MBi»<»jirs?y^AAftJwm w, iM W/ \K«y^iuxuwa'»K>>. 
 
^x'tl 
 
 b^^ 
 
 ^-Vil 
 
I 
 
The Standard 
 
 Horse and stock rook 
 
The Standard 
 
 ^ 
 
 Horse and Stock Book 
 
 AND THE 
 
 FARMER'S PRACTICAL GUIDE 
 
 * 
 
 A Special 
 
 Department 
 
 for the 
 
 Housewile 
 
 Giving the Latest and Most 
 Authoritative Information as 
 to Remedies for Diseases, 
 Treatment, Care and Trains 
 ing of 
 
 HofseSy Cattle^ Cows^ Sheep^ 
 HogSy Fowls» Bees and House Pets 
 
 Including also Practical and 
 Useful Directions for Care of 
 
 The Farrn^ Garden, Orchard^ 
 Plants and Small Fruits 
 
 EDITED AND WRITTEN BY 
 
 LEADING SPECIALISTS 
 
 Embellished 
 with Over 
 
 100 fine 
 Drdwin^s 
 
THE i.iBf«AI»Y «F 
 Two Conu Receivco 
 
 APR. 22 1902 
 
 Copvw»KT enntT 
 
 z.-^e ; 8 
 Oopy g 
 
 Entered accordlrvg to Act of 
 Congress In the year 1902 by 
 W. E. SCULL. \r\ the office 
 of the Librarian of Congress, 
 at Washington. P. C. 
 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
1 
 
 > I 
 
 AN INTRODUCTORY TALK 
 
 FARMING in the opening years of the 20th century is not what it 
 was a quarter of a century ago — and every one is glad it is so. 
 It is no longer a chance occupation taken as a last resort. It has 
 become a profession and also a trade. A profession in that it is successfully 
 followed by those who recognize that underlying it are scientific principles 
 which must be mastered and if followed lead to success and prosperity. As 
 a trade it is recognized as a calling which can be mastered by years of 
 apprenticeship. In any case the farmer must have his library and his 
 journals as do all other men who work intelligently in any calling. His 
 work is no longer mere muscular effort, but also brain force and energy. 
 Hence there is a place for this book on the table and bench of every large 
 and small farmer. Much care has been taken to get a great deal of practi- 
 cal and useful information into a few pages. In other words this book is a 
 Multum in Parvo, or "Much in Little" book. It is the result of careful 
 research and consideration of what the ablest authorities in this and other 
 countries have to say on the subjects of vital importance to FARMERS 
 and STOCK GROWERS. 
 
 This book is designed in the first place to meet the requirements of a 
 large class of stock men and farmers who must treat their own animals when 
 sick. Not only the most convenient and sure remedies and treatments are 
 given, but also many illustrations are made and shown to assist one who 
 tries to follow the descriptions. The symptoms of diseases of all kinds of 
 stock are so carefully described that they may be easily recognized and the 
 necessary advice is given to give immediate relief, or in turn to meet the 
 difficulty. 
 
 This book will also be invaluable for the help it gives on the care of 
 small animals, bees, gardens, orchards, and plant life. These subjects are 
 not usually so well treated in the ordinary farm book. 
 
 It is recognized that the farmer's wife is his " help meet " and should 
 have a place in this book. So several pages are devoted to her interests in 
 the house, while her good man is busy with the farm, the barn and the stock. 
 

 
 A. MODEIi OOW STABLE 
 
 ARRANGED ESPECIALLY FOR DRAINAGE AND CLEANLINESS, WITH SUFFICIENT LIGHT AND AIR FOR 
 
 VENTILATION AND WITH AMPLE ROOM FOR THE PROPER MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE, AND FOR 
 
 THEIR COMFORT. IN THIS WAY ONLY THE BEST RESULTS ARE OBTAINED. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 In and Aroond the House 9 
 
 The Dwelling, Cooking Department, Fermented and other Beverages, Marketing, 
 Manufacture of Pottery, Glass, Silverware, Bronzes, Coverings for furniture. Piano-fortes, 
 Home Pets, The Aquarium, Dogs, Bees, Bee-keeping and Management. 
 
 The Garden and Orchard 74 
 
 Gardening, Botany, Floriculture, Fruits and Fruit-culture, Berries. 
 
 In and About the Barn 131 
 
 Horses and their Management, their Breeding and Training, their Teeth, Shoeing 
 them, their Points, their Vices, their Diseases, Remedies and their Administration, Tur- 
 kish Baths for Horses, Mules and Asses. 
 
 Fast Horses 208 
 
 Trotting in the United States, Trotting Record. 
 
 Cattle 223 
 
 British Breeds, Escutcheon, Breeds in the United States, Portrait of Cow Echo, Working 
 Oxen, Herefords, Short-Horns, Ayrshires, Polled Cattle, Jerseys, Holsteins. 
 
 Cattle — Guernsey 213 
 
 Home of, Characteristics of. Value of, for Cream, for Milk, for Butter, Statistics, General 
 Management of. Peculiar Points of, Standard for. Breeders' Remarks and Experiences with. 
 Diseases and Cures. 
 
 Swine 244 
 
 Different Breeds, Rearing and Keeping, Feeding, Breeds of, Choice of. Carriage and 
 Color of. Treatment during Pregnancy, Abortion, Parturition, Treatment while Suckling, 
 Treatment of Young Pigs, Castration and Spaying, Weaning, Ringing, Feeding and Fatting, 
 Piggery, Slaughtering, Cutting up, Pickling and Curing, Use of all parts. Diseases and Cures. 
 
 Sheep 240 
 
 Principal Breeds, Rearing and Keeping, Shearing, their Diseases, Kinds, General Manage- 
 ment of. Choice of Ram, Selection of Ewes, Care of. Disowning Lamb, Rearing of Lambs, 
 Chilled Lambs, Docking, Feeding, Fattening Lambs, Weaning, General Management, Quarters 
 for Sheep, Fences, Salt, Arsenic Baths, Sore Lips, Ticks and Lice, Poisoning, Sheep Ranches, 
 Diseases of Sheep and Cures, Wool, Tying and Packing, Water Supply, Shearing. 
 
 7 
 
8 table of contents 
 
 Poultry 271 
 
 Barn-yard Fowls, French Fowls, Leghorns, Shanghais, Brahmas, Keeping and Rearing, 
 Poultry-pen, Ducks, Geese, Artificial Poultry Raising, Incubator, Kinks of. How to Use, 
 Chickens, Brooder, Feeding, Early Broiler, Don'ts, Prize Birds, Shows, Description of Breeds, 
 Judging of, Standard of. Classification in Breeds, American Class, Asiatics, Mediterranean, Pol- 
 ish and Hamburg, French, English Game, Bantam, Miscellaneous, Setters and Non-Setters, 
 Before the Show, Diseases of and Cure, How to Dress Poultry for Market, Caponizing, Hen 
 Houses, General, Management of. 
 
 Agriculture : farms and farming 303 
 
 In Early Times, in the Last Century, Land measurement. Barns, Fertilizers, Manures, 
 Ensilage, Silos, Grasses, Cereals, Vegetables, Tobacco. 
 
 Dogs 
 
 339 
 
 General Classification, Kind and Breeds, Standard Dogs, Management of. Housing, Feed- 
 ing, Exercise, Care of Skin, Washing, The Bitch, Mating, Care of Stud Dog, Care of Brood 
 Bitch, Treatment, Choice of Puppies, Weaning Pups, Diseases and Cures. 
 
 -^^:^.^ 4 
 
 THE ARABIAN HORSE 
 Noted for its beauty, strength, speed and its affection for its master. 
 
THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 IN AND AROUND THE HOUSE AND FARM. 
 
 Home of Emerson, Concord, Mass. 
 
 Architect, The 
 
 Attic, The 
 
 Blinds 
 
 Ceiling^s and Walls. 
 
 Cellar 
 
 Chimney 
 
 Closets ■ 
 
 THE DWELLING. 
 
 Colors, outside 
 
 Doors 
 
 Exposure 
 
 Framing 
 
 Furniture 
 
 Hall 
 
 Heating 
 
 Pictures 
 
 Roofs 
 
 Site and Drainage. . 
 
 Stairway 
 
 Tiles 
 
 Water 
 
 Windows 
 
 The desire to own one's home seems well- 
 nigh utfiversal ; and in America an unusually 
 large proportion of families are able to gratify 
 that desire. Great as is the absolute number 
 of those who dwell in cities and towns, much 
 greater is their number who do not. And even 
 of those who do business in cities and large 
 towns, many prefer to reside, to " live," in the 
 country. Steam and electricity have so lubri- 
 cated the channels of communication, that a 
 New York business man may reach his family at 
 a home in New Jersey or on Long Island, or a 
 Boston man may reach his in the country in al- 
 most any directiop, in about the same number of 
 minutes as he would need to take him from one 
 part of the city to another. With the telegraph 
 and the telephone, the goodman may promptly 
 
 and seasonably even notify the good-woman of 
 an unexpected guest. And a home with ground 
 for garden and lawn can be bought for the price 
 of a small tenement on a city lot or less. A 
 little way from the village or the railway station, 
 a few acres of ground on which a horse and cow 
 may be kept, and where the proceeds of the land 
 may be made to go far toward the payment of 
 the necessary hired help, are quite within the 
 means of multitudes even of those who must do 
 business "in town." And there is a perennial 
 fascination in planning and building one's own 
 dwelling and home. Not unfrequently this fas- 
 cination draws to new enterprises as fast as the 
 old are successfully achieved ; and the finished 
 home is sold that its projector may again feel 
 the delight of drawing, arranging and overseeing^ 
 
10 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT. 
 There are many things that a beginner ought 
 to learn in a less expensive school than experi- 
 ence. One is, the employment of a good archi- 
 tect. How many ill-contrived, inconvenient, un- 
 healthy, ugly-looking houses does one see, the 
 result of the unassisted inexperience of the own- 
 er and the carpenter; where a competent archi- 
 tect could have achieved a result every way satis- 
 factory, with the same or even a smaller outlay. 
 Of course, there are architects and architects, and 
 a projector ought not blindly to trust to the first 
 name he sees with the word architect painted or 
 printed after it, the designing and building his 
 home, any more than he would trust his own or 
 his family's health to an unknown physician, or 
 his pecuniary interests to the first chance lawyer. 
 But there have been such late improvements in 
 architecture and building, and the subject has 
 attracted so large a mass of really superior talent 
 and education, that an approximately right man 
 can with no great difficulty be found. With such 
 a man the whole subject should be discussed at 
 the outset, if possible even before the selection 
 of the site, that the entire enterprise may be 
 harmoniously wrought out, on a well-matured 
 plan, and in a thorough, conscientious and every 
 way workman-like manner. 
 
 SITE AND DRAINAGE. 
 
 Other things being satisfactory, high ground, 
 from which the water runs in every direction, 
 should have the preference. Avoid clay forma- 
 tions, which leave basins underground, and pre- 
 vent the escape of surplus water. Next best is a 
 side hill, the ground above being so graded as to 
 throw ofT the water which otherwise might de- 
 scend upon you. In any case, the greatest pains 
 should be taken to secure perfect drainage. 
 Many a husband and father, many a wife and 
 mother, have fallen victims to ignorance, neg- 
 lect or mistake of some kind in this paramount 
 matter. Every part of the house and its areas 
 should be thoroughly drained, and in such a 
 manner that the waste matter may not settle 
 and fester anywhere on its road. Where a small 
 river or stream receives the ground drainage, a 
 drain must be laid for the sewage, and this should 
 be received in a cesspool or vault under ground, 
 as otherwise the water may become poisoned. 
 The pipes should be laid three to four feet below 
 the surface, where they will not be affected by 
 frost. Too large pipes are liable to retain the 
 flow of water and become clogged. In the coun- 
 try, where there is no sewerage system, the sew- 
 age must be confined to the estate, and the use 
 of earth-closets for solid matter is to be recom- 
 mended. Fluids must be carried away from the 
 
 house to a tank water-tight, underneath the 
 ground, and may be used in irrigation. 
 
 All cesspools and sewers should be ventilated, 
 as the gases there formed will force their way 
 back into the house unless some outlet be given 
 them. All traps should be ventilated. This is 
 now usually accomplished by a pipe leading up 
 to the roof, and protected by a cap from down- 
 ward draught. There must always be an inlet of 
 pure fresh air to supply the place of that rising 
 oflf. Areas need draining. Wash-sinks and 
 closets should never be put in the basernent un- 
 less the cesspool into which they drain be much 
 lower, so that there shall be a decided fall. Oth- 
 erwise the drainage is liable to stagnate, and the 
 gases to back up and force their way in. Soil- 
 pipes should be most carefully laid on a solid 
 bottom, so that no settling can affect the join- 
 ings. Vitrified stone-ware pipes are considered 
 the best. Iron pipes are difiicult to repair. The 
 cement pipe, though it joins well, has a rough 
 surface upon the inside, and to this matter will 
 adhere. 
 
 EXPOSURE. 
 
 The direction in which the house faces has 
 much to do with the comfort of its inmates. 
 Two things are to be considered : the prevailing 
 wind, and the sun. Houses are often set so that 
 they exclude the cool breezes in summer, and 
 have the full force of the cold winds in winter. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 The water-supply is a matter of the first irp- 
 portance. Generally, a country-house has to 
 be supplied from a tank in the roof, and the 
 water from this tank should pass through an effi- 
 cient filter as it is used. Where pure soft water 
 can be led into this tank from a neighboring hill 
 or other sufficient height, that is by all means 
 the best way. Where water cannot be thus pro- 
 cured, often a hydraulic ram placed in a running 
 stream near by may be made to feed the tank. 
 Perhaps the water must be raised from a well, or 
 from a cistern which receives the rain-water. A 
 force-pump easily does the work, and where no 
 other power is at hand, a wind-mill may be em- 
 ployed. But a wind-mill in sight, at rest or in 
 motion, is hardly an aesthetic addition to the 
 landscape. If the tank is large enough, arid on 
 sufficient foundations, the rain-water may be re- 
 ceived directly into it and the labor of raising it 
 economized. Don't use impure or " hard " wa- 
 ter if you can help it, even if it is to be filtered. 
 
 In the matter of drainage and of water, resi- 
 dents of cities, where the sewerage is well con- 
 structed, have a decided advantage. The sewers 
 being below the houses, and generally an abun- 
 dance of pure water " on tap" day and night, in 
 a modern well-built city home, ventilated by 
 
THE DWELLING. 
 
 11 
 
 pipes from subcellar to roof, the tendency of 
 any malaria is towards, and not from, the ventila- 
 ting pipes. The forty-five-mile layer of air, in 
 the bottom scale of which we live, constantly re- 
 ceives the exhaled waste, and as constantly di- 
 vine cheniistrj' reconverts this waste into health- 
 ful forms, ready for vitality again to assimilate. 
 
 CELLAR. 
 
 A side hill is of advantage when the slope is 
 sufficient to have one side of the cellar above 
 ground. If a cellar built in this way is to be 
 used as kitchen or laundry, it is always best to 
 have a subcellar. 
 
 No living-room should have its floor set di- 
 rectly upon the ground, but there should always 
 be a circulation of air between the ground and 
 the floor, even if tlie ground be dry. 
 
 The cellar is not unfrequently an expensive 
 part of house-building, but it is certainly a very 
 important part, as are all foundations. Dressed 
 stone is the best for the underpinning. The 
 squares of stone need not be of uniform size. 
 Rubble-work, an imitation of granite, is often 
 •employed, and is less expensive. With a composi- 
 tion of cement and sand, colored with Venetian 
 red, Spanish brown and lamp-black, the rough 
 edges of the stone are pointed so that if the lines 
 are horizontal and plumb the result will be a 
 ■close imitation of the jointed masonry. 
 
 CHIMNEYS. 
 
 Chimneys may be made so as to add greatly to 
 the effect of the house. They should be large 
 enough to give the idea of strength and solidity. 
 The color should be carefully chosen. Chim- 
 neys carried upon the outside admit of good 
 treatment. Those so built should have an air- 
 chamber or space between the flues and outer 
 walls which will prevent their becoming chilled, 
 and there will be no trouble about the draught. 
 No timbers should be extended into fines. 
 
 The foundations of chimneys should be care- 
 fully laid, as they are liable to settle owing to 
 their weight. 
 
 FRAMING. 
 
 Sound and well-seasoned timber should be se- 
 lected. Avoid resting the frame on girders or 
 interties. The sill should be laid fiat, which re- 
 duces the shrinkage. This method distributes 
 the weight over the foundation. Then the posts 
 and studs are run continuously up to the roof. 
 Instead of having thirty or forty inches of timber 
 across the grain, there are only the sill and plate 
 which are laid fiat, and there is little chance for 
 shrinking. Timber shrinks across the grain, not 
 lengthwise. Lathing should not be laid immedi- 
 ately on the under side of fioor-beams, which are 
 apt to shrink. 
 
 ROOFS. 
 
 The roofing should be carefully done, and the 
 covering for the framework closely joined, leav- 
 ing no chance for rain and sun to penetrate. It 
 is a good plan to inclose the walls before roofing. 
 Where the roof is fiat, or nearly so, tin roofs are 
 generally used. The plates must be laid with 
 great care, and well soldered, or there will be 
 small leaks, troublesome to find and troublesome 
 to stop. The tin plates must be thoroughly 
 painted, freely using what are called " paint- 
 skins," and the work carefully examined when 
 first tested with heavy rain, or melting snow. 
 And great care should be taken about stepping 
 on a tin roof, as a little carelessness with heavy 
 nailed boots may cause a deal of trouble. 
 Cheaper substitutes for tin are much used, how- 
 ever, on fiat or nearly flat roofs. These are 
 made of some kind of cement or roofing spread 
 over while hot, and covered before drying with 
 large gravel or small pebbles. Some of these do 
 exceedingly good service, and do not cost nearly 
 as much as a good tin roof. 
 
 But it is better, where the surroundings admit, 
 that a roof should have pitch enough to admit of 
 a shingle or a slate roof. Especially where 
 heavy snows are to be expected, is such a roof to 
 be preferred, as the melting snow passes easily 
 ofT, and the necessity for shoveling, so often 
 needed with a flat roof, is obviated. Good slates • 
 are to be had from Vermont, Pennsylvania and 
 Virginia, and properly laid on form a fine and 
 durable roof, though of course one more expen- 
 sive than shingles. The slates absorb no damp- 
 ness, and need no slats, and laid with felting be- 
 tween the sheathing and them, form a firm bar- 
 rier against cold and heat, and especially snow. 
 If shingles are used, the split ones are better than 
 the sawn, though dearer, the grain running the 
 length of the shingle. And if the beautiful neu- 
 tral tint which a shingle roof soon takes on with 
 exposure to the weather is not good enough, 
 pray do not paint your roof some glaring, offen- 
 sive color that shall vex the onlooking eye, but 
 use a stain or dye that shall harmonize with its 
 surroundings. 
 
 WINDOWS. 
 
 With the Oueen Anne style of building, the 
 small windows and little panes have come into 
 considerable favor. Small panes are not suitable 
 for rooms in general use. Fine plate glass is im- 
 mensely superior to the glass of the Queen Anne 
 time, and it seems absurd to obstruct a beautiful 
 view by the sash-ribs which in those days were a 
 necessity. Broad low windows are a delight to 
 the inmates of a house, and should be placed in 
 the living-rooms. The introduction of stained 
 glass is very acceptable in places where it may 
 
12 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 be used appropriately. A staircase may be very 
 well lighted with a high stained-glass window. 
 Leaded panes of glass in the hall-door are pleas- 
 ant, and in the fan-lights. The glass generally 
 used for these purposes is known as cathedral- 
 roll, which has an uneven surface and brilliant 
 
 efTect. 
 
 BLINDS. 
 
 Outside blinds to a frame house are convenient 
 in some respects, and in others quite the reverse. 
 For stone and brick houses inside shutters are 
 usually made, as the thick walls offer the required 
 depth to fold the shutters back against. Where 
 there are bay-windows or a group of windows, 
 either inside or outside blinds interfere. An 
 architect has contrived a way of letting the shut- 
 ter slide down out of sight, something after the 
 manner of a car-blind. This certainly is an im- 
 provement, as the hangings or shades are not in- 
 terfered with, and the rather unsightly shutter is 
 well out of the way during a great part of the 
 time. Venetian shades or rolling blinds are not 
 much used, as they are expensive and are a pro- 
 tection only against sun and light. Hoods are a 
 great protection and ornament over doors and 
 windows. Where a porch is made, or balcony, a 
 hood -covering, with sides which come to the 
 steps or front, is very effective. 
 
 DOORS. 
 
 Entrance-doors should be wide, and preferably 
 in two leaves. Large pieces of furniture, trunks, 
 etc., usually have to go in at the front door. If 
 possible, have inner or vestibule doors. The outer 
 doors should have small glass windows' to light 
 the vestibule. The vestibule door should be 
 partly of glass. In the city, within two years, 
 there has been a sort of front-door "revival." 
 Many houses have had the old doors taken down 
 to make way for those of improved design, with 
 more carving in the solid wood and less cheap 
 ornament applied, and fewer veneered panels im- 
 itating fine wood. In country building the front 
 door is happily not such an all-important feature, 
 and with improved cottage-building comes the 
 suitable doorway and door. 
 
 HALL. 
 
 A long narrow hall does not impress one as 
 pleasantly as a broad or square entry. If the 
 entry be like a room, a settee or sofa may be 
 placed in it, perhaps several chairs. In some of 
 the Queen Anne cottages a fire-place is made in 
 the entry, and this is certainly very appropriate, 
 and gives one a feeling of comfort immediately 
 upon entering. Never have the entry dark. A 
 hat-tree is rather ugly and not very useful. An 
 umbrella-stand will hold the sticks and umbrellas 
 quite as well, and a hat-mirror with a few hooks 
 
 will take the place of the rack. A table placed 
 near the door is very convenient for hats, cards, 
 parcels, etc. There should be closets somewhere 
 in the entry where the people of the house can 
 bestow their coats and wraps. If a wood floor is 
 laid in the entry it can be very easily kept clean, 
 and if a rug be put down over the part used the 
 objection of noise will be overcome, besides add- 
 ing much to the home-look. 
 
 STAIRWAYS. 
 
 Stairs should be broad and low, and the stair- 
 case, if possible, broken with a landing where the 
 stairs turn. The general habit of building stair- 
 cases which resemble ladders ought to be done 
 away with as fast as possible. A back stairway 
 is a great advantage, too often left out of the 
 house-plan. No houses but those of tiny pro- 
 portions should be without a second stairway. 
 
 ATTIC. 
 
 In country houses there is usually an attic, so 
 that the trials of living without a trunk- and 
 stoie-room are not known. In the city many 
 houses of good style and well built are minus 
 such a Ui.xury as a store-room, or at best have 
 one small dark closet dignified by the name. 
 
 CLOSETS. 
 
 One of the great advantages of the Queen 
 Anne cottages is the numberless places which 
 are left to be used as closets and cupboards. 
 Of these there can never be too many, and often 
 a little ingenuity will produce a small recess 
 where there was some clumsy bit of wall, and 
 this can be fitted up with shelves, drawers or 
 hooks. Builders are not as a rule careful about 
 these small but most important parts of house- 
 making. Never grudge ample room for dining- 
 room and kitchen pantries, for the most modest 
 establishment requires a good deal of room in 
 which to spread out. The pantry or room adjoin- 
 ing the kitchen should have plenty of shelves, the 
 lowest one broad, and under that there should 
 be a place for flour-barrels, with inclosed sides, 
 and a square place cut above and hinged so that 
 the flour can be quickly taken out. Cupboards 
 for sugar-buckets, etc., should also be made. 
 The broad shelf will be about the height of a 
 table, and make an excellent place for preparing 
 food, rolling pastry, etc. The dining-room or 
 butler's pantry should have a sink and water- 
 faucets, hot and cold if there is a range with hot- 
 water boiler. 
 
 HEATING HOUSES. 
 Furnace-heat is a great convenience, though 
 even with the best furnaces, carefully managed, 
 the air is apt to be dry. Steam is pleasanter. 
 
THE DWELLING. 
 
 13 
 
 but expensive. Stoves are ugly and trouble- 
 some, but will probably be used for a long time 
 to come, as they are cheap and give a good deal 
 of heat for the fuel. The Baltimore heaters are 
 good where there is a chimney in which one can 
 be set. They are not very expensive, are econo- 
 mical of fuel, easily managed, and will heat two 
 or three rooms by tlie pipes which run up in the 
 chimney to the floors above, vvhere registers are 
 placed. These heaters with the improvements 
 are much used. But all who can should have an 
 open wood-fire in the living-room if in no other 
 place. The heat from such a fire does not parch 
 the skin and make the head ache. It is health- 
 ful, and an open fire is one of the most cheermg 
 things in the world. A good furnace kept so 
 that the entries and halls will be comfortably 
 heated, and open fires either of wood or soft 
 coal in the living-rooms, are the most satisfac- 
 tory ways of heating either city or country 
 houses. 
 
 People are slow to realize how perfect a venti- 
 lator an open fire-place is, and in sleeping-rooms 
 though bringing no draughts of air to inmates, 
 it gives free escape for impure air. An open fire 
 in sickness is of great use. Whether furnaces 
 or stoves are used, water should be kept con- 
 stantly evaporating. Carelessness in this respect, 
 especially with the usual furnace, is likely to 
 cause distressing headaches. 
 
 Wooden mantel-pieces with shelves are now 
 much used in place of marbelized slate and mar- 
 ble. 
 
 TILES. 
 
 Do not overlook the pleasure which the use of 
 artistic and well-made tiles can afford to the 
 inmates of your house. When chimney and 
 hearth had to be thus ornamented entirely by 
 unassisted hand-labor, the expense was often 
 prohibitive. Now that machinery has been or- 
 ganized to do this so well and so cheaply, and so 
 much talent has been allured into the design and 
 the executing of tile-work, this ornamentation is 
 within the reach of all. There is at Chelsea, 
 Mass., the Art Tile Works of Messrs. J. & J. G. 
 Low, an examination of whose productions fills 
 one with an ever varied and always deepening 
 pleasure. Messrs. Low have succeeded in giving 
 an entirely new value to tiles, especially in regard 
 to color and what we may call texture. By their 
 processes tiles are not only modeled in relief, 
 but are most beautifully graded in color, a blush 
 of a certain tone seeming to spread and deepen 
 over the surface, and while a certain grade of 
 color is adhered to in a number of tiles, no two 
 are alike in the distribution of values, and the 
 surface is apparently a thin glaze overlying a 
 mellow molten depth. To this description of 
 tiles has lately been added another still more 
 
 effective, in which various colors are used in the 
 same piece, and in which are seen curious crys- 
 talline formations of great brilliancy under the 
 transparent surface. The beauties and novelties 
 of these tiles are as impossible to convey in black- 
 and-white illustrations as are those of the opales- 
 cent glass now so deservedly admired, and 
 which has added a new charm and larger range 
 to the effect of our stained glass. 
 
 CEILINGS AND WALLS. 
 
 In the furnishing of rooms in country houses, 
 white and red pine well seasoned will be found 
 cheap and satisfactory as a trimming. This 
 wood is reliable if well selected, and endures 
 changes in temperature better than most other 
 wood. The pine should not be painted, as that 
 hides its grain. It should be treated with shel- 
 lac and copal varnish. The dining-room is ap- 
 propriately finished with a high wooden wain- 
 scot. The buffet can easily be made to form 
 part of it. A frieze of wood with wooden ceil- 
 ing is very pretty and in good keeping. Certain 
 combinations of color will have an enlivening ef- 
 fect ; others a depressing. In choosing the co- 
 lors for a room, reference should be had to the 
 size, light admitted and use. Blue produces the 
 effect of distance, and where the ceiling is too 
 low may be well used, as it will give an impres- 
 sion of height. Yellow seems to advance towards 
 the eye, so if used will make a moulding more 
 prominent, or the ceiling seem lower. Blue is 
 restful to the eye, but in a north room is a little 
 cool, especially for the winter season. Most art- 
 ists assert that with dark walls furniture and cos- 
 tumes show to better advantage, while pictures 
 look better upon a light background. 
 
 For gilt frames olive, gray and deep green are 
 appropriate. Engravings and etchings with sim- 
 ple frames look well against a dark maroon. If 
 the trimmings of a house or room are painted 
 darker than the body or main part, the eflfect of 
 strength is added. The framework of a door 
 should be darker than the panels. The same 
 may be said of cornices and windows : the frame 
 part should give the look of strength. A good 
 rule for color on the walls is to have the richer 
 colors low down, while the light colors should 
 be put near or on the ceiling. Papers are easi- 
 ily procured and are not costly, while fine deco- 
 rating is very expensive and not easy to be had. 
 Ceilings may be papered, but require care in se- 
 lection of suitable papers to harmonize with the 
 wall-paper. The extent of wall is often broken 
 up by the use of frieze and dado, with very good 
 results. The friezes are sometimes very elabo- 
 rate and beautiful but large designs should be 
 avoided in small low-ceiled rooms. 
 
14 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 . FURNITURE. 
 
 All the furniture should be honest, by which 
 we mean it should be well put together, the wood 
 properly dressed, and there should be no super- 
 fluous scrolls and ledges, which are tiresome to 
 the eye, out of place, and excellent traps for 
 dust. 
 
 Of cheap furniture there is enough to stock a 
 new world, so to speak, in our cities. It is 
 turned out in quantities from large factories, 
 half-seasoned wood being used, and the result is 
 a half-finished set of furniture of bad design — 
 bureau-drawers that soon shrink so that they 
 will not close, and tables that crack across the 
 top. These, surely, are not good investments 
 even though they are cheap. Thoroughly made 
 furniture will pay in the end. For upholstered 
 furniture choose stuffs which are suitable to the 
 room in which the pieces are to be put, and also 
 keep in mind the colors of the walls and carpet. 
 The Wakefield Rattan furniture is much used 
 and liked now. Chairs of this material, with 
 cushioned seats, can be had very reasonably, 
 which in real comfort will far outdo the so-called 
 " easy chairs" of the ordinary upholsterer. This 
 furniture is well suited to country houses. 
 
 OUTSIDE COLORS. 
 
 A frame house painted white, the shutters 
 painted green, and so dazzling in a July sun that 
 the traveler has to shield his eyes, has until quite 
 recently been the outside aspect of the country 
 home. Happily now a taste is forming for 
 pleasant neutral tints which are much more sat- 
 isfactory in all ways. The seaside houses have 
 made a great step towards improvement, but in- 
 land, away from watering-places and suburban 
 villas, white paint is still master of the situation. 
 The best time for painting the outside of build- 
 ings is in the late autumn. The paint then dries 
 slowly, and the surface become? hard, not affect- 
 ed by weather. 
 
 PICTURES. 
 
 These make a great item in the means of edu- 
 cation, comfort and ornament in the home. As 
 the tastes and the means of people differ in a 
 practically endless variety, so representations on 
 paper or canvas, addressed to the eye, vary as 
 widely. Before the discovery of utilizing the 
 rays of the sun to reproduce desired objects, and 
 the modern improvements in engraving and print- 
 ing, most men had to be content with few or no 
 pictorial representations on their walls. Michel- 
 angelo Buonarroti and his fellows busied them- 
 selves greatly with frescoes, and visits to various 
 places were necessary to an appreciation of their 
 wonderful work. A copy even of a celebrated 
 painting was very costly, and fell short of the 
 
 model, as the copyer fell short of the original 
 painter. The works of Michelangelo, Rubens, Ra- 
 phael, Leonardo da Vinci, Domenichino, Cara- 
 vaggio, Guido, Poussin, Claude Lorraine, Mu- 
 rillo, Velasquez, Van Dyck, Teniers. Rembrandt, 
 and an almost countless host of brother-artists, 
 were a sealed book to the great majority. But 
 the best of them were early produced in engrav- 
 ings, appro.\imately like the originals, whose 
 price soon began to popularize the masterpieces. 
 These, however, necessarily shared in the imper- 
 fection of the engravers who wrought them, and 
 in the transfer often a part, sometimes a large 
 part, of their characteristic peculiarities disap- 
 peared. 
 
 But the invention of Niepce and Daguerre, 
 which the latter alone, after the death of the 
 former, made a success in 1839, ^nd the further 
 improvements for which that opened the way, 
 have put a new face on the matter. Now sun- 
 pictures, of one name and another, absolutely 
 accurate in all except color, reproduce the work 
 of the great masters at a price which brings them 
 within the reach of thousands, where tens only 
 could before be gratified. At less than the cost of a 
 trip to their habitats, one can buy photographs and 
 heliotypes of almost every painting of reputation 
 in the world. A man or woman, who has never 
 stirred from his or her native country in Ameri- 
 ca, can thus form and mature an acquaintance 
 with great artists and their works, otherwise im- 
 possible during the travel of a lifetime. Even 
 the frescoes of great masters can be laid side by 
 side, and studied, in their " counterfeit present- 
 ments," as the originals cannot. 
 
 Another popularizer of works of art is the 
 chromo, that wonderful development, by which 
 pictures can be reproduced, of a size to hang upon 
 the wall, and with practically unlimited resources 
 of color. These, of varying degrees of excellence 
 or vileness, are purchasable at all times, at an 
 insignificant price. In how many homes have 
 not Tait's Chickens come, to moult and mature 
 into other and larger forms of grace ! No one, 
 hardly the navvy, need live with bare walls. 
 The great paintings themselves will never come 
 within the reach of short purses. For a sight 
 of these, most of us must be content with an oc- 
 casional visit to some private or public gallery, 
 or an evening at a loan exhibition. Happily, 
 their possessors are generally more than willing 
 that the public should share in their enjoyment. 
 
 Put pictures on your walls : the best you can 
 select and afford. Get them one or two at a 
 time, as they make a special appeal to your indi- 
 viduality. Don't buy because somebody else 
 says you ought to like a picture ; and don't be 
 bluffed out of what you are sure you do want 
 because somebody else tells you you should not. 
 
COOKING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 15 
 
 COOKING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 BISCUIT. 
 
 Baking Powder for 22 
 
 Cream Tartar Biscuit 22 
 
 Graham Gems 22 
 
 Parker House Rolls 22 
 
 Raised Biscuit 22 
 
 Warren Tea Cakes as 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 Boston Brown Bread 22 
 
 Buckwheat Bread 22 
 
 Com Bread, No. i 21 
 
 Corn Bread, No. 2 21 
 
 Graham Bread 32 
 
 Raised Bread, plaint 22 
 
 Vienna Bread 21 
 
 CAKES. 
 
 Adrea' Cup Cake 25 
 
 Apple Jelly Cake 25 
 
 Bath Cakes 26 
 
 Boston Soft Crackers a6 
 
 Brandy Snaps 26 
 
 Chocolate 26 
 
 Cinnamon Cake 26 
 
 Citron Cake 26 
 
 Cocoa-nut Cake 26 
 
 Crackers 26 
 
 Cream Cakes 25 
 
 Cream Crackers 27 
 
 Cross Buns z6 
 
 Crullers 26 
 
 Cup Cake 25 
 
 Delicate Cake 25 
 
 Drop Cake 35 
 
 General Directions 35 
 
 Ginger Snaps 26 
 
 Jelly Cake 25 
 
 Jumbles 26 
 
 Orange Cake 25 
 
 Oyster Crackers 27 
 
 Marble Cake 25 
 
 Mountain Pound Cake 25 
 
 Pigeon Cove Berry Cake 26 
 
 Pound Cake, Mountain 25 
 
 Seed Cake 26 
 
 Silver Cake 26 
 
 Soda Crackers 27 
 
 Sponge Cake 25 
 
 Sugar Crackers 27 
 
 Wedding Cake 36 
 
 DESSERT. 
 
 Almond Blanc Mange 27 
 
 Blanc Mange, Lemoo 27 
 
 Charlotte Russe 27 
 
 Custard 27 
 
 Fruit Cream 27 
 
 Ice Cream 37, 28 
 
 Lemoo Cream 27 
 
 Lemon Jelly 28 
 
 Mock Cream 28 
 
 Raspberry Cream 28 
 
 Vanilla Snow 28 
 
 Wine Jelly 28 
 
 DRINKS. 
 
 Chocolate 28 
 
 Cocoa 28 
 
 Coffee 28 
 
 Tea 28 
 
 ENTR]£eS and MADE DISHES. 
 
 Bologna Sausages 20 
 
 Chicken Croquettes , 19 
 
 Chicken Pie 19 
 
 Chicken Salad 19 
 
 Devilled Ham 19 
 
 Hashed Meat 20 
 
 Irish Stew 19 
 
 Lobster Salad 19 
 
 Mayonnaise Sauce 19 
 
 Sausage Meat 20 
 
 Sausages 20 
 
 Strasburg Potted Meat 19 
 
 Sweet Bread, Broiled 19 
 
 Sweet Bread, Stewed 19 
 
 Veal Pot Pie 19 
 
 Veal, Pressed 19 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Baked Fish 16 
 
 Boiled Fish 16 
 
 Clam Chowder 17 
 
 Clam Fritters t-j 
 
 Fried Fish 16 
 
 Fish Chowder x6 
 
 Lobster 17 
 
 Fried Oysters 17 
 
 Oyster Pie 17 
 
 Pickled Oysters 17 
 
 Scalloped Oysters 17 
 
 Stewed Oysters 16 
 
 MEATS. 
 
 Beef, Boiled 17 
 
 Beef, Roast 17 
 
 Beef Steak 17 
 
 Beef Steak with Onions 17 
 
 Keep Fresh Meat, To 18 
 
 Mutton, Haricot 18 
 
 Mutton, Roast 18 
 
 Pickle Meat, To 18 
 
 Pork, Roast 18 
 
 Veal, Roast 18 
 
 Venison, Saddle of, Roast 18 
 
 PIES. 
 
 Apple Pie 24 
 
 Cocoa-nut Cup Custard 35 
 
 Cocoa-nut Pie 34 
 
 Crumb Pie 24 
 
 Custard Pie 24 
 
 Filling for Mince Pies 24 
 
 Lemon Pie 24 
 
 Mince Pie 24 
 
 Orange Tartlets 24 
 
 Paste for Pies 23 
 
 Paste to Cover Pies 23 
 
 Peach Pie 24 
 
 Puff Paste for Pies 23 
 
 Pumpkin Pie 24 
 
 Rhubarb Pie 25 
 
 Sliced Apple Pie 34 
 
 Squash Pie 24 
 
 Washington Pie 24 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 Chicken, Boiled x8 
 
 Chicken, Broiled 18 
 
 Chicken, Fricasseed 19 
 
 Chicken, Roasted 19 
 
 Ducks and Geese 19 
 
 Pigeons, Boiled 19 
 
 Seasoning for Stuffing 18 
 
 Turkey, Boiled 18 
 
 Turkey, Hashed 18 
 
 Turkey, Roast 18 
 
 PUDDINGS. 
 
 Baked Apple Pudding 23 
 
 Bird"s-nest Pudding 23 
 
 Cocoa-nut Pudding 23 
 
 Corn Starch Pudding 23 
 
 Cottage Pudding 23 
 
 Green Gooseberry Pudding 22 
 
 Hard Times Pudding 22 
 
 Lemon Pudding 22 
 
 Orange Pudding 22 
 
 Plum Pudding 23 
 
 Potato Pudding 23 
 
 Rice or Sago Pudding 23 
 
 Tapioca Pudding 23 
 
 Troy Pudding 23 
 
 Winter Pudding 33 
 
 SAUCES FOR PUDDINGS. 
 
 Chocolate Sauce 23 
 
 Clear Sauce 23 
 
 Hard Sauce 23 
 
 Kennebago Sauce 23 
 
 SOUPS. 
 
 Clam Soup 16 
 
 Economical Soup 16 
 
 Macaroni Soup 16 
 
 Oyster Soup 16 
 
 Pea Soup, No. i 16 
 
 Pea Soup, No. 2 16 
 
 Potato Soup 16 
 
 Stock for Soups 16 
 
 Tomato Soup 16 
 
 Vermicelli Soup i6 
 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Cauliflower 30 
 
 Macaroni. 30 
 
 Potato Croquettes 30 
 
 Potatoes, Lyonnaise 20 
 
 Potatoes, Saratoga 20 
 
 Potatoes, Stewed 20 
 
 Rice, Boiled 30 
 
 Succotash 20 
 
 Summer Squash 20 
 
 Tomatoes, Baked 20 
 
 Tomatoes, Stewed 30 
 
 Turnips, Mashed 30 
 
 Winter Squash 90 
 
 YEAST. 
 
 Compressed Yeast 20 
 
 Hop Yeast 21 
 
 Potato Yeast 31 
 
 Stock or Malt Yeast ai 
 
16 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 SOUPS. 
 
 Stock for Soups. — Take lean beef and cold 
 water in the proportion of one pound of beef to 
 one quart of water, and place in a soup-kettle 
 over the fire; when it boils add one cup of cold 
 water; remove the scum ; then place over a mo- 
 derate fire and let it slowly simmer four or five 
 hours. This stock may be used for any soup in 
 which nieat-broth is desired. It may be thick- 
 ened with barley, rice, macaroni or vermicelli, or 
 by adding canned tomatoes and serving with 
 small cubes of toasted bread. 
 
 Tomato Soup. — One quart tomatoes; boil half 
 an hour with two quarts of water ; rub through 
 a colander; add salt and pepper to taste; 
 rub together a large tablespoonful of butter 
 and a tablespoonful of flour or farina, then 
 add a little water, and stir into the soup; let it 
 boil up, and then serve. Canned tomatoes may 
 be used for this soup, and it can be made at the 
 shortest notice. 
 
 Pea Soup No. 1. — Soak one quart dried split 
 peas in water over night; in the morning drain 
 them and add three quarts of water and one 
 pound of salt pork ; boil slowly four or five 
 hours ; add salt and pepper. Season with celery 
 if you like. 
 
 Pea Soup No. 2. — Beef three pounds, water 
 five quarts, si.x large carrots, six good turnips, 
 three large onions, salt sufficient; put it on a 
 good slow fire, let it boil three hours, then strain 
 all the broth from meat and vegetables, and then 
 add three pounds of split peas to the broth ; set 
 it on a slow fire for two hours, stirring often, so 
 that all the peas will dissolve; take one pound 
 fresh sausage-meat, fried to a crisp, and fried 
 bread-crumbs ; put all together, add a few fine 
 herbs, and serve hot. 
 
 Economical Soup. — Put into a saucepan one 
 pound pieces of stale bread, three large onions 
 sliced, a small cabbage cut fine, a carrot and tur- 
 nip, and a small head of celery (or the remains 
 of any cold vegetables), a tablespoonful of salt, 
 a tablespoonful of pepper, a bunch of parsley, a 
 sprig of marjoram and thyme. Put these into 
 two quarts of any weak stock (the liquor in which 
 mutton has been boiled will do), and let them 
 boil for two hours; rub through a fine hair-sieve, 
 add a pint of new milk, boil up, and serve at 
 once. 
 
 Macaroni Soup. — Four pounds of lean beef, 
 four quarts of water, carrot, turnip, onions; set 
 it for four hours till all mix together; strain it 
 all through a sieve; have two pounds of maca- 
 roni broken into pieces one inch long; put all 
 into a saucepan together, and let it boil for ten 
 minutes, and serve hot. 
 
 Vermicelli Soup. — Take four pounds of lamb, 
 
 removing all the fat, one pound of veal, a 
 slice of corned ham, and five quarts of water. 
 Cut up the meat, put in a quart of water, and let 
 it heat very gradually, all the while closely cov- 
 ered. In an hour add four quarts of boiling 
 water, and cook till the meat is in shreds. Sea- 
 son with salt, sweet herbs, a little Worcestershire 
 sauce, boil in the soup ten minutes, strain, and 
 put back on the fire. Then add a third of a 
 pound of vermicelli which has been boiled in 
 clear water till tender. Boil up once, and serve. 
 
 Oyster Soup^ — To each dozen or dish of 
 oysters put half pint of water, milk one 
 gill, butter half ounce, powdered crackers to 
 thicken ; bring the oysters and water to a boil, 
 then add the other ingredients previously mixed 
 together, and boil from three to five minutes only. 
 Season with pepper and salt to taste. 
 
 Clam Soup. — For fifty clams take two table- 
 spoonfuls of butter, one quart of milk and a half 
 pint of water. Drain off the clam-liquor and put 
 over the fire with a few peppercorns, some cay- 
 enne pods, and a little mace and salt. Let it 
 boil ten minutes, put in the clams and boil half 
 an hour, keeping the pot closely covered ; then 
 add the milk, previously heated to scalding, not 
 boiling, in another vessel. Boil up again, and 
 add the butter, being careful the soup does not 
 burn. Serve without delay. 
 
 Potato Soup. — Peel a small measure of pota- 
 toes, boil till soft with a small piece of celery and 
 two or three peppercorns in salted water; strain 
 through a colander ; add a small piece of butter. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Fish to be Boiled should be put into cold 
 water, sewed in a cloth if you have no fish-kettle. 
 Boil until the bones can be easily removed. It 
 should be served with drawn butter and capers. 
 
 Fish to be Fried should be rolled in flour, 
 meal or cracker-crumbs before being put into 
 the hot lard, butter or salt pork. 
 
 Fish to be Baked should be stuffed and sewed 
 up, then laid in a pan with a little water and a 
 few slices of salt pork under and around the fish. 
 Blue-fish, bass, cod and shad are suitable for 
 baking. 
 
 Fish Chowder. — Have the fish cut into steaks, 
 and a quarter pound of fat salt pork chopped. 
 Place with some slices of onion in a saucepan 
 or kettle, and when browned have four pota- 
 toes sliced ; lay a slice of fish upon the pork 
 and onions, then potatoes, then fish, until all is 
 in, when it should boil thirty minutes in three 
 quarts of water. Soda-crackers should be soaked 
 in one pint milk, and when the chowder is almost 
 done pour them into it. 
 
 Stewed Oysters. — Three quarts oysters well 
 drained; boil the liquor and skim it; add one 
 
COOKING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 17 
 
 quart milk, half dozen Boston crackers rolled 
 fine, pepper and salt if needed. Let it come to 
 a boil, and then put in the oysters and boil for 
 two or three minutes. Add a bit of butter before 
 the stew is served. 
 
 Fried Oysters. — The oysters should be drained 
 and laid upon a cloth. Dip each oyster in 
 beaten egg and then in pounded cracker or 
 corn-meal ; then fry in butter and lard mixed. 
 
 Scalloped Oysters. — Oysters should be laid in 
 a buttered pan with a thin layer of pounded 
 cracker, then a layer of oysters, and so on tiK the 
 dish is full. Season with pepper, mace, a tum- 
 bler full of the liquor, a Httle Sherry wme, or 
 more of the liquor poured over the dish ; then 
 bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Clam Fritters. — Take a dozen clams cut small, 
 a pint of milk and three eggs. Add the liquor 
 from the clams to the milk; beat up the eggs 
 and put in with salt and pepper, and flour 
 enough for thin batter; then put in the chopped 
 clams. Fry quickly in hot iard. A tablespoon- 
 ful will make a. fritter. 
 
 Or, dip the whole clams in batter, and fry in 
 the same way. 
 
 Clam Chowder. — Fry a few slices of fat pork 
 crisp, and chop to pieces. Put some of these in 
 the bottom of a pot, and on them a layer of 
 clams; sprinkle on pepper and salt, and plenty 
 of butter; then put iji a layer of chopped onions, 
 and then one of crackers split and wet in milk, 
 then a little of the fat in which tne pork was 
 fried. Then a new succession in tne same way, 
 until the pot is nearly full. Cover with water, 
 keep closely covered, and boil three quarters of 
 an hour. Drain oH the liquor, put the chowder 
 into the tureen, and the liquor again into the 
 pot. Thicken this liquor with flour or pounded 
 crackers; add catsup. wine or spice to vour taste, 
 and pour this gravy over the chowder in the tureen. 
 Pickled walnuts or butternuts go well with it. 
 
 Oyster Pie. — With a rich puff-paste of the 
 usual thickness line a pudding-dish, and fill with 
 crusts of dry bread or crackers, or a folded towel. 
 Make the top crust or cover of this mock-pie very 
 thick, heavily ornament the edges, and butter the 
 edges of the dish so that this heavy lid may be 
 easily lifted off. Then bake. Cook the oysters 
 as for a stew, but put in two eggs and a spoon- 
 ful of cracker-crumbs or flour. Stew them about 
 five minutes just before the pie is baked enough. 
 Lift the top crust, remove the towel or other tem- 
 porary contents, pour in the smoking oysters, and 
 serve hot. 
 
 Or, make a rich oyster stew, put in a baking- 
 dish and cover with puflf-paste, and bake half an 
 hour in a moderate oven. On this plan the oys- 
 ters bake as long as the crust, and of course are 
 not as good as on the other plan. 
 
 2 
 
 Pickled Oysters. — Take one hundred large 
 oysters, a pint of white-wine vinegar, some mace, 
 peppers and cloves, and a large red pepper. Put 
 the oysters, with their liquor, into a porcelain 
 kettle, salt to taste, and heat slowly till the oys- 
 ters nearly boil. Take out the oysters with a 
 skimmer, and let them cool in a jar. Add the 
 vinegar and spices to the liquor remaining in the 
 kettle. Let them fairly boil, and pour, scalding 
 hot, over the nearly cold oysters. Cover the jar 
 in which you have put them, and set away in a 
 cool place. Next day put the contents into glass 
 jars with tight tops, and keep them cool and 
 dark. 
 
 Lobster. — If you are to boil your own, take 
 a lively one, not too large, see that his claws are 
 well tifed, and pop him into a pot of boiling 
 water into which you have put a handful of 
 salt. He may not like it at first, but will soon 
 lie still. Keep him till he turns the regulation 
 red, and lay him, face down, in a sieve. When 
 dry and cold, split open the body and tail, and 
 crack the claws to get the meat. Reject the 
 " lady-fingers" and the head. Eat with Durkee's 
 or some other good dressing. 
 
 For Lobster Salad, see under Entrees. 
 
 MEATS. 
 
 Fresh meats should be put into boiling water 
 except for soups, when the water should be cold. 
 
 Salt meats should be thoroughly washed and 
 put into cold water. 
 
 Boiled meat is better for being left in the wa- 
 ter in which it has been boiled till cold. 
 
 Beef Boiled. — The round is the best boiling 
 piece. Put the meat in the pot, with water 
 enough to cover it ; let it boil very slow at first 
 — this is the great secret of making it tender; 
 take off the scum as it rises. From two to three 
 hours, according to size, is the rule for boiling. 
 
 Boast Beef. — The sirloin is considered the 
 best for roasting. Spit the meat, pepper the top, 
 and baste it well while roasting with its own 
 dripping, and throw on a handful of salt. When 
 the smoke draws to the fire, it is near enough; 
 keep the fire bright and clear. From fifteen to 
 twenty minutes to the pound is the rule for 
 roasting. 
 
 Beef Steak. — The inside of the sirloin makes 
 the best steak ; cut about three quarters of an 
 inch thick. Have the gridiron hot, put on the 
 meat and set it over a good fire of coals ; turn 
 them often. From eight to ten minutes is the 
 rule for broiling. 
 
 Beef Steak with Onions. — Prepare a rump steak 
 by pounding it till quite tender; season with 
 salt, pepper and fresh butter. Put in the steak 
 and fry it; when brown on one side turn it 
 over; do not let it scorch. When nicely done 
 
18 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 take it up, put a little flour over the steak, then 
 add gradually a cup of hot water, seasoned with 
 more salt and pepper if necessary; then put the 
 water over the fire and boil again, and pour over 
 the steak. 
 
 Peel two dozen onions; put them on to boil 
 with about two quarts of water an hour before 
 the steak is put on to fry. When the steak is 
 done, cut them up, put them in the frying-pan, 
 season well with salt, pepper and butter, sprinkle 
 with flour, stir all well together, place over the 
 fire; stir often to prevent scorching; when they 
 are a little brown and soft, turn them over the 
 steak. 
 
 Mutton Roast. — The loin, haunch and saddle 
 of mutton and lamb must be done the same 
 as beef. All other parts must be roasted with a 
 quick, clear tire ; baste it when you put it down, 
 and dredge it with a little fiour just before you 
 take it up. A leg of mutton of six pounds will 
 require one hour to roast before a quick fire. 
 
 Mutton Haricot. — Take a loin of mutton, cut 
 it into small chops, season it with ground pep- 
 per, allspice and salt, let it stand a night, and then 
 fry it. Have good gravy well seasoned with 
 flour, butter, catsup and pepper, if necessary. 
 Boil turnips and carrots, cut them small, and add 
 to the mutton stewed in the gravy, with the 
 yelks of hard-boiled eggs, and forced-meat-balls. 
 Pork Roast. — Take a leg of pork and wash it 
 clean; cut the skin in squares; make a stuffing 
 of grated bread, sage, onion, pepper and salt, 
 moistened with the yelk of an egg. Put this un- 
 der the skin of the knuckle, and sprinkle a little 
 powdered sage into the rind where it is cut ; rub 
 the whole surface of the skin over with a feather 
 dipped in sweet-oil. Eight pounds will require 
 about three hours to roast it. 
 
 The Shoulder, Loin or Chine', and Spare- 
 rib are roasted in the same manner. 
 
 Saddle of Venison Roast. — The saddle is the 
 best piece for a small roast. Soak in water 
 over night ; I'emove all the skins. Insert small 
 pieces of pork, then wrap the piece in a cloth 
 saturated with vinegar, and set away for a day. 
 Lay some slices of salt pork in the pan with 
 some dry bread-crusts, salt the meat thoroughly 
 and put into the pan, add a little water, half a 
 cup of cream, baste very often, and roast in a 
 quick oven. 
 
 fea/ Roast. — Pursue about the same course 
 as in roasting pork. Roast before a brisk fire till 
 it comes to a brown color ; then lay it down, 
 baste it well with good butter and, when near 
 done, with a little flour. 
 
 Fresh Meat. — To keep a Week or Two in 
 Summer. — Farmers or others living at a distance 
 from butchers can keep fresh meat very nicely 
 for a week or two by putting it into sour milk 
 
 or butter-milk, placing it in a cool cellar. The 
 bone or fat need not be removed. Rinse well 
 when used. In cooking, four pounds of beef lose 
 one pound by boiling, one pound five ounces by 
 roasting, and one pound three ounces by baking: 
 four pounds of mutton lose fourteen ounces by 
 boiling, one pound six ounces by roasting, and 
 one pound four ounces by baking. 
 
 To Pickle Meat in One Day. — Get a tub nearly 
 full of rain or other soft water, put two pieces 
 of thin wood across it and set the beef on them 
 at about the- distance of one inch from the 
 water. Heap as much salt as will stand on the 
 beef and let it remain twenty-four hours, then 
 take off the beef and boil it, and you will find it 
 is completely impregnated by the salt, the water 
 having drawn it through the meat. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 Stuffing, Seasoning for. — One pound of salt, 
 'dried and sifted, half an ounce of ground 
 white pepper, two ounces of dried thyme, one 
 ounce of dried marjoram, and one ounce of nut- 
 meg. When this seasoning is used, parsley only 
 is required to be chopped in sufficient quantity 
 to make the stuffing green. The proportions are: 
 a half pound of bread-crumbs, three eggs, 
 a quarter pound of suet, a half ounce of 
 seasoning, and the peel of half a lemon grated. 
 
 Turkey Boiled. — Clean the turkey, fill the crop 
 with stuffing, and sew it up. Put it over the 
 fire in water enough to cover it ; let it boil 
 slowly ; take off all the scum. When this is 
 done, it should only simmer till it is done. Put 
 a little salt into the water, and dredge the turkey 
 in flour before boiling. 
 
 Turkey Roast. — A good-sized turkey should be 
 roasted two and a half or three hours — very 
 slowly at first. If you wish to make plain stuf- 
 fing, pound a cracker or crumble some bread 
 very fine, chop some raw salt pork very fine, sift 
 some sage (and summer savory or sweet marjo- 
 ram, if you have them in the house and fancy 
 them), and mould them all together, seasoned 
 with a little pepper. An egg worked in makes 
 the stuffing cut better. 
 
 Turkey Hashed. — Take meat from boiled fowls, 
 chop fine, put in saucepan, with seasoning to 
 suit taste. Serve on toast. 
 
 Chicken Boiled. — A chicken should be boiled the 
 same as a turkey, only it will take less time — • 
 about thirty-five minutes is sufficient. Use the 
 same stuffing, if any, and serve up with parsley or 
 egg-sauce. 
 
 Chicken Broiled. — Slit them down the back 
 and season with pepper and salt ; lay them on a 
 clear fire of coals, the inside next the fire till 
 half done, then turn and broil to a fine brown 
 color. Broil about thirty-five minutes. 
 
COOKING DEl'AKTMENT. 
 
 19 
 
 Chickens Fricaseed. — Take two large young 
 chickens, cut in small pieces, put in cold water 
 for one hour to take all the blood out, then put 
 in saucepan to parboil for half an hour, then take 
 from saucepan, drained well ; have ready one 
 quart good fresh cream, two ounces good butter_ 
 one ounce of flour, all well mixed together; put 
 in saucepan with the chickens ; put on the fire to 
 boil tender ; season with pepper and salt. Serve 
 with toast bread in the bottom of the dish. 
 
 Chicken Roast. — Chickens should be managed 
 in roasting the same as turkeys, only that they 
 require less time. From an hour to an hour 
 and a half is long enough. 
 
 To roast fowls the fire must be quick and 
 clear. If smoky it will spoil both their taste 
 and looks. Baste frequently, and keep a white 
 paper pinned on the breast till it is near done. 
 
 Ducks and Geese Roast — Take sage, wash and 
 pick it, and an onion ; chop them fine, with 
 pepper and salt, and put them in the belly ; let 
 the goose be clean picked, and wiped dry with a 
 cloth, inside and out; put it down to the fire, 
 and roast it brown. Ducks are dressed in the 
 same way. For wild ducks, teal, pigeons and 
 other wild fowl use only pepper and salt, with 
 gravy in the dish. 
 
 Pigeons Boiled. — Boil them about fifteen min- 
 utes by themselves ; then boil a piece of bacon. 
 Serve with slices of bacon and melted butter. 
 
 ENTREES AND MADE DISHES. 
 
 mayonnaise Sauce. — The yelks of two eggs 
 well beaten; one teaspoon ful salt; one table- 
 spoonful mustard ; about half a pint -sweet- 
 oil poured in dry by drop, beating all tlie time. 
 Thin the whole with lemon-juice or vinegar as 
 prepared. A little cayenne pepper may be used. 
 This dressing is suited for chicken, lobster or 
 other salad. 
 
 Chicken Salad. — To one chicken cut up in small 
 squares (light and dark meat may be used) 
 take three quarters of the bulk in chopped celery ; 
 for the dressing, the yelk of one raw egg well 
 beaten ; add the oil a drop or two at a time, beat- 
 ing well. Any amount of oil may be used in 
 this way so long as the mi.xture remains stiff. 
 Then add salt, mustard, pepper and vinegar to 
 taste. If lettuce is used, the pieces must be well 
 dried and broken, not cut. 
 
 Lobster Salad. — Take inside of large lobster, 
 mince fine, take yelk of two eggs boiled hard 
 and mashed fine, with four tablespoonfuls of 
 sweet-oil ; pepper, salt, vinegar and mustard to 
 taste ; mi.x well ; add celery or lettuce to taste ; 
 then, when serving, garnish with hard-boiled eggs. 
 
 Chicken Croquettes. — Take a chicken thoroughly 
 boiled and chop fine ; add half a cup cracker- 
 
 crumbs; season with salt, pepper, chopped pars- 
 ley ; add two cups drawn butter or chicken-broth ; 
 make into croquettes ; fry to a delicate brown, 
 and serve on a napkin. 
 
 Sweetbreads (Stewed). — Wash, then parboil, 
 cut into small pieces, stew in a little water un- 
 til tender ; add a teaspoonful of flour, a piece of 
 butter, and then boil up once. Serve with toast. 
 
 Sweetbreads (Broiled). — Parboil, rub with but- 
 ter, and broil ; turn often, and dip in butter that 
 they may not become dry. 
 
 Pressed Veal. — Boil three pounds of veal un- 
 til very tender ; remove from the kettle and 
 chop fine. Season with salt and pepper; add 
 three quarters of a pound of boiled ham chopped. 
 Let the hot broth be poured over the whole and 
 well mixed in a bowl or mould, and then set 
 away until cold and in shape. 
 
 Devilled Ham. — Take a pint of chopped ham 
 with a little fat ; mix a dessert-spoonful of mus- 
 tard with a little water, add it to the ham with 
 a spoonful of butter, and put in a pan over the 
 fire ; stir till heated through ; pour in a bowl or 
 mould, and set away to cool. 
 
 Chicken Pie. — Take one pair of good young 
 chickens, cut in small pieces, season with pepper 
 and salt and small strips of salt pork, put in 
 saucepan with water to cover it, boil for half an 
 hour, add flour and butter to thicken the gravy; 
 have ready a large dish lined with paste ; put all 
 in the dish, and cover with a good rich paste. 
 Bake for lialf an hour. 
 
 Veal Pot-Pie. — Take two pounds of best veal, 
 cut in small pieces, half pound of salt pork 
 sliced thin, four quarts of cold water ; pepper 
 and salt all, put on the fire; after boiling for one 
 hour have three pounds of light bread dough, 
 pick small pieces, say one-ounce pieces, put in 
 saucepan with the veal and pork, and let it boil 
 for twenty minutes. Serve as soon as taken 
 from the fire. 
 
 Strasburg Potted Meat. — Take one and a half 
 pounds of the rump of beef, cut into dice, 
 put it in an earthen jar, with quarter pound 
 of butter ; tie the jar close up with paper, and 
 set over a pot to boil ; when nearly done, add 
 cloves, mace, allspice, nutmeg, salt and cayenne 
 pepper to taste ; then boil till tender, and let 
 it get cold ; pound the meat with four anchovies 
 mashed and boned, add a quarter pound of 
 oiled butter, work it well together with the gravy, 
 warm a little, and add cochineal to color; then 
 press into small pots, and pour melted mutton 
 suet over the top of each. 
 
 Irish Stew. — Take four pounds of good breast 
 of fat mutton, cut in small pieces ; two large white 
 onions ; ten large potatoes, well peeled and sliced ; 
 put all in saucepan together, with fine herbs, 
 pepper and salt to suit — a little salt pork is a 
 
20 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 good addition — half pound flour, quarter pound 
 good fresh butter, well rubbed together, and let 
 it boil for one hour and have it well cooked. 
 
 Hashed Meat. — Take two pounds of fat corned 
 beef, well boiled and cold ; one pound of 
 well boiled potatoes, cold ; one large white 
 onion ; put in chopping-tray, mince it tine, put 
 all in saucepan together, add two ounces butter, 
 pepper and salt to taste ; add boiling water 
 to make it soft ; set it on a slow fire, stirring it 
 often. When well stewed, serve hot. It makes 
 a fine relish for breakfast. 
 
 Bologna Sausages. — Take thirty pounds of 
 chopped meat, eight ounces fine salt, two and 
 a half ounces of pepper, two teacups of sage, and 
 one and a half cups of sweet marjoram, passed 
 through a fine sieve, or, if preferred, thyme and 
 summer savory can be substituted for the latter. 
 
 Sausages (Bologna)— Take equal quantities of 
 bacon fat and lean beef, veal, pork, and beef 
 suet ; chop them small, season with pepper, salt, 
 etc., with sweet herbs and sage rubbed fine. Have 
 well washed intestines, fill and prick them ; boil 
 gently for an hour, and lay on straw to dry. 
 
 Sausage-Meat. — Take two pounds of lean meat, 
 one pound of fat pork, chop fine, and mix 
 with two tablespoonfuls of black pepper, one of 
 cloves, seven of powdered sage and five of salt. 
 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Vegetables as a rule are improved by lying in 
 cold water a while before being put into boiling 
 water. Green corn and peas require to be cooked 
 from 15 to 30 minutes ; asparagus, 20 to 40 min- 
 utes ; spinach, 10 to 20 minutes; parsnips, 30 
 minutes 10 i hour; cabbage, 45 minutes; beets, 
 I hour to 2 hours ; lima-beans (large), 40 min- 
 utes ; string-beans, i hour to 2 hours. 
 
 Succotash. — Take one dozen ears of corn, cut 
 the grains from the cob, add one quart of lima 
 beans, and mix with the corn ; put it on to boil 
 in three quarts of water with one pound of pork 
 cut ; add black pepper and salt to taste. When 
 the water has boiled away to one half the original 
 quantity, serve in a tureen as soup. 
 
 Baked Tomatoes. — Wash the tomatoes, take out 
 the seed, make a dressing of crumbs of bread 
 and onions chopped fine; add salt, butter and 
 pepper. Bake and serve hot. 
 
 Stewed Tomatoes. — Scald the tomatoes with 
 hot water, take off the skins, put them in an 
 earthen vessel, strain ofT the water, and add but- 
 ter, salt and pepper to taste. 
 
 Mashed Turnips. — Wash turnips, boil well, take 
 them up in the colander, press out all the 
 water, mash very fine ; season with salt, butter 
 and sugar. Serve hot with trimmings. 
 
 Macaroni Boiled. — Take two pounds, break in 
 small pieces, put in warm water to steep one 
 
 hour, drain oflf, put in saucepan with two quarts 
 fresh cream, with grated cheese ; season with 
 red pepper. 
 
 /?/ce Boiled. — To boil rice take one cupful and 
 wash it three times, letting it stand a few mo- 
 ments in the third water; put it then into three 
 quarts of boiling water with a little salt ; after 
 boiling twenty minutes pour into a colander; 
 then serve. 
 
 Saratoga Potatoes. — Peel and put whole into 
 cold water. After remaining an hour slice 
 very thin and 'throw into cold water for half 
 an hour, then drain and dry. Throw the slices 
 into a kettle of boiling lard, a handful at a time. 
 As soon as they begin to brown, skim them out 
 and sprinkle a little salt over them. 
 
 Stewed Potatoes. — Set two ounces of butter in 
 a pan over the fire ; when melted put the sliced 
 or chopped boiled potatoes into it, adding a little 
 milk or cream and stirring for about ten minutes. 
 
 Lyonnaise Potatoes. — To a quart of cold sliced 
 potatoes, placed in a pan, add two tablespoon- 
 fuls of butter and a little sliced onion, and fry 
 brown; when done, salt and pepper and add a 
 little butter. 
 
 Potato Croquettes. — Mash a quart of boiled 
 potatoes, add salt, pepper and butter, mix in 
 also two beaten eggs ; make into rolls or balls, 
 and fry in hot lard. A little milk may be used 
 if too stiff. 
 
 Cauliflower with Cream Sauce. — Boil the cauli- 
 flower, which should be washed, trimmed and 
 tied in a piece of coarse net or muslin. The 
 water should be salted and the cauliflower placed 
 stem end up. Prepare in a saucepan one cup 
 of scalding milk, one tablespoonful of corn-starch 
 wet with cold water, two tablespoonfuls of butter ; 
 pepper and salt to taste. Drain the cauliflower, 
 remove the net and place in a deep dish, flower 
 end up ; pour over the boiling sauce. 
 
 Winter Squash. — Pare and take out the seeds, 
 cut into pieces, place in cold water for about 
 one hour; boil until soft; drain off the water 
 thoroughly and mash, stirring in a spoonful of 
 butter, then salt and pepper. 
 
 Summer Squash. — Quarter summer squashes, 
 place in cold water ten minutes ; boil until ten- 
 der (about twenty minutes), remove the skins, 
 mash, pressing all the water out; add butter, salt 
 and pepper ; serve hot. Some persons pare the 
 squashes before boiling. 
 
 YEAST. 
 
 Recipes in this department may be proportion- 
 ally reduced whenever a smaller quantity only is 
 needed. 
 
 Compressed Yeast. — This yeast, so extensively 
 used in Europe, is obtained by straining the 
 common yeast in breweries and distilleries until 
 
COOKING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 21 
 
 a moist mass is obtained, wliich is then placed in 
 hair bags, and the rest of the water pressed out 
 until the mass is nearly dry. It is then sewed up 
 in strong linen bags for transportation. It will 
 keep a long time, and is very highly esteemed by 
 bakers. See Vienna Bread. 
 
 Hop Yeast. — Boil nine ounces of hops with three 
 pails of water ; put nine pounds of good flour in 
 a tub, and strain enough of the Ijipp-water over 
 it to make it into a stifT paste; beat it up thor- 
 oughly; strain in the rest of the hop-water into 
 the paste; let it stand until lukewarm ; then add 
 four and a half quarts stock yeast. It will rise 
 one to three inches, but do not disturb it until it 
 drops. 
 
 Stock or Malt Yeast. — Boil twelve ounces of good 
 hops with four pails of water for about five min- 
 utes ; then strain off enough of the liquid among 
 eight pounds of good sifted flour in a tub to ren- 
 der it into a stiff paste, working it up thoroughly 
 with a clean stick ; then add the rest of the li- 
 quid to the paste ; let it stand till lukewarm, and 
 pulverize any remaining lumps with your fingers. 
 Now add about eight pounds malt and si.\ quarts 
 stock yeast ; allow it to work in a warm place 
 till it rises and falls again, which will occupy 
 from eight to twelve hours; strain through a 
 hair sieve and stand in a cool place. In warm 
 weather four gallons cold water might be added 
 to the above previous to stocking it away. 
 
 Potato Yeast. — Pare and boil six potatoes and 
 mash through a colander; mix with six table- 
 spoonfuls of flour; pour on this a quart of boil- 
 ing water (the water in which the potatoes were 
 boiled is the best), add half a teacupful of sugar, 
 a tablespoonful of salt ; when cool mix in a tea- 
 cupful of home-made yeast or half as much brew- 
 er's yeast. 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 To make good bread, three things are neces- 
 sary — good flour, good yeast and careful baking. 
 
 Corn-Meal Bread, No. I. — Take two quarts of corn 
 meal, with about a pint of (thin) bread-sponge, 
 and water enough to wet it; mix in about half 
 a pint of wheat flour and a tablespoonful of salt ; 
 let it rise and then knead well the second time. 
 Bake one and a half hours. 
 
 Corn-Meal Bread, No. 2. — Mix two quarts of new 
 corn meal with three pints of warm water ; add 
 one tablespoonful of salt, two tablespoonfuls of 
 sugar and one large tablespoonful of hop yeast : 
 let it stand in a warm place five hours to rise; 
 then add one and a half teacupfuls of wheat flour 
 and a half pint of warm water. Let it rise again 
 one and a half hours, then pour into a pan well 
 greased with sweet lard, and let it rise a few min- 
 utes. Then bake in a moderately hot oven one 
 and a half hours. 
 
 Vienna Bread. — The proportions of Vienna 
 bread, confessedly inferior to none in the world, 
 are: Flour, one hundred pounds; water and 
 milk, nine gallons; salt, six pounds four ounces; 
 pressed yeast, eighteeen pounds twelve ounces. 
 According to Prof. Horsford, good fresh mid- 
 dlings flour will compare favorably with the av- 
 erage Hungarian flour used in Vienna. The 
 fresh pressed yeast is obtained by skimming the 
 froth from beer-mash in active fermentation. 
 This contains the upper yeast, which must be re- 
 peatedly washed with cold water until only the 
 pure white yeast settles clear from the water. 
 This soft, tenacious mass, after the water has 
 been drawn off, is gathered into bags and sub- 
 jected to hydraulic pressure, until there remains 
 a semi-solid, somewhat brittle, dough-like sub- 
 stance, still containing considerable water. This 
 is the pressed yeast, which will keep for eighty 
 days in summer, and much longer on ice. For 
 use it should be fresh and sweet. 
 
 The mixing is commenced by emptying the 
 flour-sacks into a zinc-lined trough about two 
 and a half feet wide and eight feet long, half 
 round in form. Then with a pail holding about 
 five gallons, equal parts of milk and water are 
 poured, and left to stand until the mixture at- 
 tains the temperature of the room, between 70° 
 and 80' Fahr. It is then poured into one end of 
 the trough and mixed by the bare hand with a 
 small portion of the flour to form a thin emul- 
 sion. The pressed yeast is next crumbled finely 
 in the hands, and added in the proportion of 
 three and a half ounces to every three quarts of 
 liquid, and then one ounce of salt in same pro- 
 portion is intermingled through the mass. The 
 trough is now covered and left undisturbed for 
 three quarters of an hour, and after this the rest 
 of the flour is incorporated with the mass in the 
 above-named proportions. 
 
 The mass of dough, being allowed to rest for 
 two and a half hours, becomes a smooth, tena- 
 cious, puffed mass of yellowish color, which yields 
 to indentation without rupture and is elastic. It 
 is now weighed into pound masses, and each 
 lump is cut by machinery into twelve small 
 pieces, each three quarters of an inch in thick- 
 ness. Of each one of these the corners are 
 brought together in the center and pinched to se- 
 cure them. Then the lump is reversed and 
 placed on a long dough-board for further fer- 
 mentation, until the whole batch is ready for the 
 oven. Before being introduced into the latter, 
 the rolls are again reversed and restored to their 
 original position, having considerably increased 
 in volume, to be still further enlarged in the oven 
 to at least twice the size of the original dough. 
 In the oven they do not touch each other, and 
 the baking occupies about fifteen minutes. To 
 
2-2 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 glaze the surface they are touched in the process 
 of baking with a sponge dipped in mill<, which, 
 besides imparting to them a smooth surface, in- 
 creases the brilliancy of the slightly reddish cin- 
 namon color and adds to the grateful aroma of 
 the crust. 
 
 Graham Bread. — Graham flour, three quarts ; 
 warm water, one quart; home-made yeast, one 
 gill ; molasses, one gill ; salt, one tablespoonful ; 
 soda, one even teaspoonful. Let it rise slowly 
 over night ; if sufficiently light, pour into pans 
 and bake about one hour and a half. 
 
 Raised Bread {Plain). — Three quarts flour; put 
 two quarts in pan and mix with three pints hot 
 water ; make into a sponge with a quarter cake of 
 compressed yeast. In the morning knead in one 
 quart of flour and set to rise. When light, mi.x 
 again and make into loaves and bake. 
 
 Boston Brown Bread. — Take one hundred pounds' 
 of Indian meal, fifty pounds rye meal, and ten 
 pounds flour ; sift and intermix together in the 
 trough; strain in four gallons molasses, two gal- 
 lons ferment or yeast ; dissolve one pound soda 
 and four pounds salt in water and add that. Now 
 add water enough to mix all rather stiff, mixing 
 well and breaking all lumps. Now mix in water 
 enough to form a batter sufficiently thin to re- 
 main even on top ; allow it to stand two or three 
 hours after mixing before putting it into the 
 pans and oven, then bake from six to ten hours 
 in a slow oven. 
 
 Buckwheat-Meal Bread. — To two quarts of sifted 
 buckwheat meal add hot water enough to wet 
 the same ; when sufficiently cooled, add one tea- 
 spoonful or more of salt, half a pint of yeast, and 
 half a teaspoonful of molasses ; then add wheat 
 flour enough to make it into loaves (it should be 
 kneaded well) ; and when risen light, bake or 
 steam it three or more hours. If this should get 
 sour while rising, add a teaspoonful of sugar and 
 a little saleratus, dissolved in water. For bread 
 from Indian meal proceed in the same way, us- 
 ing it instead of buckwheat meal. 
 
 BISCUIT. 
 
 Baking-Powder for Biscuit. — Bicarbonate of soda, 
 four pounds ; cream of tartar, eight pounds. 
 These ingredients should be thoroughly dried 
 and well mixed, and put up proof against damp- 
 ness. Use about three teaspoonfuls to each 
 quart of flour, mix up with cold water or milk, 
 and put it into the oven at once. 
 
 Cream-Tartar Biscuit. — Work in three pounds 
 sifted flour with two ounces butter; add two 
 ounces cream tartar; dish the middle and pour 
 in one pint milk and one pint water, previously 
 adding one ounce soda to the milk ; mix all up 
 briskly, but don't make it too' stiff. Flatten it 
 out; cut with a biscuit-cutter; place them on 
 
 buttered tins close together and bake in a quick 
 oven. 
 
 Raised Biscuit. — One quart milk, four potatoes 
 boiled and mashed through a colander, six ounces 
 lard, four teaspoonfuls sugar, one of salt, a small 
 cup of yeast ; mix all together with flour to 
 make a stiff batter over night; in the morning 
 add more flour (but not a stiff dough), set in a 
 cool place to rise, and about two hours before 
 you wish to bake them, roll out, cut in small 
 cakes and put into pans. 
 
 Parker-House Rolls. — Two quarts flour, one table- 
 spoonful sugar, half a teaspoonful salt, piece of 
 butter size of an egg, half a teacupful of yeast, 
 one pint scalded milk. Put the flour, butter, su- 
 gar and salt in a bowl ; make a hole in the flour; 
 pour in the milk a little warm, add the yeast and 
 mix in nearly all the flour ; let it stand till morn- 
 ing; knead in the reSt of the flour and let it rise 
 slowly till two o'clock; roll out about an inch 
 thick, cut into cakes; spread a little butter on 
 each and fold over, put in pans to rise till light 
 enough to bake for supper. 
 
 Graham Gems. — One quart Graham flour; stir 
 to a stiff batter with cold water; add salt, put 
 into hot buttered gem-pans and bake quickly. 
 
 Warren Tea-Cake. — Two cups flour, one egg, one 
 teaspoonful soda, a small piece of butter, a little 
 sugar, a little salt ; beat the egg in a cup and fill 
 it up with milk ; pour into the flour after the 
 other ingredients are stirred in. Small pans or 
 a gem-pan should be used, and the cakes should 
 be brought hot to the table and eaten with but- 
 ter. 
 
 PUDDINGS. 
 
 A pudding to be boiled should be put in a tin 
 
 pudding-boiler; close tightly, place in boiling 
 water, where it must remain from four to five 
 hours. Replenish with boiling water. 
 
 Green Gooseberries make a nice pudding by stir- 
 ring a pint of them into a pint of batter, and 
 either baking or boiling. 
 
 Hard Times Pudding. — Half pint of molasses or 
 syrup, half pint water, two teaspoonfuls of soda, 
 one teaspoonful of salt, flour enough to make a 
 batter; boil in a bag three hours. Eat it with 
 sauce. 
 
 Lemon Pudding. — Melt six ounces of butter, pour 
 it over the same quantity of powdered loaf-sugar, 
 stirring it well till cold, then grate the rind of a 
 large lemon, and add it with eight eggs well 
 beaten and the juice of two lemons; stir the 
 whole till it is completely mixed together, and 
 bake the pudding with a paste round the dish. 
 
 Orange Pudding. — Take one pound of butter, one 
 pound of sugar, ten eggs, the juice of two 
 oranges, boil the peel, then pound it fine and 
 mix it with the juice. Add the juice of one 
 
COOKING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 23 
 
 lemon, a wineglassful of brandy, wine or rose- 
 water. If you do not have the fruit, add the ex- 
 tracts. 
 
 Potato Pudding. — Baked potatoes skimmed and 
 maslied, twelve ounces ; suet, one ounce ; cheese, 
 grated fine, one ounce ; milk, one gill. Mix the 
 potatoes, suet, milk, cheese and all together; if 
 not of a proper consistence, add a little water. 
 Bake in an earthen pot. 
 
 Plum Pudding. — Pound six crackers, and soak 
 them over night in milk enough to cover them, 
 then add three pints of milk, four or five eggs, 
 half a pound of raisins ; spice with nutmeg and 
 sweeten with sugar and molasses. Bake about 
 two hours. 
 
 Ground Rice or Sago Pudding. — Boil a large spoon- 
 ful of it, heaped, in one pint of milk with lemon- 
 peel and cinnamon; when cold, add sugar and 
 nutmeg and four eggs well beaten. 
 
 Tapioca Pudding. — Pick and mash a coffee-cup 
 full of tapioca, and pour upon it one pint boiling 
 milk; after standing half an hour, add another 
 pint of cold milk, with sugar and raisins if you 
 desire. 
 
 Winter Pudding. — Take the crust of baker's loaf 
 of bread and fill it with plums, boil it in milk 
 and water. 
 
 Troy Pudding. — One cup of milk, half cup mo- 
 lasses, half cup butter, one cup chopped raisins, 
 three and a half cups flour; salt and spice to 
 taste, and boil five hours. Serve with cold or 
 hot sauce. 
 
 Cottage Pudding. — One cup sugar, one cup milk, 
 two cups flour, three tablespoons of melted but- 
 ter, two teaspoons cream tartar, one teaspoon 
 soda, one egg ; steam or bake ; serve with cream 
 or sauce. 
 
 Bird's-Nest Pudding. — -Mix two large tablespoon- 
 fuls of flour with a pint of milk ; add two well- 
 beaten eggs and a little salt ; pare and core six 
 large apples, butter a pudding-dish, set the apples 
 in, and pour over the batter. Bake three quar- 
 ters of an hour and serve with sweet sauce. 
 
 Baked Apple Pudding. — Pare and quarter four 
 large apples, boil them tender with a rind of a 
 lemon in so little water that when done no water 
 may remain, beat them quite fine in a mortar, 
 add the crumb of a small roll, quarter pound 
 butter melted, the yelks of five and whites of 
 three eggs, juice of lialf a lemon, sugar to your 
 taste, beat all well together, all in paste, 
 
 Corn-Starch Pudding. — Five tablespoonfuls of 
 corn-starch to one quart of milk, dissolve the 
 starch in a part of the milk, heat the remainder 
 of the milk to nearly boiling, having salted it a 
 little, then add the dissolved starch to the milk, 
 boil three minutes, stirring it briskly ; allow it to 
 cool, and then thoroughly mix with it three eggs, 
 well beaten, with three tablespoonfuls of sugar ; 
 
 flavor to taste and bake it half an hour. This 
 
 pudding ranks second to none. 
 
 Cocoanut Pudding. —To a large grated cocoanut 
 add the whites of six eggs, half pound of sugar, 
 six ounces of butter, half a wineglassful of rose- 
 water, and bake in or out of paste. 
 
 SAUCES FOR PUDDINGS. 
 
 Clear Sauce. — Boil a pint of water and a large 
 cup of sugar until clear and a little thickened ; 
 flavor with wine or fruit-juice. 
 
 Chocolate Sauce for Cottage or Plain Pudding. — One 
 coffee-cup of boiled milk, two tablespoonfuls of 
 chocolate -mixed with the yelk of an egg, cold 
 milk, a little sugar; stir into the boiling milk. 
 
 Kennebago Sauce. — Two cups powdered sugar, 
 two tablespoonfuls butter, one cup boiling water, 
 one glass sherry wine, nutmeg or cinnamon to 
 taste. Rub the butter into the sugar, add hot 
 water, then spice and wine. Cover tightly to 
 keep in the strength of the wine, and set for 
 twenty minutes in a saucepan of boiling water. 
 Stir and send hot to the table. 
 
 Hard Sauce. — To two cups powdered sugar take 
 half cup butter slightly warmed, so that it can 
 be easily worked up with the sugar. When well 
 mixed beat in half a teaspoonful nutmeg, add a 
 little sherry wine or lemon-juice, put on a plate 
 and set away to cool. 
 
 PIES. 
 
 Paste for Pies. — Rub together four pounds flour 
 and four pounds of lard, with salt sufficient; add 
 just water enough to mix the dough. It may be 
 better to put flour on the bench, make a set of 
 it, adding the salt, lard, water, and stirring to- 
 gether. 
 
 Paste to Cover Pies. — Mix together one and a 
 half pounds of lard or butter with two pounds 
 flour, with sufficient salt and water to mix. 
 Cranberry pies should have strips of puff-paste 
 across the top. the edges wet. and a strip of puff- 
 paste placed around the rim, keeping this strip a 
 quarter of an inch outside of the edge of the 
 plate, as it will contract while baking. 
 
 Puff-Paste Short for Pies. — Mix together four 
 pounds flour, one and a half pounds butter, add 
 four eggs, a little salt and one pint water or a 
 little more ; work all to a smooth paste, spread 
 out with the hand, put one and a half pounds 
 more butter in the middle, fold the dough over 
 the butter so as to cover it, let it stand five min- 
 utes, sift flour over the paste and on the slab, 
 roll out to the length of seven feet and three feet 
 wide (for half this quantity one half of these di- 
 mensions will be required). Fold it over and 
 turn so that the sides will face you. repeating 
 the rolling twice, when the paste will be fit for 
 use. For all kinds of fruit pies have your fruit 
 
24 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 sweetened to your taste, and then put in a short 
 crust. Bake in a hot oven. 
 
 Peach Pie. — Pare but do not stone ripe peaches ; 
 put them into pans well lined with paste, sweeten 
 well, cover with pastry and bake. Eat fresh, not 
 hot. Powdered sugar can be shaken over them. 
 
 Squash Pie. — To one pint of squash when boiled, 
 mashed and strained, add two cups milk, one 
 cup of sugar, four eggs well beaten, half a tea- 
 spoonful of ginger and a little mixed mace and 
 cinnamon. 
 
 Pumpkin Pie. — Slew the pumpkin dry, and make 
 it like squash pie, only season rather higher. In 
 the country, where this rc-a/ Yankee pie is pre- 
 pared in perfection, ginger is almost always used, 
 with other spices. There, too, part cream, in- 
 stead of milk, is mixed with the pumpkin, which 
 gives a richer flavor. 
 
 Washington Pie.— One cup of sugar, third of a 
 cup of butter, half a cup of sweet milk, one and 
 a third cups of flour, one egg, half a teaspoonful 
 of soda, one of cream of tartar, lemon flavor. 
 Grease two round tins, and put in the above. 
 Bake until done. Then put it on a dinner-plate, 
 spread with nice apple-sauce, or sauce of any 
 kind ; then another layer of cake on top. It is 
 nice without sauce, but sauce improves it. 
 
 Crumb Pie. — Mince any cold meat very finely, 
 season it to taste, and put it into a pie-dish ; 
 have some finely grated bread-crumbs, with a 
 little salt, pepper and nutmeg, and pour into the 
 dish any nice gravy that may be at hand; then 
 cover it over with a thick layer of the bread- 
 crumbs, and put small pieces of butter over the 
 top. Place it in the oven till quite hot. 
 
 Custard for Pies. — Put twelve eggs, half pound 
 sugar, half ounce salt, and a little extract of 
 lemon into a bowl, beat well together, add two 
 quarts milk and strain. 
 
 Lemon Pies. — Rub together one pound butter 
 and one and a half pounds flour, with cold water 
 sufficient to make a good stiff dough to bottom 
 your plates with, rimming them around with 
 puff-paste, and fill with the following mixture: 
 put into a bowl the juice of three lemons, the 
 grated rind of one with one and a half pounds of 
 finely powdered sugar and nine eggs. Mix 
 thoroughly, and fill your plates with the mixture ; 
 bake in a moderate oven. 
 
 A7iother filling. — Three lemons, six eggs, three 
 quarter pounds sugar, half pint milk, with salt 
 and nutmeg. Mix as the last. 
 
 Another without Lemons. — One pound sugar, 
 half pound flour, ten eggs, half pint milk, 
 quarter ounce tartaric acid, a little lemon essence 
 and salt. 
 
 Frosting for Lemojz Pies. — Four ounces pul- 
 verized sugar, whites of six eggs beaten to a stiflf 
 froth and the sugar gradually added to it ; inter- 
 
 mix thoroughly, cover the pies, top them off 
 with this frosting, run them into a moderate 
 oven and bake them to a nice brown. 
 
 Lemon Pie with Three Crusts.— A layer of crust, a 
 layer of lemon sliced fine, a little sugar, layer of 
 crust again, and sugar and lemon again, then 
 the upper crust. 
 
 Another Way. — One cup sugar, one cup 
 sweet milk, one egg, one and a half lemons, the 
 grated peel and juice, one tablespoonful flour; 
 then, after baking, the white of an egg beaten, 
 sweetened and put on the top, then set in the 
 oven and browned. 
 
 Mince Pies. — Meat one pound, suet three and a 
 quarter pounds, currants, raisins and plums two 
 pounds, one glass brandy or wine, allspice, cinna- 
 mon and cloves to your taste, sugar sufficient to 
 sweeten. Bake in a short crust. 
 
 Mince Pies, Filling for. — Boil three pounds of 
 chopped meat, clear of bones and tough pieces, 
 chop fine ; peel, core and chop nine pounds of 
 good apples, add four and a half pounds brown 
 sugar, three and a half quarts molasses, three 
 ounces each of nutmeg, cassia, cloves and all- 
 spice, three pounds raisins, one and a half pounds 
 currants, one and a half pints brandy, one gill 
 cider, three quarter pound salt. Mix all the 
 ingredients together in a vessel, omitting the 
 apples and brandy ; intermix well together; then 
 add them and reduce to the proper consistency 
 with water. Cover with a cloth, tying it down 
 tightly to prevent evaporation, and set away in a 
 cool place for use. 
 
 Orange Tartlets. — Two oranges, juice of both 
 and the grated peel of one ; three quarter cups of 
 sugar, two tablespoonfuls of butter, juice of 
 half a lemon, one teaspoonful of corn-starch 
 wet with lemon and a little water. Beat to a 
 rich cream and bake in small paste-shells. 
 
 Apple Pie. — Stew apples, green or ripe, after 
 having pared and cored them ; mash, sweeten, 
 and while hot stir in a teaspoonful of butter for 
 each pie, and season with nutmeg. When cool, 
 fill your crust, and crossbar with strips of paste, 
 or leave entirely uncovered, and bake. Eat hot 
 or cold, with powdered sugar if you like. 
 
 Sliced-Apple Pie. — Pare, core and slice tart ripe 
 winter apples, line your dish with a good crust, 
 lay in a stratum of fruit, sprinkle light-brown 
 sugar thickly over it, put in a half-dozen cloves, 
 and then another stratum of fruit, and so on till 
 you have the thickness you want. Cover with 
 crust and bake. Serve with powdered sugar 
 sifted over the top. 
 
 Cocoanut Pie. — Take one pound grated cocoa- 
 nut, half a pound powdered sugar, one quart un- 
 skimmed milk, six eggs beaten to froth, a little 
 nutmeg and a little vanilla or rose-water. Boil 
 the milk, remove from the fire, and gradually 
 
COOKING DEPARTMENT. 
 
 25 
 
 whip in the eggs. When nearly cold, season ; 
 add the cocoanut, and pour into paste-shells. 
 Bake twenty minutes. 
 
 If you pour the raw mixture into cups and 
 bake by setting in a pan of boiling water, stirring 
 once well as they begin to warm, you will have 
 Cocoanut Cup Custard. 
 
 Rhubarb Pie.— Pee] the stalks, cut in half-inch 
 lengths, strew plentifully with sugar, and fill the 
 crusts with the raw fruit. Cover, and bake about 
 forty minutes, take out and brush with eggwhile 
 hot, and return to the oven to glaze. 
 
 CAKES. 
 
 General Directions. — Always use the best mate- 
 rials. Cream the butter and sugar together. 
 Use a Dover egg-beater and beat whites and 
 yelks separately. Cream tartar should be sifted 
 through the flour; soda dissolved in hot water or 
 milk. The success of cake depends on having 
 the ingredients beaten together before the flour 
 is put in, after which stir as little as possible. 
 Shake a little sugar over the loaf before putting 
 into the oven ; this will insure a good top crust. 
 Bake well. Dried currants should be carefully 
 picked over and washed till clean, drained arid 
 spread to dry. Raisins should be stoned, cut or 
 chopped. Fruit should be dredged with flour 
 before putting in the cake, to prevent its settling. 
 
 Sponge Cake. — Six eggs, yelks and whites beat- 
 en separately ; two cups sugar, two cups flour, 
 a little salt, the juice and grated rind of a lemon. 
 Before the flour is put in, the cake should be 
 beaten a long time. After the flour is added, it 
 should be lightly stirred. This quantity will 
 make one large sheet or two small ones. 
 
 Cup Ca<-e.— Break up two pounds butter, add 
 three pounds sugar and sixteen eggs, a third at 
 a time; beat up light, add five pounds flour, two 
 pints milk, and ammonia two ounces; make all 
 smooth by thorough mixing. Bake in small 
 pans in a moderate oven. 
 
 Drop Calce. — Rub together three pounds sugar 
 and one and a quarter pounds butter ; add 
 thirteen eggs, in three different lots, three pints 
 of sour milk, one and a half ounces soda, one 
 and a half ounces ammonia; flavor with ex- 
 tract lemon, stir all well together, add flour suf- 
 ficient to make a stiff batter; drop on buttered 
 pans, bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Delicate Cake. — One half tumbler butter, one 
 tumbler sugar, whites of three eggs, two tumblers 
 flour (scant), one half tumbler milk, one tea- 
 spoonful cream of tartar, one half teaspoonful 
 soda. 
 
 Adrea's Cup Cake. — One half cup butter, one 
 cup sugar, one half cup milk, two cups flour, 
 two eggs, one teaspoonful cream of tartar, one 
 
 half teaspoonful soda. Dried currants may be 
 used. 
 
 Mountain Pound Cake. — One pound sugar, one 
 pound flour, one half pound butter, three quar- 
 ter cups of milk, one teaspoonful soda, two tea- 
 spoonfuls cream of tartar, six eggs, whites and 
 yelks beaten separately. The butter and sugar 
 should be beaten to a cream and part of the eggs 
 added, then the flour and milk, then the remain- 
 der of the eggs. 
 
 Marble Cake. — Light part : whites of three eggs, 
 one lialf cup butter, one half cup sugar,.one half 
 cup milk, two cups flour, one half teaspoonful 
 soda, one teaspoonful cream of tartar. Dark 
 part : yelks of three eggs, one cup molasses, one 
 half cup butter, two cups flour, one teaspoonful 
 soda, one third cup milk ; flavor with spices. 
 Butter the pan and put in the dark and light in 
 alternate layers, leaving the light on top. 
 
 Cream Cakes. — Take one quart water and one 
 pound dark coarse-grained lard ; boil together in 
 a kettle, and then stir in seventeen ounces of 
 best-quality flour; boil all four or five minutes, 
 or until it is quite smooth ; then turn it out on a 
 board, and scrape the kettle with a knife ; now 
 put your paste in the kettle again, with ten eggs ; 
 stir well together until all is smooth ; then add 
 eighteen or twenty more eggs, or until the bat- 
 ter is of the right thickness; next dissolve one 
 quarter ounce soda in a little water, and mix in 
 thoroughly; drop on pans slightly greased ; wash 
 them on top with egg, and bake in a quick oven. 
 They will require sixteen to eighteen minutes to 
 bake with a proper heat. When baked, remove 
 from the fire ; split them through the center and 
 fill them vi'ith the following cream : Place on the 
 fire one quart milk in a kettle, mix four ounces 
 flour, eight ounces white sugar, four eggs and a 
 little salt in another vessel ; when the milk boils, 
 turn in the mixture, stirringbriskly ; when it boils, 
 remove from the fire, and flavor with lemon or 
 vanilla as desired. 
 
 Orange Cake. — One cup granulated sugar, one 
 half cup butter, one half cup cold water, two 
 cups sifted flour, three eggs, reserving the whites 
 of two; two teaspoonfuls baking powder, juice 
 and grated rind of one orange. Bake on jelly- 
 cake tins. This will make three layers. Filling; 
 the whites of the two eggs, grated rind and 
 juice of half an orange or lemon, two cups pow- 
 dered sugar; place this between the layers and 
 a smooth thick coating for the top. 
 
 Jelly Cake. — Juice and rind of one lemon, two 
 eggs, one cup of sugar; cook the mixture in 
 boiling water till it thickens. 
 
 Apple-Jelly Cake. — Four apples peeled and 
 grated, juice and grated rind of one lemon, 
 beaten yelks of two eggs ; boil up and sweeten to 
 taste. Make any good cup-cake and bake in jel- 
 
26 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 ly-cake tins and put this filling between. The 
 whites may be used for frosting. 
 
 Silver Cake. — One cup sugar, a half cup butter, a 
 half cup milk, a half cup fiour, whites of four eggs, 
 one teaspoonful cream of tartar, a half teaspoon- 
 ful soda. Almond or rose is good for flavor- 
 ing. The same recipe for gold cake, using in- 
 stead the yelks and flavoring with vanilla. 
 
 Chocolate Cake. — A half cup butter, one and a 
 half cups sugar, two cups flour, a half cup milk, 
 three eggs, one teaspoonful cream of tartar, a 
 half teaspoonful soda. Filling : a half cake choc- 
 olate, add milk or water and piece of butter as 
 large as a nut ; sweeten and flavor to taste ; cook 
 it. stirring well, and spread between the layers 
 and on top before it cools and stiffens. 
 
 Wedding Cake. — One and a quarter pounds but- 
 ter, one and a quarter pounds sugar, one pound 
 flour, three pounds raisins, three pounds cur- 
 rants, two pounds citron, ten eggs, two wine- 
 glassfuls brandy ; spice to taste. 
 
 Pigeon-Cove Berry Cake. — One cup sugar, butter 
 size two eggs, one egg, four cups flour, one cup 
 milk, one and a half pints whortleberries or blue- 
 berries. Better eaten hot, but may also be used 
 cold, 
 
 Bath Cakes. — Mix well together one pound 
 flour, a half pound butter, five eggs and a cupful 
 of yeast ; set the whole before the fire to rise ; af- 
 ter it rises, add a quarter pound white sugar and 
 one ounce caraway seeds well mixed in, and roll 
 the paste into little cakes ; bake them on tins. 
 
 Brandy Snaps. — Mix up one and a half pounds 
 flour, a half pound butter, a half pound sugar, a 
 half ounce cloves, and a half pint molasses. 
 Mix all together and bake. 
 
 Cinnamon Cakes. — Put twelve eggs and six des- 
 sert-spoonfuls of rose-water into a bowl ; whisk 
 together, and add two pounds fine sugar and 
 one ounce of ground cinnamon and flour suffi- 
 cient to make a nice stiff paste ; roll them out ; 
 cut into any desired shape, and bake them on 
 paper, in a slow oven. 
 
 Citron Cake is made similar to the above, with 
 the addition of sliced citron when the flour is 
 added, or preferably put the citron on the batter 
 after it is in the pans. Bake as the last. 
 
 Cocoanut Cakes. — To each pound of grated co- 
 coanut add one pound of powdered sugar and 
 the whites of four eggs ; put all in a kettle and 
 cook on the fire for about thirty minutes, stir- 
 ring well all the time, and avoid burning ; cook 
 to a soft and mushy consistence ; turn it out and 
 add to each pound of cocoanut as previously 
 weighed two ounces of flour, working it well into 
 the mixture. Now put it in well-greased pans, 
 selecting a small piece in your hands, rolling it 
 round and laying it on the pans, putting them 
 about one inch apart, to allow for spreading, and 
 bake in a cool oven. 
 
 Ginger Snaps. — Put two quarts molasses, one 
 and a half pounds lard, three ounces ground 
 ginger, two ounces soda, and one pint water 
 into a bowl ; mix all together; add flour enough 
 to make a stiff dough, then work in two pounds 
 sugar; roll thin, cut in long strips in rolls 
 on the table; cut them off with a knife or cut- 
 ter the desired size, put on buttered tins, flat- 
 ten them down a little with the hand, and bake 
 in a slow oven. 
 
 Ginger Snaps. — Take seven pounds flour, one 
 quart molasses, one pound brown sugar, one 
 pound butter, two ounces ground ginger, and 
 then take one gill water, three quarter ounces 
 saleratus; mix them all into dough and cut them 
 out something larger than marbles, and bake 
 them in a moderate oven. 
 
 Seed Cakes. — Rub together one pound butter 
 and two pounds flour; then into a hollow in the 
 center put four pounds sugar, two quarts milk, 
 four ounces caraway seeds and a little ammo- 
 nia ; mix up, but do not work it much ; roll out ; 
 cut with a small cutter, and bake in a warm 
 oven. 
 
 Cross Buns. — Work twenty-four pounds dough, 
 two pounds sugar, two pounds butter, twelve 
 eggs and a little cinnamon into the dough, and 
 set away to rise ; then pinch them off in about 
 two-ounce pieces ; mold them up ; pin out ; put 
 on pans, and mark them across with a knife or 
 cross them with strips of dough. 
 
 Jumbles. — Rub together three pounds sugar 
 and two pounds four ounces butter; add twelve 
 eggs, a few at a time ; beat all up well ; add three 
 quarter ounces ammonia, one and a half pints 
 milk, a little extract lemon, and five pounds 
 four ounces flour, and stir sufficiently to mix. 
 
 Crullers. — One cup sugar, one cup milk, butter 
 size of an egg, two eggs, one teaspoonful cream 
 of tartar, a half teaspoonful soda, flour enough to 
 roll out, and cut into shapes just the right thick- 
 ness for frying well. The crullers should be 
 dropped into boiling fat. either lard or nice beef- 
 drippings well clarified. 
 
 No. 1 Crackers. — Butter, one cup ; salt, one tea- 
 spoon ; flour, two quarts. Rub thoroughly to- 
 gether with the hand, and wet up with water; 
 heat well, and beat in flour to make quite brittle 
 and hard ; then pinch off pieces and roll out each 
 cracker by itself. 
 
 Boston, or Soft Crackers. — First sift in four bar- 
 rels of flour into the trough, add two pails of 
 stock yea.st and about nine pails of water; mix 
 all into a sponge and allow it to stand until it 
 rises and falls twice. The sponge will require 
 about six or eight hours to become ready; if it 
 sours a little, so much the better. Usually it is 
 set about noon for the work next day, and if set 
 warm, for using stock yeast instead of ferment, 
 
COOKING DErARTMENT. 
 
 27 
 
 it will come less rapidly. The sponge being 
 ready, add to it from eight to ten pails more wa- 
 ter ; mix and break the sponge up well, making 
 a stiff dough, and let it stand until next morning. 
 It is requisite that the dough should be sour, to 
 insure good crackers. When ready, remove a 
 sample of it sufficient for one ovenful of crack- 
 ers ; take it to another part of the trough, and 
 add to it from five to six pounds of butter or 
 lard, the proportion to be added to be estimated 
 by the dimensions of the piece so separated ; 
 soda in solution is now to be added, made by 
 dissolving soda, one pound, in cold water, one 
 quart, and the detached piece of dough may be 
 intermixed with one pint of the liquid, repre- 
 senting eight ounces of soda, but the exact quan- 
 tity required must be ascertained by the acidity 
 or age of the dough and the judgment of an ex- 
 perienced practitioner. Mix the soda and butter 
 thoroughly into the dough, and put it through 
 the rollers repeatedly or until smooth. Place a 
 sample of this dough in the oven to determine 
 whether or not it contains the proper quantity of 
 soda. When baked, too much soda will induce 
 a yellow appearance, and mOre dough without 
 soda must be added ; a deficiency of soda will be 
 indicated by a sour smell, and in that case more 
 soda must be added. When all is right, the 
 dough is put through the machine, and the suc- 
 ceeding batch of crackers is commenced by se- 
 lecting another pieee of dough and proceeding as 
 above, adding the butter and soda in the required 
 proportion, each batch requiring more soda on 
 account of the increasing acidity acquired by 
 long exposure to the air. 
 
 Another way. — Set the sponge on the previous 
 night, and the next day, instead of making dough 
 of it, select a portion of the sponge, adding to it 
 the butter and soda as above directed, working 
 them well into it, and adding flour enough to 
 make a stifY dough, and it is ready for the break. 
 When you detach part of the sponge to make 
 the batch, add water enough to the sponge, and 
 stir it up with more flour, thus continuing to 
 renew the sponge as fast as it is used. 
 
 Cream Crackers. — Rub together fourteen pounds 
 flour and one pound butter ; then add one pound 
 pounded sugar, forty-eight eggs, and flavor; mix 
 thoroughly, and work it quite stiff and smooth ; 
 roll out quite thin ; cut them with a cutter in the 
 form of an oak leaf; put them into boiling water 
 and boil till they float ; remove with a skimmer 
 and dry them on cloths, and bake on clean pans 
 without being buttered, in a warm oven. 
 
 Oyster Crackers are made of the same dough, 
 using the scraps also. Butter, Sugar and other 
 crackers are made the same way, adding respec- 
 tively butter and sugar. 
 
 Soda Crackers are made by the same process, of 
 
 the same dough ; after using the scraps, add a 
 little more butter, rolling them thinner and cut- 
 ting them square. 
 
 Sugar Crackers. — Flour, four pounds; loaf-sugar 
 and butter, of each half a pound ; water, one and 
 a half pints. Make as above. 
 
 DESSERT. 
 
 B/anc Mange, Almond. — Take four ounces of al- 
 monds, six ounces sugar, boil together with a 
 quart of water, melt in this two ounces of pure 
 isinglass, strain in a small tin mold to stiffen it. 
 When wanted, dip the mold in hot water and 
 turn it out. 
 
 Blanc Mange, Lemon. — Pour a pint of hot water 
 upon half an ounce of isinglass; when it is dis- 
 solved add the juice of three lemons, the peel 
 of two lemons grated, six yelks of eggs beaten ; 
 add about a good wine-glass of Madeira wine to 
 it ; sweeten to your taste ; let it boil ; then strain 
 it and put it in your molds. 
 
 Charlotte Russe. — Take one pint milk; dissolve 
 with heat three ounces isinglass and one pound 
 sugar; add, after it is cool, one quart beaten 
 cream and flour; suit your taste, and line out 
 some mold with sponge cake, and put the cream 
 in it and cool. 
 
 Custard, Boiled, or Mock-Cream. — Take two table- 
 spoonfuls of corn-starch, one quart of milk, two 
 or three eggs, one half teaspoonful of salt and a 
 small piece of butter; heat the milk till nearly 
 boiling and add the starch, previously dissolved 
 in one quart of milk, then add the eggs, well 
 beaten, with four tablespoonfuls of powdered 
 sugar; let it boil up once or twice, stirring it 
 briskly, and it is done. Flavor with lemon or 
 vanilla or raspberry, or to suit your taste. 
 
 Creams, Lemon. — Take a pint of thick cream 
 and put to it the yelks of two eggs well beaten, 
 four ounces of fine sugar and the thin rind of a 
 lemon; boil it up, then stir till almost cold ; put 
 the juice of a lemon in a dish or bowl and pour 
 the cream upon it, stirring till quite cold. 
 
 Fruit. — Take one half ounce of isinglass dis- 
 solved in a little water, then put one pint of good 
 cream, sweetened to the taste; boil it. When 
 nearly cold lay some apricot or raspberry jam on 
 the bottom of a glass dish and pour it over. 
 This is most excellent. 
 
 Raspberry. — Put six ounces of raspberry jam 
 to one quart of cream, pulp it through a lawn 
 sieve, add to it the juice of a lemon and a little 
 sugar, and whisk it till thick. Serve it in a dish 
 or glasses. 
 
 Ice Cream. — Beat the required quantity of ice 
 very fine in a stout bag or by any other means, 
 and add fine salt in ratio of one part of salt to 
 four parts of ice, mixing thoroughly with a stick. 
 Pack the compound neatly in the freezer around 
 
28 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 the cylinder to the top, then put in the cream 
 (which should be cool) you wish to freeze, and, 
 after covering, proceed to turn the crank back 
 and forth alternately ten or twelve times each 
 way until the cream is sufficiently thick to beat, 
 which will be known by the opposition to the 
 beater, then turn forward quite briskly for a 
 short space in order to impart an even and good 
 appearance to the cream ; make thorough work 
 of the beating, then remove the beater, fill the 
 pail with ice and salt, and set away to harden. 
 It will not do to introduce additional ice or salt, 
 or allow it to grow stiff while beating, or beat it 
 too much, or to retard the freezing process by 
 pouring off water from the melted ice. The 
 right time to beat it is when it is dense enough 
 to rise, or about the thickness of light batter; if 
 beaten when rigid the product will not be so 
 satisfactory. As the cream expands in freezing, 
 the cylinder should be filled three fourths full 
 and no more. 
 
 Strawberry and Raspberry Cream Ice. — Pass three 
 pounds of picked .strawberries or raspberries 
 through a course hair-sieve, add one and a half 
 quarts double cream, two and a half pounds 
 sifted sugar, mix well together, freeze as above 
 and mold it. If a deep red is desired, it may be 
 imparted by a few drops of cochineal. 
 
 Ice Cream, Best Quality. — Beat well together nine 
 eggs with one and a half pounds sugar; boil 
 three quarts good cream, set it off for a short 
 space, then add the sugar and eggs, flavor with 
 vanilla, etc., to suit the taste. Let it cool, place 
 in the freezer and proceed as above. 
 
 Substitute for Cream. — Boil one quart of good 
 milk with one and a half ounces of arrowroot, 
 having first brought the milk to the boiling 
 point and mi.\ed the arrowroot smooth with a 
 little cold milk; remove from the fire, add two 
 fresh eggs, eight ounces of powdered sugar, stir 
 well, allow it to cool, and flavor previous to put- 
 ting in the freezer. 
 
 Orange Cream Ice. — Mi.\ together in a stew-pan 
 one quart milk or cream, one pound sugar, the 
 juice of eight oranges, the rinds of four oranges 
 rubbed on the sugar, and four yelks of eggs, un- 
 til the compound begins to thicken ; stir briskly, 
 and strain, freezing when cool, as above. 
 
 Pineapple Cream Ice. — Put on the fire in a cop- 
 per or tin vessel one pound of strained pine- 
 apple pulp, twelve ounces sugar, one and a half 
 pints milk or cream, and three yelks of eggs; 
 beat sufficiently to thicken, not to boil the cream, 
 strain the mi.xture into a vessel, and set aside to 
 cool previous to freezing. 
 
 Lemon Jelly. — Two ounces of Cooper's or Cox's 
 gelatine put to soak in a porcelain kettle with 
 one pint of water; after it has soaked fifteen or 
 twenty minutes put in about one pound of gran- 
 ulated sugar, the juice of four or five lemons — two 
 
 or three of the peels may be dropped in — and add 
 three pints boiling water; the kettle may be 
 placed on the back of the stove until thorough- 
 ly mixed, then remove, and strain through a 
 jelly-cloth or fine sieve into molds or a large 
 straight-edged dish ; set away to cool, and when 
 served take out of the molds in shape, or cut 
 in cubes. Some like, a little whiskey, as it gives 
 a bright taste. 
 
 Wine Jelly.— Made the same as lemon jelly ; but 
 instead of lemons stick-cinnamon should be 
 used, and about a pint of sherry or madeira wine 
 in place of one pint of water. A little brandy is 
 an improvement. Cochineal may be dissolved 
 and added if a rich wine color is desired. 
 
 Vanilla Snow. — Four tablespoonfuls of gelatine 
 soaked in a teacupful of cold water, one teacup- 
 ful boiling water added ; let all partly cool ; one 
 cup of sugar, then beat until wh.ite and foamy; a 
 cake-beater is excellent, but an egg-beater will 
 answer. Beat whites of four eggs to a stiff, 
 then pour into the gelatine mixture and beat all 
 together for perhaps fifteen minutes ; add three 
 teaspoonfuls vanilla flavoring. It should be 
 poured into a salad-bowl or large round dish, and 
 when cold hold its place heaped high in the dish. 
 It is a very handsome dish and very delicate; 
 good served with fruit or rich preserve. 
 
 DRINKS. 
 
 Tea — Tea should be strong, hot and freshly 
 made. If the tea is made in the kitchen the 
 water should be freshly boiled in the tea-kettle. 
 If a spirit-lamp is used on the table there is little 
 danger of the water being stale. Scald the tea- 
 pot, put in the tea and cover with boiling water. 
 Let the pot stand five minutes for the tea to 
 steep; it should be covered with a napkin or 
 "cosey," then fill up the pot with boiling water. 
 
 Cocoa. — Six tablespoonfuls of cocoa to each 
 pint of water, as much milk as water. Sugar to 
 taste. Rub the cocoa smooth with a little cold 
 water; have the quantity of water required boil- 
 ing on the fire ; stir in the grated cocoa paste ; 
 boil twenty minutes; add the milk, and boil five 
 minutes, stirring often. There is a preparation 
 of cocoa called cocoatina, which is powdered and 
 needs no boiling. 
 
 Chocolate. — Six tablespoonfuls of chocolate to 
 each pint of water, as much milk as chocolate. 
 Make a smooth paste of the chocolate with cold 
 water, and stir into the hot water ; boil .twenty 
 minutes ; stir in the milk and boil a few minutes 
 more; sweeten to taste. 
 
 Coffee. — Put a quart of boiling water into the 
 pot, wet a cupful of ground coffee with the white 
 of an egg and a little of the shell and cold water; 
 put all into the boiling water, and come up to a 
 good boil ; add a half cup cold water, let it settle 
 a few minutes, and it is ready to serve. 
 
FERMENTED AND OTHER BEVERAGES. 
 
 29 
 
 FERMENTED AND OTHER BEVERAGES. 
 
 Ale and Beer 30 
 
 American Champagne 31 
 
 American Wines 29 Delaware Wine 
 
 Anisette Cordial 32 
 
 Apple Toddy 3a 
 
 Beer and Ale 30 
 
 Belfast Ginger Ale 30 
 
 Blackberry Wine 31 
 
 Bottling Wine 30 
 
 Bouquet -. 29 
 
 Brown Stout 30 
 
 Catawba Wine 31 
 
 Champagne, American 31 
 
 Champagne Cider 32 
 
 Concentrated Lemonade 32 
 
 Concord Wine 29 
 
 Cream Soda ... 32 
 
 Currant Wine 31 
 
 Edinburgh Ale 30 
 
 Elderberry Wine 31 
 
 Fining Wine 30 
 
 Flavor 29 
 
 Ginger Ale 30 
 
 Ginger Pop 32 
 
 Gmger Wine 31 
 
 Glasgow Punch 32 
 
 Half and Half 30 
 
 Lager 30 
 
 Lemonade 32 
 
 Milk Lemonade 32 
 
 Milk Punch 32 
 
 Mint Julep 32 
 
 Ottawa Beer 31 
 
 Peppermint Cordial 32 
 
 Philadelphia Beer 30 
 
 Porter 30 
 
 Raisin Wine 31 
 
 Recipes 31 
 
 Root Beer 31 
 
 Serving Wine 30 
 
 Small Beer 31 
 
 Soda Syrups 3a 
 
 Spruce and Ginger Beer 31 
 
 Sweet Cider 32 
 
 Unfermented Wine 31 
 
 Virginia Port 29 
 
 Wine 29 
 
 WINE. 
 
 This term is usually applied only to the fer- 
 mented juice of the grape ; when other fruits are 
 used, the product is generally called home-made 
 or domestic wine. The first element which de- 
 termines the price of wines, as well as the duty 
 levied on them, is the amount of alcohol they 
 contain. Other qualities which they derive from 
 the grape-juice are taste and flavor. When fer- 
 mentation is not complete a certain quantity of 
 sugar is left, and according to the quantity left 
 wines are said to be " sweet" or " dry ;" the 
 term "dry" wine meaning that which has no 
 sweetness. 
 
 The flavor and bouquet are sometimes com- 
 pounded, but are really different. The vinous 
 flavor is common to all wines, but the bouquet is 
 peculiar to certain wines. The substance which 
 gives the flavor is the cenanthic ether, and is 
 formed during fermentation. 
 
 The bouquet is formed by some of the acids, 
 after fermentation, uniting with the ethyl of the 
 alcohol and forming ethers. The bouquet is that 
 which makes one wine pleasanter to drink than 
 another, and gives a great or small price when 
 the qualities are otherwise the same. 
 
 Saline compounds give a character to wine. 
 These are principally bitartrate of potash, tartrate 
 of lime, tartrate of iron, chloride of sodium, 
 chloride of potassium, with others. They do 
 not affect the flavor, but their presence is a sure 
 indication of the genuineness of certain wines. 
 
 Imported bottled wines are generally fit for 
 consumption after two or three months' rest to 
 recover from the agitation caused by traveling. 
 In this state they are said to be "sick." Cask 
 wine should rest the same length of time in a 
 cellar of even temperature. The proper time for 
 bottling wine must, of course, be determined by 
 a sample drawn from the cask. 
 
 AMERICAN WINES. 
 
 Until a recent period American wines were 
 seldom seen upon American tables, and even now 
 there is not as much known of them as their ex- 
 cellence demands, it being considered by compe- 
 tent judges that they are quite equal to many of 
 the European wines. The wines of the Atlantic 
 coast contain more acid, more sprightliness, 
 flavor and bouquet, while the wines of the Pacific 
 coast, or more commonly the California wines, 
 contain more spirit, little acid and little flavor or 
 bouquet. 
 
 V/hite Wines. — The Catawba wine is the most 
 used of white wines, but it varies according to the 
 part of the country it is made in, that from 
 northern New York, Ohio and Illinois being 
 more acid and of higher flavor than that from 
 farther south. The Delaware wine is next in 
 popularity, and is of good color and fine body. 
 The still wine is best. Other white wines are 
 lona. Isabella, Massasoit, Herbemont, and Louisi- 
 ana. 
 
 Red Wines. — Of these the Concordwine is almost 
 as much used as the Catawba. It has an invigo- 
 rating eflfect, and should supplant the lower-priced 
 imported clarets as it is better, cheaper and more 
 wholesome. Virginia Port is dark red, very 
 heavy, has a strong aromatic flavor and is con- 
 sidered the best medicinal wine in America. 
 Some of the other red wines are the Cynthiana. 
 Catawissa, Wilder and Devereaux. 
 
 California Wines. — Of these Hock is quite similar 
 to Rhine wine, and is largely drunk on the Atlan- 
 tic coast. California Port is strong and sweet, 
 probably on account of some sugar and alcohol 
 being added to it. The wines of the Sonora 
 Valley are of fine quality and hardly inferior to 
 the Catawba wine. Madeira, Sherry and Claret 
 are made in small quantities, but are of inferior 
 quality. 
 
30 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 An important fact about California wine is that 
 the makers have abundant supplies from their 
 vineyards, and therefore have little temptation to 
 adulterate tliem. 
 
 BOTTLING WINE. 
 
 Cool, clear weather is best for bottling wine. 
 Great care should be taken to cleanse the bottles 
 perfectly. Coarse gravel is good for this pur- 
 pose. The corks used should be fine-grained 
 and show few pores. A cock should be inserted 
 in the cask an inch and a half above the rim. As 
 soon as the wine is so low that it will not run 
 from the cock, the cask must be tilted (with 
 great care, to prevent the lees from rising), and 
 the rest of the liquor drawn immediately. The 
 bottles containing sediment should be set up- 
 right to settle, after which they may be decanted 
 and corked. 
 
 To prevent mold from collecting on the corks, 
 melt two pounds of rosin and a quarter of a 
 pound of yellow bees'-wa.x, and as it begins to 
 cool dip the bottles up to the rim around the 
 neck. 
 
 FINING WINE. 
 
 To fine white wine, take (for one hogshead) an 
 ounce and a half of isinglass dissolved in a pint 
 and a half of water and thinned with the wine. 
 Red wines are fined with the whites of eggs in 
 the proportion of twelve or si.xteen to the pipe. 
 They should be beaten to a stiff froth, and a pint 
 of wine and water added before pouring into the 
 liquor. 
 
 KEEPING WINE. 
 
 The temperature of the place where wine is 
 kept should be as near 50 degrees Fahrenheit as 
 possible. The bottles should be laid on the side 
 with the labels up, that they may be disturbed as 
 little as possible. The length of time wines may 
 be kept depends upon their strength. It maybe 
 roughly stated that clarets and light wines are 
 good from three to ten years; Burgundies and 
 heavier wines from five to thirty years ; Madeira, 
 port and sherry for an almost indefinite time. 
 
 SERVING WINE. 
 In serving wine do not ice it by putting ice 
 into the wine, but always put the bottles into a 
 vessel with the ice around them. When wines 
 are to be served of the temperature of the room, 
 they may be moderately warmed ; but it is better 
 to let them stand in the room before using, long 
 enough to acquire the right warmth. 
 
 ALE AND BEER. 
 
 Beer, German Bier, it a fermented liquor made 
 
 from malted grain. In Europe it is generally 
 
 made from barley, and in this country also from 
 
 wheat; hops being added to improve the flavor. 
 
 The more spirituous liquor made in England and 
 this country is called ale. German brewers 
 make a distinction between ale and beer on ac- 
 count of the different methods of fermentation; 
 ale being produced by rapid fermentation, while 
 beer is produced by a slow process in a cool 
 cellar. In this country the term lager-bier is ap- 
 plied to many kinds of beer made by the slow 
 process of fermentation, but not rightly, for it has 
 not lain long enough to acquire that name, and 
 is known among brewers as schenkbier, or beer 
 ready to be drawn. 
 
 Edinburgh Ale. — Employ the best pale malt — ist,. 
 mash two barrels per quarter, at 183°, mash 
 three quarters of an hour, let it stand one hour, 
 and allow half an hour to run off the wort ; 2d, 
 mash one barrel per quarter, at 180°, mash three 
 quarters of an hour, let it stand about three 
 quarters, and tap as before ; 3d, mash one barrel 
 per quarter, at 170°, mash half an hour, let it 
 stand half an hour, and tap as before. The first 
 and second wort may be mixed together, boiling 
 them about an hour or an hour and a quarter 
 with a quantity of hops proportioned to the time 
 the ale is required to be kept. The first two 
 may be mixed together, at the heat of 60°, and 
 the second should be fermented separately for 
 small-beer. The best hops should be used in the 
 proportion of about four pounds for every quarter 
 of malt employed. 
 
 Porter — Brown Stout. — Pale malt, two quarters; 
 amber and brown malt, of each one and a half 
 quarters ; mash at three times with twelve, seven 
 and six barrels of water; boil with hops, fifty 
 pounds ; set with yeast, twenty-nine pounds. Pro- 
 duct, seventeen barrels, or one and a half times 
 the malt. 
 
 Half and Half. — In London this drink is made 
 by mixing half porter and half ale; in America, 
 it is made by mixing half new and half old ale. 
 
 Philadelphia Beer. — Take thirty gallons water; 
 brown sugar, twenty pounds ; ginger-root, bruised, 
 one quarter pound ; cream of tartar, one and a 
 quarter pounds ; carbonate of soda, three ounces; 
 oil of lemon cut in a little alcohol, one teaspoon- 
 ful ; the whites of ten eggs, well beaten; hops, 
 two ounces ; yeast, one quart. The ginger-root 
 and hops should be boiled for twenty or thirty 
 minutes in enough of the water to make all milk- 
 warm, then strained into the rest and the yeast 
 added and allowed to work itself clear ; then 
 bottle. 
 
 Belfast Ginger Ale. — Double-refined sugar, pow- 
 dered, one pound ; bicarbonate of soda, three and 
 a half ounces ; citric acid, four and a half ounces ; 
 concentrated essence of ginger, one and a half 
 ounces; essence of cayenne, two drachms; es- 
 sence of lem'on, forty drops. The soda, acid and 
 sugar must be carefully dried separately at a 
 
FERMENTED AND OTHER BEVERAGES. 
 
 31 
 
 temperature not exceeding 120°; and the sugar 
 before drying must be thoroughly incorporated 
 with the essences, to which a small quantity of 
 caramel, as color, may be added. The whole 
 forms a powder, a dessertspoonful of which will 
 make a tumblerful of the drink. 
 
 Small-Beer. — A. liandful of hops to a pail of 
 water, a pint of bran, add half a pint of molasses, 
 a cup of yeast, and a spoonful of ginger. 
 
 Spruce and Ginger Beer. — Cold water, ten gal- 
 lons; boiling water, eleven gallons; mix in a 
 barrel ; add molasses, thirty pounds, or brown 
 sugar, twenty-four pounds; oil of spruce or any 
 oil of which you wish the flavor, one ounce; add 
 one pint yeast, ferment, bottle in two or three 
 days. If you wish white spruce beer, use lump 
 sugar ; for ginger flavor, use seventeen ounces 
 ginger-root, bruised, and a few hops ; boil for 
 thirty minutes in three gallons of the water, 
 strain and mix well ; let it stand two hours and 
 bottle, using yeast, of course, as before. 
 
 Root Beer. — Water, ten gallons, heat to 60° Fah- 
 renheit, then add three gallons molasses ; let it 
 stand two hours, pour it into a bowl and add 
 powdered or bruised sassafras and wintergreen 
 bark, of each a half pound; yeast, one pint; 
 bruised sarsaparilla root, half pound; add water 
 enough to make twenty-five gallons in all. Fer- 
 ment for twelve hours, then bottle. 
 
 Ottawa Beer and Ginger Ale. — Ottawa beer is made 
 by using eight ounces of a fluid e.xtract which con- 
 tains the concentrated strength of four pounds 
 of thirteen dififerent roots and barks, added to 
 one gallon syrup which is mixed with fourteen 
 gallons water, into which carbonic- acid gas is 
 forced at a pressure of eighty pounds to the 
 square inch. Ginger Ale is made in the same 
 way, except that four ounces of extract is suffi- 
 cient. When the ginger is really used, an extract 
 deprived of resinous impurities is rnade use of, 
 which gives a clear amber-colored drink. 
 
 RECIPES FOR BEVERAGES. 
 
 Catawba Wine. — Extract the juice from the 
 grapes in a cider-press or by squeezing them in a 
 cheese-cloth; to one and a half quarts of juice 
 add two and a half pounds of white sugar, and 
 fill up the gallon with water. The bung should 
 be left open till fermentation ceases. 
 
 Elderberry Wine. — Proceed the same as for Ca- 
 tawba wine, substituting brown sugar for white. 
 
 Currant Wine. — Select ripe currants, stem them, 
 mash thoroughly, and strain. To one gallon of 
 the juice add two of water, and to each gallon 
 of this mixture add four pounds of sugar, a gill 
 of brandy and a quarter ounce of powdered 
 alum ; put the whole into a clean cask to ferment. 
 In three to four months draw ofi, add another 
 gill of brandy, and bottle. 
 
 Blackberry Wine. — Wash the berries, and pour 
 one quart of boiling water to each gallon. Let 
 the mixture stand twenty-four hours, stirring oc- 
 casionally ; then strain and measure into a keg, 
 adding two pounds sugar, and good rye whiskey 
 one pint, or best alcohol half pint, to each gallon. 
 Cork tight, and put away for use. Some like 
 it best with a quart of brandy added to every 
 six gallons ; some prefer it without brandy. 
 After fermentation, take four ounces of isinglass 
 dissolved in one pint of the wine, and put to 
 each barrel, which will fine and clear it : when it 
 must be drawn into clean casks, or bottled, 
 which is preferable. 
 
 Raisin Wine equal to Sherry. — Boil the proper 
 quantity of water and let it stand till cold. To 
 each gallon of this add four pounds of chopped 
 raisins, previously well washed and freed from 
 stalks ; let the whole stand for one month, stir- 
 ring frequently; then remove the raisins, and 
 bung up closely for one month more ; then rack 
 into another vessel, leaving-all sediment behind, 
 and repeat till it becomes fine ; then to every 
 ten gallons add six pounds of fine sugar and one 
 dozen of good oranges, the rinds being pared 
 very thin and infused in two quarts of brandy, 
 which should be added to the liquor at its last 
 racking. Let the whole stand three months in 
 the cask, then bottle. It should remain bottled 
 twelve months. To give it the flavor of Madeira 
 when it is in the cask, put in a couple of green 
 citrons, and let them remain till the wine is bot- 
 tled. 
 
 Ginger Wine. — Water, ten gallons; lump sugar, 
 twenty pounds; bruised ginger, eight ounces; 
 three or four eggs. Boil well and skim ; then 
 pour hot on si.x or seven lemons cut in slices, 
 macerate for two hours ; then rack and ferment ; 
 nextadd spirit, two quarts, and afterwards finings, 
 one pint ; rummage well. To make the color, 
 boil half ounce saleratus and half ounce alum in 
 one pint water till you get a bright red color. 
 
 Unfermented Wine. — To make this, boil grapes 
 of any kind over a slow fire till the pulp has 
 thoroughly separated from the skin, adding just 
 enough water to prevent burning at the bottom 
 of the vessel, then press the juice through a fine 
 cloth and add one quarter its weight of sugar, 
 mix well, bring the juice to the boiling point 
 once more, and can -it in air-tight jars. This 
 wine will keep sweet for years, and has the color 
 of port. 
 
 American Champagne.— -GooA cider (crab-apple 
 cider is the best), seven gallons ; best fourth- 
 proof brandy, one quart ; genuine champagne 
 wine, five pints; milk, one gallon', bitartrate of 
 potassa, two ounces. Mix, let stand a short 
 time; bottle while fermenting. An excellent 
 imitation. 
 
39 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Champagne Cider. — -Good pale cider, one hogs- 
 head ; spirits, three gallons ; sugar, twenty 
 pounds; mix, and let it stand one fortnight; 
 then fine with skimmed milk, half a gallon ; this 
 will be very pale, and a similar article, when 
 properly bottled and labeled, opens so brisk that 
 even good judges have mistaken it for genuine 
 champagne. 
 
 Sweet cider can be kept fresh and sparkling 
 by heating it, not boiling it. but heating until al- 
 most boiling, and then bottling it, and sealing 
 tight at once. It is advisable to put one or two 
 raisins in each bottle. 
 
 Soda Syrups. — Loaf or crushed sugar, eight 
 pounds; pure water, one gallon ; gum arable, two 
 ounces ; mix in a brass or copper kettle. Boil 
 until the gum is dissolved, then skim and strain 
 through white flannel, after which add tartaric 
 acid, five and a half ounces; dissolve in hot 
 water ; to flavor, use extract of lemon, orange, 
 vanilla, rose, sarsapariUa, strawberry, etc. etc., 
 half ounce or to your taste. If you use juice of 
 lemon, add two and a half pounds of sugar to a 
 pint — you do not need any tartaric acid with it ; 
 now use two tablespoonfuls of syrup to three 
 quarters of a tumbler of water and one third tea- 
 spoonful of super-carbonate of soda, made fine. 
 Drink quick. For soda fountains, one ounce of 
 super-carbonate of soda is used to one gallon of 
 water. For charged fountains no acids are 
 needed in the syrups. 
 
 Cream Soda. — Loaf sugar, ten pounds; water, 
 three gallons ; warm gradually so as not to burn ; 
 good rich cream, two quarts ; extract vanilla, one 
 and a half ounces; extract nutmeg, half ounce; 
 tartaric acid, four ounces. Just bring to a boil- 
 ing heat, for if you cook it any length of time 
 it will crystallize. Use four or five spoonfuls of 
 this syrup instead of three as in other syrups ; 
 put half teaspoonful of soda to a glass, if used 
 without a fountain. For charged fountains no 
 ' acid is used. 
 
 Ginger Pop. — Take one pound white lump 
 sugar, one ounce cream tartar, one ounce gin- 
 ger, bruised, and one lemon cut in slices ; put 
 all into an earthen pot, and pour over them one 
 and a half gallons of boiling water; when luke- 
 warm, toast a slice of bread, spread it thickly 
 with yeast, and put into the liquor. Mix with it 
 the white of one egg and the crushed shell. Let 
 it stand till the next day, then strain and bottle. 
 It will be ready for use in a few days. 
 
 Anisette Cordial, 40 Gallons. — Put in a barrel 
 thirteen gallons 75 per cent alcohol ; dissolve 
 three and a half ounces essence of green anise- 
 seed in one gallon 95 per cent alcohol, and add 
 half gallon orange-flower water, eight or ten 
 drops infusion of mace and five drops essence of 
 cinnamon; then put in the barrel twenty-six 
 
 gallons sugar syrup, 25 degrees Baume; stir 
 fifteen minutes, and let it rest four or five days ; 
 then filter. Add two or three sheets of iiltering- 
 paper. 
 
 For a small quantity, take quarter of an ounce 
 of anise-seed ; one and a half pounds of refined 
 sugar; rectified spirits, two gallons; alum, quar- 
 ter of an ounce. Mix thoroughly, then bottle. 
 
 Peppermint Cordial. — Good whiskey, ten gallons; 
 water, ten gallons ; white sugar, ten pounds ; oil 
 peppermint, one ounce, in one pint alcohol; one 
 pound flour well worked in the fluid ; half pound 
 burned sugar to color. Mix, and let it stand one 
 week before using. Other oil in place of pepper- 
 mint, and you have any flavor desired. 
 
 Apple Toddy. — One tablespoonful of fine white 
 sugar, one wineglass of cider brandy, half of a 
 baked apple. Fill the glass two thirds full of 
 boiling water, and grate a little nutmeg on top. 
 
 Glasgow Punch. — Melt lump sugar in cold water, 
 with the juice of a couple of lemons, passed 
 through a fine wire strainer; then add old Ja- 
 maica rum, one part of rum to five of the liquid. 
 
 Milk Punch. — One tablespoonful of fine white 
 sugar, two tablespoonfuls of water, one wine-glass 
 of Cognac brandy, half wine-glass of Santa Cruz 
 rum, one eighth tumblerful of shaved ice ; fill with 
 milk. Shake the ingredients well together, and 
 grate a little nutmeg on top. To make it hot, use 
 Aa^ milk and no ice. 
 
 Mint Julep. — One tablespoonful white pulverized 
 sugar, two and a half tablespoonfuls water ; mix 
 well with a spoon. Take three or four sprigs of 
 fresh mint, press them well in the sugar and 
 water, add one and a half wine-glasses of Cognac 
 brandy, and fill the glass with shaved ice; then 
 draw out the sprigs of mint and insert them in 
 the ice with the stems downwards, so that the 
 leaves will be above in the shape of a bouquet; 
 arrange berries and small pieces of sliced orange 
 on top in a tasty manner, dash with Jamaica 
 rum, and sprinkle sugar on top. Sip with a 
 glass tube or straw. 
 
 Lemonade. — Half a pound of granulated sugar, 
 one gill of lemon-juice free from seeds, one 
 quart of water; mix the three ingredients. Add 
 ice before serving. Lemons should be well rolled 
 before squeezing. 
 
 Concentrated Lemonade. — Take essence of lemon, 
 quarter of an ounce ; citric acid, two ounces ; 
 lump sugar, three and a half pounds ; water, one 
 quart. Put the sugar into the water when cold, 
 boil it, then pour it hot on the acids. Bottle it 
 when cool. When serving, put a teaspoonful of 
 syrup into a tumbler of water. 
 
 Milk Lemonade. — Half a pound of sugar in a 
 quart of boiling water; add one gill of lemon- 
 juice, one gill of sherry and a pint of milk. Stir 
 the whole well together. Strain till clear. 
 
MARKETING. 
 
 33 
 
 MARKETING. 
 
 Beef 33 [ Lamb 35 i Pork. 
 
 *' Billy Gray" 33 I Mutton 34 I Veal . 
 
 35 
 34 
 
 In the "good old times," as the fashion is to 
 describe preceding generations, it was much 
 more customary than now for the head of the 
 family, husband or wife, to " go to market." The 
 inevitable basket in which the purchases were to 
 be conveyed home, was carried generally by the 
 housekeeper, sometimes by an accompanying 
 servant. " They tell " how a young dandy, mak- 
 ing his morning purchase in Faneuil Hall market, 
 hired a plain-looking old man for a trifle to carry 
 home his marketing, and how the old man, after 
 performing his task and receiving the promised 
 pay, touched his hat and asked his employer 
 
 personally attend to their own marketing, as a 
 morning visit to any large market will show: 
 and their number might, with advantage to home- 
 tables, be greatly enlarged. Beef and veal, mut- 
 ton and lamb, and pork, are the standard meats 
 expected in market. 
 
 BEEF. 
 
 In the New York markets a beef creature is 
 usually cut up according to the following dia- 
 gram : 
 
 The pieces marked S are commonly used for 
 steaks : and the numbers on the top of the back 
 
 Choice Heifer for Beep. 
 
 Cut up and numbered as usual in New York City and vicinity. 
 
 I S. Hip sirloin or thick sirloin. g S. Third-cut chuck rib or chuck-piece 
 
 3. Second-cut ribs or middle ribs. lo S. Rump of beef. 
 
 3 S. Small end sirloin. ,,. Socket or face rump. 
 
 12. First-cut round. 
 
 13. Second-cut round. 
 
 14. Top of sirloin. 
 
 15 S. First-cut neck or neck-piece. 
 
 16 S. Second-cut neck or neck-piece. 
 
 4. First-cut rib or first rib-piece. 
 
 5. Third-cut ribs or thick ribs. 
 
 6. First-cut chuck ribs. 
 
 7 S. Second-cut chuck rib. 
 
 8 S. Cross rib. 
 
 17. Plate-piece. 
 
 18. Navel-piece. 
 
 19. Brisket-piece. 
 
 20. Shoulder clod. 
 
 21. Flank-piece. 
 
 22. Third-cut neck or neck-piece. 
 
 23. Leg of beef or leg. 
 
 24. Shin of beef or shin. 
 
 when thereafter he wanted such a service, to 
 "remember Billy Gray" — a name then standing 
 near the top of Boston's rich men. Now, in the 
 cities and large towns, and in their vicinity, the 
 butchers come or send for, and deliver orders; 
 the housewife thus being served, if the butcher 
 be capable and honest, more easily and cheaply 
 than in the old way. Many a goodman, as he 
 carves and distributes the savory jomt, is unable 
 to tell, e-xcept in the most general way, from 
 what part of the " creature" it came ; nor can the 
 good-wife help him. Still there are many who 
 
 show the number of ribs in each roasting piece. 
 In other parts of the country the butchers cut up 
 the beef in slightly varying ways, and use differ- 
 ing names. 
 
