by purchase in the adjacent towns or cities. 
 
 Some localities are much better adapted to such feed- 
 ing than others. Where it is to be markedly successful, 
 the sheep must be obtainable at reasonable prices, and 
 they should be brought to the farm without incurring 
 undue outlay, as the price of transportation. Suitable 
 food must be obtainable without excessive cost. The in- 
 dividual who feeds should have a thorough knowledge of 
 his business. When the animals so fed are marketed, it 
 should be with the best judgment. Thus handled, there 
 should be some profit on the sheep in addition to the fer- 
 tilizer. 
 
 The profit, as in all fattening, may not come from the 
 increase made in weight during the fattening process, but 
 from increase in the weight of the animal when the fat- 
 tening process began. The person who must purchase 
 all his food will make less profit as a rule than the individ- 
 ual who grows at least a part of it. But, in any event, 
 safe buying and selling of the sheep and careful, judicious 
 purchasing and feeding of the foods should result in some 
 cash profit from the venture ; thus furnishing the manure 
 without other cost than that involved in applying it. This 
 to the gardener should prove a great boon, as the fer- 
 tilizer thus furnished would add greatly to the efficacy of 
 the action of commercial fertilizers when these also are 
 used. 
 
 Fertilizer from sheep is in some instances made in 
 very large quantities in feeding centers where sheep are 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF SOIL FERTILITY II 
 
 fed in a large way. Very much of what has been thus 
 made in the past has been wasted, owing to the cost of 
 carrying it to farms and gardens where it is needed. 
 Much of the precious substance, in the far West especially, 
 has been drawn out in trainloads and dumped into 
 ravines as the best way of disposing of it. The fertilizer 
 thus made is rich in the elements of fertility, as in making 
 it the sheep are fed chiefly on concentrated food. Much 
 of the grain thus fed is given as screenings, especially in 
 the West, and as these are fed in the unground form, the 
 manure contains many weed seeds, the vitality of which 
 has not been destroyed. These have not been consumed 
 by the sheep, but have been dropped by them while tak- 
 ing their food. Their presence makes it so far undesir- 
 able for gardeners. 
 
 Fertilizer is sometimes obtained from the western 
 ranges where sheep have been corralled and wintered for 
 successive years. This product is sometimes known as 
 sheep guano. It contains much plant food, relatively, as 
 it has lost but little in manurial constituents through 
 leaching, and it is almost devoid of admixture of such sub- 
 stances as litter and earth. In some instances these ac- 
 cumulations have assumed large proportions, but they 
 have frequently become much deteriorated through age. 
 Notwithstanding they have been shipped more or less 
 freely to the East, where they have been used by garden- 
 ers, more especially by those engaged in growing products 
 of the greenhouse. The cost of transportation has 
 proved restrictive to the trade. 
 
 How sheep manure takes harm — Sheep manure, like 
 that from other animals, may be injured by leaching, as in 
 yards where sheep are wintered it is usually spread over 
 much surface area relatively. In such instances the loss 
 from this source is serious where the rains are frequent, 
 hence the wisdom of applying it under such conditions 
 as soon as possible after it is made. 
 
 Sheep manure is also frequently injured by molds. 
 
12 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 These are caused by undue heat in the manure in the ab- 
 sence of moisture. This heated condition of the manure 
 is sometimes spoken of as "fire fang." The hazard of loss 
 from this source is much greater when the manure is un- 
 der cover than when it is exposed to the elements. The 
 mold usually assumes a white color in sheep manure. It 
 has then lost nearly all its nitrogen, and its value in other 
 respects has become greatly lessened. Sheep manure un- 
 der cover is much liable to become thus affected owing to 
 the relatively small amount of liquid in the voidings. 
 
 To get the best possible value from sheep manure it 
 should be applied to the land in the fresh form, and as 
 soon as possible after it is made. That, of course, holds 
 true of all manure, but it is pre-eminently true of manure 
 made by sheep. When allowed to mold so that the mold 
 permeates the mass, it will not repay the labor of apply- 
 ing it. 
 
 The cost of applying manure made by sheep is, in the 
 aggregate, considerably less than in the case of other ani- 
 mals. This is owing to the longer period relatively dur- 
 ing which they remain in the pasture. In the autumn 
 they are frequently grazed for several weeks after cattle 
 have been confined to the yards, and usually they are 
 turned out to graze for two to four weeks after cattle 
 have been confined to the yards, and generally they are 
 turned out to graze from two to three weeks earlier in the 
 spring. This, of course, adds to the value of sheep as fer- 
 tilizers of the land. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 SHEEP AS SCAVENGERS AND IMPROVERS OF 
 CROP YIELDS 
 
 In Chapter II the discussion dwells upon the follow- 
 ing: (i) Sheep as weed destroyers; (2) Freeing land 
 from weeds by sheep ; (3) Sheep as destroyers of brush ; 
 
 (4) Improving grain yields through grazing with sheep; 
 
 (5) Improving the stand of grass by such grazing; (6) 
 Improving clover seed yields through grazing; (7) Why 
 sheep should be kept on nearly all farms ; and (8) Sheep 
 and fresh meat on the farm. The great service which 
 they may render in all these ways is too little understood. 
 Their ability to render it is largely the outcome of that 
 instinct which prompts them to feed upon a wide variety 
 of food. They have been known to winter upon seaweed, 
 even in stern maritime climates, and in these they have 
 in some instances been fed considerable quantities of 
 dried fish. 
 
 Sheep as weed destroyers — The value of sheep as 
 weed destroyers has seldom been taken at its true worth. 
 The varieties of weeds that sheep will not consume are 
 few, providing they may have access to them when they 
 are young, and when consuming the weeds they also 
 transform them into useful mutton. The weeds thus con- 
 sumed that taint mutton offensively are few indeed. 
 Among the number are pennycress (Thalaspi arvense) 
 and the wild onion (Allium vineale). 
 
 Among the common noxious weeds that they do not care 
 to eat, are the mullein and the burdock, and such forms of 
 weed life as are protected by spines or prickles. But they will 
 frequently consume weeds thus protected when they are 
 young, as in the case of the Russian thistle (Salsola Kali, var. 
 tragus). The number of the weeds that they will consume 
 
 13 
 
14 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 is legion. But sheep consume weeds much more readily 
 when they are young than when they reach a more advanced 
 stage of growth. Succulence in plants is especially grateful 
 to sheep, and woodiness in the same is equally distasteful to 
 them. For instance, they will readily consume squirrel tail 
 (Hordcum jubatum) and foxtail (Setaria glauca) when 
 young, but when these reach an advanced stage of growth, 
 they will almost starve rather than feed upon them. They 
 show a decided preference for some forms of weed life as 
 compared even with the useful grasses when the former 
 are in the zenith of their succulence. Allow the same weeds 
 to reach the woody stage and they will not eat them. Such 
 are the weeds popularly known as pigweed (Amaranthus 
 hyhridus), and lamb's-quarters (Chcnopcdimn album). 
 
 But in many instances, after weeds have become so 
 woody that sheep will not consume them, they will strip 
 them of their leaves and thus prevent them from maturing 
 seeds. There are but few classes of weed seeds that they 
 will not consume when given access to them, hence the im- 
 mense service that they may render in grain fields after the 
 crop has been harvested. Among the exceptions are those 
 protected by stiff hair, as foxtail ; and by prickles and spines, 
 as in the case of the cocklebur (Xanthium canadcnse) and 
 the sand bur (Ccnchrus tribiiloides). 
 
 Because of this weed-eating habit, sheep may be made 
 to render much service in pastures, even when gleaning along 
 with other live stock. Many forms of weed life grow amid 
 pastures betimes which cattle and horses will not consume 
 at any stage of their growth. When sheep may have access 
 to these, they trim them down proportionately to their num- 
 bers, and in many instances will in time cause them to dis- 
 appear. In this way such intruders in pastures as briers and 
 bushes of various kinds may be destroyed, as well as plants 
 more properly classified as weeds. In pastures on timber 
 lands newly cleared sheep may be thus made to render most 
 valuable service by destroying the sprouts that grow amid 
 the trees. 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS I5 
 
 When sheep may glean amid the stubbles from which 
 grain crops have been removed, they not only gather the 
 heads of the fallen grain more or less, but they feed upon 
 the weeds which have grown among the same. Even though 
 they should reject the stalk, almost invariably they will con- 
 sume the seeds. The seeds of some weeds when sufficiently 
 numerous aid materially in fattening them. Such is wild 
 buckwheat (Polygonum convolvulus), which grows so 
 abundantly in the grain fields of the northwestern prairies. 
 The service which sheep may thus be made to render grain- 
 growing farmers is very great. When such crops as dwarf 
 essex rape and fall turnips have been sown along with the 
 grain, the profits from such grazing usually are greatly en- 
 hanced. 
 
 Sheep may be made to profitably consume weeds that 
 grow amid standing corn under certain conditions of growth, 
 without any injury to the corn. These conditions call for 
 corn of sufficient height to produce ears reasonably high 
 from the ground, and that has not been too far bent over 
 by storms. As is generally known in seasons of much rain- 
 fall, weeds may grow luxuriantly after the last cultivation 
 given to the corn, and unless eaten down before the corn is 
 harvested many of them may mature their seeds. For such 
 grazing lambs have higher adaptation than sheep, since they 
 are much less liable to disturb the corn. 
 
 Lambs are usually weaned about the time that such 
 grazing is ready. The corn stalks furnish a grateful shade 
 for the lambs. While thus gleaning they will, when suffi- 
 ciently numerous, clean out the weeds. They may also trim 
 off the lower leaves of the corn, but the corn crop will not 
 be harmed by such trimming. Usually they will not disturb 
 the ears as long as other food is plentiful. 
 
 There is no place probably wherein sheep will render 
 better service than when allowed to glean amid the by-places 
 of the farm. These include such places as paddocks, lanes, 
 fence borders, nooks and corners around outbuildings, and 
 even around the dwelling, front and rear, in the absence of 
 
l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 flowers and shrubs. They may even in certain instances ren- 
 der good service when gleaning in groves and belts planted 
 for protection. It is in such places that weeds are more 
 liable to become entrenched and to escape destruction, since, 
 if destroyed otherwise than by sheep, hand labor is involved, 
 and usually at a season when such labor cannot well be 
 spared. When the vegetation on these by-places is neglected, 
 it not only means that mischievous forms of weed life grow 
 to maturity, but they give the farm an unkempt appearance 
 that is repelling. The difference between a nicely grazed 
 lane and one rank with weed life is very marked, and the 
 same is true of other nooks and corners. When sheep have 
 timely and sufficient access to these, almost without any aid 
 they will keep them so trimmed that they will present a neat 
 appearance. When the sheep are thus employed, they will 
 be consuming a variety of food which is much helpful to 
 their well being. Sheep thus grazed are usually fat, and 
 their summer food is obtained without cost. 
 
 Nowhere probably can sheep render better service than 
 when grazing on fallow land when it is infested with weed 
 life. Under some conditions there would be little or no 
 food for sheep on land that is summer-fallowed, as, for in- 
 stance, when the land is frequently plowed while lying fallow 
 or frequently cultivated after it has been plowed. Under 
 other conditions much food is furnished, especially on 
 western prairies where weed growth is very rapid in the 
 summer. When sheep can have access to such lands they 
 will crop down weeds that might otherwise go to seed. The 
 presence of sheep in sufficient numbers would reduce the 
 amount of cultivation that would otherwise be called for. 
 and the grazing would tend to impact the soil, which would 
 in many instances prove a material aid when growing the 
 succeeding grain crop. If, at the proper time, which would 
 not be later than the end of June, three pounds of rape seed 
 were sown per acre and covered with a stroke of the har- 
 row, the grazing furnished by the same would in many in- 
 stances fatten 10 to 15 sheep or lambs, and with benefit 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS I7 
 
 rather than injury to the crop that would follow. Any 
 weeds growing up amid the rape would be consumed by the 
 sheep. The only real hazard incurred would be the possi- 
 bility of having too much straw in the grain crop that would 
 follow, because of the fertility left on the surface of the soil 
 by the sheep. 
 
 Freeing lands from weeds — Many kinds of weeds 
 may be eradicated by simply growing crops in close suc- 
 cession and grazing them down with sheep. When thus 
 grazed the land is divided by fences, portable or other- 
 wise, so that the grazing may be conducted in alternation 
 on the different inclosures. The succession of crops is so 
 close that each division of the land is made to produce 
 two and in some instances three crops in one season. 
 The crops thus grown are annuals, and some mature so 
 quickly that they may be regarded as catch crops when 
 thus grown. But it is necessary while grazing sheep thus 
 to have a grass pasture in reserve on which the sheep 
 may be grazed when the wet condition of the ground may 
 make it inadvisable to continue the grazing on the lands 
 on which the crops are grown in succession. 
 
 The crops best adapted for such grazing will depend 
 to a considerable degree on the conditions that relate to 
 soil and climate. Soils low in adaptation are those classed 
 as clay, because vegetation on these grows slowly and 
 they impact readily if grazed when wet. Nor do light 
 sands rank high for such a use, because of the amount of 
 fertilization which they require to produce good grazing, 
 especially when the grazing of these is first begun. Loam 
 soils, and especially sandy loams, have highest adaptation 
 for being thus grazed. 
 
 In the north the crops that may be grown thus in- 
 clude rye, mixed grains, rape, cabbage, corn and sorghum. 
 In the central states, cowpeas and soy beans may be 
 added to the list. In the far western states, kale and 
 vetches may be added, but not soy beans and cowpeas. 
 In the Atlantic states, the list may include all those 
 
l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 named and in addition crimson clover, but the sand vetch 
 would grow rather than the common vetch grown in the 
 West. In the southern states, the list is a long one. It 
 includes winter rye, certain of the cereals, the sand or 
 hairy vetch, cowpeas, soy beans, velvet beans, corn and 
 the sorghums, rape, cabbage and kale. 
 
 The succession in which these crops should be grown 
 will depend largely on natural adaptation. Certain of 
 them, as winter rye, the sand vetch and crimson clover, 
 grow best in the early spring. Others, as corn, the sor- 
 ghums, cowpeas, soy beans and velvet beans, grow best 
 in the summer; and yet others, as rape, cabbage and kale, 
 are naturally at their best in the autumn. 
 
 The following are prominent among the benefits that 
 follow such grazing: First, noxious weeds that infest the 
 soil are removed from it, in some instances entirely, and 
 in all instances the reduction is marked. The complete- 
 ness of the removal effected will depend on the class of 
 the weeds and the ways in which they propagate, on the 
 kind or kinds of the forage crops and on the manner of 
 growing them. 
 
 This system of grazing will soon destroy all biennial 
 weeds, as weeds of this class will soon succumb to culti- 
 vation so intensive. It will also reduce the most trouble- 
 some perennials to such an extent in two or three seasons 
 that the labor of removing by hand any plants that may 
 grow later becomes easily practicable. This reduction is 
 effected through the germination of the weed seeds lying 
 in the soil. The frequent stirring given to the soil 
 hastens the germination and the weeds thus started are 
 cared for by the sheep. The eradication of perennials 
 may take longer, but in most instances the frequent 
 stirring of the soil, the cropping down of the young plants 
 and the smothering influence of the pasture crops will 
 bring about the desired results. 
 
 Each kind of forage crop is more hurtful to the 
 growth of some weeds than to the growth of others. By 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS I9 
 
 changing the succession in the crops, it is easily possible to 
 cripple all kinds of weeds in their growth, by growing those 
 crops which will best effect the end sought in each in- 
 stance. Some crops grow more quickly than others, and 
 in doing so make grazing possible at a time that will do 
 most harm to the weeds. Some crowd weeds more than 
 others, and some furnish the opportunity for attacking 
 weeds to a greater extent than others in the preparation 
 of soil called for and also in the time when such prepara- 
 tion should be given. When these influences are given 
 due attention, the destroying process will be proportion- 
 ately hastened. 
 
 The method by which these crops are grown has an 
 important bearing on the destruction of weed life. Grow- 
 ing crops that call for harrowing after the planting season 
 will result in destroying more weeds than growing crops 
 that do not call for such treatment, and growing those 
 that call for both harrowing and cultivating will prove 
 even more effective in the removal of weeds. Careful 
 cultivation given to forage crops while they are grow- 
 ing will be more effective in destroying perennial weeds 
 than other forms of weed life. 
 
 Second, the weeds that grow are transformed into mut- 
 ton during the cleaning process. Other classes of live stock 
 are much prone to reject weeds, and consequently when the 
 effort is made to destroy them they are seldom turned to any 
 good use. It may not be possible to make high-class mutton 
 from weeds alone, but experience has abundantly proved that 
 excellent mutton can be made from forage crops grown as 
 outlined and the weeds that grow along with them. 
 
 Third, the land is fertilized while thus being grazed. 
 This does not mean that the content of its fertility in the soil 
 and subsoil is increased, but that the fertility in the subsoil, 
 or at least a part of it, is transformed from inert into avail- 
 able forms, and is brought from the subsoil and incorporated 
 in the surface soil, in which it is readily accessible to the 
 roots of the crops that may be sown. The accumulation of 
 
20 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 fertility in the surface soil thus becomes more rapid than the 
 depletion of the same through the fertility removed in the 
 flesh and in the wool of the sheep sold that have been thus 
 grazed. If there is any loss of fertility, it is in the subsoil 
 rather than in the surface soil. 
 
 Fourth, the soil is left in a condition which makes it 
 practicable to prepare it for a crop that is to follow at a 
 minimum expenditure of labor. The grazing last grown is 
 usually eaten down to the ground. The soil is in a great 
 measure free from all forms of weed growth. The richest 
 portion of the cultivable area is that which is near the sur- 
 face, because of the recent distribution of the droppings on 
 the same. It is important that they shall be kept near the 
 surface, hence in preparing such land for the succeeding 
 crop, the disk will usually answer the purpose better than 
 the plow, hence the labor called for is less than if the land 
 were plowed. 
 
 Fifth, this method of grazing sheep tends to protect 
 them from some forms of parasitical disease. For instance, 
 it is about certain that it tends to shield lambs from attack 
 by tapeworms, and stomach worms. When the dams are 
 not allowed to graze on old pasture lands in the spring, it is 
 believed that lambs thus grazed with their dams will not usu- 
 ally be attacked with these ailments. If this belief should be 
 sustained in all instances, it will bring within the reach of 
 the flock master an easily practicable method of protecting 
 his flock from infestation. 
 
 Sixth, grazing sheep thus tends to increase the revenue 
 from the land. This arises from the marked increase in 
 the production of wool and mutton as compared with pro- 
 duction from the same under the usual conditions that at- 
 tend the grazing of sheep. The expense of production where 
 the management is judicious, should be less relatively than 
 under ordinary methods of grazing, though much more in 
 the aggregate. Experiments conducted to show a compara- 
 tive profit from such a system of grazing as compared with 
 grazing on grass pastures only have not come to the knowl- 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 21 
 
 edge of the author, but the profits should certainly be satis- 
 factory where the management is judicious. 
 
 There are, of course, some objections to grazing sheep 
 thus. One is found in the labor involved at a busy season of 
 the year. There is first, the work of preparing the land for 
 each successive crop and sowing it ; second, the labor in- 
 volved, it may be, in cultivating some of the crops; third, 
 the labor of taking the sheep to and from the pastures, and 
 fourth, the work of removing and putting up frequently such 
 portions of the fences as are movable when movable fences 
 are used. 
 
 A second objection is found in the outlay for fencing. 
 While it is, of course, practicable to introduce this system of 
 grazing on any arable farm and on any portion of it where 
 introduced on a large scale, the arrangement of the fences 
 with reference to the grazing is a matter of prime impor- 
 tance. When planning any system of grazing through grow- 
 ing crops in succession, the aim should be to secure one plot 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 li 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 FIG. 1— PANEL OF MOVABLE FENCE AND HEADPIECE 
 
 or field long in proportion to the width, in order that the 
 outlay for the cross fences, movable or otherwise, should 
 be relatively low. If two such plots or fields can be secured 
 with a lane between them, the conditions are so far im- 
 proved. There should be easy access to a grass pasture and 
 also to the sheds, as it is necessary to admit the sheep fre- 
 quently to the sheds or the pastures while they are being 
 thus grazed. In Figure i is shown a panel of movable fence 
 and the headpiece for the same. Each panel is composed of 
 three boards, 4x1 inches wide and a fourth one at the bot- 
 
22 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 torn 1x6 inches wide. When complete the panel is 12 feet 
 long and 3 feet 2 inches high. The end cross slats are nailed 
 on the same side and 6 inches from the ends of the boards. 
 The spaces from below are 6, 6^ and 7^4 inches. The bot- 
 tom board of the headpiece is 6 x 1% inches and 3 feet 6 
 inches long on the ground side. The two uprights are 4 
 X i}^ inches and 4 feet long. One is nailed on each side 
 of the sole piece, and these cross each other at about 6 
 inches from the ends. The notches are 3 inches deep and 
 2 inches wide. When in place the corresponding slats of 
 the panels rest side by side in the notches. Wire nails 
 are used 33/2 inches long. It is frequently necessary to 
 drive a short stake beside the base of the headpiece, which 
 is also nailed to it, to prevent the wind from tipping it 
 over. 
 
 A third objection to grazing sheep thus arises from 
 the harm that follows such grazing when the soil is wet 
 from rain or when the crops well grown are wet with 
 dew. Harm comes to the land if grazed soon after heavy 
 rain ; such harm results from impaction. It increases with 
 increase in the clay content in the soil, with increase in 
 the saturation of the land, and with increase in the weight 
 of the sheep that are being thus grazed. Harm comes to 
 the crop, especially when the growth has advanced some 
 distance above the ground, as the sheep while grazing on 
 it when wet with dew or rain break it down much more 
 readily than they would under other conditions of graz- 
 ing. The grazing is also soiled more or less by earth ad- 
 hering to it, and in this way it becomes so offensive to 
 the sheep as to be rejected by them. Harm to some ex- 
 tent may also come to the sheep when wading through 
 tall pastures, as for instance those furnished by rape, corn 
 and sorghum, when these are saturated by rain or a 
 copious dew. Such a condition is not natural, and, there- 
 fore, it cannot be conducive to the well being of the sheep. 
 The necessity for a grass pasture will be thus apparent 
 on which to graze the sheep when the other pastures are 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 23 
 
 too wet to admit of grazing them without injury. In an 
 experiment conducted at the Minnesota station the author 
 succeeded in grazing i6 sheep, of which lo were lambs, 
 during nearly all the period of grazing from spring until 
 the late autumn on one acre of land, without giving them 
 any additional food. The acre was divided into four equal 
 parts and crops were grown in succession on each of 
 these. The sheep were moved from one to the other divi- 
 sion as occasion called for such removal and the crops 
 were grown in succession. As soon as one crop was 
 grazed down, another was sown. The crops consisted 
 mainly of winter rye, mixed grains, dwarf Essex rape, 
 sorghum, small growing corn, and cabbage. The experi- 
 ment made it very clear that in humid areas a very large 
 number of sheep could be maintained on a relatively small 
 area of land, and with much benefit to the land, viewed 
 from the standpoints of weed eradication and fertilization. 
 Sheep as destroyers of brush — Sheep when properly 
 managed may render substantial aid in destroying brush 
 on lands from which it is desired to clear away the same. 
 Their value for such uses, however, has probably been 
 overestimated. For destroying brush, they are not nearly 
 the equal of goats. Nevertheless, they may be turned to 
 excellent account in destroying the sprouts that spring 
 up around the roots of trees in pastures from which the 
 forest has been recently cut away. They will also clean 
 out such growths of shrub and brush as are wont to 
 spring up after the forest has been cut away, as, for in- 
 stance, sassafras of the South and the raspberry of the 
 North. Mowing down the briers where sheep graze will 
 materially hasten their extermination. Some breeds of 
 sheep have higher adaptation for such a use than others. 
 In this respect the Merinos probably stand first, because 
 of the natural inheritance from ancestors which have been 
 accustomed to graze over wide areas on which grew a 
 varied flora, and because it is more admissible to keep 
 
24 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 them in large flocks where much grazing may be required 
 than in the case of other breeds. 
 
 Sheep should never be confined exclusively to brush 
 pastures. The leaves of trees and shrubs are not the 
 natural diet of sheep, although they may live on the same 
 for a considerable time. While goats will fatten on such 
 food, if sheep are confined to brush pastures exclusively 
 or even mainly, but one result can follow, which is that 
 the flock will become the wreck of its former self. Great 
 loss has sometimes followed the attempts to keep sheep 
 thus by investors who did not know that sheep would 
 not thrive on brush. 
 
 Nevertheless, under certain conditions, they may be 
 used with much advantage in destroying brush, provid- 
 ing they are suitably managed when thus used. They 
 should be provided with a grass pasture on which they 
 may graze during a portion of each day. The brush will 
 be more quickly destroyed if the sheep can be taken from 
 the corral to the brush pasture in the morning when they 
 are hungry, or if they can be turned into it the previous 
 evening. They will then browse freely on the brush, but 
 in the afternoon they should have the run of a grass 
 pasture well stocked with grass. When the grass and 
 the brush are in the same pasture, the brush will eventu- 
 ally be killed, but not in one season where the brush pre- 
 ponderates. 
 
 Grain grazed by sheep — In some instances grain 
 crops may be grazed by sheep during the early stages of 
 growth with benefit to the crop, in addition to the graz- 
 ing furnished. In other instances such grazing, even of 
 the same crops and on the same soils, may prove detri- 
 mental to the yields obtained from them. In some in- 
 stances the increase from such grazing may be more than 
 50 per cent, and in other instances the decrease may be 
 equally large. The marked difference in the results may 
 be the outcome of a difference in the character of the 
 seasons in conjunction with prudent or imprudent grazing. 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 25 
 
 Nearly all the small cereals may be profited by such 
 grazing under certain conditions. The winter crops, as 
 winter rye, winter wheat and in the South winter oats, 
 will furnish such grazing for a longer period, of course, 
 than any of the cereals that are spring sown. Peas do not 
 stand such grazing as well as other cereals, and the same 
 is probably true of legumes generally. The production 
 of corn and the sorghums is probably lowered in all in- 
 stances by such grazing where a mature crop is sought. 
 If corn is eaten down after it has produced the first joint, 
 it will not grow again. 
 
 It would seem correct to say, on first thought, that 
 the yields obtained from the small cereals will not be in- 
 creased by such grazing, except in instances in which the 
 crop ungrazed would produce relatively too large a pro- 
 portion of straw. But this view must not be pressed too 
 far, for there are instances in which the simple impaction 
 of the soil by the treading of the sheep would seem to 
 have improved the yields even where straw is not pro- 
 duced in excess. Such are certain soils of the prairie, so 
 light in texture as to sink easily beneath the tread. The 
 impaction thus produced tends to lessen the escape of 
 moisture by surface evaporation and its benefits are 
 greatest in a dry season. Furthermore, when the small 
 cereals are grazed, they stool more than when not grazed, 
 and this means a relative increase in nearly all instances 
 in the number of heads produced. 
 
 When winter rye, wheat or oats are growing so rankly 
 as a result of rich land and early sowing that, unchecked, 
 they will head out too early, then it would be in order to 
 graze them down for a time. But judgment must be 
 used as to the closeness of the grazing, as undue exposure 
 of the roots to the influences of severe winter weather 
 may prove harmful to the crop. Localities in which the 
 winter weather is usually not extreme are best adapted to 
 such grazing. When spring-sown cereals grow so rankly 
 in the early stages of growth that the danger is imminent 
 
26 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 that they will lodge, then great good may result from 
 grazing them down for a time by sheep. Early sown 
 crops will profit the most from such grazing, as the graz- 
 ing tends to make the crops ripen somewhat later, hence 
 the grazing down of late crops may so defer maturity in 
 these that they would pass the season most favorable to 
 maturing under the best conditions before maturity is 
 reached. When the area to be grazed is large relatively 
 in proportion to the number of sheep on hand, the graz- 
 ing may begin on spring-sown cereals as soon as the sheep 
 can obtain food from the plants, but cereals fall sown are 
 not usually grazed thus early, as the season for grazing is 
 so much longer than with cereals spring sown. 
 
 Grazing cereals with sheep may harm the crops 
 rather than help them under certain conditions. Harm 
 will follow if they are grazed on these crops growing on 
 clay soil so moist that impaction will result from the graz- 
 ing. Such soils do not receive benefit from impaction, 
 but usually the opposite. Such grazing is seldom prac- 
 ticable on stiff clays, and generally is not needed, as on 
 such soils crops do not usually grow too. rankly. Harm 
 will follow the grazing of winter crops much beyond the 
 season when spring growth begins, although winter rye 
 may in some instances be pastured with advantage to the 
 crop for two or three weeks subsequently to the opening 
 of the growing season, and harm will follow if the graz- 
 ing is continued so long in any case as to reduce the pro- 
 duction of straw below what is necessary to produce normal 
 yields of grain. Such an occurrence follows pasturing 
 too long continued in all instances, and it is accentu- 
 ated when the weather turns dry. The necessity, there- 
 fore, for exercising correct judgment when grazing such 
 crops is ever present. As the nature of the weather can- 
 not be forecasted with certainty, the prudence which 
 stops short of adequate pasturing is to be commended 
 rather than the temerity which hazards pasturing unduly 
 severe. 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 2"^ 
 
 Grazing young grass with sheep — The stand of newly 
 sown grasses and clovers has in many instances been im- 
 proved by grazing them with sheep, whether these have 
 been sown alone or with a nurse crop, but this result does 
 not follow under all conditions nor on all soils. When 
 sown alone, the benefit may come, first, from the impac- 
 tion of the soil, and, second, from the removal of the 
 shade of weeds that would otherwise overshadow the 
 grasses. When sown with grain crops, the benefit may 
 come, first, from the impaction through treading; second, 
 from the removal of the shade that would otherwise over- 
 shadow the young grasses, and, third, from lessening the 
 need for moisture supplies in the grain crops, thus leav- 
 ing more for the grasses. 
 
 Newly sown grasses are thus improved in nearly all 
 instances when they are sown along with one or more 
 kinds of grain in the spring; that is, on soils where such 
 grazing is admissible. On light soils they are more im- 
 proved relatively than on heavy soils, and in a dry season 
 than in one over moist. Such grazing of newly sown 
 grasses is not so admissible in the autumn, as it would 
 tend to the removal of the protection which is so help- 
 ful to the plants in winter. On light, spongy soils difii- 
 culty is found in obtaining a stand of grasses sown along 
 with a nurse crop when the season turns dry. The grasses 
 grow so delicately, because of the little moisture left for 
 them by the grain plants, and because of the crowding 
 of the same, that in many instances they perish outright 
 after the nurse crop has been removed by harvesting. 
 
 On the soft, spongy soils of the prairie, and espe- 
 cially where moisture is not plentiful, when grass seeds 
 are sown with one or more of the small cereals and the 
 grain and grass are grazed down almost from the first, 
 the stand of the grass will be much better than if the crop 
 had not been so grazed. In some seasons a stand of grass 
 will be obtained on such soils if thus grazed when failure 
 would have resulted but for the grazing. When grass 
 
28 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 seeds are sown on newly cleared forest lands, the same 
 result will follow. The sunlight admitted by the grazing 
 tends to make the young plants strong. A stand of grass 
 may thus be obtained in many instances when the seed is 
 sown along with some crop grown especially to provide 
 grazing for sheep. P'or instance, grasses may be thus 
 sown with rape, cowpeas, soy beans, and even sorghum 
 when the latter is grown for grazing. 
 
 Such grazing, however, is not admissible on lands 
 that usually impact too readily. Such are heavy clay 
 soils. The growth of the young plants on these is rela- 
 tively slow at the best, and would be slower if the soil. 
 already too dense, were made more so by the treading of 
 sheep. To graze such soils when unduly moist would not 
 only greatly injure present but also future production. 
 
 Sheep and clover seed yields — The yields of clover 
 seed may frequently be much increased by grazing the 
 crop judiciously with sheep. This holds true, not only of 
 the common red, but also of the alsike and the mammoth 
 varieties. The increase in the yields of seed with the 
 varieties last named arises, first, from the check given to 
 over-exuberant growth in clovers ; and, second, from the 
 influence which early grazing has on increased stooling 
 in plants. The first tends to center development more 
 on seed production than on the production of stem and 
 leaves; and the second, by increasing the number of the 
 stems and the heads, increases the number of the seeds. 
 The increase with the medium red arises from the same 
 causes, and also from the more favorable season for abun- 
 dant seed production at which the crop may be made to ma- 
 ture. Ordinarily, seed is obtained from the second growth 
 of the common red variety, the first having been taken 
 for hay. Owing to the lateness of the growth in some in- 
 stances, and probably to the partial exhaustion of the 
 powers of the plant in others, the yields of the seed are 
 reduced. Reduction in yields is also caused in some in- 
 stances by the clover midge (Cecidomyia legiimiiiicoJa), 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 29 
 
 and it may be by other insects. By grazing with sheep the 
 maturity of the seed crop may be so hastened that the crop 
 will escape injury from the midge. 
 
 When clover intended for seed is grazed by sheep the 
 grazing should begin soon after growth begins in the 
 clover. The aim should be to so stock the land that the 
 grazing shall be reasonably close and also reasonably uni- 
 form. The continuance of the grazing should be deter- 
 mined by the character of the season and by the variety 
 of the clover. In a dry season it should be short, in a wet 
 season longer, but in no instance should it continue many 
 weeks from the beginning of the grazing. The common 
 red clover may be grazed longer than the other varieties. 
 Unless the grazing is uniform the red clover seed will 
 not ripen evenly. 
 
 Such grazing should not be attempted on clay soils 
 when they are so wet that impaction would follow the 
 grazing; nor should it be too long continued, lest the abil- 
 ity of the plants to produce sufficiently strong stems and 
 ])lants for abundant production of seeds should be too 
 much curtailed. As the nature of the weather cannot be 
 forecasted with certainty, it is difficult to determine when 
 such grazing should cease. It should be remembered, 
 however, that to graze too little is wiser than to graze too 
 much. 
 
 Sheep on all farms — Several reasons may be given 
 showing why sheep should be kept on all or nearly all 
 the farms of the United States and Canada. They should 
 be so kept, first, because of the service which they can 
 render; second, because a small flock may be so main- 
 tained at little cost; and third, because the conditions un- 
 der which they may be so kept are most favorable to their 
 thrift. 
 
 The service which they may render in destroying 
 weeds has already been discussed. See page 13. So 
 marked is this service that it alone would furnish a justi- 
 fication for keeping them in at least limited numbers. 
 
30 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Usually the farm which sustains a small band of sheep 
 may at once be distinguished from farms around it with- 
 out sheep by the greater cleanliness which characterizes 
 it. If sheep were generally kept on farms, the disgrace 
 of weed pollution which rests upon so many of the farms 
 of this country would to a great extent be taken away. 
 But in addition to this service, they may be made to fur- 
 nish a large proportion of the meat required by the farmer 
 and his household. The cjuality of the meat so furnished 
 cannot be surpassed, since it is grown on a wide variety 
 of'foods much of which is possessed of ample succulence, at 
 least during the season of grazing. Should the meat thus 
 furnished be not all wanted on the farm, the market for it 
 locally is usually good. 
 
 The cost of keeping a small flock on the farm is small 
 indeed. Much of the food which they consume during 
 the grazing season would not be consumed but for the 
 presence of the sheep. The food to be charged against 
 them is what they consume in winter, and the season for 
 the winter feeding of sheep is shorter than with other 
 animals. When the service which they render in destroy- 
 ing Aveeds and in enriching the soil is considered, the 
 charges that may legitimately be made against them are 
 small indeed. 
 
 It has been noticed that when sheep are thus kept in 
 small flocks, they keep in a better condition as to flesh 
 and thrift generally than if kept in large bands. The per- 
 centage of loss is also much less. The reasons are found 
 in the variety of the food furnished in the absence of over- 
 stocking in the pasture and over-crowding in the sheds, 
 and in the lessened liability to disease which the lowering 
 of vitality brings with it in the weaker animals in a large 
 flock. When the benefits from keeping a small band of 
 sheep on the farm are considered, it is, indeed, surpris- 
 ing that they are found on so few farms. The percentage 
 of the farms on which they are now kept is small, indeed, 
 compared with the same a few decades ago. The reasons 
 
SHEEP AS IMPROVERS OF CROP YIELDS 3 1 
 
 for the change include the following: First, the loss from 
 dogs has driven many farmers out of the industry. With 
 increase in population dog| have proportionately in- 
 creased, and the losses resulting, therefore, have more 
 than kept pace with increase in the number of the dogs, 
 since vagrant dogs in growing villages are more numer- 
 ous than when the population was less dense, and these 
 are often ill fed. Second, many farms, especially those 
 on western prairies, are not fenced and until they are, in 
 part at least, sheep cannot be kept upon them. Third, 
 the transfer of the manufacture of wool from the looms of 
 the farm to those of the woolen mills has very much less- 
 ened the necessity for keeping the sheep on the farm. 
 
 The number of sheep that may thus be kept on the 
 farm with profit for the uses specified will, of course, 
 vary with the conditions. It would seem correct to say 
 that usually the flock should not be less than, say 20 
 breeding ewes on each 160 acres. That number should 
 keep weeds well in check in by-places, and should furnish 
 all the mutton, and more probably, than would be wanted 
 on the farm. If the number on the average farm were 
 introduced into the farms of the United States and Can- 
 ada, the result would be a virtual revolutionizing of the 
 sheep industry in both countries. 
 
 Sheep and fresh meat on the farm — No kind of live 
 stock kept on the farm is so well adapted to furnish the 
 household with fresh meat as sheep, unless it be poultry. 
 This is owing to the light weight relatively of the carcass. 
 Unless, in the warmest months, a lamb may be kept fresh 
 until consumed, and with an ice-house on the farm, it 
 may be kept fresh in any weather. 
 
 The mutton which such sheep furnish is a delicacy. 
 The variety of the plants on which the sheep feed is such 
 as to furnish excellent flavor in the meat. The succu- 
 lence makes it tender and juicy. The abundance of the 
 grazing makes it well covered. No kind of meat can be 
 furnished that is superior to mutton thus grown. It is a 
 
32 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 luxury in the line of meat, and the marvel is that so few 
 of the farmers avail themselves of the opportunity to en- 
 joy it. ... 
 
 The influence on the cost of living is very material. 
 In the average home where all the food consumed is pur- 
 chased, meat is the most costly item of the living. Where 
 it is not reared it must, of course, be purchased ; hence 
 the wisdom of trying to render such outlay unnecessary 
 as far as practicable by growing home supplies of meat 
 on the farm. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 SHEEP FOR WOOL, FOR MUTTON AND FOR 
 BOTH USES 
 
 This chapter discusses the following phases of the 
 subjects of which it treats: (i) Classification of sheep 
 based on use; (2) The wool and mutton-producing 
 breeds; (3) The influences that afifect wool production; 
 (4) The influences that affect mutton production; (5) 
 The wool and mutton breeds contrasted ; (6) Conditions 
 more favorable to mutton production mainly ; (7) Cross- 
 ing merinos on mutton breeds and their grades ; (8) 
 Crossing mutton breeds on Merinos and their grades ; 
 (9) What the aim should be in wool production ; and (10) 
 What the aim should be in mutton production. 
 
 Classification based on use — The classification of 
 sheep based on use divides them into wool-producing and 
 mutton-producing breeds, and also into breeds which are 
 grown for the dual purpose of furnishing both wool and 
 mutton. In the United States and Canada sheep are 
 never grown exclusively for one purpose, though they are 
 frequently grown with a view to give prominence to wool 
 production in the one instance and to mutton production 
 in the other. In well-managed flocks, the aim now is to 
 produce a maximum yield of both wool and mutton from 
 the breed or grade of sheep that is being grown. 
 
 The time was when sheep were grown in the United 
 States much more for the production of wool than for the 
 production of mutton. Wool was the primary object 
 sought, mutton being the secondary or incidental product. 
 This held down what may be termed the American 
 Merino age of sheep husbandry in the United States. 
 This period covered practically the whole of the nine- 
 teenth century, although during the last quarter of the 
 
 33 
 
34 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH TJSES 35 
 
 century the current had set in toward increased mutton 
 productioii. During the greater portion of this century 
 it has been claimed, and the claim would seem to be cor- 
 rect, that Merinos and their grades constituted fully 95 
 l)er cent of all the sheep grown. On the ranges especially 
 were sheep grown mainly for wool, and to further the 
 production thus obtained they were kept in many 
 instances to a reasonably advanced age, in striking con- 
 trast to the comparatively early age at which such stocks 
 are disposed of at the present time. It would seem cor- 
 rect to say that under no conditions are sheep kept in the 
 United States only for the production of wool. This, 
 liowever, has been done doubtless in pastoral countries 
 before the era when the shipping of frozen mutton began. 
 
 Whether wool or mutton shall be most sought in the 
 growing of sheep under American and Canadian condi- 
 tions will be determined chiefly by the conditions under 
 which they are grown. On the arable farm mutton pro- 
 duction, as a rule, is the dominant end for which they are 
 grown. The greatly increased demand for mutton dur- 
 ing recent years has stimulated production for this end. 
 The character of the foods grown makes such produc- 
 tion easily possible. Even on the range, mutton pro- 
 duction has much more significance than in former years. 
 This change is accentuated by the demand for sheep to be 
 fattened, the supply being now largely drawn from the 
 ranges. The increased demand for mutton sheep during 
 recent years has greatly increased the crossing of the 
 Alerino types with rams of the more distinctive mutton 
 breeds. 
 
 Wool and mutton-producing breeds — The Merino 
 types were formerly classed as wool-producing sheep, 
 because of the extent to which the production of wool 
 was dominant. These were probably the only types in 
 America that were so characterized. The modifications 
 in the breeding of these during recent years, and espe- 
 cially during the past three or four decades, has, in a 
 
36 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 sense, brought them into the dual class. More especially 
 is this true of the Rambouillet and Delaine types. 
 
 The mutton breeds include all the middle and long 
 wool breeds. The former of these in America include the 
 Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk, 
 Hampshire and Oxford Down breeds. The mountain 
 breeds are in the dual class. Of these onlv the West 
 
 A^ 
 
 FIG. 3— YEARLING RAMBOUILLETS GROWN FOR WOOL AND MUTTON 
 
 Property of F. W. Cook, Mansfield, Ohio. 
 
 (Courtesy of owner) 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 37 
 
 Highland and the Welsh Mountain are in this country, 
 and the numbers of both are yet inconsiderable. 
 
 A classification strictly accurate will put all the 
 breeds of sheep in America in the dual class. Some of 
 these, as the Merino types, may be properly classed as 
 wool and mutton producing. All the other breeds may 
 be properly classed as mutton and wool producing. The 
 modifications resulting from the improvement of the mut- 
 ton form on the one hand and wool production on the 
 other have in many instances been quite pronounced 
 during recent years. 
 
 Influences that affect wool production — The chief of 
 the influences that affect wool production are climate, 
 food and care, breeding and age. The influences thus ex- 
 erted are not equally potent, and these do not always 
 influence wool in the same way. These influences will 
 now be considered briefly. 
 
 It would seem correct to say that with decrease in 
 the mean temperature of climates wool increases in fine- 
 ness, and vice versa. This view is supported by the fact 
 that the wool fibers borne by sheep on the plains of hot 
 climates are usually coarser and fewer in number than 
 the same in cold climates. On the other hand, the moun- 
 tain breeds are usually clad in wool that is more or less 
 dense and fine. Too much must not be made, however, of 
 these general contrasts. They may be so influenced by 
 food and breeding that contrasts even the opposite may 
 be drawn from breeds kept under such conditions. The 
 fineness of the wool of the Spanish Merino for instance, 
 has been maintained in the somewhat austere climate of 
 New England as fully as in the balmy climate of South- 
 ern Spain. The same is true of this breed of sheep in the 
 mild latitudes of Australia or in the stern climate of 
 Sweden. It is evident, therefore, that other influences, as 
 selection, food and breeding, may be made to more than 
 counterbalance this general tendency of climate. The 
 degree of the moisture in climates also influences wool. 
 
38 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 but it probably does so more through the influence which 
 it exerts on food than directly. It is true, nevertheless, 
 that while moisture is generally favorable to the growth 
 of wool of strong fiber, this does not follow where heavy 
 and excessive rainfall is allowed to wash out much of the 
 yolk from the wool. Such wool will lack that softness 
 and elasticity which it would otherwise possess. 
 
 That food and care exercise a potent influence on 
 wool is a foregone conclusion. That it should be so is 
 self-evident, since wool is produced and sustained by food 
 the same as the flesh and bone which it covers, and suit- 
 able protection, therefore, is as necessary for the produc- 
 tion and maintenance of the former as of the latter. Food 
 influences wool, first, through the sustenance actually 
 furnished to the fibers ; and, second, through the lubrica- 
 tion given to them, Both influences will be proportionate 
 to the amount and character of the food given, but both 
 will be modified by the care bestowed on the flock and 
 the protection furnished. Foods that have the highest 
 adaptation to the requirements of digestion will also have 
 the highest adaptation for wool production. Foods, there- 
 fore, that have high adaptation for the growth of the car- 
 cass have also high adaptation for the growth of the wool 
 that covers it. 
 
 Speaking- in a general way, it would seem correct to 
 say (i) that the coarseness of the wool increases with the 
 coarseness of the food fed; (2) that its length up to a 
 certain limit increases with the suitability of the food; 
 (3) that the strength of its fiber is influenced by the suc- 
 culence of the food; and (4) that evenness of strength in 
 the fiber is influenced by the degree of the nutrition fur- 
 nished. That the general tendency in coarse foods is to 
 produce coarse wool is shown in the evolution of breeds 
 in Great Britain. The breeds which produce the finest 
 wool are found on the downs of the southern counties. 
 The breeds with coarse wool are found on lands with 
 coarser herbage, as those of Lincoln and Kent. And yet 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 39 
 
 this general tendency must not be pressed too far, as the 
 fineness of the wool in the Merino breeds has been main- 
 tained alike on the short herbage of the mountains of 
 Spain and the more abundant herbage of the low lands of 
 Holland. The influence thus exerted is so slow as to be 
 imperceptible, hence it may be counteracted by other in- 
 fluences, such as breeding and selection. The influence is 
 indirect, as directly food does not increase the diameter 
 of the wool fiber, nor does it increase the number of fibers. 
 The influence of suitability in food on increase in the 
 length of wool is shown in the great increase in the length 
 of staple in the American Merino compared with its an- 
 cestor, the Spanish Merino. The limit of such increase 
 is the limit of capacity in the breed. That the strength of 
 the fiber is influenced by the succulence in the food fol- 
 lows from the favorable influence which succulence ex- 
 erts on digestion. The more vigorous the digestion, the 
 more abundant are the materials from the assimilated 
 nutrients fed, and, therefore, the more abundant will be 
 the nutrient used in wool production. The peculiar luster 
 imparted to the wool of Lincoln sheep on their native 
 soils is the outcome of the succulence, and, it may be, of 
 some other characteristics of the grazing. The great ex- 
 cellence of the wool of Merino sheep grown in parts of 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania is doubtless due in part to the 
 succulent and nutritious character of the herbage. Yet 
 this thought must not be pushed too far, as good wool is 
 furnished by the dry herbage of the hot plains of Aus- 
 tralia. The influence of food on the strength of the fiber 
 is so marked that deprivation in the food supplies tends 
 at once to decrease in the size of the wool fiber and de- 
 tracts from the lubrication which tends so much to main- 
 tain strength and good condition in the wool. 
 
 That care should influence growth in wool is self- 
 evident. Neglect in any form will soon be evidenced in 
 the wool. Lack of food will weaken the fiber. Lack of 
 succulence in the food will lessen its luster. Lack of 
 
40 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 protection from rainstorms will result in loss of yolk in 
 the fleece of coarse wool sheep, and a massed and pasty 
 condition of yolk in that of fine wool breeds. Too much 
 protection will unsettle equilibrium in the consistency of 
 the yolk through an excess of heat. Lack of care will, 
 of course, neutralize the effects of good feeding in pro- 
 portion as it exists. 
 
 Breeding, accompanied by careful selection, is more 
 potent in bringing about modifications in wool produc- 
 tion than any other influence. The influence thus ex- 
 erted relates to increase or decrease in the number of 
 the wool fibers, to the length of these and to the size and 
 strength of the fiber. Breeding without selection and 
 selection without breeding will effect such changes, but 
 very much more slowly than when these act in conjunc- 
 tion. Even when acting in conjunction, the changes ef- 
 fected are slow. A few generations of judicious breeding, 
 accompanied by selection, will enable the breeder to 
 change the form to meet the requirements of modification ; 
 but many generations may be required to effect the same 
 in regard to wool. The exact method of securing these 
 modifications cannot be discussed here, they are so many 
 and so various. But attention should be called to the 
 modifications in wool production in the evolution of the 
 Rambouillet and Delaine breeds from the American Me- 
 rino, which are now matters of history. 
 
 The trend of the influence exerted by age and size 
 on wool production is the same in all breeds. The differ- 
 ence is one rather of degree than of kind. It would seem 
 correct to say that, as a rule, the heaviest fleece shorn 
 is that first taken from the sheep, and that decrease fol- 
 lows in an increasing ration as age advances. The said 
 decrease is not usually marked in the second shearing. 
 With Merinos it is claimed that in some instances there 
 is no decrease. The decrease extends not only to the 
 weight of the wool, but also to the length and the amount 
 of the yolk produced. In some breeds it is seen in the 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 4 1 
 
 loss of wool or failure to produce wool on the underline. 
 The most wool and the best wool is, therefore, produced 
 by young sheep. It is also true that the percentage of 
 wool to live weight decreases steadily with increase in 
 the size of the sheep. In the best shearers the unwashed 
 fleece of the Merino goes as high as 36 per cent of the 
 live weight. The percentage of wool in the middle wool 
 breeds to the live weight is considerably less and in the 
 coarse wool breeds there is further decrease. The high 
 relative production of wool in Merinos is due in part to 
 the large amount of yolk in the wool. It is claimed that 
 the weight of the secretions and exhalations from the 
 yolk glands exceed the evacuations from the bowels and 
 bladder taken together. 
 
 Influences that affect mutton production — The chief 
 influences that afifect the production of mutton are 
 climate, food, breeding, care and wool. As in the produc- 
 tion of wool, these influences are by no means equally 
 potent. Food, breeding and care exert a more potent in- 
 fluence on mutton form than climate or the fleece. 
 
 In the evolution of breeds, climate has exerted an 
 important influence. This influence is, of course, much 
 greater when sheep may be maintained with little or no 
 protection. Climate affects both size and constitution in 
 sheep. It affects size largely through the character of the 
 food, which is the outcome of climatic conditions. This 
 explains, in part at least, why the largest breeds of sheep 
 have been evolved in temperate climates. The oppressive 
 heat of hot climates militates against size and the stern- 
 ness of cold climates exerts a similar influence. A moist 
 climate is more favorable to increase in size and also to 
 prolificacy than a dry one. The favorable influence on 
 prolificacy is the outcome of the succulence in the food. 
 The best climatic conditions for the development of 
 sheep are those where the temperatures are moderate and 
 equable and where the air is moist. This, in part, ac- 
 counts for the great success attained in growing sheep 
 
42 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 of high quality in Great Britain. Sheep reared under 
 austere conditions are more rugged, as a rule, than sheep 
 reared under conditions the opposite. But the influences 
 thus exerted by an invigorating climate may, of course, 
 be counteracted by unwise protection. 
 
 It would seem correct to say that no influence is so 
 marked on mutton production as that of food. Food 
 affects the development of carcass in many ways. Chiefly 
 among these are the influences that it exerts on size, on 
 bone development and on the fiber of the flesh. The in- 
 fluence exerted by food on size is shown in the evolution 
 of the various breeds of sheep produced in Great Britain. 
 The small breeds, like the Southdown, are the product of 
 the short and fine grasses of the southern downs. The 
 large breeds, like the Lincoln, were produced by luxuri- 
 ant and somewhat coarse herbage. The influence of food 
 on development is further illustrated in the increase in 
 the average size of the American Merino over its ances- 
 tor, the Spanish Merino. It is also shown in the rela- 
 tively large size of sheep of any breed that are main- 
 tained on a diet in which alfalfa is a leading food factor. 
 The influence of food on bone development is seen in the 
 greater size and strength of bone possessed by sheep that 
 are fed freely on foods that contain relatively a high per- 
 centage of phosphoric acid and potash as compared with 
 the same in sheep to which foods low in these ingredients 
 are freely fed. Where field roots form a considerable por- 
 tion of the diet of the animal during the period of growth, 
 the development of bone will be much more than when 
 such food as corn is fed in the place of roots. 
 
 The influence of food on fiber — that is, on the grain 
 of the flesh — is seen in the coarser fiber of the flesh of 
 the large breeds as compared with those of the small 
 breeds. The former have been evolved on pastures which 
 furnish herbage rich and relatively coarse. The latter 
 have been evolved on pastures that furnish a short and 
 relatively fine herbage. When Southdown sheep are 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 43 
 
 grazed for successive generations on herbage abundant 
 and coarse, they increase in size, but they lose something 
 in the fineness of the grain of the flesh. 
 
 The influence of breeding on mutton production is 
 very marked. The progeny of the first cross of a pre- 
 potent pure-bred sire on ewes of common or mixed breed- 
 ing will bear a close resemblance to the sire in appearance 
 and qualities. The progeny of, say, the fourth generation 
 will bear so close a resemblance to the breed from which 
 the sires are chosen that, judged from the standpoint of 
 appearances, they would pass for pure breds. These re- 
 sults, however, can only be attained when food is suffi- 
 ciently furnished and when the care is as it should be. 
 The crossing, or to speak more accurately, the upsfrad- 
 ing, thus effected, should have a regard to the conditions 
 which relate to the furnishing of food. If the attempt is 
 made to increase size through up-grading beyond what 
 the food ordinarily furnished will maintain, it will end in 
 failure. The natural tendency toward increased size, the 
 outcome of breeding, must be adequately supported by 
 such food supplies as will maintain the tendency referred to. 
 
 The care bestowed qualifies every attempt to improve 
 the carcass through breeding as well as through feeding. 
 The efifort to efifect improvement through correct breeding 
 may be more than neutralized by lack of proper care. On 
 the other hand, superior care may go far toward neutraliz- 
 ing the untoward results that follow mistakes in breeding. 
 The care that should be given is dwelt upon in nearly every 
 chapter of the book. 
 
 Wool is helpful to production in so far as it furnishes 
 protection sufficient to keep the sheep in a comfortable 
 condition. To accomplish this the covering must be 
 enough to protect the carcass against inclement weather, 
 and it should not be so much as to prove oppressive 
 through the over-production of heat. Up to a certain 
 limit, therefore, wool production will be helpful to mut- 
 ton production, notwithstanding the drain on assimilated 
 
44 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 food in order to produce the wool. On the other hand, 
 it is adverse to mutton production, first, when it is pres- 
 ent beyond the actual needs of the sheep to insure a con- 
 dition of comfort ; second, when the effort to secure it of 
 a certain quality leads to confinement which results in re- 
 duced vigor ; and third, when maximum production of wool 
 is sought regardless of the influence which it exerts on the 
 development of carcass. It is present beyond the needs 
 of the sheep when it becomes oppressive on the advent of 
 warm weather. The decrease of vigor in the Saxon 
 Merino, which accompanied the efforts to secure wool 
 superfine in quality, illustrates the adverse influence re- 
 sulting from too much confinement. The lack of mutton 
 form of the highest type in Merinos illustrates the ad- 
 verse influence on the carcass where maximum produc- 
 tion is sought in wool. 
 
 Likewise when maximum production is sought in mut- 
 ton, the influence is adverse to maximum production in wool. 
 This finds illustration in the far less degree of the im- 
 provement of the wool product made by Bakewell in 
 Leicester sheep as compared with the improvement made 
 in the mutton form. While it is impossible to achieve 
 maximum production in wool and mutton in the same ani- 
 mal, it is, nevertheless, quite possible to reach high at- 
 tainment in both respects in the same animal. This is 
 amply illustrated in the transformation of the Spanish 
 Merino into the Rambouillet and Delaine types. It is 
 also illustrated in the high productions of sheep of the 
 Shropshire breed in both wool and mutton. 
 
 Wool and mutton breeds contrasted — The more ap- 
 parent contrasts between the two classes are such as re- 
 late to size, form, hardihood and prolificacy. Breeds 
 recognized as wool producing are of less size, as a rule, 
 than those usually recognized as the mutton breeds. The 
 average weight of the American and Saxon Merino is less 
 than that of the mutton breeds. The difference, how- 
 ever, is growing less. This result comes from the in- 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 45 
 
 creased attention given to the improvement of mutton 
 form during recent years. As a result of this the differ- 
 ence in size between the breeds named is not marked. It 
 is also greater than that of the mountain breeds. 
 
 It would seem correct to say that the essentials as 
 to form for successful wool production are essentially the 
 same as for successful mutton production. But it is 
 quite possible, nevertheless, to grow wool of the highest 
 class on form that is far from ideal for the production of 
 mutton. Owing to the less favorable conditions as to 
 food and care furnished to sheep kept mainly for wool, 
 these have less development in mutton form than is found 
 in the distinctive mutton breeds. This lack of mutton 
 form is evidenced in less of rotundity of body, less of 
 chest width, and heart girth, and less of length of quarter 
 with more length of leg. 
 
 Sheep kept mainly for wool production are more 
 hardy than those kept primarily for mutton production, 
 as a rule. They can endure more privation because of 
 low temperatures and short feed supplies than those kept 
 mainly for mutton. The mutton-producing varieties are 
 not only less hardy, but they call for a greater variety of 
 food and more care. 
 
 While the mutton breeds differ in the degree to 
 which they possess prolificacy, as a rule, they are more 
 prolific than breeds in which wool production is domi- 
 nant. The wool-producing types seldom average more 
 than 100 per cent of lambs. Some of the mutton breeds 
 average much higher. 
 
 Conditions favorable to wool production — The con- 
 ditions that favor wool rather than mutton production 
 are: (i) Rugged lands of but little agricultural value; 
 (2) climates with vegetation dry and more or less parched 
 at certain seasons ; (3) situations remote from markets ; 
 and (4) areas with but few inhabitants. 
 
 On rugged lands sheep may be grown, but not fat- 
 tened in high form. On the western ranges of the United 
 
46 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 States and Canada sheep may be grown in fine form for 
 wool production, but on these they cannot be finished. 
 To secure good finish they must usually be taken to other 
 areas where food is more abundant. The same is true 
 even in a more marked degree of sheep grown on the 
 ranges of Australia. 
 
 Sheep will maintain themselves on vegetation dry 
 and parched at certain seasons providing the grazing is 
 suflicient for their needs. The grasses in such areas usu- 
 ally cure while retaining their hold on the soil. They 
 will produce wool, though not of the highest type, in bet- 
 ter form relatively than they will produce mutton. To 
 furnish mutton of the highest class the element of suc- 
 culence must be abundantly present. When the range 
 lands are remote from markets, wool may be transported 
 much more cheaply than mutton in proportion to the rela- 
 tive value of the two products. The value of a pound of 
 wool is usually several times the value of a pound of 
 mutton on foot ; hence the cost of marketing wool is pro- 
 portionately less. This furnishes one explanation as to 
 why wethers on the arable farm are more commonl}^ mar- 
 keted in the lamb form, whereas on the ranges several 
 clips of wool are taken l:)efore they are sold. The former 
 grow mutton most cheaply while less than one year old, 
 and are usually marketed cheaply, whereas the marketing 
 of the latter is relatively costly. 
 
 Where a country is but sparsely settled the demand 
 for mutton is correspondingly light. The more densel}^ 
 peopled the country is, other things being equal, the 
 greater relatively is the demand for mutton. The more 
 intense the range conditions, therefore, the more the 
 profit relatively that comes from giving attention to the 
 production of wool rather than to the production of mut- 
 ton. 
 
 Conditions favorable to mutton production — The 
 conditions favorable to mutton production mainly are : 
 (t) Lands valuable and productive; (2) climates favor- 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 4,7 
 
 able to abundant growth ; and (3) locations not distant 
 from populous centers. These conditions are, in a sense, 
 the opposite of those that favor wool production as the 
 leading object for which sheep are grown. 
 
 The return from wool only, or chiefly, would not be 
 sufficient from high-priced lands to justify the introduc- 
 tion of sheep husbandry on such lands. The profit from 
 the sheep under such conditions comes more from the 
 mutton than from the wool, and it comes rather from the 
 sale of lambs than from the sale of mutton in a more ma- 
 ture form. The higher the productive power of such 
 lands, the larger is the amount of mutton that can be 
 produced from them, and the net returns will be propor- 
 tionate. A part of the return will also come from the in- 
 creased production resulting from such a system of hus- 
 bandry. When mutton is grown on such lands, the high- 
 est profits may usually be obtained from winter lambs 
 (see page 255), owing to the high price for which they 
 may be sold. 
 
 Of course, mutton of the highest class cannot be pro- 
 duced save in localities where food is plentiful and suc- 
 culent. To produce such conditions it is essential that 
 the climate, as well as the soil, shall be favorable to 
 abundant production. Abundant production and succu- 
 ence in the growth usually go together. The pre-emi- 
 nence of Great Britain in producing mutton sheep is 
 owing in no inconsiderable degree to the moist character 
 of its insular climate. The same is true, though in a less 
 degree, of that portion of Ontario that lies between the 
 Great Lakes. The dry ranges of the western states have 
 a soil possessed of great natural fertility, and yet the pro- 
 duction is not abundant nor succulent because of lack of 
 moisture. 
 
 The importance of proximity to populous centers on 
 the part of those who grow mutton arises from the de- 
 mand for such food in the aggregate, from the high prices 
 that are paid for the superior grades and from the rela- 
 
48 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 tively low cost of marketing the same. The great and 
 constant demand lessens the possibility of great fluctua- 
 tions in price such as results from a glutted market. The 
 discriminations in such markets are such as to encourage 
 the production of superior grades, a result that seldom 
 follows in a market of subordinate importance. The low 
 cost of marketing when the markets are near is just so 
 far to the advantage of the grower. It also makes it pos- 
 sible for him to fill orders on short notice and in a way 
 suited to the needs of the purchaser. 
 
 Crossing Merinos on the mutton breeds — It cannot 
 be said that the crossing of Merinos on any of the mutton 
 breeds or the grades of these has been helpful to improve- 
 ment in mutton production. It does, however, add to the 
 fineness of the wool and to the weight of the fleece. The 
 increase in weight is due, first, to increase in density, and, 
 second, to increase in the amount of yolk produced. The 
 improvement thus effected in what is sometimes termed 
 native sheep — that is, sheep produced by generations of 
 aimless breeding — is very marked, and it may also extend 
 in some instances to the form and mutton-producing 
 qualities. Where wool production is the dominant object 
 for which sheep are kept, such crossing or up-grading, 
 as it may properly be termed, is not only legitimate, but 
 is highy commendable. During the nineteenth century, 
 except in the last quarter, such crossing was much prac- 
 ticed. In wool-growing countries, such as Australia, it 
 is very generally practiced. 
 
 The crossing of Merino types on the mutton-produc- 
 ing breeds and the grades of these has in nearly all in- 
 stances resulted in decrease in size, weight, early matur- 
 ing properties, desirable mutton form, propensity to fatten, 
 and prolificacy. The decrease in size does not follow in 
 all classes of sheep. In some instances both size and form 
 are improved by the use of Merino sires, especially of the 
 Delaine and Rambouillet types. Such improvement is 
 the normal result when the types crossed upon are of 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 49 
 
 low grade. More commonly, however, the mutton types 
 and grades of these are of superior size and weight to 
 the Merino ; hence the result, as a rule, is decrease in size 
 and weight. 
 
 As a rule the mutton types and their grades mature 
 more quickly than Merinos. The difference is in some in- 
 stances material. Southdown sheep will reach maturity 
 in, say, two years, as pronounced as the maturity reached 
 by Merinos in three years. The slower growth thus re- 
 sulting adds to the cost of production, and is so far ad- 
 verse to the growing of milk lambs, or even lambs that 
 are to be marketed at a more advanced age. 
 
 That the improved mutton breeds and their grades 
 have a more desirable mutton form than the average of 
 the Merino types cannot be gainsaid. Because of this 
 they are designated the mutton breeds. The usual result, 
 therefore, from crossing the Merino types on these is 
 mutton form that is somewhat less desirable. Neverthe- 
 less, there are some types of sheep that may be improved 
 in form by the Merino cross. The influence of the Merino 
 cross on the propensity to fatten is similar. Animals that 
 mature slowly also fatten more slowly than quick-matur- 
 ing animals ; hence the transmission that imparts slow 
 maturity will also impart proportionately the tendency 
 to fatten slowly. But this fact must not be pressed too 
 far, since the Merinos in America have been greatly im- 
 proved in their maturing and also in their flesh-producing 
 properties. 
 
 The adverse influence of the Merino cross upon pro- 
 lificacy is probably more marked than the adverse in- 
 fluence in the other respects mentioned. The original 
 Spanish Merino was a shy breeder. This, to some extent, 
 has been corrected by the superior environment and 
 better food given to them in the United States. But even 
 now they are less prolific than many of the mutton 
 breeds, and in crossing this characteristic is measurably 
 transmitted. 
 
50 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OK SHEEP 
 
 Crossing Merinos on other breeds in nearly all in- 
 stances improves their hardihood. The Merino is ini- 
 doubtedly the most hardy of the improved breeds in 
 America. This superior hardihood is partly the outcome 
 of inheritance, partly the result of the impervious or re- 
 sistant character of the fleece to storms, and partly the 
 outcome of exposure, which their superior hardihood en- 
 ables them to resist. This characteristic explains, in a 
 measure at least, the great popularity of the Merino blood 
 on the western ranges. It has been found that sheep pos- 
 sessed of a considerable measure of Merino blood will en- 
 dure exposure better than other breeds ; that their graz- 
 ing properties over wide areas are superior; and that they 
 can be grazed more successfully than other sheep in large 
 bands. The large size of the Rambouillet and the im- 
 proved mutton form of the Delaines make it practicable 
 in many instances to maintain size in the types crossed 
 upon, and also fair mutton qualities, in addition to the 
 improvement in the fleece which results from these 
 crosses. 
 
 Crossing mutton breeds on Merinos — The American 
 Merino, and especially grades of the same, furnishes ex- 
 cellent material for being crossed upon by the mutton 
 breeds. In the pure form the Merino is strongly resistant 
 to change. This is the outcome from centuries of breed- 
 ing without admixture of blood from any outside source. 
 The characteristics of the Merinos thus crossed will be 
 dominant in a greater degree in the progeny than the 
 characteristics of the breed used in crossing. But grades, 
 though strongly possessed of Merino blood, are much 
 more plastic. The superior ruggedness which they 
 possess transmits to the progeny that vigor which enables 
 them to bear up under forced feeding. 
 
 The crossing of Merino grades by sires of the mut- 
 ton breeds results in increase in size and weight, and in 
 improvement in the mutton form, and in the propensity 
 to fatten readily. It also tends to remove wrinkles. The 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 5 1 
 
 increase in size and weight is influenced by the breed 
 from which the sire is chosen. Usually the greater the 
 average weight and size in the breed which has furnished 
 the sires, the greater will be the increase in the size and 
 iveight of the resultant progeny. Such increase in even 
 the first cross may carry the progeny beyond the weight 
 at the usual age for marketing that is most in favor in the 
 markets of to-day. The crosses most in favor at the pres- 
 ent time are those made with sires of the middle wool 
 breeds. Among these, those of the dark-faced or Down 
 types are highest in favor, and of these the smaller breeds, 
 as the Southdown and Shropshire, are the most used. The 
 improvement in form is shown in the widening and firm- 
 ing of the back, increasing correspondingly the rotundity 
 of the body and increasing the development of chest and 
 thigh. The tendency to take on flesh is so improved that 
 an excellent finish is easily practicable with sheep and 
 lambs of the first cross made, as above outlined. One 
 cross from the mutton breeds on grade Merinos will 
 greatly reduce the formation of wrinkles, so objectionable 
 in mutton sheep, and in many instances it will entirely ob- 
 literate them. It is peculiarly fortunate that the results 
 from these crosses are so favorable. The western ranges 
 are virtually stocked with Merino grade sheep. Range 
 conditions are unfavorable to finishing these, with some 
 exceptions. WMien too advanced in age for further use on 
 the range, the ewes may be shipped to the stockyards, 
 taken from thence to the farms, made to produce one 
 crop of lambs and then finished in good form on such 
 pasture as rape. In this way a farmer may easily pro- 
 vide for himself lambs for feeding in the late autumn and 
 winter. 
 
 A cross from any of the mutton breeds will tend to 
 reduce the wool of high grade Merinos in fineness, in 
 density and in the quantity of yolk that it contains, and 
 from all, or nearly all of them, the tendency will be to 
 increase the length of the fiber and to decrease the weight 
 
52 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 of the fleece. The reduction in fineness and density will 
 be relatively slow, and it will be measurably proportion- 
 ate to the character of the fleece possessed by the breed 
 used in crossing. The reduction in the yolk results from 
 the law of transmission operating through the crossing of 
 a breed with less yolk in the wool upon one possessed of 
 more. The increase in the length of the fiber will depend 
 upon relative length of the same in the breed used in 
 crossing and in the grade crossed upon. A cross from 
 any of the long wool breeds will lengthen the fiber in all 
 instances. A similar result will follow, though less in 
 degree, from some crosses made by certain of the middle 
 wool breeds, as the Oxford Down and Cheviot. A cross 
 of the Southdown will usually result in shortening the 
 wool fiber. The Lincoln cross upon Merino grades stands 
 high in favor, viewed from the standpoint of wool pro- 
 duction. Sheep the progeny of such crosses are heavy 
 shearers. The wool is strong in fiber and prized by man- 
 ufacturers. The Shropshire cross is also a favorite, viewed 
 from the standpoint of quality and yield in the wool. 
 
 Crossing the mutton breeds upon those essentially of 
 Merino lineage tends in some degree to lessen hardihood 
 in the progeny, and it may also be said to detract from 
 their ability to rustle for food. The less dense character 
 of the fleece resulting makes them less resistant to storms. 
 The decrease in the yolk still further lessens such power. 
 They are also less inclined, and are indeed less able, to 
 roam over large areas when seeking food. On the arable 
 farm these considerations are not of moment nearly so 
 great as on the range. In but few instances, and possibly 
 not in any, has it been found possible on the western 
 ranges to maintain sufficient stamina in sheep, the prog- 
 eny of any considerable number of crosses made suc- 
 cessively from using sires of any of the mutton breeds. 
 After crossing thus for a time it has been found necessary 
 to introduce one or more outcrosses of Merino blood to in- 
 crease inherent vigor and especially storm-resistant power. 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 53 
 
 The aim in wool production — The aim should be : 
 (i) In wool production to secure wool of a desired grade 
 in the largest quantity attainable; (2) to secure its even 
 distribution over the body; and (3) to secure even and 
 highest quality in the wool. These should be in wool 
 whatever the breed or grade. 
 
 The grade of wool that should be sought should be 
 determined chiefly by the demand that exists for that 
 class of wool and the capacity of the sheep to produce it. 
 Each of the pure breeds produces wool of a certain kind 
 that is characteristic of the breed. It would not be wise 
 to seek to transform the character of that wool into 
 something essentially different. Much time would be 
 called for to make such change as would have to be made 
 through selection. But when the sheep are not purely 
 bred, then it may be essentially proper to seek such mod- 
 ification, even though sires from another breed should be 
 used in making it. For instance, when fine wool was very 
 dear as compared with coarse wool, the use of Merino 
 sires was not only legitimate but commendable, and when 
 the price so changed that medium and coarse wools sold 
 virtually as high as fine wools, the use of sires from the 
 breeds that produced such wool was justifiable, and all 
 the more so when mutton quality in the sheep became 
 relatively more important. 
 
 Each pure breed of sheep has a certain standard of 
 wool characteristic of the breed. This standard is not 
 always adhered to by the breeders. For instance, Shrop- 
 shire sheep come into the show ring possessed of wool 
 more or less open and possessed of characteristics per- 
 taining to the Oxford Down fleece. Such wool is usually 
 long, and when present makes the animal appear larger. 
 The judge in the show ring should discourage the pro- 
 duction of wool in any breed at variance with the stand- 
 ard for the breed. 
 
 The demand for wool of a certain grade varies with 
 change in the fashions. Such variation may cover a 
 
54 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 period of years ; hence to profit by such change it may be 
 necessary to change the breed from which sires are 
 chosen. Such change, however, should be modified by 
 the effect that it will have on mutton production when 
 that is an important consideration. Such change when 
 sought should come through the process of upgrading 
 rather than that of promiscuous crossing. That is, it 
 should come by choosing the successive sires from one 
 breed. Having decided upon the grade of wool sought, 
 every reasonable effort should be made to secure it in the 
 largest quantity attainable. 
 
 The even distribution of wool over the body varies 
 somewhat in breeds, and it varies much in individuals of 
 the breed. Such distribution is secured in a high degree 
 in the various Merino types, in Shropshires among middle 
 wool breeds, and in Lincolns among long wool breeds. 
 Formerly Southdowns and Leicesters were occasionally 
 bare in the underline, especially as the age advanced, but 
 this defect in wool covering is being largely corrected in 
 breeding. 
 
 The degree of the wool covering on the head and legs 
 is determined, first, by the breed, and second by the relative 
 importance attached to such covering. Viewed as an indica- 
 tion of correct breeding it is important, but viewed from 
 the standpoint of fancy, it has but little significance. When 
 it is carried to the extent of making a fancy point of 
 greater moment than a point of much practical impor- 
 tance, then it becomes decidedly adverse to production 
 of the highest type. 
 
 Absolute evenness in the quality of the wool that 
 covers the sheep is unattainable. It is unattainable in 
 relation to length, to density and to the size of the fiber. 
 The wool on the underline and certain other parts of the 
 frame is never so long as on the sides and back. The 
 density of the wool is always greater, for instance, on the 
 back than on certain parts of the underline. The size of 
 the fiber is also usually greater on the outer thighs than 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 55 
 
 on the shoulders or side. But the difference in these 
 respects is more marked in certain of the breeds, and in 
 all or nearly all of them it is capable of still further reduc- 
 tion. While uniformity in all these respects is important, 
 uniformity in length is of especial importance. It is 
 found more complete in the fine wool than in the coarse 
 wool types. 
 
 Usually the first quality of wool is obtained along 
 the sides of the sheep from the hip to the shoulder and 
 including a part of both. The second quality is found on 
 the back from the poll to the rumps, much the poorest 
 grade in this class being on the rumps. The third quality 
 is found on the throat, forearm, belly, thighs, legs and 
 head. These divisions are very general, the wool in each 
 of them being graded by further subdivision. (See page 
 70.) 
 
 To secure highest quality in wool calls into exercise 
 a high degree of skill in breeding. With such an end in 
 view, it involves continued selection of the most careful 
 kind, and it necessitates furnishing food and protection 
 adapted to the end sought. Improvement in wool pro- 
 duction is much more difficult of attainment and calls for 
 a much longer time to efifect it than improvement in mut- 
 ton production. 
 
 The aim in mutton production — The chief aim in 
 mutton production should be: (i) To secure the most 
 flesh compatible with normal size ; (2) the highest de- 
 velopment in the best parts ; (3) highest quality in the 
 mutton production ; and (4) to meet the demands which 
 the markets call for. To accomplish these ends in a 
 marked degree is not incompatible with securing wool 
 also abundant in quantity and of high quality. 
 
 Each breed or grade has its own standard of size. 
 This standard is not inflexible. It is modified by food 
 conditions. Thus the standard of size for sheep that are 
 grown chiefly on alfalfa is higher than the standard for 
 the same on the downs of southern England. In other 
 
56 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 words, the sheep grown on the former will naturally 
 grow to a larger size than sheep grown on the latter. But 
 size without aptitude to fatten is not only not helpful, but 
 it may be harmful ; hence the aim should be, when look- 
 ing for mutton, to breed sheep that may be made to carry 
 a large proportion of mutton relatively to the size of the 
 carcass. Size more than normal in the flock is frequently, 
 though not always, associated with roughness and a lack 
 of highest fleshing capacity. 
 
 High development in the best parts is greatly impor- 
 tant in the sheep grown for mutton. What is termed the 
 saddle, the loin and the leg of mutton include the most 
 valuable cuts. The leg of mutton — that is, the lower part 
 of the hind quarter — is much prized; hence the impor- 
 tance of seeking much development in the same. Good 
 development in the entire back is greatly important, but 
 it is especially so on the loin, because of the value of the 
 cuts produced there. High quality in the mutton pro- 
 dticed is the outcome of breeding, of the foods fed, and of 
 the blending of these foods. That some breeds have 
 higher adaptation than others, viewed from the stand- 
 point of quantity and quality, cannot be gainsaid. Some 
 breeds have better development of the valuable parts of 
 the carcass than others, and some produce meat of more 
 perfect blending than others. When seeking improve- 
 ment in mutton qualities through grading, therefore, it is 
 a question of much practical moment as to which breed 
 the sires shall be chosen from. Nevertheless, the individ- 
 uality of the animals in the breed is more important rela- 
 tively than the breed. 
 
 The influence of food on the quality of the mutton 
 is very marked. From grasses that are lacking in succu- 
 ence the same high quality of mutton cannot be produced 
 as from grasses equal in nutriment and possessed of am- 
 ple succulence. Nor can mutton of the same fine texture 
 be made from coarse herbage as from that which is fine. 
 Neither can so high a grade of mutton be made, as a rule. 
 
SHEEP FOR WOOL, MUTTON AND BOTH USES 57 
 
 on pasture or dry fodders only as on these foods, sup- 
 plemented by grain. The exceptions include such graz- 
 ing as is furnished by rape and field roots. 
 
 The proper blending of the foods has a marked in- 
 fluence on the quality of the mutton. Dry fodders and 
 grain only will furnish mutton of high quality viewed 
 from the standpoint of high finish in the carcass, but 
 these will not furnish meat so juicy as when some succu- 
 lent food is fed. To make proper provision for such 
 succulent food may necessitate much forethought and 
 may call for no little effort to secure them, and the de- 
 termination of the quantities to be fed may call for the 
 exercise of experience and skill, but the fact remains that 
 no flockmaster is so well equipped for wintering a flock 
 or for finishing the same as the one who has on hand an 
 ample store of succulent food. 
 
 In growing mutton the demands of the market can- 
 not be ignored. It is not enough that the grower of mut- 
 ton shall produce a good article. To bring the best price 
 it must meet the conditions of the market demands. It 
 must at least approximate the demands of the market in 
 the size and weight of carcass and in the finish of the 
 same. This finds easy illustration in the growing and 
 marketing of milk lambs. The largest price is paid for 
 the lambs which are possessed of a certain weight or 
 which approximate the same and which have high finish. 
 Lambs of equal weight but of less finish will be propor- 
 tionately discounted, and the same is true of lambs of 
 higher weight though possessed of equal finish. Sim- 
 ilar illustrations could be furnished from the other 
 classes of sheep. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 
 
 Chapter IV treats of the following phases of this 
 question : (i) What is meant by wool; (2) the discussion 
 of fiber in wool; (3) the discussion of yolk in wool; (4) 
 how wools are classified; (5) short, intermediate and long 
 wools; (6) superfine, fine, intermediate and coarse wools; 
 (7) carding and combing wools; and (8) wool as distrib- 
 uted over the body. 
 
 What is meant by wool — Strictly speaking, as the 
 term is ordinarily used, wool is the covering or fleece of 
 the sheep. But the use of the term has been extended so 
 as to include: (i) The heavy fleece of the alpaca, vicuna, 
 and other species of the llama ; (2) the hair of the Angora, 
 Cashmere and other breeds of the goat; (3) several kinds 
 of fur from certain fur-bearing animals ; and (4) the soft 
 down from the underline of the camel. In one sense, 
 therefore, it is simply hair of a soft, pliable and elastic 
 character, more or less spiral and wavy in form. The de- 
 gree in which these characteristics are present varies 
 greatly in the different breeds. It would seem correct 
 to say that softness, pliability and elasticity are possessed 
 in the highest degree by the fine wool breeds, in a less 
 degree by the middle wool breeds and in a still less de- 
 gree by the coarse wool breeds. The spiral form of fiber 
 occurs to the greatest extent in some of the coarse wool 
 breeds and the wavy or crimpy form in the fine wool 
 breeds. Many breeds of sheep, especially those that are 
 neglected, are covered with hair underneath, which may 
 properly be classed as wool. The absence of hair in the 
 improved breeds is chiefly owing to improvements ef- 
 fected through selection and breeding. No sooner are 
 sheep neglected, exposed and subjected to hard condi- 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 59 
 
 tions, than a tendency to reversion sets in. The fiber be- 
 comes shorter, straighter and coarser, until in some in- 
 stances it closely resembles hair. 
 
 Wool may be distinguished from hair, and in fact 
 from all vegetable fibers, by the corrugated character of 
 the fibers and by its property of felting. The latter is the 
 outcome of the epithelial scales which overlap each other 
 along the course of the fibers. Other distinctions are as 
 follows: (i) Wool is usually possessed of more staple 
 than hair; (2) it is more pliable, softer and more elastic; 
 (3) it is more dense than hair, the number of wool fibers 
 being much greater on a given surface than the number of 
 hairs on the same; (4) all wools are possessed of more or 
 less crimp and curve or wave, while hair is straight, or but 
 slightly wavy. It is also stronger than wool. This com- 
 parison is made between sheep and the various quadru- 
 peds kept on the farm other than sheep. It will not hold 
 good in every particular when contrasted with the cover- 
 ing of some of the fur-bearing animals. The exact point 
 where the distinctions come in between wool and hair 
 is not in all instances easily determined. 
 
 Mohair and Cashmere wool are prominent among the 
 hairlike products that have attained to much prominence 
 in the manufacture of clothing. The former is a lustrous 
 wool, obtained from the Angora goat. It is of good length, 
 pure white in color, has a high luster, and is fine and 
 wavy. It is used in making astrakhans, velvets, fine 
 wraps and half-silk goods. The latter is the fine and ex- 
 tremely soft white or gray fur of the Cashmere goat bred 
 in Thibet. The outer covering consists of long tufts of 
 hair, and underneath it is the Cashmere wool of com- 
 merce. It is a soft downy wool of a brownish gray 
 tint, and has a fine silky fiber. It is used in making the 
 costly Oriental shawls and the finest wraps. 
 
 The contrast between the covering of the improved 
 and unimproved breeds is very great. In the latter, the 
 wool fibers are shorter and less dense, as a rule. They 
 
60 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 fall short of the standard of good wool in all its essen- 
 tial characteristics. Especially is this true in the less 
 degree of the strength of fiber in the wool and the lack 
 of uniformity in the strength of the same. The contrast 
 is even more marked in the unevenness of the length of 
 the wool as distributed over the body and in the varia- 
 tions in the quality of the same. In the latter sense these 
 variations are so marked that the covering on some parts 
 of the body is wool, and on other parts of the same it 
 bears a closer resemblance to hair. In the improved 
 breeds, hair is almost entirely wanting, save on the legs 
 and head, and the amount of this covering on the parts 
 named differs much in the dift"erent breeds. 
 
 Discussion of fiber in wool — Filler in wool means 
 each distinct filament of which the fieece — that is, the 
 covering- of the sheep — is composed. Each fiber is usually 
 essentially circular in form, more or less crimped or 
 waved, and in many instances is larger at the extremity 
 and near the base than in the center of the fiber. This 
 is not true, however, of Merino wool of the first grade. 
 When grown in temperate climates the fibers are essen- 
 tially circular in form, but when grown in a hot climate 
 they incline to a fiattish oval. Crimp means deviation 
 from straight growth in the wool fibers (see page 78). In 
 some instances it takes the form of folding, as it were, of 
 the fiber on itself, and in other instances a wavy or spiral 
 character of growth. Climates unduly cold may eliminate 
 crimp, and those unduly hot may tend to make it exces- 
 sive. The greater size of the diameter at the base and 
 toward the tips of the wool fibers arises probably from the 
 less friction in the fibers at these points. 
 
 When the animal is healthy and thrifty, the appear- 
 ance of the fiber is brilliant. It has a shining, glistening 
 appearance when the wool is parted on any part of the 
 body of the sheep. This bright lustrous appearance is 
 caused by the yolk, which, exuding from the glands of the 
 skin moves on toward the tips of the hairs and keeps them 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 6l 
 
 oiled, as it were, along their entire lengths. The color of 
 the fiber is usually a pure white, but in some instances it 
 is tinted with yellow shades, as when the yolk is present 
 in large quantities. When sheep are out of condition 
 the wool is dull and lusterless. 
 
 In size the wool fibers vary greatly. These varia- 
 tions are in a marked degree the outcome of breeding, 
 but they are also influenced by climate and food. The 
 variations in length run all the way from less than 2 
 inches to 20 inches. The variations in the diameter of the 
 fiber are even greater. They run all the way from 
 i-3,oooth of an inch in the very finest of the merino types 
 to i-275th of an inch in the coarsest Algerian sheep. 
 
 Each wool fiber is composed of two parts, known as 
 the stem or shaft and the root or bulb, out of which the 
 stem rises, and on which it is dependent for its sustenance. 
 The bulb or root imbedded in the derma is implanted in a 
 gland known as the hair follicle. It is simply an enlarge- 
 ment which fits somewhat socket-like into the fiber sack 
 which incases it. It rests upon a small bulb in the bot- 
 tom of the fiber sack. This small sack is at once the 
 source of and the support of the fiber. The hair follicle 
 is formed of the epidermis and the dermis of the sheep's 
 skin. It penetrates the body only for a short distance. 
 The blood vessels, in minute and numerous branches, are 
 distributed over the walls of the follicle. The nourish- 
 ment thus furnished is molded into the structure of the 
 fiber. Should a fiber be plucked out, a new one may be 
 produced to take its place. The hair or wool follicle is 
 to be carefully distinguished from the follicle which pro- 
 duces perspiration and that from which the yolk exudes. 
 
 The shaft is that portion of the fiber which rises up 
 from the root bulb of the same, and continuing to grow 
 outward with other fibers, forms the flleece of the sheep. 
 All the elements of growth are furnished by the hair germ, 
 which rises into the hair bulb. It is not the function of 
 the yolk to furnish nutriment to the fiber. 
 
62 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Each wool fiber is made up of three layers or por- 
 tions. These are known respectively as the epidermis, 
 the cortical substance and the medullary substance. The 
 epidermis or outer layer, which is very thin, embraces 
 a vast number of imbricated scales, lying on one another. 
 These are formed by the growth of cells, which, as they 
 grow, assume the form of scales, and in a healthy sheep 
 they have a high luster. The new portion pushes out the 
 old. The scales overlap and thus constitute the felting 
 properties of the wool. They also tend to keep dirt from 
 entering the fleece. The cortical substance, or intermedi- 
 ate layer, is fibrous in character and forms two-thirds 
 of the substance of each fiber, and also contains the mat- 
 ter which gives color to the wool. The medullary sub- 
 stance, or inner layer, is sometimes spoken of as the marrow 
 of the fiber. A majority of the fibers have the marrow hol- 
 low through much of their length. 
 
 Discussion of yolk in wool — Yolk (see page 74) is an 
 alkaline soapy substance secreted from the glands of the 
 skin. The yolk follicle empties into the wool follicle near 
 the mouth of the latter, and extending therefrom it lubri- 
 cates the fibers to their outer extremities. It also lubri- 
 cates the skin. 
 
 The chief function of yolk in wool is to prevent the 
 fibers from felting together and to prevent them from 
 wearing by friction ; but it also tends to protect the fleece 
 from the accumulation of foreign substances within it. 
 The less wear in the fibers that are well supplied with 
 yolk accounts in part at least for the greater strength 
 of fiber in wools well supplied with the same. The pro- 
 tection thus furnished from rain acts similarly. The 
 wool is protected from foreign substances, in part at least, 
 by the outward movement of the yolk. The edges of the 
 scales on the fiber-like little barbs point toward the tip of 
 the fiber, and, therefore, carry the yolk outward along 
 with more or less substances that may have found their 
 way into the fleece. Those wools which possess the 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 63 
 
 greatest number of imbrications to the square inch require 
 the greatest amount of yolk. Such is the wool of the 
 Merino, with its high felting properties. Yolk is liquid 
 when it exudes from the yolk glands, and in some breeds 
 it remains so ; but in others it turns into gummy or waxy 
 orange-yellow scales, which adhere to the wool. Even 
 when it thus accumulates it does not materially weaken 
 the strength of the fibers. 
 
 The chief of the influences that affect yolk in wool 
 are food, protection and breeding. The relation between 
 liberal feeding and the plentiful production of yolk is of 
 the closest nature. Food that promotes thrift also tends 
 to increase the amount of yolk in the wool. The rela- 
 tion between food and yolk is so intimate that the differ- 
 ence in the amount of the same and the difference in the 
 strength of the wool resulting will be apparent on differ- 
 ent soils separated only by a river bed. Protection, as by 
 housing when rain storms prevail and by blanketing un- 
 der certain conditions, not only tends to keep the yolk in 
 condition, but it also tends to increase in its accumulation. 
 The quantity of yolk in wool may be increased or de- 
 creased through transmission in breeding. Such trans- 
 mission may be looked for when breeding pure breds or 
 grades. 
 
 The amount of yolk that is desirable and the condi- 
 tions in which it is found are by no means unimportant. 
 With reference to the former, however, there is not en- 
 tire agreement. Yolk is seldom present in excess as long 
 as it remains in the liquefied form, and colorless or nearly 
 so, in the unshorn fleece. It is usually in excess when it 
 forms dry or pasty masses in the wool, nor is it in a de- 
 sirable condition w^hen exposure to rain washes it down 
 so as to form a pasty, gluey mass in the fleece. Yolk is 
 deficient in wool when the latter lacks softness and 
 pliancy to the touch and when it lacks brilliancy of luster 
 when the fleece is opened out. 
 
64 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Of course, the amount of yolk required varies with 
 the class of wool. (See page 48.) 
 
 How wools are classified — Wools are classified: (i) 
 On the basis of length, (2) on the basis of diameter in the 
 fiber, and (3) on the basis of adaptation to use. A clearly 
 definite and accurate classification in either respect is 
 scarcely possible, owing to the diif erence found in wool of 
 the same breed, to the constant changes that result from 
 crossing and grading, and to the modifications which re- 
 sult from time to time from the introduction of improved 
 machinery in the manufacture of the wool. Short wools 
 are sometimes classified as carding and long wools as 
 combing, but because of the changes referred to, the dis- 
 tinctions between carding and combing wools have been 
 much modified during recent decades. 
 
 Based on the standard of length, wool from the dif- 
 ferent pure breeds found in America may be classed as 
 short, intermediate and long, but in the process of manu- 
 facture, they are usually known as short and long. The 
 American Merino and the Southdown breeds produce 
 short wool. The Leicester, Cotswold and Lincoln breeds 
 produce long wool. The other breeds produce wool that, 
 strictly speaking, is of intermediate length, but which 
 usually comes under the classification of combing wool. 
 The length of the wool of this class differs considerably. 
 The Oxford Down breed produces the longest wool in the 
 intermediate class. The wool produced by some of the 
 breeds is so nearly alike in length that it is scarcely pos- 
 sible to decide as to which is the longer. 
 
 On the basis of diameter in the fiber, wool is classi- 
 fied as superfine, fine, medium and coarse. Superfine 
 wools are those of the very finest character, as, for in- 
 stance, the best of the Saxony and Merino grades. Fine 
 wools are chiefly furnished by the Merino in its various 
 branches, as the American Merino, the Delaine and the 
 Rambouillet, and also by high grades of these breeds. 
 Medium wools usually include those obtained from the 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 65 
 
 various Down breeds — the Tunis, the Dorsets and the 
 Cheviots — also from grades of these. Coarse wools are ob- 
 tained from the long wooled breeds and from the West 
 Highland sheep and grades of all these breeds. 
 
 In the order of fineness it would be correct to say that 
 of three fine wool breeds the American Merino produces 
 the finest grade, the Delaine coming next in fineness, and 
 the Rambouillet third, but the difference in this respect 
 is not a wide one. It would be at least approximately 
 correct to say that in the order of fineness in medium wool, 
 the pure breeds in America rank as follows, beginning 
 with the finest : Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, 
 Cheviot, Suffolk Down, Hampshire Down and Oxford 
 Down. The coarse wooled breeds, beginning with the 
 finest wool, will rank as follows: Leicester, Lincoln, Cots- 
 wold and West Highland. 
 
 Wool is further classified on the basis of use. On 
 this basis it may be divided into three great classes. 
 These are: (i) Carding wools, which are used for mak- 
 ing garments for ordinary wear, and which are also very 
 commonly classified as clothing wools. These are used 
 mainly as broadcloths and the thicker and heavier woolen 
 cloths. (2) Combing wools, which, generally speaking, 
 are made into garments calling for superior softness, 
 lightness and strength of wear. In the finer sorts they 
 are much used for making garments that are much prized 
 and worn by women. The better class of these are known 
 as delaines (see page 70). (3) Carpet and knitting wools. 
 These are also combing wools, but of a class far different 
 from the delaines. They include the cheapest, coarsest 
 and harshest sorts of wool. They approach more nearly 
 to hair than other wools. These wools are now virtually 
 all imported. The only staple of this class now grown in 
 the United States comes from the original Mexican sheep 
 of the southwest. 
 
 Short, intermediate and long wools — The length of 
 wool ordinarily runs all the way from, say less than 2 
 
66 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 inches, to more than 20 inches. The classification based 
 on length is not accurately defined. In a general way it 
 may be said short wools are not more than 2^ inches 
 long. They are obtained from the Saxony and Silesian 
 breeds and from some types of the Merino. For general 
 qualities and fineness of fiber these wools are unexcelled. 
 The fiber is not only short, but it is also fine and strong 
 and elastic, and is possessed of good felting qualities. It 
 is used chiefly in the manufacture of clothes where much 
 milling is required. Much milling is a process by which 
 the fibers are condensed, as it were, so as to make the 
 clothes stronger and firmer. It is made into superfine and 
 dress-faced fabrics of relatively high value. 
 
 Intermediate wool is more than 2^ inches long and 
 not more than say 5 inches. It includes all that class 
 known as delaines, which means fine combing wools from 
 pure and grade Merinos that exceed say 23/2 inches in 
 length. These are amongst the most valuable of the 
 combing wools. (See page 70.) It also includes the 
 dark-faced breeds in America, to which may be added the 
 Dorsets, the Tunis and the Cheviots. The wool of these 
 is made into many kinds of fabrics. 
 
 The long wools are more than 5 inches in length, and 
 they may be as much as 20 inches. They are, of course, 
 combing wools, and they are made into many fabrics, 
 strong and of good wearing properties, but lacking in the 
 finish and fineness of the garments made from the other 
 wools. 
 
 Superfine, fine, intermediate and coarse wools — The 
 classification of wool on the basis of diameter in the fiber 
 is difiicult, owing (i) to the influence of the general char- 
 acter of the food on the fiber, (2) of the general character 
 of the climate, and (3) to individuality in the members of 
 the flock. Food, rich and abundant, strengthens the fiber 
 more than it afi^ects the diameter, but it influences the lat- 
 ter also in the direction of increase. Warm climates tend 
 to increase in the diameter of wool fibers, but to decrease 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 6/ 
 
 in their number, and the reverse of this is true of climates 
 cool to cold. These influences, however, act with measur- 
 able slowness. Individuals in the flock may differ consid- 
 erably from one another in the degree of the fineness of 
 the fiber. This, however, should not be a serious hin- 
 drance to present classification, although by selection in 
 breeding it may in time considerably modify the classifi- 
 cation, by improving it. 
 
 Classification on the basis of diameter, as previously 
 intimated, divides wool into superfine, fine, intermediate 
 and coarse. But the line of change between these is not 
 absolutely and unchangeably settled, some of the reasons 
 for which are given above. 
 
 It can scarcely be said that wools classed as super- 
 fine are produced to any considerable extent in America. 
 These are furnished largely by the Saxony and Silesian 
 breeds, which are not now and never have been numer- 
 ous in this country. It is true, nevertheless, that some 
 of the Merino wools produced in this country have 
 equaled in fineness the finest of the wools produced by 
 the breeds named. The finest Saxony and Silesian wools 
 have a diameter of fiber running from say i-2,oooth to 
 i-i,6ooth of an inch. Lamb's wool is the finest, and next 
 in fineness is the clip taken from sheep at one year. The 
 former is taken when the lambs are about six months old. 
 Superfine wools are made into garments light, soft and of 
 relatively high values. 
 
 The fine wool breeds in America include all the vari- 
 ous types of the American Merino, pure and high grade, 
 the Delaine in its various families, and the Rambouillet. 
 These are named in order of fineness, beginning with the 
 finest, but the wool furnished by individual animals may 
 not be in entire agreement with this classification. The 
 fiber in the Merino, with some individual exceptions in 
 which the wool is finer, runs from say i-i, Sooth of an inch 
 to i-i, 400th and in some instances it is even greater. The 
 Delaine and Rambouillet types produce wool not much 
 
68 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 less fine. High grade Merinos also produce wool that is 
 quite fine. The Australian Merino in the best grades is 
 but little behind the American Merino. The finer of 
 these wools are largely made into light and soft fabrics 
 for woman's wear and the medium into worsted and de- 
 laine goods. 
 
 The intermediate wools produced in this country, as 
 previously intimated, come from the following breeds, 
 which are named in the order of their fineness, beginning 
 with the finest: Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, 
 Cheviot, Suffolk, Hampshire and Oxford. This classifi- 
 cation may be challenged, but it is doubtful if it can be 
 improved upon at the present time. The finest of these 
 is the Southdown, the fibers of which have a diameter of 
 about i-iiooth of an inch. These wools, known as cloth- 
 ing wools, are made into a great variety of clothes, a 
 majority of which are for everyday wear. They also fur- 
 nish blankets. 
 