 Good beef has a firm, fine grain, and a yellow- 
 ish white fat. When first cut, it is of a quite 
 dark red color, but after a short exposure to the 
 air, turns to a clear cherry red. The beef should 
 have a juicy or sappy appearance, with a fine 
 smooth grain to the touch, and in cold weather, 
 or after having been thoroughly cooled by ice, it 
 should present a well-mixed or marbled appear- 
 
34 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 ance. The fat should be of a clear straw-colored 
 look, and that on the outside should entirely 
 cover the back of the loin and ribs, in some 
 places not less than half an inch. The suet 
 should be of a brighter shade than the meat or 
 muscle fat, should be hard and dry, break easil}', 
 and show little liber. When oily or greasy, or 
 tough and showing tough fiber, you may know 
 , that the animal has been overdriven, or impro- 
 perly fed, and that the beef is not what you 
 want. 
 
 A great deal may be written, and unnumbered 
 directions given, as to the best cutting up of 
 meat, and as to what parts are the most appe- 
 tizing and nutritious, but any person can learn 
 this so much more easily by seeing a creature cut 
 up, and taking notice what parts turn out best in 
 cooking, that we will not here attempt it. "Beef- 
 steak" is said to have been discovered by a Ro- 
 man of rank who had been set, as a punishment, 
 to act as a menial sacrificer to Jupiter ; and in 
 performing the task to which he was forced, 
 caught a piece that dropped from the coals. It 
 burned his fingers, which he then thrust into his 
 mouth. The slice thus carbonaded revealed to 
 him a secret that all the world now enjoys. 
 
 Here are the rules adopted one hundred and 
 fifty years ago, by the celebrated English " Beef- 
 steak Club." They are as good to-day as they 
 were then : 
 
 •' Pound well your meat, until the fibers break ; 
 Be sure that ne.xt you have, to broil the steak, 
 Good coal in plenty; nor a moment leave, 
 But turn it over this way, and then that. 
 The lean should be quite rare — not so the fat. 
 The platter now and then the juice receive. 
 Pat on your butter — place it on your meat — 
 Salt, pepper; turn it over, serve and eat." 
 
 De Voe, in his "Market Assistant," gives the 
 following as the origin of "porterhouse steak." 
 A man named Morrison kept a porter-house 
 frequented by sailors, one of whom, a pilot, came 
 in hungry and called for a steak, just as Morrison 
 had cooked the last he had cut. He had no beef 
 except a sirloin roasting piece for his next day's 
 family dinner; and from this he cut off a steak for 
 the pilot, which so pleased him that he ordered 
 another, and demanded that thereafter all his 
 steaks should be like that. Others agreed with 
 him, and Morrison's butcher had to learn to cut 
 them that way " for the porter-house ;" whence 
 the name "porterhouse steak." 
 
 VEAL. 
 
 The calf, slaughtered and dressed, is called 
 veal. In dressing, the skin is usually left on 
 until the day it is offered for sale, being retained 
 on the carcass for the purpose of keeping the 
 flesh bright, moist and clean. It is generally cut 
 up according to the following diagram : 
 
 X. Loin of veal. 5. Breast of veal, 
 
 2. Leg of veal. 6. Calf's bead. 
 
 3. Shoulder of veal. 7. Calf's feet. 
 
 4. Neck of veal. 
 
 The best veal is that of a calf not under four 
 or more than six weeks old, healthy and properly 
 fed. When wholly fed from the cow, the flesh is 
 what is called milk veal, white, tender, and deli- 
 cate. After six weeks the calf requires more 
 food than it can get from its mother alone ; and 
 this additional food increases the darkening 
 which would naturally take place. When turned 
 out and wholly fed on grass, the flesh becomes 
 poor, dry, tasteless and dark. 
 
 Good veal should be fine-grained, tender and 
 juicy, the fat firm and whitish. Not too white, 
 which may show that the calf was bled before 
 slaughtering, which, though it makes the veal 
 whiter, takes away juiciness and flavor. 
 
 The loin, breast and shoulder are used for 
 roasting pieces. Chops are cut from the loin and 
 from the neck. The neck is used for pies, frica- 
 sees, stews, etc. ; the leg for cutlets, fricandeaux, 
 stews and roasts. A fillet of veal is a solid piece 
 cut from the leg ; and the lower part, the knuckle, 
 is very satisfactory for soups and sauces. 
 
 The season for veal is April to September. It 
 is not a nutritious or easily digested meat, but it 
 is so available for different nice dishes, and its 
 price so low in the season, that it always sells. 
 
 MUTTON. 
 
 A sheep, to make the best mutton, should be 
 between three and five years old. The fat is then 
 better mixed through the flesh when full fed, and 
 if not driven too far the animal will have a large 
 kidney fat. The cosset-wether generally makes 
 the best mutton. The fat should be white, clear 
 and hard, the scored skin in the fore-quarters 
 nearly red, the lean firm, succulent and juicy, 
 darkish red. and the leg bones clear, and almost 
 or quite white. 
 
 The hind-quarter of mutton is made up of the 
 leg and the loin, and taken from a prime animal 
 will weigh twenty to thirty pounds. For a large 
 family or a boarding-house, the whole hind- 
 quarter makes a fine roast; but for a small family 
 
MARKETING. 
 
 35 
 
 either the leg alone, or the loin alone, is better. 
 The leg has comparatively little bone, and al- 
 though the price is greater, it is the most econo- 
 mical piece to buy. The two loins j lined to- 
 gether are called a saddle. 
 
 Mutton is usually cut up as in the following 
 diagram : 
 
 1. Leg of mutton. 
 
 2. Shoulder of mutton. 
 
 3. Loin of mutton. 
 
 4 and 6. Neck of mutton. 
 
 5. Breast of mutton. 
 
 6. Scrag (end of the neck). 
 
 7. Flank of mutton. 
 
 The fore-quarter includes the shoulder and 
 breast, and with the shoulder-blade taken out 
 makes a good roast for a large family. The 
 shoulder alone is good for roasting or broiling. 
 and the breast alone can be used for a roast, for 
 broths, or.for stewing. Rib chops are cut from 
 the breast. 
 
 Chops and cutlets are cut from the loin. They 
 are called long if the flank is cut on them, and 
 short if it is not. 
 
 LAMB. 
 
 Lamb is cut and sold like mutton, but will not 
 keep as long, for, being juicy, it taints more 
 readily. When nearly a year old, it loses its 
 tenderness and begins to taste like mutton. It 
 is in season from May to September. 
 
 To choose lamb, examine the fat on the back 
 and that of the kidneys, both of which should be 
 white, hard and of the same color. Beware of 
 two or three colors of fat found about the dress- 
 ing of the hind-quarters, as very likely the differ- 
 ence comes from the mixing of two animals. 
 Watch against a blown or spongy appearance, 
 indicating human breath, which you certainly do 
 not want to buy — at any rate, in that shape. 
 
 PORK. 
 
 In spite of the peremptory prohibition of 
 pork among the ancient Hebrews, which has 
 come down unchanged to their descendants, the 
 present Jews — or Israelites, as they prefer to be 
 called — and the occasional discouraging words 
 which are flung at it by a doctor. Pork holds its 
 
 own. It makes an enormous part of the meat 
 consumed to-day ovA a large part of the civilized 
 world. That word covers the flesh of all ages 
 and both se.xes, natural, altered or spayed, after 
 the creature ceases to be a " roasting pig." 
 
 For immediate use the best pork is from an 
 animal whose carcass will weigh from fifty to a 
 hundred and twenty pounds. The skin should 
 be nearly white and semi-transparent in color; 
 the fat on the back should be at least half an inch 
 thick, firm and white, and the lean of a pale red- 
 dish color. Larger hogs, those used for bacon, 
 hams, etc., have a thicker and coarser skin than 
 the younger and lighter, and their meat, though 
 equally sweet, tender and juicy, is of a darker 
 color. Such animals run from one hundred and 
 fifty to five hundred pounds, though sometimes 
 their weight reaches ten to twelve hundred 
 pounds. The quality of their flesh depends much 
 upon their feeding, Indian-corn, it is generally 
 agreed, giving the most desirable pork. 
 
 The animal is thus cut up : 
 
 Leg or fresh ham. 
 
 Shoulder (after being trim- 
 med). 
 
 Chops or cheeks. 
 , 4. Loin pieces. 
 , 5. Rib, or chine pieces. 
 
 6. Brisket. 
 
 7. Flank. 
 
 8- Tail-piece. 
 
 9. Neck-piece, 
 
 lo- Plate, or skuU, 
 
 II. Feet. 
 
 There are variations here and there from this 
 method (especially with hogs cut up for export), 
 but we need not consider them here. 
 
 The legs and shoulders are usually salted and 
 smoked. The loin of a large animal has two or 
 three inches of the fat cut with the rind. This 
 is salted, and the loin roasted fresh. In a small 
 animal the loin is scored and roasted. The ribs 
 are treated like the loin, and when the rind and 
 fat are taken off, are called spare-ribs, and can be 
 roasted. The ribs and loin are used for steaks 
 and chops. The brisket is corned, as is also the 
 flank. The head and feet are often sold fresh. 
 Generally, however, the head is halved and 
 quartered and corned, and the feet are usually 
 pickled. The inside fat and the scraps are 
 cooked slowly until dissolved, then strained and 
 cooled, and the product is called lard. 
 
36 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 
 
 [By the kindness of Charles K. Ovington, Esq., of the Firm of Ovington Brothers, Brooklyn and 
 Chicago, we are enabled to furnish the following matter, taken from a very interesting pamphlet prepared 
 by him for his Firm.] 
 
 Ancient Pottery 37 
 
 Early History 36 
 
 Modern Pottery: 
 
 Austria 41 
 
 China 41 
 
 Denmark 41 
 
 England 38 
 
 Modern Pottery; 
 
 England 38 
 
 France 40 
 
 Germany 40 
 
 Holland 40 
 
 Hungary 41- 
 
 Italy 41 
 
 Modern Pottery: 
 
 Japan 41 
 
 Oriental 4' 
 
 Russia 41 
 
 Sweden 41 
 
 United States 42 
 
 Porcelain 37 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 
 
 Earl/ History. — The rudest and simplest pot- 
 tery is formed by hand from common clay, 
 and dried and hardened by heat. This much 
 knowledge must have been gained at an early- 
 stage in the world's history, for it is certain 
 that pottery must have been somewhat per- 
 fected before any metals could be produced. 
 The commonest example of this earliest and 
 rudest pottery, is the ordinary building brick, 
 which, with the ware known as terra-cotta. be- 
 longs to the division of unglazed pottery. The 
 manufacture of this ware is very simple. The 
 earliest method was doubtless to form the vessel 
 by hand from a moist clay, and to dry it in the 
 sun. The use of fire was the first improvement ; 
 the next \Tas the potter's wheel. Both of these 
 are of great antiquity, as is attested by represen- 
 tations of them upon old Egyptian tombs. The 
 potter's wheel is a very simple contrivance for 
 aiding the potter in producing perfectly round 
 pieces, of a better finish than the rudely fashioned 
 hand-made ware. The wheel is a flat- disk or 
 table revolving upon a central support, and kept 
 in motion by the potter or his assistant. The 
 potter throws a lump of clay upon the wheel, and 
 while it is motion fashions it with his hands into 
 whatever shape he may wish. His only tool is 
 a wood or metal gauge, with which he forms or 
 tests the outline of the piece. 
 
 Pieces of an irregular shape are made by hand 
 in a much slower and more laborious way. 
 Handles, knobs and raised ornaments are formed 
 separately, and applied to the piece with a mix- 
 ture of water and clay. After the piece has dried 
 in the open air, it is put in a large oven or kiln, 
 and fired at a high temperature. This is the 
 process employed in almost every pottery. Terra- 
 cotta made in this way may be painted in oil or 
 varnish colors, or if mineral colors are used it 
 may be baked again and the decoration made 
 permanent. 
 
 Pottery was made in this way for a long time 
 before any further improvements were inaugu- 
 
 rated. The need of something to overcome the 
 porosity of the ware was long felt, and the 
 Greeks made use of a coating of bees'-wax for this 
 purpose. Some Egyptian potter conceived the 
 idea of covering the ware with a coating of glass. 
 To make this adhere it was necessary to mix 
 sand with the clay. This art was probably intro- 
 duced by the Egyptians to the Eastern nations. 
 The addition of a considerable quantity of oxide 
 of lead to the glaze, makes it more brilliant and 
 much easier to melt; powdered borax is also 
 used for the same purpose. Earthenware glazed 
 in this manner was for a long time the only sort 
 made in England, and is still very largely used. 
 
 Before the glaze is applied the ware may be 
 painted in mineral colors; but as potters' clay is 
 always of a red or buff color, the designs do not 
 show distinctly. To obviate this the Italian pot- 
 ters covered the piece with a thin coating of fine 
 white clay, which could then be painted and 
 glazed as before described. Another very simple 
 way of decorating this ware consists of cutting 
 away the white coating so as to show the darker 
 ground clay, this ware being known as sgraffito, 
 or etched. It was found that a richer and purer 
 body color could be obtained by mixing oxide of 
 tin with the glaze, which changes by heat into a 
 white enamel, upon which the most artistic de- 
 signs can be painted and the richest and most deli- 
 cate colors and lusters used. This is the nature 
 of the Italian majolica, the manufacture of which 
 still lingers in Italy in the towns where it gained 
 its early triumphs, and is reflected in the French 
 faienceries of Gien and Limoges, and in Minton's 
 English pottery. The wonderful luster colors 
 used on this ware were kept a profound secret in 
 two Italian workshops, to which ware was sent 
 from all parts of the country to receive the en- 
 richment of the iridescent lusters. This method 
 of glazing was abandoned on account of the high 
 price of tin, of which much is used. 
 
 The kind of pottery known as stone-ware has 
 been made in England from very early times : it 
 differs from ordinary earthenware in being much 
 heavier, and capable of resisting the greatest 
 
MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 
 
 37 
 
 amount of heat. At first it was glazed with 
 lead, but some one discovered that common salt 
 answered this purpose much better, forming a 
 perfectly pure, strong and beautiful glaze, capable 
 of resisting the greatest amount of heat or chemi- 
 cal action. The Flemish gray and Doulton 
 wares are examples of the artistic perfection to 
 which this pottery may be brought. 
 
 The great aim of English potters has been to 
 make and perfect a pure white earthenware. 
 Wedgwood introduced the cream-colored ware 
 called queen's-ware, which is still largely used. 
 A fine white clay was brought from Cornwall to 
 the potteries, and ironstone and calcined flints 
 and bones were largely used to improve the color 
 and quality of the ware. The English earthen- 
 ware is now acknowledged to be the best made. 
 
 True Parian marble has a peculiar delicate play 
 of light and shade upon the surface, caused by 
 the mixture becoming partially vitrified, and 
 allowing the light to penetrate a short distance 
 below the surface. 
 
 Bisque, which is made in France and Ger- 
 many, is porcelain baked and left without a glaze. 
 
 Earthenware may be decorated in mineral col- 
 ors either before the pieces are glazed or after. 
 The first method is the most durable. The pot- 
 tery having been baked once, is presented to the 
 artist in a porous state, and may be either painted 
 or printed. In the first instance the artist paints 
 the pattern in mineral colors, leaving each clear 
 and distinct; the porous ware soaks up the color 
 rapidly, rendering it impossible for errors to be 
 corrected. This is the method of majolica and 
 faience decoration. In printing, the pattern is 
 transferred from paper to the porous ware. Then 
 the piece is glazed and fired. In the other 
 method of decorating, the ware is glazed and 
 baked before the colors are applied. The paint- 
 ing can be done with more delicacy and finish, 
 and the work can be re-touched if not satisfac- 
 tory. The crazing or cracking of the glaze of 
 pottery is generally caused by an unequal expan- 
 sion of the glaze and body by heat. This crackle 
 is sometimes intentionally produced, as in the 
 celebrated Chinese rose crackle, the Japanese 
 kioto ware, and the Longwy faience. 
 
 Pottery may be divided into glazed and un- 
 glazed. 
 
 Unglazed pottery is classed as hard or soft 
 according as it is more or less easily scratched 
 with a knife. 
 
 Glazed pottery is classed according to the 
 nature of the glaze, as : 
 K, Lead-glazed; such as common earthenware: 
 Hi Glass-glazed; as the antique pottery : 
 
 Enameled, or opaque glazed; as the Italian 
 majolica : 
 
 Salt-glazed; or stone-ware. 
 
 PORCELAIN. 
 
 Porcelain is classified by the best authorities 
 as Hard paste. Soft paste, and English. The 
 hard paste cannot be scratched by steel, and is 
 made of a clay formed by the decomposition of 
 feldspathic rock ; hence it is called a natural por- 
 celain. The Oriental, German and French por- 
 celains all belong to this class. 
 
 The other porcelains, though formed of nearly 
 the same materials, are glazed with a compound 
 of pounded glass, the English containing in addi- 
 tion both lead and calcined bones, which impart 
 a peculiar softness and luster. These are called 
 artificial porcelains. Old Sevres and Vincennes, 
 and the modern Pate-tendre, are the best ex- 
 amples of the soft-paste porcelain. Copeland 
 and Minton are the leading manufacturers of Eng- 
 lish porcelain. 
 
 Porcelain may be modeled by hand or formed 
 on the potter's wheel, in the same manner as 
 earthenware, but there are two other processes 
 of making it; viz., pressing and casting. In the 
 first method a thin roll of the clay is laid in a 
 mold and pressed into the desired form. In 
 casting, the molds are formed of plaster of Paris, 
 with an opening at the top. The clay is dis- 
 solved in water to the consistency of cream, 
 and the mold is filled. The plaster absorbs the 
 water, and a thin coating of clay adheres to the 
 mold. This operation is repeated until the re- 
 quired thickness is obtained. The process of 
 casting is specially adapted to pieces bearing 
 a fine or intricate pattern in relief. 
 
 ANCIENT POTTERY. 
 
 Antique pottery is found in almost all parts of 
 the world ; that discovered by Dr. Schliemann in 
 his excavations on the site of ancient Troy bears 
 marks of great antiquity. Fragments of pottery 
 have been found in Egypt at such a depth below 
 the present ground-level as would indicate that 
 they must have remained there at least 5000 
 years. There is every reason to believe that 
 Egypt was the first country to produce porcelain 
 as well as a perfected earthenware. From Egypt, 
 the art may have traveled through Phenicia to 
 Greece and Rome, and east through Assyria and 
 India to China and Japan. The Chinese porce- 
 lain manufacture was well established about the 
 commencement of the Christian era, and reached 
 its greatest perfection about the twelfth century ; 
 while the Japanese were but a little behind 
 them. The Eastern potters greatly improved the 
 quality of the colors and glazes of the enameled 
 pottery, while the Greeks perfected the forms of 
 their vases and ornamented them with silhouette 
 designs. After the fall of the Greek empire, 
 Grecian artists continued the work in Rome and 
 
38 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Etruria; hence the name of Etruscan applied 
 to these vases. The Romans themselves pro- 
 duced a red glazed pottery called Samian, which 
 manufacture they carried to nearly all their pro- 
 vinces. 
 
 From this time until the fourteenth century 
 there was very little artistic pottery made in Eu- 
 rope. The next great artistic inspiration came 
 from Arabia and Persia. The Saracens, overrun- 
 ning Africa and Spain, brought with them their 
 various arts and sciences, and potteries were estab- 
 lished at Majorca, Valencia, Malaga and Grana- 
 da, whence richly glazed and decorated pottery 
 was sent to Italy. These pieces were imitated 
 by the Italian potters, at that time producing 
 only common work, and carried to a high point 
 of perfection by such artists as Luca della Rob- 
 bia, Georgio Andreoli, and Orazio Fontana. 
 With the e-xtinction of the ducal houses that had 
 been the munificent patrons of the art in Italy, 
 the manufacture speedily declined ; and the ex- 
 pulsion of the Moors from Sicily, Spain and Ma- 
 jorca, put an end to these potteries. Offshoots 
 of the Italian potteries had been established in 
 France and Holland, where a sort of majolica 
 continued to be made at Delft, Moustiers, Ne- 
 vers, and Rouen. 
 
 Oriental porcelain was introduced into Europe 
 by the Portuguese and the Dutch, and imitated 
 extensively at Delft and in England. Many 
 attempts were made to make a true porcelain 
 in Europe ; the first that was successful was in- 
 augurated at Florence by the Duke Francis de 
 Medicis, and produced a few pieces of a curious 
 blue porcelain; Porcelain was afterwards made 
 in France at St. Cloud. Vincennes and Sevres, in 
 England at Chelsea, Bow and Derby, and in Ger- 
 many at Meissen, Vienna, Berlin and elsewhere. 
 Many of these original potteries are still in ope- 
 ration. 
 
 Almost all the porcelain imported into the 
 United States comes from France, either plain or 
 more or leiss ornamented. We are also import- 
 ing small amounts of French earthenware, both 
 painted and printed, and majolica reproductions 
 of Palissy ware. From England comes most of 
 the earthenware, parian and majolica, and some 
 finely decorated china and stone-ware. From 
 Germany we import a little of the finest porce- 
 lain and of the common pottery, and a good deal 
 of cheap china and bisque ornaments. Denmark 
 has sent us a few pieces of the exquisite Copen- 
 hagen terra-cotta. Russia, Sweden, Spain and 
 Italy produce characteristic porcelains, faiences 
 and majolicas, only a very few pieces of which 
 are exported. 
 
 In treating of the different potteries and of 
 their distinguishing characteristics, each country 
 will be taken in order, and the leading potteries 
 
 described, giving an account of their history, 
 present condition and the nature of their pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 MODERN POTTERY. 
 
 England. — One of the oldest, and certainly the 
 most celebrated pottery in Staffordshire, is that 
 founded by Josiah Wedgwood at Etruria and 
 now conducted by his descendants. Wedgwood 
 was unquestionably the greatest of English pot- 
 ters ; indeed, it is not too much to say that no 
 other potter ever did so much for the advance- 
 ment of his art and of his country, or made so 
 great improvements in the art of potting, as 
 Wedgwood. During his lifetime, and in a great 
 measure as the result of his labors, potting ad- 
 vanced from a neglected trade to one of the 
 greatest industries of England, giving regular 
 employment to thousands of operatives and pro- 
 ducing pieces that have since been unrivaled. 
 Wedgwood invented eight or nine different 
 kinds of ware, the most noted being the cream- 
 colored or queen's ware, the jasper, commonly 
 called " Wedgwood " ware, and the black basalt, 
 which he himself liked best of all. His cream- 
 colored ware was unquestionably the best thing 
 then made, and it has a warmth of color which is 
 very pleasing. It is the jasper-ware, however, 
 by which Wedgwood is best known, and in which 
 he executed his reproductions of the Portland or 
 Barberini vase. This vase was found in a Ro- 
 man tomb, and passed from the collection of the 
 Barberini to that of the Duchess of Portland. 
 Then it was sold at auction for over a thousand 
 pounds, Wedgwood obtaining from the pur- 
 chaser, the Duke of Portland, the right of mak- 
 ing copies of it. The vase is made of dark blue 
 glass, upon which, in low relief, are engraved 
 figures of an opaque white glass. Wedgwood 
 formed the body of his vase of a hard clay, col- 
 ored blue, and forming the figures in molds of a 
 pure white clay, he applied them to the vase, 
 which was then fired. A great deal of this ware 
 is still made, some of it fully equal to the old, 
 and also a superior quality of earthenware, often 
 finely decorated. 
 
 After Wedgwood, the name most celebrated in 
 the annals of English pottery, is that of Min- 
 ton. Thomas Minton used to engrave on copper 
 the patterns for printing earthenware. The 
 most celebrated of these is that known as the 
 " Willow" pattern, which he copied in 1780 from 
 a Nankin plate, and which has enjoyed a great 
 popularity to this day. He founded the pottery 
 still conducted under his name, but does not 
 seem to have done much toward improving the 
 quality of the ware. His son, Herbert Minton, 
 made great progress in the manufacture of pot- 
 tery; introduced the manufacture of porcelain, 
 
MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY. 
 
 39 
 
 and originated the manufactiireof encaustic tiles. 
 It is with this last work that his name is most 
 strongly linked, and "Minton tiles" are now 
 world-famous. 
 
 Minton 's potteries are situated at Stoke-on- 
 Trent in Staffordshire, and comprise four sepa- 
 rate and almost distinct establishments, devoted 
 respectively to the manufacture of common 
 earthenware, fine earthenware, porcelain and tiles. 
 The cheaper earthenware made by Minton dif- 
 fers little from that made by other and less 
 known makers ; the colors are strong, the pat- 
 terns always good, and the ware of fine quality. 
 A good deal of handsomely printed ware is made 
 in this department. 
 
 The method of manufacturing fine earthen- 
 ware is the same as that of the commoner ware. 
 In this department the most noted improve- 
 ments have been in the coloring; a rich turquois 
 blue, and gorgeous shades of red, yellow, green 
 and purple, having been introduced by Persian 
 ware, which is copied from the Persian ware of 
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
 
 Majolica, in the commonly accepted meaning 
 of the word, is a pottery generally coarse in tex- 
 ture, entirely covered with opaque colors or 
 enamels, and with a very lustrous glaze. In 
 speaking of Italian pottery, majolica applies only 
 to those glazed with a metallic luster. 
 
 The Minton china is as fine as any made in 
 England. The glaze melts at a much lower tem- 
 perature than that of the French or German 
 porcelain, allowing the use of richer and more 
 tender colors. Minton's studio of china decora- 
 tions contains some of the most skillful artists 
 in England, and the quality of their work is very 
 superior. A specialty of theirs is the pate-sur- 
 pate, or paste-over- paste decoration, which is 
 the work of M. Solon, a Frenchman, whom they 
 tempted away from the Sevres factory. In this 
 ware the vase or article to be ornamented is 
 formed of the porcelain clay and colored some de- 
 cided hue. The china clay is dissolved in water 
 until it is about as thick as cream, and then ap- 
 plied to the article, which absorbs the water and 
 leaves a fine white coating of clay. When the 
 vase is fired the clay is vitrified, and the design 
 stands out clear and free, the relief being pro- 
 duced by a greater thickness of clay. Minton 
 also makes the finest quality of Parian marble 
 statuary, many pieces being finely modeled, and 
 all of them carefully finished. 
 
 The next factory in importance is that of Cope- 
 land: this too is an old house, the firm having 
 included Josiah Spode, a contemporary of Wedg- 
 wood, and second only to him in his labors for 
 the improvement of English pottery. A rich 
 straw-colored ware of his invention, superior in 
 some particulars to Wedgwood's queen's-ware, 
 
 was recently revived by the firm under the name 
 of Spode or Ivory ware. In porcelain they rival 
 Minton and Worcester, while their Parian is 
 unequaled either for the quality of the ware or 
 the variety and beauty of their productions, which 
 are modeled by the most celebrated English 
 sculptors, such as Gibson, Raphael Monti, Flax- 
 man, Malempre, Durham, Westmacott and others. 
 Their printed earthenwares are good in design 
 and very reasonable in price. 
 
 In the district of Staffordshire known as the 
 " Potteries," there are 190 firms engaged in the 
 manufacture of earthenware, and 40 in that of 
 china. Many of the china works are in Long- 
 ton, a town noted for the cheapness of its pro- 
 ducts. 
 
 Besides these large establishments and others 
 like them, uniting such varied manufactures, 
 there are many smaller ones making a specialty 
 of some particular manufacture, as Parian, earth- 
 enware or majolica. 
 
 Outside of Staffordshire there is little pottery 
 made in Great Britain, the most noted factory 
 being that at Worcester, where, in 1761, John 
 Wall, a chemist, commenced the manufacture of 
 a porcelain somewhat like the Vincennes ware. 
 This became quite popular, and the works were 
 called by the king the Royal Factory. The manu- 
 facture of glazed Parian has recently been intro- 
 duced, many of the pieces being richly colored, 
 some of them in imitation of the Japanese lac- 
 quered ivories. The ware is exquisitely trans- 
 parent, and very delicate in design; some of it can 
 only be told from the early work by the absence 
 of the early mark. The colors used are very 
 rich, brilliant and various; the delicate turquois 
 blue, the Chinese blue, and some shades of red 
 and pink are especially noticeable. The Wor- 
 cester artists have always had a decided leaning 
 toward Oriental design; a yellow pottery in imi- 
 tation of the Awata, enameled in Japanese de- 
 signs and covered with clouds of reddish gold, is 
 a marvel of beauty. Their white earthenware 
 covered with Japanese emblems printed in a dark 
 blue, is one of their characteristic styles. 
 
 An older, but less known pottery, is that of 
 Coalbrookdale, which dates back to 1756. This 
 factory has a reputation for making excellent 
 copies of the Chelsea, Bow and Derby wares ; 
 their soft-paste porcelain is highly esteemed by 
 English connoisseurs. 
 
 The clays used in the manufacture of English 
 pottery come from the south-western counties of 
 Cornwall, Dorset and Devon. There is now only 
 one pottery of note in these counties. This is at 
 Torquay, and produces very fine terra-cotta of a 
 deep red color, smooth in texture and graceful in 
 shape. A rich blue enamel has been introduced 
 that contrasts admirably with the red clay, and 
 
40 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 the pieces are sometimes tastefully etched and 
 engraved. Statuettes and figures, as well as 
 vases and all sorts of fancy articles, are made here. 
 
 Lambeth, a suburb of London, has been the 
 seat of potteries for several centuries. Nearly a 
 century ago, John Doulton here established a 
 pottery for the manufacture of stone-ware. Noth- 
 ing of an artistic nature was produced until 1861, 
 when vessels of stone-ware were etched with 
 various patterns, and attracted considerable at- 
 tention at the London Exiiibition. Thus en- 
 couraged, the manufacture was continued and 
 confidence gradually gained. The ware made 
 dififers only in quality from the stone-ware in 
 common use. There is quite a variety of color ; 
 dark blue, blue-gray, stone-grav. brown and black. 
 The pieces may be decorated in four different 
 ways: ist. By etched or engraved patterns cut 
 in the clay, and rubbed in with color ; 2d. By 
 designs cut in bas-relief, or geometrical or other 
 patterns impressed in the clay; 3d. By dotted 
 or beaded patterns; 4th. By painting or enamel- 
 ing. This stone-ware is very hard and strong. 
 and pitchers, vases and tankards made of it are 
 much used for mantel and sideboard ornaments. 
 Terra-cotta ware is also manufactured here, as 
 well as what is called the Lambeth faience, a 
 rude ware handsomely painted, and covered with 
 a rich glaze. 
 
 France. — The French porcelain manufacture is 
 centered in the city of Limoges; but the oldest- 
 and most important manufacture is that of 
 Sevres, and of this we will first treat, as being 
 the artistic center of the French ceramic manu- 
 facture. In 1698 soft porcelain was made at St. 
 Cloud, and in 1753 the manufacture was removed 
 to Vincennes and taken under the royal pro- 
 tection. After a time the works were removed 
 to Sevres.where they now remain, having passed 
 under the control of the various republics, king- 
 doms and empires to the present time. 
 
 Old Sevres ware commands very high prices; 
 and doubtless, when rendered scarce by age, the 
 ware now made will be very valuable. At first, 
 only soft-paste porcelain was made, and the 
 colors were very rich, the celebrated Rose du 
 Barry and Bleu du Roi being the most celebrated. 
 Hard paste was first made in 1768, and the manu- 
 facture of the soft paste was discontinued from 
 1804 until 1854. 
 
 The Sevres porcelain is very pure, white and 
 translucent, some of the pieces equaling in thin- 
 ness the celebrated Japanese egg-shell china. 
 The decoration of the Sevres ware has always 
 been in the hands of the most competent and 
 skillful artists, and the reputation of the factory 
 is sustained to-day by some of the first fiower- 
 painters of France. Flower-painting, in detached 
 flowers, sprays and garlands, was always the 
 
 forte of the Sevres artists, though portrait and 
 historical painting was not neglected, and at one 
 time the works of Watteau were largely copied. 
 Efforts are now being made to introduce new 
 colors and processes, especially towards repro- 
 ducing the rich coloring of the Chinese. A cloudy 
 blue sometimes mottled with gold, and giving the 
 effect of lapis lazuli, is a specialty with this fac- 
 tory. All modern pieces of the Sevres ware bear 
 the mark of the factory, the letter S and the last 
 two figures of the date. 
 
 While Sevres is the artistic, Limoges is the 
 commercial center of ceramics in France. A fine 
 bed of kaolin was discovered near here in 1746, 
 and soon after that the manufacture was started 
 here, and has since steadily increased. Much of 
 the porcelain is sold without being decorated, 
 but now the taste for ornamental ware is increas- 
 ing, and handsomely painted and tastefully 
 printed sets arc in demand. The French porce- 
 lain ditTers principally from the English in its 
 greater hardness and purity. Of the pate-tendre, 
 or soft-paste porcelain very little is made, as the 
 manufacture is exceedingly difficult; but the 
 wonderful softness and translucency of the col- 
 oring repay the extra trouble and expense. 
 
 Limoges faience is the name popularly applied 
 to the variety of earthen ware which isornamented 
 with flowers modeled in relief an^ highly colored 
 and glazed, although it is made in many parts of 
 France, as well as in Brooklyn and Cincinnati, 
 U. S. A. 
 
 In Alsace and Lorraine, along the valleys of 
 the Saar and the Rhine, iS a group of manufac- 
 tories that produce a strong, cheap and practical 
 earthenware, used very extensively in France, 
 Germany and Italy. These potteries are situated 
 at Nancy, Luneville, Sarrequemines and Sarre- 
 Louis in France, Longwy in Germany, and Maes- 
 trich in Holland. 
 
 Holland.— A.t Maestrich a quaint sort of pottery 
 is made, and at Delft the traditions of the town 
 are kept up in the manufacture of tiles and 
 earthenware, decorated in blue, in the old Delft 
 fashion. 
 
 Germany.— The pottery of Longwy produces 
 many quaint and unique pieces. The crackle- 
 work is much used here, and the masses of rich 
 enamel separated by fine black lines, when used 
 in connection with the fine network of crackle, 
 has a very elegant effect. 
 
 On the Rhine, near Coblenz, are manufactories 
 whose specialty is the reproduction of the old 
 Flanders gray or Rhenish stone-ware, that flour- 
 ished here three hundred years ago. Many of these 
 pieces are made in the molds that were then in use, 
 and are exactly the same as the originals. This 
 ware is very strong, and is moderate in price. 
 The clay is generally gray in color, and the shad- 
 
MANUFACTURE OF TOTTERY. 
 
 41 
 
 ing and ornamenting is done in a deep cobalt 
 blue. 
 
 At Munich there are a number of skillful 
 painters of porcelain, who execute principally 
 copies of celebrated pictures upon flat plaques or 
 tiles. Some of this work is exquisitely done. 
 
 One of the specialties of the Dresden artists is 
 the painting of china with Oriental designs in a 
 cobalt blue, and in that they are still unrivaled. 
 Miniature figures or statuettes in porcelain, 
 richly colored, and ornamented with raised flow- 
 ers or lace-work, is another branch of art in 
 which Dresden has conquered all opposition, 
 and has what glory there is in it to herself. 
 Really the best work of the Dresden artists are 
 the fine paintings of flowers and fruit, which are 
 almost always strong in color, and exquisite in 
 design and finish. Often the painted flowers are 
 combined with those modeled in relief, with good 
 effect. Figures and landscapes are also adapted 
 from the paintings of Watteau, and at one time 
 were almost a specialty here. 
 
 Hungary. — The factory of Mauritz von Fischer, 
 at Herend, produces finely decorated porcelain 
 and pottery, mainly imitations of the more cele- 
 brated manufactories. Old Chinese and Japan- 
 ese ware, old Sevres porcelain, the raised flower- 
 work of Dresden, the basket-work of Vienna and 
 the Italian Capo di Monte, are frequently copied. 
 
 At Buda Pesth, the capital of Hungary, is es- 
 tablished a pottery where a very ornamental fai- 
 ence is made which is richly ornamented in ela- 
 borate patterns of an original character. The 
 colors are rich and dark, and gold is applied in 
 rough masses, 
 
 Austria. — At Vienna there was for a long time 
 an Imperial Porcelain Factory, but in 1864 this 
 was abandoned. The manufacture was taken up 
 by a private company and is still going on, on a 
 small scale. 
 
 On the Elbe are several potteries that make 
 terra-cotta or lava ware in vases or fancy articles. 
 
 Denmark. — Copenhagen produces some fine 
 pottery, very light and graceful in form, the 
 shapes and decorations being reproductions of 
 antique Greek and Egyptian vases. The best of 
 this pottery comes from the establishment of P. 
 Ipsen's widow. 
 
 Sweden. — Sweden is rich in porcelain clay and 
 in fuel ; with these natural advantages large pot- 
 teries have been established that almost entirely 
 supply the home demand. The Rorstrand Works 
 at Stockholm make a great variety of porcelain 
 in table and ornamental pieces, as well as iron- 
 stone china, parian, faience and majolica. The 
 Gustafsberg Works also make a variety of por- 
 celain, majolica and faience. 
 
 Russia. — The Russian Imperial Factory at St. 
 Petersburg was founded in 1744, and produces a 
 
 small amount of very fine porcelain, equaling 
 the Sevres and Dresden in finish. 
 
 /taly. — In Italy, the home of the majolica manu- 
 facture, there are now scattered through the 
 kingdom, manufactories that keep alive the old 
 traditions, and execute reproductions of the me- 
 diaeval majolica. The most noted of these es- 
 tablishments is that of the Marquis Ginori, at 
 Doccia, near Florence, founded in 1735, and pro- 
 ducing artistic porcelain, majolica and faience. 
 Reproductions of the majolica of Urbino. Castel 
 Durante and Gubbio, are made here, as well as 
 of the celebrated porcelain of Capo di Monte. 
 After having attained a high point of excellence, 
 the factory of Capo di Monte, near Naples, was 
 abandoned, and the molds in which the ware was 
 made were sold, some of them to Dresden, others 
 to Doccia. The pieces made in these molds, and 
 skillfully colored, are equal if not superior to the 
 antique. At Monaco is an artistic pottery that 
 makes a very pretty faience, sometimes in the 
 style of the old Dresden ware. Torquato Cas- 
 tellani, of Rome, has devoted himself to the re- 
 production of Italian majolica of the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries, and is very successful in his 
 efforts. There are also potteries producing ar- 
 tistic faience and majolica, at Naples, Perugia, 
 Pesaro, Faenza. Pisa and Florence. 
 
 Oriental. — In Persia and Syria pottery is still 
 made which has the flavor of the old work. In 
 India the ceramic art seems to be rapidly dying 
 out. Porcelain is made at Lhassa and Lahore, 
 but in small quantities; tiles and cheap earthen- 
 ware are made quite generally. 
 
 China. — Regarding the porcelain manufacture 
 of China it is impossible to obtain accurate in- 
 formation. The authorities still keep the pro- 
 cesses a secret ; the factories are situated in the 
 interior of the country, and the ware sold to 
 foreigners in the seaport towns. Then, again, 
 Chinese porcelain, although always carefully 
 marked with the date of the manufacture, never 
 bears the maker's or factory mark. This renders 
 it almost impossible to classify the ware accord- 
 ing to manufacture, especially as it is a common 
 practice to decorate the ware at a different fac- 
 tory from the one where it was made. For 
 these reasons Chinese porcelain is classified ac- 
 cording to age into thirty different periods, 
 covejing about five centuries. 
 
 The'blue ware, best known as Nankin, is made 
 at the factory of King-to-Ching. one of the larg- 
 est in the empire. The rich decorations in 
 green and gold come mostly from Hong Kong. 
 
 Japan. — The Japanese have adopted a very 
 liberal policy, precisely the opposite of the Chi- 
 nese. Their wares are almost always marked 
 with the maker's name, in addition to the town 
 and province where they are made. The date 
 
42 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 is sometimes added, Chinese fashion. Every fa- 
 cility has recently been extended to American 
 chemists and manufacturers to inspect the facto- 
 ries and analyze the clays and glazes used in the 
 manufacture. 
 
 Most of the potteries are small ; in some towns 
 the ware is burned in public ovens, the potters 
 making and ornamenting their work at their 
 homes. This accounts for the wonderful diver- 
 sity of pattern, color and form that may be no- 
 ticed in the various Japanese wares. Recently 
 they have taken to copying European shapes 
 and decorations, generally with results not to be 
 commended in an artistic point of view, though 
 they have furnished us with more convenient 
 and practical shapes. 
 
 The principal varieties of Japanese porcelain 
 are the Hezen and Kaga. The Hezen factories 
 are the larger and more important, and produce 
 a ware of a hard white body and clear and even 
 glaze. The decoration is varied, though on most 
 of the pieces red predominates. The Arita ware 
 is very delicate, and at Owari is decorated under 
 the glaze with a rich blue. The celadon ware, 
 with a peculiar mottled green glaze, is made 
 here, and the egg-shell porcelain of Hirado is 
 very celebrated. 
 
 The Kaga ware is yellowish porcelain usually 
 
 decorated in a rich dark red and gold. It is 
 
 ' sometimes called Kutani, " the nine valleys," 
 
 from the location of the factories of the Prince 
 
 of Kaga. 
 
 The Banke ware is a coarse stone- ware, usually 
 modeled by hand and unglazed, and decorated 
 with flowers in enamel colors. 
 
 Kioto, Awata and Satsuma pottery is of a 
 delicate cream-color, finely crackled. The Sat- 
 suma is the paler, being of a lemon color, and is 
 generally decorated with gold and a little color. 
 This ware is one of the most expensive varieties 
 made, and is in great demand. 
 
 The Awata earthenware is very hard and 
 close-grained, and sometimes ornamented with 
 characteristic designs of birds, flowers, etc., in 
 low relief, richly colored and gilt. 
 
 Kioto ware is the commonest sort of Japanese 
 pottery. Birds, flowers and insects are the usual 
 patterns, and the ornament is often in raised 
 enamel. 
 
 The Japanese apply cloisonne enamel upon 
 Awata earthenware and also upon porcelain, in 
 the following manner. The pattern is outlined 
 on the vase with brass wires ; these are fastened, 
 and in the cloisons, or compartments, thus 
 formed is placed the enamel, the different colors 
 ranged as may be desired to produce the right 
 effect. The piece is then fired, to do which with- 
 out injury to the vase is a very delicate opera- 
 
 tion. If any cracks are left they are filled with 
 enamel and re-fired, until the surface is free, when 
 it is polished down until a perfectly even surface 
 is attained. This ware is the most difficult to 
 manufacture of any modern variety. 
 
 United States. — In the United States the manu- 
 facture of the commoner kinds of earthenware 
 and pottery is already firmly established, and a 
 heavy sort of porcelain is made, but very little 
 progress has been made toward the manufacture 
 of an artistic pottery. 
 
 There are sixtee/i great pottery establishments 
 in Trenton. It is only about twenty-five years 
 ago that the first pottery was established, and it 
 is there yet. It made only yellow or rockingham 
 ware. Other potteries started out to make only 
 yellow ware, but the grades of goods made in 
 Trenton improve every year, and there is now 
 only one yellow-ware pottery there. East Liver- 
 pool, Ohio, is the great center of yellow-ware 
 manufacture. It is nearly as great a pottery 
 center as Trenton. Among the workmen are 
 many Englishmen and Irishmen, but Americans 
 are learning to do good work. There are de- 
 signers and decoraters from Minton's great En- 
 glish tile-works and from Tiffany's in New York, 
 employed to decorate the better grades of toilet 
 and table ware. 
 
 A little while ago nothing better than cream- 
 colored stone-china, and blue-stone and stone- 
 porcelain ware was made in Trenton. Now 
 there are establishments that make real china, 
 and others that manufacture a grade of stone- 
 china that they claim looks as well and wears 
 better than French china, and is the same in 
 everything except that it is not translucent. 
 This translucent quality is obtained by intense 
 " firing." and those who do not make " real " 
 china say that this " firing" spoils a large pro- 
 portion of the goods. Those who do deal in the 
 fine work claim that by " firing" the china just 
 as earthenware is fired — that is, by putting many 
 pieces together, where the French put only one 
 piece — there is a tremendous profit at lower 
 prices than the French obtain. The trouble is, 
 however, that the French goods, in standing alone 
 in the firing-boxes, receive no blemish, while the 
 American ware, which is stacked up on pegs, in 
 the boxes, bears the marks of the pegs. 
 
 Although we do not manufacture artistic pot- 
 tery ourselves, this country is fast becoming one 
 of the best markets In the world for the sale of 
 this class of goods. The increased taste for 
 these art- products, is traceable in a large mea- 
 sure to the Centennial Exposition, but as much 
 credit is due to those importers and dealers who 
 keep in their stores and art-warerooms a con- 
 stant exhibition of ceramic art. 
 
GLASS — SILVER-WARE — BRONZES. 
 
 43 
 
 GLASS; SILVER-WARE; BRONZES. 
 
 BRONZES. 
 
 Among the Orientals 48 
 
 Florentine Schools, the 48 
 
 French Bronzes, the 48 
 
 Roman Method, the 48 
 
 Statue of Marcus Aurelius 48 
 
 Their Constituents 48 
 
 Vendome Column, the 48 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 Antiquity, its 44 
 
 Decorative Table Glass 45 
 
 Exquisite Ware To-day 46 
 
 First Glass Houses 44 
 
 Imitation of Antique Glass 45 
 
 Prince Rupert Drops 43 
 
 Properties of Glass 43 
 
 The Art under Nero 44 
 
 Venice becomes its seat 45 
 
 SILVER-WARE. 
 
 America Goes ahead 46 
 
 American Export Trade .... 47 
 
 Improved Machinery 47 
 
 Silver-Plating 46 
 
 Solid Silver 47 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 Some Properties of Glass. — Glass has properties 
 peculiarly its own. It is of no greater bullcwhen 
 hot, or in the melted state, than when cold. 
 Some writers state that it is of greater bulk when 
 cold than when hot. It is transparent in itself; 
 though the materials of which it is composed are 
 opaque. It is not malleable, but in ductility 
 ranks next to gold. Its flexibility, also, is so 
 great that when hot it can be drawn out, .like 
 elastic thread, miles in length, in a moment, and 
 to a minuteness equal to that of the silk-worm. 
 Brittle, also, to a proverb, it is so elastic that it 
 can be blown to a gauze-like thinness, so as 
 easily to float upon the air. The elasticity is 
 also shown by the fact that a globe hermetically 
 sealed, if dropped upon a polished anvil, will re- 
 coil two thirds the distance of its fall, and re- 
 main entire until the second or third rebound. 
 (The force with which solid balls strike each 
 other may be estimated at ten, and the reaction 
 by reason of the elastic property at nine.) Ves- 
 sels called bursting glasses are made of sufficient 
 strength to be drawn about a floor; a bullet may 
 be dropped into one without fracture of the 
 glass ; even the stroke of a mallet sufficiently 
 heavy to drive a nail has failed to break such 
 glasses. In a word, ordinary blows fail to pro- 
 duce an impression upon articles of this kind. 
 If, however, a piece of flint, cornelian, diamond, 
 or other hard stone, fall into one of these glasses 
 or be shaken therein a little while, the vessel will 
 fly into a myriad of pieces. 
 
 Prince Rupert Drops. — Glass of the class called 
 Prince Rupert drops exhibite another striking 
 property. Let the small point be broken, and 
 the whole flies with a shock into powder. Wri- 
 ters have endeavored to solve the philosophy of 
 this phenomenon; some by attributing it to per- 
 cussion putting in motion some subtile fluid with 
 which the essential substance of glass is perme- 
 ated, and thus overcoming the attraction of co- 
 hesion. Some denominate the fluid electricity, 
 and assert that it exists in glass in great quanti- 
 ties, and is capable of breaking glass when well 
 annealed. These writers do not appear to have 
 
 formed any conclusion satisfactory to themselves, 
 and fail to afford a well-defined solution to the 
 mystery. 
 
 Other Properties. — Glass is used for pendulums, 
 as not being subject to affections from heat or 
 cold. It is, as is well known, a non-conductor. 
 No metallic condenser possesses equal power 
 with one of glass. In summer, when moisture 
 fails to collect on a metallic surface, open glass 
 will gather it on the exterior ; the slightest 
 breath of air bringing moisture upon the glass. 
 Dew will affect the surface of glass, while it has 
 no apparent result on other surfaces. 
 
 The properties of so-called " musical glasses" 
 are strikingly singular. Glass bowls partly filled 
 with water, in various quantities, will emit mu- 
 sical sounds, varying with the thickness of their 
 edges or lips. When rubbed, too, with a wet 
 finger, gently, the water in the glass is plainly 
 seen to tremble and vibrate. 
 
 Bells manufactured of glass have been found 
 the clearest and most sonorous ; the vibration of 
 sound extending to a greater degree than from 
 metallic bells. 
 
 Glass resists the action of all acids except the 
 "fluoric." It loses nothing in weight by use or 
 age. It is the most capable of all substances 
 of receiving the highest degree of polish. If 
 melted seven times over and properly cooled in 
 the furnace, it will receive a polish rivaling al- 
 most the diamond in brilliancy. It is capable of 
 receiving the richest colors procured from gold 
 or other metallic coloring, and will retain the 
 original brilliancy of hue for ages. Medals, too, 
 imbedded in glass can be made to retain forever 
 their original purity and appearance. 
 
 Another singular property of glass is shown in 
 the fact that when the furnace, as the workmen 
 ternf^ it, is settled, the metal is perfectly plain 
 and clear; but if by accident the metal becomes 
 too cool to work, and the furnace heat is required 
 to be raised, the glass, which had before re- 
 mained in the open pots perfectly calm and plain, 
 immediately becomes agitated or boiling. The 
 glass rises in a mass of spongy matter and bub- 
 bles, and is rendered worthless. A change is, 
 however, immediately effected by throwing a 
 
44 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 tumbler of water upon the metal, when the agita- 
 tion ceases and the glass assumes its original 
 quiet and clearness. 
 
 /ts Antiquity. — No writer upon the subject of 
 glass manufacture has shown anything decisive 
 as to the precise period of its invention. Some 
 suppose it to have been invented before the 
 flood ; others trace its antiquity to the yet unde- 
 termined time of Job. 
 
 It seems clear, however, that the art was 
 known to the Egyptians 3500 years ago ; for 
 records handed down to us in the form of paint- 
 ings, hieroglyphics, etc., demonstrate its exist- 
 ence in the reign of the first Usurtesen ; and ex- 
 isting relics in glass, taken from the ruins of 
 Thebes, with hieroglyph ical data, clearly place 
 its antiquity at a point fifteen centuries before 
 Christ. 
 
 Layard, in his discoveries among the ruins of 
 Nineveh and Babylon, says : " In this chamber 
 were found two entire glass bowls, with fragments 
 of others. The glass, like all others that come 
 from the ruins, is covered with pearly scales, 
 which, on being removed, leave prismatic, opal- 
 like colors of the greatest brilliancy, showing, un- 
 der different lights, the most varied tints. This 
 is a well-known effect of age, arising from the 
 decomposition of certain component parts of the 
 glass. These bowls are probably of the same 
 period as the small bottle found in the ruins of 
 the northwest palace during the previous exca- 
 vations, and now in the British Museum. On 
 this highly interesting relic is the name of Sar- 
 gon, with his title of King of Assyria in cunei- 
 form characters, and the figure of a lion. We 
 are therefore able to fix its date at the latter part 
 of the seventh century B.C. It is consequently 
 the most ancient known specimen of transparent 
 glass." 
 
 Other writers believe that glass was in more 
 general use in the ancient than in comparatively 
 modern times, and affirm that among the Egyp- 
 tians it was used even as material for coffins. 
 It is certainly true, so well did the Egyptians 
 understand the art, that they excelled in the 
 imitation of precious stones, and were well ac- 
 quainted with the metallic oxides used in color- 
 ing glass; and the specimens of their skill, still 
 preserved in the British Museum, and in private 
 collections, prove the great skill and ingenuity 
 of their workmen in mosaic similar in appear- 
 ance to the modern paper-weights. Among the 
 specimens of Egyptian glass still existing is a 
 fragment representing a lion in bas-relief, well 
 executed and anatomically correct. Other 
 specimens are found inscribed with Arabic cha- 
 racters. 
 
 All writers agree that the glass-houses in Alex- 
 andria, in Egypt, were highly celebrated for the 
 
 ingenuity and skill of their workmen, and the ex- ] 
 tent of their manufactures. 
 
 Strabo relates that the Emperor Hadrian re- 
 ceived from an Egyptian priest a number of '■ 
 glass cups in mosaic, sparkling with every color, 
 and deemed of such rare value that they were 
 used only on great festivals. 
 
 The tombs at Thebes, the ruins of Pompeii 
 and Herculaneum, and the remains of the villa 
 of the Emperor Tiberius, go not only inciden- 
 tally to establish the antiquity of the art, but also 
 prove the exquisite taste and skill of the artists 
 of their various periods. 
 
 First Glass-Houses. — The first glass-houses, well 
 authenticated, were erected in the city of Tyre. 
 Modern writers upon the subject generally refer 
 to Pliny as establishing the fact that the Pheni- 
 cians were the inventors of the art of glass-mak- 
 ing. The tradition is that the art was originally 
 brought to light under the following circum- 
 stances. A vessel being driven by a storm to 
 take shelter at the mouth of the river Belus, the 
 crew were obliged to remain there some length 
 of time. In the process of cooking, a fire was 
 made upon the ground, whereon was abundance 
 of the herb " kale. " That plant burning to ashes, 
 the saline properties became incorporated with 
 the sand. This causing vitrification, the com- 
 pound now called glass was the result. The fact 
 becoming known, the inhabitants of Tyre and 
 Sidon essayed the work, and brought the new in- 
 vention into practical use. This is the tradition : 
 but modern science demonstrates the false phi- 
 losophy, if not the incorrectness, of Pliny's ac- 
 count ; and modern manufacturers will readily 
 detect the error, from the impossibility of melt- 
 ing silex and soda by the amount of heat neces- 
 sary for ordinary boiling purposes. 
 
 From Tyre and Sidon the art was transferred 
 to Rome. Pliny states that it flourished most 
 extensively during the reign of Tiberius, entire 
 streets of the city being then occupied by the 
 glass manufactories. From the period of Tibe- 
 rius the progress of the art seems more definite 
 and marked, both as relates to quantity and mode 
 of manufacture. 
 
 7*6 Art under Nero. — It was during the reign of 
 Nero, so far as we can discover, that the first per- 
 fectly clear glass resembling crystal was manu- 
 factured. Pliny states that Nero, for two cups 
 of ordinary size, with handles, gave six thousand 
 sestertia, equal in our currency to about two hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand dollars ; and that rich arti- 
 cles of glass were in such general use among the 
 wealthy Romans as almost to supersede articles of 
 gold and silver. The art, however, at that period 
 seems to have been entirely devoted to articles 
 of luxury, and, from the great price paid, sup- 
 ported many establishments — all, however, evi- 
 
GLASS — SILVER-WARE — BRONZES. 
 
 45 
 
 dently upon a comparatively small scale, and 
 confined, as it would appear, to families. 
 
 Up to this period no evidence appears that 
 any other than colored articles in glassware were 
 made. It is clear, too, that tlj^e furnaces and melt- 
 ing-pots then in use were of very limited capacity, 
 the latter being of crucible shape ; and it was not 
 until the time of Nero that the discovery was 
 made that muffled crucibles or pots, as at the 
 present day, were required to make crystal glass. 
 (Without them, it is well known, crystal glass 
 cannot be perfected.) It appears, further, that a 
 definite street in the city of Rome was assigned 
 to the manufacturers of this article, and that in 
 the reign of Severus they had attained such a 
 position, and accumulated wealth to such a de- 
 gree, that a formal tax was levied upon them. 
 Some writers take the ground that this assess- 
 ment was the primary cause of the transfer of 
 the manufacture to other places. 
 
 That the peculiar property of the manufacture 
 at this period was its clear and crystal appear- 
 ance is abundantly evident; and this, and the 
 great degree of perfection to which the manufac- 
 ture of white or crystal-like glass was carried, 
 are by many writers thought to have been proved 
 from classical sources — Horace and Virgil both 
 referring to it: the one speaking of its beautiful 
 luster and brilliancy, the other comparing it to 
 the clearness of the waters of the Fucine Lake. 
 
 Venice becomes its Seat. — The decline of this art 
 in Rome is clearly defined by various writers, 
 and its gradual introduction into Bohemia and 
 Venice is plainly marked out. At this latter 
 place the art flourished to a remarkable degree, 
 and, being marked by constant progress and im- 
 provement, enabled Venice to supply the world 
 without a rival, and with the beautiful manufac- 
 ture called" Venice drinking-cups." The beauty 
 and value of these are abundantly testified to by 
 many authors, among whom is Holinshed. The 
 manufacture of these and similar articles were 
 located, as stated in the " Chronicles," at Murano, 
 a place about one mile from the city, where the 
 business assumed a high position among the arts. 
 And from thence we are enabled to date its future 
 progress and gradual introduction into Europe, 
 Germany, England, and the western world. 
 
 It is not strange that the strict secrecy with 
 which the business was conducted in these times 
 should have invested the art with an air of ro- 
 mance; and legends, probably invented for the 
 purpose, created a great deal of wonder among 
 the uninitiated. The government of Venice also 
 added by its course to the popular notions re- 
 garding the high mystery of the art, conferring 
 as it did the title of "gentleman" (no idle title in 
 those days) on all who became accomplished in 
 the manufacture. That the art had greatly im- 
 
 proved in the hands of the Venetian artisans 
 cannot be doubted. The manufacture was car- 
 ried to a degree far beyond any previous period; 
 and the more so because sustained by govern- 
 mental protection and patronage. Venice being 
 then in the height of her commercial glory, the 
 "Queen of the Sea," ample facilities existed for 
 the exportation of her manufactures to every 
 part of the known world ; and for a long period 
 she held the monopoly of supplying the cities of 
 Europe with crystal glass in its various depart- 
 ments of ornament and utility. 
 
 Decorated Table-Glass. — If anything can recon- 
 cile the possessors of small incomes to the fact 
 that certain luxuries are entirely out pf the.ir 
 reach, it may well be found in the care their pos- 
 session entails. Take for example the costly 
 glass and porcelain, the fragile vases and tea- 
 ware, which call for so much care upon the part 
 of those whose business it is to look after them. 
 It is bewildering to consider how many varieties 
 of table-glass there are — Bohemian, Hungarian, 
 English, American, to say nothing of polished, 
 crystal, engraved, colored and painted glass. 
 
 What a value the world sets upon table-glass 
 may be gathered from the fact that a French 
 writer estimates that at the present time over 
 ioo,ooo,ooof. are expended in it yearly, and a 
 glance at the large glassware stores in New York 
 is sufficient evidence of the demand among our- 
 selves. Rarely have more beautiful specimens 
 of foreign and domestic manufacture been seen. 
 They may vie with those sent to special exhibi- 
 tions as evidence of national progress in the art. 
 The most noticeable feature, perhaps, of the 
 trade, as regards this country, is the fact that 
 so great is the demand that glass of every variety 
 is imported here in a crude condition and finished 
 by polishing, engraving or cutting by foreign 
 artists in glass resident here. 
 
 Great interest attaches to the many varieties 
 now in fashion. Among them choice Venetian, 
 Bohemian and Hungarian ware are most notice- 
 able. From Italy, as all the world knows, the 
 secret of perfecting table-glass came. How it 
 found its way to other countries is lost in con- 
 jecture, and to-day the artist in glass at Murano 
 will reproduce any old specimens of antique 
 Venetian glass that may be set before him. 
 Most of the filigree glass, which is so very beau- 
 tiful, is a revival of an old Italian art. Small 
 filigree canes of white and colored enamels are 
 drawn off the required length, arranged in clus- 
 ters in a cylindrical mold of the desired shape, 
 and then fused together by heat. In this way 
 glass of every kind is decorated. An eye-witness 
 describes the method by which the antique spe- 
 cimens of Venetian glass are imitated. 
 
 Imitation of Antique Class. — Suppose a wine- 
 
46 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 glass to have been selected, with deep bowl, ini- 
 tial stem, and broad, ruby-tinted foot — such a 
 one as a connoisseur would deeply prize. The 
 artisan who undertakes to copy it proceeds as 
 follows : Dipping a hollow iron rod into a pot of 
 molten white glass he catches up a lump, rolls it 
 on an iron slab, pops it into a furnace, blows 
 through his rod, and tosses it aloft, when a hol- 
 low tube appears. Then, with a rod of metal in 
 which melted glass is twisted, he, quick as light- 
 ning, forms the initials as on the original. The 
 foot is next as rapidly formed of white glass, 
 and with a scrap of molten ruby glass, 
 which the artisan blows to a hair and 
 binds around and around the rim of the bowl 
 and of the foot, the transaction is completed, 
 saving for the burning, which will continue in a 
 moderately heated oven till the morning. Cut 
 glass is becoming as fashionable in this country 
 as any of the Colored or filigree wares, and its 
 manufacture is now successfully carried on here 
 to such an extent that American cut glass can 
 compete with that of long-established foreign 
 manufacture. 
 
 Exquisite Ware To-day. — Among the most beauti- 
 ful specimens of table-glass found to-day, that 
 from Hungary is as valuable as any. Exquisite 
 in form as well as in color, it is essentially deco- 
 rative. Moreover, many of the designs are quite 
 novel, and are specially made to suit the taste 
 of the American buyer. The latest for finger- 
 glasses is in square shape, the edges rolled back 
 and finished in gilding; flat saucers accompany 
 these fragile bowls. Champagne-pitchers, too, 
 come from Hungarj' and Vienna, and frosted ice- 
 pitchers, more beautiful even than those of po- 
 lished or enameled surface, are seen on wealthy 
 tables. Exquisite Bohemian glass is enameled 
 in gold and silver, and by a recent invention the 
 design wrought in gold or silver is incorporated 
 with the glass itself, and thus not only decorates 
 the surface but radiates through it. Many of 
 the most beautiful services of glass are decorated 
 in raised medallions ; others are engraved in half- 
 relief, and a set of rare glasses will carry out a 
 legend or story, each glass containing one scene 
 or act. Punch-bowls of deeply cut crystal are 
 exceedingly handsome, and probably no center- 
 pieces or flowers have ever been as popular as 
 those now prevalent of deeply cut crystal, every 
 knob of ah intricate design, flashing with light. 
 Lusters of cut glass too are found upon the mo,- 
 dern dinner-table, a revival of an old fashion which 
 adds greatly to the effect, and candelabra, with 
 cut crystal pendants, twinkle and glitter in the 
 artificial light. Glasses of different color figure 
 upon well-appointed tables, indicating to the ini- 
 tiated what wines and liquors may be expected. 
 Liquor bottles and glasses are of the most deli- 
 
 cate Bohemian or Hungarian ware, while even 
 for less luxurious occasions modern table-glass 
 shines with polish and enamel and reflects in de- 
 licately cut flutings the artistic ambition of the 
 day. A table laid in accordance with the dic- 
 tates of fashion may well vie with anything that 
 the past has produced, and it would be scarcely 
 possible for a royal household in Europe to ex- 
 hibit rarer or more beautiful specimens of table- 
 glass than may be found in wealthy mansions in 
 this country. Exorbitant prices have been paid 
 for such — §1000 for a single center-piece in an- 
 tique Venetian glass, $7000 for a set of antique 
 wine-glasses, to say nothing of sums asked and 
 paid for odd glass dishes and bowls. Finger- 
 glasses to-day are of colored glass, translucent 
 blue or delicate green or amber, unless, as in 
 some instances, cut. gilded or enameled varieties 
 are preferred. The old-fashioned goblet has fol- 
 lowed the tankard, and appears no more in our 
 midst ; but in many an English home the host 
 will have a goblet, " high in stature, fair in 
 make," for himself, an honorable token of his 
 standing, which has been handed down for many 
 generations. 
 
 SILVER-WARE. 
 
 America goes ahead. — The extent to which art- 
 work in gold and silver has developed in this 
 country within the last ten or a dozen years is 
 but little known or appreciated outside the trade, 
 although the results of this artistic and commer- 
 cial growth are to be seen in almost every house- 
 hold. 
 
 Silver-Plating. — Years ago the market for silver- 
 plated ware in this country was held by the goods 
 manufactured in Sheffield, England. They were 
 sold as the highest grade of goods, and were put 
 forth by the dealers as something which could 
 scarcely be approached by domestic manufactur- 
 ers. Their quality was good, but the styles were 
 limited to a few designs, and their prices were 
 too high to admit of their general use. Then 
 came the every-day ware of our large manufac- 
 turers, which was sold at popular prices, and 
 went all over the country, even into the back- 
 woods. The cheapnesa of the American makes 
 enabled the buyers to get new styles as soon as 
 the articles began to wear out, and thus a taste 
 for novelty in designs was stimulated. Taking 
 advantage of this, and constantly improving 
 their work, the American manufacturers made 
 no efforts to obtain " protection" against their 
 Sheffield rivals by means of tariff exactions, but 
 depended on outstripping them by superior en- 
 terprise. As a result the Sheffield ware is now 
 scarcely to be found in this market — its designs 
 being so few and so uncouth, in comparison with 
 the American, that our buyers will not look at 
 
GLASS— SILVER-WARE — BRONZES. 
 
 47 
 
 them. The American people have been edu- 
 cated by the native manufacturers to a higher 
 degree of taste in silver art-work, and all of the 
 best designs in sterling metal are closely copied 
 in the plated articles. The latter, as a rule, are 
 plated upon soft metal, costing only about one 
 fourth as much as the English hard-metal ware, 
 and therefore can be replaced by new patterns at 
 least once in ten years. Only one American 
 firm makes hard-metal plate, which will last a 
 lifetime, and is largely used for communion-ser- 
 vices. It is especially suitable for that purpose, 
 as solid silver in churches is always exposed to 
 the danger of theft. The enterprise of the 
 American makers is indicated by the fact that a 
 single manufacturing company has at one time 
 spent $30,000 in publishing volumes of illustra- 
 tions of its series of designs in plated ware alone. 
 The efTorts of such firms have placed in the pos- 
 session of nearly all classes of our people the 
 forms of art-work in metal which in Europe are 
 confined to the wealthy and privileged few. 
 Even workingmen here eat with .silver-plated 
 forks, while men of the same social grade in Eu- 
 rope never saw such articles unless in a jeweler's 
 window. 
 
 Solid Silver. — In solid silver-ware the improve- 
 ment and success of the American manufacturers 
 have been as marked as in plated goods. At 
 one time coin silver was much used for table- 
 services, but the large proportion of alloy in 
 American coin gave rise to still further debase- 
 ments. An instance is recorded of a maker who 
 stamped his productions "coin silver, with but 
 one per cent alloy," and who was proved to have 
 used one of the old-fashioned large "coppers" 
 with every ninety-nine cents in silver. Trickery 
 of this sort could not withstand exposures by 
 honest manufacturers and the demand of intelli- 
 gent buyers for genuine goods. All American 
 solid silver is now made of sterling fineness, 
 equal in quality to the English hall-marked 
 plate. In the manufacture of some special 
 pieces, such as great silver vases and trophies, 
 for prizes or memorials, the English and French 
 silversmiths remain unexcelled, but in silver-ware 
 for daily use the American makers surpass all 
 others in the beauty and variety of their designs. 
 Their service in educating the taste for art 
 among the people of this country has been of 
 the most important character. A few years ago 
 one manufacturing company reproduced the 
 masterpieces of Benvenuto Cellini in trays and 
 tea-sets. The Russian silver-ware has been co- 
 pied, and its damask work excelled. The Chi- 
 nese and Japanese styles of ornamentation have 
 been imitated in their most grotesque effects, but 
 this tendency to gratify a popular whim for mon- 
 strosities is declining, and in general our makers 
 
 show but little disposition to stray from the 
 principles of classic art. Most of the American 
 designs are original, when not copies of the tri- 
 umphs of the old master-craftsmen. Remarka- 
 bly fine effects are produced in engraving and 
 chasing, and also by hammer-finish, although 
 the exquisite leather-finish is taking the place of 
 the latter. A novel style, just introduced, is the 
 border ornamentation oi silver by very pretty 
 little rustic scenes and figures, illustrating fami- 
 liar nursery-songs. 
 
 Improved Machinery. — The American manufac- 
 turers have introduced methods of simplifying 
 and expediting work by the use of machinery, 
 employing handwork for all the processes of 
 finishing. They draw the best workmen from 
 Europe by paying the highest wages, and they 
 also in the large establishments educate young 
 Americans to a wonderful degree of skill in 
 special branches of designing and the production 
 of mechanical effects. In one well-known house 
 the task of producing a certain new and beautiful 
 effect in silver was assigned to an American 
 youth, and the old English and French workmen 
 there laughed at the idea, saying that the attempt 
 had repeatedly been made in Europe without 
 success. The young workman locked himself in 
 his room and studied, and the result was his 
 complete triumph over the difficulty which had 
 so long baffled silversmiths. So great is the 
 aptitude shown by the best American workmen 
 that persons familiar with it express a strong 
 desire for the establishment of art-schools here, 
 such as are maintained in Europe, in order that 
 native talents may be developed under the most 
 favorable circumstances. It is suggested that 
 our leading manufacturers would do well to offer 
 prizes for designs by their workmen, and thus 
 give a stimulus to artistic ambition which would 
 still further elevate the standard of the trade. 
 
 American Export Trade. — American silver-ware 
 is now exported in considerable quantities to 
 Australia and the various countries of South 
 America, and only the hall-mark restrictions in 
 England prevent its finding an extensive market 
 there. The hall-mark stamped on all plate in 
 England by the goldsmiths' companies as a 
 guarantee of its quality is a collateral assurance 
 of its fineness, but not an absolute safeguard, as 
 various tricks are resorted to in order to evade the 
 law. American makers, having a ready market 
 here, cannot afford to incur the trouble and the 
 detention of their goods by the assayers and 
 markers which are preliminary to sales in Eng- 
 land. Besides this, the silver is often mutilated 
 in the marking, and in some cases has been sent 
 back here to be refinished. The hall-mark sys- 
 tem would be impracticable in this country, 
 where, in the city of Newark alone, a hundred 
 
48 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 thousand different pieces of jewelry are manu- 
 factured every day. The amount of labor and 
 time which would be required for testing and 
 marking all the gold and silver articles produced 
 here can scarcely be imagined. It is said, how- 
 ever, that a law of Congress is needed, establish- 
 ing a standard for wrought gold, the same as for 
 weights and measures, so that goods stamped 
 " fourteen carats" shall be fourteen carats fine, 
 and not ten. Such a law, it is argued, would not 
 only tend to protect the buyer, but would be of 
 great benefit to respectable manufacturers, who 
 are now exposed to dishonest competition. 
 
 BRONZES. 
 
 Their Constituents. — What is known as bronze is, 
 of course, a compound of copper and tin ; and 
 yet this is not an exact definition, for the bronze 
 of art contains also an admixture of zinc and lead, 
 rendering it at once harder and more fusible than 
 copper itself, and, more curiously still, more mal- 
 leable. Its remarkable durability, the fineness of 
 its grain, its resistance to moisture, its fusibility, 
 and that " fluidity" which enables it to be stamped 
 by an impression of the most delicate forms and 
 patterns, constitute it the sister in art, as it were, 
 of marble. To the ancients it was invaluable. 
 They applied it to the uses to whicli are now 
 applied iron, steel and brass. In our times, how- 
 ever, it is chiefly devoted to the fabrication of 
 cannon, coin, clocks, cymbals, bells and the in- 
 ferior constructions of telescopes ; and, in appli- 
 cation to each and all of these, the alloy requires 
 to be different. For art purposes from seven to 
 ten per cent of tin and copper is the prescribed 
 proportion, although the ancients used more, 
 ■while the famous founders of Corinth threw in, 
 often, a mixture of silver, and even gold, and 
 were imitated by the master-workmen of the 
 Renaissance. In the seventeenth century the 
 brothers Keller, who atta'ched to the mere com- 
 position of bronze an importance which their 
 less intelligent rivals discarded, used, in the 
 statues they cast for Versailles, a strong mingling 
 of zinc and lead, precisely similar to that which 
 the Chinese employ in the fabrication of their 
 metal drum-heads. Since then the art has much 
 degenerated, however. It has ceased to be an 
 exclusive enjoyment of the rich. Luxury in 
 France, as elsewhere, has taken its place among 
 the habits of the middle classes, or less wealthy 
 classes, properly speaking, and objects of art are 
 common in bronze— that is. in zinc ; in composi- 
 tions merely colored to resemble the authentic 
 material, of which the cost has never diminished, 
 and is even increasing. 
 
 The Vendome Column. — The French are proud of 
 their Vendome Column as a historical monu- 
 ment; but as a work of art, they denounce it as 
 
 detestable. It was made, as is generally known, 
 of the Austrian cannon captured at Austerlitz, 
 which contained ten parts of tin to ninety parts 
 of copper ; but so imperfectly was the process 
 carried out that no two plates, curled about the 
 inner stalk of masonry, represented the same 
 amalgamation. The different parts had been 
 cooled at different times, and at different degrees 
 of temperature, and the result — so Parisian 
 critics affirm — was Sl fiasco. 
 
 Statue of Marcus Aurelius. — With reference to 
 the previous work of the modeler, it belongs to 
 the subject of sculpture generally, while, as to its 
 practice among classic artists, little information 
 has come down to us. They are only known to 
 modern times by their perfections. The eques- 
 trian statue of Marcus Aurelius, copied at Paris, 
 was minutely examined by MM. Saudrard and 
 Duquesnoy, who declared that it was without a 
 flaw, that the metal was nowhere of a thickness 
 exceeding that of a five-franc piece, and that, 
 although at once colossal and, to all appearance, 
 fragile, it possessed every imaginable element of 
 strength. 
 
 The Roman Method. — The mold was made of clay 
 mixed with wheaten flour, which held together 
 well, while it came to pieces easily. The Ro- 
 mans, however, did not attem.pt to complete the 
 work by an unbroken flow from the caldron 
 into the mold. But, whatever their system, the 
 art was popular, for every ruined city of both 
 Rome and Greece has given up profusely its re- 
 lics in bronze, for which a rage existed. Cicero 
 tells of a sum equal to $1000 being paid for a 
 figure not fifteen inches in height. In late days 
 wax molds were employed, at an enormous ex- 
 pense and with indifferent success; after them, a 
 composition of plaster ; next, iron plates, jointed 
 or riveted together and lined with " porcelain 
 earth ;" but all these artifices failed. The bronze 
 did not take the true shape of the mold, and the 
 artist was, in nine cases out of ten, disappointed. 
 
 The Florentine Schools. — The art seemed in dan- 
 ger of disappearing when the glorious Florentine 
 schools arose, and the masterpieces of the Bap- 
 tistery, of Ghiberti, Donato, and Cellini, bearing 
 the unquestionable impress of the chisel, re- 
 deemed that which had threatened to become a 
 lost genius in Europe. The works of Keller 
 himself, at one time the ablest modeler in Chris- 
 tendom, were improved upon, retouched, soft- 
 ened and made more gracious bv the men who 
 owed to him much of their teaching; and he 
 willingly retraced many a step to follow masters 
 who, to his imagination, seemed nothing less 
 than inspired. But that was in an age of luxury 
 for art. Ghiberti's gates, weighing 34.000 lbs., 
 cost 22,000 florins, a sum which would be gigan- 
 tic in the nineteenth century. The Seigneurie 
 
 1 
 
GLASS — SILVKR-WARE— -BRONZES. 
 
 49 
 
 of Florence paid Lorenzo, not with purses, but 
 with estates. The first Francis never made a 
 bargain with Cellini, nor did Louis XIV. with 
 Keller. The gates of the Madeleine, on the 
 other hand, beautiful tiiough they are, cost less 
 than ;£5ooo ; the equestrian statue of Louis XIV. 
 at Lyons twice that amount. These, however, 
 do not rank as what are generally spoken of as 
 art-bronzes, which signify rather ornaments. 
 They may be of their natural color or gilded, 
 though in both cases receiving an artificial tint, 
 through the application of vinegar, ammoniacal 
 salts, cream of tartar, sea-salt and nitrate of 
 copper. The Florentines, nevertheless, had 
 their secret in this respect, which no modern in- 
 genuity or science has been enabled to penetrate. 
 But when the bronze is to be gilded, the French 
 founder resorts, as a rule, to what is termed the 
 quadruple alloy — that is, copper, zinc, lead and 
 tin — to obtain a more adhesive surface. 
 
 Among the Orientals. — As usual, these arts were 
 found among the Orientals long before they 
 made their appearance in the West. Countless 
 examples of them have been discovered among 
 the buried antiquities of Egypt. They are noted 
 in the Scriptures ; they are found, according to 
 some, in Italy before they are found in Greece, 
 though the testimony on this point rests, it 
 should be observed, upon the rather apocryphal 
 effigies of Romulus, Horatius Codes and Clelius. 
 Yet the Etruscans exhibited little knowledge of 
 bronze art, while in the Ionian island of Samos 
 the foundations of it in historic eras would ap- 
 pear to have been laid. In this material, it is 
 supposed, the Laocoon first grew into form. 
 Rhodes alone possessed a hundred Colossi of it, 
 and the bronzes of Athens emulated her marbles. 
 Treasures beyond valuation were exhumed fi;om 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum, and the museums of 
 the South attest to the love of the older genera- 
 tions for this noble branch of the plastic arts — 
 the "Mercury," in the Museo Borbonico; the 
 " Wrestlers," in the same gallery — which sug- 
 gested the " Pugilists" of Canova — the " Drunk- 
 en Faun," the "Sleeping Satyr," the " Dancing 
 Faun," in each of which, unpromising though 
 the substance seems, the blood seems to circu- 
 late. Naples possesses in bronze the busts of 
 4 
 
 Plato and Sappho, and once possessed the cele- 
 brated horse's head which an archbishop, taking 
 advantage of his opportunity, ordered to be 
 melted down and converted into a chime of bells, 
 But the crown of all this art is the equestrian 
 statue, already alluded to, of Marcus Aurelius 
 Antoninus, on the Capitoline Hill at Rome. Its 
 dignity resembles in nothing that of the bronze 
 Louis XIV. figuring in the saddle on the Place 
 des Victoires at Paris. It is simple, composed 
 and magnificent. It belongs to Italy, but was 
 the work of Greece. 
 
 French Bronzes. — In our days the monumental 
 has been largely superseded by a less ambitious, 
 and, so to speak, more domestic type. French- 
 bronze, all qualifications apart, represents the 
 art in its nineteenth-century form ; upon this 
 material ten thousand artisans are constantly at 
 work in Paris alone, and their industry keeps 
 afloat annually a capital of two millions sterling. 
 Their labors are carried on in great factories or 
 at their own homes indifferently. They are less, 
 perhaps, the ministers of art than of luxury; but 
 the element of taste, at any rate, is indispensa- 
 ble, and in this the French artificer, or he who 
 instructs him, is rarely deficient. Besides which, 
 the great manufacturers — for it is a manufacture 
 after all — ransack the markets of Europe for 
 masterpieces, whether originals or copies, of 
 sculptures, which they so popularize that they are 
 presently to be seen reproduced in every draw- 
 ing-room and salle-a-manger of the capital. 
 What student is without his miniature Venus of 
 Milo, his Vatican Amazon, his Diana and Pol- 
 hymnia.'' He might as well be without a bit of 
 carved ebony or an ormolu clock ; and that very 
 clock must be surmounted by a group of the 
 Three Graces or a Penelope in bronze — or bronze 
 plaster, for to this has the traffic in taste fallen. 
 The passion is visible, too, in candelabra, chande- 
 liers, candlesticks, lamps, ink-stands, penholders, 
 watch-stands and innumerable humbler articles, 
 which, otherwise, would be produced with a thin 
 glitter of gilt upon the poorest material. Art 
 has, in more than one epoch, been nobly illus- 
 trated in bronze, and the French, whatever 
 ground they have lost, are still in advance of all 
 other nations. 
 
50 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 COVERINGS FOR FURNITURE. 
 
 Growth of the Business 52 
 
 High-priced Materials 51 
 
 India Pongee 51 
 
 Leather 52 
 
 More Economical Fabrics 51 
 
 Plushes, Manufacture of 50 
 
 Tapestries 51 
 
 Turcomans 50 
 
 Variety of Fabrics 50 
 
 Variety of Fabrics. — The subject of fabrics to-day 
 is a most interesting one, not only from its prac- 
 tical importance to every one interested (and 
 who is not?) in interior decoration, but as a 
 most striking illustration of the immense deve- 
 lopment which has taken place in the upholstery 
 trade within the last thirty years. Most of us 
 can recall the time when the best suit of furni- 
 ture was covered in reps or terry, and remember 
 the first indication of a change when, some 
 twelve years ago, the introduction of a novelty 
 in the shape of raw silk or bourette tapestries 
 awakened public interest in the possibilities of 
 furniture coverings. Up to that time an uphol- 
 sterer was in a creditable position if he could of- 
 fer his customers a selection from four or five 
 stuflfs, and the choice depended almost entirely 
 upon color and comparative value of the goods. 
 No one expected anything better, and no one re- 
 gretted the limitations of the trade. But time 
 wrought a marvelous change. The raw-silk 
 tapestries were the first complete innovation. 
 They were woven from refuse silk, from the odds 
 and ends of the cocoons, which had previously 
 been thrown away as valueless ; and although 
 they took the public taste by 'storm and had an 
 immense popularity, they proved neither service- 
 able nor lasting. They faded and wore shabby, 
 and in this way educated people up to the ne- 
 cessity of procuring new coverings for valuable 
 furniture, and novelty succeeded novelty, until 
 now we find ourselves suffering from a perfect 
 plethora of goods, a bewildering assortment of 
 fabrics, any one of which would have e.xcited the 
 admiration of a former generation. To enume- 
 rate them is almost an impossibility. Of plushes 
 alone there are many varieties, of tapestries al- 
 most as many, while silks of all kinds are in use, 
 and miscellaneous fabrics are innumerable. 
 
 Manufacture of Plushes. — To begin with plushes, 
 the common variety known as mohair plush is 
 but little used in modern houses ; it serves, how- 
 ever, largely for the covering of railway cars, and 
 is made of goat's hair, costing about $3 to $4.50 
 a yard. It is imported from Amiens in large 
 quantities. Next in value comes plush of Ger- 
 man make, which is not very popular on account 
 of want of nicety in finish. Silk plushes, on the 
 contrary, are in great and steadily increasing de- 
 mand for the reason that they produce richer ef- 
 fects than any other material of the same value, 
 viz., from $3 to $6 a yard. But, although there 
 
 is so decided a preference shown for them, there 
 is every probability that in time jute and linen 
 plushes will largely supersede them. Plain jute 
 plushes which run 50 inches wide cost from $4. 50 
 to $6, the figured varieties from $5 to $7, and 
 those thai are now most novel, embroidered in 
 gold thread, from $8 to $11 a yard. The prepa- 
 ration of figured jute plushes is full of interest. 
 These fabrics are all of French manufacture, and 
 one of the largest firms supplying them for the 
 New York trade has its factory in a suburb of_ 
 Paris. Surrounded by a high wall, and almos 
 screened from sight by lofty trees, it is an im^^ 
 mense building, portioned off into rooms 20 fee 
 wide by 100 long, in which the material, after itd 
 manufacture, is printed in colors. Down thq 
 center of each room run long tables, and upon 
 these the material is tightly stretched. Parallefl 
 with them run car-tracks upon which cars are 
 constantly propelled back and forth by small] 
 boys and girls, who are in constant attendance 
 upon the artisan who stands behind the table 
 with wooden blocks upcn which the designs tol 
 be carried out are carved. The cars contain the 
 colors, which are already prepared for use, and as 
 the printer needs them he calls or signals the 
 boys, and, as they run the car up to him, dip 
 his wooden block into the color and stamps it ati 
 once in the proper spot upon the matetial. Tai>| 
 ping it four times, he removes it with care anii 
 takes the next. A dozen such blocks may be 
 used in one design, and it would be difficult to 
 imagine anything uglier than the material as it 
 appears fresh from the printing process. The 
 solid color for the ground is rubbed in with a rag 
 dipped in moist color, and then the piece passes 
 out of the room to be " finished," and is scarcely 
 recognizable after that process has been com-J 
 pleted. The embroidery is next attended toJ 
 and the chain of gold and silver thread, whichl 
 gives the design the appearance of applique, isl 
 rapidly carried out by machinery. The great 
 value of jute plush lies in its softness and plia-4 
 bility. It falls into such graceful folds that as 
 drapery it is quite unequaled, and it is more and 
 more in vogue for high-class trade. 
 
 Turcomans. — The designing of another fashion^ 
 able material, known as Turcoman, is a stilB 
 more fascinating operation. Every one is fami-j 
 liar with the beautiful Oriental effects which ar0 
 produced in this material; but probably very fev 
 know how such results are obtained. This fa-^ 
 
COVERINGS FOR FURNITURE. 
 
 51 
 
 brie is made of raw silk in the first instance, and, 
 if dissected, will be found to be composed of 
 chenille strands closely woven upon a cotton 
 warp. The design to be carried out in the manu- 
 facture is printed upon cardboard in vividcolors, 
 in squares, like patterns for canvas-work. The 
 design, however, is divided into sections, each 
 perhaps an inch wide, and the first thing that is 
 done with it is to cut it up into strips, each strip 
 being given to a different workman. The weav- 
 ing of the raw silks then commences, the artisan 
 faithfully copying each color in his strip; for e.\- 
 ample, weaving first an inch of red, then two of 
 yellow, again blue, and so on until the piece he 
 has in hand is complete. No sooner is it woven 
 than it is placed in a machine stretched upon a 
 revolving drum, and literally cut up into shreds 
 by dozens of pointed knives. The shreds are 
 drawn out and wound upon spools, forming the 
 chenille, which in due time will become Turco- 
 man cloth, for the various spools, each numbered, 
 are now used for weaving the material in a frame 
 supplied with cotton warp, from which it issues 
 complete in all the beauty of an Oriental-looking 
 fabric in intricate design of intermingling colors. 
 This, too, is a manufacture which is most suc- 
 cessfully carried on in France, and the Turcoman 
 supplied to this country is all derived from that 
 source. 
 
 Tapesfries. — When we come to a consideration 
 of tapestries, we find many qualities and varie- 
 ties in this favorite material, varying in value 
 according to the fineness of the worsted, the 
 amount of material needed, and the time neces- 
 sary for the completion of the design. In some 
 of the finest tapestries in imitation of antique de- 
 signs, which are known as broche tapestries, the 
 threads are tied at the back, and this necessarily 
 involves a very great deal of labor and time. 
 Palaces and churches throughout Italy, Spain 
 and France have been ransacked for designs, and 
 great value attaches to any new discovery, which, 
 after yearsof rummaging, does not take place very 
 frequently. But there are always the standard 
 antiques. Just now those of the time of Henri II. 
 are in special favor, but people have, in a mea- 
 sure, to be educated up to a knowledge of tapes- 
 tries, and purchasers are often compelled to rely 
 entirely upon the statements of the importers. 
 Most of the tapestries of the finer grades are 
 made at Nimes, in the south of France; ordinary 
 varieties at Roubaix, a large manufacturing town. 
 Silk stuffs, satin damask and broche, which is 
 less used now than formerly, are imported from 
 Tours and Lyons. 
 
 ■ High-Priced Materials. — For very fashionable 
 drawing and reception rooms silk velours are 
 used perhaps more largely than any other mate- 
 rial. Indian and Persian rugs are employed for 
 
 the covering of lounges, but only to a limited 
 extent ; such styles are not likely to become 
 generally fashionable, one reason being that they 
 can be copied in cheap goods. Just as a few 
 years ago great interest was felt in the novel use 
 of saddle-bags as chair coverings, until the mar- 
 ket was flooded with cheap imitations of these 
 unique materials, when they at once lost all favor 
 for high-class importers. For up-stairs rooms, 
 bed-chambers and guest-rooms, printed cotton 
 fabrics are in increasing demand. The public 
 generally call all the varieties of these materials 
 by the common name of cretonne, but to the trade 
 cretonne is the very poorest of printed muslins. 
 Superior goods are known respectively as French 
 toi!e-a-voile, as being in substance and quality 
 imitative of sail-cloth, crepe, which is a cotton 
 fabric not unlike momie-cloth, moquette or 
 ribbed stuff, in imitation of tapestry, and a new 
 material which has suddenly become generally 
 fashionable, and which is extremely handsome, 
 and known as reps gobelens. For country houses, 
 these various fabrics are in use even in the re- 
 ception and living rooms, while in the best city 
 houses they are in universal use for up-stairs 
 rooms. The better class is fifty inches wide; 
 prices vary according to quality, color and va- 
 riety of design, beginning at 75 cents and often 
 reaching a value of $2.50 a yard. They come, 
 with very few exceptions, from Alsace, where the 
 old French industry is kept up. 
 
 More Economical Fabrics. — For ordinary wear in 
 houses where economy is a necessity coverings 
 for soft-tufted bedroom furniture are often made 
 of a material known as fern-cloth, which is all 
 worsted, with a small design of maidenhair-fern. 
 This is an essentially practical material, wearing 
 well, and procurable in all neutral colors. It 
 costs about S3. 50 a yard and is 50 inches in 
 width. For drawing-room hangings, where rich 
 effects are wanted and economy is a considera- 
 tion, Spanish satin is a very handsome material. 
 It is manufactured in imitation of old satin, and 
 is pliable and hangs in most graceful folds, and 
 that is a point which is assuming more and more 
 importance as people become more alive to that 
 which really constitutes artistic effect. The 
 preference to-day is for solid colors, excepting in 
 the case of tapestries, the high-class furnisher 
 relying for harmony of effect rather upon com- 
 binations of materials than variety of design. 
 Tapestries are procurable with square designs 
 expressly adapted for the backs and seats of 
 chairs, which can also be obtained in silk plushes 
 embroidered in twisted silks. 
 
 /ndia Pongee. — In considering fabrics, these 
 stuffs are important, and are assuming a great 
 part in decoration, mainly because they hang so 
 satisfactorily. Madras and crete muslins, for 
 
52 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 example (which probably first became popular 
 as supposed Oriental fabrics, whereas they are 
 all made in Glasgow and never saw the East), are 
 more and more in demand. For book-case cur- 
 tains, vestibule and sash curtains there is a new 
 and very beautiful material just brought into the 
 market, known as India pongee, which is made 
 of Japanese silk. It is not only beautiful in text- 
 ure, but takes color admirably, and looks exceed- 
 ingly well in self color, while the design upon .he 
 figured qualities is specially beautiful in imita- 
 tion of Eastern grasses, flowering and in seed. 
 It costs $2.50 a yard and is 24 inches in width, 
 and is reversible. 
 
 Growth of the Business. — All the goods we have 
 enumerated are imported, but there is a class of 
 material of domestic manufacture which is very 
 much in demand. Algerian stripes of every va- 
 riety are made in this country, either in plain or 
 fancy fabrics, and with or without the addition 
 of tinsel. In this line the American manufac- 
 turer has achieved a decided success, but as for 
 competition with the European manufacturers 
 of plushes, tapestries and silks there is little that 
 is encouraging to say. It is impossible for manu- 
 facturers whose sole market lies in this country 
 to compete with those who command the mar- 
 kets of Europe. A French manufacturer can af- 
 ford to sink enormous sums in the preparation 
 of a novel design, confident that if it fails of 
 popularity in one country it will secure a wel- 
 come in another, and thus it comes to pass that 
 fortunes are invested in the factories of France, 
 
 while enterprise here is forced to rest content 
 with the effort to supply goods of less expensive 
 quality which will find a market among the gene- 
 ral public. No class have so much reason to 
 feel grateful for the modern decorative move- 
 ments as the importers of upholstery goods to- 
 day. Their business has not only grown enor- 
 mously, but undergone a vital change. Formerly, 
 as we have seen, the furniture-dealer supplied 
 the necessary choice of material for the coverings 
 of the furniture he sold, but to-day, when 1500 
 or 2000 varieties of, material are carried by one 
 house, no small dealer can possibly provide the 
 expected choice for his customers, and hence it has 
 become usual for a furniture-dealer to send his 
 customer to some high-class house for the selec- 
 tion of materials, and as a necessary result the 
 importer secures not only a large wholesale trade 
 which is his by right, but an increasing retail 
 trade which has arisen out of the increasing de- 
 mands of the public taste. 
 
 Leather. — Much could still be said of leather — 
 plain, soft, embossed and gilded — as covering for 
 furniture, but we must content ourselves with 
 the remark that in the highest circles this~mate- 
 rial is used only in dining-rooms and vestibules, 
 no longer in libraries, where tapestries and plush 
 have superseded it, and never in up-stairs rooms. 
 Astonishing as it may seem, there is still a de- 
 mand for horsehair coverings, although it is 
 mainly from country towns. The cities, as a 
 rule, repudiate it. 
 
 PIANO-FORTES. 
 
 AToid the Upright 53 
 
 Baby Grand, the 53 
 
 Desiderata 52 
 
 Examine only from good makers 53 
 
 Grand, the 52 
 
 Hints on Preservation 53 
 
 Improvements, American 53 
 
 Keeping the case polished 53 
 
 Ole Bull 54 
 
 Selection of a Piano 52 
 
 Singing Tone 54 
 
 Sonority 54 
 
 Tuning 53 
 
 Overstringing 54, ' Wrest-Plank, the 53 
 
 PIANO-FORTES: THEIR SELECTION 
 AND CARE. 
 
 The Selection of a Piano. — This involves more 
 points than is generally supposed. The first point 
 for consideration is, What use is to be made of 
 the instrument ? Is it to be used for educational 
 purposes .' If so, the best is always the cheapest. 
 This is emphatically true in the point of the de- 
 velopment of the ear, for no ear can be perfectly 
 developed unless it uniformly hears good tones. 
 Then, the action of an inferior instrument is a 
 constant check to any facility in the education of 
 the fingers. This is abundantly illustrated in the 
 case of an artist's performance on a grand, a 
 square or an upright piano, the use of the first 
 
 affording an ease of execution that a square or 
 upright can never give, or only to a limited ex- 
 tent. Last, but by no means a small considera- 
 tion, is the fact that a piano in constant use 
 needs to be of the very best quality in every par- 
 ticular, to stand the demands made upon it. 
 
 Desiderata. — Having taken these points into con- 
 sideration, then, we find that a piano, for study, 
 should be of the purest tone for the develop- 
 ment of the ear, of superior action for facility in 
 execution, and the less complicated in construc- 
 tion the surer of standing the wear of time. . 
 
 The Orand. — Only in the grand pianos are found 
 what is wanted: the mechanism is the least 
 complicated; the double repeating action is of 
 inestimable advantage to the player, as is also the 
 
riANO-FOKTES. 
 
 53 
 
 movable action, which makes beautiful effects in 
 soft playing possil^Ie ; antl a depth of power that 
 can be brought out from neither a square nor an 
 upright. 
 
 The Baby Grand. — The small-sized grand piano 
 now so much manufactured contains all the good 
 qualities of the large size, and is well adapted to 
 most parlors. 
 
 Avoid the Upright. — To return to the subject of 
 selection. If the piano to be selected is not for 
 a student, some of the requirements then neces- 
 sary may be set aside. Many square pianos will 
 supply all that is demanded of them in houses 
 where they are only used occasionally. Upright 
 pianos, except under exceptional circumstances, 
 should not be bought. In many cases the small- 
 ness of rooms influences purchasers to choose an 
 upright, which if the comparative merits of 
 pianos were understood could not be the case. 
 A grand piano will outlast two squares or three 
 uprights. ' 
 
 The Reason Why. — It may be asked. Why is not 
 an upright piano as good as a grand or square.? 
 The answer is, that the mechanism in an upright 
 is so complicated that it is certain to get out of 
 order very easily, and is not so readily repaired 
 as a less intricate instrument. It also gets out 
 of tune quicker, and if much used in that state is 
 more permanently injured than other styles of 
 pianos. This is abundant reason why upright 
 pianos should never be taken to the country un- 
 less good tuners and regulators are at hand. 
 
 Examine only from Good Makers. — In selecting a 
 piano only well-known and reliable houses should 
 be visited. To the excellence of an instrument 
 good materials are indispensable. Small and 
 poor manufacturers are less likely to keepa stock 
 of wood on hand that is thoroughly seasoned, 
 for it takes fully three years for this process. 
 Never choose a piano for sweetness or sparkle 
 and brilliancy, as it will soon grow thin and 
 wiry. A large powerful tone contains all pos- 
 sibilities. 
 
 Tuning. — Every piano should be tuned at least 
 four times a year, and when new every six weeks 
 for the first year. A piano not kept in tune soon 
 loses its beauty of tone, and it is almost impossi- 
 ble to bring it back. The position of a piano in 
 the room should be where the temperature is the 
 most even, as pianos feel sudden heat or cold 
 acutely. 
 
 Keeping the Case Polished. — The case of a piano 
 may be as satisfactorily polished by a strong 
 woman as by a professional polisher. Wring a 
 soft cloth out of as hot water as the hand will 
 bear, wash a small portion of the surface and 
 polish immediately with a chamois. The water 
 should be changed frequently, and any bruise may 
 be rubbed with a little furniture-oil. 
 
 HINTS ON PRESERVATION. 
 
 If the piano is to remain in good order for 
 many years, good care must be taken of it. The 
 instrument should be closed when not in use, in 
 order to prevent the accumulation of dust, pins, 
 etc., etc., on the sound-board; however, it must 
 not be left closed for a period of several months 
 or longer, but be opened occasionally, and the 
 daylight allowed to strike the keys, or else the 
 ivory may turn yellow. 
 
 Any hard substance, no matter how small, 
 dropped inside of the piano, will cause a rattling, 
 jarring noise. > 
 
 In every case an india-rubber or cloth cover 
 should protect the instrument from bruises and 
 scratches. 
 
 The piano should not be placed in a damp 
 room, or left open in a draft of air — dampness 
 is its most dangerous enemy, causing the strings 
 and tuning-pins to rust, the cloth used in the 
 construction of the keys of action to swell, 
 whereby the mechanism will move sluggishly, or 
 often stick altogether. Continued dampness 
 will also injuriously affect the varnish by swell- 
 ing the wood of the outside case. It will also 
 swell and raise the soft fibres of the sounding- 
 board, thereby forming ridges, which by the 
 inexperienced observer are mistaken for cracks, 
 while I'eally affording the best proof of excellent, 
 well-seasoned material. All this occurs chiefly 
 in the summer season, and the best pianos, made 
 of the most thoroughly seasoned material, are 
 necessarily the most affected by dampness, the 
 absorption being more rapid. Extreme heat is 
 scarcely less injurious. The piano should not be 
 placed very near to an open fire or a heated 
 stove, nor over or close to the hot air from 
 furnaces now in general use. 
 
 Moths are very destructive to the cloth and 
 felt used in the piano, and may be kept out of it 
 by placing a lump of camphor, wrapped in soft 
 paper, in the inside corner, care being taken to 
 renew it from time to time. 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF PIANOS. 
 
 Great Improvements effected by American Ingenuity. 
 — The fact that American pianos are now, and 
 have been for the last twenty years, superior to 
 those made in Europe is undisputed, and the 
 great pianists of the world use them with high 
 satisfaction not only during their visits to this 
 country, but at their own homes. That no essen- 
 tial improvements in piano-making have been 
 made by European manufacturers during the last 
 thirty years was evident at the Paris Exhibitions 
 of 1867 and 1878, when the pianos exhibited by 
 Europeans could not compare with American 
 products. A reporter of an evening paper who 
 
54 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 had occasion to visit several piano-forte manu- 
 facturers lately was shown some of the most 
 remarkable improvements since the Paris Exhi- 
 bition of 1867, wlien, as several of our makers 
 have several times informed the public, the 
 American instruments were awarded the highest 
 honors at the judges' disposal. 
 
 The Wrest-Plank. — One of the improvements 
 upon whicli great stress is laid is quite recent, 
 having been in use for less than a year, and con- 
 sists in including in the iron frame the " wrest- 
 plank," the piece of timber into which the tuning- 
 pins are inserted. This was attempted years ago, 
 but it was thought that the sound of the piano 
 was injured; the pins now run through the iron 
 wrest-plank and into the wooden wrest-plank 
 beneath, the result being that the pins are less 
 liable to move owing to the occasional warping 
 of the wood. The iron frame, as every one 
 knows, was only resorted to when the immense 
 tension of the strings in large pianos made 
 wooden bracing out of the question. The pull- 
 ing strain in a grand piano amounts to about 
 twelve tons ; such a strain eventually warps any 
 kind of wooden framework. The Americans 
 were the first to introduce the iron frame cast in 
 one piece. 
 
 Sonority and Tone. — Since the adoption of che 
 iron frame made absolutely necessary by the sud- 
 den variations of temperature in this climate, the 
 constant aim of all American manufacturers has 
 been to obtain sonority and good tone. Several 
 of the most important improvements of the last 
 ten years have related to increased sonority. One 
 of the new methods employed is to make the 
 outward case of the piano one continuous piece 
 of bent wood instead of in several pieces, thus 
 giving a more continuous tone. Another im- 
 portant invention, and the cause of several law- 
 suits, is to allow the cast-iron frame to rest upon 
 a number of wooden dowel pins let into the 
 framework of the piano and projecting only a 
 hair's breadth, just sufficient to lift the iron 
 frame and its strings off the woodwork bracing 
 under the frame. The use of these dowel-pins to 
 keep the frame entirely separate is apparently a 
 small matter and costs only a trifle, but one of 
 the most famous patent suits was concerning this 
 invention ; and a piano of a rival maker, who 
 denied having used it, was chopped to pieces in 
 court by the owner of the patents in order to 
 show that it had been used. The piano was 
 ruined, but the suit was won. 
 
 Overstringing. — Another vast improvement of 
 the last twenty years, now used by all makers, 
 is the overstringing of the heaviest strings. In 
 large pianos extending seven octaves or more 
 the sounding-board will have to be larger than 
 will be practicable to allow the strings to be 
 stretched side by side as in the old pianos, with 
 
 their few octaves; the old-fashioned pianos haV' 
 ing only six octaves or less. As the effective 
 part of the sounding-board is toward its heart or 
 center, a dozen of the lower strings are placed 
 half an inch higher than the other strings and 
 allowed to cross the sounding-board above them, 
 thus bringing the whole mass of strings over the 
 effective parts of the sounding-board. 
 
 Singing Tone. — The result of a score of improve- 
 ments in increasing tiie sonority of the iron- 
 frame pianos, many of which improvements can- 
 not be described without drawings and long 
 technical explanations, is that whereas a string, 
 when struck upon a good piano, now vibrates 
 audibly for nearly half a minute, a quarter of a 
 minute was the former extent of the vibration. 
 One of the best tests of a good piano, so far as 
 sonority is concerned, is to strike a note firmly 
 and count the seconds during which the vibra- 
 tions are audible; holding the key down all the 
 time, of course. 
 
 The improvements in the action of pianos 
 since the Paris Exhibition of 1867 have been the 
 introduction of metallic rods filled with wood, 
 for supporting the action in place of the wooden 
 bars in former use. The metal rods make the 
 action of the whole piano uniform, one key re- 
 quiring just as much force to depress it as another, 
 and the weather not affecting the ease with which 
 the action works. 
 
 OLE BULL. 
 
 In the interesting memoir of Ole Bull by his 
 wife, lately published, reference is made to his 
 attempts to introduce into piano-building the 
 same principles on which a good violin is con- 
 structed, and by which it improves with age. 
 An old well-made violin, well played, learns more 
 and more to vibrate uniformly. Ole Bull him- 
 self had a newer sounding-post in an old violin, , 
 and could not get the tone he wanted till the 
 accidental smashing of an old double bass afford- 
 ed him wood that had learned to vibrate, out of 
 which to make a new old sounding-post. Why, 
 he said, should a violin wear better, and a piano 
 wear out.' If he could only make the frame of a 
 piano that should behave as his violin, and mel- 
 low — not thin — with age! But although the 
 great Norwegian lavished his own time and 
 money, and although John Ericsson, hearing of 
 his laudable efforts, joined him, the problem was 
 not wrought out in Ole Bull's lifetime, nor has 
 it been since his death. Let us hope that if 
 not we, then our children, or our children's 
 children, shall be able to buy pianos whose 
 sonority'and depth of tone shall increase with 
 age, and that " thing of beauty," a new Steinway 
 — shall we say ? — grand, shall indeed be a joy for- 
 ever, so to speak. 
 
 I 
 
HOME PETS. 
 
 55 
 
 HOME PETS. 
 
 Breeding- in and in 57 
 
 Bullfinch, the 56 
 
 Bulltinches, Food for 56 
 
 Canary Cages 55 
 
 Canary Food 55 
 
 Carrier Pigeon, the 57 
 
 Common Pigeon, the 57 
 
 Cutting Claws 56 
 
 Dove, the 57 
 
 Food for Bullfinches 56 
 
 Food for Canaries 55 
 
 Food for Pigeons 58 
 
 Food for Rabbits 59 
 
 H istory of Carrier Pigeon 57 
 
 Hutclies ... 58 
 
 Pigeon, Common, the 57 
 
 Pigeon Food 58 
 
 Pigeon-Houses 57 
 
 Pigeons prolific 58 
 
 Points of Carrier Pigeons 57 
 
 Precautions, Hanging Cages 55 
 
 Rabbits, Food for 59 
 
 Rabbit-Hutches 58 
 
 Red Mites 56 
 
 Teaching Bullfinches to sing 56 
 
 Telegraph and Carrier Pigeons 57 
 
 Tortoises 59 
 
 Varieties of Bullfinch 56 
 
 Vessels should be Glass 55 
 
 Wild and Cultivated Canaries 55 
 
 THE CANARY. 
 
 Wild and Cultivated. — These birds came originally 
 from the Canary Islands ; but the wild birds are 
 not so beautiful as those in our cages and avia- 
 ries. Cultivation has improved the appearance, 
 as well as the voice, greatly. All, or nearly all, 
 of the wild canaries are gray, with a greenish 
 tinge ; the rich golden plumage which is so fa- 
 miliar to us, is seldom seen among them. 
 
 Cages. — A canary should be kept in a metal 
 cage, as it can be most easily cleaned, and can be 
 made very light and pretty. The shape should be 
 circular, and there should be at least a foot in 
 height of interior space, and eight inches in 
 length and breadth ; there should be two or three 
 perches, one very near the bottom, so that the 
 bird can stand on it and peck from the seed and 
 water vessels ; another about half-way up, and 
 one yet higher, unless there is a ring suspended 
 on the top of the dome : these perches should 
 cross each other. The breeding-cage, of course, 
 must be more roomy, and of a different shape ; 
 but about this we can give no directions that 
 would be of much service : if any of our readers 
 mean to go into canary-breeding, a book on that 
 particular subject had better be procured. 
 
 Precautions as to Hanging. — Take care that your 
 canary-cage is not hung in a draught, or in a 
 place where there is a foul smell of any kind ; 
 the lungs of the bird are delicate, and many a 
 pet has languished and died without any percep- 
 tible cause, through breathing keen or unwhole- 
 some air. If in a room where gas is burned, the 
 cage should always be lowered or taken away 
 before it is lit, as the air above soon gets heated 
 and unfit for breathing. 
 
 Vessels should be of Glass. — Seed and water ves- 
 sels are best of glass, as they can be most easily 
 kept clean and bright, as everything about a bird 
 should be — clear as the crystal water and bright 
 as the sunshine in which it delights. Yet there 
 should be provision made for shelter, too ; it can- 
 not live always in a glare : naturally much of its 
 life is passed in the shadow of green leaves, so 
 let it have some green about it when in confine- 
 
 ment, leafy boughs that quiver and wave as the 
 breeze kisses them, and fresh flowers that give 
 out a pleasant perfume, or, if these are not avail- 
 able, draw a covering of emerald-tinted gauze, or 
 some other thin stuff, partly over the cage when 
 the sun is hot and bright. 
 
 Canaries, like all shut-up birds, are subject to 
 a variety of diseases, which probably do not af- 
 fect them in a wild state where they have plenty 
 of air and exercise and the food which exactly 
 suits them. We cannot enumerate all the ail- 
 ments to which they are subject, but may just 
 lay down two or three simple rules by which 
 they may be kept in health. 
 
 The Canary. 
 
 Food. — First, as to suitable food, without which 
 no bird or other creature will keep well. Rape 
 and canary seed mixed in about equal propor- 
 tions, with now and then a little linseed added, 
 is best under ordinary circumstances, and green 
 meat, such as watercresses or groundsel, of 
 which canaries are especially fond; but this 
 should not be allowed to remain in the cage over 
 twenty- four hours. A little piece of sugar may 
 be placed between the bars for the bird to peck 
 now and then, but not often ; nor should sweet 
 cake, or rich food of any kind, be frequently 
 given, as it is likely to produce surfeit. Pre- 
 
56 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 pared food is easily to be had almost every- 
 where, and saves a deal of trouble. When breed- 
 ing or moulting, hard-boiled eggs, chopped small 
 and mi.xed with crumbs of stale bread or bun, 
 with a little maw-seed ; fresh clear water, changed 
 every day, and a scrupulous attention to cleanli- 
 ness. Attend to these simple rules, and your 
 bird will be brisk and blithe, and well repay your 
 care and attention by his sweet song and pretty 
 engaging actions. If he can be let out to fly 
 about the room occasionally, so much the better, 
 and better still if he can have the range of an 
 aviary. 
 
 Cutting Claws. — The claws of canaries, like 
 those of other cage-birds, often get uncomforta- 
 bly long; wild birds keep them short by scratch- 
 ing. When they require cutting, it should be 
 done with a sharp pair of scissors : the bird to 
 be operated on should be taken gently, yet firm- 
 ly, and the toes turned up to the light, so that 
 you can see how far it is safe to cut. When 
 moulting-time is coming on, which is generally 
 in the autumn, the bird loses its liveliness, and 
 becomes silent ; the cage will be strewn with 
 feathers, and then is the time for extra care and 
 nourishing food, such as chopped egg and maw- 
 seed, with a little saffron in the water. 
 
 Red Mites.— We need but mention one very 
 troublesome visitation, which one is indeed often 
 a legion : if you see your pet canary mopmg 
 about, moving restlessly from side to side of his 
 perch — which should always be of a good size 
 and round, so that the bird's claws can grasp it 
 tightly — and seeming generally very uncomfort- 
 able, take him out of the cage, blow open the 
 feathers beneath his wings and other under-parts, 
 and you will, no doubt, see a number of little 
 crimson dots, which are the insect pests called 
 red mites. It is e.xtremely difficult to get rid of 
 these when once they take possession of a cage ; 
 the best plan to rid the bird of them is to put 
 about ten grains of white precipitate powder 
 into a wine-glassful of warm water, and with this 
 solution wash the bird carefully wherever the 
 mites are likely to be, taking care that none of 
 the solution gets into your pet's eyes, nose or 
 mouth ; then wash him well with clean warm wa- 
 ter, wrap him in flannel and put him in a warm 
 place to dry. The cage should also be well 
 washed in precipitate-water of about three times 
 the above strength ; if a wooden cage, with many 
 holes and crevices, it had better be destroyed. 
 These mites, which are a small kind of bug, 
 often infest breeding-cages, and so torment the 
 sitting birds that they leave their nests, and so 
 render the hopes of the breeder futile. Some- 
 times, if a clean white cloth is placed over the 
 cage of the canary so infested, the vermin will 
 gather on the cloth and may thus be removed. 
 
 THE BULLFINCH 
 
 is another highly valued cage-bird, very hand- 
 some and gentle and teachable. He may be 
 taught all sorts of tricks, such as drawing up 
 a bucket from an imaginary well, etc. But we 
 should not care to give him much of this sort of 
 work to do: it is amusing and pretty to see, 
 but the bird never really likes it, and we should 
 not punish any creature for our pleasure. 
 
 How to Teach Them to Sing. — This bird has a rich 
 and flexible vpice, and may be taught to pipe 
 any simple tune when young. Piping bull- 
 finches fetch high prices. The Germans take 
 great pains in teaching them, and have regular 
 schools for their instruction, in which they are 
 divided into classes, with a teacher to each. 
 The birds are kept very much in the dark at 
 first, so that their attention may not be diverted 
 from the tune which they have to learn ; this is 
 sometimes whistled to them, at others played 
 on a hand-organ or flute. The teaching has to 
 be continued for about three quarters of a year. 
 
 The Bullfinch. 
 
 and as with children so it is with these feathered 
 pupils, some are much quicker at learning than 
 others. There are bullfinches that whistle or 
 pipe three distinct airs, and these will fetch a 
 large price ; but generally they have but a single 
 simple air.. 
 
 Varieties. — There are curious varieties of this 
 species, such as white, black and speckled, and 
 these are highly valued on account of their 
 rarity; but they are nothing like so beautiful as 
 Bully in his natural plumage, with his black 
 velvet cap, and coat of soft gray, deepening at 
 places into blue, with a fine vermilion tinge, like 
 the reflection of fire, over the breast and under- 
 parts. 
 
 Food. — In confinement he should have rape, 
 poppy and millet seeds, with now and then a 
 little sprouting wheat, barley or oats; lettuce, 
 watercresses, ripe fruit, and, as a great treat, 
 cracked nuts — which he can eat, having a strong 
 bill. Hemp-seed should not be given, or he will 
 become too fat, and liable to apoplexy. More- 
 over, it is apt to dull the rich colors of the 
 plumage. 
 
HOME PETS. 
 
 57 
 
 Young bullfinches should be reared upon rape, 
 bread and milk, with a little soaked hemp-seed 
 bruised in a mortar, or buckwheat-meal. 
 
 THE CARRIER PIGEON. 
 
 Its History. — This is the most useful, celebrated 
 and in every way remarkable of the domesti- 
 cated pigeons : it has a history e.xtending back 
 to a period anterior to the foundation of Rome. 
 The names of the victors in the Olympian games 
 were made known through the Roman provinces 
 by means of this bird. Keen of sight and strong 
 of wnig, this bird when released always flies 
 straight to its home, no matter how great may 
 be the intervening distance; so it is taken to the 
 scene of the contest, and directly the result is 
 known it is released with a message, which is 
 eagerly received by those who are waiting the 
 arrival of the messenger. , The dispatch so trans- 
 mitted is written on a small piece of thin paper, 
 which is rolled up and fastened to one of the 
 tail-feathers by means oi a piece of fine wire, 
 which is wound round the shaft of the feathers to 
 
 The Carrier Pigeon. 
 
 make it secure: in this way it does not impede 
 the flight of the bird. Sometimes it is fastened 
 to the leg with worsted. The winged messenger 
 flies with great swiftness; often from forty to 
 sixty miles an hour. 
 
 Its Points —'The twelve points which, accord- 
 ing to the recognized rules, a thoroughbred car- 
 rier should possess, are these : The head, straight, 
 long and flat. The beak, straight, long and 
 thick. The wattle, broad at the base, short 
 from the head to the bill, and leaning forward. 
 The eye, large, round and uniform. A bird with 
 these qualifications, and being of one color, dark 
 blue, will be likely to take a prize at a pigeon- 
 show. " Cinnamon birds." as those of a dun- 
 color are called, are not so much valued, although 
 they may possess all the above-named good 
 points, and have as much sagacity and power of 
 wing as the others. A long, lithe body, and a 
 firm strong wing, a proud bold look, and great 
 activity, are the characteristics of the carrier 
 
 in the prime of his life; as he grows old, he be- 
 comes stout and inactive, his wattle increases in 
 bulk, his eye loses its brightness, and his feathers 
 their beautiful gloss; he is then only fit for 
 breeding purposes. 
 
 The Telegraph Supersedes Them. — Since the intro- 
 duction of the electric telugraph, pigeon expresses 
 have not been so much used as they formerly 
 were, consequently the breeding and training of 
 the birds is comparatively little practiced. Still, 
 the carriers hold a high place among the fancy 
 kinds. They are not prolific breeders, nor atten- 
 tive and affectionate parents : frequently they 
 destroy their eggs and neglect their " squabs," as 
 young pigeons before they are fledged are called 
 — after that they are "squeakers." 
 
 Avoid Breeding in and in. — With carriers, as with 
 other pigeons, breeding " in and in." as it is called 
 — that is, getting a stock from the offspring of a 
 single pair of birds — is bad : they will generally 
 be small and weakly. Any breeder will exchange 
 eggs with another whose stock is good. The 
 best and steadiest sitters are the common Dove- 
 house, the Runt and the Dragon, to one or other 
 of which is generally deputed the task of hatch- 
 ing and bringing up the young carriers. 
 
 THE DOVE 
 
 is the commonest of all, and with us, as with 
 most persons, a great favorite. It is very close 
 to the original type, if it be not the same species 
 as that from \yhich all our domestic pigeons 
 come. It so closely resembles the wild pigeons 
 of this and other countries as to leave little 
 doubt of its being the same species, and, although 
 the peculiarities of many of the fancy kinds are 
 so very marked and distinctive, yet such asto- 
 nishing changes and diversities are produced by 
 cross-breeding and cultivation that we may well 
 believe it possible for all these to have come 
 from one common stock. 
 
 The Common Pigeon. — A very beautiful bird is 
 the common pigeon, of a soft, silky slate-color, 
 relieved with white, and barred and mottled 
 with black, with green and purple reflections 
 playing about the neck; a beautiful, a gentle and 
 a very useful bird; and most prolific — a single 
 pair will sometimes produce eight or ten pairs in 
 the year. 
 
 Their Houses. — The best kind of a pigeon-house 
 is an old loft over a stable or outhouse, or a dis- 
 used attic of a house may be made available for 
 the purpose ; it only requires compartments fitted 
 up for the different pairs of pigeons, which, if 
 thev have not separate resting-places, will be 
 constantly quarreling and fighting, breaking 
 their eggs and killingtheir squabs and squeakers. 
 The window on the roof should not open to the 
 east, and should be made so as to form a plat- 
 
58 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 form for the birds to alight on when open, and 
 to admit light and air when closed. We cannot 
 here enter into very minute particulars of treat- 
 ment, but would enforce the necessity of fre- 
 quent cleaning, and fresh sand or coarse gravel 
 on the floor, with a little chalk or old mortar, 
 and a sprinkling of salt, for the birds logo to 
 when they please: lime in some shape is essen- 
 tial to the formation of their egg-shells, and they 
 will pick the mortar from between the bricks all 
 around if they have not a supply provided for 
 them. Rats, mice and cats must be guarded 
 against; the first are very destructive of both 
 eggs and young, and the last of old birds as well. 
 Near to the entrance of the pigeon-house should 
 be a chimney or other conspicuous object, 
 painted or washed with white, as a landmark for 
 the birds when flying home. 
 
 A good and safe kind of pigeon-house is one 
 made of wood, and fixed well up against the side 
 of a building, with a separate entrance for each 
 compartment, or it may be a round structure like 
 a barrel, fi.xed on the top of a post or pole, and, 
 by an arrangement of ropes and pulleys, made to 
 draw up or down, or it may be made easy of ac- 
 cess by a rope or other ladder. But whatever or 
 wherever the house may be, it should always have 
 an elevated position. 
 
 They are Prolific— A pair of runts, or pigeons, 
 if allowed to breed, will soon stock the house, 
 and keep up a good supply of eggs and squeakers. 
 If new birds are introduced, they should be 
 young ones, as those fully grown,' who have been 
 used to another house, will be pretty sure to re- 
 turn to it. A barbarous practice prevails of 
 plucking out the larger wing-feathers to prevent 
 the flight of such birds; but this should never be 
 done : the mutilated birds frequently become 
 diseased and die, besides which, as soon as they 
 recover their powers of flight, they will be the 
 more likely to leave a place where they have 
 been so cruelly treated. 
 
 Pigeon Food. — Gray peas, with an occasional 
 change of wheat, oats or barley, and the small 
 beans known as pigeons' beans, which should be 
 at least a year old, are the best food. Rape and 
 hemp seed are sometimes given as a stimulant; 
 but the last is of too heatinga nature, and should 
 be given very sparingly, if at all. Both grain 
 and seed should be clean and sound; if decayed, 
 they will be full of mites, which are mischievous 
 to the birds. A little green food is desirable: 
 mustard and cress, lettuce or cabbage, if grown 
 within reach, will be taken by pigeons if they 
 are at large; if not .something of the kind must 
 be put into their house or inclosure, taking care 
 that the refuse is not left to decay. 
 
 Pigeons are said to be fond of strong odors; 
 and to sprinkle the floor of their house with 
 
 lavender, or asafetida, or anything that smells 
 powerfully, is thought to be a good means of in- 
 ducing new-comers to remain. To fatten squabs, 
 give maize steeped in water, and keep them 
 under an inverted hamper, or where they can 
 have air without much light. 
 
 Doves may be fed and treated like pigeons 
 generally. 
 
 RABBITS. 
 
 We have now got into a different division of the 
 animal kingdom, and jumped from feathered to 
 furred, from two- to four-footed pets, creatures 
 that live wholly upon the earth, and, being desti- 
 tute of the organs of flight, cannot escape, as 
 birds often can, from man and other enemies. 
 Many of them are very useful to us : they yield 
 us food and clothing, and in other ways minister 
 to our numerous wants, and for this reason alone, 
 but more for the higher motive of humanity, they 
 detnand our tender care and consideration. 
 
 Hutches. — It is a common notion that anybody 
 
 ^5^=^;]^^ 
 
 >AI~7/£J>^ 
 
 The Rabbit. 
 
 can make a rabbit-hutch out of anything, but 
 this is a popular fallacy. True, an old tea-chest, 
 or any kind of box, will do for the purpose, and 
 rabbits will live and thrive in very incommodi- 
 ous places ; but they will do best in a comforta- 
 ble habitation, into which neither the wet nor 
 the cold wind can penetrate. Unless the stock 
 is very large, a portable hutch is better than a 
 fixed one, in shape like the common dog-kennel, 
 with the shelving roof on both sides overlapping 
 considerably, so that small gimlet-holes for ven- 
 tilation can be made along the top, protected 
 by the lap of the roof. It should be high enough 
 for a division into an upper and lower story, the 
 breeding-places being above. The floor should 
 be of beech or some other hard wood, that will 
 not absorb urine and soft matter, which make 
 such places often smell so bad, and it should 
 be frequently cleaned. 
 
 The lower floor should be raised by legs or 
 some other contrivance several inches from the 
 ground, and in this holes should be bored for 
 
THE AQUARIUM. 
 
 59 
 
 drainage. Each doe in the breeding-room above 
 should have a separate compartment, which can 
 be got at without interfering with the others. 
 The whole should have a latticed front, but, if in 
 an e.xposed situation, there should be a shutter 
 also, which can be put up in bad weather. 
 
 Food. — Rabbits will eat almost anything that is 
 green, or, indeed, any vegetable food, and thrive 
 upon it : they are voracious eaters, and are par- 
 ticularly fond of sow-thistle, carrots with the 
 tops, cabbage and lettuce leaves ; they should 
 also have oat and barley meal, corn and hay. 
 In the wild state they are animals that feed in 
 the twilight, so the morning and evening are the 
 best times for their supply of food. It is a dis- 
 puted point whether they require water, and with 
 plenty of green food, perhaps they may do well 
 ■without ; but when the food is mostly dry, they 
 should be supplied with this great requisite of 
 animal existence. The habit some does have of 
 eating their young has been ascribed to a sort of 
 frenzy, produced by excessive thirst : one cause 
 of this is undoubtedly having more than the doe 
 can well suckle, and her powers of sustenance 
 should not be too highly ta.xed. If there are 
 more than eight young ones in a brood, some of 
 them should be destroyed. A doe will not un- 
 frequently bring up as many as twelve, and even 
 fourteen, but this should not be permitted. 
 While she is suckling she should be well fed on 
 barley-meal and milk, with a little green food. 
 The young may be taken from her when they 
 are eight weeks old ; they will then be able to 
 feed themselves. 
 
 Let no reader fancy that he is going to make a 
 fortune by rabbit-breeding : it may be pleasant, 
 but, as a rule, it is not profitable — the animals 
 eat too much, and skins and flesh fetch too little. 
 
 Yet it is well to have pets, and rabbits are about 
 as easily managed as any, 
 
 TORTOISES. 
 
 If you buy a tortoise, or have one given to you, 
 leave it alone as much as possible ; let it have 
 the run of the garden, or any place where there is 
 plenty of juicy vegetation, and it will take care 
 of itself. You need not be afraid of treading on 
 it, for itsbeautifully constructed shell so strongly 
 protects this most curious animal, that a wagon 
 might almost pass over without crushing it. 
 This is Mr. Slow-and-sure, who, you know, beat 
 the hare in a race because he kept steadily on at 
 an even pace, while she ran a little way and then 
 slept, thinking she could easily make up for lost 
 time. Although no great traveler, the tortoise 
 often disappears for a while as though he had 
 gone on a long journey, but he is all the time 
 close at hand down in the earth, or under a heap 
 of dead leaves or rubbish, lying in a torpid state, 
 as do lizards, snakes and other cold-blooded ani- 
 mals, as they are called, for this creature belongs 
 to the class of reptiles, which are wonderfully 
 tenacious of life: some of them have lived and 
 moved with their brains taken out, and even 
 with their heads off; as to the loss of a limb 
 that seems a mere trifle to them. If you have 
 strawberry-beds, keep the tortoise away from 
 them, or you will never have a strawberry for 
 your own table. Although the shell is so thick 
 and strong, yet it is very sensitive : the slightest 
 tap on it, or even the pattering of a few drops of 
 rain, will make the creature draw in its snake- 
 like head and scaly legs. It will go an immense 
 time without food, and live to an extraordinary 
 age, some say hundreds of years. 
 
 THE AQUARIUM. 
 
 Aerating the Water 60 Fresh Water 60 
 
 Artiticial Se.a-Water 60 Modern Invention, a 59 
 
 Best Inmates, the 60 1 New Discoveries, the 60 
 
 Old Theory, the 59 
 
 Open Door, an 60 
 
 A Modern /nvention. — This beautiful arrangement, 
 in which the habits of fish and other denizens of 
 the water can be so readily observed and stu- 
 died, is a comparatively modern invention, and 
 affords another instance of the dependence of the 
 arts and sciences, one upon another. Without 
 the discoveries made of late years into the vary- 
 ing and mutually helpful offices of plants and 
 animals, a modern aquarium would not be a 
 possibility. Mrs. Power, a lady of French de- 
 scent, in 1832 began the study of algae and fishes 
 from the coast of Sicily, by transferring them to 
 glass receptacles, often changing the water. 
 
 The Old Theory. —The received theory then was, 
 that, as animals living upon the surface of the 
 earth in breathing combine the oxygen of the air 
 with the carbon their bodies furnish, and thus 
 contaminate the atmosphere ; so animals living 
 in the water consume the oxygen of the air it 
 contains, and the result would prove fatal to life, 
 if not removed. But more than two centuries 
 ago, marine animals were, for purposes of obser- 
 vation and study, removed from the sea and kept 
 in confinement, and there is extant a drawing, of 
 the date of 1742, which represents the form of an 
 aquarium containing zoophytes. Esper, a dis- 
 
60 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 tinguished entomologist, a hundred years ago 
 kept aquatic insects in water for observation. 
 Sir John Graham Dalyell had in his house in Ed- 
 inburgh, the early part of this century, an aqua- 
 rium of a very humble kind, but that answered 
 the purpose. The animals he kept lived a great 
 while ; one sea-anemone taken from its home in 
 1828 being alive and well in 1873. 
 
 The New Discoveries. — But when the relations 
 between animal and vegetable life came to be 
 better understood, through, the researches of 
 science, and it was recognized that under the ac- 
 tion of light plants consume the carbonic-acid 
 gas given forth by ap imals, and thus keep up a 
 constant restoration to the air or water of the 
 oxygen necessary for the maintenance of animal 
 life, the present aquarium became possible. It 
 must contain both plants and animals, and in 
 something like a proper proportion. Zoophytes, 
 annelides, mollusca, Crustacea and fishes may 
 thus, with care, be kept in health, and observed. 
 
 Jlerating the Water. — The water must be frequent- 
 ly aerated, which can be accomplished by taking 
 up portions of it and pouringthem in again from 
 a small height. The fresh-water aquarium 
 is frequently provided with a fountain, which 
 produces a continual change of water ; but even 
 where this is the case, the presence both of plants 
 and animals is advantageous to the health of both. 
 When sea-water cannot easily be procured for the 
 marine aquarium, a substitute may be made by 
 mixing with rather less than four quarts of spring- 
 water three and a half ounces of common table- 
 salt, a quarter ounce of Epsom salts, two hun- 
 dred grains troy of chloride of magnesium and 
 forty grains troy of chloride of potassium. With 
 care, the water may be kept good for a long 
 time. No dead animal or decaying plant must 
 be permitted to remain in it. 
 
 Artificial Sea-Water. — Salt water, artificially pre- 
 pared, is not fit for the reception of animals at 
 once ; but a few plants must first be placed iji it, 
 for which purpose some of the green algae, spe- 
 cies of ulva and conferva, are most suitable. 
 The presence of a number of molluscous ani- 
 mals, such as the common periwinkle, is neces- 
 sary for the consumption of the continually 
 growing vegetable matter, and of the multitudi- 
 nous spores (seeds), particularly of confervse, 
 which would otherwise soon fill the water, ren- 
 dering it greenish or brownish, and opaque. 
 
 Frosh Water.— In a fresh-water aquarium. mollus- 
 cous animals of similar habits, such as species of 
 fymnwa or planorbis, are equally indispensable. 
 For large aquaria, tanks of plate-glass are com- 
 monly used ; smaller ones are made of bottle- 
 glass or of crystal. 
 
 The Best Inmates.— Oi course, the plants and ani- 
 mals with which the aquarium is stocked are vari- 
 
 ous, according to taste and opportunities, or the 
 desire to make particular kinds the subjects of 
 careful and continued observation. Caution is 
 
 Simple Form of an Aql'arium. 
 
 needed as to the inmates. In fresh water a 
 young pickerel, less than two inches long, can 
 dispose of a couple of dozen minnows in a week. 
 The stickleback takes the lead for general inte- 
 rest, and desirable inmates are Prussian carp, 
 minnows, perch, gudgeon, tench and gold fish, 
 with snails and mussels. For marine aquaria, min- 
 
 Aquariu:\i, with Fountain for Aerating. 
 
 nows, sticklebacks and shrimps, small lobsters, 
 hermit crabs, eels and starfishes are valuable. 
 
 Hn Open Door. — But any boy or girl of average 
 powers will soon learn to make an intelligent se- 
 lection from the animal or vegetable life accessi- 
 ble at home. A good magnifying-lens adds 
 greatly to the interest ; and here, as everywhere 
 else in Nature, the deepest and closest study is 
 the best rewarded. The writer of Esdras said : 
 The more thou searchest, the more thou shalt 
 wonder; and the saying is growing ever truer. 
 The life going on in a well-managed aquarium is 
 as wide open a door as any, into the infinite life 
 of the universe. 
 
DOGS. 
 
 61 
 
 DOGS. 
 
 Under human care, the domestic dog has be- 
 come, according to Baron Cuvier, " the com- 
 pletest, the m"ost singular and the most useful 
 conquest ever made by man." His origin is not 
 separable from that of the jackal and the wolf. 
 In the earliest literature we find him. The 
 Egyptian deity Anubis is represented on monu- 
 ments as having the head of a jackal, with pointed 
 ears and snout, which the Greeks frequently 
 changed to those of a dog. This may help to 
 account for the contempt with wliich dogs were 
 regarded among the Jews, from the beginning of 
 their history as it has come down to us, and per- 
 haps even among neighboring peoples. " The 
 Philistine said to David, Am I a dog?" By 
 Homer, however, it has been very differently 
 mentioned ; and " there is not a modern story of 
 the kind which can surpass the afifecting simpli- 
 city with which poor Argus's dying recognition 
 of his long-lost master Ulysses is related by one 
 who wrote, probably not less than two thousand 
 seven hundred years ago," — perhaps even earlier: 
 
 " He knew his lord; he knew, and strove to meet, 
 In vain he strove to crawl, and Iviss his feet ; 
 Yet (all he could) his tail, his tears, his eyes, 
 Salute his roaster, and confess his joys. 
 Soft pity touch'd the mighty master's soul ; 
 Adown his cheek a tear unbidden stole. 
 
 Takes a last look, and having seen him, dies ; 
 So closed forever faithful Argus' eyes !" 
 
 Papers iranslaiion. 
 
 The sculptures of Nineveh and the hierogly- 
 phics of Egypt attest the very early domestica- 
 tion of the dog, and the e.xistenceof races similar 
 to some of those now extant ; and the high value 
 attached to it by many nations is further witness- 
 ed by the place assigned to it or its image, as 
 emblematic of the attributes which they ascribed 
 to their gods. In the Mahabharata, the king 
 Yudisthira leaves his throne with his four 
 brothers and Drapaudi, "and the seventh was a 
 dog that followed them," on a forlorn journey 
 to Indra's heaven, there to find the rest seem- 
 ingly denied them on earth. One after another 
 dropped off on the road till Yudisthira and the 
 dog alone appeared at the gate, and Indra wel- 
 comed the king, and told him he should find in 
 heaven his brothers and Drapaudi. Yudisthira: 
 
 "O Indra, and what of this dog? it has faithfully followed me 
 through : 
 Let it go with me into heaven, for my soul is full of com- 
 passion." 
 
 Indra refuses ; and the king scornfully turns his 
 back upon a heaven, to be entered only by the 
 crime of forsaking a dependent. 
 
 And in modern times : how large a place does 
 this faithful animal occupy in history and in 
 literature. The author of " Raband his Friends" 
 is onl)f one of a long catalogue of writers who 
 have recoraed the virtues and the vices, the 
 cunning, the affections and the prowess of dogs. 
 They have their failures and tlreir virtues to an 
 almost human degree. An Adirondack hound 
 jjiiist attack a hedge-pig rolled into a ball to 
 await the onset, although the quills are sure to 
 pin the hound's mouth together, and make him 
 useless for weeks and months ; and even though 
 he has only just emerged from a previous similar 
 experience. And he holds out his paw or his 
 jaw to the knife that must do the necessary 
 surgery, and, untied, and without chloroform, 
 endures the agony. 
 
 The hunting and sporting dogs so much used 
 in England and Europe generally, and the blood- 
 
 Shepherd's Dog. 
 
 hounds bred to track human beings, have in this 
 country an interest merely as curiosities. Some 
 few attempts have been spasmodically made in 
 the United States to revive fo.x-hunting, or some 
 other form of " survival " with which older coun- 
 tries are still cursed, but which are surely doomed 
 to a not very distant death. But the shepherd's 
 dog is one of the most interesting and attractive 
 of his kind. In the highlands of Scotland he 
 is invaluable. The Ettrick Shepherd says : " It 
 would require more hands to manage a stock of 
 sheep, gather them from the hills, force them 
 into houses and folds, and drive them to markets, 
 than the profits of the whole stock would be 
 capable of maintaining." "When riding" in 
 South America, savs Darwin, "it is a common 
 thing to meet a large flock of sheep, guarded by 
 one or two dogs, at the distance of some miles 
 from any house or man." And he learned the 
 method by which this friendship between dog 
 
62 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 and sheep had been established. The puppy is 
 removed from its mother, kept in the sheep-pen, 
 and suckled by a ewe. Generally it is castrated, 
 and thus has little or no community of feeling 
 with its kind. Brought up among the sheep, it 
 shows no desire to leave them, but assumes the 
 position of leader. " It is amusing," Darwin goes 
 on, "to observe, when approaching a flock, how 
 the dog immediately advances barking, and the 
 sheep all close in his rear as if around the oldest 
 ram." It comes home daily for food, and imme- 
 > diately returns to its charge, and this it is often 
 taught to bring home in the evening. 
 
 The Newfoundland dog is well known as a 
 most faithful guardian of property, and as re- 
 markably fond of the water, from which it has 
 saved multitudes of lives. In Newfoundland and 
 Labrador, these dogs are used as beasts of 
 burden, and trained to draw sledges. The Great 
 St. Bernard dog has been useful in rescuing lives 
 imperiled in snow and storm, as the Newfound- 
 land has in saving from the water. He is a 
 powerful animal, kept by the monks of the 
 Hospice of St. Bernard in their convent, on a 
 most dangerous pass between Switzerland and 
 
 King Charles Spaniel 
 
 Italy. When the need seems present, these dogs 
 are sent out in pairs, one bearing a flask of spirits 
 and the other a cloak. When they cannot rescue 
 without help, they bark for it ; often detecting a 
 traveler even several feet beneath the snow. One 
 dog lost on such an errand bore a medal stating 
 that it had been the means of saving twenty-two 
 lives. But the improvement of roads, and better 
 means of locomotion generally, are lessening the 
 importance of their services. 
 
 The mastiff, the bull-dog, the terrier and the 
 spaniel, including the King Charles variety, are 
 all well-known varieties, each useful in its place. 
 
 No satisfactory classification of the different 
 kinds of dog has ever been made. What some 
 naturalists regard as types of species others pro- 
 nounce to be mere mongrel races. Nor can any 
 principle of arrangement be found in form, 
 roughness or smoothness of fur, or other such 
 character, which will not associate kinds that are 
 in other respects widely dissimilar, and separate 
 some that are nearly allied. Richardson arranges 
 
 them in three great groups, indicated by the 
 least variable part of their osteological structure, 
 cranial development." i. Including the Irish 
 wolf-dog, highland deerhound, grayliounds, and 
 tigerhounds, characterized by convergent parietal 
 bones, an elongated muzzle, and high and slender 
 form. 2. Including the great Dane, the French 
 matin, the pariah of India, the bloodhound, stag- 
 hound, foxhound, harrier, beagle, pointers, terri- 
 ers, turnspit, Newfoundland dog, Labrador dog, 
 Pomeranian dog, Esquimaux dog, Siberian dog, 
 shepherd's dog, etc., characterised by parallel 
 parietal bones, and generally by much acuteness 
 of smell. 3. Including mastiflfs, the great St. 
 Bernard dog, bull-dog, pug-dog, etc., character- 
 ized by sensibly divergent parietal bones, bulk of 
 body, robust structure, and combative propen- 
 sities. 
 
 It ought never to be overlooked, in dealing 
 with dogs, that there may be danger of hydro- 
 phobia, that most dreadful disease, with whose 
 origin, nature and cure, science has not yet suc- 
 cessfully grappled. Even though an almost in- 
 finitesimal proportion of dogs ever have it, and 
 even although of actual bites from the actually 
 mad, it is not certain that any bad effects will 
 follow. Dr. John Hunter stating that he knew 
 an instance in which, of twenty-one persons 
 bitten by a mad dog, only one was affected ; still, 
 the almost certain death with circumstances most 
 revolting, of those whom the disease actually 
 attacks, ought to dissuade from any carelessness. 
 Mad dogs do not necessarily have any dislike to 
 water, and they are not exclusively or especially 
 liable to the disease in hot weather. The dog 
 loses his appetite, becomes sullen, fidgety, has a 
 vacant gaze, licks or gnaws the injured part, laps 
 any liquid that comes in his way, eats wood, hair, 
 straw and other indigestible substances, becomes 
 quarrelsome, bent on mischief, bites at anything 
 that comes in his way, and his bark is more like 
 a howl; his lower jaw often becomes pendulous,, 
 and general paralysis sometimes precedes death; 
 and, as a rule, on the fifth or sixth day he dies. 
 Preventive measures, when the disease is present, 
 or even suspected, should be immediately taken. 
 All dogs known to have been bitten, or been in 
 the company of a rabid animal, should be imme- 
 diately destroyed, and all other neighboring dogs 
 muzzled. And any dog showing symptoms such 
 as detailed above, should be promptly killed, or 
 at any rate muzzled and closely confined, till the 
 symptoms disappear and normal health is re- 
 established. Human life is so much more pre- 
 cious than merely animal, that not the faintest 
 risk should be knowingly run. Do not hesitate 
 to sacrifice a dog or dogs even if really innocent 
 of any taint of the disease, rather than jeopard 
 the safety of human beings. 
 
BEES. 
 
 63 
 
 BEES. 
 
 Alien Queens 66 
 
 Antenna: 68 
 
 Blind Investigator, the . . 70 
 
 Cells, their wonderful construction. . . 67 
 
 Collection of Pollen 63 
 
 Combats of Queens 66 
 
 Combs ,'. 66 
 
 Drones, their shape and numbers 64 
 
 Egg, Larva and Pupa 66 
 
 Eggs, Nucaber of 65 
 
 Exhaustless Interest of the subject. . . 70 
 
 Extreme Sensitiveness of Bees 68 
 
 Food of Bees 68 
 
 Food of Larvae 66 
 
 Honey, the 6g 
 
 Interest, Exhaustless 70 
 
 Larva, the 66 
 
 Laying her Eggs 65 
 
 Length of Queen's Life 66 
 
 Loss of the Queen 65 
 
 MaHdibles 68 
 
 Massacre of Drones 65 
 
 Metamorphosis of Queen Bee 65 
 
 Multum in Parvo 63 
 
 Normal Age of Drones 65 
 
 Number of Eggs 65 
 
 Numbers and Weight 70 
 
 Place in History 63 
 
 Pollen, Collection of 68 
 
 Preparations for Swarming 69 
 
 Proboscis 68 
 
 Propolis 67 
 
 Pupa, the 66 
 
 Queens, Alien 66 
 
 Queen-Bee, appearance 65 
 
 Queen Combats 66 
 
 Queens, Loss of 65 
 
 Rivalship of Queens 65 
 
 Royal Cells 67 
 
 Senses of Bees 68 
 
 Sensitiveness, their Extreme 68 
 
 Sting, their 69 
 
 Stomachs 68 
 
 Succession of Swarms , 69 
 
 Swarm departs, the 69 
 
 Swarming 69 
 
 Swarms, Succession of 69 
 
 Three Classes, the 63 
 
 Unique Division, a 64 
 
 Varieties of Honey-Bee. .- 64 
 
 Wax 67 
 
 Wonderful Community, a 63 
 
 Wonderful Construction of Cells 67 
 
 Workers, shape and appearance 66 
 
 BEES, THEIR PLACE IN HISTORY. 
 
 The bee, says the Encyclopasdia Britannica, 
 from its singular instincts, its active industry, 
 and the useful products resulting from its labors, 
 has, from the retrtotest times, attracted general 
 attention and interest. No nation upon earth 
 has had so many historians as this remarkable 
 class of insects. The patience and sagacity of 
 the naturalist have had an ample field for e.xer- 
 cise in the study of the structure, physiology 
 and domestic economy of bees ; their preserva- 
 tion and increase have been objects of assiduous 
 care to the agriculturist; and their reputed per- 
 fection of policy and government have long been 
 the theme of admiration, and have supplied 
 copious materials for argument and allusion to 
 the poet and the moralist in every age. It is a 
 subject that has been celebrated by tjie muse of 
 Virgil, and illustrated by the philosophic genius 
 of Aristotle. Cicero and Pliny record that Aris- 
 tomachus devoted sixty years to the study of 
 these insects ; and Philiscus is said to have re- 
 tired into a remote wood, that he might pursue 
 his observations on them without interruption. 
 A very great number of authors have written 
 express treatises on bees; periodical works have 
 been published relating exclusively to their ma- 
 nagement and economy ; and learned societies 
 have been established for the sole purpose of 
 conducting researches on this subject. 
 
 MULTUM IN PARVO. 
 
 How could this be otherwise? Within this 
 little body are contained apparatus for convert- 
 ing the various sweets which it collects into one 
 kind of nourishment for itself, another for the 
 common brood, a third for the royal brood, glue 
 for its carpentry, wax for its cells, poison for its 
 enemies, honey for its master, with a proboscis 
 as long as the body itself, microscopic in several 
 
 parts, telescopic in its mode of action, with a 
 sting so exceedingly sharp that were it magnified 
 by the same glass which makes a needle's point 
 seem a quarter of an inch, it would yet itself be 
 invisible, and this, too, a hollow tube. And all 
 these varied operations and contrivances are in- 
 cluded within half an inch in length and two 
 grains weight of matter. 
 
 A WONDERFUL COMMUNITY. 
 Prof. Jaeger says : It is impossible for any re- 
 flecting person to look at a bee-hive in full opera- 
 tion without being astonished at the activity and 
 surprising industry of its inhabitants. We see 
 crowds constantly arriving from the woods, 
 meadows, fields and gardens, laden with pro- 
 visions and materials for future use, while others 
 are continually flying off on similar collecting 
 expeditions. Some are carrying out the dead, 
 others are removing dirt and offal, while others 
 are giving battle to any strangers that may dare 
 intrude. Suddenly a cloud appears, and the 
 bees hurry home, thronging at the entrance to 
 the hive by thousands, until all are gradually 
 received within their inclosure. In the interior 
 of the hive we see with what skill they work 
 their combs and deposit the honey ; and when 
 their labor is over for the day, they rest in chains 
 suspended from the ceiling of their habitation, 
 one bee clinging with its forefeet to the hind- 
 feet of the one above it, until it seems impossible 
 that the upper one can be strong enough to 
 support the weight of so many hundreds. 
 
 THE THREE CLASSES. 
 The leading feature in the natural history of 
 bees, and one which distinguishes them from 
 almost all other insects, is their singular distribu- 
 tion into three different classes, constituting to 
 all appearances so many different modifications of 
 sex. In the cuts the size is enlarged beyond that 
 
64 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 of nature, but the proportions are preserved. 
 The dtone, the male of the species, has a thicker 
 body, a rounder head, a more flattened shape, 
 and more obtusely terminated abdomen. It has 
 no sting, and may be detected by the humming 
 noise that accompanies its flight. The queen- 
 bee, the female, is the largest of the three, has a 
 longer abdomen, with two ovaria of considera- 
 
 The Queeh. 
 
 ble size, and a curved sting. The workers com- 
 pose the third class, and are distinguished by 
 the smallness of their size, their lengthened pro- 
 boscis, the peculiar structure of their legs and 
 thighs, adapted to the collection of certain 
 materials obtained from vegetables, and by the 
 apparent absence of any generative organs. It 
 is their function to perform all the laborious 
 
 Thil Drone. 
 
 The Worker. 
 
 offices for the community, to construct the in- 
 terior of their habitation, to explore the coun- 
 try in search of nourishment and other mate- 
 rials, to collect and bring them to the hive and 
 apply them to different purposes, to attend upon 
 the queen and supply all her wants, to defend 
 the hive from the attacks of depredators, and 
 to carry on hostilities against the various ene- 
 mies of the tribe. 
 
 A UNIQUE DIVISION. 
 
 Here, then, is a wide departure from the 
 methods by which other animals live, and are 
 perpetuated. The keeping up of the race is con- 
 fided by Nature to members of the community 
 other than those who do its actual work. This 
 arrangement is, we believe, a unique one. In- 
 
 stead of.the power of perpetuation being com- 
 mitted to the rank and file, and that rank and 
 file divided into male and female, in approxi- 
 mately equal proportions, the sexual functions 
 being performed by individuals who have to 
 take care of themselves otherwise, here we find 
 a most curious " division of labor." Whereas, in 
 other departments of animated nature, the male 
 holds the post of honor, and rules by virtue of 
 his virility, here he is merely tolerated because 
 his services are indispensable, and when the use 
 for them has passed, he is ingloriously hustled 
 out of an unnecessary existence. The female is 
 the mother of all in the same hive, and will en- 
 dure no sister. Her labors are constant, and 
 her life long. The overwhelming majority are 
 sexless — mere workers, to whom all paternity 
 and maternity are as foreign as a symphony of 
 Beethoven's to a man born deaf. 
 
 The Honey-Bee and its Varieties. — The best known 
 varieties of the honey-bee are the German or 
 black bee and the Ligurian or Italian bee. The 
 so-called black bees are really a grayish black. 
 The German bees are about of one color. The 
 Italians are easily distinguished by the bright yel- 
 low rings — three, when the breed is pure — at the 
 base of the abdomen. The Egyptian bees have a 
 broad band of yellow, and are smaller and more 
 slender than Italian bees. The Cyprian bee is 
 yellow, and is doubtless a variety of the Italian. 
 Many other "fancy" varieties are yearly adver- 
 tised, but it is best to stick to the well-tried Ger- 
 man and Italian bees. 
 
 THE DRONES. 
 
 Their Shape and Number.— The males are called 
 drones from the peculiar noise they make in 
 their flight, are much larger than the workers, 
 and thicker in proportion. The antennae have 
 an additional joint, and their eyes are remarkably 
 large, meeting upon the crown. They produce 
 neither wax nor honey, and live by the labor of 
 others, of which they are mere idle spectators. 
 The intercourse with the queen, for which alone 
 they seem to exist, takes place in the open air, 
 and on the wing; the queen carrying back with 
 her to the hive part of the mutilated body of the 
 drone she has met, and he falling to the ground 
 to perish. Although this occurs to a queen 
 once for all her lifetime, still as it milst be in 
 the open air, Huber thinks the otherwise ap- 
 parently unnecessary number of drones is needed, 
 that she may be sure to encounter one when she 
 flies abroad for the purpose. In the spring they 
 are said to be a thirtieth to a fortieth of the whole. 
 A fecundated queen seems to lay drone or work- 
 er eggs at will : an unfecundated queen lays eggs 
 indiscriminately in drone and worker cells, but 
 her eggs produce drones only. 
 
BEES. 
 
 65 
 
 Massacre of the Drones. — After swarming time, 
 when the queens are impregnated, and no new 
 swarms are about to take place, the worlcers, 
 who until then have allowed the drones to live 
 unmolested in the hive, are on a sudden seized 
 with deadly fury towards them. This usually 
 happens in June, July or August. They chase 
 their unhappy victims in every quarter, till they 
 drive them to the bottom of the hive, where 
 they indiscriminately massacre them, and throw 
 them out on the ground. Not only do they kill 
 every living drone, but they destroy all male eggs 
 and larvae, and tear open the cocoons of their 
 pups. This sacrifice of the drones is not an un- 
 discriminating instinct; for if a hive be deprived 
 of its queen, the massacre does not take place in 
 that particular hive, and the drones are allowed 
 to survive the winter. 
 
 Their normal Age Unknown. — Drones seldom die 
 a natural death. From the egg to the full-grown 
 male, about twenty-five days are needed. There 
 is no evidence of the duration of the lives of in- 
 dividuals, but in usual course they are hatched 
 about May and slaughtered in June, July or Au- 
 gust. 
 
 THE QUEEN-BEE. 
 
 Her Appearance. — She is considerably longer 
 than either the workers or the males; distin- 
 guished by the yellow tint of the under-part of 
 the body, and by the shortness of her wings, 
 which, instead of reaching to the extremity of the 
 abdomen, leave some of its rings uncovered. 
 There is commonly only one perfect queen exist- 
 ing at one time within one hive, and she usually 
 appears to be treated by all the other bees with 
 every mark of affection and deference. 
 
 Her Metamorphosis. — When from the egg or 
 young larva it is the intention of the bees to 
 raise a queen, their attention ia most incessantly 
 bestowed upon it. Its cell is enlarged, and it is 
 supplied with a peculiar and more stimulating 
 food than that of ordinary bees, not mawkish, 
 but acid ; and in quantities larger than can be 
 consumed, so that some always remains over 
 after the transformation. The growth and de- 
 velopment of the larva are thus accelerated, 
 and in five days it is prepared to spin its web, 
 when the workers wall it up. After two days 
 and a half, the larva becomes a pupa. In this 
 state it remains four or five days, and on the six- 
 teenth day after the laying of the egg, the perfect 
 insect is produced, and is liberated by the work- 
 ers. 
 
 Laying her £ggs. — The queen deposits eggs du- 
 ring ten Or eleven months of the year in tempe- 
 rate climates. If the impregnation of a queen be 
 delayed beyond the twenty-first day of her life, 
 she becomes incapable of impregnation, and can 
 
 produce only drone-eggs. The abdomen of such 
 a queen is much more slender than that of a fer- 
 tile one. Young queens ordinarily commence 
 ovipositing (or egg-laying^ thirty-six hours after 
 impregnation. How the queen determines the 
 sex of her eggs is not known, but eggs that will 
 produce workers or queens will always be found 
 in worker-cells, and those that will produce 
 drones in drone-cells. A queen of a new swarm 
 will rarely produce drones the first year, instinct 
 seemingly teaching her that they will not be re- 
 quired. In the early spring, if a piece of empty 
 drone-comb be put into the center of the brood- 
 nest, thequeen will usually fill it with drone-eggs. 
 
 Number of Eggs Laid. — It is the queen's business 
 to keep the colony populous, and certainly she 
 attends to her business. She is capable of lay- 
 ing two to three tho.usand eggs a day, and has 
 been known to lay six eggs in one minute. 
 Berlepach tells of a queen that laid 3021 eggs in 
 twenty-four hours by actual count, and 57,000 
 eggs in twenty days : that she continued prolific 
 for five years, and must have laid during that 
 time 1,300,000 eggs. Other careful observers also 
 say that a queen may lay more than 1,000,000 
 eggs. Her spermatheca is capable, according to 
 Lenckart, of containing 25,000,000 spermatozoa. 
 If it can be compressed at will, as is probable, 
 there may be here a hint of the way in which she 
 produces the two different classes of eggs. 
 
 Loss of the Queen. — This event has a most 
 marked influence on the workers, although it is 
 nearly an hour before her absence seems to be 
 discovered. Inquietude begins in one part of 
 the hive, the workers become restless, abandon 
 the young they were feeding, run to and fro, and 
 communicate the alarming intelligence to their 
 companions. The whole community is soon in 
 a ferment, the bees rush precipitately from the 
 hive, and seek in every direction for the lost 
 queen. After a day or two tranquillity is re- 
 established, they return to their labors, select an 
 egg or a larva, and rear a new queen as already 
 described. 
 
 Rivalship of the Queens. — A queen-bee, though 
 perfectly formed, is not always at liberty to come 
 out of her cell, which becomes a prison if the 
 queen-mother be still in the hive waiting to lead 
 out another swarm. The workers even strength- 
 en the covering of the queen-cell, perforating it 
 with a small hole through which the captive can 
 thrust out her tongue to be fed. The royal 
 prisoner keeps up a plaintive cry, called by bee- 
 keepers "piping," and this is answered by the 
 mother-queen. The modulations of this piping 
 are said to vary. The motive of this proceeding 
 on the part of the workers is to be found in the 
 implacable hatred which the old queen bears 
 against all of her own sex, and which impels her 
 
m 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 to destroy without mercy all the young queens 
 she can reacli. So when there is a prospect of a 
 swarm soon issuing, they establish themselves 
 as a guard around the queen-cells, and, forget- 
 ting their usual allegiance, beat off the old queen 
 as often as she tries to approach them. But if 
 the swarming season is over, the bees do not 
 hinder the old queen, who immediately trans- 
 fixes with her sting one after another of the royal 
 brood. According to Huber, royal larvae con- 
 struct only imperfect cocoons, open behind, leav- 
 ing exposed the abdomen below the first ring ; 
 as if Nature intended to give the old queen a 
 chance at them with her fatal sting. 
 
 Q/jeen Combats. — The same writer has made the 
 singular observation that two queens, however 
 inveterate their mutual hostility, never actually 
 destroy each other. When in a contest they 
 come into such a relative position that each can 
 sting the other mortally, they suddenly separate, 
 and part as if panic-stricken. Without this in- 
 stinct, a hive might be altogether deprived of a 
 queen. 
 
 Alien Queens. — Bees recognize the person of 
 their own queen. If a stranger enter the hive, 
 they seize and surround her till a ball of bees is 
 formed one or two inches in diameter, and there 
 keep her till she dies, as they seldom sting a 
 queen. But a hive that has lost its queen can 
 by certain precautions be induced to accept a 
 substitute. A usual way is to imprison the 
 stranger queen in a small wire-gauze cage and 
 suspend her between two central combs. Soon 
 the bees become accustomed to the odor and ap- 
 pearance of the new sovereign, and after a day 
 or two readily accept her. But if a supernumera- 
 ry queen be introduced into the hive, she is seized 
 and brought to the reigning queen, a ring is 
 formed, and the bees fight it out till one or the 
 other perishes. Some observers hold that the 
 vanquished queen is killed by the bees, others 
 that the victor kills her. 
 
 Length of Life. — The life of a queen-bee will 
 sometimes extend to four or five years ; but her 
 fertility generally decreases after her second 
 breeding season. When absent from the hive 
 on a matrimonial excursion, she often falls a prey 
 to a bird. And sometimes she makes a mistake, 
 and enters another hive where she does not be- 
 long, and then she or the original queen is de- 
 stroyed. But if no accident happens to her, her 
 life will probably last as above stated. 
 
 THE WORKERS. 
 
 Their Shape and Appearance. — They have a body 
 about half an inch in length, and about one sixth 
 of an inch in greatest breadth, at the upper part 
 of the abdomen. The antennje are twelve- 
 jointed, and terminate in a knob. The abdomen 
 
 1 
 
 consists of six joints or rings, and under the scaly 
 coverings of the four middle ones are situated 
 the wax-pockets, or organs for the secretion of 
 wax. The extremity of the abdomep is provided 
 with a sting, which is straight. The basal joint 
 of the hind tarsi is diluted to form a pollen-bas- 
 ket, and the legs are well provided with hairs for 
 collecting the pollen and brushing it into this 
 receptacle. 
 
 The Egg, the Larm and the Pupa. — The eggs of 
 bees are of a long shape and bluish-white color, 
 about one twelfth of an inch in length. They 
 are hatched in about three daj's. The larvae are 
 little worm-like creatures, having no feet, and ly- 
 ing coiled up like a ring: they are diligently fed 
 by the workers, until, in about five days, when 
 large enough nearly to fill the cell, they refuse 
 food, upon .which the attendant bees seal up the 
 cell with wax, and the larva, spinning itself a 
 fine silken envelope or cocoon, is transformed 
 into a pupa; and about the eighteenth day — or, 
 in the case of drones, the twenty-fourth day — 
 from the deposition of the egg, the young bee, in 
 its perfect state, breaks the covering, and issues 
 from the cell. It is caressed and supplied with 
 food by the attendant bees, and is believed not 
 to try its wings until the following day. The 
 cell from which it has issued is speedily cleaned 
 out, and prepared for the reception of another 
 egg or of honey. The fine silken envelope of the 
 pupa, however, remains attached to the cell, of 
 which the capacity thus becomes gradually 
 smaller, until the cells of old combs are too small 
 to receive eggs, and can be used for honey alone. 
 
 Food of the Larva. — The food with which the 
 larvae are supplied is a mixture of pollen, honey 
 and water, with the addition, possibly, of some 
 secretion from the stomachs of the workers, in 
 which it is prepared. It varies a little, according 
 to the age and kind of the larva, and the pecu- 
 liarities of that given to young queens are indis- 
 pensable to fit them for their future functions. 
 Pollen is constantly found stored up in the cells 
 of the hive, and is often called bee-bread. 
 
 Combs. — The combs of a bee-hive are parallel 
 to each other, forming vertical strata of about 
 an inch in thickness, and distant about half an 
 inch from each other. The cells are therefore 
 nearly horizontal, having a slight and somewhat 
 variable dip towards the center of each comb. 
 The central comb is generally first begun, and 
 next after it those next to it on each side. Cir- 
 cumstances frequently cause some departure from 
 this uniform and symmetrical plan, which, how- 
 ever, still remains obvious. Each comb consists 
 of two sets of cells, one on each side; and it may 
 be mentioned as an illustration of the wonderful 
 industry of bees, and the results of their com- 
 bined labors, that a piece of comb, 14 inches long 
 
BEES. 
 
 67 
 
 by 7 inches wide, and containing about 4000 cells, 
 has been frequently constructed in 24 hours. 
 The greater part of the comb usually consists of 
 the kind of cells fitted for breeding workers, a 
 smaller part of it of the larger or drone cells. After 
 the principal breeding season is over, the cells of 
 some parts of the comb are often elongated for 
 the reception of honey ; and sometimes comb of 
 greater thickness, or with unusually long cells, is 
 constructed for that purpose alone, in which 
 case the mouths of the cells are inclined up- 
 wards, more than is usual with the ordinary 
 brood-cells. When a cell has been completely 
 filled with honey, its mouth is scaled or covered 
 with wa.x. 
 
 Royal Cells. — These are very different, being 
 vertical and not horizontal in their position — 
 not hexagonal, but rather oval in form — and 
 
 Comb showing Brood and Queen Cells, 
 
 much larger than the other cells, even in propor- 
 tion to the size of the animal that is to inhabit 
 them : they are generally placed on the edge of 
 a comb, and when they have served their pur- 
 pose are partially removed, so that during win- 
 ter they resemble acorn-cups in appearance. 
 
 Their Wonderful Construction. — The cells are 
 hexagonal, or six-sided, the hexagons perfectly 
 regular, and in this way there are no interstices 
 between the cells. There are only three regular 
 figures, that is, figures of which all the sides and 
 angles are equal, bounded by straight lines, with 
 which a space can be perfectly filled up in this 
 way — the equilateral triangle, the square and the 
 hexagon ; and of these the hexagon is at once 
 the most suitable for the larva of the bee in its 
 form, and the strongest in its nearest approach 
 to the circle. The circular form itself would 
 
 have left large interstices. The partition-wall be- 
 tween the two sets of cells is not a simple plane. 
 It is made up of little rhombs or four-sided fig- 
 ures with two acute and two obtuse angles made 
 to terminate in three-sided pyramids. The indi- 
 vidual cells are not opposite each other, but the 
 point of meeting of three sides of three cells on 
 one side is opposite the wall of a cell on the other 
 side. The only departure from perfect regulari- 
 ty in the form of the cells is in the transition 
 from the smaller or workers' cells to the larger 
 or drones^ cells, which is managed with an equal- 
 ly great simplicity and beauty of contrivance. 
 The " instmct" of a bee is equal to problems the 
 mere comprehension of which needs an educated 
 human brain. 
 
 Wax. — The material of which the cells are built 
 is chiefly wax, which is at first white, but becomes 
 brownish-yellow with age, and in very old combs 
 almost black. Each ounce of wax represents 
 about twenty ounces of honey. Bees'-wax is 
 now known to be produced by a chemistry car- 
 ried on in the bodies of bees ; and they produce 
 wax and build combs when supplied only with 
 honey or saccharine substances. The b«es which 
 are about to proceed to wax-making, suspend 
 themselves in clusters in the hive, attaching 
 themselves to each other by means of hooks 
 with which their feet are provided ; and whilst 
 they remain motionless in this position, the wa.x 
 appears to be formed, in small scales, which they 
 afterwards take in their mouths and curiously 
 work up with a secretion from the mouth itself, 
 passing the wax, in the form of a minute riband, 
 through the mouth, first in one direction and 
 then in the opposite one, and finally depositing 
 it in its proper place for the foundation of the 
 comb. One bee always begins the comb alone, 
 the rest, in gradually increasing numbers, pro- 
 ceed in accordance with what has been already 
 done. The bees which elaborate and deposit the 
 wax, do not, however, construct the cells, which 
 is done by others, partly at least by a process of 
 excavation in the wax deposited. It is supposed 
 by many naturalists, that some of the working- 
 bees are exclusively wax-workers, some nurses, 
 etc.; but others think that there is only one class 
 of working-bees, all ready for' any kind of work 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 Propolis. — But wax, although the chief, is not 
 the only material of the combs. Propolis is also 
 employed in small bands to give greater strength 
 to the cells, the mouths of which are surrounded 
 with it, and made thicker than their walls. This 
 substance, which is obtained by bees from the 
 viscid buds of trees, is also employed for more 
 firmly attaching the combs to the hive, for clos- 
 ing up apertures in the hive, for covering up ob- 
 noxious substances, intruding slugs, etc., which 
 
68 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 are too large to be removed, and for a variety of 
 similar purposes. 
 
 Food of Bees. — This is of two kinds: the fluid 
 secretions of vegetables contained in the necta- 
 ries of flowers ; and the dust of the anthers, 
 called by botanists the pollen, but which, when 
 collected by bees, has received various names, 
 farina, bee-bread, etc. Sometimes they feed on 
 other substances, honey-dew, syrup, etc. The or- 
 gans by which they collect and utilize their food 
 are very comple.x. 
 
 The Proboscis. — This organ of five parts, maybe 
 considered as a lengthened tongue. It is a pro- 
 longation of the under-lip, and is rolled over the 
 fluid aliment taking up what adheres to it, which 
 the bee then licks up. 
 
 Mandibles and Teeth. — For mechanically dividing 
 solid materials, the mouth is furnished with two 
 strong mandibles or jaws, and four palpi or 
 feelers. These are little used in eating. The 
 teeth are two in number, and have the form 
 of concave scales with sharp edges, are fixed to 
 the end of the jaw, and play horizontally. 
 
 Stomachs. — The bee has two : the first a large 
 transparent bag, pointed in front and swelling 
 out into two pouches behind. Like the crop 
 of birds, it receives and temporarily retains the 
 fluid of the nectaries. No digestion or other 
 change in the food is detected here. From this 
 reservoir the food or honey may be thrown back 
 into the mouth and deposited in cells or imparted 
 to other bees. For digestion, a second stomach is 
 provided. 
 
 Collection of Pollen. — The pollen, or fertilizing 
 dust of flowers, is collected by bees for the pur- 
 pose of feeding the young, stored in cells till 
 needed, then partly digested with honey, and a 
 kind of chyle formed of it. When natural pollen 
 cannot be had, the bees will eagerly take farina 
 of rye, chestnuts or pease. This is not done by the 
 mouth. The feathered hairs with which their 
 bodies are partially clothed, and particularly those 
 of their legs, collect the pollen, which adheres 
 to them, and it is brushed into a hollow on the 
 outer surface of the first joint of the tarsus of 
 each of the hinder pair of legs. This joint is 
 very large, compressed, and of a square or tri- 
 angular form — a unique conformation. Drones 
 and queens are destitute of this conformation, 
 which they do not need. 
 
 Their Senses. — These, with the exception of 
 taste, are very delicate. In full daylight they have 
 the sense of vision in great perfection. A bee 
 lights unerringly on the flowers in search of 
 nectar or pollen, and as unerringly finds its own 
 hive. Their hearing is deficient in many direc- 
 tions, but very fine in others, and they seem in- 
 stantly to understand and obey certain audible sig- 
 nals hardly distinguishable by men. Their smell. 
 
 too, is acute. They proceed immediately toward 
 honey concealed from their view. Some odors 
 are highly obnoxious : that of their stings pro- 
 vokes to immediate rage. They recognize in- 
 stantly a stranger bee by the sense of smell. 
 
 Their AntenncB. — But their sense of touch is very 
 fine, and the antennae are of the greatest import- 
 ance in receiving and conveying impressions. 
 These have many articulations, are very flexible, 
 andean readily embrace the outline of any ob- 
 ject, however small, the bee wishes to examine. 
 Different naturalists credit these organs with the 
 sense of hearing and of smell, as well as of touch ; 
 and it is possible that they are organs of some 
 sense to which we are strangers. By these instru- 
 ments the bee can execute so many works in the 
 totally dark interior of the hive. By their aid, it 
 builds its combs, pours honey into its magazines, 
 feeds the larvae, and ministers to every want 
 which it appears to discover and judge of solely 
 by the sense of touch. They seem also the 
 principal means for mutual communication of 
 impressions. Thedifferent modesof contactcon- 
 stitute a kind of language, susceptible of a great 
 variety of modifications, and able to supply every 
 sort of information for which they have occasion. 
 
 Their Extreme Sensitiveness. — Bees cannot exist 
 in an impure air. The inside of a populous hive 
 scarcely differs in purity from the surrounding 
 atmosphere. Ventilation is kept up by the 
 rapid vibration of the wings of a certain number 
 told off for the purpose, who fasten themselves 
 with their feet to the floor of the hive and 
 imitate the action of flying, so that the force 
 which otherwise would carry them through the 
 air, drives back the air in a powerful current. A 
 few occasionally perform this service on the out- 
 side of the hive near the entrance, but the larger 
 part are thus engaged inside. Sometimes twenty 
 are thus occupied at once, and the work is done 
 by relays. The motion of their wings is so 
 rapid that they cannot be seen except at the 
 extremities of the arc of vibration, which is at 
 least 90°. Their perceptions of heat and cold 
 are very delicate. A temperature of 40° Fahr. 
 will so benumb a bee that it cannot fly, and it 
 will soon perish unless restored to a warmer atmos- 
 phere. But in a hive when the external temper- 
 ature is 20° below zero, the bees may be found in 
 a solid lump of ice, )'et, with returning spring 
 they awake to renewed life and activity. They 
 live the winter through in many cold parts of 
 Russia, in hollow trees, with no attention. Many 
 bees which are thought to die of cold in winter 
 really die of famine or damp. They show by 
 their conduct that they are sensible of changes 
 in the weather before we are. Huber supposes 
 that it is the rapid diminution of light that 
 warms them. 
 
BEES. 
 
 69 
 
 SWARMING. 
 
 Preparations. — The spring is the commence- 
 ment of tlie swarming season, in which the 
 parent hive sends out new colonies. No swarm- 
 ing talces place while the weather is cold, or 
 until the hive' is well stocked with eggs. The 
 queen-bee, in consequence of the great number 
 of eggs she has been laying, is now reduced to a 
 more slender shape, and is well fitted for flight; 
 her aversion for the royal brood and the vain 
 attempts she makes to destroy them in their 
 cradle, in which attempts she is constantly re- 
 pelled by the guardian bees, produce in her a 
 restlessness and agitation rising to delirium. 
 This is communicated to the workers; they 
 hurry to and fro in the combs with evident 
 marks of impatience. The heat of the hive 
 increases, and a general buzz is heard. While 
 this state of things continues, preparations are 
 making for the approaching expedition, and pro- 
 visions are collected in greater quantity by the 
 workers. 
 
 The Swarm Departs. — On the day on which the 
 swarm goes off, few of the workers roam far, 
 but several of them are seen performing circles 
 in the air. On a sudden the noise is hushed, 
 and all the bees enter the hive; this silence an- 
 nounces their immediate departure. A few 
 workers appear at the door, turn toward the 
 hive, and striking with their wings, give, as it 
 were, the signal for flight. All those who are to 
 emigrate rush toward the door, and issue forth 
 with wonderful rapidity, rising in the air and 
 hovering, as if to wait for the assemblage of the 
 whole troop; then having selected a rallying 
 point, generally on some tree or bush, they 
 alight, and are joined by others till all are col- 
 lected in one mass. If the queen is not with the 
 cluster, the bees soon find it out, and disperse to 
 search for her. Unless she is with them, all go 
 back, and the expedition is deferred until the 
 next fine day. If the queen is lost, they have to 
 remain a fortnight or so and take the next queen, 
 in which case the swarm is larger than at first. 
 After a rest on the landing-place just mentioned, 
 and finding their queen with them, the mass 
 soars again in the air, and makes swiftly to the 
 spot their guides had selected, their wings creat- 
 ing a loud and acute-tongued hum. 
 
 Succession of Swarms. — The parent hive, thus 
 deserted by its queen and so many workers, goes 
 busily to work at repairing its loss. The bees 
 quietly pursue their labors, the young brood, 
 quickly maturing, fill up every deficiency; and 
 young queens, allowed their liberty, in turn con- 
 duct off new swarms. One man reports that he 
 had twenty-two swarms in one year from a stock 
 of bees which he carried home in his hat from 
 
 the woods to his garden. But as a general 
 thing, one swarm in a year is enough; and 
 when modern hives are used, further swarming 
 may be prevented by destroying all the queen- 
 cells but one, after the issue of the first swarm. 
 
 The Honey. — Honey undergoes slight modifica- 
 tions and chemical changes in the bee's honey- 
 bag, but retains the flavor and aroma of the 
 flower from which it is extracted. Thus it will 
 be seen that the plants and aromatic flowers of 
 certain districts will produce honey which will 
 be highly prized, and the plants and flowers of 
 other districts v/ill produce unwholesome honey 
 from their noxious or poisonous nature. Honey 
 contains a little wax, pollen, extractive matter, 
 mucilage, gum, manna, grape-sugar, acid and 
 the odor of flowers. When first drawn from the 
 comb it is quite fluid, but in time it will " candy" 
 as it is called, the glucose separating from the 
 solid parts. The glucose is identical with 
 grape-sugar. However, the solid and fluid parts 
 do not greatly differ. With age honey crystal- 
 lizes and becomes yellow. The adulterations of 
 honey are many and varied. That from "corn- 
 sugar," or glucose, is the most common, and 
 difficult of detection. You may detect chalk, 
 starch and other solids by heating the honey, as 
 the deleterious matter will settle to the bottom. 
 Pure comb, capped by the bees, commands a 
 much higher price than strained honey, as, of 
 late years, the filling of old combs with glucose 
 has been so largely practiced. 
 
 THEIR STING. 
 
 This very remarkable organ consists of two 
 long darts, with a protecting sheath. A venom- 
 
 Bee-Sting hichly magnified. 
 A, sting of bee; S, sheath of sting; F, end of sting, greatly 
 m:igniiied, showing si.x barbs curved upwards ; B, glands for 
 secreting poison ; C, ducts through which it flows to D, 
 where it is kept ready for use ; O, circular dilatation to pre- 
 vent sting being thrust too far out of sheath. 
 
 bag is connected with it, and powerful muscles 
 for its propulsion. The wound appears to be 
 
70 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 first made by the sheath, along which the poison 
 passes by a groove, and the darts, thrust out 
 afterwards in succession, deepen the wound. 
 The darts are each furnished with a number 
 of barbs, which render it so difficult to with- 
 draw them quickly, that bees often lose their 
 lives by the injury which they sustain in the 
 effort. The drones are destitute of sting. 
 
 The poison is said to owe its mischievous effi- 
 cacy to certain pungent salts. If a bee is pro- 
 voked to strike its sting against glass, a drop of 
 poison will be discharged ; and if this is placed 
 under a microscope the salts may be seen to con- 
 crete, as the liquor dries, into clear, oblong, 
 pointed crystals. 
 
 NUMBER AND WEIGHT. 
 
 Hunter counted 2160 drowned bees in an ale- 
 house pint, so that a swarm of two quarts 
 will number about 9000. Reaumur found that 
 a collection weighing one ounce consisted of 
 336 bees, and that therefore a pound would con- 
 sist of 5376 bees. A hive is made up of all the 
 way from' 5000 to 6o,coo units. In a well-pro- 
 portioned hive, containing 20.000 bees, there will 
 be I queen, about 500 drones, and the remaining 
 19,499 workers. 
 
 THE INTEREST OF THE SUBJECT 
 EXHAUSTLESS. 
 
 Wherever the student investigates bees, whe- 
 ther in their structure or their habits, the farther 
 he goes, the more he finds. Perhaps there is no 
 living creature whose history and life are so 
 curious. As Agassiz wrote volumes on Turtle's 
 Eggs, so an instructed naturalist might write 
 volumes on almost any sing'e point of the bee's 
 organization and modes of living. 
 
 THE BLIND INVESTIGATOR. 
 
 Perhaps no one man has contributed so much 
 to the general stock of information as to the 
 constitution and habits of these industrious in- 
 sects, as Francois Huber, born at Geneva in 
 1750, whose intense application to study brought 
 on total blindness, which was never cured. He 
 married a wife who deeply sympathized with 
 and assisted him in his special studies, and by 
 her aid, together with that of his son Pierre, and 
 a peasant, Burnens, whom he trained to the 
 work of observation, he carried the knowledge 
 of bees many steps forward. Wherever one 
 reads on this interesting subject, his name is 
 continually occurring, and his authority is great. 
 
 BEE-KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Bees, Feeding^ 72 
 
 Bees, Italian 73 
 
 Brood, Foul 73 
 
 Care of Bees in Winter 72 
 
 Enemies of Bees 73 
 
 English Straw-Hive .*. 71 
 
 Feeding Bees 72 
 
 Foul Brood 73 
 
 Frames, Movable 71 
 
 Getting the Honey 72 
 
 Hives 71 
 
 Hiving Swarms 72 
 
 Honey, Getting the 72 
 
 Italian Bees 73 
 
 Movable Frames 71 
 
 Pasturages, Succession of 70 
 
 Plants adapted to Pasturage 70 
 
 Profitable Number of Swarms 71 
 
 Profits 73 
 
 Robber Bees 73 
 
 Straw-Hives, English 71 
 
 Succession of Pasturages 70 
 
 Swarming 72 
 
 Swarms, Profitable Number of 71 
 
 Tlieir Enemies 73 
 
 Water 73 
 
 Winter, Care of Bees in 72 
 
 PLANTS ADAPTED TO BEE- 
 PASTURAGE. 
 The prevalence of honey-bearing plants must 
 be carefully considered in deciding what number 
 of hives may be profitably kept. Garden flow- 
 ers are not, as is often supposed, a prolific 
 source from which bees get honey. Of the 
 clovers, the sweet, or red, and the Alsike are emi- 
 nent for their honey-bearing qualities, while the 
 white clover is valuable only as bee-pasturage. 
 The white and Alsike bloom in June and July, 
 but the red clover is useless as bee-food until 
 the second growth blossoms, after hay has been 
 made of the first crop. The bee-keeper must 
 be governed by the prevalence of bloom in his 
 particular neighborhood, in estimating the num- 
 ber of swarms which may find forage during 
 April and May — a very trying time for bees. 
 
 Corn is the great honey-producing plant all over 
 the West, until August, and until frost appears, 
 when buckwheat takes its place, and during the 
 later season the wild flowers are available. 
 Sumac and white sage are valuable in California, 
 while the cotton-plant is a prolific source in the 
 South. In various parts of the country, mus- 
 tard, rape and milk weeds yield honey abund- 
 antly. 
 
 SUCCESSION OF PASTURAGES. 
 
 The first trees to produce bloom in the spring 
 are the red and white maples, the aspens and 
 willows. South of 40 degrees, the red bud 
 (Judas-tree) is prolific in its bloom. May gives 
 us alder, sugar - maple, haws, crab-apple and 
 nearly all fruit-trees and bushes. In May and 
 early June we have the barberry, grape, white- 
 wood, (tulip-tree), sumac, and during June the 
 
BEE-KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 71 
 
 wild plum, raspberry and blackberry; July 
 gives us basswood, Virginia creeper and button- 
 bush. In the hilly regions of the South all these 
 trees thrive ; many of them are not found in the 
 West. In California the pepper-tree and red 
 gum are noted for late bloom. When there are 
 plenty of these plants the bee-keeper need fear 
 no lack of bloom, even leaving out of account 
 others not mentioned here. 
 
 HIVES. 
 
 The hive should be closely jointed and strong- 
 ly fastened together. In its construction study 
 simplicity first. About 4000 cubic inches should 
 be its contents, if comb-honey in frames is de- 
 sired ; 2000 cubic inches or even less will an- 
 
 Movable-Frame Hive. 
 
 swer if the surplus honey is to be contained in 
 caps. We give a cut showing a hive that any 
 one who can use carpenter's tools can make, 
 or the several parts can be bought, "ready to 
 put together, of any firm dealing in bee-keeper's 
 supplies. It is called the Langstroth hive. Its 
 working-parts are easily adjusted ; it comes as 
 near as possible to being moth- and vermin- 
 proof: no hive can be entirely so. 
 
 MOVABLE FRAMES. 
 
 We give, herewith, two illustrations, showing 
 different styles of movable frames, the smaller 
 
 Movable Frame filled with Comb. 
 
 one having but a few cells of comb in it, the lar- 
 ger one completely filled. Si.K or eight inches 
 square is the size of the smaller, which when 
 filled with comb will hold about a pound of 
 
 honey. Placed side by side and joined together, 
 
 a number of them will occupy the same space 
 
 in a hive as a larger frame. Of 
 
 course the more convenient for 
 
 handling are the small frames ; 
 
 by their use honey can be sold in 
 
 small quantities, frame and all, to 
 
 suit retail buyers. Small Frame. 
 
 ENGLISH STRA'W-HIVES. 
 
 In Great Britain, where the bee-keeper does 
 not wish to closely examine the habits of his 
 bees, the old-fashioned straw-hive, so long com- 
 mon as the embleTn of industry, still holds its 
 
 j*4 
 
 
 ,N>> 
 
 
 
 oi^fSr 
 
 With Cap removed to show 
 
 Simple Form of Bee-Hive. 
 
 Glass Top. 
 
 own. In some parts of Europe, cork hives are 
 used, and in Turkey and Greece they are made 
 of earthenware. Our English friends think that 
 a good straw-hive is a better protection to the 
 bees and the honey than one of wood. We 
 give a cut of a hive popular with them. 
 
 PROFITABLE NUMBER OF S-WARMS. 
 
 Don't get too many swarms. When a few 
 swarms are kept, the bees are healthy and give 
 plenty of surplus honey because there is plenty 
 of foliage for them to make it from. When the 
 swarms are increased too largely, the result is, of 
 course, light crops of honey, diseases, and all 
 imaginable pests, and finally starvation. Great 
 care and breeding artificially may, to be sure, 
 prevent this where the farmer has the time to 
 devote to it, but he seldom has this time. 
 Twenty is the largest number we have been able 
 to keep, and keep profitably and healthily, even 
 on the most prolific of feeding -grounds. In- 
 deed the greatest profit with the least outlay 
 has been from ten to twelve swarms, and some 
 locations will not support more than half this 
 number. Five or six swarms may be kept on 
 almost anv farm-range. 
 
72 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 SWARMING. 
 
 It is well for every farmer to have his bees 
 swarm as early in the season as possible. The 
 old " saw" says : 
 
 " A swarm in May is worth a load of hay; 
 A swarm in June is worth a silver spoon; 
 A swarm in July is not worth a fly/' 
 
 Always bear this in mind. Early swarms be- 
 come populous, and have plenty of, honey before 
 the dry season and heat cut off the supply of 
 food, and are able to carry themselves through. 
 Late swarms are weak, and finally succumb to 
 the inevitable. 
 
 HIVING SWARMS. 
 
 When you are working around bees avoid all 
 hasty or quick movements. These provoke 
 stinging. If by anj' meafis a bee gets crushed or 
 pinched in your clothing, it will sting you ; other- 
 wise there is little danger unless you go about 
 the work in an excited manner. In case you are 
 stung, get out of the way quietly and as quickly 
 as possible, before the odor of the sting excites 
 the whole swarm. An ounce of prevention is 
 better than a pound of cure. Protect yourself 
 as much as possible by putting on the hands 
 leather gauntlet-gloves and tying them firmly 
 about the wrists, tying the pantaloons tightly 
 around the legs of the boots, and wearing thick 
 loose clothes. A bee-veil is an ordinary piece of 
 netting tied or sewed about the rim of the hat 
 and tucked inside the coat-collar, etc. If the b^s 
 are settled upon a handy bush, simply shake them 
 carefully into the hive, as many as you can, hav- 
 ing of course got your hive all ready beforehand. 
 Cover the hive, and place it near where the 
 other bees may enter. If the larger part of the 
 swarm falls to the ground, drive thein to the 
 entrance by gently and carefully sweeping them 
 with something soft. When they begin to enter, 
 leave them to themselves until evening, when 
 they must be set where they are to remain per- 
 manently. In case of the swarm settling on a 
 limb so far up that you cannot reach it, tie one 
 end of a rope around the limb, and throw the 
 other end up over a higher limb, passing it to an 
 assistant on the ground. Then saw ofif the limb, 
 easing on the rope so that the limb will fall 
 gently to the ground, that it may not disturb 
 the bees. Put the bees into the hive as already 
 directed. You will seldom lose a swarm if you 
 keep your eyes open and hold yourself in readi- 
 ness when indications of a swarm are apparent. 
 The beating of tin pans and throwing of water 
 and sand among the swarms is useless. But in 
 case of their rising up and seeming inclined to 
 make off, a good dash of water or sand will often 
 bring them to the ground, doubtless because they 
 
 think it a bad day for swarming. Swarm-catchers 
 are sometimes used: a bushel-basket on a long 
 handle makes a good one. 
 
 GETTING THE HONEY. 
 
 Wait until you are sure the bees are filled with 
 honey before you try to work about them. Be- 
 ing alarmed in any way, as tapping on the hive 
 or smoking, they will at once fill themselves with 
 honey. Let them get filled^-it will not take 
 above five minutes — and they will be quiet, and 
 will not sting unless hurt. Now remove the 
 
 HONEY-KNIFE. 
 
 BELLOWS AND SMOKING-TUBE. 
 
 honey, paying no attention to the flying bees. If 
 you do, they will sting you. We give a good 
 cut of a popular form of smoker. Very little 
 smoke answers the purpose : a few whiffs from 
 an ordinary tobacco-pipe will answer. If the 
 honey sticks, cut it with a thin knife as shown 
 in the cut. 
 
 CARE OF BEES IN WINTER. 
 A shelter facing southeast, and having water- 
 tight roof and three sides, is the best place for 
 bees all the year round, the open front being pro- 
 tected by shutters or otherwise to keep out the 
 snow in winter. The hives should stand about 
 a foot above ground, and sometimes in severe 
 weather be protected with straw or corn-stalks. 
 Bees, as before stated, endure extreme cold when 
 healthy, and with plenty of food. Wet and snow 
 among them are fatal. 
 
 FEEDING BEES. 
 
 A multitude of appliances have been invented 
 for this purpose. But the old simple way is as 
 good as any. Take a common wide-mouth 
 pickle-bottle ; fill it with syrup, and tie over a 
 double fold of net. Or invert the bottle on a 
 piece of perforated zinc, over the feeding-hole of 
 the hive. The supply can be regulated by the 
 number and size of the holes. In cold weather 
 instead of syrup use barley-sugar, made by boil- 
 ing for ten minutes two pounds of loaf sugar in 
 a pint of water, adding a little vinegar to prevent 
 crystallization. It is poor economy to stint the 
 bees in food. In the early spring slow and con- 
 tinuous feeding will stimulate the queen to ovi- 
 
BEE-KEEPING AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 73 
 
 posit, by which means the stocks are rapidly 
 strengthened and throw off early swarms. It is 
 a singular fact that if stimulating feeding has 
 been for some time pursued, and the supply be 
 cut off and nothing coming in from the fields, 
 the bees will destroy all the young larvse and eggs, 
 instinct seeming to teach the wise insects that 
 the resources of the colony will be insufficient to 
 feed the young. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 An abundant supply of water is essential to 
 the health of bees. They consume a large 
 quantity, and often stop to drink at the edge of 
 stagnant pools, and, seem even to prefer putrid 
 and urinous waters to purer streams, as if their 
 saline and pungent qualities were grateful to 
 them. 
 
 ROBBER-BEES. 
 
 With all their intelligence, bees are sometimes 
 oblivious of the claims of ;««/;« and tuiim. When 
 a hive is too weak, or perhaps attracted by the 
 odor of broken comb, or food placed near the 
 hive, sometimes other bees will attack and rob 
 it. Take the hive thus menaced to a cellar or 
 other cool dark place and keep there a couple of 
 days, putting a similar hive in its place, on the 
 bottom of which rub wormwood. Sometimes 
 making the entrance of a hive so small that only 
 one bee can enter or leave at once will break up 
 the robbery, and sometimes breaking the comb 
 in their own hive will make the robbers give up 
 their designs. 
 
 THEIR ENEMIES. 
 
 Of these the bee-moths are the worst. They 
 penetrate the hives, lay their eggs which hatch 
 into cocoons and caterpillars, and live in honey, 
 eating it and tilling the comb with webs : mean- 
 while protecting themselves in a sort of silken 
 sack which they spin. The hive should be 
 
 examined daily from May i till late in the fall. In 
 the evening they hover about and try to enter 
 the hives. Shallow dishes holding sweetened 
 water and a little vinegar, placed near the hives, 
 will catch many of them, and hollow sticks and 
 little shells are often placed on the bottom board 
 to receive their eggs. Rats, mice and spiders 
 will sometimes attack bees. 
 
 FOUL BROOD. 
 
 A disease with this name is very destructive to 
 bees in the larva condition; they die in their 
 cells and become putrid. The disease is infec- 
 tious. Drive out the bees into a new clean hive; 
 it is the custom in some locations of Europe to 
 put and keep them a day in a temporary hive 
 before placing them in the new one, where they 
 are to live. Foreign honey fed to bees should 
 be previously scalded. 
 
 PROFITS. 
 
 Great stories are told of the profits sometimes 
 derived from bee-keeping : 130 hives are reported 
 to have made $1800 profit in a season, and 90 
 others $900. A single colony is reported to have 
 given a profit of $35 in a season. A province in 
 Holland is said to have an average of 2000 hives 
 to the square mile. It is estimated that in 1865 
 there were in Attica, Greece, in an area of 45 
 square miles 20,000 hives. 
 
 ITALIAN BEES. 
 
 The Italian or Ligurian bee, heretofore re- 
 ferred to, is said to be a much more profitable 
 bee to keep than the common black bee. Lang- 
 stroth reports his Italian bees as gathering twice 
 as much honeyas the common bees. Ouimby says 
 he has not had a single unfavorable report from 
 them. They thrive in high latitudes, and are 
 peculiarly adapted to the climate of Oregon and 
 Washington and the mountains of California. 
 
74 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 THE GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 Antiquity of Gardens 74 
 
 Approximation, only an 78 
 
 Arbor, a Rustic 76 
 
 Calendar for the Year 76 
 
 Choice of Situation 74 
 
 Cropping and Delving 75 
 
 Delving and Cropping 75 
 
 Drainage and Water 74 
 
 GARDENING. 
 
 Ferneries 76 Plan, a Specimen.. 75 
 
 Flower-Beds 76 
 
 Forming the Garden 75 
 
 Gardens, Antiquity of 74 
 
 Ground-Plan of Garden 75 
 
 Laying Out 75 
 
 Manuring 75 
 
 Needed Tools 75 
 
 Preparation of the Soil 74 
 
 Rustic Arbor 76 
 
 Situation, Choice of 74 
 
 Soil. Preparation of the , 74 
 
 Tools Needed 75 
 
 Water and Drainage 74 
 
 Yearly Calendar 76 
 
 ANTIQUITY OF GARDENS. 
 
 Horticulture (Latin, hortiis, a garden, and cul- 
 tura, cultivation), or the art of cultivating gar- 
 dens, is a very ancient art. At the very thresh- 
 old of Hebrew antiquity, man was put into the 
 "Garden of Eden," to dress it and to keep it. 
 On the monuments of Assyria and Egypt, most 
 interesting and elaborate representations of gar- 
 dens are preserved. History has brought down 
 to us the record of the hanging gardens of Baby- 
 lon and the floating gardens of Cashmere and 
 Mexico. From the earliest times great attention 
 was paid to them in Assyria, Chaldea, Palestine, 
 Persia, Japan, China and India; and references 
 to them are continually to be met with in all 
 literature. 
 
 CHOICE OF SITUATION. 
 
 Where circumstances permit a choice, a gar- 
 den ought to be as fully as possible e.xposed 
 to the rays of the sun, and a gentle slope to 
 the south, southeast or southwest is prefera- 
 ble to a level. Its form, unless some peculiarity 
 of situation determines it otherwise, is usually a 
 parallelogram; and it is considered desirable 
 that it should be longer from east to west than 
 from north to south, in order to have as much as 
 possible of the best exposure. A brick wall is the 
 best inclosure, next a good hedge, or a fence. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 The soil of a garden should be prepared with 
 a degree of care almost impossible to apply 
 to a whole farm. A deep, rich and easily pen- 
 etrable soil is desirable; and where it can be 
 afforded, the soil of a garden is sometimes al- 
 most entirely artificial ; more generally, means 
 are used for bettering the original soil. Of 
 
 these means, one of the most important is 
 trenching, by which the soil is deepened, and it 
 is desirable that the soil of a garden should beat 
 least three feet deep. The prooer depth of 
 trenching, however, depends on the original 
 depth of the soil and the nature of the subsoil; 
 where the soil is pretty uniform to a considerable 
 depth, the deepest trenching is advantageous; 
 and the available soil may often be deepened by 
 incorporating a portion of the subsoil with it; 
 but if too much of a subsoil unsuited for vegeta- 
 tion is at once thrown up by trenching, it may 
 communicate its own barrenness to the soil, be- 
 fore it is mellowed by exposure to the air, ma- 
 nures and the processes of cultivation. A stiff 
 clay soil is very unsuitable for many of the crops 
 required in a garden, and ought to be mixed with 
 as much sand and vegetable matter as can easily 
 be procured, both at the formation of the gar- 
 den and afterward. 
 
 DRAINAGE AND WATER. 
 
 It is of course necessary in all cases that a 
 garden be thoroughly drained. It is also of 
 great consequence to have the means of irriga- 
 tion, or at least of abundant watering, which, 
 even where the climate is generally moist, 
 greatly tends to increase the product in dry 
 seasons, and is almost always necessary to the 
 perfection of certain crops. Indeed, if water can 
 be obtained to form a small pond, or to pass 
 through the garden as a rivulet, it may not only 
 be turned to account for purposes of ornament, 
 but also of utility, in the production of many 
 plants which cannot be successfully cultivated 
 otherwise. The use of water is far from being 
 so common as it might be in our gardens; even 
 a cranberry-patch, although a pleasant thing and 
 
THE GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 75 
 
 of easy attainment, being seldom thought of. 
 The Chinese are better acquainted with it, and 
 cultivate aquatic plants to an extent that has 
 never been equaled among any other people. 
 
 MANURING. 
 
 A liberal supply of manure is necessary for a 
 garden ; the kinds of manure must be accommo- 
 dated to the soil and to the different plants, 
 and must often also depend in part on other 
 circumstances. Care must be taken not to 
 overdose with guano, or indeed with strong 
 manure of any kind, by which plants may be 
 killed rather than nourished. Farm-yard or sta- 
 ble manure ought in general to be subjected to a 
 process of decomposition in heaps before being 
 used, and great advantage is derived from mix- 
 ing it with other substances to form composts. 
 Nor ought any of the weeds and other refuse vege- 
 table products of the garden to be thrown away 
 or burned, but all should be gathered into some 
 designated corner, there to decompose and form 
 a. heap of vegetable mould, which is for many 
 purposes one of the best manures that can be 
 used. 
 
 DELVING AND CROPPING. 
 
 A garden ought to be delved or dug with 
 the spade in the end of autumn, except where 
 the presence of a crop prevents, the ground be- 
 ing left very rough, to expose the soil as much 
 as possible to the influences of the weather. 
 When the crops are planted in spring, a slight 
 stirring of the surface is all that is required. 
 The usefulness of a garden, however, is much 
 increased by making a considerable part of it 
 produce crops nearly the whole year. Of course, 
 constant cropping requires frequent and abun- 
 dant manuring; and care must be taken that 
 each crop be succeeded by one of a totally dif- 
 ferent kind: a rule which is indeed applicable as 
 far as possible to agriculture as well as gardening. 
 
 LAYING OUT. 
 
 The garden, if in the form of a parallelogram, 
 is usually divided into smaller ones, and these 
 into plots and beds for different kinds of plants. 
 Paths within the plots, intended only for a single 
 season, may be made by merely treading with 
 the feet. The permanent walks should be more 
 carefully made, usually by throwing out the 
 earth to the depth of eight or ten inches, and 
 filling the place with stones, cinders, broken 
 bricks, slag or some such substance containing 
 no nutriment for plants, and covering this 
 again with gravel. The borders of the plots 
 are often occupied by currant and gooseberry 
 bushes. 
 
 A SPECIMEN PLAN. 
 
 A plan is here subjoined. Of course, situation 
 and other circumstances so far vary that you 
 
 
 
 WALL OR FENCE, 
 
 
 
 FERNERY 
 
 ARBOR. 
 
 FERNERY 
 
 ■"i77 v.. 
 
 
 2 
 
 ^5 
 
 3' 
 
 a: "17 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 /f/' ^^ 
 
 2 
 
 CO . 
 
 > X 
 
 
 (If \\\ 
 
 
 ^•<-> 
 
 r> zxj 
 
 
 1 \ \ 
 
 
 o re 
 
 m -c 
 
 5" 
 
 \ \\ 1 
 
 5 
 
 m ?a 
 
 gs 
 
 3^ 
 
 VvV /// 
 
 
 o -< 
 
 tr M 
 
 Sg 
 
 X 
 
 v\, y/^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ g 
 
 -0 S 
 
 
 
 
 ■0 =J 
 
 
 
 c~y 
 
 
 r- HE 
 > m 
 
 y> w 
 
 
 
 
 ■ g 
 
 GROUND PLAM OF.GAKDEN. 
 
 may not be able to adopt this style ; still you may 
 derive such lessons from it as will assist you in 
 carrying out a different design. 
 
 TOOLS NEEDED. 
 
 A pair of soft leather gloves, a spade, a small 
 hand-fork, a trowel, a Dutch hoe, a gallon water- 
 pot, a garden-line, a peck rubbish-basket, a ham- 
 mer, a draw-hoe, a dibble, a rake, a small pair o( 
 shears, a three-foot rod, a pair of pruning-scissors, 
 a garden-knife, a wooden basket for seeds, etc., 
 a wooden mallet and an apron with a pocket in 
 front. If the tools can be kept in a sheltered 
 spot near the garden during the summer months, 
 it would be an advantage ; in the winter, when 
 not required, they should be taken indoors, and, 
 after being cleaned, the parts liable to rust should 
 be oiled with a brush and marked, for sake of 
 distinction, with the initials. It would be well to 
 be provided with a good deal box. divided into 
 compartments, for containing the small tools and 
 other sundries, as flower-sticks, labels, pegs, 
 string, nails, shreds, tallies and seeds, which 
 should be properly arranged, so as to allow of 
 ready access to them in the busy •season. 
 
 FORMING THE GARDEN. 
 
 The gratification of your taste must be deter- 
 mined by the space at your disposal. The edg- 
 ings on each side of your main walks should be 
 of such a kind that, in case of heavy rain, they 
 will prevent the soil being washed into the walks. 
 Box edgings are not desirable, as, from frequent 
 raking and brushing, they are apt to decay ; thus 
 gaps are left here and there, which can only be 
 
76 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 properly replaced by planting the whole afresh. 
 Bricks are to be discarded. A rustic edge formed 
 of round pieces of wood, cut in equal lengths, 
 and fastened in close together with a mallet, is 
 good and easily repaired. Ivy and all kmds of 
 growing edges harbor slugs, snails and other va- 
 rieties of destructive vermin. Some of the orna- 
 mental tile-borderings for flower-gardens are 
 very pleasant to the eye, answer all purposes, and 
 with care will last for years. 
 
 FLOWER-BEDS. 
 
 If you have sufficient space for flower-beds, let 
 them be of the oval and circle shape. A raised 
 bed or mound in the center of the garden for 
 growing flowers relieves the flat surface. The 
 size and number of the beds must accord with 
 the extent of your garden. With flower-beds 
 you can better harmonize the colors by massing 
 them ; that is, supposing you to have a piece of 
 ground each side of the center plot, these por- 
 tions may be devoted to the culture of the 
 chrysanthemum, herbaceous plants, etc. If you 
 have not this advantage, it would be better to 
 dispense with beds, and plant on the mi-xed sys- 
 tem, practicing as much method as possible in 
 the arrangements of color, height, season of 
 flowering, etc., so as to have few blank spots 
 throughout the year. If you design beds, there 
 vifiU be no need to employ the same labor and 
 materials in making the walks that encircle the 
 beds as in the case of the divisions. A slight 
 coat of gravel to distinguish them will suffice, as 
 it is possible that in the following season you 
 may alter your plan. This can be more readily 
 accomplished if the walks are not made for per- 
 manent use. The edgings round the beds can 
 be made of a very hardy plant, viz., Cerastemuin 
 iomentositm, which can be propagated in the 
 spring by division, and planted two inches apart. 
 It will increase and spread very fast. Do not let 
 it flower, but keep it evenly clipped with the 
 shears both in width and height. You need not 
 afterwards disturb it, except for the purpose of 
 reducing it. 
 
 A RUSTIC ARBOR. 
 
 Against the fence, wall or similar shelter in 
 the rear of your garden, construct a rustic arbor ; 
 in the absence of such an advantage, form a back 
 with little difficulty of upright stakes well secured 
 in the ground ; the sides the same ; but the roof 
 should be willow or ash stakes, as they bend to 
 any shape. Dip the ends of the stakes to be in- 
 serted in the ground in tar previously, as it will 
 preserve them for a greater length of time. In 
 splicing the stakes, notch the parts where you 
 tie them together; the same with the stiff rods 
 used as cross supports to the upright. Having 
 
 erected the arbor, make a scat inside, where in 
 the hot days of summer you may read and study. 
 The flooring can bemadeofsmall stones, collected 
 at convenience, and may be formed into some 
 device. Select some species of climbing plant 
 to cover the arbor. Hops are pretty and rapid 
 in growth ; but they often become so infested in 
 the autumn with green fly, as to make them un- 
 pleasant to handle. As annuals, nasturtiums, 
 convolvulus major and scarlet runner are suit- 
 able. 
 
 FERNERIES. 
 Each side of the arbor raise a mound of earth. 
 The under portion can be composed of any rub- 
 bish which makes a good drainage; over this 
 form a rockwork, either with stones, blocks of 
 wood, stumps of trees or any similar material 
 that can be obtained. On this, when finished, 
 plant a collection of ferns. They do not require 
 a great depth of soil, but like their roots screened 
 from the scorching rays of the sun ; their fronds 
 develop themselves luxuriantly in shady nooks; 
 though fond of moisture, they dislike being satu- 
 rated. Syringing or watering with a fine rose at 
 the close of a warm summer day is what they 
 delight in. 
 
 CALENDAR FOR THE YEAR. 
 
 Having executed your plans in the formation 
 of the garden, and quite prepared it for the re- 
 ception of plants, you must now consider how 
 you shall furnish it with those kinds of plants 
 that will make it attractive and interesting, not 
 only at the present but at all seasons, and that 
 you may do so we will begin with the year, and 
 say something of what is to be done in every 
 month of it. 
 
 January is a month in which very little can be 
 done out of doors, unless you can on favorable 
 days benefit the soil by digging in any leaves or 
 other nutritious substances you may have col- 
 lected in a heap during the autumn in some out- 
 of-the-way corner. If not sufficiently decayed, 
 you had better turn it over three or four times 
 with your fork before you use it. In digging, the 
 rougher you leave the soil for the present, the 
 more will it be benefited in the future. Be care- 
 ful not to disturb crocuses, snowdrops, or any 
 other bulbous roots you may have planted, as 
 they are fast pushing upwards, especially the 
 snowdrops. It is to be hoped that you have 
 marked their positions by carefully-written labels. 
 If you have any plants whose roots are likely 
 to be injured by the frost, as hardy fuchsias or 
 tea-scented roses, cover them with some coal- 
 ashes. 
 
 Your leisure time in the house should be em- 
 ployed in making pegs with sharp points from 
 old birch brooms, making and painting flower- 
 
THE GARDEN AND ORCHARD. 
 
 77 
 
 sticks, and preparing labels, as in a few weeks 
 you will be requiring them. During the summer 
 months you will have kept a memorandum of 
 any improvements that may have been sug- 
 gested to you : now is the period to prepare for 
 carrying them out. Do not clear away the 
 decayed fronds or leaves that may be deposited 
 on the surface of the fernery, as they are a pro- 
 tection to the future fronds. A little earth sifted 
 over them will prevent them being scattered by 
 the wind. If you have a small frame for keeping 
 calceolarias, stocks, etc., it would be a great 
 help. Protect them by coverings from severe 
 frost, but on all line days admit air and pick of! 
 withered leaves. 
 
 February. — Let your spare moments be em- 
 ployed in the same way as recommended last 
 month. Any bulbs, such as tulips, etc., that are 
 not planted, should be during the first fortnight 
 of this month. 
 
 March. — You may now divide any perennial 
 and herbaceous plants which you may wish to 
 lessen or increase. Never let any of this kind 
 of plants get too large, because they rob the soil 
 of its nutritious properties. No garden is com- 
 plete without that beautiful autumnal flower, the 
 chrysanthemum. Now is the season to propa- 
 gate it. The dwarf or pompone varieties are 
 most desirable for small gardens, because they 
 flower early and in more profusion than the 
 larger varieties. Three or four rooted pieces 
 will make a good patch ; but, if you cannot ob- 
 tain that number, one will do, as, by stopping 
 the shoots at intervals till the beginning of July, 
 it will make a nice plant. They are fond of plenty 
 of water, and rich manure applied to their roots. 
 
 If you can do so, you might grow one of each 
 in a pot. They should be managed thus: as 
 soon as the stem has made five or six eyes, pinch 
 off the top. It will then push out shoots from 
 each eye, which train and tie to neat sticks as 
 they grow. When they have made four joints, 
 stop them again. Thus treated, by the autumn 
 you will have good bushy plants, either for de- 
 corating your window or presenting to your 
 friends. 
 
 You should now stir the soil with the Dutch 
 hoe and level it with your rake preparatory to 
 the sowing of seeds. If you possess a frame, 
 sow asters, stocks and sweet-peas in pots. In 
 doing so put plenty of drainage in the pots and 
 fill them with soil to within an inch of the edge; 
 then with a rose give the soil a good soaking of 
 water. Then you may sow the seed, covering it 
 with some fine mold, intermixed with a little 
 silver sand. Keep them shaded till they begin 
 to grow. This will prevent them from requiring 
 water till they have vegetated, as frequent water- 
 ings previously are apt to rot the seed. 
 
 You should now think of purchasing any seeds 
 you may require, as all annuals do better if sown 
 not later than the first week in next month. The 
 present is the proper season to prune rose-trees. 
 Cut the strong shoots back, leaving three of the 
 dormant buds. 
 
 April. — The garden is fast becoming cheerful. 
 Polyanthuses and wallflowers are now beginning 
 to bloom freely. The annuals must be sown 
 without delay. Use a small hand-fork for loos- 
 ening the soil after you have sown the seeds. 
 Pat them in the earth with the back of the fork. 
 As soon as they have grown so that you can 
 handle them with your thumb and finger, pull 
 up the weakest and leave the remainder an inch 
 or more apart ; after which, if the days are warm, 
 you may, towards evening, sprinkle them with a 
 fine rose. If the earth is rich with manure, they 
 will grow strong and weedy, in which case they 
 will exceed their usual height. As they progress, 
 it would be advisable to stick a few pieces of 
 birch or brushwood among the weakest growers, 
 to enable them to withstand heavy rains and 
 wind. 
 
 May. — Get some of the bedding varieties of 
 plants. Do not select strong growers, as they 
 often yield the least flowers. The dwarf sorts of 
 scarlet geraniums, calceolarias and verbenas are 
 in general the most abundant bloomers. There 
 is a dwarf white flowering dahlia, named Alba 
 nana, that needs no sticks to support it, and will 
 continue to produce a great quantity of flowers 
 till the frost destroj's them. It is useful to cut 
 from for bouquets. 
 
 Keep the ground free from weeds by the use of 
 the Dutch hoe. Do not give your young plants 
 too much water, but a gentle sprinkling over their 
 foliage of an evening: such practice refreshes 
 them very much, besides cleansing their leaves 
 of any dust that may accumulate. Tulips will 
 be in bloom this month. If you wish to prolong 
 their beauty, you must contrive some kind of 
 covering to protect them from the rays of the 
 midday sun and heavy showers. 
 
 June. — The summer roses will be in full bloom 
 this month. Keep the buds clear of green fly, 
 for which purpose use a soft brush or feather; 
 look also for the maggot. The curling of the 
 leaf is a certain sign ; examine it, and you will 
 find the insect. It destroys the bud by piercing 
 a hole in it ; therefore the leaves must be con- 
 stantly watched. Pinks will now be in perfec- 
 tion. Keep them tied to neat stakes, and if you 
 want large flowers you must pick off some of the 
 smaller buds where there are more than two or 
 three on the same stalk. The white variety is 
 easily propagated, and much grown on account 
 of its scent. For increasing them by cuttings, 
 cover the soil about an inch deep in silver sand, 
 
78 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 then put a propagating-glass over them, and 
 shade them till rooted, which you will observe 
 by their commencing to grow. Then gradually 
 admit air till you entirely remove the glass. At- 
 tend to the training of your climbers; put sticks 
 to your sweet-peas. You may by the end of this 
 month dig up the tulip or any other bulbs you 
 may desire, dry them, after which clean and put 
 them in bags till required for planting. 
 
 July. — If you wish to bud any rose with other 
 varieties, this is a favorable month for the opera- 
 tion. Remove decayed flowers and seed-pods 
 from j'our annuals and other plants; it will ex- 
 tend their time of flowering. Your geraniums 
 will be fast coming into bloom. If very hot 
 weather, give them a liberal supply of water. 
 Endeavor to keep your garden in good trim ; tie 
 and peg all plants that require it. If by accident 
 you should break a geeanium-shoot. put it in the 
 ground : it will root. You must discontinue 
 syringing or sprinkling plants in flower, as it 
 damages the bloom and causes them to lose 
 their flower. When using the Dutch hoe, don't 
 let it go in too deep, or it will injure the roots. 
 Uproot all annuals that have done flowering; at- 
 tend to the training of the shoots of your chrys- 
 anthemums. If they and the dahlias get attacked 
 with earwigs, have a thumb-pot, put some dry 
 moss in it, and lodge it in the plant or on the 
 stake that supports it; every morning take the 
 pot out, remove the moss, and empty the con- 
 tents into water or crush them with your feet. 
 Cloves and carnations may now be increased by 
 laying. The operation is simple : loosen the earth 
 about the plant with the hand-fork, then make a 
 cut half-way across the third joint of a shoot, 
 then peg it into the soil. ^ 
 
 August. — Bedding plants may be said to be at 
 their best during this month. If the weather is 
 very dry, continue to water freely. If you have, 
 or can obtain, convenience for wintering gera- 
 niums or such-like plants, you should commence 
 propagating them during the early part of this 
 month : they will root in the open ground or in 
 pots out of doors. You may increase the num- 
 ber of your violets by division. Cho6se the time 
 when we are likely to have warm showers, as 
 they will assist them to root at once. Select 
 a shady spot on which to plant them. Proceed 
 to note in your memorandum such alterations 
 or arrangements as you may wish for another 
 year. 
 
 September is apt to be a humid month ; plants 
 grow very fast; less water is needed. French 
 and German asters will be in perfection. When 
 they have attained their full size, cut them for 
 bouquets ; that will increase the size of the 
 after-blooms. Supply the roots of dahlias with 
 plenty of water ; cut out all weak shoots ; gather 
 
 the seeds of plants you may wish to save, as 
 they are now ripe (you can clean them indoors at 
 your leisure). Plant wallflower, sweet-william,, 
 etc. 
 
 October. — Although many plants are yet ga)% 
 still the beauty of the greater number is on the 
 decline. Towards the middle or latter part of 
 this month you may expect sharp frosts ; place 
 any plants that you have struck, or any others 
 that need protection, so that, should there be 
 signs of a frost, you can immediately protect 
 them. Many plants, such as fuchsias, scarlet 
 geraniums, etc., will exist in a room during the 
 winter, where they can be properly secured from 
 the admission of frost, and you must keep them 
 from growing till the spring, by not giving thern 
 more water than will just keep them alive. Cut- 
 tings of yellow calceolarias will now root quickly 
 in coarse sand. They need no other protection 
 than a cold frame for preserving them during 
 the winter. Chrysanthemum buds will be swelling 
 fast. Towards evening search for and destroy 
 earwigs. If you want fine flowers, pick off all 
 small buds, leaving one to each shoot. In tying 
 them out, afford all the room you can for each 
 stem. 
 
 November. — As leaves fall, collect them together 
 in a tidy heap, and by turning them over often 
 during the winter they will become excellent 
 manure for your garden in the spring. This is 
 the best month in the year for planting tulips, 
 crocuses, hyacinths, and other bulbs. Tulips 
 and hyacinths should be planted six inches deep; 
 the smaller bulbs three inches. If you have a 
 spot that you could plant a line of crocuses in 
 three rows of distinct colors, say yellow, white or 
 striped, and blue, the effect when in flower will 
 be dazzling. Dig up your dahlia roots, and after 
 allowing the water to drain out of the flower- 
 stalks, hang them up in a cupboard or cellar 
 where the frost cannot penetrate. If you have 
 not that convenience, put them in a box, and 
 cover them with dry sand. 
 
 December.^Any stalks or refuse of plants can 
 be consumed by fire : the ashes will improve the 
 soil if mixed with it. Now the trees have shed 
 their leaves, clean up and put your garden in tidy 
 order. 
 
 ONLY AN APPROXIMATION. 
 
 Of course, this calendar cannot be accurately 
 followed, but allowances must be made for dif- 
 ferences of position and climate, and for varia- 
 tions in the seasons. When the dilettante asked 
 the painter Opie what he mixed his colors with, 
 the gruff answer was, " With brains, sir." Any 
 gardening calendar will have to be taken with 
 the same condiment. 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 79 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 Age of Roots 83 
 
 Arrangement of Leaflets 85 
 
 Arrangement of Leaves and Stems. . . 86 
 
 Bentham's Statement 81 
 
 Binomial System of Nomenclature... 81 
 
 Botanic Gardens 80 
 
 Bulbs and Tubers 83 
 
 Cells 80 
 
 Collecting and Preserving Plants — 92 
 
 Compound Leaves. .-. 85 
 
 Compound Roots 82 
 
 Corolla, the 88 
 
 Dehiscent Fruits 91 
 
 Early Literature of Botany 79 
 
 Edges of Leaves 86 
 
 Endogens and Exogens 80 
 
 Exogens and Endogens So 
 
 Field f or Coo jecture, a 82 
 
 FIowrer-Buds 87 
 
 Flowering and Flowerless Plants. . . 
 
 Flower, the 
 
 Forms of Simple Roots 
 
 Fruit 
 
 Gardens, Botanic 
 
 Indehiscent Fruits 
 
 Inflorescence 
 
 Later Literature, its 
 
 Leaves : Structure 
 
 Modiflcations of Leaves 
 
 No Leap or Break 
 
 Nomenclature, Binomial System of. . 
 
 Petals 
 
 Pollen 
 
 Plants and Animals 
 
 Plants, Preserving and Collecting. . . 
 
 Root, the 
 
 Roots, Age of 
 
 Roots, Compound 
 
 Runners, Rhizomes and Tubers 83 
 
 Scope of the Science 79 
 
 Seed, the 92 
 
 Shapes of Leaves 84 
 
 Simple and Compound Leaves 84 
 
 Simple Leaves 84 
 
 Simple Roots, Forms of 82 
 
 Species. 81 
 
 Stamens and Pistil 89 
 
 Stem, the 83 
 
 Structure of Leaves 83 
 
 Tendrils 87 
 
 Thorns 87 
 
 Tubers and Bulbs 83 
 
 Uses of Roots 83 
 
 Varieties of Corolla 89 
 
 Various Forms of Leaves 84 
 
 What isknown 82 
 
 Whole Plant, a 82 
 
 SCOPE OF THE SCIENCE. 
 
 The Greek word from which botany is derived, 
 having the same letters as the English, came 
 originally from a root meaning to feed, and 
 describes plants considered especially as food 
 element, or as fodder. The English word has 
 come to mean, the science which treats of the 
 structure of plants, the functions of their parts, 
 their places of growth, their classification, and 
 the terms which are employed in their descrip- 
 tion and denomination. It examines the plant 
 in its earliest opening of development, when it 
 appears as a simple cell, and follows it through 
 all its stages of progress until it attains maturity. 
 It takes a comprehensive view of all the plants 
 which cover the earth, from the minutest lichen 
 or moss, only visible by the aid of the micro- 
 scope, to the most gigantic productions of the 
 tropics. It marks the relations which subsist 
 between all members of the vegetable world, 
 and traces the mode in which the most despised 
 weeds contribute to the growth of the most 
 mighty denizens of the forest. And as plants are 
 not distributed at 'random over the globe, geo- 
 graphical peculiarities have to be studied, and 
 their lesson deciphered from the fossil remains 
 of plants which have come down to us from 
 earlier geological ages. Like every other science, 
 the domain it has to conquer is practically un- 
 bounded. And it shades oflf on every side into 
 kindred sciences; so that to thoroughly and 
 exhaustively understand it, is no less than to 
 comprehend — not merely to "accept," as Mar- 
 garet Fuller said she did — the universe. 
 
 ITS EARLY LITERATURE. 
 
 From the earliest history to which we have 
 access, we find, as we should naturally expect to 
 find, the human mind occupying itself with the 
 matters here presented, especially in their more 
 
 pronounced and prominent features. Chaldeans 
 Egyptians and Greeks long ago were busy with 
 its problems, though of course their speculations 
 were crude, and included theories as to the 
 change of plants into animals. The wise Solo- 
 mon "spake of trees, from the cedar that is in 
 Lebanon, even to the hyssop that springeth out 
 of the wall." Three centuries before Christ 
 Theophrastus wrote a " History of Plants," and 
 described about five hundred species used for 
 the treatment of diseases, ^sculapius and his 
 priests, the Asclepiades, studied plants from a 
 medicinal and pharmaceutical point of view. 
 Dioscorides, a Greek writer in Nero's time, pro- 
 duced a work on Materia Medica. Pliny the 
 Elder described about a thousand plants, many 
 of them famous for their medicinal virtues. 
 Asiatic and Arabian writers also took up the 
 subject. But little, however, was actually accom- 
 plished till the revival of learning in Europe in 
 the sixteenth century. Branfels, a physician of 
 Bern, has been regarded as the restorer of the 
 science in Europe. He published, near the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth century, a " History of 
 Plants," illustrated by figures. 
 
 ITS LATER LITERATURE. 
 
 From that time onward, there has been a con- 
 stant succession of observers and investigators, 
 whose name is legion. Andreas Cesalpinus, in 
 Italy, divided the 1520 plants known in 1583 
 into fifteen classes, distinguishing them by their 
 fruit. Prominent names in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury are John Ray of England, and Dr. Robert 
 Morison of Scotland. In the eighteenth century 
 the number increased fast. The best known 
 name is that of Linnaeus (his real name was 
 Carl von Linne), a Swede, born in 1707. His 
 system is founded on the sexes of plants, and is 
 usually known as the sexual system. Although 
 it was a great advance in his time, and even now 
 
80 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 has a certain facility of application which com- 
 mends it to the tyro, it is an artificial method, 
 and does not propose to unite plants by natural 
 affinities. It is useful as an index to a depart- 
 ment of the book of nature. He himself so 
 regarded it ; and performed some tentative work 
 looking toward a natural method of arrangement. 
 At his death in 1778, there were known ii,Soo 
 species of plants. Another great name in this 
 department in the seventeenth century was 
 Antoine Laurent de Jussien, botanical demon- 
 strator in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, who 
 went on from Linnaeus, and made important 
 advances in the principle of classification. Robert 
 Brown, a Scottish botanist ; Dr. (afterwards Sir 
 William) Hooker, of Glasgow ; John Lindley, 
 Robert Kay Greville, Dr. Walter Arnott and a 
 host of others, carried on the work. Goethe in 
 Germany, and Charles Darwin in England, stand 
 out prominently. 
 
 BOTANIC GARDENS. 
 
 The Botanic Gardens, founded in the six- 
 teenth and seventeenth centuries, did much to 
 advance botany. These were first appropriated 
 chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal plants, 
 especially at the universities, where medical 
 schools existed. The first Botanic Garden was 
 established at Padua in 1545, and next came that 
 of Pisa. That at Leyden dates from 1 577, that 
 at Leipsic from 1579. Florence and Bologna 
 early had their gardens. The garden at Mont- 
 pellier was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 
 1605, of Strasburg in 1620, of Altorf in 1625, of 
 Jena in 1629. The Jardin des Plantes in Paris 
 was established in 1626, and the Upsal Garden 
 in 1627. The Botanic Garden at Oxford was 
 founded in 1632. And so on, till at the end of 
 the eighteenth century there were 1600 Botanic 
 Gardens in Europe. 
 
 PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 
 
 Some of the ancients, as already noted, specu- 
 lated on the change of plants into animals. Per- 
 haps they " builded better than they knew." 
 For although no plant, regarding it as a sepa- 
 rate conscious existence, was ever transformed 
 into an animal retaining that consciousness, it is 
 true that plants are transformed into animals, 
 and that animals could not otherwise exist; and 
 from a purely human point of view, this seems 
 the purpose for which plants are, their " final 
 cause." A plant is a being which derives its 
 sustenance from the mineral kingdom, the earth 
 and the air. Only plants can convert these into 
 nourishment. They create the food on which 
 animals live. The lifeless mineral material 
 which would be poisonous to animal life they 
 work over, and transform into matter capable 
 
 of being taken into a living organization. The 
 sun itself, without the aid of plants, could not 
 feed an animal, could not produce an animal to 
 feed, with al! the materials in the world at its 
 beck. Animals lay hold of what plants have 
 prepared for them, transform it more or less, 
 make it over into structures which manifest 
 powers and vitality of a higher order. But they 
 can originate no organic matter. Plants perform 
 their all-important work only in their green 
 parts, and under the light of the sun. Thus they 
 decompose carbonic acid and water, liberating 
 o.xygengasto renew and purify the atmosphere 
 for the breathing of animals. What they retain, 
 they make over into permanent plant-structure, 
 into cell-walls, or into starch, sugar and the like, 
 from which cell-walls may be made. These same 
 mineral elements, together with some form of 
 combined nitrogen, they convert into proteine or 
 protoplasm, the vitally active part of living plant- 
 cells, of which the flesh of animals is built up. 
 
 CELLS. 
 
 All plants are built up of parts, diverse in form, 
 but essentially of one nature, and of which the 
 structure is made as an edifice is of brick, the 
 brick in this case being hollow. These organic 
 constituents of a plant are called cells. A mass 
 of plastic vegetable matter, of minute size, builds 
 around itself a wall or shell, and this wall or shell 
 remains permanent, although the living part that 
 built it around itself has disappeared. This is a 
 cell. An oak tree began its existence in an ovule 
 of the parent, as a single such cell. The great 
 central fact is, that this living vegetable cell has 
 the power of multiplication. As it grows, it 
 divides into two, and each of these again into 
 two, and so on. In some low forms of plants, 
 these cells, as they increase, each becomes a sep- 
 arate individual. But in higher plants the cells 
 build up a structure composed of distinct organs, 
 as stem, leaves, root ; and the cells themselves 
 develop in various shapes, many-cornered or 
 round, drawn out into tubes, and with thinner or 
 thicker walls, varying from the most delicate 
 growing fiber that hardly holds itself together, to 
 the shell of a cocoanut or the wood of the lig- 
 num-vitae tree. 
 
 EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS. 
 
 Woody fibers, all the anatomical elements of a 
 tree or herb, are made up entirely of cells and 
 their conformations, however diverse the form 
 and texture. These, variously combined, ar- 
 ranged and modified, make up the particular 
 anatomy of stems, leaves and roots. In the 
 stems of flowering plants the distribution of the 
 woody portion is upon two plans. One, that of 
 common wood, is in concentric layers around a 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 81 
 
 pith and within a separable bark, and each year 
 adds a new layer outside that of the previous 
 year. This is the exogenous stem, or outside- 
 grovver. In the other, of which the palm is a 
 type, the wood does not grow in annular layers, 
 but ill separate bundles, interspersed in the pithy 
 or cellular part through the whole diameter, not 
 in apparent order, but more accumulated toward 
 the outside. As the newer wood was thought to 
 be added toward the center, this stem was called 
 endogenous, or inside-grower. 
 
 FLOWERING AND FLOWERLESS 
 PLANTS. 
 
 Among the higher plants the reproductive or- 
 gans are, in ordinary language, comprehended 
 under the term flower; and as they are con- 
 spicuous, such plants have been denominated 
 Floai'ering, Phanerogamous or Phecnogamotts. 
 Among all cellular plants and in some vascular 
 plants, as ferns and equisetum, there are no 
 flowers, and the reproductive organs are incon- 
 spicuous ; hence they have been termed F/o^ccr- 
 hss or Cryptogamoiis. In all cases the young 
 plant, or embryo, is completely cellular. But as 
 growth proceeds, that differentiation takes place 
 which distinguishes the several classes of plants 
 one from the other. In phanerogams the first 
 leaves produced upon the embryo plant are 
 termed primary, seed-lobes or cotyledons. In 
 some cases these are two in number, and are op- 
 posite one another. Plants in which this occurs 
 are dicotyledonous, as ordinary forest-trees. In 
 other plants the lobes alternate, and only one 
 cotyledon is formed ; such are monocotyledonous, 
 as grasses and lilies. In cryptogams, on the 
 other hand, no such seed-lobes or cotyledons are 
 produced, and they are acotyledonous. 
 
 THE BINOMIAL SYSTEM OF NOMEN- 
 CLATURE. 
 
 Botanists are greatly indebted to Linnaeus for 
 the system of naming by which, ever since his 
 time, plants have been known. Their descrip- 
 tion before his method came into use involved a 
 vast amount of inconvenience, now happily done 
 away with. His hit was to give to a genus the 
 name of one word, and that a noun, as s?iy Pyrus, 
 apple ; and to the species the name of an adjec- 
 tive, as coronaria, crab — Pyriis coronaria, crab-ap- 
 ple. This is following the analogy by which 
 men are named, except that the order is trans- 
 posed in the two cases. When the name of a 
 man is transposed, as, in a directory, Darwin, 
 Charles, it follows Linnaeus' system of naming 
 plants. If the student sees Morus, he knows the 
 word me%ns a mulberry. When he reads alba 
 after it, he recognizes the white mulberry, as in 
 Morus multicaulis he recognizes the Chinese 
 
 mulberry, on whiph the silkworm feeds. It 
 would seem that so simple a nomenclature must 
 have always existed. But it did not, until Lin- 
 naeus. There was a time when there was no 
 figure 0, or cipher. How would the human race 
 have got to its present condition if the omnipo- 
 tent nothing had not been created ? 
 
 SPECIES. 
 
 In all classification it is necessary to define 
 what is meant by species. The usual definition 
 has been that a species is an assemblage of indi- 
 viduals having characters in common, and com- 
 ing from an original stock or protoplast, and 
 their seeds producing similar individuals. It 
 was also supposed that variation in species was 
 restrained within certain limits, and that varieties 
 had a tendency to revert to the parent form. 
 The view, however, adopted by many nowadays 
 is, that the tendency to variation is continuous, 
 and that, after a lapse of long periods of time, 
 and under the influence of varying external con- 
 ditions, the descendants from a common stock 
 may exhibit the differences which characterize 
 distinct species. These are the views advanced 
 by Darwin, and they imply a complete revolution 
 in our idea of species. 
 
 BENTHAM'S STATEMENT OF THE 
 MODERN THEORY. 
 
 1. That. although the whole of the numerous 
 offspring of an individual plant resemble their 
 parent in all main points, there are slight Indivi- 
 dual differences. 
 
 2. That among the few who survive for further 
 propagation, the great majority, under ordinary 
 circumstances, are those which most resemble 
 their parent, and thus the Species is continued 
 without material variation. 
 
 3. That there are, however, occasions when 
 certain individuals, with slightly diverging char- 
 acters, may survive and reproduce races in which 
 these divergencies are continued even with in- 
 creased intensity, thus producing Varieties. 
 
 4. Tliat in the course of an indefinite number 
 of generations, circumstances may induce such 
 an increase in this divergency, that some of these 
 new races will no longer readily propagate with 
 each other, and the varieties become New Spe- 
 cies, more and more marked as the unaltered or 
 less altered races, descendants of the common 
 parent, have become extinct. 
 
 5. That these species have in their turn be- 
 come the parents of groups of species, that is 
 Genera, Orders, etc., of a higher and higher 
 grade, according to the remoteness of the com- 
 mon parent, and more or less marked, according 
 to the extinction or preservation of unaltered 
 primary, or less altered intermediate forms. 
 
ti2 
 
 THE FRIIiMJ Ol'- ALL. 
 
 NO LEAP OR BliEAK. 
 
 As there is thus no difference 'but in degree 
 between a variety and a species, between a species 
 and a genus, between a genus and an order, all 
 disputes as to the precise grade to which a group 
 really belongs are vain. It is left in a great 
 measure to the judgment of the systematist, with 
 reference as much to the use to be made of his 
 method as to the actual state of things, how far 
 he should go in dividing and subdividing, and to 
 which of the grades of division and subdivision 
 he shall give the names of Orders, Sub-orders, 
 Tribes, Genera, Sub-genera. Sections, Species, 
 Sub-species, Varieties, etc., with the consequent 
 nomenclature. 
 
 A FIELD FOR CONJECTURE. 
 
 Such a systematic arrangement is founded on 
 a hypothesis which, so far as the present flora of 
 the globe is concerned, has not been demon- 
 strated. Conjecture is hazarded as to the pre- 
 sent epoch of the earth's history by extending 
 back to unlimited ages. If the theory is consis- 
 tent with what we see around us, and is founded 
 on plausible grounds, then we must think that 
 we have ascertained the secret of the growth of 
 things, and may say with Kepler, "I think thy 
 thoughts after thee, O God." 
 
 WHAT IS KNOWN. 
 
 A Whole Plant. — Let us go and pluck the first 
 flower we see blooming — no matter what, so long 
 as it is in bloom. It will not answer to have the 
 blossom only, with just a few inches of the stalk, 
 but the whole plant must be taken up, the frag- 
 ments of mold carefully shaken from the roots, 
 and the plant laid before us. It has a root, a 
 stem — perhaps also branches, which are only 
 offshoots or parts of the stem — leaves and flowers. 
 This is the enumeration of the parts of the plant 
 which any one unacquainted with botany would 
 give. It is often difficult to determine exactly 
 where the stem ends and the root begins. The 
 root is, in fact, only the lower and underground 
 portion of the stem. Some botanists call the 
 root and stem together the axis of the plant; 
 whatever name is adopted, there is a very close 
 connection between them. It will be better for 
 us now to regard them as distinct parts. 
 
 The Roof. — Let the reader think of all the differ- 
 ent forms of root which he has ever seen, and 
 class them together in his own mind under two 
 groups, namely, those which are simple, or are 
 merely single continuations downwards of the 
 stem ; and those which are compound, or com- 
 posed of two or more parts starting from the 
 same point. As, for example, the radish, the 
 carrot, the turnip and the dandelion, have all 
 
 single roots. They may be branched as they go 
 down into the soil, but they are only single con- 
 tinuations of the stem. On the contrary, the 
 dahlia, the onion, and many of the grasses 
 possess a bundle of roots starting from the same 
 point, which are sometimes branched, and some- 
 times not. Although these kinds and many more 
 are all roots, they have a very different appear- 
 ance; and while it is quite correct to call them 
 all roots, if we would distinguish one kind from 
 another, we must have a name for each which 
 will indicate its character, without giving us the 
 trouble of making a drawing of the root, or using 
 a long description. It is necessary to use words 
 or terms which all botanists understand. Being 
 agreed that for the different forms of roots 
 different words should be employed, we will 
 enumerate the most common. 
 
 Forms of Simple Roots. — A carrot and a parsnip 
 are familiar examples of a kind of root which is 
 thick and fleshy above, gradually tapering down- ' 
 ward to a point, like an inverted cone. Hence 
 such a one is appropriately called a conical root. 
 But if the root, instead of being largest at the 
 top, thickens toward the middle and then dimi- 
 nishes again down\^ard, so that it decreases in 
 both directions, like the roots of many varieties 
 of radish, it becomes spindle-shaped, and is 
 called s. fusiform xoot. The turnip has a root, 
 however, which resembles neither of these, and 
 when well grown is nearly the shape of a boy's 
 top. This may be called a turnip-shaped root, 
 but the term generally employed is napiform, 
 the word //rt/wj- being the Latin for "a turnip." 
 The common form of simple root, which pro- 
 ceeds downward as a continuation of the stem, 
 without enlarging, but becoming gradually thin- 
 ner and thinner, often much branched, occasion- 
 ally with only thread-like rootlets issuing from 
 its sides, is known as a tap-root. It is not dis- 
 tinctly conical as in tlje root of the carrot, and 
 is the commonest form of root amongst herba- 
 ceous plants. 
 
 Compound Roots. —Of compound roots, or those 
 in which a bundle of little rootlets proceeds from 
 the base of the stem, a tuft of grass, or, still 
 better, a stem of wheat or barley, affords an e.x- 
 ample. These rootlets, or little roots, being thin 
 and thread-like, the tuft is called s. fibrous root. 
 When the rootlets are thickened, so as not to 
 be thread-like or fibrous, but are still clustered 
 together in a kind of bundle, 'it is called a fasci- 
 culated root, from the Latin word fasciculus, 
 which is often employed in botany, and means 
 a little bundle. There are modifications of form 
 in the rootlets which compose the fasciculated 
 root, as in the dahlia, in which each rootlet is 
 thick, fleshy and of a fusiform shape; in some 
 others a portion only of the rootlets are thick- 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 83 
 
 ened or swollen either once or several times 
 throughout their length. 
 
 Bulbs and Tubers. — The bulb of the onion, the 
 white lily, and many similar plants, is not a root, 
 but a kind of bud composed of scales closely 
 overlapping each other, and growing upon a but- 
 ton-shaped stem, from the under surface of which 
 the fibrous root is produced. The potato (that 
 portion which is cooked as a vegetable) botanists 
 do not class as a root, but as a tuber, or swelling 
 ing of the underground stem. 
 
 Age of Roots. — Some roots last only one year, and 
 are said to be annual ; others last two years, 
 and are called biennial ; whilst others continue 
 in vigor a longer period of time, and are said to 
 be perennial. 
 
 Uses of Roots. — The roots of plants serve a two- 
 fold purpose: to attach the plant to the soil, and 
 to furnish it with the means of sustenance. For 
 the latter purpose, the extreme ends of the thin 
 fibers of the rootlets are of a more delicate and 
 spongy texture, and by their means water, and 
 the materials diffused through water, are taken 
 up and conveyed to the plant. These spongy 
 ends of the rootlets are called the spongioles. 
 Certain plants possess the power of producing 
 additional roots, or organs having some of the 
 functions of roots, according as they may be re- 
 quired for the purposes of the plant. These 
 organs are termed advenlitiotis roots, which, in 
 the ivy, are like suckers growing from the stem 
 to attach it more firmly to the tree or wall which 
 supports it. 
 
 We Stem. — From the root of our plant pro- 
 ceeds the stem. This is a part essential to flow- 
 ering plants. Sometimes the stem is so short 
 that it can scarcely be distinguished, but it is 
 commonly a very prominent feature. Whether 
 this stem stands erect, or supports itself by 
 twining around or clinging to another, or lies 
 prostrate upon the ground, it is still a stem. If 
 we cut across any stem, branch or twig of a 
 woody plant, such as a tree or shrub, we shall 
 find, amid a great variety in detail, a uniformity 
 in plan in trees and shrubs. The outer circle or 
 circumference will be the bark; the inner or 
 central point, the ////; ,• and between this pith 
 or medulla and the outside bark, the woody por- 
 tion is deposited in layers, which appear as rings 
 when a section of the stem is made, with lines 
 called medullary rays cutting them from the cen- 
 ter to the circumference. This is the structure 
 of all exogenous plants. 
 
 Runners, Rhizomes and Tubers. — It has been said 
 that all stems are not erect. It may be added 
 that all stems ase not produced above the surface 
 or the soil, for some few have a subterranean 
 habit, and others scarcely creep above it. If we 
 watch the growth of strawberry plants in the 
 
 garden, we shall observe what are termed " run- 
 ners" (botanically flagclhc). which are stems 
 running along the surface of the soil, rooting at 
 the joints, and still running on. Or, if we at- 
 tempt to root out the garden-mint, we shall find 
 similar runners under the surface (called in this 
 case soboles), sending down roots at the joints, 
 and sending up leaf-bearing branches to the 
 surface. Yet again, the purple flag or common 
 iris affords an example of another kind of im- 
 mersed or semi-immersed stem running upon 
 the surface, or near it, and bearing thread-like 
 roots from the under surface and tufts of leaves 
 at the extremities of all the numerous branches. 
 This kind of subterranean stem is a rhizome, 
 though most commonly called a root by all ex- 
 cept strict botanists. The most anomalous of 
 all subterranean stems is that of the potato, and 
 we doubt if the consciences of botanists are 
 quite at rest on the subject. The tubers are 
 regarded as swellings of an underground stem, 
 and this opinion is strengthened chiefly by the 
 fact that these tubers are capable of producing 
 buds, a power which true roots do not possess. 
 A negative character of roots may thus be noted : 
 they do not possess scales, which are modified 
 leaves; or buds, which are rudimentary leaves; 
 or nodes, joints or points, whence buds are de- 
 veloped. 
 
 Leaves : their Structure. — Leaves are so variable 
 in form, passing into each other by such gentle 
 gradations, that we sltall only be able to indicate 
 the most prominent types. If we take the leaf 
 of an oak, a lily and a hart's-tongue fern, we 
 shall see in each of these, especially if we hold 
 them up to the light, certain thicker portions like 
 threads traversing the leaf : these are usually 
 called the veins. In the oak-leaf the veins are 
 much branched and spread over the leaf in a kind 
 of network: such kinds we will call net-veined 
 leaves; in the lily-leaf the veins run parallel, side 
 by side, from the bottom towards the top of the 
 leaf, with finer veins crossing from one to the 
 other of the longitudinal veins; a leaf with such a 
 veining, or venation, we will call s. parallel-veined 
 leaf. In the hart's-tongue fern the veins, al- 
 though all going direct toward the margin of 
 the leaf, divide in a regular manner into two 
 parts like a fork: such leaves as possess this 
 type are called fork-veined leaves. Of these 
 three kinds of veining or venation, the net-veined 
 leaves belongtoexogens, the parallel-veined leaves 
 to endogens, and the fork-veined leaves to ferns. 
 Ferns are not flowering plants. The veining of 
 leaves is by no means an uninteresting subject ; 
 there is a beautiful variety in their mode of dis- 
 tribution through the leaf, and some of the pret- 
 tiest natural objects ever exhibited under a glass 
 shade are the skeleton leaves of plants. In the 
 
84 
 
 THE FRIEND OP' ALL. 
 
 growing leaf all the spaces betvsreen the veins are 
 filled up with cells, which contain, amongst 
 other things, the green chlorop/iyl, or coloring 
 matter, of the leaf, and these are covered by the 
 delicate and transparent cuticle, or skin. 
 
 Shapes of Leaves. — In the common scarlet ge- 
 ranium, the leaves are attached to the stem by a 
 long stalk. There is the leafy expanded portion, 
 which is the blade, or hunina, and the footstalk, 
 which botanically is called the petiole. On each 
 side of the petiole at its base, where it joins the 
 stem, is a little, scaly, triangular, leaf-like blade, 
 without a footstalk. These are not leaves, but 
 appendages to the leaves, called siipiiks. Let us 
 go in search of all the different-shaped leaves 
 which we can find, and ascertain how far 
 we can give names to the principal forms, so 
 that by a name which all botanists can under- 
 stand we may distinguish one kind of leaf from 
 another. 
 
 Simple and Compound Leaves. — Leaves may be 
 classed in two groups. The leaves of the gera- 
 nium, dandelion, daisy, maple, hazel, plum, ap- 
 ple, etc., we place on our left hand : these are all 
 simple leaves. The leaves of the horse-chestnut, 
 the ash, the mountain-ash, the acacia, trefoil or 
 clover, wood-sorrel, etc., we will place on our 
 right hand : these are compound leaves. What 
 are the differences in the two groups.' In the 
 group of simple leaves the blade, or lamina, of all 
 the leaves, whatever their form, or however 
 deeply they may be cut at the edges, is not cut 
 down to the mid-rib, or great central vein of the 
 leaf; hence we call them simple. In the other 
 group, each leaf is divided into two or more parts 
 or leaflets, which look like smaller leaves clus- 
 tered together upon the footstalk, or petiole. In 
 the clover there are three of these leaflets ; in 
 the horse-chestnut, five or seven; in the ash, a 
 great many. But in all these instances there is 
 but one leaf, which is composed of several leaf- 
 lets : these are compound leaves. 
 
 Simple Leaves. — The simplest forms of simple 
 leaves are those of fir trees, which are long and 
 narrow, like needles, sometimes called " pine- 
 needles," three or five bound together at the base 
 in a little bundle. The name by which such 
 leaves are known is aciciclar, from a Latin word 
 meaning " needle-shaped." In the yew tree the 
 leaves are less needle-shaped, being broader below 
 and coming to a sharp point at the ape.x ; they 
 are awl-shaped, and the term by which they are 
 distinguished is subulate, which has that mean- 
 ing. For our next example, we leave the large 
 trees and descend to grasses, or little plants which 
 possess leaves resembling the leaves of grasses, 
 such as the grass-leaved stichwort, in which the 
 leaves are long and narrow, of the same width 
 throughout, except at the two extremities, and 
 
 these are said to be linear, or resembling a line. 
 (Plate A, Fig. i.) 
 
 Various Forms of Simple Leaves. — Leaves are called 
 lanceolate when their form resembles the head of 
 of a lance, broadest in the middle and attenuated 
 towards each end ; of such a leaf the lanceolate 
 plantain (Fig. 2) affords an example. 
 
 Egg-shaped leaves, which are broadest near the 
 base and narrowed upwards, are said to be ovate 
 (Fig. 3); but if the footstalk is reversed, and the 
 lamina, though still egg-shaped in outline, has 
 its broadest part at the apex, it is called oboz'ate 
 (Fig. 4). There are constantly to be found forms 
 of leaves which are intermediate, and glide insen- 
 sibly from one to another of those which we have 
 enumerated ; indeed, the forms of leaves are 
 almost infinite, and all we can hope to do is to 
 establish a few types. There are, for instance, 
 oval and elliptical leaves, and leaves which are 
 nearly round. In all such cases it is better to re- 
 fer them to the mathematical forms which they 
 most closely resemble, and call them by their 
 names. Circular or orbicular leaves have gene- 
 rally the petiole or footstalk attached in the cen- 
 ter of the under side of the disk, and are called 
 peltate, not from the form of the leaf, but from 
 the mode in which the petiole is attached (Fig. 
 
 17). 
 
 The few remaining forms of simple leaves with 
 which we can associate names are : those which 
 are kidney-shaped, and hence are called reni- 
 form (Fig. 6); heart-shaped leaves, which are 
 termed cordate when the petiole is attached at 
 its broadest extremity (Fig. 5), but ohcordate 
 when the smallest end is attached to the petiole, 
 as in the case of each leaflet of the wood-sorrel 
 (Fig. 7). Other leaves are named after the objects 
 to which they are supposed to bear the closest 
 resemblance, as spoon-shaped, or spatitlate, in 
 the daisy (Fig. 10); arrow-shaped, or sagittate 
 in the water-arrowhead (Fig. 8); fiddle-shaped, or 
 panduriforin, as exemplified in the fiddle-leaved 
 dock. 
 
 All the simple leaves above enumerated have 
 their edges but little, or not deeply, cut. There 
 are. however, very many forms of simple leaves 
 which are irregular, and so deeply cut as at first 
 to resemble compound leaves. Five-angled 
 leaves, such as those of the ivy, are quinqtiangu- 
 lar (Fig. 13), and those with a larger number of 
 angles are described by the number of angles 
 which they possess. Halberd-shaped leaves with 
 two small lobes at the base are called hastate 
 (Fig. 11). Leaves with lobes at the base are 
 common, and vary intheirform (Figs. 21 and i\a). 
 Three-lobed leaves in which the leaves are nearly 
 equal are called trilobate (Fig. 9); and with five 
 lobes, palmate, because they resemble the fin- 
 gers and palm of an open hand (Fig. 14). But 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 85 
 
 the larger number of these deeply- 
 cut leaves are too complex and 
 variable to be named definitely, 
 
 except by the number and form 
 
 of their lobes or their incisions. 
 
 Compound Leaves.— The first ex- 
 ample taken of compound leaves 
 
 is a tcrnate leaf composed of 
 
 three leaflets : these leaflets may 
 
 be obcfvaie as in clover (Fig i2j, 
 
 ox obcordatc as in the wood-sor- 
 rel (Fig. 7j, or indeed of any other 
 
 form. If each leaflet is again di- 
 vided into three parts it is bitcr- 
 
 nate, or if thrice divided in a 
 
 like manner, triternate. When 
 
 there are five leaflets spreading 
 
 like five fingers, the leaf is called- 
 
 digitate. By far the largest 
 
 number of compound leaves are 
 
 more or less of the pinnate 
 
 type, such as the leaves of the 
 
 ash (Fig. 15): the name •' pinnate" 
 
 is given to them because the ar- 
 rangement of the leaflets on each 
 
 side of the petiole or footstalk 
 
 resembles a feather (h's.\\n pennd). 
 
 when the leaflets are in pairs 
 placed opposite to each other on 
 the footstalk (as in the ash), the 
 leaf is said to be oppositely 
 
 pinnate, but when an alternate ar- 
 rangement is followed it is alter- 
 nately pinnate. 
 
 Arrangement of Leaflets. — The 
 arrangement of leaflets may be 
 still more complex by being fur- 
 ther subdivided. In this case each leaflet of a 
 pinnate leaf is itself pinnate, and when so divided 
 the leaf is termed 6i-pi/inate {Fig. iSj. If the 
 subdivisions are carried still further, and each 
 leaflet is again divided, the leaf is called tri- 
 pinnate (Fig. 19). When the divisions are car- 
 
 Pl.\te a. 
 
 amined, the leaves (which are placed opposite 
 to each other on the stem) will be found to have 
 the lamina, or blade, of one leaf united at the 
 base to that of the other, forming a kind of cup 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 ried beyond this, the leaf is called supra-decom- 
 pound. 
 
 It has been stated, in reference to the gera- 
 nium leaf, that the lamina, or blade, was sup- 
 ported upon a footstalk, or petiole. This is not 
 always the case. If the common teazle is ex- 
 
 or hollow of the leaf around the stem. When 
 pairs of leaves unite thus at the base, they are 
 said to be connate. The upper pairs of leaves 
 in the caper-spurge, and in one species of honey- 
 
86 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 suckle, are connate (Fig. 20). The blade, or 
 lamina of the leaf is, in some instances, con- 
 tinued down the stem of the plant for some dis- 
 
 FlG. 
 
 tance, and is said to be decurrent ; in other in- 
 stances it only surrounds and embraces the stem, 
 and is ample.xzcaul (this is derived from a Latin 
 
 Fig-, ao. 
 
 word, rtw/Ar.vz^j-, which means, in English, "em- 
 bracing." (Fig, 2irt.) 
 
 Edges of Leaves. — Taking up the edges of leaves, 
 irrespective of their general form, in the ivy 
 
 Fig. 
 
 leaf we find that the margin is perfectly smooth 
 or entire ; but in very many other instances the 
 edges will be jagged or notched, finely or coarse- 
 ly, and in different ways in difTerent plants. In 
 
 many instances the edges of leaves are notched 
 or toothed like a fine saw, or serrate ; when the 
 teeth are larger, and each tooth is again notched 
 or serrated, the margin is described as bi-serrate. 
 More rarely the teeth around the edge of a leaf, 
 instead of having one side longer than the other, 
 have both sides equal, and are said to be acutely 
 Ci-rnate. If, instead of being pointed, the teeth 
 are rounded or convex, the edge of the leaf is 
 crcnate ; but if concave depressions alternate 
 with pointed teeth, in such case the margin is 
 
 Fig. 2ia. 
 
 called detitate. The edge of a leaf may be 
 ciliated, or fringed with delicate hairs like eye- 
 lashes, or irregularly waved and sinuate, like the 
 leaves of the common oak. The leaves of the 
 dandelion are like none of these, but the large 
 teeth are directed backward, not unlike the 
 teeth of a pit-saw, whence they are termed rtm- 
 cinate (Fig. 22). Usually, if the serratures of 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 a leaf are small, they may be referred to one or 
 other of the forms above indicated; but if large, 
 they are more variable, and described as lobes. 
 
 Arrangement around the Stem. — The arrangement 
 of the leaves around the stem should be care- 
 fully observed, because there is more variety in 
 this than would at first be imagined. We have 
 already intimated that some leaves are arranged 
 in pairs opposite to each other, and others sin- 
 gly and alter>mte. It will also be found that 
 three or more leaves will grow in a circle or 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 87 
 
 whorl around the stem (Fig. 23), and that when 
 the stem is square and the leaves in pairs, each 
 alternate pair will be directly above each other, 
 which is called decussate. If a young branch is 
 plucked from an oak, and we look down upon 
 it, the leaves will in that position seem to be in 
 a whorl of five leaves, but examined sideways 
 they will be found to be single, and so arranged 
 that five consecutive leaves will describe a spiral 
 passing twice around the stem before a leaf is 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 found placed directly over the first, and this will 
 be the sixth. In other plants the spiral contains 
 fewer or more leaves, and goes either once or 
 several times around the stem before a leaf is 
 reached which is placed directly over the leaf 
 from whence the spiral is traced. 
 
 Modifications of Leaves. — Modifications or ap- 
 pendages of leaves take the form of stipules, 
 tendrils and thorns. When first alluding to the 
 leaf of the scarlet geranium, we directed atten- 
 tion to the pair of triangular leaf-like append- 
 ages which were placed, one on each .side, be- 
 
 FlG. 25. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 tween the bases of the petioles of the opposite 
 leaves. These appendages are the stipules, 
 which in some cases are so small as to be re- 
 duced almost to hairs, whilst in others, as in 
 the garden-pea, they are much larger than the 
 leaflets or leaves. If we pluck a stem of grass, 
 and remove one of the long narrow leaves, the 
 entire petiole will be found converted into a 
 kind of sheath which embraces the stem, or culm 
 
 (Fig. 24). In such plants as the wood-angelica 
 and the wild carrot the base only of the petiole 
 embraces the stem, and this form is called an 
 ochrea or boot (Fig. 25). The wild brier, and 
 other wild roses, have stipules adherent to the 
 petiole, or adtiate (Fig. 26), and some plants 
 have no visible stipules. In the hawthorn they 
 are leaf-like, ox foUaccous (Fig. 27). When they 
 are present the plant is described as siipidate, 
 and when absent, exstipulate. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Thorns. — Thorns are sometimes alteration^ of 
 stipules, sometimes projections from the cushion 
 upon which the base of the petiole rests, and 
 sometimes terminate small branches. 
 
 Tendrils. — The whole blade of a leaf is occa- 
 sionally absent, and the leaf becomes trans- 
 formed into a tendril. In the case of pinnate 
 leaves, only the upper leaflets will sometimes 
 become tendrils, and in other cases the stipules 
 may be converted into tendrils. It is interest- 
 ing to examine the tendrils of different plants, 
 and to endeavor to ascertain what other organ 
 has been converted into these forms. It must 
 be borne in mind that all the parts of plants can 
 be referred to some change or modification in 
 either the stem or the leaves. 
 
 Flower-Buds. — Flower-buds proceed from the 
 axils of leaves. The axil is the angle formed 
 by the junction of the leaf with the stem. Such 
 leaves are termed floral leaves, or bracts. Oc- 
 casionally the bracts are of the same color and 
 form as the remaining leaves of the same plant, 
 but generally they are smaller, and altered in 
 form. In a few instances they are colored. If 
 we gather a daisy or a dandelion, we shall ob- 
 serve just beneath the head of flowers, and 
 closely pressed to the under side, a. whorl or 
 circle of little green leaves or bracts, and this 
 whorl of bracts is termed an involucre (Fig. 45). 
 The cap of an acorn is a kind of involucre com- 
 posed of numerous scaly bracts. 
 
 The Flower. — The gayest and most attractive 
 feature in the majority of plants is the flower ; 
 and though so variable and in some cases so 
 curious in its form, it is not difficult to refer all 
 
88 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 the parts composing it to four organs, two of 
 which are external and two internal : the form- 
 er are the floral envelopes, and constitute the 
 showy portion of the flower; the latter are the 
 essential organs, and are principally concerned 
 in the production of the fruit and the reproduc- 
 tion of the species. If we return again to our 
 scarlet geranium, we shall notice beneath the 
 scarlet leaves (petals) of the flower a long green- 
 ish tube, expanding at the top into five green 
 spreading lobes: this is iht calyx. It occupies 
 the same position as the involucre of the daisy. 
 In this instance the calyx is green, but if we 
 take another familiar example in the fuchsia, we 
 shall find the calyx is colored. The beautiful 
 pendent blossom of the fuchsia (if we take the 
 common red and purple variety) has externally 
 a crimson tube with four spreading crimson 
 lobes : this is the colored calyx, and within this 
 is the purple corolla, or petals. The two exter- 
 nal or floral envelopes, therefore, are called the 
 calyx and the corolla, of which the latter only 
 most usually is colored, but in some instances 
 both. The fuchsia may sometimes be seen with 
 the lobes of the calyx partially or wholly green. 
 The lower portion of the calyx is either united 
 into a tube, as in the scarlet geranium, or all 
 the parts, or sepals as they are called, remain 
 separate and distinct. In some instances, 
 as in the mallow, there is a double series of 
 sepals, forming a kind of double calyx, of which 
 the outer series is termed the epi-calyx. As 
 might be anticipated from the variety of form in 
 flowers, the form of the calyx is very variable. 
 In the nasturtium it is spurred, in the Chinese 
 primrose it is inflated, and also in the bladder 
 campion ; but in composite flowers, to which the 
 dandelion and daisy belong, the calj'x is reduced 
 to fine hair-like threads. The bright yellow 
 eschscholtzia, a great favorite in British gardens, 
 has a singular kind of calyx. As the flowers 
 open, the conical calyx which incloses the co- 
 rolla breaks away at the base, and is borne up- 
 ward like a cap or extinguisher on the petals, 
 and is soon thrown off. 
 
 Petals. — The inner series of floral envelopes, or 
 corolla, which is generall}' the showy portion of 
 the flower, consists either of several distinct 
 parts or leaves, called petals, or all these are 
 more or less united together into one piece. 
 When the petals are distinct, so that they can 
 be plucked off one by one, some of them are 
 occasionally larger, or of different shape from 
 others in the same flower, and called irregular. 
 Other corollas have the petals all alike, and are, 
 therefore, said to be regular. If we take a wild 
 dog-rose, a bramble-flower, or a strawberry- 
 flower, we can count in each five separate and 
 distinct petals, of the same size and form (Fig. 
 
 28). These flowers have, therefore, a regular 
 corolla of distinct and separable petals, and 
 botanists would call such a one a " regular poly- 
 petalous corolla." But supposing that we col- 
 lect a pea-flower, and pull oft' the petals, we still 
 find that there are five, and that we can separate 
 them one from the other; yet they differ in size 
 and form : first the one large erect upper petal 
 called the standard, then the two side petals 
 called the w/w^^j, which are smaller, and finally 
 the keel of two petals, sometimes partially 
 united. All these together form an irregular 
 
 Fig. 28. Fig, 29. 
 
 corolla of distinct and separable petals, or, tech- 
 nically, an " irregular polypetalous corolla" (Fig. 
 29). 
 
 The Corolla. — When the petals of a corolla are 
 all united into one piece of a regular and sym- 
 metrical form, as in the bluebell, heather, con- 
 volvulus, or primrose, it constitutes a regular 
 corolla with united petals, or, in three words, 
 a regular 7nonopetaloHS corolla. But, though 
 regular, these vary much among themselves, 
 for the corolla of a bluebell is bell-shaped, or 
 campanidate (Fig. 30) ; that of many kinds of 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 heath is urn-shaped, or nrceolate, being con- 
 tracted at the mouth ; the corolla of the convol- 
 vulus is funnel-shaped; that of the primrose 
 and phlox, flattened or salver-shaped (Fig. 31); 
 and some others tubular with scarcely any ex- 
 pansion at the mouth. All these are, neverthe- 
 less, regular in their form, but there are others 
 which are irregular. 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 89 
 
 If we examine a daisy, we shall find not only 
 that what is commonly called the flower is a clus- 
 ter of more than a hundred flowers (Fig. 32), but 
 that these are of two forms. The yellow flowers 
 in the center, which are termed " the florets of 
 the disk," are regular and tubular (Fig. 33) ; 
 whilst the white flowers (composing the fringe 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Fig. 33, 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 — " florets of the ray") are irregular and Ugidate 
 or strap-shaped (Fig. 34). 
 
 A similar structure prevails in the dandelion, 
 and other flowers of the natural order of Com- 
 positce (compound flowers). The ligulate or 
 strap-shaped florets afford' one example of an 
 " irregular monopetalous corolla," That com- 
 mon garden-flower, the yellow calceolaria, has 
 another form, in which the lips are hollowed out 
 like a slipper. The dead-nettle, ground-ivy 
 and mint have another form, in which the corolla 
 has two unequals lips, and is called labiate or 
 lipped (Fig. 35). A still closer resemblance to a 
 closed mouth will be found in the toadflax and 
 snapdragon. All these are forms of an "irregu- 
 lar monopetalous corolla." 
 
 Varieties of Corolla. — The corolla of flowers is 
 sometimes all in one piece, and is then called a 
 monopetalous corolla ; but when divided into 
 separate and distinct petals, it is called polype- 
 talotts. If the form is regular, or the petals all 
 alike in shape and size (though they may differ" 
 in color), the corolla is called regular ; but if the 
 upper part of a corolla has a different form or 
 size from the lower, or the petals are unequal, 
 the corolla is said to be irregular. In some 
 plants — the garden tulip, for instance — there is 
 apparently only one floral envelope, composed 
 of six equal-sized petals, colored alike, and hardly 
 to be distinguished from each other. Three of 
 these are outside the three others, and belong to 
 the calyx, the inner three petals forming the 
 corolla. In such cases it is not usual to distin- 
 guish the sepals from the petals, or the calyx 
 from the corolla, but to call the whole six flower- 
 leaves together a periant/i. 
 
 Stamens and Pistil. — If we pick off the petals 
 from a flower plucked from our pet geranium. 
 
 we shall see therein, standing at the top of the 
 tube, six thread-like bodies side by side : five of 
 these are all alike; the si.xth, which stands in the 
 middle, is different. The five are called stametts, 
 and the one which is unlike any of the rest is 
 the pistil. There are other flowers, equally com- 
 mon, in which we shall be able to distinguish 
 them better. Let us try a honeysuckle or a prim- 
 rose. A stamen consists of a thread-like stalk, 
 which is called x.\\ii filament . and a thicker, some- 
 what oblong head, which is the atitlier (Fig. 36). 
 Sometimes the filaments are more or less united, 
 either at the base only, or nearly throughout 
 their length, and in a few instances are so short 
 as scarcely to be seen. The anther is by far the 
 most important part of the stamen : it contains 
 a mass of fine granules, which is dispersed like 
 dust when the anther opens. This dust is the 
 fertilizing principle, and is called the Pollen. In 
 orchids the pollen is compacted together in waxy 
 
 Fio. 36. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 masses. The pistil generally consists of three 
 parts : a base, more or less swollen, which is the 
 oaiary ; an apex, variable in form, which is the 
 stigma; and an intermediate support called the 
 style (Fig. 37). The last-named is sometimes 
 absent, and the style is sessile, or seated upon 
 the ovary. The stigma consists of a viscid or 
 sticky surface, to which the pollen-grains, when 
 shed from the anthers, adhere. The ovary, which 
 afterwards, when fertilized, becomes the fruit, is 
 a cell containing one or more little bodies called 
 (nntles, which, when developed, are the seeds. 
 When the pollen is shed from the anthers it ad- 
 heres to the stigma, on which it falls or is con- 
 veyed by insects. Soon after it is attached to 
 the stigma, each pollen-grain sends a little tube 
 down the style into the ovary, and the end of 
 this tube passing into one of the ovules, the con- 
 tents of the 'pollen-grain are transferred to the 
 ovule, which becomes fertilized, and the empty 
 pollen-cases are dispersed. If the ovary is cut 
 across with a sharp pen-knife, the number of 
 ovules which it contains may be counted, and 
 the manner in which they are arranged deter- 
 
90 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 mined; both of which are often required to be 
 known in the examination of a plant. Some- 
 times the ovules are attached to the walls of the 
 ovary, and sometimes at the center. Sometimes 
 the ovary has no division, and at others it is 
 divided into two or more cells. These are called 
 one-celled, two-celled, or many-celled ovaries, as 
 the case may be. 
 
 Inflorescence. — Before following the ovary to 
 its development into fruit, we must return again 
 to the flowers and observe the manner in which 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 they are arranged upon the stem. This is called 
 the inflorescence. The stalk which supports a 
 flower is its pediinck, and when there is no stalk 
 it is sessile, or seated upon the stem. The most 
 simple kind of inflorescence is a spike, in which 
 the flowers have scarcely any peduncles, and are 
 grouped around the upper portion of the stem or 
 axis (Fig. 38). The common plantain, used for 
 feeding caged birds, is a familiar example. The 
 catkins of the willow, poplar and hazel are a va- 
 
 FlG. 40. 
 
 riety of spike which is deciduous, or quickly 
 falling away, and containing male flowers, or flow- 
 ers with stamens but no pistils. The hop and 
 fir-cones are also varieties of spikes with scales. 
 
 If the flowers are arranged in a similar manner 
 on the stem, but each flower has a perceptible 
 peduncle which are all of the same length, the 
 inflorescence is called a raceme (Fig. 39). The 
 flowers of the currant, etc., are produced in 
 racemes. A panicle is a kind of compound 
 
 raceme in which the peduncles are branched, 
 each pedicle, or branch, of which bears its flower 
 (Fig. 40). Several kinds of grasses produce their 
 flowers in panicles. There is a kind of inflores- 
 cence called a corymb, in which the peduncles 
 are simple, springing from different points on 
 the axis, as in a raceme, but the lower peduncles 
 are lengthened, so that all the flowers are brought 
 nearly to the same level (Fig. 41). If the pe- 
 duncles are branched, it becomes a compound 
 corymb. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 One of the most complex forms of inflorescence 
 is the cyme, which should be studied in its mode 
 of development. It is common in the stitchwort 
 family (Fig. 42). The stem terminates in a 
 flower, then branches arise from the axils of a 
 pair of bracts a little lower down : these are each 
 surmounted by a flower. In turn each of these 
 secondary flowers is supplemented by branches 
 from the axils of its bract, and thus the pro- 
 cess is repeated till the shoot is exhausted. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 A very characteristic inflorescence is the um- 
 bel, in which all the flowers are supported on pe- 
 duncles of equal length, springing from the same 
 point; but if each peduncle supports a secondary 
 umbel, the result is a compound umbel, as in 
 the carrot, parsnip, hemlock, angelica, and many 
 other common plants (Fig. 43), which are hence 
 called umbelliferous, and constitute a generally 
 easily recognized natural order. 
 
 Another very large group of plants have an 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 91 
 
 inflorescence like the daisy and dandelion (called 
 a capituluin), in which numerous flowers are 
 compacted together upon a button-like recepta- 
 cle, on which they are sessile. These form the na- 
 tural order of Composite p/an/s (Figs. 32 and 45). 
 
 FruH. — It has been already remarked that the 
 ovary when mature becomes the fruit, and that 
 the ovules ripen into seed. What is commonly 
 termed fruit includes in some instances other 
 parts of the plant, so that " fruit," in its botani- 
 cal acceptation, does not always agree with the 
 fruit of the gardener and the cook. For exam- 
 
 ple : the bean and pea are fruits in botanical ac- 
 ceptation, but are not so recognized in the 
 kitchen ; whereas the strawberry includes also 
 the pulpy receptacle, and the gooseberry and 
 apple have the caly.x and ovary united in what 
 is termed the fruit. As fruit ripens it may divide 
 or open, as the pea and the wallflower, and is 
 then called dehiscent; but if, as the cherry and 
 filbert, it does not open, it is termed indehiscent. 
 Of each of these there are several kinds accord- 
 ing to their structure and character; and, as the 
 
 Fig. 44. Fig. 45. 
 
 fruit is of great importance in the classification 
 of plants, the distinctions should be carefully re- 
 membered. 
 
 Dehiscent Fruits. — We will commence with de- 
 hiscent fruits, or those which open as they ap- 
 proach maturity. The follicle, or little bag, 
 which opens down the inner side (ventral su- 
 ture), and never down the back (dorsal suture), 
 as in the common columbine (Fig. 44) ; the 
 legume, opening either down the front or back, 
 or along both sutures, as in the pea and bean 
 (Fig. 46) ; the capsule, whicfi opens by valves 
 or pores (Fig. 47), and occasionally by a lid. of 
 which the fo.\glove, the poppy, and the henbane 
 are e.xamples ; the siliqua.a. kind of flat capsule 
 
 opening by two valves (from below upwards), 
 leaving the seeds attached on both sides of a 
 central partition (Fig. 48), as in the wallflower and 
 cabbage; the cone, or strobihis consists of a 
 dense scaly spike, each scale with seed at the base ; 
 when mature, the scales fall back and permit the 
 seeds to escape. It will be observed that all the 
 kinds above enumerated are dry, and not pulpy 
 fruits. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Section 
 
 OF 
 
 Fig. 47. Fig. 47. Fig. 48. 
 
 Indehiscent Fruits. — Some of these are pulpy, 
 and some are dry. The seed-envelope (or that 
 portion of the fruit which incloses the seed) has 
 three layers, which are sometimes blended to- 
 gether and sometimes separable. When these 
 layers are distinct, the outer is the epicarp, the 
 inner is the endocarp, and the middle is the 
 niesocarp ; whilst the whole together, whether 
 
 divisible or not, is the pericarp. If these four 
 kinds of carpave well memorized, we may proceed 
 with indehiscent fruits which are not pulpy. 
 
 An achenc, or achenium, is a dry fruit in 
 which the pericarp may be readily separated from 
 the seed. The fruit of the sunflower is an ache- 
 nium. A caryopsis has the pericarp insepar- 
 able from the seed, as in a kernel of wheat. The 
 bran which is sifted from flour is the pericarp of 
 wheat. A utricle has the pericarp inflated, as 
 in the* goose-foot. A glans has a hardened 
 pericarp, with bracts at the base or inclosed in 
 an involucre, as in the acorn and chestnut. A 
 samara has the pericarp winged, as in the elm, 
 the ash and the maple (Fig. 49). 
 
92 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 The pulpy unopening or indeliiscent fruits are 
 very easily remembered. Of tliose which con- 
 tain but one seed there is only the drape, which 
 includes the cherry, plum and all one-seeded 
 pulpy fruits. The raspberry and blackberry 
 fruits are aggregated little drupes, of which a 
 large number are arranged about a receptacle 
 (Fig. 50). The pulpy fruits with more than one 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 seed are sometimes divided into four kinds, but 
 we shall consider them as two — the berry, in 
 which the seeds are immersed in a pulpy mass, 
 as in the gooseberry, orange and melon, and the 
 pome, in which the seeds are inclosed each in a 
 separate cell, as in the apple and pear. 
 
 The Seed. — The seed contains within its own 
 special covering the eiiibryo, which may occupy 
 the whole or only a part of the interior. This em- 
 bryo consists of the radicle or young root, the 
 plumule, or young stem, and the cotyledons or 
 or seed-leaves of the future plant which is to be 
 developed from the seed. All these sometimes 
 form but a minute point just distinguishable by 
 the naked eye. When the seed germinates the 
 plumule proceeds upward, the radicle down- 
 ward, and the first leaf or pair of leaves which 
 appear above the soil are the cotyledonary, or 
 seed-leaves. 
 
 COLLECTING AND PRESERVING 
 PLANTS. 
 
 For this there are needed a pocket-lens, a tin 
 box, and a few quires of paper of a spongy na- 
 ture, so as to absorb moisture (such as grocers 
 employ for wrapping sugar will answer the pur- 
 pose), but the size should be a little larger than 
 that of the paper on which it is purposed ulti- 
 mately to mount the specimens. A very good 
 size for a sheet when folded in half is 17 by u 
 inches, or it may be this size and not folded, 
 which is perhaps most convenient. A stout deal 
 board for the top and the bottom, and tliis also 
 half an inch larger each way than the paper, 
 should be provided. Three or four bricks tied 
 up in brown paper will serve as weights, each 
 brick forming a parcel. This will be all that is 
 
 really essential until the plants are dried and 
 ready for mounting. 
 
 As ferns are very good plants to commence 
 with, and perhaps the easiest of any to preserve, 
 we will take them, and when the method of dry- 
 ing is acquired by experiments upon them, other 
 plants may succeed. 
 
 The collection of ferns for transplanting and 
 the collection of fronds for preservation as botani- 
 cal specimens are to be pursued at very dififerent 
 periods of the year. For botanical purposes 
 fronds destitute of fructification are worse than 
 useless, unless they belong to species which pro- 
 duce distinct fertile and barren fronds, and in 
 which the characters and appearance of these 
 fronds materially differ. In such cases the two 
 kinds of fronds should be collected and preserved 
 together. 
 
 The period for collecting ferns for the herba- 
 rium is, therefore, manifestly that when the fruc- 
 tification has nearly attained to maturity, and it 
 is always better to collect them on a dry day than 
 on a very wet one. The collector should go out 
 prepared for collecting ferns, if he desires his her- 
 barium to present a neat and respectable appear- 
 ance when completed. Some recommend a bag, 
 and some a large book under the arm ; but com- 
 mend us to two half-inch deal boards, about 11 
 by 17 inches, with a strap and buckle for each 
 end, and twenty sheets of good bibulous paper, 
 cut to the same size, and placed between them. 
 
 Having selected a good frond or two for pre- 
 servation, taking care not to break the stipe or 
 stalk, but to separate it from the rhizome, or 
 root-stock, bend back the stipe just below the 
 lowest leaflet of the frond, breaking the woody 
 portion, but not dividing it from the rest of the 
 frond, and lay it carefully between a sheet of 
 your bibulous paper, and secure it with the spare 
 paper between your boards ; then proceed in 
 search of more. Fronds which with their stalks 
 are not too long for the paper should be laid in 
 without bending. 
 
 In selecting fronds for preservation, it is not 
 the largest that are required, but it is rather ad- 
 visable to collect such specimens as will lie com- 
 fortably between the papers without bending 
 than to aim at procuring fine specimens, which 
 may only prove to be a nuisance. A perfect 
 frond of 9 inches in length is better than a fold- 
 ed or otherwise mutilated one of 19 inches. In 
 selecting fronds, the fruit should not be too ripe, 
 or instead of spores you will only find empty 
 cases, not to mention the rusty dust that will 
 continually tint your papers. It is better that 
 the spores should be scarcely matured. Then, 
 again, it should be noticed whether the frond is 
 eaten by insects, broken, or in any other way im- 
 perfect. Such specimens are to be avoided if 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 93 
 
 others can be obtained. Finally, the specimens 
 selected should be well grown, and not distorted, 
 unsymmetrical, or exhibit a tendency to sporting, 
 or departure from the general type of the neigh- 
 boring fronds. 
 
 Having collected what specimens are required 
 and conveyed them home, the next process con- 
 sists of drying them. This is accomplished by 
 removing them from the papers in which they 
 have been collected and transferring them to 
 fresh paper. The ferns should be transferred to 
 a sheet of drying-paper; two or three thicknesses, 
 or even four or five, may be placed upon it, and 
 then another specimen, and thus ad libitum. 
 When all are in this manner transferred, the pile 
 should be placed in a press, or with a stout board 
 above and below, loaded on the top with some 
 heavy weights — stones, bricks, books or anything 
 applicable for the purpose. Twenty-four hours 
 at the least, and forty-eight at the most, they 
 should remain unmoved. At the expiration of 
 this period each specimen should be transferred 
 to a dry sheet of paper, with three or four thick- 
 nesses of dry paper between each specimen, and 
 again put under pressure for the same period. 
 The damp paper from which the specimens are 
 taken should be at once dried in the sun or be- 
 fore the fire. It is always advisable to^ change 
 the sheet for each variety. The specimens 
 should be laid on the paper with the under or 
 fructifying surface uppermost, and the barren 
 side of the frond applied to the paper. Small 
 strips of gummed paper, about an inch in 
 length, and not more than an eighth of an inch 
 in width, should be laid across the principal and 
 secondary ribs or branches of the frond, and each 
 end fastened down to the sheet of paper; other 
 pieces may, in like manner, be placed across the 
 tips of the fronds, or wherever else appears to be 
 necessary to secure the specimen to the paper. 
 It may be suggested that too many such slips 
 disfigure the specimen, and if there are not suf- 
 ficient it cannot be retained in its place. Expe- 
 rience must be the best teacher. Some object to 
 fastening the specimens to paper at all, others 
 recommend gluing them down by the whole sur- 
 face. Both these plans are objectionable. If 
 the specimens are loose, they are not only in 
 danger of being broken or damaged, but of being 
 misplaced and dissevered from the label which 
 belongs to them. If wholly glued down, they 
 cannot under many circumstances be readily 
 removed from the paper, either to be transferred 
 to other paper or for closer examination or com- 
 parison. 
 
 Each specimen having been mounted, the la- 
 bel which accompanies it should be pasted down 
 beside it. Finally, its generic and specific name 
 should be written legibly at the lower ?v>///-hand 
 
 corner. All the specimens belonging to one 
 genus should then be collected together and 
 placed between the folds of a sheet of paper, half 
 an inch wider and longer when folded than the 
 half-sheets upon which the specimens are mount- 
 ed. These " genera covers" may be of the same 
 paper, or a smooth brown paper may be employed 
 for the purpose. On the outside of the genera 
 covers, at the lower /ty"/-hand corner, the name 
 of the genus should be written in a good bold 
 hand. The whole may be transferred to a deal 
 box, the front of which is movable as well as the 
 lid, being hinged to the bottom, so as to fall 
 down and lie flat on the table. The lid may be 
 so contrived as to hold the front in its place 
 when closed. A deal box, g inches deep, 13 inches 
 wide and 20 inches long, will hold a good collec- 
 tion, and if this ever should prove too small for 
 the number of specimens obtained, add a second 
 box. , 
 
 A little camphor may be kept with the speci- 
 mens, but the best preservative will be to look 
 them all over, and thus allow the air to have ac- 
 cess to them, once in every six months. With 
 such precautions a collection may be preserved 
 uninjured for years, provided always that it is kept 
 in a dry place — not moderately, but thoroughly dry 
 — or "mold" may injure irremediably what in- 
 sects have spared. 
 
 A neat little collection of ferns, of smaller pre- 
 tensions, and less claim to be regarded in a sci- 
 entific light, may be arranged in a kind of album 
 or scrap-book, with "guards" intrqduced by the 
 binder sufficient to compensate for the extra 
 thickness caused by the insertion of the speci- 
 mens. A tinted paper is often used in the manu- 
 facture of these books, which good taste may 
 transform into a very interesting volume for the 
 drawing-room table. 
 
 In collecting flowering plants it is essential 
 that the plants should be collected when in flow- 
 er, and, if possible, specimens in fruit should be 
 collected and dried therewith. This will seldom 
 be possible, but a later visit to the same spot 
 may furnish fruiting specimens, which may be 
 dried and placed with the flowering portion. 
 Wherever the plant is small, or of moderate size, 
 the whole of it, including the root, should be 
 gathered, as this will make the specimens more 
 valuable for reference and comparison, and give 
 a better idea of the plant. If the seeds are being 
 shed, they should be collected and placed in a 
 small envelope, which may be fastened on the 
 sheet beside the plant when it is mounted. 
 Stems which are too thick to lie flat, especially 
 such as are woody, should be pared down at the 
 back with a sharp knife, care being taken not to 
 interfere with the front or exposed portion of the 
 specimen. 
 
94 
 
 THE PRIEiN'D Of ALL. 
 
 FLORICULTURE. 
 