 The coarse wools produced in this country come from 
 the following breeds, named in the order of their fineness, 
 beginning with the finest: Leicester, Lincoln, Cotswold 
 and Black Faced Highland. These are used for making 
 garments coarse of texture, but that will endure much 
 wear. Wools still coarser than some of the above come 
 from Peru, Chile, Russia, Turkey, Greece and China. 
 These are made into carpets and the coarsest kinds of 
 goods, also into knitting yarn. 
 
 Carding and combing wools — From the standpoint of 
 the manufacturer, all wools are classified as carding or 
 combing. The former seldom exceed 2 to 4 inches in 
 length, the latter include wools that are longer. But 
 these distinctions are being modified by the French 
 methods of spinning, which comb and spin even wools 
 that are short. 
 
 Carding wools are sometimes called felting wools. 
 Felting is the amalgamation or matting of the fibers. The 
 small toothlike projections of one fiber catch into those 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 69 
 
 of another adjacent thereto, and become entangled or in- 
 terlocked. The deeper the scales fit into one another, the 
 closer is the structure of the thread. The process of inter- 
 locking is aided by the curly nature of the fiber, which 
 inclines it to twist around any adjacent object. It is fur- 
 ther aided by what is termed the milling process. During 
 this process pressure is applied to it in the presence of 
 some lubricant, such as soap and warm water. The felt- 
 ing process is accompanied by shrinkage of a kind that 
 lessens the area covered by the cloth, but adds to its 
 thickness. 
 
 The felting value of wool is largely determined by the 
 number of the serrations per inch in the fiber and by the 
 freedom with which the upper edge of the side projects 
 from the fiber. The process known as carbonization 
 opens out the scales and thereby increases felting power 
 in the wool. A similar result follows the application of 
 lime or acid to the wool on pelts. The serrations are the 
 most numerous and the most clearly defined in wool of 
 the various Merino types. These serrations vary greatly 
 in the different wools. More commonly the larger and 
 coarser the wool, the fewer are the number of the serra- 
 tions. Merino wools have been grown in Vermont with 
 3.000 serrations to the inch, but the average is somewhat 
 fewer than 2,000. The best Saxony wools contain 2,800 
 to the inch and the best Australian, 2,400. Southdown 
 wool contains about 2,000, Leicester wool 1,800 and com- 
 mon domestic wool about 1,200. In some of the inferior 
 wools the number is sometimes less than 500. These 
 short-stapled carding wools are made into broadcloths, 
 and the thicker sorts of woolen clothing. They are also 
 used for the production of woolen yarns. 
 
 Combing wools are prepared for spinning by a proc- 
 ess known as combing. In this process the fibers are 
 made to lay parallel with one another preparatory to 
 spinning them into thread, while in carding wools they 
 become inextricabJy intermixed. As previously shown, 
 
MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 these virtually embrace all wools from a few inches and 
 upward in length, and they are combed to be made into 
 coarse worsted yarns. One class of these is known as 
 the delaine, and the other as carpet and knitting wools. 
 The latter are coarse, long and strong. 
 
 Delaine wools are fine combing wools with staple of 
 medium length. They come between the short-stapled 
 carding wools and the longer and coarser types of comb- 
 ing wool. They virtually include all combing wools that 
 contain much Merino blood. They are first carded and 
 then combed for the production of fine worsted yarns for 
 
 ladies' dress goods, light 
 and soft and of superior 
 excellence. 
 
 Homemade rugs are 
 sometimes made from 
 the skins of sheep and 
 lambs. The skins for 
 such use should be re- 
 moved with much care, 
 so that they will be free 
 from cuts and from 
 adherent fiesh. It is 
 then washed in warm 
 water with salt and alum dissolved in it of equal propor- 
 tions. It is then wrung and spread on a table and 
 stretched and scraped smooth. It is next sprinkled with 
 finely powdered salt and alum and left for two weeks. 
 Then follows washing in warm water with soft soap, 
 added, wringing, stretching and pulling until it is soft 
 and pliable, after which it is dried. The stretching and 
 pulling are continued until the skins are quite dry, with 
 a view to keep them soft. Such skins make admirable 
 rugs for a carriage or for house wear, and they may be 
 dyed to suit the fancy. 
 
 Wool as distributed over the body — The quality of 
 the wool varies greatly on diiYerent parts of the body in 
 
 FIG. 4— WOOL AS CLASSIFIED ON THE 
 SHEEP 
 
WOOL DESCRIBED AND CLASSIFIED 7 1 
 
 the same animal. Before being milled it is sorted or 
 graded — that is, divided into various classes according to 
 its quality — in order that each grade may be made into 
 that class of goods for which it is best suited. What may 
 be termed extreme grading divides the wool into four- 
 teen classes, as shown in Fig. 4. In Nos. i and 2 — that 
 is, on the shoulder and side — the best grades of wool are 
 found. The wool in No. 2 is slightly stronger and coarser 
 than in No. i, otherwise the quality is about the same. 
 In both it is of relatively good length and strength of 
 staple and is soft and uniform. In Nos. 3, 4 and 5, what 
 may be termed second choice wool is found. In all of 
 these the staple is relatively short and the quality lowers 
 slightly in the order given. In No. 6 is produced wool on 
 the back and loin that may be given third place. In Nos. 
 7, 8 and 9 the wool is relatively long and strong. No. 8, 
 sometimes called the breech, furnishes the coarsest wool 
 of the entire fleece. In No. 10 it is short and more or less 
 dirty. In No. 11 it is short and relatively fine. In No. 12 
 the short wool is usually damaged some by rubbing. In 
 Nos. 13 and 14 it is of but little value. In each gradation 
 there is some peculiarity that makes it different from the 
 others. 
 
 Grading the fleece as above outlined is not univer- 
 sally adhered to. Another system, outlined in the Inter- 
 national Library of Technology, is now more generally in 
 favor apparently than that given above. It grades wool 
 on dififerent parts of the fleece by the following gradation, 
 each successive grading being less valuable than the pre- 
 ceding: (i) Shoulders and sides; (2) lower part of the 
 body; (3) loin and back; (4) upper part of legs; (5) 
 upper portion of the neck ; (6) central part of the back ; 
 (7) the belly; (8) the root of the tail sometimes called 
 the rumps; (9) the lower part of the legs; (10) the head, 
 throat and chest, the wool on these having practically the 
 same characteristics; and (11) the shins or shank. 
 
 A third division of the qualities of wool, and which 
 
72 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 also is possessed of much merit, is shown in Fig, 5. The 
 best wool — that is, the finest and most evenly grown — is 
 always found on the shoulders, i, 
 I. Not infrequently this high 
 quality wool shades into 2, 2, 5 
 and 6, In the wool trade these 
 are known as picklock and prime. 
 When the wool at 4, shorter than 
 I, I, is free from colored hairs, it 
 is super-excellent. The wool at 
 3, 3 is shorter and less closely 
 grown than i, i. The quality of 
 6 is not much below that of 2, 2, 
 into which it shades, and also 
 which it resembles. For many 
 uses the wool at i, i, 2, 2, 5 and 
 
 FIG. 5— THE SHORN FLEECE ^ fol^pn tntrptlipr RartwnrH 
 
 AS FREQUENTLY CLASSIFIED ^ are taKcu togctner. uacKwara 
 
 from 6, the wool becomes increas- 
 ingly coarse, the best being found at 7, 7. At 8, 9 and 9 
 the coarsest wool is found, that at 8 being the coarsest. 
 The wool grows in large locks of coarse hair and can only 
 be used for coarse yarns. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 
 
 The discussion in Chapter V treats of the following 
 phases of the various qualities and characters that per- 
 tain to wool: (i) The leading characteristics of wool; 
 (2) strength of fiber; (3) length of staple; (4) thickness 
 or density; (5) crimp or curl; (6) softness or pliancy; 
 (7) color in the staple; (8) uniformity in fleece; (9) style 
 or quality ; (10) closure of fleece; (11) felting; (12) cloud- 
 iness; (13) stripy or watery wool; (14) break or joint; 
 (15) kemp or jar; (16) toppiness, broad toppiness, black 
 top and clots; and (17) influences from environment that 
 are hurtful. The discussion of these must of necessity be 
 brief. 
 
 Leading characteristics of wool — The more important 
 of the essential qualities in good wool are: (i) Strength 
 of fiber; (2) length of staple; (3) thickness or density; 
 (4) crimp or curl; (5) softness or pliancy; (6) color in 
 staple ; (7) uniformity in fleece ; (8) style or quality ; and 
 (9) closure of fleece. The different degrees in which these 
 characters are possessed is in some instances very 
 marked. Prominent among the defects in wool are felt- 
 ing of the fleece in whole or in part, cloudiness or dis- 
 coloration, a stripy condition, break or joint, kemp or jar 
 and toppiness, broad toppiness, black top and clots. For 
 the discussion of these see p. 84. 
 
 In addition to the defects in wool from the sources 
 named above, there are certain baneful influences which 
 result from environment that are hurtful to wool. These 
 are dwelt upon later (see p. 91). Like the defects in 
 wool enumerated above, they are all preventable where 
 the management is what it ought to be. For the discus- 
 sion of these see pp. 84-92. 
 
 73 
 
74 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Strength of fiber in wool — Strength of fiber in wool 
 means the ability which it has throughout its entire 
 length to resist the force of distention. The true measure 
 of the strength of fiber is the strength of its weakest part. 
 It will not avail to have fiber strong through much of its 
 length when weak through any part of the same. It is 
 one of the most useful and important qualities in wool, as 
 on the strength of the fiber depends in a large measure 
 the value of wool for manufacturing uses. 
 
 Among the important indications of strength of fiber 
 are, first, a bright glistening appearance in the wool ; sec- 
 ond, an abundance of oil or yolk in the same ; and third, 
 uniformity in the size of the fiber. The glistening ap- 
 pearance is largely the outcome of an abundance of yolk 
 in the wool, but this lustrous appearance is also accentu- 
 ated by the reflection of scales that surround the fiber. 
 Its presence, however, is not an absolute guaranty of 
 strength throughout the entire length of the fiber, for 
 there may have been periods during the growth of the 
 fiber, when an abundance of yolk was not present, a con- 
 dition that would be adverse to strength of fiber at such 
 times. During any periods when yolk is not adequately 
 present, there is more or less wear in the fibers through 
 friction. Insufificient nutrition which causes an insuffi- 
 ciency of yolk also causes weak fiber through lack of food 
 supplied to the same. It lacks strength, therefore, from 
 lack of food and through excessive friction. Lack of uni- 
 formity in the size of the fiber may be so marked that in 
 some instances it is apparent to the eye unaided. In other 
 instances it can only be detected with a microscope. It is 
 of great importance in wool, as when weak beyond a cer- 
 tain degree, it breaks during certain of the processes of 
 manufacture. 
 
 Since strength of fiber is the outcome of nourishment 
 and of lubrication, and since both are produced by food, 
 it becomes apparent that if the fiber is to be uniform in 
 size and strength, the food fed should be suitable and am- 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 75 
 
 pie during the entire period covered by the growth of the 
 fiber. Should the nourishment be insufficient at any time 
 to the needs of the animal, the wool, from lack of nourish- 
 ment, will not develop properly at such a time. It will 
 lack size and strength of fiber, proportioned to the con- 
 tinuance of the period during which the nourishment was 
 insufficient and to the extent to which it was lacking. 
 Other conditions that may lower stamina in sheep, as un- 
 due exposure, annoyance beyond a certain degree from 
 insect pests and disease, will weaken the fiber. The im- 
 portance of what may be termed evenness of condition in 
 sheep cannot be over-estimated in its relation to uni- 
 formity of strength of fiber in the wool. This property 
 may also be influenced in some slight degree by inherit- 
 ance. Such influence, however, if it exists, is of small im- 
 portance compared with the influences already stated. 
 
 Length of staple in wool — Length of staple in wool 
 means simply length of the wool fibers. It has an im- 
 portant bearing, first, on the weight of the fleece ; second, 
 on the profit from the same, as the result of the former; 
 and third, on the character of the goods manufactured. 
 Difference in length may take wool from the carding into 
 the combing class in the same breed of sheep. 
 
 The variations in the length of the staple in wool are 
 very great. In some instances it has attained a length 
 of i8 to 20 inches as the result of one year's growth ; in 
 other instances the growth is even less than an inch. The 
 variations between these extremes are of all lengths. It 
 would be approximately correct to say that short wools 
 are less than 3 inches long, intermediate wools are some- 
 where between, say 3 and 5 or 6 inches. 
 
 Variations in length of staple in wools are caused by 
 such influences as breed, food, grade and age. Each 
 breed has a standard of length written or unwritten, usu- 
 ally the latter. This standard is not so inflexible that it 
 cannot be modified. The standard of length, for instance, 
 is longer in the American than in the Spanish Merino; in 
 
76 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the Delaine than in the American Merino; and in the 
 Rambouillet than in the Delaine Merino. Notwithstand- 
 ing that the three breeds named last have been evolved 
 from the first. 
 
 The influence of food on the length of staple is consid- 
 erable. It is probably less, however, than the influence of 
 breed and of selection in breeding. Generous feeding 
 makes modification jn the length of the wool fibers easier 
 in the direction of increase, but it would seem correct to 
 say that the influence of food is much greater on the diam- 
 eter of the wool fibers than on the length of the staple. 
 
 The influence from grade — that is, from cross breed- 
 ing and grading on the length of the staple — is very 
 marked in many instances. It is marked in proportion to 
 the contrast between the length of the staple in the 
 breeds crossed. The Cotswold and Lincoln crosses in- 
 variably lengthen the staple in wool when crossed upon 
 the other breeds. The Southdown cross shortens the 
 same in nearly all breeds. This influence on the length 
 of staple is much greater than that of the other influences 
 named. 
 
 The influence of age on the length of staple is not in- 
 considerable. The longest fleece is that which is first 
 taken from the sheep when it represents one year's 
 growth. This is owing, doubtless, to the greater activity 
 of the processes that relate to nutrition in the same ani- 
 mal. The second shearing will furnish wool something 
 less in length, and each year subsequently there will be 
 some decrease in the length of the staple. The difference 
 in the length of staple between a young sheep and the 
 same when advanced in age is marked. 
 
 Length of staple is secured and maintained by liberal 
 feeding. The more liberal the feeding, up to a certain 
 limit, the longer will be the wool fiber. It does not fol- 
 low, however, that the relation between food and growth 
 in the wool corresponds exactly to the relation between 
 food and flesh production in the same animal. For in- 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL ^J 
 
 stance, the wool fibers in an animal in lean condition may 
 be longer relatively than those possessed by one in good 
 condition. Nature in this way makes provision for the 
 protection of the animal. Length of staple may be in- 
 creased through selection in breeding, backed up by lib- 
 eral feeding, but in all breeds there is a limit in the length 
 of the wool fibers beyond which it may not be desirable 
 to go, just as there is a limit in size which it may not be 
 desirable to exceed. 
 
 Thickness or density in wool — Thickness or density in 
 wool has reference to the number of the fibers that grow 
 on a given area of body surface. The density of the wool 
 has also a bearing on its elasticity. Other things being 
 equal, the more dense it is the more elastic will it be ; that 
 is, the greater will be the rebound when pressure is re- 
 moved from it. Usually there is a relation between the 
 coarseness or fineness of the fiber and the number of the 
 fibers ; as a rule the coarser the fiber, the smaller the num- 
 ber of the fibers, and vice versa. Thickness or density in 
 the fibers has an important bearing on the weight of the 
 fleece. The larger the number of the wool fibers, other 
 things being equal, the heavier will be the weight of the 
 fleece. It also exercises an important influence in pro- 
 tecting the animal from injury by rain or sleet storms. 
 The density of the wool accounts in part at least for the 
 superior hardihood of the American Merino. The more 
 dense the wool, the more perfect is the protection thus 
 furnished. 
 
 The variations in the density of wool are very consid- 
 erable. Some of the finest grades of Saxony wool measure 
 i-2,oooth of an inch. In growing wool the aim should be 
 to secure as much of density as possible without hinder- 
 ing development in other directions. Up to a certain 
 limit there would seem to be no antagonism between 
 density and length ; nevertheless, the fact remains that 
 the most dense wools are of short fiber and the least dense 
 wools are of long fiber. 
 
/S MANAGEMENT AND EEEUING OF SHEEP 
 
 Density is a breed characteristic and, therefore, is not 
 directly influenced by feeding. It is secured in the pure 
 breeds, and is maintained and increased, by judicious 
 breeding. It may be influenced materially by judicious 
 selection, especially of the males used in service. Sim- 
 ilarly in grade sheep it is increased by the use of sires 
 possessed of much density of wool. But increase in 
 density in wool, like increase in fineness of fiber, comes 
 slowly. The form of the sheep can be transformed much 
 more quickly than a corresponding change can be made 
 in the density of the wool. 
 
 Crimp or curl in wool — Crimp or curl in wool means 
 the crimped or waved character of the fibers. Strictly 
 speaking, crimp means the tendency of the wool fibers to 
 form more or less regular and minute but not too close 
 lying folds in the process of their growth, and curl or 
 wave means the tendency in the fibers to produce waves 
 or curls — that is, spirals — as they grow outward. The 
 latter tendency is the same as the former in kind, though 
 less in degree. It is caused by more or less regular alter- 
 nations in the thickening of the fiber, first on one side 
 and then on the other. These are more or less spirally 
 arranged. A curly fiber is a great aid in spinning wool, 
 since it can be drawn finer and a more compact and 
 rounded thread formed. Crimp or curl is much more pro- 
 nounced, and is relatively more important in the fine 
 wools. Crimp is to some extent an indication of strength 
 in wool, and gives it higher adaptation for certain proc- 
 esses of manufacture. In high-class Merino wool the 
 degree of crimp possessed is a matter of much importance. 
 In the best bred fleeces, the crimp is perceptible to the 
 naked eye, to the very tip of the fibers, and is not merged 
 into dark clots or indurations. 
 
 The variations in degree in crimp in wool are very 
 marked. In very fine wools, at least 30 to 33 waves or 
 crimps are found in an inch in length. These waves 
 should be perfectly regular but not so abrupt as to ap- 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 79 
 
 pear as folds. Long- Leicester wool has about eight or 
 nine curls to an inch in length of fiber. There is also a 
 marked difference in the degree to which the waved or 
 curled fibers combine, so as to form locks or spirals which 
 hang like ringlets. Some of these are very large and some 
 are quite small, even in sheep of the same breed. 
 
 While the immediate cause of crimp or curl is the 
 thickening of the cortical layer of the fiber, first on one 
 side and then on the other, the reasons why growth in 
 the fiber should proceed thus are not well understood. It 
 is known, however that the degree to which crimp or 
 curl may be maintained in wool is influenced by selection 
 in breeding. When a fine wooled sheep, as the American 
 Merino, is crossed by a coarse wooled sheep, as the Cots- 
 wold, there is a reduction in the waves or crimp found 
 in the wool of the progeny and vice versa. 
 
 Softness or pliancy in wool — Softness or pliancy in 
 wool, which is the opposite of wiriness or stiffness, means 
 its lack of resistance to gentle pressure. The measure of 
 the resistance to such pressure is the measure of the soft- 
 ness. Elasticity is that quality in wool which causes it 
 to yield readily under pressure and then to resume its 
 former position when the pressure is removed. There is 
 no antagonism between softness and elasticity. On the 
 other hand, they are usually associated. Elasticity is in- 
 dicative of life in wool, hence the more of it that soft 
 wools have, the more valuable they are. Softness or 
 pliancy in wool can only be measured by the sense of 
 touch, hence the difficulty of expressing in words just 
 what it means. The trained hand of a wool sorter meas- 
 ures it in a moment, through the sense of touch. 
 
 Softness or pliancy in wool differs much in the differ- 
 ent breeds of sheep, and in different parts of the same 
 fleece. The difference may be almost as great in wool 
 from certain breeds as the difference between feathers 
 and down. The softest wool is furnished by the fine wool 
 breeds, other things being equal. Among the other in- 
 
8o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 fluences that affect softness in wool, apart from those that 
 relate to breeding, are the plentifulness and the quality of 
 the yolk, climate, lack of condition, old age, disease, ex- 
 posure and the chemical constituents of the soil. Wool 
 lacking yolk is lacking in softness and elasticity, and 
 these qualities increase with the increase in the yolk up to 
 a certain limit, as long as it retains the liquid form. 
 
 Cool climates furnish softer wool than those that are 
 hot. A lean condition affects softness adversely through 
 a lessened nourishment of the wool fiber and of the sup- 
 ply of yolk. Old age, disease, and undue exposure, simi- 
 larly affect softness in wool, and for the same reason. 
 Soils affect this quality directly through the constituents 
 which they furnish, and indirectly through the degree of 
 the nutrition and the succulence in the food furnished. 
 Clay soils furnish wool of good quality, while limestone 
 soils produce wool that is much more harsh. Since the 
 chief of the causes that influence softness or pliancy in 
 wool are known, the methods of maintaining and increas- 
 ing these are also known. Such maintenance and increase 
 will, of course, be secured by shunning, as far as may be 
 practicable, the influences that are adverse to softness. 
 Careful regard should be had to the breeding, as no single 
 influence affects this quality more than breeding, under 
 normal conditions. 
 
 Color in the staple of wool — Color in the staple of wool 
 may affect all the fibers of the fleece through the entire 
 length of the same, or it may affect only some of them 
 thus on certain parts of the body. The color, as white 
 or black, illustrates the former. Black or gray patches 
 in the fleece in certain parts of the body illustrate the lat- 
 ter. But it may also affect the shade which the wool 
 fibers will assume when the fleece is parted, as the out- 
 come of condition linked with breed peculiarities. 
 
 Varieties in the color of the staple, even in the wools 
 that are essentially white colored, are considerable. When 
 the wool of a fleece of this class is parted, the color may 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 8l 
 
 be a beautiful white, a rich yellow or an orange tint, ac- 
 cording to the breed or grade of the sheep. In some in- 
 stances there is more or less banding of these colors. 
 Banding means their occurrence in bars and in alterna- 
 tions that run across the wool at right angles to the length 
 of the fibers. Such banding is not only allowable, but is 
 considered an indication that is favorable rather than 
 otherwise. Fleeces that are entirely black or mottled are 
 directly or indirectly the outcome of breeding. 
 
 Desirable color may be secured and increased mainly 
 through selection in breeding. If wool of any of the 
 recognized and useful shades is desired, the aim should 
 be to breed only from sheep that carry fleeces that are 
 thus characterized. If sheep possessed of wool of differ- 
 ent colors are present in the same flock, undesirable color 
 in the wool may appear in some of the progeny, though 
 the breeding should be otherwise correct. 
 
 Uniformity of fleece in wool — Uniformity in wool has 
 reference to a similarity in the wool fibers as distributed 
 over the body. It has reference to fineness of fiber, to 
 length of fiber, strength of fiber and to density in the 
 same. Complete uniformity in any of the senses named 
 is not attainable ; nevertheless, in all of these respects it 
 is much more nearly approximated in some breeds and 
 grades of sheep than in others, and the same is true of 
 individuals of the same breed. 
 
 When the wool is nearly equally fine at the should- 
 ers, ribs, hips, rumps and thighs, it is said to be uniform 
 as to fineness. When it is nearly equally long at the 
 shoulders, back, sides, hips and thighs, it is said to be 
 uniform as to length. When it is about equally strong on 
 all the parts named, it is said to be uniform in strength of 
 fiber. When it is nearly equally dense and elastic at the 
 shoulders, loin and rump, it is said to be uniform in 
 density. 
 
 The variations in uniformity of fleece are more ac- 
 centuated usually in breed than in individuals of a breed. 
 
82 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 but even in the latter sense there is considerable lack of 
 uniformity. The unimproved types have much less of 
 uniformity in the fleece than the improved types, and 
 in the highly improved breeds the contrast is even 
 greater. Wool is usually somewhat coarser at the rump 
 and hips than at the sides and shoulders. It is usually 
 longer on the upper portion of the body and on the 
 shoulders, sides and hips of the same than on other por- 
 tions ; as, for instance, the head, belly and limbs. The 
 difference in strength of fiber is usually less than that in 
 length of the same, for the influences that produce strong 
 fiber on one part of the body also tend to produce the 
 same on every other part. Less of density is often found 
 on the thighs and underline than on the other parts of 
 the body. 
 
 Uniformity in the fleece is maintained by continued 
 and careful selection in breeding. To secure it in a 
 marked degree, several generations of careful up-grad- 
 ing are necessary, combined with a rigid selection with 
 reference to the end sought. Great improvement has thus 
 been made in the uniformity of the fleece produced by sev- 
 eral of the improved breeds, including some of the oldest. 
 
 Complete uniformity in the fleece is unattainable. It 
 would not be possible to produce wool equally fine, long, 
 strong or dense on the extremities of the body as on the 
 body itself. Nor would this be altogether desirable. But 
 on the body itself the greatest uniformity attainable 
 should be sought. The value of the fleece will be pro- 
 portionately enhanced as uniformity in the same is en- 
 hanced. 
 
 Style or quality in wool — Style in wool has reference 
 to a combination of good qualities and to the absence of 
 defects in the same. It includes such good qualities as 
 strength of fiber, length of staple, thickness or density, 
 crimp or curl, softness or pliancy, color in the staple and 
 uniformity in the fleece. While all of these are impor- 
 tant with reference to their bearing on quality, strength 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 83 
 
 of fiber and softness or pliancy are specially so. Quality 
 excludes such defects as felting in the fleece, cloudiness 
 or discolorations, a stripy condition, break or joint, kemp 
 or jar and such influences as toppiness and clots. It also 
 excludes all such defects as result from the baneful in- 
 fluences of environment, such as burs, spines and chaff. 
 
 The variations in style are as various as the charac- 
 teristics in breeds and grades of the same, and yet all 
 classes of good wool have much in common, regardless of 
 breed or grade. The leading characteristics of good wool 
 all point in the same direction and the defects to be 
 shunned are the same. 
 
 Style or quality in wool cannot be secured in the ab- 
 sence of good breeding, the most careful selection and 
 the most ample care in the management of the flock. In 
 the breeding of the sheep none of the valuable qualities of 
 wool are to be lost sight of. In the selection of the same, 
 those that rank highest in qualities of fleece are to be 
 retained, and those that have defects are to be rejected. 
 The exclusion of the baneful influences of environment 
 are entirely, or at least in a large measure, in the hands of 
 the owner. 
 
 Closure of fleece in wool — By closure of fleece in wool 
 is meant the gluing of the wool fibers as a result of the 
 abundance of the yolk at the extremities of the wool, to 
 which dust and dirt adhere so as to form a crust. This 
 crust gives the fleece a dirty appearance, to the extent 
 even of causing it to assume a dark shade approaching 
 blackness on the surface. Such is the appearance of the 
 wool carried by certain of the Merino types. One of 
 these, the American Spanish Black Top, has been thus 
 named because of the blackness of the fleece on its outer 
 surface. This crust is nearly impervious to rain, and is 
 a great protection to the wool against all kinds of dirt 
 from whatsoever source it may come. This property may, 
 however, under some conditions, become a detriment. 
 
84 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SIIEEF 
 
 as shown later. This pecuHarity of fleece is confined to the 
 fine wooled breeds. 
 
 The benefits from such closure have already been 
 touched upon. Sheep that are thus protected can endure 
 exposure to rain, and especially to cold rain, very much 
 better than sheep not thus covered. This furnishes one 
 explanation of the superior hardihood of the Merino 
 types. The only avenues through which any dirt can 
 penetrate the wool are the openings between the glued 
 masses, and these are so minute as practically to exclude 
 dirt. Should it enter between the locks or masses, the 
 outward movement of the yolk continually tends to eject it. 
 
 Closure in the fleece is largely the outcome of breeding 
 and selection. It is not possessed equally by the Merino 
 breeds, nor even by individuals of the same breed or class. 
 It is also much influenced by food. Sheep that are M^ell 
 fed will possess more closure of fleece than others of sim- 
 ilar breeding when on a spare diet. This follows from 
 the plentiful and suitable food supplies and a sufficiency 
 of yolk. Closure is not to be sought to the extent of 
 gluing all the fibers together over any considerable area 
 of the body, as this would make a covering so warm as to 
 be unendurable in the summer season. The gluing is 
 rather to be confined to small aggregations of fibers in a 
 way that does not interfere with the escape of body heat 
 through radiation. 
 
 Felting in wool — Felty wool is that in which the 
 fibers have a tendency to felt together on the sheep's 
 back. In the aggravated form it is known as cots or cot- 
 ted wool. The fibers so felt together that by shearing 
 time portions of the fleece or all of it is so completely 
 felted or matted that it can be lifted up by a single lock 
 without parting asunder. It more generally develops in 
 the winter season, when the sheep are on a dry diet. Such 
 a fleece has a relatively low value and should not be sold 
 with other wool. 
 
 Cotting is caused primarily by an absence of yolk. In 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 85 
 
 some instances the yolk glands dry to such an extent that 
 many of the fibers have parted from the body before the 
 fleece is shorn. Because of this, the removal of the fleece 
 is not difficult. The secondary causes of cotting include 
 continued wet weather, which washes the yolk out of the 
 fleece, low condition or the presence of certain forms of 
 disease. It is also to some extent the outcome of inherit- 
 ance. Furthermore, it has been claimed that it sometimes 
 results from ammoniacal exhalations arising in an un- 
 clean stable. Cotting is much more frequent in the coarse 
 than in the fine wool breeds, as the latter produce yolk 
 more abundantly than the former, and the more dense 
 fleece which they possess renders it more impervious to 
 water. 
 
 Since the causes that produce cotting are known, the 
 means that should be taken to prevent it are evident. 
 Sheep must be provided with food that will furnish suffi- 
 cient yolk where cotting is to be prevented. They must 
 be sufficiently protected during wet weather. They must 
 be maintained in a reasonably good condition as to thrift. 
 They must be kept free from disease that results in low 
 condition, and they ought to be furnished with sheds free 
 from conditions that produce filth. Where the felting is 
 the outcome of constitutional inheritance, in whole or in 
 part, the animals thus affected should be disposed of as 
 soon as this may be practicable. 
 
 Cloudiness in wool — Cloudy wool means the pres- 
 ence of discolorations in the wool on various parts of the 
 body. In some instances the wool assumes a lemon color 
 or one that may be designated as yellowish, nankeen or 
 saffron along the back or sides of the sheep. Sometimes 
 it becomes more than ordinarily white on the neck, espe- 
 cially when the sheep have been housed for a time and 
 are then not housed. In some instances the wool ad- 
 heres from the bottom upwards after the manner of felt, 
 though less in degree. The wool is not necessarily in- 
 jured in the staple, although in some instances it is, de- 
 
86 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 pendent on the cause of the cloudiness. The first quality 
 of wool is elastic, lies loosely, and is white as snow. The 
 next choice is a rich buff yellow or golden tint, and pos- 
 sessed of uniformity in a marked degree. Cloudiness, 
 therefore, detracts from the beauty and salableness of the 
 wool. Discoloration from soil, as the dark wool of the 
 adobe soil of California, or the reddish tint from the red 
 clays of Tennessee, is not the same exactly as cloudiness, 
 but, like cloudiness, it detracts somewhat from the mar- 
 ket price paid. 
 
 Cloudy wool may be produced by any one of the fol- 
 lowing causes: (i) Rain dripping down on sheep from 
 deficient roofs; (2) irregular and uneven exposure; (3) 
 deprivation of exercise to the extent of lowering the cir- 
 culation ; and (4) inheritance. Should the circulation be 
 unduly lowered, the yolk will not be present in sufficient 
 quantity, nor will it be sufficiently liquefied to carry it to 
 the extremities of the fibers. In such instances the fiber 
 of the wool is injured. When cloudy wool is the outcome 
 of inheritance, the defect becomes constitutional. The 
 fine wooled breeds have wool thus defective more fre- 
 quently than the other sheep. 
 
 The measures that should be taken to prevent cloudi- 
 ness in wool will depend on the cause from which it may 
 emanate. Should it result from the dripping of the water, 
 mending or remending the roof or removing the sheep, 
 will stay the evil. Should it be the outcome of uneven ex- 
 posure, protecting the sheep from falling storms and al- 
 lowing them to go in and out from the shelter of sheds at 
 will, should prove effective. Should the circulation be un- 
 duly lowered through lack of exercise or insufficient food, 
 more exercise and better food should remove the trouble. 
 When the defect is constitutional, the animals so affected 
 should be rejected for breeding. 
 
 Stripy or watery wool — The term was formerly ap- 
 plied to wool lacking in wave or crimp and that is non- 
 elastic ; that is to say, lifeless when compressed by the 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 8/ 
 
 hand. The origin of these terms, not so frequently used 
 during recent years as formerly, is somewhat obscure. 
 The term stripy may have arisen from the deadness re- 
 ferred to in the wool which characterized some portions only 
 of the fleece in some instances in the living animal. The 
 term watery may possibly have arisen from the lack of 
 resistance to handling, shown by lifeless wools which 
 are non-resistant. Such wool is sometimes found on the 
 shoulders of inferior animals where only good wool should 
 be. Wool removed from animals that may have died from 
 disease, and especially disease that has lingered some 
 time, is thus lacking in elasticity. Such wool is dis- 
 counted in the market, frequently to the extent of several 
 cents a pound. 
 
 The causes that produce stripy and watery wool are, 
 inheritance, lack of thrift and disease. Crimp and wave 
 in wool increase elasticity in proportion as they are pres- 
 ent, and reduce it in proportion as they are absent. The 
 non-elasticity of the wool will be influenced adversely as 
 thrift is lacking. The loss of elasticity in wool is pro- 
 portionate to the intensity of disease in the same and to 
 the period covered by the disease. 
 
 The remedy for non-elasticity, the outcome of inherit- 
 ance, is the rejection for breeding of animals thus affected 
 or so inclined. When it is the outcome of lack of thrift, 
 any treatment that conduces to thrift will so far remove 
 the trouble. When caused by disease, it is very seldom 
 that any efficient remedy can be applied. It is not to be 
 understood that wool thus far injured can be restored to 
 a normal condition, but that the application of the reme- 
 dies will prevent the continuance of the production of 
 such wool. Non-elastic wool is more difficult to card and 
 comb than other wool. 
 
 Break or joint in wool — Break or joint in wool indi- 
 cates that when it is stretched or distended it will part 
 asunder at some point of its length. The break will, of 
 course, occur where the fiber is weakest. It makes wool 
 
88 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 useless for any combing purpose and very greatly im- 
 pairs its value for any use. The break may occur along 
 the length of the fiber according to the cause that may 
 have produced it, and the time when that cause was 
 operative. 
 
 The immediate cause of break or joint is arrested 
 nutrition for a longer or shorter period. When the glands 
 that nourish the wool fibers are not sufficiently fed, they 
 are unable to furnish the materials for sufficient growth 
 in the wool ; no sooner does this happen than the growth 
 made by the fibers at such a time is less than normal. The 
 reduction will relate both to the size and strength of the 
 fiber, and the continuance of such enfeebled growth will 
 be exactly proportioned to the continuance of the period 
 of deficient sustenance. The weakess of the fiber will also 
 be proportioned to the degree to which sustenance was 
 wanting. The primary cause is, of course, the lack of 
 food or the lack of proper nutrition in the food, but other 
 causes may have a qualifying influence. These include 
 undue exposure, alkaline pastures and various forms of 
 disease which for a time have reduced condition in the 
 sheep. 
 
 The cause of break or joint in wool being known, the 
 way to prevent it is also known. Ample and suitable 
 nutrition will always prevent it in healthy sheep. When 
 sheep can be kept healthy this weakness in wool cannot 
 occur. There may, of course, be conditions under which 
 it is impossible to furnish the requisite nutrition, as dur- 
 ing prolonged drought in range areas. There may also 
 be occasions when it is not possible to furnish the requi- 
 site shelter. Usually, however, on the arable farm suffi- 
 cient foresight may be used to safeguard the flock from 
 injury by the causes named, and therefore to prevent the 
 occurrence of break or joint in wool. 
 
 Kemp or jar in wool — Kemp or jar in wool, some- 
 times called gare, is simply hair. Though these hairs 
 occur singly, they may be distributed over the body. They 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 89 
 
 are chiefly found on rams, and most commonly occur on 
 the face, neck, forearm, and scrotum. When thus found, 
 they are very liable to be present to some extent else- 
 where. In rams of the Merino types they sometimes 
 occur on the exposed surface of the neck folds, and less 
 frequently on the folds at the sides and hips. In Cots- 
 wold sheep and Angora goats they are of commonest 
 occurrence at the hips. The presence of these hairs in 
 the wool is highly objectionable, since in the combs and 
 cards they are equally unmanageable. They will not 
 blend with the wool fibers, and they will not take dye 
 so readily as wool. Their presence has been known to 
 reduce the value of the fleece by fully 50 per cent. Hairs 
 short and curled are the most objectionable. 
 
 The cause of kemp or jar is not certainly understood. 
 It is most liable to occur in males, and more especially 
 among the more vigorous of these ; hence there would 
 seem to be some relation between occurrence of these 
 hairs and constitutional vigor. 
 
 Some authorities look upon the presence of these 
 hairs as the outcome of spontaneous variation, but since 
 some breeds produce them more frequently than others, 
 it would seem reasonable to look upon them as being in 
 some way the outcome of atavic transmission. The wild, 
 coarse and frizzly character of the hairs is akin to these 
 properties found in the wool of some at least of the prim- 
 itive breeds. 
 
 Until the cause of kemp or jar in wool is definitely un- 
 derstood, it may not be possible to entirely prevent it. 
 It is certain, however, that rams or other sheep that are 
 thus afifected should not be kept for breeding. Such 
 selection, long continued, would probably eliminate the 
 evil. 
 
 Toppiness, broad toppiness, black tops and clots in 
 wool — Toppiness in wool means unevenness and lack of 
 smoothness in the closure of the fleece, resulting from in- 
 equality in the length of the fibers. Such wool is, of 
 
90 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 course, not equal in value with wool possessed of even 
 length of fiber. Broad toppiness, means the division of 
 the wool into broad masses or tops, caused by the inter- 
 lacing of the fibers, which are to some extent split from 
 the top downwards. Such a condition is objectionable, 
 viewed from the standpoint of the manufacturer. 
 
 Black top means the gluing together of the wool 
 fibers over much of the body so as to render it almost 
 impervious to rain. It extends the whole length of the 
 fleece, and is densest along the back, but occurs more or 
 less on the sides. It hinders the extension of the crimp 
 to the extremities of the fibers, such as is found in a per- 
 fect fleece. If the sheep are much confined in winter it 
 becomes separated into masses or lumps. Each of these, 
 tipping more or less of the fibers, becomes exceedingly 
 hard, and, in proportion, they impair the value of wool. 
 The worst form of clot is gray shoulder clot, which is 
 somewhat akin to blacktop, but exceeds it in degree. It 
 occurs at the withers and frequently extends half way 
 down the shoulders and more or less along the backbone. 
 In a short-fibered fleece, the locks will be glued together 
 in some instances for half their length, and will be about 
 as hard as stone. The influence of all these conditions, 
 with reference to its bearing on the manufacture of the 
 wool, will be readily perceived. These defects are chiefly 
 if not entirely confined to the Merino types of sheep. 
 
 These conditions are all traceable more or less to 
 inheritance, but they are also influenced by food and 
 management, though not equally so. Food and manage- 
 ment may not be able to influence in any marked degree 
 the unevenness in the fibers that leads to toppiness, but 
 it may influence in a marked degree gray shoulder clot, 
 if caused by a feeble circulation and if aggravated by 
 rain and washing out the softer parts of the yolk and 
 allowing the residuum to gum the locks together. 
 
 In so far as these defects are the outcome of inherit- 
 ance, they can largely be prevented by selection. In so 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL 9 1 
 
 far as they are the outcome of deficient management, it is 
 almost needless to say that correct management will in 
 time lessen the tendency to such defects, if it does not 
 entirely remove it. 
 
 Influences from environment that are harmful — The 
 influences from environment that are harmful in wool are 
 various. They are such as relate to soils which tend to 
 color the wool, to imperfect protection, as the roofs of 
 sheds that leak, and the adherence of foreign substances 
 to the wool, such as burs, spines and chaflf. The hurtful- 
 ness from soils it is not possible to remedy in some in- 
 stances. Those from leaking roofs may easily be pre- 
 vented by simply stopping the leaks. Those from for- 
 eign substances are taken into the wool while the sheep 
 are grazing or taking fodder in winter, and are therefore 
 preventable. 
 
 Burs are of various kinds, as the burdock, the cockle- 
 bur, the beggar tick and the sand bur. When these are 
 allowed to grow in the pastures, the sheep when grazing 
 come in touch with them and they become entangled in 
 the wool, to the extent in some instances of covering the 
 whole fleece. Especially is this true of the burdock. The 
 remedy is to prevent these from maturing their seeds ; 
 that is, from forming mature burs in which the seed is 
 inclosed. For the best methods of doing this, the reader 
 is referred to "Weeds and How to Eradicate Them," by 
 the author. 
 
 Needle grass is peculiar to range pastures, especially 
 to those ranges that lie west from the Rocky mountains. 
 At one time it infested nearly all the land in the West 
 known as prairie land. This grass grows up tall amid the 
 prairie grasses early in the season and matures spines, 
 which in shape somewhat resemble needles. When the 
 sheep graze among them as they approach maturity in 
 June or July, they fall into the wool, and through motion 
 in the same while the sheep are walking, they work down 
 into the flesh. Lambs are the greater sufferers from their 
 
92 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 presence, for the reason that they have longer wool at 
 that season than the old sheep. The remedy consists of 
 keeping the flock, if possible, on other pastures until the 
 needles fall to the ground. If the grass that produces 
 them was cut sufficiently early they would not mature 
 any seed, but on the range this would not be practicable. 
 Should the wool be infested with the needles, removing 
 the fleece will prevent further harm. This grass and 
 nearly all kinds of plants that thus injure wool are easily 
 destroyed by careful cultivation. 
 
 Injury from chafif and broken pieces of straw comes 
 from sheep feeding from improperly constructed racks, 
 and at the sides of unfenced stacks. When thus feeding, 
 chaiT, short pieces of straw and dust fall down upon the 
 backs of the sheep and work their way into the wool. 
 The wool on the top of the neck and shoulders is natu- 
 rally the most injured by these substances. That of the 
 long wooled breeds takes the greatest harm, since it is 
 the most open, and that of the fine wooled breeds the 
 least, since it is the most dense. The remedy is plain. It 
 is to provide properly constructed racks and to prevent 
 sheep from feeding at stacks of any kind. 
 
 Sheep sometimes lose more or less of their wool, 
 especially in the winter season. This may result from 
 undue exposure, as when the wool drops off the outer 
 portions of the wrinkles in Merinos which have been 
 chilled. It may result from housing overwarm. which 
 produces a fevered condition of the system, sometimes 
 aggravated by constipation resulting from the food fed. 
 It may also result from certain forms of disease, which 
 also tend to produce the fevered condition referred to. In 
 some instances sheep will pull out more or less of the 
 wool from the bodies of the others. Such a condition 
 usually evidences something lacking in the food. Should 
 the habit become confirmed, which it does in rare in- 
 stances, those addicted to it should be sent to the block. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 
 
 In Chapter VI the discussion dwells upon the follow- 
 ing: (i)The season when lambs should come; (2) The 
 care of the dams when nearing parturition ; (3) Special 
 care at the lambing season ; (4) Giving aid to the dams 
 in labor ; (5) Giving aid to the young lambs ; (6) Reviving 
 lambs that may have been chilled ; (7) Managing ewes 
 that do not own their lambs ; (8) Rearing lambs by hand ; 
 (9) Supplemental food for lambs; (10) Food suitable for 
 young lambs; (11) The lamb creep ; (12) Weaning lambs, 
 and how it is done; (13) The proper food for lambs when 
 weaned; (14) Castrating lambs; (15) Docking lambs; 
 (16) The registration of pure bred lambs; and (17) Mis- 
 cellaneous considerations. 
 
 When lambs should come — The best season for lambs 
 to come is determined by such influences as the market 
 for which they are grown, the shelter that has been pro- 
 vided, and to some extent by the breeding habit in the 
 sheep. Of these influences the first is by far the most 
 important, as, if sheep, and more particularly lambs, are 
 not adapted to the conditions of the market for which 
 they have been grown, they soon become a drug in the 
 hands of the owner. To have young lambs at a season 
 when the weather is cold in the absence of provision to 
 properly protect them would be to court disaster to the 
 lamb crop. Some breeds of sheep, not many, however, 
 drop their lambs in the autumn, and others in the spring. 
 The attempt to modify such habit, when this may be de- 
 sired, cannot be quickly done (see p. 243). Lambs in- 
 tended for the winter market, usually spoken of as hot- 
 house or milk lambs, should come after the hot weather 
 is over in summer and before lambs come for the spring 
 market. They should be sold, as a rule, after the winter 
 
 93 
 
94 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 holiday season and before the Easter season. If ready 
 too early, they would reach the market in competition 
 with the vast supply of poultry that fill the market just 
 prior to the holiday season. If not ready early enough, 
 they come in competition with early spring lambs, and 
 at a lower price. 
 
 Lambs for the spring market are supposed to be 
 ready for the shambles not later than the Easter season. 
 The milk lambs usually supply the needs of the market 
 until the approach of the Easter season. The winter 
 lambs, which come chiefly in the months of February and 
 March, will take the market at an early age when plump 
 and fat. Though they do not sell for prices so high as 
 milk lambs, they will at the age of six to ten weeks sell 
 for prices as high if not higher than they will bring sev- 
 eral months later. These good prices for really good 
 lambs may, and frequently do, continue for several weeks 
 after the Christmas season, but the price paid after that 
 season is less relatively in proportion to the weight of 
 the lambs. When prices can be obtained for such lambs 
 fully equal to those obtained for them several months 
 later, there are no good reasons for keeping them thus 
 long before selling them for meat. 
 
 When lambs are to be sold for breeding uses, they 
 should come early rather than late. The aim should be to 
 have them come as early as winter lambs intended for 
 the Easter market, but they should not be pushed so 
 rapidly as the latter when young. Such lambs should 
 come thus early for the reason, first, that those who pur- 
 chase give the preference to large lambs when making 
 their selections; and, second, that they usually grow to a 
 larger size. That the result last mentioned follows may 
 be disputed, but there would seem to be some truth in the 
 belief. And it seems to be more in evidence in the case 
 of Merinos than of some other breeds. It may rest upon 
 the advantage which a strong and well-developed animal 
 has on entering the winter over one not so well developed. 
 
LAMBS fROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 95 
 
 It is more important relatively that male lambs come 
 early when they are to be used in service, as in such in- 
 stances the added maturity which they possess will bet- 
 ter fit them for such a use. 
 
 Lambs to be finished in the autumn and before the clos- 
 ing in of winter should come at a time intermediate be- 
 tween winter lambs to be sold early and spring lambs for 
 lireeding the following winter. The aim should be to 
 have them come just before the season for turning out to 
 graze. The relative loss in the lambs will probably be 
 less when they come at such a time than if the lambing 
 season was deferred until the coming of the earliest grass. 
 The lainbs thus safely started in the sheds will grow 
 rapidly when the dams are turned out on the succulent 
 grazing. If both ewes and lambs are supplied with suit- 
 able grazing, the latter will reach such weights as the 
 market demands before the arrival of winter. 
 
 Lambs to be finished in the winter following their 
 birth should not come until the grass has made sufficient 
 growth to sustain both ewes and lambs in good form. 
 Should they come earlier they will be larger than the 
 market calls for if kept all the time on good grazing. 
 Tlie market prefers lambs ranging somewhere between 
 80 and 100 pounds. Some years ago lambs much heavier 
 were most in favor, but it is not thus now. The larger 
 the normal size of the breed the later may the lambs 
 come, lest they should reach weights too heavy before 
 the season arrives for finishing them. 
 
 Dams when nearing parturition — When lambs are 
 dropped on the pastures it is not specially necessary to 
 know to a day just when they will be born, but it is 
 important to know that lambs may be expected after a 
 certain date, and that no more need be looked for be- 
 yond another fixed date. These dates may, of course, be 
 readily known by noting when the male was admitted to 
 the flock at the mating season and when he was removed. 
 This knowledge makes it possible to give that close atten- 
 
96 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 tion to the flock which is necessary at such a time. When 
 lambs are born in the sheds it is important to know when 
 each individual ewe may be expected to bring forth her 
 young, and the more valuable the dams are the more im- 
 portant is such information relatively. The profits from 
 the flock are determined largely by the success that at- 
 tends the effort to save the lambs. 
 
 It is possible, of course, to know within a day or two 
 the time when each individual ewe may be expected to 
 bring forth her young. This can be known by noting the 
 time of the service and keeping a record of the same. The 
 period of gestation in ewes is 147 days. It seldom varies 
 more than a day or two, but it may occur not less than 
 a week before or after the period named. Such a record 
 is valuable to any shepherd, but it is particularly valua- 
 ble in the case of pedigreed sheep. 
 
 When the sheep are yet in the sheds, the dams that 
 are about to bring forth their young should be separated 
 from the flock by taking them to the lambing pen, or by 
 surrounding them with a movable inclosure made of posts 
 and slats within which they are confined until the lambs 
 are well on their feet. These portable pens should be 
 light and the slats on the sides so close near the bottom 
 as not to admit of the young lambs getting through be- 
 tween them, and thus wandering away from the ewe. 
 Pieces, 2x2 inches and 3 to 4 feet long, will answer for 
 the posts, and strips 3 to 4 feet long and 4 to 6 inches wide 
 for the sides. Such lumber, or even a little less in the 
 thickness, will furnish them strong enough. The dimen- 
 sions of these inclosures should to some extent be de- 
 termined by the size of the sheep. 
 
 The advantage claimed for these portable pens over 
 the stationary pen is that when the dams are confined in 
 the former, they are still left in quarters to which they are 
 accustomed and in sight of the other sheep ; hence they 
 worry less than if removed to a stationary lambing pen. 
 This, however, may be obviated in a measure by thus 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 97 
 
 confining more than one ewe at a time. In the stationary 
 pen, it may be necessary to have divisions, portable or 
 otherwise, in which to keep the ewes separate from one 
 another. 
 
 When it is not known just when the ewes are to yean, 
 it may be well to examine the flock occasionally, and to 
 separate from the others the dams that are soon to yean. 
 The most important indication of the near approach of 
 the time of yeaning is the condition of the udder. It, of 
 course, enlarges and fills out, as a rule, before the lambs 
 are produced, and the teats distend. If ewes are cast or 
 thrown for the purpose of examining the udder, the 
 handling should be of the gentlest character. Such ex- 
 amination is seldom necessary at intervals less than a 
 week apart. The first indication of actual yeaning is a 
 restless movement and a distracted look. Then follow 
 indications too apparent to be mistaken. 
 
 Special care at the lambing season — The lambing 
 season is the flockmaster's harvest. If the losses at such 
 a time are frequent, the profits will be cut down accord- 
 ingly. To keep the percentage of loss down to a mini- 
 mum at such a season should be the honest, earnest en- 
 deavor of every shepherd. But even with the best of 
 care, some losses may usually be looked for in a large 
 flock. Many of the ewes will bring forth their young in 
 the night. The presence of the shepherd at such a time 
 may result in saving the life of a lamb and even of a ewe ; 
 hence when the sheep are yet in the sheds, the shepherd 
 should not fail to visit the flock at midnight, and again 
 in the very early morning. The more inclement the 
 weather the greater is the necessity for such nocturnal 
 vigils. Where the flock is large it may be necessary 
 sometimes for the shepherd to remain much of the night 
 with the flock. Such vigils may be trying, but they are a 
 part of the true shepherd's work, and they will be un- 
 grudgingly given by a shepherd who has his work suffi- 
 cientlv at heart. At such times he should not fail to sus- 
 
98 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 tain his own strength by taking suitable food and drink. 
 
 It would not be practicable to spend time at night 
 with a flock in the field, nor is it necessary, the weather 
 is so much warmer at such a time. But the flock should 
 be visited late in the evening and at early dawn in the 
 morning. When the slightest hazard is present that 
 storms may happen in the night, the sheep should with- 
 out fail be brought home to the shed at nightfall. 
 
 Extra attention at such a time is an absolute neces- 
 sity, and the shepherd should not even consider it irk- 
 some, for it is a legitimate part of his work. Trouble may 
 arise in his absence in a score of different ways. The 
 dams in labor may not be able to bring forth without help. 
 Some lambs may be so weak as to be unable to get on 
 their feet without being helped to the milk of the dam, 
 and others, as in the case of twins, may wander away 
 from the dam and perish. For these and other reasons 
 too much attention cannot be given to the flock during 
 the lambing season. 
 
 Assisting ewes in labor — When all goes well during 
 parturition, it is better to let nature have her way and to 
 refrain from assisting in the delivery of the lambs. But 
 should any hindrance arise that tends to delay delivery 
 too long, or should a false presentation occur, assistance 
 given may save the life of the lamb and in some instances 
 that of the ewe. 
 
 Trouble may arise from various causes. Prominent 
 among these are lambs with the head abnormally large, a 
 false presentation and the retention of lambs that are 
 dead. A weak condition of the ewes at the time of lamb- 
 ing always tends to aggravate such troubles. Such a 
 condition may of itself tend so to prolong the time occu- 
 pied in labor as to hazard the life of the progeny, if not 
 of the dam, unless aid is given with due discretion. 
 
 When a lamb with a head abnormally large comes 
 to the birth and yet is not born within a reasonable time, 
 aid should be given to the ewe in labor. This may be 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 99 
 
 done by placing the hand flatwise on the skin of the 
 vulva and pressing it back over the head of the lamb. 
 \\'hen the head is thus freed, the front legs should be 
 drawn forth, one at a time, until freed. Then by taking 
 l^oth legs intone hand and pulling in a somewhat circular 
 direction toward the rear of the ewe's udder the delivery 
 will speedily be completed. But the attendant should 
 only attempt to render aid thus at such times as the ewe 
 herself is straining; that is, trying to deliver her progeny. 
 
 False or unnatural presentations may occur in vari- 
 ous forms, but two of these that are most common are, 
 first, the head lying back against the side; and, second, 
 the rear end of the lamb coming first, the legs at the 
 same time being doubled back. In the former instances 
 the lamb should be pushed back into the womb and there 
 so straightened that it will come in the natural way. In 
 the latter instances it is also pushed back and the legs 
 put in position. It then comes from the dam stern end 
 first. 
 
 When a pregnant ewe separates herself from the 
 other members of the flock and appears dull and stupid, 
 it will usually be found that she has recently aborted or 
 that she is carrying a dead lamb. In the latter instance 
 relief must be prompt if the life of the ewe is to be saved, 
 as in such instances blood poisoning quickly follows, 
 which will certainly prove fatal. The ewe is best in posi- 
 tion, when relieved of her lambs, when resting on her 
 back or buttock, but it will be well if the position is occa- 
 sionally changed. The person who removes the lamb 
 should trim his nails short and anoint his hands with 
 some lubricant which is also antiseptic, and the hands 
 should be entirely free from wounds of any kind. Various 
 devices are practiced to aid the operator, as, for instance, 
 forcing the finger through the soft part of the under jaw 
 of the lamb and slipping a piece of string sufficiently 
 strong in the form of a noose over the under jaw of the 
 same. The efifort to take away the dead lamb should 
 
lOO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 only be made in unison with the efforts of the ewe to be 
 relieved of it. The aim should be to remove the placenta 
 at the same time. After the lambs have been removed 
 the womb should be treated with tepid solutions of car- 
 l)olic injections twice a day for a few days. If much time 
 is covered in relieving a ewe of her dead lamb or lambs, 
 it may be necessary to administer some stimulant to pre- 
 vent her from succumbing. 
 
 Giving aid to young lambs — When the lambs come 
 strong and vigorous it is seldom necessary to give them 
 help in any way. As soon as they ought to take food 
 from the dam they will do so, as a rule, unless in in- 
 stances when the ewes will not own them. Sometimes 
 even strong lambs will not nurse for a time, for the rea- 
 son that they are not hungry, but usually they will seek 
 to nurse as soon as they are well on their feet. When 
 they come into the world in a cold atmosphere, it may be 
 wise to try and get them to take some of the milk of the 
 dam as soon as possible after they are born, to fortify 
 them against the cold. Wrapping them in a warm 
 blanket may also prove very helpful. In some instances 
 it may be necessary to remove the thin mucus mem- 
 brane, that covers the mouth of the lamb to obviate the 
 danger of sufifocation ; but usually the ewe, when strong, 
 will remove this when caring for the lamb. 
 
 Newly born and young lambs may require aid from 
 the shepherd under the following conditions: (i) When 
 they are weak and unable of themselves to take nourish- 
 ment ; (2) when the dam gives attention chiefly to one 
 lamb when twins are born ; (3) when free passage of the 
 bowels is not secured within a reasonable time of the 
 birth of the lamb ; (4) when lambs become chilled. 
 
 When lambs are too weak in themselves to take 
 nourishment, it should be given to them within a rea- 
 sonable time after they are born, usually within, say. half 
 an hour of birth. When the dam has milk for the lamb, 
 it should be assisted in taking the same directly from the 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED lOI 
 
 dam. When only one person is present, the task may 
 not be an easy one, especially if the lamb is unable to 
 stand. In such instances it renders the work easier if 
 the ewe is turned up ; that is, placed upon her buttock, her 
 back being supported against the breast of the shepherd. 
 His hands are then sufficiently free to enable him to aid 
 the lamb in nursing. When two persons are present the 
 work is more easily and usually more effectively accom- 
 plished. The lamb may also be fed by drawing some milk 
 from the ewe and feeding the same to the lamb with a 
 spoon. When the atmosphere is cold, it will aid in giving 
 the milk warm if hot water has been in the cup just 
 before the milk is withdrawn from the ewe. The lamb's 
 mouth is kept open sufficiently by putting a finger into 
 it, and care must be taken not to feed the milk too fast, 
 lest the lamb should strangle. If no milk can be obtained 
 from the ewe, which sometimes happens, resort must be 
 had to cow's milk. When such milk is fed, one-third of 
 its bulk in water should be added and also a little sugar, 
 to make it more nearly resemble the milk of the ewe in 
 its constituents. Milk should be thus given in very small 
 quantities, and frequently, rather than in large amounts 
 and at long intervals. 
 
 When twin lambs are born the attentions of the ewe 
 are sometimes centered on the care of one lamb to the 
 neglect of the other. In some instances one lamb will 
 be much stronger than the other, and when milk is not 
 plentiful will get more than its rightful share. Timely 
 aid and timely and sufficient attention on the part of the 
 shepherd may not only prevent many a ewe from disown- 
 ing her lamb, but may also save the life of lambs that 
 would otherwise perish. It may be necessary thus to aid 
 such lambs for several days, or until they are able to take 
 care of themselves. 
 
 If, within a few hours of birth, a lamb should appear 
 dumpish and drowsy, it will usually be found that this 
 condition is caused by constipation. If an injection is 
 
102 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 promptly administered, usually it will bring relief. A 
 small dose of castor oil may bring about the same result. 
 An injection may be prepared by making a suds of warm 
 water and any kind of pure soap ; castile soap answers 
 well and pure soft water makes suds, of course, more 
 readily than hard water. From half a teaspoonful to a 
 teaspoonful will usually suffice for a dose, depending on 
 the size and strength of the lamb. In obstinate instances 
 of constipation it may be necessary to give the injection 
 and also the physic before relief comes. A small syringe 
 is used in administering the injection. 
 
 In some instances the excrement from lambs is so 
 sticky in character that it will adhere to the parts under 
 and around the tail head, in some cases to the extent of 
 closing the passage from the rectum. Such a condition 
 calls for prompt removal of the same. It is caused by 
 imperfect digestion, tracing usually to some peculiarity 
 of the milk of the dam arising from the character of the 
 rations fed. Milk from ewes that have been fed too much 
 grain may prove so unsuitable to young lambs at birth 
 as to result in their death. That from ewes fed entirely 
 on a dry diet may result in constipation. This seldom 
 happens when the ewes are fed even a moderate allow- 
 ance of field roots, or when in the absence of roots the 
 grain food consists of bran, oats and oilcake. 
 
 Reviving lambs when chilled — With the best of care, 
 it sometimes happens in a large flock that lambs newly 
 born will be chilled before they are seen by the shepherd. 
 To revive them under any circumstances is no easy task, 
 and, of course, the farther the chilling process has pro- 
 ceeded the more difficult is it. As long as life remains, 
 in the lamb, however, there is hope. In some instances 
 the reviving process may only cover a few hours. In 
 other instances the lamb may remain for days on the bor- 
 derland between life and death. 
 
 One of two methods may be followed in the effort 
 to revive chilled lambs. By the first the lamb is wrapped 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO3 
 
 in a warm covering and placed near enough the stove to 
 warm gradually. A small amount of milk is given to it, 
 providing it can swallow the same, and in the milk there 
 should be a small amount of spirits, preferably gin. By 
 the second, the lamb is immersed for a short time in 
 warm water except, of course, the head. It may be neces- 
 sary to add more hot water after the lamb has been in 
 the water for a short time. It is then vigorously rubbed 
 until dry, wrapped in a warm covering and placed near 
 the stove. The first method is usually followed with 
 lambs that are not chilled to the extent of their being un- 
 able to take nourishment, and the second method when 
 they are so far gone as to be unable to take good food. 
 In the early stages of the chilling process, the lamb may 
 sometimes be revived by simply giving it milk and 
 wrapping it for a time in some warm corner of the sheep 
 shed. 
 
 Certain hazards are to be avoided in the attempt to 
 revive chilled lambs. One of these is the danger that the 
 lamb will be strangled in the attempt to give it milk. A 
 second is the hazard that it may be given more milk than 
 it can digest when in a condition so weakly. A third is 
 that excessive heat from the stove may further sicken 
 the lamb and so hasten its death. A fourth is the danger 
 that constipation may follow. When the indications of 
 such a condition manifest themselves (see p. 417)) the 
 treatment should be given outlined on the same page. The re- 
 vived lamb should not be kept away from the dam longer 
 than is absolutely necessary, lest she disown it. 
 
 If lambs are chilled when born in the pastures, the 
 problem of reviving them is usually more complicated. 
 The first effort, of course, should be to care for the lamb. 
 This done it will usually be necessary to confine the dam 
 to the sheds until the fate of the lamb has been fully de- 
 termined. To reduce the unrest of the ewe at such a 
 time, she should have one or two companions. 
 
 Ewes not owning their lambs — Various reasons may 
 
I04 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 be given for ewes not owning their lambs. Prominent 
 among these are the following: (i) When a ewe produces 
 twins and one lamb wanders away from her she may 
 soon come to disown it; (2) she may be so devoid of ma- 
 ternal instinct as to refuse to give attention to any lamb ; 
 
 (3) the maternal instinct may be so developed that the 
 ewe will injure her lamb by her frenzied attentions and 
 later will disown it; (4) the ewe may make a mistake in 
 identity and may persist in owning the v/rong lamb. 
 Timely intervention on the part of the shepherd may pre- 
 vent the disowning of the lamb in the first instance. 
 
 Ewes that act as indicated in the second and third 
 instances should not longer be retained for breeding. The 
 instances are not numerous in which the identity of the 
 offspring is mistaken. 
 
 Among the methods that have been adopted to cause 
 refractory ewes to own their lambs are the following: 
 (i) Milk is drawn from the ewe and rubbed over the back 
 and hips of the lamb, or what is even better, milked on to 
 the parts named, as then the odor from the hands is less 
 pronounced than when the milk is rubbed on with the 
 hands. In some instances the method will succeed, but 
 not in all or even in a large proportion of these. (2) The 
 tail of the lamb is cut, and blood from the wound is 
 smeared on the back and hips of the lamb and on the nose 
 of the ewe. This method fails in many instances. (3) 
 The ewe and her lamb are confined in a pen and a dog 
 is brought up to it. In rare instances, and more espe- 
 cially in the case of young ewes, this method will rouse 
 within them the instinct to own and defend their young. 
 
 (4) The dam and her lamb are confined in a small in- 
 closure and the ewe is held many times a day while the 
 lamb takes its food from her. In time she will become 
 so reconciled to the lamb as to allow it to take food. But 
 it may take two or three weeks to accomplish this end. 
 When the ewe has produced twins and owns one of the 
 lambs, the diflficulty in overcoming her aversion to the other is 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO5 
 
 much increased, as the lamb which she owns will get 
 more than its share of the food. It may be necessary in 
 some instances to allow the lamb to nurse occasionally 
 some other ewe which has an ample supply of milk. (5) 
 The ewe is confined in a stanchion. This may be tem- 
 porary or permanent. When temporary the ewe is con- 
 iined by driving two stakes down into the ground, one on 
 each side of the neck, and two more, one on each side 
 of the hip. In both instances they are tied at the top. 
 The lambs are thus put in a position to help themselves 
 and when they get strong the ewe will in time allow 
 them to nurse. Where a large flock is kept it may be 
 profitable to have a permanent stanchion with feed man- 
 ger in front of it in which to fasten such ewes in case 
 of need. When thus fastened the ewes can still lie down 
 and rest at will. 
 
 W'hen a ewe loses her lamb or lambs she may be 
 made to adopt another by removing the skin from her 
 dead lamb and tying it over the body of the other lamb 
 for a time. This plan is usually more successful when the 
 strange lamb is thus clad with the skin of the other while 
 it is yet warm. Where this plan does not succeed the 
 ewe will usually come to allow it to nurse after she has 
 been made to suckle it for a number of days. The aim 
 should be to have every ewe of breeding age in the flock 
 suckle a lamb, not only because of the food which she is 
 thus made to furnish, but because of the favorable influ- 
 ence which it has on her future breeding. 
 
 Rearing lambs by hand — Lambs may be reared suc- 
 cessfully that are hand fed. The cost of such rearing, 
 however, is so much that in many instances it exceeds the 
 value of the lambs when they are reared for meat pro- 
 duction only. In the counties of Dorset and Somerset, 
 England, such lambs are reared regularly by certain 
 dairymen who obtain them from flocks in which an ex- 
 cess of lambs have been produced. It will, of course, be 
 
I06 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 profitable to rear pedigreed lambs thus when occasion 
 calls for it, providing they are well reared. 
 
 In some instances the choice must be made between 
 rearing lambs thus and allowing them to perish. These 
 include the following: (i) When the dam dies at the 
 time of parturition and no ewe is available for suckling 
 the orphan lamb or lambs. (2) When dams have triplets 
 and one of the number is so weakly that it cannot fight its 
 battle alone in the struggle for existence. (3) When a 
 ewe has produced twins and persistently disowns one of 
 them. In some instances lambs produced at the stock- 
 yards by ewes intended for or on their way to slaughter, 
 and these can only be saved by those who have cow's milk 
 for rearing them. 
 
 The only real trouble in rearing such lambs consists 
 in starting them properly. A little sugar should be added to 
 the cow's milk when first given to make it more like ewe's 
 milk in its constituents. One of two methods of feeding 
 may be adopted. By the first, the lamb is made to take 
 its food from a bottle with the nipple similar to that used 
 in feeding children. By the second the lamb is taught to 
 drink. The first method is the easier one at the outset, 
 and it enables the lamb to take its milk more slowly, and 
 therefore more naturally, than when it drinks from a ves- 
 sel. The second method is the more troublesome until 
 the lamb begins to drink, after which it is less trouble- 
 some than the former, since there is no cleansing of bot- 
 tles and nipples as when these are used. It also makes 
 it possible to add such food as flaxseed gruel or jelly to 
 the milk so as to cheapen the cost of production. Lambs 
 may frequently be taught to drink milk from a dipper by 
 allowing them at first to take the rim in the mouth and 
 raising the further edge to bring the milk to them. 
 
 The young lambs should be fed quite frequently, as 
 often at first as every second hour. The food should be 
 given warm, and preferably from cows newly calved. The 
 times of feeding may gradually become fewer until the 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO7 
 
 lambs are weaned ; when they are two weeks old, five or 
 six feeds a day should suffice; when a month old. 
 three or four; when two months old, two; and when three 
 months old, one. In getting young lambs to drink, no 
 little patience may be necessary. They should be given 
 the finger when drinking for a time. 
 
 The excessive cost usually incurred in rearing lambs 
 on cow's milk arises from the fact that in nearly all in- 
 stances the milk from start to finish is given in the whole 
 form. There would seem to be no good reasons, how- 
 ever, why skim milk should not be substituted for whole 
 milk, as in the case of rearing calves. No experiments 
 apparently have been conducted in this line. The change 
 would have to be made gradually as in the case of calves, 
 and as a matter of convenience in feeding, may be made 
 when the lambs have been brought down to say three 
 feeds a day. Flaxseed jelly may be added, as in feeding 
 calves, and in such quantities as the lambs can utilize. 
 If too much is fed the bowels will become too lax. When 
 the lambs have learned to eat grain freely, the equivalent 
 of the flax gruel may be given as oil meal, and along 
 with the grain. When thus fed the cost of food should 
 be less than the value of the meat made from it. Such 
 lambs should, of course, be furnished with good grazing. 
 
 Supplemental food for lambs — No substitute for the 
 milk of the dams can be given to lambs that will meet 
 their needs equally well. As long, therefore, as the milk 
 of the dam meets the requirements of the lamb, supple- 
 mental food is not necessary. But few dams, however, 
 can furnish a lamb with all the food that it needs beyond 
 the first three or four weeks of its life, and many ewes 
 will not come up to this standard. Especially is this 
 true of ewes that are not abundantly supplied with suc- 
 culent food. 
 
 As soon, therefore, as the dam is unable to meet the 
 full needs of the lambs, supplemental food should be 
 given. When the ewes are out on pastures succulent, 
 
I08 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 nutritious and abundant, the lambs in nearly all instances 
 will not require supplemental food other than that which 
 the pasture furnishes. But it is different with lambs not 
 yet turned out to graze. They should be given succulent 
 food such as may be available, and also grain, and they 
 should be given both as soon as they will eat them. 
 
 The precise character of the grain fed and the amount 
 fed should be determined by the object for which the 
 lambs are reared. This question is further discussed be- 
 low under the subhead immediately following. The milk 
 flow of the dams may and ought to be well maintained 
 by liberal feeding. It is doubtful, however, whether it 
 will pay to feed grain to ewes on fresh grass for the 
 purpose of sustaining or increasing the milk flow. It is, 
 of course, legitimate to do this while the ewes are yet 
 on dry food, at least up to a certain limit, but experi- 
 ments have shown that the increase from grain fed 
 directly to lambs is more than the increase from the same 
 when the grain is fed to the lamb, as it were, through 
 the ewe for the purpose of increasing the milk for her 
 lamb. This fact greatly emphasizes the wisdom of hav- 
 ing the lambs take grain as soon as they will eat it when 
 confined to the sheds. 
 
 Food suitable for young lambs — When the dams are 
 on abundant pastures when the lambs are born, it is not 
 necessary to give them any food during the first months, 
 as usually they do not need it, and it would not be easy 
 to induce them to take it under such conditions. But in 
 the sheds it is dififerent. In these the ewes do not usually 
 milk so plentifully, hence the aim should be to make up 
 the lack by giving food to the lambs ; and the earlier that 
 the lambs come the more important is it relatively that 
 such food shall be given to them. 
 
 Young lambs will begin to nibble at fodders that are 
 suitable for them when from 7 to 10 or 12 days old. They 
 should have access to these apart from the ewes, as the 
 former would pick out all the finer portions such as the 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED IO9 
 
 lambs first begin to eat. Such fodders should be fine and 
 leafy. No fodders furnish food more suitable than clover 
 hay of fine growth, cut early and well cured. The second 
 growth for the season of the common red clover has 
 special adaptation for such feeding, and the same is true 
 of alsike clover. Vetches and peas grown together and 
 cut while yet under-ripe are also much relished by young 
 Iambs. They should be grown so thickly as to produce 
 a fine growth and should have enough of oats in them to 
 prevent lodging. It will pay well to make provision for 
 the growing of suitable fodders for young lambs where 
 these come to hand early and in any considerable num- 
 bers. 
 
 Succulence should be provided for them in the form 
 of cabbage, field roots or ensilage. Of these, cabbage 
 will be found the most relished by the young lambs, but 
 they soon become very fond of field roots. The cab- 
 bage heads thus fed must be sliced. The field roots are 
 best prepared by running them through a cutting box 
 which cuts them into slices and then cuts the slices into 
 narrow strips by the operation. They are also fond of 
 corn silage, but cabbage and field roots are better adapted 
 to the production of suitable bone and muscle. The aim 
 should be to make field roots the chief reliance for such 
 feeding, as, though not more suitable than cabbage, they 
 are more easily stored. 
 
 The nature of the concentrates and the amounts to 
 feed young lambs is influenced by the use that is to be 
 made of them. When the lambs are to be sold while yet 
 on the dams the aim should be so to feed them that they 
 shall be plump and fat, but when reared for breeding 
 more of growth with less of fatness is the important con- 
 sideration. For the former the following mixture will be 
 found suitable, viz. : Ground corn, bran and oil meal in 
 the proportions of two, one, and one parts by weight. If 
 the corn is simply cracked the lambs will relish it as well 
 or even better than when ground. When corn is ground 
 
1 lO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 for lambs the cob should be excluded. The oil cake may 
 be best fed in the form of granules about the size of peas. 
 In the above ration, peas may be substituted for corn, 
 and oats for bran. Corn and wheat in the proportion of 
 two and one parts will also make a good grain ration. 
 For the latter, oats, bran and oilcake, in the proportions 
 of three, one, and one parts by weight will be found quite 
 suitable. 
 
 The lamb creep — For the first three or four weeks after 
 the lambs begin to eat, they should take their food within 
 what is termed a ''lamb creep," which means simply an in- 
 closure with suitably prepared openings, accessible to the 
 lambs and not accessible to the dams which nurse them. It 
 should be located in a nice, dry, airy place and as con- 
 venient to the pens in which the dams are kept as may 
 be practicable. When necessary the creep may be located 
 in the pasture. The size of the creep will, of course, de- 
 pend on the number of the lambs to be accommodated. 
 From 4 to 5 square feet should suffice for each lamb, 
 hence a creep, I2 x 15 feet, should accommodate 36 to 45 
 lambs, dependent on size and age. The aim should be, 
 however, to have smaller creeps and to have one in each 
 division where ewes are kept. The objection to large 
 creeps lies chiefly in the fact that lambs congregate in 
 them that dififer too much in age. The grading of the 
 lambs with reference to size is more easily accomplished 
 when the creeps are not large. 
 
 The furnishings of a creep consist of suitable openings 
 for ingress and egress on the part of the lambs, a trough 
 in which grain and succulent food may be fed and a little 
 manger or rack for holding the fodder. The opening or 
 openings may consist of slats nailed up and down, but 
 not far enough apart to give access to the ewes. Rollers 
 are preferable for the openings to slats. They may be 
 made, say, 3 inches in diameter and are set upright in the 
 frame. They are fastened with springs above and be- 
 low, which spread as the lamb passes between. They are, 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED III 
 
 in a sense, a safeguard against tearing wool. The feed 
 trough may be, say, 14 inches wide at the bottom, 16 
 inches at the top and 2 to 3 inches deep. A board several 
 inches wide should run along the trough and supported 
 so that the lambs can eat beneath it but cannot at the 
 same time get into the trough with their feet. The 
 trough should have cross pieces underneath that will keep 
 it above the level of the litter. 
 
 The first lambs that come will be encouraged to eat 
 sooner than they otherwise would by putting a little meal 
 into the lamb's mouth when a few days old. The younger 
 lambs will learn to eat from the example of the older ones. 
 The meal should be put into the trough two or three 
 times a day and any left removed as often. No kind of 
 food should be left with them until it becomes stale. The 
 danger is slight that lambs will eat too much, but it has 
 been claimed that gouty rheumatism and paralysis more 
 or less complete have been caused by the blood becom- 
 ing so thick that it did not circulate properly. 
 
 Young lambs properly fed will gain more in propor- 
 tion to their weight than calves. The weight of the aver- 
 age calf at birth will not be far from 81 pounds, and of 
 the average lamb not far from nine pounds, or one-ninth 
 of the former. High feeding that will secure 90 pounds 
 of increase in the former, will secure 20 pounds or two- 
 ninths as much in the latter. Lambs will also make at 
 least as economical gains for the food consumed as 
 young swine. 
 
 Weaning lambs — The age at which lambs should be 
 weaned is modified by such conditions as (i) the sea- 
 son when they came into life, (2) the object for which 
 they are grown, and (3) the disposition that is to be 
 made of the dams. When lambs come early they may 
 be given a longer period of nursing than when they come 
 late, as in such instances the ewes have time enough to 
 get into an improved condition after prolonged nursing 
 before they are bred again. When grown for show pur- 
 
112 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 poses, and in some instances when grown for breeding, 
 they are suckled longer than when grown simply for 
 meat, with a view to get much size. When the ewes 
 which suckle lambs are low in flesh and are soon to be 
 bred again, it may be well to shorten somewhat the period 
 during which the lambs nurse, even at the hazard of 
 slightly retarding their development for the time being. 
 
 The usual period during which lambs nurse covers 
 about 5 months, or a little less than that. The ewes are 
 thus given two months and more, in some instances, in 
 which to recuperate before being bred again. The period 
 of nursing may be shortened considerably should the 
 necessity for doing so arise, by giving the lambs a suffi- 
 cient grain supplement, or it may be likewise extended 
 by giving a grain supplement to the ewes. 
 
 The weaning of the lambs is abrupt rather than grad- 
 ual. To wean lambs gradually as calves are sometimes 
 weaned, and also swine, would involve much labor, for 
 which there would probably be no adequate recompense. 
 The method almost universally adopted, therefore, is to 
 remove the lambs quite away from the ewes, and if possi- 
 ble far enough away so that their bleating will not reach 
 the ewes. When removed thus far from the lambs, the 
 latter will dry more quickly than if they heard and 
 answered the calling of the lambs. 
 
 The weaning season also usually furnishes a good 
 time for grading the rams. When ram and ewe lambs 
 have run together up to the time of weaning they should 
 then be separated, otherwise the females may become 
 pregnant, a result that would be most undesirable. The 
 weaning season also furnishes a suitable time for select- 
 ing the females to be retained for breeding. These are 
 then separated from the others which are to be sold, as 
 the food subsequently given to these two classes may 
 dififer materially. In some instances the necessity may be 
 present for further sub-grading the lambs to be sold ac- 
 cording to the disposal that is to be made of them. 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED II3 
 
 Food for lambs when weaned — When lambs are 
 weaned, they should, if possible, be put upon pastures 
 fresh, succulent and nutritious. Frequently the ordinary 
 grasses at such a time are dry, but the second growth of 
 clover is then at its best, and it furnishes a very suitable 
 pasture for lambs. In anticipation of the weaning sea- 
 son, winter rye may be sown in the North and cowpeas 
 in the South, so that these may be ready for grazing when 
 the lambs are to be weaned. No plant, however, has 
 equal suitability to such grazing as the dwarf essex rape, 
 and none can be furnished in better season at such a 
 time. When well-grown rape is on hand in plentiful sup- 
 ply, ordinarily it is not necessary to feed any grain sup- 
 plement. But much care should be exercised when first 
 turning the lambs out into the rape, lest there should be 
 loss from bloating (see p. 193). 
 
 Usually lambs for show purposes should be given a 
 liberal grain supplement in addition to the pasture or the 
 soiling food to which they may have access. When am- 
 ple rape pastures are not on hand, lambs of both sexes 
 which are to be sold for breeding should get a grain sup- 
 plement. To take the market properly they should be of 
 good size and also in good flesh. Lambs that are to be 
 sold for meat will usually profit by a grain ration when 
 they are to be sold early, but when retained for winter 
 fattening, this may not be necessary when the grazing 
 is good. Nor is it necessary under like conditions for ewe 
 lambs chosen to replenish the flock. 
 
 The basic food in the grain supplement for lambs 
 that are to be set apart for breeding is oats, and for being 
 ready for the block it is corn. But barley, speltz, rye and 
 millet may all be used more or less in lieu of corn ; oats 
 alone will furnish a good grain supplement for the former, 
 but corn is too strong a food to feed alone to the latter. 
 Among grain supplements fed to lambs retained for 
 breeding the following will be found suitable : Oats alone, 
 oats and bran, the latter not to exceed 33 per cent by 
 
114 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 weight of the mixture, as lambs are not particularly fond 
 of bran ; oats and wheat in the proportions of, say, three 
 and one parts respectively. Among those fed to lambs 
 which are to be sent to the block are the following: Corn 
 and bran, of which not more than 33 per cent shall be 
 bran ; corn, bran and oil cake in the proportions of, say 
 six, two, and one parts by weight. Oats fed freely along 
 with corn at the first will add much to its suitability, but 
 later if oats should be dear, they may be gradually elim- 
 inated from the ration. The quantity to feed will man- 
 ifestly be much influenced, first, by the character of the 
 grazing, and, second, by the disposition that is to be made 
 of the lambs. It is seldom necessary to feed more than a 
 pound per animal per day, and usually half that amount 
 will suffice. 
 
 When lambs have not been fed grain previously to the 
 weaning season, they may not begin to eat it at once. In 
 such instances some grain should be kept in a trough 
 placed where the lambs are much inclined to congregate 
 when taking rest. They will soon learn to eat. No such 
 difficulty arises with lambs that have taken grain at an 
 earlier age. It is usually most convenient to feed the 
 lambs in the field. A very simple feeding trough may be 
 made by nailing together two-inch boards from 6 to 7 
 inches wide, so as to make a V, and supporting the same 
 at a suitable height by 2 x 4-inch scantlings nailed 
 together like the legs of a sawhorse. The height from the 
 ground should be made to conform to the size of the 
 lambs. One end of the trough should be left open to 
 allow water to escape. A narrow strip, say, 1x2 inches 
 and not less than 3 to 4 feet long, should be nailed on 
 edge against the scantlings that support the trough and 
 just at the base of the same. The object is to prevent 
 the lambs from overturning the trough should they rub 
 against it. 
 
 Castrating lambs — The best age for castrating lambs 
 is when they are about three days old. In any event cas- 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED II5 
 
 tration should not be deferred beyond the age of three 
 weeks. The lambs will suffer less from the operation 
 the younger they are after they are well on their feet. 
 Of course, it may be done later, as late even as the 
 autumn, but the hazard in- 
 creases with advancing age 
 and the benefits decrease. 
 
 Very substantial benefits 
 arise from the early castration 
 of the lambs that are to be 
 grown for meat ; that is, if they 
 
 '^ ^ J. \ r Im r^ FIG. 6— FEEDING RACK FOR 
 
 are not disposed oi until after lambs 
 
 the weaning season. It is not 
 
 thought to be necessary to castrate lambs sent to the 
 block while yet nursing. First, they attain to a 
 greater size, especially after the age arrives when 
 they become capable of breeding. After that age 
 is reached, castrated lambs are more restful, and so make 
 better gains ; second, they are more easily managed when 
 castrated. Both sexes may then run together at all times 
 without the hazard that the females shall become preg- 
 nant. Third, the early castration results in the produc- 
 tion of a better carcass. It prevents undue development 
 of bone, especially in the head and neck, and also lessens 
 muscular development about the neck and breast where 
 the meat is not specially valuable. It also stops develop- 
 ment in the organs of generation, which, of course, are 
 practically valueless for food. Buyers discount severely 
 uncastrated lambs. During recent years at the Buffalo 
 and New York markets, the discrimination against ram 
 lambs uncastrated after the mating season has been fully 
 one dollar per lamb. The methods adopted in castrating 
 young lambs are various. Of these three may be given. 
 By the first, the scrotum is cut off close to the body with 
 a pair of strong shears. This should be done when the 
 lamb is not more than two or three days old. Unless in 
 the case of lambs that are to be shorn, this method an- 
 
Il6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 swers at least reasonably well, and it is certainly the 
 easiest method of castration by far that can be adopted. 
 It has been objected to on the ground that the lambs 
 show some stiffness of gait for a time after the operation, 
 which is cited as evidence that it must so far retard de- 
 velopment. 
 
 By the second method, the operator does the work 
 alone. The lamb is laid on the left side, and the operator 
 presses the lamb against his knees and keeps it in position 
 with his elbows which leaves both hands free. With a 
 sharp knife he cuts off a portion of the base of the scro- 
 tum, including the lining membrane. The testicles are 
 thus exposed, and when pressed out by the hand are 
 seized and drawn out one at a time by the teeth. 
 
 By the third method two persons are engaged in the 
 work. One catches the lamb, gathers the feet in his 
 hands and then presses its back firmly against his chest. 
 A second person then cuts ofT a portion of the scrotum 
 as in the second instance and similarly draws out the 
 testicles. No other method will remove the testicles so 
 easily as when they are firmly grasped by the teeth. 
 Should there be any repugnance to removing them thus, 
 they may be grasped by the hand or by forceps in the 
 hand, drawn out, and in the case of older animals the cord 
 when drawn far enough is severed with the knife. 
 
 Should lambs be purchased for winter feeding in the 
 autumn that are uncastrated, it may be more profitable to 
 subject them to castration before feeding than to feed 
 them as rams. The work may be done as follows : A 
 strong person catches the lamb, places him on his but- 
 tock with his back leaning against the one who holds him. 
 The holder of the animal takes a hind leg in each hand 
 and draws the legs up until the lamb is almost lifted from 
 the ground. The knees should be pressed tightly against 
 the lamb to prevent struggling. A second person catches 
 the end of the scrotum in his right hand and with the left 
 pushes the testicles down against the abdomen and keeps 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 11/ 
 
 them there by the grip of the left hand. He then cuts 
 across the sack close to the end of the testicles, but only 
 cuts through one ply of skin. He then catches the testi- 
 cles, one at a time, in his right hand and with the left 
 pushes back all extraneous matter, following the cord 
 down close to the abdomen. The cord is then firmly 
 grasped in the left hand and drawn slowly by prying 
 gently toward the thigh until it is quite drawn away. 
 Then with a long knife the scrotum is cut clean ofif where 
 the first cut was made. Should the season of flies not be 
 past, a small amount of spirits of turpentine may be 
 poured into the sac. Tar smeared over the wounded parts 
 will also aid in keeping flies away. Mature rams are sel- 
 dom castrated. When thus dealt with clamps are com- 
 monly used. 
 
 When lambs are castrated, the early morning should 
 1)6 chosen for the operation, as the opportunity is then 
 afiforded of giving them such attentions as may be neces- 
 sary during the day, and the same is true of the time 
 chosen for docking lambs referred to below. It is im- 
 portant that the knife used be sterilized, and also the 
 hands of the operator, before castration is begun. The 
 sheds should also be freshly bedded if the lambs are con- 
 fined to them at the time, to lessen the hazard of germ 
 contamination that may cause trouble. Usually antisep- 
 tics are not used when young lambs are castrated. A 
 three per cent solution of carbolic acid in water will an- 
 swer the purpose should it be desired to use an antiseptic. 
 
 Docking lambs — Whatever benefits may have ac- 
 crued to sheep in a wild state, it is now the almost uni- 
 versally accepted view of those who keep sheep that under 
 domestic conditions the tail should be removed while the 
 animals are young. This view rests upon the belief, first, 
 that under domestication the tail can render no substan- 
 tial benefit to the sheep which possesses it, and second, 
 that its presence is frequently injurious because of the 
 filth that accumulates around and beneath it when sheep 
 
Il8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 are being grazed on succulent pastures. Where such filth 
 accumulates in warm weather, it encourages the presence 
 of flies, the eggs of which may develop into maggots and 
 work much harm. Modern taste also looks upon the 
 sheep that is docked as being more symmetrical and hand- 
 some than sheep with the tail full length. 
 
 The tail should be docked — that is, cut — while lambs 
 are only a few days old. When done at such an age the 
 development of the lamb is not hindered. The danger of 
 loss from bleeding is almost wholly obviated. Such a re- 
 sult is by no means uncommon where the lambs are not 
 docked until several weeks old, unless steps should be 
 taken to prevent it. Valuable lambs docked thus late 
 have bled to death. This, however, can be prevented 
 by searing the wound with a hot iron. Opinions dififer as 
 to the advisability of castrating and docking lambs at the 
 same time. Although more time is used in performing 
 these operations separately, it would seem reasonable to 
 conclude that the shock given to the system would be 
 lessened by performing these operations at different 
 times. 
 
 The cutting of the tail may be done by one person or 
 by two. When done by one, the lamb is taken under the 
 left arm and the loose skin is drawn upward toward the 
 body near the base of the tail. It is then severed with 
 a pair of strong scissors held in the right hand. A little 
 powdered blue stone dusted on to the wound will tend 
 to stanch the bleeding. The skin is then drawn down 
 so as to partially cover the wound, which heals over more 
 neatly and smoothly than when the skin is not thus drawn 
 back before severing the tail. 
 
 W^hen two persons perform the docking the lamb is 
 held by one and the tail is severed by the other. The 
 lamb may be held by pressing its back firmly against the 
 breast of the person holding it, the legs being held in his 
 hands, when a second person severs the tail. By another 
 method, and a better one, the person holding the lamb 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED II9 
 
 places its buttock on a block of suitable height, and a 
 second person removes the tail by severing it with a chisel 
 and mallet. The length of the stump left varies some- 
 what with the breed. Fashion has an influence in deter- 
 mining this. The tails of the Merino types are cut quite 
 short. The tails of English Dorsets are sometimes left 
 as long as 3 inches. The average length of the stump 
 left is about 1^4 to i^ inches, measured on the underside. 
 
 Registration of pure-bred lambs — Where any consid- 
 erable number of lambs are expected each lamb should 
 be marked at as early a date as possible to avoid the haz- 
 ard of loss of identity. This will prove helpful to the 
 shepherd in caring for a flock even of grade lambs, and in 
 the case of pure-bred lambs it is essential as a guide to 
 correct registration when the time comes for registering 
 the lambs. Some shepherds adopt the plan of tracing 
 identity by placing small nicks in the ears according to 
 a certain rule which has been found practicable to use in a 
 flock of any size. But there is probably no better method 
 of preserving identity than by marking the lambs with 
 shepherds' marking ink, as identity may then be traced 
 on sight. The marking consists in painting on the back 
 of the lamb with a small brush the number corresponding 
 to the ear tag of the ewe. This should be done while the 
 lamb is not yet more than two or three days old. As the 
 ink fades with time it may be necessary to renew it once 
 before the lamb is weaned. The registration of pure-bred 
 lambs should be deferred long enough to demonstrate the 
 character of the individual development. Such develop- 
 ment may be of a character so inferior that it would be 
 unwise to retain the lambs for breeding, hence it would 
 also be unwise to register them. The nature of the develop- 
 ment will certainly be known by the time that the lambs are 
 weaned, and even before the time. The registering of the 
 lambs, therefore, should not be deferred beyond the sea- 
 son of weaning. 
 
 If lambs are not registered the first season, the dan- 
 
120 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ger is imminent that their identity will be lost. If prop- 
 erly ear-tagged as soon as registered, the identity of the 
 animal will not be lost as long as the ear tag retains its 
 place in the ear, the registration certificate being at the 
 same time kept on file. As it is possible, however, that 
 the ear tag may be lost, although this happens but sel- 
 dom, it should be renewed as soon as this is discovered, 
 using, of course, the same number as the one lost. Ear 
 tags should not be put in the ears of young lambs, as the 
 weight of the ear tag may make the ear unshapely. 
 
 The owner of sheep who may desire to register them 
 and who is not yet informed as to how he should proceed 
 should write to the secretary of the association which 
 represents that particular breed, asking for the desired in- 
 formation. The reply will furnish all that is necessary to 
 know to enable the person to record his sheep. Many of 
 the associations furnish ear tags corresponding to the 
 numbers in the certificates of registration, and these 
 should at once be inserted in the ears of the sheep. The 
 rules of many of the associations compel the registration 
 of lambs within the year in which they are born, and this 
 rule is doubtless a wise one. 
 
 Miscellaneous considerations — It sometimes happens 
 that the milk of a ewe highly fed is so rich and so abun- 
 dant that the lamb takes more than it can properly digest. 
 The principle is the same as when the Jersey cow gives 
 milk too rich in butter fat for the best needs of her calf. 
 Lambs are sometimes lost from this cause. When the 
 lamb is unable to take all the milk, a lamb in need of 
 more milk should be allowed to suck the ewe once or 
 twice a day for a time. This will prevent the young lamb 
 from getting an excess of milk. Should a lamb be sepa- 
 rated from its dam through any mischance for any con- 
 siderable time, to prevent derangement in the digestion 
 of the lamb, the ewe should be partially milked out before 
 the lamb is allowed to suck. 
 
 Some shepherds store up some dry clean earth in the 
 
LAMBS FROM BIRTH UNTIL WEANED 121 
 
 autumn and place it where the lambs may nibble at it if 
 they care to do so. When roots are fed to lambs in winter, 
 it has been noticed that lambs will eat some of the earth 
 adhermg to them. Observing this fact has doubtless led 
 to the provision referred to. While no harm should fol- 
 low such provision, the measure of its efficacy is yet an 
 undetermined factor. 
 
 Lambs should be amply supplied with water from 
 the time that they will take it, which will be from the age 
 of, say, two weeks and onward. Such provision is seldom 
 made for lambs, notwithstanding its importance. It can 
 usually be best provided for them by placing it in a low 
 vessel within the creep and renewing it frequently. The 
 necessity for water decreases with increase in the con- 
 sumption of field roots. 
 
 In almost every flock of ewes at the lambing season 
 some young lambs will be found that are not getting 
 enough milk from their dams to make them grow vigor- 
 ously. It is quite possible to help them materially by 
 keeping a nurse cow at hand from which they can get a 
 good meal once or twice a day. A docile, low-set cow of 
 the Jersey type should prove very suitable. One person 
 should have the cow in charge and another should man- 
 age the lambs. It is not difficult usually to learn a hun- 
 gry lamb thus to help itself. The effect on the growth 
 of the lambs will be very marked. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 
 
 In this chapter the following subdivisions of the 
 question relating to the feeding and care of breeding ewes 
 are discussed: (i) Ewes from the time that they are 
 weaned as lambs until bred ; (2) Management at the 
 breeding season ; (3) Changing from autumn pasture to 
 winter quarters; (4) The ideal conditions for wintering; 
 (5) Grading the flock ; (6) Food prior to the time of 
 lambing; (7) Exercise for breeding ewes when pregnant; 
 (8) Caring for ewes at the time of lambing; (9) Food for 
 ewes subsequently to lambing; (10) From the sheds to 
 the pastures; (11) Management when on pasture; (12) 
 Management when weaning the lambs; (13) The man- 
 agement of ewes to be discarded; and (14) The miscella- 
 neous attentions that are more or less called for. The 
 importance of giving proper care to the ewes cannot be 
 easily over-estimated because of the important bearing 
 that it has upon the profits. The attention called for, 
 though greater at certain seasons, cannot be withheld 
 at any time without hazard to the owner. 
 
 Ewes from weaning until bred — There is almost a 
 consensus of opinion as to the wisdom of deferring the 
 breeding of the ewes so that they will not drop their first 
 lambs until two years old. This opinion is based on the 
 results that usually follow the breeding of ewes so that 
 they produce lambs at one year old. These results are 
 usually: (i) Lambs not up to the standard in size and 
 inherent powers of development ; (2) inability on the part 
 of the ewes to provide for their lambs while nursing them 
 as compared with that of ewes not bred at so early an 
 3-ge ; (3) ultimate lessening in size and vigor of the aver- 
 age in the flock. But it may not be correct to claim that 
 
 122 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I23 
 
 such early breeding should never be practiced. It is prac- 
 ticed more or less in the south of England by the breed- 
 ers of Hampshire Downs, and to a less extent by the 
 breeders of some of the other breeds. It is believed that 
 the practice tends to promote early maturing and also 
 affects prolificacy favorably. But the conditions in the 
 south of England are highly favorable to the production 
 of succulent foods so necessary as an aid to rapid growth 
 in lambs, whether fed directly or through the ewes. 
 \\'here such foods are not plentiful during much of the 
 year, ewes should not be allowed to produce lambs until 
 two years old, and in the case of Merinos it may in some 
 instances be wiser to defer such production for one more 
 year. 
 
 The food and care called for subsequent to weaning 
 will be influenced by the fact as to whether the lambs are 
 bred the same autumn, or not until the following autumn. 
 \\"hen bred as lambs, more of concentrated food should 
 be given during the autumn subsequent to weaning, and 
 also during all of the following winter, the reasons for 
 which will be apparent. In any event, the lambs should in 
 nearly all instances be given some concentrates from the 
 time that they are weaned until the following spring, but 
 to this there are some exceptions. These include condi- 
 tions which furnish in plentiful supply of such pastures as 
 rape until winter closes in and of field roots during the 
 winter. The aim should be to select the ewe lambs for 
 breeding when they are weaned, and to separate them 
 from the lambs that are to be fattened, as the treatment 
 called for by these two classes may differ somewhat. In 
 the absence of rape pastures, succulent blue grass and 
 winter rye are good. When grain is fed, oats, with a 
 small amount of wheat bran added, are excellent. But 
 a small amount of any of the other cereals will answer. 
 The grain is usually fed but once a day, and seldom in 
 excess of one-half pound to one pound per animal. 
 