 Aphides 94 
 
 Chrj'santhemum 96 
 
 Creeper, Virginia 95 
 
 Cuttings 95 
 
 Draining 94 
 
 Forcing, and Cuttings 94 
 
 Geraniums 96 
 
 Heliotrope 90 
 
 Hints 95 
 
 Leading Flowers 95 
 
 Lice, Plant 94 
 
 Lilies 96 
 
 Manuring and Draining 94 
 
 Mignonette 96 
 
 Nasturtium 96 
 
 Pansy 96 
 
 "Plant-Lice 94 
 
 Plants, SuccessioD. of 94 
 
 Pot-Plants 94 
 
 Roses 95 
 
 Salvia 96 
 
 Soil 94 
 
 Succession of Plants 94 
 
 Treatment, Winter 94. 
 
 Varieties of Geranium 96 
 
 Varieties of Roses 95 
 
 Virginia Creeper 95 
 
 Watering 94 
 
 Winter Treatment '95 
 
 Woodbine 95 
 
 SUCCESSION OF PLANTS. 
 
 With a certain amount of care, flowers may be 
 made to grow anywhere. In general, they do 
 best where they have the early morning sun and 
 are sheltered from the northeast winds. The 
 laying out of a garden as to the selection and 
 arrangement of flowers, shrubs, etc., must depend 
 upon the size and surroundings. Elaborate mo- 
 saic beds and any geometrical arrangements are 
 always to be avoided, being more mathematical 
 than beautiful. Perhaps the most satisfactory 
 selection of plants is, two or more varieties (ac- 
 cording to the size of garden) of spring, summer 
 and autumn flowers. These will give pleasure 
 throughout the three seasons. But care should 
 be taken to so arrange them that there will not 
 be too prominent a gap in any bed from one 
 season to the next. For short plants a bed neatly 
 cut in the grass-plot gives perhaps the prettiest 
 effect. Raised beds are objectionable from the 
 fact that moisture runs off from them very 
 quickly and washes down the edges. 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 The best soil for all flowers is a mellow loam. 
 A sandy loose soil may be brought to a good 
 condition by a dressing of clay and well-rotted 
 manure. A clayey soil should be treated in the 
 same way, substituting sand for clay. In either 
 case the dressing should be well spaded in. 
 
 MANURING AND DRAINING. 
 
 Every garden should be well manured in the 
 autumn, and the manure worked in in the spring. 
 If the natural drainage is not good, artificial 
 drains should be dug, as no garden can do well 
 that remains long wet after it has rained. When 
 seeds are to be planted, the ground should be 
 rubbed till it is soft and powdery. Small seed 
 may be planted on top and a little earth dusted 
 over them. For larger ones holes should be 
 drilled, the seeds planted and covered. If the 
 weather is dry, water them a little at night ; but 
 never plant seeds if it is wet. 
 
 POT-PLANTS. 
 
 The same soil used for gardens may be taken 
 for pot-plants. It should always be sifted till it 
 is very light, and a good portion of mold from 
 the woods added. The soil should be removed 
 every year after the plants have finished blos- 
 soming, and fresh soil given. In re-potting leave 
 a little earth around the roots, and handle the 
 plant carefully. In transplanting leave the earth 
 around the roots, and place in holes made in the 
 earth a little lower than it was before, water, and 
 cover with a flower-pot or piece of paper for a 
 day or two. 
 
 WATERING. 
 
 There is a diversity of opinion about the 
 watering of garden-plants, but we firmly believe 
 that a thorough watering every few days is of 
 great benefit, particularly in the hottest months 
 of the summer. 
 
 PLANT-LICE. 
 
 Aphides, or plant-lice, and caterpillars are the 
 pest of a garden, and if they are once allowed a 
 foothold will have to be diligently fought and be 
 entirely destroyed. If a plant is sprinkled with 
 water at night or morning and hellebore shaken 
 over it, a good result will follow; but the surest 
 way is to syrmge with a hose, and then rake off 
 the earth and destroy the insects. 
 
 FORCING, AND CUTTINGS. 
 
 When plants refuse to blossom, change the 
 soil and cut off some of the roots. This forces 
 flowers by checking the woody growth. While 
 a plant is blossoming is the best time to take 
 cuttings, as they are then most ready to send out 
 roots. Never transplant at this time. Seeds 
 should not be allowed to ripen, as they exhaust 
 the plant. Shrubs bloom from the terminal 
 point, and if pinched off after flowering will pro- 
 duce new branches next year. 
 
FLORICULTURE. 
 
 95 
 
 WINTER TREATMENT. 
 
 Plants should never be allowed to blossom in 
 the winter if they are to be put into the garden 
 for summer blossoming. Nearly all woody 
 plants and bulbs may be placed in a cellar where 
 potatoes will not freeze, and sods laid over, them 
 grass side up. Salvias may be treated the same 
 as geraniums. Plants left in the ground should 
 be well protected with straw. 
 
 HINTS. 
 
 House-plants should only be watered enough 
 to keep them fresh. Many do not have suffi- 
 cient sunlight and air to bear much wetting. If 
 a plant has become spindling, cut off the head, 
 put the pot in a deep box of sand and give it 
 plenty of sunlight. 
 
 LEADING FLOWERS. 
 
 In this article only a few points can be given. 
 Those who wish .to go more deeply into the sub- 
 ject should study books entirely devoted to the 
 art. The following list indicates the particular 
 care of a few favorite flowers. 
 
 Virginia Creeper, or Woodbine. — This vine is very 
 pretty at all times, but more particularly in .the 
 fall, when the leaves turn to a bright red and the 
 bunches of slate-colored berries are formed. It 
 is most useful in any garden to cover unsightly 
 objects and make a background for flowering 
 plants. It may be raised from seeds or cuttings, 
 and requires little attentiori. 
 
 Roses. — The treatment of roses for in-door 
 culture is the same as for other plants: a good 
 supply of sunlight and rich soil. Out-of-doors, 
 they need a moist, well-manured soil, but not 
 wet. If a compost of loam, a little sand and 
 well-rotted cow-manure, is put on them every 
 spring before the buds start, the branches will 
 grow finely. The pruning of roses is very im- 
 portant. The old wood should be cut away, 
 and if the bush is thrifty some of the new wood. 
 This will cause new shoots to spring up from 
 the roots, and the new wood produces the fin- 
 est blossoms. Always cut the flower-stalks as 
 soon as the leaves fall, for a great deal of strength 
 goes to form the seeds. It is also good to trim 
 off the weak shoots as soon as the plant is done 
 flowering, so as to give the remaining branches 
 air and light on all sides. This will cause the 
 autumn flowers to develop more perfectly, and 
 the summer-flowering kinds will be finer next 
 year. 
 
 As soon as the plants have done flowering, 
 turn the soil back from the roots and spread on 
 a little rotted cow-manure, throw back the soil, 
 and water occasionally if the weather is hot and 
 
 dry. Sods should never be placed around roses 
 planted in lawns, as they prevent the air from 
 getting to the roots, and absorb moisture. 
 Hardy roses may be planted in October or No- 
 vember. Tender ones do better planted in the 
 spring, for in the fall the roots rarely have time 
 to get well started. Manure well and water oc- 
 casionally after setting plants out. 
 
 Cuttings of roses may be started in July or 
 August. Cut ofT a young shoot with some old 
 wood. Plant in sand an inch apart, leav- 
 ing three or four eyes above. The sand should 
 be kept wet all the time, and in from two to 
 three weeks they will be ready to transplant. 
 
 The pest of rose-culture is a slug, which ap- 
 pears in little white spots on the under side of 
 the leaves. These develop into worms, which 
 eat leaves and buds, and unless taken in season 
 will multiply to an alarming extent. To destroy 
 them shake powdered lime over the leaves while 
 the dew is on. This should be done as soon as 
 any sign or spot is noticed. The slugs first ap- 
 pear in May, and after the worm is grown they 
 go into the ground and lie in a chrysalis state, 
 but appear in August with wings, and then lay 
 their eggs for the next season. It is therefore 
 a good plan to give a second sprinkling of pow- 
 der to thoroughly eradicate them. White helle- 
 bore or any good insect-powder may be used. 
 
 Of the thousands of varieties we will give a 
 few choice kinds. 
 
 China Roses: — Eughte Beaiiharnais, rich 
 crimson ; Agrippina, deep crimson ; Indica Alba, 
 white: Sanguinca, blood-red. 
 
 Tea Roses : — Bon Silene, purple shaded to 
 carmine; Alba Rosea, white, with rose center; 
 Cornelia Cook, canary ; Devoniensis, creamy white ; 
 Marechal Neil, golden yellow, very fragrant; 
 Safrona, bright buff; White Tea, pure white, 
 blooms freely ; Triomphe de Luxembourg, rose- 
 color. 
 
 Bourbon Roses : — Empress Eugenie, deep 
 rose; Jupiter, dark purple; Malmaison, blush, 
 large and fine; Omar Pasha, deep carmine. 
 
 Hybrid Perpetuals: — Victor Verdijt, full 
 carmine; Gen. Jacqueminot, bright red, very 
 large; La Reine ; pure rose; Cardinal Patri:i3i; 
 dark, velvety crimson. 
 
 Noisette Roses: — Gloire de Dijon, bronze 
 yellow, with orange center ; Augusta, pale'yellow ; 
 Lamarque, large, pure white, very fine; Wash- 
 ington, white. 
 
 Moss Roses (Annual) : — English Moss, very 
 mossy, old variety; Adelaide, crimson. 
 
 Moss Roses (Perpetual) : — Madame Edward 
 Ory, deep rose ; Perpetual White, very fine. 
 
 Prairie Roses: (Hardy Climbers): — Balti- 
 more Belle, nearly white ; Gem of the Prairies, 
 rose-crimson, very fragrant. 
 
96 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Geraniums. — This plant is one of the most po- 
 pular of the garden, and is easy to cultivate. 
 Plants may be obtained from a florist in every 
 stage of growth, and these with little trouble 
 may, by making cuttings, be multiplied to any 
 extent. House-plants may be grown from cut- 
 tings taken in June or July and planted in small 
 pots filled with a compost of sand and loam, with 
 about two inches of the latter on the top. Plant 
 the putting half its length, and keep it very wet 
 until it is rooted, and when the leaves appear 
 change to a larger pot of loam mixed plentifully 
 with manure, and by fall the plants will be in 
 good condition to produce winter blossoms. A 
 rich light loam is best suited to grow ge- 
 raniums in the garden. Any one living in the 
 country can readily procure this by lifting the 
 sods in a pasture and collecting the earth under 
 them. To aid the blossoming, of the plant, dress 
 with liquid manure twice a week through the 
 summer. 
 
 Shrub geraniums are tender, and when placed 
 out-of-doors should have a good supply of sun- 
 light, and be protected from strong winds. The 
 pots should be examined often, and any roots 
 that have grown through the bottom cut off. 
 It is also a good plan to repot a month after 
 they are put out, and then once more in August. 
 In doing this, remove as much earth as possible 
 without injuring the plant. The new pot should 
 be a little larger, and there should be a layer of 
 earth at the bottom before the plant is placed in 
 it. Water plentifully for a day or two. Except 
 the shrubby kinds, geraniums are hardy and 
 only need shelter from the frost. In dry weather 
 they may be watered plentifully. 
 
 Old plants that are not wanted in the house 
 for winter maybe dug up before the frost comes, 
 the young shoots and buds cut off, the earth 
 ■shaken from the roots, and hung with their 
 heads downward in a cool dry cellar. In the 
 spring they can be put in boxes and placed in 
 the kitchen till the leaves are started, when they 
 are again ready for the garden. 
 
 Sweet-scented Geraniums: — The Rose a.nd 
 the Oak-leaved were formerly the only kinds 
 cultivated, but there are now many varieties. 
 Some of these are : Lady Plymotith ; Graveoliis ; 
 Odoraiissiinum ; Dcniictilaiiira. 
 
 Zonale Geraniums : — These are fine in col- 
 oring and of quick growth. Good varieties are: 
 Christine, rose pink; General Grant, dazzling 
 scarlet, Blue Bells, magenta pink; King of Roses, 
 scarlet shaded to magenta. 
 
 Liliputian Zonules are dwarfs. The flowers 
 are very beautiful in color. Some of these are : 
 Little Gem, vermilion, with white center ; Little 
 Dear, rose, spotted white ; Baby Boy, scarlet, 
 with white eye. 
 
 Double Geraniums :— The clusters of these 
 are large, and they do not drop their leaves as 
 the other varieties do. Good varieties are: 
 Gloire de Nancy, brilliant scarlet; Cro^iun Prince, 
 bright rose; &niile Lemoine, cherry-carmine. 
 
 Pansy. — This plant is also called heartsease, 
 and is a general favorite. It dies down each 
 year, but springs up, from self-sown seeds, or 
 from the root, each spring. It needs abun- 
 dant manuring, and in fact can hardly be en- 
 riched too much. The bed should be partially 
 shaded, and watered every day. Watering once a 
 week, a tablespoonful of guano dissolved inagal- 
 lon of water, will improve the blossoms. 
 
 Heliotrope. — This plant blossoms plentifully 
 from June to October, and is easily propagated 
 by cuttings. A first year's cutting should be 
 pruned into one stem. It is easily trained into 
 a high bush by means of a trellis, though not 
 often seen so. This should be done by pruning 
 carefully to the central stem and allowing it to 
 head out gracefully. Plant cuttings early in the 
 spring in a rich soil. Potted heliotrope should 
 have the same soil and be re-potted often. Some 
 of the best varieties zxi^: Due De Lai'endry, rich' 
 blue, with a dark eye ; Etoile de Marseilles, deep 
 violet, with white center; Madame Farilon, vio- 
 let ; Garibaldi, nearly white. 
 
 Mignonette. — This is a hardy plant, and a flour- 
 ishing. It will sow its own seed and spring up 
 in abundance the next season. To start a bed, 
 sow the seed late in the autumn. 
 
 Nasturtium. — This is a showy plant, and will 
 grow with little care in any good soil. The pods 
 should be gathered in August for early spring 
 planting. 
 
 Lily. — This is a large family, and contains many 
 beautiful varieties. The most popular of these 
 is the Lily of t/ie Valley. It will grow in any 
 shady part of the garden, and blossom profusely 
 with little care. The bulbs should be planted in 
 the fall. In general, lilies will bear a large 
 amount of manure. During the winter the bulbs 
 may be protected by a covering of coarse ma- 
 nure. 
 
 Salvia. — This is one of the most beautiful of 
 the fall plants. It grows to a bush from four to 
 five feet high, and in September and October is 
 covered with tassels of bright scarlet or blue 
 flowers. It may be raised from seeds, but it is 
 better to purchase a plant from the florist. Dur- 
 ing the winter salvias may be treated like gera- 
 niums. 
 
 Chrysanthemum. — This flower no garden should 
 be without. It is hardy, and blooms very late in 
 the season. It grows best in a rich light soil, 
 and a little sand added is of benefit. Cuttings 
 may be made, in August or after blooming, from 
 the shoots and up by the roots. 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 97 
 
 FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 Apples : 
 
 American Golden Pippin gg 
 
 Apple-Rorer loi 
 
 Apple-Worm loi 
 
 Baldwin 99 
 
 Canker- Worm loi 
 
 Caterpillar 101 
 
 Early Harvest 99 
 
 Esopus Spitzenberg- 99 
 
 Fall Pippin 100 
 
 Gravenstein .... 100 
 
 Hubbardston Nonsuch 100 
 
 Insects, Destructive loi 
 
 Lady-Apple 100 
 
 Maiden's Blush 100 
 
 Off Years 99 
 
 Picking- and Keeping 101 
 
 Red Astraclian loo 
 
 Yellow Newtown Pippin loi 
 
 Budding 98 
 
 Cherries : 
 
 Bigarreau no 
 
 Black Mazzard ni 
 
 Black Tartarean in 
 
 Common Cherry no 
 
 Early Richmond in 
 
 Mayduke ni 
 
 Pruning no 
 
 Soil no 
 
 Cleft-grafting 98 
 
 Crown-grafting , 98 
 
 Fastening 98 
 
 General Remarks 97 
 
 Grafting 97 
 
 Grapes : 
 
 American Grapes 105 
 
 Black Hamburgh 105 
 
 Catawba, 105 
 
 Concord 105 
 
 Grapes : 
 
 Cuttings 107 
 
 Delaware 105 
 
 Diana 105 
 
 Diseases 108 
 
 European Grapes 104 
 
 First Summer 108 
 
 Fourth Season 108 
 
 Fowls 108 
 
 Grape-Culture 107 
 
 Gray-rot 108 
 
 Hartford Prolific 105 
 
 Hot-house Culture 104 
 
 lona 105 
 
 Isabella 107 
 
 Israella 105 
 
 Martha 105 
 
 Mildew loS 
 
 Phylloxera loS 
 
 Plants 107 
 
 Pruning ^ 108 
 
 Rebecca 107 
 
 Second Season 108 
 
 Scuppernong 107 
 
 Third Season 108 
 
 To Keep in Winter 108 
 
 Trellises 108 
 
 Wilder Grape 105 
 
 Winter Treatment. . . .; 108 
 
 How to Graft 98 
 
 Mulching 97 
 
 Peaches : 
 
 Blood Clingstone 103 
 
 Cooledge's Favorite 103 
 
 Crawford's Late 104 
 
 Early Crawford 104 
 
 Enemies 104 
 
 Grosse Mignonne 104 
 
 Morris White 104 
 
 Peaches : 
 
 Soil and Exposure 103 
 
 Various Hints 103 
 
 Pears ; 
 
 Bark-louse 103 
 
 Bartlett loi 
 
 Beurr^ Box loi 
 
 Beurre Diel 103 
 
 Blight • 103 
 
 Budding, or Grafting loi 
 
 Diseases of Pears 103 
 
 Flemish Beauty 103 
 
 Picking loi 
 
 Rostiezer 103 
 
 Seckel 103 
 
 Soil and Planting loi 
 
 Winter Nelis 103 
 
 Pcg-graiiing gg 
 
 Plums : 
 
 Curculio 1 10 
 
 Diseases of Plums no 
 
 Egg-Plum 109 
 
 Frogmore Damson 109 
 
 Green gage 109 
 
 Jefferson 109 
 
 Pruning 109 
 
 Purple Favorite 109 
 
 Soil and Fertilizing 109 
 
 Weevil, Plum no 
 
 Wild Plums 109 
 
 Quinces : 
 
 Angers no 
 
 Apple-shapes no 
 
 Japan no 
 
 Portugal no 
 
 Saddle-grafting 98 
 
 Scion and Stock 99 
 
 Shoulder-grafting 98 
 
 Tongue-ijraf ting 98 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS ON FRUIT- 
 GROWING. 
 
 The soil usually considered the best for grow- 
 ing Apple, Pear, Cherry and Plum Trees is 
 strong loam, clayey rather than sandy. Fruits 
 which entirely fail from disease and the attacks 
 of insects, grown upon sandy soil, come to great 
 perfection upon clayey loam. In gardens where 
 the soil is not deep and rich, there should be 
 a trench made. This helps the roots to retain 
 their vigor through the dry summer weather. 
 Trees may be transplanted with success. If re- 
 planting an orchard, do not plant in the same 
 places where the old trees stood. The size of 
 trees for transplanting varies with the kind of 
 tree and the object of the culture. But a rule 
 which is approved by the best authorities is, from 
 three to seven feet high. Never be in too great 
 a hurry to have an orchard bear. Transplanting 
 large trees may be sometimes accomplished with 
 success, but not often. When large trees are to 
 be moved, they should have a trench dug around 
 them far enough from the trunk to include a 
 mass of earth and roots, and the roots beyond 
 may be cut off. and the earth put back into the 
 7 
 
 trench. This should be done early in the spring 
 of the year preceding the removal. The result 
 will be a growth of young rootlets, which are 
 almost certain to insure for the tree a successful 
 start when put into its new bed. Do not plant 
 too deep ; but leave the tree at the same level, 
 when transplanted, as before. Mulching after 
 transplanting is of service. This is simply sup- 
 plying a covering of barn-yard straw, which 
 helps retain the moisture. The best times 
 for transplanting are» early in autumn, and early 
 in spring. Of the two, the autumn is prefer- 
 able, as the plants are then in a dormant state. 
 See that the ground is well prepared, so that 
 the trees may retain all the strength and good 
 qualities which originally belonged to them, and 
 easily assimilate more in their new position. 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 This is the uniting of a young scion or shoot 
 of one kind of plant to a stem or stock of another 
 kind, so that the scion may receive nourishment 
 from the stock. Grafting was largely practiced 
 in ancient times, and it now forms an important 
 part of the art of gardening. It is chiefly valu- 
 able as it perpetuates and propagates the finest 
 
98 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 varieties of fruit-trees and grape-vines, wliich 
 could not be successfully raised from the seed. 
 It is also of great use in hastening and increas- 
 ing the fruitfulness of trees, the circulation of the 
 sap being impeded at the junction of the stock 
 and scion as by a deep wound, and by repeated 
 grafting gardeners often obtain fruit and flowers 
 much sooner than would naturally be the case. 
 Grafting is also employed to turn to account the 
 vigor of a root of which the branches are ex- 
 hausted or otherwise unproductive, and large 
 crops of fruit may often thus be obtained in a 
 garden much sooner than by any other means. 
 
 How to Graft. — In grafting, it is particularly to 
 be attended to that the alhunuiin, or sap-wood, of 
 the scion is brought into contact with that of the 
 stock. The hard wood of the one never unites 
 with that of the other, remaining separate and 
 marking the place of the operation even in the 
 oldest trees. For scions or grafts, pieces of 
 about 6 to 8 inches long are generally taken from 
 the shoots of the previous summer, with several 
 buds, but portions of shoots two years old are 
 sometimes successfully employed. The time for 
 grafting is in spring, as soon as the sap begins to 
 appear. The scion should, if possible, be taken 
 from a healthy and fruitful tree, but scions from 
 the extremities of lateral branches are more 
 likely to become speedily fruitful than those 
 from the uppermost branches, where growth is 
 most vigorous. The scion should be kept for a 
 few days before grafting, so that the stock may 
 rather exceed it, not only in vigor, but in the 
 progress of its spring growth; and for this pur- 
 pose may be placed in the ground, in a rather 
 dry soil, sheltered from the direct rays of the 
 sun. Scions may be kept for some time, and ea- 
 sily carried to a distance, by sticking their lower 
 end into a potato. The end should always be 
 freshly cut off when the scion is to be used. 
 There are various n^odes of grafting. 
 
 Cleft-grafting is very commonly practiced when 
 the stock is considerably thicker than the scion. 
 The stock being cut over, is cleft down, and the 
 graft, cut into the shape of a wedge at its lower 
 end by a sharp thin knife, is inserted into the 
 cleft. This mode of grafting is particularly ap- 
 plicable to branches of large trees, when the in- 
 troduction of a new variety of fruit, or increased 
 fruitfulness, is sought. 
 
 Crown-grafting is used for still thicker stocks, 
 which are cut across, and then cleft down by two 
 clefts crossing one another at right angles, two 
 scions being inserted close to the bark in each 
 cleft ; or no cleft at all is made, and any desired 
 number of scions obliquely cut away on one side 
 are simply inserted between the bark and wood 
 ol the stock, the operation in this case being de- 
 ferred till the bark readily parts from the wood. 
 
 In this kind of grafting, a longitudinal slit in the 
 bark of the stock, opposite to each graft, is ad- 
 vantageous. 
 
 Tongue-grafting is the mode most commonly 
 practiced for young trees in nurseries. For this, 
 it is necessary that the stock and the scion should 
 be of not very different thickness. A slit or a 
 very narrow angular incision is made in the cen- 
 ter of the stock downwards, and a similar one in 
 the scion upwards, both having been first cut 
 obliquely, at corresponding angles, and the tongue 
 thus made in the scion being inserted into the 
 incision in the stock, they are fastened very 
 closely and thoroughly together. 
 
 In saddle-grafting, the end of tlie stock is cut 
 into the form of a wedge, and the scion is affixed 
 to it, the base of the scion having been cut or 
 slit up for the purpose. 
 
 Shoulder-grafting, used chiefly for ornamental 
 trees, is performed by cutting obliquely and then 
 cutting across a small part at the top of the stock, 
 so as to form a shoulder, the scion being cut to 
 fit it. 
 
 Peg-grafting, not now much in use, is accom- 
 plished by making the end of the scion into a 
 peg, and boring the top of the stock to receive 
 it. 
 
 Fastening. — Whichever of these modes of graft- 
 ing is adopted, the graft must be fastened in its 
 place by tying, for which purpose a strand of 
 bast-matting is commonly used. The access of 
 air is further prevented by means of clay, which 
 has been worked up with a little chopped hay, 
 horse or cow dung and water, and which is 
 applied to the place of junction so as to form a 
 ball, tapering both upward and downward. In 
 France, a composition of 28 parts black pitch, 28 
 Burgundy pitch, 16 yellow wax, 14 tallow and 14 
 sifted ashes, is generally nsed instead of clay. 
 Gutta-percha, applied in a soft state, has al.so 
 been used, or even blotting-paper held fast by 
 strips of sticking-plaster. A good wax or clay 
 for grafting, is made of 3 parts of resin, 3 of bees- 
 wax and 2 of tallow, applied with a brush 
 while warm, or cooled as a plaster and carefully 
 bound about the stem. The progress of the 
 buds shows the union of the graft and stock, but 
 it is not generally safe to remove the clay in less 
 than three months ; and the ligatures, although 
 then loosened, are allowed to remain for some 
 tinje longer. From some kinds of fruit-trees^ 
 fruit is often obtained in the second year after 
 grafting. 
 
 Budding is in principle the same as grafting; 
 and flute-grafting is a kind of budding in which a 
 ring of bark is used instead of a single bud, and 
 a stock of similar thickness having been cut 
 over, a ring of bark is removed, and the foreign 
 one substituted. This is commonly performed 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 in spring, when the bark parts readily, and is one 
 of the surest modes of grafting. 
 
 Inarching, or grafting by approach, in which the 
 scion is notcutoflf from its parent stem until it is 
 united to the new stock, is practiced chiefly in the 
 case of some valuable shrubs. kept in pots, in which 
 success by the ordinary methods is very doubtful. 
 
 Action and Reaction of Scion and Stoclf. — An effect 
 is produced by the stock on the scion which it 
 nourishes analogous to that of a change of soil ; 
 much of the vigor of a strong healthy stock is 
 also communicated to a scion taken even from 
 an aged tree. There is, moreover, in some de- 
 gree, an influence of the elaborated sap descend- 
 ing from the scion on the stock which supports 
 it. An important part of the practical skill of 
 the gardener or nurseryman consists in the se- 
 lection of the proper kinds of stocks for different 
 species and varieties of fruit-trees. The stock 
 and scion, however, must not be of species ex- 
 tremely dissimilar. No credit is due to the 
 statements of ancient authors about vines graft- 
 ed on fig-trees, apples on planes, etc., the sem- 
 blance of which can only have been brought about 
 by some delusive artifice ; for all attempts at 
 grafting fail except among plants of the same 
 genus, or at least of the same natural family. 
 
 APPLES. 
 
 A selection of healthy trees should be made at 
 a good nursery. They should be planted in 
 rows. The distance between the rows varies 
 with the plan of cultivation. If grass or grain is 
 to be grown in the field, fifty feet is a safe dis- 
 tance apart ; but if the apple-orchard is the main 
 thought of the owner, twenty-eight or thirty 
 feet should be allowed. Fallow crops raised in 
 orchards greatly stimulate the growth of the 
 trees, while grass and grain are rather a draw- 
 back. The soil about the trees should be kept 
 free and well mellowed. If there be any sign of 
 deterioration, the trees should have a top-dress- 
 ing of manure. Trees must be treated gener- 
 ously in the fertilizing, and they will amply repay 
 the grower for the extra expense. Apple-trees 
 require little pruning if they are carefully pruned 
 in March when they are young. All dead limbs 
 and any which crowd should be cut away. The 
 places where amputation has taken place should 
 be smoothed and covered with a little liquid 
 shellac prepared for the purpose. 
 
 Off Years. — The bearing of apples is every other 
 year. The trees usually exhaust themselves so 
 that they require a year in which to store up 
 strength again to produce fruit-buds. Trees 
 may be'made to bear on each year by removing 
 half the fruit when small. The bearing year 
 may be changed if desired by picking off the 
 fruit-buds as soon as they are formed. 
 
 LofC. 
 
 From the almost endless varieties of apples 
 used for the table, for cooking and for the 
 market, we select leading ones : 
 
 American Golden Pippin. — A variety not as univer- 
 sally known as it should be, but superior and 
 
 AlVltKlCAN Gi'LUKN PlKl'IN. 
 
 profitable. The fruit is of medium size, yellow> 
 dotted with gray or russet spots. 
 
 The Baldwin is a native of Massachusetts, where 
 it is largely raised. The tree is spreading and 
 productive. The fruit is large, round, yellow, 
 mostly covered with crimson stripes and orange, 
 has a few russet marks about the stalk. The 
 flesh is crispy and white, and the flavor high. The 
 apple is at its best in winter, though it may be 
 kept till spring. 
 
 The Early Harvest is one of the earliest and best 
 liked of American apples. It is ripe about the 
 fourth of July. The fruit is of medium size, of a 
 
 m 
 
 \ 
 
 Early Hak\est. 
 
 handsome straw-color with a few whitish dots, 
 The flesh is white and crispy, and the flavor 
 fine. , 
 
 Esopus Spitzenberg.— This apple is a favorite 
 throughout New York State, where it originated, 
 and where it grows in great perfection. The 
 tree has long shoots and hanging branches. The 
 fruit is large, oblong, the color on one side is 
 yellow with streaks of red, while the whole is 
 red covered with yellowish-brown dots. The 
 stalk is long and slender. The flavor is very 
 
100 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 fine, and the flesh firm and juicy, 
 winter apple. 
 
 ^: 
 
 It is a good 
 
 Esopus Spitzenberg. 
 
 Fall Pippin. — Tliis is the first and best of autumn 
 apples in the Middle States. The tree is very 
 vigorous and spreading ; the fruit large, round 
 
 
 I 
 
 andgreen, turning to yellow as it ripens. The flesh 
 is tender, mellow and white. 
 
 Craifenstein. — This apple is of German origin, 
 but has attained a high place in this country. 
 It bears early, and is very productive. The fruit 
 
 ^f: 
 
 Gr.\ven'stkin AI'PLE. 
 
 is large and a little one-sided. The skin is 
 greenish yellow, turning to bright yellow, mar- 
 bled with red and orange. The flesh is tender, 
 crispy, high-flavored and slightly aromatic. 
 
 Hubbardston Nonsuch. — This is an early winter 
 apple, very large, irregularly striped with light 
 
 ■sF^'-rr^ 
 
 Hubbardston Nonsuch. 
 
 and dark red on a yellow ground. Sweetness 
 and acidity are agreeably mingled in its flavor. 
 
 Lady-Apple. — A dainty apple for the table, and 
 a favorite with children, bringing a high price at 
 Christmas-time. It is a French variety of which 
 there are a number, none of which are much 
 
 ^-yV,. 
 
 LauvApi'LE. 
 
 grown here, except the lady-apple. The fruit is 
 very small but regular, a little flat in shape. The 
 skin is very glossy ; it has a bright red cheek 
 upon a bright yellow ground. The flesh is crisp, 
 very white and tender, and the flavor good. 
 The Maiden's Blush is one of the early apples. 
 
 \ 
 
 Red Astrachan. 
 and has much of the beauty of the lady-apple, 
 being therefore a great favorite for table use. 
 
 The Red Astrachan is probably a native of Swe- 
 den, and is a fruit of great beauty. The fruit is 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 101 
 
 rather large, deep crimson, with a bit of green, 
 and it has a fine bloom. 
 
 Yellow Newtown Pippin. — Tliis variety and the 
 Green Newtown Pippin are two fine varieties. 
 The yellow pippin is rather handsomer, but the 
 green is more juicy. They are both high-flavored, 
 and good in late winter. 
 
 Picking and Keeping Apples. — In order to secure 
 sound apples and have them keep well, they 
 should be picked by hand, and when dry. For 
 winter use, delay as long as the frost will allow 
 you, safely. Some hold that the best method of 
 preserving apples is to pack carefully in clean 
 barrels, leaving them unheaded for a while in a 
 cool, dry place, where they will not be frost-bitten. 
 Others place the apples in open bins or on the 
 floor, where they can be kept until dampness has 
 disappeared, when they can be barreled and sent 
 away to market, or kept in a dry cellar. Cellars 
 in gravelly soil, and properly ventilated, are 
 generally excellent places for keeping fruit and 
 vegetables. Barrels should be laid upon their 
 sides. 
 
 INSECTS DESTRUCTIVE TO APPLE- 
 TREES. 
 
 The Apple-Borer. — This is a grub which enters 
 the tree at the surface of the ground, and rapidly 
 girdles and perforates the tender bark, soon kill- 
 ing the tree. The best way to kill the borer 
 is to pick it out of the hole, or else force it far up 
 to the end of the hole. 
 
 The Caterpillar. — Caterpillars come in myriads 
 from eggs laid by moths the season before. They 
 spin and weave, making large nests which en- 
 velop the leaves and branches, and all through 
 their seven weeks' season they eat with voracity 
 the young leaves. The nests should be at once 
 removed. Never allow the caterpillars to make 
 headway. As they are lazy and do not leave the 
 nest before nine o'clock, the observing and alert 
 gardener can annihilate them easily. 
 
 The Canker-Worm. — This pest has very nearly de- 
 stroyed the apple-crop in New England the past 
 few years. Where the worms have been at work 
 the whole orchard looks as if fire had swept 
 through it. 
 
 They come out of the ground early in spring. 
 The females crawl slowly up the trunks, while 
 the males, being supplied with wings, can fly. 
 Eggs are laid in rows, and can be seen in 
 hundreds by the careful observer. These eggs 
 hatch in May, and the canker-worms immediately 
 begin their ravages, entirely destroying the foli- 
 age of an orchard in a few days. To prevent the 
 inroads of the canker-worm, the common method 
 is to put around the trunks a piece of canvas 
 which has been tarred. Old India-rubber melted 
 makes a good adhesive substance, which will not 
 
 harden on exposure to the air. The female 
 worms are by tliis means kept from going up the 
 tree-trunks. 
 
 The Apple-Worm is a white grub found in apples 
 and pears, which usually drop before they are 
 ripe. A moth which appears in the warm even- 
 ings of June, lays eggs in the blossom end of the 
 fruit. These eggs soon hatch, and the grub 
 makes its way into the fruit. When it leaves the 
 fruit it goes to the seams in the bark, and there 
 spins a cocoon from which, the next spring, the 
 moth comes. By keeping the bark clean and 
 carefully searching for the cocoon, the gardener 
 can keep free from this pest. 
 
 PEARS. 
 
 The pear-tree is not a native of America, but 
 has been brought here from Europe. It grows 
 wild in Europe and Asia, and reaches a great size 
 and age. Within two hundred years it has been 
 largely cultivated, and in the last fifty years Bel- 
 gium and England have been producing choice 
 seedlings and crosses. In our own country new 
 seedlings are constantly appearing. The soil 
 and climate of the Middle States are well suited 
 to pear-growing, and very nearly coincide in 
 these respects with Belgium, where the fruit 
 reaches its greatest perfection. The wood is red- 
 dish, very hard, fine-grained, and is often dyed 
 black in imitation of ebony, which it resembles. 
 
 Soil and Planting. — The soil best suited to pear- 
 trees is a strong loam, moderately deep. Too 
 moist a soil is unfit, as well as one too rich and 
 heavy. The trees should be planted, thirty feet 
 apart, in rows. They grow well in gardens, with 
 a little pruning. Pears require less pruning than 
 any other fruit. They may be raised from the 
 seed. 
 
 Budding or Grafting. — The budding in pear-grow- 
 ing is very successful, and should be done in 
 August. Seedlings of two years' growth are in 
 suitable condition to be budded or grafted. 
 When grafted upon thorn-quince or mountain- 
 ash, the size is dwarfed, and the whole strength 
 goes into fruit-bearing. 
 
 Picking.— Pears should be picked before they 
 are ripe. The flavor is much finer if they ripen 
 in-doors ; indeed, some pears are mealy and 
 tasteless if left until ripe upon the trees. 
 
 Only a few of the thousand varieties will be 
 noticed here, and those the best for table and 
 market. 
 
 Bartlett.— This pear should have the first men- 
 tion, for it is certainly the most popular. It is 
 far too well known to need description. It is 
 ripe the last of August. 
 
 Beurre Bosc. — A handsome pear. Fruit large 
 and pyriform, tapering to the stalk. Skin 
 
102 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 \ 
 
 Beurr^ Bosc. 
 
 Beurre DlEL. 
 
 Flemish Beauty. 
 
 ROSTIEZER. 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 103 
 
 smooth, dark yellow dotted with russet, and one 
 cheek slightly red. Flesh white, buttery, melt- 
 ing; the flavor rich. 
 
 Beurre Die/ is a great favorite. Tiie tree is very 
 vigorous. Fruit large ; skin thick ; color from 
 lemon to orange, marbled with russet. Flesh 
 a little coarse, but rich and sweet. Good for 
 eating from September to December. 
 
 Flemish Beauty. — Fruit a handsome russet when 
 mature; surface rough and skin thick. The 
 flavor is very high, and the flesh juicy if picked 
 early and ripened in-doors. 
 
 Rosfiezer. — A foreign variety of superior qua- 
 lity. The fruit is small ; the flesh juicy, of pleas- 
 ant perfume. Ripe by the 15th of August. One 
 of the very best pears. 
 
 Seckel. — This is an American pear, and is 
 placed by many pomologists at the head of the 
 list. The tree is very hardy, of good shape. The 
 fruit hangs in clusters at the ends of the 
 branches, and is small and red-brown, with a 
 spicy aroma and flavor. This pear is very juicy, 
 
 Seckel. 
 
 and brings a good price in the market. Ripe 
 from September ist. 
 
 Winter /Ve//s.— This holds a high place as a win- 
 ter pear. The fruit is medium-sized; skin yellow- 
 ish green, with streaks of russet on one cheek. 
 Flesh fine-grained, juicy, a rich arom.atic flavor. 
 Keeps well in the winter. 
 
 Diseases. — Of the enemies of the pear the 
 Mi£-/i/ is the worst, destroying whole trees with- 
 out warning. It is caused by a tiny fungus. 
 The diseased boughs must be cut away. The 
 bark-louse is destructive, but with an alkaline 
 mixture carefully used can be usually destroyed. 
 There are many insects destructive to the leaves. 
 The dusting of ashes, dry dust and quicklime 
 over the leaves is sometimes beneficial. 
 
 PEACHES. 
 
 There is no country in which peach-trees grow 
 and flourish so well as our own. In many sec- 
 tions they grow finely, but in Delaware, Mary- 
 land and Virginia, and the Lake Michigan 
 region they reach perfection. The fruit is 
 grown so easily and so rapidly, and the demand 
 is so large, that gardeners have become careless 
 and have neglected their orchards, and the past 
 two or three years very inferior fruit has been 
 olTered in the Eastern market. 
 
 50/7 and Exposure. — The soil which best suits 
 the peach is a mellow loam. In regions where 
 there is danger of spring frosts, the orchards 
 should be planted on northern e.xposures. In 
 southern aspects the blossoms get far advanced, 
 and the frost kills them. The Southern growers 
 enrich the soil with top-dressing and leave it, 
 while in the North the soil is worked and mel- 
 lowed much as in apple-orchards. 
 
 Various ///nfs.— Peach-stones planted in autumn 
 will shoot up the next spring and grow rapidly, 
 and in two years usually bear fruit. Gardeners 
 bury peach-stones, selected with care, in the 
 ground through the winter. In the early spring 
 these stones are taken up, and the kernels removed 
 and sown in well-prepared earth. Here they 
 grow, and are ready for budding in September. 
 Grafting is little used with the peach, as budding 
 can be easily done. Trees are in good condition 
 for transplanting one year from budding. The 
 trees should be set about twenty-eight feet apart. 
 An orchard bears regularly usually the third or 
 fourth year. Up to the first blossoming year do 
 not prune, but as fruit grows on the shoots of 
 the previous year's growth, it will be well for 
 these shoots in early spring to be cut back, at 
 least half of them, thereby halving the quan- 
 tity of the crop, but greatly improving its quali- 
 ty. Trees treated in this way remain symmetri- 
 cal in shape, and never become deforrhed from 
 the load of overweighted boughs. In this 
 country the growing of wall-peaches is little 
 practiced, though it might be done by those who 
 live beyond the latitude where they do not flour- 
 ish in orchards. Forcing-houses are used by a 
 limited number. 
 
 A few varieties of the peach are here noticed, 
 selected as the favorites, and including both cling- 
 stone and freestone. 
 
 Blood Clingstone.^ A large peach, much valued 
 for preserving. The skin is very downy and 
 dull red, while the flesh is deep red. It is a seed- 
 ling which has been grown in America from the 
 French Sangttinole a Chair Adherenfc. 
 
 Cooledge's Favorite is much grown in New 
 England. It is a very hardy peach, handsome 
 and of high flavor. 
 
104 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Early Crawford. — This is a yellow-fleshed peach, 
 irery early, and in great demand in market. The 
 fruit is large, yellow-skinned, with a rosy cheek. 
 Freestone. 
 
 ii/^^ 
 
 V 
 
 '^., 
 
 Blood Clingstone. 
 
 X- 
 
 Early Crawford. 
 
 Crawford's Lath. 
 
 Crawford's Late. — This is raised from the Melo- 
 coton, or Malacatune as it is usually called, and 
 
 is like the Early Crawford, its near relative, a 
 very superior peach. The fruit large, yellow, 
 with a handsome red cheek; high flavor, juicy. 
 Freestone. 
 
 Grosse Mignonne. 
 
 Grosse Mignonne. — This is a very popular peach, 
 taking place in the first rank. The fruit is large, 
 the skin of a pale yellow with red markings; and 
 of a high flavor. Freestone. 
 
 Morris White Rareripe is the most popular 
 white peach in market. The fruit is medium, 
 the skin covered with down and white, turning 
 to a delicate cream color when ripe ; very juicy 
 and rich. 
 
 Enemies. — The Leaf-Curl is a comparatively in- 
 significant disease, hurting the appearance of the 
 tree. The Yellows is probably fataj. The leaves 
 turn yellow, the fruit drops prematurely, and the 
 tree is apt to die. It is supposed to be the work 
 of a very minute fungus, and the only sure plan 
 is to cut down the affected tree, and prevent the 
 infection of others by it. The Peach-Borer is a 
 sad pest. A gum exudes where it has attacked. 
 Cut or dig it out. Severe cold is often fatal to 
 peach-trees. 
 
 GRAPES. 
 
 Grapes are usually divided into two large 
 classes, the European and the American. The 
 European grape shown in the cut is grown 
 in numberless varieties in different parts of the 
 world. In France. Italy and the Rhine country 
 grapes are grown with great success. 
 
 The growing of foreign grapes in our country 
 has been perseveringly tried, but it does not 
 succeed east of the Rocky Mountains except 
 under glass. 
 
 Hot-house Culture. — There are two methods of 
 raising grapes under glass, the first in a glass 
 house which is not artificially heated; the other 
 is the hot-house, where by artificial heat fruit 
 may be forced for almost any season. ;\s these 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 105 
 
 methods of raising are expensive and require much 
 care we have not treated of them in this article. 
 Neitlier have we spolcen at length of the foreign- 
 
 m0 >' 
 
 { 
 
 ', ^ A 
 
 "^^l 
 ^^'-.J W 
 
 •4»^ « 
 
 Vine (T/V/i vini/era), showing the flowers and their parts 
 the leaves, and the fruit. 
 
 crape vineyards in California, which with the 
 v;ine-making constitute there such an important 
 industry. 
 
 American Grapes. — Along the Pacific coast the 
 different varieties flourish well, and the yearly 
 increasing vineyards prove the profitable growth 
 of the vine. Of the American grapes there are 
 usually reckoned four kinds : the northern or fox- 
 grape, the summer grape, the frost grape, and 
 the muscadine or southern grape. A few years 
 ago there were only two cultivated varieties, the 
 Catawba and Isabella. Now the number is great, 
 and new varieties are every year brought forward 
 by enterprising gardeners. Perhaps the most 
 popular kinds with us are Concord, Catawba, 
 lona, Delaware and Norton's Virginia. This 
 last-named, is however, only grown for wine, 
 while the others find a ready market, where they 
 bring much higher prices than for the purpose 
 of wine-making. 
 
 A few words about some of the different varie- 
 ties and their growth will be here given. 
 
 The Concord, — This is so well known that no 
 description need be given. It has been raised in 
 large quantities, but within the last few years it 
 has rotted badly, and is not therefore considered 
 reliable. It grows rapidly and will bear neglect. 
 A wine of fair quality can be made from it with 
 the use of a little artificial heat. 
 
 Catawba. — This grape is still a very great favor- 
 ite, although, except in certain localities, it is 
 very unreliable. The flavor is high, and the wine 
 made from it fine. In the New York lake 
 region the Catawba grows well. 
 
 Martha. — This is one of the best white grapes 
 raised. It succeeds well in different States, 
 
 being even hardier than the Concord, of which it 
 is a seedling. The bunches are medium-sized ; 
 berry a trifle smaller than the Concord, and has 
 a white bloom. The pulp is soft and sweet, 
 and if not too ripe, juicy. An excellent wine is 
 made from it. 
 
 Wilder (Rogers' No. 4).— This is a grape good 
 for the table and for wine. The vine is a 
 healthy grower, and needs to have the fruit 
 thinned out, as it bears abundantly. The 
 bunches are large and heavy; the berries round 
 and black, with a fine blue bloom. It ripens 
 earlier than the Concord. 
 
 Diana is a seedling of the Catawba. This 
 grape should be fully ripened before being 
 picked. It is an abundant grower, and requires 
 pruning, but not very rich soil. The bunches 
 are large, compact, and have often a little bunch 
 attached. The color is a lilac-red. The fruit 
 ripens late, and will keep well during the winter. 
 Delaware. — This requires a rich, well-drained 
 soil. It is very productive where it grows suc- 
 cessfully, but It is rather delicate, and only suc- 
 ceeds in certain localities. The clusters are 
 small but compact, and generally shouldered. 
 The berry is small, red, and has a beautiful 
 bloom upon it. It is high-flavored and sweet. 
 
 Hartford Prolific— This, as its name indicates, 
 is productive and hardy. It has large bunches. 
 The berries are large and black, with a bloom, 
 and have a perfume like wild grapes. The 
 grapes ripen early, but drop from the bunch 
 when fully ripe, and are therefore troublesome 
 to market. 
 
 Zona.— This favorite, grown largely in New 
 York State, was originated by Dr. C. W. Grant, 
 then at lona Island, in the Hudson, a little 
 above Peekskill, but across the river. It pro- 
 duces a bunch of good size, shouldered, often 
 double-shouldered. The berries are light red, 
 with fine bloom ; skin thin, and the flesh, ten- 
 der, sweet and very juicy. It ripens about the 
 time of the Delaware. 
 
 Black Hamburgh.— This has long held the first 
 place among black grapes for the vinery, but 
 will rarely perfect its fruit out-of-doors. Its 
 large size and luscious flavor have won and kept 
 for it universal esteem. The bunches are large 
 (about nine inches deep), and mostly with two 
 shoulders, making it broad at the top. The ber- 
 ries are large, roundish and slightly inclining to 
 oval. The skin is thickish, deep brownish pur- 
 ple, becoming nearly black when quite ripe, with 
 a very sugary and rich flavor. A good and re- 
 gular bearer. 
 
 /srae//a.— This grape originated as did the lona, 
 with Dr. C. W. Grant, of lona Island. It is vig- 
 orous, hardy and productive. The bunches are 
 medium to large, shouldered and compact. 
 
106 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL, 
 
 Concord. 
 
 Catawba. 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 107 
 
 The berries are large and slightly oval, with 
 rather thin skin, and flesh tender, juicy, free 
 from pulp and sweet. Ripens soon after Hart- 
 ford Prolific. 
 
 Rebecca. — Originated in the garden of E. M. 
 Peake, Esq., Hudson, N. Y. Vine moderately 
 vigorous, a nice amateur grape, and succeeds 
 well in certain localities. The bunches are me- 
 dium, compact, rarely shouldered, with berries of 
 full medium size, roundish oval, adhering strongly 
 to the stem. Color auburn or golden in the sun 
 and light green in the shade, covered with a 
 light bloom. Flesh firm, juicy, sweet and deli- 
 cious. Ripens with Isabella, and keeps well. 
 
 Isabella. — This grape, native of South Carolina, 
 was brought north and introduced about 1818. 
 Jts great vigor, hardiness and productiveness, 
 with little care, have given it a wide dissemina- 
 tion. Bunches of good size, five to seven inches 
 long, rather loose, shouldered, with berries oval 
 and quite large. Skin thick, dark purple, be- 
 coming at last nearly black, with a blue bloom. 
 The flesh is tender, with some pulp, which nearly 
 dissolves when fully mature; juicy, sweet, and 
 rich, with slight musky aroma. This grape is 
 frequently picked as soon as well colored, and 
 long before it is ripe. 
 
 Scuppernong. — This is a very distinct Southern 
 species, growing wild from Virginia to Florida, 
 and climbing to the tops of the tallest trees. 
 Unlike other grapes, its leaves are small, seldom 
 over two or three inches in diameter, glossy and 
 smooth on each surface. It is too tender for the 
 Northern climate, being killed to the ground in 
 our winters. At the South it is hardy, produc- 
 tive, and an excellent wine grape. The White 
 and Black Scuppernong are hardly different ex- 
 cept in colors, to which also the tendrils of each 
 correspond. The bunches are small, loose, sel- 
 dom composed of more than six berries, which 
 are round and large, with skin thick, light green 
 in the white, dark red in the black variety. Flesh 
 quite pulpy, except when thoroughly ripe, juicy 
 and sweet, but with a strong musky scent and 
 flavor. 
 
 GRAPE CULTURE. 
 
 Cuttings. — Grapes may be raised either from 
 the seeds or from cuttings and plants. The 
 last-named method is much the best. In the 
 autumn cuttings should be made from the old ( 
 wood, and carefully put away until spring, either 
 in a cellar or buried in the ground. In the spring 
 the cuttings should be planted in a light sandy 
 soil with a southern exposure. They should be 
 planted so as to cover all the buds but one. The 
 growth of the summer should be pruned in the 
 autumn, leaving two branches, and those cut 
 down to four joints. The next year two main 
 
 branches may be allowed to spring up, but the 
 numberless side-shoots should be pinched oflf; 
 and in the autumn again prune the vine as far 
 as the eighth joint. After the second year, the 
 only pruning needed will be that which tends to 
 increase the fruit. 
 
 Plants. — The safest method is, however, to 
 raise from the young plants, as the best growing 
 
 cuttings are not likely to have an even growth. 
 Plants one year old, either from cuttings, layers 
 or single eyes bought of a reliable nurseryman, 
 are almost sure, with favorable location and soil, 
 to do well. The plants should have strong well- 
 ripened roots in abundance, also short-jointed 
 wood well ripened. Some cultivators prefer fall 
 planting. The ground should be marked off at 
 suitable distances, and holes 8 or 10 inches deep 
 
 -.W. 
 
 VOUNG VINE READY TO PLANT. 
 
 should be dug in a slanting direction. The 
 figure shows the plant ready to be put in the 
 ground. 
 
 Having laid the plant in and carefully fixed 
 the roots, fill up the hole with firm earth, leav- 
 ing the top bud just above the ground. In fall 
 planting dig a ridge about each vine, that the 
 
108 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 water may drain off. There should also be a 
 little mulch put about the vine as a protection. 
 Never attempt planting unless the weather be 
 dry and the ground mellow. 
 
 For the First Summer there is nothing neces- 
 sary but to keep the soil stirred well about the 
 vines. If the plants are very vigorous, they 
 should be tied to stakes. As the shoots appear 
 they must be rubbed off, keeping only one shoot, 
 which should have all the side or lateral shoots 
 allowed to grow. When autumn comes, cut back 
 the vine to two or three buds. 
 
 In the Winter, Trellises should be made, as they 
 will be needed in the spring. Posts of cedar are 
 excellent ; they should be about six or eight feSt 
 long. Char the lower ends, then bore holes for 
 either a three-or-two wire trellis. The holes for 
 the posts should be dug two feet deep, and the 
 posts should be well set. Wire size No. 12 will 
 make a strong support. The trellises should 
 have a brace, which can be seen below, show- 
 ing a vine pruned and tied, at the end of the 
 Second Summer. This method has been tried 
 
 THE VINE AT THE END OF THE SECOND SEASON. 
 
 with great success by some of the most enter- 
 prising grape-growers in the country. In the 
 autumn of the second year, the vines should be 
 trimmed as soon as the leaves drop. 
 
 The Third Season, at its beginning, should see 
 the vines plowed and hoed, and the soil well 
 stirred. When the shoots are young, the thumb- 
 and-tinger pruning — which is difficult for amateurs 
 to learn, as it is the fine art of pruning — must be 
 begun. The early pinching of the shoots throws 
 the strength of the vine into developing the 
 bunches and leaves upon the shoot which re- 
 mains. The bunches and leaves develop much 
 more rapidly in consequence. If the pinching be 
 left until after the blossoming the shoots will 
 have become quite hard, and the plant does not 
 thrive as well when the knife has to be used so 
 freely. After the blooming, the laterals will 
 start upon the bearing shoots. These should 
 be pinched off to one or two leaves, and the 
 leaf, as it quickly grows, serves as a conductor 
 of sap to the bunch opposite, and also as a 
 protection from storm and sun. The stalks 
 
 from the spurs, two or so having been left from 
 the first pinching, as they have now grown to 
 the length of three feet, should be pinched. 
 These are designed as the stalks for bearing the 
 following season, and this pinching will increase 
 the growth of the lateral shoots. The young 
 stalks should be tied firmly, though carefully, 
 along the upper wire. Sometimes a fruit-branch 
 will need a little help in holding its load, and 
 may be tied; usually it may be allowed to hang. 
 
 The object of the fall Pruning and summer 
 pruning is identical: to keep the vine within 
 proper limits, to save its strength for bearing 
 fine fruit, and for the growth of wood for the fol- 
 lowing year. Practice is required to know just 
 how to treat different vines at different times, 
 but careful observations on the nature and 
 habits of vines will greatly assist the grower. 
 
 For the Fourth Season the care is much the 
 same as for the third. A lack of vigorous 
 growth in a vine shows that some compost, bone- 
 ashes or woods-soil, may be needed as a tonic. 
 Pruning in the fall is best, but can be done as 
 late as March. Remember that soundcuttingsof 
 the last season's growth may be sold, and will, if 
 from choice varieties, largely add to the profits 
 of the vineyard. 
 
 Diseases of Grape-Vines. — Mildczti is perhaps the 
 worst. This is disastrous with the Catawba, 
 but seldom attacks the Concord or the Martha. 
 Close early pruning helps to prevent this fungus 
 from destroying the crop. Sulphur dusted on 
 the leaves and fruit will aid in destroying mildew. 
 Phylloxera, or Root-louse, is a very great pest, 
 attacking varieties which tend to root near the 
 surface. There is the gray-rot and spotted, or 
 broum-rot, which occasionally is very destructive. 
 The best plan for avoiding these diseases is to 
 try new varieties which will flourish in the 
 same places where the old vines have become 
 diseased. 
 
 There are some small insects which occasional- 
 ly attack and prey upon the young shoots. But 
 they can be easily kept down by syringing the 
 parts affected with a solution of whale-oil soap. 
 
 Turkeys, ducks, and hens are most helpful in re- 
 moving the multitude of insects which infest 
 the vines, but must be kept out of the way of 
 the ripening fruit. 
 
 To Keep in Winter. — Grapes may be preserved 
 well into the winter, by observing the rule here 
 given. Cut the bunches on a warm day, and lay 
 them in a cool place for a few days. Pack the 
 bunches in paper boxes, taking care to remove 
 all imperfect grapes. In the bottom of each 
 box put a layer of newspaper, then a layer of fruit, 
 and so on until there are three layers in the 
 boxes, not more. The boxes must be put in a 
 dry room which is not very cold. 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 109 
 
 PLUMS. 
 
 Thei'e are three kinds of wild plum in this 
 country, the beach plum, the red and yellow 
 plum, and the Chickasaw plum. These are 
 seldom if ever cultivated, but the ancestor of 
 our fine kinds is a native of Asia and Southern 
 Europe. The soil and climate of the Middle 
 States are well adapted to plum-culture. The 
 plum is certainly a very delicious fruit, but for 
 table use it is not in such great demand as the 
 other fruits. For cooking, canning, preserving, 
 it is the most prized, perhaps, of all. The busi- 
 ness of growing plums for prunes is one very 
 important in France. A few choice varieties 
 are raised with care, and being dried and pre- 
 pared in certain ways are known as German 
 prunes, St. Catharine Brignolles, etc. 
 
 Soil, and Fertilizing. — The plum flourishes on a 
 heavy soil with a mi.xture of clay. Salt is con- 
 sidered good, and swamp muck, especially that 
 from salt-water marshes, is beneficial as a ferti- 
 lizer. The plum grows readily from seeds. 
 Stones planted as soon as they are gathered will 
 reach a height of two feet the following year. 
 The next spring they will be suitable for planting 
 in nursery-beds, and should under ordinary con- 
 ditions be ready for working the following 
 summer. The plum does not bud easily, so 
 much care is required to successfully accom- 
 plish it. 
 
 Plum-trees need little Pruning besides thin- 
 ning overcrowded trees, and old trees may be 
 made more vigorous by " heading them in," 
 carefully covering the wounds with shellac, and 
 giving the roots a top-dressing. 
 • Green Gage. — This stands first in popularity. 
 The fruit is round and rather small ; skin yel- 
 
 Gkeen Gage. 
 
 lowish green; flesh pale green ; flavor good. 
 Ripe in August. 
 
 Frogmore Damson. —Fruit a little larger than av- 
 erage, purplish black, inclining to obtuse oval in 
 shape; flesh tender, and richly flavored. An 
 English plum, and an enormous bearer. 
 
 Jefferson. — This is a handsome plum for the 
 table, and something of the order of the green 
 gage, only much larger. The skin is yellow, often 
 with a purple-red cheek ; flesh an orange color, 
 and high-flavored. 
 
 Purple Favorite. — This plum, when grown in per- 
 fection, stands in the very front rank. It is much 
 finer than the purple gage, and grows well in the 
 
 PuKPLE Favorite. 
 
 garden. The fruit is medium-sized, the skin is 
 covered with a delicate blue bloom, and the color 
 is brownish purple. The flesh is green and melt- 
 ing, juicy and sweet. Parts freely from the stone, 
 which is small and roundish. 
 
 The Egg-Plum is widely known, though under 
 unfavorable conditions it has not much to recom- 
 
 Egg-Plum. 
 
 mend it for the table, but is excellent for cook, 
 ing. With warm location and when left to fully 
 
110 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 mature it is good flavored. Fruit very large; 
 skin yellow and dotted. Ripe in August. 
 
 Diseases. — The B/ac^ IVnrt is very destructive 
 to plum-trees. This is now considered due to a 
 fungus, and all boughs affected should be de- 
 stroyed. A beetle called the pliim-wennl, or air- 
 cu/to,\ays its eggs in the fruit, and these eggs pro- 
 duce a grub which feeds upon the fruit. The fruit 
 soon drops to the ground, where the grub can get 
 into the earth. By spreading down sheets and 
 tapping the tree with a wooden hammer, many 
 beetles are shaken off and can be easily killed. 
 This several times repeated will destroy great 
 numbers. Of course all the fallen plums should be 
 gathered at once, or new beetles will be pro- 
 duced. 
 
 QUINCES. 
 
 The quince tree or bush is well known on both 
 continents. The tree grows Eeldom with us 
 higher than a bush. The blossoms are large 
 pink and white. 
 
 The quince is unfit for eating raw, but it is in 
 great demand for preserving. The flavor is very 
 high even when dried. There are two kinds of 
 quince much grown, the apple and pear-quince ; 
 the former early. 
 
 The quince requires a moist soil, well manured 
 and will bear large fruit if so grown. Little or no 
 pruning is required. It may be grown from seed, 
 cuttings, or be budded. The stocks of the 
 quince are much used for grafting or budding 
 the pear. 
 
 Apple-shaped Quince. — The most popular variety 
 in the country, bears large roundish, apple-shaped 
 fruit, which stews quite tender, and is of excel- 
 lent flavor; It bears most abundant crops. 
 Leaves oval. Fruit size of a large apple, fair and 
 smooth, and a fine golden color. 
 
 Angers. — This variety is generally used for pear 
 stocks. It is a thrifty grower, and an abundant 
 bearer. Much like the Apple, not quite so ten- 
 der, a little more acid, and will keep longer. 
 
 Portugal Quince. — Rather superior to all others 
 in quality, as it is less harsh, stews much better, 
 and is altogether of a milder flavor, though not 
 fit for eating raw. The flesh turns a fine purple 
 or deep crimson when cooked. The leaf is larger 
 than that of the usual quince, and the growth 
 of the tree stronger. Fruit of the largest size, 
 oblong ovate, obtuse. It is unfortunately a shy 
 bearer. 
 
 Japan Quince. — This is a low thorny shrub, with 
 small dark green leaves. In April its branches 
 bear numerous clusters of blossoms shaped like 
 those of the quince, but a little larger and of the 
 brightest scarlet. Fruit dark green, very hard, 
 and useless ; and the only redemption of the plant 
 is, that in blossoming time it becomes the most 
 brilliant object in the shrubbery. 
 
 CHERRIES. 
 
 The cherry holds" a high rank among.fruits. 
 The tree grows rapidly, except the sour or red 
 cherry, and forms a handsome spreading tree 
 with smooth light bark. Cherry-wood is in great 
 demand for cabinet-making. In spring the 
 
 /2=7 
 
 Common Cherry iCcrasus duracinaY. a, branchlet with leaves 
 and fruit ; 6^ flower. 
 
 clusters of white blossoms are very beautiful, 
 and these blooms are followed by the fruit, 
 which hangs gracefully from long stalks. The 
 cultivated cherry-seeds were brought to our 
 country in the early colonial days. 
 
 A soil that is dry is best suited to the cherry, 
 but as it is very hardy it will thrive in many 
 different locations. The usual method of grow- 
 
 BlGARREAU. 
 
 ing cherries is from buds which are propagated 
 on the black mazzard, which is a common variety. 
 Cherries are grown as standards very generally 
 in our country. 
 
FRUITS AND FRUIT-CULTURE. 
 
 in 
 
 There should be but little pruning, and that 
 little should be done in mid-summer. The pe- 
 culiar gum which exudes is very similar to gum- 
 arabic, but it is a sort of decay which takes from 
 the strength of the tree. 
 
 Black Mazzard. — This is a common wild cherry 
 
 beautiful of the cherries. The tree is very hardy, 
 the fruit large and waxen in appearance, and 
 heart-shaped. As the cherry matures, the deli- 
 cate dots deepen into bright red on one cheek. 
 The fruit is ripe the last of June. 
 
 Early Richmond, or Kentish. — This is an acidcher- 
 
 Black Taktakean. 
 
 Earlv Richmond. 
 
 Mayduke. 
 
 now naturalized here, of value as the stock of the 
 Heart varieties. The fruit is small and bitter 
 unless dead ripe. 
 
 Black Tartarean. — This is an early kind of very 
 superior quality. The tree grows rapidly, and is 
 vigorous. The fruit is large, heart-shaped, and 
 of a glossy black. The flesh is deliciously rich. 
 
 Bigarreau. — This is one of the most reliable and 
 
 ry, of great value for cooking. The skin is very 
 bright red. The fruit grows in pairs. 
 
 Mayduke. — This is a most popular early cherry, 
 thriving in all climates. Sometimes someof the 
 branches have clusters which ripen later than 
 others, and so the season is very long. The 
 fruit is round, heart-shaped; the color bright-red, 
 which grows dark when fully ripe. 
 
112 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 BERRIES. 
 
 Berries as a whole : 
 
 Popular Meaning- iia 
 
 What a Berry is 112 
 
 Blackberries: 
 
 Kittatinny 123 
 
 Lavvton, or Ne>v Rochelle 122 
 
 New Rochelle, or Lawton 122 
 
 Snyder 123 
 
 Soil and Culture 125 
 
 What they are 122 
 
 Wilson's Early 123 
 
 Cranberries: 
 
 Cultivation 129 
 
 Cape Cod Culture 130 
 
 Description 129 
 
 Name, the 13° 
 
 Results 130 
 
 Uses 130 
 
 Varieties 129 
 
 Currants : 
 
 Black Currants 127 
 
 Cherry-Currant 126 
 
 Choice and Preparation of Soil 127 
 
 Origin of Cultivated Varieties 125 
 
 Planting 127 
 
 Red Dutch 126 
 
 Versailles 127 
 
 Victoria 127 
 
 White Dutch 126 
 
 White Grape 126 
 
 Gooseberries : 
 
 Cultivation 118 
 
 Chester, or American Red 128 
 
 Description 127 
 
 Downing 128 
 
 Foreign Varieties 128 
 
 Hobbs' Seedling 128 
 
 Houghton Seedling 128 
 
 Mountain Seedling 129 
 
 Pale Red 129 
 
 Ribes Hiriellum 128 
 
 Smith's Improved 128 
 
 Raspberries : 
 
 Belle de Fontenay 121 
 
 Black-Caps 122 
 
 Brandy wine 122 
 
 Cuthbert 122 
 
 Description. 118 
 
 Fastollf 119 
 
 Franconia 119 
 
 Hudson River Antwerp 119 
 
 Kne vet's Giant 119 
 
 Manures 122 
 
 Native Red Species 118 
 
 Propagation 122 
 
 Red Antwerp of England 118 
 
 Soil and Culture 122 
 
 Turner 121 
 
 Strawberries : 
 
 Bad Planting 116 
 
 Black Defiance 115 
 
 Strawberries : 
 
 Charles Downing 114 
 
 Crescent Seedling 115 
 
 Description 113 
 
 Different Methods of Cultivation. . . 117 
 
 Duchess 115 
 
 Fragaria Chilensis 113 
 
 Fragaria Virginiana 113 
 
 Freshening up Roots ir6 
 
 Hill System 117 
 
 Hovey's SeedUng 113 
 
 Jucunda 115 
 
 Manures 118 
 
 Matted Bed System 117 
 
 Monarch of the West 114 
 
 Mulching 117 
 
 Narrow Row System 117 
 
 Neuman's Prolific 116 
 
 Original Ancestor 113 
 
 Origin of the Name 118 
 
 Planting and Setting 116 
 
 President Wilder 115 
 
 Runners 117 
 
 Seth Boyden 115 
 
 Sharpless 115 
 
 Shortening Roots ii6 
 
 Spring Cultivation ' 118 
 
 State of the Ground 116 
 
 Triomphe de Gand 115 
 
 Watering 1:7 
 
 Wilson's Albany 113 
 
 What is a Berry? — Perhaps the reader imagines 
 that he (or she — where zs that epicene pronoun ?) 
 knows what a berry is. Listen : *' This term is 
 employed in botany to designate a description 
 of fruit more or less fleshy and juicy, and not 
 opening when ripe. The inner layers of the 
 pericarp are of a fleshy or succulent texture, 
 sometimes even consisting of mere cells filled 
 with juice, whilst the outer layers are harder, and 
 sometimes even woody. The seeds are immersed 
 in the pulp. A berry may be one-celled, or it 
 may be divided into a number of cells or com- 
 partments, which, however, are united together 
 not merely in the axis, but from the axis to the 
 rind. It is a very common description of fruit, 
 and is found in many different natural families, 
 and both of exogenous and endogenous plants. 
 As examples may be mentioned the fruits of' the 
 gooseberry, currant, vine, barberry, bilberry, bel- 
 ladonna, arum, bryony, and asparagus, which, al- 
 though agreeing in their structure, possess widely 
 different properties. Some of them, which are 
 regarded as more strictly berries, have the calyx 
 adherent to the ovary, and the placentas — from 
 which the seeds derive their nourishment — pa- 
 rietal, that is, connected with the rind, as the 
 gooseberry and currant ; others, as the grape, 
 have the ovary free, and the placentas in the 
 center of the fruit. The orange, and other fruits 
 of the same family, having a thick rind dotted 
 
 with numerous oil-glands, and quite distinct 
 from the pulp of the fruit, receive the name /les- 
 peridiiim ; the fruit of the pomegranate, which is 
 very peculiar in the manner of its division into 
 cells, is also sometimes distinguished from berries 
 of the ordinary structure by the name balausia. 
 Fruits like that of the water-lily, which at first 
 contain a juicy pulp, and afterwards, when ripe, 
 are filled with a dry pith, are sometimes desig- 
 nated b€7'7-y-caps7des. The gourds, also, which 
 have at first three to five compartments, but 
 when ripe generally consist of onlyone compart- 
 ment, are distinctively designated by the term 
 pepo, pcponiimi, or pcpoiiida, to which, however, 
 gourd may be considered equivalent." 
 
 Popular Signification of the Word. — The term berry 
 is usually applied to several small fruits which 
 are not berries in the scientific sense, as the 
 Strawberry, which bears seeds (acJicnia) on the 
 external surface of an enlarged and pulpy recep- 
 tacle. So under the head of Berries in this book 
 the Strawberry is put; while, per contra, under 
 another head are placed Grapes, which although 
 scientifically berries, will be found under Fruit. 
 Neither grapes nor oranges partake of the ephe- 
 meral and quickly perishable nature characteriz- 
 ing what are in common parlance known as ber- 
 ries. 
 
 The cultivation of berries and small fruits has 
 largely increased within the last fewyears. and in 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 113 
 
 most cases where it has been carried on judi- 
 ciously in the vicinity of large markets, or at 
 remoter points under favorable freighting ar- 
 rangements, the results have generally proved 
 successful in variety, quality and quantity. 
 There has been a steadily increasing demand for 
 this product, and farmers and fruit-growers who 
 send articles of good quality, and in good condi- 
 tion to market, are sure to be well remunerated. 
 
 STRAWBERRIES. 
 
 What the Strawberry is. — The first place in any 
 list of " berries" undoubtedly belongs to this old 
 friend. Not a berry proper, it is Fragaria ; a 
 genus of plants of the natural oxAe.x RosacecB, sub- 
 order Rosea, tribe Potentillida, remarkable for 
 
 Fragaria Virgiiiiana, which grows wild east of 
 the Rocky Mountains, is the ancestor of the end- 
 less varieties of this berry, the raising of which 
 forms to-day so large an industry in many parts 
 of the United States. 
 
 Another species, called Fragaria Chilensis, grow- 
 ing wild along the Pacific coast both in North 
 and South America, seems to flourish better in 
 Europe than with us. The European gardeners 
 are seeking to perfect it, but most of the choice 
 varieties have not succeeded when imported 
 here. 
 
 The Virginian strawberry is most remarkable 
 in its capacity for improvement, as all the present 
 varieties attest. 
 
 Hovey's Seedling. — This great improvement on 
 
 rrFjDRTiF] LJirainiFjnii^ 
 
 the manner in which the receptacle increases and 
 becomes succulent, so as to form what is popu- 
 larly called the fruit; the proper fruit (botanical- 
 ly) being the small achenia which it bears upon 
 its surface. The genus differs from Potcntilla 
 chiefly in having the receptacle succulent. The 
 . calyx is lo-cleft, the segments alternately small- 
 er; the petals are five; the style springs from 
 near the base of the carpel. All the species are 
 perennial herbaceous plants, throwing out run- 
 ners to form new plants ; and the leaves are 
 generally on long stalks, with three leaflets, deeply 
 toothed. One South American species has sim- 
 ple leaves. In no genus are the species more 
 uncertain to which the cultivated kinds are to 
 be referred. 
 
 7he Original Ancestor. — The common strawberry, 
 8 
 
 the original wild strawberry was introduced in 
 1834 by C. M. Hovey, of Cambridge, Mass., was 
 the first precursor of a long line, and is still a 
 very fine variety. The vines are vigorous and 
 hardy, producing moderately large crops, and 
 the fruit is of the largest size and finely flavored. 
 It is well known all over the country. The leaves 
 are large, rather light green, and the fruit-stalk 
 long and erect. Fruit very large, roundish oval 
 or slightly conical, deep shining scarlet. Seeds 
 slightly imbedded. Flesh firm, with a rich, agree- 
 able flavor. It ripens about the medium season, 
 or slightly later. 
 
 Wilson's Albany. — About 1854, John Wilson, of 
 Albany, N. Y., introduced this variety, which 
 has since been more generally cultivated than 
 any other. The vine is very hardy and vigorous. 
 
114 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 very productive, beginning to ripen its fruit early, 
 and continuing to tlie latest. Fruit large, broadly 
 conic, pointed. Color deep crimson. Flesh crim- 
 son, tender, with a brisk acid flavor. In fact, it 
 is too acid. Mr. Bryant, in the Evening Post, in 
 1876, gave his opinion : " Wilson's Albany is a 
 sour, crude berry which is not fully ripe when it 
 is red, and when perfectly ripe is too acid. When 
 it first makes its appearance in the market it has 
 
 be banished from the market." If people do not 
 demand a better variety, the cultivator will con- 
 tinue to send to market a berrv which carries 
 well, ripens early, and is most prolific. 
 
 Charles Downing. — Another variety which grows 
 well in all pans of the country, introduced by J. 
 S. Downer, Fairview, Ky. Plant very vigorous 
 and very productive. Fruit very large, nearly 
 regular, conical, deep scarlet. Seeds brown and 
 
 
 SeTH BoVDEN SXRAWllbKRV. 
 
 a harsh flavor, and but rittle of the agreeable 
 aroma which distinguishes the finer kinds of 
 the berry. But the Wilson is a hardy berry ; 
 bears transportation well ; is exceedingly prolific; 
 qualities which give it great favor with the cul- 
 tivator, but for which the consumer suffers. 
 We hope that the Wilsons, as soon as their 
 place can be supplied with a better berry, will 
 
 yellow, rather deep. Flesh quite firm, pink, juicy, 
 sweet and rich. 
 
 Monarch of the West. — This is a very highly 
 prized strawberry, raised by Jesse Brady, of 
 Piano, 111. Plant vigorous, with large, pale 
 green leaves, moderately productive ; a good va- 
 riety for home use and a near market ; requires 
 high cultivation and rich soil to produce large 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 115 
 
 fruit abundantly and of good quality: should be 
 grown in hills or narrow rows. Fruit large, 
 sometimes very large, roundish conical, nearly 
 regular ; a few of the early berries are coxcomb- 
 shape, and a little irregular ; light scarlet; flesh 
 light red, rather soft, juicy, sprightly subacid, 
 rich : quality very good. 
 
 Set/t Boyden. — (Newark, N. J.) Mr. H. Jerola- 
 man, of Hilton, N. J., writes in 1877 ; "My yield 
 from one acre, planted chiefly with the Seth Boy- 
 den. was 327 bushels 15! quarts, which were sold 
 for $1,386.21. A strict account was kept. Since 
 that time, I have been experimenting with Mr. 
 Durand's large berries, and have not done so 
 well. In 1878, I obtained $1181 from one acre, 
 one half planted with the Seth Boyden and the 
 other with the Great American. The year of 
 1879 was my poorest. Nearly all my plants were 
 Great American and Beauty, and the yield was 
 121 bushels, selling for $728. The average cost 
 per acre, for growing, picking, marketing and 
 manure, is $350. I am not satisfied but that I 
 shall have to return to the old Seth Boyden in 
 order to keep taking the first State premiums, as 
 I have done for the past three years." 
 
 Sharpless. — This large, showy strawberry ori- 
 ginated with J. H. Sharpless, of Catawissa, Pa.; 
 very vigorous, with large dark green, coarsely 
 serrated and deeply veined leaves ; very pro- 
 ductive, and is best adapted to the hill system, 
 making large stools ; it also succeeds in narrow 
 rows. Fruit large to very large, variable in form, 
 from irregular coxcomb-shape to roundish coni- 
 cal and oval ; bright scarlet, somewhat glossy ; 
 flesh light red, quite firm, moderately juicy, sweet, 
 rich and of very good flavor ; medium to late in 
 ripening. Very promising, either for market or 
 family purposes. 
 
 Duchess. — This excellent early strawberry ori- 
 ginated in the garden of D. H. Barnes, Pough- 
 keepsie, N. Y. Very vigorous, foliage of medium 
 size, dark green and healthy. Very productive; 
 when grown in hills or narrow rows it stools and 
 makes large plants, thus saving the labor of re- 
 planting. Fruit medium to large, roundish, 
 obtuse -conical, regular in form, bright scarlet 
 or crimson; flesh light red. quite firm, juicy, 
 sprightly subacid, and of fine quality; one of the 
 earliest to ripen, and continues a long time for 
 an early variety ; retains its size quite well to the 
 last; is valuable for early market, and also for 
 general use in the family. Dr. Thurber, of 
 the American Agriculturist, unhesitatingly pro- 
 nounced this the best of fifty varieties in one of 
 Mr. Roe's specimen-beds. 
 
 Black Defiance. — One of the seedlings of E. W. 
 Durand, Irvington, N. J. Plant vigorous, with 
 dark green foliage, productive in heavy soils ; 
 requiring high culture in hills or narrow rows, 
 
 and removal of runners to obtain the fruit in 
 quantity and perfection. Fruit large, roundish, 
 obtuse -conical, regular; color dark crimson; 
 flesh dark red, firm, juicy, sprightly and rich ; 
 rather early, fine for the amateur, and seems a 
 good variety for shipment to an early market. 
 
 Triomphe de Gand. — A Belgian variety, which 
 appears to stand our climate, and produce more 
 crops in more localities than r.ny other foreign 
 sort. The vines are vigorous, hardy, moderately 
 productive,' and well suited to strong, clayey 
 soils, requiring high cultivation, and to be grown 
 in hills. Fruit large, roundish obtuse, sometimes 
 coxcomb-shape, bright rich red near the calyx, 
 almost greenish white at point, glossy as if var- 
 nished ; seeds light yellow-brown, near surface; 
 flesh firm, white, a little hollow at core, juicy, 
 with a peculiar rich and agreeable flavor. 
 
 President Wilder. — Raised in i860 by Hon. M. 
 P. Wilder, of Dorchester, Mass., from seed of 
 Hovey's Seedling, impregnated with La Con- 
 stante. Plant healthy, hardy, vigorous and very 
 productive. Fruit-stalk short, stout, erect. 
 Stands the heat of summer and cold of winter 
 uninjured. Fruit large to very large, roundish, 
 obtuse - conical, very regular, bright crimson- 
 scarlet. Seeds mostly yellow, near the surface. 
 Flesh very white, quite firm, juicv, sweet and 
 rich. Roe calls this " President Wilder's superb 
 seedling." 
 
 Crescent Seedling. — Originated with William 
 Parmelee, New Haven, Conn. Hardy, strong, 
 a vigorous grower and very productive. Leaves 
 of medium size, dark green ; requires much 
 room to give good results ; ripens early and con- 
 tinues late, holding its size tolerably well, and 
 although not of high flavor, its fair size, good 
 color and moderately firm flesh have given it a 
 near-market value. Fruit medium to large, 
 roundish conical, the first berries a little irreg- 
 ular or uneven, bright scarlet ; seeds yellow and 
 brown, near thesurfaces. Requires less time and 
 attention than most varieties, and is well calcu- 
 lated for those who cannot and will not give the 
 necessary labor to produce the better kinds. 
 Roe says it renders the laziest man in the land, 
 who has no strawberries, without excuse. One 
 of his beds yielded at the rate of 346 bushels to 
 the acre. 
 
 Jucunda. — A foreign variety, that, like some 
 others of its class, does extremely well in a few 
 localities under high cultivation. Plant moder- 
 ately vigorous. Fruit large to very large, obtuse- 
 conical or coxcomb-flattened, bright light scar- 
 let. Seeds mostly yellow. Flesh light pink, 
 moderately firm, sweets not high flavor, often 
 hollow. So says Downing. Roe says; " The 
 Jucunda is one of the most superb berries in ex- 
 istence, and can be grown with great profit in 
 
116 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 many localities. . . . During the past summer, 
 I had upon my wettest and stiffest land two 
 beds of Jucunda strawberries that yielded at the 
 rate of 190 bushels to the acre. The Jucunda 
 strawberry is especially adapted to heavy land 
 requiring drainage, and I think an enterprising 
 man in the vicinity of New York might so unite 
 them as to make a fortune." 
 
 Neu man's Prolific, or the Char lesion Berry, is the 
 great staple in the South, and the chief variety 
 for shipping. " It is an aromatic berry, and 
 very attractive as it appears in our markets in 
 March and April, but is even harder and sourer 
 than any unripe Wilson. When fully matured 
 on the vine, it is grateful to those who like an 
 acid berry. Scarcely any other kind is planted 
 around Charleston and Savannah." — Rol\ 
 
 Planting and Setting. — Good plants deserve and 
 will repay careful setting and care. There is 
 some very favorable weather in early spring, in 
 
 roots. By a third movement, he fills the exca- 
 vation and settles the plant into its final posi- 
 tion. One workman will often plant twice as 
 many as another, and not work any harder. 
 Negro women at Norfolk, Va., paid at fifty cents 
 per day, will often set two or three thousand. 
 Many Northern laborers, vi^ho ask more than 
 twice that sum, \\\\\ not set half as many plants. 
 I have been told of one man who could set 1000 
 per hour. I should examine his work carefully, 
 however, in the fear that it was not well done." 
 
 Bad Planting.— On the opposite page are three 
 illustrations of " how not to do it." In the first, 
 the plant is smothered and stifled by being set 
 too deep in the earth. In the second and third, 
 the roots are not given the chance for life they 
 need. All these might have been set out pro- 
 perly in no more time than was taken to set 
 them out improperlv. 
 
 State of the Ground. — This should be made as 
 
 
 
 'S2=^^'=«a^.* 
 
 Jucunda Strawberry. 
 
 which a plant is almost certain to grow even if 
 carelessly set out, but even then it does better 
 if properly treated. It is almost as easy to set 
 out a plant correctly as incorrectly. Excavate 
 a place large enough and deep enough to take 
 in the roots, expanded fan-like, their whole 
 length and circumference. Take the plant in 
 one hand, and with the other half fill the hole 
 with rich fine earth, and press it firmly against 
 the roots ; then fill it evenly, and with both 
 hands press your weight on the soil all around 
 the plant, till the point from which the leaves 
 start is even with the ground. The plant- must 
 be in the ground too firm to be lifted by the 
 leaves. Roe says : " If a man uses brain and eye, 
 he can learn to work very rapidly. By one dex- 
 terous movement, he scoops the excavation with 
 a trowel. By a second movement, he makes 
 the earth firm against the lower half of the 
 
 nearly level as possible, and equally removed 
 from a dry lumpy condition, and from one 
 where the water will not readily drain off. Plant 
 in moist, freshly stirred earth, and never when 
 the ground is wet and sticky, unless at the be- 
 ginning of what threatens to be a long storm. 
 
 Shortening Roots. — In the spring, roots should 
 be shortened one third, which excites a rapid 
 growth of new rootlets, and consequently of the 
 plants. But later in the season, the plants not 
 having such an abundance of roots, it is best not 
 to cut them. 
 
 Freshening up Roots. — Sometimes, in a long jour- 
 ney, roots get black and sour, and perhaps 
 moldy. In such case, wash them in clean tepid 
 water, trim carefully, removing the darkened, 
 withered ends, set out the plant, treat it with a 
 little bone-meal, and water it. In warm weather 
 keep the ground moist till rain comes. 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 117 
 
 Watering. — The ground should be kept moist 
 continually, day and night. Give the plant 
 what it needs till it is able to take care of itself. 
 Shade it if necessary. The conditions of its 
 healthy life are coolness, shade and moisture. 
 
 Different Methods of Cultivation. — One well-known 
 plan is the MatUd-bcd system. The ground be- 
 tween the rows is cultivated and kept clean 
 during spring and early summer. But the fast- 
 increasing runners prevent thorough cultivation, 
 and by winter the entire ground is covered with 
 plants, and in that condition mulched. In the 
 spring, the coarsest of the covering is raked 
 off. and a path made between the rows, to be 
 afterwards used by the pickers. Under this sys- 
 tem the first crop is usually the best, but the 
 land often becomes so foul that it does not pay 
 to keep up the beds the second year. Often two 
 crops are taken, and then some other crop 
 alternated before going back to strawberries. 
 This system sometimes produces fair results, but 
 
 to keep the soil mellow and open, and so moist, 
 and the plants make great bushy crowns, cover- 
 ing the whole space. In the South, this seems 
 the best system. There the plants are set in the 
 summer and autumn, and the crop is taken from 
 them the ne,xt spring. The plants are there set 
 only one foot apart in the rows, and the runners 
 can be kept down, and each separate plant stimu- 
 lated to do its best. 
 
 The third plan of cultivation is the Narrou'-roiv 
 system, in which the plants are set one foot from 
 each other in line, and in rows two and a half or 
 three feet apart, and are not allowed to make 
 runners. In a good soil they will touch each 
 other, and make a continuous row, after a year's 
 growth. Between the rows the cultivator can 
 be carefully run, and the plants from the rows 
 kept clear of weeds by hand and a small fork. 
 The grouad is thus occupied to the utmost 
 profitable extent, the berries have access to air 
 and light, and the beds can be readily mulched. 
 
 '* How NOT TO DO IT.' 
 
 is untrustworthy and slovenly. Under it the 
 farmer has berries a few days where he should 
 have a few weeks, and his entire crop ripens at 
 once, perhaps in an overstocked market. It is 
 no method for a garden, as the hoe and fork 
 cannot be used among plants sodded together. 
 There are some modifications of the system, but 
 they all seem unsatisfactory and slovenly. 
 
 Another plan of cultivation is the ///'// sysleui. 
 In this the plants are .set out say three feet 
 apart, and treated like hills of corn, except that 
 the ground should be level. They are often so 
 arranged that the cultivator can pass between 
 them each way. But there are grave objections 
 to this method. A great deal of ground is wasted, 
 and the white grub has a chance to do his de- 
 structive work. The labor of mulching, where 
 so much of the ground is unoccupied, is great. 
 In small garden-plots this system often works 
 well. There is opportunity to eradicate weeds. 
 
 If necessary, the ground can be easily irrigated, 
 and the white grub extirpated. 
 
 Runners. — Each plant strives to propagate itself; 
 but if allowed to do so, and in the degree to 
 which it is allowed, it lessens its own vitality 
 and power to produce berries the following 
 season. Remove the runners, and the life of the 
 plant is concentrated on foliage and fruit. Such 
 a plant has abounding life, works evenly and 
 steadily, and perfects its last berry. Rows under 
 this system have been in bearing seven weeks. 
 Unless plants are very strong, and set out very 
 early, fruiting the same year is always dangerous 
 and often fatal. If berries are wanted in a year, 
 the plants should be set out in summer or 
 autumn. 
 
 Mulching. — As freezing weather comes on, {)lants 
 should be protected with leaves or straw, or 
 light strawy horse-manure, sufficiently fer- 
 mented to kill the grass-seeds. The plants must 
 
lis 
 
 TUIC I'KIEMJ f>F ALL. 
 
 not be smothered, and yet must be protected. 
 Watch them during the winter, re-cover where 
 washed away, and drain off all puddles. As the 
 weather softens in early spring begin to push 
 back the covering, and let in air. 
 
 Spring Cultivation. — Edward P. Roe, in his inter- 
 esting and instructive Suiress ■with Small Fruits, 
 recommends "spring cultivation, if done pro- 
 perly and sufficiently early. Even where the soil 
 has been left mellow by fall cultivation, the beat- 
 ing rains and the weight of melting snows pack 
 the earth. All loamy land settles and tends to 
 grow hard after the frost leaves it. While the 
 mulch checks this tendency, it cannot wholly 
 prevent it. As a matter of fact, the spaces 
 between the rows are seldom thoroughly loosened 
 late in the fall. The mulch too often is scat- 
 tered over a comparatively hard surface, which 
 by the following June has become so solid as to 
 suffer disastrously from drought in a blossom- 
 ing and bearing season. I have seen well- 
 mulched fields with their plants faltering and 
 wilting, unable to mature the crop because the 
 ground had become so hard that an ordinary 
 shower could make but little impression. More- 
 over, even if kept moist by the mulch, land long 
 shielded from sun and air tends to become sour, 
 heavy, and devoid of that life which gives 
 vitality and vigor to the plant. The winter 
 mulch need not be laboriously raked from the 
 garden-bed field, and then carted back again. 
 Begin on one side of a plantation and rake 
 toward the other, until three or four rows and 
 the spaces between them are bare ; then fork the 
 spaces or run the cultivator — often the subsoil 
 plow — deeply through them, and then immedi- 
 ately, before the moist, newly made surface 
 dries, rake the winter mulch back into its place 
 as a summer mulch. Then take another strip 
 and treat it in like manner, until the generous 
 impulse of spring air and sunshine has been 
 given to the soil of the entire plantation." 
 
 Manures. — The same author writes : " Never 
 seek to stimulate with plaster or lime, directly. 
 Other plants' meat is the strawberry's poison in 
 respect to the immediate action of these two 
 agents. Horse-manure composted with muck, 
 vegetable mold, wood-ashes, bone-meal, and, best 
 of all, the product of the cow-stable, if thoroughly 
 decayed and incorporated with the soil, will 
 probably give the largest strawberries that can be 
 grown, if steady moisture, but not wetness, is 
 maintained." 
 
 Origin of f/ie /Vame.— Mr. Roe again : " If there 
 were as much doubt about a crop of this fruit 
 as co'ncerning the origin of its name, the out- 
 look would be dismal indeed. In old Saxon, the 
 word was streawberige, or streowberrie ; and was 
 so named, says one authority, 'from the straw- 
 
 like stems of the plant, or from the berries lying 
 strewn upon the ground.' Another authority 
 tells us : 'It is an old English practice' (let us 
 hope a modern one also) ' to lay straw between 
 the rows to preserve the fruit from rotting on 
 the wet ground, from which the name has been 
 supposed to be derived ; although more probably 
 it is from the wandering habit of the plant, straw 
 being a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon sira, 
 from which we have the English verb stray." 
 Again, tradition asserts that in the olden times 
 children strung the berries on straws for sale, 
 and hence the name. Several other causes have 
 been suggested, but I forbear. I have never 
 known, however, a person to decline the fruit on 
 the ground of this obscurity and doubt." John- 
 son's Cyclopedia less poetically reads, "and re- 
 quire in winter a covering of straw, whence the 
 name." 
 
 RASPBERRIES. 
 
 What the Raspberry is. — Riibus Idcrus, the most 
 valued of all the species Ritbus. It has pinnate 
 leaves, with five or three leaflets, which are white 
 and very downy beneath ; stems nearly erect, 
 downy, and covered with very numerous small 
 weak prickles ; drooping flowers, and erect whit- 
 ish petals as long as the calyx. The wild rasp- 
 berry has scarlet fruit. It is a low deciduous 
 shrub, originating from the Mount Ida bramble, 
 which appears to have reached the gardens of 
 Southern Europe from Mount Ida. " It has a 
 perennial root, producing biennial woody stems 
 that reach a height of from three to six feet. 
 The stems do not usually bear until the second 
 year, a"d only that year, and are replaced by 
 new growth from the root. The flowers are 
 whitBor red, very unobtrusive, and rich in sweet- 
 ness. Bees forsake all other flowers while rasp- 
 berry blossoms last. 
 
 Native Red Species. — Prof. Gray thus describes 
 this species: " R. Strigosus, Wild Red R. Com- 
 mon, especially North ; from two to three feet 
 high; the upright stems, stalks, etc., beset with 
 copious bristles, and some of them becoming 
 weak prickles, also glandular; leaflets oblong- 
 ovate, pointed, cut-serrate, white downy be- 
 neath, the lateral ones (either one or two pairs) , 
 not stalked ; petals as long as the sepals ; fruit 
 light rqd, tender and watery, but high-flavored, 
 ripening all summer." 
 
 Red Antwerp of England. — This is the best known 
 of the imported varieties. Canes strong and tall. 
 Spines light red, rather numerous and pretty 
 strong. Fruit large, nearly globular or obtuse- 
 conical. Color dark red, with large grains, and 
 covered with a thick bloom. Flesh juicy, with 
 a brisk vinous flavor. Few old-fashioned gar- 
 dens were without this berry, but it is giving 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 119 
 
 way to newer and more popular varieties. The 
 fruit is too soft for market, but makes a dainty 
 dish for home use for those who still cultivate it. 
 The Hudson River Antwerp is the most cultivated 
 foreign berry in America, quite distinct from the 
 above, though belonging to the same family. Its 
 firmness of flesh, and parting readily from the 
 germ, together with its productiveness, render it 
 the most popular variety for market. Canes 
 short, but of sturdy growth, almost spineless, of 
 a very peculiar gray or mouse-color. Fruit 
 large, conical. Flesh firm, rather dull red, with 
 a slight bloom, not very juicy, but of a pleasant, 
 sweet flavor. Said to have been brought to this 
 country by the late Mr. Briggs, of Poughkeepsie, 
 
 The Fastol/f is an English variety of high repu- 
 tation. It derives its name from having origina- 
 ted near the ruins of an old castle, so called, in 
 Great Yarmouth. Canes strong, rather erect, 
 branching, light yellowish brown, with few pretty 
 strong bristles. Fruit very large, obtuse or round- 
 ish conical, bright purplish red, rich and high- 
 flavored, slightly adhering to the germ in pick- 
 ing. 
 
 Knevet's Giant. — This is one of the strongest 
 growing varieties, very productive, and of excel- 
 lent flavor. Canes strong, erect. Spines small, 
 reddish, very few. Fruit of the largest size, ob- 
 tuse-conical, deep red, firm in texture, and hangs 
 a little to the germ in picking. Berries some- 
 
 N. Y., to whom it was given by a friend, since he 
 was leaving the country and could not interfere 
 with its sale in Europe. The owner had refused 
 three guineas for a single plant. But the variety 
 for some hidden reason has not flourished except 
 in a small area on the Hudson River, in Milton 
 and a little north and south of it. And now a 
 disease called the" curl-leaf "threatens its extinc- 
 tion even there. In its prime the line of wagons 
 at Marlboro landing was often nearly a mile long, 
 and it is estimated that in a single season 
 1,000,000 pint baskets, about 14,700 bushels, were 
 shipped from that landing. But now, Ichabod ! 
 its glory has departed. 
 
 times double, giving them a coxcomb appear- 
 ance. 
 
 The Franconia is now the best foreign variety 
 we have. It was introduced from Paris, more 
 than thirty years ago. Its crops are abundant, 
 the fruit is firm, and bears carriage to market 
 well, and ripens about a week later than Red 
 Antwerp. It is one of the finest for preserving. 
 Canes strong, spreading, branching, yellowish 
 brown, with scattered, rather stout purple spines. 
 Leaves rather large, very deep green. Fruit 
 large, obtuse-conical, dark purplish red, of a rich 
 acid flavor, much more tart and brisk than that 
 of the Red Antwerp. Its long continuance in 
 
120 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 ^JjM d ;p^7]^aJ. 
 
T'''^T''RTFf=!. 
 
 121 
 
 bearing is one of its best qualities, as it lasts six 
 weelcs. It is hardy, and well adapted to high 
 latitudes. 
 
 Belle de Fontenay. — This variety produces its 
 fruit mainly in the autumn. Suckers freely, and 
 requires to be carefully thinned out. The canes 
 should all be cut down in the spring in order to 
 obtain good crops. Canes strong, stout, branch- 
 ing. Spines purplish, short and stiff, quite nu- 
 merous. Fruit large, long, conical. Grains 
 large, dark crimson, thin bloom. Flesh moder- 
 atel)' firm, juicy, sprightly; adheres slightly to 
 the core. It is said to be entirely hardy, and 
 to survive the winter without protection a hun- 
 
 fruit is often very large, abundant and attractive, 
 bringing the highest prices." 
 
 But the R. Strigosus, our native species, is 
 scattered almost everywhere throughout the 
 North, growing wild by hedges and walls, in 
 forest-glades and in the open fields. Especially 
 where land has been cleared up and left does this 
 berry spring up and cover acres and miles. Oc- 
 casionally a bush is found whose fine fruit causes 
 its transfer to a garden, and a new variety is thus 
 introduced. 
 
 The Turner. — This is a hardy variety origina- 
 ting in the garden of Prof. J. B. Turner, Jack- 
 sonville, Fla. ; it appears to succeed in more lo- 
 
 Bbandywihe. 
 
 CUTHBERT. 
 
 dred miles north of New York. Roe says : " Its 
 most marked characteristic is a second crop in 
 autumn, produced on the tips of the new canes. 
 If the canes of the previous year are cut even with 
 the ground early in spring, the new growth gives 
 a very abundant autumn crop of berries, which, 
 although much inclined to crumble in picking, 
 have still the rare flavor of a delicious fruit long 
 out of season. It certainly is the best of the fall- 
 bearing kinds, and deserves a place in every gar- 
 den. There are more profitable market varieties, 
 however ; but if the suckers are vigorously de- 
 stroyed, and the tearing canes cut well back, the 
 
 calities than any of the red varieties, and is less 
 subject to changes in temperature; the canes, 
 foliage and fruit possess many characteristics of 
 the native red berry, and it suckers quite as 
 freely ; canes vigorous, light reddish on the 
 sunny side ; upright, seldom with branches ; very 
 few short, purplish spines ; foliage quite large 
 and abundant; very productive. Fruit medium 
 or above, roundish conical, bright scarlet; grains 
 of medium size, compact ; flesh rather soft, sweet, 
 pleasant, but not rich. A good berry for home 
 use, but not quite firm enough for a distant mar- 
 ket. Roe regards it as the hardiest raspberry in 
 
122 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 cultivation, and says tliat a winter must be se- 
 vere indeed that injures it. 
 
 The Brandywine. — Tills berry has been widely 
 popular, its origin being unknown. It became 
 the principal raspberry grown along the Brandy- 
 wine Creek, and to'ok among the marketmen the 
 name of its chief haunt, which it still bears. 
 Its bright color, good size and its firmness and 
 great carrying qualities lead to its ready sale, but 
 its dry texture and insipid flavor are against it, 
 and it is giving place to 
 
 The Cuthberf. — This is a chance seedling, ori- 
 ginating in the garden of the late Thomas Cuth- 
 bert, of Riverdale, N. Y. Quite hardy ; a valua- 
 ble market variety, and one of the best for family 
 use ; very productive ; canes strong, vigorous, up- 
 right, sometimes branching; spines short, stout, 
 purplish, rather numerous; suckers freely, rather 
 too much so. Fruit medium to large, .scarlet- 
 crimson, roundish, obtuse-conical; grains rather 
 small, compact, separate freely from the stalk ; 
 flesh quite firm, juicy, sweet, sprightly, having a 
 slight flavor of the common Red, which is pro- 
 bably one of its parents. 
 
 Black-Caps. — This family is now numerous, of 
 large size and good quality. Prominent are the 
 Gregg, the Mammoth Cluster, Siveet Home, Sur- 
 prise, Elsie, Davidsons Thornless, Doolittle, etc. 
 The Gregg was found in 1866 growing wild in a 
 ravine on the Gregg farm, Ohio Co., la. Its 
 owners claim that it survives the coldest winters, 
 and has never failed to produce an abundant 
 crop. It is a vigorous, rapid grower, producing 
 strong, well-matured canes by fall. The fruit i,s 
 beautiful in appearance, and delicious, possessing 
 excellent shipping and keeping qualities. 
 
 Soil and Culture. — The soil should be a rich deep 
 loam, rather moist than dry. Plant the suckers 
 or canes in rows from three to four feet apart, 
 according to the vigor of the sort. Two or three 
 suckers are generally planted together to form a 
 group or stool, and these stools may be three feet 
 apart in the rows, or they may be set one plant 
 in a place, a foot or 18 inches apart in the 
 row. The plantation being made should re- 
 ceive a pruning every year.early in the spring. 
 Examine the stools in April, and, leaving three 
 or five of the strongest shoots or suckers to each 
 stool, cut away the old wood and the other 
 suckers. Cut off about a foot of the ends of 
 the remaining shoots. After the fruit Is gathered 
 cut out the old canes which have fruited, and 
 give the new a better chance to ripen. Top-dress 
 lightly with manure, and keep down, or better 
 still keep out, the weeds. 
 
 Propagation. — The raspberry is usually propa- 
 gated by suckers, springing up from the main 
 roots. It may be grown also from pieces of 
 roots, an inch or two long, planted in a light 
 
 sandy soil in early spring, covering an inch deep, 
 and adding a slight coat of light mulch. 
 
 Manures. — The stronger -growing raspberries, 
 like the Cuthbert and the Turner, must not be 
 over-fertilized. But generally they thrive on 
 such manuring as is adapted for strawberries. 
 Muck, sweetened by lime and frost, is capital, 
 but any manure can be well used that is not too 
 full of heat and ferment. The raspberry needs 
 cool manures with staying qualities. Bone-dust, 
 ashes, poudrette and barnyard manure can be 
 alternated with the muck and lime, and a planta- 
 tion thus treated kept in bearing nearly or quite 
 20 years. 
 
 BLACKBERRIES. 
 
 What they are. — Professor Gray thus describes 
 the two leading species of tliis bramble : 
 
 " Riibus J'illosus, High Blackberry. Every- 
 where along thickets, fence-rows, etc., and seve- 
 ral varieties cultivated ; stems one to six feet 
 high, furrowed ; prickles strong and hooked ; 
 leaflets three to five, ovate or lance -ovate, 
 pointed, their lower surface and stalks hairy 
 and glandular, the middle one long-stalked and 
 sometimes heart-shaped ; flowers racemed, rather 
 large, with short bracts; fruit oblong or cylin- 
 drical. 
 
 " R. Canadensis, Low Blackberry or Dewberry. 
 Rocky and sandy soil ; long-trailing, slightly 
 prickly, smooth or smoothish, and with three 
 to seven smaller leaflets than in the foregoing, 
 the racemes of flowers with more leaf-like bracts, 
 the fruit of fewer grains and ripening earlier." 
 
 ^Downing says: The fruit is larger than that 
 of the Raspberr}', with fewei" and larger grains, 
 and a brisker flavor. It ripens about the last of 
 July or early in August, after the former is past, 
 and is much used by all classes in this country. 
 There is no doubt that varieties of much larger 
 size, and greatly superior flavor, nlight be pro- 
 duced by sowing tlie seeds in rich garden soil, 
 especially if repeated for two or three successive 
 generations. Their cultivation in gardens is 
 similar to that of the raspberry, except that 
 they require to be planted at greater distances 
 apart, say from six to eight feet. 
 
 The Lawton or New Rochelle. — The first great step . 
 away from the original bramble, the wild black- 
 berry, was taken years ago by Mr. L. A. Secor, 
 who civilized a bush he found growing by the 
 roadside in New Rochelle, N. Y. This variety 
 took kindly to the garden, and has done more 
 to introduce the fruit than all other kinds to- 
 gether. It is of very vigorous growth, with strong 
 spines, is hardy and exceedingly productive. 
 Fruit very large, oval, and, when fully ripe, in- 
 tensely black. When ripe the fruit is very juicy, 
 rather soft and tender, with a sweet, excellent 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 123 
 
 flavor ; when gathered too early, it is acid and 
 insipid. The granules are larger, consequently 
 the fruit is less seedy than any other variety. 
 Ripens about the first of August, and continues 
 five or six weeks. " Ik Marvel " talks of it : 
 " The New Rochelle or Lawton blackberry has 
 been despitefuUy spoken of by many ; first, be- 
 cause the market fruit is generally bad, being 
 plucked before it is fully ripened ; and next, be- 
 cause in rich, clayey grounds, the briers, unless 
 severely cut back, grow into a tangled, unap- 
 proachable forest, with all the juices exhausted 
 in wood. But upon a soil moderately rich, a 
 little gravelly and warm, protected from winds, 
 served with occasional top-dressing and good 
 hoeing, the Lawton bears magnificent burdens. 
 
 The Kitiatinny. — Despite Mr. Mitchell's elo- 
 quence the Lawton is giving way to new and 
 better-liked varieties, prominent among which 
 is the Kittatinny. This is a native wildling in- 
 troduced by Mr. Wolverton, who found it grow- 
 ing in a forest near the, Kittatinny Mountains, 
 Warren Co., N. J. It has become widely dis- 
 seminated, and everywhere proves of the highest 
 value. Canes quite hardy, and very productive; 
 ripening early, and continuing a long time. Fruit 
 large to very large, roundish, conical, rich glossy 
 black, moderately firm, juicy, rich, sweet, ex- 
 cellent. Roe says that Mr. Wolverton. in find- 
 ing it, has done more for the world than if he 
 had discovered a gold-mine. Both this and the 
 Lawton belong to the A'. Vzllosies species. 
 
 The KiTTATiNNv Blackberry. 
 
 Even then, if you wish to enjoy the richness of 
 the fruit, you must not be hasty to pluck it. 
 When the children say, with a shout. ' The black- 
 berries are ripe I ' I know they are black only, and 
 I can wait. When the children report, ' The 
 birds are eating the berries!' I know I can wait. 
 But when they say, ' The bees are on the ber- 
 ries I ' I know they are at their ripest. Then, 
 with baskets, we sally out ; I taking the middle 
 rank, and the children the outer spray of boughs. 
 Even now we gather those only which drop at 
 the touch; these, in a brimming saucer, with 
 golden Alderney cream and a soupfon of pow- 
 dered sugar, are Olympian nectar; they melt be- 
 fore the tongue can measure their full round- 
 ness, and seem to be mere bloated bubbles of 
 forest honey." 
 
 Wilson's Early. — This belongs to the other spe- 
 cies, the R. Canadensis. Introduced by John 
 Wilson, Burlington, N. J. A hardy, productive, 
 very early ripening sort. Fruit large, oblong 
 oval, black. Flesh firm, sweet, good. The fruit 
 is earlier than the Kittatinny, and tends to ripen 
 altogether in about ten days. Its flavor is infe- 
 rior to that of the Kittatinny or Snyder, and it 
 is too tender for the North and West. 
 
 The Snyder. — This belongs to R. I'lHosus, ori- 
 ginating near La Porte, la, about 1851, and is an 
 upright, exceedingly vigorous and stocky grower. 
 It is too small to compete with the already 
 described berries, yet Mr. Roe thinks " that on 
 moist land, with judicious pruning, it could be 
 made to approach them very nearly, however, 
 while its earliness, hardiness, fine flavor, and 
 
124 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Snyder Blackberry. 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 125 
 
 ability to grow and yield abundantly almost any- 
 where, will lead to an increasing popularity. 
 For home use, size is not so important as flavor 
 and the certainty of a crop. It is also more 
 nearly ripe when first black than any other kind 
 
 require a large spread. Bushes should not be 
 allowed to grow over four feet high, and when 
 there is danger of winter-killing three feet is 
 enough, that the snow may cover and protect 
 them. 
 
 Red Dutch Currant. 
 
 that I have seen ; its thorns are straight, and 
 therefore less vicious. I find that it is growing 
 steadily in favor; and where the Kittatinny is 
 winter-killed, this hardy new variety leaves little 
 cause for repining." 
 
 Soil and Culture. — The blackberry does best on 
 light soils and in sunny e.xposures. The moist, 
 heavy, partially shaded land which is best for 
 the raspberry will send the growth of the black- 
 berry into canes. The land should be warm 
 and well-drained, but not dry: as on hard dry 
 ground the fruit is liable not to mature, but 
 to become mere collections of seeds. Deep 
 plowing, and if possible following witli the 
 lifting-plow to loosen the subsoil, as the roots 
 
 CURRANTS. 
 
 Professor Gray thus describes 
 
 " Rzbes Rubritm, Red Currant, cultivated from 
 Europe, also wild on our Northern border, with 
 straggling or reclining stems, somewhat heart- 
 shaped, three-to five-lobed leaves, the lobes 
 roundish and drooping racemes from lateral buds 
 distinct from the leaf-buds; edible berries red, 
 or a white variety." The name is conjectured 
 to be a modification of Corinth, which once ex- 
 ported so exclusively the small Zante grape. 
 
 Origin of our Cultivated Varieties. — These all 
 sprang from the imported varieties mentioned 
 above, or have been developed from wild speci- 
 
126 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 mens found in the woods. Patience and perse- 
 verance working with nature, have done won- 
 ders. 
 
 Red Dutch. — This is an old, well-known sort, 
 thrifty, upright growth, very productive. Fruit 
 large, deep red, rich acid flavor, with clusters 
 two or three inches long. Of this Mr. Roe says : 
 " It is the currant of memory. From it was 
 made th^ wine which our mothers and grand- 
 mothers felt that they could ofTer with perfect 
 propriety to the minister. There are rural 
 
 much more productive than the larger varieties, 
 and can be made to approach them so nearly in 
 size. Indeed, not a few are annually sold for 
 Cherry-currants." 
 
 The White Dutch. — This is precisely similar to 
 the Red Dutch in habit, but the fruit is larger, 
 with rather shorter bunches, of a fine yellowish- 
 white color, with a very transparent skin. It is 
 considerably less acid than the red, and is there- 
 fore much preferred for the table. It is also a 
 few days earlier. Very productive. 
 
 CHERHV-CtTRRANT. 
 
 homes to-day in which the impression still lin- 
 gers that it is a kind of temperance drink. 
 From it is usually made the currant-jelly, with- 
 out which no lady would think of keeping house 
 in the country. In flavor the Red Dutch is un- 
 equaled by any other red currant. It is also a 
 variety that can scarcely be killed bv abuse and 
 Vdglect, and it responds so generously to high 
 culture and vigorous pruning, that it is an open 
 question whether it cannot be made, after all, 
 the most profitable for market, since it is so 
 
 White Grape.— An advance in size on the White 
 Dutch. Bunches moderately long. Berries very 
 large, whitish yellow, sweet and good. Very 
 productive. Branches more horizontal than 
 White Dutch, and less vigorous. 
 
 The Cherry-Currant. — This is the great market 
 currant. A strong-growing variety, with stout, 
 erect, short-jointed shoots. Leaves large, thick 
 and dark green. Not any more productive than 
 other currants, but a valuable one for market on 
 account of its size. Fruit of the very largest 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 127 
 
 size. Bunches short. Berries deep red, and 
 rather more acid than Red Dutch. The Cana- 
 diixtt Horticulturist, September 1878, reads : " The 
 history of this handsome currant is not witliout 
 interest. Mons. Adrienne Seneclause, a distin- 
 guished horticulturist in France, received it from 
 Italy among a lot of other currants. He noticed 
 the extraordinary size of the, fruit, and gave it, 
 in consequence, the name it yet bears. In the 
 year 1843, it was fruited in the nursery of the 
 Museum of Natural History, and figured from 
 these samples in the Aniiales de Flore ct dc Po- 
 vtonc for February, 184S. Dr. William W. Valk, 
 of Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., introduced it to 
 the notice of American fruit-growers in 1846, 
 having imported some of the plants in the spring 
 of that year." 
 
 The Versailles, La Versa illaise, so nearly resem- 
 bles the cherry-currant, that the opinion is quite 
 general that the two are nearly or quite identical. 
 Mr. Downing finds a difference in the fact that 
 while the Versailles strain produces many short 
 bunches like the Cherry, it also frequently bears 
 long tapering clusters such as are never formed 
 on the Cherry. Mr. Roe has not been able to 
 verify even this distinction. 
 
 The Victoria, often called A/ay's Victoria, is a 
 very excellent, rather late sort, with very long 
 bunches of bright red fruit, and is an acquisition 
 to this class. Berries as large as Red Dutch. 
 Bunches rather longer, of a brighter red, growth 
 more slow, spreading, and very productive. 
 Will hang on the bushes some two weeks longer 
 than most currants. 
 
 Black Currants form a distinct class, not nearly 
 as popular here as in England. They are stronger 
 and coarser growing plants than the red and 
 white species, and do not demand as high culture. 
 There are several varieties grown here, but on a 
 limited scale : the Ban^- Up, the Black Grape, the 
 Black Naples, the English Black, the Common 
 Black and Lee's frolific. 
 
 Choice and Preparation of Soil. — Mr. Roe says ; 
 " The secret of success in the culture of currants 
 is suggested by the fact that nature has planted 
 nearly every species ofthe Hides in cold, damp, 
 northern exposures. Throughout the woods 
 and bogs of the Northern Hemisphere is found 
 the scraggy, untamed, hardy stock from which 
 has been developed the superb White Grape. 
 Development does hot eradicate constitutional 
 traits and tendencies. Beneath all is the craving 
 for primeval conditions of life, and the best success 
 with the currant and gooseberry will assuredly be 
 obtained by those who can give them a reasonable 
 approach to the soil, climate and culture suggested 
 bytheirdamp, cold native haunts. The first requi- 
 site is not wetness, but abundant and continuous 
 moisture. Soils naturally deficient in this, and 
 
 which cannot be made drought-resisting by deep 
 plowing and cultivation, are not adapted to the 
 currant. . . . Damp, heavy land, that is capable of 
 deep, thorough cultivation, should be selected if 
 possible. When such is not to be had, then, by 
 deep plowing, subsoiling, by abundant mulch 
 around the plants throughout the summer, and by 
 occasional waterings in the garden, counteracting 
 the eflfects of lightness and dryness of soil, skill 
 can go far in making good nature's deficiencies. 
 
 "Next to depth of soil and moisture, the cur- 
 rant requires fertility. It is justly called one of 
 the ' gross feeders,' and is not particular as to 
 the quality of its food, so that it is abundant. I 
 would still suggest, however, that it be fed ac- 
 cording to its nature, with heavy composts, in 
 which muck, leaf-mold, and the cleanings of the 
 cow-stable, are largely present. Wood-ashes and 
 bone-meal are also most excellent." 
 
 Planting. — Autumn is the best season for plant- 
 ing currants, and early spring nearly as good. 
 There is little danger of the plants dying at any 
 time if kept moist". The young bushes should 
 be cut back after planting, half or two thirds. 
 If rows are five feet apart, and the plants font 
 feet apart in the rows, an acre will hold 2178 
 plants. If set at right angles five feet apart, an 
 acre will hold 1742 plants. They ought to be 
 set about three inches deeper than they stood in 
 the nursery, and should have a shovel-full of com- 
 post around each young plant. Mr. Roe recom- 
 mends the bush and not the tree form when cur- 
 rants are to be grown for market. 
 
 GOOSEBERRIES. 
 
 Description. — The gooseberry (Grossularia) is a 
 sub-genus of the genus Ribes, to which the currant 
 belongs, distinguished by a thorny stem, a more or 
 less bell-shaped calyx, and flowers on one-to-three 
 flowered stalks. The common gooseberry is a 
 native of many parts of Europe and northern 
 Asia, growing wild in rocky situations and in 
 thickets, particularly in mountainous districts. 
 The varieties produced by cultivation in England 
 are very numerous, where, and especially in Lan- 
 caster, greater attention is paid to its cultivation 
 than in any other part of the world. The Lan- 
 caster annual shows exhibit this fruit in its great- 
 est perfection, and a Gooseberry Book is published 
 annually at Manchester, giving a list of prize 
 sorts, etc. More than a hundred and fifty exhi- 
 bitions have been made in a single year, and the 
 berry, which in its wild state weighs only about 
 one quarter of an ounce, and is a half-inch in 
 diameter, has been cultivated to a size of two 
 inches in diameter and the weight of an ounce 
 and a half. But the English climate, with its 
 moisture and coolness, seems especially fitted for 
 the growth of this fruit, and under our clear and 
 
128 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 hot suns the best varieties of English sorts do 
 not thrive, mildew of fruit and foliage being their 
 steady enemy. But on the other side, as Mr. 
 Downing writes, "we are indebted to the Lan- 
 cashire weavers, who seem to have taken it up 
 as a hobby, for nearly all the surprisingly large 
 sorts of modern date." 
 
 Foreign Varieties. — As these cannot be depended 
 upon to flourish here, it will be enough merely to 
 give the names of a few leading varieties : — Red 
 Gooseberries: Boardman's British Crown, 
 Champagne, Melling's Crown Bob ; Yellow 
 Gooseberries: Buerdsill's Diickwing, Hill's 
 Golden Gourd, Yellow Ball; Green Goose- 
 berries: Collier's Jolly Angler, Green Walnut, 
 Wainman's Green Ocean; White GOOSE- 
 BERRIES : Crompton's Sheba Queen, Samiders' 
 
 ductive, generally free from mildew; a desirable 
 sort. Fruit medium or below, roundish, inclin- 
 ing to oval. Skin smooth, pale red. Flesh ten- 
 der, sweet "and very good. It improves greatly 
 under high culture and pruning. 
 
 The bush has a slender and even weeping 
 habit of growth, and can be propagated readily 
 by cuttings. , 
 
 Downing. — This is a seedling of the Houghton, 
 originated by Mr. Charles Downing, of New- 
 burgh, N. Y. An upright, vigorous growing 
 plant," very productive. Fruit somewhat larger 
 than the Houghton, roundish oval, whitish green, 
 with the rib-veins distinct. Skin smooth. Flesh 
 rather soft, juicy, very good. Excellent for 
 family use. Mr. Roe says : " I consider this the 
 best and most profitable variety that can be gen- 
 
 Houghton's Seedling. 
 
 Cheshire Lass, Taylor's Bright Venus. (These 
 names, and many others, suggest the yearning of 
 the weavers to find the ideal in the actual.) 
 Seedlings of these foreign varieties have the 
 same tendency to mildew shown by their parents. 
 
 The Ribes Hirtellum is described by Prof. Gray 
 as the " commonest in our Eastern States, seldom 
 downy, with very short thorns or none, very short 
 peduncles, stamens and two-cleft style scarcely 
 longer than the bell-shaped calyx: and the 
 smooth berry is purple, small and sweet." This is 
 the parent of the most widely known of our native 
 varieties, first among which may be mentioned 
 
 The Houghton Seedling. — This originated with 
 Abel Houghton, Lynn, Mass. A vigorous grow- 
 er; branches rather drooping, slender, very pro- 
 
 erally grown in this country. In flavor it is ex- 
 cellent. I have had good success with it when- 
 ever I have given it fair culture. It does not 
 propagate readily from cuttings, and therefore I 
 increase it usually by lavering. " 
 
 Smith's Improved. — A new variety grown from 
 the seed of the Houghton by Dr. Smith, of Ver- 
 mont, and in growth of plant more upright and 
 vigorous than its parent ; the fruit is larger, and 
 somewhat oval in form, light green, with a 
 bloom. Flesh moderately firm, sweet and good. 
 
 Hobbs' Seedling. — A variety said to have been 
 originated by O. J. Hobbs, of Randolph, Pa. 
 Light pale green, roundish, slightly oval, smooth. 
 Flesh medium firmness. A good keeper, and 
 nearly one half larger than Houghton's. 
 
BERRIES. 
 
 129 
 
 Mountain Seedling. — Originated with the Shakers 
 at Lebanon, N. Y. Plant a strong, straggling 
 grower, and an abundant bearer. Fruit large, the 
 largest of any known American sort, long, oval, 
 dark brownish red, with long stalk. Skin smooth, 
 thick. Flesh sweet. A good market sort. 
 
 Pale Red. — A variety of unknown origin. Bush 
 more upright than Houghton. Slender wood. 
 Very productive. Fruit small or medium, about 
 the size of the Houghton ; darker in color when 
 fully ripe. Hangs a long time upon the bush. 
 Flesh tender, sweet, very good. 
 
 Chester, or American Red, is an old variety, whose 
 origin is unknown — probably its ancestors grew 
 
 flavor and size, and, its vitality thus reduced, it 
 is more liable to mold. The plants should only 
 be raised from cuttings, unless the object be to 
 produce a new variety, which of course must be 
 raised from seed. The Encyclopadia of Garden- 
 ing thus describes the pains taken by Lancashire 
 cultivators : " To effect this increased size, every 
 stimulant is applied that their ingenuity can sug- 
 gest. They not only annually manure the soil 
 richly, but also surround the plants with trenches 
 of manure for the extremities of the roots to 
 strike into, and form around the stem of each 
 plant a basin, to be mulched, or manured, or 
 watered, as may become necessary. When a 
 
 Smith's Improved. 
 
 Downing Gooseberry. 
 
 wild in the woods. Fruit not quite as large as 
 the Houghton, when fully ripe darker than that, 
 hangs long on the bush, and is sweet and good. 
 Said not to mildew. Such characteristics point 
 it out as suitable for a parent of new varieties. 
 
 Cultivation. — Like its near relative the currant, 
 it flourishes best in cool exposures, and is the 
 better for partial shade. A rich soil, especially 
 one deep and moist, is equally requisite, and 
 vigorous annual pruning is essential. It is im- 
 patient of drought, and needs a deep, strong 
 loam. Don't put it under other trees for the 
 sake of shade, as that deteriorates the fruit in 
 
 root has extended too far from the stem, it is 
 uncovered, and all the strongest leaders are 
 shortened back nearly one half of their length, 
 and covered with fresh, marly loam, well ma- 
 nured. The effect of this pruning is to increase 
 the number of fibers and spongioles, which form 
 rapidly on the shortened roots, and strike out in 
 all directions among the fresh, newly stirred 
 loam, in search of nutriment." 
 
 In large plantations, and where cultivation is 
 given by means of the horse and plow, the sys- 
 tem of growing in the bush form is by many 
 considered most profitable. 
 
130 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 CRANBERRIES. 
 
 Description. — Downing says : This is a familiar 
 trailing shrub, growing wild in swampy, sandy 
 meadows, and mossy bogs, and producesa round 
 red, acid fruit. Our native species Oxycocciis 
 Macrocarpus, so common in the swamps of New 
 England, and on the borders of our inland lakes, 
 as to form quite an article of commerce, is much 
 the largest and finest species ; the European 
 cranberry being much smaller in its growth, and 
 producing inferior fruit. 
 
 If Downing's description is not formal enough, 
 take this from the Encyclopadia Britannica: 
 " O. palustris, the common cranberry plant, is 
 found in marshy land in northern and central 
 Europe and North America. Its stems are wiry, 
 creeping, and of varying length ; the leaves are 
 evergreen, dark and shining above, glaucous be- 
 low, revolute at the margin, ovate, lanceolate or 
 elliptical in shape, and not more than half an inch 
 long; the flowers, which appear in May or June, 
 are small and pedunculate, and haveafour-lobed, 
 rose-tinted corolla, purplish filaments, and an- 
 ther-cell, forming two long tubes; the berries 
 ripen in August and September; they are pear- 
 shaped, and about the size of currants, are crim- 
 son in color, and often spotted, and have an acid 
 and astringent taste." 
 
 Of the O. Macrocarpus, there are three varie- 
 ties : the Bell-Sliaped, which is the largest and 
 most valued, of a very dark, bright red color. 
 The Clierry, two kinds, large and small ; the large 
 one the best, of a round form, a fine dark red berry, 
 nearly or quite equal to the Bell-shaped; and the 
 Bugle, Oval, or Egg-Shaped, two kinds, large and 
 small, not so high-colored as the Bell and Cher- 
 ry — not so much prized, but still a fine variety. 
 
 Cultivation. — Although, naturally, it grows most- 
 ly in mossy, wet land, yet it may be easily culti- 
 vated in beds of peat soil, made in any rather 
 moist situation ; and if a third of old thoroughly 
 decayed manure is added to the peat, the berries 
 will be much larger, and of more agreeable flavor 
 than the wild ones. A square of the size of 
 twenty feet, planted in this way, will yield three 
 or four bushels annually. The plants are easily 
 procured, and are generally taken up like squares 
 of sod or turf, and planted two or three feet 
 apart, when they quickly cover the whole beds. 
 
 Cape Cod Culture. — The Cranberry grows freely 
 in light soils, but the surface should be covered. 
 
 after plowing, with clean sand a depth of several 
 inches. Eighty to a hundred bushels to the acre 
 is an average product, and the care they require 
 after the land is once prepared and planted, is 
 next to nothing till they are ready to gather. 
 Some farms in Massachusetts bear large crops, 
 partly natural, partly cultivated. The berry grows 
 wild in the greatest abundance on the sandy low 
 necks near Barnstable, and an annual festival is 
 made of the gathering of the fruit, which is done 
 by the mass of the residents, who turn out on a 
 day appointed by the authorities, and make a 
 general gathering with their cranberry rakes, a 
 certain portion of the crop belonging and deliv- 
 ered to the town. One man with his rake will 
 gather about thirty bushels a day. The rake, 
 however, is wasteful ; and where cranberries are 
 grown on private property, and picked by hand, 
 three bushels is somewhere near the average 
 picking of a day. 
 
 Results. — Joseph J. White, in Crajiberry Cul- 
 ture, tells of a " little pond " in Burlington Co,, 
 N. J., containing twelve acres. After being 
 planted ten years at an original cost of not ex- 
 ceeding $500, he saw a patch of vigorous vines, 
 from which the proprietor told him he never 
 gathered at one picking less than a bushel and 
 a half per square rod, and sometimes they 
 yielded two bushels. A square rod of the best 
 vines was staked off, and the berries carefully 
 picked. The yield was six bushels and two 
 quarts, or at the rate of 970 bushels to the acre. 
 Three acres of this meadow netted $1800 in one 
 year. Of course, this is an extreme case. 
 
 The Name is supposed to have been derived 
 from the appearance of the bud. Just before 
 expanding into the perfect flower, the stem, 
 calyx and petals resemble the neck, head and 
 bill of a crane ; and so cranberry may be a short- 
 ening of craneberry. 
 
 Uses. — In addition to their value in the differ- 
 ent forms of Cranberry Sauce, Cranberry Pie, 
 Preserved and Canned Cranberries, and the well- 
 known accompaniment to fowls, they are com- 
 ing into use on shipboard as an anti-scorbutic, 
 and in Europe a wine is made from them. White 
 tells of an Englishman, who receiving a barrel 
 of cranberries from a friend in America, ac- 
 knowledged their receipt, stating that "the ber- 
 ries arrived safely, but they soured on the pas- 
 sage," leaving his American friend to infer that 
 the uncooked fruit was served up in cream. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 131 
 
 IN AND ABOUT THE BARN. 
 
 HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 After Fasting 136 
 
 Air, Circulation of 133 
 
 Bread for the Stable 137 
 
 Breeding and Training: 
 
 Abortion 138 
 
 Bearing-Rein, the 142 
 
 '* Breaking" Horses 140 
 
 Breed for what you want 137 
 
 Breeding in-and-in 138 
 
 Check-Rein, the 142 
 
 Colt, Training the 140 
 
 Directions, Rarey's 139 
 
 Exercise 138 
 
 Foaling 138 
 
 Foaling Time, Indications of 138 
 
 In-and-in Breeding 138 
 
 Indications of Foaling Time 138 
 
 Mare and Colt, the 138 
 
 Not too Early 137 
 
 Proper Time, the 138 
 
 Rarey's Directions 139 
 
 Rein, the Check- 142 
 
 Slinking the Foal 138 
 
 Training the Colt 140 
 
 Young Colt, the 139 
 
 Circulation of Air 133 
 
 Corn, Indian 136 
 
 Diseases and Accidents, and their 
 Treatment : 
 
 Abdomen, Dropsy of the 165 
 
 Abdominal Injuries 164 
 
 Abraded Wounds 192 
 
 Abscess of the Brain 164 
 
 Acites 165 
 
 Acute Dysentery. 165 
 
 Acute Gastritis 165 
 
 Acute Laminitis 165 
 
 Albuminous Urine 166 
 
 Angles of the Mouth, Excoriated .. 173 
 
 Aphtha 166 
 
 Back Sinews, Clap of the 170 
 
 Back Sinews, Sprain of the 188 
 
 Biting, Crib 172 
 
 Bladder, Inflammation of the 172 
 
 Bloody Urine. 176 
 
 Bog Spavin 166 
 
 Bots 166 
 
 Brain, Abscess of the 164 
 
 Brain, Inflammation of the 166 
 
 Breaking Down 166 
 
 Broken Knees 167 
 
 Broken Wind 167 
 
 Bronchitis 167 
 
 Bronchocele 168 
 
 Bruise of the Sole i68 
 
 Calculi 168 
 
 Calculus 164 
 
 Canker 168 
 
 Capped Elbow 169 
 
 Capped Hock 169 
 
 Capped Knee , 169 
 
 Cartilages, Ossified 181 
 
 Cataract 169 
 
 Diseases and Accidents: 
 
 Cavities, Open Synovial 181 
 
 Choking i6g 
 
 Chronic Dysentery 170 
 
 Chronic Gastritis 170 
 
 Chronic Hepatitis 170 
 
 Clap of the Back Sinews 170 
 
 Cold 171 
 
 Colic, Spasmodic 187 
 
 Colic, Windy igi 
 
 Congestion in the Field 171 
 
 Congestion in the Stable 171 
 
 Contused Wounds 192 
 
 Corns 171 
 
 Cough 172 
 
 Cracked Heels 172 
 
 Crib-Biting 172 
 
 Curb 172 
 
 Cystitis 172 
 
 Diabetes 173 
 
 Diagram showing seat of diseases. . 163 
 
 Diaphragm, Spasm of 187 
 
 Dropsy of the Abdomen 165 
 
 Dysentery, Acute 165 
 
 Dysentery, Chronic 170 
 
 Elbow, Capped 169 
 
 Enteritis 173 
 
 Epizobty 173 
 
 Excoriated Angles of the Mouth , . . 173 
 
 Eyes, Fungoid Tumor in the 174 
 
 Eyelid, Lacerated 177 
 
 False Quarter 173 
 
 Farcy 173 
 
 Farcy, Water 191 
 
 Feet, Fever in the 165 
 
 Fever in the Feet 165 
 
 Field, Congestion in the 171 
 
 Fistulous Parotid Duct 174 
 
 Fistulous Withers 174 
 
 Flexor Tendons, Strain of the 189 
 
 Foot, Pumice 184 
 
 Fret 187 
 
 Fungoid Tumor in the Eyes 174 
 
 Gastritis, Acute 165 
 
 Gastritis, Chronic 170 
 
 Glanders 175 
 
 Gleet, Nasal 179 
 
 Grease 175 
 
 Gripes 187 
 
 Gutta Serena 175 
 
 Heart-Disease 176 
 
 Heels. Cracked 172 
 
 Hematuria 176 
 
 Hemorrhagica, Purpura 184 
 
 Hepatitis, Chronic 170 
 
 Hide-Bound 176 
 
 High-Blowing 176 
 
 Hock, Capped 169 
 
 Hydrophobia 176 
 
 Hydrothorax 176 
 
 Imoediment in Lachrymal Duct 177 
 
 Incised Wounds 192 
 
 Inflammation of the Bladder 172 
 
 Diseases and Accidents : 
 
 Inflammation of the Brain 166 
 
 Inflammation .of the Kidneys 180 
 
 Inflammation of the Vein 182 
 
 Influenza 177 
 
 Injuries, Abdominal 164 
 
 Injuries to the Jaw 177 
 
 Insipidus Diabetes 173 
 
 Introsusception 164 
 
 Invagination 164 
 
 Jaw, Injuries to the 177 
 
 Joints. Open Synovial 181 
 
 Kidneys, Inflammation of the 180 
 
 Knees, Broken 167 
 
 Knee, Capped 169 
 
 Lacerated Eyelid 177 
 
 Lacerated Tongue 177 
 
 Lacerated Wounds 192 
 
 Lachrymal Duct, Impediment in... 177 
 
 Laminitis, Acute 165 
 
 Laminitis, Subacute 177 
 
 Laryngitis 177 
 
 Larva in the Skin 178 
 
 Legs, Swollen 190 
 
 Lice 178 
 
 Luxation of the Patella 178 
 
 Mallenders 178 
 
 Mange ^ 178 
 
 Megrims 179 
 
 Melanosis 179 
 
 Mouth, Excoriated Angles of 173 
 
 Mouth. Scald 186 
 
 Nasal Gleet 179 
 
 Nasal Polypus 179 
 
 Navicular Disease 179 
 
 Nephritis 180 
 
 Occult Spavin 180 
 
 CEsophagus, Stricture of .- 185 
 
 Open Synovial Cavities 181 
 
 Open Synovial Joints 181 
 
 Ophthalmia. Simple 186 
 
 Ophthalmia, Specific 188 
 
 Ossified Cartilages 181 
 
 Overreach 181 
 
 Paralysis, Partial 182 
 
 Parotid Duct, Fistulous 174 
 
 Partial Paralysis 182 
 
 Patella, Luxation of the 178 
 
 Phlebitis iSa 
 
 Phrenitis 182 
 
 Pleurisy 182 
 
 Pneumonia 183 
 
 Poll Evil 183 
 
 Polypus, Nasal 179 
 
 Prick of the Sole 183 
 
 Profuse Staling 173 
 
 Prurigo 183 
 
 Pumice Foot 184 
 
 Punctured Wounds 193 
 
 Purpura Hemorrhagica 184 
 
 Quarter, False 173 
 
 Quittor 184 
 
 Rheumatism 264 
 
132 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL, 
 
 Diseases and Accidents : 
 
 Ring-Bone 185 
 
 Ringworm. 185 
 
 Roaring 185 
 
 Rupture 185 
 
 Ruptured Spleen 164 
 
 Ruptured Stomach 164 
 
 Salienders 178 
 
 Sand-Crack 185 
 
 Scald Mouth 186 
 
 Seedy Toe 186 
 
 Simple Ophthalmia 186 
 
 Sinews, Sprain of the Back 188 
 
 Sitfast 186 
 
 Skin, Larva in the 178 
 
 Sole, Bruise of the 168 
 
 Sole, Prick of the 183 
 
 Sore Throat 186 
 
 Spasm of the Diaphrag'm 187 
 
 Spasm of the Urethra 187 
 
 Spasmodic Colic 187 
 
 Spavin 187 
 
 Spavin, Bog 166 
 
 Spavin, Occult 180 
 
 Specific Ophthalmia 188 
 
 Spleen, Ruptured 164 
 
 Splint 188 
 
 Sprain of the Back Sinews 188 
 
 Stable, Congestion in the 171 
 
 Staggers 188 
 
 Staling, Profuse 173 
 
 Strain of the Flexor Tendons 189 
 
 Stomach, Ruptured 164 
 
 Strangles 189 
 
 Strangulation 164 
 
 Stricture of the CEsophagus 185 
 
 Stringhalt i8g 
 
 Surfeit i8g 
 
 Swollen Legs 190 
 
 Synovial, Open Cavities. 181 
 
 Synovial, Open Joints 181 
 
 Teeth igp 
 
 Tendons, Fle.xor, Strain of 189 
 
 Tetanus igo 
 
 Thorough-Pin 190 
 
 Throat, Sore 186 
 
 Thrush 190 
 
 Toe, Seedy 186 
 
 Tongue, Lacerated 177 
 
 Tread loo 
 
 Tumors 191 
 
 Tumors, Fungoid, in the Eye 174 
 
 Urine, Albuminous j66 
 
 Urine, Bloody 176 
 
 Urethra, Spasm of 187 
 
 Vein, Inflammation of the 182 
 
 Warts 191 
 
 Diseases and Accidents: 
 
 Water-Farcy 191 
 
 Wheezing iy6 
 
 Wind, Broken 167 
 
 Wind-galls igi 
 
 Windy Colic igi 
 
 Withers, Fistulous 174 
 
 Worms 192 
 
 Wounds 192 
 
 Drainage 134 
 
 Exercise 135 
 
 Fasting, After 136 
 
 Floors, and Paving 133 
 
 Good Mashes 137 
 
 Grooming 134 
 
 Gruel for Horses 136 
 
 Hay 135 
 
 Hay-Tea 136 
 
 History, the Horse in 132 
 
 Horse in History, the 132 
 
 How to Feed 136 
 
 Indian Corn 136 
 
 Light 134' 
 
 Litter 134 
 
 Mashes, Good 137 
 
 Oats 135 
 
 Paving and Floors 133 
 
 Points : 
 
 Abdomen, the 157 
 
 Back, the 154 
 
 Ear, the 155 
 
 Eye, the 156 
 
 Head , the 155 
 
 Lips, the 156 
 
 Legs and Shoulders, the 158 
 
 Lower Leg, the 158 
 
 Lumbar Region, the 153 
 
 Lungs and Thorax, the 158 
 
 Neck, the 155 
 
 Nostrils, the 156 
 
 Shoulders and Legs, the 158 
 
 Stem and Rudder 153 
 
 Tail, the 154 
 
 Thorax and Lungs, the 157 
 
 Withers, the 158 
 
 Remedies, and their Administration : 
 
 Aloes -. 194 
 
 Balling-Iron 194 
 
 Ball passing down Gullet 196 
 
 Balls 194 
 
 Bleeding 199 
 
 Blisters 198 
 
 Cut of Swallowing Ball 196 
 
 Cut of Bleeding a Horse 199 
 
 Cuts of Giving a Draught ig8 
 
 Draughts, Giving 197 
 
 Drinks 196 
 
 Remedies, and their Administration: 
 
 Fleam, Open and Shut 
 
 Giving Draughts 
 
 Holding the Pail 
 
 Horse-Balls 
 
 Horses not all Alike 
 
 Mashes, Warm 
 
 New Balling Iron 
 
 New Way of Giving Ball 
 
 Old Way of Giving Ball 
 
 Other Physics 
 
 Process of Drinking 
 
 Quiet Method of Giving Draught.. 
 