 During the winter, the aim should be to keep the 
 
124 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 lambs separate from the pregnant ewes, as the latter will 
 call for a different ration. The aim should be to keep 
 them growing- and "sappy" without laying on too much 
 fat. This will follow if they can have an abundant sup- 
 ply of roots, even in the absence of grain, especially if 
 the fodder fed is good. In the absence of field roots, some 
 grain will prove helpful. But when fine, well-cured clover 
 and alfalfa of tender growth are fed, the additional grain 
 called for will be very limited. Almost any of the small 
 grains will answer, especially when a small quantity of 
 wheat bran, or in its absence oilcake, is added. The 
 amount of grain to feed should be determined by the con- 
 dition of the ewes. In the absence of field roots, two or 
 three pounds of good corn silage daily will be helpful. 
 
 From winter on until the mating season, such want 
 no other food than ordinary pasture. It may not be neces- 
 sary at such a time to keep them in pastures separate 
 from those grazed by the ewes which are nursing their 
 lambs. In some instances, however, it may be desirable 
 to give them pastures less bountiful than those occupied 
 by the latter, to prevent them from reaching that stage 
 of obesity which would be unfavorable to impregnation. 
 
 Management at the breeding season — It is a matter 
 of considerable importance that the ewes shall mate so 
 as to drop lambs approximately at the time desired and 
 within a reasonably short period. The object for which 
 they are grown will then be more fully realized, the labor 
 of caring for them will be less and uniformity in the flock 
 will be better maintained. The flockmaster may not al- 
 ways be able to accomplish this, because of the extent 
 to which the weather during the season afifects pastures, 
 but he may adopt measures that will prove a material aid 
 in the direction desired. 
 
 The time at which the ewes will mate may be con- 
 trolled more readily when the lambs have been weaned 
 early in the season. Opportunity is then given for the 
 ewes to recover from the reduced flesh resulting from the 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 25 
 
 nursing of their lambs. Such a condition will be acceler- 
 ated by pastures that are rich, succulent and plentiful. 
 Where these are not forthcoming to the degree desired, 
 resource must be had to feeding grain. But the system 
 followed will be modified materially by the conditions 
 under which the animals are kept. 
 
 When sheep are kept under extensive conditions, as 
 on the range or on rugged pastures, it may not be prac- 
 ticable to furnish any succulent food. Under such con- 
 ditions the shepherd can do but little toward hastening 
 the breeding. Usually, however, it is not desired to has- 
 ten it, as the lambs cannot come before the grasses have 
 made a start the following spring. Under semi-range 
 conditions it may be possible to furnish supplemental 
 food that will modify the time within which the ewes will 
 mate. 
 
 On the arable farm the aim should be to have the 
 ewes mate when the system is building up. The breed- 
 ing organs sharing in such increase are stimulated into 
 action. Food is the chief influence in bringing about such 
 renovation. Where ewes can have access to abundant 
 rape pastures pretty well grown, they will soon come in 
 heat. Other succulent and nutritious pastures, such as 
 clover, will exercise a similar influence, but not in an 
 equal degree. Wliere pastures sufficiently stimulating 
 may not be had, then the process known as flushing may 
 be resorted to. It consists in feeding grain for two to 
 four weeks before the mating is desired. Almost any 
 kind of grain will answer. Some shepherds favor feeding 
 barley and wheat. Corn and rye are probably least in 
 favor for such feeding. The quantity to feed may be put 
 at from one-half to one pound per animal daily. 
 
 It is also considered that, in warm climates, the mat- 
 ing season will be hastened by shearing the ewes just 
 after their lambs are weaned. While it is probably true 
 that such shearing does exert an influence in the direc- 
 tion sought, it is questionable if the practice is likely to 
 
126 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 become general. It involves labor, and in the meantime 
 the v^ool does not sell for so good a price. 
 
 The condition of the ewes at the time of mating is 
 supposed, and w^ith good reasons, to exercise some influ- 
 ence on the number of the lambs that will be born. A 
 vigorous condition of the ewes at the time of mating is 
 favorable to fecundity. It is not the only influence, how- 
 ever, that favors an abundant lamb crop (see p. 465). 
 
 From the pastures to winter quarters — The change 
 from pastures to winter quarters will be modified by the 
 conditions such as relate to climate and peculiarities of 
 season. Under some conditions the first snows remain 
 and close abruptly the pasturing season. Under other 
 conditions, the first snows usually melt, so that grazing 
 may be resumed for a time, and under yet other condi- 
 tions it may be continued during much of the winter. 
 The aim should be to have grazing continue as long as 
 this may be practicable, not so much in order to save 
 stored foods as to give the sheep that exercise that is so 
 helpful to the maintenance of the flock in a good condition 
 of health and vigor. Some winters in areas not far north 
 sheep can graze on the pastures during much of the win- 
 ter, a condition that highly favors vigor in the lambs. 
 
 When changing from grazing to winter food given 
 in the sheds, three things should be guarded against. The 
 first is eating frozen food, the second exposure to cold 
 rain or sleet storms and the third sudden changes in the 
 food. 
 
 It is but seldom that harm comes from grazing sheep 
 on pastures in late autumn in which the old and new 
 growths are mingled, as, for instance, a blue grass pas- 
 ture that has not been closely grazed in the summer. The 
 dry grass mingling with the green seems to counteract 
 the injury that might result from feeding on frozen green 
 grass. When, however, the sheep feed upon such food 
 as frozen rape or clover, and also other green food, the 
 hazard is present that such ailments as bloat, colic and an 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 12/ 
 
 inflamed condition of the digestive organs may result, 
 followed by death within a short period. Such hazard 
 may be present by giving the sheep or lambs so grazed 
 either grain or palatable fodder before turning them out 
 to graze. Where the sheep are much grazed on such food, 
 inattention to this matter may result in severe losses. 
 
 Dry snow falling on sheep will harm them but little, 
 providing they may have the shelter of a grove or bluff to 
 protect them when driving wind accompanies the storm. 
 But it is different when they are exposed to cold rain or 
 sleet storms, especially when they are prolonged. The 
 Merino types suffer the least from such exposure, and the 
 breeds with wool not possessed of marked density the most. 
 The wool of the former is not only dense, but the wool 
 fibers are glued together at the outer ends so that the rain 
 cannot easily penetrate the fleece. In the more open 
 fleeces it may reach the body more or less, and the chilling 
 that follows may result in lung trouble that soon ends 
 fatally. In some instances these storms may come in 
 the night and cannot be certainly forecasted, but when 
 they do, no time should be lost in getting the sheep under 
 cover with the breaking of the dawn. 
 
 When succulent food, as field roots, have been pro- 
 vided, sudden change in the essential character of the 
 foods can be avoided. The roots will provide, in part at 
 least, the succulence furnished previously by the autumn 
 pastures. But should the change be sudden and abrupt 
 from the pastures to the sheds, in the absence of field roots 
 and silage, the aim should be to feed some oilcake or a 
 little grain with considerable bran in it to ward off the 
 tendency to constipation that usually accompanies the 
 feeding of all dry food. 
 
 In a large majority of instances, partial grazing may 
 be continued after the sheep have been brought into win- 
 ter quarters. The pastures may have only a light cover- 
 ing of snow, or in certain parts they may be bare. While 
 it may be necessary to feed the sheep morning and even- 
 
128 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ing, continued access to the pastures will be helpful to 
 the sheep. They may be able to find succulence in the 
 grass thus gleaned to render unnecessary the feeding of 
 roots, ensilage, bran or oilcake in order to keep the bowels 
 in tone. 
 
 Ideal conditions for wintering ewes — The ideal loca- 
 tion for a sheep shed calls for land that is well drained, 
 protection from injurious winds, ample opportunity to 
 furnish yards and paddocks, and easy and convenient ac- 
 cess to the pastures. It may not be possible to secure all 
 these conditions in the degree to which they may be de- 
 sired, but the more nearly that they can be approximated, 
 the more assured will be the success that may be looked 
 for (see page 322). In the matter of protection the breed- 
 ing ewes must be given the right of way, as males and 
 ewes not breeding do not necessarily call for conditions 
 of environment equally favorable in the winter season. 
 
 The ideal shed or shelter for breeding ewes must 
 have in it several divisions, permanent or temporary, for 
 the use of the ewes that rear lambs, in addition to other 
 divisions that may be necessary for the sheep carried over 
 that will not produce lambs (see page 335). This is 
 necessary because of the needs of the ewes and also of 
 the lambs at different stages of development in the latter. 
 Where the flocks are small, these divisions may be tem- 
 porary, but with large flocks it will be more convenient 
 to have them permanent. Where the ewes and lambs 
 are kept, it is specially important to have an abundance 
 of sunlight. 
 
 The ideal yard for the ewes and lambs must be pro- 
 tected. This is indispensable. It is also, in a sense, a 
 necessity that it shall be located on the sunny side of the 
 shed. It is more convenient when the yards have divi- 
 sions in the sheds, but this is not always necessary. When 
 it is necessary these can be made by the use of movable 
 materials (see page 21). Paddocks are not so much 
 necessary for breeding ewes as for rams, as the paddocks 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I2g 
 
 do not usually furnish grazing at that season when the 
 ewes are confined to the sheds. 
 
 Where the ewes can have access more or less to the 
 pastures in the winter season, the advantage from hav- 
 ing the pastures not too distant will be at once appar- 
 ent. To have a winter pasture near may be in some in- 
 stances of sufficient importance to make this question a 
 subject of careful thought. The more stern the winter 
 climate, the more important is it to have such a pasture 
 near the sheds. 
 
 The grading of the flock — When the flock is small, as 
 when, for instance, it does not number more than 20 to 
 30 ewes, and when these are all strong and vigorous, but 
 little grading of the ewes may be necessary. But it is 
 different with large flocks. In any event the aim should 
 be to put the ewe lambs retained for breeding in quarters 
 separate from the breeding ewes, as the food best suited 
 to the needs of both is not the same, although in some 
 instances the difference may not be marked. Where many 
 ewes are kept for breeding, they will not be alike in age, 
 in the amount of flesh they carry, and in all-round vigor. 
 Where such is the case, they should be divided into lots 
 that will admit of feeding each according to its precise 
 needs. The basis of the grading may rest upon condition 
 of flesh or age or on both. As the winter advances and 
 the lambing season approaches, the necessity for regrad- 
 ing may exist, based upon the advanced condition of 
 pregnancy or the opposite. Of course, after the lambs 
 begin to come, further regrading may be necessary to 
 meet the needs of the ewes and lambs, based upon the age 
 of the latter. Some grading may also be necessary for 
 the rams, as when, for instance, ram lambs and older 
 males are wintered over, the food requirements for the 
 two being different. Any selected for feeding for the 
 block must also have separate quarters. 
 
 Where the flocks are large, the divisions, or some 
 of them that make such grading possible, should be per- 
 
130 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 manent. Where the flock is small, permanent divisions 
 are less necessary. In any case more or less use may be 
 made of the feed racks used in feeding to increase the 
 number of the pens that may be called for. This should 
 be kept in mind when the movable racks are being made, 
 and they should be constructed accordingly. With in- 
 crease in the permanent divisions comes the necessity for 
 increase in the temporary or permanent divisions in the 
 yards. 
 
 The limit of the number of sheep that can be success- 
 fully kept in one division of the shed cannot be given ex- 
 cept by approximation, as more of some breeds may be 
 kept together without hazard than of other breeds. The 
 fine wool breeds can be kept in larger flocks than other 
 breeds. It would seem safe to say that the percentage of 
 loss in sheep increases more or less with increase in the 
 size of the flock. 
 
 When a small flock of sheep is kept on the farm, say 
 20 to 30 head, the percentage of loss under normal con- 
 ditions should be practically eliminated. Except with the 
 fine wooled breeds, the aim should be to keep not more 
 than say 50 breeding ewes in the division of the sheep 
 house. 
 
 Food prior to the time of lambing — For all classes of 
 sheep, but especially for breeding ewes, the fodders fed 
 should be possessed of the following characteristics: (i) 
 They should be of fine growth and leafy. To have them 
 thus calls for special care in growing them. Corn and 
 sorghum fodders, for instance, should be sown more 
 thickly, to insure fine growth, when grown to feed sheep 
 than when grown to feed cattle. The finer varieties of 
 clover also should be sought rather than the coarser. (2) 
 They should be cut early and well cured. Sheep will not 
 consume woody material in the form of dry fodder, hence 
 an early stage of cutting is necessary and also careful cur- 
 ing to prevent a woody condition of the fodder and to pre- 
 serve its palatability. (3) They should include variety. 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I3I 
 
 Sheep more than other quadrupeds seem to crave variety 
 summer and v^nnter. Though alfalfa of fine growth 
 should form the bulk of the diet fed to them, they will at 
 the same time consume considerable quantities of well- 
 cured wheat straw. 
 
 Leguminous fodders have highest adaptation for all 
 classes of sheep, but especially for pregnant ewes. No 
 class of roughage probably is superior to alfalfa, grown 
 thickly, alsike clover and also the common red clover. 
 Hay produced by the common vetch is excellent. That 
 from the sand vetch is not quite so good. Hay from the 
 Canada field pea and oats is excellent. That from the 
 cowpea is good if well cured. Hay from millet cut when 
 the earliest heads begin to tint, and cured in the cock, an- 
 swers well to feed once a day, but it should not form the 
 sole fodder for any long period. Hay from Russian brome 
 grass, being leafy, is one of the best fodders furnished by 
 the grasses. Hay composed of timothy and clover, grown 
 thickly and cut early is very good, but that from timothy 
 alone, if coarse, and especially if cut late, is not well 
 suited to the needs of sheep. 
 
 Pea straw well cured stands at the head of the list 
 of the varieties of straw. When not coarse, cut promptly 
 on maturing and cured without exposure to rain, it fur- 
 nishes food that sheep greatly relish, but if cut late and 
 exposed to heavy rain, it is not of much value as fodder. 
 Next to pea straw in value is that obtained from oats 
 The value of straw furnished by any of the cereals is 
 much dependent on the early stage of maturity at which 
 it is cut. Bean straw is excellent when well saved, but 
 is usually limited in supply. Rye straw is probably the 
 least valuable straw for sheep because of its woody char- 
 acter. Corn fodder finely grown and well preserved an- 
 swers well as a part of the fodder ration during the late 
 autumn and midwinter months, but corn stover is not so 
 good because of its coarseness. Finely grown sorghum 
 
132 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 will be relished, but much waste will follow from feeding 
 sorghum that is coarse. 
 
 Before the lambing season it is not usual to feed 
 roughage more than twice a day in the form of hay. But 
 the practice is commendable which adds straw of the 
 cereals for the noon feed. What is left of this in the feed 
 racks should be used as litter to spread over the sheds or 
 yards. It may be necessary to supplement this with other 
 litter, as a comfortable and dry bed is greatly conducive 
 to the welfare of sheep in winter. In some instances corn 
 fodder, sorghum fodder or Kafir corn fodder is strewn 
 on the frozen ground for the noon feed, that the sheep 
 may get food and exercise while consuming it. Under 
 other conditions, it is fed in racks, usually out of doors. 
 
 In the larger portion of the United States, succulence 
 can only be furnished for sheep in two forms — as field 
 roots or as silage. But in areas far southward, they may 
 graze during much of the winter on foods sown to pro- 
 vide such grazing, as rape and kale, and the same is also 
 true of the Pacific slope west of the Cascade Mountains. 
 Field roots are more suitable than corn ensilage, but in 
 the absence of the former the latter will be materially 
 helpful. Succulence in some form is, in a sense, a neces- 
 sity, and the aim should be to provide it on the arable 
 farm. In its absence, it is usually advantageous to feed 
 bran or oil cake along with the grain fed. It is not neces- 
 sary to feed a large amount of succulence before the 
 lambing season, not more than three or four pounds per 
 day of roots or silage ; the latter must be free from 
 mold, or abortion and other ills may follow. Some feed- 
 ers use more roots, but it has been noticed that when 
 large quantities are fed along with clover hay, the lambs 
 are large but deficient in vitality at birth. This is less 
 apparent when straw is used freely as a part of the fod- 
 der ration. The roots are sliced or pulped, as a rule, be- 
 fore feeding them, and are most frequently fed directly, 
 and without admixture, but in some instances grain is 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 33 
 
 fed at the same time. It is scarcely practicable to feed 
 silage to a small flock of sheep, unless it is being fed also 
 to other stock at the same time, as it cannot be kept in 
 good condition, because of the small amount fed. 
 
 When the roughage is of excellent quality, as when 
 good clover is fed and when field roots are fed at the 
 same time, it may not be necessary to feed much grain, 
 or indeed any, until the lambing season is near at hand; 
 but as ewes are ordinarily fed, they will profit from a 
 small grain ration, say, not more than one-half to one 
 pound per day, from the time that they are brought to the 
 sheds, or even before that time should any loss of condi- 
 tion be apparent. Almost any kind of grain will answer, 
 although when the roughage is non-leguminous corn 
 should not be fed. Oats will answer the best of all cereals, 
 should these be fed without admixture. Some wheat bran 
 or oilcake, say 20 per cent of bran or 10 per cent of oil- 
 cake, will aid much in warding off constipation, that great 
 menace to the well being of sheep in winter when on a 
 dry diet. It would probably be correct to say that more 
 of the troubles that afflict sheep in winter may be traced to 
 this source than to any other single cause. 
 
 Exercise for pregnant ewes — With all animals it 
 would seem to be a law governing reproduction that, if 
 the progeny are to be vigorous and strong, dams which 
 bear them must have ample exercise while pregnant. 
 Ample exercise, however, is a question of degree in exer- 
 cise as applied to the various breeds. Modification of in- 
 herent characters may so change the necessities of a breed 
 that a much less degree of exercise will suffice than would 
 have been enough at one time in the history of the breed. 
 But some exercise for the dams is absolutely necessary 
 for the well-being of the lambs which they bear. 
 
 Sheep call for more exercise relatively than other 
 farm animals, unless it be horses. When feeding in the 
 pastures, they are continually on the move. It would be 
 interesting to know how far they thus travel in a day. 
 
134 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 It would seem safe to say that, because of this inherent 
 feature of their constitution, it would not be easy to give 
 pregnant ewes too much exercise. 
 
 When not sufficiently exercised the lambs come weak 
 and the amount of nursing and care to enable them to 
 survive is greatly increased. The lambs produced by 
 sheep that are seldom housed are on their feet, strong and 
 vigorous, within a few minutes of birth, while those from 
 ewes over-housed may not live but for a short period. 
 There is also trouble frequently with the ewes at the time 
 of yeaning. But it must not be understood that ewes 
 well managed cannot in any instances be confined to 
 the yards and sheds the entire winter without producing 
 the troubles indicated. Experience has shown this can 
 be done, but experience has also shown that it is not a 
 good practice to follow. 
 
 How to secure the necessary exercise for pregnant 
 ewes may be somewhat of a problem under some condi- 
 tions, as, for instance, when the fields are covered for 
 months in succession with deep snow. If confined en- 
 tirely to the yards, the lambs will be lacking in vitality 
 more or less, and if the ewes have been in poorly venti- 
 lated quarters much of the time, the evil will be greatly 
 aggravated. To encourage the ewes to take exercise, 
 various devices have been resorted to, as making one or 
 more roads with a snow plow, and strewing a little hay 
 along these occasionally, or giving food in racks or other- 
 wise in some sheltered spot not too near the shed. When 
 the sheep can have access to the fields for any consider- 
 able portion of the winter season, such devices to en- 
 courage them to take exercise will not be necessary. Even 
 though they obtain but little nutriment while they roam 
 over the bare portions of the fields, they are getting the 
 necessary exercise. 
 
 Where the ground is usually bare more or less during 
 the winter, the owner should aim to have a reserve grass 
 pasture with a thick firm turf on which the ewes may find 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 35 
 
 grazing when the snow is absent. The hazard from eat- 
 ing frozen grass will not be present as it is in the autumn, 
 for the sheep do not leave the sheds to graze until they 
 have taken their morning meal. 
 
 Caring for ewes at the lambing season — When ewes 
 produce their lambs on the pastures, the problem of car- 
 ing for them is much simplified. In good weather it may 
 consist mainly in visiting the flock two or three times a 
 day, to make sure that all is going well. Should the 
 weather be stormy, however, the problem is much more 
 complicated. It may be necessary to furnish shelter for 
 the ewes with newly born lambs. If more than temporary 
 aid is wanted for either ewes or lambs, both should be 
 brought to the sheds. If a cold rain is threatened both 
 ewes and lambs should be housed for the time being, as 
 no exposure will bring harm to the lambs as quickly as 
 exposure to cold rain, which at once finds its way through 
 the short wool to the skin. 
 
 Where the flock is large, a lambing pen is necessary, 
 which should have in it a number of divisions, that may 
 be permanent, or temporary, or both. The object is to 
 keep the ewes and their young apart from the others un- 
 til the lambs have been well started in life. Another plan 
 encircles the ewe and her lambs with a crate without re- 
 moving her from the sheds. This is done before or im- 
 mediately after the lamb is born. The ewe thus managed 
 will fret less than the one removed to the lambing pen, 
 as in the former instance practically no change is made 
 in the environment. When taken to the lambing pen the 
 removal should be made when practicable two or three 
 days before the lambs are expected (see page 336). 
 
 If some ewes are already there, the ewes so removed 
 will be less disturbed by the change. The objection to 
 the use of crates as outlined above is the amount of space 
 that they use, which in close quarters cannot be spared. 
 
 During the first days after lambing food should be 
 given to the ewes with much caution. Soon after the 
 
136 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ewe has been delivered of her lamb or lambs, she should 
 be given water from which the chill has been removed. 
 No change in the diet is called for other than that which 
 relates to quantity. No harm can come to the ewes from 
 taking all the fodder that they will eat such as they are 
 accustomed to, but grain and field roots should be fed 
 sparingly at first lest the milk flow should be over-stim- 
 ulated. With gradual increase, the ewe may usually be 
 put on what may be termed full feeding for a breeding 
 ewe within 7 to 10 days from the birth of her lambs, and 
 sometimes even sooner. 
 
 Close attention should be given to the udder of a 
 newly delivered ewe. In some instances it may be more 
 or less inflamed when the lambs are born. In others, as 
 when the milk flow is very plentiful, the lamb may take 
 food from only one teat. In yet other instances, as when 
 but little milk is present, the teats are made sore by the 
 biting of the lambs in trying to get food. Frequent bath- 
 ing with warm water and then anointing with some 
 soothing unguent, as sweet oil, will prove helpful to an 
 inflamed udder. Milking out occasionally the side of the 
 udder neglected by the lamb, or what is better, to allow 
 a needy lamb to help itself for a few times, will remove 
 the difficulty. When the teats are thus made sore, it may 
 be necessary to allow the lambs to nurse the ewe only a 
 few times each day for a time. Should the wool around 
 the udder make it difficult for the lamb to find the teat, 
 it should be clipped away to the extent of removing the 
 obstruction. 
 
 As the number of the lambs increases, such increase 
 brings with it more or less of diversity in age, and to meet 
 the needs of these, the necessity for division increases 
 accordingly. The aim should be to have the lambs which 
 occupy each apartment as near of an age as may be found 
 practicable under the conditions. This, however, becomes 
 less important as the lambs grow older. After the first 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 37 
 
 3 or 4 weeks they, and also their dams, may be given 
 practically the same rations. 
 
 Food subsequently to lambing — After the lambs are 
 a few days old, it is very desirable that the dams shall 
 milk freely, to stimulate growth in the former, as no sub- 
 stitute can be found equal to the milk of the dam to stim- 
 ulate growth in the lambs. To accomplish this all the 
 food fed should be of good quality and ample for the need 
 of the ewes. 
 
 If the roughage provided for winter use is not equal 
 in suitability for producing milk, that which is most suit- 
 able for such a purpose should be saved, if possible, for 
 feeding after the lambs have come. If the fodder is of 
 the same kind and yet differs in quality, that of the best 
 quality should be saved for feeding at such a time. For 
 this stage of the feeding leguminous fodders will be found 
 the most suitable and three feeds rather than two should 
 be given daily. 
 
 Under no conditions is the free feeding of succulent 
 roots more helpful to sheep than when they are nursing 
 their lambs, and under no conditions of feeding should it 
 be fed more freely to them. Where the supply is abun- 
 dant they may be given several pounds daily in the sliced 
 or pulped form. For spring feeding mangels or sugar 
 beets are very suitable, but any kind of roots well pre- 
 served will serve the purpose. Corn ensilage is also good 
 when of good quality and judiciously fed. It must be 
 conceded, however, that it is not equal to field roots for 
 such feeding. When fed in large quantities to ewes giv- 
 ing milk, especially when rich in practically matured grain, 
 it has been claimed that it tends to induce a somewhat 
 heated or feverish condition of the system. But when fed 
 in moderation, that is to say to the extent of not more 
 than two or three pounds daily, especially in the absence 
 of field roots, it has been found to be highly satisfactory. 
 Some successful feeders make it substitute the noon feed 
 of hay rather than feed it morning or evening. Corn sil- 
 
138 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 age is more in favor as a food for sheep that are being 
 fattened than for breeding ewes. 
 
 The concentrates fed may include any of the cereals, 
 but to keep the ration in approximate balance the con- 
 centrates should be chosen with a view to supplement 
 what may be lacking in the roughage. As leguminous 
 fodders are more commonly fed than other fodders to 
 ewes that are nursing their lambs, it is in order to feed 
 more of the grains rich in carbohydrates with such fod- 
 ders. But should the fodder consist largely of such food 
 as fodder corn and corn silage, the grain should be fed 
 rich in protein. When leguminous fodders are fed, from 
 say 50 to 60 per cent of the ration may be corn, but when 
 opposite in character, bran should be fed freely with the 
 grain. In the absence of field roots, wheat bran or oil- 
 cake, or both, should be fed to keep the digestion in tone. 
 A mixture of grains is always more relished than one kind 
 of grain, at least under prolonged feeding. Along with 
 leguminous fodders the following rations will be found 
 suitable: (i) Corn or barley, wheat bran, oilcake, in the 
 proportions of five, four and one parts by weight ; (2) 
 oats, wheat bran and oilcake in the proportions of six, 
 three and one parts; (3) oats and oilcake nine and one 
 parts. 
 
 The amount of grain to feed is influenced by the 
 amount of the field roots or corn ensilage that is fed. 
 With increase in the proportion of these, there may be 
 decrease in the amount of grain fed. While the supply of 
 the grain should be liberal, it will seldom be necessary 
 to feed more than two pounds of grain per animal daily 
 for prolonged feeding. The grain is fed whole. When 
 much wheat bran is fed, it will be more readily consumed 
 when fed on sliced or pulped roots, as sheep, especially 
 when young, do not usually show great fondness for bran. 
 The grain is commonly fed in two feeds daily, and it is not 
 necessary to grind it except in the case of aged ewes 
 whose teeth show signs of failing. Nor is it necessary to 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES 1 39 
 
 cut the fodder, as a rule, although cutting a portion of it 
 and mixing it with grain may insure a greater consump- 
 tion of the fodder. 
 
 From the sheds to the pastures — The change from 
 the sheds to the pastures should always be made with 
 more or less caution, lest the digestion of the ewes and 
 also of the lambs be unduly disturbed. A sudden change 
 from all dry feed to all succulent food such as the early 
 spring pastures furnish is almost certain to result in more 
 or less scouring, and it will take away their appetite for 
 other foods. The liability to such scouring will be greatly 
 reduced if the ewes, accompanied by their lambs, and in- 
 deed all classes of sheep, are given access when spring 
 grazing begins to pastures that have not been grazed 
 closely in the autumn, so that they cannot avoid consum- 
 ing some of the dead grass while they graze. The dead 
 grass counteracts the tendency to scouring caused by the 
 fresh grass. 
 
 When ewes with lambs are first turned out to graze, 
 the time for grazing, not long at the first, should be grad- 
 ually extended until they remain out all the day. The 
 period covered by the change from all dry food to graz- 
 ing only will be determined by such conditions as the kind 
 of the grazing and its plentifulness. The change should 
 be made as quickly as it can be made without injury to 
 the flock, as grazing usually furnishes cheaper food than 
 cured fodder and grain. When grazing begins, the re- 
 duction in the food in the sheds properly commences with 
 the roughage. There should be no anxiety to put the 
 sheep on grazing until they have first taken a full morn- 
 ing meal. The reduction in the roughage fed should keep 
 pace with the disinclination of the sheep to consume it. 
 With increase in the pasture consumed there should also 
 be corresponding decrease in the succulent food, as field 
 roots, if such is being fed. The grass, of course, provides 
 the succulence, and in a cheaper form than it can be 
 furnished from any other source. 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES T4I 
 
 The reduction in the feeding of grain should be more 
 gradual than the reduction in the roughage fed. The rea- 
 sons for this are: (i) That shrinkage which sometimes 
 results from the lax condition of the digestion caused by 
 the fresh grass is counteracted more or less by the grain 
 fed ; (2) that sheep will eat grain for a much longer period 
 than they will continue to eat roughage; (3) the lambs 
 are thus given an opportunity to share in what is even 
 more helpful to them than to the ewes. But when the 
 pastures have become abundant and when the sheep have 
 become quite accustomed to the change, it is doubtful 
 if the further feeding of grain will be profitable. Reduc- 
 tion should first begin with the evening feed of grain, 
 for a reason that will be obvious. The quantity is 
 gradually reduced until none is fed, and then reduction 
 should be similarly carried on with the morning feed. 
 
 A further important advantage resulting from a grad- 
 ual change from the sheds to the pastures is found in the 
 protection against exposure to hurtful influences that 
 may arise from the lying of the lambs on the ground while 
 yet cold and damp. They may thus be given the benefit 
 of well-bedded yards to lie on until the ground has been 
 warmed by the advance of spring. 
 
 Management when on pasture — Ordinarily no addi- 
 tional food is needed for the dams when on pasture, after 
 the change from yard to field conditions has been com- 
 pleted. This, of course, is on the assumption that the 
 grazing is sufficient. But there may be instances when 
 it may be desirable to feed such food as oilcake as a means 
 of speedily adding fertility to the land. And there may 
 be instances when it is desirable to sell the lambs as soon 
 as they can be made ready for the market, and also the 
 dams as quickly as possible thereafter. In such instances 
 the feeding of grain to the dams on pasture would not 
 only be justifiable but commendable. Whether it will 
 prove profitable to feed grain subsequently to the wean- 
 
142 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ing of the lambs will depend upon conditions, as is shown 
 below. 
 
 Of course, it would be possible to supplement the 
 grazing by feeding such soiling food as alfalfa, corn or 
 sorghum. For such a use alfalfa has special adaptation, 
 especially in those areas where it is irrigated and would 
 as a result produce many cuttings in a season. When 
 the conditions of cultivation become intensive in such 
 areas and labor sufficiently plentiful, such a system of 
 feeding sheep may be introduced. In the meantime, how- 
 ever, but little soiling food is fed sheep except in the case 
 of those that are maintained for some special use, as in 
 the case of stock rams or sheep that are being fitted for 
 exhibition. When soiling food is fed it should be put into 
 racks to prevent waste. Some foods, as alfalfa and clover, 
 when fed green, should first be wilted to avoid danger 
 from bloat. 
 
 Under existing conditions it has proved cheaper to 
 supplement the grass pastures by growing other pas- 
 tures with this end in view. Nearly all the cereals may 
 be used to provide such grazing, whether sown alone or 
 in certain combinations (see page 170). The great sav- 
 ing in the labor involved has made this method of pro- 
 viding supplemental food for ewes very much more 
 popular than the method that supplies it in the form of 
 soiling food. 
 
 Management when weaning the lambs — When lambs 
 are weaned, the method which takes them quite away 
 from the ewes without permitting them to come together 
 again is considered preferable to gradual weaning. Usu- 
 ally all the lambs in a flock are weaned at the time, but 
 there may be instances when it would be profitable to 
 separate the younger lambs with their dams and allow 
 them to take milk from their dams for a few weeks longer. 
 This is desirable in proportion as the lambing season has 
 been prolonged. The drying ofif of the ewes will be more 
 quickly accomplished if the ewes and lambs are separated 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I43 
 
 SO far that the bleating of the lambs will not be heard by 
 the ewes. Such bleating when heard keeps in active play 
 the maternal instinct, which tends to the continuance of 
 milk secretion. 
 
 The udders of the dams should be prcwnptly cared 
 for at such a time. The milk should be partially but not 
 wholly withdrawn from the udders as often as may be 
 necessary for the comfort of the ewes and the safety of 
 their udders. The frequency with which they should be 
 milked and the number of the milkings called for will 
 vary with the conditions. As a rule the udders should be 
 examined on the second day after the lambs have been 
 removed, or on the third day at the latest. The examina- 
 tion will show that some of the ewes are so far dry that 
 it is not necessary to draw any milk from them. It is not 
 necessary, of course, to examine the udders of these again. 
 Some may call for the removal of a little milk, but so 
 little that it is evident these will not require a second 
 milking, and they, along with the former, should be sep- 
 arated from the other portion of the flock if practicable. 
 The udders of some may show much distention, and from 
 these a large portion of the milk should be withdrawn. 
 The second examination need not be made for three or 
 four days as a rule, when it may be necessary to remove 
 more milk. In but rare instances is a third examination 
 necessary. 
 
 No sooner have the lambs been removed than the 
 ewes should be put upon a spare diet until they are 
 dried. The poorest grazing on the farm will be the best 
 suited for the purpose. Where such grazing is not to be 
 had, the ewes may be yarded and given dry roughage 
 only. The flockmaster should exercise much care when 
 drying oflf the ewes, as neglect at such a time may 
 ruin the udders, which means that ewes thus affected can- 
 not be used for future breeding. The best milkers in the 
 flock, and, therefore, the best lamb raisers, are most in 
 danger of such mishap. 
 
144 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Management of ewes to be discarded — The weaning 
 season furnishes an opportune time for determining on 
 which member of the flock shall be discarded. There 
 may be instances when these should be sold at once. This 
 will be in order, first, with ewes that suckled early lambs, 
 and that are as a result of heavy grain feeding in a con- 
 dition of good flesh when the lambs are weaned ; and, 
 second, when at the time of the autumn weaning of the 
 lambs, aged ewes are to be discarded in the absence of 
 such grazing as rape on which to fatten them. The lat- 
 ter when sold thus may bring only a low price, and yet 
 it may be more profitable to sell them thus than to try 
 to fatten them. 
 
 Ewes are usually in a somewhat lean condition at the 
 weaning season, and they are not easily fattened when 
 so old that their teeth have begun to fail. No method of 
 making them ready for the market has been found supe- 
 rior to that which fattens them on rape pasture. Such a 
 pasture well advanced in growth should fit them for the 
 market in, say two months from the time when they are 
 given access to it. It is not really essential that grain 
 shall be given to them at the same time, although in some 
 instances it may hasten the fattening process. 
 
 Usually no profit would result from carrying such 
 ewes on into the winter and fattening them at that sea- 
 son. The cost or value of the food would usually be more 
 than the advance in the return that would accrue from 
 the fattening process. Aged ewes, if fattened thus, should 
 have the grain ground for them. Should the ewes be dis- 
 carded for any other reason than that of advanced age, 
 it may prove more profitable to carry them on into the 
 winter before disposing of them. 
 
 Attentions miscellaneous in character — Attention 
 should be given to many details of management, all of 
 which it would be impossible to enumerate. Prominent 
 among these, however, are the following: (i) The ven- 
 tilating of the sheds; (2) the bedding of the sheds and 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I45 
 
 yards ; (3) special feeding for ewes whose teeth are fail- 
 ing; (4) protection from cold storms spring and autumn; 
 (5) tagging and trimming when necessary; (6) paring 
 the feet; (7) dipping for ticks; (8) the shed space called 
 for; and (9) the injury from close housing. 
 
 The methods of providing ventilation are discussed 
 later (see page 339). It is the necessity for ventilation 
 that is now emphasized. When sheep are kept in open 
 sheds, this danger will not exist. It occurs only in cold 
 climates and where the doors are kept closed at night. 
 When thus confined in a shed with a low loft, the air 
 becomes very impure. They are forced more or less to 
 breathe air that has been previously inhaled and that is 
 strongly impregnated with ammonia from the droppings. 
 
 The sheds and yards as well should have enough of 
 bedding to keep them dry as far as this may be practi- 
 cable. It may not be possible to keep the yards in such a 
 condition during every day of the winter, but it is impera- 
 tive that the sheds shall be kept thus. When the sheep 
 are given straw as a part of the ration, the uneaten por- 
 tion may be used as bedding, and enough may be obtained 
 in some instances from this source. The aim should be 
 to supply bedding in small quantities and frequently 
 rather than in large quantities and seldom, as the bed is 
 kept more fresh and free from odors when supplied by 
 the first method. Damp beds are specially harmful to 
 young lambs, and the same is true of beds that are foul. 
 The proper bedding of the yards is not an easy proposi- 
 tion where the rainfall is abundant in winter, because of 
 the amount of the litter called for. Under such condi- 
 tions the yards should be restricted to the smallest dimen- 
 sions compatible with the needs of the flock. Land plas- 
 ter, dry earth and even sifted coal ashes may be used with 
 profit in dusting the manure occasionally. 
 
 It may be desired in some instances to carry breed- 
 ing ewes through the winter to furnish lambs after they 
 have lost or partially lost their teeth. This may be a legit- 
 
146 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 imate desire when the owner of a small flock of pure 
 breds is anxious to increase the number. It is important 
 that such ewes be maintained in reasonably good condi- 
 tion, or the lambs which they produce will not be prop- 
 erly maintained. The aim should be to provide food for 
 these easy of mastication, as, for instance, field roots 
 pulped or sliced, or ensilage, finely chaffed fodders and 
 ground grain. It is preferable to feed these mixed rather 
 than separate. Valuable ewes may be thus maintained 
 for even two winters after they would fail under ordinary 
 conditions of feeding. 
 
 While some storms are, of course, more or less hurt- 
 ful to sheep at all seasons, they are specially harmful in 
 the autumn and the spring, hence every reasonable effort 
 should be made to protect them from such exposure. In 
 summer the rain is warm, but in autumn and spring it 
 sometimes falls with a temperature almost as cold as ice. 
 Long-continued exposure to such storms may prove a 
 source of great loss to the flock in the colds and inflam- 
 mations that may result and in the debility that fre- 
 quently follows. Exposure to snow in the absence of 
 driving wind may not be very harmful to the sheep, 
 though it is always injurious to young lambs, and long 
 exposure to cold rains is sure death to the latter. 
 
 The amount of tagging and trimming called for will 
 vary much in flocks. Tagging is seldom necessary in 
 winter in a flock that is healthy, but may become neces- 
 sary in many instances when sheep are changed from dry 
 food to that possessed of much succulence. The accumu- 
 lation of filth around and under the tail head may be- 
 come very offensive. Underneath maggots may be bred, 
 which, unremoved, may soon make life burdensome to the 
 sheep. Much wool may also be rendered valueless in 
 this way. As soon as such indications appear, the clots 
 =;hould be cut away with a sharp pair of shears, or if they 
 have been allowed to harden with a sharp knife. Trim- 
 ming the fleece is seldom necessary with grade flocks fur- 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF BREEDING EWES I47 
 
 ther than to cut away any torn or protruding locks of 
 wool, but it may be of more or less benefit in enhancing 
 the appearance of a flock of pure breds, and in the case 
 of sheep that are to be shown it has come to be a neces- 
 sity (see page 268). 
 
 The trimming of the hoofs of ewes and other sheep 
 calls for attention. The horn of the hoof may under some 
 conditions grow out and become broken or split so as to 
 cause lameness. In other instances the outer edge turns 
 under the sole, enhancing the difficulty of walking. These 
 injurious growths of hoof are most marked in soft soils, 
 which do not wear the hoofs as do soils that are firm in 
 texture. The remedy consists in paring off with a sharp 
 knife all the portion of the bone that may have turned 
 under the sole, and in clipping back the outer edges, and 
 especially the toes when they grow out too far. 
 
 Dipping for ticks once or twice a year is now recom- 
 mended and practiced by nearly all flockmasters who take 
 pride in the conditions of their flocks. It would seem 
 easily possible to so eradicate ticks that further dipping 
 would not be necessary, but in practice such attainment 
 is seldom if ever reached. For the further discussion of 
 this question (see Chapter XX). 
 
 The too close crowding of breeding ewes should be 
 avoided. They need more room than sheep that are being 
 fattened or than shearlings that are retained for breeding 
 uses. The space called for will, of course, vary with the 
 size of the sheep. Fifteen to 20 square feet will be at 
 least approximately suitable as shed room for ewes of the 
 large breeds, as the Leicesters, Lincolns, Cotswolds and 
 Oxford Downs, and 10 to 15 square feet for ewes of the 
 smaller fine wool types, as the American Merinos. 
 
 Too close housing of sheep in winter will soon bring 
 disaster to any flock if long persisted in. This comes not 
 only from inhaling the foul air, but from overheating, 
 which frequently induces sweating in the sheep. When 
 turned into the yards in such a condition, catarrhal 
 
148 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 troubles follow. The safe rule is to allow the ewes free 
 access to the yards day and night, except when the 
 weather is stormy. In cold climates such housing, given 
 with the best intentions, has worked great harm to the 
 flocks. But it is possible to winter ewes successfully by 
 keeping them in reasonably warm and well-ventilated 
 barns all the winter. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 
 
 The subdivisions in the discussion of this subject are 
 the following: (i) Food for rams from weaning until win- 
 ter; (2) Food and care the first winter; (3) Stock rams in 
 winter; (4) Food and care for sale rams in summer; (5) 
 Food and care for stock rams in summer; (6) Food and 
 management during the season of service ; (7) The dis- 
 posal of rams ; and (8) Miscellaneous attentions called for. 
 
 The care and management suitable for ram lambs to 
 be used in breeding up to the weaning season is the same 
 as for other lambs. It has been given in Chapter VI. 
 
 When the lambs have been weaned, they should be 
 culled, separating those possessed of sufficient promise 
 from such as are inferior. The culling should include 
 such as are ofif in markings, ungainly in form, deficient in 
 fleece and lacking in size and robustness. 
 
 It would be a great mistake to sell or to buy lambs 
 for use in pure-bred flocks that lack the markings char- 
 acteristic of the breed, or that are possessed of character- 
 istics which do not properly belong to the same, how- 
 soever excellent the animals may be in other respects. A 
 bare head or leg in the Shropshire illustrates the former, 
 and the presence of black wool in any part of the fleece 
 the latter. But such rams, if strong and vigorous, may 
 be superlatively useful in grade flocks, hence they should 
 not be sacrificed where such a market exists for them. 
 
 Lambs that are ungainly in form include such as are 
 not possessed sufficiently of that blocky form that indi- 
 cates vigor and good mutton-producing qualities. Such 
 lambs may possess good size, but they are frequently 
 found too long in limb and neck, too sharp in the spine, 
 too much sunken in the crops and too narrow throughout. 
 
 149 
 
150 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Such animals will not transmit the most desirable mutton 
 form. Ram lambs of highest excellence for breeding, as 
 also mature rams, should be compact, wide throughout, 
 strong in the back, full in the breast, level in the crops, 
 round in the ribs and heavy and shapely in the twist and 
 masculine in the head. 
 
 Deficiency in the fleece that should be possessed by 
 rams kept for breeding may relate more or less to any of 
 the requisites of a good fleece, or in extreme instances to 
 several of them. The importance of correct wool char- 
 acteristics increases with increase in the relative value of 
 the kind of wool furnished and increase in the value that 
 the wool bears to the mutton produced by the same ani- 
 mal. Correct characteristics in the wool of the highest 
 type of Merino is of more relative value than the same 
 in a high type Southdown, but in no instance is it unim- 
 portant where the breeding is pure. Nor would it be cor- 
 rect to say that it is unimportant in the breeding of grades. 
 Here also the importance of correct wool furnishings in 
 the male increase in proportion to the relative value of the 
 fleece sought. 
 
 Lambs may be lacking in size but so possessed of other 
 good qualities that there should be hesitancy about re- 
 jecting them for service, especially when high-class mut- 
 ton is sought. If the lambs are of good form and carry 
 the furnishings that indicate robustness, they may be 
 peculiarly valuable for the production of good mutton 
 from grade ewes ; especially when the ewes are somewhat 
 rough and lacking in quality will excellent results be 
 obtained from such rams, as the lambs begotten by them 
 will possess a combined compactness of form and refine- 
 ment of limb that would not result from the use of larger 
 sires though equally correct in form. In pure-bred flocks, 
 however, there should be hesitancy about using sires in 
 service that are under size, lest size in the average of the 
 flock should be too much reduced. In no instance should 
 such sires be used when lacking in robust vigor. 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS I5I 
 
 When the ram Iambs are graded, those drawn for sale 
 to breeders of pure breds should be kept apart fro.n 
 those to be sold to the breeders of grades, and also from 
 the culls that are to go to the block. The chief argument 
 for such isolation is found in the adverse influence which 
 lambs of the second and third classes named would have 
 on the sale of those of the first class, and likewise the 
 adverse influence which those of the third class would 
 have on the sale of those of the second class. It would 
 aid in making sales of the small lambs sold for breeding 
 if they could be separated from those that are larger but 
 off in markings ; but in practice it is difificult to make so 
 many divisions. If lambs of the first class are not all dis- 
 posed of in the lamb form, it may be profitable to carry 
 them over for sale as shearlings, but none of the other 
 classes should be thus held over as a rule. They should 
 all go to the block rather than be carried over, as the de- 
 mand for them as shearlings would probably not be good. 
 
 Food for rams from weaning until winter — From the 
 time that the lambs are weaned until winter closes 
 in, or until they are sold, no kind of pasture 
 that can be furnished is superior to dwarf Essex rape, 
 with access at the same time to an old grass pasture. In 
 the absence of rape, second growth clover is good, or blue 
 grass that is succulent and plentiful, or early sown win- 
 ter rye, or indeed any kind of succulent food such as may 
 be plentifully gathered amid the grain stubbles. Fall 
 turnips amid these are specially helpful. Much caution 
 should be used in grazing high-class lambs on the rape, 
 lest there should be loss from bloating (see page 193). 
 
 From the time of weaning until the lambs are housed 
 for winter or sold, the necessity for concentrates and the 
 quantity of the same to be fed will depend in a consider- 
 able degree upon the pasture. When the supply of such 
 grazing as well-grown rape, kohlrabi or fall turnips is 
 plentiful, the necessity is not present for feeding large 
 quantities of grain, because of the nutritious character of 
 
152 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 these pastures. In their absence it will probably prove 
 advantageous to feed about i pound of grain daily per 
 animal with oats as its base, the additions to the oats 
 being preferably wheat bran or oilcake or both for the 
 lambs to be used in feeding, and corn or barley for those 
 to be sent to the block. \\' ith the former good growth is 
 the prime consideration, but with the latter high condi- 
 tion is the prime requisite. 
 
 It will usually be time well spent to tag the lambs 
 held for sale as breeders when necessary, and to trim 
 them more or less — more in the case of the dark-faced 
 breeds and less in that of the other breeds (see page 296). 
 
 Food and care the first winter — The shelter called for 
 to protect ram lambs the first winter will suffice if it gives 
 them a dry bed and shields them from falling storms and 
 drafts. For convenience in feeding and watering, they 
 are frequently kept in one of the apartments of the sheep 
 house, and when so kept it is less necessary to have them 
 on the sunny side of the sheep house than in the case of 
 breeding ewes. It is very necessary to furnish them with 
 a yard or paddock in which to exercise. It will add to 
 their sureness in begetting progeny if they can spend 
 much of the time in the winter in the pastures, when the 
 conditions will admit of this. In spring they may remain 
 overnight in the pastures considerably earlier than would 
 be safe in the case of the breeding ewes. For reasons that 
 will be manifest, they should be kept entirely separate, 
 from the ewes of the flock. 
 
 As it is important that such lambs shall continue to 
 make good growth the first winter, they must be fed 
 accordingly. The aim should be to give them growth 
 without excessive fatness. This will be realized only 
 when they are given food essentially nitrogenous in char- 
 acter and succulent. If liberally supplied with field roots, 
 almost any kind of fodders will answer that are of fine 
 growth and well cured. With three or four pounds of 
 roots daily, and good leguminous hay. but little grain 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS I53 
 
 will be needed. But if the lambs have been fed grain 
 while on the autumn pasture, it will usually pay to give 
 them some grain daily through the winter, but not usu- 
 ally more than i pound per animal daily. The standard 
 grain food for such animals is oats, or barley, wheat, 
 bran, and a small proportion, say 5 per cent, of oilcake, 
 added. When the rams are to be sold for range uses, 
 pampering should be guarded against, or the rams will 
 not have the desired vigor for roughing it on the range. 
 Ranchmen should not invest in males without carefully 
 investigating as to the way in which they have been fed 
 and cared for. 
 
 The number of the ram lambs that may be profitably 
 kept in one flock will be influenced by the breed. It would 
 probably be correct to say that of the fine wooled breeds 
 as many as 100 animals may be kept in one flock, while 
 a flock of medium or coarse wooled rams should not ex- 
 ceed 50 animals. The roominess of the quarters and their 
 suitability generally exercise a wide influence on the num- 
 ber that may be kept in one flock. If any of the rams 
 thus brought together, whether going into winter quar- 
 ters or at other times, are strange to each other, fighting 
 is sure to follow, and it may result fatally. This may 
 be prevented by putting the animals thus brought to- 
 gether in narrow quarters. For want of room they can- 
 not harm each other seriously, and yet they are able to 
 settle the question as to relative strength. This is also 
 greatly important when valuable stock rams previously 
 kept apart are brought together to pass the winter in the 
 same quarters. 
 
 Stock rams in winter — Stock rams — that is, rams used 
 in service in the flock — should have an apartment for 
 themselves, and when this keeps them quite away from 
 close proximity to the ewes, it is just so much better 
 suited to their needs, since in it they will be quiet and 
 restful. In sheep sheds with an aisle running down 
 through the center of the building, with pens or divisions 
 
154 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 on both sides of it, the breeding ewes are commonly kept 
 on one side and the rams and sale sheep on the other side. 
 The apartment in which those rams are kept in winter 
 should open into a yard, and this into a paddock. No 
 surer method could be taken of destroying the breeding 
 powers in rams than to deny them exercise for periods 
 at all prolonged. Usually the number of the rams thus 
 kept together is limited. Because of this, it may be more 
 convenient to keep the rams of different ages all in one 
 pen. This is allowable when the food is moderate in 
 character, but the aim should be to keep ram lambs sepa- 
 rate from the older ewes, as they need a more forcing diet 
 to give them completed growth. 
 
 During the period of active service, the rams have 
 probably been fed a liberal grain ration to sustain them 
 at a time when the drain upon their system is severe. 
 When the season for service is over, there should be a 
 gradual reduction in the grain fed, and probably a mod- 
 ification in the kinds fed. During the winter stock rams 
 should be kept in a good condition of thrift without ex- 
 cessive fatness. No kind of food will tend to keep them 
 in this condition better than field roots, but in the case 
 of rams mangels should not be fed, lest trouble should 
 result from the lack of free urination. The same kinds of 
 grain as were given as suitable for ram lambs (see page 
 113) will also be found suitable for stock rams. The 
 amount to feed should be regulated by the condition of 
 the rams, and it should be kept as low as will be rea- 
 sonably consistent on economical grounds and to avoid 
 overtaxing the machinery of digestion in the rams. 
 
 Should the stock rams be allowed to run with the 
 breeding ewes in winter, they are less restful than when 
 kept alone. The danger is present, at least to some ex- 
 tent, that they may injure the pregnant ewes. Nor is 
 the food that is suitable for the ewes always suitable for 
 the stock rams. 
 
 Sale rams in summer — As the rams held for sale as 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 1 55 
 
 shearlings are of uncompleted growth, it is important 
 that they shall be given good grazing until the season 
 for selling arrives. This does not mean, of course, that 
 the grazing shall be long, in the sense that good grazing 
 is understood for cattle, but that the range on which they 
 feed shall be sufficient to enable them to secure food 
 enough to keep them growing continuously and to main- 
 tain them in good flesh ; any kind of grazing that will do 
 this will suffice. 
 
 Whether supplementary grain food should be given 
 will depend chiefly on the character of the grazing. Where 
 that is sufficient to insure good growth and a fair condi- 
 tion as to flesh, it would not be economical to add a grain 
 supplement. When rape furnishes any considerable pro- 
 portion of the pasture, the feeding of grain will not be 
 necessary. But because of the value of such rams, it may 
 be profitable to give them rape only as soiling food rather 
 than as pasture. When thus fed, the feeding may be so 
 controlled as to practically eliminate the danger of loss 
 from bloating. While such rams should be in good con- 
 dition of flesh, they should not be pampered. This is 
 even more emphatically true of such rams as are to be 
 sold for use on the ranges. 
 
 Attention should be given to the tagging of sale rams 
 whenever called for during the season preceding that of 
 sale. Such attention should be given with great prompt- 
 ness, otherwise the tagging may deform the symmetry of 
 the fleece, which will injure the sale to the extent to which 
 it may be present. A certain amount of trimming will 
 aid in making sales, especially with the middle-wool 
 breeds. It is also important that such rams shall be shorn 
 as early as the weather conditions will admit of such 
 shearing. Early shearing relieves them of the burden of 
 that long fleece relatively which shearlings bear, and it 
 gives them greater length of fleece at the time for selling 
 than they would otherwise possess. 
 
 Stock rams in summer — The pastures for stock rams 
 
156 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 in summer will be ample when they sustain them in good 
 flesh. In some instances it may not be necessary to keep 
 them apart from the sale rams. However, they are not 
 infrequently kept in paddocks, especially as the season 
 for service approaches, for the reason chiefly that sup- 
 plementary foods may be conveniently fed to them. 
 
 FIG. 8— A NOTED PRIZE-V\ INNINt, YEARLING SHROPSHIRE RAM 
 
 The property of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin 
 
 (Courtesy of owners) 
 
 Where the pastures will maintain sufficient flesh 
 without grain, it is better not to feed it to them at that 
 season, as the comparative rest to the digestive powers 
 which succulent and nutritious grazing brings with it is 
 beneficial. The change thus efifected will make grain 
 feeding the more effective when it is resumed again, pre- 
 paring the rams for service. 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS I57 
 
 As the season for service approaches, the rams 
 should be given supplementary food. Such feeding 
 should increase gradually from the time when it is be- 
 gun until maximum amounts are fed. The feeding of 
 supplementary food should begin not less than two to 
 three weeks before service begins. The grain fed should 
 be nitrogenous, and it should not be fed to the extent of 
 producing undue fatness in the rams with the accom- 
 panying sluggishness that would result from such a con- 
 dition. Care must also be taken to feed a due propor- 
 tion of succulent food along with the grain. Such food is 
 peculiarly helpful in sustaining in proper condition the 
 organs concerned in generation. 
 
 Rams during the season of service — The food and 
 management generally suitable for rams during the sea- 
 son of service will be much influenced by the relative size 
 and value of the flock with which they are to be mated. 
 When the flock is small, say not more than a score, there 
 may be instances in which it would be proper even to 
 allow valuable rams to remain in the pastures with the 
 flock and without extra food and care. In the case of 
 grade flocks it may be admissible to allow them to run 
 with a flock considerably larger. But when a ram is to 
 serve 50 valuable ewes, or even a larger number, he 
 should be kept in a shed with yard or paddock attached 
 and fed food that will aid in sustaining in vigorous action 
 the organs concerned in generation. In this way also 
 the ram may be prevented from wasting his energies 
 through an excess of service given to each ewe. In some 
 instances rams of the Merino type are shorn before the 
 season of service, to relieve them of the oppressive load 
 of wool which they carry. 
 
 The food given to the rams that are in service should 
 be of high quality. Valuable rams in service are com- 
 monly kept in a comfortable apartment of a shed during 
 the day, and are allowed the liberty of a small paddock 
 or pasture at night. 
 
158 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Where the pasture is restricted, as it frequently is, 
 green food is fed as soiling food. For such a use nothing 
 is more suitable than well-grown rape or alfalfa, cut not 
 later than the stage of early bloom. Many other kinds 
 of green food will answer, as corn of tender growth, peas 
 and oats or vetches and oats grown together, field roots 
 with the tops, cabbage and also pumpkins. Such food 
 may be given, up to the limit of consumption, providing 
 the digestion remains undisturbed. Rape and alfalfa, if 
 fed somewhat wilted, will not produce bloat, which may 
 happen if the rams were to graze on these, or even on 
 clover. No grain food is more suitable for such rams than 
 oats if only one kind of grain is fed, but an addition of a 
 small amount of Canada peas, wheat or barley, may im- 
 prove the ration. In the absence of green food, wheat 
 bran and oil cake, especially the former, may be added 
 with profit to the grain. The amount of grain fed may 
 exceed two pounds daily in some instances. In any event 
 the amount should be liberal. Such rams will also turn 
 to good account some hay, especially when leguminous 
 in character. 
 
 When the rams run with small flocks of ewes in the 
 fields, no especial attention for the ram may be necessary 
 further than to rub some kind of coloring matter over 
 his breast and brisket to indicate which ewes have been 
 served (see page 162). In some instances rams are fed 
 grain while running with the flock. This, however, in- 
 volves the necessity of a daily visit by the shepherd, and 
 a further draft on his time while the ram is consuming the 
 grain. When they are kept up, the ewes are usually 
 driven to the yard morning or evening. The ram soon 
 singles out any in heat and these should be at once re- 
 moved. When all have been served, the ram is at once 
 removed and the ewes are kept away from the flock for 
 several hours. In other instances what is known as a 
 "teaser" is used to indicate which ewes are in heat. A 
 teaser is simply a ram carrying what may be termed a 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 
 
 159 
 
 cloth apron, which makes it impossible for him to serve 
 ewes. Of course, valuable rams are not devoted to such 
 a use. 
 
 The amount of service which rams may profitably 
 render is influenced by such conditions as age, natural 
 vigor, breed and management during the season of service. 
 It is not enough that rams shall be capable of begetting 
 
 FIG. 9— A NOTED PRIZE-WINNING YEARLING OXFORD DOWN RAM 
 The property of Geo. McKerrow & Sons, Pewaukee, Wisconsin 
 (Courtesy of owners) 
 
 progeny. It is all important that they beget a numerous 
 and vigorous progeny, which they will not do if overtaxed 
 by excessive service. Instances are on record in which rams 
 have served without any marked reduction in condition 
 in a single season 200 ewes. These were Merino rams 
 and the service required extended over a considerable 
 period. Usually from one-fourth to one-third of that 
 
l6o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 number is all that a well-grown ram should be allowed 
 to serve in a single season, and when the ram is with the 
 flock it should not comprise so large a number of ewes. 
 A ram lamb should not usually be allowed to serve more 
 than 20 ewes. One ram, though mature, should not be 
 allowed to serve more than say three ewes in a day and 
 at intervals of not less than three to four hours. 
 
 The disposal of rams — The breeders of stock rams 
 usually aim at the disposal of a large percentage of the 
 product for the season in the autumn of the year that 
 produced them. When sold as lambs, the prices obtained 
 are usually as good, and in some instances better, rela- 
 tively, than when they are sold as shearlings ; and when 
 thus sold the risk of loss is shifted to the purchaser, and 
 larger room is left for those unsold. But sales cannot 
 usually be made unless they are well developed. Pur- 
 chasers are but little inclined to buy small ram lambs to 
 be used as sires, and it is fortunate that they are. Some 
 breeders object to the use of lambs as sires on the ground 
 that older sires possessed of more maturity will transmit 
 more of vigor to the progeny. The laws of breeding give 
 considerable support to the view, but the idea must not 
 be pressed too far, as in small flocks, reasonably good 
 results have followed the use of the ram lambs as sires. 
 
 All things taken into account, the purchase of shear- 
 ling rams is to be preferred to that of ram lamljs to be 
 used in service, but it is more difficult to secure shearlings 
 possessed of all-round high quality than to secure lambs 
 possessed of the same, as the best of the lambs are very 
 frequently sold as lambs, leaving only those that have 
 been thus passed by to be sold as shearlings. But the in- 
 dividuality of the animal may more certainly be known 
 as a shearling, as growth is then more nearly completed. 
 Ranchmen prefer shearling rams to lambs, for reasons that 
 will be apparent. Should any of the shearlings remain un- 
 sold, the wisdom of carrying them over another year to sell 
 as breeders is questionable. The fact that they have re- 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS l6l 
 
 mained on hand for so long a period raises a suspicion 
 in the minds of those who are seeking rams that they 
 were not disposed of because of inferiority in their fur- 
 nishings. 
 
 When good stock rams have been used for say two 
 years, it may be necessary to dispose of them to avoid in- 
 breeding. When they have shown peculiar excellence in 
 the line of prepotency, it would be unfortunate to have 
 such rams sent to the block. Those seeking rams to head 
 their flocks of that particular breed, should give the pref- 
 erence to these when they can obtain them. Their pre- 
 potency has been proved, which, of course, cannot be said 
 of young rams. If, however, such rams should be pur- 
 chased by those not instructed in the care of such rams, 
 disaster may follow. It will usually be found advisable 
 to care .for them on lines similar to those to which they 
 have become accustomed. Violence in care and food 
 given to such rams will usually result in great injury to 
 them. 
 
 The age to which rams may be kept in service with 
 profit and advantage cannot be stated, except in the most 
 general way, for reasons that will be apparent. It would 
 be correct to say that usually the period of most active 
 service for rams is when they are shearlings, two years 
 old, three years old and four years old. In other words, 
 they are in service four seasons. Instances are on record 
 in which Merino rams have been in service for more than 
 a dozen years. But there may be instances in which the 
 period covered will be twice as long. And there may be 
 other instances when the period of service should be 
 closed sooner. It is greatly important to use rams only 
 that are possessed of much vigor, whatsoever the age 
 may be. 
 
 Miscellaneous attentions called for — Certain atten- 
 tions are called for in the management of rams that may 
 not seem greatly important, and yet when given they 
 add to the profit from keeping them. These include (i) 
 
l62 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 trimming the wool on sale rams; (2) trimming the feet 
 when necessary; (3) "ruddling" the rams when they run 
 with the ewes at the time of service; and (4) isolating 
 rams brought in from distant flocks. 
 
 The degree of the trimming called for is less than 
 that given to show rams, but a certain amount of it will 
 in a majority of instances add to the attractive appear- 
 ance of the rams. The long wooled breeds may not be im- 
 proved much by it, nor is it given to the Merino types. 
 But the middle wooled breeds will be much improved by 
 trimming (see page 268). The fleece should also be care- 
 fully guarded against the seeds of plants that adhere to 
 the wool, such as burs. A few plants growing in by- 
 places unnoticed will deform the fleece of many rams that 
 may have grazed near them. 
 
 The feet of all rams may need trimming, but the need 
 will be greatest with rams in service. For the method of 
 trimming (see page 282). It is greatly important that 
 stock rams shall be kept active on their feet, for reasons 
 that will be apparent. 
 
 By ruddling is meant applying some coloring sub- 
 stance to the breast and brisket of the ram that will leave 
 its imprint on the ewe that has been served. The benefits 
 resulting are the evidence of service and the possibility 
 of knowing the date of the same. Lampblack and oil 
 are the materials used in some instances, and powdered 
 red chalk and linseed oil in others. Various paint mix- 
 tures, however, may be used. Those that dry least 
 quickly will best serve the purpose. The frequency with 
 which the application is renewed will vary with the dry- 
 ing properties of the coloring matter used. 
 
 The isolating or quarantining of a ram brought into 
 the flock is a wise precaution, unless it is absolutely cer- 
 tain that in all respects he is healthy. The introduction 
 of sheep scab and ticks may in this way be ascertained, if 
 present, within a few weeks, and in this way may be pre- 
 vented from reaching the flock. Two careful dippings 
 
FEEDING AND CARE OF RAMS 163 
 
 given within, say, 10 days of each other will render fur- 
 ther quarantining unnecessary. Such dipping is greatly 
 important when rams are taken into flocks on the ranges, 
 and when done at the farm or ranch all danger of infec- 
 tion on the way is thus avoided. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 
 
 In Chapter IX the following phases of this question 
 are discussed: (i) The best natural grazing lands for 
 sheep; (2) Grass pastures permanent in character; (3) 
 Grass pastures temporary in character; (4) Pastures sup- 
 plementary in character; (5) Pastures for winter grazing; 
 (6) Grazing sheep on grass pastures ; (7) Grazing sheep 
 on supplementary pastures ; and (8) The benefits from 
 supplementary grazing. In sheep husbandry the ques- 
 tion of grazing and the methods of conducting the graz- 
 ing are relatively of much importance, because of the 
 large portion of the year during which the sheep have 
 access to the pastures. 
 
 The best natural grazing lands — The best natural 
 grazing lands for sheep are: (i) Those that have good 
 natural or artificial drainage ; (2) that produce herbage 
 in variety, fine, palatable and nutritious ; and (3) that 
 have ample shade and living water. With these requi- 
 sites the value of the pastures will be proportionately ad- 
 vanced by their increasing productiveness. 
 
 If sheep are to thrive continually, it is absolutely 
 necessary that the pastures on which they thrive shall 
 possess good natural or artificial drainage. This does not 
 mean that they must be rolling or even undulating in 
 character, but that they must be free from stagnant water. 
 The greater suitability of undulating and rolling lands 
 for providing such grazing arises from the fact, first, that 
 they usually do possess good natural drainage ; second, 
 that the surface of the soil is usually reasonably dry at all 
 seasons ; and, third, that the herbage growing on them 
 is usually such as is relished by sheep. But this does not 
 mean that sheep mav not be grown successfully on pas- 
 
 164 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 
 
 165 
 
 turei that are level and even low, providing they are 
 properly drained, as has been shown in the great success 
 that has attended the growing of sheep on the reclaimed 
 fens of Lincolnshire and the reclaimed marshes of Kent 
 in England. 
 
 That sheep delight in variety in the pastures is abun- 
 dantly shown in the great variety of weeds even that they 
 
 
 *"■**■ '^t^jjB 
 
 FIG. 10— SHROPSHIRES ON SUMMER GRAZING 
 The property of Renk Bros., Wisconsin 
 
l66 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 will consume (see page 13). Pastures composed of 
 mixed grasses should, therefore, prove very suitable for 
 sheep. But this does not mean that they cannot be 
 maintained in good form on pasture w^ith but one or two 
 grasses, as shown in the thrift that usually comes to sheep 
 maintained on blue grass only or on bufifalo grass. Fine 
 grasses are much preferred to those that are coarse, hence 
 one reason of the greater fondness of sheep for blue grass 
 {Poa pratensis) and buffalo grass {Buchloe dactyloidcs) 
 than for orchard grass {Dactylus glomcrata) or tall oat 
 grass {Arrhenatherum avenaceiim). Palatability is, of 
 course, a prime essential in pastures. Usually succulence 
 and palatability are closely associated, and succulence is 
 greatest in pastures in the early stages of growth. Those 
 grasses, therefore, which continue to grow during much of 
 the season are preferable to those that grow quickly to 
 maturity and then practically cease to grow for the sea- 
 son. This explains why sheep will eat blue grass with a 
 relish all the season, though they will consume weeds 
 only when they are in the succulent stage. The nutri- 
 tion in grasses is, of course, greatly important, and it is 
 greater in seasons relatively dry than in those that are 
 moist. 
 
 The necessity for shade increases with increase in 
 the summer heat. It is usually best provided by trees, 
 but in their absence may be furnished by sheds made of 
 a roof consisting of poles and covered with straw or other 
 material. In permanent pastures a grove could usually 
 be grown in a few years, when properly protected. On 
 farms located on the prairie the grass around the out- 
 buildings may furnish the necessary shade, but shade in 
 the pastures is preferable, if for no other reason than con- 
 tiguity to the grazing. On the dry ranges of the west 
 sheep not provided with shade sufifer considerably from 
 exposure to the summer heat. 
 
 The advantage of living water in pastures for sheep 
 cannot easily be overestimated. They should not be al- 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 67 
 
 lowed to drink from stagnant pools in the summer sea- 
 son, nor should they be allowed to feed upon the rank, 
 coarse herbage that is frequently found growing around 
 the borders of these, and also on land that during por- 
 tions of the year is saturated with water. Sheep thus 
 grazed are much liable to be preyed upon by parasites 
 which frequently abound where such conditions exist, and 
 yet in northern areas there are basins and small lakes 
 which do not incur such hazard ; as, for instance, many 
 of those found in the park area of Minnesota. But in 
 these the waters, for various reasons, remain clear, and 
 they do not grow sedge, aquatic plants or coarse grasses 
 around their borders. 
 
 Extensive pastures are better adapted relatively for 
 being grazed by sheep than by cattle, as they usually 
 furnish a greater variety of herbage gratifying to sheep 
 than pastures not extensive, and they give more oppor- 
 tunity for indulgence in the roaming habit while being 
 grazed. Sheep will also thrive better relatively on rugged 
 and sparse pastures than cattle, as, because of their 
 greater lightness of body, they gather their food with less 
 effort. An occasional change of pastures is also, as a 
 rule, helpful to sheep. 
 
 Grass pastures permanent in character — Grass pas- 
 tures for sheep permanent in character are composed, 
 first, of grasses that are indigenous to the locality, or, if 
 introduced, highly adapted to the conditions ; and, second, 
 grasses composed of mixtures which are sown to pro- 
 duce grazing for long periods. 
 
 Prominent among the former are grasses that grow on 
 unbroken areas without being sown by man after the 
 forest has been cut away on the unbroken prairie and on 
 the western ranges. Kentucky blue grass is by far the 
 most prominent and valuable of the grasses that grow 
 thus in forest areas, and it promises to cover the larger 
 portion of the cultivated area of the prairie in the future 
 not distant. It has the unique quality of being able to 
 
l68 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 retain its hold upon the land when it has once been in- 
 troduced without hindering in any way the processes of 
 cultivation. Moreover, it forms a thick sod which is fav- 
 orable to dry and clear grazing, and it furnishes grazing 
 fine in character and that is much relished. It is, in a 
 sense, the cosmopolitan grass of the continent, but it is 
 not well adapted to the dry ranges of the west, nor to the 
 hot summers of the far south. Grasses of the grama 
 family must continue in great measure to furnish the 
 permanent pastures of the ranges. White clover sown 
 on blue grass pastures usually thenceforth becomes its 
 abiding partner and adds considerably to the value of the 
 grazing. Red top has a prominent place among those 
 that provide such grazing in northerly areas of the 
 southern states, and Bermuda grass still further south. 
 
 The permanent pastures composed of mixtures may 
 usually include several of the more prominent grasses 
 and clovers. It would be correct to say that no valuable 
 grass not possessed of weedlike properties, as quack- 
 grass (Agropyrum repens), for instance, is debarred from 
 being used to provide permanent pastures in some part 
 of the United States or Canada. The same is true of 
 clovers. The mixtures that may be used to form perma- 
 nent pasture in the various areas of the United States and 
 Canada are discussed in Chapter XVI of the book. 
 "Grasses and How to Grow Them," by the author. The 
 methods of establishing the pastures are also discussed 
 in the same. 
 
 Permanent pastures sown to provide grazing for 
 sheep are not much in evidence on this continent. The 
 need for them has not been much felt, owing to the abun- 
 dance of other grazing in proportion to the numbers of 
 the sheep kept. Doubtless their day is coming, as where 
 sheep are numerously kept some form of permanent pas- 
 ture is necessary, and under most conditions that com- 
 posed of a number of grasses is more suitable and more 
 productive than a pasture composed chiefly of Init one 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 169 
 
 variety. Alfalfa has been recommended as a permanent 
 pasture plant for sheep, but its value for such a use unless 
 mixed with other grasses is problematical, because of the 
 harm through bloating which the alfalfa may give rise 
 to in sheep and the harm through close grazing which the 
 sheep may do to the alfalfa. 
 
 Grass pastures temporary in character — The com- 
 position of grass pastures temporary in character must, 
 of course, be much influenced by the adaptation in the 
 grass and clovers in each locality. Such plants only can 
 be used as are able quickly to establish themselves in the 
 soil. If they can establish themselves in a single season, 
 their adaptation is, of course, higher than if a longer 
 time is required. Timothy occupies a foremost place 
 among the grasses that establish themselves quickly. 
 Orchard grass, tall oat grass and some of the rye grasses 
 are akin to it in this respect, but the limitations to their 
 adaptation tend much to circumscribe the area of their 
 growth. Russian brome occupies an intermediate place 
 and meadow fescue and Kentucky blue grass are so slow 
 in becoming established as to render it unwise to sow 
 them for such grazing. All the clovers establish them- 
 selves quickly and are therefore suitable for such pastures. 
 No other mixture of grasses has become so gen- 
 erally popular in providing temporary pastures as timo- 
 thy and medium red clover, as, sown in the spring along 
 with a nurse crop, they usually cover the ground by the 
 advent of winter. But several varieties of clover will 
 serve the purpose better than one variety, since they 
 provide food at different times as growth progresses. 
 Sainfoin, but little grown as yet in America, will doubt- 
 less have a place in some of the states in providing pas- 
 ture for sheep. It will grow in soils rather dry and poor. 
 It is fine of stem and leaf, and sheep are very fond of it. 
 
 The duration of such pasture must be determined 
 by such conditions as the extent to which the pasture is 
 wanted and the nature of the rotation. Usually such 
 
170 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 pastures are of short duration. In some instances they 
 are grazed but one year ; in others for two and even for 
 three and four seasons. The grazing of these may, of 
 course, alternate with the production of hay. 
 
 More commonly the best arrangement of grass pas- 
 tures for sheep is that which provides both temporary and 
 permanent grazing. Permanent pasture in some form is 
 usually a great convenience when grazing sheep, as it 
 may be relied upon to furnish grazing at any season of 
 the year when the ground is bare ; whereas other pastures 
 might not prove so suitable in periods of prolonged rain- 
 fall, as they are not covered with so firm a turf. 
 
 Pastures supplementary in character — The plan of 
 supplementing the grass pastures with grazing furnished 
 by other plants is growing in favor wherever sheep are 
 kept primarily for mutton. Of course, such pastures can- 
 not be grown on the open ranges, but the sheep may be 
 taken from the ranges to the grazing thus provided under 
 arable farm conditions, and this method of grazing and 
 even of finishing range sheep is growing in favor. 
 
 The following are prominent among the plants that 
 are or may be grown to provide such grazing for sheep 
 in the United States and Canada. Among the small 
 cereals are rye, wheat, oats, barley and speltz. Among 
 the leguminous cereals are the Canada pea. the cowpea. 
 the common vetch and the sand vetch. Among those of 
 the maize and sorghum habit of growth are corn, sweet 
 sorghum and some of the non-saccharine sorghums. 
 Among plants of the Brassica family are rape, kale, kohl- 
 rabi, cabbage and white mustard. Among the tubers are 
 peanuts and sweet potatoes, and among field roots are 
 turnips and rutabagas. It is not the purpose to dwell 
 here on the methods of growing these. They have been 
 discussed at some length in other works from the author's 
 pen. more especially "Forage Crops Other than Grasses" 
 and "Cultivated Crops." The object sought is to show 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP I7I 
 
 when and where these crops may be used to supplement 
 the grass pastures. 
 
 Winter rye, much the best of the small cereals to fur- 
 nish grazing for sheep, is most useful in furnishing graz- 
 ing to breeding ewes and their lambs in the quite early 
 spring, even in advance of succulent grazing furnished by 
 the grass pastures. Cropping it closely should prevent 
 all danger from ergot, which in some areas has been 
 known to produce abortion on rich soils. But it is some- 
 times growm also to furnish grazing in the autumn. Win- 
 ter wheat in certain areas, as Kansas, is sometimes grazed 
 by sheep in winter. Spring rye and all the other small 
 cereals named may be grown if necessary to provide suc- 
 culent grazing in the early summer, but for such a use 
 they are not extensively grown. 
 
 The Canada pea is seldom grown by itself to provide 
 grazing for sheep, but it is in combinations, to some ex- 
 tent, as is shown below. The common vetch is consid- 
 erably grown to provide grazing for sheep in proximity 
 to the Pacific, and in the vicinity of the Great Lakes and 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence it may come to be freely grown 
 for such a use. Southward from where highest adapta- 
 tion is found for the common vetch, the sand or hairy 
 vetch grows at its best, even as far south as the Gulf of 
 Mexico, when sown at the proper season. All these are 
 sown to provide succulent grazing in the spring and early 
 summer, and the Canada pea and summer vetch are also 
 sometimes sown to provide food for fattening. .The cow- 
 pea also furnishes good supplemental grazing. 
 
 Indian corn may under certain conditions be sown to 
 provide summer grazing for sheep, but it is better suited 
 to furnish food on which sheep may be fattened while 
 they are harvesting the corn. Sweet sorghum, and also 
 the non-saccharine sorghums, may be sown to provide 
 midsummer grazing, and thus help out the pastures, espe- 
 cially in dry areas and in dry seasons. Sheep are not so 
 fond of such grazing, however, as of that furnished by 
 
1/2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 many other plants. But the habit of growth in these 
 sorghums furnishes a large amount of grazing, as they 
 sprout up again when eaten down. 
 
 Among plants of the brassica family, rape is by far 
 the most extensively grown because of its wide distribu- 
 tion and high excellence in providing grazing that is 
 highly palatable and abundantly nutritious. Kale in cer- 
 tain mild areas where it comes safely through the winter 
 has been found most excellent in providing succulent 
 food in the spring. Kohlrabi should be more grown for 
 autumn grazing than it has been heretofore. It will grow 
 under conditions more dry than those suitable for the 
 other plants of this family, and, as with rape, the entire 
 food portion is grown above ground. Cabbage has special 
 adaptation to furnishing late grazing, even later than that 
 furnished by rape, owing to the power which the heads 
 have to resist the influence of frost. White mustard has 
 been but little grown in this country to provide pasture 
 for sheep, though frequently grown in Britain for such 
 a use. It is valued because of its rapid growth, as 
 in a rape field it tends to prevent bloat in the sheep, be- 
 cause it stimulates the early mating of ewes grazed on 
 it, and because it has been noticed that sheep grazed on 
 it usually do well when put upon other good grazing. 
 
 Peanuts and sweet potatoes are not sown primarily 
 to provide grazing for sheep, but when these are grown 
 it is claimed that grazing off the tops is a cheap way of 
 removing them. Sheep are fond of them and they are 
 nutritious. 
 
 Turnips are more grown to provide grazing on the 
 field than rutabagas. For such a use the seed is fre- 
 quently sown, as rape is sometimes sown, along with that 
 of small grain, using from one to two pounds of seed per 
 acre. But in mild winter latitudes, as in certain of the 
 mountain states southward, also westward along the 
 Pacific, there would seem to be no good reasons why tur- 
 
PASTURES AND GKAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 73 
 
 nips and rutabagas may not be grown and grazed off 
 by sheep as they are in Britain. 
 
 Some of these plants may be profitably grown in cer- 
 tain combinations. Those which may be thus grown 
 include the small cereals, non-leguminous, and those also 
 that are leguminous, and white mustard. Corn and the 
 sorghums are not much suitable for such combinations, 
 owing to the shade which they produce in their growth, 
 but they may be grown in certain mixtures with some 
 degree of profit. Rape is frequently grown in various 
 mixtures, but the benefit from it thus grown, except in a 
 limited number of instances, is still problematical. Good 
 results frequently follow from growing it in corn fields 
 at the time of the last cultivation given to the corn. 
 
 The small cereals may be grown in any kind of a 
 combination that may be desired, bearing in mind that 
 only spring varieties may be sown together in the one 
 case and winter varieties in the other. Relative cheap- 
 ness of seed should go far to determine the varieties that 
 shall be sown. Oats is a favorite grain to sow along 
 with the Canada field pea and the common vetch. The 
 sand vetch fits in well with the winter rye, and in some 
 localities crimson clover added is a further improvement. 
 White mustard fits in nicely with rape, since it grows 
 more quickly than rape, and because of its prominence in 
 advanced growth and possibly for other reasons will be 
 much consumed by the sheep when they begin to graze, 
 and it is believed that the consumption of the mustard 
 tends to lessen the liability in the rape to produce bloat. 
 Rape and fall turnips blend nicely when sown along with 
 grain and furnish a very suitable variety in the grazing. 
 
 The succession in such grazing in the northern states 
 and Canada is much the same. It begins with winter rye. 
 Then follow the spring cereals, and in close succession on 
 these dwarf Essex rape, which by variation in the times 
 of sowing may be made to provide grazing on until the 
 advent of winter. Corn and the sorghums furnish sue- 
 
T74 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 culent grazing only through the warm months of sum- 
 mer. The grazing of this character for autumn fatten- 
 ing consists mainly of dwarf Essex rape and mature corn. 
 The succession in the central states is not far different, 
 but cowpeas and the sand vetch are more used in these. 
 The succession in the southern states begins with such 
 winter grains as rye and the sand vetch. Then follow 
 such crops as corn and the sorghums and cowpeas ; also 
 in some parts the velvet bean, not heretofore mentioned. 
 The cowpea may be made to cover much of the entire 
 summer and autumn. The autumn fattening foods will 
 be corn, mature, and possibly soy beans, mature, which 
 have not been previously mentioned. The extent to 
 which winter grazing on rape, kale and crimson clover 
 may be conducted has not yet been fully determined in 
 the South. There would seem to be no good reasons, 
 however, why these crops could not be made to furnish 
 excellent winter and early spring grazing for sheep and 
 early lambs in all parts of the South where winter cab- 
 bages can be grown for the northern market. The Canada 
 field peas, and also the common vetch sown with enough 
 oats to sustain them, furnish fattening food for grazing 
 in certain areas of the mountain states. Field roots, of 
 course, may not be grazed in the fields in winter where 
 they remain frozen for any length of time. 
 
 Grass pastures for winter grazing — In the northern 
 states no grass or clover will compare with blue grass. 
 Of course, this question is not of much practical impor- 
 tance when the snowfall is such that the ground is sel- 
 dom bare in the winter. In other areas it is seldom cov- 
 ered much of the winter, and in these the character of the 
 grazing is a matter of much importance. When such 
 grazing is considerable in supply it may furnish a large 
 proportion of the food, and what is almost equally im- 
 portant, the exercise thus given to the breeding ewes is 
 greatly helpful to them and to their progeny. Some other 
 grasses are good, but not so good as blue grass, since they 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP T 75 
 
 are more injured with the frost. Among these are orchard 
 grass and Russian brome. 
 
 In some areas the pasturing of meadows, especially 
 those newly sown with clover, is allowable, as in some 
 parts of Illinois and Iowa. In other areas, and these are 
 greatly in the majority, such grazing would be most de- 
 structive to the meadows. 
 
 On the western ranges the native grasses, especially 
 those of the Bufifalo species, have very high adaptation 
 for winter grazing. Where sheep can find enough of these 
 they will come through the winter in good form. The 
 damage from such grazing lies in the sudden storms that 
 arise in winter in much of the range country, which makes 
 it unsafe to allow the sheep to graze far away from the 
 winter quarters. This danger can be partially met by 
 fencing in pastures not distant from the sheds and saving 
 them specially for such grazing. But with very large 
 flocks this is not entirely practicable, owing to the very 
 large amount of the grazing that would be required. 
 These grasses cure admirably on the ground, as the cur- 
 ing is brought about by lack of moisture in the absence 
 of frost. In some of the western mountain valleys, also, 
 good winter grazing may be furnished by growing alfalfa, 
 alsike and other clover, and some of the cultivated grasses, 
 in admixture. The alfalfa is so lacking in succulence 
 then that the danger from bloat is practically eliminated. 
 
 In the southern states the list of grasses suitable for 
 winter grazing is not so large as in the North. Bermuda, 
 the standard grass of the far South, does not furnish graz- 
 ing in winter, as it is so easily killed by frost. Bur clover 
 may be made to serve a good purpose and each locality 
 has some native grasses adapted to its needs, that so far 
 may furnish grazing. But the South has highest adapta- 
 tion for furnishing supplementary winter grazing from 
 grain of various kinds and plants of the Brassica family. 
 These include winter rye, winter oats, vetches and rape. 
 
.176 MANAGEMENT AND EEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Grazing sheep on grass pastures — One of the most 
 important things about grazing sheep on grass pastures 
 is to adapt the breed or grade to the character of the pas- 
 tures. It would seem correct to say : (1) That the weight 
 of the sheep grazed on pastures may be decreased with in- 
 crease in the range and decrease in the abundance of its 
 production. (2) That sheep not too short in limb and 
 too compact in form can graze more easily on rugged and 
 sparse pastures than sheep of the opposite type. (3J 
 That light and small breeds grazed for successive 
 generations on abundant pastures will increase in size, 
 but heavy breeds grazed on sparse pastures will soon 
 become a wreck. The reasons for the above will be obvi- 
 ous. A light breed will readily gather food on sparse 
 pastures. This a heavy breed cannot do, because of its 
 heaviness. Nature has taught this lesson plainly in the 
 great difference in the size of the mountain breeds and 
 the heavy breeds grown on seaside marsh lands. 
 
 The grazing of sheep on the arable farms cannot be 
 successfully conducted withcut fencing. The absence of 
 fences on so many of the grain farms of the west and the 
 cost of constructing these is a great hindrance to the 
 more general introduction of sheep onto those farms. 
 Suitable fencing for sheep when made of wire is a little 
 more costly than will suffice for cattle, and the material 
 more commonly used in future for such fencing will be 
 woven wire. When barbed wire fences are made for cat- 
 tle, posts set two rods distant, and three wires, will make 
 a fence sufficient to confine cattle not materially unruly. 
 A fence of the same material to confine sheep would an- 
 swer the purpose better when the posts are set more fre- 
 quently, and it would call for not less than five barb 
 wires. 
 
 One of the best forms of fencing for sheep is made of 
 some kind of woven wire with one or more strands of 
 barb wire strung on the posts above the woven wire. 
 Such a fence should usually be erected on an elevation 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP I'J'J 
 
 or ridge made by turning two, four or six furrows toward 
 a center, the number of the furrows being dependent to 
 some extent on the kind of plow used. These furrows 
 should be smoothed nicely so as to make a fence bottom 
 without cavities in it. The posts should be set at one 
 rod distant, or if set at two rods, a stake should be driven 
 down firmly equidistant between the posts and coming up 
 as high as the top of the woven wire, which when 
 stretched should be stapled to it. It should be unneces- 
 sary to add that these stakes should be made of some 
 kind of wood that lasts well. The woven wire, of which 
 there are many kinds on the market, several of which are 
 good, should not be less than 30 inches. It should be 
 stretched along the posts near the ground. Above the 
 woven wire should be at least one barbed wire, approx- 
 imately 8 or 9 inches above the woven wire. Such a fence 
 will ordinarily restrain sheep, but it may not be wise to 
 have it thus low if horses graze on the other side, and if 
 dogs or wolves are to be kept out it must be higher. It 
 would seem safe to say, however, that a dog or a wolf 
 will seldom try to clear a barb wire fence higher than say 
 4 or 5 feet. To fence securely against dogs and wolves 
 see page 372. 
 
 Fencing in sheep by means of hedges may still be 
 regarded in the experimental stage. In the northern 
 states no hedge plant has been found hitherto that is in 
 all respects completely satisfactory. That which has 
 proved most satisfactory is the osage orange. Possibly 
 when our busy American farmers can find more time to 
 properly care for osage orange hedges, they will prove 
 more satisfactory. The southern states have a promising 
 hedge plant for southern latitudes in the Citrus trifoliata, 
 but it does not seem to have been much used for that pur- 
 pose, owing probably to the comparative cheapness of 
 wood in furnishing fencing material. 
 
 The closeness of the grazing by sheep that should 
 be sought or avoided is influenced by the kind of grazing. 
 
iy8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the season of the grazing, the character of the weather 
 and the desire to furnish winter grazing from grass pas- 
 tures. It must be conceded that sheep are fondest of 
 short and tender grazing and that such grazing is good 
 for them. The fact must also be recognized that when 
 grass is eaten very short, it is usually less able to produce 
 so abundantly as when it has more leaf growth. Between 
 these two conflicting facts the flockmaster has to de- 
 termine the course that he must aim to pursue. 
 
 Coarse grazing should, as a rule, be closely grazed 
 for the reason, first, that sheep will not eat it at an ad- 
 vanced stage of growth, and second, that it has greater 
 power to grow when in season than the small and fine 
 grasses. As a rule grazing close in the spring is more 
 allowable than the same in the autumn, as in the spring 
 the season of growth is nearly all yet ahead, whereas in 
 the autumn close grazing leaves the fields so bare that the 
 grasses in the same start but slowly in the spring. Dur- 
 ing seasons that are moist growth is much more vigor- 
 ous than in dry seasons ; hence close grazing is so far 
 more allowable. When winter grazing is to be furnished 
 in abundant quantity, the sheep grazed on the pastures 
 may eat them down in the spring, but they should then 
 be removed during the remainder of the season. Whether 
 sheep and other stock should be grazed together under 
 ordinary conditions of grazing is a question that has given 
 rise to some controversy. The argument may be stated 
 thus: The chief of the reasons against grazing sheep 
 with other stock are: (i) That sheep by their continued 
 movement over the pasture soil it more or less, which so 
 far detracts from the relish which cattle have for it. (2) 
 That when the pasture is closely stocked, the sheep are 
 able to get the lion's share of the grazing, because of the 
 close habit of grazing that characterizes them. The cat- 
 tle grazing with them suffer accordingly. (3) When 
 sheep graze with swine, the latter, when the grazing is at 
 all close, soil much of it, so that it becomes offensive to 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 1 79 
 
 sheep, and in rare instances brood sows in heat may hurt 
 the lambs. (4) When sheep graze with colts, the latter 
 are much prone, through mere play, to chase the former, 
 to their injury. The chief of the reasons in favor of such 
 grazing are: (i) The grazing that follows is more com- 
 plete, since one class of the stock eats more or less what 
 another class rejects. (2) Sheep grazing in a pasture 
 are a great aid in preventing increase in weeds in the 
 same. (3) It is frequently much more convenient to graze 
 stock together than separate. The following deductions 
 from the above would seem legitimate: (i) Such grazing 
 is admissible and may be commendable when the range 
 is large and the food is plentiful ; but (2) it should not be 
 much practiced when the range is small, and not to any 
 extent when the supplies of the food are short. 
 
 Protecting sheep from substances that adhere to the 
 wool is a matter of much importance. While these sub- 
 stances, usually designated burs, are of various kinds, as 
 burdocks, cockleburs and sandburs, burdocks are most 
 frequently in evidence. They entrench themselves in by- 
 places in the pastures, and unless combated by man will 
 continue to produce fresh plants from year to year. This 
 cosmopolitan weed apparently grows in all parts of the 
 United States and Canada, and yet its complete eradica- 
 tion in a pasture or elsewhere is very simple. Cutting a 
 plant below the crown at any time after it has begun to 
 grow and by any kind of an implement will cause its 
 death. Mowing above ground, even after the seedheads 
 have begun to form, will not stay reproduction, as im- 
 mediately short seed stalks at once spring up, and will, 
 if unmolested, mature seeds within a few weeks. The 
 cocklebur is the great occupant of fields sown to grain or 
 planted to corn. The aim should be to keep sheep from 
 such grazing when the fleeces become a mat, as it were, 
 of burs. It not only disfigures the form of the sheep be- 
 yond expression, but greatly discounts the value of the 
 fleece. When plants that injure the character of the wool, 
 
l80 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 are allowed to grow from year to year in a permanent 
 pasture, the owner is blameworthy, as usually they can 
 be eradicated without great labor. 
 
 The ideal method of grazing grass pastures is that 
 which divides them into fields, so that alternation in the 
 grazing may be possible. This provides grazing with 
 more freshness and tenderness in it than would be possi- 
 ble in uninterrupted grazing. It also tends to prevent 
 eating some parts of the pasture close and continuing to 
 graze on these to the neglect of grazing on other por- 
 tions. The objection to this plan is the cost of the fenc- 
 ing. Where keeping sheep is a leading interest, the aim 
 should be to provide such fencing, as in its absence graz- 
 ing best adapted to all the different seasons cannot be 
 furnished. Pastures grazed in the spring will still have 
 time to furnish suitable autumn grazing when given a 
 period of rest from grazing in the summer. Pastures 
 grazed for a longer period in the spring will still have 
 time to cover themselves with grass for winter and early 
 spring grazing. Blue grass in the North and meadow 
 fescue in the South are probably the two best grasses to 
 provide such grazing. The protection given by the old 
 grass greatly aids early growth in the new, and the two 
 eaten together are more suitable than either eaten alone. 
 
 The renovation of pastures grazed by sheep, at least 
 on the arable farm, should not be difficult. About the 
 only sure means of renovating those of the open range 
 is to fence them off and let them rest until, maturing for 
 a sufficient length of time, they seed themselves. The 
 renovation of the pastures of the arable farm may be 
 brought about: (i) Simply by in some way turning open 
 the surface ; (2) by sowing seed of certain kinds on them 
 when they are thus torn open ; and (3) by means of direct 
 fertilization. 
 
 Sheep pastures only require renovation by the first 
 method when they become sodbound. Such a condition 
 is most liable in quack grass should it be used in provid- 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP l8l 
 
 ing pasture. Next to this, probably is Russian brome, 
 and after Russian brome, Kentucky blue grass. The best 
 method of opening the soil in the case of quack grass is 
 with the plow. The best method of renovating the other 
 grasses named is to run a good disk over them in two 
 directions in the early spring when the frost has left the 
 surface for but a few inches, and then to smooth them 
 down with a harrow. 
 
 When additional seed is sown, it may consist in part 
 of timothy or other grasses, but more commonly of some 
 variety or varieties of clover, sown with the understand- 
 ing that their duration shall be more or less transient. 
 Their continuance is influenced by the character of the 
 soil. Meanwhile they add to the value of the grazing. 
 
 As pastures grazed by sheep are rendered richer in 
 available fertility as a result of the grazing, the attempt 
 to fertilize them by applications is seldom made. There 
 may be times when it is not only legitimate but com- 
 mendable, as, for instance, when the ground is being pre- 
 pared for a crop to follow when the pastures are broken, 
 that calls for a rich soil to produce maximum crops. 
 Sheep fed heavily on grain rich in nitrogen, as oilcake, 
 will rapidly add to the fertility of the land. In some in- 
 stances enrichment may come incidentally, as when 
 sheep graze on rape and have access to a grass pasture. 
 Usually they rest much on the latter and so enrich it. 
 
 Grazing sheep on supplementary pastures — The chief 
 of the requisites to make such grazing successful are the 
 following: (i) Ample fencing, movable or permanent; 
 (2) a reserve grass pasture, where practicable, to be used 
 only when needed ; and (3) conveniences for giving addi- 
 tional food and water if necessary. The necessity for 
 these requisites increases with increase in the extent to 
 which supplementary grazing is used. Where supple- 
 mentary grazing is furnished by such plants as rape or 
 turnips sown with the grain, it may not be necessary to 
 make any marked change in the management from that 
 
i8j management and feeding of SHEEl' 
 
 ordinarily practiced, but it should be the aim to have a re- 
 serve grass pasture for reasons given later (see page 183). 
 
 The necessity for additional fencing increases with 
 the intensity of the conditions of the supplementary graz- 
 ing. Where the attempt is made to keep sheep almost 
 entirely on such grazing, a plan that in many instances 
 is entirely feasible, more or less of additional fencing 
 should be provided. When the flock is large, it would 
 probably be more economical in the end to have the 
 fences permanent that inclose these crops. Three to four 
 fields should be inclosed, and easy of access. These are 
 necessary to furnish succession in grazing, as each can 
 usually be made to grow two crops of grazing yearly. 
 
 Where the flock is not large, the grazing may be fur- 
 nished by one field, long and narrow, if it can be so 
 secured, but it may serve the purpose better to have two 
 such fields separated by a lane. Narrowness in such in- 
 stances lessens the necessity for using large amounts of 
 movable fencing, which when in use, extends across 
 rather than lengthwise. It is also an advantage in plow- 
 ing when the cross fences 'are not in use. 
 
 Many kinds of movable fencing have been introduced 
 and each is possessed of more or less merit, but none of 
 these is superior to that now described. As has also been 
 shown in Chapter II, it consists of panels made of wood, 
 which, when in place, are held so by the headpiece. Each 
 panel is composed of three boards 4x1 inches, and a 
 fourth one at the bottom 6x1 inches. The boards are 
 usually made 12 feet long. Across these horizontal 
 boards are nailed three slats 4x1 inches. The end slats 
 are nailed on the same side of the horizontal boards, and 
 back 6 inches from the ends of the same. The middle slat 
 on the other side of the boards is equally distant from 
 the ends. The ends of the second board from the top are 
 cut off flush with the outside ends of the crossbars. The 
 spacing between the boards commencing at the bottom 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 183 
 
 is 6, 6% and 7^ inches respectively. The height of the 
 panel is 3 feet 2 inches. 
 
 The headpiece consists of three strips or boards, 
 nailed together so as to form a triangle. The bottom 
 piece made of material 6x1 inches, is 3 feet 6 inches long 
 on the ground side. The two upright pieces that con- 
 verge, 4x1 inches, are 4 feet long, and below they are 
 nailed on opposite sides of the sole-piece. Above, they 
 cross each other about 6 inches from the ends. The 
 notches cut above and below, as shown in the drawing, 
 are 2 inches wide and 3 inches deep. When in place the 
 corresponding slats of the panels just fill the notches 
 which keep them in position. The nails used are 3^ 
 inches long of the wrought or wire type and should be 
 well clinched when in place. 
 
 Such a fence is easily set up or taken down and may 
 be quickly moved. It should be made of lumber, pref- 
 erably strong and light and that will not warp. If handled 
 carefully it should last many years with but little repair, 
 but if used roughly the duration of its usefulness will be 
 short. Its weakest point probably, is liability to shift 
 with the wind. To guard against this a small piece of 
 board sharpened below is driven down several inches 
 into the ground. It may be driven down beside the head- 
 piece, or it may follow the slant of the same. In either 
 case a nail is driven through this piece of board and into 
 the headpiece, and it should be on the windward side. 
 These stakes are not difficult to loosen when the fence is 
 to be removed. A number of panels of such fencing will 
 be found useful on any farm where many sheep are kept 
 and during all seasons. 
 