 Suture, Twisted , 
 
 Third Avenue Stables 
 
 Tongue and Mouth 
 
 Turkish Bath 
 
 Twisted Suture 
 
 Warm Mashes 
 
 Roots 
 
 Shoeing: 
 
 Arab Method, the 
 
 Boots 
 
 Calks 
 
 Cutting 
 
 Hoof, Structure of 
 
 Interfering 
 
 Method, the Arab 
 
 Method, the Usual 
 
 Mischief from Separation 
 
 Paring too Small 
 
 Rarey's Directions , 
 
 Shoe, the Slipper 
 
 Slipper-Shoe, the 
 
 Slippery Weather 
 
 Structure of the Hoof 
 
 Usual Method, the 
 
 Weather, Slippery 
 
 Sieve, Value of a 
 
 Stable, the 
 
 Stalls 
 
 Straw 
 
 Trash 
 
 Teeth, the 
 
 Value of a Sieve 
 
 " Vices," so called : 
 
 Balking, or Jibbing 
 
 Chink in the Back 
 
 Horses not totally Depraved 
 
 Jibbing, or Balking 
 
 " Kidney-Dropping" 
 
 Rolling 
 
 Shying and Swerving 
 
 Tearing the Clothing 
 
 "Toothy" and *' Temper" 
 
 When to Feed 
 
 199 
 
 ■ »97 
 . 200 
 
 ■ '94 
 193 
 193 
 195 
 195 
 194 
 194 
 196 
 198 
 200 
 ZOI 
 
 197 
 
 300 
 2CX> 
 193 
 
 »37 
 
 148 
 
 ISO 
 
 t52 
 
 148 
 
 148 
 148 
 148 
 »5i 
 146 
 150 
 150 
 151 
 148 
 148 
 151 
 137 
 133 
 '33 
 137 
 '37^ 
 142 
 137 
 
 160 
 161 
 160 
 160 
 161 
 163 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 159 
 •3S 
 
 Far back in History. — The origin of the horse 
 lies far back in antiquity, and his is a familiar 
 figure in almost all extant literature. Homer, 
 Hesiod and Pindar tell us not only of horses, 
 but of centaurs, half man and half horse, so that 
 long before their time the horse must have been 
 sufficiently conquered to the use of man to have 
 originated the old legend. The usual chronology 
 puts the Book of Job more than fifteen hundred 
 years before Christ; late investigators put it 
 nearly nine hundred years later. But the de- 
 scription Jahweh gives Job of the horse indicates 
 that he must have been the same essentially 
 then as now : " Hast thou given the horse 
 strength.? hast thou clothed his neck with thun- 
 
 der? . . . thegloryof his nostrils is terrible. . . . 
 He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his 
 strength ; he goeth to meet the armed men," etc. 
 The whole account is appropriate to the modern 
 war-horse ; and it is quite doubtful whether the 
 naturalist, if he had the horse of Job's time, 
 Alexander's Bucephalus, and the charger Gen. 
 Sheridan rode to Winchester, could from any in- 
 ternal indications determine which was which. 
 Undoubtedly if the best trotting-horses of each 
 age at intervals of five hundred years could be 
 speeded together, the date could be assigned to 
 each. When Hi. Woodruff drove at Fashion and 
 Union courses, the aim was a " two-forty" gait ; 
 now the flyers are hovering between " two-ten" 
 
HOUSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 133 
 
 and "two-eleven," and will soon be shading off 
 inside the ten. Such an animal as is now with- 
 out any great difficulty to be had, deserves, and 
 will repay, careful and intelligent treatment. 
 
 The Stable. — This is a very important part of 
 the subject and one which is too often neglected 
 by people who own horses and who leave their 
 general management to stable-keepers or grooms 
 often grossly neglectful or ignorant. Many 
 horses die yearly from the neglect of their own- 
 ers to enforce the ordinary laws of health in the 
 stable. A site should be chosen, nearly or quite 
 as well situated as that for the dwelling, and the 
 stable may be, if possible, separate and distinct 
 from the barn with advantage. Hide it if you 
 like behind trees, but do not cut off the 
 
 Circulation of Air. — A supply of pure air is as 
 necessary to the life and health of a horse as of 
 a man. In many stables air is carelessly ad- 
 mitted and blows either on the head of the horse 
 or in such a way that cold and cough is the in- 
 evitable result. The practice of feeding hay 
 through a hole above the head of the horse in- 
 vites fatal results in the way of cold, not to men- 
 tion the possibility of hayseed falling into the 
 eyes of the horse when it is looking up for its 
 food. An opposite error, however, is to exclude 
 every possible breath of air and have the atmos- 
 phere of the stable hot and unwholesome. The 
 effect of several horses being shut up in one sta- 
 ble is to render the air unpleasantly warm and 
 foul. A person coming from the open air can- 
 not breathe it many minutes without perspiring. 
 In this temperature the horse stands, hour by 
 hour, often with a covering on; this is suddenly 
 stripped off, and it is led into the open air, the 
 temperature of which is many degrees below 
 that of the stable. It is true that while it is ex- 
 ercising it has no need of protection ; but unfor- 
 tunately it too often has to stand awaiting its 
 master's convenience, and this perhaps after a 
 brisk trot which has opened every pore, and its 
 susceptibility to cold has been excited to the ut- 
 most extent. In ventilating stables it should 
 never be forgotten that the health of a horse de- 
 pends on an abundartt supply of fresh dry air, in- 
 troduced in such a manner as to prevent a pos- 
 sible chance of a draught on any of its inmates. 
 Many old stables may be greatly benefited by 
 the introduction of a window or windows which 
 will require but little expenditure and save 
 many dollars worth of horse-flesh. 
 
 Stalls. — Large stalls are to be preferred, and 
 each horse should have his separate stall. Each 
 stall should be ten feet from front to rear, and 
 with a width of five to five and a half feet. At 
 the foot of each stall should be a round partition 
 post set slightly inclining, so that the bottom' 
 shall be ten feet and the top eight feet from the 
 
 head of the stall ; the sides four and a half feet 
 high, of two-inch plank ; and if unruly horses are 
 to be placed there, a couple of feet in height of 
 woven wire cloth should be added at the top. 
 Or, the stalls may be placed in rows each six 
 feet wide, nine feet long, with the height above 
 to the extent of fourteen feet. Three feet in 
 front of the manger gives room for the feed 
 to be brought and given, and six feet behind 
 the stalls gives space for proper cleaning. 
 
 If the size of the stable will admit of it, loose 
 boxes are of great benefit ; and at all events there 
 should be one loose box for cases of sickness, 
 and this should be situated at some distance 
 from the other stalls, to prevent the spread of 
 any contagious disease. 
 
 Floors, and their Paving. — One good plan is to 
 make the floor double, the upper one in three 
 parts; the first three feet in front, of two-inch 
 hard-wood plank, should be laid close and nailed 
 solid ; the other two sections of narrow hard-wood 
 
 The Hind Feet are Eased in the Gutter. 
 
 plank, to be nailed on strong end-pieces, with half- 
 inch spaces between. These are to be hinged to 
 other plank nine inches wide, next the sides of the 
 stall, so as to shut together at the. middle, to 
 within half an inch of each other. Thus, all the 
 liquid matter passes directly through to the solid 
 and water-tight floor beneath, made of planed 
 and grooved plank, and ending, just inside the 
 posts, in a narrow gutter, whence it may be con- 
 veyed away to a tank. 
 
 Where there are irregularities, cleanliness is 
 almost impossible. A good material is stone 
 when well jointed. Cement, however, is the 
 best when properly laid, as its elasticity is a great 
 relief to the feerof a horse. 
 
 A slanting of the floor of the stalls should 
 never be allowed, as it is frequently the cause of 
 lameness and contraction of the heels. To keep 
 the feet on a level, horses will sometimes stand 
 out of their stalls with the hind feet over the 
 gutter, as in the cut above. 
 
134 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Drainage. — The stable should be so contrived 
 that the urine shall quickly run off, and the of- 
 fensive and injurious vapor from the decompos- 
 ing urine and the litter will thus be materially 
 lessened : if, however, the urine be carried away 
 by means of a gutter running along the stable, it 
 must be so done as not to raise the level of the 
 horse's hind feet above that of his forefeet. The 
 farmer should not lose any of the urine. It is 
 from the dung of the horse that he derives a 
 principal and the most valuable part of his ma- 
 nure. It is that which earliest takes on the pro- 
 cess of decomposition, and forms one of the 
 strongest and most durable dressings. That 
 which is most of all concerned with the rapidity 
 and perfection of the process is the urine. 
 
 Litter. — Some intelligent persons have com- 
 plained much of the influence of litter. If the 
 horse stand many hours in the day with his foot 
 embedded in straw, it is supposed that the hoof 
 must be unnaturally heated ; and it is said that 
 the horn will contract under the influence of 
 heat. It is seldom, however, that the foot is so 
 surrounded by the litter that its heat will be 
 sufficiently increased to produce this effect on 
 the thick horn. The foot is not sufficiently long 
 or deeply covered by the litter to produce a tem- 
 perature high enough to warp the hoof. We are 
 not the disciples of those who would, during the 
 day, remove all litter from under the horse; we 
 do not like the naked and uncomfortable appear- 
 ance of the stable. Humanity and a proper care 
 of the foot of the horse should induce us to keep 
 some litter under him during the day; but his 
 feet need not sink so deeply in it that their tem- 
 perature should be much affected. 
 
 Great care should be taken that every portion 
 of litter be removed that has been wet by urine, 
 as decay commences very quickly and the gases 
 given off in that state are highly injurious. In 
 some stables piles of litter are allowed to accu- 
 mulate and serve as a cloak for great unclean- 
 liness ; this should never be permitted. 
 
 Light. — This neglected branch of stable-manage- 
 ment is of far more consequence than is generally 
 imagined. The stable is frequently destitute of 
 any glazed window ; and has only a shutter, 
 which is raised in warm, and shut down in cold 
 weather. When the horse is in the stable only 
 during a few hours of the day, this is not of so 
 much consequence ; nor of so much, probably, to 
 horses of slow work ; but to carriage and road 
 horses, so far at least as the eyes are concerned, a 
 dark stable is little less injurious than a foul and 
 heated one. To illustrate this, reference may be 
 made to the unpleasant feeling and the utter im- 
 possibility of seeing distinctly, when a man sud- 
 denly emerges from a dark place into the full 
 blaze of day. The sensation of mingled pain and 
 
 giddiness is not soon forgotten ; and some time 
 passes before the eye can accommodate itself to 
 the increased light. If this were to happen every 
 day, or several times in the day, the sight would 
 be irreparably injured ; or, possibly, blindness 
 would ensue. Can we wonder, then, that the 
 horse taken from a dark stable into a glare of 
 light, and feeling, probably, as we should under 
 similar circumstances, and unable, for a consider- 
 able time, to see anything around him distinctly, 
 should become a starter, or that the frequently 
 repeated violent effect of sudden light should in- 
 duce inflammation of the eye, so intense as to 
 terminate in blindness? There is, indeed, no 
 doubt, in the mind of any one familiar with the 
 subject, that horses kept in a dark stable are fre- 
 quently notorious starters, and that starting has 
 been evidently traced to this cause. 
 
 If plenty of light be admitted, the walls of the 
 stable, and especially that portion of them which 
 is before the horse's head, must not be of too 
 glaring a color. The constant reflection from a 
 white wall, and especially if the sun shines into 
 the stable, will be as injurious to the eye as the 
 sudden changes from darkness to light. The 
 perpetual slight excess of stimulus will do as 
 much mischief as the occasional but more violent 
 one, when the animal is taken from a kind of 
 twilight to the blaze of day. The color of the 
 stable, therefore, should depend on the quantity 
 of light. Where much can be admitted, the walls 
 should be of a gray hue. Where darkness would 
 otherwise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in 
 some degree dissipate the gloom. 
 
 Grooming. — Of this much need not be said. 
 The animal that is worked in all weathers needs 
 little more than a good brushing of his legs. It 
 is to the stabled horse, highly fed. and irregularly 
 worked, that grooming is of so much consequence. 
 Good rubbing with the brush opens the pores of 
 the skin, circulates the blood and therefore pro- 
 duces a healthy perspiration, and stands in the 
 room of exercise. No horse will carry a fine 
 coat without either heat or dressing. They both 
 effect the same purpose ; they both increase the 
 insensible perspiration ; but the first does it at 
 the expense of health and strength, while the 
 second, at the same time that it produces a glow 
 on the skin, and a determination of blood to it, 
 rouses all the energies of the frame. It would 
 be well for the proprietor of the horse if he were 
 to insist upon it, and to see that his orders are 
 really obeyed, that the fine coat he delights in, is 
 produced by honest rubbing, and not by aheated 
 stable and thick clothing. When the weather 
 will permit the horse to be taken out, he should 
 never be groomed in the stable. Experience 
 teaches that if the cold is not too great, the ani- 
 mal is invigorated from being dressed in the 
 
 J 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 135 
 
 open air. There is no necessity, however, for 
 half the punishment which many a groom inflicts 
 upon the horse in the act of dressing; and par- 
 ticularly on one whose skin is thin and sensible. 
 The currycomb should at all times be lightly ap- 
 plied. With many horses its use may be almost 
 dispensed with ; and even the brush need not be 
 so hard, nor the points of the bristles so irregular 
 as they often are. A soft brush, with a little 
 more weight of the hand, will be equally effec- 
 tual and a great deal more pleasant to the horse. 
 A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and 
 tease, will be almost sufficient with horses that 
 have thin hair, and that have not been neglected. 
 
 Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of 
 friction to the horse's skin, and to the horse 
 generally, need only observe the effect produced 
 by well hand-rubbing the legs of a tired horse. 
 Every enlargement subsides, the painful stiffness 
 disappears, the legs attain their natural warmth 
 and become fine, and the animal is evidently and 
 rapidly reviving ; he attacks his food with ap- 
 petite, and then quietly lies down to rest. 
 
 Exercise. — The work of a farm-horse is usually 
 regular and not exhausting. He is neither pre- 
 disposed to disease by idleness, nor worn out by 
 excessive exertion. He has enough to do to 
 keep him in health, and not enough to distress 
 or injure him : on the contrary, the regularity of 
 his work prolongs life. For those who keep a 
 horse for business or pleasure, the first rule we 
 would lay down is, that every horse should have 
 daily exercise. The horse that, with the usual 
 stable feeding, stands idle for three or four days, 
 as is the case in many establishments, must suffer. 
 He is disposed to fever, or to grease, or, most of 
 all, to diseases of the foot ; and if, after these 
 three orfour days of inactivity, he is ridden fast 
 and far, is almost sure to have inflammation of 
 the lungs or of the feet. 
 
 A road-horse is apt to suffer a great deal more 
 from idleness than he does from work. A stable- 
 fed horse should have two hours' exercise every 
 day, if he is to be kept free from disease. And 
 this should be moderate at the beginning and 
 at the end. Nothing of extraordinary or even 
 of ordinary labor can be effected on the road 
 or in the field without sufficient and regular 
 exercise. It is this alone which can give energy 
 to the system, or develop the powers of any ani- 
 mal. How then is this exercise to be given ? As 
 much as possible by, or under the superintendence 
 of, the owner. The exercise given by any em- 
 ployee is rarely to be depended upon. It is in- 
 efficient, or it is extreme. It is in many cases 
 both irregular and injurious. It is dependent on 
 the caprice of him who is performing a task, and 
 who will render that task suljservient to his own 
 pleasure or purposes. 
 
 In training the horse, regular exercise is the 
 most important of all considerations, however it 
 may be forgotten in the usual management of 
 the stable. The exercised horse w-ill discharge 
 his task, sometimes a severe one, with ease and 
 pleasure, while the idle and neglected one will 
 be fatigued ere half his labor be accomplished, 
 and if he be pushed a little too far, dangerous in- 
 flammation will ensue. How often, nevertheless, 
 does it happen, that the horse that has stood in- 
 active in the stable three or four days, is ridden 
 or driven thirty or forty miles in the course of 
 a single day } This rest is often purposely given 
 to prepare for extra exertion ; to lay in a stock 
 of strength for the performance of the task re- 
 quired of him : and then the owner is surprised 
 and dissatisfied, if the animal is fairly knocked 
 up, or possibly becomes seriously ill. 
 
 Hay. — The best kinds of hay for horses are the 
 Timothy, sometimes called Herdsgrass ; Orchard 
 grass; Red-top; and Fowl-meadow. A sweet- 
 scented vernal grass is common in Northern and 
 Eastern meadows, and gives the peculiar odor to 
 new-mown hay so universally admired. A great 
 part of the hay sold has been pressed and baled, 
 and in that condition cannot be easily examined; 
 and if it could, it would even then be hard for 
 the purchaser exactly to suit himself, supposing 
 him to know just what is best. For very few 
 people know how to tell a good from a bad 
 sample of hay. And yet the characteristics of 
 good hay are very marked, and such only should 
 be purchased by the careful horse-owner. Clover 
 is apt to be dusty, and not properly cured, and 
 ought not tobe fed to horses. 
 
 The Statistical Abstract of the United States 
 for 1881, prepared under the direction of the 
 Treasury Department, estimates that there were 
 devoted to hay in the United States in 1880, 
 25,863.955 acres, producing 31,925,233 tons, valued 
 at $371,811,084; an average to each acre of 1.23 
 tons, worth $11.65 per ton, or $14.38 per acre. The 
 annual average of the ten years 1871-1880, was 
 23,743,056 acres, producing 29,266,803 tons, valued 
 at $327,220,132 ; an average to each acre of 1.23 
 tons, worth $1 1.18 per ton, or $13.78 per acre. 
 
 Oats. — These with hay constitute what may be 
 called the standard food of the horse. They 
 should not be bought by measurement, but by 
 weight. In Great Britain, a " prime" sample will 
 weigh nearly or quite 50 pounds ; in the United 
 States, good oats weigh, say, 35 pounds to the 
 bushel. A first-rate oat will give three quarters 
 of its weight in pure grain after the chaff is re- 
 moved ; while a poorer oat gives a less percentage 
 of solid nutriment. The buyer should be as 
 careful as to the quality of the oats he buys as to 
 the quality of his hay. A sound oat should be 
 dry and hard : it should almost chip asunder, and 
 
136 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 not be torn or broken into pieces by compres- 
 sion. 
 
 It is estimated that tliere were devoted to oats 
 in the United States in 1880, 16,187,977 acres, 
 producing 417,885.380 bushels, valued at $150,- 
 243,655 ; an average to each acre of 25.8 bushels, 
 worth 36 cents per bushel, or $9.28 per acre. 
 The annual average of the ten years 1 871-1880, 
 was 11,816,380 acres, producing 331,501,794 bush- 
 els, valued at $115,385,909; an average to each 
 acre of 28.1 bushels, worth 34.8 cents per bushel, 
 or $9.76 per acre. 
 
 Indian Corn. — Next to hay and oats, the most 
 important food of the horse is corn, or maize. 
 Corn in the ear should weigh about 70 pounds to 
 the bushel, and shelled corn about 56. If a pair 
 of horses require half a bushel of oats a day, they 
 will require as an equivalent in Indian corn, 
 half a bushel in the ear, or 28 pounds shelled. 
 Corn in its natural state is too hard for the teeth 
 and stomach of many horses, and is a great deal 
 better for bruising and steaming or softening. 
 
 It is estimated that there were devoted to 
 Indian corn in the United States in 1880, 62,317,- 
 842 acres, producing 1,717,434,543 bushels, valued 
 at $679,714,499; an average to each acre of 27.6 
 bushels, worth 39.6 cents per bushel, or $10.91 
 per acre. The annual average of the ten years 
 1871-1880, was 46,108,418 acres, producing 1,246,- 
 804,858 bushels, valued at $512,358,595; an aver- 
 age rate to each acre of 27 bushels, worth 41. i 
 cents per bushel, or $11.10 per acre. 
 
 How, and How Much, to Feed. — What work has the 
 horse to do ? One kept at slow and exhausting 
 labor should have three times a day as much 
 clean, sound grain as he will eat, and as much 
 clean sweet hay at night as he will consume. In 
 hot weather the grain should be oats; in winter, 
 half oats, half corn, with intermediate propor- 
 tions in intermediate weather. For cut feed, 
 mix with half corn and half oats, ground to- 
 gether, one third the bulk of bran. When the 
 horses are fed whole grain, this mess is good two 
 or three times a week, as a change. Farm-horses 
 should be fed in this way: Give grass at night 
 when you can instead of hay, but cut the grass 
 and carry it to the manger; do not turn him out 
 at night to pasture and make him work to get 
 his food during the time he ought to be at rest. 
 
 Road and pleasure horses should have, in ad- 
 dition to the oats and hay they will eat, a sweet 
 mash of bran once or twice a week. Don't turn 
 them out to grass. Still, grass in May and early 
 June, giving a few oats daily with it, is not un- 
 advisable. Musty or dusty grain ought never to 
 be fed to horses. It invites heaves and other 
 disorders. Even washing and kiln-drying will 
 not cure it. 
 
 In the stables of the Third Avenue Railroad 
 
 Company, New York, are kept about two thou- 
 sand horses ; and according to a very interesting 
 paper in the St. Nicholas, well worth the reading 
 of any man or boy, the daily allowance for each 
 horse is given at twenty-seven pounds of hay, 
 oats and corn, ground and mixed, equally di- 
 vided into three meals. 
 
 When fo Feed Horses. — Regularity is as essential 
 to equine as to human animals. The stomach of 
 a civilized horse is small, even smaller than that 
 of his wilder ancestor. Horses that do fast and 
 exhausting work should be fed grain four times 
 a day; wlien at work late in the afternoon or 
 evening, the last feed should be later than other- 
 wise. Horses are as a rule more apt to undereat 
 than to overeat; and only when an animal is 
 gluttonous, should he be restricted in food. 
 There ought to be an interval of an hour or 
 more after a meal before a horse is put at work. 
 
 After Fasting. — When a horse returns home, 
 after a long fast, it is most unwise to place the 
 famished beast before a heaped manger. First 
 attend to its immediate requirements. These 
 satisfied, and the harness removed, a pail of gruel 
 should be offered to the animal. The writer 
 knows it is said by many grooms that their 
 horses will not drink gruel; the author likewise 
 is aware that most servants dislike the bother 
 attendant on its preparation, while few under- 
 stand the manner in which it should be prepared. 
 The general plan is to stir a little oatmeal into 
 any pail containing hot water, and to offer the 
 mess, under the name of gruel, to the palate which 
 long abstinence may have rendered fastidious. 
 The horse only displays its intelligence when it 
 rejects the potion thus rudely concocted. 
 
 Gruel for Horses. — One quart of oatmeal should 
 be put into a two-gallon pot, which is to be 
 gradually filled with boiling water, a little cold 
 being first used, merely to divide the grains. The 
 saucepan is then placed on the fire, and its con- 
 tents are to be briskly stirred until the liquid has 
 6o:7fd for ten minutes. After this, it may be put 
 where it will only just simmer; and in one hour 
 the gruel will be ready or in shorter time, 
 should the fire be fierce. The liquid is then 
 poured through a sieve. The solid part is mingled, 
 while hot, with an equal quantity of bran, and 
 this mixture, having been closely covered, is 
 placed in the manger half an hour after the gruel 
 has been imbibed. 
 
 Hay Tea.— This also is refreshing for a tired 
 horse. Fill a pail with the best of clean bright 
 hay, and pour in as much boiling water as the 
 pail will hold. Keep it covered and hot fifteen 
 minutes, turn off the water into another pail, and 
 add a little cold water, enough to make a gallon 
 and a half or so, and when cold, feed it to the 
 horse. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 137 
 
 Good Mashes. — Boil a couple of quarts of ground 
 oats, a pint of flax-seed and a little salt, three 
 hours. Add bran to bring it to a proper con- 
 sistency, and a little mglasses. Cover in, and 
 feed cold. — Another. Moisten four quarts of bran 
 gradually with hot water, add enough boiling 
 water to get the proper consistency, add a sprinkle 
 of salt, cover with a cloth, and feed cold. 
 
 Value of a Sieve. — The sieve is not, but ought to 
 be, in every stable, and to be used freely and 
 regularly. How much trash gets into baled hay 
 and grain, useless and even injurious to the 
 horse! And whilethegrain remains inthesieve, 
 after the refuse has been sifted out, it is well to 
 wash it. either by dipping, or by pouring water 
 over and through it. 
 
 Straw and Trash. — Hay, which the animal re- 
 fuses to touch when placed in the rack, is often 
 salted and cut into chaff. Thus seasoned, and 
 in such a shape being mixed with corn, it may 
 be eaten. The horse is imposed upon by the 
 salt and the oats which were mingled with the 
 trash ; but has an unwholesome substance been 
 changed into awholesome nutriment? It is like- 
 wise a prevailing custom to cut straw of differ- 
 ent kinds and to throw the rubbish into the chaff- 
 bin. The quadruped may consume this species 
 of refuse, but such trash distends the stomach 
 and does not nourish the body. People who ad- 
 vocate cheapness may be favorable to the use 
 of straw ; but these persons should not deceive 
 themselves, far less ought they to impose upon 
 others, by asserting that so exhausted a material 
 can possibly prove a supportmg constituent of 
 diet. 
 
 Bread for the Stable. — The action of heat is well 
 known to change the nature of corn, while fermen- 
 tation converts the starch of the raw seed into 
 sugar. Might not a coarse kind of bread be made 
 for the stable? Such a plan is common through- 
 out Germany, where it is not unusual to see a 
 carter feeding himself and steed off the same 
 loaf. The groom might possibly resist such an- 
 innovation upon his rights and leisure; but a 
 better order of dependents could be found, to 
 whom the e.xtra labor would merely prove a pas- 
 time. 
 
 Roots. — There are various roots which might 
 prove very acceptable in the stable. The diges- 
 tion of all such articles is promoted by the 
 substances being cooked before they are pre- 
 sented. The fire extracts mucli of the water 
 with which they all abound ; heat also, in some 
 measure, arrests the tendency to ferment. Why 
 should such simple and natural food be denied 
 to the creature which nature has sent upon this 
 earth with an appetite fitted to consume it? 
 There is ample room for choice ; so far as ex- 
 periment has hitherto tested the value of such 
 
 articles of food for horses, results have been ob- 
 tained which seem to say the change should be 
 generally adopted. A sameness of diet is 
 known to derange the human stomach. Under 
 such a system, the palate loses its relish, while a 
 loathing is excited which destroys appetite. 
 How often do grooms complain of certain ani- 
 mals being bad feeders! May not such disincli- 
 nation for sustenance be no more than the 
 disgust engendered by a constant absence of 
 variety ? Is there any large stable where one or 
 more quadrupeds are not equally notorious for 
 being ravenous feeders ? The disinclination for 
 the necessary sustenance and the morbid desire 
 for an excess of nutriment are alike symptoms of 
 deranged digestion. 
 
 BREEDING AND TRAINING. 
 
 Breed for what you Want. — If you propose to 
 breed a colt or colts, and wish to do it as intelli- 
 gently as your opportunities will allow, settle at 
 the beginning what you want, whether a runner, 
 a trotter, a roadster, or whatever it is, and act 
 accordingly. Progeny will inherit the qualities, 
 or the mingled qualities, of the parents, using the 
 word parents to include ancestry. Diseases, or 
 a predisposition to them, are inherited among 
 horses as certainly as among humans. So are 
 peculiarities of form and of constitution ; and it 
 is necessary, if any definite and clear result be 
 hoped for with reason, that sire and dam be se- 
 lected with a definite aim definitely carried out. 
 If you only wish to take your chances for a com- 
 mon every-day horse, breed from the best sires 
 you can find, and try to select such characteris- 
 tics as will promise the highest results when 
 combined with those of your mare. 
 
 Don't begin at too early an age. A mare is 
 capable of breeding at three or four years old. 
 Do not commence, as some have done, at two 
 years, before her form or her strength is suffi- 
 ciently developed, and with the development of 
 which this early breeding will materially inter- 
 fere. To get excellence in the offspring, you 
 must have the highest development in the par- 
 ents; and degeneration will certainly result if im- 
 mature animals are bred from. And don't keep 
 the mare breeding when she has become too old, 
 or has broken down. If she does little more 
 than farm work, and is reasonably treated at 
 that, she may continue to be bred from until she 
 is nearly twenty ; but if she has been hardly 
 worked, and bears the marks of it, let her have 
 been what she will in her youth, she will be 
 likely to deceive the expectations of the breeder 
 in her old age. People do not seem to conceive 
 that there can be any outrage committed by 
 breeding from the body which, through a life of 
 service, has earned a right to rest. But many 
 
138 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 proprietors only " throw up" the animal they in- 
 tend should perpetuate its race, after strains and 
 pains have rendered longer life a misery. 
 
 Exercise. — In the case of both the sire and the 
 mare, the extremes of idleness and of overwork 
 should be alike avoided. The stallion should be 
 in the best condition for his office: should not 
 be confined in a warm dark stable, with insuffi- 
 cient work, allowed to get too fat, and then be ex- 
 pected to impress on his progen)' the good qua- 
 lities he ought to transmit. And the dam, for the 
 whole period of gestation, ought to be kept at 
 moderate work. Idleness, high living, and too 
 much flesh work mischief to her and her off- 
 spring, as certainly as they do to her fellow- 
 mammais, highest in the scale of being. Per- 
 haps the more common danger may lie in the 
 direction of too much, not too little, exercise and 
 insufficient food ; but if the best results are to be 
 obtained, the judicious middle course must be 
 taken. In horses, as in the human family, per- 
 fect health involves the constant and judicious 
 use of the muscles, and the consequent uniform 
 and thorough vitalization of the blood, by which 
 only can the best results be obtained from 
 mother or otTspring. 
 
 Breeding in and in. — On this subject, that is, 
 persevering in the same breed, and selecting the 
 best on either side, much has been said. The 
 system of crossing requires much judgment and 
 experience ; a great deal more indeed than 
 breeders usually possess. The bad qualities of 
 the cross are too soon engrafted on the original 
 stock, and once engrafted there, are not, for 
 many generations, eradicated. The good ones of 
 both are occasionally neutralized to a most mor- 
 tifying degree. On the other hand, it is the fact, 
 however some may deny it, that strict confine- 
 ment to one breed, however valuable or perfect, 
 produces gradual deterioration. The truth here, 
 as in many other cases, lies in the middle; cross- 
 ing should be attempted with great caution, and 
 the most perfect of the same breed should be 
 selected, but varied, by being frequently taken 
 from different stocks. 
 
 Proper Time. — The mare comes into heat in the 
 early part of the spring. She is said to go with 
 foal eleven months, but there is sometimes a 
 strange irregularity about this. Some have been 
 known to foal five weeks earlier, vifhile the time 
 of others has been extended six weeks beyond 
 the eleven months. We may, however, take 
 eleven months as the average time. In running- 
 horses, that are brought so early to the starting- 
 post, and whether they are foaled early in Janu- 
 ary or late in April, rank as of the same age, it is 
 of importance that the mare should goto cover as 
 early as possible : in a two- or three-year-old, four 
 months would make considerable difference in 
 
 the growth and strength ; yet many of these 
 early foals are almost worthless, because they 
 have been deprived of that additional nutriment 
 which nature designed for them. For other 
 breeds, the beginning of May is the most con- 
 venient period. The mare would then foal in 
 the early part of April, when there would begin 
 to be sufficient food for her and her colt, without 
 confining them to the stable. 
 
 Abortion. — From the fourth month, the mare 
 should have a little better food. This is about 
 the period when there is danger of abortion, or, 
 as it is technically called, " slinking the foal;" 
 at this time, therefore, the eye of the owner 
 should be frequently upon her. Good feeding 
 and moderate exercise will be the best preven- 
 tives against this. The mare that has once 
 slinked her foal is ever liable to the same acci- 
 dent, and therefore should never be suffered to 
 be with other mares near the time of danger. 
 She should be kept away from bad smells, should 
 not be allowed to see blood or dying animals, and 
 she should never be frightened. Keep her quiet 
 and as contented as may be, and see that she 
 has plenty of food and of fresh air, and due exer- 
 cise. 
 
 Indications of Foaling Time.— From one to three 
 months before the expected event, the udder be- 
 gins to fill and swell, and continues increasing. 
 Some three weeks before, a hollow begins to ap- 
 pear on each side the spinal extension, reaching 
 from the haunch to the tail, and becomes more 
 apparent as the time approaches. The udder 
 two days before, or even less, will exude a gum- 
 my substance from the end of each teat. 
 
 Foaling. — When the time comes, the mare will 
 not be long in labor. She should be led into a 
 thickly littered loose box, with plenty of straw, 
 and without interstices through which she can 
 get her legs. As a general thing, she needs no 
 assistance. Where a false presentation is made, 
 or the size of the coming foal demands it, mechan- 
 ical services may be needed. The foal requires 
 nothing beyond a sheltered abode and its mo- 
 ther's attention. If it does not get milk enough 
 within twenty-four hours, a little skimmed cows' 
 milk, first boiled and then slightly sweetened, 
 being afterward diluted with its amount of warm 
 water, may, when sufficiently cool, be presented. 
 The human hand is inserted in the fluid, and two 
 fingers only allowed to protrude above the sur- 
 face; these are generally seized upon, the nour- 
 ishment being easily imbibed by the hungry foal. 
 More than a single feed is seldom needed. 
 
 The Mare and Colt— The colt should run with 
 its mother for five or six months, when it should 
 be weaned. The mare should from the start 
 have plenty of grass, and enough else to keep 
 her in condition. On weaning the colt, the mare 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 139 
 
 should be put on dry food to reduce the flow, 
 and if necessary the milk be drawn off by hand. 
 The mare will usually be found in heat at or 
 within a month from the time of foaling, when, 
 if further immediate breeding is an object, she 
 may be put again to horse. 
 
 The Young Colt. — He should be liberally fed 
 during the whole of his growth. Bruised oats 
 and bran should form a considerable part of his 
 daily provender. Money e.xpended on the proper 
 nourishment of the growing colt is well laid 
 out, but he should not be rendered delicate by 
 excess of care. He should be daily handled, 
 partially dressed, accustomed to the halter, led 
 about, and even tied up. 
 
 TRAINING HORSES. 
 
 Rarey's Directions. — Remember that there are 
 certain natural laws that govern the horse. It 
 is natural for him to kick whenever he gets badly 
 frightened ; it is natural for him to escape from 
 whatever he thinks will do him harm. His fac- 
 ulties of seeing, hearing and smelling have been 
 given him to examine everything new that he is 
 brought into contact with. And as long as you 
 present him with nothing that offends his eye, 
 nose or ears, you can then handle him at will, 
 notwithstanding he may be frightened at first, 
 so that in a short time he will not be afraid of 
 anything he is brought in contact with. All of 
 the whipping and spurring of horses for shying, 
 stumbling, etc., is useless and cruel. If he shies, 
 and you whip him for it, it only adds terror, and 
 makes the object larger than it would otherwise 
 be; give him time to examine it without punish- 
 ing him. He should never be hit with the whip, 
 under any circumstances, or for anything that he 
 does. As to smelling oil, there is nothing that 
 assists the trainer to tame his horse better. It 
 is better to approach a colt with the scent of 
 honey or cinnamon upon your hand, than the 
 scent of hogs, for horses naturally fear the scent 
 of hogs, and will attempt to escape from it, 
 while they like the scent of honev, cinnamon or 
 salt. To affect a horse with drugs, you must 
 give him some preparation of opium, and while 
 he is under the influence of it, you cannot teach 
 him anything more than a man when he is in- 
 toxicated with liquor. Another thing, you must 
 remember to treat him kindly, for where you re- 
 quire obedience, it is better to have it rendered 
 from a sense of love than fear. 
 
 "You should be careful not to chafe the lips 
 of your colt or hurt his mouth in anyway; if 
 you do, he will dislike to have the bridle on. 
 After he is taught to follow you. then put on the 
 harness, putting your lines through the shaft- 
 straps along the side, and teach him to yield to 
 
 the reins, turn short to the right and left, teach 
 him to stand still before he is ever hitched up; 
 you then have control over him. If he gets 
 frightened, the lines should be used as a tele- 
 graph, to let him know what you want him to 
 do. No horse is naturally vicious, but always 
 obeys his trainer as soon as he comprehends 
 what he would have him do; you must be firm 
 with him at the same time, and give him to 
 understand that you are the trainer, and that he 
 is the horse. 
 
 "The best bits to be used to hold a horse, to 
 keep his mouth from getting sore, is a straight 
 bar-bit, 4i inches long between the rings ; this 
 operates on both sides of the jaw, while the 
 ordinary snaffle forms a clamp and presses the 
 side of the jaw. The curb or bridoon hurts his 
 under jaw so that he will stop before he will give 
 to the rein. 
 
 To Throw a Horse. 
 
 "To throw a horse, put a rope 12 feet long 
 around his body in a running noose, pass it down 
 to the right forefoot through a ring in a spancil, 
 then buckle up the left or near forefoot, take a 
 firm hold of your rope, lead him around until he 
 is tired, give him a shove with your shoulder, at 
 the same time drawing up the right foot, which 
 brings him on his knees, hold him steady, and 
 in a few moments he will lie down. Never at- 
 tempt to hold him still, for the more he scufHes 
 the better. 
 
 " Take your colt into a tight room or pen, 
 and with a long whip commence snapping at his 
 hind leg, taking care not to hit above the hocks, 
 stopping -immediately when he turns his head 
 towards you; while his head is towards you, ap- 
 proach him with the left hand extended toward 
 him, holding your whip in the right, ready to 
 snap him as soon as he turns his head from you. 
 In this way you can soon get your hands upon 
 
140 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 him. As soon as you have done this, be careful 
 to caress him for his obedience, and snap him 
 for his disobedience. In this way he will soon 
 learn that he is safest in your presence with his 
 head towards you, and in a very short time you 
 cannot keep him away from you. Speak kindly 
 and firmly to him, all the time caressing him, 
 calling by name, and saying, ' Ho, boy,' or ' Ho, 
 Dan,' or some familiar word that he will soon 
 learn. 
 
 " If a colt is awkward and careless at first, 
 you must bear with him, remembering that we, 
 too, were awkward when young; allowing him 
 his own way, until by degrees he will come in. If 
 he is willful, you must then change your course 
 of treatment, by confining him in such a way 
 that he is powerless for harm until he submits. 
 If he is disposed to run, use my pole-check on 
 him ; if to kick, fasten a rope around his under 
 jaw, pass it through the collar and attach it to 
 his hind feet. In this way one kick will cure 
 him, as the force of the blow falls on his jaw. If 
 he should be stubborn, lay him down and con- 
 fine him until you subdue him, without punish- 
 ing him with the whip. 
 
 "Colts should be broken without blinds; after 
 they are well broken, then you may put them 
 on. Bridles without blinds are the best, unless 
 you want to speed your horse : then it will be 
 necessary to keep him from seeing the whip. 
 Colts should be well handled and taught to give 
 readily to the rein before they are hitched up. 
 If you hitch them up the first thing and they be- 
 come frightened, then you have no control over 
 them ; but if you teach them to start, stop and 
 stand at the word before they are hitched, then 
 you can govern them." 
 
 "Breaking" Horses.— The notion of "breaking" 
 a horse is disappearing. A few years ago, the 
 general feeling was, that a horse must be sub- 
 dued, have his "will broken," and be made to 
 understand, once for all if possible, that he must 
 implicitly obey. Under this system, resting im- 
 mediately and undisguisedly on brute force, 
 the animal, its spirit broken, perhaps be- 
 came an automaton, performing through fear 
 what resistance could not save him from. If he 
 tried to avoid a strange object that frightened 
 him, the whip, the spur and equally torturing 
 shouts were applied, and perhaps he succumbed, 
 and perhaps he didn't. Sometimes the superior 
 force of the animal won, he became or was re- 
 garded as vicious and tricky, and was sold from 
 hand to hand, till a horse fit for Gen. Grant to 
 ride or drive, sank to an omnibus or the towpath 
 of the canal. Mr. Rarey's success in training 
 horses brought into immediate notice a much 
 better way, and the increasing spirit of humanity 
 has carried forward what he was so prominent 
 
 in introducing. With horses as with men, the 
 great majority may be trained from higher im- 
 pulses than mere fear, and may be brought to a 
 stage of cooperative confidence and helpfulness 
 impossible where mere brute force is the sole 
 appeal. 
 
 TRAINING THE COLT. 
 
 This process should commence from the very 
 period of weaning. The foal should be daily 
 handled, partially dressed, accustomed to the 
 halter, led about, and even tied up. The tracta- 
 bility, good temper and value of the horse de- 
 pend greatly upon this. These offices should be 
 performed as much as possible by the man by 
 whom the colt is fed, and whose management 
 should be always kind and gentle. There is no 
 fault for which a servant should be discharged 
 so invariably or so proniplly as cruelty, or even 
 harshness, toward young stock ; for the principle 
 on which their later usefulness is founded, is 
 early attachment to and confidence in man, and 
 the implicit obedience resulting principally from 
 these. 
 
 After the second winter, the work of training 
 may begin in earnest. He may first be bitted, 
 and with a bit smaller than usual, and that will 
 not hurt his mouth ; with this he may be allowed 
 to amuse himself and to play, and to champ for 
 an hour on a few successive days. 
 
 If he is destined for farm or wagon work, por- 
 tions of the harness may, after he has become a 
 little tractable, be put on him. and last of all the 
 blinds. Let his first trial be by the side of an- 
 other horse, and before an empty wagon. Give 
 him an occasional pat or kind word; and in a 
 little while he will learn to pull, when a load may 
 be given him, and gradually increased. 
 
 When he begins a little to understand his busi- 
 ness, backing, the most difficult part of his work, 
 may be taught him ; first to back well without 
 anything behind him, then with a light cart, and 
 afterwards with some definite load ; and taking 
 the greatest care not to seriously hurt the mouth. 
 If the first lesson causes much soreness of the 
 gums, the colt will not readily submit to a 
 second. If he has been rendered tractable be- 
 fore by kind usage, time and patience will do all 
 that can be wished here. Blinding him may be 
 necessary with a restive and obstinate colt, but 
 should be used only as a last resort. 
 
 The same principles will apply to the training 
 of the horse for the road or the track. The 
 handling, and some portion of instruction, should 
 commence from the time of weaning. The 
 future tractability of the horse will much de- 
 pend on this. At two and a half or three years 
 the regular process of training should come on. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 141 
 
 If it be dela}'«d until the animal is four years 
 old. his strength and obstmacy will be more 
 difficult to overcome. There should be much 
 more kindness and patience, and far less harsh- 
 ness and cruelty, than are often exhibited, and a 
 great deal more attention to the form and natural 
 action of the horse. A headstall is put on the 
 colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and 
 pinch the nose) affixed to it, with long reins. He 
 is first accustomed to the rein, then led round a 
 ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and 
 taught his paces. Next to preserving the temper 
 and docility of the horse, there is nothing of so 
 much importance as to teach him every pace, 
 and every part of his duty, distinctly and tho- 
 roughly. Each must constitute a separate and 
 sometimes long-continued lesson, and that taught 
 by a man who will never suffer his passion to 
 get the better of his discretion. 
 
 After the cavesson has been attached to the 
 headstall, and the long rein put on, the first 
 lesson is, to be quietly led about by the trainer, 
 a steady boy following behind, by occasional 
 threatening with the whip, but never by an 
 actual blow, to keep the colt up. When the 
 animal follows readily and quietly, he may be 
 taken to the ring, and walked round, right and 
 left, in a very small circle. Care should be taken 
 to teach him this pace thoroughly, never suffer- 
 ing him to break into a trot. The boy with his 
 whip may here again be necessary, but not a single 
 blow should actually fall. 
 
 Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he 
 should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily 
 at it; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him 
 on, and the cavesson restraining him. These 
 lessons should be short. The pace should be 
 kept perfect and distinct in each; and docility 
 and improvement rewarded with frequent ca- 
 resses, and handfuls of corn. The length of the 
 rein may now be gradually increased, the pace 
 quickened, and the time extended, until the ani- 
 mal becomes tractable in these his first lessons, 
 towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, 
 or something similar, may be attached to the 
 clothing. These, playing about the sides and 
 flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat 
 of the rider. The annoyance which they occa- 
 sion will pass over in a day or two ; for when the 
 animal finds that no harm comes to him on 
 account of these straps, he will cease to regard 
 them. 
 
 Next comes the bitting. The bit should be 
 large and smooth, and the reins should be 
 buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. The 
 reins should at first be slack, and very gradually 
 tightened. This will prepare for the more per- 
 fect manner in which the head will be afterward 
 got into a proper position, when the colt is 
 
 accustomed to the saddle. Occasionally the 
 trainer should stand in front of the colt, take 
 hold of each side-rein near the mouth, and press 
 upon it, and thus begin to teach him to stop and 
 to back at the pressure of the rein, rewarding 
 every act of docility, and not being too eager to 
 punish occasional c irelessness or waywardness. 
 
 The colt may now be taken into the road or 
 street to be gradually accustomed to objects 
 among which his services will be required. 
 Here, from fear or playfulness, a considerable 
 degree of starting and shying may be exhibited. 
 As little notice as possible should be taken of it. 
 The same or similar objects should be soon 
 passed again, but at a greater distance. If the 
 colt still shies, let the distance be farther in- 
 creased, until he takes no notice of the object; 
 then he may gradually be brought nearer to it, 
 and this will be usually effected without the 
 slightest difficulty; whereas, had there been an 
 attempt to force the animal close to it in the 
 first instance, the remembrance of the contest 
 would have been associated with the object, 
 and the habit of shying would have been es- 
 tablished. 
 
 Hitherto, with a cool and patient trainer, the 
 whip may have been shown, but will scarcely 
 have been used ; the colt must now, however, be 
 accustomed to this necessary instrument of 
 authority. Let the trainer walk by the side of 
 the animal, and throw his right arm over his 
 back, holding the reins in his left, and occasion- 
 ally quicken his pace, and, at the moment of 
 doing this, tap the horse with the whip in his 
 right hand, and at first very gently. The tap of 
 the whip and the quickening of the pace will 
 soon become associated together in the mind of 
 the animal. If necessary, the taps may gradu- 
 ally fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain 
 be the monitor of the necessitj' of increased 
 exertion. The lessons of reining-in and stop- 
 ping, and backing on the pressure of the bit, 
 may continue to be practiced at the same time. 
 
 He may now be taught to bear the saddle. 
 Some little caution will be necessary at first 
 putting it on. The trainer should stand at the 
 head of the colt, patting him and engaging his 
 attention, while an assistant on the off-side 
 gently places the saddle on the animal's back, 
 and another on the other side slowly tightens 
 the girths. If he submits quietly to this, as he 
 generally will when the previous training has 
 been properly conducted, the operation of mount- 
 ing may be attempted. The trainer will need 
 two assistants. He will remain at the colt's head, ' 
 patting and fondling him, while the rider will 
 put his foot into the stirrup and bear a little 
 weight on it, while the man on the off-side 
 presses equally on the other stirrup-leather; and 
 
142 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 according to the docility of the animal, he will 
 gradually increase the weight until he balances 
 himself on the stirrup. If the colt be uneasy or 
 afraid, he should be spoken kindly to and patted, 
 or a mouthful of corn be given him ; but if he 
 offer serious resistance, the training must ter- 
 minate for that day ; he may be in better humor 
 on the morrow. 
 
 When the rider has balanced himself for a 
 minute or two, he may gently throw his leg over, 
 and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The trainer 
 will then lead the animal round the ring, the 
 rider sitting perfectly still. After a few minutes 
 he will take the reins and handle them as gently 
 as possible, and guide the horse by the pressure 
 of them; patting him frequently, and especially 
 when he thinks of dismounting, and after hav- 
 ing dismounted offering him a little corn. The 
 use of the rein in checking him, and of the 
 pressure of the leg and the touch of the heel 
 in quickening his pace, will soon be taught, and 
 the education will be nearly completed. 
 
 The horse having thus far submitted himself 
 to the trainer, these pattings and rewards must 
 be gradually diminished, and implicit obedience 
 mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will not 
 often be necessary; in the great majority of 
 cases it will be altogether uncalled for ; but 
 should the animal waywardly dispute the order 
 of the trainer, he must at once be taught that 
 he is the servant, and must obey. The educa- 
 tion of the horse is much like that of the child. 
 Pleasure is, as much as possible, associated with 
 the early lessons; but firmness or, if needed, 
 coercion must confirm the habit of obedience. 
 Tyranny and cruelty will, more speedily in the 
 horse than in the child, provoke the wish to dis- 
 obey, and the resistance to command. The 
 restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases 
 out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage. None 
 but those who will take the trouble to try the 
 experiment are aware how absolute a command 
 a due admixture of firmness and kindness will 
 soon give over any horse. 
 
 The Check-Rein. — There has been great outcry 
 made against the use of this rein, here and also 
 in England, where it is called the bearing-rein. 
 Mr. Bergh has denounced its use vehemently, 
 and as President of the " Society for the Preven- 
 tion of Cruelty to Animals" has tried to force 
 its banishment. To check-rein a horse is said 
 to be equivalent to trussing a man's head back- 
 ward toward his back or heels, and compelling 
 him, while in this position, to do duty with a 
 loaded wheelbarrow. Mayhew says : " For the 
 rapid motion of the head being impossible, it 
 cannot be used to restore the disturbed balance. 
 The nimbleness which could avoid sudden dan- 
 ger is destroyed by the fashionable want of feel- 
 
 ing. It is a matter for surprise that the presence 
 of the bearing-rein is never alluded to when gen- 
 tlemen seek redress because their vehicles have 
 been damaged. Most horsemen, however, es- 
 teem the neck for its appearance, and few com- 
 prehend its utility." 
 
 And Youatt : " The angles of the lips are fre- 
 quently made sore or wounded by the smallness 
 or shortness of the snaffle, and by the unneces- 
 sary and cruel tightness of the bearing-rein. 
 This rein not only gives the horse a grander ap- 
 pearance in harness, and places the head in that 
 position in which the bit most powerfully presses 
 upon the jaw, but there is no possibility of driv- 
 ing without it, unless the arm of the driver is as 
 strong as that of Hercules; and most certainly' 
 there is no safety if it be not used. There are 
 few horses who will not bear, or bore upon some- 
 thing, and it is better to let them bore upon 
 themselves than upon the arm of the driver. 
 Without this control, many of them would hang 
 their heads low and be disposed every moment 
 to stumble, and would defy all pulling, if they 
 tried to run away. There is, and can be, no ne- 
 cessity, however, for using a bearing-rein so tight 
 as to cramp the muscles of the head, which is 
 indicated by the animal's continually tossing up 
 his head : they may indeed be cramped to such 
 a degree, that the horse is scarcely able to bring 
 his head to the ground when turned to grass. 
 The tight rein injures and excoriates the angles 
 of the lips, and frequently brings on poll-evil. 
 Except it be a restive or determined horse, 
 there should be little more bearing upon the 
 mouth than is generally used in riding. This 
 the horse likes to feel, and it is necessary for 
 him in the swift gallop. We must have the bear- 
 ing-rein, whatever some men of humanity may 
 say against it ; but we need not use it cruelly." 
 
 This seems to be the conclusion of common- 
 sense. Sentimentalists may condemn and de- 
 nounce the check-rein. Now and then a horse gets 
 along without it. So " reformers" occasionally 
 condemn and denounce the use by women of cor- 
 sets or stays, and now and then a woman gets 
 along without them. In Greece and Rome per- 
 haps neither device was used. But here and now, 
 in the great majority of instances, it is safer and 
 pleasanter to use a check-rein in driving. 
 
 THE TEETH. 
 
 A foal at birth has three molars, or grinding- 
 teeth, just through the gums, upon both sides 
 of the upper and of the lower jaws. It generally 
 has no incisors or front teeth ; but the gums are 
 inflamed and evidently upon the eve of bursting. 
 The molars or grinders are, as yet, unflattened 
 or have not been rendered smooth by attrition. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 14a 
 
 The lower jaw, when the inferior margin is felt, 
 appears to be very thicli, blunt and round. 
 
 A fortnight has rarely elapsed before the 
 membrane ruptures, and two pairs of front, very 
 white teeth begin to appear in the mouth. At 
 
 The Foal's Jaw at Birth. 
 
 first, these new members look disproportionately 
 large to their tiny abiding-place ; and when con- 
 trasted with the reddened gums at their base, 
 they have that pretty, pearly aspect which is the 
 common characteristic of the milk teeth in most 
 animals. 
 
 The Incisors at Two Weeks Old. 
 
 In another month, when the foal is six weeks 
 old, more teeth appear. Much of the swelling 
 at first present has softened down. The mem- 
 brane, as time progresses, will lose much of its 
 scarlet hue. In the period which has elapsed 
 
 The Incisors at Six Weeks Old. 
 
 since the former teeth were looked at, the sense 
 of disproportionate size has gone. The two 
 front teeth are now fully up, and these are al- 
 most of suitable proportions. When the two 
 pairs of lateral incisors first make their appear- 
 ance, it is in such a shape as can imply no assur- 
 ance of their future form. They resemble the 
 
 corner nippers, and do not suggest the smallest 
 likeness to the lateral incisors which they will 
 ultimately become. 
 
 There is now a long pause before more teeth 
 appear. The little one lives chiefly upon suction,^ 
 and runs by its mother's side. Upon the com- 
 pletion of the first month, seldom earlier, it may 
 be observed to lower its head and nip the young 
 grass. From the third month, however, the 
 habit grows, until, by the sixth month, the grind- 
 ers will be worn quite flat, and have been re- 
 duced to the state suited to their function. 
 
 The Front Teeth at Nine Months Old. 
 
 The corner incisors come into the mouth about 
 the ninth month, the four pair of nippers, which 
 have been already traced, being at this time fully 
 developed. The corner incisors, which are de- 
 picted as through the gums, do not yet meet, 
 though these organs point toward each other; 
 neither has the membrane of the mouth at this 
 time entirely lost the deepened hue of infancy. 
 
 From this date, however, the gums gradually 
 become pale, till, by the end of the first year, the 
 membrane has nearly assumed its normal com- 
 plexion during the earlier period of existence. 
 All the incisors are, by the first birthday, well up. 
 The grinding teeth which are in the mouth 
 when the foal first sees the light are of a tempo- 
 rary character. The jaw, therefore, has to hold 
 and to mature the long permanent grinders 
 which, within the substance of the bone, are 
 
 The Jaw of a One-year-old. 
 
 growing beneath the temporary molars. To 
 contain and to develop the large uncut teeth, be- 
 fore appearing above the gums, causes the small 
 jaw of a diminutive foal to be disproportionately 
 thick, especially as compared with the same 
 structure in an adult horse. 
 
 At one year old, the first permanent tooth ap- 
 
144 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 pears. This is the fourth molar, or the most 
 backward grinder in the engraving. The jaw- 
 bone at one year old has become longer and 
 wider. This increase of size was necessary to 
 cover the increasing size of the new molar, and 
 to afford room for the partial development of 
 two other grinders, which will appear behind 
 what is now the last tooth. Often little nodules 
 of bone, without fangs, merely attached to the 
 
 Jaw at Two Years Old. 
 
 gums, appear in front of each row of grinders. 
 These are vulgarly denominated " Wolves' 
 Teeth." They generally disappear with the 
 shedding of those members facing which they 
 are located. 
 
 The changes in the teeth, after the first year, 
 are characterized by the longer periods which 
 divide them. Months have, heretofore, separated 
 the advent of single pairs; but, from this date, 
 these appearances are to be reckoned by numbers 
 and by years. The foal has teeth sufficient to 
 support and to maintain its growth. Prepara- 
 tion is being made for the advent of the si.xth 
 grinder, and for changes in those milk molars 
 which were in the mouth when the animal was 
 born. At the same time, additional width is 
 needed to allow the permanent incisors to appear 
 when their time conies. 
 
 The Incisor Teeth at Two Years Old. 
 
 In the front teeth of a two-year-old, there is a 
 want of that fixedness which, one year before, 
 was characteristic of these organs. The central 
 nippers have done their duty, or, at all events, 
 something approaching to maturity has been at- 
 tained. 
 
 Three years old is the period when the greater 
 number of colts are brought to market. The 
 
 bit then is put into its mouth, and it is driven 
 from the field. At a period of change and of 
 debility it is expected to display the greatest ani- 
 mation, and to learn strange things. When its 
 gums are inflamed ; when the system is excited ; 
 when the strength is absorbed by an almost si- 
 multaneous appearance of twelve teeth, it is led 
 from the pasture and made, with its bleeding 
 jaws, to masticate sharp oats and fibrous hay. 
 
 The Incisors denote no more than Three Years Old. 
 
 It has been said that a three-year-old colt cuts 
 twelve teeth. The engraving represents half the 
 lower jaw of an animal of that age. Those or- 
 gans which are of recent appearance vvill be 
 recognized by their darker color, by their larger 
 size, or by their differing in shape from the other 
 members. These new teeth are a central inci- 
 sor and the first two grinders. The horse has 
 two jaws and two sides to each jaw ; therefore 
 the same number being present within each side 
 of both jaws, the teeth already alluded to appear 
 during the third year. However, even this quan- 
 tity rather understates than overrates the fact, for 
 
 Jaw of a Three-veab-old. 
 
 frequently the tushes are cut during this period; 
 in such a case, the colt acquires no less than six- 
 teen teeth in twelve months. 
 
 The four- year-old has to perfect as many teeth 
 as are known to protrude into the mouth of the 
 three-year-old. But the precise time of the ap- 
 pearance of the tushes is uncertain. They may 
 come up at the third or the fourth year; some- 
 
HOUSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 145 
 
 times they never pierce the gums, it being very 
 far from uncommon to see horses' mouths of 
 seven years without the tushes. 
 
 Jaw of a Four-vear-old. 
 
 ■ ir'^.\ 
 
 Ons Lower Lateral Incisor being through the Gum 
 declares a four-year-old. 
 
 These Teeth equally declare only Four Years Old. 
 
 FIVE-YEAR OLD. 
 
 One upper corner permanent incisor has been cut. The lower 
 corner milk incisor is still retained. 
 
 By the end of the fourth j'ear, the colt has 
 certainly gained twelve teeth ; by this time there 
 should exist, on each side of both jaws, one new 
 lateral incisor and two fresh molars, being the 
 third and the si.xth in position. The appearance 
 
 lO 
 
 of the mouth now indicates the approach of ma- 
 turity ; but the inferior margin of the lower bona 
 still feels more full and rounded than is consis- 
 
 
 
 SIX YEARS OLD, 
 
 tent with the consolidation of an osseous struc- 
 ture. 
 
 The process of dentition is not finished by the 
 termination of the fourth year. There are more 
 
 
 SEVEN YEARS OLD. 
 
 teeth to be cut. as well as the fangs of those al- 
 ready in the mouth to be made perfect. 
 
 The colt with four pairs of permanent incisors 
 has still the corner milk nippers to shed; yet. 
 
 EIGHT YEARS OLD. 
 
 while the provision necessary for that labor is 
 taking place within the body, or while nature is 
 preparing for the coming struggle, man considers 
 the poor quadruped as fully developed and as 
 enjoying the prime of its existence. 
 
146 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 The teeth may be scarcely visible in the 
 mouth, nevertheless such a sign announces the 
 fifth year to be attained. There are, at five, no 
 
 TWELVE YEARS OLD. 
 
 more bothering teeth to cut. AH are through 
 the bone, and the mouth will soon be sound. 
 
 The indications of extreme age are always 
 present, and though during a period of senility 
 
 TWENTY YEARS OLD. 
 
 the teeth cannot be literally construed, never- 
 theless it should be impossible to look upon 
 the "venerable steed" as an animal in its colt- 
 hood. 
 
 No man can accurately interpret the signs of 
 
 THIRTY YEARS OLD. 
 
 the teeth after the fifth year. A guess, more or 
 less correct, can be hazarded ; but nothing like 
 confident judgment can be pronounced. 
 
 SHOEING. 
 
 Rarey's Directions. — " There are very few black- 
 smiths that ever once think what a complicated 
 piece of machinery the foot of a horse is, and by 
 one careless blow they frequently stop the work- 
 ing of this machine. The majority of smiths, as 
 soon as they pick up a horse's foot, go to work 
 paring the heel, from the fact that it is the most 
 convenient part of the foot, and therefore destroy 
 the heel and braces of the foot, causing, in many 
 instances, contracted heels. The heels of a horse 
 should be well kept up, and the toe down. By 
 lowering the heels you throw the entire weight 
 of your horse upon the back tendon of the legs, 
 and thereby produce lameness from overta.xing a 
 very important set of tendons. By keeping up 
 the heel you throw the weight upon the wall of 
 the foot. In this position you prevent stum- 
 bling, clicking, etc. Next the shoer commences 
 to pare away the sole, and thins it down until he 
 can feel it spring with his thumb. Ask him why 
 he does this, and he gives you no reason, except 
 from custom. Next come the bars or braces of 
 the foot, they are smoothed down; next in his 
 ruinous course come the frogs of the feet, they 
 are subjected to the same cutting and smoothing 
 process. All the cutting, paring and smoothing 
 of the soles, bars or frogs is a decided injury to 
 the horse as well as to the owner. All the corns 
 in the land are produced by this process of par- 
 ing. The frogs have been placed in the foot by 
 nature to expand the wall of the foot, and as soon 
 as you commence to cut one, the oily substance 
 begins to leak out, dries up, becomes hard, losing 
 its oily substance, and makes the wall hard and 
 dry, inducing it to crack. 
 
 " The nerves of the feet are very sensitive, and 
 smiths should be careful not to prick the feet, 
 as it requires quite a time to relieve them. The 
 foot is a very complicated piece of machinery, 
 and if you keep a horse well shod and his 
 foot in good condition, you can then generally 
 manage the balance. The feet suffer from being 
 kept too dry. Horses that stand on board floors 
 should have their feet wet every day, or there 
 should be a vat five inches deep, five feet long, 
 and three wide, filled with water and clay, in 
 which each horse can stand for one hour per 
 week, unless his feet are feverish, then he should 
 be kept it in an hour per day, or until the fever 
 subsides. 
 
 "Another source of injury to horses' feet, is 
 the habit of patronizing cheap blacksmiths. If 
 a man can drive a nail, he then sets up a sign as 
 a farrier or a veterinary surgeon, when in fact he 
 knows nothing of the anatomy of the horse's 
 foot; not having spent any time or money in 
 acquiring the necessary information, he can 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 147 
 
 afford to shoe a few shillings cheaper than a 
 well-informed man, but the patrons of such cheap 
 shoeing are generally the sufferers. All horse- 
 shoers should be well-skilled veterinary sur- 
 geons, or there should be a skillful surgeon at- 
 tached to every shop. 
 
 "Another source of poor shoeing and injury 
 is the loss of elasticity of the frog, which refuses 
 to perform its proper functions; the heel don- 
 tracts, the foot rolls, and you have a sore horse 
 for the ten or twelve months required to relieve 
 a horse's suffering from being badly shod. The 
 first thing that touches the road or the floor of 
 the stall, should be the frog, and the wall of the 
 foot should be kept cut so as not to prevent it 
 from touching at every step; and no man that 
 owns a horse should ever allow a blacksmith to 
 cut the soles, bars or frogs of his horse's feet. 
 Nature has adapted the frogs to all description 
 of roads, climates and weather, without being 
 pared. So many horses have been ruined by 
 this process of paring, that there are now several 
 establishments in this country that manufacture 
 India-rubber pads, thinkingthereby to supply the 
 wasted frog and the elasticity of the natural foot. 
 The frog is insensible to pressure, and you may 
 place the whole weight of your horse on the 
 frog and he will suffer no inconvenience. This 
 is the only reliable way to cure contracted feet ; 
 by throwing the weight upon the frog, you force 
 them up between the walls ; they act as a wedge, 
 and soon relieve the contracted feet. 
 
 "Smiths should never have their shoes hot 
 when fitting them, as the application of hot iron 
 extracts the oily substance from the hoof. The 
 amount of cruel punishment inflicted on horses 
 by cross-grain blacksmiths, is another source of 
 poor shoeing. As soon as the horse does not 
 stand the smith gets angry, and commences 
 whipping and jerking the animal, which only 
 adds terror to it, so that he soon refuses to go to 
 the shop if he can avoid it ; it is natural for 
 horses to dislike to be shod, because the ham- 
 mering shocks the nervous system, until they 
 are accustomed to it. He should be taught to 
 stand, and his feet well handled at home, before 
 he is ever brought to the shop by the owner. 
 You then save the horse pounding, and the smith 
 an immense amount of labor that he never gets 
 any pay for, for no man ever thinks of paying 
 anything extra for shoeing a bad horse. The 
 wall of the foot should never be rasped above 
 the nail-holes, and as little below the clenches 
 as possible ; all the rasping and filing but tends 
 to thin and weaken the wall by cutting the fibers 
 of the foot. The nails should be countersunk into 
 the shoe, so that there will be no chance for the 
 clenches to rise. No horse interferes with the 
 heel or toe; it is always the side of the foot. 
 
 The habit of turning the inside of the shoe un- 
 der causes a number of horses to interfere, that 
 would not if they were shod straight in the in- 
 side. Spread the heels as wide as possible; set 
 the outside a little under; keep the toes full. 
 For clicking horses, raise the heels high, cut the 
 toes short. For speedy cuts, place your toe- 
 corks a quarter of an inch to the inside of the 
 center of your shoe; keep the heels wide apart. 
 For corns, put on a shoe with a prong, for the 
 main rim, so as to cover the entire frog, pare the 
 wall lower than the frog, so that the entire weight 
 will be thrown on the frog. Have the inner 
 cork not quite so sharp as the outer one, so that 
 if he steps upon the other foot, he will not cut 
 it; make the shoes as light as possible consis- 
 tently with good service, as they are ordinarily 
 made just about one third too heavy." 
 
 Shoeing a horse is understood to signify fasten- 
 ing a piece of iron to the horn which envelops 
 the foot of the animal. Such an operation ap- 
 pears to be a simple affair; but there is no sub- 
 ject associated with veterinary science on which 
 more research has been expended, about which 
 
 Diagram illustrative of the Different Kinds of Horn 
 
 COMPOSING THE HORSE's HOOF. 
 
 a a. The wall. The outer dark portion is called the crust of the 
 wall, and the li^ht-colored.soft. inner horn is thrown into the 
 laminae, or thin leaves, whereby it gains extent of attachment 
 to its secreting membrane. 
 
 6. The light-colored and yielding horn of the sole. 
 
 c. The tinted but elastic horn of the frog. 
 
 more bitter discussion has been indulged, or with 
 regard to which proprietors and practitioners are 
 more at variance. Certainly no matter can pos- 
 sibly be more intimatelj' connected with the suf- 
 ferings and the comforts of the equine race. The 
 arrangement of the nails near to the outer edge, 
 and the fixing of them into the hard outer wall 
 of the crust, are methods still followed, though 
 experience has demonstrated that such numerous 
 bodies, driven almost perpendicularly into a thin 
 and a brittle substance, are better calculated to 
 break the hoof than likely to hold on that which 
 it is their office to retain. 
 
 No other mode of driving the nails is at pre- 
 sent in general practice ; though the modern vet- 
 erinary surgeon recognizes all the evils which 
 attend the habit, yet these evils he contentedly 
 continues to class as diseases. 
 
148 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Structure of the Hoof. — The wall of the foot is so 
 much horn as can be seen when the hoof rests 
 upon the ground, and when it is viewed either 
 from the front or from the sides. This wall is 
 supplied from two sources. The coronet, or the 
 prominence to be seen immediately above the 
 hoof, secretes the outer layer of horn, which is 
 the darkest, is very much the hardest, and is the 
 most brittle of all the constituents of the hoof. 
 The laminse, or the highly-sensitive covering of 
 the internal foot, secrete the inward layer of 
 horn, which is soft, tough and devoid of color. 
 
 False Quarter, or a De- 
 ficiencv of the outer 
 Wall. 
 
 The Only Possible Re- 
 lief FOR False Quar- 
 ter. 
 
 These two opposite and distinct secretions are 
 joined together, forming one body. The inti- 
 mate union of opposite properties endues the 
 substance thus compounded with the character- 
 istics of both. The hard, outward horn is 
 needed to protect the foot against stones and 
 rocks. The internal, white horn, being fastened 
 upon this substance, acts as a corrective to its 
 harsh nature, preventing it from breaking, split- 
 ting and chipping, which it else must have done 
 under tlie weight it was destined to sustain, and 
 when fulfilling the purposes of the horse's hoof. 
 
 
 Section of a Horse's 
 Foot affected with 
 Seedy Toe. 
 
 A Foot with Sandcback. 
 
 nUischief from Separation. — When these two kinds 
 of horn are separated, the division is known as 
 false quarter, and as seedy toe ; and the foot is 
 recognized as weakened when such a want of 
 union is discovered. The outer, dark-colored 
 horn becomes more brittle; the while, internal 
 horn grows more soft for the want of that junc- 
 tion by means of which each communicated its 
 attributes to the other. So also when the two 
 descriptions of horn, although united, cease to 
 influence one another, this condition is a morbid 
 alteration, known as a changed state of hoof. 
 Thus, when a sandcrack is visible, or the wall 
 
 divides from the ground surface to the coronet, 
 the foot's incasement is recognized as un- 
 healthy; but in the forge, the application of such 
 facts is, by many smiths, utterly ignored. 
 
 The Arab Method. — The Arab takes advantage 
 of the united properties of the horn. In 
 warm countries the horse's hoof grows strong 
 and thick, and he allows the wall to descend 
 half an inch below the sole, and right through 
 this portion of projecting hoof he drives the 
 nails which secure the shoe. Thus he does not 
 injure the foot by the insertion of foreign bodies 
 
 The Modb of fastening the Arabian Shoe to the Hoof of 
 
 THE Horse. 
 
 through its more brittle substance, and he se- 
 cures the united resistance and tough qualities of 
 the complex covering of the foot. 
 
 The Usual f/lethod. — But the average blacksmith 
 here, on the contrary, by ranging the holes for 
 the fastenings round the edge of the shoe, drives 
 the nails only into the harder kind of horn, and 
 transfi.xes the crust for a considerable distance. 
 The nail is meant to pierce only the black or 
 
 Fractured Conpition ofthe Horn, consequent upon driving 
 Nails through the Brittle Outer Crust of the Wall. 
 
 outward substance of the wall. This may, seem- 
 ingly, afford the better hold ; but it is a more 
 dangerous one. There is. likewise, the peril of 
 pricking the sensitive foot, should the nail turn 
 a little to one side, as not unfrequently happens. 
 Another danger is that which the forge calls 
 driving a nail " too fine," forcing it near the 
 white horn rather than sending it directly 
 through the center of the narrow dark crust. 
 There is a tliird peril. Horses, with thin walls, 
 present difficulties. The smith is afraid of 
 either pricking the foot or driving the nail "too 
 fine;" should this accident ensue, the nail will. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 149 
 
 upon the animal being worked, bulge inward, and 
 provoke acute lameness, often causing pus to be 
 generated. To avoid these evils, he points his 
 nails outward ; and, by so doing, not unseldom 
 induces the harsh outer crust to crack, to split 
 up or to chip off. To such an extent does this 
 sometimes happen, that the smith is puzzled to 
 find a place where a nail will hold. 
 
 It is a common thing to hear veterinary sur- 
 geons attribute to the operation of shoeing all 
 the evils by which the hoof is aflected. They 
 assert that a colt invariably has an open, healthy 
 foot, until it is shod ; but, from the day upon 
 which the animal enters the forge, the horn be- 
 gins to be irregularly secreted, and the hoof to 
 grow misshapen. 
 
 The worst evil which results from a shoe be- 
 coming partially released is not the inconve- 
 nience it occasions the rider, nor fracture, often 
 produced, on the hoof of the animal. Some 
 portion of the horn first yields. This mishap 
 throws greater stress upon the remaining fasten- 
 
 Thb Shoe partially breaks from the Insecure Fastenings, 
 
 AND ONE OF THE NaILS, STICKING UP, PIERCES THE SOLE OF THE 
 
 Foot. 
 
 ings. The shoe becomes loose. The majority 
 of the nails give way, but one may continue 
 firm. The shoe is fastened as by a pivot, and 
 with every step swings from side to side. The 
 released nails stick upward — the earth or road- 
 way, as well as the clinches, preventing these 
 from leaving their places. When the foot is in 
 the air. the shoe hangs suspended. When the 
 foot is placed upon the ground, it may be im- 
 paled upon the nails that protrude upward. The 
 shoe gets under the foot. The blunt and jagged 
 points are, by the weight of the quadruped, 
 forced through the soft sole or frog at the 
 bottom of the hoof; and a dangerous wound is 
 inflicted, the uneven metal being often driven for 
 some distance into the body of the coffin-bone. 
 
 It is objected to the Arabian method, that if 
 the hoof be permitted to grow, the elongation of 
 the horn at the toe and its non-removal by the 
 knife would occasion this portion of the foot to 
 protrude. What the writer contemplates is, _ 
 
 moderating the smith's employment of the 
 drawing-knife and of the rasp, and enforcing 
 some caution in the application of the red-hot 
 iron, when burning a seat for the shoe. Why 
 need the wall be always cut away till it is level 
 with the horny sole? Why bring this last por- 
 tion of the pedal covering, which is naturally 
 soft and yielding, on a line with that part of the 
 crust which is imbued with a power of resist- 
 ance.-' Nay, the liarder wall is protected by the 
 shoe on which it rests; while the softer sole is 
 brought near to the ground, being left exposed to 
 an injury, which the lesion known as bruise of 
 the sole proves not unfrequently to happen. 
 
 The sole being thus exposed close to the 
 earth, is the fruitful source of many "accidents." 
 The soft horn being brought so low, is rendered 
 constantly wet. The consequence is a harshness 
 of texture, opposed to the evident intent of na- 
 ture. This harshness is one of the most com- 
 mon sources of corns. The edge of the sole rests 
 upon the web of the shoe — the descent of the 
 coffin-bone, being unable to play upon a yielding 
 sole, squeezes the flesh between the inferior sur- 
 face of the bone and the upper surface of the 
 shoe. This is acknowledged as the principal 
 source of corns. Stones and other rubbish often 
 become impacted between the horny sole and 
 the shoe. In this situation, the foreign sub- 
 stances are retained firmly and provoke acute 
 lameness. 
 
 The shape of the horse's sole, its yielding cha- 
 acter, and its position immediately under the 
 coffin-bone, all should be accepted as proofs that 
 it is of service in supporting the weight of the 
 body. It proves nothing to assert that if the 
 sole is removed, the pedal bone will not fall 
 down. The burden may repose upon the num- 
 erous laminae and upon the bulging rim of the 
 coronet, as well as drag upon the lateral car- 
 tilages. Here is sufficient material to uphold 
 even a greater load ; but can such a force be ar- 
 bitrarily imposed without provoking nature's 
 resentment ? The parts here named are the 
 very regions which are the common seats of foot- 
 disease. Ossified cartilages, irregular secretion 
 of coronary horn, and laminitis, in the acute or in 
 the chronic form, are very common to stables ; 
 so also is navicular disease, which the trimming 
 of the frog is also likely to induce. 
 
 To rectify such evils, it is proposed that half 
 an inch of crust should be allowed to protrude 
 below a sole of moderate thickness. That all 
 idea of breadth of shoe affording the slightest 
 protection be at once abolished ; because the 
 broad web has been proved rather to afford 
 harbor to hurtful matter than to protect the 
 sole from injury. That the shoe be made only 
 just wide enough to afford bearing to the wall 
 
150 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 of the hoof, and to allow sufficient room for the 
 nail-holes to pierce the substance of the iron. 
 The crust was designed to sustain the weight of 
 the animal's body, and the most ignorant smith 
 would not think of permitting the entire burden 
 to bear upon the sole. A space large enough to 
 give room for the nails and to provide an ample 
 rest for the wall of the hoof is all that can be of 
 use; and, being so, all additional width only ren- 
 ders the shoe of an unnecessary weight. Ac- 
 
 Proposed Mode of Nailing, 
 
 cording to this plan, the hold would be much 
 firmer, embracing the two kinds of horn which 
 nature ordained should unite to form the wall of 
 the hoof. A simple puncture is made through 
 all the substance, which, as the opening made is 
 filled with metal, can hardly produce weakness in 
 the structure. The smith usually drives the nail 
 perpendicularly, not through the wall of the hoof, 
 but into its outward investing envelope, or into a 
 material particularly harsh and resentful of inter- 
 ference — thus separating the fibers of the horn, 
 destroying its integrity, and, of course, weaken- 
 ing its capability of sustaining violence. 
 
 Calks. — These as usually made and attached to 
 the shoes of the horse, are positive abominations. 
 The shoe, in the first instance, is forged too long 
 for the foot, when, the extra length of iron being 
 bent downward, a calk is established. Such 
 
 A High Calk. 
 
 an arrangement throws the entire bearing for- 
 ward, where it already strongly presses. Al- 
 though contraction of the tendons is mostly con- 
 fined to work-horses, and this constrained posi- 
 tion of the foot must favor such an affection, 
 nevertheless the smith may receive it as an un- 
 just accusation when he is told that high calks 
 are to blame for the spread of such a state of 
 disease. 
 
 The Slipper-Shoe. — To obviate these dangers the 
 following form of shoe lias been devised. Its 
 principal peculiarity is the long strip of metal 
 which rises above the upper surface and conceals 
 about three quarters of an inch of the toe. This 
 is not an enlarged kind of clip, but a hollow re- 
 ceptacle, which projects above the shoe and 
 covers part of the hoof. The toe is sheltered 
 within the shallow cavity, whose purpose is to 
 afford the stay which the clip imperfectly pro- 
 
 The Foot of a Heavv Animal, with the Slipper-Shob 
 fixed on it. 
 
 vides at the expense of the horn's destruction. 
 When the fore portion of the foot is being dug 
 into the earth, this provision, while it allows the 
 hoof to be employed in its integrity, will prevent 
 
 A Light Shoe. Showing the Manner in which Calks may bb 
 
 FORMED without ANY INCREASE OF WeiGHT. 
 
 The diagram exhibits the SHpper-shoe, as suited for different 
 breeds of animals ; also shows the sameness in both kinds of 
 manufacture. 
 
 all the stress being transferred to the nails, and 
 thus hinder the clinches being loosened. 
 
 The shoe has no web. It consists of a piece 
 of iron the breadth of which is merely sufficient 
 to afford a secure lodgment for the crust. It 
 possesses true calks, but their existence does not 
 interfere with the level of the upper surface on 
 which the foot rests. The shoe is forged of one 
 thickness from toe to heel ; and a portion of 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 151 
 
 \ metal under each quarter being removed, leaves 
 the calk, which thus only serves to maintain the 
 evenness of the bearing. 
 
 Shoes are generally fullered, or have a hollow 
 space, narrow but long, near the outer margin. 
 In this empty void or groove the heads of the 
 nails are received; but as the substance in front 
 is ground down by wear, of course the duration 
 of the shoe must be shortened in proportion to 
 the depth of the fullering. 
 
 By the ne.xt illustration, which represents the 
 ground surface, the reader will perceive an in- 
 dented void near to the outer margin. Behind 
 this indentation or fullered cavity the iron gra- 
 dually slopes away so that the substance which is 
 exposed to wear, and on which the horse must 
 travel, consists of the narrow strip that extends 
 round the outward edge of the shoe. 
 
 The proposed shoe contemplates iron of an 
 equal thickness at every point usually exposed 
 to wear. The nails are driven into holes made 
 to fit close around the heads of those fastenings, 
 so that the shoe being fixed, no loss of substance 
 is to be detected ; for the nail-heads fill the spaces 
 
 A Shoe wtth ttth Nails 
 
 COUNTERSIINK. 
 
 (Ground surface.) 
 
 A Fullered Shoe. 
 (Ground surface.) 
 
 which were countersunk for their admission. 
 The nails pierce the toe of the proposed new 
 shoe. This part is selected, because this portion 
 of hoof is covered with the thicker horn ; there- 
 fore is indicated as the region where all stress 
 should bear. Among smiths, there is a strong 
 objection to driving nails in the center of the 
 wall. Yet a more violent outrage is inflicted by 
 actually removing a portion of its substance, so 
 as to make an abiding-place for a clip, than by 
 piercing obliquely the strongest part of the hoof, 
 subsequent to the toe having grown below the 
 true foot. The thickness of wall there offers 
 several advantages, when considering the reten- 
 tion of nails. The solidity of the secretion is a 
 proof that this portion of the hoof is not endowed 
 with motion. Consequently, when fastening a 
 piece of iron to it, we are not fearful of interfer- 
 ing with the exercise of a healthful function. 
 Such would be the case if the nails were to fix 
 the quarters, where the joint thinness, moisture 
 and elasticity of the horn afford the best evidence 
 ■nature meant them for expansion and con- 
 traction. 
 
 Slippery Weather. — Some person, many years ago, 
 proposed to use nails with large steel sharp- 
 pointed heads, during the prevalence of frost. 
 This plan was tried, and signally failed. The 
 constant renewal of the nails was found ruinous 
 to the hoof ; for the strongest of the projecting 
 heads was unable to resist the grinding action of 
 a horse's foot longer than twenty-four hours. 
 Then, many of the heads broke off while being 
 
 A Shoe intended to enable a Horse to work in Icb, 
 
 WHICH IS FIXED ON TO THE FoOT WITH ShARP-HEADED AND 
 
 Projecting Nails. 
 
 driven, and not a few were fixed in a damaged 
 condition, owing to the blows received from the 
 heavy hammer of the smith. 
 
 The second cut illustrates another plan. Large 
 holes, containing the thread of a female screw, 
 are made through the heels of the winter shoes, 
 and several steel points, manufactured with a 
 male screw, adapted to the dimensions of the 
 holes just mentioned. Whenever the roads are 
 
 A Shoe with Points which Screw on and off, designed to 
 fit a Horse for Work during Frosty Weather. 
 
 icy, all that is requisite a boy might perform. 
 The hole in the shoe has to be cleared out, and 
 afterward one of the points screwed into the 
 opening. When these points are worn down, 
 they are easily renewed. 
 
 Paring the Foot too small. — Sometimes a smith 
 pares and rasps the horse's foot, to make it fit a 
 shoe he has, instead of making the shoe fit the 
 foot. The result is worse than that of tight 
 shoes on the human foot. The walk is strange, 
 as though the poor creature were trying to pro 
 
152 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 gress, but could obtain no bearing for its tread. 
 The kgs are all abroad, and the hoofs no sooner 
 touch the ground than they are snatched up 
 again. The head is carried high, and the coun- 
 
 A Foot properly shod, and a Foot which has been cruelly 
 
 RASPED, TO MAKE THE HooF SUIT A ShOK THAT WAS TOO 
 SMALL FOR IT. 
 
 tenance denotes suffering. It is months before 
 the horn is restored to its normal condition. 
 
 Cutting, or Interfering. — This is an annoying 
 fault in a horse, and when the cutting takes 
 place near the knee may become dangerous. 
 
 The kind of Horsk not likely to Cot. 
 
 Weakly, long-legged and narrow-chested horses 
 are apt to cut, as are creatures with cow-hocks. 
 Many young horses strike in going; but they 
 lose the habit as age matures the strength. 
 
 Sometimes a ring of India-rubber has been em- 
 ployed as a protectioi\ against this annoyance; 
 but it is not calculated to realize any practical 
 expectation. Some horses will only cut during 
 the latter portion of a long journey, or when 
 thoroughly exhausted. Others are afflicted with 
 a chronic description of weakness, and such ani- 
 mals may cut with the first step. These creatures 
 require less work or entire rest, with a course of 
 tonics, both in food and medicine. 
 
 The horse which exhibits a wide chest, and 
 stands with the feet not too close together, 
 very rarely cuts. The animal which possesses 
 well-made haunches with prominent hips and 
 swelling thighs, that appear full, round and 
 fleshy, especially when such a creature places the 
 fetlocks under the hocks, must be driven very 
 far and pushed very hard before he will interfere. 
 
 Boots are employed a great deal to prevent cut- 
 ting. A form of one is here given, made of pre- 
 
 A Leathern Boot. 
 
 pared horse-skin having the hair on, and laced 
 upon the member. Over the seat of injury a 
 concave piece of stout leather is let into the co- 
 vering, and the hollow thus formed, which acts as 
 a protection, can also receive a portion of lint 
 saturated in the lotion, prepared by adding one 
 grain of chloride of zinc to an ounce of water. 
 Thus, while the sore is spared a renewal of the 
 cause, curative treatment is not stayed. 
 
 The forms and positions of these boots make 
 a curious sight for an observer " down the road," 
 or on the race-track. Sometimes each leg of a 
 horse will be decorated by them. They are often 
 worse than unnecessary, and put on to give the 
 horse a ioiiy look. 
 
 But many horsekeepers do not favor the use 
 of boots at all, but simply rub any part which has 
 been hit, with axle-grease or vaseline. 
 
 We are indebted to the courtesy of Dr. L. W. 
 Warner, 67 Murray Street, New York, for the 
 following diagram, and also for the one to be 
 found at the head of " Diseases." 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MAJMAGEMENT. 
 
 153 
 
 Points in a Horse. 
 
 1-. Fore-hand. 
 
 2. Forehead. 
 
 3. Face. 
 
 4. Nose. 
 
 5. Wings of the nose. 
 
 6. Muzzle. 
 
 7. Jaw. 
 
 8. Throat. 
 
 9. Windpipe, or Trapple. 
 
 10. Point of the shoulder. 
 
 11. Chin. 
 
 12. Curb of the chin. 
 
 13. Outer corner of the eye. 
 
 Inner corner of the eye. 
 
 Foretop . 
 
 Neck. 
 
 Breast. 
 
 Shoulder. 
 
 Withers. 
 
 Arm. 
 
 Forearm. 
 
 Forelegs. 
 
 Knee. 
 
 Can non-bones. 
 
 Nape. 
 
 Crest. 
 
 27. Middle-hand. 
 
 28. Back. 
 
 29. Back-hand. 
 
 30. Loin. 
 
 3'- S'P- 
 
 32. Croup, or Rump. 
 
 33. Dock. 
 
 34. Elbow. 
 
 35. Girth. 
 
 36. Barrel {the Ribs). 
 
 37. Flank. 
 
 38. Quarter. 
 
 39. Thigh. 
 
 40. Stifle. 
 
 41. Hamstring. 
 
 42. Point of the hock. 
 
 43. Hocks. 
 
 44. Fetlocks. 
 
 45. Small Pasterns. 
 
 46. Large Pasterns. 
 
 47. Crown of the hoof. 
 
 48. Hoof. 
 
 49. Heels. 
 
 50. Head. 
 
 31. Mane, or Mane Hair, 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 Stem and Rudder. — The skeleton is the frame- 
 work of the trunk and limbs. The vertebrae con- 
 stitute the base, toward which the other bones 
 concentrate, or from which they originate. At 
 one end of the back-bone is the skull ; at the 
 other extremity, the tail. The arrangement ac- 
 cords with the system observed in a well-regu- 
 lated vessel. The look-out stands forward ; with 
 the steersman at the stern. The tail, in the 
 quadruped, principally directs the course. We 
 perceive the folly of those people who excise 
 or mutilate so important a part. The animal, 
 gazing in the desired direction, inclines the 
 body toward that point ; while the tail, simul- 
 taneously moved in an opposite course, sways 
 the trunk into the proper track. The flowing 
 hair, operated npon by the wind, gently favors 
 the inclination. The reader will comprehend the 
 reason why a short tail is rarely compatible with 
 
 perfect safety. The appendage which men 
 regard as chiefly of service to switch away the 
 flies, has a higher and more important function. 
 
 The turning or guiding power having been 
 pointed out, the attention must next be directed 
 to the region where all strength centers, and 
 from which all ability for motion proceeds. 
 
 The Lumbar Region.— Looklne; down upon the 
 spine of a horse, one cannot but notice that the 
 widest portion of the body is across the hip-bones. 
 The posterior parts, or those behind the projec- 
 tions, are not of uniform size; but they are more 
 bulky and more fleshy than the forward surfaces 
 of the body. Flesh is another term for muscle; 
 where flesh is most conspicuous, there is 
 most strength. The muscles of the hind limbs 
 spring from a large bone, variously named the 
 haunch-bone or the pelvic-bone. This bone 
 joins the spine at the hips, and thus lends sup- 
 port to the posterior region. But the vertebrae, 
 immediately before the hips, are aided by no 
 
154 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 such accessory. The loins stand alone, entirely 
 without support. This part of the body consists 
 merely of certain bones, over which and under 
 which run thick layers or solid masses of muscu- 
 lar fiber. 
 
 A comprehension of the osseous weakness ap- 
 parent in the skeleton of the loins must show 
 the absolute necessity for some compensating 
 agency. The loins should be bulky or muscular. 
 
 The Special Use of the Head. Mane and Tail, when em- 
 ployed TOGETHER. 
 
 They cannot be too large ; but may be too small. 
 Small weakly loins admit of no compensation. 
 The position of the part is peculiar. It is mter- 
 mediate and lies between the haunches, which 
 are the propelling powers, and the thorax, which 
 is formed to endure, to support or to uphold 
 what the back carries. All intermediate struc- 
 tures demand strength ; because their office is 
 simply to transmit that impetus they directly 
 receive. Accordingly, the development of the 
 loins, both in man and in horse, may be taken as 
 the best proof of vital power. The loins receive 
 and convey onward the propelling force of the 
 
 The Back of the Horse, as seen from above. 
 
 quarters. When the body is suddenly checked, 
 they have to overcome the energy of the onward 
 impetus, to endure the full violence of the sud- 
 den arrest of the forward motion in both the 
 animal and its burden. In leaping, galloping, 
 etc., the position of the region and the duties 
 involved by it are obvious. Muscular loins are 
 imperative in racers and in saddle-horses ; it is 
 impossible the rider should be safely carried un- 
 less the back be strong. The animal designed 
 for light harness purposes can, perhaps, best 
 
 dispense with such an essential, although even 
 then weak loins are usually associated with a 
 narrow chest, a lanky frame, and a total lack of 
 endurance. Whether for strength or appear- 
 ance, speed or endurance, breadth of loins is al- 
 ways essential. There is no property for the 
 possession of which the quadruped can be valued 
 that is not dependent upon this portion of the 
 frame for its exhibition. 
 
 The Back. — The back-bone of the horse, lumbar 
 bones and all, is often remarkable for very op- 
 posite developments. These are sinking down 
 or curving inward, and rising up or arching out- 
 ward. When the line declines more than usual, 
 the form is denominated a " hollow back" or a 
 "saddle back," and is generally supposed to be 
 indicative of dorsal debility. Animals of such a 
 formation, however, are commonly possessed of 
 high crests, full loins, as well as lofty haunches, 
 and they generally exhibit proud action. They 
 are usually conspicuous for many estimable 
 qualities. They are generally very docile, and 
 uncommonly good-tempered. They display nu- 
 merous excellent points; and sometimes exhibit 
 such prominent good qualities as in many occu- 
 pations may be justly esteemed more than an 
 equivalent for their bodily deficiency. 
 
 Neither a long nor a short backed horse is, 
 necessarily, desirable. All depends upon the 
 strength of those muscles which support the 
 spine; though, other points being equal, length 
 generally provides a springy seat for the saddle : 
 whereas a short back commonly possesses 
 greater endurance. A long back, with bulging 
 loins, is, however, infinitely preferable to a short 
 back with deficient lumbar muscles. The mere 
 extent of a part can be no absolute proof in either 
 direction; though, should a choice lie between 
 two animals, each equally deficient or equally 
 favored, the short back should be preferred, be- 
 cause all increase of length necessitates a greater 
 strain upon the organs of support. 
 
 The Tail is a continuation from the 
 vertebrae. Therefore there is reason 
 why a stout dock or a thick root to the 
 tail should be regarded as a sign of excel- 
 lence ; because the part affords some evi- 
 dence concerning the stoutness and muscularity 
 of the spine itself. Nevertheless, it allows of 
 nothing stronger than an inference. But the 
 position of the tail affords more than an infer- 
 ence. It should originate level with the pro- 
 longed line of the back, and should look the 
 thing it is, a continuation of the spine ; for, so 
 placed, it means a greater length in the posterior 
 muscles of the haunch, some of which extend ;: 
 from the last bone of the vertebrae almost to the 
 hock. In a body whose power is dependent on 
 contractility, of course length of substance favors 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 155 
 
 the ability to shorten or to contract. Animals 
 with tails " well set on " are commonly remarkable 
 for speed and activity. The Arab naturally car- 
 ries his tail erect ; and by the rapidity of its mo- 
 tions, together with the power of the organ, an 
 explanation is afforded of the ease and the grace 
 with which this breed of horses can perform the 
 most difficult evolutions. The tail of the tho- 
 rough-bred, by its position and its graceful car- 
 riage, reveals its lineage. The reader will be 
 surprised to notice how seldom horses have tails 
 well set on. In short, the position of the tail, if 
 employed as a test for excellence, would con- 
 demn the majority of quadrupeds. But the tail 
 should be examined, not as an absolute proof of 
 properties, but as suggestive of breed. 
 
 The Head. — The course of the body is greatly 
 governed by the position of the head. The bit, 
 operating upon a natural mouth, can sway the 
 body during the highest speed ; for by the incli- 
 nation of the head is the trunk to be turned. It 
 is imperative, for the ease and safety of the rider 
 or driver, that the head should be well set on, and 
 carried without sensible restriction. If the rein is 
 held too tight and a false step is made, or if the 
 foot is placed upon a rolling stone, the quadru- 
 ped is almost certain to fall; for the rapid 
 motion of the head being impossible, it cannot 
 be used to restore the disturbed balance. Bulk 
 indicates muscle; therefore a neck, if properly 
 shaped, cannot be too thick ; the majority of the 
 cervical motor agents extend either to the trunk 
 or to the forelimbs. The size of the neck, con- 
 sequently, influences other regions, and confers 
 positive advantage of both strength and activity. 
 A head well set on is carried in advance of the 
 body only so far as may be necessary to counter- 
 act the comparative lightness of the forward 
 structures. 
 
 The Neck. — Thinness and smallness of neck is 
 one of the peculiar features of emaciation in the 
 horse. It is always seen in the old and in the 
 half-starved quadruped. It is never a sign of 
 vigor. The illustration exhibits a peculiarity of 
 form confined to the heavier breed of draught- 
 horses. Such a neck is alone compatible with 
 slowness. It is, however, falsely imagined to de- 
 note excessive strength. So far as thickness is 
 concerned, muscle must be present, or adipose 
 tissue must abound ; but there is a deficiency of 
 length which will necessarily limit the motor 
 power. The huge mountains of flesh which pa- 
 rade the streets of London before the brewers' 
 drays, are not remarkable for power of draught, 
 capability of endurance, or for long life. 
 
 The ewe-necked horse is one in which every 
 appearance of crest is absent. Such a form may 
 possess length ; but it is generally wanting both 
 in depth and in substance. Animals of this 
 
 formation are generally active, but weakly : other 
 parts are too often characterized by a narrowness 
 of build, which materially detracts from a capa- 
 bility for endurance. The appearance is, more- 
 over, mean ; and is usually rendered more 
 conspicuous by a thinness and a shortness of 
 mane. The shape of the neck is not, however, 
 to be considered merely as governing other 
 
 A Bull-Neck. 
 
 organs, but is also to be regarded as a conse- 
 quence of a prevailing absence of development. 
 
 Certain judges are prejudiced in favor of a 
 short neck. The characteristic is in their minds 
 associated with bodily strength ; but it cannot 
 
 The Ewe-Neck. 
 
 denote the existence of such a quality, because 
 an absence of length must reduce the amount of 
 muscular fiber. 
 
 The Ear. — With the health of this organ the 
 general safety is associated ; for the acuteness of 
 the animal's hearing affords no mean protection. 
 Absolute quietude of the ears indicates that 
 sounds are not heard. Excessive restlessness of 
 these parts suggests that by straining one sense, 
 the animal is endeavoring to supplement dullness 
 of another : that the vision is lost or imperfect. 
 
i:^u 
 
 iUE LKLESD VI'' ALL. 
 
 A lively carriage of the ears expresses a sprightly 
 temper, and generally denotes a kind disposition ; 
 whereas one ear constantly directed forward and 
 the other backward, is an indication of "vice" or 
 of timidity. 
 
 The Eye. — Many people will pretend to discover 
 the disposition of a horse by the character of the 
 eyes. A restlessness of the globe, the display of 
 any unusual quantity of white, and a perpetual 
 tension on the upper lid are imagined to signify 
 a " vicious" inclination ; but these traits express 
 only the watchfulness of fear. Such indications 
 are evidences of suffering which has been expe- 
 rienced ; and denote an anxiety to escape future 
 brutality. A prominent eye, expressive of re- 
 pose, and not showing much white, has been 
 pronounced to be declarative of honesty, though 
 certain parties have condemned it as indicative 
 of slothfulness. Quickness or activity, as con- 
 tradistinguished from restlessness in the eye, is, 
 however, to be desired. The small eye usual 
 with the coarser breed of animals should be 
 avoided, because it is generally accompanied by 
 a heaviness of movement. The retracted or 
 deep-set eye. which displays the organ only par- 
 tially, is somewhat angular in figure, and is com- 
 monly spoken of as " a pig-eye," denotes either 
 weakness of the part, or a previous attack of 
 specific ophthalmia. 
 
 The Lips. — The lips of the horse are far more im- 
 portant organs than many suppose. They are, 
 so to speak, the hands of the horse; and if any 
 one will observe the manner in which he gathers 
 up his corn with them, and collects together the 
 grass before he divides it with his nippers, he 
 will see that the horse would be no more able to 
 convey his food to his mouth without them, 
 than the human being could without his hands. 
 This has even been put to the test of experiment. 
 The nerves which supply the lips were divided 
 in a poor ass, to illustrate some point of physi- 
 ology. The sensibility of the lips was lost, and 
 he knew not when he touched his food with 
 them; motion of the lips was lost, and he could 
 not get the oats between his teeth, although his 
 manger was full of them ; at length, driven by 
 hunger, he contrived to lick up a few of them 
 with his tongue ; but when they were on his 
 tongue, the greater part of them were rubbed off 
 before he could get them into his mouth. It is 
 on account of this use of the lips, that the faces 
 of all quadrupeds are so lengthened, that the 
 lips may be brought into contact with the food, 
 without inconvenience or injury to other parts of 
 the face. 
 
 The lips are composed of muscles for the sake 
 of strength, and of a multitude of small glands, 
 which secrete a fluid that covers the inside of the 
 lips and gums, in order to prevent friction, and 
 
 likewise furnishes a portion of the moisture so 
 necessary for the proper chewing of the food. 
 The skin covering the lips is very thin, because, 
 if these are the hands of the horse, they should 
 possess considerable feeling; and for the same 
 purpose likewise, they are scantily covered with 
 hair, and that hair is fine and short, and long 
 hairs or feelers, called the beard, are superadded 
 for the same purpose. The horse is guided and 
 governed principally by the mouth, and therefore 
 the lips are endowed with extraordinary sensi- 
 bility, so that the animal feels the slightest mo- 
 tion of the hand of the rider or driver, and, as it 
 were, anticipates his very thoughts. The /ine- 
 ness or goodness of the mouth consists in its ex- 
 quisite feeling, and depends on the thinness of 
 this membrane. 
 
 The lips of the horse should be thin, if the 
 beauty of the head be regarded, for if they are 
 loaded with fat they cannot be as sensible as they 
 ought to be : yet, although thin, they should evi- 
 dently possess power, and be strongly and regu- 
 larly closed. A firm, compressed mouth gives a 
 favorable and no deceptive idea of the muscular 
 power of the animal. Lips apart from each other, 
 and hanging down, indicate weakness or old 
 age, or dullness and sluggishness. Examine the 
 angles of the lips. If any sign of induration is 
 remarked, it signifies that the animal hassuflfered 
 from the abuse of the bit. If on any limited 
 space, however small, a patch of white skin is 
 observed located upon a dark ground, it denotes 
 that at some time the true skin has been re- 
 moved from that place. If anything like a hard- 
 ened lump should be felt in this situation, it de- 
 monstrates that the quadruped has a hard mouth, 
 and is an obstinate puller, or that it has passed 
 through the hands of an unfeeling master. 
 
 The Nostrils. — These organs admit the air in- 
 haled by the expansion of the chest ; consequently 
 the dimension of the nostrils allows an inference 
 as to the capacity of the lungs. This opinion, 
 however, should be only advanced after the alter- 
 ation has been noted between their size when at 
 rest and when excited. Should no marked vari- 
 ation be observed here, then the value of the 
 animal is to be considered only in connection 
 with slow work, as speed must be regulated by 
 the capability of receiving a quantity of vital air 
 proportioned to the power e.xerted. After the 
 capacity has been observed, the nature of the 
 movements of the nasal openings should be 
 noticed. Subsequent to exertion, ease of motion 
 is not to be anticipated ; but nothing approaching 
 to spasmodic action should be remarked. The 
 nostrils ought to be regularly expanded : not to 
 fly open with a jerk, or to suddenly enlarge their 
 form, as under the influence of a gasp. A capa- 
 bility of dilatation, attended with an evenness of 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 lOT 
 
 motion, however fast the movement may be, are 
 the points which should be looked for in the 
 nostrils of a horse ; because the characteristic 
 changes attending inhalation best expose any 
 defect in the respiratory apparatus ; for, by such 
 a test, the remotest disposition to become a 
 roarer, or to exhibit diseased wind, is easy of de- 
 tection. 
 
 The Thorax and Lungs. — There is much dispute 
 concerning the best form of the horse's thorax ; 
 but such a question can only be decided by the 
 uses to which the animal is to be put. All creat- 
 ures in which speed is not required, should pos- 
 sess circular chests ; for by such a shape they are 
 adapted for the accumulation of fat, and for the 
 performance of slow, of continuous or of labori- 
 ous work. There are, however, numerous animals 
 which are required to possess capability for a 
 
 a?iJ 
 
 •B:d 
 
 / 
 
 required to uphold vitality; therefore this kind 
 of quadruped exhibits, as a general rule, no great 
 tendency to fat. During all quickened move- 
 ments, however, the action of the lungs and the 
 speed of the circulation are much increased. It 
 is not the size or dimension of its thorax which 
 determines fleetness. That quality depends on 
 the adaptability of the cavity to the exigencies 
 of excitement ; for such purposes, the quadruped 
 with a round chest is not to be preferred. There 
 is no instrument by which the motions of the 
 horse's ribs can be accurately ascertained : they 
 must be guessed at. A quarter of an inch be- 
 tween the enlargement of the ribs in different 
 animals (supposing other points equal) will more 
 than determine the winner of a race, since the 
 revitalizing of the blood regulates the other pro- 
 perties of vitality. 
 
 The Thorax of a Cart-Horse. 
 
 The Thorax of a Blood-Horse. 
 
 A A. The capacities of the two chests In the quiet condition. c c, c c. The outside of the coat in the quiet condition. 
 B B, B B. The li.-nits of expansibility in each when excited. d d, d d. The surface of the body in the excited state. 
 
 " burst ;" for the rush or the closing struggle of 
 a race. The creature of speed, therefore, should 
 exhibit rather the deep than the round thorax ; 
 for fat is not desired on such an animal. The 
 deep cavity, moreover, admits of an expansibility 
 which is imperative during intense muscular 
 exertion. Suppose the lungs of the cart- and of 
 the blood-horse, when expanded to the uttermost, 
 occupy the like space. When not excited, or 
 both being of normal size, the respiratory appara- 
 tus of the coarser breed is by far the larger of the 
 two. In the passive condition, the heavy quad- 
 ruped inhales much more oxygen than is needed 
 to vivify the blood. The excess is, therefore, ap- 
 propriated by the food and nourishes the frame ; 
 hence dray-horses have a tendency to become fat. 
 On the contrary, while at rest, the lungs of the 
 thorough-bred receive scarcely more air than is 
 
 The Abdomen. — Mo.st judges admire a horse with 
 a belly apparently well filled by its contents. 
 Certainly this appears to be the soundest of the 
 many prejudices which appertain to horse-flesh. 
 The shape of the thorax must, in no unimportant 
 degree, regulate that of the abdomen, the two 
 cavities being only parted by a fleshy screen de- 
 nominated the diaphragm. The herring-gutted 
 quadruped is commonly as deficient in the respi- 
 ratory as in the nutritive functions. Of course 
 this rule is not absolute : but a capacious thorax 
 is required to counteract any defect in the pro- 
 cess of nutrition. The animal which rapidly 
 narrows toward the flank generally purges upon 
 work, is of a washy constitution, and possesses a 
 bad appetite. 
 
 An animal with a deep chest and with high 
 withers, almost as a necessary adjunct, possesses 
 
158 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 a slanting shoulder; or, at all events, this proba- 
 bility is favored by that particular formation. 
 Such an arrangement of parts must be accom- 
 panied by an upright position of the humerus 
 and the advanced location of the forslimb. This 
 conformation is bettered, materially, by an arched 
 crest and a head " well set on." Unfortunately, 
 this combination is seldom encountered. 
 
 The Legs and Shoulders. — The legs of a horse 
 can hardly prove too short ; for shortness of limb 
 is an accompaniment to depth of chest and pro- 
 portionably powerful quarters. The long leg al- 
 ways attests the light carcass : the motor agency 
 of the limbs is deficient, while the cavities of res- 
 piration and of nutrition are necessarily dimin- 
 ished. A narrow thorax almost necessitates low 
 
 A Slanting Shoulder in Action. 
 
 withers and an upright shoulder. The bone of 
 the arm, or the humerus, is pushed into an undue 
 slant by the forward position of the blade-bone, 
 or of the scapula. This compels the front leg to 
 stand too far under the body. Such an arrange- 
 ment favors neither beauty, speed nor safety ; in 
 fact, it is one of the worst forms which the com- 
 ponents are capable of assuming. 
 
 The Withers. — The action of the shoulder-blade, 
 during progression, is upward and backward, or 
 it is drawn toward the 
 highest processes of the 
 withers. Low withers 
 are, of course, opposed to 
 extended motion in such 
 a line. The lessened ac- 
 tion of the bone neces- 
 sarily limits the move- 
 ment of the structures 
 which depend from it, or 
 
 A Straight Shouldek, show- . / , , 
 
 iNG THE Position op the the action of the humerus 
 
 ^°''"- is governed by that of the 
 
 I shoulder-blade. The short motion permitted by 
 
 low withers, therefore, limits the advance of the 
 
 forearm, the parts being, as it were, tied to- 
 gether. The natural carriage of such a mal- 
 formation is with the head and neck protruded, 
 so as to favor progression by strain upon the 
 cervical muscles. At the same time the body in- 
 clines forward, which throws the limbs backward, 
 or out of their proper situations ; and this circum- 
 stance indicates why animals of this particular 
 make so frequently encounter " accidents." 
 
 The Lower Leg. — It remains to direct attention 
 toward that which in general acceptance consti- 
 tutes the forearm, as well as the knee, the leg or 
 the shin, the pastern and the foot. Where the 
 limb quits the trunk, it should be characterized 
 by muscular developments, since at this place re- 
 sides the chief of that power by which the lower 
 portions of the member are directed. The flesh 
 should bulge forth, and cannot be too abundant ; 
 for a thin forearm is incompatible with goodness 
 in a horse. The point of the elbov/ should be pro- 
 minently emphasized, as this bone affords a leve- 
 rage whence many important muscles originate, 
 and which some of the principal flexor agents di- 
 rectly operate upon. Toward the knee the swell- 
 ing should gradualljrsubside, leaving upon the sur- 
 face of the joint a bioad. clean, and firm appear- 
 ance. At the back ot the Knee there should 
 stand forth, or rather should stick out, an ossc 
 ous point, the size of which is of value, as it 
 affords a point of insertion to the shcrt flexors 
 of the limb, as well as gives shelter to the per- 
 forans and perforatus tendons in their passage 
 toward the pastern and the foot. Its magnitude, 
 therefore, not only favors muscular action, but 
 also indicates the dimension of those important 
 structures which this bone protects. 
 
 The forearm should be long , the shin should 
 be comparatively short. The reach depends on 
 the first, the length of which secures an extra 
 amount of motor activity. No muscles of im- 
 portance are located upon the shin : bone and 
 tendon are the principal components of this 
 region. The part should not be absolutely 
 straight ; at the same time it ought to present no 
 obvious inequalities or sudden enlargements. 
 The bone should be compact, giving to this por- 
 tion of the limb, when viewed from the front, 
 almost the appearance of being deficient in bulk; 
 but when regarded from the side, the lower part 
 of the leg cannot be too broad ; for breadth and 
 strength are here synonymous. The above rule 
 applies to both legs, — to the hind limb below the 
 hock as well as the fore, from the knee down- 
 ward. Each should be thin, when viewed from 
 the front. Neither can well be too deep, when 
 seen from the side. Both should appear solid, 
 and each should fee! almost of metallic hardness. 
 The pastern-joint should not present a level sur- 
 face, when viewed laterally ; and as it proceeds 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 159 
 
 downward to join the foot, a gradual enlarge- 
 ment should take place. 
 
 The inclination of this region is governed by 
 the major flexor tendons which are situated un- 
 derneath or behind them. Their slanting, there- 
 fore, is regulated by no peculiarity in the forms 
 of the bones themselves, but is controlled by and 
 dependent upon the condition of another struc- 
 ture. A short, upright pastern, if it can bear any 
 evidence at all, testifies to a stubborn and un- 
 
 A Long and Slanting Pastern. 
 
 A Natural Pastern. 
 
 An Upright Pastern. 
 
 An Overshoe Pastern 
 
 yielding state of the great flexor muscles, the 
 weight being then thrown upon the osseous sup- 
 ports. The play of the pastern denotes nothing 
 more than the healthy elasticity of the flesh upon 
 the tendon proper. The bones have no motor 
 power belonging to themselves. The upright 
 and the overshot pastern suggest no change in 
 the more solid frame ; but such alterations prove 
 that excessive work has strained the great flexors 
 of the limb, and destroyed the inherent property 
 
 of elasticity with which every muscle is endowed 
 by nature. The burden being then supported by 
 an osseous pillar instead of an elastic band, of 
 course jar or concu.ssion ensues. 
 
 The flexor tendon likewise influences another 
 part. The perforans is inserted into the sole of 
 the coffin-bone, or into the bone of the foot. The 
 direction in which the toes point is, therefore, re- 
 gulated by a substance so far distant that the at- 
 tempt to connect the two organs may, to the un- 
 informed mind, seem ridiculous. Yet, the state- 
 ment being correct, the fact renders the position 
 of the elbow of more importance ; for according 
 to the situation of that bone the hoofs will be 
 directed. Thus, an ulna or an elbow which is 
 drawn toward the trunk will be attended with i 
 toe inclined outward. When the bone turns from 
 the body, the forward portion of the hoof is di- 
 rected inward. When the framework is properly 
 constructed, the hoofs point forward ; for horses' 
 hoofs are liable to those derangements which the 
 human foot exhibits, and. generally with like re- 
 sults. Only, in man, striking one leg against the 
 other, while walking, is not attended with the un- 
 fortunate consequences the same thing induces 
 in the quadruped 
 
 "VICES," SO CALLED. 
 Toothy and Temper. — W. E. Burton, in the old 
 Chambers Street theater, on whose site is the 
 present edifice of the American News Co., hav- 
 ing the care of a wayward child, walked it up 
 and down the stage, exclaiming in response to 
 one scream of the young one, " That's toothy ;" 
 and in answer to another yell, "That's temper." 
 It is hard often for a person even in his own 
 case, to be sure whether he ought to be pitied, or 
 to be blamed. And ;f it is hard in one's own 
 case, how much harder in the case of another, 
 who can tell you of his "subjective" experiences. 
 But how much harder still the problem becomes, 
 when its object has not at command, as has 
 man, tlie power of articulate utterance. If the 
 horse could only speak, it is probable that his 
 share of real "vice," mischief for which the will 
 is answerable, would compare favorably with his 
 master's. He cannot tell of his nervousness, 
 his fear, the dread of additional abuse, the dys- 
 pepsia and heaviness improper, scanty or ex- 
 cessive food may have occasioned ; the results 
 of a previous wakeful night: the thousand and 
 one disturbances for which a man or a woman ex- 
 pects and receives sympathy, not blame. With- 
 out denying that the horse sometimes misbe- 
 haves from " temper," it is undeniable that some- 
 times also, perhaps oftenest, he suflers from 
 "toothy." But if those who have charge of 
 horses would try to supplement their deficiency 
 of speech, and to fiiid out what each animal 
 
160 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 would gladly tell them if he could, the necessity 
 for so-called discipline would almost disappear, 
 and the whip and spur and club follow the harsh 
 methods once used with those then regarded as 
 possessed with a devil, but now cafed for as the 
 victims of disease. 
 
 Horses not totally Depraved. — Mayhew, the great 
 English authority in veterinary matters, discre- 
 dits " vice" as applied to a horse, as emphatically 
 as Dr. Channing did " total depravity" as applied 
 to a man. He tells that he was of middle age 
 when he entered the Veterinary College, and 
 unfamiliar with horse-flesh. He needed an 
 animal, so that reference might be made to its 
 body for an explanation of the books he was to 
 comprehend. At length, in the corner of a back 
 yard, was discovered a lonely loose box. Inside 
 was a quadruped ; and to this place a volume 
 was daily taken, with various morsels of bread or 
 vegetable. There, between feeding, reading, ex- 
 amining and caressing, many an afternoon 
 passed. It was necessary to indulge in certain 
 intimate familiarities, sometimes to change the 
 position of the animal, or to finger its lower ex- 
 tremities. He had no jockeyship to protect 
 him ; did not indeed know that any protection 
 was necessary. He used to shut himself up with 
 the companion of his studies, and spent his time 
 very happilv. After a fortnight of this experi- 
 ence, as he was one day going to the loose box, 
 he was seen by a number of his fellow-students, 
 who exclaimed : " Mayhew, where are you go- 
 ing? Don't open that door ! ' Van Amburg' is 
 there. He's a kicker and a biter! You'll be 
 killed ! Don't open the door !" Van Amburg 
 was the name of a thoroughbred racer, which 
 had been sent to the College " for operation," be- 
 cause of its supposed ferocity. He exclaims: 
 " Yet I, a novice, had passed many an hour in its 
 society, and assert that I could not have desired 
 a more gentle companion. We have often lain 
 long together side by side ; or, as I reclined upon 
 the straw, reading, the head would rest upon my 
 shoulder, while a full stream of fragrant warmth 
 would salute my cheek. Still, such a crea- 
 ture, so open to advances, so grateful for little 
 kindnesses, was a reputed savage !" 
 
 Balking, or Jibbing. — These words are very com- 
 mon among horsemen. Balking, however, does 
 not specially imply one act; there are many kinds 
 of behavior which are so designated. Thus, a 
 horse which is unable to start, is called "a 
 balker," as is a quadruped which, in the middle 
 of a journey, shall be suddenly impelled to move 
 in a backward direction. The animal which, 
 upon hearing the command to proceed, will be- 
 gin to throw up its head, and, spite of chastise- 
 ment, bear in the opposite direction, is also sup- 
 posed to have learned the " vice." " Balking" of 
 
 every kind appears to be no " vice," but a 
 nervous disorder, — a sort of equine epilepsy. A 
 word spoken sharply can summon the attack, 
 which generally deprives the animal of all power 
 of motion, or forces it to move in a direction the 
 opposite of that on which it wishes to proceed. 
 The movements are independent of the will ; and 
 if any person will attentively inspect the counte- 
 nance of a horse, when in the act, the real cha- 
 racter of the supposed " vice" will be recognized. 
 A spasmodic fit has possession of the frame. It 
 is useless to flog or to inflict other tortures. 
 The attack will last a certain time, and then, 
 perhaps, suddenly vanish. No brutality can 
 shorten its duration, though cruelty, possibly, 
 may lengthen the convulsion. Severity has lost 
 its power to quicken timidity. The lash will not 
 influence; nor the human voice. The body is 
 acted upon by a power stronger than the will. 
 At last the spell is broken. The ability to guide 
 the limbs is suddenly regained: but the brain is 
 congested and the senses confused. The crea- 
 
 The Countenance of a Horse during a Fit of Balking. 
 
 ture, upon partial recovery, may exhibit a desire 
 to bolt — may, for an uncertain period, be all but 
 unconscious. Sometimes it will recover its 
 powers suddenly, almost as though its previous 
 condition had been assumed. On other occa- 
 sions it may, under some impulse, tear onward, 
 regardless of the road, as though it sought to es- 
 cape the scene of sufTering, or lose the pain of 
 convulsion in the rapidity of motion. 
 
 Balking is most common among harness- 
 horses, the faces of which are disguised and par- 
 tially concealed by the blinkers. The counte- 
 nance of a horse, when in this act, calmly con- 
 templated, will dispel all belief in " voluntary 
 vice." The eye is strained inward ; the teeth are 
 firmly set ; the nostrils are dilated ; the breath- 
 ing is spasmodic ; and the muscles are rigid. 
 There is, however, one symptom which, al- 
 though expressive of terror, agony or faintness, 
 all horsemen are agreed in regarding as showing 
 a " vicious intention." Such is the backward 
 position of the ears, or the laying of those organs 
 
HORSES AND TIIKIK MANAGEMENT. 
 
 161 
 
 upon the animal's neck. The forward carriage, 
 or the " pricking" of those members, is recog- 
 nized as expressive of delight, of gayety or of 
 attention. What, then, does the backward posi- 
 tion signify.'' What ought to be implied from 
 the falling of a part whose upright bearing is in- 
 terpreted to be the sign of liveliness.'' Yet, how 
 many tender-hearted gentlemen, abused by the 
 prejudices they inherited, will, when they ob- 
 serve the ears laid back, unhesitatingly lash the 
 body which, probably, was far from contemplat- 
 ing mischief ! 
 
 When an animal is thus afflicted, never pursue 
 the course usually adopted. All noise should be 
 prevented ; no flurry should be permitted. Do 
 not use the whip or jag the reins : relinquish 
 both. Empty the vehicle. Undo the check- 
 rein : loosen the harness. If possible, remove 
 the quadruped from the shafts. Go to the heaid : 
 speak soothingly ; pat and caress the agitated 
 frame. Procure some cold water; soak a thick 
 cloth in the liquid, and lay it over the brain and 
 upon the eyes. Sponge out the mouth and nostril ; 
 then empty the vessel, by dashing the remaining 
 fluid into the animal's face. When the incapaci- 
 tating stage is subsiding, don't let him bolt. 
 This done, return the horse to the stable. Never 
 hazard riding behind a creature which has re- 
 cently suffered with " equine epilepsy." 
 
 " Kidney-Dropping." — Sometimes a horse in har- 
 ness, not overloaded, and pleasantly jogging 
 along, suddenly squats on its haunches. This is 
 an unnatural position. The hind limbs fall into 
 such positions as suggest no notion of comfort 
 or of design. They may cross one another, or 
 they may be sprawled out on either side of the 
 body. If the si'in is pricked with the point of a 
 pin, no sign of sensibility is usually elicited from 
 the hind-quarters. Strike the prostrated mem- 
 bers, and no evidence of pain follows. The pos- 
 terior portions of the body are temporarily dead. 
 Do not fuss about the horse ; allow it to remain 
 undisturbed where it has fallen. Loosen the 
 harness ; remove the shafts ; procure some water, 
 and allay its parching thirst. After a short 
 space, the quadruped may get up of its own ac- 
 cord. No time has been lost ; and disease has 
 not been aggravated bv needless torture. When 
 the creature rises, the fit has passed ; but the re- 
 covery cannot then be pronounced complete. 
 He would, certainly, brave "an accident" who 
 should essay to drive a horse but recently re- 
 covered from an attack of " kidney-dropping," 
 though this hazard may be frequently incurred 
 with apparent impunity. 
 
 To determine whether any disease of the spine 
 
 is the cause of this affection, the investigator 
 
 takes his position close to the quadruped, and 
 
 runs the forefinger and thumb gently down the 
 
 II 
 
 center of the back. This action is repeated 
 several times, additional force being brought to 
 bear with each succeeding trial, until the whole 
 strength of the operator is exerted. If, upon 
 pressure being made on any particular spot, the 
 ears are laid upon the neck, or the crest is sud- 
 denly elevated, the fact must be noted. The 
 trial should be renewed, and if the like symp- 
 toms be elicited, the conclusion naturally is, that 
 the seat of injury lies immediately under or very 
 near the place indicated. This point being as- 
 certained, the operator puts a hand on either 
 side of the tender part, and casts his full weight 
 suddenly upon the spine. Horses, under the 
 sudden pang thus produced, have shrieked in 
 agony. Generally, animals crouch under the 
 torture, and burst forth into copious perspira- 
 tion. The affair is thus decided. The spine has 
 been injured, and the spinal cord which it 
 sheathes is also involved in the lesion. Some- 
 
 Test Along the Spine. 
 
 times the animal entirely recovers ; the trouble 
 being caused by displacement or by such a par- 
 tial fracture- as rest will enable nature to sur- 
 mount. In any case the horse is not " to blame." 
 Chink in the Back. — One of the bones of the 
 spine may have been loosened in consequence of 
 the ligaments being overstrained ; the animal 
 has been abused in some manner. The ligaments 
 are acutely painful ; though no visual disorder 
 may be observable to the post-mortem examiner, 
 nevertheless the slightest weakness in such a 
 structure may, during life, occasion the severest 
 agony. The bone is not fractured ; but one of 
 the vertebrae, through the leverage of its superior 
 spinous process, may have been wrenched slight- 
 ly to one side. This may not affect the appear- 
 ance of the quadruped ; neither may it elicit 
 signs of pain when the weight is evenly seated 
 upon the back ; therefore, only during the act of 
 mounting, the drag then being entirely to one 
 side, it occasions the most poignant anguish. 
 The horse cannot explain its sensations verbally, 
 nor appeal to the forbearance of its master. Its 
 ailments are entirely subjected to the merciful 
 consideration of man. Its actions are always 
 
1(62 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 liable to be misconstrued ; the effects of torture 
 are frequently confounded with the exhibitions 
 of "vice." Thus, a creature with the ligaments 
 of the back strained is always condemned as an 
 inveterate kicker; because the drag, produced 
 by the weight of the rider resting on one stirrup, 
 occasions so sharp an agony as alarms the quad- 
 ruped, and naturally excites a determination to 
 repel some imaginary enemy. The seat of the 
 saddle, how(_ver, is no sooner attained than com- 
 posure is restored. When the rider is once fairly 
 on the back, the steed re-assumes its natural 
 docility and obedience. That' circumstance has 
 induced some thoughtful horsemen to change 
 the habit and try the effect of mounting upon 
 the wrong side ; this has usually, for a certain 
 time, been attended with perfect success ; but 
 the custom, after a time, has seemed to involve 
 the sound ligaments, when the kicking has been 
 renewed. A horse which kicks in the way de- 
 scribed, should always be transferred to harness 
 work. 
 ' Tearing the Clothing. — Stabled horses often are 
 the victims of an acutely sensitive condition of 
 
 Tearing the Clothing. 
 
 the skin. There is no tenderness displayed when 
 the hand is laid upon the body. The coat looks 
 well. Scurf is not developed in increased quan- 
 tity. The hair does not prove loose or fall off. 
 The animal feeds well, and seems in the highest 
 possible condition. Nevertheless, it may acutely 
 suffer, especially during spring and autumn. It 
 may even by the irritation be provoked to gnaw 
 large patches from the sensitive covering of the 
 body ; but the more common form of the disease 
 urges it to destroy the heavy rug in which stable 
 attendants are fond of wrapping their charges, 
 before quitting them for the night. No sooner is 
 the quadruped clothed up, than it begins to 
 fidget. Its legs are in almost perpetual motion, 
 and as soon as it is alone, it commences to tqar 
 off the hateful clothing. Large portions are 
 seized i between the teeth, and rent off with an 
 energy almost madness. Nor is the fever which 
 actuates the horse to be pacified, so long as a 
 vestige of the covering remains to be removed. 
 
 The passion seems to be very engrossing while it 
 exists ; for, during the period, anybody may entei 
 the building, and even approach the irritated 
 quadruped, witliout his presence being observed. 
 But, the feat being ended, the creature looks 
 around, seems to recover quiet, nibbles different 
 portions of its coat, licks the coolest parts of its 
 manger, being evidently thirsty, and ultimately 
 lies down, apparently well satisfied with its per- 
 formance. 
 
 For an animal that destroys its rugs, refuse all 
 further supply. Attend to the food, after the 
 method already advised ; ne.xt anoint the body 
 with glycerine and rosewater, subsequently em- 
 ploying a hay wisp regularly night and morning. 
 Place the animal in a cool, loose box, and, if 
 possible, leave the window and half the door 
 open. Give daily one ounce of liquor arsenicalis, 
 in a pint of cold water, with one quart of good 
 ale. 
 
 Shying and Swerving. — In the treatment of shy- 
 ing, it is of great importance to distinguish be- 
 tween that which is the consequence of defective 
 sight, and that which results from fear, or new- 
 ness of objects, or from mere affectation or skit- 
 tishness. For the first, every allowance must be 
 made, and care must be taken that the fear of 
 correction be not associated with the imagined 
 existence of some terrifying object. The severe 
 use of the whip and the spur cannot do good 
 here; and are likely to aggravate the vice tenfold. 
 A word, half encouraging and half scolding, with 
 a gentle pressure of the heel, or a slight touch of 
 the whip, will tell the horse that there was no- 
 thing to fear, and will give him confidence in his 
 rider or driver on a future occasion. It should 
 be remembered, however, that although a horse 
 that shies from defective sight may be taught 
 considerable reliance on his rider, he can never 
 have the cause of the habit removed. We may 
 artificially strengthen the human sight, but the 
 horse's must be left to itself. 
 
 The shying from skittishness or affectation is 
 quite a different affair, and must be conquered. 
 But how ? Severity is out of place even here. If 
 he is forced up to the object by dint of correc- 
 tion, the dread of punishment will afterwards be 
 associated with that object, and on the next occa- 
 sion, his starlings will be more frequent and more 
 dangerous. The way to cure him is to go on, 
 turning as little as possible out of the road, giv- 
 ing the animal a harsh word or two, and a gentle 
 touch with the whip or spur, and then taking no 
 more notice of the matter. After a few times, 
 whatever may have been the object which he 
 chose to select as the pretended cause of affright, 
 he will pass it almost without notice. 
 
 Mr. John Lawrence says; "These animais 
 generally fix on some particular shying buit : ior 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 163 
 
 example. I recollect having, at different periods, 
 three hacks, all very powerful ; the one made 
 choice of a wind-mill for the object or butt, the 
 other a tilted wagon, and the last a pig led in a 
 string. It so happened, however, that I rode the 
 two former when amiss from a violent cold, and 
 they then paid no more attention to either wind- 
 mills or tilted wagons than to any other objects, 
 convincing me that their shying when in health 
 and spirits was pure affectation ; an affectation, 
 however, which may be speedily united with 
 obstinacy and vice. Let it be treated with marked 
 displeasure, mingled with gentle, but decided 
 firmness, and the habit will be of short endu- 
 rance." 
 
 Rolling. — This is a very pleasant and perfectly 
 safe amusement for a horse at grass, but cannot 
 be indulged in the stable without the chance of 
 his being dangerously entangled with the collar- 
 rein, and being cast. Yet, although the horse is 
 cast, and bruised and half-strangled, he will roll 
 again on the following night, and continue to do 
 so as long as he lives. The only remedy is not a 
 very pleasant one to the horse, nor always quite 
 safe ; yet it must be had recourse to if the habit 
 of rolling is inveterate. The horse should be tied 
 with lertgth enough of collar to lie down, but not 
 to allow of his head resting on the ground ; be- 
 cause, in order to roll over, a horse is obliged to 
 place his head quite down upon the ground. 
 
 DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SEAT OF THE PRINCIPAL DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 
 
 
 Glanders. 
 
 16. 
 
 I. 
 
 Discharge from the nostrils. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 Membrane. 
 
 17- 
 
 3- 
 
 Glandular swellings. 
 
 18. 
 
 4- 
 
 Caries and diseases of the jaw. 
 
 19. 
 
 5- 
 
 Fistula parotid duct. 
 
 20. 
 
 6. 
 
 Diseases of the eye. 
 
 21. 
 
 7- 
 
 Sears on the forehead and over the 
 eyes. 
 
 22. 
 
 S. 
 
 Scars from old fontanels and brain- 
 
 23- 
 
 
 diseases. 
 
 24. 
 
 9- 
 
 Poll-evil. 
 
 25- 
 
 lo. 
 
 Prurigo, or Mane-scab. 
 
 26 
 
 II. 
 
 Fistulous withers. 
 
 27 
 
 13. 
 
 Saddle-galls. Sitfasts, etc. 
 
 28 
 
 »3. 
 
 Fistulous tail. 
 
 29 
 
 14. 
 
 Rat-tail. 
 
 30 
 
 15. 
 
 Falling of the fundament. 
 
 3» 
 
 Luxation of patella, or whirl-bone dis* 32. 
 
 placed. 33- 
 
 Hernia, or Rupture. 34- 
 Broken ribs. 
 
 Farcy. _ 35- 
 
 Sores from constant bleeding'. 1,6. 
 
 Bridle-swellings. 37. 
 
 Fistula and inflammation of parotid 38. 
 
 gland. _ 39- 
 Phlebitis, or inflamed jugialar vein. 40. 
 Sore throat. 
 
 Tumors caused by collar. 41. 
 
 Capped elbow, or Tumor. 42. 
 
 Wind-galls. 43- 
 
 Mallenders and Sallenders. 44. 
 
 Splint. 45 
 
 Capped knee. 46. 
 
 Broken knees and open joint. 47 
 
 Clap of the back sinews. 
 
 Ringbone. 
 
 Acute and chronic founder, or Ring- 
 foot. 
 
 Grogginess. 
 
 Quittor. 
 
 Tread on coronet and over-reaches. 
 
 Sand-, Toe J Cow- and Quarter-Cracks. 
 
 Girth swellings. 
 
 Wind-colic, Fret', Gripes or Belly- 
 ache. 
 
 Thoroughpin. 
 
 Capped hocks. 
 
 Swelled or sprung sinews. 
 
 Scratches. 
 
 Spavin. 
 
 Curb. 
 
 Swollen legs. 
 
IU4 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS, AND 
 THEIR TREATMENT. 
 
 Abdominal Injuries. — Ruptured Diaphragm gen- 
 erally produces a soft cough ; sitting on the 
 haunches or leaning on the chest may or may 
 not be present; the countenance is haggard. 
 
 RupUired Spleen answers to the tests described 
 under " Hemorrhage of the Liver." 
 
 ^^^<^":r 
 
 An Unnatural Attitude, indicative of some Abdominal 
 Injury. 
 
 A Position often assumed by the Horse suffering from 
 Abdominal Injury. 
 
 Ruptured Stoinaek is characterized by exces- 
 sive colic, followed by tympanitis. 
 
 Intro-suscepiion is always preceded by colic, and 
 causes portions of the bowels to contract and 
 
 A Ruptured Stomach. 
 
 become small, firm and stiff. They are, while 
 in that condition, by the peristaltic action pushed 
 up other portions of the canal, which are of the 
 natural size. The entrance of the contracted 
 bowel acts upon the healthy one like a foreign 
 
 substance. Contractility is excited. The dis- 
 placed and intruding bowel is grasped as by a 
 vise, and the accident pro- 
 vokes its own continuance. 
 Cure is hopeless while con- 
 sciousness remains ; the only 
 hope is the administration 
 of chloroform in full and 
 long-continued doses : there- 
 by to arrest vitality and give 
 a chance for the release of 
 the imprisoned bowel. 
 
 Invagination is used to express the entrance of 
 one entire division of the bowels within another. 
 It is chiefly witnessed upon the large intestines; 
 whereas intro-susception is mostly present upon 
 the smaller bowels. The mesentery must be rup- 
 tured before such an accident can take place ; 
 but then the agony attendant upon the previous 
 
 The Intestine divided 
 so as to clearly 
 show THE Nature OF 
 In tko-susception. 
 
 The C^cum invaginated within the Colon, and black 
 
 FROM intense INFLAMMATION. 
 
 derangement is so powerful that it is impossible 
 for the hugeness of this lesion to increase the 
 violence of the torture ; nor is there any sign by 
 which so sad a catastrophe can be predicted. 
 
 Strangulation is not to be distinguished, dur- 
 ing life, from invagination. 
 
 Calculus, or stone, may be present, either in the 
 stomach or in the canal and remain there while 
 the food passes over it, and no injury occa- 
 sioned. But by any movement it is likely to be 
 dislodged and thrown into the healthy channel. 
 There it is firmly grasped with such force as to 
 produce rupture of the intestine, aijd the hold is 
 
 The Sac formed in the Bowel; this the Calculus has 
 quitted, while anothfr Portion of the Intestine has so 
 firmly grasi'ed it as to rupiure itself. 
 
 only relaxed after inflammation has ended in 
 mortification and death. 
 
 Abscess of the Brain. — Cause. — Some injury to 
 the head. 
 
 Sj'mpfoms.— DuUness; refusal to feed; a slight 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 165 
 
 oozing from a trivial injury upon the skull; 
 prostration, and the animal, while on the ground, 
 continues l<nocking the head violently against 
 the earth until death ensues. 
 
 Treatment. — None of any service. 
 
 Acites. or Dropsy of the Abdomen.- Cause. — 
 Chronic peritonitis. 
 
 Symptoms. — Pulse hard ; head pendulous ; food 
 often spoiled ; membranes pallid ; mouth dry. 
 Pressure on abdomen elicits a groan ; turning in 
 
 the position shows the seat of anguish. Perspi- 
 ration, tympanitis, and death. 
 
 Treatment. — Give sulphuric ether, i ounce; 
 laudanum, 3 ounces ; liquor potassae, \ ounce ; 
 powdered chalk, i ounce; tincture of catechu, i 
 ounce ; cold linseed tea, i pint. Repeat every 
 15 minutes. Cleanse the quarters ; plait the tail ; 
 inject cold linseed tea. The irritating substance 
 must be expelled before improvement can take 
 place. 
 
 A Horse with Acites, on Abdominal Dropsv. 
 
 the stall, a grunt. Want of spirit ; constant 
 lying down ; restlessness; thirst; loss of appetite ; 
 weakness ; thinness ; enlarged abdomen ; consti- 
 pation and hide-bound. Small bags depend 
 from the chest and belly ; the sheath and one 
 leg sometimes enlarge ; the mane breaks off ; 
 the tail drops out. Purgation and death. 
 
 Treatment. — When the symptoms first appear 
 give, night and morning, strychnia, \ grain, 
 worked up to i grain ; iodide of iron, \ drachm. 
 
 ^^^^ -^ -J^L- - 
 
 A Horse suffering from Drastic Poison. 
 
 ■worked up to U- drachm ; extract of belladonna, 
 I scruple ; extract of gentian and powdered 
 quassia, a little of each ; apply small blisters, in 
 rapid succession, upon the abdomen : but if the 
 efTusion is confirmed, a cure is hopeless. 
 
 Acute Dysentery. — Cause. — Some acrid sub- 
 stance taken into the stomach. 
 
 Symptoms. — Abdominal pain ; violent purga- 
 tion ; the faces become discolored, and water 
 fetid; intermittent pulse; haggard countenance ; 
 
 A Horse suffering from Acute Gastritis. 
 
 Acute Gastritis. — Cause. — Poison; generally 
 given to improve the coat. 
 
 Sytnptoms. — Excessive pain, resembling fury. 
 
 Treatment. — Give, as often and as quickly as 
 possible, the following drink : Sulphuric ether 
 and laudanum, of each 3 ounces; carbonate of 
 magnesia, soda or potash, 4 ounces ; gruel (guite 
 eolii,) I quart. Should the pulse be sinking, add 
 to the drink carbonate of ammonia, i drachm. 
 
 Acute Laminitis, or Fever in the Feet. 
 
 If corrosive sublimate is known to be the poison, 
 one dozen raw eggs should be blended with each 
 drench. If delirium be present, give the medi- 
 cine as directed for tetanus, with the stomach- 
 pump. 
 
 Acute Laminitis, or Fever in the Feet. — Cause. — 
 Often man's brutality. Horses driven far and 
 upon hard roads are exposed to the disorder. 
 
166 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Any stress long applied to the foot, as standing 
 in the hold of a ship, may produce the affection. 
 Symptoms.— 1\\e. pace seems odd toward the 
 end of the journey ; but the horse is placed in 
 the stable with plenty of food for the night. 
 Next morning the animal is found all of a heap. 
 Flesh quivering; eyes glaring; nostrils dis- 
 tended, and breath jerking; flanks tucked up; 
 back roached; head erect; mouth closed; hind 
 legs advanced under the belly ; fore legs pushed 
 
 A HoKSE IN Slikgs, with the Forefeet in Hot Water, for 
 Acute Laminitis. 
 
 forward; fore feet resting upon the heels, and 
 the limbs moved as though the horse were 
 dancing upon hot irons. 
 
 Treat inent.—Y'wX. on the slings in silence. To 
 the end of the cords append weights. Soak the 
 feet in warm water, in which a portion of alkali 
 is dissolved. Cut out the nails from the soften- 
 ed horn. Before the shoes are removed give i 
 drachm of belladonna and 15 grains of digitalis, 
 
 The Positions assumed by Horses having Albuminous 
 Urine. 
 
 and repeat the dose every half-hour until the 
 symptoms abate. When the slings are up, open 
 the jugular vein; abstract one quart of blood, 
 and inject one pint of lukewarm water. Clothe 
 the body; place thin gruel within reach, and 
 watch for the first three nights. 
 
 Next morning give sulphuric ether £nd lauda- 
 num, of each 2 ounces, in a pint of water. 
 Should the pastern arteries throb, open the 
 veins and place the feet in warm water. While 
 
 the affection lasts, pursue these measures; and 
 it is a bad symptom, though not a fatal one, if 
 no improvement takes place in five days. 
 
 Albuminous Urine. — Cause. — Unknown. 
 
 Symptoms. — These consist of the positions • 
 assumed by the horse. The legs are either 
 stretched out or the hind feet are brought under 
 the body. Straddling gait, and much difficulty 
 in turning within the stall. The urine is thick. 
 
 Trmtme/it .— Bleed moderately; give a laxa- 
 tive, and apply mustard to the loins. As after- 
 measures, perfect rest, attention to diet, and 
 repeated doses of opium. 
 
 Aphtha. — Cause. — Unknown. 
 