 A reserve grass pasture is a great convenience when 
 sheep are much grazed on supplementary pastures. It 
 furnishes a place: (i) On which to graze the sheep when 
 the supplementary pastures are wet with rain or dew; 
 and (2) on which to graze them for days even in succes- 
 sion, should the supplementary pastures not be ready. 
 
184 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 They also furnish a change that tends to reduce or en- 
 tirely prevent scouring, the frequent accompaniment of 
 grazing on supplementary pastures. When sheep graze 
 on such pastures that have made much growth while they 
 are wet with dew or rain, they soil the grazing with their 
 feet, break much of it down and may also impact some 
 kinds of soil. 
 
 There may be instances when such pastures cannot 
 be furnished. There may be other instances when, in the 
 hope of more effectively combating stomach worms and 
 other forms of parasitic life, it is desirable to keep the 
 sheep away from old pasture grounds. In such instances 
 it would be necessary to use the sheds as a refuge for the 
 sheep when not on the supplementary pastures. At such 
 times it may be necessary to feed them in the sheds 
 throughout the continuance of storms, and more or less 
 at other times. Should this be necessary, no more con- 
 venient place could be secured for such feeding or for provid- 
 ing water, nor would it be possible to furnish sheds in 
 better form than through the medium of the sheds. 
 
 Benefits from supplemental grazing — Prominent 
 among the benefits from supplemental grazing for sheep 
 are: (i) Aid in removing parasites; (2) increase in pro- 
 duction from a given area ; (3) rendering aid in destroy- 
 ing weeds; and (4) the effect on fertilization. These will 
 be considered further, and also some of the objections to 
 the system. 
 
 The all-important question of parasites in sheep is yet 
 but imperfectly understood, more especially with refer- 
 ence to the complete life history of some of these. Until 
 this is known it is probable that the very best methods of 
 combating some of these will not be understood. It has 
 been quite well established, however, that when ewes and 
 lambs are much sustained on freshly sown supplementary 
 pastures, especially in the spring, and when they are kept 
 away from old pasture grounds in the meantime, the 
 lambs sufifer much less from such parasites and tape- 
 
PASTURES AND GRAZING THEM BY SHEEP 185 
 
 worms and stomach worms than when managed in the 
 ordinary way. 
 
 The increase in the return of wool and mutton comes 
 from the increase in the food grown on a given area when 
 it is thus grown. The food furnished from a certain area 
 sown to rape, for instance, may be several times as much 
 as would be obtained from the same or an equal area of 
 old grass pasture. The extent of the increase will con- 
 tinually vary with the different conditions, but the fact 
 that usually there is increase should draw favorable at- 
 tention to the growing of these crops. That such addi- 
 tional increase will more than offset the additional cost 
 of labor is also true in many instances ; in fact, in a great 
 majority of these should constitute a further claim for 
 such attention. 
 
 The aid thus furnished in destroying weeds is most 
 substantial and far reaching. Especially is this true 
 should the land thus used be confined to the growing of 
 catch crops for two or three successive years, and it is 
 more emphatically true with the increase in the number 
 of the crops grown and grazed. The results claimed fol- 
 low from the influence which frequent plowing has on the 
 germination of weed seeds lying in the soil and on the 
 destruction of weeds by burial, also through the crossing 
 of the same while being grazed. The eradication of such 
 annuals as wild mustard is greatly facilitated by the great 
 increase in germination resulting over ordinary methods 
 of cultivation. Each seed thus germinated grows a plant 
 that is consumed. The eradication of biennials becomes 
 easy and sure through their burial. The eradication of 
 perennials in much less sure, owing to the way in which 
 they multiply in the soil ; but if some of the supple- 
 mentary crops grown, as rape, should be grown and cul- 
 tivated, all forms of perennials treated thus would be 
 greatly lessened. 
 
 This method of fighting weeds, in the judgment of the 
 author, will be very efficacious. The opinion thus given 
 
1 86 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 is based to a considerable extent on his own personal 
 experience. It should also prove one of the cheapest 
 methods of fighting weeds that can be devised in areas 
 where sheep are an important factor in agriculture. But 
 while land is so abundant such intensive methods of pro- 
 viding food for sheep will probably be not much prac- 
 ticed. The little labor involved in keeping sheep on grass 
 pastures is one of its strongest recommendations, while 
 the system outlined involves much labor. It is just a 
 question for those who are willing to pay the price. 
 
 The influence on fertilization is favorable. This 
 arises, first, from the fact that the food grown is con- 
 sumed on the land ; second, from the fertility brought up 
 from the subsoil in the crops grown, a large part of which 
 goes back again on the cultivated strata ; and, third, from 
 the growing of such crops as cowpeas, soy beans and 
 other quick-growing legumes to provide grazing. True, 
 there is some fertility removed in the flesh and the wool 
 produced, but experience has shown that lands treated 
 thus produce bountiful crops for a time subsequently to 
 such treatment ; hence the inference would seem legiti- 
 mate that there was increase in available fertility to more 
 than offset the decrease resulting from what was re- 
 moved in the flesh and wool. 
 
 There are some serious difficulties to be met and 
 overcome by those who graze sheep thus intensively. One 
 of these is the labor involved. Under existing conditions 
 that is one of the most serious, but when a family is 
 growing up of an age to render help, the difficulty is so 
 far removed. A second is the cost of the fencing called 
 for. A third is the increase in land required to grow 
 crops thus in quick succession, and a fourth is the im- 
 perative demand made upon the team labor of the farm 
 when it can ill be spared from other work. The fact re- 
 mains, nevertheless, that the production can be increased 
 enormously when sheep are largely grazed on such sup- 
 plemental foods. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 
 
 The points chiefly dwelt upon in Chapter X are the 
 following: (i) Sheep finished on grass pastures without 
 grain ; (2) Sheep finished on grass pastures with grain ; 
 (3) Finishing on western grain fields ; (4) Finishing on 
 rape; (5) Finishing on corn; (6) Finishing on peas; (7) 
 Finishing on field roots ; and (8) Finishing on other crops. 
 
 Finishing on grass without grain — Not many de- 
 cades ago more sheep, it is believed, were sent to the mar- 
 kets from the pastures without grain than reached it 
 through all other channels. This condition is rapidly 
 changing, owing to the following among other causes : (i) 
 Farmers are coming to know more and more about the 
 possible profit from finishing range sheep on their farms, 
 both in the fields and in the sheds; (2) the effect in ad- 
 vancing prices inclines ranchmen to favor selling as 
 stockers rather than for slaughter; and (3) the sharp dis- 
 crimination in the prices paid encourages the finishing of 
 sheep in good form. 
 
 When sheep are finished on grass pastures only, the 
 character of the mutton is much influenced by the variety 
 of the grazing. It is a foregone conclusion that, to obtain 
 a juicy carcass, it must be finished on food with more or 
 less succulence in it. It is not to be expected, therefore, 
 that mutton finished on dry western ranges after mid- 
 summer and without other food than the range furnishes 
 would be lacking in juiciness, however excellent its other 
 qualities may be. The large quantities of mutton that 
 came from this source would seem to be so far respon- 
 sible for the comparatively low estimate put upon mut- 
 ton by the masses of our people until recent years. It 
 would not be possible to build up a high national reputa- 
 
 187 
 
l88 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 tion for mutton finished only on grass pastures. But it 
 does not follow that good mutton may not be grown on 
 grasses only, as is shown below. 
 
 The pastures best adapted to the production of good 
 mutton are those which combine palatability, succulence 
 and nutrition in the highest degree. This means that the 
 best quality of mutton finished only on grasses will come 
 from areas comparatively moist, as these only can main- 
 tain the requisite succulence in the grasses. Blue grass 
 is possessed of the requisite qualities in a marked degree 
 for making good mutton. Along with clover of sufficient 
 maturity it should make mutton possessed of good finish. 
 While succulence is essential in the grazing for the pro- 
 duction of juicy mutton, over-succulence retards fatten- 
 ing, which explains why sheep are usually in a lower con- 
 dition at the close of an unusually wet season than at the 
 close of one possessed of average moisture. 
 
 Something depends on the breed or grade of the 
 sheep and also on the age, viewed from the standpoint of 
 adaptation for such finishing. Sheep small in size rela- 
 tively will make a better finish usually than those that 
 are large, their lightness favoring easy movement. For 
 a similar reason sheep short of maturit}^ will have some 
 advantage over sheep fully matured, and more especially 
 over old sheep. It is also reasonable to suppose that 
 sheep not accustomed to a grain supplement will also 
 fare better under such conditions than those that have 
 been much used to such a supplement. 
 
 It has been found that the mutton made from grass 
 pastures only on the arable farm is superior in juiciness as 
 a rule to that made on the open range, the reason for 
 which will be obvious. It has also been found that the 
 highest quality in such mutton comes from sheep kept 
 in limited numbers in proportion to the pasture. The 
 sheep are thus enabled to gather food in much variety 
 and such as they relish most, hence the good finish which 
 they soon make and its high quality. In this way nearly 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 189 
 
 all farmers may provide for their tables a luxury in the 
 meat line by simply keeping a small band of sheep to 
 gather food, much of which but for their presence would 
 go to waste. More sheep could be used in this way, and 
 with much advantage to the owners, than are now found 
 in all the United States. 
 
 Finishing on grass with grain — The attempt to finish 
 sheep that have been carried through the winter on grass 
 pastures, as cattle are frequently fattened, is not of fre- 
 quent occurrence. That it is not arises probably from the 
 following among other reasons: (i) Except as lambs 
 sheep are seldom sold for slaughter from the early pas- 
 tures, and the later pastures are generally more or less sup- 
 plementary; (2) the quick fertilizing of the land has sel- 
 dom been sought by feeding grain to sheep on grass pas- 
 tures ; and (3) it has been found that they can be fattened 
 more cheaply and satisfactorily when the grass pastures 
 are supplemented by other grazing, as rape, roots, corn or 
 peas. The materials for early finishing on grass are often 
 scarce, as lambs are usually sold under the age of one 
 year, or before the new grass comes, and the dams are 
 employed at that season in nursing their lambs except in 
 the case of those that may have suckled early or milk 
 lambs. 
 
 That direct profit will result from feeding grain to 
 ewes that are nursing early lambs, while they nurse them 
 and subsequently, though on good grass pastures, can 
 scarcely be doubted. When the ewes also are to be sold 
 as soon as they can be made ready for the market, any 
 loss of flesh should be prevented by such feeding wdien 
 the change is made from the shed to the pastures. That 
 direct profit will result from feeding Avethers grain under 
 such conditions has not been determined apparently by 
 experiment. The chances are against it. But the full 
 return from such feeding of grain must include the manu- 
 rial benefits given to the land. 
 
 The wisdom of grazing and even of fattening sheep in 
 
IQO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 orchards under proper conditions of management is not to 
 be questioned. No cheaper method of fertihzing the orchard 
 can be devised. The following are among the benefits from 
 such grazing and feeding : ( 1 ) The sheep consume the grass, 
 weeds and young sprouts around the trees. (2) They con- 
 sume all the fallen fruit and will thus destroy all insect 
 life which it may contain. The injury from the presence 
 of the codling moth in apple orchards may thus be greatly 
 reduced. (3) They distribute fertilizer in a form that is 
 readily available and proportionate to the food given to 
 them. (4) They break up the top soil more or less ac- 
 cording to the conditions present, and thus aid in the 
 retention of soil moisture. Except in the case of old trees, 
 however, which carry rough bark, it is absolutely neces- 
 sary to protect the trunks of the trees by putting around 
 them loose wire netting. The sheep will also trim back 
 the tips of the fruit-laden limbs that may come within 
 their reach, and also consume the fruit which they carry 
 if grazed long enough in the orchard. 
 
 Whether the sheep are simply carried through the 
 season or are prepared for the block where fertilization is 
 sought, they must be given supplemental food. To meet 
 the former condition, wheat bran and oilcake should be 
 freely fed, since both are rich in valuable fertilizing ele- ' 
 ments; and to suit the latter condition the aim should 
 be to feed freely corn and oilcake, the former being given 
 to promote quick fattening. The grain troughs should 
 be distributed in various parts of the orchard or fre- 
 quently moved to promote the even distribution of the 
 manure. Water must be supplied, and salt at all times. 
 
 The number of the sheep thus grazed on an acre may 
 be regulated by the amount and character of the food 
 given. Some regard, however, must be had to the pasture 
 which the orchard furnishes when soiling food is not fur- 
 nished. The fallen fruit is not of much value as a fat- 
 tener because of its immaturity and acidity, and when 
 sheep are first introduced into orchards it may be neces- 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I9I 
 
 sary to introduce them cautiously lest digestive derange- 
 ment should result. 
 
 Finishing on western grain fields — On western grain 
 fields a large amount of valuable food for sheep remains 
 after the crop has been removed. It remains in the form 
 of fallen heads during the processes of harvesting and in 
 the form of weeds of many kinds, which in many in- 
 stances carpet the ground because of the numbers in 
 which they are present. In many instances also they con- 
 tain weed seeds which contain fattening properties, as 
 those of wild buckwheat. If given the opportunity sheep 
 will gather and consume many of the fallen heads, much 
 of the matured weed seeds, and a large proportion of the 
 herbage that grows on the ground amid the stubbles. 
 The area that may be thus grazed is very large, but such 
 grazing is not without its difficulties. 
 
 Among the difficulties to be met the following are 
 prominent : (i) The almost entire lack of fencing makes it 
 necessary to maintain a herder during the period of graz- 
 ing. (2) The harvest, especially in northern areas, is fre- 
 quently so late that the duration of the period for graz- 
 ing is short, too short in many instances to put a good 
 finish on the sheep or lambs before the ground freezes. 
 (3) As the ground is to grow grain the following season, 
 the aim is to plow it before winter, and to accomplish 
 this it is necessary that the plowing be begun as soon as 
 possible after the grain has been harvested. Nevertheless 
 very large flocks of sheep have been thus grazed with 
 profit to the owners, since the pastures are obtained with- 
 out cost. If the finishing can be completed on mature 
 corn grazing, it is usually an improvement, as such graz- 
 ing may frequently be continued after other grazing has 
 been destroyed wnth frost. 
 
 Where the farm is fenced, the finishing of sheep thus 
 in a moderate way by farmers whose families may furnish 
 the requisite labor should prove profitable. The fenced 
 farm, or a part of it, makes it possible to keep the sheep 
 
192 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 together and unherded when occasion calls for it. Graz- 
 \yg on the adjoining unfenced farms is usually welcomed 
 because of the weeds consumed. If rape or turnips or 
 both have been sown amid the grain, the pasture is so 
 improved, but the aim should be to consume these before 
 hard freezing. The value of these foods in the stubbles, 
 which is quite material in southern Minnesota, grows less 
 with higher latitude. The stocks for such grazing may 
 usually be secured from the ranges west. 
 
 In some seasons it happens that on low and ill-drained 
 prairie lands, the grain cannot be harvested in the usual 
 way. The saturated ground will not sufficiently sustain 
 the reaper that would harvest the crop. In a few days the 
 grain has so fallen down that it cannot be reaped when 
 the ground has again become firm. In such instances 
 sheep have been successfully used to harvest the crop. 
 
 Finishing sheep on rape — No pasture plant that has 
 yet been introduced has been found equal to rape for fat- 
 tening sheep quickly and satisfactorily. The dwarf Essex 
 is the variety most commonly grown. The service which 
 this small plant has rendered to sheep husbandry in 
 America during recent years has been very great, and the 
 service that it may yet render it would not be easy to 
 overestimate. Those who may desire information with 
 reference to the growing of this plant are referred to the 
 book. "Cultivated Crops," by the author. 
 
 The ideal conditions for fattening sheep on rape call 
 for the following: (i) That the rape shall be well on 
 toward maturity before it is reaped ; (2) that a grass pas- 
 ture shall be available to which the sheep may have free 
 access while they are feeding on the rape ; and (3) that the 
 climate is such that the winter does not close in suddenly. 
 
 When the rape is possessed of much stalk in propor- 
 tion to the leaf growth, it is not so laxative as the more 
 tender early leaf growth, and it furnishes more food to 
 the acre. Moreover, the sheep will eat the stems down 
 close to the ground. But when rape is sown early, and 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I93 
 
 especially in climates that are warm, the danger is some- 
 times present that the crop may be covered by the green 
 aphis. When so affected its feeding value is greatly re- 
 duced or even destroyed in proportion to the violence of 
 the attacks of those insects. 
 
 The benefit arising from giving sheep grazed on rape 
 access also to a grass pasture is found in the favorable in- 
 fluence that the less succulent grass exercises on the 
 digestion. It tends to prevent and also to correct scours 
 which arise from feeding on rape, especially when first 
 introduced to such grazing. Pastures with much dead 
 grass on them are the most suitable. Kentucky blue grass 
 pastures that have not been closely grazed during the 
 early season of growth have been found to answer the 
 purpose well. The sheep seem instinctively to crave 
 more or less of such grazing at such a time. Experiments 
 conducted by the author showed marked benefit from 
 access to such grazing. 
 
 The autumn season after the summer heat has gone, has 
 been found the most favorable for finishing sheep on such 
 grazing. The more prolonged the period covered by the 
 autumn, therefore, the more prolonged is the period for 
 grazing. Rape sown not too early readily retains its green- 
 ness in cool autumn weather, even after it has ceased to 
 grow. Where the autumns are short and where winter 
 comes suddenly danger is present that more or less of 
 the crop will be lost. In damp climates it may be lost by 
 early snowfall which remains all winter. In dry climates 
 it may be lost by sudden freezing so severe as to wilt the 
 crop. 
 
 Some caution should be used when introducing sheep to 
 a rape pasture, or much loss may result. They are usually 
 much prone to feed on rape so ravenously as to induce bloat- 
 ing. This, when unrelieved, may produce death in a very 
 short time. The danger increases with greater succulence in 
 the rape and with increase in moisture on the plants. Two 
 methods have been adopted of meeting the danger. By the 
 
194 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 first the sheep are introduced to the rape gradually — that is, 
 by allowing them to graze but a short time the first day, and 
 increasing the time from day to day until they are allowed 
 to remain all the time on the rape. Before turning them on 
 to the grazing each day they are fed liberally dry hay or 
 grain, or are allowed to satisfy the appetite, in great part at 
 least, by grazing on a grass pasture. From half a week to a 
 week is usually occupied in thus preparing them for perma- 
 nent grazing on the rape. 
 
 By the second method they are allowed to take all the 
 safe food that they can consume of some material that they 
 relish, as good grass, and thenceforth they are put upon the 
 rape and not removed from it unless in case of severe storm. 
 This method is much simpler than the other, and it is not 
 usually attended with much hazard when the sheep have 
 access to an old grass pasture. In no instances should sheep 
 be turned in to graze on rape when they are hungry. Close 
 attention should be given to the sheep while being grazed on 
 rape, as the assurance is never present that there will be no 
 loss from bloating. It would seem quite safe to say that such 
 losses decrease: (i) With increase in the maturity of the 
 rape; (2) with decrease in its succulence from any cause or 
 causes ; and (3) with increase in the other food given along 
 with the rape, especially in the dry form. Increase in the 
 maturity of the rape or decrease of moisture in the climate 
 lessens succulence in the rape, and as a result makes it a safer 
 food. In the author's experience rape grown in Ontario, 
 Canada, caused bloat with much more frequency than rape 
 grown west of the upper Mississippi. But nowhere is the 
 liability to bloat so little present as to justify grazing very 
 valuable sheep upon it without exercising all due caution to 
 make it impossible for bloating to arise. This may be done 
 by turning them on to the rape only after having eaten freely 
 of other food. Another safe way is to cut the rape and feed 
 it more or less wilted, according to the amount fed. When 
 rape is grown amid the grain stubbles the liability to bloating 
 is reduced, because of the presence of other food. It is also 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I95 
 
 possible to reduce the hazard from bloating so as to almost 
 entirely eliminate it by the judicious feeding of grain, espe- 
 cially in the early morning, but grain is a more expensive 
 food than rape. It should be the aim to visit the flock at 
 least twice a day, and more frequently at first. Should any 
 be found suffering from bloat, it may be possible to relieve 
 them. Should any be found not long dead from this cause, 
 if the throat is cut open with promptness, the meat is still 
 good for food, notwithstanding the prejudice that some may 
 have in regard to eating it. In any event the hide and wool 
 thereon will far more than pay for its removal. 
 
 When sheep are first put upon rape, in some instances 
 many of them scour, especially in the absence of access to 
 old grass pastures and in the absence of a grain supplement. 
 The animals afifected may be known readily by the soiling 
 which this condition induces. They should be tagged with 
 promptness, and if subsequently the scouring continues, it 
 may be necessary to remove them and put them on a dry 
 ration for a time. Sheep have a great craving for salt when 
 on such grazing, and it should be so abundantly supplied to 
 them that they will at all times have access to it. When given 
 in covered troughs the rain cannot dissolve it as when ex- 
 posed. It is believed that the salt tends to correct the scour- 
 ing, and the belief would seem well founded. Sheep will 
 seldom take additional water when they are feeding on rape. 
 
 In some areas prolonged storms occur during the rape- 
 grazing season. When these do occur the sheep should not 
 be allowed to remain long exposed to them. The rape plants 
 are so tall that sheep and lambs grazing among them at such 
 a time get much bedrabbled. and as such rains are usually 
 cold, such a condition is decidedly harmful. To remove the 
 sheep at such a time may call for the aid of a saddle horse. 
 When visiting the flock at any time, a saddle horse will make 
 it possible to greatly expedite the work. 
 
 When white frosts come and cover the leaves, they bring 
 with them additional hazard. When such food is taken into 
 the stomach in very large quantities, the irritation following 
 
196 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 may soon result in the death of the animal. These results 
 may be prevented by confining the sheep to the grass pas- 
 tures until the sun has removed the rime. Where this can- 
 not be done, a feed of grain given in the very early morning 
 before grazing begins will usually, if not indeed in all in- 
 stances, prove a measure of safety. In some areas the early 
 snow falls upon the rape and in a day or two vanishes. This 
 does not lessen the value of the rape for grazing unless 
 severe frost accompanies or precedes the snowfall. When 
 frost occurs severe enough at any time to cause the rape to 
 wilt, its feeding properties are much injured. When the 
 wilting is marked in the stems, the attempt to fatten sheep 
 upon it further should be abandoned, nor should it form any 
 large proportion of the food of other sheep. 
 
 The sustaining and fattening power of well-grown rape 
 is very great. The Wisconsin station grew 36 tons per acre, 
 and the Ontario station 2^ tons. Doubtless even the amount 
 first named could be exceeded. Twelve tons per acre is a 
 very moderate crop. On well-grown rape 15 well-grown 
 lambs may be grazed for about 60 days on an acre, and if the 
 lambs are of good quality they should increase at the rate 
 of 10 to 12 pounds per month. Common lambs should in- 
 crease on rape alone from eight to 10 pounds per month. In 
 one instance the author obtained an increase of 14.3 pounds 
 per month from rape only and a gain at the rate of 762 
 pounds per acre. From common sheep or lambs an increase 
 of 300 to 400 pounds should be forthcoming from an aver- 
 age acre of good rape. The author obtained an increase of 
 179 pounds per acre from rape sown at the Ontario station, 
 August 12, after a crop of winter wheat had been harvested. 
 I'Vom what has been said the relative cheapness and profit- 
 ableness of rape as a food for fattening sheep will be readily 
 apparent, and all the more so when it is called to mind that 
 rape is frequently grown as a catch crop. In estimating the 
 profit, the enhanced value of the weight of carcass when the 
 grazing begins should be considered. 
 
 The question as to whether sheep should be given grain 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I97 
 
 or not while they are being grazed on rape will turn upon 
 facts such as relate to the abundance of the rape, the cir- 
 cumstances attending the grazing and the cost or value of the 
 grain. There can be no doubt that the feeding of grain will 
 proportionately extend the period for grazing the rape. Nor 
 can there be any doubt that the feeding of grain is in some 
 measure a safeguard: (i) When the rape is immature or 
 unusually succulent; (2) when it is grazed in the absence of 
 a grass pasture; and (3) when the rape is more or less 
 frozen or -even covered with rime. It would seem safe to 
 say that when the sheep have no other grazing than rape, 
 the value of the grain fed will more than be recovered in the 
 returns from the sheep. This, however, does not seem to be 
 true when the sheep have access at the same time to an old 
 blue grass pasture. In the experience of Prof John A. Craig, 
 and also of the author, the increase made from feeding a 
 supplement of grain to sheep that were being grazed on rape 
 only was less than that resulting from rape and blue grass 
 pastures, and the latter furnishes a relatively cheaper food 
 than the former. 
 
 Finishing sheep on corn — The finishing of sheep on 
 corn by allowing the sheep to harvest the corn is grow- 
 ing in favor in certain areas. The high cost of labor gives 
 encouragement to the practice. It is most in favor in 
 those areas in which corn of the small and quick-growing 
 varieties has the best chance to mature, but to some ex- 
 tent it is practiced in areas where large and later varieties 
 may mature. This method of putting land in condition to 
 grow good crops of wheat and other grain has met with 
 much favor in certain parts of North Dakota. 
 
 Any variety of corn that will mature with reasonable 
 certainty in the climate where grown will serve the pur- 
 pose, but those varieties that bear much ear relatively to 
 the stalk are the most suitable. Some of the squaw corns 
 have been found very suitable. The great hardihood of 
 these corns makes it safe to plant them earlier than it 
 would be safe to plant other varieties. In some instances 
 
198 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 sweet corn is grown which matures within a short period. 
 Sweet corn would seem eminently adapted to such graz- 
 ing in areas where reasonably large varieties of sweet 
 corn can be grown, as sheep will consume much of the 
 fodder in addition to the grain when harvesting sweet 
 corn. 
 
 Such grazing should be begun in a cautious way, or 
 disaster may come to the flock through disturbed diges- 
 tion. This, however, is not necessarily accompanied by 
 bloating, as in the case of rape. The increase that may 
 be made in the duration of the successive periods of graz- 
 ing may be determined by watching the droppings closely. 
 Excessive consumption of the fresh corn tends to induce 
 scouring. The benefit from having a reserve grass pas- 
 ture on hand at such a time, as in the case of rape, will be 
 at once apparent. The sheep may then be allowed to go 
 on the corn when they are not hungry, until they get 
 accustomed to it. 
 
 In grain-growing areas where grass pastures have 
 not been provided sheep are brought in from the West 
 and begin grazing amid the stubbles, and from these they 
 are gradually transferred to the corn grazing. In some 
 instances rape is grown amid the stubbles and also in the 
 corn. In either case it will be found helpful, but when 
 sheep have become so accustomed to corn that they ar^ 
 grazed on it alone, it makes a cheap and reasonably safe 
 fattening food on which to finish them. Should the win- 
 ter close in early, the grazing may continue, but in such 
 instances it is specially important that the corn shall be 
 well matured so that the frost may not increase its flinti- 
 ness. It will be found helpful also at such a time to be 
 able to feed corn from the bundle, or it may be clover or 
 alfalfa, to supplement the food thus gathered during the 
 day. At no time should sheep that are being thus fat- 
 tened be made to glean too closely, or the loss may be 
 more than the gain. Other sheep will do such gleaning 
 more satisfactorily. 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING I99 
 
 The highest adaptation to this method of fattening- 
 sheep is found in areas where the normal weather condi- 
 tions of the autumn are dry rather than moist, and where 
 the advent of winter does not come with such suddenness. 
 These conditions are usually found in areas within or bor- 
 dering on the semi-arid belt. But even in areas with 
 more rainfall sheep may also be finished thus with ad- 
 vantage and profit. Especially is this true of sweet corn 
 that may be too smutty for canning. Store sheep will 
 also make a reasonably good use of frosted corn in the 
 fields when they are judiciously given access to it. 
 
 Finishing sheep on peas — During recent years the 
 finishing of sheep on peas mainly has grown into an ex- 
 tensive industry in the San Luis Valley, Col. The eleva- 
 tion is about 7000 feet above the sea level. The summer 
 climate is cool, light frosts being present almost every 
 month in the year. The crop is grown in part by subter- 
 ranean irrigation natural to much of the valley, but some- 
 times it is grown by irrigation applied in the usual way. 
 Among the principal varieties grown are the Mexican and 
 the small green and white varieties of the Canada field 
 pea. 
 
 From 40 to 50 pounds are sown per acre with the 
 ordinary seed drill, and enough oats are sown along with 
 them to sustain the peas, which tends to lessen the waste 
 while the peas are being harvested. When the peas are 
 ripe, sheep and lambs are turned in to graze upon them. 
 In some instances the flock is given a wide range, but 
 where it can be done the method that grazes off the field 
 in successive divisions is preferred. Other sheep are 
 sometimes made to follow those that are being fattened, 
 as they are, of course, much better adapted to such glean- 
 ing. An acre of good peas should fatten, it is said, from 
 10 to 15 lambs, and that the Iambs should gain about 10 
 pounds per month. This would make the feeding value 
 of such peas about equal to that of a good crop of well- 
 grown rape. The peas, however, would have the ad- 
 
200 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 vantage over both rape and corn in the nitrogen brought 
 to the land w^hile they were growing. 
 
 The possibiHty of extending such grazing so as to 
 include wide areas of the mountain country would seem 
 to be of easy realization. The more important of the 
 essentials are: (i) A soil with the requisite food elements 
 to grow the grain ; (2) a climate suitable to the growing 
 of the crop, and what is even more important, to the 
 harvesting of the same by sheep ; (3) stock sheep not too 
 distant that may be secured for finishing. These condi- 
 tions are present, it is claimed, in considerable areas of 
 several mountain states, including New Mexico, Wyo- 
 ming, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, Washington, 
 Idaho and Montana. Some of those valleys are already 
 proverbial for the excellent crops of peas which they 
 grow. By no other method can fertility be brought more 
 cheaply to these lands than by grazing down on them 
 some kind of legume. 
 
 Finishing sheep on field roots — The author has not 
 met with any instances in which sheep have been finished 
 in the country on field roots where the latter were har- 
 vested by the sheep. Such a method of finishing them, 
 however, should be quite feasible in certain parts of the 
 United States, as it is in certain parts of Britain. Sheep 
 have long been fattened thus in Britain, with a small sup- 
 plement of grain added. Such winter fattening, as it may 
 be termed, would only be feasible where the frost did not 
 hinder feeding on the turnips. There should be areas 
 where this ought to be practicable in the Gulf States, in 
 some of the western mountain valleys and in portions of 
 some of the Pacific States. It would, of course, be possi- 
 ble to cover over rows of roots for temporary use by 
 strewing earth over them with a plow, enough being 
 plowed out each day for present use. 
 
 Wherever winter crops of cabbages can be grown for 
 the northern markets, crops of roots may also be grown 
 and grazed off where they grow. The question, there- 
 
FATTENING SHEEP WHILE GRAZING 201 
 
 fore, resolves itself into one of the greatest relative profit. 
 Such grazing could be used in fattening, a grain supple- 
 ment being added, or it could be used to furnish grazing 
 for ewes nursing milk lambs. Corn would furnish a good 
 supplemental grain food. 
 
 The grazing of roots upon grain fields has already 
 been touched upon (see page 191). Of course, it would 
 be quite practicable to harvest entire crops of roots by 
 such a system, but the land that will grow the roots will 
 also grow rape, and the latter may be grown with much 
 less outlay for labor than the former. 
 
 Finishing sheep on other crops — It would seem quite 
 practicable to finish sheep on some other crops not enu- 
 merated above, or if it were not desired to finish the sheep 
 they could be made to feed on these crops and thereby 
 contribute greatly to the fertilization of the land. Prom- 
 inent among these crops are cowpeas, soy beans and 
 pumpkins and squashes. 
 
 Cowpeas may be grown over wide areas in the South 
 after other early maturing crops have been reaped. The 
 value of the grazing will increase with the volume of the 
 crop and, up to a certain limit, with the advanced stage of 
 growth. Supplementary grain should be supplied when 
 necessary for fattening, and corn is very suitable for such 
 a use. Soy beans would seem to answer the purpose bet- 
 ter than cowpeas, as they produce more grain to the straw 
 than cowpeas. They are also of upright growth, and the 
 pods are near to one another, hence they are of easy access 
 to the sheep. Sheep should fatten quickly on such graz- 
 ing, but experience on the question has up to the present 
 been practically unattainable. Those who have fed 
 pumpkins to sheep are loud in their praises. They claim 
 that when used to pumpkins, no limit may be set to the 
 quantities fed, as long as they are consumed so as to avoid 
 waste. They are specially helpful to sheep and lambs 
 that are being pushed forward on corn. They are more 
 commonly strewn over grass pastures when fed. At the 
 
202 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 first it may be necessary to cut them open and to sprinkle 
 them with salt, but soon the sheep become fond of them. 
 Squashes of the soft-shelled varieties only are adapted 
 to such feeding. Whether pumpkin seeds thus consumed 
 by lambs tend to protect them from intestinal parasites 
 of certain kinds has not been made quite clear. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 
 
 In Chapter XI the following phases of fattening 
 sheep and lambs are discussed: (i) The sources from 
 which they may be obtained; (2) Selecting sheep for fat- 
 tening; (3) Quarters suitable for feeding; (4) Leading 
 sheep up to full feeding; (5) The fodders that are suit- 
 able; (6) The succulence that is suitable; (7) The con- 
 centrates that are suitable; (8) Self-feeders and their 
 place; (9) Fattening sheep on sugar beet pulp; (10) 
 Feeding sheep on western ranges; (11) Fattening sheep 
 on screenings; (12) Fattening two lots in succession; 
 (13) The hazard to breeding flocks from fattening sheep 
 brought in from outside sources ; (14) All sheep should be 
 fattened on the farm; (15) The duration of the fattening 
 period ; (16) The increase from sheep while fattening, and 
 (17) The profit from fattening sheep in winter. 
 
 Sources from which obtained — Lambs for fattening 
 may be grown on the farm or purchased from other farms 
 or from the ranges. Sheep for fattening are usually ob- 
 tained from range sources, but in some instances they 
 also may come from the farm, as when disposing of aged 
 ewes. These, however, are more commonly fattened on 
 autumn pastures. 
 
 The aim should be to fatten lambs on the farm on 
 which they are grown and for the following reasons: (i) 
 When thus fattened all the profit resulting from the 
 transaction comes to the grower of the lambs ; (2) when 
 thus fattened the profit should be more than when the 
 lambs are fattened elsewhere ; (3) the hazard of bringing 
 in disease is lessened. That more profit should accrue 
 when the lambs are fattened on the farm on which they 
 were grown is self-evident, as no expense is incurred in 
 
204 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 purchasing, such as must be incurred when the lambs are 
 brought in from an outside source. Where the facilities 
 for fattening are present, it is very evident that if it pays 
 a purchaser to buy the lambs and take them to another 
 farm to fatten them, it should pay the grower better to 
 fatten them at home. 
 
 When the market is near, selling lambs to be fat- 
 tened on other farms finds little justification. It may be 
 different when the lambs must be shipped. It may prove 
 unduly expensive to ship them in any other way than in 
 carload lots. To accomplish this it may be necessary to 
 add to the lambs grown, by purchase, or to sell them to 
 another. This difficulty could, of course, be met by 
 shipping finished lots in a co-operative way. Of course, 
 it is better to sell lambs in the finished than in the un- 
 finished form ; hence the farmer who purchases lamibs 
 from other farmers and fattens them may be doing a good 
 work. Nevertheless it is better in every way, when it can 
 be done, to fatten the lambs on farms on which they are 
 grown. Of course, there are farms on which this cannot 
 be done, as, for instance, where so large a proportion of 
 the farm is too rugged to grow food other than pasture. 
 If fattened at all, the lambs growing on these farms must 
 be fattened elsewhere. 
 
 The most important source by far at the present time 
 from which sheep and lambs can be obtained in the 
 United States are the ranges of the West. Those grown 
 on the open range cannot be finished there. If fattened, 
 it must be in the mountain valleys where food is grown 
 with the aid of irrigation, or on arable farms that lie east- 
 ward from the ranges. The number fattened in the moun- 
 tain valleys as yet is relatively small, nor is it probable 
 that those valleys will be able in the future to furnish 
 food enough to fatten all the lambs grown on the ranges 
 adjacent to them. The surplus must needs be fattened on 
 the arable farm. 
 
 For such fattening they may be obtained by purchase 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 20$ 
 
 directly from the range or at the stock yards to which 
 they are shipped, chiefly in the autumn season. When the 
 number wanted for feeding is large, it may be more profit- 
 able to purchase on the range, but where only a small 
 number is wanted they may be obtained most conveni- 
 ently from the stock yards. Here also co-operation may 
 he resorted to when necessary, but in nearly all instances 
 those farmers who purchase lambs for fattening aim to 
 feed not less than a carload lot. even though a part or all 
 of the food must needs be purchased. 
 
 Selecting sheep for fattening — In the selection of 
 sheep for fattening, form and size are much more im- 
 portant than breed or grade. It would not be correct to 
 say that breed is of no account, for all breeds are not 
 equally popular on the block. All things considered, the 
 most popular sheep with the butcher are those of the 
 middle wool breeds, and especially the smaller of these, 
 as the Southdown and Shropshire. But sheep of any 
 breed or grade with the required form will take the mar- 
 ket readily when well finished and of suitable size and 
 weight. 
 
 With reference to form, whether lambs or mature 
 sheep are fed, the aim should be to select them as far as 
 possible of the smooth, compact and short-limbed types 
 for the breed or grade which they represent. The pref- 
 erence should be for animals with firm, strong and 
 straight backs, round bodies denoting good spring of rib, 
 and much width through the shoulders and thighs. They 
 should have rosy or pink skins, indicating a healthy con- 
 dition of the system. 
 
 As to the size, the aim should be to have them con- 
 form as nearly as may be practicable to the needs of the 
 market. The market demand may differ in dififerent 
 localities, but the smooth, neat carcass, with bone not 
 more than medium, is always preferred to the carcass 
 rough, or of the lanky order. Lambs that weigh not 
 more than 60 to 70 pounds when put on feed are to be 
 
206 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 preferred to those that are older, as they will then take 
 the market at weights under rather than over lOO pounds. 
 Weights even lighter than those named are preferred to 
 those that are heavier. Sheep of the medium and smooth 
 types are also preferred for fattening to those that are 
 larger. Heavy-weight lambs and wethers, such as were 
 much sought for years ago, are no longer in highest favor 
 with dealers or consumers. 
 
 The favorite age at which to turn off feeding lambs 
 is not a matter of so much importance as the weight 
 which the lambs reach when marketed. It is necessary 
 to sell lambs of the large breeds at an early age, lest they 
 become too heavy for the market demands. The weight 
 attained by mature sheep will vary, of course, with the 
 breed. The plan of fattening wethers at an age under one 
 year is continually growing in favor. The maintenance 
 of wethers for a longer period is now mainly confined to 
 the western ranges, and even on these it is growing less 
 in favor, as the maintenance of breeding ewes is thought 
 to be more profitable. 
 
 The age at which lambs shall be marketed is of much 
 less consequence than the weight which they possess. 
 The aim should be to have them reach the market as near 
 as may be possible to the favorite weights. To accom- 
 plish this it will be necessary to sell lambs of the large 
 breeds at an earlier age than those of the smaller breeds. 
 Shearlings make gains more quickly than sheep that are 
 older, and they call for a somewhat more nitrogenous diet 
 to aid in advancing development, though not so much so 
 as in the case with lambs. The older the sheep, the more 
 the food that is called for to make increase, and the more 
 carbonaceous may the ration be. The older that breed- 
 ing ewes are, the more expensive is it relatively to fatten 
 them and the less the price that is paid for them in the 
 market. 
 
 The condition of the sheep and lambs at the time of 
 purchase has an important bearing on the resultant profit, 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 207 
 
 if any, from feeding them. When purchased by weight, 
 the less of fat which they carry in proportion to the entire 
 weight the less opportunity is there for making increase, 
 but the lack of flesh should not be such as is associated 
 with a condition of positive lack of thrift. In other words, 
 when purchasing such animals, capacity to make increase 
 is more important than increase already made. But lean- 
 ness must not be present to the extent of calling for a 
 period too long relatively to bring the system into a con- 
 dition that capacitates it for making rapid increase. 
 Should the animals be purchased by the head, then, of 
 course, the more fat that they carry at the time of pur- 
 chase the less the quantity to be added thereto, and the 
 less the expense in completing the fattening. 
 
 Quarters suitable for feeding — The quarters suitable 
 for feeding sheep are much dependent on the climate. The 
 kind and character of the precipitation exercise a more 
 potent influence on the quarters that should be provided 
 than the degree of the precipitation. In some climates 
 shelter is not really called for other than protection from 
 winds. In others it should be so accessible that the sheep 
 could be put under cover on very short notice. The quar- 
 ters provided for sheep should always protect from falling 
 storms that are hurtful, strong winds and also from 
 drafts, and they should furnish a bed free from damp- 
 ness. 
 
 In northern areas it is usually if not in all instances 
 necessary to have a shed or stable in which the sheep may 
 be protected from adverse precipitation and a yard at- 
 tached to which they have the freest access, save in time 
 of storms. Under such conditions reasonably warm 
 quarters are not detrimental when the doors are kept 
 open giving access to the yards. Dry, well-lighted and 
 airy basements are not objectionable where those condi- 
 tions are observed, but it would be disastrous to a flock 
 to confine them in quarters overwarm. If fattened in a 
 shed it should be possible to close it against storms that 
 
208 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 drift and swirl. The yard should be on the sunny side 
 and should have the protection of a high board fence or of 
 stacks of straw on the exposed side, or sides. Of course, 
 convenience in feeding and providing water should be 
 given careful attention. When sheep thus fed are shorn, 
 the quarters in which they are kept must be warm enough 
 to meet their needs. 
 
 In areas reasonably mild and dry, the protection of 
 a shed even may not be necessary. But the cover of a 
 grove or the protection of a bluff is always advantageous 
 in shielding the sheep on feed from the wind. In many 
 of the western mountain valleys sheep are thus fattened, 
 and even as far north as Montana. In some instances no 
 other protection is afforded than that of a fence surround- 
 ing the inclosure. The temperature is seldom too low 
 for the wellbeing of sheep on such food, the days of sun- 
 shine are almost continuous and the storms accompanied 
 by precipitation are light. Even as far north as Minne- 
 sota sheep have been fattened with reasonable success 
 with no other shelter than that of a bluff and a grove such 
 as grows in the ravines of the prairie. 
 
 In areas mild and moist the protection of a shed or 
 covering of some kind is, in a sense, necessary to shield 
 the sheep from rain and from snow or sleet should these 
 occur. In some instances sheds devoted to other uses 
 during a part of the year may be used for feeding sheep 
 in winter. Sheds, for instance, in which tobacco is cured, 
 are sometimes thus used for protecting sheep that are be- 
 ing fattened at that season. 
 
 Leading sheep up to full feeding — When sheep are 
 first put upon a fattening ration, much caution should be 
 exercised with reference to the amount of grain fed and 
 the rate of increase in the feeding of the same. If the 
 food is too stimulating in character or excessive in quan- 
 tity, derangement in the digestion will result that will 
 greatly retard increase, if it does not lead to even more 
 serious consequences. Time must be given to allow the 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 209 
 
 digestive organs to accommodate themselves to the 
 change in the diet when unused to grain. Such accommoda- 
 tion properly attained will enable sheep to digest with 
 safety and profit after a time several times as much grain 
 as it would be safe to give to them at the first. Nor can 
 the system appropriate to itself the nutrients furnished in 
 heavy grain feeding with as much advantage when feed- 
 ing begins as at a later period. The lower the condition 
 of the animals, when feeding begins, the less power have 
 they to utilize such foods to the best advantage. When 
 the animals, whether lambs or sheep, are capable of tak- 
 ing maximum amounts of grain, they are said to be on 
 "full feed." 
 
 Ordinarily the grain fed until the sheep are on full 
 feed should be nitrogenous in character, but decreasingly 
 so as full feeding is approached. Much depends, how- 
 ever, on the nature of the fodder fed. When the rough- 
 age fed consists largely of clover or alfalfa hay, corn and 
 bran without other admixture may be fed when other 
 grain food is more costly. The proportion of bran at the 
 first should be large, but not so large as to hinder the 
 sheep from eating it with a relish, and it should decrease 
 as the feeding advances. But for such preliminary feed- 
 ing it will always be found helpful to add oats to the 
 grain fed. at least for a time. When the roughage con- 
 sists of ordinary hay. there is no better or safer food for 
 preliminary feeding than oats and bran fed in equal pro- 
 portions by bulk. Other kinds of grain will answer, but 
 none is quite so safe or so satisfactory in every way as 
 oats ; hence when the price of oats is such as to preclude 
 their use when the sheep are on full feed, it may, never- 
 theless, be found profitable to feed them to some extent 
 when the fattening process begins. When bran is not 
 obtainable, if five to lo per cent of oilcake be added to 
 the grain, it will be found helpful. Where any consider- 
 able quantity of field roots is fed, it may not be neces- 
 sary to feed either bran or oilcake. When screenings are 
 
210 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the sole fattening food, the only caution to observe is 
 not to increase too rapidly the quantity fed. 
 
 The amount to feed at the first will depend on the 
 character of the food previously eaten. When sheep or 
 lambs put on feed have never tasted grain previously, 
 which is sometimes the case with sheep grown on western 
 ranges, the quantity of grain fed at the first should be 
 very small, less probably than one-fourth of a pound per 
 animal daily. If previously well used to grain, the amount 
 fed may be larger, and it may be increased more rapidly 
 than with the former. With lambs that have been re- 
 ceiving a somewhat liberal grain ration from the period 
 of weaning on to the fattening season, full feeding may be 
 attained in a very short period ; in fact, it may also 
 begin with the beginning of the fattening season. For 
 the amount of grain that constitutes full feeding, see 
 page 2 ID. 
 
 From what has been said it will be very evident that 
 the time required to get sheep that are being fattened on 
 full feed will vary greatly. With foods rich in nitrogen 
 a less period is required than with foods rich in carbo- 
 hydrates. The less concentrated also the grain fed, the 
 shorter the period required to reach full feeding. But 
 the less that the sheep have been used to grain feeding, 
 the longer the time called for to reach this period. It 
 would seem correct to say that in no case should more 
 than four weeks be necessary for such feeding, and in 
 but few instances can it be reached in one week. As the 
 period advances the grain fed is gradually increased from 
 day to day in quantity, and sometimes also in strength. 
 
 When the grain feeding is crowded too fast, the first 
 indications of the fact in the conduct of the sheep will be 
 seen in the loss of appetite. The moment that such con- 
 ditions manifest themselves, the animals thus afifected 
 should be removed from the others and put on reduced 
 rations. If such instances are at all numerous the quan- 
 tity of the grain fed should be reduced until normal con- 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 211 
 
 ditions prevail again. When a sheep is thus affected to 
 the extent of refusing food altogether, its progress in fat- 
 tening is much hindered, as considerable time must elapse 
 before the digestive organs recover lost vigor, if, indeed, 
 they ever recover it fully. 
 
 Fodders that are suitable — The range of the fodders 
 that may be fed to sheep that are being fattened is wide. 
 Of the legumes, it includes clover in all its varieties^ 
 alfalfa, cowpeas and vetches. Among the non-leguminous 
 fodders it includes timothy and hay made from various 
 other grasses, corn stover, corn fodder, sorghum and the 
 nonsaccharine sorghums and straw of some of the small 
 cereals. A mixture of pea and oat hay or of vetch and 
 oat hay makes an excellent change. Millet hay given 
 alone or with oats may also be used. 
 
 Beyond question the legumes furnish the most val- 
 uable fodders. Relative suitability in these is more a 
 matter of palatability than of variety, and palatability is 
 more dependent on fine growth and careful harvesting 
 than on the kind of the legumes. Timothy and other 
 grasses are not so highly relished as clovers, but if cut 
 sufficiently early they will answer the purpose without 
 admixture. The combination, however, with clover, 
 when the fodder is of fine growth, furnishes a decided im- 
 provement. The value of millet hay or of millet and oat 
 hay is highest when harvested, as some of the millet heads 
 assume a yellow tint. Corn stover furnishes a cheap fod- 
 der, but is more suitable when shredded, as a larger pro- 
 portion of it is then consumed. Corn fodder, if of fine 
 growth, is decidedly superior to corn stover, and when 
 of the character mentioned it is not necessary to shred it. 
 The value of nonsaccharine sorghums for such feeding is 
 also largely dependent upon their fineness. Whether it 
 will pay to shred corn or the sorghums for such feeding- 
 is still an unsettled question. The higher in price that fod- 
 ders are the greater will be the gain from shredding. Corn 
 fodder has the advantage usually of furnishing more or 
 
212 MANAGEMENT AND PEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 less grain, and the same is true of pea and oat and vetch 
 and oat fodder cut at a proper stage of growth. Rye straw- 
 is very low in value for such feeding. Wheat straw has 
 more value, and barle}' and oat straw have a value still 
 higher. 
 
 Too much importance cannot be attached to the qual- 
 ity of the fodder. When it has been grown and cured 
 properly, shredding or chaffing are seldom either neces- 
 sary or beneficial. Some waste will result from feeding 
 coarse clover or corn stalks, and considerable waste will 
 result from feeding straw, but sheep that are being fat- 
 tened should not be forced to consume such food. When 
 fodders are scarce and high, it is, of course, more impor- 
 tant that they shall be eaten somewhat closely. 
 
 The aim should be to feed fodders in racks as a rule. 
 The exceptions are corn and sorghum fodders under some 
 conditions of feeding. It is allowable sometimes to feed 
 these by strewing them on frozen surfaces when the con- 
 ditions are cleanly. Usually they are fed twice a day, 
 that is, evening and morning, and the aim should be to 
 clean out the residue, if any, in the racks before each feed 
 is given. But when very large lots are fed, it may be, in 
 a sense, necessary to keep a supply of fodder where it will 
 be at all times accessible to the sheep, notwithstanding 
 the considerable waste of such fodder, which thenceforth 
 is only useful for bedding. When straw of the small 
 cereals is fed, it should be in conjunction with other and 
 better fodders. When corn or sorghum fodders are on 
 hand, also hay from the grasses or clovers, and also straw 
 from the small cereals, the foods mentioned first may be 
 fed with most profit in the morning. Those mentioned 
 second in the evening, and those mentioned third at noon. 
 The most palatable fodder is thus reserved for the even- 
 ing meal. Corn fodder has a higher feeding value in the 
 autumn and early winter than later, and this is probably 
 true of all the sorghum fodders ; hence the aim should be 
 to save the best fodders as far as practicable for feeding 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 213 
 
 during tbe advanced stage of tlie fattening process. Straw 
 of the small cereals may in some instances furnish one of 
 the two feeds given, but not for long periods of feeding. 
 Some breeds of sheep, as the Merino, for instance, will 
 consume such straw more readily than others. 
 
 The amount of coarse fodder recjuired cannot be 
 given with accuracy, as it will vary with the age of the 
 sheep, the kind and quality of the fodder and the propor- 
 tion of the concentrates fed, also the kind of the same. 
 If the fodders are such that sheep will eat them with a 
 relish until satisfied, they will consume about as much 
 fodder as grain (see page 218). But usually there is some 
 waste of fodder ; hence a greater weight of fodder is required 
 than of concentrates. With the best of alfalfa or clover 
 hay, it would be practicable to fatten sheep, when the 
 weight of the hay to the grain is as two to one. 
 
 Succulence that is suitable — The chief sources of 
 succulence in providing food for sheep that are being fat- 
 tened in winter are silage and field roots. Tubers may be 
 used to some extent, but usually they are too costly for 
 such feeding. Almost any kind of field roots will answer 
 the purpose, but rutabagas and mangels are most in favor, 
 largely for the reason that they are most cheaply grown. 
 Sugar beets are sometimes used, but these are more com- 
 monly fed in the form of pulp. Potatoes may be fed, but 
 usually they are too valuable for such feeding. 
 
 The value of silage in fattening sheep and lambs de- 
 pends in a considerable degree upon the character of the 
 silage and the conditions under which it is fed. It is 
 claimed that lambs especially take more kindly to en- 
 silage made from corn harvested at a somewhat more 
 advanced stage of growth than is usual in harvesting 
 corn intended for the silo. In other words, they prefer 
 silage not over-succulent and probably for the reason that 
 it is sweeter than other silage. In extremely cold weather 
 some care is necessary with reference to the quantity fed, 
 as the silage will freeze in a very short time in such 
 
214 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 weather, nor does it seem judicious under such conditions 
 to encourage animals to fill the stomach with such food. 
 Under no conditions should silage be fed to sheep when 
 it is moldy or tainted with decay. Notwithstanding, the 
 high value of silage cannot be questioned, taken in con- 
 nection with its cheapness as a fattening food for sheep. 
 
 Field roots are not much used in the United States 
 in fattening sheep, for the reason chiefly that they are not 
 much grown. Viewed from the standpoint of the cost of 
 production, they are more costly to provide than corn 
 silage. Notwithstanding, when field roots are judi- 
 ciously fed, they tend to tone up the digestion, and thus to 
 influence favorably the health of the animals that are be- 
 ing fattened. The marked suitability of field roots for 
 fattening sheep, apart from the question of cost, is indi- 
 cated in the excellent results obtained from feeding when 
 sheep are given large quantities of sugar beet pulp ; as 
 with feeding silage, it is not wise to feed very large 
 quantities of field roots during periods of prolonged and 
 extreme cold. 
 
 No fixed rule is followed in the order in which silage and 
 roots are fed, or in the number of feeds given daily. In 
 some instances these are fed once, in others twice. Some- 
 times they are fed in the morning, at other times in the 
 evening, and less frequently at noon. When large quan- 
 tities are fed they are commonly fed both morning and 
 evening. The silage is, of course, ready for feeding at all 
 times. The roots should be prepared by slicing them or 
 running them through a root pulper. 
 
 The amounts that may be fed or that should be fed. will 
 vary with the cost of growing or securing the silage or 
 roots and with the nature of the other foods. More of 
 both may be fed along with a heavy grain ration rather than 
 with a light one, as the considerable bulk of the silage and 
 roots get them so far for being the complement of the 
 concentrates which have little bulk. It is not usual to 
 feed more than three to five pounds of silage daily to 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 215 
 
 sheep that are being fattened, but in some instances twice 
 these amounts are fed. Two to three pounds daily are 
 helpful, because of the influence of the succulence pres- 
 ent, as well as of the nutrients in such food. Nor is it 
 usual to feed more than four to five pounds of field roots 
 daily, save when fed as beet pulp, but no hazard will re- 
 sult from feeding quantities double those just mentioned. 
 Under average conditions the greatest profit will doubt- 
 less result from feeding small quantities of roots, not more 
 probably than two to four pounds daily, because of the 
 beneficent influence which these exercise on the diges- 
 tion. They are a safeguard under heavy feeding of grain, 
 and the heavier the feeding of the grain and the more 
 concentrated it is, the more advantageous is such a safe- 
 guard. 
 
 Concentrates that are suitable — There is no kind of 
 grain grown on this continent that may not be used in 
 fattening sheep. These grains include corn, wheat, oats, 
 barley, rye, speltz and Canada field peas in the North, 
 sorghum seed both in the saccharine and non-saccharine 
 varieties in the states further South, and cowpeas and soy 
 beans in states where these may be successfully grown. 
 There is also the by-product of certain cereals known as 
 screenings. Of these corn will probably be used to a 
 greater extent than any other concentrate, for the reason 
 that it is more extensively grown than any other, and 
 that it is relatively cheaper. Wheat has high adaptation 
 for fattening sheep, as shown in many experiments, but 
 the high price which it commands forbids feeding it thus. 
 It is at least doubtful if wheat will ever again be fed in 
 this way in any considerable quantities, unless it should 
 be damaged, as by untimely frost. Oats are excellent 
 fed alone or in combination with other foods, but usually 
 the high price which they bring makes them a somewhat 
 expensive grain food. What is said of oats will apply al- 
 most equally to barley. The amount of rye grown rela- 
 tively restricts its use. It is not wise to feed it as the sole 
 
2l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 grain feed for long periods, lest the digestion should be 
 impaired, but it is an excellent food when properly com- 
 bined with other grains. Spcltz has a feeding value not 
 far below or different from barley. Canada field peas 
 are excellent, but feeding them can only become general 
 in areas south and west where they are plentifully grown. 
 The sorghum seeds furnish a rich food and they may be 
 fed in the head without being threshed out. While cow- 
 peas and soy beans are excellent food for sheep when 
 fattening, the market price puts them almost out of reach 
 of the feeder in the meantime. Screenings are an ex- 
 cellent and a safe food, as has been shown time and again 
 in the experience of those who have fed sheep by the 
 hundred and the thousand at the stockyards. 
 
 Some of these foods will fatten sheep in reasonably 
 good form when fed alone, especially when the roughage 
 fed is of a character that will make the ration approxi- 
 mately balanced. These include corn, oats, peas and 
 screenings. Usually, however, better results will be ob- 
 tained from feeding these in combination with some other 
 food or foods. When more than two are combined, the 
 foods are eaten with more of a relish than when a less 
 number is fed. Some food when present in the grain 
 ration will in nearly all instances add to their feeding 
 value though present in limited quantity. Wheat bran 
 is one of these, but it is less relished by sheep than some 
 other foods and, therefore, should be fed only in moderate 
 quantities. Oilcake is another, and though highly rel- 
 ished, the price forbids feeding it heavily. These aid in 
 maintaining health, more especially when the animals are 
 subjected to high pressure feeding. Cottonseed meal may 
 be fed instead of bran or oilcake, but when fed heavily 
 it is not so safe a food as these. Oats also aid in keep- 
 ing the digestion in tone. When oilcake cannot be had, 
 a less amount of flaxseed will answer, though not quite 
 so well, in its stead. 
 
 When clover, alfalfa or other leguminous fodder is 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 21/ 
 
 being fed, the following grain rations will be found suit- 
 able after the sheep have been brought up to full feeding: 
 Corn, sorghum seed, barley, wheat, oats or peas, with say 
 five per cent of wheat bran or oilcake added, and in the 
 case of corn and sorghum seed a larger per cent. When 
 four to five pounds of roots are fed a day, the bran and 
 oilcake may be dispensed with, but when these and roots 
 also are included in the ration, the results will usually 
 be even more favorable. At the Wyoming station, alfalfa, 
 turnips and corn, alfalfa, turnips and barley, alfalfa, tur- 
 nips, corn and flaxseed, were all found to make cheap 
 gains, while alfalfa, turnips and flaxseed made the cheap- 
 est gains that were realized. 
 
 When the roughage is ordinary ha}'" and corn or 
 sorghum fodders, the following may be used among the 
 grain rations that will usually prove satisfactory in fat- 
 tening sheep and lambs: (i) Corn or barley, bran and 
 oilcake in the proportion of say 75, 15 and 10 per cent by 
 weight. (2) Corn, barley, rye or sorghum seed ; oats ; 
 bran and oilcake in the proportions of 50, 25 15 and 10 
 per cent. (3) Corn, sorghum seed or rye; barley; oats; 
 bran and oilcake in the proportions of 40, 20, 20, 15 and 
 5 per cent. (4) Canada field peas and bran or Canada 
 field peas and oilcake, in the proportions of 90 and 10 per 
 cent in the first instance and 95 and 5 per cent in the 
 second instance. (5) Peas; oats; bran and oilcake in the 
 proportions of 50, 40, 5 and 5 per cent. (6) Oats and oil- 
 cake in the proportions of 90 and 10 per cent respectively. 
 (7) Wheat screenings fed alone or with almost any other 
 kind of grain added. 
 
 The following observations apply to the feeding of 
 grain to sheep and lambs that are being fattened: (i) 
 Gluten meal may be fed in lieu of corn meal or bran and 
 in the same quantities as oilmeal. (2) When bran is fed 
 rather than gluten or oilmeal, about twice the quantity 
 should be fed. (3) When field roots are sufficiently plen- 
 tiful, bran, oilcake and gluten meal may be dispensed 
 
2l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 with, but there is no objection to feeding them other than 
 that which arises from cost. (4) Since corn is as a rule 
 the cheapest grain food, the aim should be to make it 
 form as large a part of the ration as is compatible with 
 the requirements. (5) While oats furnish a reasonably 
 good fattening food when fed alone, the ration is much 
 improved by feeding corn freely along with the oats. (6) 
 While the aim should be to feed the grains so as to bal- 
 ance the fodders, because of the cheapness of some kinds 
 of grain, it may be more profitable to feed them some- 
 what out of balance. (7) The value of wheat screenings, 
 one of the safest of foods, may vary from what is simply 
 nominal in a concentrate to what is highest value in the 
 same, according as they contain much or little grain. 
 
 It is not necessary to grind the grain fed to sheep 
 and lambs that are being fattened any more than it is to 
 chaf¥ the coarse fodders for the same. They chew their 
 food finely, hence the digestion is very complete. The 
 only benefit from grinding screenings is that which arises 
 from making it impossible for the sheep to scatter the 
 weed seeds while eating them. They are usually fed 
 unground. When the cobs are fed with the corn, of 
 course both must be ground. It has not yet been shown 
 that such grinding will prove profitable. 
 
 The amount of food consumed by the sheep will vary 
 with the age, size and breed of the sheep. Sheep more 
 than one year old will consume more food than lambs, 
 and they will also consume more in proportion to the differ- 
 ence in the weights. It would seem safe to say that sheep 
 beyond the age of one year will consume not less than 
 33 per cent more food than lambs, the age at which thev 
 are usually fattened. Such lambs when on full feed will 
 consume about one and one-half to two pounds daily of 
 grain, the amount, of course, varying with the degree of 
 the concentration. About the same quantity of alfalfa or 
 clover hay of high quality will be consumed, but a larger 
 amount will be necessary, of course, when a part is re- 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 219 
 
 jected because of coarseness or for other reasons. Lawes 
 and Gibbert found that sheep consumed food approx- 
 imately in proportion to their respective weights. It is 
 probably true that breed exercises no other influence on 
 food consumption than that which results from variation 
 in size. 
 
 The following- observations, general in character, ap- 
 ply to the feeding of sheep on a finishing ration in winter : 
 (i) The aim should be to have the feeding racks placed 
 under cover except in climates dry and comparatively free 
 from winter storms. The rack space for lambs should 
 give from 8 to 12 inches to each lamb, and for older sheep 
 proportionately more. (2) More commonly the food is 
 given in two feeds daily — that is, morning and evening — 
 and the aim should be to give the food after morning has 
 dawned and before the darkness of night has come. The 
 work of feeding is thus more expeditiously done, and the 
 resting of the sheep is not thus disturbed. (3) Care 
 should be taken to clean out all the food usually before 
 giving other food. The remnant left, if any, may be used 
 for bedding or fed to other stock, according to the quality. 
 The influence on food consumption will be helpful. But, 
 of course, when sheep are fed on the self-feeding plan 
 such removal of rejected food is not entirely practicable. 
 (4) Much care should be exercised in observing regular- 
 ity in feeding. Sheep cannot be made to consume food 
 exactly fitted to their needs when they are fed irregu- 
 larly. (5) The aim should be to keep them as free as 
 possible from disturbing influences. They are very timid, 
 and unless accustomed to the presence of strangers, as 
 when fed at experiment stations, such visitations, and in 
 a greater degree the presence of dogs, will hinder their 
 gains. (6) They should be given access to salt at all 
 times, kept in boxes under cover, and in a condition free 
 from incrustation. When given irregularly the animals 
 will then drink too much water to make good increase. 
 (7) Water must be plentifully supplied, and of good 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 221 
 
 quality, if the sheep are to make the requisite gains. 
 When large lots are fed, it may be taken from vessels 
 supplied with floats to regulate the supply. To small 
 lots it may be furnished in buckets or tubs in the sheds. 
 Larger quantities of water will be consumed by sheep 
 that are being fattened, especially in the absence of field 
 roots or silage. It is quite practicable to feed field roots 
 to the extent of rendering it unnecessary to furnish any 
 water. (8) When fattening sheep and lambs in winter, 
 no practical benefit bearing on increase results from 
 shearing them before putting them on a fattening ration. 
 This conclusion rests on the result of general experi- 
 ments conducted by experiment stations, one of which 
 was conducted by the author at the experiment station 
 at Guelph, Ont., Canada. It was found, however, that 
 lambs thus fattened reached the market of Great Britain 
 in a form that was more attractive to the buyer than lambs 
 not shorn when the fattening began. Prof. John A. Craig 
 also found at the Wisconsin Station that shearing lambs 
 not more than six months old was helpful in preparing 
 them for autumn fattening, provided the shearing was 
 done not later than early October. But when the fatten- 
 ing of sheep or lambs is carried on into the springtime, 
 the fattening will be more rapid if the fleece is removed 
 as soon as the weather grows warm. 
 
 Self-feeders and their place — Self-feeding of sheep 
 means allowing them to take their food from boxes or 
 racks, according to the kind of the food, whenever they 
 want to eat from the same. The racks in which the hay 
 is fed, and also the boxes in which the grain is fed, are so 
 constructed that the food is continually accessible. In 
 some instances the grain only is fed in self-feeders, the 
 coarse fodder being supplied once or twice each day. 
 
 Self-feeders for grain are simply oblong boxes with 
 considerably more width at the top than the bottom. 
 When exposed they have a roof to protect the grain. In 
 this roof is a hinged lid, which extends along much or all 
 
222 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 of the roof, through which the grain is admitted to the 
 boxes. Near the base of the sides is an opening running 
 the entire length of the boxes, and through this opening 
 the grain comes down into low troughs as fast as it is 
 eaten by the sheep. Under the box supports are placed 
 which raise it high enough from the ground to allow the 
 sheep to eat the food with comfort. The hay racks used 
 are in some instances of somewhat similar construction. 
 
 Although self-feeders may sometimes be used with 
 advantage on the ordinary farm, the wisdom of using 
 them is to be questioned. The sheep, when taking food, 
 leave more or less saliva on the uneaten grain in the box, 
 which fact detracts somewhat from its palatability, 
 resulting in a less consumption of the food. When the 
 sheep have access at all times to the food, the appetite 
 is less keen for taking food than when they take it at 
 stated times and in a way that consumes the entire 
 amount fed at each time of feeding. Experiments con- 
 ducted have tended to show that such feeding is expen- 
 sive, notwithstanding the saving in labor. They have 
 also shown that with some kinds of food it is more diffi- 
 cult to maintain the sheep in good health when thus fed. 
 Such was the experience of the author in feeding lambs at 
 the Minnesota station. Nevertheless, there is a place for 
 self-feeders, as when sheep are fed in a wholesale way at 
 the stock yards, and it may be at large feeding stations in 
 the semi-range country. Where wheat screenings is the 
 chief grain food fed, as it is usually at the stock yards, 
 the use of self-feeders is more justifiable than elsewhere, 
 as is shown below. 
 
 All kinds of grain cannot be fed in self-feeders with 
 equal advantage. The more concentrated and rich the 
 grain food, the more hazard is there in feeding it thus. It 
 would be disastrous to feed corn alone in self-feeders for 
 any long-continued period, as the tax thus put upon the 
 energies of the system in digesting quantities so large 
 of such a food would result in derangement of the diges- 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 22^ 
 
 tive organs, which in some instances would terminate 
 fatally. Similar results would follow from feeding some 
 other grain foods alone, but perhaps not quite so quickly. 
 When rich concentrates are fed in self-feeders, they 
 should be diluted, so to speak, by mixing with them other 
 foods, such as wheat, bran, oats or wheat screenings. 
 When the excess of concentration for such feeding of 
 these foods alone is thus lowered sufficiently, it is possi- 
 ble to feed any kind of grain, however rich, in self-feeders 
 with reasonable safety. 
 
 Fattening sheep on sugar beet pulp — Sheep and 
 lambs are in some instances fattened in a large way in 
 proximity to sugar beet factories. The principal food fed 
 is sugar beet pulp ; but, of course, other adjuncts are fed 
 more or less in conjunction with the pulp. The sheep are 
 kept in yards. In mild areas, as, for instance the valleys 
 of Colorado and other mountain states of a similar or 
 lower latitude, sheds are not provided, but in areas with 
 colder winters and frequent precipitation, as Michigan, 
 sheds are necessary. In the middle areas referred to, the 
 pulp is usually drawn from the pit or inclosure into which 
 it is conveyed from the factory. It is drawn from day to 
 day. In some instances it is fed in troughs. In other 
 instances the feed of hay for the day is strewn along the 
 fence that surrounds the yard. The pulp is thrown onto 
 this hay from the wagons which convey it. The sheep 
 eat the pulp, and thus the hay. by putting their heads 
 through an opening between the fence boards that has 
 been made for such a use. There is some waste from such 
 feeding, but not so much as would be looked for by those 
 unaccustomed to seeing it. When feeding small lots on 
 the farm and more distant from the factories, it would be 
 necessary when the winter climate is severe, to draw the 
 pulp and put it in a silo before the season of hard freez- 
 ing. From this it may. of course, be fed at will as desired. 
 
 The pulp may be fed ever so freely to the sheep. It 
 has been claimed that it is more valuable as a food than 
 
224 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the beets, as any salts inimical to the needs of the sheep 
 are washed out in the process of manufacturing the beets. 
 The amount of feed will be influenced by the size of the 
 sheep and by the respective amounts of hay and grain 
 fed. As many as lo pounds per animal daily have been 
 fed with advantage, but more commonly not more than 
 five to six pounds are fed daily along with fodder and 
 grain. It is entirely practicable to finish sheep and laml:)s 
 on alfalfa hay and beet pulp, but a better finish is made 
 when a small amount of grain is fed all the while, or a 
 larger amount fed only toward the close of the feeding 
 season. The pulp has high adaptation for feeding sheep 
 so old that the teeth have begun to fail, as they are able 
 to consume it without difficulty. 
 
 Any kind of 'fodder may be fed with the pulp that is 
 nutritious and palatable. In the western valleys alfalfa 
 is commonl}^ fed along with beet pulp owing to its abun- 
 dant growth in them. The alfalfa and pulp furnish a grand 
 food for growing sheep and a very cheap food for finish- 
 ing them, but the finish is not so satisfactory as when 
 some grain is fed. Clover when it can be obtained is about 
 equally satisfactory with alfalfa, but hay from the grasses 
 or corn or sorghum fodder will suffice. 
 
 Corn has peculiar adaptation for being fed along with 
 sugar beet pulp and any leguminous fodder, as clover or 
 alfalfa. Good results will be obtained from feeding one 
 pound daily to lambs, but in some instances more is fed. 
 The heavier feeding of corn is most important toward 
 the close of the feeding period. Barley is also good, but 
 other grains may be substituted for either corn or barley. 
 
 The feeding of the pulp in the dry form to sheep or 
 lambs that are being fattened has scarcely begun in 
 America, but it may yet be extensively used for such fat- 
 tening. 
 
 Feeding sheep on western ranges — Sheep and lambs 
 are frequently fattened in a large way in certain areas of 
 at least some of the range states in proximity to lands 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 225 
 
 usually irrigated which produce alfalfa in great abun- 
 dance. In some instances they are fed somewhat similarly 
 in states which border on the range country to the east. 
 Many thousands are fattened simultaneously at some of 
 these feeding stations. 
 
 Usually the yards are so arranged that only half the 
 number are occupied at one time. This arrangement is 
 intended to furnish the opportunity to replenish the feed 
 racks in the yards not occupied. In other instances the 
 grain is fed in self-feeders, but the sheep are only allowed 
 to eat for a limited time, when another lot is admitted. 
 In many instances the yards are arranged on both sides 
 of a driveway for convenience in feeding the hay. No 
 shelter is provided other than what will ward off the 
 wind. Salt is continually before them and water is always 
 accessible. In each yard from 400 to 500 sheep are fed. 
 
 In some instances the hay is fed on the ground on the 
 two sides of the driveway. From day to day it is strewn 
 along the fences. The sheep eat it by putting the head 
 through a 7 or 8-inch space between the boards in the 
 fence. In other instances it is fed in wide racks in the 
 yards, as wide as, say, 12 to 18 feet. The 8-inch boards 
 that form the sides of these racks run lengthwise, and the 
 sheep take the hay through the openings between them. 
 As the hay is eaten it is pushed forward. In yet other 
 instances the stacks are placed close up to the outer fence, 
 and as it is eaten it also is pushed forward. 
 
 More commonly the grain is fed in limited supply. 
 The necessity for feeding it thus arises from the fact that 
 usually corn is fed with sometimes a small percentage of 
 oilcake in it. Unlimited access to such food would be 
 attended with hazard. It is fed at first in small quantities, 
 and in few instances does the amount fed exceed one and 
 one-half pounds each day for mature sheep when on full feed. 
 
 As the food is all dry, large amounts of water are 
 consumed, which is usually pumped up fresh by wind- 
 mills from day to day. When fattening sheep and lambs 
 
226 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 thus, the aim is to keep down the outlay for labor to a 
 minimum, as such labor is relatively costly in the far 
 West. Such a system of feeding is more or less wasteful 
 of hay, and the manure resulting is not always used to the 
 best advantage because of the expense of applying it. 
 
 Fattening sheep on screenings — The feeding of 
 screenings has already been touched upon (see page 218). 
 Screenings may be obtained from any kind of grain that 
 calls for winnowing. In the merchantable sense they are 
 obtained by the screening of grain at elevators, in which 
 it is sent directly from the threshing machine. In addi- 
 tion to small and shrunken grain and broken kernels, the 
 screenings contain the seeds of all kinds of weeds that 
 have grown in the crops. Sheep are very fond of these, 
 partly for the reason that they are fond of variety, and 
 the nutritive properties are such that sheep usually fatten 
 satisfactorily on such food. Screenings furnish one of the 
 most healthful of fattening foods, but in some instances 
 wild mustard seeds are present to the extent of being 
 prejudicial to the health of the sheep, because of their 
 over-stimulating character. Screenings largely composed 
 of shrunken grains of wheat are about as valuable for 
 feeding sheep as good wheat. On the other hand screen- 
 ings may contain so much broken straw and so little nutri- 
 ment as to be of little value in feeding sheep, unless corn 
 or some other rich grain food is mixed in with them or is 
 fed as supplemental to them. 
 
 Screenings are usually fed only at the stock yards, 
 where sheep and lambs are fed in sheds in a wholesale 
 way, or at certain other feeding centers, where they are 
 similarly fed. They are so fed because they are sent 
 away from the farm when the grain is sold. In order to 
 feed them on farms, the farmer would have to buy what 
 he or some of his neighbors previously gave away, and in 
 addition would have to pay the cost of transit. Hay is 
 fed in addition to the screenings, but the main dependence 
 is on screenings. 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 227 
 
 As has been intimated, screenings are in nearl}'- all 
 instances fed in self-feeders, and for such feeding they are 
 one of the safest of foods. Notwithstanding, even screen- 
 ings will give better results, viewed apart from the cost 
 of feeding, when fed only in such quantities as will be 
 eaten clean by the sheep. 
 
 Viewed from the standpoint of the farm and its needs, 
 it would be much wiser to clean the grain and keep the 
 screenings for feeding on the farm. Because of this it is 
 not too much to expect that the day is not distant when 
 the farmer will cease to give away his screenings and will 
 feed them at home. That he does give them away is 
 certain, as on every bushel of grain sent to the elevator 
 there is a certain amount of dockage because of the pres- 
 ence of screenings. In addition to the cost of the screen- 
 ings for feeding on the farm is the loss of the fertility 
 that would have resulted from feeding them. 
 
 Fattening two lots in succession — It is quite prac- 
 ticable to fatten two lots of sheep in succession during the 
 same winter. When this can be done the profit should be 
 greater than when one lot only is fattened, other things 
 being equal, as it results in the more complete utilization 
 of the plant. Such feeding may be conducted, not only 
 on the farm, but also at feeding plants established else- 
 where. The chief obstacle to be overcome in relation to 
 such feeding is the greater difficulty found in obtaining 
 the sheep or lambs for feeding at the season when it is 
 usual to put the second lot on feed. Such feeding is made 
 possible by the comparatively short season called for to 
 make sheep ready for the market. 
 
 The first lot is put on feed when cool weather is ap- 
 proaching, say about November i. In three months they 
 will usually be ready for the market. They are then sold 
 at a season when prices for mutton are relatively good ; 
 that is, in February. If put on feed much earlier they 
 would be ready to market at the holiday season or dur- 
 
228 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ing the period of comparative slack demand for meat im- 
 mediately following that season. 
 
 The feeding of the second lot may begin immediately 
 after the sale of the first lot. When put on foods for fat- 
 tening, say not later than the middle of February, they 
 will be ready for market not later than May 15. If they 
 can be put upon a finishing ration at the beginning of 
 February, then they may be sold early in May, a month 
 during which good prices usually prevail for such meat, 
 as grass-finished animals have not yet reached the market. 
 But they should be shorn without fail when the weather 
 begins to get warm. 
 
 Where such feeding can be conducted, especially on the 
 arable farm, the benefit therefrom will be apparent. In addi- 
 tion to any direct profit that may result, the fertilizer pro- 
 duced is doubled, which is a matter of great importance 
 to the feeder whose lands call for additional fertilizer. It 
 would even be practicable to finish three lots of sheep 
 within the year on the same farm, and the first lot in such 
 instances would be finished on grazing such as rape, and 
 marketed not later than November i. 
 
 Hazard to breeding flocks — The fattening of sheep 
 and lambs on the arable farm, when the supplies for fat- 
 tening are purchased is attended with no little hazard to 
 the breeding flock when one is kept upon the same farm. 
 Such hazard consists in the possible, if not indeed proba- 
 ble, introduction of parasites, such as tape and stomach 
 worms. Where the feeders are purchased it is impossi- 
 ble to know whether these and certain other parasites are 
 present or not. The presence of such insects as scab 
 mites and ticks may usually be discovered at the time of 
 purchase, and by making proper use of dipping tanks 
 their introduction to the farms may be prevented. If 
 purchased at the stockyards the dipping may most con- 
 veniently be done at the stockyards, but if purchased else- 
 where it must be done on the farm. To make sure that 
 all the insects will be destroyed when scab is present, two 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 229 
 
 dippings should be given. Since the presence of internal 
 parasites cannot usually be known when sheep are pur- 
 chased, when brought to farms for fattening they should 
 not be allowed access either to the pastures on which the 
 breeding flocks graze, or the pens in which they are con- 
 fined. Although the life history of these parasites is not 
 fully known, experience has abundantly proved that 
 breeding flocks may be infected through the introduction 
 of sheep for fattening. The danger would seem to be 
 greatest when sheep thus introduced are given access to 
 the pastures on which the breeding flocks graze. If the 
 sheep introduced can be confined to sheds and yards to 
 which the breeding flocks have no access, the hazard in- 
 curred is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 Because of the hazard of introducing parasitical dis- 
 eases, it is at least questionable if sheep should be brought 
 in to be fattened on the same farm on which a breeding 
 flock is kept. Where practicable it would seem better to 
 increase the breeding flock to the full capacity of the farm, 
 and to fatten on it only such supplies as the farm was 
 thus able to furnish. The importance of keeping breed- 
 ing flocks of sheep free from parasites cannot be over- 
 estimated. Nor should it be forgotten that the danger of 
 introducing parasites with sheep purchased on other 
 farms is as great as when they are purchased at the stock- 
 yards. 
 
 Sheep fattened only on the farm — It is unfortunate in 
 several respects that all the sheep and lambs that are fat- 
 tened are not finished on the farm. The benefits from 
 such feeding include the following: (i) The percentage 
 of loss from feeding in such lots is less than in those that 
 are large ; (2) roughage is utilized that may otherwise 
 be wasted ; (3) the fertilizer is turned to good account ; 
 and (4) the farmer is given work that should bring a 
 profitable return at a time when other work is not press- 
 ing. 
 
 The percentage of loss with sheep fed in small lots 
 
230 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 is less than with sheep fed in large lots, for reasons very 
 similar to those which explain the greater loss in breed- 
 ing flocks of large size as compared with those of small 
 size. These include: (i) The less favorable sanitary 
 conditions where large lots are kept, from the less pure 
 character of the air; (2) the less favorable opportunity for 
 each to get its rightful share of the food ; and (3) the 
 greater opportunity furnished for communicating any 
 communicable form of ailments that may invade the flock. 
 These cases, however, are much less with the hardy 
 Merinos than with the mutton breeds, especially with 
 those of large size. 
 
 On every farm there is a certain amount of roughage 
 that may be turned to good account where live stock is 
 kept or fed, which would not be so used but for the pres- 
 ence of the same. Such fodders include corn stalks, bean 
 and pea straw, and the straw of various cereals. These, 
 of course, may be utilized by other kinds of stock, as 
 horses or cattle, if present; but on many farms it may 
 not be desirable to keep these in numbers that will con- 
 sume all the rough fodders grown. Such is the case fre- 
 quently on what are termed grain farms. Where sheep 
 are fed in large lots, both the fodders and the grain fed 
 to them in fattening are taken from the farm, and the 
 resultant fertilizer seldom comes back again to the farm 
 from which it was taken. 
 
 The waste of fertilizer when sheep are kept in large 
 lots is usually very great. At many feeding stations but 
 little use has been made of it in the past. In some in- 
 stances in the West it has been loaded on to flat cars at 
 the stockyards, drawn to some ravine or gully and then 
 thrown off the cars into it as the easiest way of disposing 
 of it. At feeding stations in the mountain states the 
 waste of manure is also frequently very great. More care, 
 however, is now being taken of this precious commodity 
 than in former years. When the sheep are fed on the 
 farm, all the fertilizer made may be readily applied and 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 23I 
 
 in a way that may be attended with but little loss of its 
 useful properties. 
 
 When sheep are fattened on the farm in winter, the 
 feed fed to them should result in more profit to the farmer 
 than if the same were disposed of by selling- it directly. 
 In this way the door is opened for increasing the revenue 
 of the farm through work done at a season when work 
 is usually not pressing. The advantage from increasing 
 revenue at such a time will be so apparent that it need 
 not be dwelt upon. 
 
 Duration of the fattening period — The duration of 
 the fattening period will depend measurably on the fol- 
 lowing considerations, along with some others that may 
 be named: (i) The relative amount of protein and car- 
 bohydrates respectively in the ration ; (2) the degree of 
 the concentration in the ration ; (3) the way in which the 
 food is fed ; (4) the nature of the market ; and (5) the con- 
 dition of the animals when put on feed. The more protein 
 and the less carbohydrates in the ration, the longer the 
 period that is called for in which to finish the sheep, and 
 vice versa. Foods that are highly concentrated, like corn, 
 cannot be fed safely for so long a period as foods less 
 concentrated and more bulky, like oats and field roots. 
 Sheep or lambs cannot be fed for so long a period when 
 the food is fed in self-feeders as when fed only up to the 
 capacity of the animals to consume it from time to time 
 with a relish. Some markets call for sheep with a some- 
 what less degree of finish than others ; hence it is not 
 necessary to feed them for so long a period for the former. 
 That sheep low in flesh when put on feed will take a 
 longer time to fatten than those high in flesh is only self- 
 evident. This factor alone may make a difference of sev- 
 eral weeks in the time called for in reaching a high degree 
 of finish. In but few instances are sheep or lambs fin- 
 ished in less than 60 days, and they can only be finished 
 thus quickly when they are in good condition as to flesh 
 when the feeding begins. On the other hand the feeding 
 
232 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 is seldom prolonged for more than 120 days. More com- 
 monly it covers a period of about 90 days. Lambs call 
 for a somewhat longer period to reach high flesh than 
 more mature sheep as they make muscle in a greater de- 
 gree than the latter. 
 
 When sheep and lambs are fattened within a short 
 time, concentrates rich in the elements of nutrition must 
 be fed. For such feeding no grain has higher adaptation 
 than corn. Finishing within short periods is attended 
 with more hazard than when feeding is more prolonged. 
 The mortality attending such feeding is usually greater 
 than when the period of feeding is more extended. 
 
 The fattening of sheep and lambs may be prolonged 
 in two ways. By the first the quantity of protein fed is 
 large, relatively, and by the second, while the concentrate 
 fed is chiefly carbonaceous, it is not fed up to the limit 
 of the capacity of the animals to consume it. While feed- 
 ing in the latter sense may be more costly in the amount 
 of food consumed to produce the necessar}' finish, the less 
 relative loss may more than compensate for the extra food 
 used. 
 
 With rare exceptions, the aim should be to reach a 
 high finish in the animals fed. The exceptions include such 
 times as when home-grown food supplies are short and 
 the cost of purchased foods is high, and when an early 
 winter brings fattening on the pastures to an abrupt close 
 under conditions which preclude the continuance of the 
 fattening process in sheds. High finish and top market 
 prices are almost invariably associated. An advance of 
 even a fraction of a cent a pound will make considerable 
 difference in the profits. 
 
 Increase from sheep while fattening — Prominent 
 among the conditions that afifect increase are breeding, 
 individuality, age. and food. It is true that breed influ- 
 ences gains, but to a less degree than individuality in the 
 animals that are being fattened. Sheep, for instance, that 
 have been developed largely for the wool produced, as the 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 233 
 
 Merino types, do not usually make gains quite equal to 
 those of the distinct mutton breeds. Likewise less in- 
 crease is to be expected from culls than from sheep pos- 
 sessed of good form and robust individuality. Lambs will 
 usually make larger increase than sheep that are older, 
 and the relative increase grows less with advancing age. 
 A ration well furnished with protein will usually be at- 
 tended with largest increase during the early stages of 
 fattening, but more of carbohydrates are wanted during 
 the more advanced stages to make rapid increase. 
 
 The normal increase will vary, of course, with the 
 conditions just pointed out. Moderate increase in lambs 
 on feed will approximate 7^ pounds per month ; good in- 
 crease, 10 pounds ; and excellent increase, 12 pounds. The 
 normal increase from wethers and other mature sheep will 
 probably approximate 20 to 25 per cent less. 
 
 The source of the profit from fattening sheep is sel- 
 dom found in the increase made while they are being thus 
 fattened. It comes from the enhanced value of each 
 pound of the live weight possessed when the fattening 
 process began. The market values of food are such that 
 in nearly all instances a pound of increase made costs 
 more in the food used in making it than it will sell for in 
 the market, and yet the advance in value of each pound 
 of the original weight may be such as to result in sub- 
 stantial profits. 
 
 Profit in fattening in winter — The real source of the 
 profit has just been pointed out, and yet other factors 
 have an important influence in determining what the de- 
 gree of the profit shall be, if any. Chief among these are 
 the prices paid for the animals purchased, if purchased, 
 and received for them when marketed, the weight when 
 put on feed, the relative increase made and the cost of the 
 food fed. From what has been said it will be apparent 
 that in order to make any profit on the animals fed, there 
 must be some increase in the selling over the buying 
 price. 
 
234 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 To make a very moderate profit, experience has 
 shown that with concentrates at one cent a pound the 
 selling price should exceed the buying price by not less 
 than one cent per pound live weight. To make a good 
 profit the former should exceed the latter by not less than 
 1 1/2 cents per pound. 
 
 The marked influence of the weights of the animals 
 at the time of purchase will be readily apparent. Thus 
 if one animal purchased and put on feed weighs lOO 
 pounds at the time of purchase and increases in value one 
 cent per pound because of the fattening, and if another 
 animal weighs but 60 pounds under similar conditions of 
 purchase and sale, the increase in the value of the former 
 at the time of purchase will be 40 cents more than that of 
 the latter. At first thought it would seem more profitable 
 to purchase large rather than small animals to put on 
 feed, but in practice in very many instances this does not 
 hold true, owing to the bearing of other influences 
 affected by size and age, as the purchase and sale prices, 
 rate of increase and cost of the same. 
 
 The bearing of the rate of increase and the cost of 
 food are so apparent as not to call for prolonged dis- 
 cussion. Rapid increase adds to profit by its actual value, 
 by reducing the cost of maintenance and by the salutary 
 influence which it exercises on condition. When the cost 
 of concentrates exceeds one cent per pound and the selling 
 price of the finished product is not more than 5 to 6 cents 
 per pound live weight, careful feeding is necessary to in- 
 sure much profit. 
 
 The relative profit from feeding lambs and wethers 
 or other sheep more mature than lambs will vary with 
 conditions such as relate to purchase and sale, also to the 
 value of food. The comparison may be stated thus: 
 Lambs usually cost more per pound when purchased, 
 make more increase and at less cost and are sold at an 
 advance in price greater, as a rule, than that obtained 
 for other sheep ; hence the margin of profit on lambs is in 
 
FATTENING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 235 
 
 many instances greater than the same from more mature 
 sheep. Nevertheless, because of the greater weight of 
 the more mature sheep at the time of purchase, the ad- 
 vance in value on this weight may in some instances bring 
 a larger margin of profit from these. When the sheep 
 are grown on the farm, the margin of profit from fatten- 
 ing will be the larger, as they consume from, say, 20 to 30 
 per cent less food for the increase made. Lambs will call 
 for approximately 500 pounds of grain and 400 pounds of 
 hay to make 100 pounds of increase. The risk from loss 
 during the feeding is also less with lambs. 
 
 Usually the finishing of aged ewes in winter is the 
 most undesirable kind of fattening in relation to sheep, as 
 they feed slowly, make increase at enhanced cost as com- 
 pared with other sheep, are fed at greater hazard and are 
 slower of sale. But in some instances the fattening of 
 these may fetch a good margin of profit, as when they 
 may be purchased cheaply and fattened at low cost. 
 
 General observations on fattening — -i. The fattening 
 process in its relation to the carcass proceeds in outline 
 as follows : The formation of fat begins internally by 
 creating the web that covers the intestines. It then be- 
 comes manifest at the tailhead, from which it extends for- 
 ward on both sides of the spine to the neck. It is then 
 deposited in the muscles. The kidneys become entirely 
 covered, the muscular tissue becomes marbled, the tail 
 becomes thick and stift', the top of the neck broad, and 
 the cod or udder filled. But the formation of fat is by no 
 means uniform in sheep. One will lay on the largest pro- 
 portions of fat on the rump and parts adjacent thereto ; 
 a second on the back ; a third on the parts adjoining the 
 forequarter, as the neck, breast and brisket ; a fourth on 
 those pertaining to the hindquarter, as the kidney and 
 flank ; and a fifth on the internal organs generally. 
 
 2. The prominent indications of ripeness in the car- 
 cass are: Stififness and thickness at the root of the tail; 
 a good covering of flesh on the loin and back generally, 
 
236 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 much width of the neck above and fulhiess of the breast 
 below, and thickness of the flank front and rear. If fat 
 is lacking at the tailhead, it will not be found elsewhere. 
 If abundantly present at the flanks and cod, it is not likely 
 to be lacking elsewhere. That degree of fatness should 
 not be sought that will lead to the rejection of a large 
 amount of fat when trimming the carcass. 
 
 3. The rations for fattening should be fed in approxi- 
 mate balance as a rule. In these protein foods should be 
 used with much freedom, especially with lambs, but it 
 would be easily possible to feed them so freely as to re- 
 sult in protein waste. In some instances, however, it may 
 be profitable to feed protein in excess, and in other in- 
 stances carbohydrates, because of the difference in the 
 relative value of these. 
 
 4. The shrinkage in fat sheep and lambs in transit 
 will vary with the foods used in fattening, with the degree 
 of the finish and with the time occupied in reaching the 
 market. The more succulent the foods used in finishing, 
 the longer relatively will be the shrinkage, and I'icc versa. 
 Well-finished sheep will usually shrink less than those of 
 lower finish. The longer the animals are in transit the 
 more, of course, will they shrink. When not more than 
 one to two days are occupied in transit, the shrinkage 
 should not be more than, say, four to five pounds for ani- 
 mals averaging 100 pounds live weight. In journeys on 
 the cars covering 1,000 miles approximately, shrinkage to 
 the extent of nine to 10 per cent has been reported. 
 
 5. There is not a consensus of opinion as to the cause 
 of what is termed "sheepy flavor" in mutton, nor is it 
 easy to express in words what is meant by the term. It 
 is that flavor sometimes found in mutton which reminds 
 those who have come in contact with sheep of the pres- 
 ence of the living animal. The common opinion that it 
 is caused by careless dressing, as the wool coming in con- 
 tact with the flesh, is not tenable, as the flavor is some- 
 times found in sheep that have been carefully dressed. It 
 
FATTEXING SHEEP AND LAMBS IN WINTER 2'>^'J 
 
 is doubtless caused by the way that the animals have been 
 fed and by the condition at the time of slaughter. If the 
 sheep are not improving, but rather losing flesh at the 
 time of slaughter, the less active conditions of the ex- 
 cretory organs removes less perfectly from the system all 
 the waste products. This view finds countenance in the 
 fact that the flavor referred to is not present in mutton 
 well fed and well finished. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 MILK LAMBS AND HOW TO OBTAIN, GROW 
 AND MARKET THEM 
 
 Chapter XII considers the following phases of this 
 question: (i) What is meant by a milk lamb; (2) The 
 essentials in a milk lamb ; (3) How to obtain milk lambs ; 
 (4) How to change the breeding habit in ewes ; (5) Expe- 
 rience at the Minnesota station ; (6) Milk lambs other 
 than from Dorset sires ; (7) Where milk lambs should be 
 grown ; (8) The quarters suitable for milk lambs ; (9) 
 Care and food for the dams; (10) Care and food for the 
 lambs; (11) Marketing the lambs; (12) Management of 
 the dams when the lambs are sold; (13) Disposing of the 
 dams to be sold; (14) Growing milk lambs chiefly from 
 grazing; and (15) The room for the industry. 
 
 What is meant by a milk lamb — In the strictest sense 
 a milk lamb is one that is sent to the market while yet 
 unweaned. Any lamb, therefore, that is sold prior to the 
 weaning season could with propriety be termed a milk 
 lamb, even though it should have reached the age of 18 
 to 20 weeks. But that is not the sense in which the 
 term is usually understood. Strictly speaking, a milk 
 lamb is a lamb that is dropped in the late autumn or early 
 winter and that is pushed forward by forced feeding and 
 sold at an age usually not more than 10 weeks from the 
 date of birth. They are frequently called winter lambs, 
 from the season during which they are usually grown. 
 They are also known as hothouse lambs from the forcing 
 and pampering to which they are subjected. The milk 
 lamb industry, though of long standing in Great Britain, 
 is of comparatively recent introduction into the United 
 States. The sale of such lambs as happened to come 
 early when not more than two to three months old has 
 
MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 239 
 
 been commonly practiced for many years, but the sys- 
 tematic breeding of winter lambs does not go back much 
 beyond two decades. The industry has almost entirely 
 grown up since 1890. But few flocks of Dorsets were 
 owned in the United States at the date mentioned. The 
 very considerable distribution of Dorsets since that time 
 has tended much to the advancement of the milk lamb 
 industry. 
 
 Essentials in a milk lamb — With reference to growth 
 in a milk lamb, it must be rapid; otherwise it will not 
 possess the requisite tenderness called for in such lambs, 
 nor would it reach the market at the proper season except 
 when born at an early period for winter lambs. With 
 reference to condition, it must be fat and plump ; other- 
 wise it will not grade sufficiently high to command the 
 good prices usually paid for good winter lambs. With 
 reference to form, it should possess good mutton requi- 
 sites with correct form. The breed or grade is not greatly 
 important. It may, however, have some significance, as 
 miniature horns in Dorset lambs have to some extent 
 become recognized as a mark of a true milk lamb. With 
 reference to weight, it should seldom exceed 45 pounds 
 and should seldom fall below 35 pounds. Providing the 
 lambs have sufficient weight and plumpness, the age will 
 not be inquired into, but the growth made must be made 
 rapidly, or the lambs will not be possessed of sufficient 
 plumpness to meet the needs of the market at the weights 
 that are most desirable. These lambs should reach the 
 market while under the age of, say, 10 weeks. 
 
 The time for marketing milk lambs is supremely im- 
 portant in its relation to the business. The best time to 
 market them is subsequently to the holiday season at the 
 end of the year and before the Easter season. Before the 
 holiday season the lambs are not much sought for, be- 
 cause of the extent to which poultry is used. Subse- 
 quently to the Easter period they would reach the mar- 
 ket in competition with early lambs not specially grown 
 
240 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 as milk lambs. The competition from the poultry in the 
 one instance and the early lamb in the other would tell 
 adversely on prices. Milk lambs should not be dropped, 
 therefore, much earlier than December nor much later 
 than February. The high price, relatively, paid for milk 
 lambs is the justification for breeding them. 
 
 FIG. 12— TYPICAL DORSET HORN RAM 
 
 The property of the Minnesota Experiment Station 
 
 (Courtesy of owner) 
 
 How to obtain milk lambs— Milk lambs can only be 
 obtained from a limited number of the pure breeds. The 
 Dorset and Tunis breeds are the only pure breeds from 
 which milk lambs are obtained in America in any consid- 
 erable numbers. The other pure breeds usually drop 
 their lambs too late to admit of growing them as winter 
 lambs. Merinos, in many instances, will produce lambs 
 early in the season if allowed to, but the habit of breed- 
 ing so as to produce lambs in the early winter is not en- 
 
MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 241 
 
 grafted on them as it is on the other breeds named. 
 Among the Down breeds Hampshires are probably the 
 most suitable. But milk lambs may also be obtained 
 from grades, though not until the breeding habit in these 
 has been so modified that they will with reasonable cer- 
 tainty produce lambs at the desired season. Such lambs 
 may be thus obtained from grades possessed of various 
 blood elements, but not until the breeding habit is modi- 
 fied by some such method as that pointed out below, 
 when discussing changing the breeding habit. 
 
 The material from which milk lambs may be obtained 
 is not plentiful as yet. Pure Dorsets and pure Tunis 
 sheep are too valuable to grow milk lambs from them. 
 The attempts to modify the breeding habit in grades are 
 recent and by no means general. As a result, the material 
 from this source for breeding winter lambs is not plenti- 
 ful. But it is from this source that growers of pure bred 
 lambs will chiefly obtain the ewes that will furnish the 
 lambs. 
 
 How to change the breeding habit — The tendency in 
 nearly all breeds of sheep is to drop their lambs in the 
 spring rather than in the autumn or winter. This tend- 
 ency or breeding habit may be so modified that ewes 
 will produce lambs at any season that may be desired ; 
 one or two methods may be chosen to effect such change. 
 By the first it is brought about by selection, by the sec- 
 ond through breeding and selection. The second method 
 will reach the desired end much more quickly than the first. 
 
 When the breeding habit is changed by selection, the 
 ewes that breed early are retained for such breeding. The 
 progeny of these are also saved for further breeding. 
 When the flock is well sustained by nourishing food, the 
 tendency to breed still earlier is encouraged. In time, 
 therefore, the habit in breeding may be changed from 
 one season to another. This method of securing change, 
 however, is too slow in itself to meet the needs of the 
 srrowers of milk lambs. 
 
242 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 When the breeding habit is changed by breeding and 
 selection combined, the change is affected in great part by 
 the sires chosen. The females set aside for such breed- 
 ing may be much mixed in their blood elements. In 
 selecting them the character of the inheritance need not 
 give much concern. Evidence of Merino inheritance 
 should be regarded with favor, as it will, when present, 
 facilitate to some extent quick change in the breeding 
 habit. Some attention should be given to size and form 
 when selecting them. They should approximate what is 
 considered good mutton form and should have reasonably 
 good size. Moreover, they should have that roominess 
 of body and refinement of head, neck and limb that indi- 
 cate capacity to milk freely. 
 
 Ewes thus chosen should be mated with rams chosen 
 from the Dorset or Tunis breeds. The mating should be 
 as early in the season as the ewes will take service, and it 
 may to some extent be hastened by giving the ewes nour- 
 ishing and succulent food. A certain proportion of lambs 
 will thus be obtained considerably earlier than such ewes 
 have been accustomed to breed, but not early enough, it 
 may be, to serve as milk lambs. The females that are 
 born thus early should be reserved for further breeding. 
 They should in due time be mated with a ram of the same 
 breed. If well sustained, a considerable proportion of 
 these will drop lambs in the early winter. The males 
 may be pushed forward and sold as milk lambs, but the 
 females should be retained for future breeding. If well 
 sustained, a very large proportion of these ewes — that is, 
 ewes of the second cross — will produce winter lambs. 
 With ewes of the third generation of such breeding, the 
 habit of producing winter lambs at the desired season 
 may be looked upon as practically established. The ewes 
 that do not show much advance in the time of breeding 
 can, of course, be discarded, but in well-managed flocks 
 it will be found that few of these will fail to breed much 
 earlier than the usual season for breeding. 
 
MILK LAMBS : HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 243 
 
 Food plays an important part in hastening or retard- 
 ing change in the breeding habit. When the ewes that 
 have produced early lambs are well sustained with nour- 
 ishing and succulent food during the nursing period, they 
 will frequently mate soon after the lambs have been 
 weaned ; hence after the change in the breeding habit has 
 been established, the ewes will sometimes mate so as to 
 produce lambs earlier than is desirable if allowed to do so. 
 When the lambs are sold several weeks before the time 
 for grazing begins, the ewes will mate more readily be- 
 fore being turned out to graze than for some time sub- 
 sequently, owing probably to the temporary reduction in 
 flesh which usually follows the beginning of the grazing 
 period. To insure mating sufficiently early, the grazing 
 should be nutritious, and along with it some supplemental 
 grain may be helpful in securing sufiiciently early breeding. 
 
 Experience in Minnesota — To throw light upon this 
 question, the author instigated a series of experiments at 
 the Minnesota station several years ago. The ewes 
 selected for the purpose were of the commonest types 
 that could be secured. A considerable proportion were 
 ewes from the range, such as are exposed for sale from 
 time to time in the stockyards. The blood elements pos- 
 sessed by them were various. Judging by the indications, 
 the blood elements of the Southdown, Shropshire, Oxford 
 Down and Cotswold breeds were more or less present, 
 and the evidences of Merino blood were pronounced in 
 nearly all of them. In some instances they carried folds 
 and even wrinkles. 
 
 The males used were pure Dorsets possessed of good 
 mutton form. In some instances the sire was used on his 
 own progeny, but this was not generally practiced. Later 
 when the breeding habit had been modified so that the 
 ewes could be expected to produce lambs at the required 
 season, pure males of the dark-faced breeds' were used in 
 service to a limited extent, especially those of the South- 
 down breed. 
 
244 MANAGKMKNT AND FEEDING OK SHEEP 
 
 During the summer the ewes were grazed largely on 
 sown pastures, such as winter rye, rape, peas and oats, 
 cabbage, and even sorghum, along with a limited amount 
 of grass pastures. They were so grazed because of the 
 absence of enough of grass pasture. When the grass 
 pasture was entirely lacking, which happened in some in- 
 stances, hay was fed. In winter the ewes that were nurs- 
 ing their lambs were fed hay or good corn fodder, a liberal 
 supply of grain, and also of field roots. The lambs were 
 also encouraged to take grain and roots as soon as they 
 would take such food. It was found that some of the 
 ewes of the first cross produced lambs sufficiently early. 
 A large proportion of those of the second cross or gener- 
 ation did so, while those of the third generation practi- 
 cally all produced winter lambs. Only a small per cent 
 of the ewes were discarded because of breeding too late 
 in the season. Moreover, it was found that some of the 
 ewes would take service earlier than was desired, if al- 
 lowed to do so. In some instances lambs were produced 
 in October. Some of these, too large to take the market 
 as milk lambs at the proper season, weighed as much as 
 80 to 90 pounds when sold in February. It was also 
 found that lambs obtained from grade Dorset ewes and 
 dark-faced sires, especially of the Southdown breed, were 
 more in favor with the dealers than those from Dorset sires. 
 
 Other than Dorset sires — ^^'hen the supply of dams 
 becomes sufficiently numerous, other than Dorset sfres 
 may be used should this be desired. The advantage from 
 using them would be the production of lambs with supe- 
 rior mutton form. When such a result could not be 
 looked for with a considerable degree of confidence, it 
 should not be attempted. The reference thus made to the 
 use of other sires does not imply that the Dorset is not 
 possessed of good mutton form, but that some breeds may 
 be somewhat superior to them in this respect. When no 
 improvement would result from change in the breed from 
 which the sires are chosen, it should not be made. 
 
MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 245 
 
 For such production pure Southdown sires have been 
 found the most suitable, and probably next to these the 
 Shropshires. Lambs from the former have a plumpness 
 and compactness of form that indicate the ideal mutton 
 form. Moreover, they bear a refinement of bone that is 
 closely associated with good killing properties. They 
 also have a tendency to mature early, which insures rapid 
 growth while they are young. 
 
 Such breeding, however, would probably result in 
 bringing about some reversion of the early breeding 
 habit; hence it would seem unwise to retain the females 
 for future breeding. There would also be some decrease 
 in the prolificacy of ewes thus begotten and some lessen- 
 ing of the capacity for milk production. These sires, 
 therefore, should only be used when dams that produce 
 winter lambs are plentiful, or when it is not desired longer 
 to secure from them ewes to be retained for breeding. 
 
 Where milk lambs should be grown — Milk lambs 
 should not be grown except where all the facilities exist 
 for making the work at least reasonably successful. It 
 should not be attempted : (i) Where the facilities for mar- 
 keting are not good; (2) where the requisite foods cannot 
 be grown with a reasonable degree of success ; (3) where 
 the place of consumption is far distant from the place of 
 production ; and (4) where the demand does not exist for 
 such lambs. 
 
 The facilities for marketing include proximity to a 
 railroad station, and telegraph or telephone communica- 
 tions with the dealers who want the lambs. Under such 
 conditions only can orders be received and filled with 
 sufficient promptness. A long distance from the place of 
 shipment would add much to the expense of the same. 
 
 While it is, of course, allowable to purchase the grain 
 or a part of it when growing milk lambs, the profit will 
 be proportionately greater when the food can be grown 
 successfully on the farm. The coarse fodders used, being 
 somewhat special in character, can be grown in a more 
 
246 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 suitable form when grown at home. Succulent food, also, 
 can only be furnished under average conditions by the 
 farms on which it is fed. Such food plays a very impor- 
 tant part in the feeding of milk lambs. 
 
 While the facilities for moving food products quickly 
 have been brought to a high degree of perfection, in a 
 country as large as the United States, where milk lambs 
 must go far to reach the market, the express charges 
 would too much cut in upon the profits. The cost of 
 shipping lambs, for instance, to New York city that are 
 grown within 100 miles of the same will be much less 
 than when they are grown 1,000 miles distant. 
 
 The demand for milk lambs does not exist in all parts 
 of the country. They furnish meat only for the wealthy ; 
 hence they will only find ready sale in certain centers. 
 This, of course, does not include lambs sold locally in the 
 spring season while still sucking the dams. These are in 
 demand wherever meat is in demand, but they do not 
 bring such prices as are usually paid for winter lambs. 
 
 Quarters suitable for milk lambs — In northern areas 
 the quarters for milk lambs should be reasonably warm. 
 While it is not absolutely necessary to have a barn built 
 on the basement plan in which to keep them, such a barn 
 is very suitable for the work. It should not. however, be 
 dark or dam.p, such as barns are in some instances that 
 are built close against or into a bank. A bright apart- 
 ment of a basement is a good place to have the young 
 lambs come into life. Under such conditions the risk to 
 the young lambs is not great, though the thermometer 
 without should register 30 degrees and even more below 
 zero. In the absence of apartments in a basement a lamb- 
 ing pen should be partitioned ofif in the sheep house, the 
 sheeting or lining of which would make it warm enough 
 to answer the purpose. This will usually be accomplished 
 by lining the studs inclosing the pen with sheeting of 
 boards on one or both sides of the studs, and using the 
 paper under the sheeting at least on one side. 
 
MILK LAMBS : HOW TO GET, GROW AND MARKET 247 
 
 It is entirely practicable to keep the dams, and also 
 the lambs, in a well-ventilated basement during the entire 
 period covered in the life of the lambs. This may be done 
 with entire safety to the lambs and also to the dams, as 
 the period covered by such feeding does not in many in- 
 stances exceed three months. The even and reasonably 
 warm temperature of such shelter is favorable to econom- 
 ical development in the lambs. They may be reared, 
 however, without hazard in ordinary sheep sheds if the 
 lambing pens are warm. But when reared in such sheds 
 access to a sunny yard in mild weather will doubtless 
 prove beneficial. 
 
 In latitudes milder than those of the northern states, 
 it is not necessary to have sheds so warm, and the neces- 
 sity grows less as the average temperature rises. In the 
 far South shelter that would protect from cold wind and 
 rain would probably prove ample. 
 
 Food and care for the dams — Before the lambs come, 
 grading the dams is seldom a necessity. It may be neces- 
 sary in some instances, however, to separate aged ewes 
 and any that may be lean for more liberal feeding. Sub- 
 sequently to the lambing, however, grading may be ad- 
 vantageous. The needs of both ewes and lambs may 
 call for this, as the ewes are not equally capable of taking 
 forcing food at the stages of the suckling period, and the 
 same is true in even greater degree of the lambs. The 
 ewes that produce lambs for replenishing the flock should 
 also be separated from the others at the time of lambing, 
 and should be fed apart from them, as forced feeding such as 
 is given to the others is not good for them or for their lambs. 
 
 After the ewes have lambs, the fodders best adapted 
 to such feeding are those that are largely nitrogenous in 
 their composition, fine in the character of the growth and 
 cured so the fodders are appetizing. Alfalfa cut as soon 
 as the first blooms show, clovers cut in early bloom and 
 Canada field peas and oats enough to sustain the crop 
 while growing are excellent. Finely grown corn and 
 
248 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 sorghum are good, but not as good as the former. Of the 
 clovers, alsike is the most suitable, being of fine growth. 
 In the central states and southward, cowpea hay will be 
 in order, in addition to other fodders that may be grown. 
 They may be allowed to pick over straw used for bedding, 
 but should not be expected to eat much of it. 
 
 The succulence fed must consist mainly of field roots 
 or corn silage, save in localities so mild that grazing 
 is practicable to some extent. Before the ewes produce 
 lambs, and for a few days subsequently, the ewes should 
 not be given more succulence than is necessary to keep 
 the digestion in tone. An excess of succulent food at such 
 a time may so stimulate milk formation as to lead to an 
 inflamed condition of the udder and possibly to other 
 evils. But after the lambs have become able to take all 
 the milk, the dams may be fed field roots practically up 
 to their capacity to consume them. No food can be given 
 to the ewes that will tend more to stimulate the milk 
 flow. Corn silage furnishes good succulence, and in the 
 absence of field roots should be fed to the extent of 3 to 
 4 pounds a day when it can be had and when it is of good 
 quality. It may be somewhat hazardous, however, to 
 feed it up to the capacity of the sheep to consume it, as 
 it is not so safe a food as field roots. Far South various 
 kinds of grazing may be accessible in the fields during a 
 portion of the time in the form of rape, the sand vetch, 
 winter oats and even cabbage. During intervals when 
 grazing would be imprudent these could be fed as a soil- 
 ing food. 
 
 The most suitable concentrates, without regard to 
 cost, are those that will best maintain the milk flow for 
 the young lambs, and that will at the same time prevent 
 undue emaciation in the dams. These will include, or 
 may include, all the leading cereals grown, but blended with a 
 view to make a milk-producing ration. Usually wheat 
 bran will be given considerable prominence in the mix- 
 ture. The unground grain will most frequently include 
 
MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 249 
 
 oats or barley and corn, because they are grown to a 
 greater extent than other grains. Where the prices will 
 admit of such feeding, the following is an excellent mix- 
 ture : 25 to 30 per cent wheat bran, ^^ oats, peas or bar- 
 ley, 36 corn and the balance oilcake or cottonseed meal. 
 Some grain may be fed before the ewes produce lambs, 
 but if so it must be fed with much moderation. After the 
 lambs are several days old, it may be fed almost up to the 
 limit of the capacity of the ewes to consume the food 
 with a relish. When the ewes are to be sold for meat 
 soon after the lambs have been marketed, the corn should 
 be considerably increased in the grain ration. 
 
 Care and food for the lambs — Milk lambs may be 
 grown when exposed to temperatures that are cool or 
 even cold, after they have reached the age of two or three 
 days, but the fact should not be forgotten that thus ex- 
 posed they will not grow so quickly as when in warmer 
 quarters, and the food consumption will be relatively 
 greater. Because of this growers of milk lambs in the 
 North prefer keeping them reasonably warm, even to the 
 extent, in some instances, of keeping them and the dams 
 inside all the while. 
 
 The exercise called for is not usually so much for 
 milk lambs as for lambs grown for breeding. Too much 
 exercise which they are likely to take when they are given 
 unlimited range, would retard fattening, though favor- 
 able to muscle development. Too little exercise may re- 
 sult in more or less of paralysis in the limbs of the fattest 
 lambs. Usually they will take enough of exercise when 
 they are given a reasonable amount of room, and espe- 
 cially when they may have access to a yard on fine days 
 an hour or two daily. 
 
 As soon as the lambs can be induced to eat, they 
 should be fed meal, and later grain, apart from the ewes. 
 Such food as ground oats, wheat middlings and oil meal 
 are suitable at the first and better in some sort of com- 
 bination than when fed alone. A little sugar sprinkled 
 
250 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 over the food encourages them to begin eating. After 
 some of the older ones have begun to eat, the younger 
 lambs will learn from them. After they have begun to 
 take food freely, any one of the following rations should 
 give good results: (1) Bran, oats, cracked corn and oil- 
 cake in the proportions of, say, three and two parts re- 
 spectively by weight; (2) cracked corn, ground barley, 
 oats and oilcake in the proportions of three, four and 
 three parts ; (3) wheat and oats unground in about equal 
 parts. Various other grain mixtures will also answer. As 
 the ages of the lambs increase the proportion of the corn 
 fed should increase. The meal or grain fed should be re- 
 moved each time before more is added, if any is left over. 
 As soon as the young lambs will eat freely they should be 
 fed meal and other food three times a day. They will not 
 eat much fodder if fed meal thus freely, but fine clover, 
 preferably alsike, will prove helpful when made accessi- 
 ble to them. But they will make an excellent use of roots 
 pulped or dried in fine strips, such as can be obtained from 
 certain kinds of root slicers. 
 
 The food must be fed to the lambs when it is inac- 
 cessible to the dams, and when the lambs have access to 
 it at will. A creep made in a corner of the pen in which 
 the lambs are kept, will usually answer the purpose best. 
 
 Marketing the lambs — The aim should be to secure 
 a market for the lambs before any are ready for ship- 
 ment. Those who live sufficiently near the consumer can, 
 of course, deliver the lambs dressed as needed, but when 
 not so situated it will be necessary to ship them to a dealer 
 as ordered. Under such conditions of disposal, the ad- 
 vantage of having the lambing season cover a consider- 
 able period will be apparent. Should the supply be greater 
 than the demand, the surplus lambs should be put upon 
 the general market, as they will usually sell for more at 
 such a time than they will bring if carried over until the 
 following autumn. 
 
 The necessity for filling the orders with all reason- 
 
MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 251 
 
 able promptness will be at once apparent. This fact 
 should be taken into account by those who grow 
 milk lambs when they enter upon the work. The con- 
 sumers of milk lambs are buying a fancy article for which 
 they are paying a fancy price, hence any lack of prompt- 
 ness in filling their orders may result in the loss of that 
 particular market. 
 
 Whether the lambs shall be shipped alive or dead 
 will depend somewhat on the distance to be covered while 
 in transit. Lambs that are delivered by conveyance may 
 be delivered alive if sold to a dealer, or dead if sold to the 
 consumer. Lambs sent by rail are usually sent dead after 
 the stomach and its appendages have been removed, but 
 such removal does not always include the heart, liver or 
 lungs. In some instances the skins are not removed but 
 more commonly they are. 
 
 The methods followed in dressing the lambs are not 
 uniform, but the following is submitted as a method that 
 may be safely followed : The lamb is bled by making a 
 small opening, frequently in the left side of the neck, just 
 back of the head, and in front of the neck bones. The 
 blade of the knife should cut the large artery found there. 
 The stomach and entrails are then removed without dis- 
 turbing the liver, lungs or heart. Two spreaders are then 
 inserted so as to cross each other at right angles when in 
 place. These are pointed and have shoulders, and one 
 end of each is inserted in the outer side of the hind fiank, 
 the other end entering the opposite side of the lamb near 
 the chest. The caul fat is then spread so as to cover all 
 the meat not covered with the skin, and is held in place 
 by skewers at the thighs and at the point of the spreaders. 
 As soon as the animal heat is all given oi¥ the carcass is 
 wrapped in strong paper put on tightly and it is then 
 further inclosed in burlap or sacking. Such lambs dressed 
 have sometimes been shipped in light boxes just large 
 enough to admit of slipping the carcass into them from 
 the end. 
 
252 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 The dams after weaning — Whether the darns are sold 
 after the lambs are weaned or retained for future breed- 
 ing, the grain food should be at once reduced in quantity, 
 and the succulent food should be almost entirely withheld. 
 The object is to reduce the milk flow. It might not be 
 quite safe to withhold all the grain and succulent food at 
 once, on the principle that sudden changes of diet are 
 frequently hurtful. In the case of ewes that are to be 
 sold, it would certainly be a mistake to reduce the grain 
 food to a low limit, as it is important that these ewes shall 
 not lose flesh. Under such feeding it might take a longer 
 time to dry off the ewes, but even so the extra attention 
 thus called for is a trifling expense compared with allow- 
 ing the ewes to lose flesh. 
 
 In some instances the lambs are allowed to take milk 
 from the ewes whose lambs have been sold, in addition 
 to that furnished by their mothers. In this way lambs 
 not sufficiently rounded out may soon be made ready for 
 market. To accomplish this, however, usually involves 
 holding the ewes two or three times a day while the lambs 
 take the food thus furnished. The shepherd must be the 
 judge of the instances in which this method will prove 
 profitable. 
 
 Much attention must be given to the udders when the 
 lambs are being sold. The dams have been under high 
 pressure feeding and have not gone far beyond the time 
 of greatest milk production during the lactation period; 
 hence drying them off is a very different matter from the 
 drying of ewes that have nursed their lambs for the full 
 lactation period. The udders should be examined daily 
 for a number of days, and should be relieved of a part 
 of the milk as frequently as may be found necessary. 
 
 The lambs to be retained should be given only such 
 food as will maintain them in a moderate condition as to 
 flesh until they are turned onto the grazing, except when 
 it is desired to have them breed again as soon as this 
 can be brought about. Should that be desired, stimulat- 
 
MILK lambs: how to get. grow and market 253 
 
 ing food should be fed. Such feeding would only be 
 necessary when two crops of lambs are desired in one 
 }ear, which under conditions such as are found in north- 
 ern areas is not desirable, as the tax is so severe upon the 
 breeding powers of dams that ere long it would result in 
 deterioration. 
 
 Disposing of the dams — When the dams are to be 
 sold soon after the sale of the lambs, they must be given 
 freely such food as will fatten them quickly. When thus 
 fattened they will sell for a better price than could be ob- 
 tained for them if sold later, as the competition in mut- 
 ton in the market is less severe in the spring season when 
 such ewes may reach the market than it would be later. 
 
 For some time previous to the selling of the lambs, 
 these ewes should be fed more grain that is fattening in 
 its nature, as corn, than would be necessary for ewes that 
 are to be retained for breeding, but this food should not 
 be fed to them to the extent of hindering free milk pro- 
 duction for the sustenance of the lambs. 
 
 As soon as the ewes that are to be sold are dried oflf 
 they should be pushed, so to speak, for the block. They 
 can stand such high feeding for a time, as they have, in 
 a manner, been accustomed to it before the lambs were 
 weaned. Corn will furnish the cheapest concentrate for 
 such fattening in corn-growing areas ; but. of course, 
 other food, as oats or wheat bran, should be fed along with 
 it. Ewes may be finished more quickly before than after 
 the turning out season, because of the temporary loss of 
 weight that usually follows turning animals out on grass, 
 but it may under some conditions be more costly than fin- 
 ishing on grass. 
 
 Growing milk lambs from grazing — The areas 
 adapted to grov/ing milk lambs chiefly from grazing are 
 somewhat limited in the United States, and they can 
 scarcely be said to exist at all in Canada. They are con- 
 fined to portions of the Gulf States and to limited areas 
 along the Pacific coast, but in states further north than 
 
254 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 those on the Gulf of Mexico, grazing may be furnished 
 much later and earlier than further north. 
 
 Prominent among the foods that may be grown for 
 such fattening are rape, kale and cabbage. Such foods 
 also as winter oats, winter rye, crimson clover and vetches 
 may be utilized more or less. These crops would be 
 grazed in part and in part used as soiling food, as in ad- 
 verse weather they should not be grazed. The condition 
 of the ground may also make grazing impracticable in 
 very wet weather. 
 
 While being grazed the ewes and lambs will fare bet- 
 ter if they may have access to a grass pasture. Where 
 this is not obtainable they should be given fodder in the 
 cured form. The efifect upon the digestion will be favor- 
 able. More or less grain will be helpful to both ewes and 
 lambs, but especially when they can feed largely on rape, 
 kale or cabbage that is well headed. The amount of grain 
 called for is much less than when the ewes are confined 
 and fed chiefly on dry food. 
 
 There may be instances in which it may be desirable 
 to cut the green food and to feed it to the flock on the 
 soiling plan. By this method the food may be made ac- 
 cessible to the sheep with more uniformity than when 
 they are grazed. They will be less exposed in bad weather 
 and less food will be wasted, but, of course, more labor is 
 involved. In the absence of experience in growing lambs 
 thus the method that will certainly prove the most profit- 
 able cannot be given. 
 
 The room for the industry — That the room for the 
 industry as conducted at present is not unlimited will be 
 very evident when it is remembered that winter lamb sold 
 at the prices which now prevail is. in a sense, a luxury. 
 But that it may be greatly extended cannot be doubted. 
 In many important centers it is not known at present, as 
 it has never been introduced into these. At the present 
 time it is only used in but few of the metropolitan cities 
 of the republic. 
 
MILK lambs: how to get, grow and market 255 
 
 The factors that develop consumption are : The pro- 
 duction of the lambs, the knowledge that they are being 
 produced, and in proximity or reasonable proximity to a 
 center of wealth. Winter lambs, therefore, will find a 
 market in small centers of population at the rate of, say, 
 $8 to $10 for a lamb that weighs from 35 to 45 pounds. 
 But it should be possible to grow lambs in winter so as 
 to put them on the market at prices considerably lower 
 than those named. Should that be done, the market for 
 them would be unlimited. 
 
 Of course, the growing of summer lambs will always 
 have an important place, but under certain conditions it 
 may prove more profitable to grow winter lambs, even 
 though sold at not more than $4 to $5 per animal. The 
 following are among the advantages that may accrue 
 from growing them: (i) The work is done at a season 
 when field work is not pressing. (2) The lambs being 
 grown in winter are but little subject to parasitic dis- 
 eases, that so frequently prey upon lambs in summer. 
 (3) The price obtained is much more per pound than that 
 given for summer lambs. In the southern states Iambs 
 should grow better in winter than in summer, as they 
 are not exposed to the prolonged heat of the summer 
 season. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR 
 EXHIBITION 
 
 In Chapter XIII the growing and fitting of sheep for 
 exhibition is discussed under the following subheads : 
 (i) The sources from which pure breds are obtained; (2) 
 The sources from which grades and cross breds are ob- 
 tained ; (3) The quarters for the ewes and lambs ; (4) 
 Food for the dams while nursing in sheds; (5) Feed- 
 ing and caring for the lambs until weaned ; (6) Grazing 
 for the dams before the time of weaning; (7) The lambs 
 subsequently to weaning; (8) Trimming the wool for the 
 fairs; (9) Washing and smearing sheep for shows; (10) 
 Special treatment for Merino sheep; (11) Show sheep in 
 transit to the fairs ; (12) Management subsequently to the 
 fair season; (13) The exercise that is required; (14) Ex- 
 cessive fatness to be avoided; (15) The age to which 
 sheep may be shown; and (16) Miscellaneous observa- 
 tions on showing sheep. 
 
 Sources from which pure breds come — As a rule the 
 leading exhibitors of pure-bred sheep in Great Britain 
 grow the animals which they exhibit. In the United 
 States and Canada this method is reversed by many 
 breeders. They import from the flocks of Britain many 
 of the sheep which they show. This does not apply 
 equally to all breeds, as the American and Delaine Me- 
 rino are in all instances home grown, and in nearly all in- 
 stances it is true of the Rambouillets. This superiority 
 of the mutton breeds of sheep in Britain is owing in part 
 to the temperate and moist climate of that country, so 
 favorable to the abundant growth of those succulent foods 
 that are so helpful in forcing early growth, but it is only 
 fair to concede that it is owing in part to the genius of 
 
 256 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 257 
 
 the breeders in evolving superior types and to the skill 
 and fidelity shown by the shepherds in caring for the 
 sheep. In some flocks, however, many of the pure-bred 
 sheep shown even at the largest fairs are bred at home. 
 Whether the time will come when prize-winning sheep at 
 the leading fairs shall be grown rather than imported, is a 
 question on which opinions dififer. The solution must 
 come from the genius of our people, for in some portions 
 of the United States the conditions are very similar to 
 those found in Great Britain. 
 
 The leading characteristics to be sought in pure breds 
 that are to be shown are those which belong to the vari- 
 ous pure breeds, as indicated by the standards which be- 
 long to these. It is absolutely essential that the breed 
 characteristics shall be present, including in fair degree 
 even points that are regarded as fancy, because of the 
 extent to which these influence the awards of many 
 judges. The characteristics as to form and size are rela- 
 tively the most important, but those that relate to wool 
 are also important. It should be carefully examined with 
 reference to density, length, texture and all other quali- 
 ties, and also with reference to its even distribution over 
 the body. The shades of color in head and legs all have 
 a bearing on the awards, and the same is true of a rosy 
 and pink skin. In the males much stress should be laid 
 upon the evidences of masculinity, and in the females on 
 those of femininity. Prominent among the former are 
 compactness, strong head, neck and breast development, 
 and strong but not coarse limbs. Prominent among the 
 latter are refinement of head, neck and limbs, and a suffi- 
 ciency of length of body. When selecting sheep to be 
 mated with a view to rear show animals from them, much 
 attention should be given to the record of performance in 
 the near ancestry when such information is obtainable. 
 
 Sources from which grades and crossbreds come — 
 Grade and cross-bred sheep shown at fairs are almost en- 
 tirely grown on the farms of those who exhibit them ; 
 
208 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 259 
 
 hence in the exhibits of these the skill of the breeder is 
 more clearly demonstrated than in many of the exhibits 
 of pure breds. In but rare instances do professional show 
 men buy a pen of grades or crossbreds and with them 
 make the rounds of the leading fairs, as they do frequently 
 with pure breds. 
 
 When grown by the exhibitor, they may be one of several 
 grades and crosses. The foundation females should be 
 ewes of fairly good form, not less than medium in size for 
 the grade, and possessed of that structure which indi- 
 cates good milk-giving properties. They should possess 
 much inherent ruggedness ; hence ewes much mixed in 
 breeding, even such as come from the range, may answer 
 the purpose well. Though decided indications of Merino 
 blood are present, they are not to be rejected on that ac- 
 count. Such ewes may be variously crossed upon, but no 
 cross will serve the purpose better, as a rule, than one of 
 Shropshire or Southdown blood. In the experience of the 
 author, excellent lambs for exhibition purposes were pro- 
 duced from ewes mated with a Southdown ram that were 
 the offspring of such ewes as have just been referred to, 
 mated with a Shropshire ram. Lambs thus bred at the 
 Minnesota Station in 1901 were given first place at the 
 Chicago International, when showing against the world. 
 In some instances it was found that lambs of the first 
 generation answered for such breeding, but more com- 
 monly those of the second generation were even more 
 suitable, and in some instances further grading gave even 
 better results. 
 
 The rams chosen for mating with such females 
 should possess medium size for the breed, fleshing prop- 
 erties of a high order and of proved prepotency where it 
 is found possible to obtain such evidence. Should rams 
 unusually large for the breed be chosen, the danger is 
 present that something of coarseness and too much 
 strength of limb may be transmitted to the progeny. In 
 the leading fat stock fairs of Great Britain, the progeny of 
 
26o MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Hampshire and Oxford Down sires have been the more 
 frequent prize winners, but in those of the United States 
 and Canada the honors have come more frequently to the 
 progeny of Shropshire and Southdown sires. 
 
 The style of carcass wanted is influenced by form, 
 size, symmetry, bone and breed or grade. The cylindri- 
 cal and compact form, with much of width, depth and 
 roundness, and accompanied by firmness of back, is the 
 most suitable. An animal of medium size and much 
 symmetry, that is of correct correlation in the different 
 parts, is in every way to be preferred to one of more size 
 and less of symmetry. Bone even less than medium for 
 the breed or grade is preferred to bone that is larger. 
 While good specimens may be found in all the mutton 
 breeds and their grades, those that conform most nearly 
 to the Southdown type stand the best chance of winning. 
 
 Quarters for the ewes and lambs — To grow sheep or 
 lambs for exhibition does not call for quarters elaborate 
 or costly. In the quarters furnished it is only necessary 
 to make provision for shelter from drafts, from storms, 
 from excessive sunshine and for taking food and exer- 
 cise. Exposure to drafts in the sheds, hurtful to any 
 class of sheep, would so retard progress in show animals 
 as to defeat the object for which they are kept. Protec- 
 tion from storms includes protection from rain, sleet, 
 snow and strong or harsh winds. Hot sunshine will in- 
 jure show sheep more than others, since they carry more 
 fat and the greater the exposure to hot sunshine, the more 
 is the annoyance at the same time, as a rule, from flies. 
 The quarters for such sheep should be large enough to 
 prevent all crowding and the trough room should be 
 ample. It is also indispensable that the sheep shall be 
 given opportunity to exercise freely, or the flesh which 
 they carry will not be sufficiently firm. 
 
 While the dams are nursing their young they are 
 simply kept in an apartment separate from other sheep. 
 This is necessary in order to furnish them with such foods 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 261 
 
 as they should have, as the aim is at such a time to force 
 milk production to the limit. But it is not necessary to 
 keep them separate from the other members of the flock 
 previously to the lambing season, under proper conditions 
 of management. In addition to roomy quarters they 
 should, of course, have much freedom of access to a yard 
 adjacent. Later they should have access to suitable graz- 
 ing, but only at stated times, as shown below. Where 
 grading cannot be furnished, green food should be fed 
 to them in paddocks. 
 
 The quarters for the dams will also be suitable for 
 the lambs up to the weaning season. But in addition 
 it is imperative that the lambs are given a protected 
 place where they can take a portion of their food apart 
 from the dams. Such a place may usually be furnished 
 within the apartment in which the dams are fed (see 
 page 260). 
 
 When the lambs are weaned, they may be kept dur- 
 ing the heat of the day in the same apartment that the 
 dams have vacated, but at other times should have access 
 to a yard, a paddock or to an adjacent pasture. The sheds 
 must be darkened during the day by covering the open 
 windows with sacking or some such material as will keep 
 out flies and will, at the same time, provide ample ventila- 
 tion. 
 
 The quarters suitable for shearlings in summer are 
 limited to those just described as suitable for lambs. In 
 winter they want a reasonably roomy, bright and airy 
 space free from drafts and adjacent to a yard. They must 
 be kept apart from other sheep in order that they may be 
 given proper and suitable food. 
 
 Food for the dams while nursing in sheds — The fod- 
 ders fed to the dams must be of high quality and such as 
 are favorable to milk production. Alfalfa and clover stand 
 at the head of the list in suitability for such feeding, but 
 peas and oats and vetches and oats of fine growth are ex- 
 cellent. The alfalfa should be cut at first bloom, and the 
 
262 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 clovers in early bloom, and the peas and oats or vetches 
 and oats a little short of maturity. Millet of fine growth 
 and leafy, cut when the heads are beginning to tint, is 
 good. The same is true of fodder corn, bright and leafy, 
 of fine growth and cut a little short of full maturity. 
 Feeding fodders in variety is helpful to sheep of all grades, 
 and it is especially so to ewes that are being forced, as it 
 were, to provide milk for their lambs. Such fodder may 
 be given two or three times a day, and if any is left over, 
 it should be carefully removed before furnishing the next 
 feed. 
 
 In no form can succulence be given so safely or so 
 beneficially to such ewes when on dry food as in the form 
 of field roots. While any kind of field roots will serve 
 the purpose, there is no variety of the same that is supe- 
 rior to the rutabaga or the mangel. After the lambs are 
 able to take all the milk, the ewes may be given 6 to 8 
 pounds of these in a day, or practically all that they will 
 consume. They should be given in two feeds and in the 
 sliced or pulped form. Next in value to field roots is corn 
 silage, but it is not to be fed so freely as field roots. 
 When fed in large quantities, as large as, say, six pounds 
 or more daily, it has not proved so entirely satisfactory 
 as field roots in its influence on the health of the sheep. 
 
 While various concentrates may be fed, none are 
 more suitable under average conditions than a mixture 01 
 oats, bran and corn or peas in the proportion of five, three 
 and two parts respectively. Of this they may be fed 
 virtually all that they will eat with a relish. A very lim- 
 ited amount of oilcake will also be in some degree help- 
 ful when it can be obtained. 
 
 Feeding and caring for the lambs — The aim should 
 be to have lambs that are to be shown at the early autumn 
 fairs come in February or March. For the late fairs, as 
 the December fat stock shows, they should come in late 
 March, or even as late as early April. If they come too 
 early they will be too far grown to meet the conditions 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 263 
 
 called for to make them compete in that form which is 
 most in consonance with the present standard of feeding. 
 For such a use, single lambs are preferred, for reasons 
 that will be apparent. As some lambs fail to attain to the 
 standard indicated in the promise of early growth, the 
 aim should be to grow more than the number called for by 
 the exhibit or exhibits, and to select from these as the sea- 
 son for exhibiting draws near. 
 
 In some instances it may be possible to obtain the 
 assistance which a nurse ewe may give to a lamb in fur- 
 nishing milk for it, in addition to what is obtained from 
 its own mother. Ewes that may have lost their own off- 
 spring may be thus employed, but in some instances it is 
 difficult to make them thus perform the part of a foster 
 mother. In other instances the opposite may be true. In 
 no other way can the most satisfactory development be 
 obtained from a lamb reared for any purpose than by sup- 
 plying it abundantly with ewe's milk. 
 
 Cow's milk is sometimes fed to lambs that are being 
 fitted for exhibition with a view to increase their size. 
 This is more common in case of the large breeds and with 
 lambs reared for breeders than with lambs to be shown 
 in the purely fat classes, for size in these would seem to 
 count for less than in the breeding classes. Lambs are 
 thus fed from a bottle with a nipple attached. Some sugar 
 is added at first, that the milk may thus be made to ap- 
 proximate more nearly the constituents in cow's milk. 
 In some instances a small percentage of water is added. 
 Lambs are sometimes thus fed up to and on through the 
 fair season. Testimony, however, regarding the subse- 
 quent behavior of lambs thus fed when reared for breed- 
 ing uses is unfavorable. This applies to both males and 
 females, but is most unfortunate in the case of the former, 
 because of the more important part they play individ- 
 ually in the flock. 
 
 The best fodders for such lambs while yet unweaned 
 include clover, alfalfa and vetch hay. These should be of 
 
264 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the finest growth found in those respective kinds of hay. 
 Alfalfa cut not later than the very first appearance of 
 blooms is particularly suitable. The same is true of alsike 
 clover, or the alsike and small white varieties grown to- 
 gether. The vetch hay should also be grown so thickly 
 as to preclude the opportunity for coarse growth. When 
 on good pasture the lambs may not take much hay, but 
 they will consume more or less of it and with manifest 
 advantage. Such fodder should be fed in small racks in- 
 accessible to the ewes. For succulence they should be 
 given field oats or cabbage until the season of plentiful 
 grazing arrives. The most suitable roots at such a time 
 are rutabagas, mangels and sugar beets, as these are then 
 in good condition for being fed. They should be fed 
 sliced or pulped, and if sliced the aim should be to so slice 
 them that they shall be fed in thin strips. The cabbage 
 heads should also be cut up or sliced — in fact, minced in 
 a sense — so that the lambs may readily partake of them. 
 
 Young lambs will begin to eat grain, when, say, not 
 more than 10 days old. There is no better grain for 
 lambs when they begin to take such food than ground or 
 crushed oats fed alone. A few days later bran may be 
 added with advantage. When they have become well 
 started on such feed, say at the age of four or five weeks, 
 the following grain ration will be found highly suitable 
 through the remainder of the nursing period : Oats, bran, 
 corn or peas by measure in the proportions of 50, 25, 20 
 and 5 per cent respectively. Peas are preferable to corn 
 during the milk period, but corn is preferable later. They 
 should be given practically all the grain that they will 
 eat. 
 
 Lambs to be exhibited should be docked and cas- 
 trated at an early age (see pages 114-117), Both operations 
 should be performed with the exercise of careful judg- 
 ment. The length of the stub has a bearing on the sym- 
 metry of the lamb, and also the size of the sac from 
 which the testicles have been drawn. Short docking is 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 265 
 
 preferred to that which is larger, as it adds to the square- 
 like appearance of the buttock. When but little of the 
 sac is removed in castration, it fills with fat in the well- 
 finished animal, and is so far an indication of condition. 
 
 Grazing for the dams — The aim should be to furnish 
 grazing for the ewes that will aid them in furnishing a 
 large amount of milk, relatively, until the lambs are 
 weaned. Such grazing should be not only palatable but 
 highly succulent. 
 
 Winter rye is first ready in the spring. After rye, 
 brome grass, blue grass, clover and rape follow each other 
 in near succession where all these can be grown. The 
 spring vetch also will be ready somewhat earlier than 
 rape. After vetch or rape pasture has arrived, so com- 
 pletely suitable are they that it is not necessary to look 
 for other pasture. Peas, oats, rape and vetch sown to- 
 gether furnish grazing that is high in favor with some 
 of those who grow sheep that are to be shown. 
 
 Should it be impracticable to furnish grazing, it may 
 be possible to furnish soiling food, and this when chosen 
 with judgment and judiciously fed will give results about 
 as satisfactory as those obtained from grazing. But feed- 
 ing soiling food involves more labor, and it does not 
 furnish an equal opportunity with grazing for the sheep 
 to take exercise. The best soiling foods include alfalfa, 
 clover, vetches and oats, kale and rape. When these are 
 of fine growth and leafy and full of succulence, they will 
 prove much more suitable than when the opposite condi- 
 tions prevail. None of these can be obtained so early as 
 grazing, and until food can be obtained from them the 
 feeding of roots should be continued, but not necessarily 
 after the feeding of soiling food or even the grazing of 
 pasture has commenced. 
 
 The feeding of concentrates to both ewes and Iambs 
 should be continued without change until the lambs are 
 weaned, except that in nearly all instances, it may be re- 
 duced in quantity. For the components of the grain food 
 
266 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 for such feeding of the ewes see page 247, and of the 
 lambs see page 249. 
 
 Lambs subsequently to weaning — Lambs for exhibi- 
 tion should be allowed to remain somewhat longer with 
 the ewes than other lambs. They should seldom be 
 weaned short of the age of five months. Before being 
 weaned they are allowed access to grazing with the dams 
 during a considerable portion of the day ; but subse- 
 quently, and indeed after the arrival of hot weather, they 
 are kept in sheds and the yards attached much of the 
 time. After the weaning period they are allowed to graze 
 for an hour or more in the morning, and also in the even- 
 ing, but in some instances they are only allowed to graze 
 once a day, but for a longer period. When grazed once 
 a day, the evening is preferred, as dew is not then present 
 on the pastures. As the season for exhibiting approaches, 
 the period for grazing should probably be curtailed, as 
 only about so much exercise is needed, and if taken in ex- 
 cess, increase would probably be somewhat retarded. 
 
 Until the fair season, the feeding of more or less 
 cured fodders should be continued from the weaning sea- 
 son onward. Even though the lambs are being fed liber- 
 ally on green food, they will consume a considerable pro- 
 portion of such food, for the reason that the appetite calls 
 for it. It is craved probably because it acts as a regulator 
 of digestion. It will best serve the purpose if composed 
 of such fodders as alfalfa, clover or vetch hay. 
 
 While various kinds of grazing may be used subse- 
 quently to weaning, none is more suitable than clover and 
 rape, both of which may usually be in season at such a 
 time. These will answer practically the same purpose if 
 fed as soiling food. 
 
 After the lambs are weaned, they will profit by the 
 judicious feeding of field roots, or what may be an equiv- 
 alent, as, for instance, cabbage. Fall turnips come earlier 
 than other roots, and they may be fed — roots and tops 
 together. Later rutabagas and mangels or sugar beets 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 267 
 
 may be fed, but for fear of urinary troubles mangels 
 should not be fed to the males. It may be necessary to 
 restrict the feeding of roots somewhat at such a time, 
 lest the lambs should not take enough grain. 
 
 The following grain ration will be found suitable 
 after the weaning season : Oats, bran, corn or peas and 
 oil cake in the proportions of 50, 15, 25 and 10 per cent, 
 but toward the end of the fitting period the proportion 
 of the corn fed should be increased, to add high finish to 
 the carcass. The grain should be fed in liberal supply, 
 but never to the extent of putting the animals off feed or 
 of inducing that flabby condition of flesh that indicates 
 over-fitting. To feed just enough and not too much of 
 any one kind of food calls for the continual exercise of 
 judgment. 
 
 Trimming the wool for the fairs — The practice of 
 what is known as "trimming" the fleece of show sheep 
 when preparing them for exhibition is almost universal 
 with sheep of the middle wool breeds. It is practiced to 
 a less extent with sheep of the long wool breeds. Merinos 
 are not thus trimmed, whatsoever the type or breed may 
 be, but in some instances umber is rubbed sparingly on 
 the hips, legs and breast where the wool has become 
 frayed by rubbing. The smaller the breed that is 
 trimmed, the more severe, as a rule, is the trimming. By 
 trimming is meant the removal of the points of the wool 
 fibers of the fleece or of some part of it with the shears, 
 and in some instances the further removal in addition of 
 small portions of the length of the wool fiber on certain 
 parts of the body. As the wool fibers of Merinos are very 
 frequently glued together more or less at the outer ex- 
 tremities, such trimming of the fleece would not be possi- 
 ble. 
 
 The object sought in trimming the fleece is to add 
 to the beautiful and symmetrical appearance of the animal 
 when it comes into the show ring. The sheep whose 
 fleece is carefully trimmed will not only appear more 
 
268 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 symmetrical, as a rule, than the one not trimmed, but it 
 will also appear larger and plumper in its entire anat- 
 omy. The optical illusion thus produced is not a little 
 surprising. Trimming may also tend to hide defects of 
 conformation which otherwise would be more apparent to 
 the eye. Because of this the practice of trimming has 
 been fiercely assailed, and without sufficient reason. If 
 the judge were not allowed to use his hands when making 
 the awards on sheep, the morality of such trimming 
 might be questioned. The competent judge by the use 
 of his hands is supposed to discover any defects of car- 
 cass hidden by the trimmer's art or by the covering which 
 nature bestowed upon the animal. It would seem to be 
 quite as commendable for the exhibitor of sheep to im- 
 prove them by trimming as for the exhibitor of cattle to 
 comb the hair upwards near the topline, that the back 
 may thereby appear wider to the eye. 
 
 The trimming of the fleece of the middle wool breeds 
 is accomplished in outline as follows : The fleece is 
 blocked out with the shears in what may be termed the 
 rough ; that is, it is given the desired outline by clipping 
 off the projecting points of the wool fibers. In doing 
 this the top and bottom lines should be made straight 
 and parallel, the breast full and rounding, the thighs 
 nicely turned and the buttock wide across and yet plump. 
 The fleece is then gone over with a stifif brush dipped in 
 water, to aid in straightening the ends of the wool fibers. 
 In some instances a currycomb is also used. The clipping 
 of the points, which follows, is made by using sharp thin- 
 bladed and easy-working shears, which are held quite 
 level and at right angles to the wool fibers. To make a 
 finished picture, the trimming must be repeated several 
 times at intervals. Much practice and good judgment are 
 called for to make an exact trimmer. But little trimming 
 is given to sheep of the long-wool breeds. 
 
 When trimming sheep that are to be shown, the 
 peculiarities of fleece should be given due recognition. 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 269 
 
 Tlie Down breeds are covered with a fleece of varying 
 length, according to the breed. In these density counts 
 for more than length of staple. The less dense the wool, 
 however, in a breed, the more valuable is length of staple, 
 hence the less severe is the trimming as the length of 
 staple increases. The fleece of long wools should be of 
 great length of staple, hence the wool fibers are not 
 clipped back to any extent save on the back. 
 
 Washing and smearing show sheep — Certain breeds 
 of sheep are washed when preparing them for the fairs. 
 Such washing, however, is apparently confined to the 
 long wooled breeds. Why washing should virtually be 
 confined to the long wooled breeds is not clearly apparent, 
 at least in all instances. It is true, however, that the 
 fleece of the long wool breeds is less able to protect itself 
 from the presence of foreign matters, and the wool is 
 washed to remove these. Washing tends to free the 
 pores of the skin from gummy and other adherent mat- 
 ters. In so far as it does this, it promotes the natural flow 
 of the lubricants that help to keep the wool fibers in a 
 correct condition. The first washing is given not long 
 subsequently to the shearing, and the second within two 
 to three weeks of the show season. The washing may be 
 conveniently done in a dipping vat if not unduly large. 
 Castile soap of good quality is generally used. But after 
 the washing all trace of the soap should be removed by 
 careful rinsing with clear water, as the continued presence 
 of soap would tend to make the fleece harsh and dry. 
 When the washing is done sufficiently long before the 
 time for exhibiting, the yolk so extends along the wool 
 fibers as to give them a brilliant appearance, the outside 
 of the fleece meanwhile being so protected to preserve 
 its snow-white appearance in the show ring. 
 
 The practice of smearing the wool of certain breeds, 
 as, for instance, the Down breeds, is sometimes adopted. 
 It was followed more or less in Culley's time, and it is 
 still practiced in many sections of Great Britain, where 
 
270 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 it is more popular even now than in America. Smearing 
 or coloring- sheep means saturating the surface of the 
 body, more especially along the back or sides, with some 
 prepared coloring matter. Various mixtures are used. 
 These vary with the fashion in favor at the time. A mix- 
 ture much in favor is made by using yellow ocher, burnt 
 umber and olive oil. The ocher in powdered form is 
 added to the oil. The umber is next added, until the 
 mixture has the desired shade. It is applied by pouring 
 a small quantity into the palm of one hand, rubbing the 
 palms together and then applying to the fleece. The ap- 
 plication is more effective when applied after trimming 
 the fleece, and blankets should then be used. It is claimed 
 that more of uniformity in appearance is secured by 
 smearing, but it injures the wool somewhat for manufac- 
 turing uses. Some breeders use it as a sort of trade 
 mark by which their sheep may be distinguished from 
 others. The practice probably originated, in a degree, 
 to protect the sheep from the cold rains of autumn and 
 winter. But since sheep fitted for fairs are not exposed 
 to such storms, it is at least questionable if smearing as 
 such should find countenance in the show ring. 
 
 Smearing is only practiced with certain breeds. It is 
 practiced more or less with all the Down and dark-faced 
 breeds, including the Southdown, Shropshire, Suffolk, 
 Hampshire and Oxford Down breeds. Why smearing is 
 practiced on these and not on certain other breeds is not 
 altogether apparent. The whims of the exhibitors of 
 these, and more especially of the shepherds, would seem 
 to be largely responsible for the innovation. Of course, 
 the dark face and legs of these breeds harmonize better 
 with dark shades in the fleece than would the white faces 
 and legs of other breeds. 
 
 The fine-wool breeds are never smeared, as the natu- 
 ral gluing of the wool fibers at their tips renders such 
 smearing entirely unnecessary as a means of protection. 
 The Dorsets, Tunis and Cheviots are not thus smeared. 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2/1 
 
 The same is true of all the long and coarse wool breeds. 
 Owing to peculiarities of wool formation, smearing them 
 would make them appear ludicrous. 
 
 Of course, show sheep should be kept free from ticks. 
 This may necessitate dipping them as lambs, and also 
 annually when shown in subsequent years. The dipping 
 may be done in the usual way, and along with the other 
 members of the flock; or it may be done by using a small 
 tank, and separately, as a prevention against the possi- 
 bility of injury (see page 433). The wisdom of combining 
 dipping and ordinary washing is at least to be questioned. 
 Dipping rather detracts from the external beauty of the 
 fleece for a time. Hence an interval of say not less than 
 six w^eeks should elapse between the time of dipping and 
 the showing of the sheep. 
 
 Special treatment for Merino sheep — When prepar- 
 ing Merinos for the fairs, the feeding called for is the 
 same virtually as for other sheep. Additional precautions, 
 however, are called for to secure that condition in the 
 wool that commends it to the skilled judge. Should Me- 
 rino sheep be exposed to outdoor conditions up to the 
 time of the fairs, the fleece would have a rough and shaggy 
 appearance externally. It would not have that exquis- 
 itely soft response to the sense of touch so much desired 
 in Merino wool. Nor would the yolk be found in that 
 condition and distribution which would result in high- 
 est luster and beauty in the wool fibers on all parts of the 
 body. 
 
 While all the characteristics such as belong to high 
 quality wool in the Merino fleece should be sought (see 
 Chapter III), the following are to be regarded as spe- 
 cially important: (i) Absolute freedom in the external 
 surface of the wool from clots and indurations and much 
 softness and moistness to the touch ; (2) a beautiful lus- 
 trous condition of the wool when the fleece is opened on 
 any part of the body; (3) an even distribution of the yolk 
 along the entire length of the wool, resulting in a glis- 
 
2']2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OV SHEEP 
 
 tening appearance in each fiber when held separately ; 
 (4) a shade of color in the wool masses that may vary 
 from a glistening white to an orange or golden tint ac- 
 cording to the amount of the yolk present and to some 
 extent it may be to the strain of the sheep. 
 
 Such a condition of the wool is greatly promoted by- 
 judicious housing and blanketing for some time previous 
 to the fairs. When Merinos are not housed for some time 
 previous to the fairs, clots will probably be found on the 
 external surface of the fleece and it will be harsh to the 
 touch. Exposure to heavy rains may result in the bleach- 
 ing of the yolk to a dull tint and in such injury to its 
 stratifications as to cause it to wash down into the wool 
 in masses that disfigure it. Especially will such changes 
 of the yolk follow exposure subject to housing. The 
 housing should protect from exposure to rain, dews and 
 frost, and it should cover from, say, 6 to 12 weeks, pre- 
 viously to the fair. 
 
 In the case of Merinos blankets not only help to keep 
 the fleece clean externally, but they aid in the even dis- 
 tribution of the yolk because of the influence which they 
 exert probably on temperature in the wool. They are 
 also used on other sheep as the show season approaches, 
 and more especially when in transit and at the fairs. In 
 addition to keeping the fleece clean and compact, blankets 
 protect more or less from flies and provide warmth. At 
 the fairs they also tend to prevent thoughtless visitors 
 from disturbing the wool. Blanketing is more essential 
 when preparing Merino sheep for the fairs than with 
 sheep of other breeds. 
 
 Show sheep in transit to the fairs — When sheep are 
 to be shown, the aim should be to have all the arrange- 
 ments pertaining to the work made in ample time. This 
 means that the entries shall be made early; that the 
 means of transit shall be arranged for so that the time for 
 leaving shall be definitely and unerringly fixed, and that 
 food shall be provided in ample supply. These arrange- 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2"]}^ 
 
 ments must, of course, follow and not precede a definite 
 mapping out of the show circuit. 
 
 Every care should be observed in so making the en- 
 tries that no opportunity would be lost in competing for 
 a prize which there was any reasonable hope of winning. 
 The aim should be to have a number of bales of good 
 clover and alfalfa included in the food shipment, 
 as such food cannot be secured at all fairs. By another 
 method the hay is cut and carried in sacks. Cabbage 
 heads and field roots in liberal supply should be sacked, 
 especially the latter. The grain supply, mixed or un- 
 mixed, is carried in sacks, and it should include a supply 
 of wheat bran and oil cake, nor should salt be forgotten. 
 The tools called for include hammer, saw, nippers, shears 
 and a trocar. The medicines include blue vitriol and lin- 
 seed or castor oil. Blankets and bedding and washing 
 utensils for the shepherd are essential to complete the 
 outfit. 
 
 A day or two before shipping, the food should be re- 
 duced. The reduction should apply to both grain and 
 roots. Heavy feeding of grain at such a time will dis- 
 turb the digestion. To feed large quantities of roots 
 would produce a too lax condition of the bowels. The 
 reduction thus made should continue while the sheep are 
 in transit. 
 
 Sheep which carry a relatively large amount of flesh 
 should not be driven far when loading them for shipment 
 or unloading them on the fair grounds, and when driven 
 it should be leisurely. The journey should be made 
 morning or evening, and never in the heat of the day. 
 The necessary directions in the cars for rams and ewes, 
 also lambs, should be made beforehand, that each should 
 be thus afforded opportunity to take its proper food. 
 They should also be given water in such quantities as 
 they will take, but of this they will not take much when 
 thev are in transit. 
 
2/4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 When at the fairs food should not be given to the 
 sheep in quantities too large the first day. Subsequently 
 they should be in condition to go on a full ration again, 
 and the food should be the same in kind as that fed be- 
 fore shipment. Succulent food especially is much rel- 
 ished at such a time, and should be fed up to the limit of 
 what may be judicious. Kohl-rabi, cabbage and green 
 clover make excellent food adjuncts at the autumn fairs, 
 and all these may usually be had at that season in any 
 state. Where the facilities will admit of it, the aim should 
 be to allow the sheep to take a little exercise in the cool 
 of the day while picking over some portion of the grazing 
 such as may be near the show pens. 
 
 It is of much importance that the fair grounds shall 
 be reached a day or two before the regular opening of 
 the fair. The sheep are thus given opportunity to recover 
 bloom lost in transit; the shepherd has time to groom 
 them again with the shears, and in this way they come 
 into the show ring with the best possible chance which 
 can be given to them for winning in the competitions. 
 
 Management subsequently to the fair season — In 
 some respects the management of lambs, rams and ewes 
 subsequently to the fair is very similar. In other respects 
 it is different. More especially with reference to certain 
 details that apply to the management of each. All classes 
 of sheep that have been shown and are to be shown again, 
 whatsoever the age, should be fed less heavily for a con- 
 siderable period on their return from the fairs, but the 
 reduction should be made gradually. The benefit from 
 such reduction lies in relaxing the tension put upon the 
 digestive organs, and in holding back premature develop- 
 ment. The management of shearling wethers subse- 
 quently to the season for exhibiting need not be consid- 
 ered, as in nearly all instances they are slaughtered at 
 the close of the exhibition season. 
 
 When lambs return from the fairs that are to be 
 shown in the shearling form as wethers, the grain por- 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2/5 
 
 tion should be reduced about one-half and the oilcake in 
 it should also be proportionately reduced. The following 
 grain mixture will be very suitable : Oats 50 per cent, bran 
 25, corn or peas 20 and oilcake 5. They should have a 
 li]:)eral supply of fodder and roots, and if the season will 
 admit of it more or less of grazing. 
 
 When the winter closes in they should be given 
 enough grain to result in the maintenance of good flesh. 
 Until grazing comes in the spring the following grain 
 food should serve the purpose : Oats and wheat bran, 
 in the proportions of 3 and 2 parts by weight. The sup- 
 ply of roots should be most liberal until the arrival of 
 grazing, after which it may be reduced and then discon- 
 tinued for a time. 
 
 The grazing may consist of such green food as may 
 be in season, as blue grass, clover or rape. During the 
 first half of the grazing season, or even for a longer period, 
 they may be given access to the grazing for a considerable 
 time, morning and evening, but later and toward the show 
 season, access to the grazing for one hour or two in the 
 evening will give them enough exercise. Some green food 
 fed inside may also be advantageous. The following 
 grain ration will answer nicely during the grazing season 
 until the final forcing period begins. 
 
 The forcing period should cover from two to three 
 inonths preceding the fair season. The following grain 
 ration along with others that may be given, will suffice : 
 Oats 50 per cent, bran 15, corn or peas 25 and wheat 10. 
 When on full feed from two to three pounds should be 
 fed daily. More corn or peas should be added if neces- 
 sary as the season approaches for entering the show ring. 
 The feeding of roots in the autumn and also of fodders 
 may be conducted as in the case of the lambs. 
 
 Shearling wethers to be shown are housed rather 
 than grazed; that is, they are housed to the extent of 
 remaining in the sheds at night and during all the warm 
 portion of the day. The requisites to provide them with 
 
276 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ventilation and to protect them from flies are virtually 
 the same as in the case of lambs (see page 322). An apart- 
 ment of a well-lighted and well-aired basement is very 
 suitable, because of the coolness which it furnishes in 
 summer. 
 
 In the case of rams and ewes to be shown again, the 
 reduction in flesh should be very gradually made, and at 
 the first it should be accomplished more through exercise 
 than by a material reduction in the grain fed. Should the 
 reduction follow too quickly, the bright luster in the wool 
 will be diminished, and in some parts it may fall off. Un- 
 til the season for showing again, the care given to rams, 
 and likewise the food, will be much the same as that 
 called for by shearling wethers (see page 275), with the 
 difference, first, that they should be kept more on pasture, 
 and, second, that they be given less carbonaceous food, as 
 corn. The grazing gives the needed exercise and the car- 
 bonaceous grain portion would be unfavorable to breed- 
 ing. 
 
 Ewes that are to be shown again should be given 
 much the same kinds of food and the same kind of treat- 
 ment as would be suitable for rams, as just submitted. 
 They should be bred early, and if allowed to give nurse 
 to their lambs the latter should be weaned early, or it 
 would not be possible to put sufficient increase on the car- 
 cass to prepare it for competing with even a reasonable 
 hope of winning. Because of the extent to which flesh is 
 usually lost during the nursing period, some breeders rear 
 the Iambs produced on other dams. Ewes not to be 
 shown again should be reduced in flesh with all reason- 
 able quickness. As difficulty is sometimes experienced 
 in getting such ewes to breed, the aim should be to have 
 them served with a young and vigorous male. In some 
 instances service is allowed from more than one male. 
 
 The exercise that is required — Yards alone may fur- 
 nish enough exercise for sheep reared only for being 
 shown in the fat classes prior to disposing of them. But 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 2/7 
 
 even these will profit by the opportunity to take more or 
 less of exercise in the pasture. The exercise not only tends 
 to maintain health and vigor, but it also has an important 
 bearing on the maintenance of a free and easy locomotion. 
 
 While yards may suffice in some instances to furnish 
 exercise for sheep to be shown in the fat classes, show 
 sheep that are to be used in breeding must have larger 
 room for exercise. They must be given the larger room 
 of an ample paddock, or better still the liberty to roam 
 about in a small pasture. Such exercise is absolutely 
 necessary to sustain begetting power in the rams and 
 conceptive power in the ewes. The opportunity thus 
 given to exercise should be such that it may hinder some- 
 what the loading of the body with that amount of fat 
 which is allowable in the fat classes, but such exercise is 
 absolutely essential if the breeding powers are to be re- 
 tained. 
 
 While in order to secure the necessary exercise dis- 
 tant pastures would be inconvenient, those not immedi- 
 ately at hand may be made to answer, the chief objec- 
 tion being loss in time to the shepherd in taking them to 
 and from the pastures. The better plan, therefore, is to 
 have the pastures near and to control the degree of the 
 exercise given by the time given to the sheep to remain in 
 the pastures. 
 
 During a prolonged fair circuit the question of ex- 
 ercise during the same becomes increasingly important, 
 owing to the closeness of the confinement in the show 
 pens. The aim should be to exercise them for a short 
 time morning and evening. The aim should be further 
 to allow those which are pen companions to graze thus 
 and take exercise together. When they become "shaky" 
 on their feet while making the show circuit, the want of 
 exercise will probably be the cause of such a condition. 
 
 Excessive fatness to be avoided — The degree of the 
 fatness to be sought has not yet been decided to the sat- 
 isfaction of everyone. Even the highest authorities are 
 
278 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 not a unit with reference to this question. This applies 
 not only to sheep in the fat classes, but also to those in 
 the breeding classes. 
 
 The contention is frequently made that animals in 
 the fat classes should be brought to that degree of finish 
 only that will best fit the carcass for profitable disposal 
 on the block. This would mean, though differently ex- 
 pressed, that the animal capable of winning alive should 
 also win out in the dead meat class. This as a theory is 
 excellent, but in practice the winnings of the animals 
 when alive seldom correspond with the winnings in the 
 carcass or dead meat classes. It is not easy to give the 
 reasons why it is so, but it is probably true that in the 
 live classes the unwritten standard for judging animals 
 alive calls for the highest perfection of development and 
 finish attainable that does no violence to symmetry, good 
 firm handling and an easy gait, while the unwritten stand- 
 ard for judging dead calls for a carcass that will sell for 
 the highest price to the consumer. Such finish in the 
 living animal is always, or nearly always, beyond the de- 
 gree of finish in the carcass that exactly meets the de- 
 mands of the consumer. 
 
 The further contention is frequently made that when 
 sheep are shown in the breeding classes they should not 
 come into the ring in higher finish than is consonant with 
 good and regular breeding. This also sounds well in 
 theory, but the fact remains that the present standard for 
 judging calls for a higher degree of finish in the animals 
 than is compatible with the very best results to be ob- 
 tained in breeding. It follows, therefore, that animals 
 which stand the best chance for winning in the show 
 rings will not be the best breeders, and vice versa. 
 
 But whether sheep are shown in the fat or breeding 
 classes, there is a degree of finish which if passed will 
 hold therh back from highest honors in the ring. The in- 
 dications of over-finish include: (i) A soft and flabby 
 condition of the flesh on certain parts of the body, espe- 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 279 
 
 cially at the flanks. Such a condition is present more fre- 
 quently in the show rams than in show wethers. (2) Labored 
 locomotion including a limping or "groggy" gait, which 
 points with no little certainty to imprudent or over- 
 feeding. (3) Wool that is losing its luster. When wool 
 covering sheep loaded with flesh has a dull appearance, 
 it indicates, with no little certainty, fading, that is, reced- 
 ing bloom. These evidences are more objectionable, rel- 
 atively, in breeding animals than in the fat classes, for 
 when present they indicate that the usefulness of the animals 
 for breeding is virtually gone. Excess in fitting sheep 
 is sooner reached with breeding stocks than with those in 
 the fat classes. 
 
 The age to which sheep may be shown — They are sel- 
 dom found in the show ring beyond the age of three years, 
 for the reason that they seldom maintain form and bloom 
 beyond that age equal in degree with sheep that are 
 younger, nor is the fleece of a sheep beyond the age men- 
 tioned equal to that of the same sheep at a younger age. 
 The same sheep, therefore, seldom appears in the show 
 ring during more than three successive seasons, and in 
 many instances two seasons is the limit of the show yard 
 career. 
 
 Sheep never appear in finer bloom than when they 
 are shown as lambs. At that age they carry wool longer 
 than that which they carry as shearlings. But shearlings 
 also may carry that finish which is very attractive to the 
 eye. They are also nearly matured ; hence when the con- 
 test for supremacy is between shearlings and those that 
 are older, the former usually bear away the honors. Sheep 
 seldom appear in the show ring the third season in as 
 perfect form as previously, although there are some ex- 
 ceptions. If exhibitors are to hold their place, therefore, 
 in the show rings, the necessity for superseding the older 
 show animals is continuous. 
 
 That the high fitting called for to enable breeding 
 sheep to carry honors does militate against the most sue- 
 
280 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 cessful breeding cannot be questioned. Even though be- 
 getting power should not be lost in the rams, they are not 
 so valuable as breeders as they would have been had they 
 not been thus fitted. Their movement in service is less 
 active than that of other rams, which is so far against 
 them, and the animals begotten by them are in many in- 
 stances not equal in vigor with lambs begotteri by what 
 are termed field rams. The lambs produced by ewes thus 
 fitted are also usually inferior to other lambs in inherent 
 ruggedness, even though such ewes should retain the 
 ability to conceive. Those who exhibit sheep, therefore, 
 must not look for results in the line of breeding that they 
 may reap from members of the fiock not thus fitted. 
 
 Miscellaneous observations on showing sheep — (i) 
 Certain terms are commonly used with reference to the 
 showing of sheep to designate exactly what is included 
 in each exhibit or what is meant by each award made. 
 Sheep are shown singly, in pairs, in pens or in flocks. In 
 the classes by ages they are shown singly. In the class 
 exhibits a ram lamb is a male shown under the age of one 
 year; a shearling ram is a male shown between the age 
 of one and two years ; and an aged ram is a male that has 
 passed the age of two years. The ewes are similarly 
 graded. When shown for champion honors both rams 
 and ewes are also shown singly. A pair is two of one sex, 
 but usually only ewes are shown in pairs. A pen, unless 
 otherwise stated, consists of three individuals. In the 
 breeding classes a pen usually includes one male, what- 
 soever the number of females. In the fat classes a pen 
 usually includes five wethers. A flock in some instances 
 includes an aged ram, a shearling ram and a ram lamb ; 
 also the same number of ewes of similar ages, but fre- 
 quently it includes a mature male and three females 
 shown in the aged, shearling and lamb forms. The terms 
 pen and flock are sometimes used to express the same 
 thing. A special prize means a premium offered outside 
 of and in addition to the ordinary list of premiums. A 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 281 
 
 champion prize is a prize offered the best animal, male 
 or female, of the breed, but the term champion also ap- 
 plies to a pen or flock. A sweepstake prize is a prize 
 oft"ered for the best individual, male or female, the best 
 pen or the best flock, all breeds competing. 
 
 2. The prize lists issued by the various fair associa- 
 tions usually determine the date beyond w^hich breeding 
 sheep are not to be shorn. Usually this date does not go 
 back further than April ist. When the date is not thus 
 fixed, there is no dishonesty in shearing earlier, providing 
 there is no misrepresentation as to the date of shearing 
 in response to a question from the judge while engaged 
 in making the awards. In order to add to the length of 
 the wool, what is termed "stubble shearing" is sometimes 
 practiced. This means shearing which leaves on part of 
 the growth of the wool. When dexterously done it may 
 also be made to aid in giving the sheep that appearance 
 in form which is admired in the show ring. The opera- 
 tion is performed by leveling the wool on the top and 
 bottom lines with the shears. The sides should then be 
 trimmed off sufficiently. The wool on the breast and 
 hindquarters are left overfull at the first, and are grad- 
 ually molded to the required shapes by subsequent trim- 
 ming. Usually about half the length of the fleece is taken 
 off. Stubble shearing is not dishonest when it violates 
 no rule of the fair association, but the benefit from the 
 practice to the breeders of sheep or to the sheep industry 
 is not apparent. Why, then, should it be given any coun- 
 tenance? In the fat classes length of wool does not carry 
 with it the same value as in the breeding classes. Very 
 long wool is not really desirable, as when present that 
 plumpness in the appearance so essential in fat sheep in 
 the show ring is not so easily maintained. Because of this 
 very early shearing brings with it no real benefit to such 
 sheep. Of course, they should be shorn before the weight 
 of the fleece becomes oppressively warm. 
 
282 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 3. Some care is necessary with reference to the racks 
 and troughs from which sheep take their feed when they 
 are to be shown. The racks must not allow any chaff 
 or other fodder to lodge about the wool on the neck of 
 the sheep. The height of the feeding trough must be so 
 adjusted, and also of the board over which the sheep feed 
 on the side of the same, that the wool will not be dis- 
 turbed on the underside of the throat. These may seem 
 to be matters of but little moment, and yet they are suffi- 
 ciently important in themselves to determine which way 
 the award will go in a close contest. For the proper con- 
 struction of feed racks see page 330. 
 
 4. While attention should be given to trimming the 
 feet of sheep on the arable farm, for whatsoever purpose 
 they may be kept, it is trebly important that such care 
 shall be extended to the feet of show sheep. The feet of 
 the latter should be trimmed at least once a year. Such 
 trimming is done in outline as follows : The toes are cut 
 back with the nippers to the desired length. The excess 
 of horn is then trimmed off. Horn is in excess when it 
 grows outward so that it cracks or breaks on the outer 
 edges or when it turns under the outer rim of the sole. 
 It is removed by the aid of a knife, sharp and strong. 
 The sole may also be improved by a slight paring. The 
 trimming is best done some time before the sheep are 
 shown. 
 
 5. It is greatly important that show sheep shall come 
 into the ring at what is termed the bloom stage. By bloom 
 is meant that condition in which the show animal appears 
 and handles at its best. When the animal has reached this 
 stage there is a charm of finish about it that is scarcely 
 possible of complete interpretation by the use of language, 
 but it is readily discerned when present by the competent 
 judge. When applied to the appearance, it includes not 
 only attractiveness in every part of the external form, 
 but also a corresponding gracefulness and ease of locomo- 
 tion. When applied to finish, it means that condition of 
 
GROWING AND FITTING SHEEP FOR EXHIBITION 283 
 
 tiesh which most completely meets the requirements with 
 reference to quality, distribution and firmness. Short of 
 the bloom period the animal has not attained the highest 
 finish of which it is capable. Beyond that stage the bane- 
 ful evidences of fitting too long continued become at once 
 apparent. Sheep and also other animals can only be held 
 for a limited period at the bloom stage ; hence the impor- 
 tance of having them reach it just at the fair season. To 
 have them do so is an evidence of skill on the part of the 
 feeder. This should be most carefully considered when 
 show sheep are to be carried through a show circuit some- 
 what prolonged. They should be made to enter it a little 
 short of the stage of full bloom. They may then be car- 
 ried on to full bloom before the circuit has been completed 
 and before the evidences of retrogression become appar- 
 ent. It is also increasingly difficult to bring animals into 
 the show ring during succeeding years in a proper condi- 
 tion of bloom. The time comes at length when such a con- 
 dition is unattainable. 
 
 6. Unless sheep have more or less training previously, 
 they will not assume that graceful and easy attitude in 
 the show ring which is so pleasing to any judge. If they 
 are restless and stand with the feet unduly spread or too 
 close together, the chances for winning are proportion- 
 ately discounted. Restlessness cannot be prevented in the 
 absence of previous handling. The spreading of the feet 
 forward and backward causes the back to go down. When 
 the feet are drawn together the back will be hunched up. 
 In such an instance gentle pressure over the loin with the 
 right hand, the left hand being underneath the jaw, will 
 correct such an attitude. Should the animal stand, as it 
 were, under protest, as though trying to get away from 
 the attendant, it will not win out in the contest. Should 
 the ground be uneven, the aim should be to place the 
 sheep so that the fore part will be on the higher ground. 
 Rams may be shown to the best advantage when they 
 are trained to lead on the halter at an early age. When 
 
284 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 SO trained they will not hesitate to follow the shepherd 
 through a crowd, however dense. Should the award be 
 adverse, the exhibitor should meet the situation calmly. 
 In the lottery of judging — for in close competition it is a 
 lottery, in a sense — the award, though in some instances 
 scarcely deserved, may go the other way. 
 
 7. Should the suspicion arise in the mind of the judge 
 that the age of some of the animals before him has been 
 misrepresented, he can usually detect the same by examin- 
 ing the teeth. They do not always show equal advance- 
 ment in growth at similar ages, but the progress made is 
 so nearly similar in different animals that the liability to 
 mistake on the part of a good judge is reduced to a mini- 
 mum. The following rules relating to the age of show 
 sheep, as indicated by the teeth, have been adopted by 
 several of the leading fair associations of Great Britain : 
 Sheep having their central permanent incisors cut will be 
 considered as exceeding the age of 10 months. Sheep 
 having their central permanent incisors fully up will be 
 considered as exceeding the age of 12 months. Sheep 
 having their third pair of permanent incisors cut will be 
 considered as exceeding 19 months. Sheep having their 
 third pair of permanent incisors fully up and the tempo- 
 rary molars shed will be considered as exceeding 24 
 months. Sheep having their corner permanent incisors 
 well up and showing marks of wear will be considered as 
 exceeding 36 months. 
 
 8. Stock rams which have been exhibited at the fairs 
 and are again to be exhibited must be managed with great 
 care if they are to retain their breeding powers. Ordina- 
 rily ram lambs shown at the autumn fairs should come as 
 soon as possible after January ist. To have them come 
 earlier would give them too much the appearance of a 
 shearling. A show lamb should not be permitted to serve 
 more than say 12 to 15 females while yet in the lamb form. 
 A shearling ram which is to, be shown again should not 
 serve more than, say, 24 to 30 females while yet in the 
 
GROWING AND FlTTIiNG SHEEP lOR EXHIBITION 285 
 
 shearling form. A two-shear ram should not serve 
 more than, say, 36 to 45 females if he is to be shown 
 again. A ram in the three-shear form may be used freely 
 in service, as it is not probable that he will go back into 
 the show ring again. Fortunately service is not usually 
 required of rams until the fairs for the season are over; 
 hence such service comes at a time when it is legitimate 
 to cease burdening the animal with flesh. During the sea- 
 son of service succulent food should be freely fed to such 
 rams. 
 
 9. The management of ewe lambs that are to be 
 shown at the fairs in the lamb form in the breeding classes 
 is less complex than that relating to ram lambs which are 
 to be shown and also used in service, as the former are 
 not bred in the lamb form. Of course, they should not be 
 given so much carbonaceous food when fitting them for 
 the fairs as would be admissible in fitting for the fat 
 classes; nor would it be advisable to load them down so 
 heavily with flesh. On returning from the fairs if they 
 can be fed freely on rape they may not need much grain 
 so long as such food lasts. 
 
 10. Blankets, so essential in preparing sheep for ex- 
 hibition and while making the circuit of the fairs, may be 
 made from such material as burlap, sacking and ducking. 
 The ducking is more suitable for use at the fairs on the 
 score of appearance, though the other material named will 
 be amply suitable for home use. They should be made so 
 as to fasten in front of the breast with buttons or straps, 
 the former being preferable. At the thigh a strap should 
 be fastened to the blanket in front, passed inside of the 
 thigh when in place, and buttoned or buckled to the 
 blanket at the rear of the thigh. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 
 
 In Chapter XIV the following phases of these ques- 
 tions are discussed: (i) Washing sheep before shearing; 
 (2) When sheep should and should not be washed; (3) 
 The different methods of washing; (4) Handling sheep 
 when washing or shearing them; (5) Tagging sheep 
 when washed; (6) Sheep between washing and shearing; 
 (7) The time and place for shearing; (8) Methods of 
 shearing sheep ; and (9) Handling the shorn flock. With- 
 in the last two or three decades there has been much mod- 
 ification in the methods of managing sheep, both with ref- 
 erence to washing and shearing. Modifications with ref- 
 erence to the former have been brought about by the 
 transfer of manufacturing wool from the farm home to 
 the factory, and with reference to the latter by the in- 
 troduction of shearing by machinery. 
 
 Washing sheep before shearing — The following are 
 chief among the arguments that favor washing sheep 
 before they are shorn: (i) It is virtually necessary to 
 wash them when the wool is to be manufactured at home ; 
 (2) the shearing is more easily done when the sheep are 
 washed; (3) there is a saving in the cost of transporta- 
 tion ; and (4) it is possible to estimate more correctly the 
 exact value of the wool. 
 
 When wool is to be manufactured at home, the neces- 
 sity for washing it is based on the fact that washing the 
 dirt out of the fleece is much more easily accomplished 
 while it is yet on the sheep's back than after it has been 
 removed. The manipulation of the wool so as to remove 
 the dirt is accomplished much easier when the fleece rests 
 on a firm surface, which helps to hold it in place, such as 
 is presented by the body of the sheep. It is based on the 
 
 286 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 287 
 
 further fact that the wool is left in better condition after 
 it is washed when on the back of the sheep. Where thus 
 washed time is given for the yolk which lubricates the 
 wool to rise in the same to add to its luster. If the wool is 
 washed after it is shorn, the bright appearance is so far lost. 
 
 The difference in the ease with which sheep may be 
 shorn when they are washed may not be much in some 
 instances, as when there is not much dirt in the wool. In 
 other instances the difference may be material, for the 
 reason that the fleece contains much dirt. 
 
 The saving in the cost of transportation when wool 
 is washed is frequently material. The saving in the trans- 
 portation of washed wool results, first, from the removal 
 of dirt from the wool, and second, from the removal of an 
 excess of yolk. Frequently the excess of yolk is greater 
 than the amount of other foreign substances in the wool. 
 Particularly is this true of Merino wool. Medium wools 
 usually contain a less amount of yolk than fine wools, 
 and long wools a less amount than medium wools. The 
 shrinkage in the scouring of fine wools of good quality 
 when washed is about 50 per cent ; when not washed, it 
 has been put at somewhere near 70 per cent. The objec- 
 tion to the shipping of wool unwashed, arising from cost, 
 becomes stronger as the distance from market increases. 
 Under some conditions it is, of course, of but little 
 account. 
 
 When wool is washed it is easier to adjust the price 
 that should be paid for wool of the same grade. The 
 quality in such instances is so far gauged by the charac- 
 ter of the washing. 
 
 When the wool is unwashed, no two fleeces may be 
 exactly alike in the amount of foreign substances which 
 they contain, and the same is true in a much greater de- 
 gree of wools obtained from different flocks. To pay the 
 same price for such wools would not be just, and to dif- 
 ferentiate the price based on the amount of foreign sub- 
 stances which the wool contains is very difficult. 
 
288 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Prominent among the arguments that favor shear- 
 ing sheep without washing them are the following: (i) 
 When shorn unwashed, the shearing may be done earlier 
 than when washing precedes the shearing; (2) when foot 
 rot is present, washing is a sure means of distributing 
 the same; and (3) washing frequently harms the sheep 
 and also those who wash them. 
 
 When sheep are shorn unwashed, they can be shorn 
 as early as may be desired. When washed before shorn, 
 it is necessary to wait for the water to warm before the 
 sheep are washed when any considerable number are to 
 be thus washed. Of course, it would be possible to heat 
 the water when only a small number are to be shorn. 
 
 Experience has shown that if sheep are not washed 
 until the water in brooks or ponds becomes warm enough 
 to admit of washing them, that they suffer from an excess 
 of heat which so far interferes with and hinders the high- 
 est increase that may be obtained from them. Especially 
 is this true of sheep that are being fattened and of dams 
 that are nursing their lambs, and it is also true of the 
 lambs. The increase made by sheep that are being 
 pushed on stimulating foods for the market is seriously 
 hindered by allowing them to suffer from the excessive 
 heat which results from carrying a fleece which is no 
 longer necessary to protect them. Likewise ewes that 
 are suckling lambs can furnish more milk for them when 
 not burdened with a heavy fleece of wool. 
 
 When foot rot is present in any given locality, the 
 danger is imminent that it will be contracted by and dis- 
 tributed in flocks that occupy pens that are used in com- 
 mon to confine sheep that are being washed. Even though 
 the different flocks should occupy different pens when 
 being washed at a common washing place, it is not easily 
 possible to prevent them from treading on common 
 ground and thus contracting the disease. 
 
 The process of washing involves the handling of the 
 sheep more or less. It also involves handling them be- 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 289 
 
 times when they are easily injured, as when they are with 
 lamb. It is possible to handle them without injury, but 
 in rough hands the}' will suffer more or less harm. They 
 resist the eft'ort to take them into the water, and if pulled 
 in by rough hands they will certainly take harm. 
 
 The person who washes sheep may also incur some 
 hazard. The water may still be cold when the washing 
 season arrives, and when it is there is hazard to the 
 washer, especiall}^ when the number to be washed is large. 
 Remaining in the water for a long period at such a time 
 is attended with no little hazard, especially to those who 
 have become somewhat advanced in life. 
 
 Until within the last two or three decades, the prac- 
 tice of washing sheep was very common. In many com- 
 munities it was universal. It was necessitated by the cus- 
 tom of spinning the wool at home and of manufacturing 
 it into cloth. The manufacture of wool is now almost en- 
 tirely relegated to the factories, hence the washing of 
 sheep prior to shearing them is fast becoming obsolete. 
 It is now largely confined to long wooled sheep that are 
 to be exhibited at the fairs. In some instances the wash- 
 ing of lambs of the long wooled breeds with water and 
 soap in the early autumn is practiced. The object is to 
 loosen the tangles in the wool, to add luster to it and to 
 improve the general appearance of the fleece. Long 
 wooled sheep are always thus washed before they are 
 shown in the autumn, and lambs are sometimes washed in 
 good flocks, even when they are not to be shorn. 
 
 When sheep should and should not be washed — It 
 would seem correct to say that sheep should not be 
 washed, as a rule, except when the wool is to be manu- 
 factured at home, or in the case of certain breeds that are 
 to be shown. Notwithstanding the objections to shearing 
 and transporting wools in the unwashed form, the prac- 
 tice of so handling it is now almost universal. It has be- 
 come so doubtless because the benefit that accrues from 
 handling wools thus has been found greater than from 
 
290 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 handling it by the other method. The improved methods 
 of scouring which science has produced has contributed 
 to the change. The decadence of the industry of manu- 
 facturing of wool at home is in some ways to be regretted, 
 but in the end the change will doubtless contribute to the 
 advance of a high civilization. 
 
 The washing of show sheep, as previously intimated, 
 is confined almost entirely to the long wooled breeds. 
 Why it should be thus is to some extent the outcome of 
 fashion, but the fashion probably rests on a sensible founda- 
 tion. That washing does add to the beauty of the fleece of 
 the long wooled sheep cannot be questioned. 
 
 That it adds to the beauty of the middle wooled 
 breeds, particularly those of the dark-faced types, may be 
 questioned. That it does not add to the beauty of the 
 fleece in the fine wooled breeds is a foregone conclusion. 
 
 The time for washing sheep will, of course, vary. 
 When small flocks are to be washed in a tank, the water 
 being artificially warmed, they may be washed at almost 
 any time desired. When large flocks are to be washed, 
 the washing is deferred until the water in the streams and 
 ponds or lakes in which the sheep are washed has become 
 warm enough to bring little or no hazard to those who 
 wash them or to the sheep. When the water is so warm 
 that it brings no hazard to those who do the washing, 
 it will certainly bring no hazard to the sheep. In the 
 northern states sheep are not usually washed in a large 
 way before the end of May. Going southward, the season 
 may be continually advanced until the Gulf of Mexico is 
 reached. The character of the season may cause a varia- 
 tion of 10 to 14 days in the usual time for washing. In 
 some seasons it will be advanced and in some retarded. 
 But in no instances does it take place so early as to pre- 
 clude the sheep from taking harm through carrying an 
 excessive weight of fleece after the days have begun to 
 wax warm. 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 29I 
 
 The different methods of washing — Three methods of 
 washing sheep have been adopted. By the first they are 
 washed in a tank ; by the second in a brook, pond or 
 lake ; and by the third beneath an artificial waterfall. All 
 of these, save the first, are being practiced to a less ex- 
 tent as the years go by, and for the reason that sheep 
 are now being washed to a much less extent before shear- 
 ing than formerly. Where sheep were kept in large bands 
 the plan was sometimes adopted of swimming them back 
 and forth several times across a running stream. This 
 method, accomplished by the shepherd through the aid 
 of dogs, was, of course, an imperfect method of washing, 
 but it was only practiced on sheep that grazed on pastures 
 on which the wool was not much liable to be soiled in a 
 marked degree. 
 
 Sheep are now more commonly washed in a tank or 
 box than by any other method, as when they are washed 
 it is rather to prepare them for being shown at fairs than 
 to cleanse the wool previous to the shearing. A home- 
 made box made watertight will serve the purpose, but a 
 galvanized tank such as may now be readily obtained 
 from various manufacturers of the same is probably not 
 more costly and it will last much longer. The same tank 
 may be used for dipping, for ticks or scab, where the flock 
 is small. When sheep are thus washed, the water should 
 be brought to a tepid condition should the season of the 
 year call for warming it thus. Some kind of pure soap 
 added to the water will greatly aid in removing foreign 
 matters from the wool. It will also dissolve and remove 
 yolk scales that may have accumulated. Subsequent 
 to the washing, the wool should be treated with clean 
 water so as to remove the soap, as, unremoved, it would 
 injure its appearance. Two persons will handle the 
 sheep that are thus being washed much more readily than 
 one, especially when they are large. They should be clad 
 in waterproof clothing. The water in the box or tank 
 should be renewed occasionally, as it soon becomes so 
 
292 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 soiled as to be unsuited to further cleansing of the wool. 
 When sheep are washed in a stream, pond or lake, 
 the method followed in each instance is virtually the 
 same. The following are prominent among the requisites 
 for each washing: (i) A pen or inclosure adjacent to the 
 water in which to inclose the sheep ; (2) water deep 
 enough to prevent the sheep from touching the bottom 
 with their feet and plentiful in supply ; (3) a shore line of 
 sand or gravel, and freedom from mud or mire underneath 
 the water. The inclosure may be made of rails, poles or 
 hurdles. Hurdles such as are used m grazing sheep (see 
 page 13) are more suitable than the other materials 
 named, because of the ease with which they may be 
 moved and the quickness with which they may be put in 
 place. The ends of the two sides should come down 
 against the water, to prevent the sheep from getting 
 around them and thus escaping from the inclosure. Un- 
 less the water is deep enough to float the sheep they can- 
 not be handled to the best advantage by the person wash- 
 ing them. As soon as the water causes them to swim they 
 are immediately under the control of the washer who can 
 move them about in the water with but little effort. When 
 water thus deep comes up against the shore where the 
 pen faces the water the sheep are at once under control 
 when they enter the same, so that wading them out into 
 deep water, which they so much resist, is not necessary. 
 The necessity for a sandy or gravelly shore where the 
 sheep enter and leave the water will be at once apparent. 
 Especially where the sheep leave the water is this impor- 
 tant, as wading through mud or mire would leave the 
 sheep in such condition when they reach the land, that 
 they would need to be washed again. Should the Ixittom 
 where the sheep are washed be covered with soft mud, it ■ 
 would not be possible to wash wool clean there, because 
 of the fouling of the water through the rising of mud 
 particles. A plentiful supply of water is helpful, as it 
 does not foul readily, but it should not be so deep as to 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 293 
 
 interfere with the free acti<jn of the arms of those engaged 
 in doing the work. More or less current in the water is 
 distinctly helpful, as it floats away the dirt removed from 
 the fleece. 
 
 When sheep are washed beneath a waterfall, the 
 requisites are about the same as when they are washed in 
 a stream or lake, except that a depth of water such as will 
 float the sheep is not so necessary. They are led out un- 
 der the falling water, and the dirt in the wool, when it is 
 properly manipulated, is quickly carried away. Years 
 ago so important was it considered to have a good place 
 for washing sheep that running streams were sometimes 
 dammed for no other purpose than to furnish a waterfall 
 adapted to such a use. 
 
 Handling sheep when washing or shearing them — 
 The necessity for handling sheep with gentleness while 
 washing and shearing them should never be forgotten. 
 The sheep is a timid animal and is easily injured by rough 
 handling. When the wool is the only medium used in 
 handling sheep, they will invariably sufifer injury at the 
 hands of those who handle them. When grasped by the 
 wool they invariably struggle to get away. The measure 
 of the struggling is the timidity of the sheep, the extent 
 to which they have been accustomed to handling and 
 the roughness or gentleness of the handling. When sheep 
 are grasped by the wool and struggle to get away, and 
 are then slaughtered and the skin removed, the inner side 
 of the skin underneath where the wool was grasped will 
 be reddened with the blood that has centered in blood 
 vessels there. Its presence bears testimony to the extent 
 of the injury done. 
 
 Sheep may be most readily caught by the aid of a 
 crook. This means a rod of several feet in width, a pieceT"^^^^ 
 of metal attached to the farther end. which is bent back- 
 wards so as to form a crook. When used in catching 
 sheep it is thrust forward and quickly drawn backward 
 so as to catch a leg, usually a hind leg, within the crook. 
 
 a, n 
 
294 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 This renders the sheep powerless to get away until it can 
 be grasped by the hand. Long practice will make the 
 shepherd very dexterous in using this aid in catching 
 sheep. Its use is now mainly confined to large flocks. 
 
 When the attempt is made to catch sheep by hand 
 within an inclosure, a number of them, and in some in- 
 stances all the flock, will rush into a corner. The person 
 who is seeking out one of them should follow, keeping his 
 eye closely on the sheep that is to be caught. He then 
 rushes forward and grasps it by placing one hand under- 
 neath the neck at the throat or in front of the breast and 
 the other hand at the tailhead or buttock. The sheep is 
 then in his power should it struggle to move forward or 
 backward. In some instances the sheep is grasped at 
 first by the hind leg with one hand, and held until the free 
 hand, which is usually the left one, is reached forward in 
 front of the breast of the sheep. Should a sheep be 
 grasped by the wool over the hips it will lunge forward 
 to get away, and this will result in injur}^ to the part thus 
 grasped. 
 
 When holding sheep, especially those that are restless 
 or refractory, they should be held by placing one hand, 
 usually the left one, so as to grasp the jaw underneath 
 and well forward. The fingers or some of them are 
 pushed upward into the soft parts underneath the tongue, 
 the thumb remaining on the outside of the jaw. The 
 right hand is thus left free to use as occasion may call 
 for. With the left hand thus placed and the right hand 
 at the tailhead, a refractory sheep may be moved forward 
 should this be desired. The parts underneath the jaw 
 are sensitive, hence the pressure of the fingers there 
 should never be more than occasion calls for. 
 
 Sheep may be taught to lead the same as other ani- 
 mals. This is usually necessary only in the case of rams, 
 more especially such of them as are to be shown. They 
 will submit readily to such teachings, but it is most efifec- 
 tive when they are thus taught while young. Out on the 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 295 
 
 range nearly all the handling of sheep, or rather the man- 
 agement of the same, is done by the aid of dogs. The 
 expertness to which dogs may be trained in thus render- 
 ing aid would seem in some instances to be almost more 
 than such as results from mere animal sagacity. 
 
 When sheep are being washed rough handling should 
 be most carefully avoided. This should apply to the 
 hq,ndling, not only while the sheep are being put into the 
 water, but also while in the water and while being led 
 out of the same. The greatest hazard occurs while the 
 sheep are being led into the water. They strenuously re- 
 sist being put into it. Then it is that they are most in 
 danger of being harmed. They should be brought for- 
 ward, as described above, to the water's edge. In the 
 same way the washer leads them forward until the water 
 is beyond their depth. To drag them forward by grasp- 
 ing the wool above the shoulders, their feet being in- 
 stinctively braced against such dragging, is simply cruel. 
 
 When the sheep are beyond their depth, the danger 
 from harm for the time being is practically over. They 
 are then virtually powerless in the hands of the washer. 
 The wool virtually floats them. The washer grasps the 
 wool between his hands and presses it together. This he 
 continues to do until the water is no more discolored as 
 the result of such squeezing. He goes over the whole 
 surface of the body in this way. In his hands the sheep 
 may be readily turned so as to bring the wool on any part 
 of the body within easy reach of the hands of the washer. 
 It is scarcely necessary to add that no sheep should pass 
 the washer's hands until its fleece is thoroughly cleansed. 
 
 When the washing is completed, it may answer in 
 some instances, as when the sheep are young and strong 
 and the shore is firm and clean, to head them in the direc- 
 tion of the landing place and to allow them to swim 
 ashore unattended. The sight of the sheep grazing that 
 have been washed will cause them to try and reach them. 
 But should the sheep be old or feeble and the landing 
 
296 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 place not all that could be desired, the washer should 
 accompany them until they are entirely out of the water. 
 It may be necessary for him to hold them for a few sec- 
 onds, as should they attempt to walk at once the weight 
 of water in the fleece may cause them to fall. 
 
 Tagging sheep when washed — Tagging means re- 
 moving from the sheep wool that may have become so 
 mixed with excrement that it hangs in clots around the 
 buttock, especially that portion of it around and under- 
 neath the tail. This condition results from a laxness of 
 the bowels, usually caused by feeding too freely on succu- 
 lent grasses while these are yet soft and full of succulence. 
 Merinos, and especially the lambs subsequently to wean- 
 ing, are much liable to injury from soiling with urine in 
 hot weather in both males and females. These condi- 
 tions, if allowed to increase assume in some instances an 
 aggravated form, insomuch that the wool covering the 
 buttock, or soiled by urine, becomes a mass of filth, in 
 which maggots may breed. This may be prevented, in 
 part at least, by cutting off the locks of wool thus con- 
 taminated as soon as such contamination appears. If this 
 has not been given attention sooner, it should be done in 
 the inclosure from which the sheep are taken to be 
 washed. The better plan, however, is to remove the locks 
 of wool thus contaminated as soon as such soiling of the 
 wool is noticed. This will aid much in preventing the 
 soiling of the wool adjacent. An old pair of shears, well 
 sharpened, may be advantageously used in removing the 
 soiled locks of wool. But tagging also refers to the re- 
 moval of locks that may have been loosened from some 
 cause from the surface of the body, and which, if not re- 
 moved, will ultimately fall off and be lost. 
 
 As already intimated, the best time to begin the 
 tagging is as soon as it appears. It may be necessary to 
 repeat the tagging should additional soiling occur. When 
 aggravated and prolonged, the better plan would be to 
 confine the sheep and put them on a dry diet until the 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 297 
 
 purging is arrested. When tagging is done at the wash- 
 ing season, additional help will be called for, so as to avoid 
 delay in delivering the sheep to the washers. 
 
 The tags thus obtained may be so incorporated with 
 filth as to be practically worthless. In other instances it 
 may prove profitable to remove the filth and sell the tags. 
 The filth may be removed by soaking the tags for a time 
 sufficiently long to soften the manure adhering to them, 
 and to dissolve it so that it can be removed by one or 
 more washings. Soap will, of course, aid in the dissolv- 
 ing and cleansing process. The price paid for such will, 
 of coarse, be lower than for other wool. 
 
 Sheep between washing and shearing — The interval 
 between washing and shearing will be influenced to some 
 extent by the character of the weather. If the weather 
 is dry and bright, one week should suffice between the 
 time of washing and shearing. Under other conditions, 
 it may be necessary to defer the shearing so as to cover 
 an interval considerably longer. The interval between 
 washing and shearing should not be unduly prolonged, 
 lest the wool should become more or less filled with for- 
 eign substances. This would, of course, so far detract 
 from the benefit resulting from washing. 
 
 The objects in thus deferring the shearing for several 
 days subsequent to the washing, are, first, to allow the 
 fleece to dry, and, second, to give time for the yolk to ex- 
 tend to the tips of the wool fiber. This will add greatly 
 to the luster of the wool. Should the wool be shorn while 
 yet overmoist, the labor of shearing is less pleasant, and 
 the hazard is incurred that injury will come to the wool 
 through the excess of moisture which it contains. More 
 or less mold would result, and also discoloration, which 
 would proportionately discount the price. 
 
 Between the period of washing and shearing, the 
 sheep should be grazed on clean pastures, otherwise the 
 benefit from washing the fleece may be much neutralized. 
 In newly settled areas, where logs that have been charred 
 
298 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 abound in the pastures, the newly washed sheep may rub 
 against these, and so blacken the fleece externally. As 
 the weather is usually more or less warm at the washing 
 season, sheep are prone to lie down amid the dust on the 
 highway and also on other bare ground to which they 
 may have access. Because of this, the wisdom of keep- 
 ing them away from such influences and indeed from all 
 contaminating influences will at once be apparent. 
 