 Symptoms. — Small swelling on the lips; larger 
 swellings upon the tongue. As the disease pro- 
 
 gresses, a clear liquid appears in each swelling. 
 The bladders burst, crusts form, and the disease 
 disappears. 
 
 Treatment.— Soit food, and the following wash 
 for the mouth: Borax, 5 ounces; honey or 
 treacle, 2 pints; water, i gallon. Mix. 
 
 Bog Spavin. — Cause. — Brutality of 
 some kind. 
 
 Symptom. — A puffy swelling at 
 the front of and at the upper part 
 of the hock. 
 
 Treatment. — Pressure, main- 
 tained by means of an India-rub- 
 ber bandage. 
 
 Bots.^Cause.^-Tnmng out to 
 grass. 
 
 Treatme7it. — No remedy. The 
 following year the parasites will be ejected 
 naturally. 
 
 Brain, Inflammation of the. — See Phrenitis. 
 
 Breaking Down.^Cause. — Violent exertion ; ge- 
 nerally when racing. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse, when going, suddenly 
 loses power to put one leg to the ground. The 
 foot is turned upward ; pain excessive ; breathing 
 quickened ; pulse accelerated ; appetite lost. In 
 time these symptoms abate, but the leg is disa- 
 bled for life. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed and purge, or not, as the 
 symptoms are severe. Place a linen bandage 
 round the injury, and see that this is kept con- 
 
 BoG Spavin, or 
 Distension of 
 the principal 
 Synovial Mem- 
 brane OF THE 
 Hock-joint. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1G7 
 
 stantly cold and wet ; put on a high-heeled shoe, 
 and leave the result to nature. 
 
 Breaking Down. • 
 
 Broken Knees. — Causes. — Terrifying a horse, or 
 rendering alive only to fear. Pulling in the chin 
 to the breast, or driving with a tight check-rein. 
 
 5)'w//<'wJ.— The horse falls ; the knee may only 
 be slightly broken, but deeply contused. A slough 
 must then take place, and open joint may result. 
 Or the animal may fall, and, when down, be driven 
 forward by the impetus of its motion. The knee 
 is cut by the fall, and the skin of the knee may 
 be forced back by the onward impulse. This skin 
 will become dirty ; but the removed integument 
 will fly back on the animal's rising, thus forming 
 a kind of bag containing and concealing foreign 
 matter. 
 
 Treatment. — Procure a pail of milk-warm water 
 and a large sponge. Dip the sponge in the pail, 
 and squeeze out the water above the knee. Do 
 not dab or sop the wound itself. The water flow- 
 
 The Hair ruf- 
 fle n AND 
 THE Cuticle 
 
 SCRATCHED. 
 
 The Hair re- 
 moved AND THE 
 True Skin ex- 
 posed. 
 
 The Skin de- 
 stroyed AND 
 
 THE CeLHT- 
 
 LAR Tissue 
 
 INJURED. 
 
 ing over the knee will wash away every impurity. 
 Then with a probe gently explore the bag. If 
 small, make a puncture through the bottom of 
 the bag ; if large, insert a seton. and move it night 
 and morning until good pus is secreted : then 
 withdraw the setion. " Rack up" the horse's 
 head, and get some cold water, to every quart of 
 which add two ounces of tincture of arnica. 
 Pour a little of this into a saucer, and djp a 
 sponge into the liquid. Squeeze the sponge dry 
 above the joint. Do this every half-hour for 
 three and a half days, both by day and night. If 
 
 at the end of that time all is going on well, the 
 head may be released ; but should the knee en- 
 large and become sensitive, while the animal re- 
 fuses to put the foot to the ground, withdraw the 
 seton ; give no hay, bJt all the oats and beans 
 that can be eaten, with two pots of stout each 
 day. Place the quadruped in slings ; apply the 
 arnica lotion until a slough takes place ; then re- 
 sort to the chloride-of-zinc lotion, one scruple to 
 the pint, and continue to use this as has "been 
 directed. 
 
 Broken Wind. — Causes. — Old age, prolonged 
 work and bad food. 
 
 Symptoms. — Short, dry, hacking, cough, caused 
 by irritability of the laryn.x ; ravenous appetite ; 
 insatiable thirst ; abundant flatus. Dung half di- 
 gested ; belly pendulous ; coat ragged; aspect de- 
 jected. Respiration is performed by a triple 
 effort ; inspiration is spasmodic and single ; ex- 
 piration is labored and double. The ribs first 
 essay to expel the air from the lungs ; these fail- 
 ing, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles take 
 up the action. Broken wind can be concealed 
 
 How TO HEAR THE SoUND MADE WITHIN THE HoRSe'S WiND- 
 PIPE. 
 
 for a time by forcing the animal to swallow 
 quantities of grease, tar or shot. A drink 
 of water, however, will always reproduce the 
 symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. — No cure. Relief alone is possible. 
 Never give water before work. Four half-pails of 
 water to be allowed in twenty-four hours. In 
 each draught mingle i ounce of phosphoric acid 
 or i drachm of sulphuric acid. Remove the bed 
 in the day ; muzzle at night ; put rock-salt and 
 chalk in the manger. Never push hard or take 
 upon a very long journey. 
 
 Bronchitis. — Causes. — Riding far and fast ; then 
 leaving exposed, especially to the night air; neg- 
 lect and constitutional liability. 
 
 Symptoms. — Appetite often not affected ; some- 
 times IS increased. A short cough, in the first 
 instance ; breathing only excited ; legs warm ; 
 mouth moist ; and nasal membrane merely deeper 
 color during the early stage. When confirmed, 
 the appetite is lost ; the horse is averse to move ; 
 the cough is sore and suppressed ; the breathmg 
 is audible ; the membranes are scarlet : the mouth 
 
168 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 is hot and dry ; the legs are cold ; the body is of 
 uneven temperatures. 
 
 Treatment. — Do not deplete. Place in a large, 
 loose box ; fill the place with steam ; apply scalded 
 hay to the throat ; fi.x flarfnels wet with cold water 
 to the back and side by means of a jacket. When 
 the flannel becomes warm, change it. Do this for 
 two hours. After that space the flannel may re- 
 main on, but must not become dry. Prepare \ 
 pound of melted Burgundy pitch, and stir into it 
 
 mi^ite^;-^ 
 
 A Horse dressed for Bronchitis. 
 
 2 ounces of powdered camphor, with \ drachm of 
 powdered capsicums. Apply the mixture to the 
 throat. To restore tone to the pulse, give, every 
 half-hour, sulphuric ether and laudanum, of each 
 I ounce ; water, i pint. If no effect be produced 
 by three of these drinks, substitute infusion of 
 aconite, \ ounce ; extract of belladonna. ^ drachm_ 
 rubbed down in water, \ pint. When the pulse 
 has recovered, resume the former physic, only 
 adding \ drachm of belladonna to each dose. 
 Support with gruel. Introduce food gradually ; 
 "chill" the water; be careful of hay, which must 
 be thoroughly damped. 
 
 Bronchocele. — Symptom. — An enlargement on 
 the side of the throat. 
 
 Treatment. — Give, night and morning : iodide 
 
 A Horse with Bronchocele. 
 
 of potassium, \ drachm ; liquor potassse, i drachm ; 
 distilled water, \ pint. Also, rub into the swell- 
 ing the accompanying ointment : iodide of lead, 
 I drachm , simple cerate, i ounce. 
 
 Bruise of the Sole. — Cause. — Treading on a stone 
 or some projecting body. 
 
 Symptom. — Effusion of blood into the homy 
 sole. 
 
 Treatment. — Cut away the stained horn, and 
 shoe with leather. 
 
 Calculi, — Causes. — U n known. 
 
 Renal Calculus. — A stone within the pelvis of 
 the kidney. 
 
 Symptoms. — Urine purulent, thick, opaque, gritty 
 or bloody ; back roached. Pressure on the loins 
 occasions shrinking; the arm in the rectum and 
 the hand carried upward provoke alarm. 
 
 Treatment. — 2 drachms of hydrochloric acid 
 in every pail of water ; but the result is doubtful. 
 
 Cystic Calculus signifies a stone in the cavity of 
 the bladder. 
 
 .Symptoms. — Same states of urine as in renal 
 calculus. The water, when flowing, is suddenly 
 stopped ; every emission is followed by straining ; 
 the back is hollowed ; the point of the penis is 
 sometimes exposed ; and, when going down hill, 
 the animal often pulls up sHort. 
 
 A Certain Method of ascertaining if there be Calculus 
 IN THE Bladder. 
 
 I Treatment of Cystic Calculus. — Examine per 
 rectum. An operation for the animal is impera- 
 tive. When the stone is small, hydrochloric 
 acid may be tried. 
 
 Symptoms of Urethral Calculus. — Suppression 
 of urine ; great suffering. If the urethral calcu- 
 lus is impacted in the exposed portion of the ure- 
 thra, the passage is distended behind the stop- 
 page. 
 
 Treatment of Urethral Calcttlus. — Cut down 
 upon and remove the substance. 
 
 Canker. — Cause. — Old horses, when "turned 
 out " for life as pensioners. Aged and neglected 
 animals will also exhibit the disease. 
 
 Symptoms. — Not much lameness. The disease 
 commences at the cleft of the frog; a liquid is- 
 sues from the part, more abundant and more of- 
 fensive than in thrush ; it often exudes from the 
 commissures joining the sole to the frog. The 
 horn first bulges out; then it flakes off, expos- 
 ing a spongy and soft substance, which is fungoid 
 horn. The fungoid horn is most abundant about 
 the margin of the sole, and upon its surface it 
 flakes off. This horn has no sensation. The 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 16<) 
 
 disease is difficult to eradicate when one fore- 
 foot is involved. When all four feet are_impli- 
 cated, a cure is all but hopeless, and the treat- 
 ment is certain to be slow and vexatious. 
 
 Treatment. — The stable must be large, clean 
 and comfortable; the food of the best; allow 
 liberal support; pare off the superficial fungoid 
 horn, and so much of the deep-seated as can be 
 detached. Apply to the diseased parts some of 
 the following : Chloride of zinc, i ounce ; flour, 4 
 ounces. Put on the foot without water. To the 
 sound hoof apply chloride of zinc, 4 grains ; 
 flour, I ounce. Cover the sound parts before the 
 
 Thf Primakv Esi \f.lishment The Second Stage of 
 
 OF CoNFli;MED Canker. Canker. 
 
 The horn turned back, so as to Showing the great abundance 
 display the altered state of of fungoid horn secreted 
 the frog:, wliich indicates a around "the margin of the 
 severe attack of the disease. foot. No notice is purposely 
 
 taken of the frog in this il- 
 lustration. 
 
 cankered horn is dressed ; tack on the shoe ; pad 
 well and firmly. When places appear to be in 
 confirmed health, the following may be used : 
 Cloride of zinc, 2 grains; flour, i ounce. At 
 first, dress every second day ; after a time, every 
 third day, and give e.xercise as soon as possible. 
 
 Capped Elbow. — Cause. — Injury to the point of 
 the elbow. 
 
 Syinptoi)!. — It is often of magnitude, and is 
 liable to ulcerate and become sinuous. 
 
 A Capped Elbow 
 
 Capped Hock. 
 
 Treatment. — The same as capped hock. 
 
 Capped Hock. — Cause. — Any injury to the point 
 of the hock. 
 
 Symptom. — A round swelling on the point of 
 the hock, which, should the cause be repeated, 
 often becomes of great size. 
 
 Treatment. — If small, set several men to hand- 
 rub the tumor constantly for a few davs. Should 
 the capped hock be of magnitude, dissect out the 
 enlargement, without puncturing it. Remove 
 none of the pendulous skin. Treat the wound 
 with the lotion of chloride of zmc — one grain to 
 
 tlie ounce of water — and it will heal after some 
 weeks. 
 
 Capped Knee. — Cause. — The same as the previous 
 affection. 
 
 Symptom. — A soft tumor in front of the knee. 
 
 Treatment. — If let alone, it would burst and 
 leave a permanent blemish. Draw the skin to 
 one side, and with a lancet pierce the lower sur- 
 face of the tumor. Treat the wound as an open 
 joint. 
 
 Cataract. — Cause. — Looking at white walls, or 
 receiving external injuries. Specific ophthalmia 
 generates a permanent cataract. 
 
 Symptoms. — When partial, shying ; if total, 
 white pupil and blindness. 
 
 Treatment. — Color the inside of the stable 
 green, as cataract, when not total, sometimes dis- 
 appears. 
 
 Partial Cataracts, or Small White Speck within the Pupil 
 OF THE Eye. 
 
 Complete Cataract. 
 
 Choking. — Causes. — Something impacted in the 
 gullet, either high up or low down. 
 
 Symptotns — High C/ioke.-^'RsXse.d head; saliva; 
 discharge from the nostrils ; inflamed eyes ; hag- 
 gard countenance; audible breathing; the mus- 
 cles of neck tetanic ; the flanks heave ; the fore 
 feet paw and stamp; the hind legs crouch and 
 dance ; perspiration ; agony excessive. Low 
 Choke. — The animal ceases to feed ; water returns 
 by the nostrils; countenance expresses anguish; 
 saliva and nasal discharge; noisy breathing; 
 reached back ; tucked-up flanks ; the horse stands 
 as though desirous of elevating the quarters. 
 
 Treatment. — Make haste when high choke is 
 present. Make a hole in the windpipe to relieve 
 the breathing ; insert the balling-iron, or, with a 
 hook extemporized out of any wire, endeavor to 
 remove the substance from the throat. If the 
 choking body is too firmly lodged to be thus re- 
 moved, sulphuric ether must be inhaled to relax 
 the spasm. Low choke is seldom fatal before the 
 
170 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 expiration of three days. Give \ pint of oil every 
 hour; in the intermediate half-hours give sul- 
 phuric ether, 2 ounces; laudanum, 2 ounces; 
 water, \ pint; and use the probang after every 
 dose of the last medicine. Should these be re- 
 turned, cause chloroform to be inhaled ; then in- 
 sert the probang, and, by steady pressure, drive 
 the substance forward. 
 
 Subsequent to the removal of impactment 
 feed with caution. 
 
 Chronic Dysentery. — Cause. — Not well understood ; 
 generally attacks old horses belonging to pe- 
 nurious masters. 
 
 Symptoms. — Purging without excitement, al- 
 ways upon drinking cold water ; violent strain- 
 ing ; belly enlarges ; flesh wastes ; bones protrude ; 
 skin hide-bound; membranes pallid ; weakness; 
 perspiration ; standing in one place for hours. 
 At last the eyes assume a sleepy, pathetic expres- 
 sion ; the head is slowly turned toward the 
 flanks ; remains fixed for some minutes ; the 
 horse only moves when the bowels are about to 
 act ; colic ; death. 
 
 A HORSR SUFFERING UNDER CHRONIC DvSENTERV. 
 
 Treatment. — Give, thrice daily: Crude opium, 
 \ ounce ; liquor potassae, i ounce ; chalk, i 
 ounce ; tincture of allspice, i ounce ; alum, | 
 ounce; ale, I quart. .Should the horse belong 
 to a generous master, give one of the following 
 drinks thrice dail)', upon the symptoms being 
 confirmed : Sulphuric ether, i ounce ; laudanum, 
 3 ounces ; liquor potassBe, k ounce ; powdered 
 chalk, I ounce ; tincture of catechu, i ounce ; 
 cold linseed tea, i pint. Or, chloroform, \ ounce ; 
 extract of belladonna, | drachm ; carbonate of 
 ammonia, i drachm ; powdered camphor, \ 
 drachm; tincture of oak-bark, i ounce; cold lin- 
 seed tea, I pint. Feed lightly; dress frequently; 
 give a good bed and a roomy lodging. 
 
 Chronic Gastritis. — Symptoms. — Irregularity of 
 bowels and appetite ; pallid membranes ; mouth 
 cold ; a dry cough ; tainted breath ; sunken eye ; 
 catching respiration; pendulous . belly ; ragged 
 coat, and emaciation. Sweating on the slightest 
 exertion ; eating wood-work or bricks and mor- 
 tar. 
 
 Treatment. — Do not purge; administer bitters, 
 sedatives an alkalies. Give powdered nux 
 vomica, 1 scruple ; carbonate of potash, i drachm ; 
 extract of belladonna, \ drachm ; extract of gen- 
 tian and powdered quassia, of each a sufficiency. 
 Or give strychnia, \ grain ; bicarbonate of am 
 monia, i drachm ; extract of belladonna, \ 
 drachm ; sulphate of zinc, \ drachm ; extract of 
 gentian and powdered quassia, of' each a suffi- 
 ciency. Give one ball night and morning. When 
 these balls seem to have lost their power, give \ 
 ounce each of liquor arsenicalis and tincture of 
 
 A Horse with Chronic Ga'^tritis indulging its Morbid 
 
 Ari'ETlTE. 
 
 ipecacuanha, with i ounce of muriated tincture 
 of iron and laudanum, in a pint of water; damp 
 the food ; sprinkle magnesia on it. As the 
 strength improves, give sulphuric ether, i ounce, 
 and water, i pint, daily. Ultimately change that 
 for a quart of ale or stout daily. 
 
 Chronic Hepatitis. — Cause. — Too good food and 
 too little work. 
 
 Symptoms. — Cold mouth ; pallid membranes ; 
 white of eyes ghastly, displaying a yellow tinge ; 
 looks toward the right side ; the right side may 
 be tender for a long time, with generally repeated 
 attacks of this nature, although the horse may 
 perish with the first fit. 
 
 Treatment. — Hold up the head; and if the 
 horse staggers, there is hemorrhage from the 
 liver. Give sufficient nutritious food, but only 
 enough, plenty of labor, and the following physic : 
 Iodide of potassium, 2 ounces ; liquor potassa;, i 
 quart. Dose, night and morning, two tablespoon- 
 fuls in a pint of water. 
 
 Clap of the Back Sinews. — Cause. — Extra exertion. 
 
 Symptoms. — The maimed limb is flexed ; the 
 toe rests upon the ground. In a short space a 
 tumor appears ; it is small, hot, soft and tender, 
 but soon grows hard. Great pain, but attended 
 with few constitutional symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. — Administer physic, and bleed 
 gently ; then give a few doses of febrifuge medi- 
 cine, but go no further than to reduce the pulse 
 to fifty-five degrees. Put a linen bandage on the 
 leg; keep this constantly wet until the primary 
 
HORSES AND THEIR, MANAGEMENT. 
 
 171 
 
 symptoms abate. Cut grass for food while fever 
 exists ; continue the cold water till recovery is 
 
 The Earliest Symptom 
 OF Clat of the Back 
 Sinews, or Sevekk 
 Sprain of the Tendon. 
 
 The Blemish left dv 
 Clap of the Back 
 Sinews. 
 
 confirmed. The horse will not be fit to work for 
 many months. 
 
 Cold. — If mild, a few mashes, an extra rug and 
 a slight rest generally accomplish a cure. 
 
 Symptoms of severe cold are dullness ; a rough 
 coat; the body of different temperatures; the 
 nasal membrane deep scarlet, or of a leaden 
 color; the appetite is lost; simple ophthalmia; 
 tears ; the sinuses are clogged, and a discharge 
 from the nose appears. 
 
 Treatment. — Give no active medicine. Apply 
 the steaming nose-bag six times daily ; allow cut 
 grass and mashes for food, with gruel for drink. 
 If weak, present three feeds of crushed and 
 scalded oats and beans daily, with a pot of stout 
 morning and evening. Good nursing, with pure 
 air, warmth, and not even exercise, till the dis- 
 
 A Horse's Head exhibiting a Cold. 
 
 ease abates, are of more importance than "doc- 
 tor's stuff" in a case of severe cold. Cold, how- 
 ever, often ushers in other and more dangerous 
 diseases. 
 
 Congestion in the Field. — Cause. — Riding a horse 
 when out of condition. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse, from exhaustion, reels 
 and falls. The'body is clammy cold ; the breath- 
 ing is labored ; every vein is turgid. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed, if possible ; cover the 
 body ; lead gently to the nearest stable ; keep 
 
 hot rugs upon the animal ; bandage the legs and 
 hood the neck ; warm the place, either by a fire 
 or. tubs full of hot water. Give quietly, every 
 half-hour, I ounce of sulphuric ether, | ounce of 
 laudanum, i pint of cold water. Beat up 2 
 ounces of turpentine with the yelk of an egg ; 
 mix it with i pint of water, and repeat the dose 
 at the times .stated. Allow an ample bed, and 
 place a pail of gruel within easy reach of the 
 horse. Do not leave the animal for thirty hours, 
 as in that time its fate will be decided. 
 
 Congestion in the Stable. — Cause. — A debilitated, 
 fat horse, unuse'd to work, being driven fast with 
 a heavy load. 
 
 Symptoms. — Hanging head;, food not glanced 
 at ; blowing ; artery gorged and round ; pulse 
 feeble ; cold and partial perspirations ; feet cold ; 
 eye fixed ; hearing lost ; and the attitude motion- 
 less. 
 
 Treatment. — Give immediately 2 ounces each 
 of sulphuric ether and of laudanum in a pint of 
 cold water. Give the drink with every caution. 
 In ten minutes repeat the medicine, if necessary. 
 Wait twenty minutes, and give another drink, if 
 requisite ; more are seldom needed. Take away 
 all solid food, and allow gruel for the remainder 
 of the day. 
 
 Corns. — Cause. — In a flat foot, the heels of the 
 cotlin-bone squeeze the sensitive sole by pressing 
 
 Diagram. 
 
 Showing the position of the hindermost part of the coffin-bone 
 when in a passive state; also portraying the shoe in the fleshy 
 or flat foot. 
 
 Diagram. * 
 
 Illustrating the relative positions of the wings of the coffin- 
 bone, and the thiclc, concave horny sole of the contracted 
 foot when not in motion. 
 
 it against the shoe. In a contracted foot, the 
 sensitive sole is squeezed between the wings of 
 the coffin-bone and the thick horny sole. A 
 
172 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 bruise results ; blood is effused ; and the stain of 
 this left upon the horny sole — generally upon the 
 inner side and anterior to the bars — constitutes a 
 horse's corn, which is mostly found on the fore- 
 feet. 
 
 Symptoms. — If the stain is dark, and is to be re- 
 moved with the knife, this indicates that a corn 
 was there, but no longer exists. • The smallest 
 stain of bright scarlet testifies to the existence of 
 a new and present corn. Corns are of four kinds 
 — the old, the new, the sappy and the suppura- 
 tive. The old and new are produced by the blood, 
 and are judged by the scarlet or dark-colored 
 stain. The old is generally near the surface, the 
 new is commonly deep seated. The sappy is 
 when the bruise is only heavy enough to effuse 
 serum. The new corn alone produces lameness. 
 The suppurating corn may start up from either of 
 the others receiving additional injury. It causes 
 intense pain and produces acute lameness. 
 
 Trealment. — Cut out the stain. If a suppurat- 
 ing corn, place the foot in a 
 poultice, after having opened 
 the abscess. Then, the horn 
 being softened, cut away all 
 the sole which has been re- 
 leased by the pus from its at- 
 tachment to the secreting sur- 
 ''hcJhT Fr "shoo face. Tack on an old shoe, 
 WITH Leather. an(j dress with the solution 
 
 The central ansrular , , i i ■ j r ■ 
 
 mark indicates the of the chloride of zmc, I gram 
 !5q.Td irppTng shoL'd to the ounce. Afterward shoe 
 be poured. w\\.\\ leather, and employ stop- 
 
 ping to render the horn plastic. 
 
 Cough. — Causes. — Foul stables ; hot stables ; 
 coarse, dusty provender ; rank bedding ; irregular 
 work ; while the affection may attend many 
 diseases. 
 
 Treatment. — Crush the oats ; damp the hay ; 
 give gruel or linseed tea for drink. Clothe 
 warmly, and give, thrice daily, i pint of the follow- 
 ing in a tumbler of water : Extract of belladonna, 
 I drachm, rubbed down in a pint of cold water ; 
 tincture of squills, lo ounces; tincture of ipe- 
 cacuanha, 8 ounces. No change ensuing, 
 next try Barbadoes or common tar, \ ounce ; 
 calomel, 5 grains; linseed meal, a sufficiency. 
 Make into a ball, and give one night and morn- 
 ing. This being attended with no improvement, 
 employ powdered aloes, i drachm ; balsam of 
 copaiba, 3 drachms ; cantharides, 3 grains ; com- 
 mon mass, a sufficiency. Mix, and give every 
 mornirig. 
 
 A daily bundle of cut grass is good in the 
 spring of the year. A lump of rock-salt may be 
 beneficial. If the animal eats the litter, muzzle 
 it. Roots are good. Moisten the hay ; and, 
 above all things, attend to the ventilation of the 
 stable. 
 
 Cracked Heels. — Cause. — Cutting tlic liair from 
 the heels, and turning into 
 a straw-yard during winter. 
 
 Symptoms. — Thickened 
 skin ; cracks ; and some- 
 times ulceration. 
 
 Treatment. — Wash ; dry 
 thoroughly; apply the fol- 
 lowingwash: .Animal glyce- 
 rine, ^ pint; chloride of 
 zinc, 2 drachms; strong so- 
 lution of oak-bark, i pint. 
 Mix. If ulceration has 
 commenced, rest the horse. 
 
 Give a few bran mashes or The Heel or a Horse in a 
 ,. , . Crackud Condition. 
 
 a little cut grass to open the 
 
 bowels. Use the next wash: Animal glycerine, 
 or phosphoric acid, 2 ounces ; permanganate of 
 potash or creosote, ^ ounce ; water. 3 ounces. 
 Apply six times daily. Give a drink each day 
 composed of liquor arsenicalis, -1- ounce; tincture 
 of muriate of iron, i ounce ; water, i pint. 
 
 Crib-Biting. — Cause. — Sameness of food and un- 
 healthy stables, or indigestion. 
 
 Syinptoms. — Placing the upper incisors against 
 some support, and, with some effort, emitting a 
 little wind. 
 
 Treatment. — Place a lump of rock-salt in the 
 manger; if that is not successful, add a lump of 
 chalk. Then damp the food, and sprinkle mag- 
 nesia upon it, and mingle a handful of ground 
 oak-bark with each feed of corn. Purify the 
 ventilation of the stable before these remedies 
 are applied. 
 
 Curb. — Causes. — Galloping on uneven ground; 
 wrenching the limb; prancing and leaping. 
 
 Symptom.— K bulging out at the posterior of 
 
 A Curb. 
 
 AN India-rubber Bandage, 
 
 FOR KEEPING WeT ClOTHS 
 
 UPON A Curb. 
 
 the hock, accompanied by heat and pain, often 
 by lameness. 
 
 Treatment.— Re^t the animal. Put on an 
 India-rubber bandage, .and under it a folded 
 cloth. Keep the cloth wet and cool with cold 
 water. When all inflammation has disappeared, 
 blister the hock. 
 
 Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder. — Causes. 
 
 Kicks and blows under the flank; abuse of 
 
 medicine, and bad food, with the provocatives 
 >,-:nerally of nephritis. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 173 
 
 Symptoms. — Those common to pain and inflam- 
 mation. Urine, however, afi'ords the principal 
 indication. At first, it is at intervals jerl^ed forth 
 in small quantities. Ultimately it flows forth 
 constantly drop by drop. Press the flank, which, 
 should cystitis be present, will call forth resis- 
 tance. 
 
 Treatment. — Give scruple doses of aconite, 
 should the pulse be e.xcited ; the same of bella- 
 donna, should pain be excessive ; and calomel 
 with opium, to arrest the disease. Place under 
 the belly, by means of a rug, a cloth soaked with 
 strong liquor ammonia diluted with si.x times its 
 bulk of water. Or apply a rug dipped into hot 
 water or loaded with cold water ; change when 
 either becomes warm. 
 
 Diabetes Insipidus, or Profuse Staling. — Causes. — 
 Diuretic drugs or bad food. 
 
 Symptoms. — Weakness ; loss of flesh ; loss of 
 condition. 
 
 Treatment. — Do not take from the stable ; 
 keep a pail of linseed tea in the manger ; give no 
 grass or hay ; groom well. Order a ball com- 
 posed of iodide of iron, i drachm ; honey and 
 linseed meal, a sufficiency. Or a drink consist- 
 ing of phosphoric acid, i ounce ; water, i pint. 
 Give the ball daily ; the drink, at night and at 
 morning. 
 
 Enteritis. — Causes. — Greatly conjectural. Pro- 
 longed colic may end in it. Constipation may 
 induce it. 
 
 The Nose strained violently upward is a General Symp- 
 tom OF Abdominal Irritation. 
 
 Symptoms. — Dullness ; heaviness ; picks the 
 food ; shivers repeatedly ; rolling ; plunging ; 
 kicking, but more gently than in spasmodic colic ; 
 
 '^ rt , T 
 
 The Test of Pressure to the Abdomen for Enteritis. 
 
 quickened breathing; hot, dry mouth ; wiry pulse. 
 Pressure to the abdomen gives pain. Insert the 
 arm up the anus: if the intestines are very hot, 
 all is confirmed. 
 
 Treatment. — E.xtract I quart of blood from the 
 jugular, and inject into the vein i pint of water 
 at a blood heat. Give aconite in powder, 1- 
 drachm; sulphuric ether, 3 ounces; laudanum, 3 
 ounces ; extract of belladonna, i drachm (rubbed 
 down in cold water, i' pints). As the pulse 
 changes, withdraw the aconite ; as the pain sub- 
 sides, discontinue the belladonna. The other in- 
 gredients may be diminished as the horse ap- 
 pears to be more comfortable. Should the pain 
 linger after the administration of the eighth 
 drink, apply an ammoniacal blister. Sprinkle on 
 the tongue, if any symptoms declare the disease 
 vanquished but not fled, every second hour, ca- 
 lomel, J drachm ; opium, I drachm. Feed very 
 carefully upon recovery, avoiding all things pur- 
 gative or harsh to the bowels. 
 
 Epizooty, or Epizootic. See Influenza. 
 
 Excoriated Angles of the Mouth. — Cause. — Abuse 
 of the reins. 
 
 Treatment. — Apply the following lotion to the 
 part: Chloride of zinc, 2 scruples; essence of 
 anise-seed, 2 drachms; water, 2 pints. 
 
 False Quarter. — Cause. — Injury to the coronet, 
 producing an absence of the secreting coronet of 
 the cru.st from the hoof. 
 
 Symptoms. — No lameness, but weakness of the 
 foot. The soft horn of the laminae, being ex- 
 posed, is apt to crack. Bleeding ensues. Some- 
 times granulations sprout when the pain and the 
 lameness are most acute. 
 
 Treatment. — In cases of crack and granula- 
 tions, treat as is advised for sandcrack. Put on 
 a bar-shoe, with a clip on each side of the false 
 quarter. Pare down the edges of the crack, and 
 ease off the point of bearing on the false quarter. 
 A piece of gutta-percha, fastened over the false 
 quarter, has done good. 
 
 Farcy. — Causes. — Excessive labor, poor food 
 and bad lodging, with old age. 
 
 Farcy on the inside of the 
 Horse's Thigh, where the 
 Skin is thin and the Hair 
 almost absent. 
 
 «A Portion of Skin, taken 
 from a Farcied Horse, 
 injected with Mercury. 
 
 Symptoms. — Inflammation of the superficial 
 absorbents. Lumps appear on various parts. If 
 
174 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 these lumps are opened, healthy matter is re- 
 leased ; but the place soon becomes a foul ulcer, 
 from which bunches of fungoid granulations 
 sprout. From the lumps may be traced little 
 cords leading to other swellings. The appetite 
 fails, or else it is voracious. Matter may be 
 squeezed through the skin. Thirst is torturing. 
 At length glanders breaks forth, and the animal 
 dies. There is a smaller kind of farcy called 
 button-farcy ; the smaller sort is the more viru- 
 lent of the two. 
 
 Cure. — There is no known cure for the disease. 
 
 Fistulous Parotid Duct— The parotid duct is the 
 tube by which the saliva secreted by the gland 
 is, during the act of mastication, conveyed into 
 the mouth and mingled with the food. The pa- 
 rotid gland lies at the sppt where the neck joins 
 the jaw ; within the interior of that body nume- 
 rous fine hollow vessels connect and unite. 
 These at each junction become larger and fewer 
 in number, till at length they all terminate in 
 one channel. 
 
 Causes. — Hay-seed or other substances getting 
 
 The Parotid Duct distended bv a Salivary Calculus. 
 
 into the mouth of the duct during mastication. 
 Stones being formed within the canal. The 
 stable-fork in the hand of an intemperate groom. 
 
 Symptoms. — The duct greatly enlarges behind 
 the obstacle, which, becoming swollen, prevents 
 the secretion from entering the mouth. Great 
 agony is occasioned by every mouthful masti- 
 cated. The duct bursts, and a fistulous opening 
 is established, through which the saliva jerks at 
 each motion of the jaw. From the absence of a 
 secretion important to digestion, the flesh wastes, 
 and the animal soon assumes a miserable appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Treatment. — Make an adhesive fluid with gum 
 mastic and spirits of wine, or with India-rubber 
 and sulphuric ether. When the horse is not 
 feeding, pare the hardened edges from the 
 wound ; cover the orifice with a piece of strained 
 India-rubber; over this put a layer of cotton; 
 fasten one end to the horse's cheek by means of 
 the adhesive fluid ; that having dried, fasten the 
 other end tightly down. Place other layers of 
 cotton over this, allowing each layer to cross the 
 
 other, and fastening all to the cheek. Fasten 
 the head to the pillar-reins ; allow the horse to 
 remain till the cotton falls off, and give only 
 gruel for food. Put tan under the feet; and 
 should the first trial not succeed, repeat it. 
 
 Fistulous Withers. — Cause. — External injury, 
 generally by a lady's saddle, which bruises one 
 of the bursse placed above the withers. 
 
 The Slight Enlargement which, badly treated or unaT" 
 
 TENDED to, MAY END IN FISTULOUS WITHERS. 
 
 Symptoms. — 'When first done, a small round 
 swelling appears on the off side. If this is neg- 
 lected, the place enlarges, and numerous holes 
 burst out, which are the mouths of so many fis- 
 tulous pipes. 
 
 T)-eatment. — In the early stage, open the tumor 
 and divide it. Touch the interior with lunar 
 caustic ; keep the wound moist with the chloride- 
 of-zinc lotion, one grain to the ounce of water, 
 and cover it with a cloth dipped in a solution of 
 
 A HdRSE with Fistulous Withers in the Worst Stage. 
 
 tar. "If the sinuses are established, make one cut 
 to embrace as many as possible. Clean out the 
 corruption. Scrape or cut off any black or white 
 bone which may be exposed. Cover with a cloth, 
 and keep wet with the solution of chloride of 
 zinc. Should there exist a long sinus leading 
 from the withers to the elbow, insert a seton by 
 means of the guarded seton-needle. This seton 
 should be withdrawn as soon as a stream of 
 creamy pus is emitted. 
 
 Fungoid Tumors in the Eye. — Cause. — Unknown. 
 
 Symptoms. — Blindness; a yellow, metallic ap- 
 pearance to be seen in the eye. 
 
 Treattnent. — None of any service. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 175 
 
 Glanders. — Cause. — Bad lodging, stimulating 
 food, and excessive work operating upon young 
 life. 
 
 Fungus H,4tMATOiDFP. or Cancekous Growths within the Sub- 
 si ance OF THE Eye. 
 
 Symptoms. — Staring coat; lungs or air-passages 
 always affected; flesh fades; glands swell; spirits 
 low; appetite bad. A lymphatic gland adheres 
 
 The Primary Discharge of 
 Glanders. Simply a 
 Slight Watery Deflux- 
 
 lON. 
 
 The Secondary Discharge. 
 A Thick and Copious but 
 still Transparent Excre- 
 tion, CONTAINING Pieces 
 and Threads of Mucus. 
 
 to the inside of the jaw; the membrane inside 
 the nose ulcerates; a slight discharge from one 
 nostril. This becomes thicker, and adheres to 
 
 The Third, or Suppurative 
 Stage of Glanders. 
 
 The Fourth, or Last Stage 
 OF Glanders. 
 
 the margin of the nostril, exhibiting white 
 threads and bits of mucus ; then it changes to a 
 full stream of foul pus ; next the nasal membrane 
 
 The Proof of Glanders. 
 
 1. Termination of the lachrymal duct — a natural develop- 
 ment. 
 
 2. A discolored membrane, disfigured by ulcerative patches. 
 
 grows dull and dropsical ; the margins of the 
 nostrils enlar^re ; the horse breathes with diffi- 
 culty; the discharge turns discolored and abhor- 
 
 rent; farcy breaks forth, and the animal dies of 
 suffocation. 
 
 Treatment. — There is no known cure. The 
 contagion is dangerous to man and beast. Kill 
 the animal as soon as you are certain it has glan- 
 ders. 
 
 Greasp — Causes. — Age; debility; excessive 
 labor; neglect; filth. Cutting the hair off the 
 heels ; turning out to grass in the cold months. 
 
 Sytnptoms. — Scurfiness and itchiness of the 
 legs. Rubbing the leg with the hoof of the 
 opposite limb ; hairs' stand on end ; moisture 
 e.xudes, and hangs upon the hairs in drops. 
 Smells abhorrently ; lameness ; cracks on the 
 skin ; swelling; ulceration ; thin discliarge; odor 
 worse. Lameness increases ; leg enlarges ; gra- 
 nulations sprout in ragged bunches; their points 
 harden and become like horn ; pain excessive ; 
 horn of hoof grows long. 
 
 First Stage of Confirmed Second Stage of Confirmed 
 Grease Exudation. ' Grease Cracks. 
 
 Treatment. — Gut off all remaining hair. If 
 hot and scurfy, cleanse with mild soap and hot, 
 soft water ; saturate a cloth with, the following 
 lotion : Animal glycerine, \ pint ; chloride of 
 zinc, I ounce; water, 6 quarts. Lay it upon the 
 leg. When this cloth becomes warm, remove it, 
 and apply another, also wet with the lotion ; thus 
 continue applying cool cloths to the limb till 
 the heat abates ; afterward moisten the leg thrice 
 daily. When cracks and ulceration are present, 
 adopt the wet cloths ; but subsequently use one of 
 the following to the sores ; Permanganate of pot- 
 ash or phosphoric acid, i pint ; water, 6 quarts. 
 Or chlpride of zinc, i ounce; water, i gallon: 
 employ thrice daily. If the granulations have 
 sprouted, remove them with a knife, in three ope- 
 rations. Always place in a loose box. Feed libe- 
 rally; allow old beans; give a handful of ground 
 oak-bark with each feed of oats. Night and 
 morning give liquor arsenicalis, i ounce ; tincture 
 of muriate of iron, l\ ounces; porter or stout, i 
 quart :; i pint for the dose. Chopped roots ; 
 speared wheat ; hay tea ; cut grass, and exercise 
 are all good for grease. 
 
 GuUa Serena. — Cause. — Over-exertion. 
 
 Symptotns, — Fixed dilatation of the pupil; a 
 
176 
 
 tup: FRIF.M) of ai.i,. 
 
 greenish hue of the eye; total blindness. Active 
 ears ; restless nostrils ; head erect ; high step- 
 ping; occasionally a rough coat in summer and 
 a smooth coat in winter. 
 
 Treatment. — No remedy is possible. 
 
 Heart-Disease. — Symptoms. — Auscultation. The 
 beat of the heart to be seen externally ; haggard 
 countenance •' pulse feeble ; heart throbs ; the 
 beat of the carotid artery is to be felt ; the re- 
 gurgitation in the jugular is to be seen. The 
 appetite is sometimes ravenous — often fastidious ; 
 the breathing is not accelerated excepting during 
 pain; lameness of one leg; dropsical swellings ; 
 stopping short when on a journey ; averse to 
 turn in the stall ; noises; yawns; sighs. Death 
 always unexpected. No treatment is of any use. 
 
 Hematuria, or Bloody Urine. — Cause. — Unknown. 
 
 Symptoms. — Discoloration of the fluid. When 
 the bleeding is copious, breathing is oppressed ; 
 the pupils of the eyes are dilated. Pulse is lost; 
 head is pendulous ; membranes are pale and cold. 
 Lifting up the head produces staggering. Back 
 roached ; flanks tucked up; legs wide apart. 
 
 Treatment. — Be gentle. Give acetate of lead, 
 2 drachms, in cold water, i pint; or as a ball, if 
 one can be delivered. In a quarter of an hour 
 repeat the dose, adding laudanum, i ounce, or 
 powdered opium, 2 drachms. Repeat the physic 
 till an ounce of acetate of lead has been given. 
 Leave the horse undisturbed for two hours, if the 
 symptoms justify delay. If not, dash pailfuls of 
 cold water upon the loins from a height. Give 
 'copious injections of cold water. Pour I pint 
 of boiling water upon 4 drachms of ergot of rye. 
 When cold, add laudanum, i ounce, and dilute 
 acetic acid, 4 ounces. Give two of these drinks, 
 and two cold enemas, of twenty minutes' dura- 
 tion. Suspend all treatment for eight hours, 
 when the measures may be repeated. 
 
 Hide-Bound. — Cause. — Neglect, or turning into a 
 straw-yard for the winter. 
 
 Treatment. — Liberal food, clean lodging, soft 
 bed, healthy exercise and good grooming. Ad- 
 minister, daily, two drinks, composed of liquor 
 arsenicalis, i ounce; tincture of muriate of iron, 
 I ounce; water, i pint. Mix, and give as one 
 dose. >) 
 
 High-Blowing and Wheezing. — Habits which admit 
 of no remedies. 
 
 Hydrophobia. — Cause. — Bite from a rabid dog or 
 cat. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse is constantly licking the 
 bitten place. A morbid change takes place in 
 the appetite. Eager thirst, but inability to drink, 
 or spasm at the sound or sight of water is exhibi- 
 ted. Nervous excitability ; voice and expression 
 of countenance altered. More rarely the horse- 
 when taken from the stable — appears well 
 While at work, it stops and threatens to fall 
 
 Shivers violently, and is scarcely brought home 
 when the savage stage commences. The latter 
 
 The Countenance of a Horse with Hydrophobia. 
 
 development consists in the utmost ferocity, 
 blended with a most mischievous cunning, or a 
 malicious pleasure in destruction. 
 
 The Destructive Impulse of Hydrophobia. 
 
 Treatment. — No remedy known. Confine in a 
 strong place, and shoot immediately. 
 
 Hydrothorax, or Dropsy of the Chest. — Cause. — 
 Pleurisy, or inflammation of the membrane lining 
 the chest. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse is left very ill. The 
 next morning the animal is looking better; the 
 
 •^t?^'-. 
 
 Removing the Fluid in Hydrothorax. 
 
 pain has abated ; the eye is more cheerful ; but 
 the flanks heave. Strike the chest while the 
 person listens on the other side: a metallic ring 
 follows ; the pulse is lost at the jaw ; the heart 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 177 
 
 seems to throb through water. The horse has 
 hydrothorax. 
 
 Treatment. — The first thing is to draw off the 
 fluid. A spot between the eighth and nintii ribs 
 is chosen, and the skin is pulled back; a small 
 slit through the skin is made; into that opening 
 a fine trocar is driven. When there is no resist- 
 ance felt, the thorax has been entered ; the stilet 
 is withdrawn and the water flows forth. Should 
 the horse appear faint, withdraw the instrument, 
 and in two hours again puncture the chest. Af- 
 terward the food must be prepared, and a ball 
 administered night and morning, consisting of 
 iodide of iron, i drachm; strychnia, \ grain; 
 sulphate of zinc, \ drachm ; extract of gentian 
 and powdered quassia, a sufficiency. 
 
 Impediment in the Lachrymal Duct. — Cause. — A 
 hay-seed or other substance getting into and be- 
 coming swollen within the duct. 
 
 Symptoms. — Swollen lid and copious tears. 
 
 Treatment. — Inject, forcibly, a stream of water 
 up the duct. 
 
 Inflammation of the Brain. — See Phrenitis. 
 
 Influenza. — Cause. — Unknown; but suspected 
 to be generated by close stables. Called also 
 Epizooty, or the Epizootic. 
 
 Symptoms. — Weakness and stupidity; local 
 swellings; heat and pain in the limbs. Loss of 
 appetite ; rapid wasting ; every part of the body is 
 diseased. Youth most exposed, but no age ex- 
 empt. Spring-time the general season, but an 
 attack may ensue at any period of the year. The 
 following symptoms are somewhat uncertain : 
 Pendulous head ; short breath ; inflamed mem- 
 branes ; swollen lips ; dry mouth ; enlarged eye- 
 lids ; copious tears ; sore throat ; tucked-up flanks ; 
 compressed tail ; filled legs ; big joints ; lameness 
 and hot feet. Auscultation may detect a grating 
 sound at the chest, or a noise like brickbats fall- 
 ing downstairs, withm the windpipe. When the 
 last is audible, there is always a copious discharge. 
 Sometimes one foot is painful ; purgation has been 
 seen ; but constipation is generally present, and 
 the horse usually stands throughout the disease. 
 Always suspect influenza when it is in the neigh- 
 borhood, and the membranes are yellow or in- 
 flamed. 
 
 Treatment. — Move to a well-littered, warm, loose 
 box. Suspend a pail of gruel from the wall ; 
 change the gruel thrice daily ; sprinkle on the 
 tongue, night and morning, calomel, i scruple ; 
 wash this down with sulphuric ether, i ounce ; 
 laudanum, i ounce ; water, i pint. If weakness 
 increases, double the quantity of ether and of 
 laudanum. When the pulse loses all wiry feeling, 
 and the discharge becomes copious, give from the 
 hand some bread, on which there is a little salt ; 
 when the cough appears, give a pot of stout daily. 
 Beware of purgatives or active treatment. 
 
 12 
 
 Injuries to the Jaw. — Causes. — Pulling the snaffle ; 
 abuse of the bit ; too tight a curb-chain. 
 
 Symptoms. — Discoloration before or behind the 
 tush ; bruise under the tongue or upon the roof 
 of the mouth ; tumor and bony growth upon the 
 margin of the lower jaw. 
 
 The Snaffle bearing upon the Lower Jaw. 
 
 Treatment. — Cut upon the discoloration till the 
 knife reaches the bone ; if fetor is present, inject 
 the chloride-of-zinc lotion ; keep the wounds open, 
 that the injured bone may come away. 
 
 Lacerated Eyelid. — Causes. — Nails in the gang- 
 way, or the horses snapping at each other. 
 
 Treatment. — Bathe with cold water till the 
 bleeding ceases ; allow the separated parts to re- 
 main until the divided edges are sticky; bring to- 
 gether with sutures ; place the horse in the pillar- 
 reins till the healing is perfected. 
 
 Lacerated Tongue. — Causes. — Sticking to a horse 
 when giving physic ; making a " chaw" of the 
 halter-rope. 
 
 Treatment. — Insert no sutures ; if the arteries 
 are excised, cut off the hanging portion of the 
 tongue ; should the vessels have escaped, allow 
 all to remain ; feed on gruel and soft food ; after 
 every meal wash out the mouth with the solution 
 ordered for aphtha, or with the chloride-of-zinc 
 lotion. 
 
 Laminitis (Subacute). — Causes. — Age ; long stand- 
 ing in the stable ; over-work, and stinted diet. 
 
 Symptoms. — First noticed by 
 the manner of going upon the 
 heels of the forefeet. 
 
 Treatment. — Get into slings. 
 Remove the shoes. Do not 
 bleed. Give a quart of stout, 
 nieht and morning. Allow two The Deformitv 
 
 ° ^ . , WHICH ENSUES UPON 
 
 drinks per day, each consisting dropping of the 
 
 . r 1 1, • ..u Coffin-Bone. 
 
 of I ounce of sulphuric ether 
 and i pint of water ; ^ drachm doses of bella- 
 donna, to allay pain ; sound oats and old beans, 
 both crushed, for food ; water to be whitened ; no 
 hay. No limit to this food, but five feeds to be 
 given if the horse will eat so much. 
 
 Laryngitis. — Cause. — Foul stables. 
 
 Symptoms. — Dullness; enlargement over the 
 larynx ; stiff neck ; short and suppressed cough ; 
 
17a 
 
 THE FRIEXU OF ALL. 
 
 breathing hurried and catching ; pulse full ; nasal 
 membrane almost scarlet. 
 
 TreatJiient. — Give drachm doses of tincture of 
 aconite, in wineglasses of water, every half-hour, 
 to amend the pulse. Refrain from bleeding. Put 
 on a steaming nose-bag, and keep it almost con- 
 stantly applied, to amend the breathing. Fix some 
 hay, soaked in boiling water, upon the throat, by 
 means of an eight-tailed bandage. Give, very 
 carefully, the following drink, thrice daily: Infu- 
 sion of squills, 2 ounces; infusion of ipecacuanha, 
 2 ounces; infusion of aconite, \ ounce ; extract of 
 
 Steaming the Nose of a Horse with Cold. 
 
 belladonna, i drachm, rubbed down with a pint 
 of warm water. Place in a cool, well -aired, 
 thickly -littered, loose box; bandage the legs; 
 clothe the body ; give only gruel for food, chang- 
 ing it thrice daily. On improvement, a little 
 moist food may be allowed. When improvement 
 is confirmed, put a seton under the throat. Blis- 
 ter the throat ; pick and damp the hay ; sift, 
 bruise and scald the oats. Employ no lowering 
 agents. 
 
 Larva in the Skin. — Causes. — Turning out to 
 grass. The fly lays its egg upon the hair, the 
 warmth of the body hatches it, and the larva 
 enters the skin. The next summer a tolerably 
 large abscess is established, the insect occupying 
 its center. 
 
 Treatment. — With a lancet open the abscess, and 
 squeeze out the larva. Dab the wound with a 
 lotion made of chloride of zinc, i grain ; water, i 
 ounce. 
 
 Lice. — Causes. — Filth and debility. 
 
 Treatment. — Rub the skin with some cheap oil 
 or grease. Wash, and then look for other dis- 
 eases, as hide-bound, mange, etc. 
 
 Luxation of the Patella.— Cause. — Bad food and 
 constitutional weakness. 
 
 S) mptoms. — The horse stops short, and has one 
 of the hind legs extended backward. A swelling 
 upon the outer side. The pastern is flexed, the 
 
 head raised, and the animal in great pain. In 
 colts it will sometimes appear on the slightest 
 cause. 
 
 The Manner of returning the Patella of an Adult 
 Animal. 
 
 Treatment. — For colts, any flurry may restore 
 the bone ; but feed well, to eradicate the weak- 
 ness. For horses, get into a shed, and, throwing 
 a rope one end of which has been fixed to the 
 pastern, have the leg dragged forward while some 
 one pushes the bone into its place. A man should 
 be put to keep the bone in its situation for some 
 hours. Give strengthening food, and do not use 
 for six weeks subsequently. 
 
 Mallenders and Sallenders. — Cause. — Neglect. 
 
 Symptoms. — Scurf upon the seats of flexion; 
 mallenders at the back of the knee, and sallen- 
 ders at the front of the hock. 
 
 Treatment. — Cleanliness. Give the liquor-arse- 
 nicalis drink, recommended for grease. Change 
 the groom. Rub the parts with this ointment : 
 Animal glycerine, i ounce; mercurial ointment, 
 2 drachms ; powdered camphor, 2 drachms ; sper- 
 maceti, I ounce. If cracks appear, treat as though 
 cracked heels were present. 
 
 Mange. — Causes. — Starvation ; bad lodging and 
 no grooming; turning out to grass. 
 
 Gv Piece of Skin. 
 
 Syrnptoms. — Scurf about the hairs of the manej] 
 the hair falls off in patches ; the skin is corrui 
 gated ; a few hairs remain upon the bare places, 
 and these adhere firmly to the skin ; scrubbmg 
 the body against posts ; sores and crusts. To 
 
•IIOKSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 179 
 
 tcsT Its presence, scratcTi ttie roots of the mane, 
 and the horse will exhibit pleasure. 
 
 Trcatmcnl. — Place the horse in the sunshine, 
 or in a heated house, for one hour ; then whisk 
 thoroughly, to remove scurf and scabs ; then rub 
 in the following liniment : Animal glycerine, 2 
 parts ; oil of tar, 2 parts ; oil of turpentine \ part ; 
 oil of juniper, \ part. Mix. Leave on for two 
 days ; wash ; anoint again ; wash ; anoint and wash 
 once more, always leaving the liniment on for two 
 clear days. 
 
 Megrims. — Cause. — Unknown. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse suddenly stops ; shakes 
 the head ; strange stubbornness may be exhibited, 
 followed by a desire to run into dangerous places. 
 Then ensues insensibility, accompanied by con- 
 vulsions. 
 
 The Expression characteristic of repeated Attacks of 
 Megrims. 
 
 Treatment. — Throw up on the first fit. Give 
 a long rest, and try to amend the constitution. 
 
 Melanosis. — Cause. — Unknown. The disease 
 only attacks gray horses which have become 
 white. 
 
 Symptoms. — It appears as a lump of uncertain 
 form, size and situation. The swelling, if cut 
 into, discloses a cartilaginous structure, dotted 
 here and there with black spots. Do not use the 
 knife unless the swelling impede the usefulness, 
 or should be peculiarly well placed for operation. 
 Feel the tail. A pimple on the dock is an almost 
 certain sign of melanosis, which disease affects 
 the internal organs even more virulently than it 
 attacks the external parts. As melanosis pro- 
 ceeds, all spirit departs, and the animal is at 
 length destroyed as utterly useless. 
 
 Treatment. — Let the tumor alone. Forbid all 
 use of the currycomb. Dress very long and very 
 gently with the brush only. Twice a week anoint 
 the body with animal glycerine, i part; rose-water, 
 2 parts. 
 
 Nasal Gleet. — Causes. — Decayed molar tooth ; 
 kicks from other horses ; injuries to the frontal 
 bones, or neglected catarrh. 
 
 Symptoms. — Distortion of the face ; partial en- 
 largement and softening of the facial bones; ir- 
 
 regular discharge of fetid pus from one nostril. 
 The discharge is increased, or brought down by 
 feeding off the ground, or by trotting fast. 
 
 Injecting the Head of a Horse for Nasal Gleet. 
 
 Treatment. — Surgical operation, with injection 
 of a weak solution of chloride of zinc. Also give 
 daily a ball composed of balsam of copaiba, \ 
 ounce; powdered cantharides, 4 grains; cubebs, 
 a sufficiency. If the foregoing should affect the 
 urinary system, change it for l-drachm doses of 
 extract of belladonna, dissolved in a wineglass of 
 
 Part of a Horse's Head which has the Bone trephined 
 so AS to enable the Surgeon to empty the Turbinated 
 Bone. The Course of the Nerves is shown. 
 
 water. Give these every fourth day, and on such 
 occasions repeat the belladonna every hour. 
 
 Nasal Polypus. — Sy/nptoms. — An enlarged nos- 
 tril ; a copious mucous discharge; signs of suf- 
 focation, if the free nostril be stopped ; a cough 
 generally forces down the growth. 
 
 A Polypus. 
 
 Nasal Polypus. 
 
 Treatment. — Surgical operation, which re- 
 moves the tumor. 
 
 Navicular Disease. — Causes. — Frog pressure, and 
 not shoeing with a leathern sole. The unpro- 
 tected foot treads on a roUmg stone, and navicu- 
 lar disease is the result. 
 
 Symptoms. — Acute lameness; this disappears, 
 but may come again in six or nine months. 
 
180 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Acute lameness is then present for a longer time 
 while the subsequent soundness is more short. 
 Thus the disease progresses, till the horse is 
 lame for life. The pain in one foot causes greater 
 stress upon the sound leg, and from this cause 
 both feet are ultimately affected. The foot is 
 pointed in the stable. The bulk diminishes, 
 while the hoof thickens and contracts. The 
 horse, when trotting, takes short steps, and upon 
 the toe, going groggily. 
 
 The Upright Pastern 
 AND Hard, Unyielding 
 Hoof, indicative of 
 CONFIRMED Navicular 
 Disease. 
 
 A Diagram to explain the Seat of Navicular Disease. 
 
 a. The perforans tendon running beneath the bone, and on 
 which the bone reposes. 
 
 i. The comparative size and relative situation of the navicular 
 bone. 
 
 c. The synovial sac which facilitates the motion of the bone 
 on the tendon ; upon the superior surface of this sac navicu- 
 lar disease is alone exhibited. 
 
 Treatment. — Feed liberally upon crushed oats 
 and old beans. Soak the foot every other night 
 in hot water. Afterward bandage the leg, fix on 
 tips, and having smeared 
 the horn with glycerine, put 
 on a sponge-boot. Rest 
 very long — six months in 
 the first instance — and then 
 give three months' agricul- 
 tural employment. In bad 
 cases resort to neurotomy, 
 but do so upon the second 
 attack of lameness ; because 
 continued disease disorgan- 
 izes the internal structures of the hoof, and also 
 occasions the sound foot to be attacked by nav- 
 icular disease. 
 
 Nephritis, or Inflammation of the Kidneys. — Causes. 
 — Bad provender, or niter in a mash, and long or 
 fast work upon the following day. 
 
 SymptiV)is. — Hard, quick pulse ; short breath- 
 ing; pallid membranes; looking at the loins; 
 depressed head ; reached back; hind legs strad- 
 dling; scanty urine; refusing to turn in the 
 stall; and crouching under pressure on the loins. 
 Subsequently, pus is voided with the water. If 
 the urine has a fetid odor, if blood be present, if 
 the pulse grows quicker, if pressure gives no 
 pain, and if the perspiration has a urinous smell, 
 death is near at hand. To be certain of nephritis, 
 insert the arm up the rectum and move the hand 
 toward the kidneys. 
 
 Treatment. — Rub mustard into the skin of the 
 loins. Cover it over to prevent it becoming dry. 
 Apply fresh sheepskins as soon as these can be 
 procured. Inject warm linseed tea every hour. 
 
 A ball composed of Croton farina, 2 scruples; 
 extract of belladonna, \ drachm ; treacle and lin- 
 seed meal, a sufficiency, should be given imme- 
 diately; I scruple of calomel ; i drachm of opium 
 should be sprinkled on the tongue every hour. 
 A pail of linseed tea may be placed in the man- 
 ger. Feed on linseed tea, and mind the oats — 
 when allowed — are very good. While the pain 
 is acute, give, thrice daily, a ball composed of 
 extract of belladonna, \ drachm ; crude opium, 2 
 drachms ; honey and linseed meal, of each a suf- 
 
 A Certain Test for Inflammation of the Kidneys. 
 
 ficiency. When the pain is excessive, repeat the 
 above ball every hour. Should the pulse in- 
 crease and become wiry, a scruple of aconite 
 should be thrown upon the tongue every half- 
 hour until the artery softens, or the animal be- 
 comes alTected with the drug. 
 
 No cure is to be expected ; the disease may be 
 arrested, but the kidney will be left in an irrita- 
 ble state. 
 
 Occult Spavin. — Cause. — Treading on a stone. 
 
 Symptoms. — Sudden lameness, which never de- 
 parts, but in the end becomes very bad. The 
 disease is always worse after work. The foot is 
 without disease, and the leg is not hot or painful ; 
 yet the lameness continues and gets worse. 
 The leg is snatched up in the walk, and the foot 
 is not turned outward. 
 
 Treatment. — Get the horse into slings. Rub 
 the front of the hock with an embrocation com- 
 posed of compound soap liniment. 16 ounces; 
 tincture of cantharides, liquor ammonia and lau- 
 danum, of each two ounces. After the joint is 
 embrocated, wrap it round with flannel, held 
 upon the hock with elastic rings. Give three 
 feeds of corn, a few old beans and sweet hay 
 daily. After the horse bears upon the diseased 
 limb, allow the slings to remain for three months. 
 Three months after it has left the slings, put to 
 gentle work, but the labor must not be exhaust- 
 ing. The work must not be full till six months 
 have elapsed. Keep the bowels regular with 
 bran mashes. If all treatment fail, cast the 
 horse; retract the injured limb; make a small, 
 puncture, and inject one ounce of dilute spirits 
 of wine in which half a drachm of iodine has been 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 181 
 
 dissolved. Place the horse in slings, and apply 
 cold water to the hock. When the pulse is 
 quiet, feed very liberally. 
 
 Open Synovial Cavities. — Causes. — The pride of 
 gentility, which apes what is not, and tries to 
 pass off a horse with a ewe neck for an animal 
 with a lofty crest. The quadruped, being in 
 pain and constraint, necessarily trips, and can- 
 not save itself from falling. Kicking in harness; 
 running away and being run into. 
 
 Symptoms. — Air being admitted creates infiam- 
 mation, and this inflammation causes consti- 
 tutional irritability. Bursae are attended with 
 least danger when punctured; sheaths of ten- 
 dons are more dangerous; joints are by far the 
 most serious. Judge which of these has taken 
 place, by the extent of the wound and the 
 quantity of synovia released. 
 
 The Manner of opening the Dirt-sac, in case one should 
 be present with open joint. 
 
 Treatment. — Exercise gentleness toward the 
 injured animal. Wash as directed for broken 
 knees. E.xamine if there be any sac or bag into 
 which dirt could have entered. If one exists, 
 place a large spatula under the knee ; then take 
 a knife with a sharp point, but with its edge 
 blunted the two posterior thirds of its length; 
 guard the point with a lump of bees-wax; intro- 
 duce this into the sac and drive the point 
 through the bottom of the bag. An opening 
 will thereby be created, through which the pus 
 and dirt will gravitate. If the probe enters the 
 knee of the flexed leg, unopposed, three quarters 
 of an inch, push it no farther; be satisfied the 
 cavity is opened. 
 
 Open Synovial Joints. — Treatment. — Proceed in 
 the first instance as for broken knees. Then 
 give a drink composed of sulphuric ether and 
 laudanum, of each i ounce ; water, -J pint. 
 Look to the comfort. Should the eye rove, the 
 breathing be hard, ears active, and the horse 
 start at sounds, hourly repeat the drink before 
 recommended, till these svmptoms abate. Then 
 place in a stall and allow four drinks and two 
 pots of stout daily. Use the arnica lotion as 
 
 for broken knees, during the first three and a 
 half days. At the end of that time turn the 
 horse gently round in the stall, and let it stand 
 with its head toward the gangways. Place the 
 slings before the horse, and leave the animal to 
 contemplate them for half an hour. Then, with 
 extreme gentleness, fix them ; but do not pull 
 the cloth up to the abdomen. Leave a pail of 
 water suspended from one pillar, and feed from 
 a high trough, supported upon light legs. Let 
 the horse be watched night and day for the re- 
 mainder of the week. When the animal is at 
 ease in the slings, these may be heightened till 
 the cloth lightly touches, but not presses, against 
 the belly. With the slings change to the chlo- 
 
 OPEN Joint ensuing upon 
 Broken Knee, and sole- 
 ly caused by the Abuse 
 OF Bandages. 
 
 The General Appearance of 
 AN Open Joint when first 
 submitted to the Notice 
 OF the Surgeon. 
 
 ride-of-zinc lotion, i scruple to the pint of water: 
 have this frequently applied during the day. It 
 will coagulate the albumen and promote the 
 healing of the wound. The albumen will accu- 
 mulate as a large ball in front of the injury ; do 
 not touch it. Allow it to fall off. The cure is 
 nearly perfect when it falls. 
 When pressure can be en- 
 dured, the slings may be re- 
 moved ; though the healing 
 process should be confirmed 
 before the animal is allowed 
 to stand near anything against 
 which it could strike the knee. 
 Ossified Cartilages. — Cause. 
 — Battering the foot upon _ , „ 
 
 ■=> ^ The Albuminous Ball, 
 
 hard roads. 
 
 Symptoms. — Of little con- 
 sequence in heavy horses 
 unless accompaniedwith ring- 
 bone. The disease causes lameness in light horses 
 used for fast work. 
 
 Treatment. — Rest; liberal food; and small 
 blisters to the foot immediately above the sides 
 of the hoof. 
 
 Overreach. — Cause. — When a good stepper is 
 very tired, this accident sometimes happens : 
 the coronet of the fore foot upon the outer side 
 being severely wounded by the inside of the 
 hind shoe. 
 
 which forms in Shape 
 OF AN Open Joint 
 when treated with 
 A Solution of Chlo- 
 ride OF Zinc. 
 
182 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Symptom. — A 
 
 Overreach occur- 
 ring DURING 
 EXHAISTION 
 
 severe wound and a large 
 slough, probably followed by 
 a false quarter. 
 
 Treatment. — Feed liberally, 
 and bathe the injury thrice 
 daily with the chloride-of-zinc 
 lotion, I grain to the ounce of 
 water. 
 
 Partial Paralysis. — Cause. — 
 THE Violent e.xertion. 
 
 OF 
 
 Light Horses. Symptom. — One hind leg gets 
 
 in the way of the other, and threatens to throw 
 the animal down. 
 
 Treatment. — A loose box; warm clothing; 
 good grooming; warn.th to loins; regulate the 
 bowels with mashes ; absolute rest. Give the 
 following ball night and morning: Strychnia, i 
 grain (gradually work this medicine up to ij 
 grains); iodide of iron, i grain; quassia powder 
 and treacle, a sufficiency. 
 
 Phlebitis, or Inflammation of the Vein. — Cause. — 
 Motion. Bleeding in the neck and turning out 
 to grass; or from either of the limbs, and then 
 forcing the animal to walk. 
 
 Symptoms. — The earliest indication is a separa- 
 tion of the lips of the wound and the presence of 
 a small quantity of thin discharge. A small 
 swelling then takes place, and the vein hardens 
 above the puncture. Then abscesses form along 
 the course of the vessel. These mature, burst, 
 send forth a contaminated pus. The abscesses 
 are united by sinuses. If these signs are neglected, 
 a dark discharge resembling decayed blood issues 
 from the numerous wounds and soils the neck. 
 Dullness ensues; the brain becomes affected ; and 
 the horse perishes phrenitic. 
 
 The Third Stage of Phlebitis. 
 
 Treatment. — Remove the pin and apply a blis- 
 ter. Another may be required. In bad cases, 
 blister must follow blister, but not be rubbed in. 
 A little oil of cantharides should be put over the 
 sore with a paste-brush. Place in a loose box and 
 litter with tan ; feed on slops, which require no 
 mastication. Let the horse remain there and be 
 so fed for six weeks subsequent to the cessation 
 of all treatment. Then give a little exercise at a 
 slow pace, gradually augmented. At the end of 
 three months the horse may do slow work. But 
 the horse should not wear a collar or go into the 
 shafts before the expiration of six months. 
 
 Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain. — Causes. 
 —Various, often unknown. 
 
 SyDiptom. — Heaviness, succeeded by fury in 
 excess, but without any indication of malice. 
 
 n ( |iii';'p.'"if "'-i; "^ 
 
 '.V\ 
 
 41 «b. 
 
 :::s 
 
 
 A Horse Mad, or with Inflammation of the Brain. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed from both jugulars till the 
 animal drops. Then pm up, and give a purga- 
 tive of double strength. Follow this with another 
 blood-letting, if necessary, and scruple doses of 
 tobacco; J-drachm doses of aconite root; or 
 drachm doses of digitalis — whichever is soonest 
 obtained. But whichever is procured must be 
 infused in a pint of boiling water, and, when cool 
 and strained, it ought to l)e given every half-hour 
 till the animal becomes quiet. The probable re- 
 sult is by no means cheering, even if death is by 
 these means avoided. 
 
 Pleurisy. — Causes. — Over - exertion ; blows; in- 
 juries ; cold. 
 
 Symptoms. — These are quickly developed. The 
 pulse j-Z/v'-I-t-j- the finger; pain continuous; agony 
 never ceases; horse does not feed. Body hot; 
 feet cold ; partial perspirations. Muscles corru- 
 gated in places ; cough, when present, suppressed 
 and dry ; auscultation detects a grating sound 
 and a dull murmur at the chest. Pressure be- 
 tween the ribs produces great pain or makes the 
 animal resentful. The head is turned very often 
 toward the side ; the forefoot paws ; the breathing 
 is short and jerking. 
 
 Treatment. — Should be active. Bleed, to ease 
 the horse ; place in a loose box ; bandage the 
 legs ; leave the body unclothed. Give, every 
 quarter of an hour, a scruple of tincture of aco- 
 nite in a wineglass of warm water. When pulse 
 has softened, give, every second hour, sulphuric 
 ether and laudanum, of each i ounce; water, ^ 
 pint. Do not bleed a second time. Steam. Do 
 nothing for the bowels. Place lukewarm water 
 within easy reach of the head, and give nothing 
 more while the disease rages. When the disease 
 departs, return with caution to full food. After 
 the affection subsides, blister throat and chest 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 183 
 
 If the horse is costive, administer enemas ; or a 
 
 bundle of cut grass may be presented with the 
 other lood. 
 
 Pneumonia. — Causes. — Fat; irregular worlc; and 
 sudden exertion. 
 
 Symptoms. — Breathing labored ; oppressed 
 pulse; partial consciousness ; giddiness. Stand- 
 ing with outstretclied legs ; head and ears de- 
 jected ; coat rough ; extremities and body cold ; 
 visible membranes discolored; bowels costive; 
 feeling half dead ; and general oppression. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed but once ; take only blood 
 sufficient to restore consciousness ; do not attempt 
 to obtain blood, if the liquid flows black and thick. 
 Place in a loose box strewn with damp tan ; take 
 off the shoes ; place water within easy reach ; no 
 food. If winter, clothe ; then introduce steam ; 
 when the steam is abundant, take off the clothes. 
 Give solution of aconite root, \ ounce ; sulphuric 
 ether, 2 ounces; extract of belladonna (rubbed 
 down with \ pint of water), i drachm. Repeat 
 the drink three times each dajf. When the pulse 
 improves, withdraw the aconite ; when the breath- 
 ing amends, omit the belladonna ; or increase 
 either as pulse or breathing becomes worse. 
 Allow only hay tea, with a little oatmeal in it, 
 until the disease abates. • On amendment, cau- 
 tiously increase the food. Lying down is the first 
 sign of improvement. Do not disturb the ani- 
 mal : it must require rest, having stood through- 
 out the attack. 
 
 Poll Evil. — Causes. — Hanging back in the halter ; 
 hitting the poll against the beam of the stable- 
 door ; blows on the head ; and any external in- 
 jury. 
 
 Poll Evil during the First Stage. 
 
 Symptoms. — The nose is protruded and the 
 head kept as motionless as possible ; the animal 
 hangs back when it is feeding from the manger. 
 Pressure or enforced motion e.xcites resistance. 
 Swelling: the swelling bursts in several places, 
 from which exudes a foul, fistulous discharge. 
 Pus has been secreted ; confinement has caused 
 it to decay; while motion and fascia have occa- 
 sioned it to burrow. 
 
 Treatment. — Paint the part lightly with tincture 
 of cantharides or acetate of cantharides. Do this 
 
 daily till blistering ensues; then stop. When 
 the swelling enlarges, open the prominent or soft 
 places. Allow the pus to issue ; then cut down 
 
 Poll Evil in its Second Stage, or when ready for 
 Operation. 
 
 on the wound till the seat of the disease is gained. 
 Use a proper knife, and include as many pipes as 
 possible in one clean cut. All others should join 
 this. Empty out all concrete matter. Wash the 
 cavity with cold water. Excise all loose pieces 
 of tendon and all unhealthy flesh. Moisten the 
 sore with chloride-of-zinc lotion, one grain to 
 the ounce, and cover the wound with a cloth 
 dipped in the solution of tar. If the disease has 
 burst, still include the pipes in one smooth in- 
 cision ; clean out the concrete pus, and treat as 
 has been directed. Spare the ligament which 
 lies under the mane ; and work in a breast-strap 
 after recovery. 
 
 Prick of the Sole. — Cause. — Generally the smith's 
 carelessness when shoeing 
 the horse. 
 
 Symptom. — Great lame- 
 ness. 
 
 Treatment. — Withdraw 
 the nails of the shoe. If one 
 is wet, cut down on that 
 hole until the sensitive sole 
 is exposed. If not very 
 lame, treat with lotion of 
 
 Prick of the Foot and 
 , , . , ,. . . Brcise of the Sole. 
 
 chloride of zmc, i gram to ^^^ ,„_,„,, „j,^„i„^ ,^. 
 the ounce of water. If very 
 
 presents prick of the 
 foot; the larsjer space 
 indicates bruise of the 
 sole. The extent to 
 which the horn may be 
 removed, in the gene- 
 rality of cases is also 
 indicated. 
 
 The horse rubs off 
 a dry, corrugated sur- 
 
 of 
 
 lame, treat as if the injury 
 were a suppurating corn. 
 
 Prurigo. — Cause. — Heat 
 body. 
 
 Symptom. — Itchiness, 
 hair; but never exposes 
 face. 
 
 Treatment. — Take away part of the hay. Give 
 two bundles of grass per day. Allow two bran 
 mashes each day till the bowels are open. Ap- 
 ply either of the following washes : Animal gly- 
 cerine, I part; rose-water. 2 parts. Or, sulphu- 
 ric acid, I part; water, 10 parts. Or, acetic acid, 
 I part; water, 7 parts. Drink: Liquor arsenica- 
 lis, I ounce; tincture of muriate of iron, i\ 
 ounces ; water, i pint — ^ pint to be given every 
 
lS-1 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 night. Withdraw the drink a week after the 
 disease has disappeared. Allow a pot of porter 
 and an extra feed of oats each day. 
 
 Pumice-Foot. — Cause. — An animal reared on 
 marshy land, having high action, batters the feet 
 upon pavements. 
 
 Symptoms. — Bulging sole; weak crust; strong 
 bars, and good frog. 
 
 The Side View of a Pumiced 
 Foot. 
 
 Showing the swollen or 
 rounded state of the sole, 
 with the brittle and uneven 
 condition of the crust. 
 
 The Sole of a Pumiced 
 Foot. 
 
 Displayinff a ragged wall, 
 and exhibiting a very 
 healthy frog and a bulg- 
 ing sole. 
 
 A Dish-Shoe. 
 Employed in Cases 
 of Severe Pum- 
 ice-foot. 
 
 Treatment. — The only relief possible is afford- 
 ed by a bar-shoe of the dish kind, 
 and a leathern sole. The con- 
 stant use of equal parts of ani- 
 mal glycerine and tar is also be- 
 neficial to the hoof. 
 
 Purpura Hemorrhagica. — Cause. — 
 Unknown. Universal conges- 
 tion. 
 
 Symptoms. — The attack is sud- 
 den. The body, head and limbs enlarge; con- 
 sciousness is partially lost. The horse stands, 
 and the breathing is quickened. Through the 
 skin there e.xudes serutn with blood. The nos- 
 trils and lips enlarge, and part of the swollen 
 tongue protrudes from the mouth. The appe- 
 tite is not quite lost, although swallowing is 
 difficult. Thirst is great. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed till the animal appears re- 
 lieved. A second venesection may be demand- 
 ed, but it should be adopted with caution. Give 
 \ ounce of chloroform in a pint of linseed oil, 
 in the first stage. Repeat the dose in half an 
 hour. No amendment following, give 2 ounces 
 of sulphuric ether in I pint of cold water. In 
 half an hour repeat the dose 
 if necessary. Perform trache- 
 otomy to ease the breathing. 
 Incise the protruding tongue. 
 Squeeze out the fluid and re- 
 turn the organ to the mouth. 
 Diagram. Should the skin slough, bathe 
 
 which supposes the . ^ , , 
 
 outward coveringof the part With solution of chlor- 
 
 the coronet and the ., f . • - ..i 
 
 horny wall of the ide of zuic, I grain to the ounce 
 
 hoof removed, to f ,„pf„r 
 
 expose the ravages " vvaLci. 
 
 of quittor, when Quittor. — Causes.— Confin&A 
 
 commencing m the 
 
 coronet of a heavy pus from suppurating Corn ; or 
 prick of the sole; matter re- 
 sults, and this issues at the coronet. Or from 
 injury to the coronet, generating pus, and this 
 
 burrowing downward, as it cannot pierce the 
 coronary substance. The secretion may also 
 penetrate the cartilage, and thus establish sinuses 
 in almost every direction. 
 
 Symptoms. — The horse is very lame. The ani- 
 mal is easier after the quittor has burst. Probe 
 for the sinuses. If, after the superficial sinuses 
 are treated, among the creamy pus there should 
 appear a dark speck of albuminous fluid, make 
 sure of another sinus, probably working toward 
 the central structures of the foot. 
 
 A QriTToR, as it denotes a Quittor, after the Pus 
 ITS Existence before has found an Exit at 
 
 THE Pus ABSORBS ITS WAV THE Ct)R0NET. 
 
 THROUGH THE CoRONET. 
 
 Rheumatism. — Cause. — Generally follows other 
 disorders, as influenza, chest affections, and most 
 acute diseases. Very rarely does it appear with- 
 out a forerunner. 
 
 Symptoms. — Swelling of particular parts, gene- 
 rally the limbs; heat and acute lameness. The 
 disorder is apt to fly about the body. The sy- 
 novia is always increased when the joints are at- 
 tacked. The pulse and breathing are both dis- 
 turbed by agony. 
 
 A Horse dressed for Rheumatism. 
 
 Treatment. — Lead into a loose bo.x; fill the 
 place with steam. Get ready the slings; put 
 the belly-piece under the horse, but do not pull 
 it up so as to lift the legs from the ground. 
 Keep the steam up for one hour. Then have 
 several men with cloths ready to silently wipe 
 the animal dry. Next rub into the diseased 
 parts the following: Compound soap liniment, 
 16 ounces; tincture of cantharides, liquor am- 
 monia, and laudanum, of each 2 ounces. After- 
 ward incase the limbs in flannel. Then give a 
 bolus composed of powdered colchicum, 2 
 drachms; iodide of potassium, i drachm; sim- 
 ple mass, a sufficiency. Should the attack sue- 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 185 
 
 ceed upon other diseases, the diet must be sup- 
 porting, everything being softened by heat and 
 water. Next morning repeat the steaming, and 
 give calomel, i scruple; opium, 2 drachms. At 
 night steam again, and repeat the first bolus. 
 Should the horse be fat, withdraw all corn, if the 
 strength can do without it. 
 
 Ring-Bone. — Cause. — Dragging heavy loads up 
 steep hills 
 
 Symptoms. — A roughness of hair on the pas- 
 tern and a bulging forth of the hoof. A want 
 
 The Foot or a Living Horse 
 WITH Aggravated Ring- 
 Bon e. 
 
 The animal, from which the 
 above sketch was taken, al- 
 though used to propel a cart 
 was by no means of a cart, 
 breed. The creature rather 
 hobbled than went lame ; but 
 all flexion was entirely lost in 
 the pastern-bones. 
 
 The Pastern and Pedal- 
 Bone OF A Horse AFFECTED 
 
 WITH Severe Ring-Bone. 
 
 1. The joint between the 
 pastern-bones, showing the 
 groove in which the tendon 
 of the e.xtensor-pedis muscle 
 reposed. 
 
 2. The joint between the 
 lower pastern and the bone 
 of the foot. 
 
 of power to flex the pastern. An inability to 
 bring the sole to the ground except on an even 
 surface. Loss of power and injury to utility. 
 
 Treatment. — In the first stage apply poultices, 
 with I drachm of camphor and of opium. 
 Afterward rub with iodide of lead, i ounce; 
 simple ointment, 8 ounces. Continue treatment 
 for a fortnight after all active symptoms have 
 subsided, and allow liberal food and rest; work 
 gently when labor is resumed. 
 
 Ring -Worm. — Symptoms. — Hair falls off in 
 patches, exposing a scurfy skin. The scurf con- 
 gregates on the bare place about the circum- 
 ference, which is apt to ulcerate. 
 
 Treatment. — Keep very clean. Wash night 
 and morning, and afterward apply the following 
 ointment: Animal glycerine, i ounce; sperma- 
 ceti, I ounce ; iodide of lead, 2 drachms. A 
 drink is likewise of use when employed with the 
 ointment. Liquor arsenicalis, i ounce; tincture 
 of muriate of iron, li ounces; water, i quart. 
 Mix, and give every night half a pint for a dose. 
 Should the ulceration prove obstinate, apply 
 permanganate of potash, i ounce; water, 3 
 ounces. Or, chloride of zinc, 2 scruples; water, 
 I pint. Moisten the parts with a soft brush six 
 times daily. Feed well, and do not work for a 
 month. 
 
 Roaring. — Cause. — The check-rein. 
 
 Symptom. — A noise made at each inspiration. 
 
 Treatment. — No remedy. 
 
 Rupture, or Stricture of the (Esophagus. — Cause. — 
 The use of the butt-end of a carter's whip, 
 which either rends the lining membrane of, or 
 ruptures, the gullet. 
 
 Symptom of Rupture. — The body becomes dis- 
 tended with gas, and death ensues. Of Rent 
 Membrane. — This induces a disinclination to 
 feed, as the first symptom. A stricture is 
 formed. Excessive hunger. Distension of the 
 tube. A large sac is developed out of the 
 stretched membrane above the stricture. Then, 
 
 '< v.v. ,, ,,, 
 
 mi 
 
 The Horse endeavoring to cast v^ the Provender with 
 WHICH THE Sac of a Strictured QSsophagl'S is loaded. 
 
 after feeding, the animal fixes the neck, and 
 returns the masticated food through the mouth 
 and nostrils. Accompanying loss of condition 
 and failure of strength. 
 
 Treatment. — Feed on prepared soft food: 
 though the horse is generally not worth its 
 ordinary keep at the stage when this is required. 
 
 Sandcrack. — Causes. — Bad health, provoking 
 imperfect secretion. Treading for any length of 
 time upon a very dry soil. 
 
 Symptoms. — Quarter-crack occurs on light 
 horses upon the inner side of the hoof. It usu- 
 ally commences at the coronet, goes down the 
 foot, and reaches to the laminae. Toe-crack 
 
 A Partial Qi^xrter Sand- The Methods of eradicat- 
 crack dressed and shod. ing a Sandcrack: either 
 
 THE Semicircular or the 
 Angular Lines are equal- 
 ly EFECTIVE. 
 
 happens in heavy wheelers, and is caused by 
 digging the toe into the ground when dragging 
 a load up hill. From the sensitive laminae, 
 when exposed, fungoid granulations sometimes 
 sprout, which, being pinched, produce excessive 
 pain and acute lameness. 
 
186 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Treatment . — Always pare out the crack, so as 
 to convert it into a groove. When the crack is 
 partial, draw a line with a heated iron above and 
 below the fissure. If granulations have sprout- 
 ed, cleanse the wound with chloride-of-zinc 
 lotion, one grain to the ounce of water, and then 
 cut them off. Afterward place the foot in a 
 poultice. Subsequently pare down the edges of 
 the crack while the horn is soft. Use the lotion 
 frequently. Draw lines from the coronet to the 
 crack, so as to cut off communication between 
 the fissure and the newly-secreted horn. Shoe 
 with a bar-shoe, having the seat of crack well 
 eased oiT, and also a clip on either side. If the 
 horse must work, lay a piece of tow saturated 
 with the lotion into the crack: bind the hoof 
 tightly with wax-end. Tie over all a strip of 
 cloth, and give tliis a coating of tar. When the 
 horse returns, inspect the part. Wash out any 
 grit with the chloride-of-zinc lotion. 
 
 Scald Mouth. — Cause. — Powerful medicine, 
 which burns the lining membrane of the mouth. 
 
 Symptom. — A dribblihg of saliva, with con- 
 stant motion and repeated smacking of the lips. 
 
 Treatment. — Give soft food, and use tlie wash 
 recommended for aphtha. 
 
 Seedy Toe. — Cause. — Weakness, mdncing an 
 imperfect secretion of horn. 
 
 Symptom. — A separation between the crust of 
 the coronet and the soft horn of the laminae, 
 commencing at the toe of the foot. 
 
 Treatment. — Remove the shoe. Probe the fis- 
 sure, which will be exposed. Cut away all the 
 separated crust. Throw up until the removed 
 portion has grown again. 
 
 Simple Ophthalmia. — Causes. — Slashing with tlie 
 whip over the head ; hay-seeds falling into the 
 ■eyes ; horses biting at each other ; blows, etc. 
 
 A Ready Mode of Blinding a Horse, and of applying a Lo- 
 tion TO THE Eyes in Simple Ophthalmia. 
 
 Symptoms.— Tears; closed eyelid; the ball of 
 the eye becomes entirely or partially white. 
 
 Treatment. — Remove any foreign body; fasten 
 a cloth across the forehead ; moisten it with a 
 decoction of poppy-heads to which some tmcture 
 of arnica has been added. If a small abscess 
 
 should appear on the surface of the eye, open it, 
 and bathe witl) chloride-of-zinc lotion. Should 
 
 An Eye recently affected with Simple Ophthalmia. 
 
 inflammation be excessive, puncture eve-vein, and 
 place some favorite food on the ground. 
 
 Siffast. — Causes. — 111 health; badly-fitting sad- 
 dle; too energetic a rider; loose girths ; ruck in 
 tlie saddle-cloth. 
 
 Symptom. — Likea corn on the human foot, but 
 the hard, bare patch is surrounded by a circle of 
 ulceration. 
 
 Treatment. — The knife should remove the 
 thickened skin. Chloride of zinc, i grain ; water, 
 I ounce, to the wound. Attend to the bowels. 
 Feed liberally ; exercise well ; and give, night and 
 morning, liquor arsenicalis, \ ounce; tincture of 
 muriate of iron, | ounce ; water, i pint. Mix, and 
 give. 
 
 Sore Throat. — Causes. — In colts, change from 
 freedom to work, from the field to the stable, is 
 the cause. Sore throat, however, may be caused 
 by close stables, or be an indication of some 
 greater disease. 
 
 Symptoms. — Perpetual deglutition of saliva; 
 want of appetite ; inability to swallow a draught 
 of liquid — the fluid returning partly by the nos- 
 trils, and each gulp being accompanied with an 
 audible effort. 
 
 Treatment. — Forbear all work ; clothe warmly ; 
 house in a large, well-littered, loose box. Gruel 
 for drink; three feeds of bruised and scalded 
 oats, also beans, daily. If the bowels are obsti- 
 nate, administer a drink composed of solution of 
 aloes, 4 ounces; essence of anise-seed,-! ounce; 
 water, i pint. Should the throat not amend, dis- 
 solve i ounce of extract of belladonna in a gallon 
 of water; hold upthehead : pourhalf apint of this 
 preparation into the mouth, and in thirty seconds 
 let the head down ; do this si.x or eight times 
 daily. No improvement being observed, try per- 
 manganate of potash, i pint; water, i gallon : to 
 be used as directed in the previous recipe. Still 
 no change being remarked, prepare chloride of 
 zinc, 3 drachms ; extract of belladonna, i ounce , 
 tincture of capsicums, 2 drachms ; water, i gallon. 
 All being useless, give two pots of stout daily, 
 and blister the throat. 
 
 No alteration ensuing, cast the horse, and mop 
 out the fauces with a sponge which is wet with 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1S7 
 
 nitrate ot silver, 5 grains ; water, i ounce. Give 
 a ball daily composed of oak-bark and treacle. 
 
 If none of these measures succeed, the throat 
 must be complicated with some other disease. 
 
 Spasm of the Diaphragm. — Cause. — Imprudently 
 riding too far and too fast. 
 
 Symptom. — Distress, and a strange noise heard 
 from the center of the horse. 
 
 Trt-almcn/. — Pull up; cover the horse's body; 
 lead to the nearest stable. Give as soon as pos- 
 sible a drink composed of sulphuric ether, 2 
 ounces; laudanum, i ounce; tincture of camphor, 
 jounce; cold water or gruel, i pint. Give four 
 drinks, one every quarter of an hour ; then an- 
 other four, one every half-hour, and then at longer 
 intervals as the animal recovers. Bandage the 
 legs, and sponge the openings to the body. This 
 done, and sweat and dirt removed, clothe per- 
 fectly after the skin is quite dry. 
 
 Spasm of the Urethra. — Gr«.f6'.— Acridity in the 
 food or water. 
 
 Symptoms. — Small and violent emissions; 
 straddling gait. Roached back ; pain ; total sup- 
 pression of urine. 
 
 Treatment. — Insert the arm up the rectum, and 
 feel the gorged bladder. Give, by the mouth, 4- 
 ounce doses of sulphuric ether and ot laudanum 
 mixed with a quaat of cold water, and, as injec- 
 tion, mixed with three pints of cold water. Re- 
 peat these medicines every quarter of an hour 
 until relieved. If no physic be at hand, open 
 both jugular veins, and allow the blood to flow 
 until the horse falls. Should the urine then not 
 flow forth, insert the arm and press upon the 
 bladder. 
 
 Spasmodic Colic; Fret; Gripes. — Causes. — Fast 
 driving; change of water, change of food; get- 
 ting wet; fatiguing journeys; aloes; and often 
 no cause can be traced. 
 
 Symptoms. 1st Sta^e. — Horse is feeding ; be- 
 comes uneasy; ceases eating; hind foot is raised 
 to strike the belly ; fore foot paws the pavement ; 
 the nose is turned toward the flank, and an attack 
 of fret is recognized. 21/ Stai^e. — Alternate ease 
 
 and fits of pain ; the exemptions grow shorter as 
 the attacks become longer ; the horse crouches ; 
 turns round; then becomes erect ; pawing, etc., 
 follow ; a morbid fire now lights up the eyes, y/ 
 Staj^e. — Pains lengthen ; action grows more wild; 
 often one foot stamps on the ground; does not 
 feed, but stares at the abdomen ; at last, without 
 warning, leaps up and falls violently on the floor; 
 seems relieved ; rolls about till one leg rests 
 against the wall ; should no assistance be now 
 afforded, the worst consequences may be antici- 
 pated. 
 
 T)-catii!cnt. — Place in a loose box, guarded by 
 trusses of straw ranged against the walls. Give 
 I ounce each of sulphuric ether and of laudanum 
 in a pint of cold water, and repeat the dose every 
 ten minutes if the symptoms do not abate. If no 
 improvement be observed, double the active 
 agents, and at the periods stated persevere with 
 the medicine. A pint of turpentine, dissolved in 
 a quart of solution of soap, as an enema, has 
 done good. No amendment ensuing, dilute some 
 strong liquor ammonia with six times its bulk of 
 water, and saturating a cloth with the fluid, hold 
 it by means of a horse-rug close to the abdomen. 
 It is a blist'er ; but its action must be watched or 
 it may dissolve the skin. If, after all, the symp- 
 toms continue, there must be more than simple 
 col'c to contend with. 
 
 Spavin. — Cause. — Hard work. 
 
 Symptom.— ^ Any bony enlarge- 
 ment upon the lower and inner 
 side of the hock. Prevents the 
 leg being flexed. Hinders the 
 hoof from being turned outward. 
 Causes the front of the shoe to be 
 worn and the toe of the hoof to be 
 rendered blunt by dragging the 
 foot along the ground. Leaves the 
 stable limping; returns bettered by 
 exercise. 
 
 Treatment. — View the suspected joint from be 
 fore, from behind and from either side. After. 
 
 Bone-Spavin. 
 
 A swelling or 
 bony tumor, 
 siluated upon 
 the lower and 
 inner part of 
 the hock- 
 joint. 
 
 The Natural Position of 
 THE Healthy Foot when 
 
 RAISED from the EaRTH 
 
 DURING AN Easy Trot, 
 
 The Foot, incapable of be- 
 ing FREELY RAISED FROM 
 
 THE Ground, by a Horse 
 
 WHICH IS BADLY SpAVINED. 
 
 ward feel the hock. Any enlargement upon the 
 seat of disease, to be felt or seen, is a spavin. 
 
188 
 
 THE FRIEND OF AEL. 
 
 Feed liberally, and rest in a stall. When the part 
 is hot and tender, rub it with bella- 
 donna and opium, i ounce of each 
 to an ounce of water. Apply a poul- 
 tice. Or put opium and camphor 
 on the poultice. Or rub the spavin 
 with equal parts of chloroform and 
 camphorated oil. The heat and 
 
 TheInneeSide pain being relieved, apply the fol- 
 AF™'?cT°E^D lowing, with friction: Iodide of 
 l"™ "able lead, I ounce; simple ointment, 8 
 
 Spavin. 
 
 -Cause. — The fumes of im- 
 
 ounces. 
 Specific Ophthalmia. - 
 pure stables. 
 
 Symptoms. — A swollen eyelid; te?.rs ; a hard 
 pulse; sharp breathing; a staring coat; a clammy 
 mouth ; the nasal membrane 
 is inflamed or leaden-colored ; 
 the lid can only be raised 
 when in shadow. The ball 
 of eye reddened from the 
 circumference; the pupil 
 closed ; the iris lighter than 
 is natural. The disease may 
 change from eye to eye ; the 
 duration of any visitation is 
 very uncertain; the attacks 
 may be repeated, and end in the loss of one or 
 both eyes. If one eye only is lost, the remain- 
 ing eye generally strengthens. 
 
 Ticatment. — Remove from the stable and place 
 in a dark shed. Open the eye-vein, and puncture 
 the lid if needed ; put a cloth saturated with cold 
 
 Diagram of the Horse's 
 Eve when Suffering 
 FROM Specific Oph- 
 thalmia. 
 
 Raising the Upper Lid of an Eve affected with Specific 
 Ophthalmia. 
 
 water over both eyes. If the horse is poor, feed 
 well ; if fat, support, but do not cram ; if in con- 
 dition, lower the food. Sustain upon a diet which 
 requires no mastication. Give the following ball 
 twice daily: Powdered colchicum. 2 drachms; 
 iodide of iron, i drachm ; cafomel, i scruple. Make 
 up with extract of gentian. So soon as the ball 
 affects the system, change it for liquor arsenicalis, 
 3 ounces; muriated tincture of iron, 5 ounces. 
 Give \ ounce in a tumbler of water twice daily. 
 See that the stable is rendered pure before the 
 horse returns to it. 
 
 Splint. — Causes. — Early and hard work ; blows, 
 kicks, etc. 
 
 Symptom. — Any swelling upon the inner and 
 lower part of the knee of the fore- 
 leg, or any enlargement upon the 
 shin-bone of either limb. On the 
 knee they are important, as tliey 
 extend high up. On the shin they 
 are to be dreaded, as they interfere 
 with the movements of the ten- 
 dons. All are painful when grow- 
 ing, and in that state generally 
 cause lameness. 
 
 Treatment. — Feel down the leg. 
 Any heat, tenderness or enlarge- ^ 
 
 •^ *^ Splints OF A 
 
 ment is proof of a splint. If, on Serious Kind. 
 the trot, one leg is not fully flexed, V .^ splint 'o- 
 
 *^ . , . . volving the bones 
 
 or the horse "dishes" witli it, it of ihe knee-joint. 
 
 £ . . . „. 2. A splint in- 
 
 connrms the opinion. 1 ime and terfering with the 
 
 liberal food are the best means of '^°^^°' '"'^ '""='' 
 
 perfecting them. When they are .3- A small splint 
 ^ ^ ^ _ _ _ ^ situated under the 
 
 painful, poultice, having sprinkled tendon of an ex- 
 
 , , - , , ■ ■ tensor muscle, 
 
 on the surface of the application 
 
 1 drachm each of opium and of camphor. Or 
 rub tlie place with i drachm of cliloroform and 
 
 2 drachms of camphorated oil. When a splint 
 interferes with a tendon, the only chance of cure 
 is to open the skin and to cut off the splint, 
 afterward treating the wound with a lotion com- 
 posed of chloride of zinc, i grain ; water, i 
 ounce. To clieck the growth of a splint, rub it 
 well and frequently with iodide of lead^ j ounce; 
 simple ointment, 8 ounces. 
 
 Sprain of the Bacit Sinews. — Cause. — Cart- work 
 upon a hilly country. 
 
 Symptom. — Gradual heightening of the hind 
 heel. 
 
 Treatment. — The only possible relief is afforded 
 by an operation — " division of the tendons." 
 
 Staggers. — Sleepy staggers and mad staggers 
 are only different stages of the same disorder. 
 
 Cause. — Over-gorging. 
 
 Symptoms. — Excessive thirst ; dullness or sleep- 
 iness; snoring; pressing the head against a wall. 
 
 HW 
 
 Sleepy Staggers, from Over-Gorging. 
 
 Some animals perish in this state; others com- 
 mence trotting without taking the head from the 
 wall, and such generally die. but sometimes re- 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 189 
 
 cover. Other horses quit the sleepy state ; the 
 eyes brighten ; the breath becomes quick. Such 
 animals exhibit the greatest possible violence, but 
 without the slightest desire for mischief. 
 
 Trcatiiu-iit. — Allow no water. Give a quart of 
 oil. Six hours afterward give another quart of 
 oil, with 20 drops of croton oil in it, should no 
 improvement be noticed. In another six hours, 
 no amendment being exhibited, give another 
 quart of oil, with 30 drops of croton oil. After 
 a further six hours, repeat the first dose, and ad- 
 minister the succeeding doses, at the intervals 
 already stated, until the appearance changing 
 indicates that the body has been relieved. 
 
 For the full development of the mad stage no 
 remedies are of the slightest avail. 
 
 Sirain of the Flexor Tendons. — Caiisi;. — Hard work 
 on uneven ground, or the rider punishing a horse 
 with the snaffle and the spurs. 
 
 Symptoms. — The animal goes oddly, not lame. 
 
 The defective action will disappear upon rest, but 
 
 stiffness is aggravated by subsequent labor. Any 
 
 attempt to work the horse sound induces incura- 
 
 ' ble lameness or contraction of the tendons. 
 
 Trea/mfiit.—AWo'w several hours to elapsQ be- 
 fore any attempt is made to discover the disease. 
 A small swelling, hot, soft and sensitive, may 
 then appear. Bind round it a linen bandage, and 
 keep it wet with cold water. Bathe this for the 
 first three nights; afterward apply moisture only 
 byday. Stop working the horse. Give4drachms 
 of aloes. Do not turn out, but allow two feeds of 
 corn each day. Keep in a stall, and do not put 
 to work till more than recovered. 
 
 Strang/es. — Cause. — Something requiring to be 
 cast from the system, so as to suit the young 
 body to a sudden change. 
 
 Symptoms. — A slight general disturbance, 
 which, however, remains. The colt continues 
 
 Opening the Abscess of Strangles. 
 
 sickly. After a day or two, the neck becomes 
 stiff, and a swelling appears between the jaws. 
 The enlargement at first is hard, hot and tender. 
 A discharge from the nose comes on. The symp- 
 toms increase ; the throat becomes sore. Breath- 
 
 ing is oppressed; coat stares; appetite is lost; 
 tumor softens, and, being opened, the animal 
 speedily recovers. 
 
 Trcatmoit. — Neither purge nor bleed. Give all 
 the nourishment tliat can br swallowed. Corn, 
 ground and Scalded, may be offered, a little at a 
 time, from the hand. No grooming; light cloth- 
 ing; ample bed ; door and window of loose box 
 should be open. Gently stimulate the throat 
 
 A Horse with Strangles wearing an Eight-Tailed 
 Bandage. 
 
 with the following .' Spirits of turpentine, 2 parts; 
 laudanum. I part; spirits of camphor, i part. 
 Apply with a paste-brush morning, noon and 
 night, until the throat is sore. After every appli- 
 cation, take three pieces of flannel, place these 
 over the part, and bind on with an eight-tailed 
 bandage. So soon as the tumor points, apply the 
 twitch, and have one foreleg held up. Then open 
 the swelling with an abscess-knife. It may be 
 necessary to make another incision. 
 
 Stringhalt. — Cause. — Over-exertion. 
 
 Symptom. — Raising both hind legs, one after 
 the other, previous to starting. 
 
 Treatment. — None is possible. • 
 
 Surfeit. ^Cause. — Heat of body. 
 
 Symptom. — An eruption of round, blunt and 
 numerous spots. 
 
 T catment. — If the pulse is not affected, the 
 symptom may disappear in a few hours. Look 
 
 ,/ 
 
 A Horse affected with Surfeit. 
 
 to the food. Abstract eight pounds of hay, and 
 allow two bundles of cut grass per day. Even 
 increase the oats, but with each feed give a hand- 
 ful of old crushed beans. The following drink 
 will be of service: Liquor arsenicahs, i ounce; 
 
lUO 
 
 THE I-'KIEND OE ALL. 
 
 tincture of muriate of iron, ij ounces; water, i 
 quart. Mix. Give daily, i pint for a dose. 
 
 Symptom. — If a young liorse has been neglected 
 through the winter, the surfeit lumps do not dis- 
 appear. An exudation escapes; the constitution 
 is involved, and the disease is apt to settle upon 
 the lungs. 
 
 Treatment. — Do not take out. Keep the stable 
 aired, and attend to cleanliness. Feed as pre- 
 viously directed, and allow bran mashes when the 
 bowels are constipated. Administer the drink 
 recommended above, night and morning. Clothe 
 warmly; remove from a stall to a loose box. 
 Should the pulse suddenly sink, allow two pots 
 of stout each day. If the appetite fail, give gruel 
 instead of water, and present a few cut carrots 
 from the hand. The shortest of these cases oc- 
 cupy a fortnight. 
 
 Swollen Legs. — Cause. — Debility. 
 
 Treatment. — Place in a loose box. No hay 
 for some weeks. Dampen the corn, and sprinkle 
 a handful of ground oak-bark on each feed. At- 
 tend to exercise. If the legs continue to enlarge, 
 hand-rub them well and long. 
 
 Teeth. — Cause. — A thickening of the membrane 
 sometimes conceals the upper tushes and pro- 
 vokes constitutional symptoms. 
 
 Treatment. — Lance the membrane. 
 
 Symptoms of Toothache. — Head carried on one 
 side, or pressed against the wall; saliva dribbles 
 from the lips; quidding or partial mastication of 
 the food, and allowing the morsel to fall from the 
 mouth. Appetite capricious ; sometimes spirit 
 is displayed — then the horse is equally dejected. 
 The tooth difes ; the opposing tooth grows long. 
 The opposite teeth become very sharp, from the 
 horse masticating only on one side. The long 
 tooth presses ypon the gum and provokes nasal 
 gleet. 
 
 Treatment. — Chisel ofT projecting tooth ; file 
 down the sharp edges of the opposite teeth, and 
 look to the mouth frequently. 
 
 Tetanus. — Causes. — Cold rain; draughts of air ; 
 too much light; wounds. 
 
 The Test for Tetanus, when not fully developed. 
 
 Symptoms. — The wound often dries up. The 
 horse grows fidgety. Upon lifting up the head. 
 
 " the haw" projects over the eye. The tail fs 
 raised ; the ears are pricked ; the head is elevated ; 
 the limbs are stiff ; the body feels hard. Any ex- 
 citement may call up a fearful spasm. 
 
 Treatment .^Give a double dose of purgative 
 medicine. Place in solitude and in quiet. Put 
 a pailful of gruel and a thin mash within easy 
 reach of the head. 
 
 Thorough-Pin. — Cause. — Excessive labor. 
 
 Symptom. — A round tumor going right through 
 the leg, and appearing anterior 
 to the point of the hock. It is 
 nearly always connected with bog- 
 spavin. 
 
 Treatment. — Never attack thor- 
 ough-pin and bog-spavin at the 
 same time. Relieve the thorough- 
 pin first by means of rags, cork 
 and an India-rubber bandage, cut 
 so as not to press on the bog- 
 spavin. Ifthe corks occasion con- 
 stitutional symptoms, use a truss 
 to press upon the thorough-pin, 
 which being destroyed, apply a perfect bandage 
 and wetted cloths to the bog-spavin. When 
 attempting to cure bog-spavin, however, continue 
 the remedy to the thorough-pin, or the cure of 
 one affection may reproduce the other. 
 
 Thrush. — Cause. — Standing in filth, when It ap- 
 pears in the hind feet; navicular disease, when 
 seen in contracted feet. 
 
 Symptoms. — A foul discharge runningfrom the 
 cleft of the frog. This decomposes the horn. 
 
 Dissection OF 
 Thorough - Pm 
 andBog-Spavin, 
 demonstrating 
 THE Junction 
 OF THE Two Af- 
 
 FECIIONS. 
 
 Thrush in the Fore Foot, with Thrush inthe Hind Foot. 
 A Thick Crust, a Concave 
 Sole, and a Small Frog. 
 
 The surface of the frog becomes ragged, and the 
 interior converted into a white powder. The 
 affection does not generally lame ; but should the 
 horse tread on a rolling stone, it may fall as 
 though it were shot. 
 
 Treatment. — Pare away the frog till only sound 
 horn remains, or until the flesh is exposed. Then 
 tack on the shoe and return to a clean stall. 
 Apply the chloride-of-zinc lotion — three grains to 
 the ounce of water— to the cleft of the frog by 
 means of some tow, wrapped round a small bit of 
 stick. When the stench has ceased, a little 
 liquor of lead will perfect the cure. For con- 
 tracted feet pare the frog, and every morning 
 dress once with the chloride-of-zinc lotion ; but 
 do not strive to stop the thrush. 
 
 Tread. — Cause. — Fatigue and overweight. 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 19t 
 
 Symptom. — In light horses it occurs towards 
 the end of a long journey. The hind foot is not 
 removed when the fore foot is put to the ground. 
 The end of the fore shoe consequently tears off a 
 portion of the coronet from the hind foot. In 
 cart-horses, after the horse is fatigued the load 
 has to be taken down a steep hill; the cnimal, 
 being in the shafts, rocks to and fro ; the legs 
 cross, and the calk ofone shoe wounds the coronet 
 of the opposite hoof. 
 
 Tread in Light Horses, 
 The hind foot, from fa- 
 tigue not being removed 
 soon enough, is wounded 
 by the heel of the fore 
 shoe being placed upoa 
 its coronet. 
 
 Tread upon the Hind 
 Foot of Cart-horses. 
 
 The animal become un- 
 steady from exhaustion; 
 the feet cross, and a 
 wound results. 
 
 Treatiiu-iit. — Bathe the sore with the chloride- 
 of-zinc lotion, one grain to the ounce of water. 
 Continue to do this thrice daily ; feed liberally. 
 A slough win take place, and the animal be well 
 in about a month ; the only danger being the 
 after-result of a false quarter. 
 
 Tumors. — These are so various and of such 
 different natures, that in every case a surgeon 
 should be consulted. 
 
 Warts. — Cause. — -Unknown. 
 
 Symptom. — There are three kinds of warts. 
 
 Heai> of a Horse with Warts. 
 
 1st. Some are contained in a cuticular sac, and, 
 upon this being divided, shell out. 2d. The 
 second are cartilaginous and vascular. These 
 grow to some size, and are rough on the surface. 
 They are apt to ulcerate. 3d. Consists of a 
 cuticular case, inclosing a soft granular sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Treatment. — When of the first kind, slit up, 
 and squeeze them out ; the second kind, excise 
 and apply a heated iron to stop the bleeding. 
 The third kind are better let alone. 
 
 Water-Farcy. — Cause. — Overwork and coarse 
 
 The Situations 
 AND Shapes of 
 Wind-Galls, 
 
 feed, succeeded by periods of stagnation. It is 
 the warning that true farcy threatens the stable. 
 
 Symptoms. — Load less and work less. 
 
 Treatment. — Improve the diet, and never allow 
 the horse to remain a day in the stable without 
 exercise. Saturate the swollen limb with cold 
 water every morning, and have it afterward 
 thoroughly hand-rubbed until it is perfectly dry. 
 Should lameness remain after the first day, a few 
 punctures may be made into the limb, but only 
 through the skin. Give the following ball every 
 morning: Iodide of iron, i drachm; powdered 
 cantharides, 2 grains; powdered arsenic, i grain ; 
 Cayenne pepper, i scruple; sulphate of iron, i 
 drachm ; treacle and linseed meal, a sufficiency. 
 Mix. The delay even of a day in treatment is 
 attended with danger in this disease. 
 
 Wind-Galls. — Cause. — Hard work. 
 
 Symptoms. — Small enlargements, generally up- 
 on the hind legs and below the 
 hocks ; no lameness ; two wind- 
 galls appear above the pastern, 
 one beneath that joint; after 
 extraordinary labor, the round 
 swellings disappear and the 
 course of the flexor tendons be- 
 comes puffy. Sometimes con- 
 tinued irritation will cause the 
 wind-galls to greatly enlarge, and 
 ultimately provokes their case to 
 change into bone. During these changes the 
 horse is very lame. 
 
 Treatment. — Fold pieces of rags ; wet them ; 
 put these on the wind-galls ; place on the rags 
 pieces of cork, and over the cork lace on an 
 India-rubber bandage. Mind this bandage is 
 constantly worn, save when ridden or driven by 
 the owner. Rest is the only alleviation for the 
 change of structure. 
 
 Windy Colic. — Causes. — Gorging on green food ; 
 but more commonly impaired digestion, con- 
 sequent upon severe labor and old age. 
 
 Symptoms. — Uneasiness ; pendulous head ; ces- 
 sation of feeding. Breathing laborious ; fidgets ; 
 rocking the body; enlargement of the belly; 
 pawing. Standing in one place ; sleepy eye ; 
 heavy pulse ; flatulence , the abdomen greatly 
 enlarged. Breathing very fast ; pulse very feeble ; 
 blindness ; the animal walks round and round till 
 it falls and dies. 
 
 Treatment. — Three balls of sulphuret of am- 
 monia. 2 drachms, with extract of gentian and 
 powdered quassia, of each a sufficiency, may be 
 given, one every half-hour. Next, i ounce of 
 chloride of potash, dissolved in a pint of cold 
 water, and mingled with sulphuric ether. 2 ounces, 
 should be horned down. In an hour's time, 2 
 ounces each of sulphuric ether and of laudanum, 
 i ounce of camphorated spirits, i drachm of 
 
192 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 carbonate of ammonia, may be administered. No 
 good effect being produced, throw up a tobacco- 
 smoke enema. As a last resort, procure a stick 
 of brimstone and light it. Remain in the stable 
 while it burns, to see that the sulphureous fumes 
 do not become too powerful for life to inhale 
 them. Continue this measure for two hours; 
 then repeat the remedies previously recom- 
 mended. 
 
 Worms are of four kinds : the Tasnia, the 
 Lumbrici, the Strongulus and the Ascarides. 
 
 The Tania mostly affect the young. 
 
 Cause. — Starving the mare when with foal, and 
 breeding from old animals. 
 
 Symptoms. — Checked development ; large head ; 
 low crest; long legs, and swollen abdomen. Ap- 
 petite ravenous; body thin; coat unhealthy; 
 breath fetid. The colt rubs its nose against a 
 wall, or strains it violently upward ; picks and 
 bites its own hair. 
 
 Treatment. — Give spirits of turpentine. To a 
 foal, 2 drachms ; to a three-m.onths-old, \ ounce ; 
 si.\ months, i ounce ; one year, i^ ounces ; two 
 years, 2 ounces; three years, 3 ounces ; four years 
 and upwards, 4 ounces. Procure i pound of 
 quassia chips ; pour on them 3 quarts of boiling 
 water. Blend witli the turpentine a proportionate 
 quantity of the quassia infusion, by means of yelks 
 of eggs; add i scruple of powdered camphor, and 
 give first thing in the morning. Good food is 
 essential afterward. Subsequently give every 
 morning, till the coat is glossy, liquor arsenicalis, 
 from 1 to 8 drachms; muriated tincture of iron, 
 from i^ to 12 drachms; extract of belladonna, 
 from 10 grains to 2 drachms; ale or stout, from 
 \ pint to a quart. 
 
 The Lumbrici prey upon the old and the 
 weakly. 
 
 Treatment. — Tartarized antimony, 2 drachms ; 
 common mass, a sufficiency to make one ball. 
 Give one every morning. 
 
 -rM- 
 
 Irritation Caused by Worms. The Nose rubbed violently 
 AGAINST A Wall. 
 
 The Strongulus, during life, is generally not 
 known to be present. 
 
 The Ascarides cause great itching posteriorly, 
 which provokes the horse to rub its hair off 
 against the wall. 
 
 Treattnent. — Try injections of train-oil for one 
 week. Then use infusion of catechu, i ounce 
 to I quart of water. On the eighth morning, 
 give aloes, 4 drachms; calomel, i drachm. To- 
 bacco-smoke enemas are sometimes useful, and the 
 following ointment may be placed up the rectum 
 night and morning: Glycerine, J ounce; sperma- 
 ceti, I ounce; melt the spermaceti, and blend; 
 when cold, add strong mercurial ointment, 3 
 drachms ; powdered camphor, 3 drachms. 
 
 Wounds. — A lacerated wound is generally accom- 
 panied by contusion, but with little hemorrhage. 
 Shock to the system is the worst of its primary 
 effects. The danger springs from collapse. A 
 slough may probably follow. The slough is 
 dangerous in proportion as it is tardy. The 
 horse may bleed to death if the body is much 
 debilitated. 
 
 Diagram of a Severe 
 Lacerated Wound. 
 
 Diagram of an Incised 
 Wound. 
 
 Treatment. — Attend first to the system. Give a 
 drink composed of sulphuric ether and laudanum, 
 of each I ounce; water, |^ pint. Repeat the medi- 
 cine every quarter of an hour if necessary, or till 
 shivering has ceased and the pulse is healthy. 
 A poultice, made of J brewer's yeast, f of any 
 coarse meal ; or a lotion, consisting of tincture'ii 
 of cantharides, i ounce ; chloride of zinc, 2 
 drachms; water, 3 pints, may be employed. 
 When the slough has fallen, apply frequently a 
 solution of chloride of zinc, i grain to the ounce 
 of water; and regulate the food by the pulse. 
 
 An incised -wound produces little shock. The 
 danger is immediate, as the horse may bleed to 
 death. 
 
 Treatment. — Do not move the horse. Dash 
 the part with cold water, or direct upon the 
 bleeding surface a current of wind from the bel- 
 lows. When the bleeding has ceased and the 
 surfaces are sticky, draw the edges together with 
 divided sutures. When the sutures begin to 
 drag, cut them across. After copious suppuration 
 has been established, bathe frequently with the 
 solution of chloride of zinc, one grain to the 
 ounce of water. 
 
 An abraded wound gen&r&Wy is accompanied by 
 grit or dirt forced into the denuded surface. The 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 193 
 
 Abraded Wound. 
 
 pain is so great, the animal may sink from irri 
 tation. 
 
 Treatment. — Cleanse, by squeez- 
 ing water from a large sponge 
 above the wound, as w<is directed 
 for broken knees, and allow sup- 
 puration to remove any grit that 
 is fixed in the flesh. Support 
 the body, and use tiie chloride-of- 
 zinc lotion. 
 
 K punctured wound is danger- 
 ous, as the parts injured arc- 
 liable to motion. On this ac- 
 count those above the stifle are 
 very hazardous. Sinuses form 
 from the torn fascia opposing 
 the exit of the pus ; also because Diagram 
 the small hole in the skin gener- 
 ally bears no proportion to the internal damage. 
 
 Treatment. — Always 
 enlarge the external 
 opening to afford egress 
 to all sloughs and pus. 
 Regulate the food by the 
 symptoms, and use the 
 chloride-of-zinc lotion. 
 
 A contuscdwound, when 
 large, causes more con- 
 gealed blood than can 
 be absorbed. This cor- 
 rupts, and a slough must 
 occur or an abscess must 
 form. Either generates 
 weakness, produces irri- 
 tation, and may lead to fatal hemorrhage 
 sinuses may form. Don't judge hastily. 
 
 Treatment. — When the con- 
 tusion is slight, rub the part 
 with iodide of lead, i drachm of 
 the salt to I ounce of lard. When 
 large, divide the skin, every 
 eighth inch, the entire length of 
 the swelling. Bathe the injury 
 with the chloride-of-zinc lotion, 
 and support the body, as the 
 
 Diagram 
 
 Wound- 
 
 J', 'jr 
 
 Punctured 
 
 The engraving supposes the 
 soft parts to have been divi- 
 ded, in order to show the 
 ragged nature and large ex- 
 tent of the injury, with the 
 comparatively small opening 
 by which thisamount of harm 
 is characterized. 
 
 Or 
 
 Diagram of a Con- 
 tused Wound. 
 
 The Ma>:> 
 
 F USING THE FiXED SeTON NeEDLE. 
 
 A second person pushes the wound together, and, when the 
 point of the needle appears, threads it with a piece of zinc wire 
 or soft string. The needle is then retracted, and released from 
 the wire or string, whereby a suture is left in the wound. 
 
 symptoms demand liberality in the matter of 
 food. 
 
 In all wounds, gain, if possible, a large depend- 
 ing orifice, and cover the denuded surfaces with 
 a rag saturated with oil of, or in solution of, 
 tar. 
 
 REMEDIES, AND THEIR ADMINISTRA- 
 TION. 
 
 Warn) Mashes. — Put a peck of bran into a per- 
 fectly clean pail. Stir the bran as briskly as 
 possible, and empty enough boiling water into the 
 pail to render the contents a pultaceous mass. 
 Cover up the vessel, and when cool throw the 
 mash into the manger. Bran mashes, four daily, 
 will relax the animal's system ; but the groom 
 likes to employ these agents merely as prepara- 
 tory to his favorite dose of aloes ; and, though 
 repeated mashes will induce purgation in the 
 equine patient, the groom is not satisfied unless 
 that result be aggravated by a dose of aloes. 
 
 Bran mashes of themselves do not debilitate, 
 though, from the length and size of the horse's 
 intestines, purgation cannot be long maintained 
 without inducing serious exhaustion; and it is 
 never safe to work the animal while any loose- 
 ness is observable. A tendency to inflammation 
 is often announced by repeated liquid discharges ; 
 therefore, never let the horse be taken out while 
 the bowels are in a state of excitement, for exer- 
 cise may increase that action to one of positive 
 disease. Bran mashes, however, are the safest 
 and the gentlest of laxatives. Any condition 
 may be induced, according to the number and 
 frequency of the potions. In general, they act 
 mildly, without inducing that bodily discomfort 
 and that constitutional weakness which throw 
 the animal out of condition and render rest an 
 absolute necessity for recovery. 
 
 Horses not all Alike. — However, one horse will 
 devour bran mashes with avidity; another will 
 not touch them. This will not partake of the 
 potion unless it be partially warm ; another will 
 not eat until it is perfectly cold ; while most will 
 partake of th^ mess if it be flavored by the ad- 
 mixture of a little salt or a few crushed oats. So, 
 also, with water. Certain horses, when feeding 
 upon bran mashes, refuse all drink ; others enjoy 
 frequent draughts of cold liquid; a third set 
 seem to crave warm water ; and a fourth will 
 neither imbibe freely nor entirely abstain, being 
 wholly indifferent as to the temperature of the 
 liquid. Thus the order, which is often printed, 
 to give to the horse, after the animal has swal- 
 lowed a dose of aloes, copious draughts of warm 
 water, is frequently rendered futile; for, as the 
 proverb teaches, " one man may lead the horse 
 to the pond, but forty men cannot make him 
 drink." 
 
1^4 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Horse-Balls. — A horse-ball represents some sub- 
 stance in powder mixed into a mass with a moist 
 ingredient, such as soft-soap, treacle, palm-oil, 
 etc. The compounds, when united, are usually 
 rolled into sticks about three quarters of an inch 
 in diameter. These sticlcs are then cut into 
 lengths of two and a half to four inches in ex- 
 tent, according to the amount required for a dose. 
 They are generally sent to stables by the dozen. 
 Physic is thus placed at the pleasure or the ca- 
 price of ignorance to administer. Aloes is the 
 common purgative of the stable. So general 
 was the use of the drug, that this medicine al- 
 ways took the precedence in every sickness, and 
 engrossed to itself the significant term of " physic." 
 " Has this horse had physic ?" " Prepare this 
 horse for physic" — ^when spoken in the stable, 
 signify. Has he had aloes? or imply an order that 
 another quadruped is to be. prepared for a dose of 
 aloes. An ignorant groom can only imagine 
 that to be worthy of the title " physic," which is 
 capable of producing visible effects; and, cer- 
 tainly, when judged by the stable-man's standard, 
 aloes merits the distinction bestowed upon its 
 drastic results. 
 
 Aloes. — On the other hand, aloes can, in no 
 form, be administered to some horses. Many 
 cannot take a full dose. Others can safely swal- 
 low the medicine only when highly spiced or in 
 solution. A few are all but insensible to its 
 action. Alarming spasms often follow the use of 
 a moderate quantity of aloes, which always ren- 
 ders the quadruped sick ere the effects are visible. 
 The drug, in most instances, lies dormant twenty- 
 four hours, during which period the appetite is 
 lost, the spirits oppressed, the coat dull, and 
 the entire system evidently shaken. It is not 
 esteemed prudent to work the patient till several 
 days' rest have been allowed. It used once to be 
 the custom to trot the animal which was sicken- 
 ing under a dose of aloes ; but experience has 
 shown the danger of the practice. The horse is 
 now left in the stable, has an extra rug thrown 
 upon his back, and a pail of warm water in the 
 manger. 
 
 Very many animals, when sufTeringfrom chronic 
 debility, may be slaughtered by a moderate dose 
 of aloes, while many others never sufficiently 
 recover from its effects to do a day's work after 
 the medicine has ceased to operate. Of the 
 preparations the veterinarian has at his com- 
 mand, it is one of the most dangerous. Another 
 fact renders the aloetic ball an unsafe agent to 
 be intrusted to the keeping of a groom. These 
 things, as commonly compounded, become, in a 
 short time, as hard as stones, and such bodies 
 are not in a fit condition to be thrust down a 
 horse's throat. 
 
 Pievious to a ball being delivered it is cus- 
 
 tomary to pinch the sharp edge of the forward 
 
 end until it becomes rounded. The intention is 
 so to modify the shape as to facilitate the passage 
 of the body down the gullet. Whether the 
 present practice in any degree is beneficial to the 
 animal is doubtful : at all events, the horse would 
 be more fortunate if the sharp edges of the for- 
 ward extremity were the only danger it encoun- 
 tered from swallowing the physic. 
 
 Other Physics. — Several potent caustics rank 
 among common horse-physics, as bichloride of 
 mercury, arsenic, nitrate of silver, sulphate of 
 copper, etc. These burning compounds are fre- 
 quently administered in substance and in enor- 
 mous doses. Even where the quantity pre- 
 scribed is not objectionable, the form in which 
 the caustic is generally given is highly injurious. 
 The compounder does not bestow much care 
 upon the accuracy of the weight — a scruple more 
 or less being commonly esteemed of no impor- 
 tance. Then, small thought is bestowed upon 
 the necessity of incorporating such fiery com- 
 ponents with more mild ingredients before the 
 mass is forced down the sensitive throat of a 
 living creature. A ball made of linseed meal 
 and treacle is taken ; the powerful agent is 
 speedily reduced to powder, and emptied into 
 the cavity formed for its reception ; and the whole_ 
 having been rewrapped in fresh paper, is esteemed 
 ready. When such an article has been swallowed, 
 the paper or covering is speedily removed by the 
 action of the stomach. Then the burning mass 
 falls out upon the fine, moist and velvet coat 
 lining the viscus : this fact may explain why 
 stomachic diseases are so general with the ma- 
 jority of old favorites. As such substances are 
 caustics when applied to the external flesh, it is 
 only reasonable to infer that no tissue within the 
 body can long withstand their burning properties. 
 
 Balling-Iron. — We give the form of an instru- 
 ment for administering balls, which seems free 
 from the objections belonging to the old instru- 
 ment, and to possess all the qualities that such an 
 instrument can show. The restraining bars are 
 formed of polished steel, and are covered with a 
 stout piece of India-rubber tubmg, thus in some 
 measure protecting the mouth of the creature 
 from injury by what hitherto was the exposed 
 metal. The lower bar, moreover, is attached to 
 the handle, and the handle can be readily raised 
 or depressed by turning the nut situated at its 
 base. It can be quickly adapted to any possible 
 capacity of jaw. 
 
 The Old Way. — Such a form of immunity is, 
 however, seldom sought. A sufficient security is 
 in all ordinary cases afforded by the horse's 
 tongue, which, when a ball is to be administered, 
 is grasped by the left hand, and withdrawn to the 
 right side of the mouth. The hand thus em- 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 195 
 
 ployed is fixed, being liglitly pressed against ihe 
 inferior margin of the lower jaw; for, when 
 retained in such a position, the tongue is pressed 
 upon the foremost of the huge molar teeth. Of 
 course, the animal, thus held, cannot appro.ximate 
 its jaws so as seriously to harm the operator 
 
 New Balling-Iron. 
 
 A A. India-rubber tubing, to protect the mouth from the 
 harshness of the metal bars. 
 
 B B B. Side pieces to keep the iron in its situation. 
 
 C. The handle. 
 
 D. The lower bar, attached to the handle. 
 
 E. The side piece, which can be raised or depressed. 
 
 F. The screw, at the extremity of the side piece. 
 
 G. The nut which, fastened to the handle, acts upon the 
 screw and fixes its position. 
 
 without biting its own flesh ; by that circum- 
 stance is safety supposed to be rendered certain. 
 But should violence be exerted, animal fear is 
 apt to be superior to bodily pain ; the tongue and 
 arm may be simultaneously bitten through. The 
 
 The Usual Manner of GrviNG A BalIm 
 
 practiced veterinarian, however, takes advantage 
 of the first emotion of surprise which the crea- 
 ture experiences at the liberties taken with it. 
 Having the ball ready in the right hand, he, 
 standing on the left side, quicklv introduces the 
 bolus into the wondering quadruped's mouth. 
 
 The medicine is lodged at the back part of the 
 tongue, whence, as the horse does not expecto- 
 rate, he cannot expel it, except by coughing. 
 During the spasm which accompanies this act, 
 the soft palate is raised and the ball is carried 
 outward with the volume of violently-expired 
 
 The Customary Mode of distracting the Horse's At- 
 tention, AFTER it has received A BaLL. 
 
 breath. Some horses acquire a habit of thus 
 returning all forms of physic, and will cough up 
 a ball twenty times. This illustrates the neces- 
 sity of distracting the attention of the quadruped 
 the instant the hand is retracted ; for in the 
 confusion of the moment the most inveterate 
 " dodger" may be surprised into swallowing any 
 morsel. 
 
 The hand, during the delivery of the ball, being 
 rapidly thrust into the mouth, is frequently cut 
 by the sharp edges of the molar teeth. No 
 knowledge can point out in advance the animal 
 possessed of grinders of this dangerous descrip- 
 tion, and the only protection as yet suggested is 
 to cover the hand with a glove. But the use of 
 a glove is objectionable. The medicine being, 
 delivered, the hand is quickly withdrawn, and 
 the jaws of the animal are clapped together. 
 The nose is then rubbed somewhat roughly, with 
 
 New Way of administering a Ball. 
 
 the design of preventing the quadruped from 
 dwelling too intently on the substance just forced 
 into its mouth. 
 
 A New Way. — An exfcellent veterinary surgeon 
 has endeavored to remove the obiections to 
 which the previous manner of delivering a ball is 
 
196 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 liable. He grasps the tongue rather higher up 
 than usual; and does not retract it, but fixes it 
 upon the gums which cover the upper margin of 
 the lower jaw. The point of the tongue pro- 
 trudes between the thumb and fingers, and it is 
 then plain that the animal cannot close the 
 mouth without biting upon its own flesh. Even 
 this does not obviate the danger of the horse 
 biting the hand through its own tongue. 
 
 The same gentleman proposes an unobjection- 
 able method of delivering a ball. The knuckles 
 
 Excellent Manner of delivering a Ball. ' 
 
 are not elevated ; but the hand is extended, the 
 thumb and fingers being all brought upon one 
 level and held close together. The ball is placed 
 between the fore and middle fingers, and re- 
 tained simply by slight lateral pressure. In this 
 position it is introduced, and evidently demands 
 less space for its entrance than was required 
 according to the former system. When the 
 ball has been advanced to the desired situa- 
 tion, a separation of the fingers allows it to drop 
 into place, '/eterinary surgeons, however, soon 
 learn to give a ball with greater speed and less 
 
 A Ball passing down the Horse's Gixlet. 
 
 ceremony. They go alone up to the head, and 
 play for a time with the quadruped's face. Con- 
 fidence being thus established, the practitioner 
 gently withdraws the creature's tongue. Thus 
 the jaws are sundered ; when, without flurry, the 
 hand is introduced into the cavity and the medi- 
 cine properly lodged. 
 
 The physic being introduced into the mouth, 
 the person who has undertaken to deliver it 
 should on no account esteem his business fi- 
 nished. He should watch the neck. In that 
 
 position, when the animal swallows, any sub- 
 stance can be seen to travel down the gullet; 
 this proof having been had, the horse may be 
 left. 
 
 Drinks or Draughts. — Sometimes veterinarians 
 pour liquids down the nostril of the horse. 
 The nostrils terminate immediately over the 
 larynx, and any fluid administered after so un- 
 natural a method will probably find its way on 
 to the lungs. Veterinary medicines are too ge- 
 nerally composed of pungent and of caustic ma- 
 terials, while the nostrils are lined witii a high- 
 ly sensitive and delicately moist mucous mem- 
 brane. The nostril was created to come in con- 
 tact with the air, to which it affords the only 
 legitimate passage. The notion of disregarding 
 the mouth and selecting so tender a channel. 
 
 ^.-t 
 
 ::j5jffe 
 
 I. 
 
 fi 
 
 ^^1^)^ 
 
 The Consequence to be expected whenever the 
 
 CrsToM OF pouring Drinks ikto the Nose of a H 
 adopted. 
 
 a a. The windpipe, b L The .gullet c c. The soft 
 o'.'The tongue. 
 
 Cruel 
 orse is 
 
 palale 
 
 down which to pour acria and burning solutions 
 is a refinement upon ordinarv barbaritv. 
 
 Process of Drinking. — The natural process 
 through which the horse drinks, is as follows: 
 Its mouth is peculiar in that it has at its back- 
 ward extremity a fleshy screen, hanging from 
 the bony roof. This soft palate explains why 
 the quadruped, under ordinary circumstances, 
 breathes onlv through the nose ; and why. when 
 it vomits, the matter is ejected through the nos- 
 trils. That "specialty is of service, however, 
 during the act of drinking. The posterior en- 
 trance to the nasal chamber being open and the 
 head in a pendulous position, were there no 
 special provision to the contrary, the water, 
 after having passed the mouth, would, from the 
 mere force of gravity, have a tendency to return 
 by the nostrils. This actually occurs whenever 
 cold, strangles, influenza, sore throat, or their 
 like, interferes with the use of these parts. Dis- 
 ease renders the organ sensitive, and the animal 
 exerts its volition to prevent the employment of 
 the inflamed structure. The nasal chambers are 
 imperfectly closed, and a great portion of the 
 fluid imbibed by the mouth flows out again 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 197 
 
 through the nostrils. Such a tendency is, dur- 
 ing health, effectually prevented by the soft 
 
 UlAGRAM (Fig. I) EXPLAN.\T0RV of THF CoMi'nrN'D AcT OF 
 DiUNKING IN THE HoKSE. 
 
 n a. The water drawn into the mouth and forced into the 
 fauces by the compression of the forward part of the tongue 
 and the enlarj^ement of the baci^ward portion of the organ. 
 ^ i. The fluid passing down the oesophagus or gullet, c. The 
 laryn.\, lo\\ered to admit the passage of the liqiiid. t/ cf. The 
 tongue, dilated at one place and contracted at another, g. The 
 soft palate, floated upward and etfectuariy closing the nasal 
 passages. 
 
 Diagram (Fig. 2) explanatory of the Compound Act op 
 Drinking. 
 « a. The water driven backward by the forward dilatation 
 of the tongue and the upward movement of the laryn.x. S b. 
 The full current forced down the gullet, c. The larynx pro. 
 pelled against the soft palate, d d. The tongue, dilated ante- 
 riorly and compressed posteriorly, e. The soft palate. 
 
 palate. Before any substance can pass from the 
 mouth toward the throat, that appendage must 
 
 be raised, and its rising closes the posterior en- 
 trance to the nasal chambers. 
 
 Tongue and Mouth. — The tongue is the primary 
 agent employed when the animal slakes its 
 thirst. The backward portion of the organ is 
 contracted, and the forward part compressed by 
 muscular volition. A vacuum would thereby be 
 created, were not the water propelled by atmos- 
 pheric pressure into the void thus formejJ. The 
 posterior of the tongue is then relaxed, while 
 the anterior division of the organ is pressed 
 against the roof of the mouth. The fluid is 
 thereby driven to the backward part of the ca- 
 vity. The tongue, during the act, continues to 
 alternate the states of contraction and relaxa- 
 tion, each motion serving to pump the water 
 into the fauces. But, before that can be accom- 
 plished, the soft palate must be elevated. The 
 soft palate then closes the nostrils, and also in 
 its course to take tliis position sets in motion 
 the cartilages of the larynx. The last covering 
 and effectually protecting the windpipe, the fluid 
 is forced onward by the contraction of the 
 tongue, passes into a secure chamber, the roof 
 and floor of which are but of temporary forma- 
 tion. Here it remains only during the inactivity 
 of the larynx. The upward motion of the latter 
 body propels the fluid into the pharynx, whence 
 contractility sends it into the gullet, the muscu- 
 lar action of which conveys it onward to the 
 stomach. 
 
 Giving Draughts. — A common method is de- 
 picted above, where a loop of string is hung 
 
 A Tin Bottle The Manner of i'Sing the Tin Bottle. 
 
 Tn HOLD ThrEE 
 
 Pints. 
 
 upon the prong of a pitchfork. Shoiild the 
 operator fiTl the mouth too full, or tlie animal 
 cough during the time of its administration, he 
 is saturated with the medicine. Any irritation 
 of the larynx is invariably productive of this 
 effect. The misfortunes which the delivery of 
 drinks almost necessarily involv-es, will very readi- 
 ly account for dislike to the fluid form of medi- 
 cine. The danger that exists of the horse cough- 
 ing and spasmodically drawing the fluid upon 
 the lungs, constitutes the strongest argument 
 urged against the administration of drinks. 
 
I'J^ 
 
 'lllE i'RlLMj ut ALL. 
 
 Let the person who intends to deliver a drink 
 fearlessly approach the animal : allow him to 
 smell his new acquaintance, and not till then pro- 
 ceed to such trivial familiarities as may establish 
 trustfulness between the two. As soon as the 
 steed's confidence is gained, he is all submission. 
 Then uncork the bottle, and, putting the left hand 
 
 General METHOn of administering "a Drink to a Horse. 
 gently under the quadruped's jaw, emptv with the 
 other the contents, gradually, through the inter- 
 space which divid'es the incisors from the molar 
 teeth. But the operator must be alone. No pain 
 must be inflicted ; no angry words employed ; no 
 violent or hasty action used to frighten the horse. 
 Should the animal be slow to swallow a nauseous 
 draught, he must not be scolded for a natural 
 
 
 Giving a Drink, according to the Quiet Method. 
 
 dislike ; but should be encouraged by kind and 
 cheerful accents, spoken as softly as though the 
 words were addressed to a sick child. 
 
 B/isters. — The use of blisters is founded upon a 
 maxim enunciated by the celebrated Dr. John 
 Hunter, that " two great inflammations cannot 
 exist in the same body at the same time." With 
 this view, stimulating acrimonious substances are 
 
 applied to the skin, to excite external inflamma- 
 tion, and to lessen or draw away inflammation in 
 some deeper-seated, and generally not far-distant, 
 part. Thus we blister the sides, in inflammation 
 of the lungs ; the belly in that of the bowels; the 
 legs in that of the cellular substance surrounding 
 the sheaths of the tendons, or the sheaths them- 
 selves ; and the coronet or the heel in inflamma- 
 tion of the navicular-jolnt. Mayhew, however, 
 teaches : " Let no man blister a horse's legs. 
 There is no motor agent situated in or near to 
 those parts. The shin, foot and pastern are 
 almost without muscles. There is nothing, 
 therefore, which could be freshened or rendered 
 more brisk. But these parts are susceptible of 
 the acutest agony. They are largely supplied 
 with purely sensitive nerves. Consequently, let 
 all gentlemen discharge the veterinary surgeon 
 who proposes to blister the legs of their horses." 
 He afso denounces Uie emplo)'ment of hot iron 
 on a horse, and declares that blisters, as usually 
 employed, are far too powerful. 
 
 Blisters have likewise the property of increas- 
 ing the activity of the neighboring vessels : thus 
 we blister to bring the tumor of strangles more 
 speedily to a head; we blister to rouse the ab- 
 sorbents to more energetic action, and take away 
 tumors, and callous and even bony substances. 
 The judgment of the practitioner will decide 
 when the desired effect will be best produced by 
 a sudden and violent action, or by a longer and 
 milder one. Inflammation should be met by 
 active blisters; old enlargements and swellings 
 will be most certainly removed by milder stimu" 
 lants — by the process which farriers call sweating 
 down. 
 
 There is no better blister ointment or active 
 blister than the Spanish fly, mi.xed with four 
 parts of lard and one of resin. The lard and the 
 resin should be melted together, and the pow- 
 dered flies afterward added. Perhaps the best 
 liquid or sweating blister is an infusion of the fly 
 in turpentine, and that lowered witli neat's-foot 
 oil according to the degree of activity required. 
 
 In preparing the horse for blistering, the hair 
 should be clipped or shaved as closely as possible, 
 and the ointment thoroughly rubbed in. Much 
 fault is often found with the ointment, if the 
 blister does not rise, when the real blame should 
 be attributed to the idleness of the operator. 
 The head of the horse must be tied up for the first 
 two days i except that when the sides are blistered, 
 the body-clothes may be so contrived as to pre- 
 vent the horse from nibbling and blemishing the 
 part, or blistering his muzzle. At the expiration 
 of twenty-four hours, a little olive or neat's-foot 
 oil may be applied over the blister, which will 
 considerably lessen the pain and soften the part, 
 and prevent cracks in the skin that may be diffi- 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 199 
 
 cult to heal. The oil should be applied morning 
 and night, until the scabs peel off. When they 
 begin to loosen, a lather of soap and water ap- 
 plied with a sponge may Hasten their removal; 
 but no violence must be used. All litter should 
 be carefully removed from the stall; 'for the 
 sharp ends of the straw, coming in contact with 
 a part rendered so tender and irritable by the 
 blister, will cause very great annoyance to the 
 animal. After the second day, the horse may be 
 suffered to lie down ; but still, the possibility of 
 blemishing himself should be prevented by a 
 cradle, or wooden necklace, consisting of round 
 strips of wood strung together, reaching from the 
 lower jaw to the chest, and preventing the horse 
 from sufficiently turning or bending his head to 
 get at the blistered part. 
 