 The time and place for shearing — The following are 
 chief among the influences that bear upon the time of 
 shearing: (i) The character of the climate; (2) the pro- 
 tection that can be furnished to the sheep ; and (3) the 
 object for which they are being kept. 
 
 In mild latitudes sheep may, of course, be shorn pro- 
 portionately earlier than in those that are cold, and in dry 
 climates earlier than in those that are characterized by 
 much rainfall. The necessity for early shearing is pres- 
 ent in a much greater degree in warm climates, as when 
 unshorn the sheep are burdened by the weight and heat 
 of the fleece after the weather becomes warm. 
 
 Where ample protection can be furnished for the 
 sheep, should the weather turn cold after they are shorn, 
 the time of shearing may be much advanced. When the 
 protection is sufficient they may be shorn at any time 
 during the winter, as for instance, when they are being 
 prepared for exhibition, and the rules of the fairs where 
 they are to be shown do not prohibit such early shearing. 
 Sheep thus shorn may be retained most readily at even 
 temperatures in a basement. When shorn early, it is, of 
 course, necessary to keep the sheep in protected sheds 
 during unpropitious weather. When exposed to temper- 
 atures too low after the wool has been removed, the dis- 
 comfort resulting is indicated by the humped attitude 
 which the animal assumes. 
 
 When sheep are to be shown, it is customary to shear 
 them earlier than the normal season for shearing, unless 
 the rules of the fairs at which they are shown prohibit 
 
WASHING AND SPIEARING SHEEP 299 
 
 such shearing. When they are being fattened for spring 
 sale, they may be shorn earlier than under other condi- 
 tions. The heat induced by the fattening foods fed will 
 result in much discomfort to the sheep, unless the wool 
 is removed, and discomfort always hinders gains where 
 it is present. 
 
 When sheep are washed they cannot be shorn so 
 early as when shorn unwashed, as the washing cannot be 
 done in a large way until the water in which they are to 
 be washed becomes warm. When shorn unwashed, the 
 time of shearing may be advanced from five to eight weeks. 
 
 If shorn unwashed, the ordinary flock may be shorn 
 as early as April i in the northern states, where ample 
 protection may be furnished to the shorn sheep. Usually, 
 however, the shearing is deferred to a period a little later. 
 The shearing is more frequently deferred to the middle 
 of April, or even to the last half of the month, but it is 
 done proportionately earlier in states that lie southward. 
 W^hen the sheep are washed, they are seldom shorn in the 
 northern states earlier than late May or early June. 
 
 Sheep that are being fattened may usually be shorn 
 with advantage fully two weeks earlier than sheep kept 
 for breeding uses. The necessity for providing exercise 
 for them is not present as it is with breeding flocks, hence 
 after they are shorn they may be kept in the sheds all the 
 time without harm should the weather conditions make 
 such confinement advisable. 
 
 In some instances sheep have been shorn twice a 
 year; such shearing has usually been done in an experi- 
 mental way. The increase has not been such as to justify 
 such shearing, especially in northern areas. It would 
 seem probable that such shearing would be distinctly ad- 
 vantageous in warm areas, as, for instance, the southern 
 states, but this problem does not seem to have been fully 
 worked out there. The season for the first shearing would 
 be early, probably as early as March 1st, and for the sec- 
 ond shearing, about six months later. 
 
300 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Wherever sheep are shorn it should be under cover, 
 to protect the shearers and also to protect the sheep, espe- 
 cially when the shearing is done in warm weather. Then 
 they should be housed in quarters adjacent to the shear- 
 ing floor, so as to be convenient to the shearers. They 
 should thus be penned in lots, sufficient to supply the 
 shearers for the day, and they should be thus congregated 
 when free from dew and rain. They should be kept in 
 clean quarters, to prevent the soiling of their wool. When 
 the shearing continues for successive days, much attention 
 must be given to keeping the quarters clean, and the 
 necessity for such watchfulness is greater when the sheep 
 have been washed. 
 
 When a small band of sheep has been washed, they 
 may be readily penned for shearing in the end of a lane, 
 (ireen grass will answer for a shearing floor, and a few 
 boards extended across the corner or nook of the fences 
 that come together there, will form a sufficient protection 
 for the shearers. 
 
 Methods of shearing sheep — Sheep are shorn by hand 
 and by the aid of machinery. Machine shearing, which is 
 of comparatively recent introduction, is destined to sup- 
 plant hand shearing wherever shearing is to be done in a 
 large way. It not only does the work more expeditiously, 
 but it does better work and neater than is done by the 
 average shearer, and when sheep are shorn in large lots, 
 it is done more cheaply than when done with the shears. 
 Two methods of hand shearing are followed. One of 
 these is known as the long method and the other as the 
 round method. 
 
 When sheep are shorn by the long method, the 
 shearer begins by removing the wool from the head. He 
 then opens the wool on the throat and shears from the 
 underline of the same to the top of the neck. This is con- 
 tinued until a point is reached at or near the shoulder 
 blade. The position of the sheep is then reversed, and the 
 wool is then removed from the other side of the neck. A 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 3OI 
 
 series of rings is thus made, extending from the head to 
 the shoulder blade. The sheep is then laid on its side. 
 The wool is then shorn from shoulder to buttock on one 
 side. The cuts made are similar and parallel and of equal 
 width. The sheep is then turned over and the wool is 
 removed from the other side, shearing from buttock to 
 stern. A good shearer keeps the shears gnawing, as it 
 were, through the wool rather than making distinct cuts 
 each time the shear handles are pressed toward each 
 other. When the shears are thus used, the lines left are 
 more evenly made and the hazard of cutting the skin is 
 reduced. 
 
 When the sheep are shorn by the round method, the 
 animal is placed on its buttock. The wool is first removed 
 from the brisket downward to the fore-flank. It is then 
 shorn from right to left clear across the belly. The wool 
 on the entire belly thus removed hangs on the left side of 
 the fleece. The wool is then opened up on the under side 
 of the neck, and beginning at the ears, the neck and body 
 are shorn by running the shears around to the ridge of 
 the topline. The sheep is then turned over and the right 
 side is shorn in the same way. Each line made by the 
 shears should be at right angles with the topline. Sheep 
 thus shorn have a zebra-like appearance, which is very 
 attractive. Fat sheep have a very neat appearance when 
 shorn thus, but lean sheep look best when shorn by the 
 long method. An expert shearer will never cut the wool 
 twice, that is, he will not, even when shearing past the 
 spinal column, point the shears so high that any of the 
 wool will have to be clipped again. Clipping twice means 
 waste of wool. 
 
 When sheep are shorn by machinery, some kind of 
 power is necessary to drive the clippers used when at 
 work. When done in a large way, a long line of shaft- 
 ing is put in place, so that many shearers may work simul- 
 taneously along the line of the same. The power called 
 for is not large in amount, compared with the work done. 
 
302 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 303 
 
 Small machines are sometimes used for flocks on farms 
 that are limited in numbers. These are sometimes worked 
 by hand power, one person furnishing the power and an- 
 other using the clippers. In some instances wind power 
 is used, and also power obtained from tread mills. Where 
 the power is furnished by hand, it is yet somewhat ques- 
 tionable as to whether this method will come into general 
 use. But where power is furnished from other sources, 
 shearing machinery will doubtless almost entirely super- 
 sede hand shearing. 
 
 The following instructions in the use of the clippers 
 will be found helpful : Place the sheep in an upright posi- 
 tion and hold it tightly between the knees. When in 
 position the shearer should be about one foot to the left 
 of the long tube and about one foot in front of it. When 
 shearing, always turn the sheep to the right, which should 
 be done with the foot, rather than with the hand. When 
 the sheep is in position, part the wool in front of the bris- 
 ket and run the clippers down twice as far as the pit of 
 the stomach. Put the front legs behind the arm at the 
 shoulder, and make about four swaths or cuts down the 
 right side between the fore and hind flanks. Then shear 
 across the belly over to the left side, on a line between 
 the shoulder and the flank. Keep the heel of the clipper 
 elevated a little. Then trim out below the scrotum or 
 udder, and cut the wool off the point of the tail. Place 
 the left hand just above the stifle and press down so as to 
 straighten out the right leg, and with inward strokes trim 
 the inside of the leg. 
 
 With the hand similarly placed above the stifle, with 
 outward strokes trim the inside of the left leg. The 
 shearer should then place his right foot between the hind 
 legs of the sheep, leaving it well back of its rump against 
 the left foot. With the left hand placed against the 
 sheep's under jaw, the neck is straightened so that the 
 back will be against the knee, and two swaths are cut 
 along the right side of the neck. The side of the jaw is 
 
304 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 then turned against the knee, and the left side of the neck 
 is trimmed, the cHppers running lengthwise of the neck back 
 to its center and then to the top of the head. The sheep 
 is then turned partly around and is in position to have the 
 left shoulder shorn. Each stroke made should be to the 
 center of the back, keeping the left hand on the skin above 
 .the clippers to hold it in a stretched and smooth position. 
 The left shoulder is now trimmed. The shearer should 
 hold the sheep lightly in his hand, leaving it w^ell back 
 and pressing his knees firmly against its brisket. With 
 long, smooth and quick strokes the wool is removed from 
 the side of the sheep. When the left hind leg and 
 tail are trimmed, three or four swaths are run half way 
 up the back, the shearer standing astride and holding the 
 sheep firmly between the knees and putting the back in 
 rainbow shape as far as practicable. The clippers are then 
 run up the back and the head is trimmed, ^^'hen the left 
 side of the neck is shorn, the sheep is set up straight, its 
 left side being held tightly against the knees and the right 
 jaw is then trimmed. The sheep's neck is then pressed 
 down against its left side. Beginning at the under side 
 of the right side of the neck, swaths should be run down 
 to the shoulder, the clippers next working back on the 
 top of the neck. The sheep's neck is then made to drop 
 against the left side, the shearer placing his foot clear 
 over out beyond the sheep's leg, its right front knee be- 
 ing held down tightly under the same, and with inward 
 strokes the shoulder and front leg are shorn. The sheep's 
 head is then raised and the shearer's left leg is placed be- 
 tween the sheep's legs, the sheep being held against the 
 shearer while the other side and hind leg are shorn. The 
 aim should be to hold the sheep in an easy position, and 
 it will not struggle as it otherwise would. 
 
 When sheep are shorn by hand they are in some in- 
 stances placed on a shearing bench, but more commonly 
 they are placed on a floor; when shorn by machinery they 
 are always thus placed. When sheep are shorn in large 
 
WASHING AND SIIEARIXG SHEEP 305 
 
 numbers by either method, each gang of shearers has its 
 complement of helpers to catch the sheep and also to care 
 for the wool when the fleece has been removed. The 
 rapidity with which good shearers will remove the fleece 
 is, in a sense, surprising. The fleece has been removed 
 by hand in less than five minutes, and by machinery in 
 less than two minutes. Owing to the closeness of the 
 shearing with the clippers, the sheep are more susceptible 
 to the influences of adverse weather subsequently. Con- 
 sequently more care should be exercised in providing 
 them with shelter from inclement weather. Such care 
 has special significance when sheep are grazed on western 
 ranges where fluctuations in temperature come suddenly 
 and in some instances with much severity. 
 
 What is known as stubble shearing is sometimes re- 
 sorted to by those who exhibit sheep at the fairs. When 
 sheep are thus shorn, a part of the growth of the wool is 
 left on at the time of the shearing. The object is to add 
 to the length of the staple. Usually about half of the 
 fleece is then trimmed, so as to add to the attractiveness 
 of the animal in the show ring. Stubble shearing is 
 clearly dishonest when it contravenes any of the rules of 
 the fair, and is of at least doubtful morality under any 
 conditions, since it is intended to deceive. 
 
 Handling the shorn fleece — In all instances the fleece 
 should be trimmed before sorting, when such trimming is 
 needed. By trimming is meant removing tags to which 
 dried excrement adheres, and other substances foreign 
 to the wool, as far as this may be possible. The tags will 
 usually more than repay the cost of washing. This may 
 be done by first soaking them in water as previously in- 
 timated, and then washing them two or three times in 
 warm soap suds. They should be sold apart from the 
 other wool, and wool that has been pulled should be sim- 
 ilarly sold. 
 
 When the flock is small, the fleece may be prepared for 
 marketing as follows : It is spread on a clean floor, with 
 
306 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 the outside upward. The two sides are then folded back so 
 that they will meet in the center. The fleece is then rolled 
 toward the neck as compactly as this can be done by hand. 
 Then tie carefully with wool twine, using two or three 
 strings. Twine that is heavier than is necessary is 
 frowned upon by the buyers, and justly so, as they get no 
 equivalent for the twine. 
 
 The wool from large flocks may be prepared for the 
 packing as follows : The fleece is spread on a table of suit- 
 able height, and wool at the neck, tail and flanks is turned 
 inwards, the sides meeting in the center, or even overlapping 
 in some instances. It is then rolled into a neat roll and 
 tied. The tying is much facilitated by placing the fleece 
 in a box, sometimes made with hinged sides and ends. 
 The strings used in tying are first put in place. Narrow 
 saw cuts in the upper edges of the ends of the box aid in 
 holding them in place until used. When folded and tied, 
 the fleece should be neat, smooth and firm., and in shape 
 resembling a lady's muff. 
 
 When the market is not distant, the wool may be 
 carried by conveyance, as in a wagon box or on a hay 
 rack; otherwise it should be sacked. If not sacked at 
 once, it should be stored in a wool room, proof against 
 the ingress of rats or mice. For convenience in sacking 
 it is preferably stored where there is room underneath 
 for suspending the sacks. If stored on shelves easily 
 accessible, the buyer can inspect it readily and with but 
 little disturbance to the wool. The fact should not be 
 overlooked that wool when stored will lose from one 
 to three per cent of its weight, according to the method 
 and time of storage and to the amount of the yolk. 
 
 When sacking the wool the sack should be suspended 
 underneath a trap door. When a few fleeces have been 
 thrown in, a man descends and arranges them, and as 
 they are handed down one by one, they are systematically 
 placed in layers and the foot is put on the last fleece laid 
 in place. When the sack is full it is raised with a lever 
 
WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP 307 
 
 underneath, the mouth being secured with clamps. The 
 hoop is then removed, the sack lowered to the floor be- 
 neath, and the opening is sewed up with twine. A piece 
 of corn cob tied in each corner of the sack will facilitate 
 handling. 
 
 As a rule, the aim should be to sell the wool while yet 
 on the farm or ranch. After it has gone to a storing house 
 the grower is, in a sense, powerless to treat for terms, and 
 must, therefore, virtually accept those proffered. It is a 
 great matter when the reputation of the grower is such 
 that he can sell his wool without inspection. 
 
 Trimming the feet — Reference has already been 
 made to this question (see page 282). The necessity for 
 such trimming may arise from the following among other 
 causes: (i) The splitting or breaking of the edges of the 
 hoof, in some instances to the extent of reaching the quick 
 in the foot, the resultant pain causing lameness ; (2) the 
 turning under of the outer edges of the sole so as to in- 
 crease the difficulty in walking; (3) soreness between the 
 cleft portions of the hoof, usually spoken of as foul foot ; 
 (4) foot rot in all its phases. 
 
 The frequency with which the foot should be 
 trimmed will be much influenced by the soil. Sheep graz- 
 ing on hard flinty soils may call for but little attention 
 of this nature. The hoofs usually wear sufficiently on 
 such soils to keep them in shape. On soft soils trimming 
 should take place once, and sometimes twice a year. Any 
 indications of lameness should call for an examination of 
 the feet. It is of special importance that the feet of show 
 sheep should be well trimmed, otherwise they cannot 
 have that ease of locomotion which they ought to have 
 in the presence of a judge. The shearing season furnishes 
 an opportune time for trimming the feet. 
 
 The implements used in trimming the feet are a sharp 
 knife and what is known as toe clippers or toe shears. 
 The latter are used in clipping ofif the horny substance, 
 especially at the toes. The sheep is placed on its buttock 
 
308 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 with its back to the operator; the left thumb is inserted 
 between the hoofs, and the shears are used so as to cut 
 from within. It may be necessary in some instances to 
 put a board under the foot of the animal when standing 
 and to cut back the toes with a chisel and mallet. The 
 paring of the sole should be such as will give the foot a 
 firm and even bearing when placed upon the ground. 
 When the soreness referred to appears, it should be given 
 prompt attention, lest it should lead to increased trouble, 
 Finely powdered bluestone has proved an efficient rem- 
 edy. Trimming for foot rot is discussed elsewhere (see 
 page 415). 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 
 
 In discussing this question the following phases of the 
 subject are considered: (i) Sheep with and without wa- 
 ter; (2) Providing water for sheep in summer; (3) Pro- 
 viding water for sheep in winter; (4) Water and good 
 health in sheep; (5) The necessity for feeding salt; (6) 
 Supplying sheep with salt in summer; and (7) Supplying 
 sheep with salt in winter. 
 
 In many instances the attention given to supplying 
 these is wholly inadequate to the needs of the sheep, 
 hence the amount of space given to the discussion at this 
 time. 
 
 Sheep with and without water — The views cherished 
 by many with reference to the amount of water called for 
 by sheep are very erroneous. The view is frequently held 
 that sheep do not need water when on pasture. This view 
 is based on the fact that instances are numerous in cer- 
 tain areas in which sheep have maintained a good con- 
 dition as to thrift when grazing where no water had been 
 provided. Where such a result has followed, however, 
 the pastures have been at least fairly succulent and the 
 dews have been copious. From these sources the sheep 
 were able to obtain sufficient water to produce the re- 
 sults noted. There are other conditions, however, where 
 such provision would be wholly inadequate, such as the 
 range country when the grasses become dry and the dews 
 fail to come. Sheep may be able to maintain life under 
 such conditions, but they are not able to make that thrift 
 that they ought to make and would make if plentifully 
 supplied with water. Sheep may not need water in sum- 
 mer under the following conditions: (i) When the 
 grasses are sufficiently succulent to furnish the sheep 
 
310 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 with all the water that they need. In moist climates they 
 are frequently found in such a condition through all the 
 spring- and early summer and again in the autumn ; in 
 some instances through the whole of the same, and in 
 others only in the late autumn. But even in moist 
 climates, during a part of the summer, the grass alone 
 will not furnish water adequate to the needs of the sheep. 
 (2) Where the grasses supplemented by the dews fur- 
 nish a sufficient supply of water, though neither of these 
 sources alone would furnish an ample supply. But the 
 influences that produce succulent food also favor copious 
 dews, hence when succulence in the food fails beyond a 
 certain degree, the dews shrink also, hence in the heat of 
 summer both of these sources taken together are really 
 inadequate to furnish the sheep with all the water that 
 they need. (3) When sheep are feeding on supplemen- 
 tary foods, such as rape, which contains so much succu- 
 lence that water is not necessary. It would not be safe 
 to assume, however, that sheep will not profit from ac- 
 cess to water when feeding on rape. The degree of the 
 succulence found in rape varies much with the climatic 
 conditions under which it is grown. The consumption 
 of water and consequently the need for the same increases 
 with increase in the summer heat. Sheep will unques- 
 tionably profit from access to water in summer, when 
 they will drink it in any considerable quantities. To de- 
 prive them of water when on dry pastures is simply cruel, 
 and the results from such deprivation are intensified as 
 the weather waxes warmer. 
 
 Sheep may not need water in winter when they are 
 given large quantities of succulent food, as, for instance, 
 field roots. This may hold good though they are given 
 a fattening ration. But in practice they are seldom given 
 enough roots to preclude the necessity for giving water. 
 The necessity for supplying water increases : (i) With the 
 closeness of the confinement ; (2) with the stimulating 
 character of the food fed; and (3) with the extent to 
 
PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 3II 
 
 which support is called for by lambs that may be nursing 
 their dams. When the confinement is close, the sheep 
 have not the same opportunity to eat snow as they do 
 sometimes in order to relieve their thirst. 
 
 Under forced feeding sheep will take much more wa- 
 ter than under ordinary feeding. The stimulating char- 
 acter of the food creates heat in the system, and this 
 proportionately increases the demand for water. When 
 ewes are nursing their lambs, they cannot adequately sup- 
 ply them with milk without being themselves abundantly 
 supplied with water, directly or indirectly, through the 
 succulence that is fed. 
 
 Providing water for sheep in summer — The sources 
 from which water for sheep is obtained in summer are : 
 (i) The grazing; (2) dews; (3) streams; (4) wells; and 
 (5) ponds. Grazing and dews as sources of water sup- 
 ply have already been considered. Where the supply is 
 insufficient from these sources, it must be obtained from 
 one of the other sources mentioned. 
 
 Usually water furnished by streams in the pastures 
 is very suitable to the needs of sheep. Streams with cur- 
 rent all the way as they flow through the pastures are 
 eminently suitable, and the same is true of rivulets fed 
 by perennial springs. But should the waters spread out 
 betimes on level stretches, where they become stagnant 
 or nearly so, the grasses that grow in such places may 
 harbor therein the seeds of death in the parasites that 
 usually infest such places. Water obtained from wells 
 is well adapted to the needs of the sheep as a rule, al- 
 though to this there may be some exceptions, as when it 
 is impregnated with substances that are not relished by 
 the sheep, or that may be positively harmful to them be- 
 cause of the substances which it contains. 
 
 Usually, however, water obtained from wells is about 
 on a par in quality with that obtained from springs. It 
 is usually pumped up by windmills, so regulated that they 
 operate only when water may be needed. The troughs 
 
312 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 in which it is furnished must be so low as to be of easy 
 access to the sheep, and care must be taken to prevent 
 them from becoming surrounded with wet or muddy 
 ground, a condition which is instinctively avoided by 
 sheep. 
 
 Water obtained from ponds is usually the least suited 
 to the needs of sheep, unless it be water that is furnished 
 by marshy lands. Such water is objectionable because of 
 the impurities which it may contain. The conditions for 
 generating these are favored by the stagnant condition 
 of the waters. Supplying sheep with water from such a 
 source should be avoided where this is practicable, and 
 yet there may be instances in which water from this 
 source is not really harmful. Such instances are some- 
 times found on elevated upland ranges, when the purity 
 of the air guards the water from impurities such as would 
 be generated under conditions the opposite. 
 
 Proximity to water in the grazing grounds is highly 
 advantageous to the well-being of the sheep. When they 
 have to travel a long distance in warm weather to obtain 
 water supplies, they will not thrive as they would when 
 the opposite conditions prevail. Where the pastures are 
 large, the aim should be to have water supplied in various 
 parts of the same. 
 
 Providing water for sheep in winter — Water obtained 
 from brooks and ponds does not meet the needs of sheep 
 in winter as it does the needs of other animals. They 
 are naturally timid and shrink from drinking where the 
 slightest physical hazard is present. If ice should be 
 found on the shores of a stream, sheep will not approach 
 it, nor can they be taught to drink from openings made in 
 a pond. Rather than take water under such conditions 
 they will eat snow, and in the absence of snow will go 
 without drinking. 
 
 Water obtained from wells and cisterns is much more 
 suitable, because it is so much more readily accessible to 
 the sheep. But when furnished from these sources, it 
 
PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 313 
 
 should be made readily accessible to them in order that 
 their needs in this respect may be fully met. Water sup- 
 plied for sheep is not warmed as it is in many instances 
 for cattle. It has not yet been demonstrated that warm- 
 ing the water for sheep will repay the cost. 
 
 While some classes of sheep may do with much less 
 water than others in winter, no class of sheep should be 
 denied access to it for a single day. The claim that snow 
 will prove a sufficient source of water is untenable. 
 Sheep will eat clean snow to relieve their thirst when wa- 
 ter can be obtained from no other source, but they will 
 not eat enough to supply their needs. Water obtained 
 from this source is unduly cold. Sheep may exist under 
 these conditions, but they will not thrive as they should. 
 
 Ewes nursing lambs call for much water, and the 
 more highly that they are fed grain the greater is their 
 need for plentiful supplies of water, in the absence of field 
 roots. Without an abundant supply of water they cannot 
 furnish a full supply of milk for their lambs. The amount 
 of water that ewes thus fed will take will surprise those 
 not accustomed to such feeding. 
 
 Sheep that are being fattened also call for more water 
 than sheep that are being simply carried through the win- 
 ter. The large amount of grain food that is fed to them 
 generates thirst, and the greater the degree of the concen- 
 tration the greater will be the thirst. No class of sheep 
 or sheep under no conditions will consume more water 
 than those that are being thus fattened. These should not 
 only have access to water, but they should have access 
 to it at will. The attempts to fatten them in the absence 
 of an ample supply of water cannot be in the highest 
 sense successful. 
 
 Water should be made easily accessible to sheep. If 
 supplied in the yards or sheds, they will drink when they 
 would not do so if required to go outside of the yard to 
 take water. It cannot be supplied to the ordinary flock 
 in better form than when supplied to them in tubs in the 
 
314 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 pens, which may be readily overturned, to free them from 
 water in freezing weather, after the sheep have been sup- 
 plied for the day. The water thus needed may be re- 
 plenished from pails for small lots of sheep and from a 
 hose for a larger lot. For sheep that are being fattened 
 in a wholesale way, water may be furnished in a trough 
 or tub provided with a float. 
 
 Water and good health in sheep — The relation be- 
 tween good health and the character of the water given to 
 them is of the most intimate nature. No class of animals 
 kept upon the farm is so much subject to parasitical dis- 
 eases as sheep, and water is the medium through which 
 some of these reach them. The importance, therefore, of 
 furnishing pure water for sheep cannot be easily overesti- 
 mated. Cattle and swine may be able in some instances 
 to drink water without apparent injury that would be 
 baneful to sheep. 
 
 Water furnished by ponds is objectionable. It is ob- 
 jectionable because it is stagnant, and stagnant water is 
 more favorable to the breeding of harmful forms of para- 
 sitic life than water from running streams or wells. It 
 is further objectionable because when long stagnant it 
 loses something of its sweetness. Sheep are peculiarly 
 sensitive to such changes. They will not drink water 
 affected with any form of taint unless compelled to do so 
 from thirst that must be partially relieved. In cool 
 climates and under elevated conditions, water from ponds 
 is much less objectionable than water furnished under 
 conditions the opposite. 
 
 Water furnished from marshy lands is much more 
 objectionable even than water obtained from ponds. The 
 relation between access to such water on the part of the 
 sheep and parasitical diseases, such as tapeworm and 
 stomach worm, has been forced upon flockmasters in too 
 many instances to leave any doubt as to the reality and 
 potency of such a relation. How far the parasites come 
 from such waters directly or from the grasses eaten by 
 
PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 315 
 
 the sheep which grow up in such waters or on their mar- 
 gins has not yet been determined. There can be no 
 doubt, however, about the relation that exists between 
 ill doing in the sheep and grazing in areas where access 
 is had to marshy lands. Because of this, the aim should 
 be to drain such lands in sheep pastures that are at all 
 permanent in character, or to so fence them where drain- 
 ing is impracticable that the sheep will not have access 
 to them. 
 
 Water contaminated by yard seepage is harmful to 
 sheep. It is harmful because of the taint which character- 
 izes it and which because of its presence, hinders the 
 sheep from drinking it freely. But it is further harmful 
 because of the impurities which it contains. These are 
 adverse to well doing in sheep. But most of all it is 
 harmful because of the presence of the various forms of 
 parasitic life which, in the germ, it may contain. It is 
 now believed that nodule disease (see page 400) and other 
 diseases may be communicated in such water. Every care 
 should be exercised to prevent sheep from drinking it. 
 
 The necessity for feeding salt — The necessity for fur- 
 nishing salt to sheep is always present, save in certain 
 areas in proximity to the sea. The salt that falls on the 
 herbage from the rain which has its source in the adjacent 
 sea is in some instances a sufficient source of supply. 
 That sheep inherently crave salt cannot be questioned. 
 This fact is abundantly proved by the eagerness with 
 which they consume it after having been deprived of it 
 for any length of time. It is to be expected, therefore, 
 that where salt is not regularly supplied to the sheep and 
 in quantity sufficient to meet their needs that they will 
 not thrive as they would if sufficiently supplied with salt. 
 
 Salt is not a food in the sense that hay or grain is. 
 It does not furnish nutrients. Its mission is that of exer- 
 cising a favorable influence on digestion. This influence 
 is exercised in various ways. It stimulates certain of the 
 functions pertaining to digestion into more complete ab- 
 
3l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 sorption into the system of the nutrients in the food in 
 the process of assimilation. It acts as a corrective to 
 digestion overlax which results from feeding large quan- 
 tities of succulent food. It may also be made to increase 
 the consumption of food when judiciously added to the 
 same. As a result of this, increase in form or function 
 should result proportionately. 
 
 With the exception given above (see page 315), the 
 necessity for supplying animals with salt is always pres- 
 ent and at all seasons. The effect of rain containing saline 
 influences does not extend very far inland. Hence the 
 areas thus affected are relatively limited. Even quadru- 
 peds not under domestication show a fondness for salt in 
 the extent to which they have frequented locations where 
 nature furnishes salt in the region of salt lakes. This 
 craving is intensified in animals under domestication by 
 the large quantities of food furnished to them in an artifi- 
 cial way. 
 
 The aim should be to give animals under domestica- 
 tion access to salt at all times. They will then take no 
 more than they need, and only in such quantities as they 
 need it. It is virtually impossible in any other way to 
 meet the exact needs of the animals. This will be appar- 
 ent, first, from the fact that no two animals will take the 
 same quantity of salt though kept under conditions prac- 
 tically alike, any more than they will take exactly similar 
 quantities of food when kept under like conditions. Sec- 
 ond, the different foods fed influence the requirements of 
 salt, and no one is able to measure the extent of this in- 
 fluence exactly. Third, the changed character of the 
 ration continually exercises an influence on the consump- 
 tion of salt, and no one can measure the extent of this in- 
 fluence as the animal can. Give sheep free access to salt, 
 and they will neither take too much nor too little. 
 
 Supplying salt in summer — Salt is sometimes fur- 
 nished to sheep, more especially in summer, in the form of 
 rock salt. The objection to supplying it in this form is, 
 
PROVIDING SHEEP WITH WATER AND SALT 317 
 
 that the sheep will not take enough to fully supply their 
 needs. The better way is to keep a supply of common 
 salt constantly accessible to them in the pastures. It is 
 best supplied in a trough or troughs, covered so as to keep 
 it where rain cannot fall upon it, as in the event of rain 
 falling upon it much of it would dissolve and thus be lost. 
 The trough or troughs in which it is kept should be placed 
 near the watering troughs, as the sheep are more prone 
 to congregate around these places than in other parts of 
 the pasture. The recommendation to distribute salt 
 around harmful plants is of doubtful value. The object 
 sought is to kill the plants through the adverse influence 
 of the salt on growth and the close cropping that follows 
 from the sheep. The results from such application are 
 seldom commensurate with the outlay. 
 
 In very many instances salt is supplied to sheep on 
 pastures only at intervals. The shepherd visits the flock, 
 calls the sheep around him and places the salt in small 
 piles on the ground. The craving of the sheep for the 
 salt is shown by the eagerness with which the sheep con- 
 sume it. But when thus supplied, they consume too large 
 quantities at once, hence the benefits from taking the salt 
 are in a sense neutralized. In fact, the consumption of 
 large quantities of salt at one time may be positively in- 
 jurious through the excessive drinking of water that fol- 
 lows and the disturbance which such a condition creates. 
 
 The need for salt increases with increase in succu- 
 lence in the pastures on which sheep graze. Succulent 
 grazing tends to relax the bowels, and to such an extent 
 in some instances, as to lead to purging, if the condition 
 is not corrected. Salt, it is believed, acts so far as a cor- 
 rective, hence the necessity for having it plentifully sup- 
 plied to sheep thus grazed. While it is important that 
 sheep shall be thus supplied with salt on all kinds of 
 grazing that is succulent, it is of special importance that 
 they shall be thus supplied when grazing on rape, owing 
 to the large quantities of that plant which they consume. 
 
3l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Supplying salt in winter — As in summer, salt should 
 also be made constantly accessible to sheep in winter. It 
 is best supplied to them in boxes under the cover of the 
 sheds. 
 
 In very cold weather it is better to supply it in mod- 
 erate quantities frequently renewed than in large quanti- 
 ties seldom renewed, as when supplied in large quantities 
 it does not remain so fresh and clean, and it incrusts more 
 or less from the congealing of the moisture left upon it 
 while the sheep are taking it. 
 
 Salt is sometimes given in the food. When thus sup- 
 plied it certainly does add to the relish with which the 
 food is eaten, but to supplying it thus there is the strong 
 objection that it cannot be known just how much should 
 be supplied. There is the further objection that such 
 a method of supplying salt involves more labor. To de- 
 prive sheep of salt either winter or summer will certainly 
 hinder their thrift, and to apply it only at intervals in the 
 winter is open to the same objection as supplying it thus 
 in summer. 
 
 When succulent food is fed in winter, the craving for 
 salt increases with increase in the succulence given. This 
 applies to succulence in whatsoever form it may be fed. 
 This, however, is not relatively so important as in sum- 
 mer, as the succulent food eaten at that season is more 
 succulent than the food fed in winter. It is also believed 
 that the consumption of salt increases with the forced 
 character of the feeding. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 
 
 In Chapter XVI the discussion will consider the fol- 
 lowing items: (i) The shelter called for in winter; (2) 
 The shelter called for in summer; (3) Considerations in 
 locating a sheep shed; (4) Shelter that is not costly; (5) 
 The more essential features of a permanent sheep house ; 
 (6) A building, oblong and not too wide; (7) A structure 
 of two stories; (8) Facilities for convenient feeding; (9) 
 Divisions in the lower story; (10) Warm lambing pens; 
 (11) Facilities for watering; (12) Sunlight, yard room 
 and paddocks; (13) Ventilation without drafts; and (14) 
 Plans of sheep houses. 
 
 The shelter called for in winter — The protection 
 called for by sheep in winter should be such as to shield 
 them: (i) From falling storms; (2) from winds; and (3) 
 from dampness. When given -such protection and an am- 
 ple supply of nutritious and palatable food, they are not 
 much liable to be harmed by low temperatures. 
 
 The most important item of protection is that which 
 shields them from falling storms, and especially from the 
 cold storms of rain and sleet, such as fall in winter in cer- 
 tain latitudes. Dry snow is but little harmful to sheep 
 when it falls upon them, save when it is accompanied by 
 a driving wind, such as will force it into any openings 
 that may be present in the fleece. Exposure to cold rain 
 and sleet, especially when prolonged and when the pre- 
 cipitation is copious, is always more or less harmful, and 
 in some instances the toll of loss taken from the open 
 wool breeds under such exposure may be severe. The 
 rain, penetrating to the skin, more especially along the 
 line of the back, may give rise to inflammations that result 
 
 319 
 
320 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 disastrously. The fine wool breeds, especially those of 
 the Merino types, will be harmed much less by such ex- 
 posure than the breeds possessed of longer and more open 
 wool. But for any class of sheep, shed protection should 
 be provided to shield them from such storms where they 
 are liable to occur. Especially should the flock be guarded 
 at those seasons when such storms are liable to occur 
 suddenly. Slow drizzling rain may do but little harm, 
 even though prolonged, as the natural heat of the body 
 is suf^cient to ward off any harmful influences from such 
 exposure. 
 
 Protection from the sweep of cold winds is also 
 greatly important. In prairie areas the necessity for such 
 protection is greater than the necessity for protection 
 from cold rains. The latter occur but seldom on the west- 
 ern prairies, especially in the autumn, whereas the former 
 blow with much constancy during the winter season. 
 Such exposure is a disturbing influence, and most of all 
 in the night, because the flock is at rest. When at lib- 
 erty to choose their own protection, they will invariably 
 seek a sheltered place protected from cold winds when 
 taking their rest. The winds are especially disturbing to 
 the sheep with long and open wool. By lifting portions 
 of the fleece the cold wind reaches the body. In the case 
 of driving snow storms the influences are still more harmful. 
 
 Protection from dampness is especially needed when 
 the sheep are in winter quarters. It is less needed in 
 climates where the cold is continuous from autumn until 
 spring. But even in these, should the sheep be sheltered 
 by leaky straw roofs, rain and melted snow may soon 
 bring about a condition in the dampness of the bedding 
 underneath that is inimical to the health of the sheep. 
 In climates with much rain in winter care should be taken 
 to renew the bedding in the sheds and yards sufficiently 
 often to keep them free from dampness. A damp bed 
 tends to induce rheumatic troubles and various other ail- 
 ments that may prove peculiarly harmful to the flock. 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 32 1 
 
 Sheep do not suffer readily from cold when the con- 
 ditions maintained above are all present. Give them the 
 choice of lying on a dry bed beneath the canopy of the sky 
 in the one instance and beneath an open or a nearly closed 
 shed in the other, and they wall frequently prefer the 
 former even when the temperatures may be very low ; 
 and it is better for them thus to rest than if confined in 
 a w^arm shed. 
 
 The shelter called for in summer — In summer sheep 
 should be protected: (i) From cold rains; (2) from ex- 
 cessive sunshine ; and (3) from flies. It may not be easy 
 or possible to provide such protection on the open range, 
 but on the arable farm it should be quite feasible under 
 average conditions. 
 
 In the early summer in northern latitudes cold rains 
 fall occasionally and in some instances they are prolonged, 
 covering two to three days at a time. Farther south such 
 rains come earlier. These are especially harmful to open- 
 wool sheep, and they are more harmful to them when 
 newly shorn than previously. Most of all are they harm- 
 ful to lambs, and in proportion as they are young. Even 
 though active disease, as inflammation, should not follow, 
 the setback to thrift in the sheep and to growth in the 
 lambs will call for some time to make good the harm 
 done. At such times the flock should be quickly trans- 
 ferred to winter quarters and fed on food provided and 
 reserved for such an emergency. On the open range the 
 shepherd should aim to have the flock not too distant 
 from winter shelter, should indications of coming storm 
 be present. 
 
 Protection from excessive sunshine is increasingly 
 important as the latitude lessens. On the open range it 
 is less important because of the breezes that are almost 
 continually present during the heat of the day. Such pro- 
 tection on the arable farm may be furnished, first, 
 through the shade of trees, and second, through ventilated 
 and darkened sheds. The trees may be isolated and grow- 
 
322 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ing singly, or they may be grown in groups to provide 
 such shade. On the prairie quick-growing trees should 
 be planted to provide such shade on the arable farm, and 
 preferably in groves. Where there is a natural growth 
 of trees fringing a stream that runs through the pastures, 
 the shade conditions are ideal, with reference at least to 
 protection from sunshine. Where the pastures merge 
 into forest, the shade conditions are also excellent, but in 
 such instances any considerable growth of young trees 
 will be prevented. When shade is provided by a venti- 
 lated shed or basement, especially the latter, it brings 
 more of coolness with it. 
 
 Sheep during the warmest weather are very liable 
 to be greatly disturbed by flies. A dense forest shade 
 may furnish some protection, as flies are much less liable 
 to be frequent where the shadows are dark than when 
 bright sunshine is present. When sheep may have free 
 access during the heat of the day to a darkened and ven- 
 tilated basement, the conditions are ideal for protection 
 from flies. Ventilation may be furnished by having the 
 windows open and sufficient darkness may be secured by 
 covering them with some very coarse cloth, as sacking 
 material. A fringed piece should hang down over the 
 place of entrance. The sheep will soon learn to push 
 through this, and when doing so the frayed material will 
 brush back the flies. A flock will soon learn to come for 
 such protection daily when they may have access to it. 
 
 Considerations in locating a sheep shed — When locat- 
 ing a sheep shed the aim should be: (i) To place it on 
 ground dry and porous ; (2) to insure protection on the 
 windward side ; and (3) to secure ample room for yards 
 and paddocks. Natural conditions when all are favorable 
 will add greatly to the ease with which such a location 
 may be secured, and the lack of these will add equally 
 to the difficulty of locating the same. 
 
 It is greatly important that the sheep sheds should 
 be located on ground dry and porous. Locating on 
 
SHELTER lOR SHEEP SUMMER AMD WINTER 323 
 
 ground naturally clamp and without facilities for drainage 
 would result in muddy surroundings, and these would 
 soon bring disaster to the flock. For such a location a 
 sandy soil is much preferable to a clay soil, but very fre- 
 quently it may not be possible to secure such a soil. 
 Where the soil is clay the aim should be to have the 
 ground slope away more or less from the sheds in as 
 many directions as it may be possible to secure. This 
 would be much preferable to placing the shed on clay 
 land so level and damp that underdrainage would be nec- 
 essary to remove the excess of water. In some areas of 
 the prairie it may not be easy to secure a suitable site, but 
 in such areas it is questionable if sheep can be made to 
 prosper. Where the soil and subsoil are both sandy the 
 conditions may not be objectionable, even though the 
 ground is level. But under any conditions, the aim should 
 be to secure something of a rise on which to erect the 
 sheds. 
 
 Protection from cold winds, especially on the wind- 
 ward side, is much influenced by natural conditions. 
 Where the sheds may be located on the leeward side of a 
 natural or artificial grove, it may be secured with but little 
 additional outlay. When the grove is sufficiently dense 
 and the bluff is sufficiently high, the protection from wind 
 is so far very complete. It is even more complete when 
 the land on the sides of the bluff and below it is covered 
 with trees. In such instances the paddocks, but not neces- 
 sarily the yards, will be restricted to the leeward side of 
 the sheds. 
 
 Protection from winds is very frequently more diffi- 
 cult and costly to secure than protection in other areas. 
 This is especially true when the country is bare of trees, 
 and when because of the dry conditions it may not be 
 easy to grow them. But in such areas bluff conditions 
 beside the streams such as those referred to above, are not 
 in all instances infrequent, and they have the further ad- 
 vantage of being near to a living water supply. Where 
 
324 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 no natural protection is present, a grove of considerable 
 depth should be planted on the windward side. It should 
 be given sufficient cultivation on and near the surface to 
 keep it clean, until what are termed forest conditions may 
 be secured. Such a grove properly cared for will begin 
 to furnish protection three years from the time of plant- 
 ing, and in six years the protection should be very ma- 
 terial. In such locations it may be necessary from the 
 outset to protect the yards, at least on the sunny side of 
 the building, by surrounding them with a board fence 
 sufficiently high to break the force of the wind. In some 
 instances sheds of fodder or bedding may be so built as 
 to render some aid in furnishing such protection. 
 
 In areas where the temperatures are mild and the 
 winds are but little constant or violent, yards and pad- 
 docks may be secured virtually on all sides of the shed, 
 should this be desired. But where the shed is planted 
 close up against a grove or bluff, on one side only can 
 paddocks be secured ; that is, in front of the shed and 
 possibly in some instances at one end. Where the flock 
 contains many animals, it will be found a great conven- 
 ience to have several of these on hand. They furnish graz 
 ing in summer for small lots, as stock rams, for instance, 
 should it be desired to keep them apart from the main 
 flock, or they may be made to furnish soiling food, near at 
 hand for autumn feeding. In winter when not too much 
 wind-swept, they furnish a good place in which to strew 
 corn or other fodders, where the sheep may get some ex- 
 ercise while picking it over. For the plan of yards and 
 paddocks see page 338. 
 
 Shelter that is not costly — Where small flocks of 
 sheep are kept, and in areas where the ordinary building 
 materials are costly, shelter sufficient to answer the pur- 
 pose may be made from cheap materials. These include 
 sheds made: (i) Of poles and straw; (2) of baled straw; 
 and (3) of logs or sods. 
 
 A shed made of poles and straw is best adapted to a 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 325 
 
 country with but a limited amount of precipitation in win- 
 ter. Such a structure is ill-adapted to a climate with 
 heavy precipitation in winter owing to the difficulty of 
 preventing leaking in the early spring. It may be con- 
 structed of almost any kind of poles that may be obtain- 
 able. In western areas these are usually cottonwood or 
 poplar that may be cut by the streams. They are built 
 up in the form of a square, or at least of a pen of three 
 sides. If built as a square a doorway must be cut open 
 in the front side, or the poles on that side should not 
 come within 3 or 4 feet of the ground. The structure 
 should be 7 or 8 feet high. Strong poles should be laid 
 across the top rails to support the straw roof. When the 
 poles have been put in place, a heavy covering of straw 
 is built all around the structure, save on the front side. 
 The straw above should be built so as to shed water, as 
 far as this may be attainable. Such a covering may usu- 
 ally be most cheaply provided at the season of threshing. 
 It may shelter a small flock quite satisfactorily as long as 
 water does not percolate down through the roof. 
 
 The building of sheep sheds by using baled straw 
 has been advocated in the press and on institute plat- 
 forms, more especially in areas where the winters are cold 
 and straw is so abundant that it is usually burned to get 
 it out of the way of the husbandman. Thus it is that 
 straw is disposed of more commonly in the Northwestern 
 states and the western provinces of Canada. This method 
 of providing shelter for sheep and for cattle in such areas 
 would seem to be not only feasible but commendable. 
 Notwithstanding, the sheds that have been constructed of 
 this material are very few. This, however, does not prove 
 that these would be undesirable to the keeper of live 
 stock. But few sheep are kept as yet in the grain- 
 growing areas of the prairie, hence the need for such shel- 
 ter has not been an important question. Sheds made of 
 baled straw are furnished with a roof of rafters covered 
 by boards with battens over the cracks or other rain- 
 
326 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 resisting material. Roofs with but one slope are, of 
 course, the cheaper. The walls inside may call for some 
 kind of protection to prevent the sheep from wearing 
 away any of the material of the bundles, but the protec- 
 tion does not need to be given to a height greater than 3 
 to 4 feet. Windows may be made to admit ample light, 
 and ventilation must be secured where the shed is not 
 open in front. Such sheds are amply warm, and in a rea- 
 sonably dry climate should last for a number of years. 
 
 In certain range states sheds for sheep have been 
 constructed of logs. These, in comparatively treeless 
 areas, are usually obtained from certain soft woods that 
 grow beside the streams. The walls of these sheds are 
 built after the fashion of the primitive log dwellings of 
 years ago. The cracks between them are covered with 
 clay of the consistency of mortar. The roofs have rafters 
 with but one slope. These are covered with boards and 
 the mortar clay is spread over the boards. In areas with 
 but little rainfall such sheds answer the purpose quite 
 well. They are of low construction, which is economical 
 of material. In forest areas where settlement is but re- 
 cent, sheds may be thus constructed of such timbers as 
 may be in the locality, but in such instances the roof 
 should be shingled, the better to resist the copious rain- 
 fall of such areas. 
 
 Sheds may be constructed on the prairies that will 
 last for a number of years, though made of sods. Cheap 
 as the construction of these may be, they do not stand 
 so high in favor apparently as the log shed with the clay 
 roof, and probably for the reason that more labor is in- 
 volved in their construction. Sod sheds will not last many 
 years where the rainfall is heavy. 
 
 The more essential features of a sheep house — The 
 discussion of the more essential features of a permanent 
 sheep house, will consider the following: (i) A building 
 oblong in shape ; (2) a structure of two stories ; (3) facili- 
 ties for convenient feeding; (4) divisions in the lower 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 327 
 
 Story; (5) warm lambing pens; (6) facilities for water- 
 ing; (7) sunlight, yard room and paddocks; (8) ventila- 
 tion without drafts. 
 
 A building oblong in shape and not too wide, is usu- 
 ally preferred for sheep, to one more nearly square. This 
 will hold true of it, whether it has a passageway in the 
 center from end to end and divisions on either side, or 
 whether it has a passageway along one side and one tier 
 of pens along the same. For the reason, see page 329. 
 
 Whether the structure shall have one or two stories 
 will depend very much on the climate as to precipitation, 
 and on the amount of food called for to carry through the 
 winter. The more moist the climate, the larger the 
 amount of the precipitation in winter, and the longer the 
 demand for food continues the greater is the necessity for 
 two stories rather than one (see page 330). 
 
 The matter of the facilities for feeding is greatly im- 
 portant, because of the bearing that it has upon the 
 amount of labor involved, and because of the influence 
 which it has upon the saving or the wasting of food. The 
 facilities called for vary greatly with the size of the flock 
 and the divisiorts in the same, with the nature of the food 
 or foods fed, and with the climatic conditions (see page 
 
 332). 
 
 The divisions in the lower story are dependent in a 
 great measure on the divisions in the flock, and on the 
 time when the lambs come. The larger the number of 
 the divisions in the flock and the earlier the season at 
 which the lambs begin to come, the larger is the number 
 of the divisions required (see page 335). 
 
 The necessity for warm lambing pens is, in a sense, 
 imperative in a climate of low winter temperatures when 
 the lambs come before the advent of warm weather. 
 When the lambs come into existence in the fields, of 
 course, the necessity for lambing pens is not present. On 
 the ranges of the West the question of lambing pens does 
 not need to be considered, but in areas where winter 
 
328 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 lambs are concerned it may be a very vital issue for the 
 location and construction of lambing pens (see page 336). 
 
 The facilities for watering are greatly important. 
 The idea frequently cherished that sheep do not need to 
 be supplied with water is certainly fallacious. They can 
 exist without water when the pastures are succulent or 
 when snow covers the ground better than any other class 
 of animals kept on the farm, but -the fact remains that 
 the flockmaster who supplies his sheep with an ample 
 supply of pure water will be abundantly rewarded for his 
 pains (see Chapter XV). 
 
 The provision of sunlight, yard room and paddocks 
 is seldom given the consideration which the importance 
 of these demands. Without ample sunlight in the sheds, 
 the highest degree of vigor in the sheep cannot be main- 
 tained. In the absence of suitable yards the proper grad- 
 ing of the sheep is not practicable, and in the absence of 
 paddocks it is not possible to keep a breeding flock in 
 every respect as it should be kept. For the further dis- 
 cussion of this question see page 338. 
 
 The question of ventilation without drafts is greatly 
 significant. When sheep are confined in close quarters 
 without proper ventilation, the results will soon become 
 disastrous to the well-being of the flock. How such ven- 
 tilation may be secured without drafts is discussed on 
 page 339. 
 
 The facilities for removing the manure should not be 
 overlooked, since the frequent removal of the same is 
 beneficial to the health of the sheep, and it also prevents 
 serious deterioration in the value of the manure. Such 
 removal tends to lessen odors that generate, and it tends 
 to prevent fire fang, which is so common to sheep manure 
 when made under cover. 
 
 A building oblong and not too wide — An oblong 
 sheep shed has the following advantages over one that is 
 somewhat square or round in shape: (i) It makes it pos- 
 sible to increase the divisions easily and to locate them 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 329 
 
 conveniently; (2) it facilitates the easy storage of foods 
 of different classes and the placing of the same for con- 
 venient feeding, providing the shed has room for such 
 storage overhead; (3) it makes it possible to increase the 
 yard room and divisions in the same, and such possible 
 increase becomes greater with increasing narrowness in 
 the sheds; (4) it facilitates the easy removal of sheep 
 from pen to pen and without the necessity of exposing 
 them to outdoor weather. These facts will become more 
 and more apparent as the plans submitted later in this 
 chapter are studied. 
 
 In some instances to these oblong buildings ex- 
 tensions are added in the form of an L, which means that 
 these are placed at right angles to the main shed. Some- 
 times these extensions are at one end. In other instances 
 they are at both ends. More commonly they extend quite 
 across the end of the main building. Where but one ex- 
 tension is built, it should be placed on the windward side 
 of the yard. These extensions are, in a sense, a continua- 
 tion of the main shed, but at a different angle. They 
 serve the purpose, first, of adding to the room ; second, of 
 making it possible to add to the yard room ; and, third, 
 of furnishing protection to the yards from winds. There 
 is no method of furnishing such protection that is more 
 efficacious. 
 
 In such an oblong building the location of the feed 
 passage depends on the width of the same. Where the 
 building is wide enough to admit of placing divisions on 
 both sides of the passage, it must run from end to end, 
 but not necessarily in the center, as it may be desirable 
 to have the divisions larger on one side than on the other. 
 The average width for such a passage is 6 feet. It should 
 seldom be narrower, but may be wide enough where large 
 numbers are to be fed to drive two horses and a wagon 
 through the same. This would call for a width of not less 
 than 9 or 10 feet. Where fodders and bedding are kept 
 overhead, they may be thrown down through chutes into 
 
330 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEr 
 
 the passage and distributed from the same into any direc- 
 tion it may be desired. When but one tier of pens is 
 present the passage should be placed just inside of the 
 side wall on the shady side of the building. In that the 
 sheep may have access to the yards on the same side. A 
 passage thus placed may be a little narrower than a cen- 
 tral passage, as a less amount of food is fed from it, but 
 it should seldom be less than 6 feet. The passage should, 
 of course, extend through the wings. Figure 15 shows an 
 excellent form of sheep rack that may be at one or both 
 sides of the feed passage. 
 
 A structure of two stories — Whether the sheep shed 
 
 should have one or 
 two stories will be 
 determined, as inti- 
 mated elsewhere, by 
 the necessity that 
 exists for storing 
 food and bedding un- 
 der cover. In 
 climates in which 
 the rainfall is fre- 
 quent and copious in 
 winter, or in which 
 the snowfall is deep, 
 it is a great advan- 
 tage to have the 
 same under cover, 
 and in no other way 
 can such cover be 
 provided more 
 cheaply than through 
 a sufficiently commodious loft in a sheep barn. In areas 
 where the winter climate is dry and where but a limited 
 amount of feeding is called for, it is not necessary to build 
 sheds with two stories. Where much food is to be stored, the 
 two-story shed is economical of construction. It is specially 
 
 Lnd Vi. 
 
 13' Ti« 
 
 FIG. 
 
 15— PLAN OF A CONVENIENT SHEEP 
 RACK, END VIEW 
 (Courtesy Michigan Agricultural College) 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 33I 
 
 economical in roofing, as the one roof serves the double pur- 
 pose of providing protection to the fodders in the upper 
 story and to the sheep in the lower. It is also economical 
 in foundation material and in other items of construction. 
 
 The loft of such a building may be made to store a 
 large amount of food. The higher the posts or walls 
 that support the roof, the larger, of course, is the room 
 for storage. The food and litter in the same may all be 
 stored by the aid of a horsefork or a sling. When storing 
 these, the aim should be to locate each kind, as far as this 
 may be practicable, directly above the pens where the 
 same is to be fed. 
 
 The convenience in feeding fodders from such a loft 
 will be at once apparent. The food is always dry, regard- 
 less of the character of the weather, and the same is true 
 of the litter. It does not require to be drawn from day to 
 day or at intervals. The forking is downward and, there- 
 fore, it is easily done. When the food is to be drawn from 
 time to time there is not only a loss of time involved, but 
 exposure may be called for that is irksome to the work- 
 hands. A two-story shed does not necessarily mean a 
 building located against a bank. It may be built on the 
 level prairie as well as against the side of a hill. It may 
 be built entirely of wood or other material. Materials 
 other than wood for the lower story may keep out the 
 cold more effectively than wood, but good siding and 
 one thickness of tar paper will keep a sheep house amply 
 warm, save for new-born lambs in a cold climate. Such a 
 structure does not necessarily call for a driveway into the 
 upper story, as the food is lifted by machinery. 
 
 Whether a sheep house should be built against a 
 bank under any conditions is a disputed question. If 
 such a basement can be made to secure freedom from 
 dampness and also from an undue lack of light, there 
 should be no objection to it. It is quite possible in many 
 instances to secure both. Such a basement may also 
 bring with it the following advantages: (i) It may be 
 
332 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 made to furnish an excellent place for the birth of young 
 lambs by simply penning off such an apartment ; (2) it 
 makes it possible to locate the sites where it will be con- 
 venient to feed from it and where the lower portion may 
 have protection from the frost; (3) it makes it easily 
 possible to make a safe storehouse for roots at little cost. 
 Should a basement, however, be damp, it should not be 
 used for housing sheep. 
 
 Facilities for convenient feeding — When the facilities 
 for convenient feeding are what they should be, the sav- 
 ing in labor will thereby be greatly reduced. These in- 
 clude: (i) Feed racks and their location; (2) a feed room 
 and its location ; (3) a root cellar and its location ; (4) a 
 silo and its location ; and (5) the feeding of hay and the 
 furnishing of litter at a minimum of cost for labor. 
 
 The feed racks are, as a rule, placed just inside the 
 passages. This makes it easily possible to feed from the 
 passages where the fodder comes down from the loft over- 
 head into the passages ; when the fodder comes down into 
 the passages, and where the racks are of proper construc- 
 tion, the fodder may be fed without injury to the fleece 
 from the chaffy particles in the fodder. For the construc- 
 tion of such a rack, see Fig. 15. In other instances the 
 racks, when movable and of the right length, may serve 
 the purpose of partitions between the divisions and of 
 racks at the same time. In other instances the racks for 
 fodder are placed in the yards, and in many instances of 
 range feeding they are placed along the outer border of 
 the yards. This admits of filling them from without and 
 with fodder that in quantity will last for several days. This 
 way of feeding fodders is not ideal, but the high price of 
 labor during recent years makes it in some instances a 
 necessity. It is not an ideal way of feeding sheep when 
 the fodder will suffice for more than a day, but there may 
 be instances in which it is admissible to furnish fodders 
 that will last for several days. 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 333 
 
 Every sheep house with a large number of sheep in 
 it should have a large feed room in which food may be 
 prepared for the use of the flock. The preparation of the 
 food for sheep is very simple. In many instances the 
 grain does not need to be ground to make it suitable for 
 the sheep. They grind it very effectively in the process 
 of consuming it, or in the process of rumination that fol- 
 lows. But there are instances in which it may be profit- 
 able to feed fodders in the cut form and mixed with 
 grains. In such instances a feed room may, in a sense, 
 be a necessity. The location for the same will be influ- 
 enced by the plan of the divisions in the shed. In some 
 instances the feed room is located in one end of the shed 
 on one or both sides of the passageway, and in other in- 
 stances on only one side. When the silo is located at the 
 side of the building and near the center, the feed room 
 should be centrally located, but should the silo be at one 
 end or corner of the same, then the feed room should be 
 located at or near the end, with a view to facilitate the 
 blending of foods, when this may be necessary or ad- 
 visable. 
 
 The location of the root cellar is influenced by the 
 location of the feed room. If the roots are to be pulped 
 or sliced, and in many instances they are thus fed, the best 
 place for such pulping or slicing is in the feed room. This 
 means, therefore, that the root cellar should be under the 
 feed room or adjacent thereto. In cold climates where 
 the feed room is near one end of the building, the most 
 convenient place for the root cellar, all things considered, 
 is underneath the feed room. The roots may thus be 
 easily protected from frost. Where the sheep house is 
 placed against a bank, and where the feed room is located 
 centrally on one side, both the silo and the root cellar 
 should be located in the bank and so as to open into the 
 feed room. Such an arrangement greatly facilitates the 
 blending of foods, should this be desired. Where but a 
 limited quantity of roots is fed, however, it may be ad- 
 
334 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 vantageous in some instances to store them where they 
 may be taken from a cellar located in a bank or pit, not 
 too distant from the place of feeding. In other instances 
 they are stored in a division of the lower story adjacent 
 to the feed room. This storage room is protected from in- 
 tense cold by siding and tar paper. The only tangible ob- 
 jection to such an arrangement is the room which it occu- 
 pies, which in its absence could be used as a division for 
 sheep. 
 
 When a silo is used, it should be located near the feed 
 room, though the latter should be located at one end of 
 the shed, or centrally on one side of the same. In a shed 
 placed against a bank no better place can be found for 
 the silo than in the bank and in proximity to the centrally 
 located feed room. When the silage to be fed is thus 
 thrown down into the feed room it is protected against 
 frost, and it may be thus easily mingled with other foods 
 should this be desired. But in many instances such mix- 
 ing is not deemed necessary. 
 
 In no way can fodder be furnished so conveniently as 
 when it is stored in a suitable loft above the pens and 
 when it comes down into a passageway from which it 
 may be conveniently fed. But it may also be fed from a 
 wagon driven through the passageway, where large quan- 
 tities are to be fed. In practically rainless climates, in the 
 winter season, it may be fed from racks that are not pro- 
 tected from climatic influences and located on the outside 
 of the yards, thus making it convenient to feed fodders 
 thrown into the racks from outside sources. Into these 
 racks enough of food is placed at one time to last for sev- 
 eral days. They are so shaped as to act in a sense as self- 
 feeders. Theoretically such feeding is unwise, as it is 
 more or less wasteful of food, and the palatability of the 
 fodder is thereby also reduced. Notwithstanding, where 
 large bands are to be fed in dry areas, such a system of 
 feeding is not to be condemned. 
 
 Litter may be very conveniently furnished from a 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 335 
 
 loft, providing it has been stored there. In many in- 
 stances, however, there may not be room for such storage 
 until some of the food is fed out. It may then be drawn 
 from a stack on a still day and stored in the loft. When 
 thus stored it may always be kept in a dry condition, 
 which in bedding is a great matter. When straw is fed in 
 the racks, which is quite legitimate in many instances, in 
 order to furnish a part of the fodder, the uneaten residue 
 may be used from time to time for bedding. 
 
 Divisions in the lower story — Several divisions in the 
 lower story are necessary where a flock of any consider- 
 able size is kept. The different gradations call for food 
 rations that in many instances are more or less different. 
 For instance the stock and sale rams may call for a food 
 different from the breeding ewes. These may call for 
 food different from the shearling ewes, and all of these 
 may call for food different from ewes that are suckling 
 lambs. Where sheep are being fattened in considerable 
 numbers, it may also be greatly advantageous to grade 
 the sheep according to size and age. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that there should be some 
 correspondence between the number of the divisions and 
 the gradations in the flock. The larger the number of the 
 latter the larger the number of the divisions should be. 
 During the lambing season it is an advantage to have 
 some extra divisions for the better grading of ewes that 
 are nursing lambs. The space called for in such divisions 
 is influenced by such considerations as the size of the 
 sheep, the object for which they are being kept and the 
 yard room available, when considered along with the 
 climatic conditions. For large sheep not fewer than 15 
 square feet of space should be furnished and for small 
 sheep not fewer than 10 feet. Lambs that are being fat- 
 tened with abundant yard room and in a dry climate will 
 do with even a less amount of space. 
 
 If some or all of the partitions are movable, the 
 divisions may be enlarged. It may be very convenient in 
 
2T,i) MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SllEEP 
 
 some instances to be able to enlarge or reduce the size of 
 the divisions at will. The aim should be, of course, to 
 give the sheep all the room that can be secured at all times. 
 
 Warm lambing pens — When lambs come in the win- 
 ter season, the necessity for a warm lambing pen is im- 
 perative. When such a division is found in the basement 
 of a shed that is located against a bank the problem is 
 easy. The lambing pen may be located almost anywhere 
 in the basement, but it is some advantage to have it 
 located on the sunny side, so that some sunshine may be 
 admitted into the lambing pen. When it is made in a 
 wooden structure, it must be made to resist the ready 
 penetrations of low temperatures. This may be accom- 
 plished by sheeting closely on the outside and inside of 
 the studding with boards and putting tar paper under- 
 neath one or both sides of the same, according to the 
 severity of the winter weather. In such an apartment 
 lambs may come safely when the thermometer is 40 de- 
 grees below zero, providing the dams are healthy and 
 strong. The exact location of the lambing pen is largely 
 a matter of convenience, but the aim should be to locate 
 it on the sunny and sheltered side of the building. Care 
 must also be taken to provide the necessary ventilation. 
 
 The furnishings of a lambing pen may consist of a 
 number of small inclosures made of fencing material. 
 These may be movable. In these the ewes and their 
 lambs may be kept singly, and in some instances in twos 
 or threes, and graded according to the age of the lambs ; 
 but more commonly they are kept singly for two or three 
 days until the lambs get strong. They are then taken to 
 another division to make room for ewes with younger 
 lambs or with lambs not yet born. 
 
 Facilities for watering — In areas where a living 
 stream with pebbled beds runs through or in proximity 
 to the yards, it may be made to furnish water in suitable 
 form, providing ice does not form along the edges of the 
 stream. But where ice forms sheep will not readily drink 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 337 
 
 from openings in the same, hence they should not be re- 
 quired to do so. Where large flocks are kept, it is very 
 convenient to draw the water from taps attached to 
 hydrants. In such instances it may be drawn into a 
 trough suitably located under cover, but when it can be 
 drawn from a tap into a tub located within each division 
 the furnishing of water is greatly simplified. Even when 
 the water comes from but one tap or from a pump, where 
 the flocks are small, the plan is a good one which carries 
 it in a pail when the water in the tubs is to be replenished. 
 
 The tubs should be of low construction, so that the 
 sheep may readily take water from them. When the 
 weather is cold, the water may be emptied out of the 
 buckets at nightfall, and they may be replenished again 
 the next day. In this way the tubs may easily be kept 
 clean. The water thus emptied out does no harm virtu- 
 ally to the litter, because of the smallness of the quantity. 
 The plan is not good which draws the water into a trough 
 in which it freezes over quite frequently when the weather 
 is cold, as sheep do not care to drink water that is thus 
 icy cold unless impelled to by thirst. But water may be 
 thus provided in some instances with advantage when the 
 trough is so sheltered that ice does not readily form on 
 the water. 
 
 It is greatly important to furnish water to sheep in 
 winter when they are getting only dry food, even though 
 they may have access to clean snow. It is even more im- 
 portant that the water given to them shall be pure and 
 free from taint. \Mien it is not furnished, they will drink 
 from small pools adjacent to the yards when the snow 
 melts. When they take water thus the hazard is present 
 that they may take up disease germs that may lead to 
 serious loss. Sheep should never be allowed to take water 
 from such sources when this can be prevented. 
 
 Sunlight, yard room and paddocks — When locating a 
 sheep shed, the question of sunlight should receive the 
 most careful consideration. The same is true in regard 
 
T,^H MANAGEMENT AND EEEDING OF SilEEP 
 
 to the location and size of the yards, and also in relation 
 to the location and size of the paddocks. 
 
 With regard to sunlight, the conclusion may be 
 hastily reached that the part which it plays in successful 
 sheep husbandry is unimportant. Such a conclusion is 
 far from correct. Sunshine when properly focused, espe 
 cially in the lambing pens, may in many instances make 
 the difference between life and death in relation to the 
 survival of newly born lambs. The free access of sun- 
 light is destructive to disease germs, whatsoever may be 
 their nature. It tends to strengthen and sustain life 
 wherever it comes. These truths find recognition in the 
 practice which gives the weaker animals of the flock, as 
 the ewes and lambs, the occupancy of the apartments on 
 the sunny side of the building" and locates the stronger 
 animals, as shearling ewes and rams, in apartments on 
 the shady side of the same. 
 
 There may be a difference of opinion with reference 
 to the size of the yards to which sheep have access, but 
 there should be no difference of opinion with reference 
 to their location. In regard to the former it may be said 
 that roomy yards are preferable under dry conditions, but 
 where there is much precipitation, reasonably small yards 
 are to be preferred, as they call for a less amount of litter 
 to keep them clean and dry and a less frequent removal of 
 the same. In regard to the latter, where yards are located 
 on but one side of the shed, the sunny side should, of 
 course, be given the preference. But yards on the shady 
 side may be very necessary sometimes, and they may also 
 serve a very useful purpose. When the yards are fur- 
 nished with movable partitions, the number of those 
 divisions in use at one time may be increased or de- 
 creased to suit present convenience. When the yards are 
 narrow, the partitions may be made to lift out. When 
 they are wide, the partitions must be in part permanent, 
 each being provided with a gate. In some instances the 
 possible number of divisions in the yards is the same as 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 339 
 
 the number of the divisions in the pens, each pen having 
 its ow^n corresponding yard. 
 
 The number of the paddocks and their location will, 
 of course, be determined in a great measure by such con- 
 ditions as the size of the flock and the gradations of the 
 same, and by the object for which it is being kept. The 
 size of the paddocks should ordinarily bear some propor- 
 tion to the size of the flock and to the divisions in the 
 same. The more the gradations in flock, the more is the 
 number of the paddocks that are called for; but it does 
 not follow that as many paddocks are called as there are 
 divisions in the flock, as it is seldom necessary to have all 
 the gradations in the paddocks at the same time ; hence 
 the same paddock may be used by more than one division 
 of the sheep. In some instances they may be reached 
 from the yards directly, but more commonly they are 
 ranged on both sides of a lane leading out from the yards. 
 In this way the}^ may be increased in number to the ex- 
 tent of the needs, and they may also be of such size as 
 may be deemed proper. They are thus rendered easily 
 accessible. 
 
 Ventilation without drafts — Ventilation is necessary 
 and greatly important under all conditions, but artificial 
 ventilation is not always a necessity. Sheep cannot be 
 given too much fresh air, providing it comes to them in 
 the absence of drafts, but they may very easily be given 
 too little. No class of live stock will suflfer more in the 
 absence of adequate ventilation. 
 
 It is always necessary to provide artificial ventilation 
 when sheep are housed in a shed the doors of which are 
 closed for even a period of short duration, when it is 
 occupied by sheep. In but few ways can disaster be more 
 quickly brought to a flock than by housing them in close 
 quarters in the absence of sufficient ventilation. They 
 are harmed, first, by a lack of a sufficiency of pure air; 
 second, by the excessive warmth that is usually gener- 
 ated under such conditions, and which is especially harm- 
 
340 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ful to sheep with heavy fleeces, whether short or long; 
 and, third, by the catarrhal troubles which are generated 
 when the flock emerges from such warm surroundings 
 into an atmosphere of low temperatures. 
 
 Artificial ventilation is not called for where sheep are 
 housed in, or rather are protected by a shed that is open 
 in front, and in which they are given free access to yards 
 in front of the shed. Rest in a shed under such conditions 
 is not greatly different from resting overnight in an un- 
 covered yard. In such instances, however, there should 
 be no open windows or doors at the ends or rear of such 
 a structure that would produce air currents when it is 
 occupied with sheep while the temperature is low. 
 
 In sheep houses of ordinary construction, which con- 
 sist of but one story and which have doors only on the lee 
 side, with windows that may be opened on occasion on 
 the other side, by keeping the doors open, enough fresh 
 air will ordinarily be secured. Should the wind blow 
 from what is ordinarily the lee side, ventilation may be 
 secured by closing the doors and opening the rear win- 
 dows. 
 
 Should the sheep house have divisions on both sides 
 of a passage which runs lengthwise through it, then the 
 plan is good which has doors and windows on both sides 
 of the house. Fresh air may be admitted by opening the 
 doors or windows, or both, on one side only, according 
 as the wind may blow. In this way fresh air may be ad- 
 mitted at all times and in abundant supply, as shown in 
 Fig. i8. When there is a loft overhead, the shutes which 
 extend upward in the same may be made to render sub- 
 stantial service in carrying away the warm air. Except 
 in very still and mild weather the windows or doors, or 
 both, should only be open on one side at the same time. 
 
 Ventilation in the rear divisions of a basement is not 
 so easily secured when these have a bank of earth on one 
 side. Usually, however, windows may be secured, if 
 placed high, though in some instances it may be necessary 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 34I 
 
 to remove a circle of earth from around the window to 
 admit light as well as air. Further ventilation may be 
 secured by carrying cold air down through wooden box 
 tubes from the outside and warm air up by what is known 
 as the "King System" of ventilation. This whole ques- 
 tion, however, is even now much controverted. 
 
 Plans of sheep houses — The plans of sheep sheds are 
 many and diverse, and much may be said in favor of a 
 goodly number of these, could the necessary space be se- 
 cured. At this time, however, but three plans will be 
 submitted. These are intended : (i) To meet the needs of 
 an ordinary farm flock ; (2) to meet those of a large farm 
 flock; and (3) of a large breeding flock. These are of 
 simple construction, and experience has put the stamp of 
 approval on them. They are not submitted as absolute 
 guides, but rather to furnish ideas that may be found 
 helpful when sheep sheds are to be constructed. 
 
 There are, of course, instances when sheds are not 
 necessary, or rather where it is possible to engage in cer- 
 tain phases of sheep husbandry in their absence. In the 
 dry and mild areas of the West they are frequently fat- 
 tened under the canopy of the skies. Even in areas with 
 winters cold and dry and with a snowfall not too heavy, 
 they are sometimes fattened without other shelter than 
 that of a grove. But in all, or nearly all, instances where 
 breeding flocks are kept under American conditions, it is 
 a great convenience, though not an absolute necessity, to 
 have a shed that will provide shelter and more or less of 
 storage for food. 
 
 Fig. 16 submits the ground plan of a sheep shed 
 adapted to the needs of what may be termed an ordinary 
 farm flock. The building is 72 feet long and 24 feet wide. 
 It is divided into six equal parts on the ground floor, 
 excluding the passage which runs the whole length on 
 the one side. This passage, 4 feet wide, is designed to 
 afiford easy access for the attendant from one division to 
 another, and it also affords a ready means of removing 
 
34-^ 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 individual animals from one pen to another. In other 
 instances it admits of carrying food or litter from the feed 
 box in one division to be fed or strewn in another. The 
 size of the respective divisions is shown in the plan. Of 
 the main divisions only two are permanent, viz., those 
 which separate the lambing pens from the pens adjacent 
 to them. The lambing pens should be boarded up to the 
 ceiling to insure sufficient warmth, and may in addition, 
 if necessary, be covered with tar paper. The three cen- 
 
 72- 
 
 FIG. 16— GROUND PLAN OF SHEEP BARN FOR AN ORDINARY FARM FLOCK 
 
 tral divisions may have movable double feeding racks be- 
 tween them, should this be desired. Two of these are 
 placed in line, end to end, between each division. By re- 
 moving these racks, much of the building may virtually 
 be converted into an open shed, since the doors are 6 to 7 
 feet wide, or by removing one or more of the racks on the 
 yard side of the building and inclosing the open space at 
 the ends of those which remain. One part of the build- 
 ing may be used as an open shed, and any divisions thus 
 inclosed would answer for keeping the stock ram in it sep- 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 343 
 
 arate from the ewes, and also any rams that may be on 
 hand. From the small boxes or receptacles underneath 
 the shutes fodder can be readily obtained. The number 
 of these may be reduced to three if absolutely necessary, 
 one box serving to hold fodder for two apartments. The 
 shutes are near the side of the building, and though they 
 extend up into the mow for some distance, they do not 
 seriously interfere with the storing of food or litter over- 
 head, as it may be taken in by a horse fork or a sling at 
 the end of the building and underneath the ridge. 
 
 The posts of the building should be of any desired 
 length in keeping with the symmetry of the same. A 
 height of 14 to i6 feet would usually be ample. There 
 should be room in the loft to hold at least a supply of 
 fodder for one season, and if there is room for a supply 
 of litter also the condition is to that extent more satis- 
 factory. Grain may also be stored in the loft over the 
 shepherd's room. By using hoppers or hopper-shaped 
 bins above, ducts leading from these, and spouts below, 
 which may be opened and closed at will, a supply of grain 
 can always be conveniently obtained. The siding may 
 be composed of boards with battens over the cracks, or it 
 may consist of ordinary drop siding, with or without a 
 lining of tarred or building paper inside, according to cir- 
 cumstances. When the lambing pens are properly made, 
 wood lining may not be necessary on the inside of the 
 walls under some conditions, but more commonly it will 
 be necessary in northern areas in order to make the pens 
 sufficiently warm. It may not always be necessary to 
 use so much space in the lambing pens, and when the 
 lambs come late these can be dispensed with altogether. 
 The same is true of the shepherd's room. 
 
 The yard may be readily divided by running across 
 it one or more movable partitions, thus making as many 
 divisions in the yard as may be desired. It will be ob- 
 served that provision is made for gates at the ends of the 
 yard, hence a wagon may be driven in front of the divi- 
 
344 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 sions for the easy removal of the manure. Through the 
 gates which open from the paddocks into the yards, or 
 from the yards into the paddocks, ingress or egress is 
 easy. 
 
 Fig. 17 gives the ground plan of a shed w^hich will 
 meet the needs of a large flock kept under ordinary farm 
 conditions. It nearly incloses three sides of a rectangle 
 
 or square, according as 
 the side wings are long 
 or short. The buildings 
 at the corners are for 
 the storage of fodder or 
 grain. They are 24 x 
 24 feet and the posts 
 are 18 feet high, but 
 these dimensions, as 
 also those submitted 
 later, may be modified 
 to meet more exactly 
 the requirements. But 
 there should always be 
 a proper relation be- 
 tween the storage room 
 in the buildings and the 
 feeding requirements in the sheds. The two long sheds are 
 16 X 80 feet and the shorter one, which, of course, may be 
 larger, is 16 x 40 feet. The roof of the sheds between the 
 buildings for storage may be given but one slant, in which 
 case the height of the same at the rear plate does not 
 need to exceed 7 feet. But a ridge roof may be preferable. 
 When the sheds have a loft running along the whole of 
 the length, or a part of the same, and with sufficient 
 capacity to store enough litter to supply the flock during 
 all the winter, such storage will be found a great conveni- 
 ence during the period of winter feeding. When the roof 
 of the shed is given but one slant, the bedding may be re- 
 ceived into the loft through windows on the yard side. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 17— PLAN OF SHEEP BARN WITH 
 YARD PROTECTION 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 345 
 
 The location of the lambing pens and of the root cellar 
 is shown in the engraving, but should occasion call for 
 it there may be a lambing pen in each of the structures 
 which will hold fodder, and two root cellars, one below each 
 of the corner structures, would be a great convenience when 
 feeding the roots. The feeding racks, D, are placed along 
 the front of the sheds, but they may be placed toward the 
 rear, or as desired. The hay chutes come down into in- 
 closures of suitable height at C. The size of these must 
 be adjusted to the amounts of the fodder called for, but 
 they should be amply large. The feed bin, B, lo x 12 feet, 
 is shown in the sketch, and to the rear of it is a stairway 
 leading to the root cellar, which is underneath the lamb- 
 ing pen. The loft over the feed room and the lambing 
 pen should have a tight floor. The sheds may be divided 
 by movable partitions, and the yard may also be sub- 
 divided by movable fences. 
 
 The following are among the advantages of such a 
 structure: (i) It furnishes shelter for a large flock of 
 sheep and storage room for food and litter for the same 
 at relatively small cost. (2) It furnishes permanent shel- 
 ter against the winds, virtually without cost, and it is 
 shelter of the most effective kind. (3) It makes it easily 
 possible to get abundant paddock room by placing the 
 paddocks at the rear of the buildings. The sheep may be 
 admitted into these directly from the sheds. 
 
 Fig. 18 shows the ground plan of a sheep house 
 adapted to the needs of a large breeding flock kept under 
 farm conditions. It represents the ground plan of the 
 sheep barn at the Minnesota experiment farm. A build- 
 ing of the same dimensions may be too costly for an 
 average breeding flock on the ordinary farm, but the same 
 is not true of it where a large breeding flock is to be main- 
 tained for a term of years. There are certain features 
 about the plan which can be profitably utilized by the 
 flockmaster when erecting shelter for sheep on a much 
 smaller scale. 
 
346 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 The building was planned by the author with a view 
 to breeding and also to feeding sheep in an experimental 
 way. It is no feet long and 36 feet wide. The posts are 
 14 feet high, but should be 16 feet as designed by the 
 author. On one side of the front end entrance is a silo, 
 and on the other a wool room, which may also serve as a 
 shepherd's room in winter, should this be desired. The 
 next two apartments are lambing pens, one on either side. 
 The following divisions are for the sheep, on both sides of 
 
 FIG. r 
 
 -GROUND PLAN OF SHEEP BARN AT THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT 
 STATION 
 
 the passage, which is 6 feet wide and runs from end to 
 end of the building, but not in the center. This was 
 planned so that the chutes which bring the fodders from 
 above would not interfere with the working of the horse 
 fork, when taking in food from the end of the building. 
 On one side of the passage five divisions are located 20x18 
 feet. These open into yards on the shady side of the 
 building. Sheep for experimental uses were kept in these. 
 On the farm such members of the flock as are not good 
 to produce lambs could be kept in them. They could be 
 reduced in size by placing the passage toward that side 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 347 
 
 of the building, and this would proportionately enlarge 
 the pens on the other side. On the side of the passage 
 opposite to the large pens is one 20 x 12 feet and eight 
 12 X 10 feet. These are for ewes in lamb and they open 
 on the sunny side of the building. 
 
 It will be observed that each of the partitions is mov- 
 able. They may be lifted only far enough to serve the 
 purpose of a lamb creep, or they may be lifted out so as 
 to enlarge the pens. When thus lifted out, a wagon may 
 be driven right through the divisions from end to end for 
 the removal of the manure. Ingress for the wagon is 
 made by the double doors, 7^ x 7 feet, at the ends of 
 the building and egress for the same into the yards in 
 the divisions remote from the plan of entrance. 
 
 Such apartment on the sunny side has a window, 
 and on the shady side each has two. The size of the win- 
 dows is 30 X 26 inches, and they are made to slide up 
 and down. Each apartment is also furnished with a door 
 cut in twain across the middle. These doors, 3x6 inches 
 across, open outward. The feeding racks run along the 
 passage on each side of the same. A door opens from the 
 passage into each division of the shed. It is 2 feet, 8 
 inches wide, and 2 feet 10 inches high, which is 2 inches 
 less than the height of the lining on both sides of the 
 passage. The walls are boarded up with deep siding 
 nailed on to the studs with building paper underneath 
 the siding. The floor is simply of earth, except in the 
 feed room, the shepherd's room and the passage. 
 
 The fodder and litter may be taken in at the ends of 
 the loft or through doors at the sides of the same. Both 
 the fodder and litter come down through chutes into the 
 passage below. These chutes, three in number are 22 x 32 
 inches and they are suitably spaced. As they extend up- 
 ward they slant toward one side so as not to interfere with 
 the action of the horse fork. When the dififerent kinds of 
 fodder are suitably stored in sections in the loft, they are 
 at all times accessible. Should it be desired, the apart- 
 
348 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ments may be littered from a wagon driven in front of the 
 pens. The loft has a tight floor. 
 
 Water is brought in by means of pipes connected 
 with the water system that supplies the buildings. In 
 the absence of such a system it could, of course, be in- 
 troduced through means of a well, a windmill and a tank. 
 It is drawn from hydrants into pails, as needed, and the 
 sheep drink from shallow buckets in the divisions. These 
 may be kept clean by overturning them daily. 
 
 The silo, as will be observed, is circular. It is 24 feet 
 high and 12 feet across. The staves are 2x3 inches, and 
 
 FIG. 19— SHEEP BARN AT THE MINNESOTA EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
 these are tongued and grooved, which is not now consid- 
 ered necessary. It is girded around with 15 hoops of 
 ^-inch band iron, 3 inches broad. Twelve hoops suitably 
 spaced would probably prove ample. The bottom hoop 
 is just above the floor and the distance between the hoops 
 increases somewhat as they extend upward. Hinged 
 doors open into a chute extending upward on the side 
 next to the feed room. These would better serve the pur- 
 pose if they were not hinged, but rather fitted in from the 
 inside, the edges being beveled. The size suitable for 
 
SHELTER FOR SHEEP SUMMER AND WINTER 349 
 
 such a box chute is 24 x 2,^ inches, and it should have 
 a ladder within attached to one side. The doors may be 
 24 inches long and 18 inches broad. The floor consists of 
 two thicknesses of brick laid in cement. 
 
 The root cellar is 16 feet in diameter. Its location 
 and form will be readily apparent from the plan. The wall 
 is of bricks laid in mortar. In no part does the wall come 
 nearer on the inside than 3 feet 8 inches from the outer 
 walls of the building, that the frost may be the more 
 easily excluded. The window spaces, which are also used 
 as chutes for admitting the roots, have triple thickness 
 of glass in the form of a double window without and a 
 single one within. The floor overhead is ceiled, first, with 
 shiplap; second, with two thicknesses of tarred paper; 
 third, with furring to make an air space ; and fourth, with 
 shiplap. The door which opens into the feed room at the 
 head of the stair has also two thicknesses of boards, with 
 tarred paper and airspace. Fig. 19 gives an outside view 
 of the structure. 
 
 The yards extend out 18 feet from the building on 
 either side, and they are separated from one another by 
 movable divisions. A less width than 18 feet, as, for in- 
 stance, 12 or 14 feet, would make the moving of the 
 partitions much easier. They extend from the shed to 
 the fence that hems in the yard. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 
 
 Chapter XVII considers: (i) The culling of the 
 flock; (2) The disposal of the culls; (3) The disposal of 
 pure bred sheep and lambs ; (4) Fitting sheep for sale ; 
 (5) The disposal of grade sheep and lambs ; (6) Deter- 
 mining the age of sheep; (7) Preparing sheep for ship- 
 ping; (8) Shipping stockers from the ranges; (9) 
 Shipping finished sheep in car lots; and (10) Shipping 
 finished sheep in train loads. 
 
 The culling of the flock — Every breeding flock should 
 be culled not less often than once a year, and it is seldom 
 necessary to cull more frequently. The time usually re- 
 garded as the most suitable is the season when the lambs 
 are to be weaned. The real value of the ewes may be 
 better understood at that time than at any other season. 
 They have been weaning their lambs, and the most im- 
 portant indication of their value as breeders is the form 
 and furnishings of the lamb or lambs which they may 
 have reared. That time is further opportune because it 
 separates material for disposal at a season when it may 
 most readily be disposed of, or most readily and cheaply 
 prepared for disposal. 
 
 The culling of the farmer's pure-bred flock should 
 consider: (i) The ewes to be retained or sold; (2) the 
 ewe lambs to be retained or sold; (3) the ram lambs held 
 for immediate sale and those to be carried over; and (4) 
 the animals to be sent to the block, old or young. The 
 ewes retained for breeding should, of course, include the 
 best, and the aim should be to secure them, so far as may 
 be practicable, of the same type. Those set aside may be 
 too valuable to justify making them into mutton, hence 
 it is legitimate to sell them as breeders. The same rules 
 
 350 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 35 1 
 
 should guide in the selection of the ewe lambs, and when 
 once set aside for the home flock the temptation to sell 
 them to customers should be strenuously resisted. The 
 strongest and best only of the ram lambs should be 
 offered for immediate sale, and these should be kept apart 
 from the others. To graze them together will injure the 
 sale of the best lambs. The other ram lambs will take 
 the market better as yearlings. The cull lot for feeding 
 will include old ewes, any whose udders may have failed, 
 and lambs ofif in form and markings and in the character 
 of the fleece. 
 
 When culling grade flocks there is, of course, no 
 legitimate place for the retention or sale of rams for 
 breeding uses. Much care should be exercised, however, 
 in the selection of the ewes to be retained and of the 
 ewe lambs. Unless the ewes that have suckled lambs are 
 considered in connection with the lambs, mistakes in the 
 selection of the ewes are very liable to occur. A ewe 
 should not be rejected on the sole ground that she is low 
 in flesh. If a large lamb at weaning time stands by her 
 side, the lamb is the explanation of and apology for her 
 leanness. She has been generous in the proportion of 
 food turned over to the lamb, but if she is dried and put 
 on a good pasture, she will soon pick up again. The ewe 
 that fed her lamb poorly all summer will look much better 
 at weaning time than the other. The owner of a good 
 grade flock can afiford to cull severely. 
 
 It would seem approximately correct to say that 
 grade flocks should be so renewed from year to year that 
 every three years the animals in it would be entirely 
 changed. This applies to farm conditions. The plan 
 which takes three crops of lambs from ewes and then dis- 
 poses of them meets with much favor. This is said in full 
 knowledge of the fact that some ewes may breed success- 
 fully for a much longer period. The lambs are thus pro- 
 duced by ewes in the zenith of their usefulness. The 
 ewes themselves are also disposed of at an age when they 
 
35-2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 are still capable of fattening readily on suitable rations. 
 Range ewes of the Merino types will produce profitably 
 for a longer period, but such ewes should not be retained 
 on the ranch after their teeth have begun to fail. The 
 culling of pure-bred flocks not so strong numerically as 
 they are to be, is apt to be less severe than the circum- 
 stances would justify. Because of this those flocks fre- 
 quently fall below a high standard. 
 
 Disposal of the culls — When sheep and lambs are 
 culled on the range, they must be sold for what they will 
 bring, as they cannot be fattened on the range. More 
 commonly they are shipped to some stock yard center and 
 are then sold to be finished when the facilities for such 
 finishing may be found on the farm or at the yards. Dur- 
 ing recent years the extension of the beet-sugar industry 
 to the mountain valleys of the West and the growth of 
 alfalfa in the same areas has opened up a new field for 
 the fattening of culls, especially culls rejected because of 
 age. The soft pulp can be readily eaten by these, though 
 they should be almost toothless with age. 
 
 On the arable farm the culls may be fattened. They 
 may be fattened in the autumn on suitable grazing, more 
 especially on rape, or they may be fattened after the win- 
 ter has closed in. Usually they may be more cheaply 
 fattened on grazing, and this makes it possible to get 
 them out of the way before the coming of winter, which 
 usually brings with it a call for all the available space 
 that it may be possible to secure. 
 
 Culls are usually slow feeders, and in many instances 
 the profit from feeding is less than that secured from a ■ 
 better class of animals. In the nature of things it is so, 
 as the influences that led to their rejection as breeders 
 are still operative, and will in consequence make them rela- 
 tively slow feeders. The want of uniformity, which in 
 most instances they possess, tends also to discount the 
 price paid for them. Nevertheless, there may be instances 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 353 
 
 when it may be legitimate to buy culls for feeding (see 
 page 224). 
 
 There are instances, especially in small flocks, where 
 the culls may be used with advantage on the farm. Be- 
 cause they have been culled out for slaughter, it does 
 not follow that they will not furnish meat of good quality. 
 That will depend chiefly on the way in which they are 
 fattened. A sheep may be rejected as a breeder because 
 it is undersize or off in form in some particulars, and yet 
 it may furnish excellent mutton. Aged sheep fattened 
 quickly will lose much of that toughness that would 
 otherwise characterize the meat. The home supply of 
 meat may in many instances be largely drawn from this 
 source for the entire winter by those who have a liking 
 for mutton ; when thus used there is no discount put upon 
 the animals simpl}^ because they are culls. Such dis- 
 counting is very common when these are sold upon the 
 market. 
 
 Dressing sheep for home use is not difficult. A fast 
 of 24 hours before slaughtering is helpful. The method 
 frequently followed is in outline as follows : The animal 
 is caught, laid on its side and held by one person with his 
 knee upon the shoulder, one leg at least being firmly held 
 in each hand. The throat is cut by a second person as 
 he holds the lower jaw point firmly in his hand. The 
 skin is then removed before or after hanging up the sheep 
 and the inwards are taken out. The carcass remains sus- 
 pended until the animal heat has left it. The longer that 
 it can be kept without taint the better will be the mutton. 
 
 Disposal of pure brads — Pure-bred sheep and lambs 
 set aside for disposal are more commonly sold by private 
 sale. They are usually regarded as being too valuable to 
 sell for meat as long as they are capable of breeding suc- 
 cessfully. In some instances ewes whose teeth have be- 
 gun to fail are purchased as material on which to found 
 flocks, as such material can usually be purchased cheaply. 
 The practice is not to be condemned, nor is it to be in- 
 
354 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 discriminately commended. If ewes thus purchased are 
 suitably fed, they may be able to produce and rear lambs 
 for one or two years longer than if not thus provided with 
 food suited to their advanced age ; that is, food that is 
 easy to masticate and rich in nutrients. But the fact 
 remains that ewes past the meridian of vigor will not rear 
 lambs of equal excellence with those reared by the same 
 ewes when in their prime. 
 
 The sale and purchase of inferior rams for breeding 
 uses, simply because they are purely bred is a serious 
 mistake. It may bring immediate gain to the seller, but 
 in the end it is sure to react against the reputation of the 
 breeder and of the breed. Such animals ought to be sold 
 for slaughter, every temptation to dispose of them for 
 any other use should be resisted and the same is true of 
 pure-bred ewes of decided inferiority. 
 
 Orders for pure-bred sheep, and especially for pure- 
 bred rams, are very frequently filled by mail. They cannot 
 be filled otherwise when the buyer and seller live far 
 apart, because of the expense that would be thus incurred 
 in traveling. Such orders are based on the reputation 
 of the seller, who cannot be too careful to keep his repu- 
 tation unsullied in the way in which the orders are filled. 
 Those who give them should be careful to describe the 
 character of the animal or animals that they want, and 
 those who fill them should be equally careful to fill them 
 in the line of the requirements. If they cannot do this 
 they should not try to fill them. Some breeders have been 
 able to build up a very large business on these lines. 
 Other breeders have never been able to do so, the differ- 
 ence in the results being based chiefly on a difference 
 in the methods of filling orders. 
 
 The leading live stock fairs that are held usually 
 furnish auspicious times for the purchase of stock, rams 
 especially; for the purchase of what are commonly re- 
 ferred to as field rams — that is, rams that have been fitted 
 for the show ring. Many breeders take to the fairs a 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 355 
 
 number of such rams for sale, hence the person who may 
 desire to invest is given the opportunity to choose from 
 various flocks. 
 
 In Great Britain a large proportion of the rams 
 reared are sold at sales held in certain centers every year. 
 Those sales furnish opportunities that cannot be improved 
 upon for securing stock rams. They bring the buyer and 
 seller close together at a minimum of cost, so the pro- 
 spective buyer has the opportunity of inspecting animals 
 from many flocks before the sale is held. The sale also 
 tends to inspire those who furnish the animals sold to 
 bring them possessed of high excellence, that the prices 
 paid may add to their reputation as successful breeders. 
 It would be a great mistake to bring inferior animals to 
 such sales. The sales should be well advertised and the 
 sheep carefully catalogued. 
 
 It cannot be said that the attempts to sell sheep for 
 breeding at such sales in America have been altogether 
 successful, a result that may have arisen in part from 
 the apparent hesitancy on the part of those who furnish 
 the animals to hazard the selling of high-class sheep by 
 auction. That such sales will yet become common in this 
 country would seem to be a foregone conclusion, because 
 of the fine opportunity which they furnish to intending 
 purchasers for inspecting animals from many herds. The 
 tendency at the present time is to hold such sales at cen- 
 ters where important live stock fairs are held, and 
 simultaneously with the fairs. The time and place for 
 holding these sales, however, is at present in the tentative 
 stage. 
 
 Fitting sheep for sale — When sheep or lambs are 
 held for sale, either public or private, they will not sell 
 readily, nor will they bring good prices unless possessed 
 of reasonably good flesh and a fair amount of bloom. 
 Both conditions appeal to the eye. Where the animals 
 ofl^ered are thin, the suspicion is aroused that they are 
 lacking in bloom; they do not possess the attractions 
 
356 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 which bloom brings with it. Bloom may be defined as 
 that condition in which form, wool and action are pleas- 
 ing- and attractive. It indicates present and prospective, 
 continued thrift. Animals long maintained under high 
 pressure feeding at length lose their bloom, and when 
 they do they cannot again regain it to the same extent, as 
 the energies of the system have been weakened by over- 
 work. To sell sheep at auction that are low in flesh or 
 lacking in bloom is a great mistake. Sheep held for sale 
 at home or elsewhere, should be at least measurably 
 trimmed with the shears. The nature of the trimming 
 will depend on the kind of the sheep and the conditions 
 under which they have been kept. Trimming improves 
 the appearance of the sheep. The claim that it tends to 
 deceive is not valid, as the intending purchaser is not 
 debarred from handling the sheep. If he neglects to 
 handle them, he may be deceived by the fleece of the 
 sheep untrimmed as well as by the fleece of that trimmed. 
 When sold in lots at home or in the sale ring, the respec- 
 tive lots should be carefully graded. This means that the 
 individuals in the respective lots should be chosen with 
 reference to similarity in age, size and type. Such uni- 
 formity is pleasing to the eye, and it brings added value 
 to the lots thus sold. Those sold at auction should be 
 numbered on the side or back with ink applied with 
 stamp or stencil, that they may be readily identified. 
 Portable pens ^ill be greatly helpful in bringing lots to 
 the sale ring. 
 
 Disposal of grades — More commonly grade sheep 
 grown upon the farm are disposed of as lambs ; that is. 
 under the age of 12 months. The exact age for such dis- 
 posal will depend on the aims of the grower and on his 
 ifacilities for furnishing lambs at dififerent ages. It would 
 seem correct to say that, as a rule, the profit made from 
 lambs decreases relatively with increase in age, providing 
 that in all instances they are put upon the market in fin- 
 ished form. A well-fed lamb two or three months old 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 357 
 
 will frequently sell for as much as the same lamb would 
 bring if retained until 9 to 12 months old. When not 
 sold as milk lambs, the aim should be to finish them on 
 the farm, so that the profit made from the finishing may 
 accrue to the owner rather than to someone who may 
 purchase them for feeding. On the range sheep are sold 
 as lambs or wethers. Whether they should be sold as lambs 
 or older, depends in no small degree on the relative price 
 of wool and mutton. The higher relatively the price paid 
 for wool, the more advantageous, relatively, to sell as 
 wethers rather than lambs, and vice versa. In former 
 decades the range stocks were disposed of as wethers, 
 but at present the disposal of males as lambs is on the 
 increase. The tendency is to increase the ewes, since a 
 ewe will furnish a fleece and a lamb, while the wether 
 furnishes a fleece only. It is true, nevertheless, that a 
 wether will sell for more than a lamb, and he will con- 
 sume less grazing than a ewe and a lamb. 
 
 On the range the surplus stock is usually sold to go 
 to the block directly or after having been fattened at 
 some place of finishing not in the range country. The 
 aged ewes culled out are disposed of similarly. But on 
 the farm it may be different. Where the flock is small 
 the animals singled out for disposition may frequently be 
 all used in supplying meat for the farmer and his family. 
 It may seem incongruous to recommend the disposal of 
 culls in that way, but when sheep are kept in but lim- 
 ited numbers the grade of culls even may rank relatively 
 high. 
 