 A blister thus treated will rarely produce the 
 slightest blemish. When the scabs are all re- 
 moved, the blister may be repeated, if the case 
 should appear to require it, or the horse may be 
 turned out. 
 
 In inflammations which threaten life, a blister 
 can scarcely be too active or too e.xtensive. In 
 inflammation of the lungs, it should reach over 
 the whole of the sides, and a greater part of the 
 brisket ; for should a portion of the fly be ab- 
 sorbed, and produce strangury (inflammation, or 
 spasmodic affection of the neck of the bladder), 
 even this new irritation may assist in subduing 
 the first and more dangerous one ; but in blister- 
 ing for injuries or diseases of the legs or feet, 
 caution is necessary. A blister never should be 
 .used while any heat or tenderness remains about 
 the part ; for we should then add to the super- 
 ficial inflammation, instead of abating the deeper- 
 seated one ; and enlargements of the limb and 
 ulcerations might follow, which would ruin the 
 horse. When there is a tendency to grease, a 
 blister is dangerous, and has often aggravated 
 the disease. In winter, the inflammation of the 
 skin produced by blistering is apt to degenerate 
 into grease; therefore, if it should be necessary 
 to blister the horse during that season, great care 
 must be taken that he is not exposed to cold, 
 and, particularly, that a current of cold air does 
 not come upon the legs. 
 
 Bleeding. — This practice was a few years ago as 
 general in the treatment of horses as of men. 
 Sheds full of horses used to be bled, each horse 
 in turn, on general principles: as the New Eng- 
 land mother a couple of generations &go and 
 Mrs. Squeers were wont to adminster " brimstone 
 and treacle," alias " sulphur and molasses," to 
 the children at stated times, not because anything 
 ailed them, but because the mess was "good for 
 the blood." The bleeding of human beings has 
 become nearly obsolete ; and that of lower ani- 
 mals is fast following suit. Still, high veterinary 
 
 authorities do not quite give it up. Mayhew 
 says : " Nevertheless it is possible that a timely 
 depletion may, upon certain occasions, save life." 
 Youatt has not a word against it. Another au- 
 thority : " Still, bleeding is valuable in cases of 
 congestion, when there is a full, strong pulse and 
 no weakness, but only in the first stage — never 
 when the temperature of the patient is abnor- 
 mally high and the system has become weak- 
 ened." 
 
 The instruments needed are a fleam, or horse- 
 lancet, and a pail. The pail may be a two-gallon 
 
 IFN AND SlUn 
 
 one, marked by 'ines into eight equal sections, 
 each section holding a quart. One or two quarts 
 is the limit of an ordinary bleeding. Authorities 
 tell of a " bloodstick," which is unnecessary, as 
 the fist is just as good. 
 
 For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected. 
 The horse is blindfolded on the side on which he 
 is to be bled, or bis head turned well away ; the 
 hair is smoothed along the course of the vein 
 with the moistened finger; then with the third 
 and little fingers of the left hand, which holds the 
 fleam, pressure is made on the vein sufficient to 
 
 ;\ 
 
 ~i. 
 
 
 V < / 
 
 Bleeding. 
 
 bring it fairly into view, but not to swell it too 
 much, for then, presenting a rounded surface, it 
 would be apt to roll or slip under the blow. The 
 point to be selected is about two inches below the 
 union of the two portions of the jugular at the 
 angle of the jaw. The fleam is to be placed in a 
 
200 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 direct line with the course of the vein, and over 
 the precise center of the vein, as close to it as 
 possible, but its point not absolutely touching the 
 vein. A sharp rap with tlie bloodstick (as in the 
 cut) or the hand on that part of the back of the 
 fleam immediately over the blade, will cut through 
 the vein, and the blood will flow. A fleam with 
 a large blade should always be preferred, for the 
 operation will be materially shortened, which will 
 be a matter of some consequence with a restive 
 horse; and a quantity of blood drawn speedily 
 will have far more effect on the system than 
 double the weight slowly taken ; while the wound 
 will heal just as readily as if made by a smaller 
 instrument. 
 
 When the blood begins to flow, it should be 
 received in the pail already mentioned, which is 
 
 Holding the Pail. 
 
 pressed against the horse's neck, thereby imped- 
 ing the downward stream within the vessel and 
 causing the blood to gush out. 
 
 When sufficient blood has been taken, remove 
 the pressure below the orifice and the outward 
 stream will cease. Then put a pin through each 
 side of the wound, and twist, after 
 the fashion of a figure of oo, some 
 tow or thread, or a hair pulled 
 from the horse's tail, round each 
 end. Subsequently remove so 
 much of the pin as may protrude, 
 and the orifice will be closed by 
 what surgeons denominate a twist- 
 TwisTED Suture, ed suture. The head of the horse 
 should be tied up for several hours, to prevent 
 his rubbing the part against the manger. In 
 bringing the edges of the wound together, and 
 introducing the pin, care should be taken not to 
 draw the skin too much from the neck, as blood 
 will insinuate itself between the skin and the 
 muscles beneath, and cause an unsightly and 
 sometimes troublesome swelling. Twenty-four 
 hours after the operation, the edges of the wound 
 will have united, and the pin should be with- 
 
 drawn. When the bleeding is to be repeated, if 
 more than thrle or four hours have elapsed, it 
 will be prudent to make a fresh incision rather 
 than to open the old wound. 
 
 OTHER METHODS OF TREATMENT. 
 
 As would naturally be expected, there are 
 various theories and systems of treating ailing 
 horses. Patent-medicine men have not neg- 
 lected him ; and offer unnumbered remedies as 
 certain speedily to relieve him of every possible 
 ailment, as are the countless nostrums certified 
 to be equally efficacious in the case of his human 
 brethren. Nor has Homeopathy overlooked him : 
 Siinitia Similibus Cura?t/iir offers its priceless 
 discoveries to dumb as well as to speaking ani- 
 mals; and a diminutive medicine-chest; with 
 numbered specifics, is heralded as sufficient for 
 the largest stable, with perhaps a call on the 
 Homeopathic practitioner in an extreme case. 
 
 The Turkish Bath. — David Urquhart, who was 
 mainly instrumental in the introduction of the 
 Turkish Bath into Western Europe, whence it 
 long ago emigrated to the United States, had 
 great faith in its benefits to lower animals, no- 
 tably horses and cattle, as well as to men. As 
 long ago as 1865 Dr. Sir John Fife compiled and 
 published from Mr. Urquhart's writings a book 
 entitled "Heat a Mode of Cure and Source of 
 Strength to Men ajid Animals." In this the 
 action of the Bath on a farm is described and 
 commended ; and many instances are given of 
 the wonderfully good results following its appli- 
 cation. His theory is, that the horse, who is 
 indigenous to high and cold regions, but never- 
 theless flourishes in hot and dry zones, should 
 not be housed and cuddled as if he were a sick 
 infant, but needs pure heat and cold. He says : 
 " A large portion of food is expended on the 
 production of animal heat. The smaller the 
 size of the animal, the larger is the surface in 
 proportion to its bulk, and therefore the greater 
 the escape of heat. A canary-bird in proportion 
 to its size and weight consumes many times as 
 much food as a man. Heat escapes far more 
 rapidly from the man than from the horse. The 
 effect, then, in the form of saving food, is for the 
 horse very considerable. It is thus that the 
 horse is enabled to inhabit the regions adjoining 
 the limits of eternal snow. Consequently heat, 
 externally applied to him, has so much greater 
 power than in man. In the cold regions of Tar- 
 tary, or the hot ones of Persia, Mesopotamia, the 
 Nedjd, or the African deserts, he is severally 
 brought to the highest perfection by heat or cold. 
 I look therefore to the Bath as capable of furnish- 
 ing a finer breed of horses than has as yet been 
 obtained." He denounces the currycomb as a 
 
HORSES AND THEIR MANAGEMENT. 
 
 201 
 
 Stupid and cruel instrument to remove the scurf- 
 skin, and claims that by the bath — 
 
 /ts Results. — "The slcin is cleansed far more 
 completely than by any other method of groom- 
 ing ; the system relieves itself, through the skin, 
 of every kind of impurity; the animal is enabled 
 to bear, with perfect impunity, the greatest alter- 
 nations of heat and cold ; the appetite, so fre- 
 quently a poor one in training, is increased, and 
 digestion promoted ; the lungs are brought into 
 Strong plav, without increased action of heart 
 and pulse;" etc. etc. 
 
 A friend tells of a visit he made to a farm near 
 Dublin, where the Turkish Bath was given once 
 a week to the horses and cattle, regularly, not 
 waiting for them to get out of order, but as a 
 tonic and preventive of sickness. The proprietor 
 said that he could tell by the appearance of his 
 Stock, if they had been deprived of this hygienic 
 appliance. 
 
 In the stables of the Third Avenue Railroad Com- 
 pany, New York, where some 2000 horses are 
 kept, a Turkish Bath was introduced early in 
 1882, and is still in successful operation. A re- 
 porter from the Times " interviewed" the Bath 
 and Dr. Hough, and we will freely borrow his 
 language. " A space about as large as si.\ or eight 
 ordinary stalls has been tightly inclosed, with 
 thick board walls, floor and ceiling. The floor is 
 covered with movable slats, and under these are 
 steam-pipes by which the temperature can be run 
 up to 100°, 1 50° or 200°, at the will of the operator. 
 In front of two of the stalls are small square 
 windows, each large enough for a horse to put 
 his head through. These windows can be closed 
 with board shutters, and they are all provided 
 with heavy curtains opening in the center. When 
 it is desirable to give a horse a very hot bath in a 
 room whose temperature must be higher than 
 the horse could breathe with comfort, the window 
 is opened, and the horse, with his body in the 
 bath, puts his head out into the cold air. The 
 curtains are then drawn tight about his neck, to 
 prevent the heat from escaping, and the horse 
 has all the luxury of a Turkish Bath without the 
 inconvenience of breathing the overheated air. 
 Horses requiring treatment are left in the bath 
 from twenty minutes to an hour, and are then 
 washed with tepid water and thoroughly scrubbed. 
 After being groomed till he shines like a new 
 sealskin sacque, a horse on coming out of the 
 bath is taken into the cooling-room and kept 
 there an hour or more, the temperature being 
 lowered gradually till it is the same as in the 
 body of the stable. When this point is reached, 
 the horse is ready to be taken back to his stall, 
 and is t© all intents a new animal. 
 
 Other Baths. — In these stables, out of the 2000 
 horses, there will be 50 to 100 ailing, and the 
 
 Russian and Electric baths are also employed. 
 In the Russian baths, the steam is let out of the 
 pipes into the room, till the atmosphere is wet 
 enough to bottle. Here the horses sometimes 
 rebel, but do not make any vigorous resistance. 
 Several horses, too sick to stand up, have been 
 treated. For their accommodation there is a 
 stout blanket, fastened to ropes running through 
 pulleys in the ceiling. The blanket is put under 
 the horse's body, the ropes are tightened, and he 
 takcL his bath swinging in a hammock. 
 
 Dr. Hough tells of one of the best horses in the 
 stable that had a very severe attack of pneumonia. 
 Her pulse was extremely liigh, and she had a 
 dangerous rattling in the bronchial tubes. He 
 put Her in the Russian bath, and kept her in 
 nearly all the afternoon, reducing the temperature 
 gradually. She perspired very freely, and when 
 she was taken out of the bath the rattling was 
 entirely gone. The next day the mare was much 
 better, and the bath was repeated. On the third 
 day she was given another bath, and when she 
 came out her pulse, respiration and temperature 
 were normal. At the end of a week she was en- 
 tirely well and was put to work. For pink-eye, 
 which is an aggravated form of influenza, with 
 bronchial troubles, the baths are very efficacious. 
 A horse was put in with his eyes entirely closed 
 and a heavy discharge of white mucus from eyes 
 and nostrils Or the day following the first 
 bath, the swelling was greatly reduced, and the 
 discharge had disappeared. Horses have also 
 been successfully treated for founder. 
 
 For strains, sprains and various other ailments, 
 electric baths are given. The horse to be treated 
 with electricity is put into the warm room and is 
 well rubbed down with' sponges attached to 
 electric wires. The animals do not quite know 
 what to make of the electric shock, but take 
 kindly to it after a little experience. 
 
 In every material point these baths are pre- 
 cisely similar to those provided for men and 
 women. The horses are heated to a high point, 
 deluged with water, thoroughly kneaded, slowly 
 cooled off, the batteries being capable of giving 
 a shock that could make any human being 
 " squirm." 
 
 A Cynic. — We asked a well-known trainer and 
 driver, "Do you ever bleed your horses?" "Never 
 bled a horse." " How do you manage when an 
 animal gets out of order.'" " If it is hot and has 
 fever, I blanket it heavily and sweat it off. 
 Otherwise I stop its feed and let it get well, as I 
 do in my own case." " Don't you call in a vet. .'" 
 "Sometimes, if I am sure the horse is going to 
 die, anyway." Of course, this trainer did not ex. 
 pect his words to be taken literally. But un- 
 doubtedly there is too much, rather than too 
 little, heroic treatment given to horses. 
 
302 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 MULES AND ASSES. 
 
 Asses* Milk 203 
 
 Ass, the 202 
 
 Bad Name, an undeserved 294 
 
 Breeding Mules 205 
 
 Curious Fancy, a 205 
 
 Darwin, See 202 
 
 Egypt and Syria, in 203 
 
 Fancy, a Curious 205 
 
 Feeding and Grooming 205 
 
 History, the Mule in 203 
 
 Hybridism 202 
 
 Illogical Order, an 202 
 
 Improvable, the Ass 202 
 
 Keep your Temper 205 
 
 Kickers, Natural 204 
 
 Longevity of the Mule 204 
 
 Milk, Asses' 203 
 
 Mule in History, the 203 
 
 Natural Kickers 304 
 
 Temper, keep your 205 
 
 Training Mules 205 
 
 Undeserved Bad Name, an 204 
 
 United States To-day, in the 204 
 
 Value, the Mule's Especial 204 
 
 Washington's Jacks 203 
 
 Why was it ? ao6 
 
 Wild Ass, the 203 
 
 An Illogical Order. — Assuredly these names are 
 not printed in logical order. But the United 
 States Census seems right in putting the Mule 
 before the Ass. For the latter animal, like the 
 drone among the bees, derives his value, not 
 from the farm use to which he can be personally 
 put, but from his power, in union with a female 
 not of his own lineage, of producing offspring 
 that shall in certain respects surpass either of 
 its parents. The mule, like the worker-bee, 
 again, is an alien to the joys and sorrows of 
 parentage, his, her or its line always ending with 
 him, her or it. And unlike the worker-bee, 
 there is no stage of existence where any change 
 of cell or stimulus of food can make of him other 
 than he is. To be sure, the mule is apparently 
 of one or the other gender ; but the appearance is 
 not a reality. 
 
 Hybridism. — The Latin word hybrida, or hibrida, 
 a hybrid or mongrel, is commonly derived from 
 a Greek word, Jiubros, an insult or outrage, with 
 special reference to lust. As a general rule, 
 plants and animals belonging to distinct species 
 are not able, when crossed with each other, to 
 produce offspring. There are, however, innume- 
 rable exceptions to this rule; and hybridism is 
 the word employed to denote those exceptions. 
 It is an abstract term which signifies the more 
 or less fertile crossing of distinct species. In 
 scientific usage the term " hybrid" is exclusively 
 reserved to denote the result of a fertile cross 
 between two distinct species, while the term 
 " mongrel " is the one which is exclusively re- 
 served to denote the result of a fertile cross 
 between two varieties of the same species. 
 
 See Darwin. — Of. late years the subject has 
 acquired a high degree of scientific interest in 
 relation to the theory of descent. On this 
 account it has been so carefully and thoroughly 
 treated by Mr. Charles Darwin, that any one 
 inclined and able to pursue this most interesting 
 line of investigation cannot do better than to study 
 his writings, and especially his two volumes, 
 Variations of Animals and Plants under Domes- 
 tication. The hybrid produced by the union of 
 the male ass, or jack, and the mare, is called a 
 
 mule (Latin muhts); while that produced by the 
 union of a stallion with a she-ass, or jenny, is 
 called a hinny (Latin Jiiimus). 
 
 The Ass. — The domestic ass, Asinus vulgaris, 
 differs chiefly from the horse in its smaller size, 
 in the presence of long hair, forming a tuft, only 
 at the extremity of the tail, and in the absence 
 of warts on its hind legs. Its fur, usually of a 
 gray color, is characteristically marked with a 
 longitudinal dorsal streak of a darker hue, with 
 a similar streak across the shoulders: but white 
 and black varieties also occur. The ass has been 
 from time immemorial under the dominion of 
 man, and it is doubtful whether the original wild 
 stock is anywhere to be found at the present 
 day, — the specimens that have been described as 
 wild being probably the descendants of indi- 
 viduals escaped from the domestic state. A wild 
 variety of ass {Asinus taniopus), found in Abys- 
 sinia, has the long acute ears and the bray pecu- 
 liar to the domestic kinds. It is said also to 
 have cross-bands on its legs, a feature occasion- 
 ally met with in our tame breeds; and this fact 
 has led Darwin and others to conclude that in 
 the wild ass of Abyssinia the original of the 
 domestic animal is to be found ; the stripes 
 which occasionally appear on the legs of the 
 latter being regarded as instances of reversion to 
 the ancestral type. The marked aversion of the 
 domestic ass to cross the smallest streamlet, an 
 aversion which it shares with the camel, and the 
 evident delight with which it rolls itself in the 
 dust, seem to point to arid deserts as its original 
 home. 
 
 The Ass Improvable. — That the ass possesses 
 qualities which, if developed by careful selection 
 and humane treatment, would make it a worthy 
 companion of the horse as the servant of man, is 
 seen in the two rare instances in which it has 
 received proper attention. In Southern Europe, 
 especially in Spain, Sicily and Malta, the ass is 
 carefully bred, and has been thus greatly im- 
 proved, a single animal sometimes bringing 
 $1000. In our own Southern States, where 
 mules are, as we have seen, greatly used, asses, 
 imported from the South of Europe, are reared 
 
MULES AND ASSES. 
 
 203 
 
 with scrupulous care, and with corresponding 
 results. But in the north of India, where it is 
 used by the lowest castes, the ass does not attain 
 a height greater than that of a Newfoundland 
 dog. 
 
 In Egypt and Syria. — It is, however, among the 
 southwestern nations of Asia and in Egypt that 
 the ass has received that attention usually be- 
 stowed in Great Britain and the United States 
 on the horse, and it is there to be seen in its 
 greatest perfection. The Arabs and Persians 
 know the pedigree of their asses, and by careful 
 selection and interbreeding they have formed 
 and perpetuated many useful races. Thus in 
 Syria, according to Darwin, there are four dis- 
 tinct breeds : " a light and graceful animal with 
 agreeable gait used by ladies, an Arab breed 
 reserved exclusively for the saddle, a stouter 
 animal used for plowing and various purposes, 
 and the large Damascus breed — with peculiarly 
 long body and legs." 
 
 The Wild Ass. — Tlie koulan, or wild ass {Asi'niis 
 onager), differs from the domestic species in its 
 shorter and more rounded ears, and in the 
 greater length and finer form of its limbs. Its 
 fur shows the dark streak along the back, but 
 the streak across the shoulders does not appear 
 to be a constant character. It is chiefly to be 
 met with in the plains of Mesopotamia, in Persia, 
 in Cutch, on the shores of the Indus, and in the 
 Punjab, congregating in herds under a leader, 
 and migrating southward on the approach of 
 winter. The adults are exceedingly shy, so that 
 it is difficult to get within rifle-range of them. 
 According to Layard, who had ample oppor- 
 tunity of observing them during his researches 
 around Nineveh, " they equal the gazelle in fleet- 
 ness, and to match them is a feat which only one 
 or two of the most celebrated mares have been 
 known to accomplish." In the same region, 
 over 2000 years ago, Xenophon, during the 
 famous expedition of Cyrus, observed herds of 
 wild asses so " fleet that the horsemen could only 
 take them by dividing themselves into relays. 
 and succeeding one another in the chase." They 
 are hunted chieflv by the Arabs and Persians, by 
 whom their flesh is esteemed a delicacy. Their 
 food, according to Dr. Shaw, consists mainly of 
 saline or bitter and lactescent plants ; they are 
 also fond of salt or brackish water. 
 
 Asses' ifi/k. — The milk of the ass, containing 
 more sugar and less caseine than that of the 
 cow, chiefly resembles woman's milk, and has 
 long been valued as a nutritious diet where the 
 digestive organs are weak. Its usefulness in 
 cases of consumption has been long known, and 
 it was often prescribed as a sort of specific when 
 that disease was treated on principles verv differ- 
 ent from those which regulate. its treatment now. 
 
 and when very nutritious food was not usually 
 
 prescribed for consumptive patients. 
 
 The sexual power of both the jack and the 
 jenny is great. In each of the hybrids produced 
 by the union of ass and horse, the ass nature 
 predominates. The mule is an ass modified by 
 the strain of a horse, and brays like its sire. 
 
 liVas/iington's Jacks. — Gen. Washington received 
 as a present some Spanish jacks, of which Mr. 
 Custis has written ; 
 
 "The Royal Gift and Knight of Malta were 
 sent to Gen. Washington about the year 1787 — 
 the Gift with a jennet, a present from the King 
 of Spain ; and said to have been selected from 
 the royal stud. The Knight, I believe, was from 
 the Marquis de Lafayette, and shipped from 
 Marseilles. The Gift was a huge and ill-shapen 
 jack, near sixteen hands high, very large head, 
 clumsy limbs, and to all appearance little calcu- 
 lated for active service ; he was of a gray color, 
 probably not young when imported, and died at 
 Mount Vernon but little valued for his mules, 
 which were unwieldy and dull. The Knight was 
 of a moderate size, clean-limbed, great activity, 
 the fire and ferocity of a tiger, a dark brown, 
 nearly black color, white belly and muzzle; 
 could only be managed by one groom, and that 
 always at considerable personal risk. He lived 
 to a great age, and was so infirm toward the last 
 as to require lifting. His mules were all active, 
 spirited and serviceable; and from stout mares 
 attained considerable size. 
 
 " Gen. Washington bred a favorite jack called 
 CotnpoHtid, from the cross of Spanish and Mal- 
 tese — the Knight upon the imported Spanish 
 Jennet. This jack was a very superior animal: 
 very long-bodied, well set, with all the qualities 
 of the Knight and the weight of the Spanish. 
 He was the sire of some of the finest mules at 
 Mount Vernon, and died from accident. The 
 General bred mules from the best of his coach 
 mares, and found the value of the mule to bear 
 a just proportion to the value of the dam. Four 
 mules sold, at the sale of his effects, for upward 
 of $800 ; and two more pairs at upward of $400 
 each pair ; one pair of those mules were nearly 
 sixteen hands high. From these jacks a com- 
 pound breed were produced, that when bred to 
 large mares, were unexcelled for size and ac- 
 tivity." 
 
 The Mule in History. — The Levitical law pre- 
 scribed : " Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender 
 with a diverse kind." But as through the Old 
 Testament are scattered allusions to the presence 
 of mules, back to the 35th chapter of Genesis, 
 where we read of " Anah that found the mules 
 in the wilderness, as he fed the asses of Zibeon 
 his father ;" it seems plain, either that this Leviti- 
 cal precept was not as old as Anah, that the 
 
204 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 seed of Abraham disregarded it. or that them- 
 selves not violating the rule, they got hold of 
 mules bred by men who were not "under the 
 law." So that at a very early period, judging 
 from sacred history, the crossing of the ass and 
 the horse must have been practiced. Mules are 
 mentioned also in profane history, having been 
 introduced in chariot-races five centuries before 
 Christ. Pliny records that a Roman senator 
 paid 400.000 sesterces (about $10,000) for one; 
 and that the best she-asses were worth a like 
 sum, to breed sires from. In ancient times the 
 sons of kings rode on mules, and they were 
 yoked in chariots. 
 
 In the United States To-day. — It is sometimes as- 
 serted that since the abolition of slavery, the 
 mule industry has languished. But a glance at 
 the census of mules and asses exhibited in the 
 Table on p. 207, will show that although this 
 statement seemed justified by the census of 1870, 
 that of 1880 negatived it. The number 559,331 
 in 1850 rose to 1,151,148 in i860, or about doubled, 
 and fell back to 1,125,415 in 1870. But in the 
 great revival of industry and business in the ex- 
 slave States which set in about 1876, this depart- 
 ment shared ; and the number of mules and 
 asses had again risen in 1880 to 1,812,808. The 
 common impression that the mule's usefulness is 
 to be found south of 40° of latitude, is borne out 
 by the facts as recorded in the Tenth Census ; 
 where of the 1,812,808, only about 100,000 are 
 found in States north of that parallel. It is not 
 improbable that the next census may show a 
 still greater proportionate increase in the number 
 of these comparatively humble helpers. The 
 Poiteau ass is the one which stands in the high- 
 est estimation for mule-production. 
 
 The Mule's Longevity. — One of the stock maxims 
 said to be derived from the experience of the 
 civil war, is that " mules never died." That 
 may do as a figure of speech to rank with the 
 nine lives of a cat. In a record kept of Mules 
 Received, Died, and Shot, at the Depot in Wash- 
 ington, D. C, for about three years beginning 
 with February 1863, out of 119,968 received, 
 2733 were reported as having died, and 3931 as 
 having been shot ; and as often the same animals 
 must have gone out and come back, the 120,000 
 is probably greatly in excess of the number of 
 animals. But there seems no doubt that the 
 average longevity of a mule largely exceeds that 
 of a horse. 
 
 His Especial Value. — In addition to the much 
 longer period for which the labor of a mule may 
 be used, there are other peculiarities in which 
 he excels the horse. In intense heat the mule 
 will stretch himself out and bask in the sun, 
 where a horse would need and seek shelter. He 
 is not of so sensitive a nature as the horse, and 
 
 will bear pain, or at least what we suppose wilt 
 produce pain, without showing it in lameness. 
 This same lack of sensitiveness also enables the 
 mule to keep about his business, where a horse 
 will fret, take fright, and try to run. Nor is the 
 mule liable to contract the habit of running 
 away, as the horse may. He will get frightened, 
 and he will run away, but he will not lose all his 
 senses as the horse does. " Bring a mule back 
 after he has run away, and in most cases he will 
 not want to do it again. Their sluggish nature 
 does not incline them to such tricks." 
 
 Natural Kickers. — However a mule may be bred, 
 as soon as he can stand up, if you put your 
 hand on him, he will kick. It is his natural 
 means of defense, and he resorts to it through 
 sheer instinct. Riley says '• they will all kick, 
 especially if well fed and rested. And we can ex- 
 cuse even this vice in consideration of the fact 
 that the mule is not a natural animal, but only 
 an invention of man. Some persons are inclined 
 to think that, when a mule is a kicker, he has not 
 been properly broken. I doubt if you can break 
 a mule so that he will not kick a stranger at 
 sight, especially if he be under six years old. The 
 only way to keep a mule from kicking you is to 
 handle it a great deal when young, and accustom 
 it to the ways and actions of men. You must 
 through kindness convince it that you are not 
 going to harm or abuse it; and you can do that 
 best by taking hold of it in a gentle manner every 
 time it appears to be frightened. Such treatment 
 I have always found more effective than all the 
 beating and bruising you can apply." 
 
 A Bad Name, Undeserved. — The notion that a 
 mule is not totally depraved, and that he will an- 
 swer to humane treatment and kindness, will 
 probably provoke an incredulous smile in the 
 average reader. Nevertheless, the idea of his in- 
 nate and ineradicable viciousness is only one of 
 the hallucinations which hang around the mule. 
 On the average, according to all intelligent and 
 instructed testimony, he will treat you very much 
 as you treat him. We cannot do better than to 
 quote again from " T/w Mule : a Treatise on the 
 Breeding, Training and Uses to which he may 
 be put. By Harvey Riley, Superintendent of the 
 Government Corral, Washington, D. C. New 
 York: Dick & Fitzgerald," — a book full of in- 
 terest and instruction, written by a gentleman 
 whose opportunities for acquaintance have been 
 exceptionally good, and as exceptionally well 
 used. He says : 
 
 " Probably no animal has been the subject of 
 more cruel and brutal treatment than the mule, 
 and it is safe to say that no animal ever per- 
 formed his part better, not even the horse. In 
 breaking the mule, most persons are apt to get 
 out of patience with him. I have got out of pa- 
 
MULKS AND ASSES. 
 
 205 
 
 tience with him myself. But patience is the 
 great essential in brealving, and in the use of it 
 you will find that you will get along much better. 
 The mule is an unnatural animal, and hence more 
 timid of man than the horse ; and yet he is trac- 
 table, and capable of being taught to understand 
 what you want him to do. And when he under- 
 stands what you want, and has gained your con- 
 fidence, you will, if you treat him kindly, have 
 little trouble in making him perform his duty." 
 And again : " He is, 1 admit, what may be called 
 a tricky animal ; for experiment's sake, just play 
 one or two tricks with him, and he will show you 
 by his action that he understands them well. In- 
 deed, he knows a great deal more than he gene- 
 rally gets credit for, and few animals are more 
 capable of appreciating proper treatment." 
 
 A Curious Fancy.-rMr. Riley: " Mules of all 
 kinds seem to have a peculiar fancy for white 
 mares and horses, and when this attachment is 
 once formed, it is almost impossible to separate 
 them. If you want to drive a herd of 500 mules 
 any distance, turn a white or gray mare in among 
 them for two or three days, and they will become 
 so attached to her that you may turn them out, 
 and they will follow her anywhere. Just let a 
 man lead the mare, and with two men mounted 
 you can manage the whole herd almost as well 
 as if they were in a team. Another way to lead 
 mules is to put a bell on the mare's neck. The 
 mules will listen for that bell like a lot of school- 
 children, and will follow its tinkling with the 
 same instinct." 
 
 Breeding, — The same author disagrees with 
 much of the usual advice about the selection of 
 mares from which to get mules. He does not 
 favor large animals, either dam or offspring: 
 " Of all the number we had in the army, I never 
 saw six of these large, overgrown mules that 
 were of much service. Indeed, I have yet to see 
 the value in any animal that runs or rushes to 
 an overgrowth. The same is true with man, 
 beast or vegetable. I will get the average size 
 of either of them, and you will acknowledge the 
 superiority. The only advantage large mares may 
 give to the mule is in the size of the feet and 
 bone that they may impart. The heavier you can 
 get the bone and feet, the better. And yet you 
 can rarely get even this, for the mare, in nineteen 
 cases out of twenty, breeds closely after the 
 jack, more especially in the feet and legs. It 
 makes little difference how you cross mares and 
 jacks, the result is almost certain to be a horse's 
 body; jack's legs and feet, a jack's ears, and, 
 in most cases, a jack's marks." He prefers to 
 breed from sound, serviceable, compact and 
 spirited mares. And yet, apropos of the last 
 adjective he says : " I have seen frequent in- 
 stances where one of the very best jacks in the 
 
 country had been put to mares of good quality 
 and spirit. Putting them to such contemptible 
 animals seemed to degrade them, to destroy their 
 natural will and temper. The result was a sort 
 of bastard mule, a small-legged, small-footed 
 cowardly animal, inheriting all the vices of the 
 mule and none of the horse's virtues — the very 
 meanest of his kind." This looks as though the 
 mare felt the force of what the Greek root of the 
 word Hybridism expresses. 
 
 Training. — Here the same general principles 
 apply as in the training of the horse. At an 
 early age confidence must be established between 
 the man and the animal, and the latter be shown 
 and led to do what is required of him. In either 
 case the pupil must learn obedience, and that 
 obedience must be enforced. The whip will 
 hardly be more necessary with the young mule 
 than with the young horse, and is in either case 
 as much as possible to be avoided. " When the 
 colt is six months old, put a halter on him and 
 let the strap hang loose. Let your strap be about 
 four feet long, so that it will drag on the ground. 
 The animal will soon accustom himself to this; 
 and when he has, take up the end and lead him 
 to the place where you have been accustomed to 
 feed him. This will make him familiar with you, 
 and increase his confidence. Handle his ears at 
 tildes, but don't squeeze them, for the ear is the 
 most sensitive part of this animal. As soon as he 
 lets you handle his ears familiarly, put a loose 
 bridle on him. Put it on and take it off fre- 
 quently. In this way you will secure the colt's 
 confidence, and he will retain it until you need 
 him for work." 
 
 Keep your Temper. — " Don't fight or abuse him. 
 After you have harnessed him, and he proves to 
 be refractory, keep your own temper, slack your 
 reins, push him round, backward and forward, 
 not roughly ; and if he will not go, and do what 
 you want, tie him to a post and let him stand 
 there a day or so without food or water. Take 
 care, also, that he does not lie down, and be 
 careful to have a person to guard him, so that he 
 does not foul in the harness. If he will not go, 
 after a day or two of this sort of treatment, give 
 him one or two more of it, and my word for it, he 
 will come to his senses and do anything you want 
 from that time forward." 
 
 Feecfing and Grooming. — "The mule, properly 
 taken care of, requires nearly as much forage as 
 the horse, and should be groomed and cared for 
 just the same. . . . When I find animals in the 
 Government possession, that cannot eat the 
 amount necessary to sustain them and give them 
 proper strength, I invariably throw them out, to 
 be nursed until they will eat their rations. Ani- 
 mals, to be kept in good condition, and fit for 
 proper service, should eat their ten and twelve 
 
206 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 quarts of grain per head per day, with hay in 
 proportion — say, twelve pounds." 
 
 A Conundrum. — Although we have borrowed so 
 freely from Mr. Riley's book, two more of his 
 paragraphs cannot be spared : " The mule seems 
 to have been used by the ancients in a great 
 variety of ways ; but what should have prompted 
 his production must lorever remain a mystery. 
 That they early discovered his great usefulness in 
 making long journeys, climbing mountains, and 
 crossing deserts of burning sand, when subsis- 
 tence and water were scarce, and horses would 
 have perished, is well established. That he would 
 soon recover from the severe effects of these long 
 and trying journeys must also have been of great 
 value in their eyes. But however much they 
 valued him for his usefulness, they seem not to 
 have had the slightest veneTation for him, as they 
 had for some other animals. I am led to believe, 
 then, that it was his great usefulness in crossing 
 the sandy deserts that led to his production. It 
 is a proof, also, that where the ass was at hand 
 there was also the horse, or the mule could not 
 have been produced. Any people with sufficient 
 knowledge to produce the mule would also have 
 had sufficient knowledge to discover the differ- 
 ence between him and the horse, and would have 
 given the preference to the horse in all service 
 except that I have just described. And yet, in 
 the early history of the world, we find men of 
 rank, and even rulers, using them on state and 
 similar occasions ; and this when it might have 
 been supposed that the horse, being the nobler 
 animal, would have made more display. 
 
 Why was it? — "The Scriptures tell us that 
 Absalom, when he led the rebel hosts against his 
 father David, rode on a mule, that he rode under 
 an oak, and hung himself by the hair of his head. 
 Then, again, we hear of the mule at the inaugu- 
 ration of King Solomon. It is but reasonable to 
 suppose that the horse would have been used on 
 that great occasion, had he been present. On the 
 other hand, it is not reasonable to suppose that 
 the ass, or anything pertaining to him, was held 
 in high esteem by a nation that believed they 
 were commanded by God, through their prophet 
 Moses, not to work the ox and the ass together. 
 It must be inferred from this that the ass was not 
 held in very high esteem, and that the prohibition 
 was for the purpose of not degrading the ox, he 
 being of that family of which the perfect males 
 were used for sacrifice. The ass, of course, was 
 never allowed to appear on the sacred altar. And 
 yet He who came to save our fallen race, and open 
 the gates of heaven, and fulfill the words of the 
 prophet, rode a female of this apparently de- 
 graded race of animals when he made his 
 triumphal march into the city of the temple of 
 the living God." 
 
 On the opposite page is a table showing the 
 mule industry the last three decades. 
 
 Horses. — The number of horses has risen from 
 4,336,719 in 1850 to 10,357,488 in 1880: a gain of 
 6,020,769, or more than 143 per cent, in the thirty 
 years. In 1850 Ohio headed the list with 463,397; 
 in i860, Ohio again, with 625,346; in 1870 Illi- 
 nois had gone to the front with 853,738 ; and at 
 the front she remained in 1880 with 1,023,082. It 
 is a curious commentary on the old fear that 
 railways would destroy the market for horses, 
 that their number has most increased where 
 railways have been most developed. 
 
 In five of the old slave States, the equine popu- 
 lation diminished in the thirty years. Alabama 
 fell from 138,001 in 185010 1 13,950 in 1880, a loss of 
 14,051 ; Georgia fell from 151,331 to 98,520, a loss 
 of 52,811 ; Mississippi fell from 11 5,460 to 112,309, 
 a loss of 3151 ; North Carolina fell from 148,693 
 to 133,686, a loss of 5007; South Carolina fell 
 from 97.171 to 60,660, a loss of 36,511 ; and Ten- 
 nessee fell from 270,636 to 266,1 19, a loss of 4517. 
 But in each of these States the gain in mules and 
 asses more than makes up the loss in horses. In 
 these six States there were returned in 1850, 
 horses 911,292, mules and asses 309,866, toge- 
 ther 1,221,158 ; and in 1880, horses 785,244, mules 
 and asses 705,311, together 1,490,555: a net gain 
 in the two classes taken together of 269,397. 
 
 In 1850 there were returned, horses 4,336,719, 
 mules and asses 559,331, together 4,896,050, to a 
 population of 23,191,876, or an animal of equine 
 parentage to each 4S inhabitants. In 1880, 
 horses 10,357,488, mules and asses 1,812,808, 
 together 12,170,296, to a population of 50,155,783, 
 or an animal to each 4^ inhabitants, notwith- 
 standing that the miles of railroad had increased 
 in the thirty years from 9021 in 1850 to 93,671 in 
 18S0. 
 
 It would be interesting and instructive to learn 
 the average value of each animal in 1850 and in 
 1880. Undoubtedly the common horse of to-day 
 is a great deal better animal, and will sell for 
 much more money, than his predecessor a human 
 generation ago. Probably that increase is one 
 third to one half. The deep and widespread in- 
 terest in running and trotting for their own 
 sakes, as well as the efforts purposely made to 
 improve horse stock, have borne large and grati- 
 fying fruit. 
 
 Mules and Asses. — The number of these animals, 
 taken by themselves, has risen from 559,331 in 
 1850 to 1,812,808 in 1880, a gain of 1,253,477, or 
 about 224 per cent, in the thirty years. In 1850- 
 Tennessee headed the list with 75,303 ; in i860, 
 Tennessee again, with 126,345 ; in 1870, Missouri, 
 with 111,503; and in 1880 Missouri still led with 
 192,027. Of the States each possessing more 
 than 100,000 mules and their fathers in 1880, 
 
MULES AND ASGES. 
 
 20T 
 
 TABLE 
 
 Showing the number of Horses, and of Mules and Asses, in the United States and Territories, ac- 
 cording to the Seventli, Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Census; with the area in square miles, and 
 the total population of each State and Territory, according to the Tenth Census. 
 
 States and 
 Territories, 
 
 1880. 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 
 Mules 
 
 and 
 
 Asses. 
 
 1870. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Mules 
 
 and 
 Asses. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Mules 
 
 and 
 Asses. 
 
 1850. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Mules 
 
 and 
 Asses. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Dakota 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Ma-=%achusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota. . „ 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 Nortn Carolina 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas. 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 States and Territories 
 
 51,540 
 112,920 
 53.°4S 
 155,980 
 103.645 
 
 4,845 
 147,700 
 
 1,960 
 60 
 54,240 
 58,980 
 84,290 
 56,000 
 35,91° 
 55,475 
 81,700 
 40,000 
 45,420 
 29,895 
 
 9,860 
 
 8,040 
 57,430 
 79,205 
 46.340 
 68,735 
 ■45,310 
 76,185 
 109,740 
 
 9,005 
 
 7,455 
 122,460 
 47,620 
 48,580 
 40,760 
 94,560 
 44,985 
 
 1,085 
 30,170 
 41,750 
 262,290 
 82,190 
 
 9,'35 
 40,125 
 66,880 
 24,645 
 54,450 
 97,575 
 
 1,262,505 
 
 40,440 
 
 802,525 
 
 864,694 
 
 ■94.327 
 
 622,700 
 
 ■3S,ii7 
 
 146,608 
 
 ■77,624 
 
 269,493 
 
 1.542,180 
 
 32,610 
 
 3,077.87> 
 
 1,978,301 
 
 1,624,615 
 
 996,096 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 939,946 
 
 64S.936 
 
 934,943 
 
 1,783,085 
 
 1,636,937 
 
 7S9.773 
 
 ■.>3i,597 
 
 3,168,380 
 
 39.159 
 
 452,402 
 
 62,266 
 
 346,991 
 
 1,131,116 
 
 ■19.565 
 
 5,082,071 
 
 ■.399.750 
 
 3,i98.c52 
 
 174,768 
 
 4,282.89: 
 
 276,53' 
 
 995,577 
 
 ',542,359 
 
 ■,59'. 749 
 
 143,963 
 
 332.286 
 
 ■.512,565 
 
 75."6 
 
 618,457 
 
 ',3i5.497 
 
 20,789 
 
 "■3,950 
 6,798 
 ■46,333 
 237,7'o 
 42,257 
 44,940 
 41,670 
 
 21.933 
 
 1,027 
 
 22,636 
 
 98,529 
 
 24,300 
 
 1,023,082 
 
 581,444 
 
 792,322 
 
 430,907 
 
 372,648 
 
 104,428 
 
 87,848 
 
 "7,796 
 
 59,629 
 
 378.778 
 
 257,282 
 
 ■ 112,309 
 
 667,776 
 
 35,"4 
 
 204,864 
 
 32,087 
 
 46,773 
 
 86,940 
 
 '4,547 
 
 610,358 
 
 133,686 
 
 736,478 
 
 124,007 
 
 533,587 
 9,661 
 
 60,660 
 266,119 
 805,606 
 
 38.131 
 
 75.215 
 218,838 
 
 45,848 
 126,143 
 352,428 
 
 ■■•975 
 
 121,081 
 
 891 
 
 87,082 
 
 28,343 
 
 2,581 
 
 539 
 
 2,703 
 
 3.93' 
 
 68 
 
 9,606 
 
 ■32,078 
 
 610 
 
 123,278 
 
 51,780 
 
 44,424 
 
 64,869 
 
 ■■6,'53 
 
 76,674 
 
 298 
 
 12,561 
 
 243 
 
 5,083 
 
 9,019 
 
 ■29.778 
 
 192,027 
 
 858 
 
 '9,099 
 
 1,258 
 
 87 
 
 9.267 
 
 9,063 
 
 5,072 
 
 81,871 
 
 ■9,481 
 
 2,804 
 
 22,914 
 
 46 
 
 67,005 
 
 173,498 
 
 '32,447 
 
 2.898 
 
 283 
 
 33.598 
 
 626 
 
 6,226 
 
 7.'36 
 
 671 
 
 80,770 
 
 335 
 
 92,013 
 
 192,273 
 
 6,446 
 
 34,935 
 
 2,5'4 
 
 ■6,770 
 
 533 
 
 11,902 
 
 81,777 
 
 2,151 
 
 853.738 
 
 497,883 
 
 433.642 
 
 117,786 
 
 3'7.034 
 
 59.738 
 
 7'.5'4 
 
 89,696 
 
 4 ',039 
 
 228,302 
 
 93,011 
 
 90,221 
 
 493.969 
 5,289 
 
 30,5" 
 7,520 
 
 39.095 
 379.708 
 5,033 
 536,861 
 102,763 
 609,722 
 
 51,702 
 
 460,339 
 
 7,770 
 
 44, '05 
 247,254 
 424.504 
 
 11,008 
 
 65,015 
 152,899 
 
 11,138 
 
 90.479 
 252,019 
 
 584 
 
 76,675 
 
 401 
 
 36,202 
 
 '7.533 
 
 ','73 
 
 190 
 
 2^5 
 
 3.584 
 
 124 
 
 8,835 
 
 87,426 
 
 371 
 
 85.075 
 
 43.259 
 
 25,485 
 
 11,786 
 
 99,230 
 
 61,338 
 
 336 
 
 9,830 
 
 103 
 
 2,353 
 
 2.350 
 
 85,886 
 
 111,502 
 
 475 
 
 2,632 
 
 990 
 
 37 
 
 8,853 
 
 6,141 
 
 4.407 
 
 50,684 
 
 16.065 
 
 2,581 
 
 18,009 
 
 43 
 
 4^,327 
 
 102,983 
 
 61,322 
 
 2,879 
 
 252 
 
 26,903 
 
 943 
 
 2.'39 
 
 4.'95 
 
 127,063 
 
 140,198 
 160,610 
 
 33.276 
 
 84 
 
 16,562 
 
 641 
 
 ■3.446 
 
 ■30.77' 
 
 563.736 
 520,677 
 175,088 
 20,344 
 355.704 
 78,703 
 60,537 
 93.406 
 47.786 
 ■ 36,917 
 17,065 
 "7,57' 
 361,874 
 
 4,449 
 
 541 
 
 41,101 
 
 79,707 
 
 10,066 
 
 503,725 
 
 150,661 
 
 625,346 
 
 36,772 
 
 437.654 
 
 7,121 
 
 81.125 
 
 290,882 
 
 325,698 
 
 4,50s 
 
 69,071 
 
 287,579 
 
 4.772 
 
 "6,180 
 
 111,687 
 
 "57,358 
 3,681 
 
 '9 
 
 2,294 
 
 122 
 
 10,910 
 
 101,069 
 
 38,539 
 
 28,893 
 
 5,734 
 
 1,496 
 
 "7,634 
 
 91,762 
 
 104 
 
 9.829 
 
 108 
 
 330 
 
 377 
 
 "0,723 
 
 80,941 
 
 469 
 
 ■34 
 
 10 
 
 6,362 
 
 ■ 1,291 
 
 1.553 
 
 5 ■.388 
 
 7.'94 
 
 980 
 
 8,832 
 
 10 
 
 56,456 
 
 126,345 
 
 63,334 
 851 
 
 43 
 
 41,015 
 
 '59 
 
 1,030 
 
 138,001 
 
 60,197 
 21,719 
 
 26,879 
 
 ■3,852 
 
 824 
 
 10,848 
 
 '5'.33i 
 
 357,651 
 
 3 '4, 299 
 
 38,536 
 
 3"5,682 
 89.5'4 
 4'.7=' 
 75,684 
 42,216 
 58,506 
 860 
 115,460 
 225,319 
 
 34,233 
 
 63.955 
 
 5.079 
 
 447,014 
 
 148,693 
 
 463.397 
 
 8,046 
 
 359.398 
 
 6,168 
 
 97, '7' 
 270,636 
 
 76,760 
 2,429 
 
 61,057 
 272,403 
 
 59.895 
 
 ■■.559 
 1,666 
 
 49 
 
 79> 
 
 57 
 
 5.00a 
 
 57.379 
 
 10.573 
 
 6,599 
 
 754 
 
 65,609 
 
 44,849 
 
 55 
 
 5,644 
 
 34 
 
 70 
 
 '4 
 
 54,547 
 
 4', 667 
 
 ■9 
 
 4,089 
 
 8,6S4 
 
 963 
 
 25,259 
 
 3.42J 
 
 420 
 
 2.259 
 
 1 
 
 37.483 
 
 75.303 
 
 ■2,463 
 
 32s 
 
 21S 
 
 21,483 
 
 156 
 
 2,900,170 
 
 30,155,783 ■0,357. 
 
 1,812,808 
 
 7.^45.370 1,125,415 6,249,174 
 
 1,151,148 
 
 4.336,7^9 
 
 Alabama had 121,081 ; Georgia, 132,078; Illinois, 
 123,278; Kentucky, 116,153; Mississippi, 129,778; 
 Missouri, as above, 192,027 ; Tennessee, 173,498; 
 and Texas, 132,447. These eight States own 
 1,120,340, or nearly two thirds of the whole. So 
 that the percentage of increase has been greater 
 
 among mules and asses than among their proud- 
 er and more aristocratic brethren, the " straight" 
 horses. 
 
 Looking at Rhode Island in the year 1850, 
 one is irresistibly tempted to ask, What was his 
 name? 
 
208 
 
 THK FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 TROTTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 American Trotting 20S 
 
 Beginning of Trots 209 
 
 Breeding Trotters 209 
 
 Converting Pacers 211 
 
 Great Trotting Families 209 
 
 Horse-Racing 208 
 
 King or Queen of the Turf 210 
 
 Market for Trotters 211 
 
 Maud S 210 
 
 National Trotting Associatioa 210 
 
 Not all Prizes an 
 
 ''Records" 210 
 
 Rysdyk's Harabletonian 211 
 
 Size of Purses 210 
 
 Track Requirements 209 
 
 "^^i 
 
 ~^?^=^|l 
 
 Maud S. Record, August ii, i83i, a.ic^, 
 
 Horse-Racing. — This has been practiced from 
 very early times. In the Iliad the various in- 
 cidents of the chariot race at the funeral games 
 held in honor of Patroclus are detailed with great 
 vividness. And in all history, races are referred 
 to. In England they have attained the character 
 of national institutions ; and the St. Leger, Derby 
 and Oaks, Ascot, Goodwood, Epsom and New- 
 market, are practically recognized as integral, 
 parts of the British constitution, and in their 
 honor Parliament adjourns, to allow its honorable 
 members opportunity to attend, as systematically 
 as our Congress adjourns over the Christmas holi- 
 days. But the word Racing still keeps up its 
 original meaning, the speeding of horses in the 
 way of running ; and. in America, other words 
 have to be employed when the contest is one of 
 any other motion. 
 
 American Trotting. — We borrow freely from an 
 article in the Encyclopadia Britannica, written 
 by W. T. Chester, Esq., of New York. The de- 
 velopment of speed in the trotting horse through 
 systematic breeding and training is one of the 
 great industries of North America, and in no 
 other portion of the world, except in Russia, is it, 
 pursued to any great extent. This interest, which 
 has attained vast proportions, is entirely the 
 growth of a centurj', dating back to the importa- 
 tion to Philadelphia from England, in 1788, of. 
 the thorough-bred horse Messenger. This was 
 a gray stallion, by Mambrino, i.st dam by Turf, 
 2d dam by Regulus, 3d dam by Starling, 4th dam 
 by Fo.x. 5th dam Gipsy, by Bay Bolton, 6th dam 
 by Duke of Newcastle's Turk, 7th dam by Byerly 
 Turk, 8th dam by TafTolet Barb, 9th dam by 
 Peace's White Turk. He was eight years old 
 
TROTTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 209 
 
 when imported into the United States. He was 
 at the stud for twenty years, in the vicinity of 
 Philadelphia and New York, serving a number of 
 thorough-bred mares, but a far greater number 
 of cold-blooded mares, and in the progeny of the 
 latter the trotting instinct was almost invariably 
 developed, while his thorough-bred sons, who 
 became scattered over the country, were also 
 noted for transmitting the trotting instinct. That 
 Messenger was the fountain-head of American 
 trotting is shown by the fact that almost every 
 trotter of merit, whose pedigree is reasonably well 
 established, traces to him in one or more lines, 
 and the more Messenger strains there are in a 
 pedigree the greater is esteemed its value. It 
 was years after the death of Messenger, how- 
 ever, before these facts became apparent ; the 
 taste of the country went to running contests. 
 
 Beginning of Trotting. — The first public trotting 
 race in the United States of which there is any 
 account was in i8r8, when the gray gelding 
 Boston Blue was matched to trot a mile in 3 
 minutes, a feat deemed impossible, but he won, 
 though the time of his performance has not been 
 preserved. From about that date interest in 
 this gait began to increase ; breeders of trotters 
 in a small way sprang up, and horses were 
 trained for trotting contests. The problem of 
 breeding trotters has been necessarily found to 
 be a much more complex one than that of breed- 
 ing the thorough-bred, as in the latter case pure 
 blood lines of long-recognized value could be 
 relied on, while in the former, the best results 
 were constantly being obtained from most unex- 
 pected sources. 
 
 Great Trotting Families. — At the present day, the 
 leading families are the Hambletonian, of which 
 the modern head was Rysdyk's Hambletonian, a 
 bay horse foaled in 1849. got by Abdallah (traced 
 to imported Messenger on the side of both sire 
 and dam) out of the Charles Kent mare by imp. 
 Bellfounder, with two crosses to imp. Messenger 
 on her dam's side ; the Mambrinoes, whose mo- 
 dern head was Mambrino Chief, foaled 1844, 
 by Mambrino Paymaster, a grandson of imp. 
 Messenger ; the Bashaws, founded by Young 
 Bashaw, foaled 1822, by Grand Bashaw, an Ara- 
 bian horse, dam Pearl, by First Consul ; the 
 Clays, springing from Henry Clay, a grandson of 
 Young Bashaw through Andrew Jackson, and 
 properly a branch of the Bashaw family, but ar- 
 bitrary usage, of which there is much in Ameri- 
 can trotting lineage, makes them distinct ; the 
 Stars, springing from Stockholm's American 
 Star, by Duroc, son of imp. Diomed ; the Mor- 
 gans, whose founder was Justin Morgan, foaled 
 1793. by a horse called True Briton, or Beautiful 
 Bay, who was probably thorough-bred ; the 
 Black Hawks, a branch of the Morgan family ; 
 14 
 
 the Blue Bulls, descended from Doyle's Blue Bull, 
 foaled 1855, a pacer, sired by a pacer of the same 
 name, dam by Blacknose, son of Medoc ; the 
 Canadians, whose best representatives were St. 
 Lawrence and Pacing Pilot, horses of unknown 
 pedigree; the Golddusts, another branch of the 
 Morgan family ; and the Royal Georges, spring- 
 ing from Tippoo, a horse who was probably by 
 Ogden's Messenger, son of imp. Messenger. 
 There are many subordinate branches of these 
 leading families not named here, and in some 
 cases trotters of great speed have been produced 
 which do not trace to any of the sources men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Breeding Trotters. — The breeder has an extensive 
 field before him, and the questions of in-breeding, 
 or out-crossing, or the value of thorough-bred 
 crosses, pacing crosses, etc., have to be consi- 
 dered, and are abundantly discussed. There are 
 many large and successful establishments for 
 breeding trotters. All of them are extensive in 
 acreage, while on several a hundred or more 
 brood-mares are kept, besides a number of stal- 
 lions. As a rule, the stallions do service outside 
 the farms where they are owned, but in some 
 cases they are reserved strictly for home use, 
 Very large prices are frequently paid for young- 
 sters, solely on the strength of their breeding. In 
 1876 $13,000 was paid for two two-year-old fillies, 
 and $41,200 for a lot of thirteen, nearly all young. 
 Steinway, a three-year-old colt, was sold in 1879 
 to go to California, for $12,000; and in 1878 
 $21,000 was paid for the four-year-old filly, Maud 
 S., after she had trotted a mile in public in 2.17^, 
 ^a speed which she reduced in 1881 to 2. loj. 
 Much larger sums have been paid, however, for 
 matured trotters, such as $40,000 for the stallion 
 Smuggler, $38,000 for Pocahontas, $35,000 for 
 Dexter, $36,000 for Rarus, and long prices for 
 many others ; St. Julien, the trotter with the 
 fastest record at the close of 1879, was held at 
 $50,000, while Rysdyk's Hambletonian, Messen- 
 ger, Duroc, and Volunteer were valued, in their 
 prime, at $100,000 each. 
 
 Track Requirements. — Since the early days of 
 American trotting, the advance has been rapid 
 and the changes marked. After the performance 
 of Boston Blue, mentioned above, more attention 
 was paid to the gait, but for a long time the races 
 were generally under saddle, and at long dis- 
 tances, 3 miles being rather the favorite. The 
 best of the old-time^ trotters were Edwin Forrest, 
 who trotted a mile in 2.31^ in 1834 ; Dutchman, 
 whose 3 miles under saddle in 7.32^ is still the 
 best on record ; Ripton ; Lady Suflfolk, who trot- 
 ted a mile in 2.25| in 1843, and headed the list of 
 performers; Mac, Tacony, etc. Since 1850, how- 
 ever, the public taste has settled upon the style 
 of race called " mile heats, best three out of five. 
 
210 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 in harness," as the favorite, and nine out of ten 
 contests are of this character. By " in harness" 
 is meant that the horse draws a sulky, a light 
 two-wheeled vehicle, in which the driver sits 
 close to the horse, with his legs on each side of 
 the animal's flanks. These sulkies often weigh 
 less than forty pounds. The driver is required 
 to weigh, with the blanket on which he sits, 150 
 pounds, while for saddle-races the regulation 
 weight is 145 pounds. Each heat of a mile is a 
 separate race ; 20 minutes are allowed between 
 heats ; and the horse that first places three heats 
 to his credit wins the race. There are various 
 penalties imposed upon a horse that breaks into 
 a run in a trotting race. The driver is required 
 to pull him to a trot as quickly as possible; if the 
 horse gains by running, the judges set him back 
 at the finish twice the distance he has gained, in 
 their estimation, by running; and for repeated 
 "breaks" they can declare him distanced. 
 
 "Records." — The first-class tracks are of an 
 oval shape, with long stretches and easy curves, 
 measuring i mile at 3 feet distance from "the 
 pole," as the inner railing of the track is called. 
 The time in which the leading horse trots each 
 heat is accurately kept, placed on a blackboard in 
 front of the judges' stand for the information of 
 the public, and also placed in the book of the 
 course. The fastest time that any trotter has 
 made is thus entered as his "record." This is 
 one of the distinctive features of trotting in 
 America. The purses given by the associations 
 owning tracks are generally divided into classes, 
 such as for horses that have never beaten 3 mi- 
 nutes, 2.40, 2.20, etc. Hence it is an object, as a 
 rule, for the record of a trotter to be kept as slow 
 as possible, that he may be eligible to compete in 
 slow classes; and as the purses are divided into 
 three or four moneys, and the second money is 
 usually half as large as the first, drivers fre- 
 quently "pull" a superior animal, and content 
 themselves with an inferior portion of the purse 
 for the sake of avoiding a record, which attaches 
 only to the winner of a heat: and from this cause 
 springs a great deal of dishonest driving. It is 
 in the power of the judges, when they think that a 
 horse is not being driven to win, to substitute 
 another driver ; and this is often done. 
 
 Size of Purses. — Prior to 1866 purses for trotters 
 were small ; match' races were more in vogue, and 
 the trotting turf was in bad odor. In that year 
 an association was formed at Buffalo, N. Y., 
 which undertook to remedy the evil, and inau- 
 gurated its eflforts by offering the then unprece- 
 dented sum of $10,500 for a trotting meeting of 
 four days' duration. The experiment was success- 
 ful ; other cities followed the example of Buffalo; 
 larger and larger purses were given ; and at Buf- 
 falo in 1872 the prizes amounted to $70,000. 
 
 Twice at this track $20,000 has been given for a 
 single race. Other cities are also in the habit of 
 giving large purses, and the amount offered in 
 the United States and Canada, during a single 
 year, has reached nearly $1,500,000. Individual 
 trotters, in the course of a long turf career, earn, 
 enormous amounts. The most remarkable in- 
 stance of this was the mare Goldsmith Maid, 
 by Alexander's Abdallah (a son of Rysdyk's 
 Hambletonian), out of an Abdallah mare. She 
 began trotting in 1866, and left the turf in 1878, 
 when 21 years old, and heV winnings amounted 
 to over $200,000. 
 
 National Trotting Association. — This organization 
 was formed in 1869, and embraces in its member- 
 ship all the principal tracks of the continent. 
 All members of this association respect the pe- 
 nalties imposed by any other member, and exclu- 
 sion from the privileges of one is exclusion from 
 the privileges of all. This has had a great ten- 
 dency to reform abuses in the trotting turf, 
 enabling severe penalties to be inflicted for in- 
 fractions of the rules, a very elaborate code of 
 which has been published by the National Trot- 
 ting Association, which is revised triennially. 
 
 King or Queen of tfie Turf — In trotting races the 
 time test is supreme. The animal which has the 
 fastest record for one mile in harness is, until 
 deposed, king or queen of the trotting turf. 
 Lady Suffolk, with her record of 2.26i in 1843, 
 held this honor till 1853, when Tacony trotted in 
 2.25i under saddle; Flora Temple wrested it from 
 him in 1856 by trotting in 2.24J in harness. This 
 latter mare, in 1859, trotted a mile in 2.19J, a 
 feat which the best horsemen thought would 
 never be repeated. Dexter's record was 2.17J in 
 1867, and Goldsmith Maid's, in 1871, was 2.17, 
 which she reduced, by successive eflforts, to 2.i6f, 
 2.16. 2.15, 2.14J, and finally, in 1874, to 2.14. In 
 1878 Rarus trotted a mile in 2.13J, and in Octo- 
 ber 1879 the bay gelding St. Julien, by Volun- 
 teer, son of Rysdyk's Hambletonian, dam by 
 Henry Clay, trotted a mile in California in 2.i2f, 
 which he reduced at Hartford in 1880 to 2.11J. 
 He had to surrender the lead in 1881 to the 
 chestnut mare Maud S., by Harold, son of Rys- 
 dyk's Hambletonian, dam Miss Russell by Pilot, 
 Jr., who in 1881 trotted in 2.10J. This mare has 
 been already mentioned, as having been bought 
 in 1878, when four years old, for $21,000. She 
 remains queen, with one rival near the throne; 
 but is regarded as quite able largely to reduce 
 her own record. Not only has she trotted the 
 fastest single mile, but she has trotted the three 
 fastest consecutive heats: at Belmont Park, 
 Philadelphia, in 2.12, 2.13!, 2.i2|. Rarus trotted 
 three heats at Hartford in 1878 in 2.13}, 2.13I, 
 and 2.15. There is a great diversity of opinion 
 among the best informed horsemen as to the 
 
TROTTING IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 211 
 
 limit of trotting speed, but none fix it slower 
 than 2. lo, while the more sanguine believe that 
 a mile will yet be made by a trotter in two 
 minutes. 
 
 Season of 1883. — The one rival to Maud S., 
 just alluded to, is the black gelding Jay-Eye- 
 See, by Dictator (again the Rysdyk Hambletonian 
 strain), dam Midnight. This curious and utterly 
 prosaic name is taken from the initials of the 
 horse's owner, J. I. Case, Esq. In Chouler'sTurf 
 Register of 2.30 horses, made up to June 1882, 
 this name is conspicuous by its absence ; but at 
 the end of 18S2, Jay-Eye-See had a record of 
 2.19. This record he reduced in 1883, at Provi- 
 dence, R. I., Sept. 15, to 2.io|, thus stepping in 
 midway between Maud S.'s 2.ioJ- and St. Julien's 
 2.1 ij. Later in the season, at the old Fleetwood 
 Park, Jay-Eye-See beat St. Julien in three straight 
 heats ; but the track was heavy, St. Julien not up 
 to himself, and the time at Providence was not 
 equaled. When Maud S. and Jay-Eye-See are 
 matched in a trot, both in their best " form," 
 with a good day and track, another slice will 
 probably be pared from the present best record 
 of 2.10J. By that time some other Hambleton- 
 ian colt, now as unknown as was Jay-Eye-See in 
 June 1882, may be shouldering between the two 
 present competitors, or may surpass them both. 
 Jay-Eye-See is so perfectly balanced in his action 
 as not to need to be heavily shod. He wears 
 eight-ounce shoes forward and four-ounce shoes 
 behind. He eats in utter contempt of some 
 doctor's saws, with a pailful of water near him, 
 into which he dips his nose with each mouthful 
 of oats, and moistens his hay in the same man- 
 ner. 
 
 Converting Pacers. — The pacing gait, in which 
 the front and hind legs on the same side are 
 moved in the same direction simultaneously, is 
 admitted to be faster than the trotting, in which 
 the near fore leg and oH hind leg move together; 
 but as pacing is not fashionable, and small purses 
 are given for contests between pacers, a great 
 deal of skill has been expended, of late years, in 
 converting pacers to trotters. Tliis is done bv 
 means of toe-weights on the forward ieet, which 
 are knobs of brass or iron screwed into the hoof 
 or fastened to the shoe, by means of which a 
 competent trainer can not only change a pacing 
 into a trotting horse, but can correct any errors 
 of gait in a natural trotter. With inveterate 
 pacers very heavy weights have to be used, but 
 these can gradually be lessened as the horse 
 becomes accustomed to the trot. So effective 
 are these weights found that there are very few 
 fast trotters upon whom they are not used to 
 some extent, unless the same object is effected, 
 by wearing a very heavy forward shoe. In the 
 season of 1883, a pacing horse, Johnston, covered 
 
 a mile in 2.10. But — it was with a running mate. 
 Putting a running mate by the side of a trotter 
 or a pacer in harness is very much like supple- 
 menting a horse with a locomotive. In either 
 case, if the horse can only move his feet fast 
 enough, the auxiliary will carry him along, do- 
 ing the work. Nevertheless, it was something 
 that Johnston could swing his feet and sides in 
 that time, even if the running mate did haul him 
 along. 
 
 Market for Trotters. — The market for American 
 trotters is by no means confined to those intend- 
 ing to use them for track purposes. While there 
 are probably ten thousand in training, at least 
 an equal number are used by gentlemen for road 
 purposes ; and there is great rivalry among 
 wealthy men with a taste for driving, to secure 
 the best stable, and especially the fastest double 
 team. In September 1877, Mr. W. H. Vander- 
 bilt drove his team, composed of Small Hopes 
 and Lady Mac, a full mile over Fleetwood Park 
 track, near New York City, in 2.23. which is 3J 
 seconds faster than the best record for a mile by 
 a double team, the 2.23 performance not being a 
 technical record. 
 
 Rysdyk's Hambletonian. — This horse has had a 
 greater influence on the breed of trotting horses 
 than any other since Messenger, from whom he 
 was descended by both parents. He, his sons, 
 grandsons and great-grandsons are the progeni- 
 tors of more than three hundred of the horse* 
 who have made 2.30 or better. In this list are 
 Maud S., Jay-Eye- See, St. Julien, Clingstone, 
 Goldsmith Maid, Dexter, Trinket, Hattie Wood- 
 ward, Judge Fullerton, So-So, Santa Glaus, 
 Gloster, Great Eastern, Piedmont, Darby, Rob. 
 McGregor, Edwin Thorne, etc. etc. It would 
 be interesting to compare the average value 
 of all the colts he served with the five hundred 
 dollars each charged for his services. Like the 
 Patent Office business, while there are un- 
 doubtedly many and great prizes, there are 
 also a multitude of blanks. Even among men, 
 a great sire does not always produce a great 
 ' son. and the sire is only one factor in the off- 
 spring. The Mainbrinos follow the Hamble- 
 tonians, a " bad second." 
 
 On the following page we have grouped the 
 horses under their best record. Daniel VVeb- 
 ster is reported to have told a young lawyer 
 who complained that the legal profession was 
 crowded, that there was plenty of room higher 
 up. So with the trotters. How fast the com- 
 petitors thin out, as the time lessens ! And 
 what a change from Hiram Woodruffs time, 
 when " 2.40 on the plank " meant a first-class 
 trot, to the present, when the usual lists of 
 trotters ignore all horses slower than 2. 10 I 
 
'< 
 
 LIST OF THE CHAMPION TROTTERS. 
 
 Giving Reduction of the Records from 1845 to the Close of 1901, etc. 
 
 Note. — The asterisk (•) denotes a record made against time ; tlie double dagger (J) denotes a half-mile track. 
 
 CHAMPION TROTTERS. 
 
 SHOWING THE REDUCTION OF THE TROTTING RECORD 
 FROM 2.30 TO 2.02j. 
 
 Lady Suffolk, gr. m. foaled 1833, by Engineer 
 2d, 3; dam by Don Quixote. Driven by 
 David Bryan, Beacon Course, Hoboken, N. J., 
 Oct. 13, 1S45 2.29^ 
 
 Pelham (converted pacer), b. g. foaled 1837, 
 pedigree not traced. Driven by William 
 Whelen, Centreville, N. Y., July 2, 1849 . . 2.28 
 
 Highland Maid (converted pacer), b. m. foaled 
 1847, by Saltram; dam Roxana, by Hickory. 
 Driven by F. J. Nodine, Centreville, N. Y., 
 June 15, 1853 2.27 
 
 Flora Temple, b. m. foaled 1845, by Bogus Hun- 
 ter; dam Madam Temple, by Terry Horse. 
 Driven by Hiram Woodruff, Union Course, 
 East New York, N. Y., Sept. 2, 1856 . . . 2.24* 
 
 Flora Temple. Driven by James D. McMann, 
 
 Centreville, N. Y., Aug. 9, 1859 .... 2.23^ 
 
 Flora Temple. Driven by James D. McMann, 
 
 Centreville, N. Y., Aug. 9, 1859 .... 2.22 
 
 ♦Flora Temple. Driven by James D. McMann, 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct. 7, 1859 2.21^ 
 
 Flora Temple. Driven by James D. McMann, 
 
 Kalamazoo, Mich., Oct. 15, 1S59 .... 2.19J 
 
 JDexter, br. g. foaled 1858, by Hambletonian, 
 10; dam Clara, by American Star, 14. Driven 
 by Budd Doble, Riverside Park, Boston, 
 Mass., July 30, 1867 2.19 
 
 ♦Dexter. Driven by Budd Doble, Buffalo, 
 
 N. Y., Aug. 14, 1867 2.17J 
 
 Goldsmith Maid, b. m. foaled 1857, by Abdallah, 
 15; dam Ab., by Abdallah, i. Driven by 
 Budd Doble, Milwaukee, Wis., Sept. 6, 1871, 2.17 
 
 ♦Goldsmith Maid. Driven by William H. Doble, 
 
 Mystic Park, Boston, Mass., June 9, 1872 . 2. 16J 
 
 *Occident, br.g. foaled 1863, by Doc. 449; dam 
 Mater Occidentis, pedigree not traced. Driven 
 by' George Tennent, Sacramento, Cal., Sept. 
 17. 1873 2.i6i 
 
 Goldsmith Maid. Driven by Budd Doble, East 
 
 Saginaw, Mich., July 16, 1874 2.16 
 
 ♦Goldsmith Maid. Driven by Budd Doble, Buf- 
 falo, N. Y., Aug. 7, 1874 2.15^ 
 
 Goldsmith Maid. Driven by Budd Doble, Roch- 
 ester, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1874 2.14! 
 
 ♦Goldsmith Maid. Driven by Budd Doble, 
 
 Mystic Park, Boston, Mass., Sept. 2, 1874 . 2.14 
 
 *Rarus, b. g. foaled 1867, by Abdallah (Conk- 
 lin's); dam Nancy Awful, by Telegraph. 
 Driven by John Splan, Buffalo, N. Y., Aug. 
 3. 1878 2.13! 
 
 ♦St. Julien, b. g. foaled 1869, by Volunteer, 55; 
 dam Flora, by Harry Clay, 45. Driven by 
 Orrin Hickok, Oakland, Cal., Oct. 25, 1879 . 2.12i 
 
 *Maud S., ch. m. foaled 1874, by Harold, 413; 
 dam Miss Russell, by Pilot Jr., 12. Driven 
 by W. W. Bair, Rochester, N. Y., Aug. 12, 
 1880 2. Ill 
 
 ♦St. Julien. Driven by Orrin Hickok, Roches- 
 ter, N. Y., Aug. 12, 1880 2.iii 
 
 ♦St. Julien. Driven by Orrin Hickok, Hart- 
 ford, Conn., Aug. 27, 1S80 2.lli 
 
 ♦Maud S. Driven by W. W. Bair, Chicago 
 
 Driving Park, Chicago, 111., Sept. l8, 1880 . 2.loi 
 
 ♦Maud S. Driven by W. W. Bair, Homewood 
 
 Park, Pittsburg, Pa., July 13, 1881 . . . 2.loi 
 
 ♦Maud S. Driven by W. W. Bair, Rochester, 
 
 N. Y., Aug. II, 1881 2.loi 
 
 ♦Jay-Eye-See, bl. g. foaled 1878, by Dictator, 
 113; dam Midnight, by Pilot Jr. , 12. Driven 
 by Edwin Either,. Providence, R. I., Aug. I, 
 1884 2.10 
 
 ♦Maud S. Driven by W. W. Bair, Cleveland, 
 
 Ohio, Aug. 2, 1884 2.09} 
 
 'Maud S. Driven by W. W. Bair, Lexington, 
 
 Ky., Nov. II, 1884 '. 2.09! 
 
 ♦Maud S. Driven by W. W. Bair, Cleveland, 
 
 Ohio, July 30, 1885 2.o8i 
 
 ♦Sunol, b. m. foaled 18S6, by Electioneer, 125; 
 dam Waxana, by Gen. Benton, 1755. Driven 
 by Charles Marvin, Stockton, Cal., Oct. 20, 
 1891 2.08J 
 
 *Nancy Hanks, br. m. foaled 1886, by Happy 
 Medium, 400; dam Nancy Lee, by Dictator, 
 113. Driven by Budd Doble, Chicago, 111., 
 Aug. 17, 1892 2.07i 
 
 ♦Nancy Hanks. Driven by Budd Doble, Inde- 
 pendence, la., Aug. 31, 1892 2.o5i 
 
 *Nancy Hanks. Driven by Budd Doble, Terre 
 
 Haute, Ind., Sept. 28, 1892 2.04 
 
 *Cresceus, world's record, Columbus, Ohio, 
 
 Aug. 2, 1901 2.02J 
 
 2t2 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 213 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Characteristics of Guernsey e • • < 213 
 
 Description of 313 
 
 Diseases of Cattle : 
 
 Abortion -217 
 
 Albuminuria 219 
 
 Bloody Milk 219 
 
 Broncliitis 221 
 
 Coat 217 
 
 Chapped Teats 221 
 
 Colic 221 
 
 « 
 
 Constipation • . 221 
 
 Cattle Plague 222 
 
 Diarrhea 221 
 
 Dysentery . . . c 221 
 
 Garget » .... 221 
 
 Diseases of Cattle: 
 
 Grub • • 222 
 
 Hernia 222 
 
 Hoven 222 
 
 Inversion of the Uterus 222 
 
 Jaundice • ~ 222 
 
 Leucorrhea <> 222 
 
 Lice ....•• 232 
 
 Loss of Cud • . 222 
 
 I Muzzle 217 
 
 Puerperal 222 
 
 Position 217 
 
 Pneumonia 222 
 
 Pluro Pneumonia 222 
 
 Sanitation 217 
 
 Diseases of Cattle : 
 
 Sore Throat • • • • S32 
 
 Tuberculosis « 222 
 
 Ventilation • • • 217 
 
 Experience with Guernsey . .... 215 
 
 Features of Guernsey ...«.• 215 
 
 Guenisey versus Jersey 214 
 
 Guernsey, as a Butter Cow .... 214 
 
 Guernsey Cattle Club • 214 
 
 Grade Guernsey 215 
 
 History of Guernsey 213 
 
 Naming • 213 
 
 Points of Guernsey 214 
 
 Registering 2x4 
 
 Standard • 2x4 
 
 Guernsey. — The Guernsey breed of cattle takes 
 its name from the little Island of Guernsey, one 
 of the Channel islands. The origin of the cattle 
 of these Channel islands, among which are the 
 
 Island itself, which is cut off from the main land by 
 a little strip of sea, and protected by the rock-bound 
 coast. The one aim of the inhabitants was to pro- 
 duce a cow excelling all others in butter production. 
 
 Mr. Pearsons' Imported Guernsey Bull. 
 
 Alderneys, Guernsey, Jersey, and Sarc. is greatly 
 disputed, but the stock is thought to have come 
 originally from Normandy and Brittany, and that 
 this breed was laid by crossing the Normandy bull 
 upon the Brittany cow. It is noticeable that the 
 Guernsey cattle partake of the characteristics of the 
 
 The Guernsey is the result, producing butter of 
 the finest natural color with the least outlay for feed. 
 Up to recent date the Guernseys in America were 
 kept for family use, but in 1840 they were intro- 
 duced into private dairies around Philadelphia, and 
 since then have kept their place ahead of all others. 
 
2U 
 
 TIIK KRIEND OF ALL 
 
 A little later the Massachusetts Society for the Pro- 
 motion of Agriculture, foreseeing the future of this 
 breed, imported some, and distributed them in a 
 public sale to different dairy men in the State. 
 Later on, they were adopted by Connecticut faim- 
 ers ; so on Feb. 7, 1877, tlie American Guernsey 
 Cattle Club was organized in New York State. 
 There were only about 150 pure bred Guern- 
 seys in the country at that time whose pedi- 
 grees could be traced to the Island. To-day 
 there are about 14.000 animals registered. 
 
 The Guernsey differs from the Jersey in many 
 respects. They have not the deer-like appear- 
 ance of the Jersey ; they are coarser in bone, 
 heavier in carcass, and being larger every way, 
 are less precocious. Tliey are first allowed to 
 calve at about two 
 and a half years old, 
 which gives them 
 more size. It is a 
 well-known fact that 
 the size of the calves, 
 and the aptitude of 
 the cattle to make 
 beef and turn off well 
 when their usefulness 
 in the dairy is from 
 any cause at an end, 
 are matters of no 
 small importance to 
 the so-called '■ com- 
 mon farmers ; " that 
 is, those who are 
 obliged to study 
 closely the economy 
 of farming. So 
 
 ties of full bloods to a remarkable degree. Every 
 point of the Guernsey is rich in itself — the horn 
 
 Q 
 
 strong are the characteristics of the race that 
 grades or even half breeds 'possess the best quali- 
 
 is soft and full, the hoofs are 
 most frequently like tortoise- 
 shell, the skin is soft and 
 yellowish in tint. The pre- 
 vailing color of the animal 
 itself is a delicate shade of 
 fawn with white markings, 
 and a cream-colored nose. 
 The greatest characteristic is 
 the golden color around the 
 eye, on the bag, at the base 
 of the horns, and at the end 
 of the tail bone. The dis- 
 position of these cattle is re- 
 markably affectionate and 
 quiet, and the cow is pre- 
 eminently the one for dairy 
 use. The rich golden color 
 of the cream and butter cannot be e.xcelled. The 
 animal has the ability of fattening rapidly when 
 dried off. The cows are of good size and hardy. 
 The cream is very thick and yellow ; the milk is 
 rich and yields a very large percentage of cream. 
 
 The Guernsey cow gives as fine golden butter as 
 the Jersey, and a large quantity of it. The cele- 
 brated cow, Bretonne, gave 539 pounds of butter, 
 and nearly 100 cows have been reported to have 
 made a record of 14 pounds of butter or over a 
 week. 
 
 These animals have a strong constitution and well- 
 developed udders. The bulls most commonly used 
 in the Island of Guernsey are one and two years 
 old. The animals are very docile and pay no atten- 
 1 tion to visitors. The influence which pure bred 
 I bulls exert is readily acknowledged. They inten- 
 
CATTLE 
 
 215 
 
 sify the good qualities of the breed, and produce [ " My own experience thus far in the use of 
 anuTials of great physical strengtli and size with- ; grade (luernsey cows sired by Ciuernsey bulls 
 out sacrificing the riclmess of the milk jjroduc- ' or high-grade Short-Horn cattle is altogether 
 tion. ■' satisfactory. My first grade Guernsey heifers, 
 
 The Guernsey Grade Cow. — This cow has | eight or ten in number, were calved in 1882, 
 
 AYRSHIRE COW. 
 
 been found to be a great success, as the best and continuously on in every succeeding year 
 characteristics of the race are preserved, and as 1 until now. So I have at the present time sev- 
 each year American dairymen are demanding I eral three-fourths bred already in milk. Alto- 
 more and more a strictly dairy cow, and a dairy gether of Short- Horn grade, Guernsey grades. 
 
 POLLED ANGUS COW. 
 
 bred one as well. This six years' experience is younger heifers, and heifers' calves, theynumber 
 quoted from Hon. Lewis F. Allen, of Buffalo, a herd of fully 100, of which about seventy are 
 
 N. Y. He commenced the use of the regis- 
 tered Guernsey bull upon his registered high- 
 grade Short-Horn cows in the year 1880. 
 
 from Guernsey sires, thoroughbred bulls. Fifty 
 regular milch cows are now used in my butter 
 dairy, the older grade Short-Horn cows, whichare 
 
216 
 
 THE FRIEND OP' ALL 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 21T 
 
 continuously drawn out for sale or beef as the 
 young Guernsey heifers bring forth their calves to 
 take their places, being not quite thirty in number. 
 The Guernsey heifers usually bring their first calves 
 at from 20 to 26 months old ; and of all those, there 
 have been but two or three accidental failures to 
 prove first-class milkers, giving within a month or 
 two after dropping their first calves 24 to 40 pounds 
 of rich milk per day. All of them have large, square 
 udders, sizable teats, and are easy and gentle 
 milkers." 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 General Indications of Disease in Cattle. — The coat 
 of the animal is an indication of tlie state of health, 
 a "staring-coat" being a symptom of low condi- 
 
 is liable to occur almost any month of gestation, 
 particularly from the sixth to the ninth. As a rule, 
 a cow who has once lost a calf will never be a safe 
 breeder; and sometimes it happens that abortion, 
 like a contagious disease, will spread through an 
 entire herd. 
 
 Principal Causes of Abortion. — A fright, injury or 
 violent e.xertion may cause this ; therefore, pregnant 
 cows should be treated as gently and quietly as pos- 
 sible. Want of food sometimes causes abortion. 
 Rye, bran and potatoes in large quantities or musty 
 hay and fermented meal, as well as the ergotized 
 grains should never be fed to pregnant animals., 
 
 Symptoms of Abortion. — The first symptom is usu- 
 ally a loss of appetite, the animal seeming dull and 
 listless, the milk diminishing in quantity. After 
 a time the cow grows restless, and there will be a 
 
 ^\ V >17.\ri''^ It 
 
 
 }■ .*' 
 
 
 \it 
 
 ■Jii±. 
 
 
 ^^}'^. ^'^nL "» 
 
 Mr. Pearsons' Guernsey Cattle. 
 
 tion. The peculiar positions of standing, lying 
 down, getting up or of moving about are significant. 
 The muzzle of the healthy cow or ox is moist, but 
 in disease becomes either hot or cold, and some- 
 times changes color. Ventilation and proper sani- 
 tation will prevent cattle from having disease, with 
 an abundance of pure water, proper food and fre- 
 quent change of diet. Many animals are lost 
 through the ignorance of quacks, while judgment 
 and common sense are all that is necessary. 
 
 A few of the most common diseases and their pre- 
 ventive will be given. 
 
 Abortion. — Abortion, or the dropping of calves, is 
 a source of great loss to farmers and dairy men, and 
 
 watery discharge from the vagina, followed a little 
 later by the discharge of the fetus ; more or less 
 discharge of a bloody mucus will follow for several 
 days after the loss of the fetus. The after-birth 
 usually becomes decomposed and comes away in 
 fragments, being very offensive in odor. 
 
 Treatment. — As soon as the symptoms are dis- 
 covered the animal should be separated from the 
 rest and put into a comfortable shed. If the fetus 
 has motion it is not dead. If the discharge be fetid 
 it is a sure indication the fetus is dead, and the 
 sooner it is gotten rid of the better. If the water 
 sack inclosing the fetus has not been previously 
 broken this should be done, using the greatest care 
 
218 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 LU 
 
 cr 
 
 D 
 h- 
 U5 
 
 LU 
 LU 
 
 X ^ 
 
 z S 
 
 Q_ Wl 
 
 3 1 
 
 _l § 
 
 LU ^ 
 
 Q ■§ 
 
 O n 
 
 2 i 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 219 
 
 in order not to puncture the womb, which would 
 cause death to the anhnal. The after-birth should 
 be removed in the most careful manner, then syringe 
 out the parts with warm water and follow with an 
 injection of carbolic lotion as follows : 
 
 One ounce of carbolic acid to the gallon of water, 
 inject into the womb half a pint two or three times 
 a day for a weelc or ten days. 
 
 Too much importance cannot be placed upon the 
 necessity of removing all traces of the fetus and 
 placenta or after-birth by burying them at a distance 
 
 tance to move, urine of a mucilaginous character 
 and dark in color. Discontinue all green food 
 except grass and ensilage, and give plenty of grain 
 with milk and eggs. Give one dose of the following : 
 
 Epsom salts 12 oz., ginger i oz., gentian i oz., 
 syrup 4 oz., water sufficient to make two quarts. If 
 this does not effect a cure give the following : 
 
 Two drams sulpliuric acid, I'/i oz. tincture carda- 
 moms, mi.xed thoroughly with a pint of water. 
 
 Anthra.x or black leg is a common disease and 
 greatly to be feared being a ligament and contagious. 
 
 Interior of Guernsey Stable. 
 
 from the places frequented by the herd, and cleans- 
 ing the stable before it is occupied by other animals. 
 Albuminuria.— Th\s disease is similar to Bright's 
 disease, and is supposed to be caused by an impov- 
 erished condition of the blood or a too long contin- 
 ued sameness of food. The most common symptom 
 is the stretching of the body at full length, and get- 
 ting the fore and hind feet as far apart as possible. 
 Other symptoms are, constipation, unnatural gait 
 with the hind feet far apart, stiifness and reluc- 
 
 It appears externally and internally, and turns the 
 affected parts black. It does not last long and the 
 animal usually sinks in a few hours. Chloriae oi' 
 potassium in one to three dram doses dissolved 
 in water is a good medicine. Whisky or quinine 
 may also be useful, but prevention is better than 
 cure. 
 
 Bloody Milk. — It sometimes happens that the 
 blood is mixed with the milk, and in this case the 
 following is a good remedy : 
 
220 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 221 
 
 Three drams of camphor, 3 oz. of powdered oak 
 bark, 3 oz. powdered ginger, mix and divide into 
 six doses, giving a dose night and morning in a 
 pint of gruel. 
 
 Bronchitis. — This is an inflammation of the mu- 
 cous membrane of the broncliial tubes. The symp- 
 toms are rapid, painful breathing, a severe cough 
 with fever and a rapid pulse. The animal should 
 be kept in a warm, comfortable stable, and fed with 
 warm, soft food. Epsom salts in from eight to ten 
 doses is a good remedy, also put a mustard paste 
 on the lower part of the throat and sides of the 
 chest. Give the animal all the water wished for. 
 
 Constipation. — This may be prevented by attend- 
 
 Two ounces of castor oil with a tablespooaful of 
 
 powdered ginger. 
 
 Ciiapped Teats. — Bathe in warm water and wipe 
 dry, then apply fresh, melted lard or sweet cream 
 which has been simmered in oil, also use witch- 
 hazel for bathing. 
 
 Colic. — This is caused from constipation, or 
 drinking too much cold water when heated. The 
 symptoms are restlessness and groaning, the ani- 
 mal frequently gets up and down and the body be- 
 comes bloated. The following remedy is advisable : 
 
 To I qt. of warm water add i pt. of molasses, 8 
 oz. of linseed oil, yi oz. of powdered ginger, mix 
 well and give in one dose. Inject the following : 
 
 A Fine Specimen. 
 
 ing carefully to the diet of the animal, and allowing 
 aliberal supply of salt so that they will drink freely. 
 
 Diarrhea. — This is caused by sudden change of 
 diet, or by improper food. A mild purgative should 
 first be given, then a laxative as follows : 
 
 One half a pound of Epsom salts, '/i oz. ginger, 2 
 dr. of gentian mixed with one pint of gruel. This 
 should be followed in a day or so by an astringent 
 such as this : 
 
 Two ounces of prepared chalk, i oz. of powdered 
 oak bark, 2 dr. of ginger, 2 dr. of powdered catechu, 
 }4 dr. powdered opium, i oz. of peppermint water ; 
 mix and give in a quart of warm gruel. In the 
 case of calves begin with a laxative, as : 
 
 To 2 qts. of blood-warm water add 6 oz. of olive 
 oil. 
 
 Dysentery. — The symptoms are watery, bloody, 
 and offensive discharges from the bowels, with fever 
 thirst, pain, and loss of appetite. The patient should 
 be kept warm, and not allowed too much to drink, 
 while the following may be given, one half by 
 mouth and the other half by injection : 
 
 One-half ounce chloride of lime, % oz. tincture of 
 arnica, i oz. sulphuric ether mixed with 2 qts. starch 
 gruel. Fine hay, oatmeal, boiled potatoes, linseed 
 meal may be given. 
 
 Garget. — This is an inflammation of the udder. 
 The milk hardens, the animal is feverish, and has 
 
222 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 chills followed by fever with disordered bowels. 
 When in the case of young calves about to calve, it 
 is well to draw a little milk each day before parturi- 
 tion. A poultice may be applied to the udder with 
 holes for the teats and fastened over the back of 
 the animal with a strap. If there should be suppu- 
 ration and the matter does not escape of itself the 
 swelling should be lanced. 
 
 Orub. — This is caused by the gad-fiy piercing the 
 skin and depositing its eggs. The only method is 
 to destroy the larvs which the fly has laid under 
 the skin. This may be done by enlarging the ori- 
 fice with a penknife and pressing out the larvae. 
 Rub the places with turpentine or kerosene oil. 
 
 Hernia. — This is a rupture and denotes a protru- 
 sion of the bowels through an opening of the abdo- 
 men. The displaced parts should be pushed back 
 and retained in their place by a strap along the 
 back and under the belly, with one around the neck. 
 
 Hoven. — Th"is is an unnatural distention of the di- 
 gestive organs and is produced by the fermenting of 
 food in the stomach. Four drams of •chloride of lime 
 in a little water will give relief if given in the first 
 stages. If the gas cannot be removed in any other 
 way an opening is made into the stomach, but it is 
 a dangerous remedy. A purgative should follow 
 consisting of 12 oz. Epsom salts, ginger i oz., 
 molasses 4 oz., mix with 2 qts. of water; the food 
 should be light, and changed from hay to grass or 
 from grass to hay gradually. 
 
 Inversion of the Uterus. — This is not common, but 
 sometimes occurs at the time of calving or right 
 after, and it is caused by the violent expulsive 
 action of that organ at the moment of expelling 
 the calf. This should be returned to place without 
 rupturing the membrane, which would cause death. 
 The head of the animal should be secured and the 
 hind quarters raised a foot or more. Dip a sheet 
 in warm milk and water and lay carefully over the 
 protruding mass, cleanse thoroughly, and carefully 
 return to place. After replacing the uterus inject 
 an ounce of laudanum. 
 
 Jaundice. — This is a liver disease, the symptoms 
 being a yellow tint of the eye which finally spreads 
 over the whole skin. The following may be used : 
 
 Carbonate of soda 2 dr., cascarilla bark 3 dr., 
 ginger 3 dr. in a pint of ale. 
 
 Sore Throat. — Mustard paste may be rubbed 
 upon the throat, rubbing off after two or three hours 
 and replacing, then apply a linseed poultice. A lit- 
 tle of the following mixture may be syringed down 
 the throat several times a day. Two ounces chlorate 
 of potash in I qt. of water. 
 
 Leucorrhea or Whites. — This is simply catarrh of 
 the vagina and womb, which in appearance is a 
 whitish tiuid and very offensive in odor. A syringe 
 of warm water will generally end the trouble. 
 
 Lice. — Cattle should never be permitted to have 
 this pest. A sharp lookout must be kept. Lard 
 may be applied warm and well rubbed in along the 
 spine, neck, shoulders and sides of the body. Kero- 
 sene is also destructive. 
 
 Loss of Cud. — Give warm bran mashes and plenty 
 of pure water with a moderate quantity of cut vege- 
 tables and apples. 
 
 Pleuro-Pneumonia. — This is a disease of the lungs 
 causing great weakness and prostration of the whole 
 system. The best remedy is to kill the animal, and 
 remove all danger from the rest of the herd. 
 
 Pneumonia. — This is common among cattle and 
 has three stages, — Inflammation, the lung becoming 
 solid, and suppuration. Keep the animal in a warm, 
 well-ventilated stable, and if feverish cover the body 
 with blankets wrung out in hot water to induce per- 
 spiration, using the same treatment as in bronchitis. 
 
 Puerperal Fever. — This is usually caused by difii- 
 cult parturition, exposure to cold soon after calving 
 or retention of the placenta. Symptoms are a high 
 fever, hot, dry muzzle, hot or cold horns, loss of 
 appetite, staring eyes, restlessness, scanty urine and 
 constipation. If the udder is much swollen and hot, 
 treat it with the water-bag, which is made of rubber 
 large enough to inclose the udder, and comes up to 
 the body flaring at the top, and is laid over the back 
 with a strap. This is filled with warm soft-water, 
 65 degrees. Give a purgative, and keep the animal 
 in a warm, clean stable. 
 
 Rinderpest or Cattle Plague. — Is hopeless of cure ; 
 thus the best thing to do is to kill the animal, and 
 bury it where it will not contaminate anything. 
 
 Tuberculosis. — This is really consumption, and is 
 to be most carefully looked for in every animal. 
 They should be tested frequently, and if found dis- 
 eased, should be killed. 
 
 Right Dress. 
 
CATTLE 
 
 223 
 
 CATTLE— (Continued.) 
 
 Cattle In Early History 223 
 
 CoDtioental and South American 224 
 
 Escutcheon, the 229 
 
 Europe, in : 
 
 Ayrshires 226 
 
 Devons, the North 226 
 
 Habitat of Holsteins 227 
 
 Herefords, the 225 
 
 Holsteins al Home 228 
 
 Holstein Cattle 227 
 
 Holsteins in Seventeenth Century.. 228 
 
 Jerseys, the 226 
 
 Kyloes, the 227 
 
 North Devons, the 226 
 
 Scotch Breeds 226 
 
 Shetland Cattle 227 
 
 Short-Horns, the 225 
 
 Suffolk Duns 226 
 
 Welsh Cattle 227 
 
 West Highland Cattle 227 
 
 Guenon, Francois 229 
 
 Humped Cattle 223 
 
 In Mythology and Religion 223 
 
 Less Common Uses 224 
 
 Magne, Prof 230 
 
 Milk-Mirror, the 229 
 
 Mirror, the Milk- 229 
 
 Naming of Cattle 244 
 
 Once a medium of Exchange 223 
 
 •' Paster," the 243 
 
 Services, their 223 
 
 Survivals 224 
 
 Uncertainty of Records 243 
 
 United States, in the : 
 
 Angus, the Polled ..._, 237 
 
 Ayrshires, Milk Record of. 235 
 
 Ayrshires, the 235 
 
 Beef 231 
 
 Campbell Sale, the 233 
 
 Census Returns 231 
 
 Claims for Ayrshires 235 
 
 Comparative Value of Points 239 
 
 Comparisons 242 
 
 Cow Echo 231 , 242 
 
 Cow Value 2d 238 
 
 Dairy 231 
 
 Description of Jerseys 238 
 
 Echo Farm 237 
 
 Greatest Weekly Butter- Yield 238 
 
 Hereford Cow, the 233 
 
 Hereford Ox, the 233 
 
 Herefords for Beef 232 
 
 Herefords, the 232 
 
 Holsteins, Milk sold 242 
 
 Holstein Points 243 
 
 Holsteins, the 240 
 
 United States, in the -.—Cont'd. 
 
 Importation of Herefords 232 
 
 Introduction of Holsteins 240 
 
 Jersey Cattle 237 
 
 Jerseys To-day 238 
 
 Lady Seffinga 240 
 
 Milk Records of Ayrshires 245 
 
 One Instance of Fattening 242 
 
 Oxen, Working. 231 
 
 Performance of Holsteins here 240 
 
 Points of Herefords 233 
 
 Points of Jerseys 238 
 
 Points of Holsteins 243 
 
 Polled Angus, the 237 
 
 Polled Cattle 236 
 
 Rationale of Short-Horns 234 
 
 Sales of Polled Cattle 237 
 
 Sale, the Campbell 233 
 
 Sample Importation, a 240 
 
 Short-Horns 233 
 
 Short-Horns for Dairy 234 
 
 Short-Horns, Proper Home 234 
 
 Short-HornS).. Rationale of 234 
 
 Status of Different Breeds 242 
 
 Value 2d 238 
 
 Working Oxen 231 
 
 Urus, the 224 
 
 in Early History. — This is a term applied to the 
 various races of domesticated animals belonging 
 to the genus Bos. They have been divided into 
 two primary groups, the humped cattle, or zebus 
 {Bos indicus), of India and Africa, and the straight- 
 backed cattle {Bos taurus), which are common 
 everywhere. By many naturalists these groups 
 have been regarded as mere races of the same 
 species, and it is a well-ascertained fact that the 
 offspring arising from the crossing of the humped 
 and unhumped cattle are completely fertile ; but 
 the differences in their osteology, configuration, 
 voice and habits are such as to leave little doubt 
 of their specific distinctness. Oxen appear to 
 have been among the earliest of domesticated 
 animals, as they undoubtedly were among the 
 most important agents in the growth of early 
 civilization. They are mentioned in the oldest 
 written records of the Hebrew and Hindu peo- 
 ples, and are figured on Egyptian monuments 
 raised 2000 years before the Christian era; while 
 the remains of domesticated specimens have been 
 found in the Swiss lake-dwellings along with the 
 stone implements and other records of Neolithic 
 man. 
 
 Once a Medium of Bxc/iange. — In infant commu- 
 nities an individual's wealth was measured by the 
 number and size of his herds — Abram, it it said. 
 was rich in cattle ; and oxen for a long period 
 formed, as they still do among many Central 
 
 African tribes, the favorite medium of exchange 
 between nations. After the introduction of a. 
 metal coinage into ancient Greece, the former 
 method of exchange was commemorated by 
 stamping the image of an ox on the new money; 
 while the same custom has left its mark on the 
 languages of Europe, as is seen in the Latin word 
 pecitnia, and the English "pecuniary." derived 
 from peats, cattle. 
 
 In Mythology and Religion. — The value attached to 
 cattle in ancient times is further shown by the 
 Bull figuring among the signs of the zodiac; in 
 its worship by the ancient Egyptians under the 
 title of Apis ; in the veneration which has always 
 been paid to it by the Hindus, according to 
 whose sacred legends it was the first animal cre- 
 ated by the three divinities who were directed by 
 the supreme Deity to furnish the earth with ani- 
 mated beings; and in the important part it was 
 made to play in Greek and Roman mythology. 
 The Hindus were not allowed to shed the blood 
 of the ox, and the Egyptians could only do so in 
 sacrificing to their gods. Both Hindus and Jews 
 were forbidden, in their sacred writings, to muzzle 
 it when treading out the corn; and to destroy it 
 wantonly was considered a public crime among 
 the Romans, punishable with exile. 
 
 Humped Cattle are found in greatest perfection in 
 India, but they extend eastward to Japan, and 
 westward to the African Niger. They differ from 
 
224 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 the European forms not only in the fleshy pro- 
 tuberance in the shoulders, but in the number of 
 sacral vertebrae, in the cliaracter of their voice, 
 which has been described as " grunt-like," and 
 also in their habits; "they seldom seek the 
 shade, and never go into the water and there 
 stand knee-deep like the cattle of Europe." They 
 now exist only in the domesticated state, and ap- 
 pear to have been brought under the dominion 
 of man at a very remote period, all the repre- 
 sentations of the ox on such ancient sculptures 
 as those in the caves of Elephanta being of the 
 humped or zebu form. There are several breeds 
 of the zebu, the finest occurring in the northern 
 provinces of India, where they are used for 
 riding, — carrying, it is said, a man at the rate of 
 six miles an hour for fifteen hours. White bulls 
 are held peculiarly sacred by the Hindus, and 
 when they have been dedicated to Siva, by the 
 branding upon them of his image, they are 
 thenceforth relieved from all labor. They go 
 without molestation wherever they choose, and 
 may be seen about Eastern bazars helping them- 
 selves to whatever dainties they prefer at the 
 stalls of the faithful. 
 
 Less Common Uses. — The Hottentots and Kaff^res 
 possess several valuable breeds, as the Namaqua 
 and Bechwana cattle, the latter with horns which 
 sometimes measure over thirteen feet from tip 
 to tip along the curvature. The cattle of those 
 semi - barbarous South - Africans appear to be 
 among the most intelligent of their kind, — cer- 
 tain of them, known as backleys, having been 
 trained to watch the flocks, preventing them 
 from straying beyond fixed limits, and protecting 
 them from the attacks of wild beasts and from 
 robbers. They are also trained to fight, and are 
 said to rush into battle with the spirit of a war- 
 horse. Among the Swiss mountains there are 
 herds of cows, whose leaders are adorned with 
 bells, the ringing of which keeps the cattle to- 
 gether, and guides the herdsman to their pasture- 
 grounds. The wearing of the bells has come to 
 be regarded as an honorable distinction by the 
 cows, and no punishment is felt so keenly as the 
 loss of them, the culprit giving expression to her 
 sense of degradation by the most piteous lowings. 
 
 Their Services. — It is impossible to over-estimate 
 their services to the human race. Living, the 
 ox — taking that name as the representative of 
 Bos — plows its owner's land, and reaps his har- 
 vest, carries his goods or himself, guards his 
 property, even fights his battles, while its udder, 
 which under domestication has been enormously 
 enlarged, yields him at all seasons a copious sup- 
 ply of milk, butter and cheese. When dead, its 
 flesh forms a chief class of animal food ; its bones 
 are ground into manure or turned into numerous 
 articles of use or ornament ; its skin is made into 
 
 leather, its ears and hoofs into glue; its hair is 
 mixed witli mortar; and its horns are cut and 
 molded into various articles of use. 
 
 TheUrus. — The most important ancestor of our 
 present domestic cattle, in Europe and America, 
 was the \ix\:i%{Bos priinigenius). Csesar describes 
 it as existing in his time, in the Hercynian Fo- 
 rest, in size almost as large as an elephant, but 
 with the form and color of a bull ; and it is men- 
 tioned by Heberstein so late as the i6th century 
 as still a favorite beast of chase. The Urus was 
 characterized by its flat or slightly concave fore- 
 head, its straight occipital ridge, and the pecu- 
 liar curvature of its horns. Its immense size 
 may be gathered from the fact that a skull in the 
 British Museum, found near Atholl, in Perth- 
 shire, measures one yard in length, while the 
 span of the horn-cores is three feet six inches. 
 
 Survivals. — British wild cattle now exist only in 
 a few parks, where they are strictly preserved. 
 The purest bred are those of Chillingham, a 
 park in Northumberland, belonging to the Earl 
 of Tankerville, and which was in existence in the 
 13th century. These have red ears with brown- 
 ish muzzle, and show all the characteristics of 
 wild animals. They hide their young, feed in 
 the night, basking or sleeping during the day; 
 they are fierce when pressed, but, generally speak- 
 ing, very timorous, moving off on the appearance 
 of any one even at a great distance. The bulls 
 engage in fierce contests for the leadership of 
 the herd, and the wounded are set upon by the 
 others and killed ; thus few bulls attain a great 
 age, and even those, when they grow feeble, are 
 gored to death by their fellows. The white cat- 
 tle of Cadzow Forest are very similar in their 
 habits to those of Chillingham, but being con- 
 fined to a narrow area are less wild. They still 
 form a considerable herd, but of late years, it has 
 been stated, they have all become polled, or horn- 
 less. Sir Walter Scott maintained that Cadzow 
 and Chillingham are but the extremities of what 
 in earlier times was a continuous forest, and that 
 the white cattle are but the remnants of those 
 herds of " lauri sylvestres," described by early 
 Scottish writers as abounding in the forests of 
 Caledonia, and to which he evidently refers in 
 these lines : 
 
 " Mightiest of all the beasts of chase 
 That roam in woody Caledon, 
 Crashing the forest in his race, 
 
 The mountain bull comes thundering on." 
 
 Continental and South American Cattle.— Of these 
 
 the Hungarian is conspicuous from its great size, 
 and the extent of its horns, which often measure 
 five feet from tip to tip. The cattle of Friesland, 
 Jutland and Holstein form another large breed, 
 and these, it is said, were introduced by the 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 225 
 
 Goths into Spain, tlius becoming the progenitors 
 of the enormous herds of wild cattle vvliich now 
 roam over the Pampas of South America. Co- 
 lumbus in 1493 brought to America a bull and 
 several cows. Others were brought by succeed- 
 ing Spanish settlers. They are now widely 
 spread over the plains of .South America, but 
 are most numerous in the temperate districts of 
 Paraguay and La Plata — a fact which bears out 
 the view taken by Darwin, that our o.xen are the 
 descendants of species originally inhabiting a 
 temperate climate. Except in greater uniformity 
 of color, which is dark-reddish brown, the Pam- 
 pas cattle have deviated but little from the an- 
 cestral Andalusian type. They roam in great 
 herds in search of pasture, under the leadership 
 of the strongest bulls, and avoid man, who hunts 
 them chiefly for the value of their hides, of which 
 enormous quantities are exported annually from 
 Buenos Ayres. They are, however, readily re- 
 claimed ; the wildest herds, according to Prof. 
 Low, being often domesticated in a month. 
 These cattle have hitherto been chiefly valued 
 for their hides, and as supplying animal food to 
 the inhabitants, who use only the choicest parts; 
 but lately attempts have been made, and with 
 considerable, success, to export the beef in a pre- 
 served state. Although the South American 
 cattle have sprung from a single European breed, 
 they have already given rise to many well marked 
 varieties, as the polled cattle of Paraguay, the 
 hairless breed of Colombia, and that most mon- 
 strous of existing breeds, the Natas, two herds 
 of which Darwin saw on the banks of the Plata, 
 and which he describes as "bearing the same 
 relation to other cattle as bull or pug dogs do to 
 other dogs." Cattle have been introduced by 
 the colonists into Australia and New Zealand, 
 where they are now found in immense herds, 
 leading a semi-wild existence on the extensive 
 "runs" of the settlers. 
 
 BREEDS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Taking up the most important of these breeds, 
 and without entering into curious speculation on 
 their origin, we will notice them in what seems a 
 natural order. The first place belongs to 
 
 The Short-Horns. — It appears that from an early 
 date the valley of the Tees possessed a breed of 
 cattle which, in appearance and general qualities, 
 were probably not unlike the y«(?«' short-horns 
 which are now so plenty. A Mr. Waistell of 
 AllihiU admired a certain bull, Hubback, but 
 hesitated to buy him at the high price of 8/. He 
 joined with a Mr. Colling in the purchase. After- 
 wards they sold to another Colling, who confined 
 the bull to his own stock, refusing his use to 
 even one of Mr. Waistell's cows. The Collings 
 entered on their work of improvement at a very 
 15 
 
 favorable time, and with promising materials 
 ready to their hands. But these materials seemed 
 with them at once to acquire an unwonted plas- 
 ticity ; for in a very short time their cattle ex- 
 hibited, in a degree that has hardly yet been 
 excelled, that combination of rapid and large 
 growth with aptness to fatten, of which their 
 symmetry, good temper, mellow handling and 
 gay colors are such pleasing indices and accom- 
 paniments, and for which they have acquired a 
 world-wide celebrity. These Durham, Tees- 
 water or Short-Horn cattle, as tliey were variously 
 called, were soon eagerly sought after, and 
 spread with amazing rapidity. For a time their 
 merits were disputed by the eager advocates of 
 other and older breeds, some of which they have 
 utterly supplanted, while others, such as the 
 Herefords, Devons and Scotch polled cattle, 
 have each their zealous admirers, who still main- 
 tain their superiority to the younger race. 
 
 But this controversy is getting practically de- 
 cided in favor of the Short-Horns, which con- 
 stantly encroach upon their rivals, even in their 
 head-quarters, and seldom lose ground which 
 they once gain. Paradoxical as the statement 
 appears, it is yet true that the very excellence of 
 the Short-Horns has in many cases led to their 
 discredit. Many persons desiring to possess 
 them, and yet grudging the cost of pure-bred 
 bulls, have used worthless cross-bred males, and 
 so have filled the country with an inferior race 
 of cattle, bearing indeed a general resemblance 
 in color, and partaking in some measure of the 
 good qualities of Short-Horns, but utterly want- 
 ing in their peculiar excellences. By ignorant 
 or prejudiced persons the genuine race is never- 
 theless held answerable for the defects of the 
 mongrels which usurp their name, and for the 
 damaging comparisons which are made between 
 them and choice specimens of other breeds. 
 That the Short-Horn should spread as it does, 
 in spite of this hinderance, is no small proof of 
 its inherent excellence, and warrants the infe- 
 rence that it will take its place as the one appro- 
 priate breed of the fertile and sheltered parts of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 The Hereford is the breed which in England 
 contests most closely with the Short-Horns the 
 palm of excellence. They are admirable grazier's 
 cattle, and when of mature age and fully fattened, 
 present exceedingly level, compact and massive 
 carcasses of excellent beef. But the cows are 
 poor milkers, and the oxen require to be at 
 least two years old before being put up to fatten 
 — defects fatal to the claims put forward in their 
 behalf. To the grazier who purchases them 
 when their growth is somewhat matured they 
 usually yield a good profit, and will generally 
 excel Short-Horns of the same age. But the 
 
226 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 distinguishing characteristic of the latter is that, 
 when properly treated, they get sufficiently fat 
 and attain to remunerative weights at, or even 
 under, two years old. If they are kept lean 
 until they have reached that age, their peculiar 
 excellence is lost. From the largeness of their 
 frame they then cost more money, consume 
 more food, and yet do not fatten more rapidly 
 than bullocks of slower growing and more com- 
 pactly formed breeds. It is thus the grazier fre- 
 quently gives his verdict in favor of Herefords as 
 compared with Short-Horns. Even under this 
 mode of management Short-Horns will usually 
 yield at least as good a return as their rivals to 
 tJtc breeder and grazier conjointly. But if fully 
 fed from their birth so as to bring into play their 
 peculiar property of growing and fattening simul- 
 taneously, they will yield a quicker and better 
 return for the food consumed by them than 
 cattle of any other breed. These remarks apply 
 equally to another breed closely allied to the 
 Herefords. viz.. 
 
 The North Devons, so much admired for their 
 pleasing color, sprightly gait and gentle temper, 
 qualities which fit them beyond all other cattle 
 for the labor of the field. If it could be proved 
 that ox-povver is really more economical than 
 horse-power for any stated part of the work of 
 the farm, then the Devons, which form such ad- 
 mirable draught-oxen, would be deserving of 
 general cultivation. It is found, however, that 
 when agriculture reaches a certain stage of pro- 
 gress, ox-labor is inadequate to the more rapid 
 and varied operations that are called for, and has 
 to be superseded by that of horses. 
 
 Scotch Breeds. — These indigenous breeds of 
 heavy cattle are for the most part black and 
 hornless. Prominent among them are the Aber- 
 deen, the Angus and the Galloway. Thesp are 
 all valuable breeds, being characterized by good 
 milking and grazing qualities, and by a hardiness 
 which peculiarly adapts them to a bleak climate. 
 Cattle of these breeds, when they have attained 
 to three years old, fatten very rapidly, acquire 
 great size and weight of carcass, and yield beef 
 unsurpassed in quality. 
 
 The cows of these breeds, when coupled with 
 a Short-Horn bull, produce an admirable cross- 
 breed, which combines largely the good qualities 
 of both parents. The great saving of time and 
 food which is effected by the earlier maturity of 
 the cross-breed has induced a very extensive 
 adoption of this practice in all the north-eastern 
 counties of Scotland. Such a system is neces- 
 sarily inimical to the improvement of the pure 
 native breeds; but when cows of the cross-breed 
 are continuously coupled with pure Short-Horn 
 bulls, the progeny in a few generations becomes 
 assimilated to the male parent, and are charac- 
 
 terized by a peculiar vigor of constitution and 
 excellent milking yield in the cows. With such 
 native breeds to work upon, and this aptitude to 
 blend thoroughly with the Short-Horn breed, it 
 is much more profitable to introduce the latter in 
 this gradual way of continuous crossing than at 
 once to substitute the one pure breed for the 
 other. The cost of the former plan is much 
 less, as there needs but the purchase from time 
 to time of a good bull, and the risk is incom- 
 parably less, as the stock is acclimatized from 
 the first, and there is no danger from a wrong 
 selection. The greater risk of miscarriage in 
 this mode of changing the breed is from the 
 temptation to which, from mistaken economy, 
 the breeder is exposed of rearing a cross-bred 
 bull himself, or purchasing a 'merely nominal 
 Short-Horn bull from others. 
 
 The Ayrshires stand in the front rank in Great 
 Britain, as profitable dairy cattle. From the 
 pains which have been taken to develop their 
 milk-yielding power, it is now of the highest 
 order. Persons conversant only with grazing 
 cattle cannot but be surprised at the strange 
 contrast between an Ayrshire cow in full milk 
 and the forms of cattle which they have been 
 used to regard as most perfect. Her wide pelvis, 
 deep flank and enormous udder, with its small 
 wide-set teats, seem out of all proportion to her 
 fine bone and slender fore-quarters. The breed 
 possess little merit for grazing purposes. Useful 
 results are obtained by crossing these cows with 
 a Short-Horn bull, and this practice is gaining 
 ground. But the function of the Ayrshire cattle 
 is the dairy. For this they are unsurpassed, 
 either as respects the amount of produce yielded 
 by them in proportion to the food which they 
 consume, or the faculty which they possess of 
 converting the herbage of poor exposed soils, 
 such as abound in their native district, into 
 butter and cheese of the best quality. 
 
 The Suffolk fluns.— These are a polled breed of 
 cattle, the prevailing color of which is dun or 
 pale red. for whose dairy produce the county of 
 Suflfolk has long been celebrated. They have a 
 strong general resemblance to the Scotch polled 
 cattle, but nevertheless seem indigenous to Suf- 
 folk. They ate ungainly in their form and of 
 little repute with the grazier, but possess an un- 
 doubted capacity of yielding a large quantity of 
 milk in proportion to the food which they con- 
 sume. They are now encroached upon by, and will 
 probably give place to, the Short-Horns, by which 
 they are decidedly excelled for the combined 
 purposes of the dairy and the fattening-stall. 
 
 The Jerseys. — Four little islands lie off the 
 north-west coast of France near Cherbourg, 
 called the Channel Islands, belonging to Great 
 Britain, the only parts of Normandy she has left. 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 227 
 
 These islands are four, Jersey, Guernsey, Alder- 
 ney and Sark, the last a very small one, and the 
 whole group has an area of only 73 square miles, 
 and a population in 1871 of a little more than 
 90,000. Yet from this little group come the 
 names Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey, names as 
 familiar as household words in cattle and dairy 
 matters. These cattle are so remarkable for the 
 choice quality of the cream and butter obtained 
 from their rather scanty yield of milk, that they 
 are eagerly sought after for private dairies, in 
 which quality of produce is more regarded than 
 quantity. The rearing of heifers for the English 
 market is of such importance to these islands 
 that very stringent regulations hiive been 
 adopted for insuring the purity of their peculiar 
 breed. These cattle in general are utterly worth- 
 less for the purposes of the grazier. The choicer 
 specimens of the Jersey have a certain deer-like 
 torm which gives them a pleasing aspect. In 
 fact, in their native island there is a tradition 
 that ascribes their progenitors to some mysteri- 
 ous cross with a deer, and their large, round, 
 lustrous eyes lend credence to the conjecture. 
 The race, as a whole, bear striking resemblance 
 to the Ayrshires, which are alleged to owe their 
 peculiar excellences to an early admixture of 
 Jersey blood. 
 
 The Jersey cattle will claim large attention 
 under Cattle in the United States. 
 
 The Kyloes, or West Highland cattle, are a moun- 
 tain breed, widely diffused over the Highlands of 
 Scotland, but are found in the greatest perfection 
 in the larger Hebrides. Well-bred oxen of this 
 breed, when of mature growth and in good con- 
 dition, exhibit a symmetry of form and noble 
 bearing unequaled among British cattle. Al- 
 though somewhat slow in arriving at maturity. 
 they are contented with the coarsest fare, and 
 ultimately get fat where the daintier Short- 
 Horns could barely exist. Their hardy constitu- 
 tion, thick mellow hide, and shaggy coat, pecu- 
 liarly adapt them for a cold humid climate and 
 coarse pasturage. The milk of these cows is 
 very rich, but as they yield it in small quantity, 
 and soon go dry, they are unsuited for the dairy, 
 and are kept almost solely for the purpose of 
 suckling each her own calf. The calves are 
 generally housed during the first winter, but 
 after that they shift for themselves out of doors 
 t4ie whole year round. Vast droves of these 
 cattle are annually transferred to the lowlands, 
 where they are in request for their serviceable- 
 ness in consuming profitably the produce of 
 coarse pastures and the leavings of daintier 
 stock. When of a dun or tawny color, they have a 
 picturesque look grazing in a park with deer. 
 There is a strong fatnily likeness between them 
 and the 
 
 Welsh Cattle, which is what might be expected 
 from the many features, physical and historical, 
 which the two provinces have in common. Al- 
 though the cattle of Wales are obviously, as a 
 whole, of common origin, they are yet ranged 
 into several groups, which owe their distinctive 
 features either to peculiarities of soil and 
 climate or to intermixture with other breeds. 
 The Pembrokes may be taken as the type of the 
 mountain groups. These are hardy cattle, which 
 thrive on scanty pasturage and in a humid cli- 
 mate. They excel the West Highlanders in this 
 respect, that they make good dairy cattle, the 
 cows being peculiarly adapted for a small farmer's 
 purposes. When fattened they yield beef of ex- 
 cellent quality. Their prevailing and most es- 
 teemed color is black, with deep orange on the 
 naked parts. The Anglcsea cattle are larger and 
 coarser than the Pembrokes, and those oi Mo'io- 
 tift/i and the higher districts are smaller and 
 inferior to them in every respect. The county 
 of Glamorgan possesses a peculiar breed, bearing 
 its name, which has long been in estimation for 
 combined grazing and dairy purposes. It has 
 latterly been so much encroached upon by Here- 
 fords and Short Horns that there seems some 
 likelihood of its becoming extinct, which will be 
 cause for regret unless pains are taken to occupy 
 its place with cattle not inferior to it in dairy 
 qualities. 
 
 The Shetland Cattle are the most diminutive in 
 the world. The carcass of a Shetland cow, when 
 fully fattened, scarcely exceeds in weight that of 
 a long-wooled wether. These little creatures 
 are, however, excellent milkers in proportion to 
 their size ; they are very hardy, are contented 
 with the scantiest pasturage, come early to ma- 
 turity, are easily fattened, and their beef surpasses 
 that of all other breeds for tenderness and deli- 
 cacy of flavor. The diminutive cows of this 
 breed are not unfrequently coupled with Short- 
 Horn bulls, and the progeny from such apparently 
 preposterous unions not only possess admirable 
 fattening qualities.but approximate in bulk to their 
 sires. Thesecuriousand handsome little creatures, 
 apparently of Scandinavian origin, are so peculi- 
 arly fitted to the circumstances of their bleak and 
 stormy habitat, that the utmost pains ought to 
 be taken to preserve the breed in purity, and to 
 improve it by judicious treatment. 
 
 HOLSTEIN CATTLE. 
 Their Habitat. — John Weiss tells of "the way in 
 which the Dutch people were prepared to main- 
 tain liberty of thought and worship. A poor 
 Frisian race was selected, and kept for centuries 
 up to its knees in the marshes through which 
 the Rhine emptied and lost itself. Here it lived 
 in continual conflict with the Northern Ocean, 
 
228 
 
 THE I'KIKND OF ALL. 
 
 forced literally to hold the tide at arm's length, 
 while a few acres of dry land might yield a scanty 
 subsistence." From the land thus rescued from 
 the German Ocean, come the cattle known as 
 Dutch, Dutch-Frisian, and Holstein, the latter 
 name being perhaps that most generally em- 
 ployed. The Holstein Herd-Book affirms that 
 " the present large improved black-and-white 
 cattle of North Holland, Friesland and Olden- 
 burg, which all possess the same general charac- 
 teristics, yet present in the different localities 
 some slight dissimilarity, and have perhaps been 
 brought to the highest degree of perfection in 
 the first-named province, undoubtedly descended 
 from the original stock of Holstein." 
 
 In the Seventeenth Century. — In this century, as 
 represented by Motley in his History of the 
 United Netherlands, the cattle interest in Hol- 
 land had become of prime importance to the 
 people, and was in the most thrifty condition. He 
 says : " On that scrap of solid ground, rescued 
 by human energy from the ocean, were the most 
 fertile pastures in the world. An ox often weighed 
 more than two thousand pounds. The cows pro- 
 duced two or three calves at a time, and the 
 sheep four or five lambs. In a single village, four 
 thousand kine were counted. Butter and cheese 
 were exported to the annual value of a million ; 
 salted provisions to an incredible extent. The 
 farmers were industrious, thriving and indepen- 
 dent. It is an amusing illustration of the agri- 
 cultural thrift and republican simplicity of this 
 people that on one occasion a farmer proposed 
 to Prince Maurice that he should marry his 
 daughter, promising with her a dowry of a hun- 
 dred thousand florins." And one can well ima- 
 gine that the farmer's daughter, when the august 
 head of John of Barneveldt rolled from the heads- 
 man's axe, rejoiced that her blood had not been 
 mingled witli that of Maurice : in this and other 
 transactions anything but a Prince. 
 
 In the Nineteenth Century, and at Home. — Prof. 
 Roberts, before the New York Dairyman's Asso- 
 ciation, says : "I had the good fortune, during 
 the past summer, to spend some time in North 
 Holland and Friesland, a country usually ignored 
 by the tourist, though full of instructive sights 
 and quaint old customs. Here in ancient grass- 
 bottomed lakes, snatched from the inroads of 
 the sea, by the greatest skill and labor the world 
 has ever known, I found the ideal milk-producer. 
 Situated in a level,' rich, moist country well 
 adapted to the production of forage-grasses, 
 with a climate cool but equable in summer, but 
 raw, windy and cold in winter ; here, favored yet 
 unfavored by nature, these clean, plain, intelligent 
 Dutch have reduced to a science the economical 
 production of milk. Of course this could not be 
 done without a good cow ; and i/ anywhere on 
 
 the face of the globe there exists a race of iimformfy 
 good milkers, the Dutch have them. I care not 
 what a man's prejudices be, whether an admirer 
 of the fawn-eyed Jersey, or (like myself) of that 
 grand old breed the Short-Horn, the stately Here- 
 ford or the piebald Ayrshire, if he really admire 
 a good cow, he cannot help falling in love with 
 the picturesque Holstein, as seen in its native 
 pastures in the north countries. He may return 
 to his American home and conclude that his cir- 
 cumstances are better adapted to some other 
 breed, but he will ever after speak of them only 
 with praise. 
 
 " I have said they were a race of good milkers ; 
 and I think I have not put it too strong when I 
 say truthfully, that neither from Beemster Polder 
 northward, nor in Friesland, did I see what 
 might be called a poor cow or an old cow, 
 though I saw many hundreds. 
 
 " Here is a people, occupying lands which are 
 seldom sold for less than five hundred dollars per 
 acre, more frequently for a thousand, and up- 
 wards, producing butter and cheese, and placing 
 it on the European market in successful compe- 
 tition with that produced on lands of less than a 
 tenth of their value. With these facts staring us 
 in the face it looks quite possible that we might 
 learn something of more economical production, 
 from these miscalled dumb Dutch, notwithstand- 
 ing they still cut their grass by hand, have no 
 tongues or thills to their farm-wagons, and wear 
 wooden shoes. Without a herd-book, till quite 
 recently, and without any great leaders or im- 
 provers in cattle-breeding as found in Bakewell, 
 Colling, Bates and Booth of England, these quiet 
 people have, by common sense and universal 
 methods, long since formed a distinct breed of 
 cattle that surpasses, in their locality, all others 
 so far as tried. Jerseys have been introduced, but 
 cannot secure a footing. Here and there at long 
 intervals we find an effort has been made to im- 
 prove by a cross of the English bull, but, so far 
 as I could learn, deterioration in milking qualities 
 has resulted with but slight compensating im- 
 provement in beef qualities. The details of the 
 ancient breeding and management of the Hol- 
 steins have not been handed down to us, as that 
 of the Short-Horns ; but from the location and 
 habits of the people we may fairly infer that they 
 differed but slightly if at all from those of modern 
 times. Having unusually fine facilities, I trie^J 
 to study carefully their present methods, and also 
 their results. 
 
 " In the first place, but few bulls are kept, and 
 these but for two or three years at most, when 
 they are sold in the market for beef. These 
 bulls are selected with the utmost care, invariably 
 being the calves of the choicest milkers. But 
 little attention is paid to fancy points or color. 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 229 
 
 though dark spotted is preferred to light spotted, 
 though more attention is now being paid to 
 color in order to suit American customers. All 
 other bull-calves with scarce an exception are 
 sold as veals, bringing about one and a half times 
 as much as with us. In like manner the heifer 
 calves are sold except about twenty per cent, 
 which are also selected with care and raised on 
 skimmed milk. The age of the cow is usually 
 denoted by the number of her calves, and in no 
 case did I find a cow that had had more than six 
 calves, usually only four or five. Their rule is to 
 breed so that the cow's first calf is dropped in the 
 stable before the dam is two years old, in order 
 that extra care and attention may be given. 
 There are other objects gained by this method; 
 for should the heifer fall below their high stan- 
 dard she goes to the butcher before another win- 
 tering, and though she brought little profit to the 
 dairy she will more than pay for her keeping, at 
 the block. 
 
 " Here we find a threefold method of selection. 
 First, in the sire; second, in the young calf, 
 judged largely by the milking qualities of the 
 dam ; and lastly is applied the greatest of all 
 tests, performance at the pajl ; and not till she 
 answers this satisfactorily is she accorded a per- 
 manent place in the dairy. 
 
 " The cows, no matter how good, are seldom 
 kept till they become ' old worn-out shells,' val- 
 ueless for beef, and not fit to propagate their 
 kind, but are sold for beef while they are vigorous 
 enough to put on flesh, profitable alike to pro- 
 ducer and consumer, and of no mean quality. I 
 ate it for three weeks, and the English beef for 
 two, and while not so fat as the Short-Horn, it 
 was to my taste superior. 
 
 " My experience is not extended enough tc 
 justify me in saying that they are the best breed 
 for us, all things considered, but I believe them 
 to be." 
 
 Requirements a1 Home. — " The principles on which 
 they practice, in selecting a cow to breed from, 
 are as follows : She should have considerable 
 size, not less than four and a half or five feet 
 girth, with a length of body corresponding ; legs 
 proportionately short ; a finely formed head, with 
 a forehead or face somewhat concave ; clear_ 
 large, mild and sparkling eyes, yet with no ex- 
 pression of wildness ; tolerably large and stout 
 ears, standing out from the head ; fine, well- 
 curved horns ; a rather short than long, thick, 
 broad neck, well set against the chest and with- 
 ers ; the front part of the chest and the shoulders 
 must be broad and fleshy ; the low-hanging dew- 
 lap must be soft to the touch ; the back and loins 
 must be properly projected, somewhat broad, the 
 bones not too sharp, but well covered with flesh ; 
 the animal should have long curved ribs, which 
 
 form a broad breast-bone ; the body must be 
 round and deep, but not sunken into a hanging 
 belly ; the rump must not be uneven ; the hip- 
 bones should not stand out too broad and spread- 
 ing, but all the parts should be level and well 
 filled up; a fine tail, set moderately high up, and 
 tolerably long but slender, with a thick, bushy 
 tuft of hair at the end, hanging down below the 
 hocks ; the legs must be short and low, but strong 
 in the bony structure ; the knees broad, with flexi- 
 ble joints; the muscles and sinews must be firm 
 and sound ; the hoof broad and flat, and the 
 position of the legs natural, not tbo close and 
 crowded ; the hide, covered with fine, glossy hair, 
 must be soft and mellow to the touch, and set 
 loose upon the body. A large, rather long, white 
 and loose udder, extending well back, with four 
 long teats, serves, also, as a characteristic mark 
 of a good milch-cow. Large and prominent milk- 
 veins must extend from the navel back to the 
 udder; the belly of a good milch-cow should not 
 be too deep and hanging." 
 
 THE ESCUTCHEON, OR MILK-MIRROR. 
 
 Francois Guenon, a native of Libourne, France, 
 who became a cattle-dealer in 1822, discovered 
 and perfected a system" for learning the value of 
 a cow as a milker, by observing her escutcheon, 
 or milk-mirror, as it is often called, extending, in 
 the best animals, from the root of the tail, down 
 over the udder and behind the thighs. In 1837 
 the Agricultural Society of Bordeaux appointed 
 a committee to investigate the worth of this sys- 
 tem. That committee reported : 
 
 " Every cow subjected to examination was sepa- 
 rated from the rest. What M. Guenon had to say 
 in regard to her was taken down in writing by 
 one of the committee; and immediately after, the 
 proprietor, who had kept at a distance, was inter- 
 rogated, and such questions put to him as would 
 tend to confirm or disprove the judgment pro- 
 nounced by M. Guenon. In this way we have 
 examined in the most careful manner — note being 
 taken of every fact and every observation made by 
 any one present — upwards of sixty cows and hei- 
 fers ; and we are bound to declare that every state- 
 ment made by M. Guenon, with respect to each of 
 them, whether it regarded the quantity of milk, 
 or the time during which the cow continued to 
 give milk after being got with calf, or, finally, the 
 quality of the milk as being more or less creamy 
 or serous, was confirmed, and its accuracy fully 
 established. The only discrepancies which oc- 
 curred were some slight differences in regard to 
 quantity of milk ; but these, as we afterwards 
 fully satisfied ourselves, were caused entirely by 
 the food of the animal being more or less 
 abundant." 
 
 Their conclusion is now substantially accepted. 
 
230 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 The system must be applied "with brains, sir;" 
 and so applied It has come to be of the greatest 
 value to the seeker for milk. 
 
 Guenon claimed for his system that it deter- 
 mined : 
 
 1. The quantity of milk which a cow would 
 yield. 
 
 2. The period which she would continue in 
 milk. 
 
 3. The quality of her milk. 
 
 His description of the escutcheon is: "This 
 mark consists of the figure, on the posterior parts 
 of the animal, formed by the meeting of tiie hair 
 that grows or points in different directions, the 
 line of junction of these difYerent.growths of hair 
 
 'X^Mh/xJ'^-- 
 
 Escutcheon of Ladv Midwould, imported from North 
 Holland, bv Winthrop W. Chenery. 
 
 constituting the outline of the figure, or escutch- 
 eon. His system exhibits 27 different diagrams 
 of varying grades of milking qualities, each grade 
 with what he calls a " bastard " escutcheon. He 
 uses this word "to denote those cows which give 
 milk only so long as they have not been got in 
 with calf anew, and which, upon this happening, 
 go dry all of a sudden or in the course of a few 
 days. Cows of this kind are found in each of the 
 classes, and in every order of the class. Some of 
 them are great milkers, but, so soon as they have 
 got with calf, their milk is gone. Others present 
 the most promising appearance, but their yield is 
 very insignificant." 
 
 The hair indicating a good milker turns up- 
 ward, is short and fine, and presents peculiar oval 
 marks, or scurf-spots. The skin over this whole 
 surface is easily raised, and is especially soft and 
 fine in good milkers. Guenon 's theory is that 
 the more that upward growth of hair extends 
 outward from the udder and inner parts of the 
 thighs, and upward towards the urinary passage 
 from the bladder, the better milker the cow is ; 
 and as the hair fails to extend upward and out- 
 ward, in these directions, the less is she a good 
 milker. 
 
 The rationale of the system, according to an- 
 other French authority, /"ro/. Magne, of Alfort, is: 
 
 " The relations e.Kisting between the direction 
 of the hair of the perinseum, and the activity of 
 the milky glands, cannot be disputed. Large 
 lower tufts are marks of good cows, whereas tufts 
 near the vulva are observed on cows which dry 
 up shortly after they are again in calf. 
 
 "But what is the cause of these relations.' 
 What connection can there be between the hair 
 of the perinaeum and the functions of the milky 
 glands.' The direction of the hair is subordinate 
 to that of the arteries ; when a large plate of hair 
 is directed from below, upward, on the posterior 
 face of the udder, and on the twist, it proves that 
 the arteries which supply the milky system are 
 large, since they pass backwards beyond it, con- 
 vey much blood, and consequently give activity 
 to its functions. Upper tufts, placed on the sides 
 of the vulva, prove that the arteries of the genera- 
 tive organs are strongly developed, reach even to 
 the skin, and give great activity to those organs. 
 The consequence is, that after a cow is again in 
 calf, they draw off the blood which was flowing 
 to the milky glands, lessen, and even stop the 
 secretion of milk. 
 
 "In the bull, the arteries, corresponding to the 
 mammary arteries of the cow, being intended 
 only for coverings of the testicles, are very 
 slightly developed ; and there, accordingly, the 
 escutcheons are of small extent." 
 
 While many dispute the value of the system in 
 its entirety, and even adduce instances in which 
 the facts seem diametrically opposed to the 
 theory of M. Guenon, the general verdict is, that, 
 like phrenology, there is a great deal in it, and 
 that the escutcheons of both cows and bulls pre- 
 sent evidence which no intelligent farmer or 
 breeder can afford to disregard. The investiga- 
 tion has been from the start a fascinating one; 
 and any reader who will go into it, studying the 
 system in all the lights he can have access to, and 
 trying it by all the facts within his reach, will 
 find that the interest will not diminish as he 
 goes on. 
 
BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 23 X 
 
 BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 "r^r^^.-^-tmv^. 
 
 Cow Echo. No. 121. H. H. B. 
 
 Working Oxen. — There are five distinct purposes 
 for which cattle are bred and used here : for 
 Working Oxen, for Beef, for Milk, for Butter and 
 for Cheese or. taking the last three as one class. 
 for work, for beef, and for the dairy. That their 
 use as working oxen is the least important in- 
 dustry is an open conclusion, and the U. S. Cen- 
 sus proves it thus : 
 
 Year. Horses. Mules and Asses. Working Cattle. 
 
 1850 4,336,719 5S°,33i ii7°o.744 
 
 i860 6,249,174 1,151,148 2,254,911 
 
 1870 71I4S.370 1,125.415 1.319.271 
 
 j88o 10,357,483 1,812,808 9q3,84r 
 
 So that in 1850, with a population of 23,191,876, 
 there was i horse to every J.3J, i mule or ass to 
 every 44, and i working ox to every 13! inhabi- 
 tants. In 1880. with a population of 50.155,783, 
 there was i horse to every 5 nearly, i mule or 
 ass to 27.6, and i working ox to every 50-1- inha- 
 bitants. In 1850 New York led off with 17S.909, 
 and Missouri followed with 112,168; in i860 
 Texas led off with 172,492. followed by Missouri 
 with 166,588; in 1870 Texas again led off, but 
 with the reduced number of 132,407, still fol- 
 lowed by Missouri, which had fallen to 65,825; 
 and in 18S0 Texas again leads, but with only 
 90,502, a little more than half its number twenty 
 years before, although its population had in- 
 creased in the same time from 604,215 to 1.591,- 
 749. In i88o Alabama ranks second with 75,534- 
 
 Other Cattle. 
 
 Total Beef. 
 
 9,693,069 
 
 - 17,778,907 
 
 "4.779.373 
 
 25,020,019 
 
 13,566,005 
 
 23,820,608 
 
 22,488,550 
 
 35,925,511 
 
 I The working oxen industry is manifestly dwin- 
 dling. Still nearly one million animals thus de- 
 voted in 18S0 is in itself a large number. And a 
 working ox disappears into a beef carcass with 
 even greater promptness than a milch-cow. 
 
 Beef. — The census divides into Working-Oxen, 
 Milch-Cows, and Other Cattle. But as the three 
 merge at last, with insignificant exceptions, into 
 Beef, we will give the story for the same period, 
 from 1850 to 1S80: 
 
 Year. Milch-Cows. 
 
 1850 6,385,094 
 
 i860 8,585,735 
 
 1870 8,935,332 
 
 1880 12,443,120 
 
 In 1850 there was a beef creature to about i^ 
 mhabitants ; in 1880, a beef creature to each 1.4 
 nearly — almost exactly the same proportion. 
 In "other cattle," New York led off in 1850 with 
 767,406, followed by Ohio with 749,067 ; in i860, 
 Texas, which 10 years before had only 61,018, 
 had gone to the front with 2,761,736, followed by 
 Illinois with 970,799, and California with 948,731 ; 
 in 1870 Texas kept the lead with 2,933,588, fol- 
 lowed by Illinois with 1,055,499; in 1880 Texas 
 still led with 3,387,927, followed by Iowa with 
 1,755,343, Illinois with 1,515,063, Missouri with 
 1,410,507, Ohio with 1,084,917, and Kansas with 
 1,015,935 ; no other State reaching a million. 
 The Dairy. — Although every animal kept for 
 
232 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 dairy purposes is in the direct road to the sham- 
 bles, still the path is interesting and often long, 
 and the milch-cow occupies a place in the public 
 eye and thought, not to say stomach, not ac- 
 corded to the mere beef. The Census of the 
 dairy interest for the same period is as follows, 
 the number of milch-cows having already been 
 given : 
 
 Year. Butter. Cheese. Milk Sold. 
 
 Pounds. Pounds. Gallons. 
 