 Determining the age of sheep — When culling the 
 flock, it is not always possible to determine the age of 
 those which ought to be discarded on the ground of age, 
 nor can a judge be quite sure of the exact age when pass- 
 ing upon sheep in the show ring. In the latter instances, 
 however, he can make a close approximation from indica- 
 tions furnished bv the teeth. The absence of teeth and 
 
358 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Other indications will throw some light upon this question 
 of old age. 
 
 At birth, or before the first month is past, the lamb 
 is possessed of eight incisors or milk teeth, as they are 
 sometimes called. These are all in the under jaw and in 
 the front part of the mouth. Directly above is a bony 
 substance known as the dental pad, which serves in the 
 place of teeth. At the age of, say, 12 to 16 months, the 
 two central incisors make way for the two first perma- 
 nent ones. At the age of, say, 21 or 22 months, the sec- 
 ond pair of permanent incisors appear, and of course, on 
 either side of the first pair. At the age of 30 months, 
 and in some instances earlier, the third pair are in place, 
 and at the age of, say, 36 months, but sometimes two or 
 three months later, the fourth and last pair are in place, 
 when the sheep are said to have a full mouth. 
 
 The mature sheep has 24 grinding teeth, usually 
 spoken of as molars. Of these 12 are in the under and 12 
 in the upper jaw, six on each side. Of these the first, 
 second and third, counting from the front backwards, are 
 present at birth, but are replaced later. In about three 
 months from birth the first permanent molars appear, 
 occupying the fourth place. At about nine months the 
 second permanent molars appear, occupying the fifth 
 place, and at about 18 months the third complement of 
 permanent molars occupy the sixth place. At, say, 22 
 months, the first and second temporary molars in each 
 side and in both the upper and lower jaw are replaced, 
 and at, say, 24 months, the third temporary molars are re- 
 placed. The full mouth has 32 teeth in all. The perma- 
 nent teeth are both larger and darker in color than the 
 temporary teeth. 
 
 The other indications of age — that is, of old age — 
 include the partial or total loss of the teeth, depression 
 of the loin, hollowness at the barrel depression, sagging 
 of the paunch and distension of the nostril. There is 
 some relation between long^evitv in the breed and the time 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 359 
 
 when the teeth fail. In some breeds the teeth are lost 
 at about half the age at which they are lost in other 
 breeds. The more that quick maturity has been sought 
 in a breed, the younger the age at which the teeth are 
 shed, and vice versa. The other indications referred to are 
 also affected by the same influence. Longevity in the 
 Merino is much greater than in the other breeds now in 
 America. In former decades American Merinos have in 
 some instances produced lambs at the age of 20 years. 
 The instances are not numerous with nearly all the other 
 breeds in which they have produced lambs beyond half 
 the age mentioned. 
 
 It is apparent, therefore, that the indications of age 
 mentioned are only approximations more or less close to 
 the truth. The time at which the teeth are shed, for 
 instance, is much influenced by the forced character of 
 the feeding, or the opposite. Liberal feeding tends to 
 produce early shedding of the teeth. When sheep are 
 liberally fed they get their first pair of permanent incisors 
 at about 11 months, the second at 18 months, the third at 
 27 months and the fourth at 36 months. At the Smithfield 
 fat stock show in England, sheep having their central 
 permanent incisors cut are considered as beyond the age 
 of ID months ; those having them fully grown as beyond 
 12 months; those having the third pair cut as exceeding 
 19 months; and those having the third pair fully up and 
 all the temporary molars replaced as exceeding 24 months. 
 
 Preparing sheep for shipping — When sheep are 
 shipped from the ranges a change of food is not necessary 
 preceding their shipment. They may be taken directly 
 from the pastures to the cars on which they are loaded. 
 It is important that the car is well furnished with bedding, 
 as it will add greatly to their comfort and will help to 
 keep the wool from getting soiled. For an ordinary single 
 deck car not less than 200 to 300 pounds of bedding should 
 be furnished in the form of straw where obtainable, or 
 old hav where straw is not to be had. 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 361 
 
 When shipping sheep from farm pastures to the mar- 
 ket it may be necessary, in some instances, to put them 
 on dry feed for a day or two prior to shipping. The object 
 sought is to lessen the tendency to scouring that might 
 otherwise result. Such a course is important when sheep 
 are being finished on succulent pastures, such as rape. 
 When shipped from feed lots, the grain ration should be 
 materially reduced for a day or two before shipping. Oats 
 furnishes the safest grain food to feed at such a time. 
 
 Instances may occur in which the individual may 
 have only a part of a carload to ship. His aim should be 
 to get some neighbor similarly situated to join with him 
 in completing the loading of the car. Such co-operation 
 in localities far from market is highly important, and 
 should be made a matter of pre-arrangement before the 
 feeding begins. Swine also may be used, of course, to 
 complete the loading of the car, but when so used the 
 partition that separates the sheep and swine should be 
 strongly made. 
 
 When shipping sheep out of the stock yards to be 
 finished on the farm or elsewhere, it is a wise precaution 
 to dip them before removing them from the stock yards. 
 Such dipping is a safeguard against scab and ticks, but if 
 scab is suspected the sheep ought to be dipped twice with 
 an interval between (see page 439). The stock yards 
 furnish the dipping plant and materials for dipping, and 
 they take charge of the same at so much per head. The 
 charge is usually a moderate one. The aim should be to 
 carry the sheep in disinfected cars after they have been 
 thus dipped. As the run from the stock yards to the farm 
 or other place where the sheep are to be finished is not 
 usually a long one, the car is furnished with bedding only. 
 When the sheep will be long in transit some hay is put 
 around the sides of the car, which they will consume, in 
 part at least, on the way. 
 
 Shipping stockers from the ranges — When sheep are 
 shipped as stockers from the ranges, the numbers are such 
 
362 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 usually as to admit of grading the animals before they 
 are shipped. The aim in grading should be: (i) To keep 
 the old and young ewes separate from each other and 
 from the lambs and wethers; (2) to keep the lambs and 
 wethers apart, and, when the numbers will justify it, to 
 grade the lambs and wethers according to age and size. 
 When the yards are reached where these are exposed for 
 sale, the different classes should occupy different pens. 
 The benefit resulting is that higher relative price which 
 uniformity brings with it. The purchaser of stockers de- 
 sires uniformity, for the reason that an even lot will fat- 
 ten more readily than a mixed lot or a lot similar in kind 
 but differing much in the flesh which they carry, and the 
 uniformity in the feeders purchased will tend much to 
 produce uniformity in the feeders finished. Uniformity 
 in the latter is even more desirable than in the former. 
 
 Sheep are sometimes shipped in a single deck car, 
 and sometimes in one with two decks. The number that 
 a car will carry will, of course, depend on the size of the 
 sheep or Iambs, the amount of flesh that they carry and 
 the length of the car. On a car 36 feet long from 120 to 
 130 wethers may be shipped as stockers on a single deck. 
 When shipping old ewes they should not be crowded so 
 closely as in the case of wethers, as they are less able 
 to bear up under untoward conditions than wethers. 
 Stock lambs vary more in size than wethers ; hence this 
 variation is greater in the number that the car will carry. 
 When the lambs are developed so as to weigh 60 to 70 
 pounds, a single deck of a 36-foot car should carry from 
 140 to 150 head. When the lambs are under 60 pounds in 
 weight, the single deck should carry 170 to 180 head. A 
 maximum weight in the load carried is fixed upon as the 
 basis of charge for the car. If the car is not loaded up to 
 this maximum, the shipper is so far the loser; but if 
 loaded to exceed the maximum, the shipper pays propor- 
 tionately for the excess. 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 363 
 
 The aim should be not to unload the stockers in 
 transit more frequently than the law compels such 
 unloading. Sheep, like cattle, will not eat or drink 
 much while in transit; hence the all-important consid- 
 eration is to try and get them to their destination as 
 quickly as possible. When they reach the stockyards, 
 if so considered, they are subject to inspection, and as a 
 safeguard cannot go out for being finished without being 
 dipped once, and twice in case that scabies are discovered. 
 The cost of sheep held in the yards is, of course, borne by 
 the owners. 
 
 Shipping finished sheep in car lots — When sheep are 
 to be shipped in car lots, the wise feeder will look well 
 ahead with reference to securing cars at the time fixed 
 upon for shipping. The importance of giving most care- 
 ful attention to this matter increases with the distance 
 from the market and the lack of competition in the rail- 
 roads. The officials of the road should be given such 
 timely notice of the need of cars as to leave them without 
 excuse if the cars are not forthcoming. Instances may be 
 cited in which failure to secure cars at the proper time 
 has turned what would have been a handsome profit into 
 no profit at all. This result followed the constrained feed- 
 ing of the sheep after they were ready for shipment and 
 downward tendencies in the markets. 
 
 Where large numbers of sheep are fed, the grading 
 of the shipments will be easily practicable. It may not be 
 practicable on the farm where but one carload lot is fin- 
 ished. In the former instance the finished animals may 
 be sent forward as ready, the less finished going later. In 
 the latter instance they may be graded after reaching the 
 yards, if this is thought best. 
 
 The number of finished animals that a car will carry 
 will, of course, be influenced by their size and the degree 
 of the finish possessed. In a single-deck 36-foot car, about 
 100 finished wethers such as come from the range can be 
 shipped without discomfort through overcrowding. From 
 
364 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 120 to 130 finished lambs will make a load. But the num- 
 bers given may be exceeded or diminished so as to vary 
 considerably through the influences named. 
 
 Usually it will be found to the advantage of the 
 shipper to consign the shipment to some reputable com- 
 mission firm. The advice of the said firm with reference 
 to a propitious time for shipping will usually prove help- 
 ful. The commission house should be apprised by wire 
 of the time when the loaded consignment will leave, so 
 that they will know when to look for it at the yards. 
 After inspection the stock is in charge of the commission 
 firm until sold. The said firm makes sure that the ani- 
 mals are properly unloaded, that they are properly fed 
 and watered, and that the animals are promptly sold at 
 the best rates obtainable. A check is then issued to the 
 owner, with the charges deducted. These charges include 
 such items as switching charges, the cost of food, charges 
 for weighing and the commission charges. 
 
 Shipping finished sheep in train loads — As a matter 
 of economy in shipping, sheep are sometimes sent forward 
 from the place of feeding in train loads from points that 
 are far away. To put these on the market at one time 
 might involve hazard, especially when several days are 
 occupied in the journey, owing to the change in market 
 values. To avoid such hazard, the plan is adopted of 
 securing an unloading point not distant from the mar- 
 ket. The plant at this point may also be used as a feed- 
 ing station. 
 
 The sheep should reach this plant in ample time to 
 enable them to recover from the effects of the long jour- 
 ney in transit before they are put upon the market. The 
 owner secures the services of a commission house located 
 at the market. From the said firm he gets information 
 from time to time as to the needs of the market. He is 
 then enabled to forward selected animals from time to 
 time in carload lots in the line of the needs of the mar- 
 ket. In this way he secures the best returns obtainable 
 
DISPOSAL AND MARKETING OF SHEEP 365 
 
 for the shipments forwarded. If some of the sheep or 
 lambs are not yet ready to be sent to the market, the 
 opportunity is furnished to feed them longer. 
 
 Some of the growers of sheep thus virtually maintain 
 two feeding stations. One is located in the country near 
 to the pastures where the sheep are grown and where the 
 necessary fattening foods are obtainable, and the other is 
 not distant from the place of final disposal. Sheep grown 
 on the ranges are thus fattened in some of the mountain 
 valleys of the West, where alfalfa and the coarse grains 
 can be produced abundantly through the aid of irrigating 
 waters from the mountain streams. Marketable lambs 
 four days in transit and weighing 50 to 100 pounds will 
 shrink about seven to eight pounds ; one-year wethers 
 weighing about 120 pounds, about 10 pounds; and aged 
 wethers and ewes, about 12 pounds. The shorter the 
 period of transit the greater relatively would be the 
 shrinkage, and vice versa. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND 
 WOLVES 
 
 The discussions in Chapter XVIII are as follows: (i) 
 How dogs and wolves affect sheep husbandry; (2) How 
 dogs worry sheep; (3) Protection to sheep owners from 
 legislatures; (4) Remedial legislation; (5) Protective 
 measures on the farm ; (6) Why sheep do better when not 
 corralled ; (7) The dog industry in the United States ; 
 (8) The place for the dog in sheep husbandry ; (9) The 
 losses incurred by wolves; and (10) Protective measures 
 against wolves. 
 
 How dogs and wolves affect sheep husbandry — It is 
 
 not possible to state with precision the annual loss to 
 sheep husbandry from the ravages of wolves and dogs. 
 Statistics relating to these losses have not been compiled 
 in a systematic way, and for the reason probably that the 
 task of compiling them would not be an easy one. That 
 these losses in the aggregate are very great is unques- 
 tionably true. In the special report of the sheep indus- 
 try of the United States published by the United States 
 department of agriculture in 1892, it is stated that the 
 loss from dogs alone in Ohio was placed at $152,034 and 
 in Missouri at $200,000. In Bulletin No. 20 of the biolog- 
 ical survey of the United States department of agricul- 
 ture, it is stated that the average animal loss from wolves 
 reported from several of the range states has been 5 per 
 cent, and that in some areas the losses incurred by wolves 
 and other wild animals, chiefly the former, has been as 
 much as 20 per cent. It would seem correct to say that 
 the loss incurred from these two sources is greater than 
 the loss resulting from disease. 
 
 S66 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 367 
 
 The direct loss from the ravages of dogs and wolves 
 is probably far less than the indirect loss resulting there- 
 from, which means the adverse influence which these 
 losses exert upon the extension of the industry. During 
 recent years especially the demand for mutton has greatly 
 increased, while the increase in the number of sheep 
 grown has made but little advance for many years. The 
 number of sheep in the United States in 1884 is officially 
 stated as 50,626,626, and in 1907 as 53,240,282. The in- 
 crease in the 23 years included has been only 2,613,656. 
 In Great Britain the number of sheep kept at the present 
 time is about half as many as are maintained in all the 
 states of the Union. In the older states where sheep hus- 
 bandry has declined, as, for instance, in New England, 
 the losses incurred by vagrant dogs is the reason usually 
 given by the farmers for the lessened numbers of the 
 sheep kept. In some of the range states during recent 
 years the number of the sheep kept has grown less, and 
 one reason most commonly given is the loss resulting 
 from the presence of wolves. 
 
 At the present time it is not possible to state whether 
 the actual loss from dogs or wolves is the greater loss. 
 Viewed from the standpoint of the hindrance to exten- 
 sion in sheep husbandry, however, there can be no ques- 
 tion that the former exert the greater influence. The 
 greatest relative increase in the numbers of sheep kept in 
 the future should come from the arable rather than from 
 the range states ; hence the great importance of protective 
 measures in these against the ravages of dogs. 
 
 While the losses incurred from the ravages of wolves 
 have been very serious, and are even now, it can scarcely 
 be said that these could have been prevented in the past. 
 The same is not true, however, of the losses resulting 
 from the attacks of dogs. In great measure they could 
 have been prevented. That they have not been prevented 
 is little less than a blot upon our civilization. That the 
 farmers have not risen in resistless protest against the in- 
 
368 iMANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 difference shown by legislators to these losses is not cred- 
 itable to their manhood; that legislatures have so fre- 
 quently trifled with the remedial measures proposed is not 
 creditable to their patriotism. 
 
 How dogs worry sheep — The night season is the time 
 usually chosen by dogs for worrying sheep, but in some 
 instances they will not refrain from attacking them in the 
 day. The problem of devising means that will enable the 
 farmers who keep sheep to receive compensation for the 
 loss sustained is much complicated by this habit in the 
 dogs to make their attacks in the night season. It makes 
 it practically impossible to know whose dogs did the mis- 
 chief. But even though this could be known, and though 
 the law made provision that the owners of the sheep 
 should be given full compensation by the owners of the 
 dogs, in very many instances the owners of the latter 
 would be unable to make payment. More commonly the 
 slaughtering of the sheep is done by vagrant dogs owned 
 by people who are too poor and frequently too negligent 
 also to provide proper food for them. The exceptions, 
 however, are not few, for dogs that are well fed will some- 
 times worry sheep. It has even been claimed that shep- 
 herd dogs have been known to worry sheep, but such 
 instances, if they happened, are extremely rare. 
 
 In some instances dogs will worry sheep though 
 alone. More commonly, however, they make the attack 
 when in pairs or trios. They sometimes go for a con- 
 siderable distance in search of a flock. They will not only 
 attack sheep in the open field, but will also attack them 
 when yarded, if the yard or corral is accessible. When 
 attacked in the yard or corral the slaughter is usually 
 very great. But the same is true in some instances in 
 the open field, as the surrounding fence makes it impossi- 
 ble for them to get away. 
 
 The power of dogs to worry sheep is very great. In 
 some instances, more especially when the attack is made 
 by a single dog, it is confined to a single sheep from the 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 369 
 
 carcass of which the murderer of the innocent makes a 
 meal. More commonly, however, but little flesh is eaten. 
 No sooner has one sheep been killed or maimed suffi- 
 ciently to satisfy the dog, than he leaves it and engages 
 in the chase after another. More commonly the neck is 
 the favorite place of attack, but the attacks are by no 
 means confined to that part of the animal. In some in- 
 stances the slaughter is only stayed when the dogs have 
 become too exhausted to carry it on longer. Two dogs 
 have been known to kill and maim more than 100 sheep 
 in one of those nocturnal carnivals of slaughter. 
 
 It is almost impossible to prove the identity of the 
 dogs, even though they should be caught at the nefarious 
 work in the broad light of day. Assured identity of a dog 
 seen at a distance is not easy, and owing to their swift- 
 ness when pursued, it is usually impossible to follow them 
 to the home of the owner. In a few instances strong cir- 
 cumstantial evidence may be obtained against a dog sus- 
 pected of guilt, by wool hairs adhering to the teeth or 
 blood marks around the jaws, but the danger exists that 
 the fact of making such an examination may create hard 
 feelings by men who have been neighbors. 
 
 The loss in a flock of sheep that have been worried 
 by dogs is by no means all represented, as a rule, by the 
 number of the sheep killed or wounded. The injury to 
 the surviving numbers of the flock is such that the profit 
 that would otherwise have accrued is much reduced. This 
 arises from the ill-doing for a considerable period at least 
 following the attack. This ill-doing is probably the out- 
 come in part at least of the severe shock given to the 
 nervous system arising from fright. 
 
 Protection by legislative enactment — From what has 
 been said it will be apparent that in the absence of legis- 
 lation bearing upon compensation to the owners of sheep 
 attacked by dogs, it will be impossible for them to secure 
 such compensation. Such legislation has usually been 
 difficult to obtain, for reasons given below. It has sel- 
 
3/0 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 dom proved entirely satisfactory when attempted, and in 
 some instances where such legislation has been attempted 
 it has been subsequently repealed. The fact remains, 
 nevertheless, that an industry so important to the mate- 
 rial interests of the state should be protected. The diffi- 
 culty usually met with in securing legislation on the sub- 
 ject arises in part from the far greater numerical strength 
 of those who keep dogs and no sheep than of those who 
 keep sheep. Some legislators at least recognize this fact, 
 and, doing so, they are slow to support a measure that 
 may alienate supporters. It also arises in part from the ex- 
 treme difficulty in framing legislation that will give jus- 
 tice to all and that will give oppression to none. 
 
 It would seem to be true, however, that the strongest 
 reason for opposing such legislation is found in the 
 strength of the sporting instinct in many legislators and 
 also in many of their supporters, more especially those 
 located in towne and villages. This love of hunting would 
 seem to be so strong in many instances as to blunt the 
 sense of justice with reference to legislation that would 
 seriously interfere with conducting the sport of hunting 
 on old-time lines. The dog is, in a sense, an indispensa- 
 ble adjunct to successful hunting. Hence legislators 
 sometimes hesitate to pass laws that may be regarded by 
 those who keep hunting dogs as inimical to their interests. 
 
 Legislation to protect from dogs — No legislation that 
 has been enacted has proved entirely satisfactory. That 
 system, it would seem correct to say, has proved the least 
 objectionable which puts a tax on all dogs outside of cor- 
 porate cities, funds the same in the county in which it 
 is collected, and reimburses the owner of sheep from this 
 fund in whole or in part for loss incurred by dogs. In 
 very many instances the owners of dogs conceal them 
 when the assessment is being taken, and in some in- 
 stances deny the presence of their existence, and in this 
 way they are not listed for taxing. The system has been 
 objected to, first, because it taxes useful and useless dogs 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 37I 
 
 alike; second, because the fund collected does not in all 
 instances cover the loss ; and third, because in some coun- 
 ties practically no sheep are reared. 
 
 Because of these and other objections, law^s that have 
 been passed to protect sheep from dogs have in several 
 instances been repealed. The cities have laws or by-laws 
 relating to dogs, hence they are beyond the jurisdiction 
 of the counties, and so cannot be reached by enactments 
 in these, and yet many of the losses incurred result from 
 the attacks of city dogs. 
 
 Whether legislation will yet be enacted that will 
 prove more effective remains to be seen. As long as the 
 sentiment that exalts the sport of hunting to a higher 
 plane than sheep husbandry remains, remedial legislation 
 to protect sheep will not be easily obtained. That the 
 industry ought to be thus protected, however, cannot for 
 one moment be questioned. The agitation for it, there- 
 fore, should never cease until it is obtained. 
 
 Protective measures on the farm — In the absence of 
 adequate protection from the legislature, the sheep own- 
 er can adopt protective measures that will go far to in- 
 sure safety for his sheep. Even when legislation has been 
 enacted it may be fitly supplemented by the adoption of 
 such measures. These include protection furnished by 
 bells, by goats, by corrals, by fences, by firearms and 
 by poison. 
 
 It has been claimed that putting bells in large num- 
 bers on sheep will afford protection against dogs and also 
 against wolves. That protection to some extent has thus 
 been afforded is probably true, but whether such protec- 
 tion would in all instances prove adequate is at least an 
 open question. The effectiveness would doubtless be in- 
 fluenced, first by the size of the flock, and, second, by the 
 extent to which it is equipped with bells. It has been the 
 practice of some flockmasters to furnish from 25 to 50 
 per cent of the flock with bells. 
 
 In some instances the presence of "billy" goats in the 
 
■^^2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 flock, that is of male goats, has to some extent furnished 
 protection to sheep from dogs. Such protection, how- 
 ever, in large flocks will not always prove adequate, as 
 the flock not infrequently divides into groups in large 
 pastures, and in some of these the goats may be absent 
 when the dogs attack the sheep. Nor is it by any means 
 certain that male goats will always prove effective in the 
 fight with dogs when they are present. The same may be 
 said of Dorset males, though in some instances they may 
 drive away timid dogs. Even ewes with young lambs will 
 sometimes fight dogs in defence of their young, but usu- 
 ally they prove quite unequal to conducting such a con- 
 test. 
 
 The corral is a sure means of protection for sheep at 
 night when the inclosure is properly made. When the 
 fence is inadequate to keep out dogs, the corral only 
 tends to facilitate the slaughter when dogs get inside. 
 To the sheep in such an event it becomes a veritable death 
 trap. To yarding sheep in corrals there are also some 
 objections as shown below. 
 
 One of the surest and most effective ways of protect- 
 ing sheep against dogs is by fencing the pastures so 
 that dogs cannot enter them. A fence constructed as fol- 
 lows will protect against dogs : Set posts 8 feet long, say 
 one rod apart, and sunk 3 feet into the ground. Along 
 these stretch barbed wire just at the surface of the 
 ground, say, 3 inches ; above this stretch a strip of woven 
 wire 36 inches broad and with mesh not exceeding 5 
 inches. Six inches above the woven wire stretch a barb 
 wire ; 6 inches higher stretch another and ^Yi inches 
 higher still a third. The fence will thus be 5 feet from the 
 ground to the top of the barb wire. A strip of strong 
 wood 2x1 inches, placed erect and midway between the 
 posts, and to which the wires are stapled, will prevent 
 them from sagging. A wire woven up and down at the 
 same place will effect the same end. The bottom wire is 
 intended to prevent the dogs from crawling under. 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 373 
 
 Should any runways pass under the fence, these will need 
 special attention. The gates must also be carefully made 
 and put in place. These may be of wire similar to that 
 used in building the fence, but which, of course, should 
 be carefully stayed between the headpiece and the end- 
 piece of the gate. A fence thus built will be quite suit- 
 able for inclosing a corral. 
 
 Protection by means of firearms may not in all in- 
 stances be in strict accord with the letter of the law, and 
 disobedience to law very seldom finds justification. But 
 when a dog visits the property of another unattended by 
 an owner he is a trespasser. The law relating to trespass 
 usually forbids such visitation of any member of the 
 human family without the concurrence of the owner of 
 the land. Should domestic animals, as, for instance, the 
 horse and the cow, invade property, the law usually makes 
 provision for impounding them. Why, then, should a 
 dog be given license to go v^^here other domestic animals 
 and even man himself cannot go without permission? The 
 dog cannot be impounded. The only protection against 
 his undesirable presence is that which sends him to the 
 shades of non-existence. It would be difficult, indeed, 
 to find a court that would punish a man who would thus 
 protect himself against trespass. 
 
 Protection by means of poison is justified on the 
 same ground as protection by means of firearms. The 
 reasons which sustain the one method of dealing with 
 dogs will also sustain the other. Dogs are much more 
 easily poisoned than wolves (see page 382), as they are 
 much less wary and suspicious. A piece of meat charged 
 with strychnine trailed across a field and left in a suit- 
 able place will usually lure dogs to their death who in- 
 vade that field. In the absence of legislation to protect 
 sheep from dogs measures thus heroic will furnish a con- 
 siderable degree of protection. 
 
 The corral and its place — A corral, as is generally 
 known, is a roofless inclosure into which sheep are 
 
374 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 brought for safe keeping for the night. The protection 
 sought is against dogs and beasts of prey. On the arable 
 farm where the sheep are corraled at night the yard and 
 the shed which opens into it is usually made to serve the 
 purposes of a corral. On the range this is frequently im- 
 practicable ; in fact, it is so usually during the grazing sea- 
 son, owing to the distance of the grazing grounds from 
 the sheds. 
 
 A corral is always a necessity on the open range, as 
 under such conditions the danger is always more or less 
 present that the flock may be preyed upon by beasts of 
 prey. When the range is very large, it may be necessary 
 to have more than one corral. Of course, on the arable 
 farm such increased protection is never necessary, un- 
 less the sheep should be kept during a part of the grazing 
 season on pastures too distant to admit of driving them to 
 the home corral. 
 
 Although the corral is indispensable under many 
 conditions of sheep husbandry, it is nevertheless a 
 hindrance in some respects to the production attainable 
 were it not necessary to corral the sheep. It calls for 
 travel that would not otherwise be necessary ; it fosters 
 to some extent the spread of disease should it be present 
 in the flock, and it prevents the sheep from grazing as 
 they otherwise would in the coolest portion of the day. 
 
 When sheep are sustained by grazing alone, they get 
 all the exercise they need when taking their food, and 
 should the pasture be sparse, they get more than they 
 need. Every additional step taken beyond the require- 
 ments of health is taken at the expense of flesh, hence the 
 more distant that the corral is from the pastures, the 
 greater is the loss from such journeying. The aim should 
 be, therefore, to so locate the corral that unnecessary 
 time on the part of the sheep would be prevented. This 
 may call for the construction of more than one corral 
 on large grazing grounds. The other conditions to be 
 considered in locating a corral include: (i) Protection 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 375 
 
 from wind such as is provided by a bluff or grove; (i) 
 ground with sufficient slope to keep the corral dry; and 
 (3) proximity to water for the sheep and also the shep- 
 herd, who usually lodges in a little shack near to the 
 corral. On the arable farm sheep accustomed to the cor- 
 ral will come to the same at nightfall as the outcome of 
 habit. The way is left open for them to do so. On the 
 range they are, of course, accompanied by the shepherd. 
 
 Should disease be present in the flock, the spread of 
 the same is facilitated by corraling at night. Crowding 
 the sheep into close quarters, of course, brings them into 
 closer contact with certain forms of disease which are 
 communicable in the germ form and in other forms. 
 Sheep in small flocks and possessed of large liberty 
 always thrive better than those kept under conditions 
 the opposite. 
 
 The most objectionable feature to the corral is that 
 it deprives sheep of the opportunity to graze during those 
 times which are most favorable for such grazing, espe- 
 cially in warm weather. When sheep can lie out on the 
 pastures they will invariably graze in the cool of the even- 
 ing, and in some instances on into the night. In the early 
 morning they again start out to gather feed while the 
 grasses are wet with dew. Such grazing in the cool of 
 the day allows the sheep to take more rest in the heat 
 of the day than would otherwise be possible, which adds 
 much to their thrift. 
 
 When they are driven nightly to the corral in large 
 bands, they feed more or less on the way in and out, 
 especially when going out in the morning. Because of 
 this the grazing becomes bare within a considerable dis- 
 tance of the corral. When this happens in proximity to 
 the quarters in which the sheep are wintered it is so far 
 unfortunate as it tends so far to deprive the sheep of 
 grazing during the open weather of winter. To avoid 
 such a result the aim should be, on the range, to have the 
 summer corral distant from winter quarters. 
 
376 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Notwithstanding these drawbacks to the corral, it is 
 an absolute necessity in the range country because of the 
 hazard from wild animals. Were it not for the hazard 
 from dogs, it would seldom be a necessity on the farm, 
 hence the cost and labor of protecting sheep in the corral 
 and the loss resulting therefrom is nearly all to be 
 charged against the mischief wrought by dogs. 
 
 Dogs in the United States — In the absence of care- 
 fully compiled statistics, it would not be possible to state 
 with definiteness the number of the dogs maintained in 
 the United States. Unquestionably it runs far into the 
 millions. The assessors' returns show that in many coun- 
 ties in a large proportion of the arable states the number 
 of the dogs far exceeds that of the number of the sheep. 
 Furthermore, it would seem safe to say that 19 out of each 
 20 of the dogs kept are of no use whatever save to amuse 
 children generally and a certain class of women. It 
 would be interesting to know the cost of food for dogs 
 in the United States. Owing to the concentrated food 
 called for by dogs, the cost of keeping each dog is several 
 times the cost of keeping each sheep. The cost of food 
 for large dogs is not so very much less than the cost of 
 food for the average child. A very large proportion of 
 the dogs kept are owned by the poor; hence, in maintain- 
 ing them, if they are to be properly maintained, they are 
 not infrequently given food that should be given instead 
 to the children of the household. More frequently they 
 are not properly fed. and because of this they must gather 
 food by scouring the country as scavengers, hence the 
 source of many of the depredations which they commit 
 while so engaged. It would seem probable that the cost 
 of maintaining dogs in the United States is greater than 
 the cost of maintaining sheep in the same. In other 
 words, the United States pays more per annum for main- 
 taining the greatest hindrance that exists to the sheep 
 industry than it does to sustain that industry. This does 
 not mean that the children of the home are not to enjoy 
 
TROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 2il7 
 
 the comfort which the household dog brings to them, that 
 the home is not to enjoy the protection of a watch dog, 
 or that the lover of sport is not to have his hunting dog; 
 but it does mean that those who keep dogs are morally 
 bound, and should be legally bound, so far as laws can 
 bind them, to keep their dogs from worrying the farmers' 
 sheep. 
 
 The great amount of the waste thus incurred in main- 
 taining useless dogs is the least part of the loss. It is 
 small in comparison with the loss sustained by the nation 
 in the extent to which the attacks of dogs hinder the 
 extension of what should be one of the greatest industries 
 which the nation possesses. 
 
 The dog in sheep husbandry — The dog has his place 
 in sheep husbandry, and an important place it is. The 
 shepherd dog is wanted to help in guiding the sheep, and 
 the hunting dog is frequently wanted to aid in defending 
 it. It would not be possible to care for sheep on the 
 ranges in the absence of dogs, because of the size of 
 the flocks. The sheep on western ranges cannot be led 
 by the shepherd, as were the smaller flocks in ancient 
 times. They must be driven, and it would be quite 
 impracticable to drive flocks so large without the aid 
 of one or more dogs. The necessity for the aid of the 
 hunting dog in defending the flock is dependent upon the 
 degree of the hazard to exposure incurred by proximity 
 to the haunts of wild animals which prey upon it. 
 
 The shepherd's dog is also a necessity in arable areas 
 that are in a large measure unfenced, and even in areas 
 where the pastures are large though fenced. A well- 
 trained dog under such conditions, and also on the range, 
 is far more helpful to the shepherd than even a mounted 
 assistant would be. The time will never come under 
 range conditions, and also under conditions that are ara- 
 ble in whole or in part, when the shepherd dog can be 
 entirely dispensed with. 
 
 The true shepherd's dog furnishes a wonderful illus- 
 
37^^ MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 tration of the marvelous degree of the perfection of the 
 development to which an animal of the canine species 
 may be brought through centuries of skillful breeding 
 accompanied by careful and wise training. In these re- 
 spects the collie is perhaps without a rival. The prompt 
 and unfailing obedience of the collie would frequently 
 put to the blush the obedience of a well-trained child. 
 The sagacity shown in doing its work is nothing short 
 of wonderful. Its fidelity to the interests of its master 
 knows no wavering. In these and also in other respects 
 it would almost seem as though it were guided by reason 
 rather than by instinct. More, probably, than any other 
 animal does it illustrate the near approach which instinct 
 may make to the realm of reason without actually invad- 
 ing it. It is thus apparent that there are dogs and dogs. 
 
 The losses incurred by wolves — In all countries 
 where the opportunity occurs wolves prey upon sheep, 
 and doubtless they have done so in every age. In North 
 America wolves are divided into two groups, known re- 
 spectively as timber wolves and coyotes. The former 
 inhabit wooded areas to a far greater extent than coyotes, 
 whose presence is almost entirely confined to the open 
 country. 
 
 Timber wolves are larger than coyotes. They are also 
 usually larger in northern areas than in those far South. 
 The color varies in different areas. In eastern Canada, it 
 is a dark gray ; in the southeastern states, a dark gray or 
 black ; in southern Texas, red ; in Mexico, brindled ; in the 
 western range country, a light gray ; along the central 
 Pacific area, dusky or black ; and in Alaska and Canada, 
 far northward, it is almost white. 
 
 Coyotes, so named by the Spaniards, are usually of 
 a dirty gray, with more or less of a reddish tint about the 
 head, neck and legs. The proportion of the red and black 
 varies much with the different species. In size they are 
 larger than a fox and smaller than the timber wolf, but 
 the size varies considerably in the different species, of 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 379 
 
 which there are several. They are furnished with a 
 pointed muzzle, erect ears and a bushy tail. 
 
 Timber wolves were originally distributed over all 
 parts of the continent that produced forest. With the 
 settlement of the country they continually recede. In the 
 eastern and central states they are now entirely extinct, 
 but in various areas near large tracts of forest they are 
 still a source of considerable loss. This is especially true 
 of northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin and northern 
 Minnesota and of much of the range country, where their 
 former prey, the buffalo, is not found any more. They 
 frequently make their dens in lonely places in the open 
 country. Coyotes inhabit all the range country from the 
 Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean and from Athabasca 
 on the north to Costa Rica on the south. In nearly all 
 the range country they are as numerous as when the 
 country was first occupied, and in some areas have in- 
 creased, notwithstanding the efforts that have been made 
 to destroy them. The explanation is found in the in- 
 creased food supplies which civilization has made accessi- 
 ble to them. 
 
 The idea that forest reserves in the range states are 
 largely accountable for the presence of wolves is not true, 
 as in the mountain areas they are not found, save in the 
 summer season where live stock are driven up to higher 
 altitudes to graze. They breed in the foothills. Fre- 
 quently the dens are located near washed-out places along 
 the sides of streams or under rocks in side hills. Some- 
 times the dens are enlarged from holes made by badgers 
 or other wild animals. In many instances the view from 
 elevations near the dens extends over a large area, hence 
 the approach of an intruder is almost impossible without 
 discovery. The breeding season varies with the climate, 
 but in the central west it occurs in April, and by August 
 the young wolves are able to shift for themselves. 
 Wolves breed but once a year. The period of gestation 
 
380 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 is about 63 days. The litters number, say, from four to 
 eight each. 
 
 Wolves usually hunt from sunset to sunrise, but in 
 some instances they search for prey in the daytime. They 
 live almost entirely on animal food. The smaller species 
 live largely on v^ild game, but they also prey upon 
 domestic fowl of all kinds, lambs and young swine. Of 
 wild game they prey upon such birds as quail, grouse, 
 wild ducks and the eggs of these at the breeding sea- 
 son, and such animals as mice, gophers, ground squirrels, 
 chipmunks, woodchucks, prairie dogs, rabbits and even 
 house cats. In addition to the above the large species 
 of coyotes prey upon sheep, goats, calves, and various 
 species of deer. In winter they will invade towns, getting 
 food from the offal of slaughterhouses and other sources. 
 Timber wolves prey upon such animals as sheep, goats, 
 hogs, calves, cattle and horses. They seldom attack 
 herded animals. 
 
 Coyotes, when looking for their prey, are much prone 
 to hide behind bushes or in the long grass near to the 
 paths which the smaller wild animals frequently journey 
 over and pounce upon them when they are passing. When 
 they attack domestic animals they of necessity have to 
 come more or less into the open. They will seize a lamb 
 or a young pig by the back and carry it away. When 
 preying upon mature sheep on the range they give chase 
 to the animal, tear out a piece of flesh, and then fre- 
 quently leave it, and likewise give chase to another. 
 When tired they make their night meal upon one of the 
 carcases. As many as a score of lambs have been killed 
 by a wolf in a single night. It has been claimed that one 
 family of wolves have been known to destroy live stock 
 worth not less than $3,000 in a single year. Frequently 
 they hunt alone, but sometimes in small bands. 
 
 The losses to sheep owners incurred by wolves is 
 very large in the aggregate. It occurs not only in all the 
 range states, but in the states more or less adjacent to 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 38 1 
 
 these which are largely under cultivation. These losses 
 meanwhile do not grow less, especially in areas inhabited 
 by coyotes. 
 
 The extent of the loss in domestic animals from 
 wolves has been put at five to 20 per cent. Even in the 
 Bad Lands of North Dakota, which are not distant from 
 cultivated areas, as much as 15 per cent of the live stock 
 has been destroyed by wolves in a single season. The 
 total losses incurred in Wyoming in the heart of the wolf 
 country have been estimated at more than $1,000,000 a 
 year. To this loss must be added the adverse influence 
 which the proximity of wolves exerts upon farmers and 
 ranchmen, many of whom would keep sheep but for the 
 fear of the loss that might follow. Those losses will 
 assuredly grow less in time as the country becomes more 
 completely occupied. 
 
 Protective measures against wolves — The following 
 are among the protective measures adopted when seeking 
 to shield sheep from the attacks of wolves : (i) The use of 
 bells; (2) the setting of traps; (3) the use of poison; (4) 
 the offering of bounties; (5) the agency of organized 
 hunting; and (6) the agency of fencing. 
 
 When a considerable proportion of the sheep in a 
 flock are furnished with bells, there can be no doubt that 
 for a time at least the bells will furnish some measure of 
 protection, as in the case of dogs (see page 371). It is 
 extremely probable, however, that in time the bells would 
 cease to frighten the wolves as at the first, and would 
 so far cease to protect. That ranchmen have not made 
 any extensive or general use of this means of protection 
 would indicate that they have no large measure of faith 
 in its effectiveness. In arable areas, where coyotes are 
 naturally more timid and wary than on the range, such 
 protection will probably be found more effective. Coyotes 
 are so wary and suspicious that they are not easily caught 
 in traps, and this wariness increases with increasing near- 
 ness to the haunts of man. Nearly all the coyotes caught 
 
382 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 by this method are under one year old, indicating clearly 
 that wariness increases with age in the wolves. They 
 are sometimes trapped without bait, and sometimes with 
 it. In the former instances the traps are sunk level with 
 the ground in a narrow trail, as in an opening between 
 bushes, and the chain and trap covered, but not too 
 deeply, with leaves and grass. In the latter they are 
 usually placed near a wolf trail, and are likewise con- 
 cealed with leaves or grass. Bait is left near in large 
 or small chunks. It should be trailed some distance if 
 practicable from the saddle horse a couple of days after 
 the traps have been set, to put the wolves on the scent. 
 It should be put in place from the saddle. Some trappers 
 rub their hands on tainted meat or with some scent as oil 
 of anise before handling wolf bait. Nothing less than 
 what is known as a number four double spring trap 
 should be used and the chain should be correspondingly 
 strong and attached to the trap with a swivel. The chain 
 should be securely wired to an anchor, as a fallen timber, 
 a strong bush or twisted iron stakes driven down below 
 the surface of the ground. Success in trapping is in no 
 slight degree dependent on the use of scents that will 
 attract the wolves. Musk has proved effective in a con- 
 siderable degree. Asafoetida is less effective. Urine 
 taken from the wolf's bladder is probably more effective 
 than either. 
 
 Wolves are not easily poisoned, as they will not 
 readily consume any food which has been handled by 
 man. Coyotes are more suspicious regarding such food 
 than timber wolves, and are, therefore, less readily poi- 
 soned. They may be poisoned in some instances by drop- 
 ping, preferably from the saddle, small chunks of poi- 
 soned meat, preferably fat, along a trail. Strychnine 
 about the size of a walnut is almost the only poison used, 
 and in the pure sulphate form. The strychnine, as crystals 
 or capsules, should be inserted in the meat with a knife 
 blade. Four grains are enough for a mature wolf. The 
 
PROTECTING SHEEP FROM DOGS AND WOLVES 383 
 
 pieces of meat should be handled with gloves and may- 
 be carried in a pail. They are best dropped along a 
 scented drag line, made by dragging a piece of hide or a 
 dead rabbit, bleeding more or less, over the ground or 
 along a wolf trail, or they may be put under carcasses on 
 which wolves are feeding. In some instances wolves will 
 dig up poisoned bait and eat it, when they would not 
 touch it if exposed. Young wolves are much more readily 
 poisoned than old ones. 
 
 For many years past bounties have been offered for 
 wolf skins in all or nearly all the states infected by 
 wolves. These state bounties have ranged from 25 cents 
 upward, seldom falling below $2 for a young wolf skin, 
 and in some instances amounting to several times that 
 sum for a grown female. These have been supplemented 
 by bounties paid by live stock associations and the owners 
 of live stock. These supplementary bounties have raised 
 the earnings of the hunter to not less than $15 for some 
 classes of skins, and in some instances that amount has 
 been exceeded. The hunter also gets from 50 cents to $6 
 for the skins, according to the quality. 
 
 Enormous sums relatively have been paid out in 
 bounties. In California an act was passed in 1891, mak- 
 ing the bounty on coyotes $57 each. During the 18 
 months that the act was in force that state paid out 
 $187,485 on wolf hides. In Kansas in the year following 
 July I, 1903, bounties were paid on 20,000 wolf skins. The 
 Standard cattle company operating in Wyoming in a 
 single year paid bounties on wolves amounting to nearly 
 $2,500, the bounty being $5 a hide. 
 
 That the offering of bounties has made the number 
 of wolves considerably less than it would otherwise have 
 been cannot be questioned. The discouraging thing about 
 it, however, is, first, that it has not gone far toward the 
 extermination of wolves, and, second, that it has led to 
 the fraudulent practices on the part of wolf hunters. 
 
3^4 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 Meantime, however, it would clearly be a mistake to cease 
 to ofifer bounties for wolf hides. 
 
 Wolf hunts are frequently conducted in various por- 
 tions of the range country. Horsemen go out in different 
 directions and drive the wolves toward a center, where 
 they are dispatched in various ways, but chiefly by dogs. 
 The most useful dogs in hunting wolves are staghounds, 
 Russian wolf hounds, greyhounds and their crosses. The 
 ordinary greyhound can easily overtake a coyote, but is 
 usually unable to kill it unaided. Three dogs are fre- 
 quently needed to successfully chase and kill a coyote. 
 This method of hunting is costly in horseflesh and in the 
 time of the riders, and in some instances in dogs. By 
 watching near the dens before daylight old wolves may 
 sometimes be shot on their return from a nocturnal trip. 
 But in no way can they be destroyed so effectively and so 
 easily as by capturing the young in the breeding dens. A 
 spade is usually necessary as an aid to getting into the 
 dens and a stout hook on the end of a stick will aid in 
 getting them out of the crevices. One of the most effec- 
 tive means of protecting sheep from wolves is to confine 
 them within fences of suitable construction. At the first a 
 few barb wires properly stretched will keep out coyotes, 
 but in time these will not prove effective. For the con- 
 struction of a fence that will protect, see page 372. Such 
 fencing is very suitable for corrals which are indispensa- 
 ble in the range country. It is costly, however, under 
 ordinary range conditions, but increased revenue will 
 accrue from the complete control which it gives the 
 ranchman over the management of at least a portion of 
 his grazing grounds. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 
 
 The discussion in Chapter XIX dwells briefly on the 
 following: (i) The prevention and treatment of disease 
 in sheep ; (2) Parasites that prey externally on sheep ; 
 (3) Parasites that prey internally on sheep ; (4) Ailments 
 from digestive sources; (5) Ailments affecting the organs 
 of respiration ; (6) Ailments arising from reproduction ; 
 (7) Ailments that affect the limbs ; (8) Ailments peculiar 
 to lambs ; and (9) Ailments miscellaneous in character. 
 
 Protection and treatment of disease — Treatment for 
 diseases and other ailments of sheep are very commonly 
 less satisfactory than with any other class of domestic 
 animals. This is probably owing: (i) To the peculiar 
 location of many of the ailments that afflict sheep, which 
 makes treatment unusually difficult. Such are the ail- 
 ments of stomach worms, which make their abode in the 
 fourth stomach ; of grub in the head, which is located in 
 the nasal sinuses, so close to the brain as to be practically 
 unreachable; and goiter in lambs, which is located in the 
 glands of the throat. (2) To the absence of that strong 
 vitality that is essential to ability to stand up sturdily for 
 a time at least in the face of attack. This is evidenced in 
 attacks of bloat, where the percentage of the losses under 
 treatment is much larger than the percentage of losses 
 from cattle that are treated for the same. (3) To the 
 further fact that it would seem true that the veterinary 
 profession have centered less on the study of the ail- 
 ments of sheep than on those of the horse and the cow, 
 since the latter are relatively more valuable. 
 
 From what has been said it will be apparent that pre- 
 ventive measures for guarding sheep against diseases will 
 be doubly important. While treatment for tapeworm and 
 stomach worm is difficult, and not infrequently unsatis- 
 
 385 
 
386 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 factory, it is possible when selecting the foundation ani- 
 mals for a flock to be practically sure that they are not 
 thus affected. This may be known from the previous 
 history of the flock. It is also possible to keep the flock 
 away from wet pastures that favor increase in such para- 
 sites when they are present. Similarly, while but little 
 can be done by way of treatment for goiter, it is quite 
 practicable to breed only from dams that do not usually 
 give birth to lambs that are not thus affected. In other 
 words, it is possible to discard for breeding uses all 
 females that have given birth to lambs in which goiter 
 has developed. It is also practicable to keep sheep under 
 conditions that will prevent them from drinking in dirty 
 pools which favor the development of nodule disease, and 
 to shield them, at least measurably, from the gadfly which 
 lays the egg that ultimately develops into grub in the 
 head. All such preventive measures are practicable, 
 while the successful treatment of some at least of the ail- 
 ments of sheep is virtually an impossibility. 
 
 While proper environment and suitable care are im- 
 portant with all classes of live stock, these would seem to 
 be doubly important in the case of sheep. All experience 
 in the past has shown: (i) That sheep will keep much 
 more healthy on dry and rolling pastures than on those 
 opposite in character; (2) that pure living water is essen- 
 tial to the well-being of sheep; and (3) that they do not 
 stand up well under close confinement. It is certainly 
 much wiser to aim to furnish such conditions than to 
 neglect to furnish them and later to have to grapple with 
 the ailments which their absence gives rise to. 
 
 Proper care that will prevent troubles from arising 
 in the flock is also to be greatly preferred to the necessity 
 for dealing with these should they arise as the result of 
 lack of care. For instance, it is vastly easier to keep sheep 
 in sleeping sheds free from drafts than to cure catarrh, 
 which comes as the result of exposure to drafts. It is 
 much easier to furnish succulent food that wards off in- 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENIS OF SHEEP 387 
 
 digestion than to deal with indigestion should it arise, 
 and it is vastly easier to keep the farmer's flock away 
 from infestation of scab mites than to deal with scab 
 should it come. 
 
 Parasites that prey externally on sheep — The prin- 
 cipal of these are three in number, viz., the sheep tick, 
 the scab mite and the sheep louse. Of these the scab 
 mite is altogether the most harmful. The sheep tick is 
 more or less in evidence wherever sheep are kept on this 
 continent, but not necessarily so. The sheep louse is not 
 greatly prevalent in America. 
 
 The sheep tick (Melophagus avinmis) was Introduced 
 from the Old World. It is a wingless fly. When full 
 grown it is less than one-fourth of an inch long. The 
 body is short, flattened and varying in color from white 
 to reddish. The color, is influenced somewhat by the 
 amount of blood which it has taken from the sheep. The 
 ticks bear considerable resemblance to the spider in form, 
 but the limbs are very much shorter. The sheep tick 
 propagates by means of the eggs laid by the females. 
 These are relatively large, flat and ovoid in shape and 
 brown in color. Within each is an imperfectly developed 
 larva. The eggs, usually spoken of in common phrase 
 as "nits," are made to adhere to the wool by a sticky sub- 
 stance which covers them when they are first laid. But 
 one is deposited at a time, and it is thought the female 
 seldom lays more than 7 or 8 eggs in her lifetime, and the 
 number is probably less than the figures named, a fact 
 which has an important bearing on the possible eradica- 
 tion of the pest. They hatch in some instances in about 
 four weeks from the time when they are laid. 
 
 They occur on sheep at all seasons, but are usually 
 most numerous and troublesome toward the approach of 
 spring. They cannot live long away from the body of the 
 sheep, the warmth of which seems to be essential to their 
 existence in conjunction with the food which they obtain 
 from it and the protection furnished by the wool. Their 
 
388 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 food consists wholly of blood, which they take through 
 the proboscis with which they penetrate the skin. 
 
 The injury which they inflict comes chiefly from the 
 prolonged itching which follows the puncture of the skin. 
 When present in large numbers, the annoyance resulting 
 is very great. When the wool is removed by shearing, 
 the ticks, in great measure at least, leave the old sheep. 
 They either perish or become transferred to the lambs. 
 To these they are oftentimes a source of great annoyance, 
 because of their numbers, and also because of the greater 
 ease with which they may puncture the tender skin of the 
 lambs. Evidences of the discomfort are manifested in the 
 extent to which they bite at themselves and rub against 
 external objects. For treatment see Chapter XX. 
 
 Sheep scab is so called from the scabs which come on 
 the skin and which are the outcome of inflammation re- 
 sulting from the innumerable bites of the scab mites when 
 taking their food. Three classes or species of scab mites 
 infest sheep. The first is known as Sarcoptcs scabici, the 
 second as Chorioptcs communis and the third Psoroptcs 
 communis. The first causes scab on the head the second 
 scab on the feet, and the third scab on various parts of 
 the body. That named last is by far the most common 
 of the three and also by far the most harmful. The life 
 history of the three is very similar. 
 
 The scab mite (Sarcoptes scabiei) is so small as to be al- 
 most invisible to the naked eye, but its presence may be 
 known by the scabs which result and the location of these. 
 They are first noticed on those portions of the head that are 
 comparatively free from hair and grease, as on the upper 
 lip, the nostrils and around the eyelids and ears. From 
 these starting points they gradually spread over various 
 parts of the head. For treatment the application of some 
 one of the approved scab dips or ointments (see Chapter 
 XX) will suffice in the early stages of the infection, but 
 in the more advanced stages it may be necessary to first 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 389 
 
 soften the scabs with some kind of oil or grease and then 
 to remove them with soap and water. 
 
 The mite, Chorioptcs communis, occurs so rarely that 
 it is scarcely necessary to discuss it. It may be said, 
 however, that it usually begins on the feet and extends 
 upwards. The skin when attacked shows an inflamed 
 condition followed by free scaling of the same, and this 
 in turn is followed by the forming of yellowish-colored 
 crusts, beneath which the parasites congregate. For- 
 tunately this trouble is not readily communicated to other 
 sheep, and it may be treated in the same way as Sarcoptes 
 scabiei, referred to in the preceding paragraph. 
 
 The mite, Psoroptcs communis, is by far the most 
 troublesome and harmful of all the external parasites 
 which prey upon sheep. The trouble resulting is now 
 more commonly referred to as body scab. So great has 
 been the loss resulting from its presence that legislation 
 has been enacted in many countries w^ith a view to pre- 
 vent its spread and in the hope of ultimately bringing 
 about its eradication. Although it infests goats, com- 
 munication usually comes from other sheep or from the 
 quarters which they have inhabited or visited not long 
 previously. 
 
 This mite, though small, is visible to the naked eye. 
 The life history of all these mites is very similar. They 
 attack the external skin by biting it in search of food. 
 Scabs quickly form as the result of the irritation that fol- 
 lows. This irritation is thought to be, in part at least, 
 the outcome of a poisonous fluid which accompanies the 
 bite. Under the scabs the mites lay their eggs. These 
 eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, and the mites reach the adult 
 stage in about 15 days. As each adult female lays about 
 ^5 eggs, the multiplication of the mites is eventually 
 almost without limit, and it only leaves with the death of 
 the sheep or v/ith the removal of the mites through treat- 
 ment. 
 
 The mite, Psoroptcs communis, attacks sheep of all 
 
390 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 classes and ages. Unlike the mite that produces head 
 scab, it works underneath a covering of wool, and appar- 
 ently preferably where the wool is longest. Consequently 
 the autumn and winter are the most favorable to its dis- 
 tribution. Other influences that favor rapid multiplica- 
 tion in the mites are such as pertain to old age, to lack of 
 stamina generally and to insanitary surroundings. 
 
 The indications that point to the probable presence 
 of scab are the rubbing of the sheep against external ob- 
 jects and the attempts to bite themselves. Soon the coats 
 become rough, taggy and ragged. Examination may 
 show the insects themselves. At first when attacked by 
 the scab mites minute elevations appear on. the skin 
 slightly more white or yellow than the surrounding skin. 
 These become so numerous at length as to unite. From 
 the summit of each a watery serous fiuid exudes which 
 leads eventually to covering the skin with a yellowish 
 scaly layer under which the parasites hide. These sur- 
 faces continually enlarge by the mites working outward. 
 The mites usually begin their attacks along the back and 
 carry to the neck glands and rump. They congregate 
 most around the edges of the scabs. 
 
 The losses from scab to flockmasters through the 
 presence of scab in the aggregate are very great. These 
 losses occur: (i) Through ill-doing on the part of the 
 sheep ; (2) through loss by death which may result from 
 scab directly or indirectly through disease favored by the 
 enfeebled condition resulting because of the presence of 
 scab ; and (3) through the cost of the curative methods 
 that are necessary to free the flock from the presence of 
 the mites. The suffering endured by the sheep thus at- 
 tacked is exceedingly great. The mites are communicated 
 by contact with tufts of wool torn from the bodies of in- 
 fected sheep. In these the mites which are exposed even 
 to low temperatures may live for 20 days. (For treat- 
 ment see Chapter XXI). 
 
 The sheep louse of the genus Trichodectes is not very 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 39I 
 
 common in this country. It is a small creature about 1-25 
 of an inch in length, with white body and a reddish head. 
 It is found more commonly on poorly sheep and in places 
 where the wool is not plentiful, as between the legs and 
 body. The eggs are laid at the base of the wool fibers. 
 When numerously present their bite leads to a roughened 
 scabby skin, which induces discomfort, shown by the at- 
 tempt to scratch and bite the affected parts. The remedy 
 is the same as for ticks (see Chapter XXI). 
 
 Parasites that prey internally on sheep — The more 
 harmful of these are : The stomach worm, tapeworm, lung 
 worm, the worm that is associated with nodule disease 
 and grub in the head. These do not include nearly all the 
 parasites of this class, but those not included seldom lead 
 to serious loss in the flocks. 
 
 The stomach zvorm (Haemouchus contortiis) leads to 
 greater loss in the flock, and mainly through the loss of 
 lambs, than any other ailment that affects the sheep of 
 this continent. It is a small hairlike worm that inhabits 
 the fourth stomach of sheep and goats. When present 
 they may be found in all stages of growth in the same. 
 Immediately after the slaughter of an infested lamb they 
 may be found adhering by their heads to the mucous 
 membrane, and oftentimes in immense numbers. At such 
 a time they are of a reddish color. This may result in 
 part at least from their feeding on the blood of the vic- 
 tim. This parasite has doubtless been brought from the 
 Old World. It has long been more or less prevalent in 
 the southwestern states and territories, where it was 
 called lomhriz, a corruption of the Spanish word lombrici, 
 which means worms. It now gives more or less trouble 
 in all or nearly all the states of the Union and the prov- 
 inces of Canada. 
 
 It is not always easy to distinguish between the 
 symptoms present resulting from stomach worms as com- 
 pared with those resulting from the presence of some 
 other parasites. Prominent among these, however, are 
 
392 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 an emaciated condition, a pale skin, a dry harsh coat, a 
 moping gait and diarrhea. One of the surest evidences, 
 however, when it is present, is the small white worm in 
 the droppings. Usually no positive symptoms occur un- 
 til after the lambs have been afifected for some time. 
 When death occurs, it is generally soon after the symp- 
 toms have become prominent. The trouble alTects old 
 sheep as well, but they are much less harmed than lambs 
 by the presence of the worms. Death from this source 
 occurs mainly among lambs that have access to pastures 
 at a somewhat early age. 
 
 The life history of the stomach worm is in outline as 
 follows : The worms occur in largest numbers in the 
 fourth stomach of the sheep. In the adult sexual stage 
 they are able to live and carry out their reproductive 
 functions only in the alimentary canal of sheep and some 
 other ruminants. Each female produces thousands of 
 eggs very diminutive in size. They pass out of the in- 
 testines with the feces. In a few hours, days or weeks, 
 according to the temperature, they hatch out, if not killed 
 by drying or freezing. The tiny embryonic worms then 
 develop to what may be termed the final larval or infec- 
 tious stage. This period of development requires days or 
 weeks, according to the temperature. In the infectious 
 stage they can withstand long periods of drought and 
 cold. When in that stage they are most active in the 
 presence of moisture, as during wet weather or when 
 dews and fogs abound they crawl up grass blades and 
 thus readily reach the stomach of sheep and lambs. In 
 some instances they must develop very quickly, as they 
 are found in lambs in immense numbers that are less than 
 three months old. 
 
 This theory of the source and manner of infection 
 finds support in experiments conducted by the author at 
 the Minnesota station. When the lambs were confined 
 to the sheds and fed on soiling foods to supplement the 
 milk of the dams, they were free from attack ; whereas the 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 393 
 
 previous year the loss of lambs produced by the same 
 dams, though grazed on the same pastures, was serious. 
 It is true, nevertheless, as experiment has shown, that in- 
 fection is possible when both dams and lambs are con- 
 fined to the pens, but it is not likely to occur in any con- 
 siderable degree. When guarding against this disease, 
 preventive measures are greatly important. These in- 
 clude : (i) Using great care when introducing the founda- 
 tion stock on which the future flock is to be built; (2) 
 grazing lambs on new rather than old pastures while they 
 are young; (3) changing the pastures frequently; (4) 
 sustaining vigor in the lambs by feeding nourishing foods 
 to them; (5) giving food in racks and water in troughs 
 when practicable. When choosing the material on which 
 to found a flock, if the assurance is present that no indica- 
 tions of stomach worm have ever visited the flock, it is, 
 in a sense, certain that introductions from that flock will 
 not bring stomach worms with them, especially if the 
 flock is one that has been long established and has not 
 recently been reinforced from outside sources. It will 
 also be necessary to proceed in the same cautious manner 
 should materials be brought in subsequently from outside 
 sources to reinforce the flock. While introducing the 
 lambs to new pastures will not in itself be a guaranty 
 against invasion, it will lessen the hazard, and this will 
 be still further reduced if the pastures are grown from 
 cereals sown purposely to make them. The lambs do not 
 graze these so closely as they would old pastures, espe- 
 cially when the herbage is plentiful ; hence they are less 
 liable to invasion by the parasites. Such pastures are also 
 much less liable to be infested by the larvae. If the lambs 
 come quite early in the season, especially in northern 
 areas, they will be so far grown that they will be more re- 
 sistant to the sapping influences resulting from the pres- 
 ence of the worms. If the lambs are to be maintained 
 within the yards while the old sheep go out to the pas- 
 tures this process will be facilitated by giving the lambs 
 
394 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 food within a creep and then removing the dams from the 
 yards while they are eating. If the lambs are to remain 
 with the dams, it is specially important that the latter 
 shall be put onto fresh grazing at the time of turning 
 them out to graze. When the pastures are changed fre- 
 quently, the lambs are much less liable to take up the 
 germs than when they graze closely. If the lambs are 
 fed heavily on supplemental foods, they are much less 
 liable to succumb to the attacks of the disease. This is 
 probably owing to the greater power of resistance which 
 the liberal feeding brings to them. Such foods as oilcake 
 and oats are well suited to such feeding. Where the fod- 
 der is fed in racks rather than on the ground, the hazard 
 of taking up the germs is obviated, and the same is true 
 when the water also is pumped up from wells into 
 troughs from which it is taken by the sheep. 
 
 Several remedies have been used which have proved 
 at least reasonably effective when properly administered. 
 The two that stand high in favor at the present time are 
 known as the turpentine and gasoline treatments respec- 
 tively. Of these the latter is now more commonly used. 
 The spirits of turpentine is best given as an emulsion, 
 obtained by mixing it with milk. The dose for a lamb 
 three to four months old is a teaspoonful of turpentine in 
 about six times the quantity of milk. The two should be 
 well mixed, which is accomplished by shaking the com- 
 bination. The gasoline is given in flaxseed tea of thin 
 consistency or sweet milk. The dose is from one tea- 
 spoonful to one tablespoonful, according to the age and 
 size of the animal to be treated. The gasoline is poured 
 into a bottle containing 4 ounces of the tea or milk. Two 
 teaspoonfuls of the gasoline are required for a 50-pound 
 lamb. The two are well shaken before being adminis- 
 tered. A small measuring glass, known as a graduate, 
 should be used in measuring the ingredients. This treat- 
 ment has practically superseded the turpentine and also 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 395 
 
 the benzine treatment, popular at one time, being cheaper 
 than either and at least as effective. 
 
 When given the treatment, the animals should be 
 yarded and fed in the early evening. The treatment 
 should be administered the next morning at a late hour 
 on an empty stomach. They should be thus managed 
 from day to day during the continuance of the treatments. 
 It is recommended that three treatments should follow on 
 as many consecutive days, especially in the case of the 
 lambs. In cases of very serious infection the lambs 
 should be again dosed once a week, and all the lambs in 
 the flock should be treated. The ewes should also be 
 treated, but not necessarily to the same extent as the 
 lambs. 
 
 Sheep are drenched from a horn or a stout glass 
 drenching bottle. Two persons are called for to accom- 
 plish the work. One throws the sheep on its buttock and 
 holds it between his legs with the back toward him. The 
 lower jaw is held in his left hand, which raises the head 
 to the level of the line of the back, but not higher. The 
 right hand may grasp the upper jaw or pull outward the 
 pouch of the side of the jaws. The other places the mouth 
 of the drenching bottle well up against the roof of the 
 mouth and pours slowly, to avoid strangling. A moderate 
 amount of the mixture is better than a large amount, as 
 it is more completely retained in the fourth stomach. 
 During recent years, administering the drench to sheep 
 while they are in a standing posture has grown rapidly 
 in favor, and the practice is sustained by some good 
 reasons. 
 
 Some shepherds feed certain mixtures as antidotes 
 during more or less of the year. Tobacco dust has been 
 fed along with sulphur, copperas and salt. Others feed 
 proprietary worm powders. The evidences in favor of 
 the value of such feeding are far from being completely 
 convincing. 
 
 The tapeworm (Taenia expansa), though not as harm- 
 
396 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ful to sheep in America as the stomach worm, especially 
 in tillable areas is frequently a source of very great loss 
 to the flockmaster. Introduced from Europe, it is now 
 virtually distributed over all parts of the United States 
 and Canada. Although found at all seasons, it is usually 
 most troublesome in the late spring, summer and autumn. 
 Some seasons it is epizootic, as it were, especially among 
 lambs, but it may also cause loss among yearlings. Damp 
 moist weather and heavy and moist soil conditions are 
 more favorable to its spread than conditions the opposite. 
 Among the symptoms of the disease are the following: 
 The lambs become emaciated, notwithstanding liberal 
 feeding. The mucous membranes become pale, which has 
 led to the designation "paper skin" sometimes applied to 
 the disease. The wool becomes dry and harsh from want 
 of the usual yolk supply. They take more and more a 
 woebegone appearance, accompanied by a moping and 
 staggering gait. The symptoms are in many respects 
 like those accompanying the invasion of stomach worms. 
 They may be distinguished from the latter after the dis- 
 ease has made some progress by the presence of the small 
 white oblong segments of the worms, which are voided 
 by the afifected animals. These adhere to the pellets of 
 the droppings, also to the wool and dirt around the tail 
 head. As the trouble progresses diarrhea becomes more 
 and more pronounced, and the animals affected frequently 
 die from exhaustion. Other troubles may also attack them 
 in their weakened condition and hasten the end. The 
 desire for food and drink may increase rather than dimin- 
 ish until near the end. The life history is, in substance, 
 as follows : The embryos pass from sheep to sheep, but 
 through an intermediary, as. for instance, the dog. It is 
 believed that they are taken in the food when grazing, and 
 especially on short pastures, and also in the water when 
 they may drink from pools or ponds. They develop 
 rapidly by producing segments at the rear end which be- 
 come broader and shorter as growth progresses. The 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 397 
 
 eggs are developed within the segments. When mature 
 they are shed in the excrement. The time of growth oc- 
 cupies from two to three months. The number present 
 may run all the way from, say, two or three to lOO, but 
 more commonly they seldom exceed half a dozen in one 
 animal. The adult worm is about 15 feet long. The 
 width varies from 1-25 of an inch at the head to ^ of an 
 inch at the other extremity. The thickness varies from 
 i-io to 1-12 of an inch, but these measures are subject to 
 wide variations. The large growth so fills the small in- 
 testines that they obstruct the digestive processes while 
 they abstract nutriment from the food materials present 
 for growth. The disease is present to some extent 
 through all the year, but it is chiefly harmful to lambs 
 and during the first two or three months of grazing. 
 Worms have been found in lambs two to four months 
 old from 6 to 15 feet long, so rapidly do they grow. After 
 sheep pass the age of 18 months they seldom die from 
 tapeworm, but they harbor the parasites more or less. 
 The chief losses are with lambs under the age of six 
 months, and they give more trouble in wet seasons and 
 on damp pastures than under conditions the opposite. As 
 in the case of stomach worms, preventive measures are 
 more efficacious than treatment. These are practically 
 the same as for stomach worms (see page 393). Where 
 it can be done, confining the lambs to the sheds or corrals 
 until near the weaning season is a very sure means of 
 protection. This is most easily accomplished with lambs 
 that come early in the season. 
 
 The treatment for the worm is in many respects sim- 
 ilar to that given in the case of stomach worms (see 
 page 394), but other treatment is sometimes resorted to. 
 Formerly a decoction of pumpkin seeds was used as treat- 
 ment, but the materials for making it are not easy to 
 obtain in large quantity in the spring of the year. An- 
 other and equally effective remedy is two drams of male 
 fern given in two to four ounces of castor oil, or two 
 
398 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 drams of powdered areca nut and one dram of male fern 
 given in four ounces of syrup. The above is the dose 
 for a large lamb and a shearling. For sheep the dose 
 should be increased from 50 to 100 per cent. It is given 
 in the morning after an all-night fast. Large lambs and 
 yearlings must be treated before weakness is marked. 
 
 The fringed tapeworm (Taenia fimbriata) is very con- 
 siderably harmful to sheep south of the parallel 45 degrees 
 north and in much of the area west of the Mississippi River. 
 The parasites are found in the duodenum and the gall 
 ducts. They are frequently very numerously present and 
 are of various sizes, thus indicating continued invasion. 
 They develop very slowly. The life history is not fully 
 known, hence the most effective methods of dealing with 
 the evil are not known. Preventive measures such as are 
 used in the case of stomach worms will be helpful (see 
 page 393)- 
 
 Lung zvorms in sheep are of two kinds. These are 
 known respectively as the hair lung worm and the thread 
 lung worm. The former of these is probably the more 
 widely diffused, but the latter is more epizootic in flocks 
 than the former. The hair lung worm penetrates the air 
 passages of the lungs to their termination. The thread 
 lung worm penetrates the bronchial tubes. The symp- 
 toms of these ailments and also the life history of the 
 worms is not greatly different. 
 
 The hair lung worm (Strongylus ovis pulmonis) is 
 considered the smaller of the two. Until the disease is 
 well advanced its presence may not be detected except by 
 post mortem. When present, little tubercles may be 
 found in the lungs, ^^'hen these are cut open, there is 
 a worm inside. The mating takes place in the bronchi 
 and soon the worms are produced to further aggravate 
 the trouble. The hair lung worm (Strongylus filaria) 
 when present may be found by slitting open the bronchial 
 tubes. 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 399 
 
 The symptoms in the early stages of the disease may 
 be mistaken for those caused by some other ailments. 
 Sheep that are seriously affected with either disease have 
 pale mucous membranes, a coat harsh and dry, more or 
 less difficulty in breathing, and in many instances a deep 
 cough. Both ailments are of rather slow development, 
 especially in the case of the hair lung worm; hence the 
 losses that occur are in old rather than in young sheep. 
 Such ailments as bronchitis and pneumonia are much 
 more rapid in their action. The losses occur to a greater 
 extent from lack of thrift than from deaths in the flock. 
 
 The life history of the hair and thread lung worms 
 respectively is not far different. The young of both es- 
 cape from the lungs of the sheep oftentimes while in the 
 act of coughing. They are scattered over the yards and 
 pastures where sheep take their food and drink, and prob- 
 ably through the medium of these they reach the lungs of 
 the sheep. When the former reaches the extreme end of 
 the bronchial tube they become encysted. In the cyst 
 they grow to adult size. Escaping from the cyst, they 
 make their way into the small air tubes, mate and repro- 
 duce. The eggs are laid in the surrounding cavities. The 
 young worms hatched from these make their way into 
 the neighboring air chambers, and some of them are 
 caught up at a later period. These may aid in the spread- 
 ing of the disease. The thread lung worm deposits eggs 
 in the surrounding mucus within the bronchial tubes. 
 Each Ggg contains within it a young worm. When these 
 are hatched many of them are expelled through coughing, 
 and these in turn may aid in spreading the disease. The 
 symptoms are more pronounced than in the case of the 
 hair worms. The young parasites have great vitality. 
 They can live for months in stagnant water. 
 
 The preventive measures that may be adopted may 
 not always be effective in all instances in staying the 
 progress of the disease. The expulsion of the parasites 
 through coughing makes it difficult to keep hitherto un- 
 
4C0 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 affected animals free from attack. The presence of the 
 worms in the lambs indicates that they are continually 
 passing through indirectly from sheep to sheep. Of 
 course, it will help to prevent invasion if the lambs are 
 kept aw^ay from pastures in v^hich the old sheep graze and 
 from drinking in pools of water. 
 
 For the hair lung worm no very effective treatment has 
 been discovered. For the thread lung worm tracheal in- 
 jections have been found partially effective, but they 
 should be administered only by a skilled veterinarian. 
 Fumigation may render some aid, but may not be prac- 
 ticable in all instances, from want of a suitable place in 
 which to fumigate. At the best it cannot be said that it 
 is completely effective. It should be done in a building 
 nearly airtight. Sulphur burned slov^ly is the best sub- 
 stance for such fumigating. The treatment should be 
 given daily for a week, when it is discontinued for two 
 weeks, and repeated again daily for several days. The 
 attendants must guard against suffocation, which they 
 may readily do by watching the movements of the sheep 
 through a window. The worms are thus benumbed and 
 in the coughing that follows many will be ejected. 
 
 Nodular disease (Oesophagostoma columbiannm), fre- 
 quently called nodule disease, is characterized by tumors 
 present in the intestines. It is caused by a nematode or 
 round worm, which is usually found in considerable num- 
 bers in the large intestine. It may also be found in the 
 tumors and these may extend the entire length of the 
 intestine. It is now to be reckoned with in many flocks, 
 but to a greater extent probably east from the Mississippi 
 River, than west from the same. It is the source of very 
 considerable loss. The harm resulting is in proportion 
 to the number of the parasites. 
 
 The indications of the presence of nodular disease are 
 not greatly different from those that indicate the pres- 
 ence of stomach worms (see page 391). These include 
 bloodless lips, dry wool, emaciation, and, in the more 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 4OI 
 
 severe cases, diarrhoea. Nevertheless, sheep may in some 
 instances be infected in a considerable degree and still re- 
 tain a fair degree of thrift, but usually the indications of 
 debility are present, and increasingly so as time advances. 
 Unlike the stomach worm affection, it does more harm to 
 mature sheep than to lambs. This may be partly the out- 
 come of the gradual rate of the infection and the slow 
 rate of development within the tumors. The parasites 
 affect the digestion adversely. 
 
 The life history of the parasite is only known during 
 the period of its development in the intestinal canal. 
 When the eggs escape, as doubtless they do, in the ex- 
 crement, they in some way reach the sheep, probably 
 in the food or water. In the intestines they become sur- 
 rounded by a cyst and later by the products of the inflam- 
 mation which they produce in the surrounding tissues. 
 When about 1-16 of an inch long they break from the 
 tumors and begin life in the intestine, where they grow 
 to maturity. 
 
 The preventive measures are about the same as for 
 stomach worms (see page 393). Frequent changing of 
 the pastures, the avoidance of all grazing grounds and the 
 breaking up of the same are greatly important. Nodular 
 disease is most in evidence in the early spring season. 
 There is no sure remedy for the disease. 
 
 While preventive measures should receive every at- 
 tention when combating internal parasites, and while 
 treatment should be most faithfully and persistently ad- 
 ministered where it is probable that it will do some good, 
 it is true, nevertheless, that in many instances it would be 
 better in every way to sell the entire flock and begin 
 again with other sheep after an interval of several 
 months. This will apply in many instances to the inva- 
 sion of flocks by stomach worms, tapeworms, lung worms 
 and the worms that cause nodular disease. One season 
 should suffice to leave the farm free from sheep, that the 
 germs may perish. When restocking the farm every pre 
 
402 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 caution should be taken to make sure that the sheep 
 brought in are healthy. 
 
 Grub ill the head (Oestrus ovis) is sometimes called 
 nasal catarrh. The trouble resulting is caused by a worm 
 laid by a species of the gadfly within the nostrils of sheep 
 which crawls up into the remotest parts of the upper cav- 
 ities of the nostril adjacent to the brain, where it grows 
 to maturity, and in instances not a few leads to the death 
 of the sheep. This result usually follows from the in- 
 flammation produced, which extends more or less to ad- 
 jacent portions of the brain. The fly which lays the grub 
 was probably brought into America with the early im- 
 portations of sheep. It is widely distributed. It is more 
 troublesome in the mild than in cold latitudes, owing 
 doubtless to the longer period congenial to its develop- 
 ment. But as far north as the southern Canadian boun- 
 dary, in some instances, the losses from its presence are 
 quite serious. Because of the slow development of the 
 grub, it is much more harmful to old than to young 
 sheep. The fly which lays the eggs is of sluggish habits, 
 and seldom flies, save when in search of some place to 
 deposit its young. It then flies swiftly with a low whir- 
 ring sound. It is considerably larger than a house fly and 
 it is claimed that it has no mouth, its only instinct appar- 
 ently being to reproduce its kind. The young are de- 
 posited, not as an egg, but as a maggot within the rim 
 of the nostrils of the sheep. The usual time of the ap- 
 pearance of the fly is probably June and July in the northern 
 states, but in the southern states it is doubtless present much 
 longer, as there the grubs may be found in the nasal cavi- 
 ties during all the year and in various stages of growth. 
 The sheep are much agitated when the fly makes its at- 
 tacks. In some instances as soon as a fly touches the nose 
 of a sheep it shakes its head and strikes the ground vio- 
 lently with the forefeet. Holding the nose close to the 
 ground, the sheep run away. In other instances they 
 crowd together during the heat of the day with the nose 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 403 
 
 ill proximity to the ground. It is only in the spring time 
 when the larva are well developed that they cause trouble. 
 A discharge is first noticed, which when it first appears is 
 clear and serous, but later it is thick and mucous. More 
 or less sneezing is present, and this is accompanied by a 
 discharge of mucus and in some instances of the larvae. 
 As the trouble advances they frequently turn the head 
 backward and shake it and they rub the nose against the 
 ground. Still later they lift their feet high when walking 
 and go with lowered head accompanied occasionally by 
 staggering. In some instances the breathing is affected, 
 owing to obstructions which arise in the air passages by 
 the presence of the worms, or of the resulting inflamma- 
 tion in the mucous membrane. Appetite fails, a frothy 
 substance runs from the nose, they grit their teeth, con- 
 vulsions follow and death comes usually within a few 
 days of the appearance of the symptoms. In many in- 
 stances the animals may recover, especially in the absence 
 of the later symptoms referred to. 
 
 The life history is in outline as follows : As soon as 
 the young larva are deposited they begin to crawl up- 
 ward into the nostril. When mature the grubs are ^ of 
 an inch long and about 1-3 of an inch wide, and are of a 
 dark color. When mature the larva escapes from the 
 nostril, falls to the ground, bores a hole an inch or two in 
 the same, and in 20 to 60 days emerges as a fly. The 
 period of the development of the larva is about 10 months. 
 In young lambs only young larva are found. The great- 
 est infection is found in sheep two years and over. In 
 ewes the sinuses may hold even more than four or five 
 of the larva, without crowding, and males can hold a 
 number considerably larger. 
 
 Preventive measures, though they involve much 
 labor, are all important. Because of the labor which they 
 involve, they can be best resorted to in the case of small 
 flocks such as are kept on the ordinary farm. One of 
 these is the smearing of the nostrils of the sheep with 
 
404 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 some offensive substance which will keep the flies away. 
 The following- is one of the best of these: Take equal 
 parts of tar and grease, tar and fish oil, or tar and whale 
 oil soap. Mix them and apply with a brush. This appli- 
 cation must be repeated every few days, as it soon loses 
 its potency. A second method secures some strong 
 scented dip and applies the same as a spray on the sheep 
 as they are bunched. Yet another preventive, and prob- 
 ably the best that can be resorted to, is to provide the 
 sheep with a cool, well-ventilated and darkened resting 
 place in which they may remain during the heat of the 
 day in the warm season. Then it is that the fly does its 
 mischievous work. 
 
 Treatment for grub in the head is practically out of 
 the question. In some rare instances a skilled veterinarian 
 may destroy the grubs by trephining, but in more in- 
 stances failure will result. The cost involved in the case 
 of common sheep is too great to justify resorting to this 
 kind of treatment. 
 
 Ailments from digestive sources — The ailments from 
 digestive sources are many. In this volume it would be 
 impossible to discuss all of these. Such a discussion may 
 properly belong to a work on the diseases of sheep. The 
 following only will be discussed: (i) Bloat and its treat- 
 ment; (2) overtaxed digestion and its treatment; (3) 
 diarrhea and the treatment; (4) colic and the treatment; 
 and (5) stretches and the treatment. 
 
 Bloat, sometimes and probably more frequently called 
 "hoven," may result from any abrupt change to a palata- 
 ble diet, especially one that contains much moisture. In 
 this country it is usually caused by eating too freely of 
 such rations as rape, clover and alfalfa, especially when 
 these are quite succulent. The danger is increased when 
 these foods are wet with rain or dew, or are in a more 
 or less frozen condition. Feeding upon the tops of imma- 
 ture mangels may also produce bloat. Fermentation of 
 the food in the rumen is the immediate cause of this con- 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 405 
 
 dition. The distension resulting may so press upon the 
 lungs that the animal unless speedily relieved may die 
 from suffocation. 
 
 This trouble may be prevented by not allowing the 
 animals to feed upon such foods when the stomach is 
 empty. When admitting them to these, it is especially 
 important that they have been fed some palatable food, 
 and preferably a dry food, before admitting them to such 
 pastures. When they have become accustomed to these 
 the danger is much less, but it is not entirely obviated. 
 It is always materially lessened by feeding the sheep a 
 small grain ration in the early morning. This is espe- 
 cially important after the season of early frosts has 
 arrived. 
 
 The treatment that most speedily and most sureh' 
 brings relief results from the use of the trocar and can- 
 ula. The former is used in puncturing the paunch and the 
 latter remaining in the puncture is used in furnishing a 
 channel for the escape of the gas. Puncture with a knife 
 is hazardous. It may bring temporary relief, but in the 
 puncture thus made some of the contents of the stomach 
 may escape and lead to results that are disastrous. A 
 mild purgative is usually in order after the bloating has 
 been relieved. In the absence of the trocar and canula, 
 relief has been obtained in some instances by inserting a 
 large rope of suitable size in the mouth in the form of a 
 bit. It is held in place by strings tied to each end and 
 again at the summit of the head. This treatment aids in 
 the escape of the gas. 
 
 Indigestion may result from a great variety of causes. 
 Among these are the following: Feeding food over- 
 succulent or overdry, in an improper copdition or ex- 
 cessive in quantity. 
 
 The symptoms will vary with the cause. Food over- 
 succulent is much liable to lead to diarrhea ; when lacking 
 in succulence, it may lead to impaction. If fed in an im- 
 proper condition, as when moldy, it may lead to serious 
 
406 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 derangement of the whole digestive system and also to 
 other ailments. When fed excessive in quantity, as in the 
 form of strong grains fed to animals that are being fat- 
 tened, it leads to digestive derangement that is accompa- 
 nied by loss of appetite that may be partial or total, pro- 
 portionate to the degree of the derangement. 
 
 The preventive measures in all those instances are 
 very clear. Along v^^ith over-succulent food, some less 
 succulent should be given. To illustrate : When sheep 
 are turned in on to a succulent crop of rape, clover or 
 alfalfa, they should also have access to a grass pasture 
 in w^hich the grass has lost much of its succulence, or in 
 its room to a good quality of cured alfalfa or clover hay. 
 The sheep will partake of the dry food under such con- 
 ditions. When the fodder is woody and overdry, as it is 
 in some instances in winter, the aim should be to feed 
 some more laxative food along with it, as field roots, 
 oilcake or silage. Overfeeding strong grain foods may 
 be guarded against by leading up to full feeding grad- 
 ually and on grains less strong, and by watching the 
 appetite of the sheep. As soon as any symptoms of wan- 
 ing appetite are noticed the amount of grain that is being 
 fed should be lessened. Should the appetite be absent in 
 a marked degree, it may be wise to withhold the grain 
 food entirely for a time. From what has been said it will 
 be apparent that the place for treatment for indigestion 
 is not a large one. Mild purgatives may be helpful in 
 some instances in removing from the stomach and intes- 
 tines substances that may be irritating in their nature. For 
 such use the following purgatives will be found quite 
 suitable, viz., four ounces of epsom salts given in water 
 or three to four ounces of castor oil. 
 
 Diarrhea and treatment — Diarrhea may be simple or 
 parasitic. It is simple when it results from some change 
 in the diet that disturbs the normal digestive processes. 
 It is the efifort of nature to remove irritant matters in the 
 stomach and alimentary canal, when these are present. It 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 407 
 
 is parasitic when it results from the presence of such para- 
 sites as stomach worms and tapeworms in the digestive 
 tract. In such instances the cure is found first or mainly 
 in the removal of the cause. The treatment for stomach 
 worms is discussed on page 394, and for tapeworms on 
 page 397. In the present instance, therefore, the discus- 
 sion is narrowed down to the methods that will best tend 
 to combat the evils resulting from the simple form of 
 diarrhea. As will be shown, the treatment for simple 
 diarrhea is much less complex than for parasitic diar- 
 rhea. The symptoms of simple diarrhea are frequent ex- 
 pulsion of the feces, and more or less watery in character. 
 They are free from blood and slime, and are not usually 
 of seriously offensive odor. The appetite is sharper in 
 most instances than in the absence of the trouble. The 
 symptoms are not to be confounded with those which in- 
 dicate the presence of dysentery. In the latter, to which 
 diarrhea unchecked may lead, fever is present, the debil- 
 ity is rapid and extreme and the bowels rumble. The 
 feces are thin but adhesive, are laden with mucus and are 
 passed with pain. Such attacks are usually more or less 
 fatal, and when the disease becomes thus serious it is best 
 dealt with by a competent veterinarian. The causes of 
 diarrhea may be various. The most common cause is the 
 partaking too freely of over-succulent food, as when sheep 
 are turned out to graze upon succulent young grasses in 
 the spring or into a field of succulent food such as rape. 
 Frozen rape or frozen clover are aggravating causes. The 
 trouble, however, may also arise from feeding indigestible 
 food, from certain changes of diet suddenly made and 
 from exposure when in an emaciated condition. 
 
 Diarrhea may in nearly all instances be prevented by 
 careful and thoughtful management. When changes of 
 diet are made, they should be gradual rather than sudden. 
 When the animals are turned on to a very succulent diet, 
 the change being made from one that is dry, the aim 
 should be to have them partake of some dry food in the 
 
408 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 early part of the day for several days before they par- 
 take solely of the succulent food. When the trouble 
 comes from feeding the sheep indigestible foods or those 
 not easily digested, it is very evident that the aim should 
 be to change the diet, for no good can result from feed- 
 ing foods that irritate the digestive organs. When the 
 trouble is the outcome of exposure, it might have been 
 prevented by shielding the sheep from exposure, and such 
 shielding is usually within the power of the prudent 
 flockmaster. When the trouble results from partaking of 
 food unduly succulent, the feeding of dry fodder or grain 
 and giving the sheep access to a plentiful supply of salt 
 will be found helpful, if not, indeed, entirely efficacious. 
 Since the presence of simple diarrhea in its early stages 
 of development is simply an effort of nature to get rid of 
 irritant substances, it is well not to be too hasty in check- 
 ing it. But when prolonged, the following remedy may 
 be helpful, viz., three to five ounces of castor oil for a 
 mature sheep. Follow in due time with tincture of opium 
 one dram, powdered ginger one dram, and prepared 
 chalk 12 drams. Rations dry in character should also 
 be fed, and with due caution. 
 
 Colic and treatment — Colic in sheep arises from 
 digestive disturbances resulting from the feeding of un- 
 suitable foods. Though closely allied to the disease 
 known as stretches, it differs from the latter in some of 
 the essential symptoms. The leading indications of colic 
 include moaning, grinding the teeth, frequent getting up 
 and lying down and striking the belly with the hind feet. 
 Lambs show these symptoms much more frequently than 
 adults as the result of errors in dieting, whereas in 
 stretches the animal frequently lays down and stretches 
 out at full length. 
 
 Colic is caused from digestive disturbance, the out- 
 come of feeding unsuitable food. These include such ra- 
 tions as frozen rape and clover. Unless soon relieved the 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 409 
 
 affected parts may become inflamed and the animal may 
 die. 
 
 The preventive measures are all important. They in- 
 clude the feeding of dry and succulent foods in due bal- 
 ance, and avoiding the feeding of the same when injured 
 by frost. When it occurs in lambs, the milk of a cow or 
 of a foster mother, which is frequently the aggravating 
 cause, may be improved by adding limewater to make it 
 conform more nearly to the constituents natural to the 
 young lamb. 
 
 For treatment such mild remedies as ginger, pepper- 
 mint and warm gruel may suffice. In other instances a 
 cathartic may be necessary. A popular remedy consists 
 of one dram of laudanum and one of powdered ginger 
 for a mature sheep, administered in flaxseed tea. 
 
 Stretches and treatment — When sheep are main- 
 tained for a long period on heavy and dry rations the 
 trouble popularly known as "stretches" is very liable to 
 occur, more especially when constipation has been pres- 
 ent for a considerable period. The indications of 
 stretches include the sudden lying down of the sheep 
 and stretching out at full length. It is rarely met 
 with in a flock in which suitable food has been 
 provided. Clearly, it is the outcome of unsuitable 
 dieting, resulting in impaction. It is rarely met with in 
 a flock to which roots are freely fed. The cause being 
 known, the preventive measures are easy. They include 
 the feeding of such foods as will ward off constipation. 
 These include field roots, oilcake and some such food as 
 corn ensilage, although the latter is not equal to field 
 roots in warding off the disease. 
 
 For treatment, melted lard has been recommended. 
 The dose for an adult sheep is about one-quarter of a 
 pound. When administering the lard a drenching bottle 
 or a tablespoon may be used. For lambs the following 
 has been found very helpful : Four ounces of epsom salts, 
 two tablespoonfuls of molasses and a heaping teaspoonful 
 
4IO MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 of ground ginger. The ginger should be dissolved in half 
 a pint of water. 
 
 Ailments affecting the organs of respiration — In the 
 discussion that follows the subjects discussed will in- 
 clude: (i) Catarrh and the treatment; (2) pneumonia and 
 the treatment; and (3) pleurisy and the treatment. These 
 are, of course, only some of the more common ailments of 
 this class. 
 
 Catarrh is of three forms. The most common form 
 is that known as nasal catarrh. A second form has been 
 designated epizootic catarrh, and a third form as parasitic 
 catarrh. The second form is closely allied to the first. 
 The third form is caused by the presence of such para- 
 sites as the larvae of Oestrus ovis, grub in the head. 
 
 Nasal catarrh is accompanied by frequent sneezing, 
 discharge from the nose, labored breathing and loss of 
 appetite. The indications of fever may not be markedly 
 present. The ailment, in common phrase, has been called 
 snufBes. When neglected in winter, it sometimes afifects 
 simultaneously the greater part of the flock, and it may 
 remain until warm weather. The impression that it is 
 contagious is probably not quite correct. In rare instances 
 it may prove fatal by the inflammation extending down 
 the air passages, but these are not of frequent occurrence. 
 
 Nasal catarrh is the outcome of exposure, as, for in- 
 stance, to cold autumn rains or to drafts where the sheep 
 are taking rest, especially in the night season. It may 
 also arise from some other causes. 
 
 The preventive measures, of course, are such as will 
 ward oflf the causes that produce the disease. Special 
 pains should be taken to guard against autumn storms, 
 and especially cold rain storms, which in many instances 
 give rise to this trouble, and also to guard against the 
 possibility of harmful drafts when providing places of 
 shelter. 
 
 The best treatment is to build up the system through 
 the medium of suitable and specially nourishing food. 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 4II 
 
 Specific treatment can be given that will compare with 
 liberal feeding in warding off and removing the ill effects 
 of the disease. 
 
 Bronchitis may be simple or parasitical. It is simple 
 when it results from undue exposure, as to inclement 
 weather or to drafts such as produce effects more deep 
 seated than catarrhal troubles. It is parasitical when it is 
 the outcome of the presence of some parasites in the bron- 
 chial tubes, as for instance the thread lung worm, which 
 has already been discussed (see page 399). 
 
 The indications of bronchitis in lambs are a moist 
 and wheezing cough, more or less fever and increased 
 rapidity of breathing. The coughing is in most instances 
 severe and prolonged. 
 
 Treatment in the ordinary sense of the term will be 
 of comparatively little avail. Preventive measures are 
 vastly more efficacious. These are such as pertain to the 
 protection of sheep from storms, especially rainstorms, 
 and from drafts such as produce catarrh. This, how- 
 ever, does not exclude the use of laxatives and of certain 
 stimulant tonics. But the most efficacious measures that 
 can be adopted are such as relate to good nursing, which 
 means providing good sanitary conditions and a nourish- 
 ing diet. 
 
 Simple pneumonia is more deeply seated than catarrh 
 or bronchitis. It is a disease of the lungs in which the 
 inflammation works rapidly, if left unchecked. Because 
 of the rapidity with which the disease does its work, it 
 has been termed, in common phrase, "rot of the lights." 
 
 The indications of pneumonia are various. It com- 
 mences with frequent and troublesome coughing. There 
 is also present an unwillingness to move, heaving of the 
 flank and signs of labored breathing. As the disease in- 
 creases the symptoms become intensified. Finally, the 
 animals stagger and succumb unless relief is furnished, 
 which occurs but seldom, as the disease is usually quite 
 fatal. 
 
412 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 This trouble is the outcome of exposure. Very fre- 
 quently it assumes the form of acute congestion. It may 
 come from chills after unduly rapid driving, or from want 
 of sufficient protection after washing or early shearing. 
 In America it would seem correct to say that the most 
 common cause is exposure to cold rains in the autumn, 
 winter or spring, and especially autumn rains, which may 
 fall unexpectedly, and may be quickly followed by 
 weather severely cold. Sheep with long and open fleeces, 
 and especially those with fleeces that part, as it were, 
 along the line of the back are the most liable to suffer 
 from such visitation. Preventive measures with this dis- 
 ease, as well as nasal catarrh and bronchitis, are all im- 
 portant. The shepherd who is duly alert does not need 
 to pay much attention to the treatment of these diseases, 
 for he will seldom have them in his flock. 
 
 The preventive measures for pneumonia are about 
 the same as for catarrh and bronchitis (see page 410). 
 The treatment is also about the same ; but in the case of 
 pneumonia treatment is usually of but little avail, owing 
 to the rapidity with which the disease puts in its deadly 
 work. 
 
 Pleurisy, which affects the lining that incloses the 
 lungs rather than the lungs themselves, sometimes oc- 
 curs, but not so frequently as pneumonia. In some in- 
 stances the two diseases are operative at the same time. 
 The symptoms of pleurisy are not greatly different, to the 
 general observer, from those that pertain to pneumonia, 
 but the breathing is less labored. The causes are meas- 
 urably virtually the same and also the preventive meas- 
 ures and treatment. 
 
 Ailments arising from reproduction — These include : 
 (i) Abortion and the treatment; (2) retention of the 
 afterbirth and treatment ; and (3) inversion of the womb 
 and treatment. These troubles may occur even in flocks 
 that are well managed. 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 413 
 
 Abortion in ewes is much less frequent than in cows. 
 It seldom becomes epizootic, but it is claimed that in 
 some instances it does assume a highly contagious form. 
 
 When a pregnant ewe isolates herself from the flock, 
 and when such isolation is accompanied by occasional or 
 frequent bleating, the evidence is present that she is 
 likely to abort or that she is carrying a dead lamb. 
 
 The causes that lead to abortion are various. It may 
 result from : (i) Improper feeding, as the feeding of fodders 
 or grains that contain molds ; from feeding frosted roots 
 or roots in excess ; or from feeding mangels not fully 
 ripened. (2) From rough treatment, as crowding the 
 ewes through narrow doorways, or turning them on their 
 buttocks to dress their feet. (3) From fright, as chasing 
 by dogs, or from overdriving. (4) From hoven, or as the 
 outcome of other ailments. (5) From infection. 
 
 The preventive measures are those which will ward 
 ofif the various causes mentioned. As a safeguard against 
 contagious abortion the rule is a good one which buries 
 the ejected foetus and the contaminated litter. 
 
 The medicinal treatment consists in injecting some 
 antiseptic, as a 1.5 per cent solution of carbolic acid, into 
 the genital organ and strengthening the animals by ad- 
 ministering to them mild tonics. 
 
 Retention of the afterbirth is not infrequent with 
 ewes where complications have been present during par- 
 turition. If not removed within a reasonable time, it may 
 only come away by slow degrees as the mass decays. The 
 odor thus engendered is very ofifensive. The affected ani- 
 mal will not thrive as it should, and fatal complications 
 may follow as the outcome of blood poisoning. The 
 trouble will not usually occur with strong and vigorous 
 animals, but with those that are feeble from lack of food, 
 or other causes the instances are not infrequent. 
 
 Some shepherds attach a weight to the protruding 
 mass which removes it by degrees. It may be removed 
 by working the hand, if quite small, into the vagina, and 
 
414 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 gradually working the attachments loose. An antiseptic, 
 as 15 per cent carbolic acid, may then be syringed into 
 the womb. 
 
 Inversion of the womb, sometimes spoken of as los- 
 ing the lamb bed, sometimes occurs. When it does it 
 ought to be replaced at the earliest moment possible, or 
 the effect upon the ewe will soon prove disastrous. 
 
 The trouble may result : (i) From severe labor pains ; 
 (2) from excessive spasm of the uterus; or (3) from vio- 
 lence in the artificial extraction of the lamb. 
 
 Before replacing the expelled part it should be 
 cleansed from all foreign matters and fetal membranes. 
 Replacement will be aided by laying the sheep on its 
 back and stretching the hind parts. The organ may be 
 held in place by the aid of a truss for a time. This is held 
 in place by a strap that goes around the buttock and fas- 
 tens at either end to a suitable surcingle put around the 
 body just behind the forelegs. A small strap which goes 
 over the top of the hips is also attached to these side 
 straps. A ewe that has been thus affected should not be 
 retained for future breeding. 
 
 Ailments that affect the limbs — While these are not 
 numerous, some of them give very much trouble, as. for 
 instance, foot rot. The only troubles that affect the limbs 
 that can be discussed in this work are: (i) Common foot 
 rot ; (2) contagious foot rot ; and (3) broken limbs. 
 
 Common foot rot sometimes called simple foot rot, is 
 more frequent and more virulent in areas where the pas- 
 ture lands are moist to wet and where the weather also is 
 normally moist. In western Europe it is much more prev- 
 alent than in most parts of the United States. It begins 
 by lameness, generally in one of the forefeet. At the first 
 the skin is slightly reddened and then covered with gran- 
 ulated matter or small warty growths. It usually pro- 
 ceeds downward on the inner side of one claw. The 
 whole foot is hot and tender and the coronet swollen. 
 The horn of the hoof becomes soft, with evidence of de- 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 415 
 
 cay, followed by more or less of piecemeal detachment 
 and accompanied by a very offensive smell. The crumb- 
 ling may eventually leave the lower part of the foot com- 
 pletely exposed, but in the less acute cases the hoof, 
 though not shed, becomes much enlarged and ridgy. 
 When the sensitive parts are exposed, they sprout in the 
 form of fungous masses. Ulcers follow, more or less, and 
 maggots may increase the disintegration. The trouble 
 unchecked will probably extend to other feet, but seldom 
 to all of them at once. In time the affected animals come 
 to feed on their knees when the forefeet are affected and 
 draw themselves on their bellies when the hind feet are 
 affected. 
 
 The causes that lead to foot rot include the follow- 
 ing: (i) Overmoisture in pastures on soil so soft as to 
 encourage too much the growth of spongy hoofs ; (2) 
 animals standing too much in their own excrement when 
 soft and wet; (3) overmuch grit on sandy chalk or clay 
 soils; (4) excessive paring of the hoof may encourage 
 the trouble; (5) punctures with stones, thorns or nails 
 and bruises may lead to it. 
 
 Preventive measures consist in what may be termed 
 good sanitation and the intelligent and watchful care of 
 the flock. This includes judicious feeding, careful and 
 timely trimming of the feet and prompt remedial meas- 
 ures when the disease appears, with a change of quarters 
 to prevent its further spread. 
 
 The treatment is twofold. It consists, first, in re- 
 moving all diseased matter by paring and washing, and 
 second applying some suitable form of dressing. Rey- 
 nolds gives the following: 
 
 "Clean thoroughly between the toes ; pare away all 
 diseased bone and remove the loosened pieces. The hoof, 
 if grown out of shape, must be trimmed to normal pro- 
 portion. Excessive granulations must be cut away or 
 removed by actual cautery, and be repressed by astring- 
 ent measures or pressure bandages. Pledgets of tow may 
 
4l6 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SilEEr 
 
 be dipped in tar and applied over the granulations, so as 
 to bring pressure at the right point. The patients should 
 be kept upon clean dry footing and serious cases should 
 be taken up and kept in the yard or in dry stables. For 
 astringent dressing tincture of iron is suitable, varying 
 from full strength to i to 4 dissolved in water. Four per 
 cent carbolized tar makes a nice application for cleansing 
 and disinfecting and keeps out dirt. The medical treat- 
 ment, particularly the astringent, should be very carefully 
 applied, especially into the crevices and deeper recesses. 
 It is frequently advisable to treat the whole fiock in a 
 general way ; in that case the flock may be driven through 
 a large pan containing solution of copper sulphate about 
 4 inches deep. The animals should be forced to remain in 
 the pan for several minutes, so as to insure good treat- 
 ment. The solution should be made up dissolved in water 
 in the proportion of one to two pounds per gallon of 
 water. 
 
 Contagious foot rot is not to be confounded with com- 
 mon or simple foot rot. It begins with a redness of skin 
 about the coronet. Then follows, in the order named, 
 vesiculation, scab and desiccation. The hoofs then tend 
 to separate from the sensitive parts which they cover. It 
 usually breaks out on all the feet at once and fever runs 
 high. 
 
 The disease comes through contact. It may come 
 through pastures, corrals, transporting ships or cars, and 
 through the medium of fairs. It runs a course of sev- 
 eral weeks. Preventive measures are very important. 
 They include: (i) Keeping the sheep and their feet in 
 good condition; (2) quarantining diseased animals; and 
 (3) disinfecting affected quarters. The treatment is in 
 many respects similar to that given for common foot 
 rot (see page 415). Removing the diseased parts by par- 
 ing is first in order. Then follows a caustive dressing, 
 preferably applied by pouring or dropping, as a brush or 
 a feather soon becomes tainted with the virus. Tincture 
 
THE MORE COxMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 417 
 
 of iron will furnish these dressings. Later a coating of 
 tar will give protection. Large numbers may be treated 
 by driving them through a trough containing a solution 
 of carbolic acid, one part to 20 to 30 parts of soap and 
 water according to the severity of the disease. 
 
 Broken limbs must be dealt with according to the 
 nature of the break. In' the absence of a skilled veterina- 
 rian the aim should be to put the broken limb in place : 
 then put wet cardboard around, and hold this in place by 
 wrapping with a strong bandage. Splints may sometimes 
 answer the purpose better than cardboard. 
 
 Ailments peculiar to lambs — The ailments peculiar 
 to lambs include: (i) Indigestion; (2) white scours; (3) 
 retention of excrement; (4) wool balls in the stomach; 
 and (5) navel disease. These ills and the treatment for 
 each will now be discussed in due order. 
 
 Indigestion in lambs may result from the food fur- 
 nished to the dams through the influence which it exerts 
 on the digestion of the lamb. It may take the form of 
 constipation, as when the supply of the milk is meager 
 and furnished from foods low in nutrition and lacking in 
 succulence ; or it may take the form of diarrhea from the 
 feeding of foods excessive in quantity and richness. 
 When a lamb previously thrifty shows indications of 
 dumpishness, the presence of constipation is to be sus- 
 pected. The remedy is mild doses of castor oil, or what 
 is preferable, an injection of soapy water. A moderate 
 ration of field roots or of oilcake fed to the dam would 
 ])robably prevent such a condition, at least in very many 
 instances. 
 
 Scours in young lambs are the outcome of milk unsuit- 
 able or excessive or of germ infection. The result is pro- 
 fuse white-colored evacuations. It seldom takes the epi- 
 demic form, but many instances may occur simultane- 
 ously and from the same cause ; that is from the excessive 
 quantity of the rich milk furnished. When indications of 
 scours appear, the diet of the dams should be reduced and 
 
4l8 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 a portion of the milk taken from the dams of the lambs 
 that are thus affected, in order that the latter may not be 
 able to take food to excess. A form of scours may occur 
 at a later period in which the evacuations have a greenish 
 tint. It is more fatal than the former. It is produced by 
 some unsuitable elements in the diet. 
 
 Retention of excrement is one outcome of indigestion 
 in young lambs. It results from some peculiarities in the 
 milk which are the outcome of certain foods fed to the 
 dams. The excrement may accumulate to such an extent 
 about and underneath the tail head as to close the pass- 
 ages so that evacuation ceases. The remedy is to remove 
 the adherent matter mechanically. When thus removed 
 the digestion usually regulates itself within the next few 
 days. 
 
 Wool balls are accumulations of wool in the stomach. 
 The wool is taken into the stomach in some instances 
 while the lambs are taking food from the dams, and in 
 other instances as the result of biting because of the pres- 
 ence of ticks. It may result, as it does in the case of old 
 sheep, as the outcome of a depraved appetite resulting 
 from errors of diet. The trouble may be prevented when 
 it arises from the first cause by clipping away all loose 
 locks of wool that may adhere to the udder before the 
 lambs begin to nurse. When thus affected, the lambs are 
 dull and stupid and refuse their food. A suitable purga- 
 tive may relieve the trouble. 
 
 Navel disease, more frequently spoken of as navel 
 ill, is an affection which produces swelling and soreness 
 in the umbilical cord of lambs soon after birth. It is the 
 outcome of contact with filth in the sheds. An applica- 
 tion of tincture of iodine promptly applied will usually 
 prove effective in destroying the germs. 
 
 Ailments miscellaneous in character — The discussion 
 of these will include: (i) Goiter; (2) ophthalmia; (3) 
 tumors; (4) urinary troubles; and (5) garget. The treat- 
 ment will be included. 
 
THE MORE COMMON AILMENTS OF SHEEP 419 
 
 Goiter is an affection of the thyroid glands which 
 causes them to swell so as to form lumplike substances 
 in the throat. It affects both lambs and older sheep, but 
 more especially the latter, and it is the most harmful 
 to them when they are newly born. The lumps are in 
 some instances small and hard; in others they are large 
 and soft. In many instances the newly born lambs thus 
 affected will soon die ; at other times the trouble leaves 
 them. The cause of this trouble, which frequently leads 
 to serious loss, is not well understood. It occurs in sheep 
 of varying degrees of thrift, but to a greater extent prob- 
 ably in those more or less pampered than when kept in 
 the ordinary way. It would seem probable from the be- 
 havior of sheep grazed on soil which contains much lime, 
 and which at the same time drink water considerably im- 
 pregnated with lime and magnesia, that these conditions 
 favor the increase of goiter. However it may originate 
 primarily, it would seem to be, in a sense, constitutional 
 and therefore transmissible. Such being the case, goi- 
 tered dams, or dams which have produced goitered lambs, 
 should not be retained for breeding. Applications of 
 tincture of iodine once a day may give some relief; also 
 iodide of potassium given in doses of say 5 grains for a 
 lamb at certain intervals. 
 
 Ophthalmia, better known as Conjunctivitis, is an 
 affection of the eyes of sheep which, unchecked, may lead 
 to blindness. An inflamed condition is always present. 
 Simple ophthalmia is a frequent complication of ordinary 
 nasal catarrh. Other exciting causes include exposure 
 to cold winds and drafts. It is not infectious, though 
 many cases may occur in a flock simultaneously, having 
 originated from the same cause. A zinc lotion, prepared 
 by a druggist as for treating sore eyes in an individual, 
 dropped into the eye once or more frequently, should 
 effect a cure. 
 
 Tumors may affect various organs of sheep. Very 
 commonly they occur at or within the anus. Their pres- 
 
420 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ence is indicated by blood in the feces and also by disin- 
 clination to move the hind legs. Laxative diets are con- 
 sidered helpful. When they occur on the neck they 
 should be lanced when ripe and washed out with a solu- 
 tion of carbolic acid. Animals thus affected should sel- 
 dom be retained. 
 
 Urinary troubles are various and may aflfect both 
 males and females in certain instances. One of the most 
 common forms, however, affects males only, as when 
 mangels are freely fed to them. The immediate cause is 
 the forming of crystals at the mouth of the bladder. The 
 indications of the trouble are retarded or accelerated 
 breathing, swollen sheath, loss of appetite, retention of 
 urine, and the evidence of much pain. Treatment in such 
 instances is of but little avail, but prevention is easy; that 
 is, by not feeding mangels. 
 
 Garget or mammitis is quite common in fiocks that are 
 not carefully watched and cared for at the lambing sea- 
 son, and also at the time of weaning. It is sometimes 
 called caked udder, since the inflammation present results 
 in a hardening of the parts affected. It may result from 
 various causes, including: (i) Inattention at time of 
 weaning, or when one twin lamb has been removed dur- 
 ing the nursing period ; (2) exposure to wet and cold, 
 as when the sheep are left in the pastures ; (3) lying on 
 moist filth in the sleeping places; (4) bruises from the 
 lambs sucking; and (5) through germ infection. 
 
 From what has been said about the causes that lead 
 to this trouble, the preventive measures will be apparent. 
 The treatment should begin with bathing the udder with 
 warm water. This may be followed by applying an un- 
 guent after the inflamed part has been rubbed dry. The 
 unguent may be composed of turpentine and lard, about 
 the consistency of cream. It may be employed with ad- 
 vantage as frequently as three times daily. Ewes that 
 have been troubled thus should not be retained for breed- 
 ing. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCAB 
 
 This chapter discusses the following phases in regard 
 to dipping: (i) The objects sought from dipping; (2) 
 The two classes of sheep dips ; (3) The basic element in 
 sheep dips; (4) The dipping plant; (5) The reason for 
 dipping; (6) Facts that bear upon the work of dipping; 
 (7) Care of the animals subsequently to dipping; (8) Re- 
 moving parasites by other methods; and (9) How far 
 dipping is a necessity. 
 
 The objects sought from dipping — These are three : 
 (i) The removal of external parasites; (2) the improving 
 of the condition of the skin ; and (3) increasing growth in 
 the wool. The first of these objects is the most important 
 by far. 
 
 Prominent among the external parasites which dip- 
 ping aims to remove are sheep ticks and the mites that 
 produce sheep scab. The rate of increase in both is very 
 rapid. Gerlach has estimated that the possible increase 
 of the mites in sheep scab in 90 days is 1,000,000 females 
 and 500,000 males. Other parasites may also be destroyed 
 by dipping, as sheep lice and maggots. 
 
 The dipping of sheep- is of comparatively recent 
 origin. The sheep industry in America, for instance, 
 flourished for at least 75 years prior to the introduction 
 of dipping, and in Europe it flourished for centuries before 
 this method of fighting parasites had been discovered. 
 The shepherds of the Old World had fought the battle 
 successfully against parasites in sheep for centuries be- 
 fore the introduction of dipping. They did so through 
 the practices of smearing and pouring. But the efficacy 
 of these practices for the removal of parasites compared 
 with dipping are so far behind the latter as, in a sense, 
 
422 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 to remove the grounds of comparison, and the same may 
 be said also in regard to the greater relative cheapness of 
 dipping. Where sheep are produced in a large way, as 
 on the ranges, it would be virtually impossible to keep 
 them free from external parasites in the absence of dip- 
 ping. 
 
 While dipping sheep will destroy maggots which 
 sometimes affect sheep and more especially Merinos, as at 
 the base of the horns in males and in filth that may 
 accumulate around the anus at certain seasons of the year, 
 these may be removed without the necessity for dipping 
 the whole flock. This is done by removing the wool from 
 the infected parts by shearing and then applying some 
 agent that will prove destructive to the maggots, as, for 
 instance, spirits of turpentine and sassafras oil. The 
 former should not be used on sheep much exposed to rain. 
 The latter is made by the commingling of sassafras oil 
 one part and alcohol four parts. 
 
 A second object sought from dipping is to cleanse 
 the skin with a view to promote healthy action in the ex- 
 udations that tend to maintain good health and to pro- 
 mote growth in the wool. The cleansing effect of some of 
 the dips used, especially those with coal tar products as 
 a base, is very marked. The benefits resulting in the 
 greater thrift that follows will go far to offset the shrink- 
 age in weight and fleece that sometimes follows dipping. 
 
 A third object sought is increased growth of wool. 
 Such increase comes mainly from the increased thrift con- 
 sequent upon dipping. Increase in thrift comes, first, 
 from relief from the irritation caused by the presence of 
 parasites, and, second, from the more healthful action of 
 the organs pertaining to the skin. Such increase may 
 be material. It may in time far more than compensate 
 for any loss that may come from a temporary shock given 
 to the system, such as may come from dipping under 
 weather conditions that may not be congenial. 
 
 The two classes of sheep dips — Sheep dips are essen- 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 423 
 
 tially of two classes with reference to their source, re- 
 gardless of the ingredients which they contain. These 
 are proprietary and non-proprietary dips. 
 
 The former are made from secret formulas which are 
 known only to those who make them. The basic ingre- 
 dients that compose them may be known in a general 
 way, but the exact methods of compounding and prepar- 
 ing them are known only to the proprietors. Their effi- 
 cacy is attested by testimonials from those who have 
 used them, and by the extent to which they have come 
 into general use. Some of those dips have been in use 
 for many years, and the popularity which has come to 
 them should be regarded as evidence of their efficacy. 
 
 The latter are non-proprietary. The ingredients 
 which compose them are known, also the methods of 
 compounding and preparing them. They have the sanc- 
 tion in many instances of governmental authority, and 
 such sanction has been secured for them on the basis of 
 necessity. Such necessity has arisen from the enactment 
 of laws for the protection of sheep, more especially in 
 transit, from the contaminating influences resulting from 
 the presence of parasites. In various countries such 
 enactments have been found necessary for the mainte- 
 nance and prosperity of the sheep industry. Such legis- 
 lation made dipping compulsory under certain conditions, 
 and made it necessary also to prescribe the ingredients 
 that should be used in preparing dips, the amount of each 
 to be used, the methods of compounding them and also 
 the manner in which they shall be used. 
 
 A somewhat bitter and prolonged controversy has 
 arisen between those who have put proprietary dips on 
 the market and the Bureau of Animal Industry in the 
 United States, with regard to the dips that shall be given 
 the authoritative stamp of public use in compulsory dip- 
 ping, as, for instance, when breeding stocks were about 
 to be conveyed from state to state. The Bureau claimed, 
 and apparently with reason, that before giving its sane- 
 
424 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 tion lo the use of proprietary dips for such use, the in- 
 gredients composing them should be disclosed, with the 
 formulas for compounding them. The proprietors of 
 these dips objected on the ground that to comply with 
 the request of the Bureau would be to give away the 
 secret which was virtually the foundation on which the 
 success of their business rested. The real question at is- 
 sue was not the efficacy of those proprietary dips, or 
 whether they should be used in a private way, but 
 whether authorities representing the government should 
 give their sanction to the use of dips in what may be termed 
 compulsor}'- dipping without being fully informed as to 
 the character of the dips. It would seem in every way 
 reasonable that the Bureau should take such a stand. 
 Nor does this conclusion in any way reflect upon the 
 efficacy of proprietary dips or upon their relative cost. 
 
 The most important of the dips approved by the 
 United States Bureau of Animal Industry are: (i) The 
 tobacco and sulphur dip ; (2) the lime and sulphur dip ; 
 and (3) coal tar dips, when these are used according to 
 the approved formulas. The use of arsenical and carbolic 
 dips the Bureau does not encourage, even when the for- 
 mulas by which they are made are published. 
 
 In nearly all instances, however, the formulas for 
 making proprietary dips have not been disclosed. That 
 some of these are efficacious is undoubtedly true. That 
 the cost is not excessive is also true in some instances. 
 But the fact remains that in many instances the purchaser 
 takes chances. The only guarantee of the genuineness of 
 the solution is the reputation of the individual or the firm 
 who have put it on the market. Of this he cannot always 
 be able to secure information. The best that he can do 
 is to purchase a dip the reputation of which has brought 
 it into general use. 
 
 Proprietary dips have one advantage over non-pro- 
 prietary dips which, more than anything else, probably 
 accounts for their very general use. They are already 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 425 
 
 admixed, so that with but little labor added when pre- 
 paring them for use they are ready to do the work claimed 
 for them. In nearly all instances considerable labor is in- 
 volved in compounding homemade dips and in preparing 
 them for use. These proprietary dips are very numerous 
 now, and the number is increasing. The publicity given 
 to them by the agricultural press, which in some instances 
 may be the result of patronage, encourages their use. 
 
 The basic element in dips — All sheep dips have a 
 basic element; that is, one or more ingredients which 
 gives to them their efficacy and also the designation by 
 which they are known. This applies to both proprietary 
 and non-proprietary dips. The chief of these have the 
 following elements as their basis: (i) Tobacco and sul- 
 phur; (2) lime and sulphur; (3) coal tar; (4) carbolic 
 acid ; and (5) arsenic. 
 
 The tobacco and sulphur dip stands high in favor, 
 not only in the estimation of the bureau of animal in- 
 dustry, but also in the estimation of many flockmasters 
 who have used it, both in the United States and in the 
 British colonies of the southern hemisphere, where it first 
 came into common use. The almost complete eradication 
 of sheep scab in South Australia and New South Wales 
 which at one time threatened the ruin of the sheep in- 
 dustry, is due almost entirely to its use. 
 
 The dip is prepared as follows : For every 100 gallons 
 of dip required, use 21 pounds of tobacco leaves of good 
 quality and 16 pounds of flowers of sulphur. Soak the leaves 
 in cold or lukewarm water for 24 hours in a covered vessel. 
 Bring the water to near the boiling point for a moment 
 and then remove from the fire. If in the evening allow 
 the infusion to draw until morning, and in any event for 
 not less than an hour. Then strain the mass, using 
 pressure to obtain all the nicotine possible. Mix the flow- 
 ers of sulphur in water so as to make a thin paste and 
 pour the same into the dip, meantime stirring it slowly 
 to prevent the sulphur from settling, as it otherwise 
 
426 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 would. Add water if necessary, that there may be 100 
 gallons of the solution. After the nicotine solution has 
 been added, do not raise its temperature higher than no 
 degrees F., because of the volatile nature of the nicotine 
 when thus heated. 
 
 The tobacco and sulphur dip is, all things considered, 
 one of the most satisfactory. It is not very costly and in 
 some instances the farmer can grow his own tobacco. It 
 is very effective, as two of the best destroyers of para- 
 sites that infest the wool of sheep, viz.. nicotine and sul- 
 phur, are used together. The sulphur remains for a time 
 in the wool, and thus far guards against reinfection. It 
 does not affect the wool injuriously, save by a slight 
 discoloration temporarily. But to its use there are the 
 following drawbacks: (i) It spoils rapidly, hence when 
 made it must be promptly used ; (2) it occasionally sick- 
 ens the sheep and may also thus affect those engaged in 
 dipping, especially when non-smokers; (3) the amount of 
 nicotine in the tobacco varies, hence unless this is known 
 the dip may not be exactly of the desired strength. The 
 solution should contain 0.05 of one per cent of nicotine. 
 Because of the variations in* the amount of nicotine in 
 tobacco, it may be better in many instances to purchase 
 a proprietary tobacco dip, which has been approved by 
 the Bureau of Animal Industry. 
 
 The lime and sulphur dip is one of the cheapest and 
 also one of the most effective dips that have been used 
 in treating sheep for scab. A somewhat heated and pro- 
 longed controversy with reference to the place that 
 should be assigned to it among dips has arisen and pre- 
 vailed during recent years. The parties to this contro- 
 versy were the bureau of animal industry on the one 
 hand and certain agricultural papers on the other, who 
 may have had some pecuniary interest in the outcome of 
 the discussion. 
 
 The objections made to the use of this dip include 
 the following: (i) That it injures the staple of the wool; 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 427 
 
 (2) that its continued use tends to lessen wool produc- 
 tion ; (3) that it leads to greater shrinkage in the weight 
 of the sheep ; (4) that it sometimes produces blood poi- 
 soning; and (5) that it is not always effective in killing 
 scab. The first objection is at least measurably true. The 
 harm does consist mainly in a change in the microscopic 
 structure of the fiber resulting from the caustic action of 
 the dip. The injury increases with length and fineness 
 of the wool, and with increase of sediment in the dip. 
 Wools thus treated shrink more than other wools, do not 
 scour so readily and do not take dye so uniformly. But 
 when the sheep are dipped soon after shearing, this ob- 
 jection would not apply. The other objections have not 
 been sustained by proof. Much of the injury complained 
 of has been the outcome of using solutions wrongly com- 
 pounded and improperly prepared. It would seem correct 
 to say that no dip has ever been used so extensively and 
 with more effectiveness. Moreover it is one of the cheap- 
 est of dips. 
 
 It is prepared as follows : To make 100 gallons of the 
 dip, weigh out eight pounds of unslaked lime and 24 
 pounds of the flowers of sulphur. Place the lime in a ket- 
 tle and add enough water to make a lime paste. Add to 
 this the sulphur by sifting it in and so stirring the mass 
 as to thoroughly mix the ingredients. Add to the mix- 
 ture 25 to 30 gallons of boiling water and boil for at least 
 two hours, stirring the mixture and sediment frequently 
 during the boiling process. The boiling should be con- 
 tinued until the sulphur disappears, or almost disappears, 
 from the surface of the solution, which is then of a more 
 or less chocolate color. Water is added as necessary. 
 Then pour the mixture and sediment into a kerosene 
 barrel or other vessel placed near the dipping vat and 
 provided with a bunghole about 4 inches from the bottom 
 Allow ample time for the solution to settle, at least two 
 or three hours, and then draw off the liquid by the aid 
 of a spigot. This is much superior to the method of re- 
 
428 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 moving it by dipping, as dipping so stirs up the sediment 
 that the separation is not complete. Then add water so 
 as to make 100 gallons of the solution. 
 
 When sheep are dipped in transit, as at the stock- 
 yards, a dip is wanted in some instances that will destroy 
 or remove scab at one dipping. Experience has shown 
 that the lime and sulphur dip comes the nearest among 
 dips to this requirement. To effectively destroy the scab 
 mite, some of the substance should remain for a time in 
 the wool. No dip has been found so well adapted to this 
 purpose as the lime and sulphur dip. In the early stages 
 of the disease eight pounds of lime will suffice for each 
 100 gallons of the dip, but in advanced cases of scab with 
 thick and hard crusts 12 pounds may be necessary. It is 
 highly important when using this dip that the sediment 
 shall be kept separate from the ooze. 
 
 Coal tar dips, now known under various names, are 
 essentially of two classes. These are known as creosote 
 and cresol dips respectively. They are in some instances 
 homemade, but in others they are proprietary. This class 
 of dips has gained in favor during recent years. 
 
 Coal tar creosote dips contain coal tar, creosote or 
 coal tar oils and cresylic acid. These are made capable 
 of being emulsified by the admixture of resin soap, which 
 on the addition of water forms a mixture that is whitish 
 milky in color. These dips have proved very effective 
 in destroying scab mites and they also leave the wool in 
 a clean, soft and pliable condition, which is a strong point 
 in their favor. It is also claimed for them that they are 
 more effective as tick lice destroyers than some other dips. 
 It is also thought that they are more effective in destroy- 
 ing the egg of the scab mite than some other dips, but it 
 should be borne in mind that even should this prove true, 
 it will not preclude the necessity of a second dipping. 
 
 Cresol dips are made from cresylic acid, which is a 
 coal tar product, and soap. In composition they are very 
 similar to the product known as lysol. When diluted 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 439 
 
 with water ready for use they form a more or less soapy, 
 transparent solution. While they have proved very effec- 
 tive in the treatment of sheep scab, to their use there is 
 the serious objection that they tend to leave the wool 
 in a dry and harsh condition. Because of this defect cresol 
 dips are not so likely to come into general use as creo- 
 sote dips. These dips are also affected with reference to 
 their efficacy by the kind of water used. Soft water is 
 much superior to hard water, since the former emulsifies 
 more readily. Hard water is greatly improved by the 
 addition of lye in the manner practiced in laundries. Be- 
 cause of the complicated character of the ingredients that 
 enter into the composition of these dips, those who use 
 them will probably find it to their advantage to use a 
 proprietary coal tar dip which has the approval of the 
 United States department of agriculture and in the pro- 
 portions specified by the department. 
 
 Carbolic dips have carbolic acid as their base. These 
 dips kill parasites very quickly, but the wash soon leaves 
 the wool, hence re-infection is soon made possible. To 
 prevent such a result one pound of the flowers of sulphur 
 should be added to each six gallons of the dip. These 
 dips are both homemade and proprietary. The benefits 
 from using these dips include the following: (i) The pre- 
 pared dips are very easily and readily prepared for use ; 
 (2) they act more quickly than tobacco and sulphur dips ; 
 and (3) they are apparently more harmful to the ticks 
 than the dips just named. The disadvantages are: (i) 
 That in the proprietary dips of this class the flockmaster 
 is ignorant of the exact character of the materials that he 
 is using and consequently of their value ; (2) that the set- 
 back to the sheep has been shown to be greater than with 
 some other dips ; and (3) they are relatively costly. If 
 carbolic dips are used, care must be taken that they form 
 an emulsion if they are to be properly effective. If a scum 
 arises on the top, a softer water ought to be used. Mean- 
 
430 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 time the department of agriculture has not recommended 
 the use of these dips. 
 
 Arsenical dips which are both homemade and pro- 
 prietary have arsenic as their base. Very great caution 
 should be observed when using these dips because of their 
 highly poisonous character. 
 
 A formula that has received high commendation in 
 certain quarters is the following: Commercially pure 
 arsenite of soda 14 pounds, ground roll sulphur 345^ 
 pounds, water 432 gallons. The arsenite of soda should 
 be thoroughly mixed with the sulphur before adding the 
 water. 
 
 The advantages from using it are: (i) That it has 
 scab-curing properties, and (2) that because of this it 
 enters into the composition of a number of dipping pow- 
 ders, some of which have been long and more or less ef- 
 fectively used. But to its use there are the following dis- 
 advantages : (i) Arsenic is a deadly poison, and is there- 
 fore dangerous to the sheep, and in some degree to those 
 who use it unless much care is exercised in handling it; 
 (2) it has a drying effect on the wool, weakens the fiber 
 of the new growth that immediately follows, and fails to 
 stimulate the growth of the wool as good oleaginous dips 
 do; (3) it tends to throw the sheep ofT their feed for sev- 
 eral days, in some instances at least, after the dipping; 
 (4) its frequent efTect on the skin is to produce excoria- 
 tion, blistering and hardness. After the dipping the yards 
 into which the sheep are turned should be completely 
 destitute of food and litter. Every facility should be 
 given to sheep to dry quickly, and on no account should 
 they be turned on to the pastures until the dripping has 
 ceased. Even after it has ceased, the danger is sometimes 
 present for a time that rain may wash enough of the 
 arsenic out of the fleece to render the pastures dangerous 
 at least for a time. The United States department of 
 agriculture has not put the stamp of approval on those 
 dips. 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 43I 
 
 The dipping of sheep is usually followed by loss of 
 weight for a limited period, and this in turn is usually 
 followed by increase. If sheep are weighed just before 
 Mipping, and again 24 hours subsequently, it will be found 
 that a loss of weight has resulted ranging from one-half 
 pound to three and one-half pounds. In the next two or 
 three weeks some gain may be looked for. When tobacco 
 and sulphur have been used the gains have not been far 
 different. From carbolic dips they have proved less sat- 
 isfactory. 
 
 The dipping plant — The dipping plant will be dis- 
 cussed from the standpoint, first, of the large or range 
 flock; second, from that of the ordinary farm flock; and, 
 third, from that of the farmer who has but a few ani- 
 mals. Dipping at the stockyards is now done by methods 
 prescribed by the Bureau of Animal Industry; hence the 
 owner of the sheep dipped is not completely at liberty to 
 say how the work shall be done. 
 
 When dipping a large flock of sheep that runs up, say, 
 into the hundreds or thousands, and for successive years, 
 as on the range, to locate permanently the dipping plant 
 will be money well spent and also to construct it of ma- 
 terial that will endure, as of brick or cement, when these 
 materials may be obtained without too much cost. The 
 requisites of such a plant include the following: (i) Re- 
 ceiving yards in which to hold the sheep that are to be 
 dipped. These will vary in size and number with the 
 numbers in the flock. From the yard nearest to the 
 dipping plant is a narrow drive or chute through which 
 the sheep are driven single file to make the plunge into 
 the dipping vat. If these yards are provided with a floor 
 that drains to a common point, they may be easily slushed 
 with the aid of a hose, should this be desired. (2) A dip- 
 ping vat or tank. These vary in the shape given to them, 
 but the oblong dipping vat is that most commonly used. 
 The length will, of course, vary. The longer the vat, the 
 greater is the saving in the time effected in dipping be- 
 
4^2 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 cause of the larger number of the animals that may be 
 in it at one time, but the more expensive will it be in the 
 quantity of the dip called for. It should not be less than 
 20 feet, and in some 'instances may exceed 100 feet. The 
 depth is from 4 to 5 feet, and the width from 24 to 30 
 inches at the top and 9 to 12 inches at the bottom. It 
 should be sunk in the ground, save the top 9 to 12 inches, 
 and should slant a little in the bottom toward the receiv- 
 ing end to facilitate the emptying or removing of the dip. 
 It should be protected by a low fence at the places of en- 
 trance and exit, to keep the sheep in correct line. Toward 
 the place of exit the floor of the vat should incline up- 
 ward, the length of the incline being not less than 9 feet, 
 and it should have slats or cleats across it about a foot or 
 less in distance from one another to enable the sheep to 
 walk up and into the dripping pens. (3) There should be 
 two dripping pens, with a swinging gate at the upper end 
 of the incline, which may open or close either of the two. 
 When one division is filled with sheep that have been 
 dipped the gate is closed on these until the other is filled. 
 The former are then removed through a gate at the far- 
 ther end of the pen, which is then ready to receive another 
 lot. The floor of each dripping pen should slant some- 
 what toward the fence between them. Under it should 
 be a gutter to carry the drip back into the vat, but at the 
 end near the vat there should be a wire grate to hold 
 back droppings and wool that may have been carried 
 downward. (4) Provision should be made for preparing 
 the dip when such preparing is needed and for heating it, 
 whatsoever kind may be used. When prepared dips are 
 used water is led into the vat. The dip is then added ac- 
 cording to the directions, and it may be heated by steam 
 conveyed through a hose attached to a heater. This, 
 however, does not preclude the necessity for a boiler to 
 heat fresh ooze for replenishing the supply in the vats. 
 It will be advantageous to have two heating or boiling 
 tanks that will hold from 300 to 400 gallons, and these 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 433 
 
 should be set in brick or stone frames with a fireplace 
 underneath. If tobacco and sulphur dip is used, there 
 should be two caldrons with covers. If lime and sul- 
 phur dip is used, one or more settling tubs may be neces- 
 sary. The boiled dip may be pumped into these and then 
 drawn ofif into the vats, excluding the sediment. (5) The 
 other requisites include : Graduating marks on the inside 
 of the vats and heating tanks to indicate the quantity of 
 the mixtures present, scales for weighing the ingredients, 
 should such weighing be necessary, a portable pump for 
 moving the liquid, and one or more thermometers to in- 
 dicate the temperature of the ooze, both in process of 
 preparation and prepared. 
 
 When dipping a flock of ordinary si::c the dipping vat 
 may be permanent and stationary, or it may be movable, 
 as in the case of the manufactured metal tanks that may 
 be obtained by purchase. The materials used, when of 
 home construction, may consist of wood, brick or cement. 
 When made of wood, pine planks 1I/2 to 2 inches thick, 
 and tongued and grooved, may be used. These are nailed 
 on the inside of a frame made of scantlings 2x4 inches or 
 larger. In such instances the joints are also pitched over. 
 When the flock does not exceed, say, 50 to 100 animals, a 
 small portable dipping vat ma}^ be used. Some portion of 
 the barn or sheds may be used as a catching pen for the 
 time being. The sheep may be lifted into the vat and 
 when dipped may be held for a short time at the top of 
 the incline to drip. This will do away with the necessity 
 for a draining yard, but this method is extremely slow. 
 The dripping may be hastened through the squeezing of 
 the wool by the attendants. 
 
 Where the numbers exceed those stated, and where 
 the sheep are dipped once or twice a year, the plant 
 should be permanent. When dipping large flocks, the 
 following conveniences should be present : A vat of suit- 
 able dimensions, a drive or chute through which the sheep 
 are forced into the vat, a yard or its equivalent from 
 
434 
 
 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 which the sheep are forced into the drive, an incline with 
 cleats at the further end of the tank, and a draining pen 
 to carry the drip back into the vat. There should also 
 be suitable heating apparatus. A heater or cooker, such 
 as is used in heating or cooking food for swine, may be 
 used in preparing and renewing the dip. 
 
 FIG. 21— GROUND PLAN OF DIPPING PLANT AT WAUKESHA, WIS. 
 (Courtesy of the owners) 
 
 The method of dipping sheep at the Anoka Stock 
 Farm at Waukesha, Wis., will now be submitted, in the 
 belief that it will prove helpful to any who may find it 
 necessary to construct a dipping plant for the benefit of 
 the farm flock. This farm is owned and operated by 
 George Harding and Son. The dipping vat is located at 
 the rear end of the hog house, which is on sloping ground. 
 A platform extends out about 6 feet from the hog house, 
 from which stock, as young cattle, sheep and swine, are 
 loaded on to a wagon. The passage in the hog house is 40 
 feet long and 6 feet wide, and it will hold at one time about 
 40 sheep of average size. The door, which is as wide as 
 the platform, swings outward, and is thus made to form a 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 
 
 435 
 
 barrier on one side of the passage from the alley to the 
 vat. The other side has protection that is temporary and 
 movable. The dipping vat comes up against the side of 
 the platform and extends outward from the end of the hog 
 house. It is on a level with the platform and also of the 
 dripping pens at the opposite end. The vat is 9 feet long 
 on the top, 6 feet long on the bottom, 3 feet 8 inches deep, 
 2 feet wide at the top and i foot at the bottom. These are 
 the dimensions inside the vat. The draining yard or pen, 
 6 X 12 feet, is divided by a partition so as to make two 
 inclosures, each of which will hold 8 sheep. The drain- 
 ing pen is slightly depressed toward the partition so as 
 to carry the ooze back into the vat. At the end of the 
 partition toward the vat is a gate which swings both 
 
 , 
 
 II 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 11/ 
 
 -1! IL ifc 
 
 FIG. 22— DIPPING VAT FOR A SMALL FLOCK 
 
 ways. The draining pen and also the projecting platform 
 are about 23^ feet from the ground. One man puts the 
 sheep into the vat; two men, one on each side, care for 
 them when there, and a boy opens the gate, when neces- 
 sary at the rear of each dripping pen. From three to 
 four sheep are in the tank at one time, and they remain 
 in two minutes. The dip is prepared by utilizing the 
 boiler in the hog house. The eaves of the hog house sup- 
 ply the vat with more or less water all the time, and this 
 is used in preparing food for the swine, but the vat is 
 thoroughly cleansed after each dipping. In this way but 
 little more than an hour is used for dipping 100 sheep 
 after all things have been made ready for the work. 
 
 For a small flock a good-sized tub may be used or what 
 is more convenient, a small dipping vat such as may now be 
 
436 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 readily obtained by purchase. The sheep are lifted into 
 the vat by two men. When dipped sufficiently long, they 
 are held for a short time on a draining board or table that 
 will carry the ooze back into the vat. The dripping may 
 be hastened by squeezing the wool while the sheep are 
 on the draining board. 
 
 The season for dipping — The dipping of sheep may be 
 done at almost any season of the year. Should it be as- 
 certained that sheep are afifected with scab when tem- 
 peratures run low, the deferring of the dipping until the 
 arrival of warm weather will unquestionably result in 
 greater loss than any loss that may accrue from judicious 
 dipping in the winter season. This will also apply to 
 sheep that are much infested with ticks, the presence of 
 which, because of their numbers, may give rise to great 
 suffering on the part of the sheep. The loss resulting 
 from the presence of those parasites will be much greater 
 than the loss that may arise from judicious dipping in the 
 winter season. Experiments have shown that dipping 
 may be conducted with a measurable degree of safety 
 even in the winter season, and as far northward as the 
 parallel 45 degrees, when the sheep are properly cared 
 for after the dipping. Such care includes providing them 
 with quarters that are reasonably warm and that are com- 
 pletely protected from drafts. That dipping may be thus 
 conducted without hazard to the sheep has been amply 
 demonstrated in experiments conducted at the Wisconsin 
 station by the late lamented Prof. John A. Craig. 
 
 The fact remains, nevertheless, that there are seasons 
 for dipping that are more favorable for the prosecution 
 of this than other seasons. The best time for dipping 
 sheep, all things considered, is just after the sheep have 
 been shorn in the spring. When dipped at that season, 
 the amount of dip called for is much less than at other 
 seasons, because of the absence of wool on sheep that are 
 thus dipped. If the lambs are dipped at the same time, 
 and if due precautions are observed to prevent re-infection, 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 437 
 
 such dipping will go far to prevent re-infection by ticks. 
 But to make sure that the freedom from parasitical inva- 
 sion will be complete, a second dipping from lo to 14 
 days after the first dipping is thought necessary in order 
 to destroy the ticks in the one case and the scab mites in 
 the other that may have hatched from nits or eggs that 
 were not destroyed in the previous dipping. 
 
 Viewed from the standpoint of weather conditions, 
 the two best seasons for dipping are those which follow 
 the shearing of the sheep and which precede the bring- 
 ing of the sheep into winter quarters. When sheep are 
 dipped after the usual time for shearing, the dipping takes 
 place at that season when the hazard from dipping is 
 eliminated because of adverse weather conditions; and 
 when it is done in the early autumn, it is done before such 
 hazard has come to the management of the flock. But it 
 would be better to dip the sheep even in winter than to 
 sustain on them an army of ticks after the winter season 
 has set in. Even though some loss should follow the 
 dipping, it will be less than the loss which follows from 
 allowing ticks or scab-infested sheep to go undipped. 
 
 Some authorities claim that the dipping of sheep 
 twice a year is a necessity — in the spring and in the 
 autumn. These include the names of men who have made 
 a name for themselves in sheep husbandry, and especially 
 in the leading show rings of prominent states. To take a 
 stand in opposition to the conclusions of such men may 
 seem presumptuous ; but that is the ground on which the 
 author stands with reference to the sheep tick and also 
 with reference to the scab mite. If the sheep are properly 
 dipped in the spring twice in succession, with an interval 
 of 10 days between the dippings, and if due care is ex- 
 ercised with reference to the safeguarding of the sheep 
 that have been dipped, it should be possible to so free the 
 sheep from parasites that infection would be so com- 
 pletely eliminated as to render further dipping unneces- 
 sary, except in the case of animals brought into the flock 
 
438 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 from outside sources. The common view that parasites 
 may be kept well in check through dipping, but cannot be 
 wholly eliminated, is certainly fallacious. It tends to dis- 
 courage the effort to maintain flocks that shall be wholly 
 free from infestation, and yet it should be possible to 
 maintain such flocks as the rule, and not as the exception. 
 It should be possible to maintain flocks from year to year 
 on the arable farm that would be absolutely free from 
 parasitical invasion, and that would, therefore, be free 
 from the necessity of being dipped. 
 
 Facts that bear upon dipping — The amount of the 
 prepared dip called for cannot be stated, even in an ap- 
 proximate way. It will be at once apparent that the 
 amount of the dip called for will vary : (i) With the num- 
 bers to be dipped ; (2) with the size of the sheep ; and (3) 
 with the amount of wool which they carry. It will be at 
 once apparent that the proportionate amount of dip called 
 for will increase with increase in the numbers of the sheep 
 to be dipped, and vice versa. This will be apparent from 
 the fact that enough prepared dip is called for to sub- 
 merge the sheep before one can be properly dipped. After 
 that quantity has been provided, enough only is to be 
 added to make up for the dip that has been carried away 
 by the sheep after they have left the dripping pens. It 
 is also very evident that a large sheep will carry away 
 more adherent dip than a small one, and that a long fleece 
 will carry away more than a short one, and that a short 
 fleece will carry away more than a sheep but recently de- 
 prived of its wool. The quantity of dip called for may 
 vary from one to four quarts to an animal. 
 
 The renewal of the supply of the dip during the dip- 
 ping process should be carefully provided for. If the sup- 
 ply of the dip were to run low, the outcome would be im- 
 perfect dipping, and a repetition of the dipping in the near 
 future. The dip thus provided as supplemental may also 
 be made to aid in keeping the dip in the vat at a proper 
 temperature. To accomplish this, the dip added should 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 439 
 
 be possessed of a higher temperature than the dip in the 
 vat, and also of a higher temperature than is called for in 
 the dipping process. The most desirable temperature Is 
 100 to no degrees, the internal temperature of the sheep 
 being about 103 degrees F. 
 
 The time that the sheep should remain in the dip will 
 vary, first, with the strength of the dip used, and second, 
 with the nature of the parasite that is causing trouble. 
 When dipping for ticks, the sheep should be in the dip for 
 at least one minute, and when dipping for scab for not 
 less than two minutes. When dipping for scab, it is 
 greatly important that the sheep remain full time in the 
 dip, as many mites are under the scales which are not 
 readily reached by the dips. The head of each sheep 
 should also be plunged beneath the dip before it is 
 allowed to emerge from the same, except in the case of 
 such poisonous dips as the arsenical and carbolic dips. 
 
 It is greatly important that the dipping for scab shall 
 be effective. If any of the mites survive underneath the 
 scabs they may lay eggs between the dippings that will 
 not be hatched out before the second dipping. Should 
 this happen, a third dipping may be necessary. To pre- 
 vent such a contingency, some have advocated the use of 
 a preliminary dip to soften the scabs. This is applied 
 two or three days prior to the first dipping. In almost all 
 instances, however, the first dipping is given in the usual 
 way, and if properly done the instances are very few 
 when a third dipping is necessary. Where only a small 
 flock is to be treated, it would be practicable, and it may 
 also be economical, to rub oil of glycerine over the scabby 
 places two or three days prior to the first dipping. With 
 sheep newly shorn this treatment would not be difficult. 
 
 When dipping sheep, it is greatly important that they 
 shall be carefully handled. They are much averse to tak- 
 ing a plunge bath, and when they try to escape from it 
 there is neither reason nor justification in handling them 
 roughly. They are easily injured. When heavy sheep 
 
440 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 emerge from the vat, it may be necessary to give them 
 some assistance when walking up the incline and to 
 squeeze some of the ooze out of the wool before they 
 reach the draining pens. When dipped in a tub, two men 
 are called for to lift them. One grasps the forelegs after 
 the sheep has been laid on its side and the other the 
 hind legs, and it is lifted into the tub with the back 
 downwards. 
 
 Care of sheep subsequently to dipping — As soon as 
 sheep have been dipped, the aim should be to at once 
 change their quarters. In fact, it is imperative that this 
 shall be done, at least for a time, in the case of sheep scab ; 
 otherwise, re-infestation will take place. This may usually 
 be accomplished without difficulty after the season for 
 pasturing has arrived. But when the dipping must be 
 done in the winter season, change of quarters may not be 
 practicable. In such instances there is no way of escape 
 from the necessity for disinfecting the quarters occupied 
 by the sheep. The necessity for disinfecting would not 
 seem to be always imperative, \\nien the quarters pre- 
 viously occupied by sheep have been completely vacated 
 for, say, six months, in the case of scab, disinfection 
 would not seem to be necessary. The labor and cost of 
 disinfection should not be imposed when the necessity 
 for it does not exist. 
 
 When disinfection does take place, it should follow 
 the second dipping; that is, when the two dippings follow 
 each other in from lo to 14 days, as they should for scab. 
 The disinfection should be very thorough. It should be- 
 gin by removing all litter and manure from the quarters 
 previously occupied by the sheep, including the yards. 
 Thorough spraying of the sheds inside and out. of the 
 racks, mangers and alleys, and of the yards and fences 
 inclosing them should follow. Various ingredients may 
 be used in thus disinfecting the premises. A coal tar dip 
 will be very effective. A 5 per cent carbolic acid solu- 
 tion is also excellent. But whv not use the residue of the 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 44I 
 
 dip in disinfecting the premises, especially when this can 
 be done immediately after the dipping of the sheep and 
 before the dip has lost any of its strength? Such use of 
 the surplus dip should certainly be economical. The noz- 
 zle of the sprayer should be such as to apply the dip in 
 suitable quantity; that is freely enough and without un- 
 necessary waste. Whitewashing following the spraying 
 will be an additional safeguard as to the effectiveness of 
 the work. 
 
 Removing parasites by other methods — Before dip- 
 ping was introduced for destroying parasites on sheep, 
 other methods of combating them were of necessity fol- 
 lowed. These included: (i) Pouring liquids from a ves- 
 sel ; (2) applying unguents to the skin ; and (3) by feed- 
 ing certain preparations. Compared with dipping, these 
 methods were of necessity laborious, costly and not al- 
 ways eft'ective. They were laborious because of the time 
 and effort called for to treat sheep singly. They were 
 costly because of the large amount of the materials called 
 for. They were not always effective, for the reason that 
 the application seldom reached all parts of the carcass. 
 
 When liquids were applied by pouring, three persons 
 were called for to do the work effectively. The liquid 
 most commonly used was a decoction made by steeping 
 tobacco leaves or stems. One person held the sheep to 
 be treated ; a second person opened the wool along one 
 side, a little below the backbone from the neck to the 
 tail, and a third person poured in the liquid where the 
 wool had been thus shed. In some instances the sheep 
 was then set upon its buttock and more or less of the 
 liquid was poured on to the lower part of the paunch, 
 beginning at the brisket. This method has rendered rea- 
 sonably good service in killing ticks, but for treating 
 scab it was not greatly helpful. In the absence of a dip- 
 ping plant there may be times when this method of com- 
 bating ticks may be resorted to with profit, especially in 
 the autumn season. 
 
442 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 The process of applying ointments, usually spoken of 
 as smearing, was very common before the dipping age 
 began. Mercurial ointment was the favorite unguent 
 used. The work of an expert in this line was done some- 
 what as follows : He caught the sheep, laid it carefully 
 on its side and seated himself on a good-sized batting of 
 straw. The head of the sheep rested on the operator's 
 shoulder when stooping over it and the body was between 
 his legs. To his left wrist the horn of a heifer was at- 
 tached, filled with the ointment. This left both hands 
 free to shed the wool, the ointment being taken from the 
 horn by the middle finger of the right hand and smeared 
 in the opening. Two strips were opened down the side 
 on one shoulder, and in most instances it was applied on 
 some other parts. This method of fighting ticks was quite 
 helpful, but to fight scab by this method was greatly 
 laborious and more or less dangerous, because of the ex- 
 ceedingly poisonous character of the ointment. 
 
 The opinion has been commonly expressed that if 
 sulphur is fed to sheep in small quantities, either at short 
 intervals or continuously for long periods, that it will ma- 
 terially reduce the liability of infestation by ticks. When 
 so fed the sulphur is added to the salt in the proportions, 
 of, say, two to three parts of sulphur in lOO parts of the 
 mixture. While sulphur used as a part of the mixture 
 in dipping is more or less of a protection against speedy 
 re-infection, since its efifects linger for a time in the wool, 
 it does not follow that the same results may be looked 
 for from feeding sulphur to the sheep in the manner men- 
 tioned. The influence, if any, is not enough to be very 
 material. It has also been claimed that when tobacco is 
 fed to sheep, it will tend to protect them from internal 
 parasites (see page 395), such as stomach worms, and that 
 the same or similar results may be looked for from feed- 
 ing certain inixtures, proprietary and otherwise. In re- 
 gard to these it may be said that their efficacy has not 
 been fully demonstrated. 
 
DIPPING SHEEP FOR TICKS AND SCABS 443 
 
 How far dipping is a necessity — ^Dipping under ex- 
 isting conditions is a necessity wherever sheep are 
 affected with ticks or scab. While it would be possible 
 to eradicate both from infested flocks, the cost of such 
 eradication would be much greater. This would be true, 
 even of small lots of sheep, since these may be dipped in 
 a homemade dipping tub, which involves but little cost. 
 Many authorities favor dipping sheep for ticks in the 
 spring just after they are shorn, and again in the autumn 
 when they are to be brought into winter quarters. If 
 when the sheep are dipped for ticks after being shorn, 
 the lambs are allowed to go without dipping, the relief 
 to the sheep would only be temporary, for soon re-infes- 
 tation would follow, the ticks coming from the lambs. 
 Dipping the lambs is even more necessary than dipping 
 the sheep, for the reason, first, that the ticks virtually 
 leave sheep that are closely shorn for a time after they are 
 shorn, because the protection has been removed by shear- 
 ing, and. second, the ticks are a greater source of annoy- 
 ance to the lambs because of the greater tenderness of 
 their skin. A second dipping, lo to 14 days later, should 
 complete the work of removal, both with ticks and scab. 
 If the sheep and lambs are both moved entirely away 
 from old quarters after the second dipping, they should 
 be thenceforth free from those two classes of parasites. 
 Why, then, should further dipping be necessary for such 
 removal? 
 
 But there may be some necessity for dipping sheep 
 of the middle and coarse-wool breeds, in order to cleanse 
 the wool from dirt and to give the skin a bright appear- 
 ance. Only some of the dips will do this satisfactorily. 
 This claim has been made in behalf of the carbolic dips. 
 To accomplish this end when these classes of sheep are 
 to be shown, may call for dipping, even when the sheep 
 are free from parasites. But it would not be profitable to 
 dip sheep thus, simply to cleanse the fleece in the absence 
 
444 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 of some ulterior purpose, as for instance, that of enter- 
 ing the show ring. 
 
 When the flockmaster is breeding sheep and is buy- 
 ing occasionally to add to his holdings, the necessity for 
 dipping at least once, and probably twice, a year will con- 
 tinue. But should the farmer have only a small flock, 
 whether he breeds for sale or mainly for a home supply of 
 mutton, what is there to hinder him from getting com- 
 pletely rid of ticks or scab by the two consecutive dip- 
 pings? Why, in such an instance, should there be any 
 necessity for further dipping, save in the case of a male 
 that may be brought in occasionally to head the flock? 
 In the face of such facts, why should the conclusion be 
 accepted that dipping is a necessary work that must go 
 on from year to year ? 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 
 
 In Chapter XXI the following phases of the subject 
 of which it treats are discussed: (i) Important considera- 
 tions when establishing a flock; (2) Establishing a pure- 
 bred flock; (3) Establishing a flock of grades; (4) The 
 sires used in grade flocks; (5) The improvement of the 
 flock ; (6) Improvement through the sires ; (7) Improve- 
 ment through selection ; (8) Improvement through food ; 
 (9) When crossing is legitimate ; (10) Breeding for single 
 or twin lambs; (11) Much should be left to the good 
 shepherd. 
 
 Important considerations — The most important con- 
 sideration when establishing a flock of sheep is that of 
 environment. Other things being equal, the measure of 
 the success in keeping sheep will be proportionate to the 
 completeness in adaptation of the environment to the 
 needs of the kind of sheep kept. Prominent among the 
 phases of environment are: (i) the nature of the land; 
 (2) the production of the same ; (3) the character of the 
 water supply ; (4) the hazard from predatory animals ; 
 and (5) the natural protection. 
 
 The nature of the land, as to its contour and also to 
 its freedom from an excess of moisture, should be care- 
 fully considered. Level lands are relatively best adapted 
 to the heavy breeds, undulating or rolling lands to the 
 middle breeds and rugged and mountain lands to the light 
 breeds. This does not mean that the heavy breeds, as the 
 Lincoln and Cotswold, cannot be kept successfully on un- 
 dulating or rolling lands, nor does it mean that the middle 
 breeds, as the Shropshire, cannot be kept successfully on 
 level lands, but that highest adaptation is as outlined 
 above. The heavy breeds will be kept with much less 
 
 416 
 
44^ MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 success on rugged lands than will attend the keeping of 
 light breeds on level lands. 
 
 Lands that are springy or that are saturated with 
 water near the surface for any considerable period dur- 
 ing the season of grazing are ill adapted to the keeping 
 of sheep. They produce grazing too watery to meet the 
 needs of sheep, and on such grazing parasites are much 
 more numerous, as a rule, than on other grazing. Wet 
 ground also favors the increase of foot rot. Sheep that 
 are maintained in any considerable degree on such pas- 
 ture will deteriorate rapidly. This does not mean, how- 
 ever, that they cannot be maintained successfully on low 
 lands, even on marsh lands that have been thoroughly 
 drained, a fact illustrated in the success that attends the 
 breeding of Romney Marsh sheep in Kent, England. 
 
 Level lands are usually more productive than those 
 that are rolling. Hence the large breeds can get food on 
 these with less effort than on rolling lands where the 
 vegetation is less abundant. The middle breeds can 
 gather food with less effort on rolling lands than on 
 mountain pastures, where the grazing is less plentiful. It 
 follows, therefore, that the more abundant the grazing 
 and the less the distance traveled by the sheep when 
 satisfying their hunger, the larger may be the sheep so 
 grazed ; and the more sparse the pastures, and the greater 
 the distance to be traveled by the sheep when satisfying 
 their needs, the smaller may be the sheep so grazed. It 
 is of the utmost importance that the size of the sheep 
 kept shall be adapted to the character of the grazing. 
 Even on level lands where the production is sparse, the 
 heavy breeds should not be kept, as they are ill fitted to 
 stand the strain of the travel called for when seeking food. 
 
 The character of the water supply is supremely im- 
 portant in the pastures and in the sheds, but especially 
 in the former, as shown in Chapter XV. One reason for 
 the greater freedom from disease with she^:p grazed on 
 rolling pastures arises from their freedom, as a rule, from 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 447 
 
 Stagnant waters, which are so fruitful usually in what 
 may be termed the seed germs of parasitic diseases. The 
 aim should be at all times to furnish sheep with living 
 water, whatever may be the source from which it comes. 
 
 The hazard from such predatory animals as wolves 
 and dogs should be well considered by those who pro- 
 pose to engage in sheep husbandry. Where such hazard 
 exists, the means for protection and the cost of it should 
 be taken into account. These have been discussed at 
 some length in Chapter XVIII. 
 
 The question of natural protection is always impor- 
 tant in relation to sheep husbandry. In some instances 
 it relates to shielding the animals from excessive cold, in yet 
 others from excessive wind, and yet again from excessive 
 rains. Nor should the cost of furnishing artificial protection 
 be overlooked. These have been already dwelt upon in 
 Chapter XVI. 
 
 Next in importance to the consideration of environ- 
 ment, is that of proximity to market when milk lambs 
 are to be grown, but this is not so important when the 
 lambs are to be carried through the season and fattened. 
 Its importance grows less as the wool product becomes 
 relatively more important than the mutton product. Of 
 course, on distant ranges proximity to market becomes 
 impossible, at least in many instances. 
 
 The consideration of food supplies should be well 
 weighed. In some instances this involves only the ques- 
 tion of pasture, summer and winter. In others it involves 
 the question of grazing in summer and coarse fodder, as 
 hay, for winter. In yet others it involves the question of 
 grazing, providing coarse fodders and also concentrates. 
 The question of grazing alone is involved only in mild 
 climates ; that of grazing and coarse fodders where the 
 sheep are grown under extensive conditions and finished 
 somewhere else ; and that of grazing, coarse fodders and 
 concentrates where the conditions are intensive. 
 
 Establishing a pure-bred flock — Many farmers may 
 
448 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 succeed reasonably well in growing a flock of grade sheep 
 where careful attention is given to the work. A much 
 smaller number will succeed in growing pure breds, as 
 the breeding of the latter calls for more skill than the 
 breeding of the former. Only one here and there among 
 those who breed pure breds will attain that measure of 
 success which commands attention far and near, because 
 of the high skill that must be present in order to attain 
 such an end. The breeding of pure breds should be en- 
 tered upon with much caution. It is at least questionable 
 if the work should be engaged in by any who have not 
 had previous experience in growing or caring for sheep. 
 If such persons do engage in breeding pure breds, it 
 should be in a small way at first, because of the hazard 
 involved. This, however, does not apply to men with 
 ample capital and who intrust the work in a great meas- 
 ure to an experienced shepherd. Those who have made a 
 marked success of breeding grades will generally make a 
 success of breeding pure breds. 
 
 When determining the choice of the breed that is 
 to be bred, considerations such as relate to environment 
 and the disposal of the sheep are all important. In some 
 instances environment will admit of the choice of one 
 among a number of breeds, in other instances such choice 
 is very restricted. Under average farm conditions, where 
 the lands are undulating and the production is fair, almost 
 any of the breeds of sheep may be kept with a reasonable 
 measure of success. But it would be a great mistake to 
 introduce the heavy breeds on to pastures that are sparse 
 and where the conditions generally are of the rugged 
 type. But few breeds of sheep can be produced at their 
 best where field roots and concentrates are not furnished. 
 
 Before decision is reached as to the breed that shall 
 be grown, the probable demand for good animals of the 
 breed should be weighed. Some breeds are almost uni- 
 versally popular, as the Shropshire. Some are only popu- 
 lar in certain areas, as the Southdown. Some are kept 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 449 
 
 chiefly to supply rams for certain conditions, as when 
 Lincohis furnish these to influence the character of the 
 fleece under semi-range conditions. The men are rare 
 who can force popularity, as it were, upon a community 
 where the breed has not been popular heretofore. When 
 the environment and the outlook for the successful dis- 
 posal of the increase are both in unison with the prefer- 
 ence which the breeder has for a certain breed, he is so 
 far fortunate, as he can then bring- to his work an enthusi- 
 asm that would not exist to the same extent when breed- 
 ing sheep of some other breed. But natural preference 
 should never be allowed to outweigh the considerations 
 mentioned. 
 
 The breeders of pure breds will be greatly handi- 
 capped in their work if they are located distant from a 
 railroad station. When thus located, buyers are less 
 likely to visit them, and the labor and time involved in 
 making shipments is greatly increased. Distance from a 
 railroad station beyond a certain limit in this fast age 
 would almost certainly bring failure to the enterprise, 
 though in other respects it should be well conducted. Be- 
 cause other breeders may be already established in a 
 neighborhood who breed the same kind of stock is no rea- 
 son why the beginner should not breed that class of stock. 
 It furnishes a strong reason why he should do so, as those 
 looking for animals of that particular breed will be more 
 ready to visit a locality with several breeders of a breed 
 than if only one breeder were located there, because it 
 gives them an opportunity of making selection in the line 
 of their desires. 
 
 It is greatly important that the foundation animals 
 shall be well chosen. They should not only be correct 
 in regard to form for the breed, but also in all the lead- 
 ing characteristics that appertain to it. They should also 
 be correct in pedigree. Some beginners introduce founda- 
 tion stock indifferent as to form and with no special merit 
 in the ancestral lines. They do so because these may be 
 
450 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP ' 
 
 obtained at low cost. With such foundation stock a high 
 standard of excellence will not be quickly reached. But 
 the opposite extreme should be avoided of purchasing 
 animals that have been fitted for the fairs and shown at 
 the same. Such animals breed less freely than those kept 
 under conditions less forced, and on ordinary food they 
 will not retain the bloom that should characterize the 
 members of a well-kept flock. 
 
 The essentials as to form are given in the book, "The 
 Study of Breeds," by the author, and will not be repeated 
 here. They may also be obtained from the accredited 
 standard of excellence or scale of points, as it is some- 
 times called, for each breed, from whatsoever source it 
 may be derived. When selecting the females, similarity 
 in type should be sought, and the male should be at least 
 a good specimen of the breed, and preferably line bred. 
 The most suitable type of breeding ewes will probably 
 be obtained from rams not extremely masculine in char- 
 acteristics, but later those characteristics should be highly 
 developed. 
 
 Every possible attention should be given to the 
 health of the foundation stock. It would probably be 
 correct to say that, under many conditions, several of the 
 most troublesome or fatal ailments that afflict sheep 
 would never be present were these not brought to the 
 farm or ranch in the foundation animals or in purchases 
 made subsequently. These include stomach worms, tape- 
 worms and nodule disease. No pains should be spared 
 in ascertaining the facts about the previous history of 
 the flocks with reference to visitations from parasites. 
 The presence or absence of these in ewes cannot be as- 
 certained from the appearance of mature individuals in 
 Ihe flock. A\^hen time has made it apparent that none 
 of these ailments are present, the aim should be to avoid 
 Ihe introduction of animals of the breed from outside 
 sources. Those deficient in fleece, and in the wool char- 
 acteristics proper to the breed, should not be chosen, and 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 45 1 
 
 likewise those with dark or black spots in the wool or 
 that have a pale, lifeless-looking skin, which points to a 
 delicate constitution. The skin should be of a beautiful 
 rich pink or rose-colored tint. 
 
 The aim should be to secure foundation stocks from 
 reputable breeders, that no shadow may rest upon the 
 purity of the breeding. The more outstanding the repu- 
 tation of the breeder, the easier will it be for beginners to 
 make sales of their surplus stock. It would be easy, how- 
 ever, to pay too high a price for the advantage which 
 such reputation would bring. When the requisite essen- 
 tials are present, the nearer that the animals can be pur- 
 chased to the place where they are to be maintained the 
 better it is, as the changed conditions are then less vio- 
 lent. Inexperienced beginners incur much hazard when 
 they begin by importing costly animals from other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 Establishing a flock of grades — When establishing a 
 flock of grades, careful attention should be given to the 
 form of the females chosen. The essentials of form are 
 the same virtually as for ewes devoted to the breeding 
 of milk lambs (see page 242). Any evidences of delicacy 
 should result in the rejection of such ewes for breeding. 
 The previous history of the flock as to the presence of 
 parasitic diseases should be carefully looked into before 
 making purchases, as in the case of pure breds. But 
 when the ewes selected are purchased at the stock yards, 
 such information may be unobtainable. As in the case 
 of purebreds. when time has evidenced that the flock is free 
 from such diseases, the aim should be to avoid introduc- 
 ing other females in addition to those produced by the 
 flock. 
 
 The blood elements possessed by the females, though 
 not entirely unimportant are probably of less importance 
 than correct form. The presence of many blood elements 
 should not be regarded as an objection when choosing 
 foundation ewes. Usually, the more mixed their breed- 
 
452 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ing, the more quickly will improvement be effected, when 
 properly mated with prepotent rams, as such dilution of 
 blood elements makes it more plastic, and, therefore, 
 more susceptible to the influences exerted by the more 
 prepotent parent. The exceptions to this rule are found 
 in those instances in which the females are already graded 
 more or less by descent from pure sires of the breed from 
 which these are to be chosen in future breeding. Com- 
 mencing with very common females of mixed breeding 
 and using only pure-bred males in succession of only one 
 and the same breed, in four or five generations, the aver- 
 age of the animals for meat-making should fully equal 
 the average of the breed from which the sires have been 
 chosen. The improvement or change in wool production 
 will be less rapid. Improvement through grading is dis- 
 cussed by the author in Chapter XXVI of the book "Ani- 
 mal Breeding." 
 
 The foundation ewes for grade flocks may usually 
 be obtained at the stock yards, where a very considerable 
 trade is conducted in supplies of sheep for feeding. As 
 a rule they can be more cheaply obtained in autumn. The 
 major portion come from the range. They are generally 
 of mixed blood elements, but Merino blood more com- 
 monly predominates, which is so far a guarant}^ of rug- 
 gedness. Such ewes are usually healthy, but this fact 
 does not certainly assure the buyer that they are abso- 
 lutely free from parasites. The aim should be to buy 
 ewes whose teeth have not been seriously injured through 
 age. 
 
 Foundation stocks may also be obtained in many in- 
 stances from farmers who are breeders of grade sheep. 
 When thus purchased, the previous history of the flock 
 in relation to disease may be obtainable. The importance 
 of obtaining such information cannot be overestimated. 
 
 The sires used in grade flocks — The sires used in 
 grade flocks should in all instances be purely bred where 
 it is possible to secure them. They should be purely bred, 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 453 
 
 for the reason that it is only rams thus bred that are 
 prepotent. Cross-bred or grade rams will be less potent 
 in the character of their transmission, because of the ab- 
 sence of fixedness in their dominant characters. The 
 transmission from such rams will be variable in propor- 
 tion as their blood elements are mixed, which is equiva- 
 lent to saying in proportion as they are diluted and weak- 
 ened. When it is not possible to secure pure-bred rams, 
 the higher the grade of the rams chosen, the better. The 
 practice of choosing grade sires within the flock is to be 
 deprecated. If long continued it will certainly result in 
 lowering the standard of the flock, since it is in-and-in- 
 breeding that extends to all the animals which compose 
 the flock. In such instances the mating will be more or 
 less faulty viewed from the standpoint of conformation, 
 and it will certainly result in retrogression. 
 
 Prominent among the factors that should influence 
 determination as to which breed the rams shall be chosen 
 from are environment and the demands of the market. 
 The exposure, the grazing and the other food supplies 
 should be considered in relation to environment. Only 
 rugged sheep, as those possessed of much Merino blood, 
 should be kept on the ranges, and only mountain breeds 
 on mountain lands. Only light breeds should be kept 
 on rugged and sparse pastures, and breeds that naturally 
 produce lambs early should not be allowed to do so 
 where succulence cannot be supplied to the dams. 
 
 Dominance in the object for which the sheep are 
 kept, the most suitable size of lamb and the season when 
 it is wanted should be considered in relation to market 
 demands. When wool is the dominant object sought. 
 Merino blood should, as a rule, be prominently in evi- 
 dence. When mutton is the chief consideration, rams 
 should be chosen from the mutton breeds ; when the dual 
 quality or mutton and wool are both sought, as the mar- 
 kets run today, these will be secured in the highest degree 
 from choosing rams of one or another of the middle-wool 
 
454 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 breeds. The Southdown pure-bred sire has been found 
 to produce lambs highly adapted to present market con- 
 ditions, which give the preference to lambs that reach 
 the market in the autumn, that weigh less than loo 
 pounds alive. Lambs of good finish that weigh not more 
 than 80 or 90 pounds are preferred to those that are 
 heavier. 
 
 The season at which the lambs are to reach the mar- 
 ket should also be carefully considered. Winter lambs 
 come most readily through the use of Dorset sires. Early 
 spring lambs are, as a rule, most easily obtained from 
 ewes, in which Merino blood is well represented. Rea- 
 sonably early lambs, possessed of much size, may be most 
 surely obtained by the use of Hampshire sires. 
 
 Should the fiock be high grade, the aim should be 
 to use sires of the breed which have furnished the domi- 
 nant blood elements to the females. The results from 
 such breeding are more certain than they would be should 
 sires be used from some other breed. For instance, should 
 the Shropshire blood be dominant in a flock of Shropshire 
 grades, the results from the use of Shropshire sires on 
 these will be more certain than those that would follow 
 the use of Lincoln sires. 
 
 But in some instances the demands of the market 
 may call for the use of a sire possessed of blood elements 
 dififering from those that dominate in the ewes. 
 
 The mistake of using pure-bred rams of inferior in- 
 dividuality, even on grade flocks, should be sedulously 
 avoided, lest the character of the transmission should be 
 similar. While the breeders of grade flocks would not be 
 justified in paying such prices for rams as are sometimes 
 paid by the breeders of high-class pure-breds, the aim 
 should be to use those only that are possessed of good 
 individuality. 
 
 The requisites as to form and covering in a good sire 
 for even a flock of grades may be summarized as follows : 
 He should possess compactness of form, a suitable cover- 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 455 
 
 ing- of wool and evidences of vigor. The first includes 
 a body wide, deep and round, supported by short, straight 
 limbs. The second includes a fleece uniform in leng-th, 
 fineness, strength and density, and evenly distributed over 
 the body. The third includes much width and fullness 
 of chest, a strong back, a powerful and short neck, a 
 strong and wide head, a pink skin and an active carriage. 
 Other requisites are more or less important. There are 
 also peculiarities pertaining to individual breeds that 
 should not be overlooked. These may all be learned 
 through a study of the standards of excellence pertaining 
 to each breed. 
 
 Fancy points, as the degree of the covering on the 
 head and legs, are of much less importance when choos- 
 ing rams to head grade flocks than when choosing them 
 to head those that are pure. Good, strong and useful 
 rams for grade flocks may in some instances be obtained 
 cheaply, because of some slight deficiency or superfluity 
 that would unfit them for service in a valuable pure-bred 
 flock. 
 
 The improvement of the flock — It would seem correct 
 to say that absolute perfection is never reached in any 
 flock ; howsoever good it may be as a flock or in the in- 
 dividuals that represent it, there is always room for fur- 
 ther improvement. In a large majority of instances there 
 is room for wide improvement, and it ought to be the aim 
 of every owner of a flock to reach the maximum of im- 
 provement attainable under his conditions. The leading 
 factors concerned in improvement are: (i) The sires 
 used; (2) selection; and (3) food. 
 
 The sires exert or should exert an influence far reach- 
 ing in the improvement of form and covering and in 
 bringing about uniformity in the flock. This improve- 
 ment does not result from any superior influence pos- 
 sessed by the sire by virtue of his sex. It is the outcome 
 of his superior prepotency, and where this is wanting 
 these results will not follow. The sire also exerts an 
 
4&6 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 457 
 
 important influence on stamina in the flock, on prolifi- 
 cacy and on maturity. 
 
 Selection is an indirect rather than a direct agent in 
 effecting improvement. It does not directly improve the 
 individual as the sire does or as food does, but it makes 
 further improvement possible in the individuals that shall 
 be born in the flock, through discarding the inferior and 
 retaining the superior for future breeding. It thus aids 
 materially in effecting improvement and in bringing about 
 a higher uniformity. 
 
 Food effects improvement by the direct influence 
 which it exerts upon the entire organism of the individ- 
 uals in the flock. It pow^erfully influences size, w^ool pro- 
 duction and stamina and it exerts a far-reaching influence 
 on the functions pertaining to reproduction and the sus- 
 tenance of the progeny. It is the supplement and also 
 the complement of the other agencies used in effecting 
 improvement, and unless it is furnished in liberal supply 
 all attempts to improve the flock will fail. 
 
 Improvement through the sires — As already inti- 
 mated, improvement coming from the sires arises from 
 their potency in the transmission of desirable qualities. 
 Of course, in breeding pure breds, the sires will all be 
 chosen from the same breed. In breeding grades, the 
 choice of the breed from which the sires shall be taken 
 rests entirely with the owner. Some of the owners of 
 grade flocks select the successive sires used from the same 
 pure breed, others select for a longer or a shorter period, 
 first from one breed and then another. The former 
 method is very much superior to the latter. By the first 
 method improvement will be continuous until the average 
 of the animals of the flock reaches the level in their individ- 
 uality of the average of the breed from which the sires 
 have been chosen. This method of breeding makes more 
 and more stable the properties possessed by each succeed- 
 ing generation. By the second method the tendency is to 
 render more and more unstable the elements of inherit- 
 
458 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 ance and, consequently to render their transmission more 
 uncertain. 
 
 The time called for to bring grade sheep up to the 
 level of the flock from which the sires are chosen will 
 depend to some extent on the blood lines possessed when 
 the upgrading begins, and to a greater extent on the pre- 
 potency of the sires. It would seem correct to say that 
 in no instance would more than five generations of such 
 breeding be necessary to effect such improvement in the 
 animal form, and in some instances three generations 
 would suffice. For making meat, the grades thus im- 
 proved would probably average better than the pure 
 breds, as the presence of alien blood brings with it in 
 many instances renovating power. Many generations of 
 such breeding would be called for to make the wool fibers 
 resemble exactly those of the breed from which the sires 
 have come. Many generations would also be necessary 
 to make transmission as certain from animals thus up- 
 graded as from sires of the breed used in improving them. 
 
 The rapid improvement that may be effected in the 
 meat-making qualities of grade sheep finds illustration in 
 a certain line of experimental work conducted at the 
 Minnesota Experimental Station, under the direction of 
 the author. Ewes were purchased of the commonest 
 types. Some were purchased at the stock yards at South 
 St. Paul, and some from farmers. The former came 
 from the western ranges. The breeding, especially of 
 those bred on the ranges, was very much mixed. There 
 were evidences in their make-up of the blood of the 
 coarse wool, the middle wool and the fine wool breeds. In 
 many of them the evidences of Merino blood were dom- 
 inant. Dark-faced sires, chiefly Shropshire, were used 
 upon them in some instances for one, and in others for 
 two generations. A number of the females were then 
 selected in the autumn of 1900. These were mated with 
 a well-bred and well-chosen Southdown ram and a num- 
 ber of the lambs were prepared for exhibition at the In- 
 
 \ 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 459 
 
 ternational Fair held in Chicago the following year. They 
 were awarded champion honors for the best pen of five 
 lambs in the grade classes in competition open to the 
 world. One of the number was awarded first honors in 
 the dead meat class at the same fair. Thus quickly may 
 improvement be affected by judicious upgrading. 
 
 It may not be correct to say that in-breeding should 
 not be practiced to any extent, but if practiced it should 
 be with caution and the exercise of much good judgment. 
 When the mating is correct, good qualities will be in- 
 tensified, but when incorrect, those that are undesirable 
 will likewise be intensified. The mission of in-and-in- 
 breeding is to aid in- the establishment of breeds, 
 rather than to aid in the establishment of flocks from 
 breeds already established. With properly chosen sires, 
 in-and-in-breeding is safer in grade than in pure-bred 
 flocks, as the former are usually possessed of more of the 
 elements of ruggedness than the latter at the time of the 
 establishment of the flock. But even in grade flocks it is 
 of questionable utility unless when the flock is being es- 
 tablished, because of the hazard incurred. The evils to 
 be feared are loss of size and stamina, and also more or 
 less prolificacy. But it may not only be allowable, but 
 judicious, to use the first sire chosen on his progeny. 
 
 Improvement through selection — Selection in a flock 
 has reference, first, to the retention of lambs that are to 
 be used for future breeding, and, second, to the rejection 
 of ewes that are not desirable any longer because of some 
 defect or because of age. The ewe lambs to be retained 
 should, of course, be the tops of the flock. They should, 
 of course, be chosen on the basis of size, form, covering 
 and uniformity in body and fleece. The selection should 
 be rigid, as in no other way can a high standard be real- 
 ized. It would seem safe to say that the measure of the 
 estimate put upon a flock by visitors is the extent to 
 which inferior specimens are absent, rather than the ex- 
 tent to which superior specimens are present. 
 
460 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 All females should be rejected for future breeding that 
 are off in form, that have any physical defect, that have 
 proved shy breeders or poor nurses and that are begin- 
 ning to lose or are soon to lose their teeth through age. 
 Ewes apparently well chosen as lambs lose form to some 
 extent in some instances as they mature, and should be 
 discarded, as they so far mar uniformity in the flock and 
 may also transmit this same defect. Physical defects may 
 relate to such happenings as injury to the udder, which 
 may impair or destroy its function, to a tendency to cast 
 the uterus when the lambs are born and to some ex- 
 crescences on the skin that are unsightly, also to injury 
 to the limbs. Shy breeders are unprofitable, as when they 
 fail to breed the only return for the year is the wool, 
 and when they do breed, they may transmit the same 
 characteristic of shy breeding to their progeny. Ewes 
 that are aging are more expensive to feed than others, 
 produce less wool, do not feed their lam.bs as well and 
 mar the appearance of the flock. 
 
 The weaning season is the best season to set them 
 aside for being turned off, as they may then be prepared 
 for market and disposed of before the closing in of the 
 winter. Where flocks are large, the plan of promptly 
 marketing ewes to be discarded as soon as the reason for 
 such action is first noticed is to be commended. If this 
 is not done, these ewes in some instances will be over- 
 looked and left in the flock. Any kind of mark that will 
 readily indicate such animals will, of course, suffice, as. 
 for instance, stamping coloring matter on some part of 
 the body. 
 
 One would imagine at first thought that where the 
 culling is close and continued from year to year, the time 
 would come when culls would not appear and that the 
 necessity for culling the lambs at least would be no longer 
 necessary. This hope, should it l)e cherished, will never 
 be fully realized. The principle of variation is operative 
 as well as the principle that "like begets like," and some 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 461 
 
 of the variations are downward. This happens in the 
 best-regulated and best-managed flocks, but the fre- 
 quency with which culls appear decreases measurably 
 with increase in the perfection of the management. Varia- 
 tions in the degree of the vigor possessed by the parents 
 at generation and during pregnancy, lead to variations in 
 the progeny. Other influences also are probably similarly 
 operative. The time will never come, therefore, in any 
 flock when the necessity for rejecting and discarding will 
 no more exist. 
 
 Improvement through food — Attention to the food 
 requirements cannot be too closely or too constantly ex- 
 ercised. The wisest choice of sires and the closest and 
 most intelligent selection will be in vain unless the food 
 fed is such as will maintain a high standard of improve- 
 ment. If food is to efifect commensurate improvement, 
 it must be adapted: (i) To the needs of the sheep; (2) 
 to the needs of the breed; and (3) to the requirements 
 of the breeding. 
 
 It would be correct to say that some foods given alone or 
 in combination are adapted in a general way to the feeding 
 of all classes of sheep, but it would not be correct to say 
 that such adaptation is exactly equal in the different 
 classes of sheep. 
 
 With sheep maintained for different uses, or with 
 sheep of different breeds, with reference to the individual 
 sheep, the food should be so regulated as to meet its needs 
 at diflferent stages of development and under difl'erent 
 conditions as to use, and it should be of a character that 
 will help to maintain much of uniformity in condition 
 throughout the year. Young lambs, for instance, must 
 have the best class of food given to the flock. After wean- 
 ing, they should be given the preference in pastures and 
 an amount of grain that would probably be wasteful if 
 fed to nature sheep at that season. Pregnant ewes should 
 be given foods that will produce much milk, while shear- 
 lings not pregnant may thrive on food diflferent in kind 
 
462 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 and less costly. To cover this question fully would mean 
 going into all the details of feeding. It can only be said, 
 further, at this time that if the food is to prove an effec- 
 tive means of improving flocks, it should be given so as 
 to best meet the needs of the individual sheep under all 
 the conditions of development and maintenance to which 
 it may be subjected, and it should be given, as far as may 
 be practicable, to maintain as much of equilibrium in con- 
 dition as may be attainable, otherwise the character of 
 the fleece will suffer. 
 
 That the difference, to some extent at least, in the 
 food requisites for different breeds must be given some 
 recognition, will be apparent from the influence that food 
 has exercised in the evolution of the various breeds. 
 Where the food furnished differs materially from that 
 given under the conditions of environment that evolved 
 the breed, modifications will follow. These will be ad- 
 verse should the food supplies be lower than breed char- 
 acteristics call for to sustain them in equilibrium; and 
 they will effect improvement in some respects if higher 
 than the breed characteristics have previously called for. 
 Thus it is that heavy breeds of sheep retrograde if put on 
 rations that will maintain equilibrium in the small breeds, 
 and thus it is that the latter improve in some respects 
 when the food is an improvement on the food consumed 
 while the breed was being evolved. 
 
 The food fed should meet the needs of the sheep as 
 modified by breeding. Suppose a large sheep is crossed 
 upon a small one, the size of the progeny will be in- 
 creased as compared with the size of the dams which pro- 
 duced it. This will mean that food supplies that may 
 have met the needs of the dams will not meet the needs 
 of the progeny. For the latter they must be more lib- 
 eral. This explains why increased size, especially in 
 crossing and grading, results in failure when the food 
 given is not sufficiently liberal. 
 
 When crossing is legitimate — Ordinarily the crossing 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 463 
 
 of pure breeds, especially when they are pedigreed and a 
 record kept of the pedigrees, is not to be commended. 
 Their value is such in a large majority of instances as to 
 make such crossing unwise. The individuals of the breed 
 in the pure form are usually worth more than the progeny 
 obtained from crossing them. But there may be instances 
 when such crossing is admissible. Superior specimens are 
 sometimes obtained thus for exhibition purposes. Such 
 crossing as may be necessary to meet exhibition require- 
 ments is legitimate. When drafts of ewes are made from 
 the mountain breeds with a view to send them to the 
 market, it is usually profitable to cross them with males 
 of some larger breed after they have been put on more 
 productive pastures and to sell them and their progeny 
 after they have been made ready for the block through 
 high feeding. The same is true in some instances of 
 Merino ewes. 
 
 The attempt to improve through crossing where 
 herds are involved should not usually be carried beyond 
 the first cross. The result from a second cross and also 
 from succeeding crosses are frequently disappointing. 
 This arises from the tendency to reversion in such lines 
 of breeding. The tendency to reversion is the outcome 
 possibly of antagonism in the dominant properties in the 
 leading blood lines for supremacy. 
 
 In seeking improvement through grading, an out- 
 cross may be used in some instances with advantage, and 
 the same is true in some instances of breeds. But the 
 nature of the outcross in the two instances is different. 
 In the first instance it means introducing a sire of a differ- 
 ent breed; in the second, it means introducing a sire of 
 the same breed but of a different strain of blood and usu- 
 ally from an outside herd. Action in the first instance 
 may result in improving size and wool production, should 
 these fall below a certain standard. But in such instances 
 it will usually be wise policy to return again to the sires 
 belonging to the breed from which they were chosen pre- 
 
464 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 viously. The outcross in such instances is to effect a pur- 
 pose, and when that purpose is attained, as it usually 
 is in a single outcross, such crossing for the time being 
 should cease. Action in the second instance aims to in- 
 sure renovation and improved stamina when indications 
 of deterioration may have appeared. These outcrosses, 
 however, should be introduced with great caution. They 
 should only be made in the flock generally after their 
 potency has been proved in the progeny resulting from 
 the use of the sires thus brought in on a few females of 
 the flock. 
 
 Breeding for single or twin lambs — That the breed- 
 ing may influence the proportion of the lambs that shall 
 be of single or plural birth, must be conceded. As to this 
 there cannot be any room for a difference in opinion, but 
 opinions may differ with reference to some of the influ- 
 ences which bear upon this question and the part which 
 these play respectively. It would seem to be true that 
 the difference in the prolificacy of breeds has been 
 brought about by breeding, accompanied by selection and 
 food. 
 
 Opinions differ as to the desirability of having ewes 
 produce but one or two lambs at a birth. In some in- 
 stances they produce three, and in rare instances even 
 more, but a larger number than three is not desirable. 
 The ewe furnishes milk from but two teats, hence the 
 lambs do not share equally in the milk produced, nor is 
 one ewe capable of furnishing all the milk that is neces- 
 sary to grow three lambs at their best. 
 
 The following are chief among the arguments in 
 favor of the production of single lambs: (i) They forge 
 ahead more rapidly when young, and in consequence may 
 be marketed at an earlier age ; (2) that a ewe is not so 
 capable of feeding two lambs properly as of feeding but 
 one; hence (3) it is easier to maintain a high standard 
 of development in flocks in which single lambs are the 
 rule. There is considerable force in the first argument 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMTROVING IT 465 
 
 when the object is to send lambs early to the block, or to 
 sell them for breeding while yet considered lambs. In 
 the second argument there is a measure of truth, as it is 
 doubtless true, as sheep are usually cared for, that better 
 specimens come, on the whole, from the ranks of single 
 lambs than from those that are twins. But where sheep 
 are cared for as they ought to be it has been found quite 
 possible to maintain a high standard of excellence in 
 breeds in which plural births are numerous. This has 
 been amply shown in the history of the Dorset breed, 
 and also in the Hampshires, a breed of large size. While 
 the third argument is true, it does not follow, as just 
 stated, that a high standard cannot be maintained when 
 plural births are numerous. 
 
 The chief arguments in favor of plural births are : 
 (i) That more profit will ordinarily result when these are 
 numerous than when they are infrequent ; and (2) that 
 this is realized or may be realized without lowering the 
 standard of development. In both arguments there is 
 much force. The value of the dam and two lambs nursed 
 by her, when mature, is certainly greater than a ewe and 
 her one lamb, the development being equal in the two 
 instances. The development of the twins at maturity 
 may be fully equal to that of the single lamb, but the de- 
 velopment of the former will not be equal to that of the 
 latter at an early age. It would seem correct to say that 
 moderate and continuous growth will produce maximum 
 development fully equal to that resulting from rapid 
 growth, but it will not produce it so quickly. Where win- 
 ter lambs are grown it may be desirable to encourage the 
 production of single lambs, but where the aim is to grow 
 sheep for the lines of production for w^hich they are usu- 
 ally grown, the production of twins should certainly be 
 encouraged. 
 
 Breeding may be made to encourage the production 
 of single Iambs or twins through selection in both sire 
 and dam. That such production may be increased in 
 
466 MANAGEMENT AND FEEDING OF SHEEP 
 
 either direction through the choice of dams has been 
 demonstrated in the experience of many breeders, espe- 
 cially when increase in twins has been sought. Whether 
 it would be possible to so enstamp the habit of producing 
 twins on any breed to the extent of excluding the birth 
 of any single lambs, has not been demonstrated, but it 
 would seem to be of possible attainment through the con- 
 tinuous selection of dams and sires of plural birth. That 
 the sire influences to any extent the numbers produced at 
 a birth as the result of his inheritance has been disputed, 
 and experiments to determine this matter beyond possi- 
 bility of dispute have not yet been forthcoming. If, 
 however, it is true that the sire of dairy cattle does exer- 
 cise an influence on milk production in his progeny, a fact 
 that is generally accepted, it would seem reasonable to 
 believe that a ram would influence function in his progeny 
 with reference to the number produced at a birth. It has 
 been noticed by breeders that more lambs may be looked 
 for from mature rams than from ram lambs. 
 
 That food exercises an important influence on prolifi- 
 cacy in flocks of sheep is shown: (i) In the more abun- 
 dant production on an average of the more vigorous ewes 
 in the flock : (2) in the more abundant production from 
 ewes mated when the powers of the system are building 
 up; and (3) in the more abundant production from rams 
 vigorous and well sustained, as compared with those un- 
 der conditions the opposite. The fact last stated has been 
 disputed, as previously intimated. It would be easily 
 possible, however, to hinder prolificacy by feeding food 
 too stimulating and too lacking in succulence. The most 
 abundant breeding results not from a high condition of 
 flesh, but from a high condition of the same accompanied 
 by what may be termed a sappy condition of the system, 
 resulting from feeding succulent food. 
 
 Much left to the shepherd — In managing a flock of 
 sheep much should be left to the judgment of the shep- 
 herd, where the flock is of sufficient size to justify keep- 
 
ESTABLISHING A FLOCK AND IMPROVING IT 467 
 
 ing one. The shepherd has a knowledge of the flock that 
 is more intimate and thorough than the knowledge of the 
 same possessed by anyone else. Especially with refer- 
 ence to details of management his know^ledge is the most 
 complete, and, therefore, when qualified for his work, in- 
 terference with such details on the part of the owner of a 
 flock should never take place, except for the best of 
 reasons. 
 
 Usually the shepherd is a good judge of sheep. He 
 knows which are the best producers and also those that 
 ought to be discarded, whether because of age or for some 
 other reason. If sheep are to be added to the flock by 
 purchase, the opinion of the shepherd should be given due 
 weight with reference to the wisdom of the transaction. 
 In such matters the opinion of the shepherd is frequently 
 superior to that of the flock owner. 
 
 In the management of breeding flocks much may be 
 left to the wise shepherd in making sales privately. Here, 
 again, his intimate knowledge of the flock makes him a 
 safe adviser. In fact, with some general instructions, he 
 may manage the buying and selling, to the great relief 
 of the owner, and also to his advantage. Responsibility 
 amicably shouldered upon a competent man adds to his 
 fidelity and usefulness. 
 
 The faithful shepherd is also deserving of much con- 
 sideration at the lambing season. His labors at such a 
 time in a large flock are abundant and exacting. His rest 
 is disturbed, it may be to the extent of making it impossi- 
 ble for him to meet the needs of the flock as they should 
 be met. Under such conditions he should be given full 
 liberty to call such additional help as will enable him to 
 tide over this trying season with a minimum of loss. At 
 many of the fairs in England prizes are also offered to the 
 shepherds who have reared the largest percentage of 
 lambs from flocks containing ewes not fewer in number 
 than the prize list calls for. Some of those shepherds 
 have the same flock in charge during practically the en- 
 tire period of their ability to render such service. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Page 
 A 
 
 Age, determining, of sheep 357 
 
 Ailments of 385 
 
 Abortion 413 
 
 Bloat 404 
 
 Broken limbs 417 
 
 Bronchitis 411 
 
 Catarrh 410 
 
 Colic 40S 
 
 Diarrhea 406 
 
 Digestive disorders 405 
 
 Foot-rot 414 
 
 Garget 420 
 
 Goiter 419 
 
 Inversion of womb 414 
 
 Navel diseases 418 
 
 Ophthalmia 419 
 
 Parasites 387, 391 
 
 Pleurisy 412 
 
 Pneumonia 411 
 
 Prevention and treatment of 385 
 
 Retention of afterbirth 413 
 
 Retention of excrement 418 
 
 Stretches 409 
 
 Tumors 419 
 
 Urinary troubles 420 
 
 White scours 417 
 
 Wool balls 418 
 
 c 
 
 Corral and its place 373 
 
 D 
 
 Dams, after weaning 252 
 
 Assisting, in labor 98 
 
 Care of 247 
 
 Disposing of 253 
 
 Grazing for, before weaning 265 
 
 Dips, arsenical 430 
 
 Carbolic 429 
 
 Coal tar 428 
 
 Lime and sulphur 426 
 
 Dipping 421 
 
 Basic elements in 425 
 
 Care of sheep subsequently to... 440 
 
 Classes of 422 
 
 Facts of 438 
 
 Necessity of 443 
 
 Objects sought from 421 
 
 Plant for 431 
 
 Season for 436 
 
 Diseases, protection and treat- 
 ment of 3'*5 
 
 Page 
 
 Dogs 366 
 
 Effect of, upon sheep husbandry. 366 
 
 In the United States 376 
 
 Place for, in sheep husbandry. . 377 
 
 Protection of sheep from 369 
 
 Worrying sheep by 368 
 
 E 
 
 Ewes 122 
 
 Caring for 97 
 
 Exercise for breeding 133 
 
 Food for 130 
 
 Grading of 129 
 
 Management of, at breeding sea- 
 son 124 
 
 when on pasture 141 
 
 when in labor 98 
 
 when weaning Iambs 142 
 
 to be discarded 144 
 
 from weaning until bred 122 
 
 Wintering 126 
 
 P 
 
 Fattening 203 
 
 Concentrates suitable for 215 
 
 Duration of, period 231 
 
 Fodders suitable for 211 
 
 General observations on 235 
 
 Increase from sheep while 232 
 
 Profit from, in winter 233 
 
 Selecting sheep for 205 
 
 Screenings for 226 
 
 Succulence suitable for 213 
 
 Sugar beet pulp for 223 
 
 Two lots in succession 227 
 
 Fertility, in paddocks 8 
 
 Removed by sheep 3 
 
 Finishing sheep, on corn 197 
 
 Field roots 200 
 
 Grass pastures with grain 189 
 
 Grass pastures without grain.... 187 
 
 Other crops 201 
 
 Peas 199 
 
 Rape 192 
 
 Western grain fields 191 
 
 Flock 445 
 
 Breeding in 464 
 
 Crossing in, legitimate 462 
 
 Culling of 348 
 
 Disposal of 352-356 
 
 Establishing a 447 
 
 Improvement of 455 
 
 Pure bred 256 
 
 Sires used in 452 
 
 469 
 
470 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Grazing 164 
 
 Benefits from supplemental 184 
 
 Grain 24 
 
 Grass, for winter 174 
 
 Sheep on grass 27 
 
 Sheep on supplementary 170 
 
 Grub in the head 402 
 
 !• 
 
 Lambs 93 
 
 Aid to young 100 
 
 Care for, until weaned 108 
 
 Care for, subsequently to weaning 113 
 
 Castrating 114 
 
 Creep for 110 
 
 Docking 117 
 
 Food for, when weaned 113 
 
 Food for young 108 
 
 Rearing, by hand 105 
 
 Registration of 119 
 
 Reviving chilled 102 
 
 Season for, to come 93 
 
 Supplemental food for 107 
 
 Weaning Ill 
 
 M 
 
 Milk lambs 238 
 
 Care and food for 262, 249 
 
 Changing the breeding habit for. . 241 
 
 Definition of 238 
 
 Essentials in 239 
 
 Growing, from grazing 253 
 
 Marketing 250 
 
 Obtaining 240 
 
 Quarters suitable for 246 
 
 Subsequently to weaning 266 
 
 Where should be grown 24=i 
 
 Mutton, aim in production of 55 
 
 Breeds producint? 35 
 
 Conditions favorable to, producing 46 
 
 Crossing breeds for 48 
 
 Influences affecting 41 
 
 P 
 
 Pastures 164 
 
 Grass, permanent 167 
 
 Grass, temporary 169 
 
 Grass, supplementary 170 
 
 Sheep finished on grass 176 
 
 without grain 1"7 
 
 Grass, for winter grazing 174 
 
 Rams H9 
 
 Disposal of 160 
 
 Food and care during Prst winter 152 
 
 Food from weaning until winter. . 149 
 
 Management at season of service 157 
 
 Sale, in summer 154 
 
 Stock, in summer 15=i 
 
 Stock, in winter 153 
 
 Trimming feet of 162 
 
 r.ise 
 
 s 
 
 Sheep 1 
 
 As brush destroyers 23 
 
 Fertilizers of poor land 7 
 
 Fertilizers for gardens 10 
 
 Improvers of clover seed yields 28 
 
 Improvers of soil 7 
 
 Weed destroyers 13 
 
 Age to be shown 279 
 
 Disposal of 250 
 
 Droppings of, are valuable .... 5 
 
 E,\cessive fatness in 277 
 
 Exercise for 276 
 
 Fitting, for sale 355 
 
 Food for, while nursing 107 
 
 Handling, when shearing or wash- 
 ing 293 
 
 Methods of shearing 300 
 
 Methods of washing 291 
 
 Preparing, for shipping 359 
 
 Quarters for 319 
 
 Shipping 361-365 
 
 Should be kept on all farms 29 
 
 Show, in transit to fairs 272 
 
 Sources from which obtained .... 203 
 Special treatment for .Merino .... 271 
 
 Tagging, when washed 296 
 
 Time and place for shearing . . . 29S 
 
 Trimming the feet of 307 
 
 Washing, before shearing 2S6 
 
 Washing and smearing, for show 269 
 
 Salt 309 
 
 Necessity for feeding 315 
 
 Supplying, in summer 316 
 
 Supplying, in winter 318 
 
 Scab, sheep 388 
 
 Dipping sheep for 421 
 
 Self-feeders and their uses 221 
 
 Shelter 319 
 
 Essential features of 326 
 
 In summer and winter 319-321 
 
 Locating 322 
 
 T 
 
 Tapeworm 395 
 
 Tick, sheep 387 
 
 Ticks, dipping sheep for 421 
 
 W 
 
 Water 309 
 
 Facilities for 336 
 
 Good health and 314 
 
 Necessity for 309 
 
 Providing, in summer 311 
 
 Providing, in winter 312 
 
 Weeds 13 
 
 Freeing lands from 17 
 
 Wool 73 
 
 Aim in production 53 
 
 Break in 87 
 
 Breeds producing 35 
 
 Carding and combing 68 
 
 Characteristics of 73 
 
 Classification of 33, 64 
 
 Closure in 83 
 
INDEX 
 
 471 
 
 Pdge 
 Vool — Continued 
 
 Color in 80 
 
 Crimp or curl in 78 
 
 Definition of •. 58 
 
 Density in 77 
 
 Distribution of, over body 70 
 
 Fiber in 60, 74 
 
 Felting in 84 
 
 Influences hurtful to 37 Worm, stotnach 
 
 Page 
 Wool — Continued 
 
 Kemp in 88 
 
 Softness in 79 
 
 Toppiness in 89 
 
 Trimming, for fairs 267 
 
 Uniformity in 81 
 
 Watery 86 
 
 Yolk in 62 
 
 391