 1850 3I3.345.6°6 I°5i535.893 
 
 1S60 459,681,372 103,663,927 
 
 1870 514,092,683 53.49^.153 '35.500.S99 
 
 1880 777.250,287 27,272,489 530,129,755 
 
 That is, in 1850 there were made about 13J 
 pounds of butter and nearly 4j pounds of cheese 
 for each person; in 1880 there were made about 
 15^ pounds of butter and a shade over half a 
 pound of cheese for each person. "Milk sold" 
 bears no appreciable proportion to milk used. 
 In Butter production. New York led oflf in 1850 
 with 79,766,694 pounds, followed by Pennsylvania 
 with 39,878,418 pounds; in i860 New York still 
 led with 103,097,289 and followed again by Penn- 
 sylvania with 58,653,511 pounds; in 1870 the 
 same two States remain at the head in the same 
 order with 107,147,526 and 60,834,644 pounds 
 respectively; and in 1880 our old friends are still 
 there, New York at the head with 111,922,423 
 and Pennsylvania with 79,336,012 pounds. St. 
 Lawrence was the banner Butter county of New 
 York, showing in 1870, 8,419,695, and in 1880, 
 6,973,020 pounds. But as St. Lawrence has an 
 area of 2900 square miles, her return in 1880 
 shows about 2405 pounas to the square mile, 
 while Franklin County, Vt., returns in 1880 
 4,066,240, or an average of 6465 pounds to each 
 of its 629 square miles. 
 
 THE HEREFORDS. 
 
 This breed is a great favorite in the United 
 States, and especially in the West, for working 
 oxen and for beef. The first importation of them 
 was made by Henry Clay, in 1816 or 1817, who 
 put two pair of them upon his farm at Ashland, 
 Ky., where they were allowed to run out, Mr. 
 Clay shortly afterwards becoming a breeder of 
 Short-Horns. 
 
 The Importation of 1840. — L. F. Allen writes : 
 " The largest known importation of Herefords 
 into the United States was made about the year 
 1840, upward of 20 in number, by an English- 
 man, into the City of New York, and taken to 
 Jefferson County, of that State. A year or two 
 afterwards the bulk of the herd were removed to 
 the farm of Mr. Erastus Corning, near Albany, 
 N. Y., and some of them went into Vermont, 
 where they were for some years bred, sold and 
 scattered. While the stock were at his farm, Mr. 
 Corning sent their importer out again to Eng- 
 
 land to purchase more animals, which safely ar- 
 rived, and were added to the herd. They were 
 then successfully bred for several years, many 
 sales made into different and distant parts of the 
 United States, and they acquired considerable 
 popularity. The herd was subsequently divided. 
 
 Hereford Bull. 
 
 Mr. Corning retaining his share, and his partner 
 taking his away, where they ran out. Mr. Corning 
 retained his herd at his farm, where he has suc- 
 cessfully bred, and made sales from them since; 
 and in the hands of his son, Mr. E. Corning, Jr., 
 who is more an amateur than a professed cattle- 
 breeder, added to by occasional importations 
 from England, they remain fine specimens of 
 their race. 
 
 "At different periods since 1840, importations 
 have been made into both the United States and 
 Canada, and scattered chiefly into the Western 
 States and Territories for crossing on the native 
 cows and rougher Texan ones for beef raising, as 
 well as breeding in their pure blood. They com- 
 mand ready sales and good prices, are high in 
 public favor, and add largely to the better quali- 
 ties of beef-production. They have a Herd-Book 
 of their own, and have taken an established 
 position in the broad grazing districts of the 
 country." 
 
 For Beef. — And Mr. Allen adds : " It is doubtful 
 
 Hereford Cow. 
 whether in early maturity for the shambles they 
 will equal the Short-Horns, now so universally 
 prevalent, but as they are active in movement. 
 
BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 233 
 
 they may better suit localities where the lym- 
 phatic temperament of the Short-Horns will not 
 so well enable them to range over wide distances 
 to gather their forage. Taken altogether, the 
 Herefords are a good breed of cattle, and will 
 undoubtedly maintain a high position among 
 our bovine varieties." 
 
 The Hereford Ox. — The Thompson Cyclopxdia 
 says : " As work oxen the Herefords are inferior 
 to the Devons, when activity is wanted, but 
 for heavy draft they have no superior, being 
 muscular, steady and patient at the yoke. Their 
 capacity for standing fatigue, and their constitu- 
 tional hardihood and resistance to cold, are in- 
 deed remarkable, and of late years they have 
 become great favorites with the ranchmen in the 
 far Western States and Territories. 
 
 •' The Hereford Cow. — The Hereford cow com- 
 pared with the ox is small and delicate, not 
 always handsomely made, to the superficial ob- 
 server, and shows its relationship to the Devon. 
 She carries but little flesh in breeding condition, 
 and when breeding, should not be fed so as to 
 accumulate much fat, for, in order that the young 
 be superior, the dam should have plenty of room 
 inside. With the Herefords, experience has 
 shown that the dam may not be too large or 
 coarse, but she should be roomy. Then the 
 breeder will get, even from apparently inferior 
 cows, large, handsome steers, that will fatten 
 early and kindly, and to great weights. When 
 the cow is done breeding, and ready for fatting, 
 she will spread out, and accumulate flesh and fat, 
 and this to a greater degree than if not allowed 
 to breed. 
 
 " The Herefords are a hardy, gentle race 
 maturing early, and long-lived. The flesh is 
 superior, handsomely marbled, heavy in the 
 prime parts, and they fatten to weights fully as 
 heavy as any known breed. 
 
 "Their massive strength, honesty and gentle- 
 ness make them the best working oxen known, 
 and the potency of the bulls, when crossed upon 
 the red or nearly red cows of the country, ren- 
 ders the steers easily matched in color, as also 
 in general characteristics of the progeny. 
 
 "Points of the Hereford. — In judging the Here- 
 fords as beef animals the same scale of points 
 may be adopted as for Short-Horns, except that 
 the Herefords are, if anything, more placid, closer 
 to the ground, heavier in appearance, and, as a 
 rule, thicker-meated than the present fashionable 
 Short-Horns." 
 
 SHORT-HORNS HERE. 
 
 A great stride in the improvement of Ameri- 
 can cattle was the importation of the Short- 
 Horns. Various spasmodic attempts at their 
 introduction had been made when in 1834 an 
 
 association of cattle-breeders in the Scioto Val- 
 ley, Ohio, sent an agent to England who pur- 
 chased the best animals he could find, imported 
 nineteen into Philadelphia, and drove them to 
 Ohio. Other importations were made by this 
 association and others, and in 1837 to 1839 a 
 great English breeder named Whittaker sent over 
 more than a hundred Short-Horns, which he sold 
 at auction at good prices. These animals went 
 into Pennsylvania, Ohio and Kentucky. In 
 1850 the herd of Thomas Bates was sold, and 
 the best of his choice stock fell into the hands of 
 Lord Ducie, already the owner of a noble herd. 
 He died, and in 1853 a peremptory sale of his 
 stock wa^ widely advertised. At this sale 
 Samuel Thorne, of Dutchess County, N. Y., bought 
 several of the best and highest-priced animals, 
 and added to them other choice animals from 
 other herds. These were brought over and bred 
 here, and with other importations and constant 
 and successful attempts at improvement, the 
 United States turned the scale, and has repeat- 
 edly sold to Englishmen Short-Horn stock to go 
 back. 
 
 The Campbell Sale. — Samuel Campbell, Esq., 
 of New York Mills, Oneida County, N. Y., fur- 
 nishes another illustration of the adage that " it 
 is the busiest man who has time." Although 
 the manager of the great mills which give the 
 place its name, he still had means, judgment, 
 enterprise and enthusiasm to devote to the breed- 
 ing of choice Short-Horn cattle, and held at his 
 place, September 10, 1873, a sale "of the entire 
 herd of pure-bred Short-Horns" on the farm. 
 This sale was the high-water mark of prices for 
 that description of cattle. His catalogue occu- 
 pied fifty pages, and gave a long pedigree of each 
 animal, some going back with twenty items. 
 This catalogue was kept in type, and, after the 
 sale, the name of each purchaser and the price 
 paid were appended at the foot of the pedigree 
 of each lot ; and to all was prefixed a 
 
 SUMMARY OF THE SALE. 
 
 Duchesses. 
 
 12 Cows and Heifers. Average, $19,937 Total, $239,250 
 3 Bulls. " 7,866 " 23,600 
 
 J5 
 
 $262,850 
 
 Ox/ords. 
 
 7 Cows and Heifers. Average, $4,514 Total, $31,600 
 
 2 Bulls. " 1,900 " 3,800 
 
 9 ' $3,933 $35,400 
 
 Other Skort-Horns. 
 73 Cows and Heifers. Average, $1,079 Total, $78,825 
 
 3,815 
 
 12 Bulls. 
 8s 
 
 317 
 $972 
 
 '82,640 
 
 109 Animals. General Average, $3,494 Total, $380,890 
 
234 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Here is the Catalogue's story of the animal 
 that brought the highest price: 
 
 19 8th Duchess of Geneva, red and white ; calved July 28, 1866 ; 
 
 got by 3d Lord Oxford (,22200), 
 X>am ist Duchess of Geneva by 2d Grand Duke (12961), 
 
 — Duchess 71st by Duke of Glo'ster (11382), 
 
 — Duchess 66th by 4th Duke of York (10167), 
 
 — Duchess 55th by 4th Duke of Northumberland (3649), 
 
 — Duchess 38th by Norfolk (2377), 
 
 — Duchess 33d by Belvedere (1706), ^ 
 
 — Duchess igth by 2d Hubback (1423), 
 
 — Duchess i2th by The Earl (646), 
 
 — Duchess 4th by Ketton 2d (710), 
 
 — Duchess 1st by Comet (155), 
 
 — Duchess by Favourite (252),— by Daisy Bull (i36),— by 
 
 Favourite (252),— by Hubback (319),— by J. Brown's Red 
 Bull (97). 
 
 Bulled June i, by 2d Duke of Oneida. 
 R. Pavin Davies, England $40,600 
 
 The total record of animals sold to go to Eng- 
 land was : 
 
 8th Duchess of Geneva $40,600 
 
 loth Duchess of Geneva 35tOoo 
 
 i2th Lady of Oxford 7,000 
 
 ist Duchess of Oneida 30,600 
 
 Atlantic Gwynne. 2,000 
 
 3d Duchess of Oneida.. . , 15,600 
 
 Lady Worcester 2,000 
 
 8th Duchess of Oneida 15^300 
 
 9th Duchess of Oneida 10,000 
 
 Prince Alfred 600 
 
 10 animals, averaging $15,870 $158,700 
 
 As Dairy Animals. — For years the Short-Horns 
 held a high, perhaps the highest, place in pubHc 
 favor. But such superior dairy qualities have been 
 
 Short-Horn Bull. 
 
 lately developed in other breeds, that the Short- 
 Horn has lost its lead for milk and butter. 
 Sixty-six pounds of milk a day was a high yield 
 for a Short-Horn cow abundantly fed, and milked 
 three times. But for beef, the Short-Horns still 
 deservedly rank high. Youatt and Martin re- 
 late that these cattle first attracted general 
 notice by the production of a Durham ox which 
 at 5 years old weighed 3024 pounds, was carried 
 around for years as a show, but dislocated his 
 hip at the age of 11 years, and was killed weigh- 
 ing 3780 pounds. And this weight, they say, 
 was not chargeable to his superior size, but to 
 'the excessive ripeness of his points." Allen 
 
 says : " It is held, as a flesh-producing animal, 
 that in early maturity, weight of meat, ripeness of 
 points, and giving the most flesh in the best 
 places, the great merit of the Short-Horn is 
 found. He who feeds cattle for the general 
 market wants the animal which makes the quick- 
 est and most profitable returns for the capital 
 invested and the food consumed. The Short- 
 Horn at three years, past, well fatted, is fit for 
 slaughter, equally with the Devon or Hereford at 
 the same age, or the Highland Scott or Galloway 
 at four years, or the 'native' at five or six years. 
 He is claimed by many to be a less feeder for his 
 weight. There may be truth in this, as he is less 
 active, and more inclined to take his rest, than 
 the lighter breeds, which are less sluggish in 
 their habits." 
 
 Proper Homes of the Short-Horns. — This very 
 characteristic of quietness and tendency to slug- 
 
 ''•ililPW^ii^iy*Bonny Belie K08e.li 
 
 Short-Horn Cow, 
 
 gishness, which so tells in their favor under cer- 
 tain conditions, is against them in certain others. 
 They must have abundant feed and good pas- 
 turage. Broken lands, with short grasses, do 
 not answer well with them. They need level or 
 gently undulating soils, with luxuriant grasses 
 upon them. On lean, hungry soils, with scanty 
 herbage, other breeds, such as the Devon, High- 
 land and Galloway, will do better. A cold 
 climate, in which they are well taken care of, 
 does not seem to disagree with them. Latitudes 
 from 40° to 45° north seem to suit them as 
 well as warmer ones, provided they have good 
 winter protection. The severe winters of the 
 North are no bar to their success. Wherever 
 the proper herbage will grow — blue grass, for 
 instance — they may be successfully raised; but 
 they must be taken care of. The New York 
 office of the Short-Horn Herd Book, and head- 
 quarters generally of that race of cattle, is at the 
 store of R. H. Allen & Co., 191 Water St. The 
 Secretary of the Club is Lewis F. Allen, Black 
 Rock, N. Y. 
 
 Rationale of Short Horns.— Proi. Hengerveld 
 says, in writing of the Dutch Frisian cattle: 
 "It is even supposed that the shortness of the 
 horns has a great deal to do with the fineness of 
 
BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 235 
 
 the shape. Though it may not be true in every 
 respect, yet theexquisiteness of form and quality 
 depends inucli upon the network of the horns 
 and the fineness of the hair. It may be shown 
 on physiological grounds that long horns take 
 away nutritive matter, especially azotic sub- 
 stances, to the great disadvantage of the bodily 
 development, and consequeritly to the production 
 of beef and milk. Breeders are therefore quite 
 right in paying particular attention to the short- 
 ness of the horns." 
 
 THE AYRSHIRES. 
 
 Allen says of these: "Their trial here has 
 been successful. They are hardy, healthy, well 
 fitted to our climate and pastures, and prove 
 good milkers both in the imported originals and 
 their progeny. Their flow of milk is good in 
 
 Ayrshire Bull. 
 
 •quantity and fair in quality; yet in this country 
 they do not yield so much in quantity as it is 
 alleged they have produced in Scotland. The 
 chief reason for this is obvious. Ayrshire has a 
 moist climate, an almost continuous drizzle of 
 rains or moisture pervading it. making fresh, 
 green pastures ; a cooler and more equable tem- 
 perature in summer, and warmer in winter than 
 ours. Our American climate is liable to ex- 
 tremes of cold in winter, heat in summer, and 
 protracted droughts, for weeks, drying up the 
 ■herbage. These differences alone account for a 
 ■diminished quantity in the yield of milk from 
 the Scotch to the American Ayrshires." And 
 he adds : " We have little doubt that the Ayr- 
 shires owe their chief qualities, both in milk as 
 well as in form and color, to their Short-Horn 
 progenitors on one side." 
 
 Their Claims in America. — Mr. T. S. Gold, of West 
 Cornwall, Conn.: "For the ability of Ayrshires 
 ■ to thrive on scanty pasturage, to pick a living, 
 for soundness of constitution and freedom from 
 any hereditary taints, for strength of blood, — i.e., 
 when graded upon other stock the powers of 
 imparting to the progeny in large degree their 
 own characteristics, — they have no superiors 
 among neat stock of any breed or of no breed. 
 Of compact form, fine in bone, and m all parts 
 
 of which the body is composed, there is no 
 waste of horn or bone, or superfluous flesh, to 
 build up, and maintain ; but these parts are all 
 balanced, forming a symmetrical whole that at 
 once commends itself to the lover of good cattle, 
 and even when his vision is dimmed and per- 
 verted by always looking for the fine red of the 
 Devon or the imposing form of the Durham, he 
 still sees in the Ayrsliire a very fine animal, if it 
 only had 2. good color, or if it was not lacking in 
 size. 
 
 " A word about the Ayrshires as workers. But 
 few in this State have been broken to the yoke; 
 but whenever this has been done, as far as my ex- 
 perience goes, they show great spirit as workers, 
 great endurance, all those qualities which we 
 esteem in working oxen. I have a pair of Ayr- 
 shire stags, six years old, that for three years 
 have been in the yoke almost every working day, 
 and that for their weight will out-pull anything 
 I have ever owned, I think I am safe in saying 
 that I have ever seen." 
 
 Some of their Mill( Records.—]. D. W. French, 
 North Andover, Mass., reports for nine years: 
 
 In 1874, 3 cows yielded 6934 lbs. milk. 
 
 1875, II " 
 
 6218 
 
 1876, 12 " 
 
 5310 
 
 1877, 12 " 
 
 5343 
 
 1878, 10 " 
 
 5316 
 
 1879, 13 " 
 
 " 5222 
 
 1880, 13 " 
 
 5720 
 
 1881, 17 " 
 
 " S°4' 
 
 1882, 18 " 
 
 " 5083 
 
 In 9 years. 109 Total, 50,189 
 
 " " " Average per cow, 4604 lbs. = 2141 qts. 
 
 He describes Roxanna as "one of the largest 
 producers, having yielded in one year more than 
 
 Ayrshire Cow. 
 
 8000 pounds, and in five years 17 tons, of milk. 
 The feed was moderate, intended to keep the 
 animals in good breeding condition rather than 
 to force a large milk record." " In summer the 
 feed has been pasturage; sometimes, in addition, 
 green fodder or shorts, on account of shortness 
 of feed from drought. In winter, the daily ration 
 was hay, eight quarts mangolds and four quarts 
 grain." 
 
236 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 C. M. Winslow, Brandon, Vt.. reports a herd 
 
 of 13 cows, summed up thus : 
 
 Average weight of cows 1°=° 
 
 •' *' ^' milk per cow for 1880 59*"^ 
 
 " " " " " " " i38i .'6176 
 
 " quarts " " " " " i38i 2889 
 
 or about 6030 pounds. He also reports single 
 year's records, of Queen of Ayr an average of 
 94044 pounds for six consecutive years after she 
 was ten years old ; Lily Dale. 8984 pounds in 366 
 days ; and two own sisters of Prince of Ayr, of 
 10,426 and 10,801 pounds. 
 
 Much larger yields of milk are reported from 
 Scotland than in the United States, a single 
 cow belonging to the Duke of Athol having 
 produced 13,456 pounds, or 1305 gallons. 
 
 But public interest attaches now especially to 
 two great leading classes. One of these is that 
 from the Channel Islands, at the head the Jerseys, 
 and affiliated with these, the Alderneys and the 
 Guernseys. The other comprises the breeds 
 from high latitudes in Western Europe, where 
 they are divided as Highland and Lowland, 
 the latter even as far north as Labrador, and 
 known here as Dutch Frisian and as Holstein. 
 
 The Secretary and Editor of the Association 
 of Ayrshire Breeders, is C. M. Winslow, Brandon, 
 Vermont. 
 
 POLLED CATTLE. 
 
 Allen says that in 1837 he saw a very fine 
 black, polled Galloway cow, at the General Hos- 
 pital, Philadelphia, but could not ascertain how 
 she came there. He goes on to tell how they 
 have become established in the United States: 
 
 "About the year 1S50, some enterprising Scotch 
 farmers made the first importations of Galloways 
 into the vicinity of Toronto, in Canada West. 
 They already had the Short-Horns there, of high 
 quality, imported many years before, and some of 
 them were kept and much liked by the same 
 farmers who brought out the Galloways. But 
 the latter were the cattle of their native land, 
 and they longed for, and sought, the cattle of 
 their native hills and heather. There must have 
 been several different importations, for in the 
 year 1857 we saw upwards of forty of them ex- 
 hibited by competing owners at a Provincial 
 agricultural show, at Brantford, and have since 
 met them in -equal numbers at other shows in 
 the Province. 
 
 " They were fine cattle — full, round, and comely 
 in form ; robust in appearance ; showing a ready 
 aptitude to take on flesh ; elastic to the touch ; 
 a good skin, with long, thick, wavy hair; of 
 placid look, and apparently kindly temper. In 
 addition to these good qualities, some of their 
 owners declared them to be 'good milkers.' But 
 their indications in that line did not show it, al- 
 
 though, in practice, there may have been excep- 
 tions to what we thought indicated an opposite 
 tendency. Their colors were black, generally, 
 although we found one or two dull reds, or duns, 
 and a brindle (black and red mixed), among them 
 — which colors, according to Youatt, are admis- 
 sible. Taken altogether, the cattle fully answered 
 his description. 
 
 " Within the last few years several importations 
 of the improved Galloway (now more usually 
 called Angus, and Aberdeen Polled, as they have 
 
 'l^i 
 
 Galloway Bull, 
 
 been for many years bred and improved in Aber- 
 deenshire and other eastern counties of Scotland) 
 have been made into the United States. The 
 first importation of particular note was made by 
 a Scottish gentleman, Mr. Grant, into Kansas, 
 who bred them with spirit and intelligence in 
 considerable numbers, and where they still re- 
 main in the hands of his successors. Crossed 
 on the native cows of that region, they have 
 
 Gai-lowav Cow. ^ 
 
 achieved a deserved reputation as beef-producers, 
 and are extending in demand for the broad ranches 
 of the West. 
 
 "Their main excellence is in beef production. 
 They are of full average size with our largest 
 common cattle, mature as early as the Herefords, 
 and in the absence 01 horns are by some preferred 
 as safer in transportation on the railroads to 
 distant city markets. The bulls have a remark- 
 able prepotency, like other distinct breeds, to 
 impress theircharacteristics on the miscellaneous- 
 bred native cows upon which they are used — a 
 
BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE U:;iTED STATES. 
 
 237 
 
 single cross making an individuality of appear- 
 ance and quality every way favorable to their 
 use. Tlie cows do not excel as milk-producers, 
 and will not be sought for dairy purposes. Their 
 milk, however, is rich in cream, and according to 
 the quantity yielded gives a satisfactory amount 
 of butter and cheese. They have established a 
 permanent reputation among the various breeds 
 which will be maintained in our future beef pro- 
 duction." 
 
 The Polled Angus. — These cattle have much of 
 the Galloway form, and they might be mistaken, 
 
 Abekdeen-Angus Bull. 
 
 one for the other, by an unaccustomed eye. 
 But the Angus are larger, longer in the leg, thin- 
 ner in the shoulder, and flatter in the side. They 
 are generally black or with a few white spots, 
 but often yellow, either brindled, dark red or 
 silver-colored yellow. That they are taking firm 
 root in this country, may be seen, among other 
 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus Cow. 
 
 indications, from a sale in Kansas City, Mo., 
 
 April II, 1883, where 
 
 10 Aberdeen or Angus cows sold for $6300 . 
 
 average, $630. 
 32 Aberdeen or Angus bulls sold for $15,955; 
 
 average. $498.59. 
 6 Aberdeen or Angus cows sold for $4560 ; 
 
 average, $760. 
 5 Aberdeen or Angus bulls sold for $2860; 
 
 average, $572. 
 19 Galloway cows and heifers sold for $10,370; 
 
 average. $545.79. 
 54 Galloway bulls sold for $27,440; average, 
 
 $508.14. 
 
 Some grade yearling polled bulls sold for $180 
 each ; and grade polled cows for $1 50 to $250, 
 
 At another three days' sale at the same place, 
 later in the same month, 
 14 Aberdeen-Angus cows and heifers sold for 
 
 $9260; an average of $661.42. 
 26 Aberdeen-Angus bulls sold for $11,325; aver- 
 age, $435-57- 
 II Aberdeen-Angus cows and heifers sold for 
 
 $10,505; average, $955. 
 47 Aberdeen-Angus bulls sold for $28,000; aver- 
 age, $595- 74- 
 60 Galloway cows and heifers sold for $24,100; 
 average, $401.66. 
 5 Galloway bulls sold for $2440; average, $488. 
 These figures we copy from two numbers of the 
 Breeder's Ga:::ette. Chicago, 111. An examination 
 of one number of that paper, and especially of its 
 advertising columns, will well repay any person 
 interested in the present and future of cattle, 
 horses, sheep and swine. 
 
 THE JERSEYS. 
 
 The pre-eminence of these cattle lies in the 
 amount and especially in the quality of the milk 
 yielded by their cows. Their breeders, while 
 willing sometimes to admit that other cows may 
 approach them in amount of milk, claim that in 
 the richness of their milk, the Jerseys are unsur- 
 passed. And here the reports seem to leave the 
 Alderneys and the Guernseys far behind the cows 
 of their sister-island. The best record of a 
 Guernsey cow that has reached the writer is that 
 of Mr. Ledyard's cow Elegante, who is credited 
 with about 60 pounds of milk in a day, and 19 to 
 19! pounds of butter in a week, with other cows 
 producing 16 to 18 pounds of butter in a week. 
 
 Echo Farm. — This most interesting and attrac- 
 tive dairy-farm was the subject of an instructive 
 article in Harper'' s Magasine for Oct. 1878. It 
 was originated by F. R. Starr, "a gentleman of 
 education, intelligence and wealth," who bought 
 a farm in Litchfield, Conn., about 1869 as a sum- 
 mer home, became interested in choice stock, and 
 Echo Farm was the outcome, devoted to Jerseys 
 as dairy stock; and the investment became, per- 
 haps unexpectedly to the owner, a profitable one. 
 Since that article was written, the business has 
 greatly increased, the farm and number of animals 
 enlarged, new buildings added, and the enterprise 
 is in the hands of the " Echo Farm Company, 
 Full -Blooded Jersey stock, entered in the 
 'American Jersey Cattle Club Herd Register,' 
 a Specialty." They deliver milk at ten cents a 
 quart and butter at one dollar a pound, to cus- 
 tomers in New York and Brooklyn daily, and 
 find ready sale for what they make. From this 
 farm comes the best accessible report of a yearly 
 yield of milk from Jersey cows, namely, Starr's 
 
238 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Locust, 9528 pounds. This is a comparatively 
 insignificant yearly milk record. But as there 
 are "deacons and deacons," so there is milk and 
 milk. When the question comes up. What cows 
 will produce the most butter? the Jerseys make 
 a magnificent showing. Conrad Wilson, in 
 Harper's Magazine, Jan. 1883, gives a list of the 
 butter yield for one year of 10 Jersey cows, the 
 highest with a record of 778 pounds, and the 
 lowest with 500, the aggregate of the 10 adding 
 5965 pounds of butter, or 596^ pounds per cow, 
 nearly \\\ pounds per week. 
 
 Greatest Yield of Butter in One Week. — June 28^ 
 1883, a seven days' test of tlie Jersey cow. Value 
 2d, No. 6844, owned by Watts & Seth, of Balti- 
 more, Md., was completed by a committee of the 
 Maryland Improved Live-Stock Breeders' Asso- 
 ciation, and Col. C. M. Weld, of New York, on 
 the part of the American Jersey Cattle Club. The 
 cow was milked at intervals of eight hours, yield- 
 ing 327 pounds of milk, from which was produced 
 25 pounds and 2\^ ounces of butter. The cow 
 was bred in New Jersey, and was purchased 
 last fall by her present owners for $2000. She is 
 pronounced the best butter-producing cow in the 
 United States. 
 
 Even with this showing, it is claimed that June 
 23, by the opening of a faucet, exactly 2 pounds 
 of milk were lost, which would have added 2f 
 ounces of butter, bringing the week's product 
 to 25 pounds 5y'j ounces. The weight of the 
 week's milk was 327 pounds, or 42^ pounds 
 per day ; and there was a pound of butter to 
 show for nearly 13 pounds of milk. Mr. Seth 
 writes : " As neither accurate weights nor mea- 
 sures were used, I am unable to say what amount 
 of food was given her. Of grain, she had corn 
 chop, bran, cotton-seed meal and linseed meal. 
 She was fed three times a day; morning and 
 evening corn, bran and cotton-seed, and at noon 
 a small quantity of linseed meal was substituted 
 in the place of the cotton-seed. For three nights 
 after the last milking she had a small quantity 
 of oatmeal gruel, made of, say, -| pound of dry 
 meal. Her green food consisted of cut clover 
 and orchard grass mixed, and oats and peas 
 mixed, on alternate days ; besides, she had 
 the run in the morning of about one acre 
 of old pasture that had been completely 
 grazed off this season. At night, she was put 
 into another lot of about one acre, mostly wood, 
 with a little orchard grass outside of the wood, 
 on which three cows, herself included, had been 
 running for three weeks. These runs were given 
 her for air, shade and water principally. Of 
 pasturage, strictly speaking, I have none, as I soil 
 my cattle entirely, and for the whole period she 
 was fed with reference to the preservation of 
 good health, hoping for as good a yield as was 
 
 consistent therewith." The weight of " 'Value 
 2d," was, at the time of this trial, 955 pounds. 
 
 The Jerseys To-day. — The American Encyclo- 
 pajdia of Agriculture says of them : " The butter 
 from the cows is very rich in cream and deep 
 yellow in color, so much so that a few cows in a 
 herd will decidedly change the color of the butter 
 of the whole herd. The percentage of cream to 
 milk varies from 18 to 25 per cent., and the pro- 
 portion of butter to cream varies from 3.70 to 
 8.07 in 100 parts. Twenty-six quarts per day has 
 been recorded as the product of an individual 
 cow, and 14 pounds of butter per week. Sixteen 
 quarts per day may be regarded as a good yield, 
 and when we take into consideration the light 
 
 Jersf.v Bull. 
 
 weight of the cow, and the fact that the milk will 
 yield from one sixth to one quarter of the richest 
 cream, we need not wonder that those gentle and 
 deer-like cattle have become universal favorites 
 as family cows. 
 
 Description. — Lewis F. Allen, the leading editor 
 of the Short-Horn Herd-Book, and probably not 
 unduly prejudiced in favor of any other breed: 
 " Beginning with the head, the most char- 
 acteristic feature, the muzzle, is fine; the nose 
 either dark brown or black, and occasionally a 
 yellowish shade, with a peculiar mealy, light- 
 colored hair, running up the face into a smoky 
 hue, when it gradually takes the general color of 
 the body. The face is slightly dishing, clean of 
 flesh, mild and gentle in expression ; the eye clear 
 and full, and encircled with a distinct ring of the 
 color of the nose ; the forehead bold ; the horn 
 short, curving inward, and waxy in color, with 
 black tips; the ear sizable, thin, and quick in 
 movement. The whole head is original, and 
 blood-like in appearance — more so than in any 
 other of the cattle race-.- reminding one strongly 
 of the head of our American elk. The ndck 
 is somewhat depressed — would be called ewe- 
 necked by some — but clean in the throat, with 
 moderate or little dewlap; the shoulders 
 are wide and somewhat ragged, with promi- 
 nent points, running down to a delicate arm. 
 
BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 239 
 
 and slender legs beneath. The ribs are fat, 
 yet giving sufficient play for good lungs; the 
 back depressed and somewhat hollow ; the 
 belly deep and large; the hips tolerably wide; 
 the rump and tail high; the loin and quarter 
 medium in length; the thigh thin and deep; 
 the twist wide, to accommodate a clean, good- 
 sized udder; the flanks medium ; the hocks, or 
 gambrel-joints, crooked ; the hind legs small ; the 
 udder capacious, square, set well forward, and 
 covered with soft, silky hair ; the teats fine, stand- 
 ing well apart and nicely tapering ; the milk- 
 veins prominent. On the whole she is a homely, 
 blood-like, gentle, useful little housekeeping body, 
 with a most kindly temper, loving to be petted, 
 and, like a pony with the children, readily be- 
 comes a great favorite with those who have her 
 about them, either in pasture, paddock, stable or 
 the lawn. The colors are usually light red or 
 fawn, occasionally smoky gray, and sometimes 
 black, mixed or splashed more or less with 
 white." 
 
 A Milk, not a Dairy Cow. — The American Farmer's 
 Pictorial Cyclopaedia of Live Stock sums up the 
 
 Jersey Cow. 
 
 matter : " In the strict sense of the word the 
 Jersey is not a dairy cow. She is essentially the 
 cow for rich milk, but not a cheese-maker; she 
 lacks size to give quantity in this respect. The 
 butter globules are not only larger than in other 
 breeds, but the covering, the film enveloping the 
 fat globules, is weaker. Hence the globules give 
 up the butter easily in churning. The cream is 
 also high-colored from the excess of yellow pig- 
 ment it contains. 
 
 " For the family requiring milk rich in cream 
 and butter, the Jerseys will always be desirable. 
 and, since they have taken kindly to our climate 
 in nearly every section of the Union, and even in 
 Canada, they have, from their docile and trac- 
 table dispositions, become universal favorites 
 where kindly treated. The bulls are not always 
 good-tempered, and hence require not only a 
 firm hand but careful management ; and the 
 cow, if abused, will by no means fail to resent 
 the brutal treatment." 
 
 Points. — The following scale was prepared for 
 the guidance of judges at agricultural fairs by 
 the American Jersey Cattle Club, adopted April 
 
 I, 1875: 
 
 Points- Counts. 
 
 1. Head small, lean and rather long 2 
 
 2. Face dished, broad between the eyes and narrow be- 
 
 tween the horns J 
 
 3. Muzzle dark, and encircled by a light color i 
 
 4. Eyes full and placid j 
 
 5. Horns small, crumpled and amber-color 3, 
 
 6. Ears small and thin ^ 
 
 7. Neck straight, thin, rather long, with clean throat, and 
 
 not heavy at the shoulders ^ 
 
 8. Shoulders sloping and lean; withers thin; breast neither 
 
 deficient nor beefy -, 
 
 9. Back level to the setting on of tail, and broad across 
 
 the loin . 
 
 4 
 
 10. Barrel hooped, broad and deep at the flank 8 
 
 II. Hips wide apart, and fine in the bone; rump long and 
 
 broad , 
 
 12. Thighs long, thin and wide apart ; with legs standing 
 
 square ; and not to cross in walking 4 
 
 13. Legs short, small below the knees, with small hoof 3 
 
 14. Tail fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch 3 
 
 15. Hide thin and mellow, with fine soft hair 4 
 
 16. Color of hide where the hair is, white; on udder and 
 
 inside of ears, yellow , e 
 
 17. Fore udder full in form, and running well forward 8 
 
 iS. Hind udder full in form, and well up behind 8 
 
 ig. Udder free from long hair, and not fleshy 5 
 
 20. Teats rather large, wide apart and squarely placed 6 
 
 21. Milk-veins prominent r 
 
 22. Escutcheon high and broad, and full on thighs 8 
 
 23. Disposition quiet and good-natured .*. 3 
 
 24. General appearance rather bony than fleshy 6 
 
 Perfection. 
 
 In judging heifers, omit Nos. 17. 18 and 21. 
 
 The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, omit- 
 ting Nos. 17, 18, 19 and 21, and making moderate allowance for 
 masculinity. 
 
 Note.— It is recommended that judges at fairs do not award 
 prizes to animals falling below the following minimum stan- 
 dard, viz.: cows, 70 counts; heifers, 55 counts; bulls, 50 counts. 
 
 Comparative Value of Points. — The gist of the 
 advice of the. Jersey Herd- Book : The highest 
 excellence of any milking cow lies in the udder. 
 This must not only be full in form, that is in 
 line with the belly, but it must not be cut off 
 square in front, like that of a goat. It should 
 be rounded, full, presenting great breadth behind, 
 and carried well up between the thighs. The 
 milk-veins should be full and carried well for- 
 ward toward the forelegs. If knotted and with 
 curves so much the better. 
 
 The tail is another essential point. Whatever 
 its size at the root, it miis/ be large and tapering, 
 and have a good switch of hair. 
 
 The chest should be broad and deep : this 
 shows good respiration, essential to feeding and 
 health. But in the dairy cow, especially when 
 viewed from before, there will be no appearance 
 of massiveness. On the contrary, she will give 
 an appearance of delicate fineness, and will look 
 large behind, swelling gradually from behind the 
 shoulders. She may not be closely ribbed, in 
 fact should not be close, only comparatively so. 
 
240 
 
 THE FRIEND OK ALL. 
 
 The best milkers, everywhere, will be found to 
 be rather loosely put together between the last 
 rib and the hips, and good milkers must be 
 roomy in the flank. 
 
 The hind quarters must be long from the 
 point of the rump to the hock, and well filled up; 
 yet this does not mean rounded and massive in 
 flesh ; on the contrary, the best milkers will be 
 rather lean and perhaps high-boned. Neverthe- 
 less the same animal, when out of milk and fat, 
 may fill up ; and perhaps present a fully rounded 
 contour, while yet possessing all the delicacy of 
 points characteristic of the high-bred dairy cow. 
 
 A cow may have large and heavy ears ; her 
 back may not be fully straight from the withers 
 to the top of the hips; her rump may be sloping; 
 her tail may not reach the hocks ; — all these are 
 defects, the latter a serious one, yet if the milk- 
 ing organs are super-excellent it will outweigh 
 all these. 
 
 The office of the American Jersey Cattle Club 
 is at 49 Cedar Street. New York; Thomas J. Hand, 
 Secretary. Headquarters of Guernsey Cattle 
 Club are at Farmington, Conn.; Edward Norton, 
 Secretary. 
 
 THE HOLSTEINS. 
 
 Theif Introduction //ere.-^Holstein cattle were 
 brought into this country about 1625 by the 
 "West India Company." In 1810 a bull and two 
 cows were brought over by William Jarvis, and 
 put on his farm in Weathersfield, Vermont. Al- 
 though they did well, they were allowed to mix 
 with other breeds, and to run out. Various im- 
 portations were made, beginning in 1852 with a 
 single cow. The extraordinary good qualities of 
 that cow led, in 1857, to the further importation 
 of a bull and two cows, and in 1859 to that of 
 four more cows. Other importations were made 
 from time to time. But the start of the breed 
 acquired here may be said to date from the 
 bringing over in 1861, by Winthrop W. Chenery, 
 of a bull and four cows, and their establishment 
 on the Highland Stock Farm, Belmont, Mass., 
 and form the basis of our present Holstein stock. 
 The animals came from the vicinity of Beemster 
 and Purmerend, in North Holland, and formed 
 the ground-work of the present Holstein stock 
 in this country. From that time repeated im- 
 portations have taken place, Americans con- 
 stantly scrutinizing the original habitat of the 
 breed, and bringing over the best cows and bulls. 
 Here is a summary of a Catalogue of imported 
 heifers in quarantine till December 12, 1883, on 
 the farm of the Unadilla Valley Herd, S. Hoxie, 
 Whitestown, N. Y., giving the number of the im- 
 portation, name, time of calving, and the milk 
 rate of the mother with this calf for one day and 
 for ten days : 
 
 O u 
 ■^ Q. 
 
 e 
 
 Name. 
 
 Dockumer 2d 
 
 Hanna- . 
 
 Lady Seffinga 2d . . . . 
 
 Vierhuisber 
 
 ywartje 2d 
 
 Anneke 4th 
 
 Lady Rietruma 
 
 Babius 
 
 Niemke 
 
 Porseleintje 3d 
 
 Melkbron 3d., 
 
 Tet Jelema 
 
 Zuidhockster 
 
 Ferwerder 
 
 Bosch 2d 
 
 Berlikumer 3d 
 
 Euglumer 
 
 Ruth 
 
 Geesje 3d 
 
 Houkje 2d 
 
 Ee 
 
 Elsje 2d 
 
 Siementie 
 
 Maid 01 Deinura 3d 
 
 Kuiken 3d 
 
 Poppenhinzen 3d . . . 
 
 Kramer 3d 
 
 Lu,\ 4th 
 
 Lady Borch 
 
 Calved. 
 
 ►J 
 
 March 7, 
 March i, 
 March 19, : 
 March 3, i 
 April 3, 1 
 May 4, 
 March 8, 
 March 29, 
 March 21, : 
 March 22, . 
 March 3, 1 
 April 4, ] 
 March 17, j 
 Feb. 26, : 
 May 2, . 
 March 23, 1 
 March 4, ; 
 Jan. 25, 
 May 3, 
 March 4, 
 Feb. 28, 
 March 5, . 
 March 11, i 
 April 2, 
 March 3, 
 March 1, . 
 March 18, 1 
 March 2, 
 March ig, 
 
 1882 
 
 70.4 
 
 1882 
 
 .57-2 
 
 1 832 
 
 83.6 
 
 1882 
 
 50.6 
 
 1S82 
 
 74.8 
 
 ■S82 
 
 77.0 
 
 1882 
 
 44.0 
 
 1S82 
 
 50.4 
 
 1882 
 
 72.0 
 
 1882 
 
 72.0 
 
 1882 
 
 83 6 
 
 1882 
 
 7° 4 
 
 1882 
 
 40.2 
 
 1882 
 
 57-2 
 
 1882 
 
 500 
 
 1882 
 
 70.4 
 
 1882 
 
 61.6 
 
 1882 
 
 68 2 
 
 1882 
 
 83.6 
 
 1882 
 
 49-5 
 
 1882 
 
 74.8 
 
 1S82 
 
 63.8 
 
 1882 
 
 6c. 3 
 
 1882 
 
 74.8 
 
 1882 
 
 81.4 
 
 1882 
 
 67.1 
 
 1882 
 
 46.2 
 
 1882 
 
 70.4 
 
 1882 
 
 71-5 
 
 
 lbs. 
 690.1 
 558.1 
 796.. 
 475-: 
 712. i 
 748. < 
 431.: 
 580.! 
 695.: 
 
 814. 
 
 673- 
 
 446.6 
 
 S39.0 
 484.0 
 
 675.4 
 594.0 
 655.6 
 792.0 
 451.0 
 712.8 
 624.8 
 
 "7 
 '37 
 126 
 118 
 136 
 116 
 154 
 15s 
 176 
 
 121 
 129 
 
 138 
 120 
 119 
 
 133 
 
 124 
 128 
 140 
 
 173 
 124 
 
 135 
 
 .,„„.- J44 
 
 734.8 125 
 
 74S.O 127 
 649 
 
 448.8 i7« 
 
 682.0 177 
 
 677.6 J58 
 
 The average largest daily yield of the 29 cows 
 was 66 pounds ; and the average largest yield for 
 10 days for the 28 (the dam of No. 10 not given), 
 6343 pounds. Nos. 3. 11 and 19 are each given 
 a daily record of 83.6. Of these No. 3 has the 
 largest for 10 days ; and here is her description 
 in the Catalogue : 
 
 No. 3. 
 Lady Seffinga, 2d, bred by W. Seffinga, Mars- 
 sum, Friesland ; calved March 19, 1882; sire, 
 Willem ; dam. Lady Seffinga. 
 
 Black predominating; shield; white upon the nose, over 
 shoulders and over hips ; white belly, legs and lower half of tail. 
 Milk record of dam at si.x years of age, after dropping this calf, 
 on grass alone, two milkings per day; largest yield, 83.6 lb. ; 
 Ten days. 796.4 lb. Ear-mark 126. 
 
 Other milk records of imported cows : 
 Maid of Twisk, 15,960! lb. in 336 days. 
 Jacoba Hertog, two years old, 10,430 lb. This 
 
 cow in 1881 weighed 1120 lb., and gave in 16 
 
 days 1 185 lb., or 65 lb. m.ore than her live 
 
 weight. 
 Cjristji Bleeker. 14.220 lb. 
 
 Performance in the United States. — This is of 
 course the point of the deepest interest : not 
 what have they done in North Holland, but what 
 are they doing here? The Holstein Herd-Book, 
 Vol. 5, will help answer this question. 
 
 Smith & Powell, Syracuse, N. Y., report 22 
 cows, of which 13 were milked 365 days, with an 
 aggregate result of 246,927 lb., or an average of 
 11.223 lb. The largest yield in a single day was 
 84 lb., and the smallest 34 lb. The largest yield 
 for 30 consecutive days was 2309 lb., and the 
 
 * The " ear-mark" is a small piece of flattened steel wire, 
 stamped with number or name, or both, inserted in the ear as 
 a lady wears her ear-rings. 
 
BREEDS OF CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 241 
 
 smallest 931. The oldest cow was 7 years and 
 the youngest 2 years 10 mo. at the end of the 
 year. Cow Jan nek, whose average weekly record 
 of milk was about 250 lb., made in one week 19 
 lb. 15 oz., and in 10 days 28 lb. 3+ oz. 
 
 T. C. Maxwell & Bro., Geneva, N. Y., report 17 
 cows, of which 4 were milked the 365 days, with 
 an aggregate result of 9178+ lb. The largest 
 yield in a single day was 73 lb., and tlie smallest 
 29 lb. The largest yield for 30 consecutive days 
 was 2067! lb., and the smallest 839. The oldest 
 cow was 6 years and the youtigest 2 ye. 7 mo. 
 at the end of the year. Cow Eltona made 17 lb. 
 14 oz. of butter in 7 days and 35 lb. 3 oz. in 14 days, 
 her milk-yield during the same being from 59 to 
 63 lb. per day. 
 
 T. G. Yeomans and Sons. Walworth, N. Y.. re- 
 port 18 cows, none of which were m milk for a 
 full year, the iS cows aggregating 1775 days, or 
 an average of a little over 98 days each, the 
 whole record beginning some as early as Jan. 20, 
 and all ending June 14, 1881. The entire yield 
 was 77,643 lb. 10 oz., or an average of 4313+ lb. 
 each for the time. The largest yield in a single 
 day was 78 lb. 12 oz., and the smallest 40 lb. 12 
 oz. The largest yield for 30 consecutive days was 
 2130 lb. 8 oz., and the smallest 1067 lb. 11 oz. 
 The oldest cow at the end of record was 8 ye. 6 
 mo.; 2 ye. $ mo. Lady Walworth made 19 lb. of 
 butter in i week, 37 lb. 6oz. in 2 weeks; Ophelia 
 
 HOLSTETO Cow, AaGGIE 2D, OWNaD BY T. G. YkOMANS & 
 
 Sons, Walworth, N. Y. 
 
 (two years) made 13 lb. 5 oz., and Georgie (two 
 years) 12 lb. 2 oz. of butter in a week. 
 
 John Mitchell, Meadowbrook Farm, Orange 
 County, N. Y., reports among other cows, Frieda 
 in one day 77 lb. ; one month 2232 lb. ; six months 
 10,190 lb.; and in one year 16,076 lb. 
 
 Carey R. Smith, Iowa City, Iowa: of the cow 
 Mink: "Her yield is as follows: for ten days, 
 when on trial for butter, 815 lb. of milk, from the 
 cream of which was made 29 lb. 6 oz. of butter; 
 best consecutive ten days, 849 lb. of milk ; best 
 daily yield, 91 lb.; monthly yield, 2490J lb.; 
 yearly yield. 16,628! lb." 
 16 
 
 Gerrit S. Miller, Peterboro, N. Y. : "Johanna 
 produced 12,264 lb. of milk in 11 months; was 
 milked twice daily, except during a few days in 
 August when, with three milkings she reached 
 98 lb. per day. Nanny Smit (two years old), dur- 
 ing her first 30 days, in milk, gave 1293 lb.; lar- 
 gest yield in one day, 50 lb. During the present 
 season we have given three cows of our herd a 
 month's test, with the following results : On 
 
 3- ^ , 
 
 HoLSTHiN Bull, Billy Boelyn, owned by G. S. Miller, 
 Peterboro, N. Y. 
 
 the 2ist day of May, Ondine, No. 828. completed 
 a thirty-one days' trial ; total yield of milk, 
 2545} lb. ; average per day, 82 lb. i oz. ; best lo 
 cotisecutive days, 847J lb. ; average per day for 
 best 10 consecutive days, 86 lb. 3 oz. It was du- 
 ring these 6 days that she reached her best daily 
 yield. 90J lb.; her three milkings on that day 
 were 31, 31 and 29* lb.; of 27 consecutive milk- 
 ings, 23 ranged from 28 to 31 lb. each. Her food 
 consisted of long dry hay and a mixture of grain 
 (wlieat bran being the largest portion), fed dry in 
 varying quantity; the total amount would be 
 about equal to 18 qts. daily; no slop or liquid, 
 except water, was given. Empress, No. 539 (ten 
 years old, and a cripple, having nearly lost the 
 use of one hind leg from injuries received on 
 shipboard), and Johanna, No. 344, were turned 
 int a lot where the feed was good ; they had grain 
 when they would take it; some days they re- 
 fused it. During the month of August Empress 
 gave 2276J lb. ; largest amount in one day, 81 
 lb. ; average per day, 73^^ lb. Johanna was sold 
 during the latter part of the month at her best 
 flow of milk, and the trial ended. During the 
 last 31 days she was in my possession, she gave 
 2407J lb. ; average per day, 77I lb. ; average for 
 last 23 days, 80 lb. ; best yield in one day, 88 lb. 
 
 "There are now 18 cows (over two years old) 
 in milk in the Kriemhild herd, and the average 
 of the best day's yield of 10 of them is 68 lb." 
 
 And Mr. Miller adds it as his "belief that se- 
 lected cows of this breed will make as much, if 
 not more, butter than those of any other breed." 
 
 From sources outside the Herd-Book : Smith 
 and Powell report, in Breeder s Gazette, May 10, 
 1883: Clothilde. three years old, gave in one 
 
242 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 year 15,622 lb. 2 oz. Addie, three years old, in 
 iii months, 13,521 lb. 2 oz. 
 
 Cow Echo, 121. — (For portrait, see page 241.) 
 This cow has furnished the largest year's product 
 of milk yet reported in the United States. She 
 belongs to F. C. Stevens, Esq., Maplewood Stock 
 Farm, Attica, N. Y. Mr. Stevens writes : " On 
 March II. 1882, she gave birth to a heifer calf, 
 which ran with her until the 20th, when we be- 
 gan to milk her. On the 20th of May she was 
 turned out to pasture. During the season she 
 had the same care as the rest of my stock, and 
 no more. In September she was taken to the 
 Western New York Fair, at Rochester, and was 
 away from home one week. The last week in 
 December, for the first time during the year, I 
 figured up the milk records of my herd; and 
 finding Echo's so large. I thought something 
 might be done with her; so I instructed my men 
 to feed her three pailfuls of bran per day (just 
 double what she had been having since she 
 came from pasture). When in the stable she 
 had fifty-five pounds of corn ensilage, six pounds 
 of hay, or twelve of cut straw, with the amount 
 of bran named. The following is the record by 
 months: 
 
 Month. 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 
 September. 
 
 October 
 
 November. 
 December . 
 
 January 
 
 February . . . 
 March 
 
 Total 18,12914 
 
 Yield. 
 
 lbs. 
 592?i 
 
 '•533H 
 1,988^ 
 2,196% 
 1.554 
 I.406U 
 i.455}4 
 1,302% 
 1.375% 
 1,340% 
 i,i89H 
 752H 
 
 Largest 
 day's yield. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 50% 
 
 58% 
 
 83 
 
 79 
 
 67H 
 
 5=% 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 46H 
 
 45% 
 
 46J6 
 
 42H 
 
 Average. 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 49 6 
 
 48 5 
 
 49 5 
 66 4 
 70 12 
 
 50 2 
 46 12 
 46 10 
 
 43 8 
 
 44 5 
 43 4 
 42 2 
 38 7 
 
 " From March 20 until June 5 sHe was milked 
 twice a day. From June 5 until August 4 she 
 was milked three times a day. The rest of the 
 year only twice a day." 
 
 Echo was bred by Mr. Miller, of Peterboro, al- 
 ready referred to. and sold by him as a three- 
 year-old. He also bred and sold .^gis No. 69, 
 who has made a year's record of 16,823 'b. 10 oz. 
 
 Milk Sold. — Here is one instance: S. N.Wright, 
 South Elgin, 111. : " I send you the milk record 
 of my dairy of twenty-seven grade Holstein cows 
 for the year 1882, as follows: 219,900 lb. milk, 
 bringing me net $2638.80, averaging 8107 lb. of 
 milk per head, netting $97.73 per head. I en- 
 deavor to have my cows go dry at least sixty 
 days, which shows the cows were in milk on an 
 average of 303 days, and that the twenty-seven 
 cows gave me an average of a little over 26^ lb. 
 of milk per day. This milk was taken to the 
 butter and cheese factory, owned and operated 
 
 by the Elgin Co-operative Creamery Association. 
 The cows are nearly all of my own raising, using 
 always the best full-blood Holstein bulls I can 
 get, and selecting the best heifer calves." 
 
 One Instance of Fattening. — T. B. Wales, Iowa 
 City, Iowa : " I would like to hear of a Short- 
 Horn, Hereford, Polled Angus or any animal of 
 any breed that can equal the gain in weight made 
 by one of ray calves, Jaap 4th, 1337, calved Aug. 
 30, 1882, as per statement below. It is not im- 
 possible that this little fellow, when of age, may 
 get away with some of the fat-stock-show sweep- 
 stakes premiums. The weighings have been 
 made by disinterested parties who are ready to 
 take oath to their truth. The sire of this calf, 
 Jaap (451), and his dam Tietje 2d (726), were both 
 members of the first-prize herd at St. Louis last 
 fall. Feb. 9, 1883, weighed 550 lb., March 8 
 weighed 674 lb. ; gain in twenty-seven days, 124 
 lb.; April 7 weighed 834 lb.; gain in thirty days, 
 160 lbs. May 8 weighed 954 lb. ; gain in thirty- 
 one days, 120 lb. It will be seen that from 
 March 8 to April 7, thirty days, the gain was 
 five and one third pounds per day, and at eight 
 months and nine days he weighed 954 pounds." 
 
 Comparisons. — Conrad Wilson made several 
 comparative statements in the article already 
 referred to. He makes the milk-yield of 9 Hol- 
 steins 144,137 lb., to which add Echo's 18,120, 
 and we have the milk-yield of 10, 162,257 lb., or 
 an average of 16,225-1- 't>. Taking the best speci- 
 men he can find of the Short-Horns. theDevons, 
 the Ayrshires, the Jerseys, and natives, he gets 
 56,966 lb., or 11,400 lb. each cow, an average of 
 4825 below the Holsteins. But when he comes 
 to butter he finds an average of 596^ lb. per cow 
 for 10 Jersey cows; and the highest specimen he 
 can get from each of the same five classes, in 
 which he gives 509 lb. to the Holstein, only 
 brings the average to "473 lb. per cow, being 120 
 lb. less than the average of 10 Jerseys, and 3001b. 
 less than the product of the best Jersey," which 
 is 778 lb. for Darling's Eurotas. He gives four 
 daily yields higher than Miller's Ondine 90^^ lb. 
 But, as the highest of all is Miller's Empress, 108 
 lb., and that is not claimed as a record she has 
 made here, but one made in Holland before she 
 was imported, it leaves the head of the class 
 rather misty. 
 
 T/ieir Status. — Different breeders and dairymen 
 will continue to differ in opinion ; and the Short- 
 Horn, the Hereford, the Ayrshire, the Jersey, the 
 Holstein and others will continue each to be 
 regarded by its friends as the best breed. Cer- 
 tainly the Holsteins are ranking, if not at the 
 head, at least very near it ; and there is none 
 likelier to stand in 1900 at the top for work, for 
 beef, for milk and for butter. 
 
 The Secretary of the " Holstein Breeders' As- 
 
BREEDS OE. CATTLE IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 243 
 
 sociation of America" is Thomas B. Wales, Jr., 
 Iowa City, Iowa; Editor, Gerrit S. Miller, Peter- 
 boro. N. Y. For the Dutch Frisian, H. Lang- 
 worthy, West Edmeston, N. Y., is Corresponding 
 Secretary and Agent; and animals are kept for 
 exhibition and sale by Mr. S. Hoxie, Whites- 
 town, N. Y. 
 
 Holstein Points. — 
 
 RUI-LS — HEAt) MODERATELY LONG, FINE AND CLEAN-CUT. 
 
 Foreliead broad between eyes and slightly dishing i 
 
 Face tapering, muzzle medium i 
 
 Cheek small 2 
 
 Nostrils prominent and open 1 
 
 Horns short, moderately fine, curving forward 2 
 
 Ears fine and moderate in size i 
 
 Eyes large, bright and round 2 
 
 Neck clean-cut at throat, arched, long, strongly set on 
 shoulders, carrying the head on or above a line with the 
 
 back 3 
 
 Shoulders broad and fiat on top, same height with hips 5 
 
 Chest very broad, deep and full 10 
 
 Chine level with shoulder-blades and straight 2 
 
 Crops full and even with shoulders 8 
 
 Barrel well rounded, well ribbed up to hips, broad and 
 
 deep, of good length and deep flank 6 
 
 Back straight from shoulders to setting on of tail, broad and 
 
 fiat 4 
 
 Hips broad and flat, level with back 3 
 
 Rump long, straight, broad and flat, carrying width well 
 
 back 6 
 
 Quarters long; straight, deep, with thighs well rounded out- 
 side 6 
 
 Legs short, strong and straight, tapering, fine bone, broad 
 
 forearm, in position firm and wide apart 6 
 
 Tail starting at a level with back, tapering, long and fine, 
 
 heavy switch 2 
 
 Hide, skin soft, loose, mellow, of medium thickness, and 
 
 covered with a yellowish dandruff S 
 
 Hair soft, fine and velvety 4 
 
 Escutcheon first-class, first order 8 
 
 Teats, four we 11 -developed teats, set well apart 2 
 
 Size, medium to large 3 
 
 General appearance and symmetry 4 
 
 Color distinctly black and white o 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 cows — HEAD MODERATEI V LONG, FINE AND CLEAN-CUT. 
 
 Forehead broad between eyes and slightly dishing i 
 
 Face tapering, muzzle medium 2 
 
 Cheek small i 
 
 Nostrils prominent i 
 
 Horns moderately fine, curving forward 2 
 
 Ears fine and moderate in size 1 
 
 Eyes large, full, bright and mild 2 
 
 Neck clean-cut and fine at throat, rather long, rather slim, 
 
 well set on shoulders, carrying head on or above the line 
 
 of back 4 
 
 Chest broad, full and moderately deep 5 
 
 Shoulders lower than hips and moderately thick 3 
 
 Chine level with shoulders and straight 1 
 
 Crops full and level with shoulders 5 
 
 Barrel well rounded, well ribbed back, deep, good length, 
 
 increasing in size towards hips 5 
 
 Back straight, broad and flat, with distinct depressions be- 
 
 twced the vetebrae at the junction with chine 3 
 
 H ips broad and fiat, level with back 3 
 
 Rump long, broad, roomy and nearly level', carrying breadth 
 
 of hips well back 5 
 
 Quarters straight, long, deep, well developed, with thighs 
 
 full and round outside, but open and roomy for udder... 3 
 Legs short, clean, tapering, with fine bone, strong arm, in 
 
 position firm and wide apart, with feet of medium size, 
 
 round ; solid and deep 4 
 
 Tail set on level with back, long, slim, tapering, heavy 
 
 switch 3 
 
 Hide, skin soft, loose, mellow, of medium thickness, and 
 
 covered with yellowish dandruff 6 
 
 Hair soft, fine and velvety 3 
 
 Escutcheon first-class, first order 7 
 
 Udder carried liigh, extending well forward, well up be- 
 hind, with even quarters, large but not fleshy, covered 
 
 with soft, short and fine hair 14 
 
 Teats convenient size, squarely placed and wide apart 3 
 
 Milk-veins very prominent, great length, branching, termi- 
 nating in large, clearly defined orifices 5 
 
 Size, medium to large 6 
 
 General appearance and symmetry 3 
 
 Color distinctly black and white in any proportion o 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 In females, before firsL calf, the fourteen points given to 
 udder are not considered, and perfection is denoted by eighty- 
 six points. 
 
 Uncertainty of Records. — There is so apt to be 
 in all reports an element of variance with the 
 real fact ! Dr. Johnson actually saw the Cock- 
 lane ghost, although there was no ghost for the 
 doctor to see. On the track under the rules of 
 the National Association, records are not always 
 implicitly accepted. How much less when the 
 checks and guards there maintained, are absent ! 
 The writer quoted to an agriculturist a certain 
 record, at which he smiled incredulously, and re- 
 plied : "Would you bet on a race where the 
 other man drove his horse and held the watch?" 
 But, for all the croakings of pessimists, the 
 rogues are in the minority ; and the returns of 
 milk and butter from different animals are in the 
 main reliable, and need discounting as little as 
 the record of any other class of facts. One 
 man will weigh a little more buttermilk and salt 
 with his butter than another. 
 
 The "Paster." — Experience seems to be teach- 
 ing that the pasturing of cattle, except where 
 land is very cheap and fertile, is too expensive a 
 way of feeding. A herd of fine cattle, dotting a 
 spacious expanse of verdure, each head bent low 
 to earth and cropping succulence to be afterward 
 elaborated into muscle, milk or fat, affords a pic- 
 turesque sight, one always dear to the artist and 
 the poet. But if, as seems proved, an acre of 
 good land, properly cultivated, will keep two 
 cows in the stable, the stable will win. Every 
 farmerand dairyman has hisown theory, and don't 
 care to accept that of another ; and the appetites 
 of cattle are not alike or uniform with them- 
 selves, any more than the appetites of men and 
 women. The race of lean and ill-favored kine 
 that eat up seven fat ones and then don't show 
 it, will still remain, though careful breeding will 
 reduce their number and their gauntness. The 
 use of Ensilage, which the reader will find treated 
 under Farming, opens a new and promising 
 field, and bids fair to inaugurate results not yet 
 anywhere obtained. 
 
244 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL.- 
 
 The Naming of Catt/e. — Queen Victoria is lately 
 reported as opposing a proposed railroad, because 
 a Dart of its line must be visible from her chosen 
 retreat. Sometimes it seems as if one must pre- 
 Jer the picturesque to the useful. East and 
 West 23d or 50th Street seem so common- 
 place by the side of the beautiful names these 
 avenues might have borne ; and the mathematical 
 regularity of Philadelphia, useful and convenient 
 as it is, excites a momentary longing for the 
 more natural irregularities of Old New York, 
 Brooklyn and Boston. So in naming animals. Why 
 should a cow which can be auctioned ofT for 
 more than $40,000 be called the "8th Duchess of 
 Geneva," with such a pedigree as is printed on 
 page 244.' The Dutch names on page 250, un- 
 couth and hard to pronounce as so many of them 
 are, seem to have an individuality and charm 
 
 that the others lack. If the prosaic numbers 
 must go in, they must; but let them be fastened 
 to an attractive surname. How pleasant these 
 names sound and read, from a single week's sale 
 at Kansas City in April 1883; Waterside Ida, 
 Mirth, Beauty nth. Nightingale 15th. Carpie, 
 Dorianne, Fermillian, Lochnagar, Barbarian, Re- 
 mus, Blackthorn, Bluebeard 7th, Falstaff (we 
 hope this bull's performance may be better than 
 his prototype's, though his dispositions couldn't 
 be), Scotch Lassie, Lady Phyllis, Idlewild, etc. 
 etc. One English nobleman famous on the turf 
 — Palmerston, was it.> — named his horses from 
 Homer's Iliad. Do, if you can, select for your 
 cow or your bull a name whose sound and sight 
 shall attract and not repel. Some men would 
 prefer Ondine, with a pound a day less at the pail, 
 to Bungtown i6th, with a pound more. 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 Antiquity of the Hog 244 
 
 Bad Name, undeserved 245 
 
 Breeds : 
 American Breeds : 
 
 Cheshire 246 
 
 Chester White 246 
 
 Durocs 247 
 
 Jersey Red 246 
 
 Poland-China 1 246 
 
 Chinese 245 
 
 English Breeds : 
 
 Berkshire 245 
 
 Black Dorset 246 
 
 Eoglish Breeds : 
 
 Essex 246 
 
 Lancashire 246 
 
 Suffolk 246 
 
 Yorkshire 246 
 
 Neapolitan 245 
 
 Common Hog, the 245 
 
 Hog second only to the Cow, the 245 
 
 Importance of the Hog, varied 244 
 
 Intelligence of the Hog 244 
 
 Pork Trade, Magnitude of the 245 
 
 Rearing and Keeping ; 
 
 Breeding Hogs, Selection of 247 
 
 Rearing and Keeping: 
 
 Diseases 250 
 
 Feeding 249 
 
 Feeding-Trough 248 
 
 Field Feeding 250 
 
 Food. Proper 249 
 
 Gleaning in the Fields 250 
 
 Hints, Sundry 248 
 
 In.and-in Breeding, avoid 347 
 
 Pig-Houses 24q 
 
 Sow, the 248 
 
 Swine in America, the first 244 
 
 Swine-producing States, three great.. 244 
 
 Antiquity of the Hog. — The origin of the hog is 
 unknown ; yet since early historic time it has 
 been found in a wild state in Asia, Africa and 
 Europe. The hogs of all these countries have a 
 common origin, proved by the fact that they 
 can breed together, and continue to produce fer- 
 tile offspring, from generation to generation. 
 
 Fossil remains of swine found in the tertiary 
 and diluvial deposits of Europe indicate the 
 great antiquity of the species. But whatever 
 their origin may have been, their great fecundity 
 would soon have enabled them to overrun vast 
 territories. Vauban has estimated the product 
 of a single sow, with only six young at a time, in 
 ten generations to be about 6,500,000, of which 
 half a million may be deducted on the score of 
 accidental death. 
 
 Varied Importance. — Although the use of swine- 
 flesh was prohibited by the Jews, and the prohi- 
 bition has been adopted in the Mohammedan 
 law, it constitutes a large part of the food of many 
 nations. Vast quantities of the flesh are con- 
 sumed in various forms in North America and 
 Europe as pork, fresh or salted, bacon, ham, etc. 
 
 Brawn is an esteemed English luxury. The fat of 
 the hog, which is produced in a thick layer under 
 the skin, is an article of commerce, and of various 
 use under the name of lard. The skin of the 
 hog is made into leather, which is particularly 
 esteemed for saddles. The bristlea, particularly 
 of the wild boar, are much used ft>r brush-mak- 
 ing. 
 
 The First Swine In America were brought by Co- 
 lumbus, who introduced them into Hispaniola in 
 1493; De Soto next brought them into Florida 
 in 1538; in 1553 and 1608 respectively they were 
 brought by the French into Newfoundland and 
 Canada. The English brought them into 'Vir- 
 ginia in 1609, and eighteen years afterward then- 
 numbers had so increased that the settlement of 
 Jamestown had to be surrounded with palisades 
 to keep them away. 
 
 Three Great Swineproducing States. — From 1871 
 to 1878 the swine of the United States increased 
 from 29,457,500 to 32,362,500 head. In the latter 
 year the three greatest hog-producing States 
 were Illinois, with 3,355,500 head; Ohio, with 
 2,341,411; and Iowa, with 2,244,800 head. In 
 
SWINE. 
 
 245 
 
 that year there were packed in Chicago alone 
 over 4,000,000 head, in 1879 nearly 5,000,000, and 
 in 1880 over 4,500,000. 
 
 Magnitude of the Pork Trade. — In the whole Mis- 
 sissippi Valley there were packed in 1877-8, 
 6,502.446 head of hog,*; ; in 1878-9, 7,475,648 head ; 
 and in 1879-80,6,946,151 head. The average net 
 weight of these hogs was for 1878 over 226 
 pounds, for 1879 over 217 pounds, and for 1880 
 213 pounds nearly. Cincinnati and Chicago are 
 the great centers of the pork trade, the latter 
 city being a little ahead of " Porkopolis" in the 
 extent of its business at the present time. 
 
 The Hog Second only to the Cow. — Though, rela- 
 tively speaking, the hog may not be of the same 
 importance to the rural population as it once 
 was, yet, to the humbler classes, the ancient 
 adagje, that it was second only to the cow, cannot 
 be regarded as inapplicable. As an object of 
 natural history, it ranks with the pachydermata, 
 or thick-skinned order of the mammalia — the 
 wild boar, wart-hog, and probably also the 
 peccary of South America, being varieties of the 
 same family. 
 
 The Common Hog. — The most remarkable charac- 
 teristic of the common hog is its long roundish 
 snout, furnished with a strong cartilage at the 
 extremity, for the purpose of grubbing in the 
 earth for roots and other kinds of food. The 
 feet are cloven, and each possesses four toes, two 
 of which are large and furnished with stout 
 hoofs, the other two being small, posteriorly 
 situated and scarcely touching the ground. The 
 body is of a cylindrical form, low set, an^ thinly 
 covered with bristles, which rise into a mane in 
 some of the ancient varieties. The tail is small, 
 short, and in general twisted, and in some breeds 
 is altogether wanting ; the ears are either large 
 and pendulous or short and pointed. The jaws 
 of the hog are powerful ; and the teeth with 
 which they are fuiriished are very formidable, 
 particularly in the wild varieties. Swine do not 
 ruminate (chew the cud) ; and from this and 
 other peculiarities they can feed either on vege- 
 table or animal substances — thus forming a kind 
 of link between the herbivorous and carnivorous 
 classes of animals. They are, in fact, omnivo- 
 rous, and scarcely any sort of food comes amiss 
 to them. 
 
 Undeserved Bad Name. — The hog has a reputa- 
 tion which it does not deserve, of peculiar filthi- 
 ness of habits. It is true that it wallows in the 
 mire, as the other pachydermata also do, to cool 
 itself and to provide itself with a protection 
 against insects, and it searches for food in any 
 puddle ; but its sleeping-place is, if possible, kept 
 scrupulously clean. The too common filthiness 
 of pigsties is rather the fault of their owners 
 than of their occupants ; and a clean and dry 
 
 sleeping-place is of great importance to the 
 profitable keeping of hogs. 
 
 Intelligence of the Hog. — The hog is not inferior 
 to other quadrupeds generally in intelligence. It 
 can be easily rendered very tame and familiar. 
 Its acuteness of scent has been turned to ac- 
 count in making it search for truffles ; and an in- 
 stance is on record of a pig having been used as 
 a pointer, in which service it learned to acquit 
 itself extremely well. Instances have occurred 
 of the use of the hog as a beast of draught. 
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE. 
 Chinese. — To the Chinese hogs is due the first 
 improvement in modern swine. Remarkable 
 for prepotency of blood, these hogs were the 
 basis upon which all English and American 
 breeds were founded. But they are generally 
 too fat as pork, and make poor bacon : bred 
 carefully, and mixed with other stocks, they are 
 valuable animals. The infusion of this Chinese 
 blood long since converted the original English 
 
 ,rf«S?^^Bsas 
 
 Original Old English Pig. 
 
 hogs of a hundred years ago — long-nosed, long- 
 legged and raw-boned — into the solid, short- 
 nosed, early maturing hogs of fifty years ago, 
 known as Grass-breed, Irish Graziers, etc. 
 
 The India hog was crossed upon these in 
 turn, reducing bone, hair and coarseness of flesh 
 still more. Later the Neapolitan came in, still 
 further refining them, resulting in the splendid 
 Berkshire, Essex, and various black and spotted 
 breeds. 
 
 Neapolitan. — This is the most celebrated of the 
 Italian breeds; small, black, with few bristles, 
 short, stout and erect ears, and noted for excel- 
 lence of flesh, elegant style, little hair and fine 
 bone. Some authorities think that to this breed, 
 as well as to the Chinese, we owe the improve- 
 ment of all English swine. The first importation 
 of this breed into the United States was made 
 about 1850. 
 
 English Breeds. — We have space to mention 
 only a few of the English breeds, first among 
 which is the 
 
 Berkshire. — The noteworthy features of this 
 
246 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 breed are fine bone, great muscularity, firm flesh, 
 and excellent hams and shoulders; they are very 
 hardy, and among the best of the improved 
 breeds as gleaners after fattening cattle. The 
 Berkshire is larger than the Neapolitan, with 
 more bristles, and less fat to the meat, which is 
 well suited for bacon and hams. 
 
 Essex. — This is one of the best breeds ever in- 
 troduced into the United States ; in shape and 
 color not unlike the Berkshire, but larger propor- 
 tionally. They are very vigorous, and the sows 
 are prolific and good nurses. Good to cross on 
 coarse swine, the produce being fine-boned and 
 easily fattened hogs. 
 
 Yorkshire. — This is regarded as one of the 
 prime white breeds, hardy, vigorous and well 
 haired, and has been recefved with great favor 
 in the United States. The large Yorkshire 
 reaches heavy weights, while the middle breed 
 in size and weight is about lilie the Berkshire. 
 
 Other English breeds, not so well known in 
 America, are the Black Dorset, much valued 
 locally as being strong-constitutioned, attaining 
 heavy weights and fattening kindly ; the Suffolk, 
 a variety of the Yorkshire — they have too much 
 fat, are bad nurses, the pigs are weak, and they 
 are subject to scrofula ; the Lancamire, a re- 
 markable breed, divided into three sub-families, 
 the short-faced, the middle breed and the large 
 Lancashire, the characteristics and color (pure 
 white) of each being constant. 
 
 American Breeds. — The best American breeds 
 are the Chester White, the Poland-China, the 
 Jersey Reds, the Duroc and the Cheshire — all 
 
 ..'y^'*' 
 
 :n 
 
 modifications of the Yorkshire, the first two being 
 the most widely known. 
 
 T/ie Cluster frV/ZA-.— Originated in Chester 
 County, Pa., by Capt. James Jeffries, who in 1818 
 brought a fine pair of Bedfordshire pigs from 
 England. These being crossed upon the native 
 white hog of the county, their produce with 
 the best specimens attainable, followed by care- 
 ful breeding and selection for many years, there 
 has resulted the present large, well-formed, kindly 
 fattening variety. Points : head short and broad 
 
 between the eyes-, ears thin, projecting forward 
 and lopping at the point ; neck short and thick ; 
 jowl large ; body lengthy and deep ; back broad ; 
 hams full and deep ; legs short, and well set 
 under the body for bearing the weight; coat 
 thin, white and straight, or perhaps a little 
 wavy ; small tail, and no bristles. 
 
 The Poland-China. — This is the favorite breed 
 in the great corn-growing region of the West. 
 The history of this breed has been in controversy, 
 but it seems to be well established that it was 
 originated in Warren County, 0.,by the Shakers 
 of Union Village, who in 1816 bought a boar and 
 three sows of what was then thought to be pure 
 China. They were called Big China hogs. 
 
 Poland-China Boar. 
 
 Later other China hogs were purchased. The 
 Shakers and other breeders in Warren and But- 
 ler counties continued to cross them with Rus- 
 sian and Byfield blood, producing eventually 
 a hog of fine qualities for that time, and known 
 as the Warren County hog. About 1836 the 
 Berkshires were introduced, crossing with which 
 breed was almost exclusively done till about 1840, 
 when Mr. Wm. Neff, of Cincinnati, imported se- 
 veral choice Irish Graziers. This breed rapidly 
 grew into favor, and was frequently used in mak- 
 ing crosses with the best specimens previously 
 had. Points: short legs; broad, straight back; 
 deep si^es, flanking well down on the leg; very 
 broad, full, square hams and shoulders; drooping 
 ears ; short head, wide between the eyes, of 
 spotted or dark color. They are hardy, vigorous 
 and prolific, and when fat are models, combining 
 the excellences of both large and small breeds. 
 
 The Cheshire is only a variety of Yorkshire, 
 originating, it is said, in Jeflferson County, N. Y. 
 They are pure white, with little hair and a pink 
 skin, thin and pliable, but uneven ; like the Suf- 
 folks, the tails of the young often drop off. 
 Snout often long, but slender and fine; jowls 
 plump ; ears erect, fine and thin ; shoulders wide, 
 and hams full. These hogs are prized for the 
 great quantity of mess-pork in proportion to 
 the amount of offal. 
 
 Jersey j'?£v/.— These hogs have been bred in 
 some parts of New Jersey for the last fifty year% 
 
SWINE. 
 
 247 
 
 where they are highly valued. They attain heavy 
 weights, sometimes reaching 6cx) pounds ; are 
 hardy and strong, free from disease, and said 
 not to be liable to mange. Points: color red, 
 with a moderate snout ; large lop-ears ; small 
 head; long body, standing high on the legs; 
 bones coarse ; hairy tail and brush ; hair coarse, 
 inclining to bristle on the back. 
 
 IMPR9VED Cheshire. 
 
 The Diirocs are also a breed of Red swine, 
 common in Saratoga County, N. Y., where they 
 have been known for twenty-five years. They 
 are superior to the Jersey Reds, and reach high 
 weights when mature. Western producers have 
 bred them with satisfaction. The progenitor of 
 both the Jersey Reds and the Durocs was evi- 
 dently the older Berkshire, asandy hog with more 
 or less black — a common feature of that breed 
 about fifty years ago — and altogether different 
 from the high-bred swine of to-day. 
 
 REARING AND KEEPING. 
 
 Selection of Breeding Hogs. — The following points 
 are given as deserving the attention of every one 
 about to select breeding hogs : 
 
 In the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, 
 and such an elongation of body as will insure a 
 sufficient lateral expansion. Let the loin and 
 breast be broad. The breadth of the former 
 denotes good room for the play of the lungs, and 
 a consequent free and healthy circulation, essen- 
 tial to the thriving or fattening of any animal. 
 The bones should be small and the joints fine ; 
 and the legs should be no longer than, when 
 fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly 
 from trailing upon the ground. The leg is the 
 least profitable portion of the hog, and we there- 
 fore require no more of it than is absolutely 
 necessary for the support of the rest. See that 
 the feet be firm and sound ; that the toes lie well 
 together, and press straightly upon the ground ; 
 as also that the claws are even, upright and 
 healthy. Many say that the form of the head is 
 of little or no consequence, and that a good hog 
 
 may have an ugly head, it being no affair of any- 
 body but the animal himself which has to carry 
 it ; but the head is one of the very principal 
 points in which pure or impure breeding will be 
 mo.st obviously indicated. A high-bred animal 
 will invariably be found to arrive more speedily 
 at maturity, to take flesh earlier and with greater 
 facility, and altogether to turn out more profita- 
 bly than one of questionable or impure stock; 
 and such being the case, the head of the hog is 
 by no means a point to be overlooked by the 
 intending purchaser. The description of head 
 most likely to promise, or rather to be the con- 
 comitant of, high breeding, is one not carrying 
 heavy bone, not too flat on the forehead or 
 possessing too elongated a snout — indeed, the 
 snout should, on the other hand, be short, and 
 the forehead rather convex, recurving upward ; 
 the ear, while pendulous, should also be inclin- 
 ing somewhat forward, and at the same time 
 light and thin. Nor should the buyer pass over 
 even the carriage of a hog. If this be dull, heavy 
 and dejected, it would be safer to reject him, on 
 suspicion of ill-health, if not of some concealed 
 disorder actually existing or just about to break 
 forth. Nor is color to be altogether lost sight of. 
 In the case of hogs, as in reference to any other 
 description of live-stock, those colors are to be 
 preferred which are characteristic of the most 
 esteemed breeds. If the hair be scant, look for 
 black, as denoting connection with the delicate 
 Neapolitan ; but if too bare of hair, too intimate 
 alliance with that variety is to be apprehended, 
 and a consequent want of hardihood, that, how- 
 ever unimportant, if pork be the object, renders 
 such animals hazardous speculations as stores, 
 from their extreme susceptibility of cold and 
 consequent liability to disease. 
 
 One cannot be too careful in the selection of 
 proper stock to breed from. If the desire is to 
 get early into the market, and to produce pork, 
 the varieties most likely to take on flesh quickest, 
 and come earliest to maturity, should be chosen. 
 If, on the other hand, bacon is the object, the 
 larger breeds are the most suitable. In any case, 
 the boar should be rather less in size than the 
 sow, and more compact and hard in the flesh. 
 
 Avoid In-and-in Breeding. — With hogs as with 
 cattle in-and-in breeding is disapproved by most 
 people, as calculated to decrease the size of the 
 progeny and weaken the constitution. Several 
 instances could be pointed to of successfuj close 
 breeding of this kind among cattle, but few 
 among hogs; so that in the case of the latter, 
 at any rate, it should be, and generally is, studi- 
 ously avoided. To secure a good strong plant 
 and a vigorous progeny, hogs should not be 
 allowed to breed during the first year of their 
 existence. 
 
248 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 The Sow is very prolific, compared with other 
 large-sized quadrupeds, and for that end is pro- 
 vided with from twelve to sixteen teats. Her 
 period of gestation is sixteen weeks ; the num- 
 ber of young varies considerably, being fre- 
 quently below ten, and occasionally rising to 
 twenty. The young pig is exceedingly delicate ; 
 and the brood-sow should not be allowed to far- 
 row in winter, but in spring and autumn, when 
 the weather is less severe and food more abun- 
 dant. Another peril to the litter arises from the 
 semi-carnivorous habits of the mother, which 
 lead her to forget the duties of nature and de- 
 vour her own brood. She ought, therefore, to 
 be well watched, and fed abundantly at such 
 periods. The male, for the same reason, must be 
 excluded altogether. Not unfrequently, more- 
 over, the young are crushed to death by the 
 mother, in consequence of their nestling unseen 
 below the straw. To prevent this risk, only a 
 small quantity of straw, dry and short, should be 
 placed below them. The young are weaned 
 when six weeks old; and after weaning it is 
 essentially necessary to feed them with meal and 
 milk, or meal and water, or whey. 
 
 Sundry Hints. — Many persons labor under the 
 notion that swine, while breeding, should be 
 kept lean; but nothing can be more erroneous; 
 for, after farrowing, great part of those juices 
 which would be converted into milk, were she 
 in good condition, will naturally go toward 
 nourishing her system. When required for the 
 purpose of fattening, the male young pigs are 
 cut, and the females sometimes spayed, which is 
 an analogous process. These operations should 
 always be intrusted to a farrier or other properly 
 qualified person. At weaning-time it was also 
 customary to " ring" the young pigs ; that is, to 
 msert a ring of iron in the cartilage of the nose, 
 to prevent the animal from grubbing and turning 
 up the floor of the piggery. In pigs intended to 
 be turned to the woods or fields this process was 
 especially necessary ; and, where requisite, is pre- 
 ferable to the barbarous and less effectual plan 
 of cutting off the cartilage altogether. Though 
 still done to a considerable extent, the ringing is 
 not now so common as it was ; the improved 
 construction of piggerieg, and the diminution of 
 the herds and droves in woods and fields, render- 
 ing it less imperative. 
 
 Pig-Houses. — The results which attended the 
 better housing, more careful breeding and high- 
 er feeding of pigs in comparatively recent years, 
 have convinced most people that any rickety 
 structure is not sufficient even for the accom- 
 modation of swine. For many years, country- 
 people regarded the pig as the dirtiest and least 
 to be cared for, in the way of housing, of all the 
 animals in their possession, and treated it accord- 
 
 ingly. Probably few animals are less fastidious 
 about the source from which their food comes, 
 or how it is prepared, than the common pig; 
 but if properly attended to, the natural habits of 
 the pig are more cleanly than was generally 
 supposed. The pig-sty should be preserved in 
 the dryest, cleanest possible manner; the food 
 regularly and judiciously supplied ; and the skin 
 of the animal curried frequently. The miserably 
 built, open-thatched, imperfectly littered pig- 
 house of old is fortunately of rare occurrence 
 nowadays. Improvements are gradually pro- 
 gressing over the country in the housing and 
 feeding of pigs; and the progress has been 
 accelerated by the fact that, in proportion to its 
 advancement, the mischievous propensities of 
 the animal are diminished. 
 
 Improved piggeries on a first-class farm should 
 consist of three kinds — namely, for breeding, for- 
 feeding and for weaned pigs. A few months 
 ago, a writer fhu's described the piggery of 
 Messrs. John Moir and Sons, Garthdee, Aber- 
 deen (Scotland), where about fifteen hundred 
 pigs are kept : " In two large sheds and courts 
 are about two hundred and fifty breeding-sows 
 of various ages, sizes, conditions and breeds. 
 In addition to this accommodation, there, are 
 one hundred and four pens or boxes, floored 
 with asphalt and Caithness pavement, heated by 
 steam-pipes, and conveniently arranged in four 
 or five double rows. These pens are used by the 
 young pigs, the boars and the animals under- 
 going the finishing-touch in feeding. The breed- 
 ing-stock is fed twice a day, and those preparing 
 for slaughter thrice." The breeding-sty should 
 be about six feet by eight or nine feet, and the 
 yard in front a little larger. Rather less space 
 may do for the feeding-pigs, if only a pair be in- 
 tended to feed together. The accommodation 
 for newly weaned pigs should be at least double 
 the size specified above. Swine can scarcely be 
 too much exposed to the sun, in whose rays the 
 animals are fond of basking. Pigs like heat, as 
 is proved by the manner in which they — espe-' 
 cially the higher-bred ones — bury themselves 
 among the straw or litter in cold weather. The 
 wooden and paved floors of the piggeries are 
 being to some extent superseded by the intro- 
 duction of asphalt, which proves satisfactory it 
 litter is fairly plentiful. In the more modern 
 piggeries, as at Garthdee, a perfect system of 
 draining away the liquid manure has been in- 
 troduced, and also a supply of water for flushing 
 purposes. 
 
 An excellent form of feeding-trough is now 
 much used. That part of the trough in the in- 
 side of the yard is divided with partitions, reach- 
 ing some distance into the yard, so that each pig 
 can quietly take its meal without being forced 
 
SWINE. 
 
 249 
 
 away by a stronger animal, as is often the case 
 in ordinary troughs, where they all feed in com- 
 mon. Another contrivance is also attached, by 
 which the inconvenience occasioned to the at- 
 tendant in filling the ordinary trough is obviated. 
 Part of the trough being outside the sty, a swing- 
 door or iron plate is suspended on hinges from its 
 upper end ; when this is pushed forward toward 
 the yard-side of the trough, and kept in this 
 position by a catch, the pigs cannot obtain 
 entrance; the whole of the trough is therefore 
 exposed to the attendant, so that he can easily 
 place the food without being annoyed by the 
 pigs. When filled, the swing-door is pulled to- 
 ward the outside, and there kept by the catch, 
 and the pigs have free access to the trough. 
 This form of trough is built in the wall of the 
 sty, and may be used to feed pigs on either side. 
 
 A good form of feeding-trough for a yard is 
 the circular one, divided into compartments; 
 these being extended radially for some distance, 
 forming a series of stalls admitting only one pig 
 at a time. 
 
 Feeding. — A number of pigs are still allowed to 
 cater the bulk ot their food in some rural dis- 
 tricts during summer, but not nearly so many as 
 once were herded in this way. The most of the 
 pigs now are kept the whole year in sties, and 
 " hand-fed." To many small farmers the keep- 
 ing of a pig or two is an important matter ; and 
 when a pair of young pigs are purchased, one is 
 sold when ready for the butcher, weighing all 
 the way from loo to 200 pounds, and the money 
 received for this one defrays the buying-price of 
 the two, and also any outlays for artificial food re- 
 quired beyond the wastes of the holding. The 
 second pig is thus free, and is killed for use in 
 the feeder's family over winter; and highly 
 prized it is by them. Unless for delicate pork, 
 it should not be killed less than a year old. 
 During the summer, the pig may be fed on any 
 refuse from the kitchen or garden, including 
 turnip and potato parings, table-waste, cabbage- 
 leaves, etc ; but if barley-dust, or grains from 2. 
 distillery, can be economically procured, either 
 forms a good article ot diet. Let it be kept in 
 remembrance that the finer the feeding, the finer 
 will be the pork. 
 
 We quote from an eminent American autho- 
 rity as follows respecting the Proper Foodoi hogs: 
 " Swine do not eat many varieties of herbs and 
 grass, about the only one they will feed on being 
 pig-weed, pursley and various other succulent 
 plants, w^ith the commoner pasture grasses and 
 red and white clover. Artichokes and various 
 other tubers and roots, many insects, frogs, and 
 such small animals as' they can kill, along with 
 all the edible grains and vegetables, constitute 
 their natural food." Again : " If they are al- 
 
 lowed a fair range on clover, including the 
 gleaning of grain-fields in summer; and if a 
 good supply of pumpkins, and the refuse fruit of 
 the farm, be allowed them in autumn ; and if in 
 the winter they be allowed daily rations of arti- 
 chokes, small potatoes, parsnips or carrots, they 
 may have, in addition, what grain they need to 
 keep them in full flesh — not fat. If this course of 
 feeding were generally adopted for the breeding- 
 stock we should in a few years hear but little of 
 the epidemics which periodically sweep the swine 
 away by thousands." 
 
 The food should, at all events, be of a vegetable 
 kind, or principally so ; nothing beyond refuse 
 from the table being advisable in the shape of 
 animal food. Whatever be given, let it be offered 
 in small quantities, and frequently, it being a 
 matter of importance never to allow the pig to 
 become violently hungry, nor to have food lying 
 long in the trough. The food should be care- 
 fully salted and seasoned ; the trough cleaned 
 out before each meal, the diet varied occasion- 
 ally, and the animals fed separately according to 
 their ages, sizes, conditions and destinations. 
 Breeding-pigs, or those intended for bacon, 
 should not be very highly fed at first. Let the 
 quantity of bran and succulent roots used in the 
 diet be guided by the state of the dung-cast. 
 
 Farmers possess considerable advantages for 
 feeding pigs. In folds among young store-cat- 
 tle, during winter, pigs thrive exceedingly well. 
 They get abundance of heat, lying as often as 
 they can between two or more of the cattle : nor 
 are the cattle any the worse for their porcine 
 companions. The food of the pig kept in this 
 way is scarcely appreciable. Pigs intended for 
 slaughter about Christmas, which is the best 
 time to kill them, should be fed on particularly 
 nourishing material during the autumn. If for 
 pork, the feeding need not be quite so high as for 
 bacon. In any case, let the bulk of the food be 
 of a hard, substantial character, such as oats or 
 meal, for some weeks before killing. Boiled 
 potatoes mixed with a handful or two of meal, 
 the last month or two, are a very common feed 
 at many small farms and produce very fine pork, 
 though not so fat as that raised from such hard 
 food as barley-, bean- or pease-meal. Above all, 
 the half-starving system should be carefully 
 avoided. Repaid as it is by a miserable carcass 
 scarcely worth slaughtering, it is naturally ap- 
 proaching extinction, and cannot reach that goal 
 a day too soon. In fact, there is almost as much 
 oppression occasioned to pigs in these times by 
 excessive as by inadequate feeding. Indeed, 
 many of the huge specimens exhibited at the 
 leading shows appear as if positively suffering 
 from obesity. Not only are they unable to walk, 
 but some of them are quite blind, the eye being 
 
250 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 buried in three or four inches of actual fat. 
 Nearly all that is visible of the head are the 
 snout and ears. 
 
 If properly dieted, corn-fed hogs may be 
 turned off weighing 200 to 250 pounds at nine 
 months old; and under ordinarygood feeding at 
 ten or eleven months old. It is almost needless to 
 say it is cheaper to feed three pigs to 200 pounds 
 each at nine months old than it is to feed a hog 
 three years to make him weigh 600 pounds; and 
 again, if the pigs are worth six cents a pound 
 alive, it is S36; the 600-pound hog will not then 
 bring more than five cents a pound, or S30, and 
 has eaten more corn than the three lighter hogs. 
 
 Gleaning in the Fields and after Cattle. — If 
 possible, swine should have the run of grain= 
 fields after harvest. They thus save the grain 
 dropped in harvesting, and, what is better, get 
 a variety of herbage which they could not other- 
 wise obtain. Of course it should not interfere 
 with their getting their usual rations of grain ; 
 and plenty of pure water must be provided, 
 for the pig is a very thirsty animal. 
 
 Swine should also glean after feeding cattle. 
 
 One or two hogs should follow each steer or 
 cow, according to the quantity of grain fed to 
 the hogs in addition. 
 
 Field-Feeding will for a long time remain the 
 favorite way of feeding hogs in the great corn- 
 growing area of the West. It is cleanly and 
 economical, and requires only that the hogs be 
 sheltered in cold and stormy weather, and that 
 they have an abundant supply of good water. 
 
 Diseases. — Swine are naturally very healthy 
 animals, and, if at all carefully fed and properly 
 tended, in the domesticated state, not addicted 
 to disease. But if neglected either in feeding 
 or housing, the principal diseases to which they 
 are liable are fever, leprosy, tumors, murrain, 
 measles, foul skin, mange, crackings of the 
 skin, staggers, indigestion or surfeit, lethargy, 
 quinsy, inflammation of the lungs, catarrh and 
 diarrhea. 
 
 The only general prescription that can be 
 given — beyond greater attention to cleanhness 
 and warmth in housing, and to the regulation 
 of diet — is to call in the services of a veterin- 
 ary surgeon. 
 
 THE 
 
 CHESTERSHIRE 
 HOG 
 
 THE 
 
 POLAND-CHINA 
 
 HOG 
 
SWINE. 
 
 251 
 
 SWINE AND THEIR DISEASES. 
 
 Abortion .•••«.•.•*• 251 
 
 Bleeding ..••••.•••. 253 
 
 Catarrh ..•••.•..., 253 
 
 Castration .••••>..•. 252 
 
 Colors •• 251 
 
 Cracklings ...••.••.. 254 
 
 Carriage ........... 251 
 
 Cholera 253 
 
 Characteristics ...«.••.. 251 
 
 Catching the Pig 253 
 
 Choosing ........... 251 
 
 Diarrhea 254 
 
 Drenching . 253 
 
 Feeding and Fattening 252 
 
 Fever 254 
 
 Foul Skin 254 
 
 Intlainniation of the Lungs 254 
 
 Jaundice 254 
 
 Kinds of 25r 
 
 Leprosy ........... 254 
 
 Lethargy ....••••... 254 
 
 Mange ...a........ 254 
 
 Measles ..«••■••... 254 
 
 Murrain • • « . . 254 
 
 Parturition .......... 251 
 
 Piggeries ........... 252 
 
 Pickling and Curing ...*•.. 253 
 
 Quinsy 355 
 
 Ringing 252 
 
 Spaying 252 
 
 Slaughtering 253 
 
 Staggers 255 
 
 Swelling of the Spleen 255 
 
 Surfeit 255 
 
 Treatment during Pregnancy .... 251 
 
 Treatment wliile Suckling 251 
 
 Treatment of Young Pigs . . , . . 252 
 
 To Cut up the Carcass 253 
 
 Value of the Carcass • . 253 
 
 Weaning 252 
 
 Name is not the first essential in choosing a good 
 hog, but look first to points. One point to think 
 of is, whether the hog will mature early, and has 
 the faculty of taking on flesh. The Berkshire, with 
 perhaps a dash of Chinese and Neapolitan, ap- 
 proaches nearer to the desired standard than any 
 other. The most desirable points which are to be 
 sought for in choosing a hog are as follows : 
 
 Depth of carcass and sufficient length of body to 
 insure lateral expansion. Breadth of loin and 
 breast ; the former to give good play for the lungs 
 and thereby to insure a healthy circulation. The 
 bones should be small and the joints fine, and the 
 legs no longer when the animal is fatted, than 
 would just keep the body from touching the ground. 
 The shape of the head is of little consequence. 
 
 The carriage of the pig is also of importance, for 
 if it is heavy and dejected it is liable to denote ill 
 health, or some internal disorder. Exceptions to 
 this are a fat hog for slaughter, and a sow heavy 
 with young. 
 
 The colors which are most desirable are those 
 which characterize the most highly thought of 
 breeds. Black is desirable, being the Neapolitan 
 color. White shows a connection with the Chinese. 
 Light, sandy, or red with black marks denotes the 
 Berkshire. 
 
 Treatment During Pregnancy. — The feeding must 
 be well looked after to insure the sows having whole- 
 some food to maintain their strength, but do not 
 allow them to get too fat, as when in that condition 
 the dangers of parturition are enhanced, and the 
 sow is liable to smother her young, and never has 
 as much or as good milk. She must have a sepa- 
 rate sty, clean and comfartable, covered with straw. 
 As her time approaches she must be well fed, es- 
 pecially if she is young, to prevent her from eating 
 the after-birth, which produces a morbid appetite 
 and may lead to her eating her young. If oncatehe 
 does this she can never be cured. 
 
 Abortion. — This is not common ; and if it occurs, 
 is produced from lack of food, eating too much, 
 blows, or nibbing herself against hard bodies. The 
 
 symptoms of this are similar to parturition, but more 
 intense, consisting of restlessness, shivering and ir- 
 ritation, cries as of an animal in severe labor pains. 
 At times the rectum, vagina or uterus relaxing, pro- 
 trudes and becomes inverted at the time of the 
 expulsion of the fetus, being preceded by the pla- 
 centa. If the symptoms are as far advanced as this, 
 it is too late for any help, and the treatment de- 
 pends upon circumstances. If abortion takes place 
 and the whole litter is not born, emollient injections 
 may be given ; otherwise the treatment should be 
 the same as in parturition, and the sow must be kept 
 quiet, warm and clean. When abortion takes place 
 the fetus is seldom born alive, and frequently has 
 been dead for some days, its presence being de- 
 tected by a very unpleasant putrid exhalation and 
 the discharge of fetid liquid from the vagina. These 
 parts should be washed with a diluted solution of 
 chloride of lime. In the preparation, one part of 
 chloride of lime is used to three parts of water, and 
 a part of this liquid injected into the uterus. 
 
 Parturition. — The usual period of gestation is 
 about three months, three weeks and three daj's, 
 and the sow produces from eight to thirteen in a 
 litter. Ten is the largest number which will live to 
 advantage. The approach of the time of farrowing 
 is shown by the enormous size of the belly, by a 
 depression of the back and by the teats becoming 
 distended. The animal shows symptoms of suffer- 
 ing, and gathering together straw carries it to her 
 sty, which should be separated from the rest. The 
 young litter must be taken away as soon as they 
 are born and put in a warm place, or the sow may 
 smother them ; and they should not be returned to 
 her until the after-birth has been removed, which 
 should be done as soon as it comes away, or the 
 young pigs may devour it ; and if this happens, 
 being all wet with a similar fluid, they may devour 
 each other. Occasionally there are cases of false 
 presentations or of the womb becoming protruded 
 and inverted. If the latter occurs, the womb must 
 be washed in warm water and put back in place. 
 
 Treatment while Suckling. — There must be great 
 
252 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 care taken at this time, as many sows have been 
 ruined. If the mother is inclined to be feverish 
 she should be given a light, sparing diet of gruel, 
 oatmeal porridge, etc. ; and if debilitated, she should 
 be given strong soup, bread steeped in wine or 
 mixed with brandy and sweet spirits of niter. The 
 food must be greatly increased in amount, and 
 should consist of all kinds of roots well boiled, and 
 different kinds of meals. For the first ten days 
 young pigs must be kept by themselves, then allowed 
 to follow the sow. If the sow is not strong, and has 
 not much milk, tlie young pigs must be taught to 
 feed early. Gruel may be given made of skim-milk 
 and bran or oatmeal ; potatoes boiled and mashed 
 in milk. When the pigs are to be weaned the sow 
 must be fed less. 
 
 Treatment of Young Pigs. — For the first ten days 
 the sow is usually able to support a litter without 
 help, unless she has too many. At the end of that 
 time the litter should be fed with warm milk. In 
 a week farina may be added, and later on roots and 
 vegetables. When the little pigs begin to run they 
 should have a place fenced in, and their own trough. 
 
 Castration. ^F'lgs are usually castrated with the 
 idea of fattening them ; but although it may do so, it 
 usually diminishes their spirits and possibly changes 
 their forms. 
 
 This operation must be performed in the spring 
 or autumn when the animal is in perfect health. 
 The age at which this is done is from three weeks 
 to four months old. If the pig is not more than six 
 weeks old there is a cut made in the scrotum, the 
 testicle is pushed out and the cord is cut ; but if the 
 animal is older, to prevent hemorrhage, it is better to 
 bind a ligature slightly above the place where the 
 incision is made. Another way of doing this is to 
 cut off a part of the base of the scrotum, forcing out 
 the testicle, and saw the cord through with a blunt 
 instrument. If the animal should be two or three 
 years old he must be held down while the operator 
 takes the scrotum in his left hand and makes one 
 horizontal incision across it, opening both divisions 
 of the bag at once. With the fingers, press out the 
 testicles with a blunt knife, without bruising, then 
 close the wound by pressing the edges together. 
 The cord may be twisted and then gently pulled, 
 until it comes away. 
 
 Spaying. — This consists in removing the ova- 
 ries, sometimes also a part of the uterus, of the 
 female. The sow is laid upon her left side and 
 an incision made in the flank, and then with the 
 fore-finger of the right hand catch the right ovary, 
 draw it through the opening and put a ligature 
 around it, doing the same with the left ovary. The 
 two ovaries must then be cut and the wound closed 
 with two or three stitches. 
 
 The diet must be well looked after and the sty 
 well littered with clean straw. The best age for this 
 operation is about six weeks. 
 
 Weaning. — Some wean a pig a few hours after 
 birth, but it is better to wait until it is about six 
 weeks old and then done gradually. The sty must 
 be warm, clean and dry, and the pigs should have 
 the run of a meadow for a few hours every day to 
 prevent them becoming crooked in the legs. When 
 pigs are newly weaned they require five or six meals 
 in the twenty-four hours, and plenty of cold water. 
 
 Ringing. — This is to prevent swine from digging up- 
 the earth. A ring is passed through the snout bone, 
 and thus the animal is prevented from burrowing. 
 
 Feeding and fattening. — Roots and fruits are 
 natural for the hog to eat, but it is better for the 
 qualffy ot his flesh and his health to give him the 
 refuse from the dairy farm, with skim-milk. 
 
 Pigs are usually fattened for pork, at from six to 
 nine months old ; bacon, from one year to two years. 
 The residue of breweries and distilleries is good for 
 producing flesh, but do not give too large a quan- 
 tity. Acorns and other nuts are very greedily eaten 
 by them ; but grain is the most nutritious and fitting 
 food for fattening, creating firmness and delicacy of 
 flesh. Washing with soap and brush every week 
 adds to the good condition of the hog. It is a very 
 good plan to give swine a fine clover pasture to run 
 in, in the spring and summer, also to allow them to 
 run in the orchard to pick up the fruit which falls. 
 The wash of the dairy, to which is added meal, and 
 soured in tubs, is another good food for hogs. Po- 
 tatoes are the best of all roots for swine ; next, 
 parsnips, red-carrots, sugar-beets, mangel-wurzel, 
 ruta-bagas and vv-hite turnips. There are a few rules 
 which must be observed : 
 
 1. Avoid foul feeding. 
 
 2. Add salt in moderate quantities to the food 
 given. 
 
 3. Feed regularly. 
 
 4. Clean the trough before feeding. 
 
 5. Never over-feed. 
 
 6. Vary the food. 
 
 7. Feed the animals separately : sows with young 
 by themselves, store hogs by themselves, and bacon 
 hogs and porkers also by themselves. 
 
 8. Keep the animals clean, warm and dry. 
 Piggeries. — Above all things a piggery must be 
 
 clean, airy, large with well-constructed sties. The 
 different classes of swine must be kept by them- 
 selves, such as the boars, breeding sows, newly 
 weaned and fattening pigs. The buildings should 
 face the south and be well drained, with good venti- 
 lation. Wood is very good building material. The 
 door of the sty should be made to open either inward 
 or outward, and should be hung across from side to 
 side. The troughs should be of stone so that they 
 can^e cleaned, and cannot be gnawed by the ani- 
 mals, and so arranged that the pigs do not have 
 access to them between feeding times. A pig 
 should have three places, — one for sleeping, one for 
 eating, and one for evacuation, the last occupying 
 
SWINE. 
 
 253 
 
 the lowest level. Fresh w.iter should be kept con- 
 tinually before them and renewed twice daily. Give 
 them as much charcoal twice a week as they will 
 eat, if they are confined in small quarters. 
 
 Slaughtering. — When a pig is to be killed he 
 should be kept without food for sixteen hours, and 
 given a little water. First he must be stunned by 
 a blow on the head, then stuck through the brisket 
 in the direction of his heart, and the blood be al- 
 lowed to drain completely. Next fill a large tub 
 with boiling water and plunge the carcass into it, 
 and remove the hair with the edge of a knife. It is 
 not necessary to scald him while he is yet alive, but 
 let it be done before the body is wholly cold. 
 
 Bacon hogs must be singed by covering the body 
 with straw and setting it on fire, then scraping the 
 body all over, taking care not to burn or parch the 
 cuticle. Next remove the entrails. Wash the in- 
 terior of the body very cleanly with warm water to 
 remove all blood and impurities. Wipe dry with a 
 clean cloth ; after this, the carcass should be hung 
 up in a cool place for about twenty hours to set and 
 become firm. 
 
 To Cut up the Carcass. — Lay it on the back, cut 
 orf the head close behind the ears ; the hinder feet 
 below the houghs, so as not to disfigure the hams ; 
 then cut the ham from the side by the second joint 
 ■of the back -bone. 
 
 Dress the ham by paring off the skinny part, 
 shaping it with a half-round point, clearing off all 
 the fat. Then cut off tlie sharp edge along the 
 back-bone, and slice off the first rib next to the 
 shoulder, taking care to cut off the bloody vein, 
 which, if left in, spoils the meat. 
 
 Pickling and Curing. — The ordinary method of 
 curing is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding 
 brine when the barrel is full, but it may be done by 
 Tubbing salt thoroughly on each side of every piece 
 with a strong leather rubber firmly fixed to the palm 
 of the right hand. Throw the pieces into a heap 
 and sprinkle with salt, occasionally turning until 
 cured. Pack in dry casks and roll so that the salt 
 may come in contact with every part. 
 
 Hams and shoulders can be cured in the same 
 way. The following recipe is a good pickle for two 
 hundred pounds : 
 
 Fourteen pounds Turks' Highland salt, % lb. 
 saltpeter, 2 qts. molasses, with sufficient water to 
 dissolve them. Cook the liquor to the scalding 
 point and skim off all impurities. When cold pour 
 upon the ham. 
 
 The hams may stay in this pickle for six or eight 
 weeks, then hang in the smoke-house and smoke 
 from ten to twenty days according to the quantity 
 of smoke. This is a good place to keep hams until 
 wanted, but if removed they must be kept cool and 
 free from flies. 
 
 Value of the Carcass. — Every part of the hog is 
 valuable. The fat may be used for lard, it being 
 
 better than butter for frying fish, and is used in 
 pastry for the sake of economy. The stearine con- 
 tains stearic acid, which, when separated, is used 
 for wax candles. The stearine also contains oleine, 
 which is known as lard oil and used for machinery 
 and lamps. 
 
 The bones are used for manure or converted into 
 animal charcoal. If lard is to be obtained the ani- 
 mal is skinned, and the adhering fat scraped off. 
 The bristles are used by painters and artists, and 
 for domestic uses. The skin when tanned is tough 
 and used for making pocket-books, and the seats 
 of riding saddles. 
 
 Diseases and their Remedies. — Pigs are by na- 
 ture very obstinate, and it is very difficult to force 
 them to take medicine ; hence it is more easy to pre- 
 vent tlian to cure disease. Cleanliness and warmth 
 are the great essentials in caring for swine. 
 
 Catching the Pig. — Swine are very difficult to 
 handle when sick, kicking, screaming and biting. 
 So this method is given for getting hold of them : 
 
 Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and 
 beneath the stick let there be a running noose in 
 the cord ; tie a piece of bread to the cord and pre- 
 sent it to the animal, and when he opens his mouth 
 to seize the bread catch the upper jaw in the noose, 
 run it tight and the animal is fast. In thus catching 
 the pig against his will, be sure that he does not in- 
 jure himself. 
 
 Bleeding. — If it becomes necessary to bleed the 
 pig the best places to do so are the veins on the 
 interior side of the ear, the palate veins running on 
 either side of the mouth, and the brachial vein of 
 the fore leg. A small penknife may be used in all 
 of these instances. 
 
 Drenching. — It is best to mix the medicine with 
 the food. If this cannot be done let one man hold 
 the pig's head between his knees while another 
 holds the hinder part, then take hold of the head 
 from above, raise it a little and incline slightly to 
 the right, at the same time spread open the lips on 
 the left side so as to form a hole into which the fluid 
 may be gradually poured. 
 
 Catarrh. — This disease is an inflammation of 
 the mucous membrane of the nose, and may be cured 
 by opening medicines, followed by warm bran wash, 
 a warm, dry sty and abstinence from rich grains 
 or stimulating farinaceous foods. Guard against 
 draughts. 
 
 Cholera. — Remedies have almost no effect on 
 this disease, therefore prevention is the only thing 
 of use. The symptoms are as follows : 
 
 The animal appears to be deprived of all energy, 
 loss of appetite, lying down by himself, occasion- 
 ally moving about slowly as though uncomfortable 
 internally, eyes have a dull appearance which in- 
 creases, evacuation almost continuously of a dark 
 color having a fetid odor, extremities cold, abdomen 
 sensitive to pressure, pulse is quickened rather per- 
 
254 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 ceptibly, the tongue is furred, evacuation contin- 
 ues until animal expires, which may be in twelve 
 hours or in several clays. As a preventive the fol- 
 lowing may be found valuable : 
 
 Flower of sulphur, 6 lbs. ; animal charcoal, i lb. ; 
 sulphate of iron, 6 oz. ; cinchona pulverized, i lb. ; 
 mix well, and give a teaspoonful mi.xed with a few- 
 potato parings and corn meal, three times a day, 
 keeping the animal in a clean, dry place with not 
 many around him. 
 
 Cracklings. — Will sometimes appear on the skin 
 of a hog about the roots of tlie ear, the tail, and at 
 the flanks. Anoint the cracked parts two or three 
 times a day w'ith tar and lard well melted. 
 
 Diarrhea. — In the early stages a more binding 
 diet, as corn flour, etc., will suffice ; but if acidity is 
 present give some chalk or powdered egg-shells 
 with about half a dram of powdered rhubarb in 
 the food. 
 
 Fever. — Symptoms of this are redness of the 
 eyes, dryness and heat of nostrils, lips and skin. 
 Appetite poor and usually with a strong thirst. 
 Bleed as soon as possible and keep the animal well 
 housed. Bread steeped in broth is a gofld kind of 
 food. Do not let tlie animal eat too much, and if 
 the bowels are confined give castor and linseed oil 
 in equal quantities added to the bread and broth in 
 the proportion of two to six ounces. The causes 
 are usually bad sties and bad food, also lying in the 
 dung-heap, or on muddy ground. When the ani- 
 mal is thus sick he should be taken apart from the 
 others and placed in a warm spot. Put a stimulat- 
 ing ointment on his chest and administer sorrel. 
 When the symptoms become violent it is best to 
 kill the animal. 
 
 Foul Skin. — This will usually yield to a wash of 
 the animal with a solution of chloride of lime. 
 
 Inflammation of the Lungs. — This is a disease 
 which it is difficult to cure. It is caused by damp 
 lodging, foul air and bad food. If the lungs be- 
 come' affected the disease may be communicated by 
 means'of the atmosphere. The following may be 
 tried : 
 
 Shave the hair away from the chest and behind 
 each fore leg ; wet the parts with spirits of turpentine, 
 and set on fire, having the animal well secured, with 
 its head raised, and a flannel cloth at hand to ex- 
 tinguish the flame after it has burned long enough 
 to produce slight blisters. 
 
 Jaundice. — The symptoms of this disease are 
 yellowness of the whites of the eyes, a similar hue 
 extending to the lips, and sometimes swelling of 
 the under part of the jaw. Bleed freely ; diminish 
 the quantity of food, and give an active aperient 
 every second day. Aloes combined with colocynth 
 is perhajK the best aperient. 
 
 Leprosy. — This begins with a small tumor in the 
 eye, followed by a general depression of the spirits ; 
 languor follows, the animal refuses food, and rapidly 
 
 falls away in flesh. Blisters beneath the tongue 
 appear and frequently cover the whole body. The 
 causes of this are uncleanness, want of fre'sh air and 
 foul feeding. Therefore the first thing to do is to 
 clean out the sty ; wash the animal thoroughly with 
 soap and water to which soda has been added. 
 Give him a clean bed, keep him dry and comfort- 
 able, let him have exercise and fresh air. Limit 
 the quantity of his food, give bran with wash. 
 
 Lethargy. — Symptoms : Stupor, desire to sleep, 
 hanging of the head and redness of the eyes. Is 
 generally caused from the hogs having too large a 
 supply of blood. 
 
 Treatment. — Bleed copiously, then give an emetic, 
 reduce the animal's food ; after this give a small 
 portion of niter and sulphur in each morning's 
 meal. 
 
 Mange. — The symptoms are well known, con- 
 sisting of scabs and blotches, and if unchecked 
 spread rapidly over the whole body. The cause is 
 usually dirt ; and being extremely contagious, such 
 a pig must be at once isolated. 
 
 Treatment. — Place the pig in a clean, dry sty 
 with plenty of fresh air and fresh straw, reduce his 
 food in quantity and quality and give boiled or 
 steamed roots with buttermilk. Keep him without 
 food for five or six hours, then give two ounces 
 Epsom salts in warm bran wash. Give after every 
 meal, one teaspoonful of flower of sulphur, and as 
 much niter as will cover a dime. If in fourteen 
 days a cure is not effected give the following : Train 
 oil, I pt. ; oil of tar, 2 dr. ; spirits of turpentine, 2 
 dr. ; naphtha, I dr. ; with as much flower of sulphur 
 as will form the foregoing into a thick paste. Rub 
 the animal thoroughly with this mixture, and keep 
 him dry and warm, allowing it to remain on his 
 skin for three days. On the fourth day wash him 
 with soft soap and add a small quantity of soda to 
 the water. Dry him and change his bedding, con- 
 tinuing the sulphur and niter. When he is recov- 
 ering, wash the sty, fumigate it by putting a little 
 chloride of lime in a cup and pouring a small quan- 
 tity of vitriol upon it. 
 
 Measles. — The symptoms are redness of the 
 eyes, foulness of the skin, prostration of the spirits, 
 loss of appetite, and pustules around the throat and 
 purple eruptions on the skin. To treat this, make 
 the animal fast for twenty-four hours, and give a 
 warm drink containing a dram of carbonate of 
 soda and an ounce of bole armenian ; cleanse the 
 animal and the sty, and change the bedding ; give 
 at each meal thirty grains of flower of sulphur and 
 ten of niter. 
 
 Murrain. — This is similar to leprosy in symp- 
 toms with the exception of staggering, shortness of 
 breath and a discharge from the eyes and nose. 
 To treat this it is necessary to keep the animal cool 
 and clean ; to bleed, purge and limit him in food. 
 Cloves of garlic are recommended. 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 255- 
 
 Quinsy— Treatment. Shave the hair, and rub 
 with tartar emetic ointment. Hot applications are 
 also useful. When the swellings are ripe, with a 
 sharp knife mal<e a cut the entire length, press out 
 the matter, wash with warm water, and dress the 
 wound with some resinous ointment. 
 
 Staggers. — This is caused by rush of blood to 
 the head. Bleed and purge. 
 
 Swelling of the Spleen. — The symptom most no- 
 ticeable of this disease is, that the affected animal 
 leans to one side, cringing as though in internal 
 pain and bending toward the ground. The cause 
 of this is overfeeding. To treat it, clean out the 
 alimentary canal with a powerful aperient. Compel 
 
 the animal to fast for four or five hours, after which, 
 give a little broth in which is mi.xed some Epsom 
 salts. If the disease has continued for some time 
 the animal should be bled and given the following 
 preparation : 
 
 Boil the leaves and tops of wormwood and liver- 
 wort for six hours, and give about one-half a pint to 
 the dose. 
 
 Surfeit. — This is simply indigestion. The symp- 
 toms being panting, loss of appetite, swelling of the 
 stomach and sometimes vomiting. This will cure 
 itself if the animal is fed lightly and the food is of 
 a liquid nature. 
 
 SHEEP AND THEIR DISEASES. 
 
 Arsenic Bath 263 
 
 Care of Ewes, The 255 
 
 Choice of Ram 255 
 
 Classes and Grades of Wool .... 261 
 
 Diseases of Sheep 261 
 
 Catarrh 261 
 
 Choking 261 
 
 Cotted Wool 261 
 
 Colic 261 
 
 Fermentation of the Stomach . . . 262 
 
 Grub in the Head 261 
 
 Hoof Rot 261 
 
 Diseases of Sheep : 
 
 Inflammation of the Eyes .... 262 
 
 Poisoning 262 
 
 Scab 262 
 
 Sore Lips 263 
 
 Ticks and Lice 263 
 
 Disowning Lambs 256 
 
 Docking Lambs 257 
 
 Fattening Lambs 257 
 
 Feeding Lambs 257 
 
 Fences 259 
 
 General Management of Sheep . . . 255 
 
 Kinds of Sheep ...«•••• 255 
 
 Quarters for Sheep * 259 
 
 Rearing a Lamb by Hand 256 
 
 Resuscitating Chilled Lambs .... 257 
 
 Selection of Ewes 255 
 
 Salt for Sheep • . 259 
 
 Shearing the Sheep 259 
 
 Sheep Ranches . 261 
 
 Tying and Packing Wool ..... 261 
 
 Water Supply for Sheep ..... 259 
 
 Weaning Lambs • 257 
 
 General Management of Sheep. — The selection of 
 the breed depends entirely upon the. section of the 
 country in which they are intended to be kept, and 
 for the amount of attention which is to be paid to 
 them. The more hearty and vigorous breeds are 
 best adapted to the extremes of climate and scanty 
 pasturage ; those of a more delicate nature will 
 serve better and will be found more profitable in 
 temperatures better suited to their natures. 
 
 Let a farmer, in making his choice, study the char- 
 acteristics of each breed, then take into considera- 
 tion the conditions and circumstances governing his 
 own locality, his object in the enterprise, and let 
 him be governed by his own purpose. 
 
 One of the most important phases of raising sheep 
 is the supplying of early lambs to the market, and 
 this is a very profitable enterprise where one's local- 
 ity is near a city and one has easy access to a 
 market. 
 
 Choice of Ram. — It is perhaps unnecessary to say 
 that a ram of any breed should not be used for at 
 least a year and a half, as most people know that 
 he is at his best between the age of three and six. 
 He should be a strong, healthy and robust fellow, 
 with fine form, and should be as perfect for his kind, 
 as possible. The main dependence of a farmer in 
 the breeding of his stock lies in his choice of a ram. 
 The best results can be obtained by securing a 
 
 choice animal and by placing a limited number of 
 ewes in the pen with him. It is not at all well to 
 allow the buck to run with the flock, especially if 
 the flock is large ; it being far better to keep him 
 away and allow him to run with only a portion at 
 a time. By judicious management in this way, one 
 can obtain three times as much use from him as 
 though he ran with the entire flock all of the time. 
 
 Selection of Ewes. — Only the best of ewes should 
 be kept and the old should be yearly thinned out 
 and killed for mutton. Let each person select his 
 best ewe lambs and keep them for breeding pur- 
 poses, using, when the time comes, only a proper 
 bred buck, and thus a flock may be built up sur- 
 prisingly fine. No ewe should bring forth her first 
 lamb younger than two years old, and a great many 
 breeders prefer that the ewe should be three years 
 old, as the Iambs then will be a great deal stronger, 
 larger and more vigorous. Ewes on the other hand 
 ought not to breed after they are seven years of 
 age, but there are exceptions to this rule. 
 
 The Care of fives. — A liberal amount of food 
 should be given to the ewes while they have little 
 lambs, as this will greatly increase the rigor and 
 size of their young, and without food, no animal can 
 reach its maximum development. That man who 
 thinks that by not feeding his flock with proper 
 food, or by under-feeding them, that he is making 
 
256 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 Sheep Fold. 
 
 money, is entirely mistalcen, but ratlier than that, he is 
 losing money each and every day ; by this we do not 
 wisli to have the farmer over-feed his animals, but to 
 give them a sufficient quantity to keep them in first-class 
 condition. 
 
 It is always well to see that your sheep receive kind 
 and gentle treatment, and that they become as tame as 
 possible, for those that are not tamed are not as profit- 
 able as those that are, and the caring for the former is 
 more arduous. As it is time for the young lambs to make 
 tlieir appearance those animals which are the most forward 
 should be separated from the rest of the flock and put in 
 a warm, dry place, a stable in a cold climate, or in the 
 warmer climates, a shed. In this way it is more easy 
 to take care of them, and they can have more careful at- 
 tention. For a few days after lambing, the ewe should be 
 fed on roots, which clears the system, tlms strengthening 
 her; but after a week or more has passed other food may 
 be given by which they may gain in flesh. Lambs are 
 born in about five months, or practically from one hun- 
 dred and forty-five to one hundred and sixty-one days, 
 the average being about one hundred and fifty-four days. 
 A great many think that the average is one hundred and 
 forty-eight days. 
 
 If a flock is in a cold climate the Iambs make their 
 appearance earlier, and care should be given them to pre- 
 vent them from being chilled. 
 
 Yet if the ewe owns the lamb, it will generally get well 
 even under unsuitable conditions in from three to four 
 days. The ewe in most cases laps the lamb dry and 
 things follow in their natural order. However, if the 
 mother refuse to pay this attention to her lamb, it should 
 be carefully cared for by being wiped dry with a piece of 
 old flannel and shown how to get his meals. It often 
 requires a great deal of patience, but as in everything 
 else, time will accomplish it. The udder should not be 
 allowed to be caked, and they should be treated in the 
 .same way as cattle, that is, they should be milked. 
 
 When there "is a deficiency of milk in the case of the 
 ewe, or the mother dies, the lamb may be given to a 
 young heifer just coming into milk, or it can be supplied 
 from the surplus of another ewe. Milk given to a lamb 
 should never be scalded, only slightly warm. 
 
 Disowning Lambs. — Sometimes the ewe will disown her 
 offspring, and this is a cause of considerable trouble to the 
 farmer ; if this be the case, the lamb and its mother 
 should be put in a dark pen and left by themselves. 
 However, if this does not accomplish the result the Iamb 
 should be made to get its food, some one being required 
 to hold the ewe and another person holding the lamb 
 while this is being accomplished. After this has been 
 tried for several times the ewe will in most cases own 
 the lamb. 
 
 Young lambs require food often, and should be fed at 
 least from six to eight times during the day. 
 
 Rearing a Lamb by Hand. — This is the cause of great 
 trouble and hardly pays in the long run, especially if your 
 flock of sheep is large. Yet, if it is to be done the 
 lamb should be fed from six to eight times a day, and it 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 257 
 
 should be fed on milk from a cow that has recently 
 
 had a calf; it may be fed with a spoon, and later 
 on it can be taught to drink from a basin by putting 
 the finger in the mouth and allowing it to suck the 
 finger, and then by placing his head in the basin. 
 The only trouble in this is to know how much to 
 feed the young lamb, as there is as much danger 
 in over-feeding as from under-feeding. 
 
 Lambs raised by hand on a farm, generally be- 
 come the pets of the household. 
 
 Resuscitating Chilled Lambs. — When lambs have 
 been in a place that is cold, and have become 
 chilled and stiff and look as though they were 
 dead, they can generally be brought around by the 
 following methods which have been found to be of 
 very great value. The lamb should be put into a 
 tub of warm water, immersing him in it up to his 
 head. The water should be about ninety degrees, 
 if it is warmer than this it would be harmful ; then 
 hold the lamb's head with one hand out of the 
 water, and with the other rub the body of the 
 lamb, especially the legs, briskly. In a short time 
 add some hot water, continue rubbing. Continue 
 adding warm water until it moves its legs, puts out 
 its tongue and shows at least some signs of life. 
 When the sign appears, take it immediately from 
 the water and rub it very dry, allowing the water to 
 drain off; then wrap an old flannel around it, place 
 the lamb in a basket and put it in a warm place. 
 As soon as possible, without exposure, give it to 
 the mother again, making sure that it is thoroughly 
 dry and able to stand. If, however, it should ap- 
 pear weak and unable to stand, give it an occa- 
 sionahrubbing on the outside, and a drop of whisky 
 or brandy on the inside in a teaspoonful of new 
 milk. 
 
 Docking Lambs. — This appears sometimes to be 
 a very cruel treatment, yet it is essential to the com- 
 fort and welfare of the sheep, as a long tail is a 
 source of great filth as well as of great detriment 
 to the flock. Docking should be done the first few 
 weeks of the lamb's life, provided the lambs be 
 strong and healthy ; it should not be done how- 
 ever, when the weather is very hot or very cold : 
 in cold, the stumps will not heal well ; in warm, 
 the flies will be troublesome. The best manner 
 of doing it is to take the lambs on a dry cold day, 
 and in the morning before the lambs have heated 
 their blood by e.xercise ; let one person hold the 
 lamb, while another does the docking ; lay the tail 
 on a plank of wood, let the person that holds the 
 lamb draw the skin as close to the body as pos- 
 sible, then let the operator take a broad thin sharp 
 chisel, place it between the joints about two inches 
 from the body, strike the tail off with one blow. 
 The skin, which the holder has pressed towards the 
 body, thus relaxes and slips over the portion that 
 has been cut, thus forming a covering for it. The 
 cut will soon heal itself. 
 17 
 
 If, however, the farmer uses a knife instead of a 
 chisel, the tail should be cut upward rather than 
 downward. To aid in healing the wound, and to 
 prevent flies and other insects, some people have 
 used one part of tar to four parts of lard. Turpen- 
 tine may be used and is thought very fine by some. 
 Care, however, should be taken when the Iambs 
 have been docked not to expose them to the 
 cold. 
 
 Feeding Lambs. — In feeding lambs it should be 
 remembered as we have before said that they should 
 be well fed whether they are for market or for breed- 
 ing purposes. The reasons for this are obvious. 
 Those lambs which are to be raised for breeding 
 puiposes should run with the mother until about 
 four months old, and should be given rowen hay 
 and fresh water besides the food they get from the 
 mother. Wlien tliey are about a month old they 
 can be fed with bran, oatmeal and corn meal. 
 
 Fattening Lambs. — In fattening lambs, give them 
 from a pint and a half to a quart and a half of 
 meal in addition to the food of the mother. Feed- 
 ing these lambs should be kept up until they are 
 to be taken to market ; in feeding for breeding pur- 
 poses, the effect of their food is easily seen in the 
 quality and te.xture of the wool. If the food has 
 been insuflScient, the wool will be harsh and lack 
 the oiliness which is seen in well-fed lambs and 
 sheep ; and if the food has been irregular, the wool 
 will be varied and liable to break in places. 
 
 Weaning Lambs. — Lambs are generally allowed 
 to run with their mother from three to five months, 
 but this period tries upon the vitality of the sheep, 
 and it is better for the lambs to depend upon other 
 food. 
 
 It is always well to separate the lambs and the 
 ewes as far as possible from each other so that they 
 may not hear each other's bleatings. The lamb 
 should be fed on more dainty food — better food 
 to make up for the loss of the milk, for a lamb to 
 lose flesh at this period is a very great drawback. 
 
 The ewes on the other hand should be fed on dry 
 hay or should be turned into a dry pasture. The 
 reason for this is to check the milk supply. It 
 otherwise treated, that is, fed on juicy food, it is 
 liable to cause inflammation or garget. It is al- 
 ways a good plan to have the sheep milked soon 
 after separation, to avoid danger. 
 
 General Management of Sheep. — The sheep when 
 the first cold comes on. should be better cared for 
 and have more nutritious food in order to give them 
 a fair start for the winter season, as when they get 
 into their winter quarters they are apt to decline. 
 When the sheep are heavy and kept fat, the wool 
 grows with great rapidity and the fleeces are very 
 heavy. Do not, in the early part of the season, 
 neglect your sheep ; they should be brought into 
 their quarters shortly after the appearance of the 
 cold season. 
 
258 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 Sheep Industry. 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 259 
 
 Sufficient room in these quarters, ventilation and 
 such conveniences are all necessary for the welfare 
 and the health of your flock. 
 
 A very fine plan is to have separate pens for the 
 different conditions of sheep ; those that are strong, 
 in one, and so on, according to their condition of 
 health and strength. 
 
 Quarters for Sheep. — The pens should be dry and 
 provided with shelter for a comfortable protection 
 for the sheep when it begins to storm. It is always 
 well to have the pens sloped, to prevent the accu- 
 mulation of water. A very fine pen and shed is one 
 where the shed is boarded up on three sides with 
 a sliding-door, which in case of very severe storms 
 can be closed ; this door should be on the south 
 side of the building, and in very sunny weather 
 should be let down. 
 
 It is a very good plan to have the floor of this 
 shed covered with straw or sawdust for the clean- 
 liness which it affords. These sheds and pens can 
 be extended along as far as possible, and they 
 should be entered by a door at the rear ot the 
 house. It is always necessary to keep salt and tar 
 on hand, as they are excellent for sheep to lick. 
 
 It is always well to smear the noses of sheep in 
 the summer with tar to prevent the deposit getting 
 in the nostrils, which may afterwards develop into 
 that much dreaded disease, of nit in the head. 
 
 This very infectious disease once killed a fine 
 flock of Shropshire sheep, under the management 
 of F. P. Corliss of the White Loat Stock Farm, 
 Southampton, Mass. This was due to a kind of a 
 grass which grew in the pasture at the time, and 
 even afterwards it so prevailed over the whole farm 
 that it was impossible to raise sheep. This disease 
 must be looked out for with great activity, and 
 should be stopped immediately. 
 
 In these sheds there should be arranged racks for 
 feeding, and food should never be thrown upon the 
 ground, as it is a waste of good material. 
 
 Fences. — Good fences are requisite where sheep 
 are confined, and it is a well-known saying that 
 sheep, more than any other animal, know how to 
 jump fences. Let one sheep lead and the whole 
 flock will follow. 
 
 A good fence will save a farmer much annoyance, 
 and he will always find his sheep where he left them. 
 It is always well to have a pasture on a side hill if pos- 
 sible, never allowing your sheep to go into marshy 
 grounds, as this is very bad for their health. If 
 you have a very large pasture it is always advisable 
 to put a fence down through the middle ot it and 
 thus have two pastures, putting the sheep in one 
 pasture and then changing them into the other. 
 Many people at night, run their sheep into a fold, 
 as a protection against wolves, dogs and other 
 ■wild animals. The location of this should be on 
 a sloping ground that it may not become wet and 
 moist, and care should be taken that the fence be 
 
 so built that it will even exclude the entrance of a 
 dog. A fancier of sheep once built a pen after 
 this nature ; it was made up of four sides, made out 
 of pickets ; at the corners there were holes for pins 
 to fit in ; he could then put up the four sides and 
 have a sheep pen. This pen at the four corners 
 had four large wheels, about eight inches in diam- 
 eter, which were so constructed that they could 
 turn in any direction. In this pen he kept his 
 prize ram and two ewes. Each day this pen would 
 be moved in different places around the orchard 
 which was near the house, thus affording a new 
 supply of grass for the sheep and keeping them in 
 fine condition. This is simply a suggestion for 
 some people who care to have some of their stock 
 to show to people coming to see them. 
 
 Salt for Sheep. — It is often said by a great many 
 farmers and shepherds that there is no one thing 
 which so contributes to the health of sheep as 
 much as salt. It is known to be one of the very es- 
 sential ingredients in the sheep's food ; where salt 
 is not, the sheep can not and will not thrive ; it does 
 away with that injury which has often happened 
 when sheep are turned from dry food to green, at 
 which time the green food ferments in the stomach 
 of the sheep and causes great injury. 
 
 The best plan for supplying salt to sheep is to 
 have what they call patent salt-rolls, which are 
 protected from the rain by a covering and at which 
 the sheep can get as much salt as they care to lick. 
 However, should you desire to salt your sheep, be 
 always sure that the supply will fill the demand and 
 that no sheep goes salt-hungry. 
 
 Water Supply for Sheep. — It is often said, from 
 lack of knowledge, that sheep do not require a 
 water supply. They, like all other animals, need 
 that supply and should never be without it. That 
 sheep can live in a pasture and not have water can- 
 not be denied ; however, they cannot be as healthy 
 nor as strong, and the only p.^sture in which they 
 can live without water is that where there is very 
 succulent grass, which in itself supplies more or 
 less water. 
 
 Shearing the Sheep. — A great deal of carelessness 
 may result in the shearing of sheep, namely, in the 
 cutting of the skin, which will need all summer to 
 heal, leaving the wool in patches ; when the farmer 
 wishes to know whether his sheep are shorn or not, 
 let him look at the inside of the fleece to see if 
 there are any short pieces. Damp and chilly 
 weather should always be avoided, and not, as most 
 farmers do, wait for a rainy day before shearing the 
 sheep, as the change from removing the fleece is a 
 very great one. Care should be taken that your 
 animals do not take cold. There are various 
 methods of sliearing, each one having his own ; 
 but there are a few points which should be noticed, 
 namely, to bring the point of the shears near the 
 skin, keeiiino-the end well away from the body of the 
 
260 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 Sheep at floME. 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 261 
 
 animal and never taking but one cut at the same 
 length of the fiber, for if more than one cut is taken 
 the fiber is injured. Sheep should not be shorn 
 at such a time that they suffer from the cold ; when 
 it is delayed for a length of time the burden will 
 become unbearable to them. Do not expose your 
 sheep to the cold or rains after shearing them. 
 The wool from the head and neck is generally 
 separated and should be wound up inside of the 
 fleece. 
 
 Tying and Packing Wool. — The manner in which 
 the fleece is tied, has much to do with its sale. The 
 fleece should be as little broken as possible in shear- 
 ing, and should be free from all filth ; it should be 
 put in tlie exact shape in which it came from the 
 sheep and pressed close together. If tlie loose wool 
 is to be used, place in the middle, fold each end in, 
 each side one quarter, the neck one corner, and the 
 fleece will then be in an oblcfng shape some twenty 
 inches wide, and twenty-five or thirty inches long. 
 Then fold it once more and it is ready to be rolled 
 up and tied or placed in the press. 
 
 Classes and Grades of Wool. — Wool is divided ac- 
 coiding to the length of its staple and fineness. 
 We have the coarse wool for carpets and the fine 
 wool for clothing ; and the combing clothing wool is 
 divided into three classes, fine, medium and coarse. 
 The finest being used for broadcloth and the fin- 
 est of woolen goods. Combing wool is used for 
 shawls, worsted alpaca and furniture coverings. 
 The staple is generally four to eight inches long ; 
 the coarser the wool, the longer it generally is. 
 The coarse wool is used for carpeting and the man- 
 ufacture of blankets. Wools are valuable according 
 to their luster and shrinkage. 
 
 Sheep Ranches. — One of the first requisites in 
 starting and building up a sheep ranch is to find a 
 good supply of water ; it is said that three to five 
 miles should be the length for a sheep ranch. The 
 sheep should be herded only in about two and 
 three hundred to each herd. It is also well not to 
 keep cattle and sheep together. 
 
 As a rule the way that the Western sheep herder 
 does, is to get an advance on his money from some 
 commission house, and ship on his wool to be baled 
 and sold at the best market price. Oftentimes 
 the Western ranchmen mortgage the wool on their 
 sheep's back in order to get their money out quickly, 
 and there are a great many buyers going into the 
 Western ranches who buy as much wool as they can 
 ship East and make liberal advances on the same, 
 charging a small per cent commission for selling ; 
 thus the Western ranchmen are brought into con- 
 tact with the Eastern market, and realize a good 
 profit on their wools. 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 As a rule sheep are naturally healthy animals, 
 and except where great negligence has been shown. 
 
 diseases seldom gets a foot-hold. It is oftentimes 
 said, that the digestive organs of the sheep are 
 stronger than any other animal that has been 
 domesticated. 
 
 Catarrh. — This is sometimes a cold in the head 
 which has been neglected, and it may be caused by 
 becoming chilled and by being left in cold places 
 or drafts. It consists of inflammation of the mem- 
 brane and oftentimes extends down the lungs, caus- 
 ing lung fever. The best remedy is to take care of 
 such sheep. A good remedy is to smear the nose 
 of your sheep with tar, and care should be given to 
 your flock during the rainy seasons, to keep them 
 in a good dry place. Sulphur one part to five parts 
 of salt is considered a good remedy. 
 
 Choking. — Choking is caused by anything get- 
 ting in the throat ; a good preventive is to pour a 
 little oil down the throat. A person can easily 
 with the hand move the obstruction up and down, 
 thus giving relief. 
 
 Cotted Wool. — The cause of this is that the sheep 
 are too much exposed to severe weather and storms, 
 being allowed to lie in damp places, and it is also 
 due to imperfect food material. There is a great 
 tendency to scab or skin disease ; good food, good 
 pure air and clean water, and dry land to run upon 
 are the only remedies for this. 
 
 Colic. — This is, as in the case of horses, very 
 distressing. It is caused by drinking too much cold 
 water when their blood is warm and heated ; it is 
 well to give an ounce of Epsom salts dissolved in 
 warm water, and for a lamb one half this dose is a 
 great sufficiency. 
 
 Crub in the Head. — Grub in the head is a disease 
 which is very common among sheep ; the gad-fly is 
 the cause of this ; she lays her eggs about the open- 
 ing of the nose, and the young grubs make their way 
 up the nostril of the sheep, finally reaching the 
 brain, where they attach themselves by two little 
 hooks coming out of their heads. It is the cause of 
 the death of a great many animals ; sometimes they 
 are at least a half an inch long. The sheep often- 
 times try to guard against this fly, and some people 
 advise the practice of having a tract house into 
 which the sheep can run, and thus get away from the 
 fly which will not enter a tract house. 
 
 Hoof Rot. — This is the most contagious disease 
 that sheep have to contend with ; oftentimes it hap- 
 pens that a single sheep affected with this disease 
 has ruined an entire flock. It is a disease of the 
 hoof generally where the hoof unites with the bony 
 structure. Oftentimes the hoof comes off" and the 
 sheep die. This disease is caused, as is generally 
 supposed, by an undue amount of dampness and 
 a wet and marshy soil. It is first detected by lame- 
 ness in the foot.Und If attended to directly, can be 
 cured. The first thing to do in such a case is to 
 take them to a dry pasture, the hoof should be 
 pared by a skillful operator using a knife, and if 
 
262 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 properly done no bleeding will result therefrom. 
 A solution of arsenic is sometimes recommended, 
 three ounces of arsenic being allowed to a gallon ot 
 water, also put in an ounce of salt. It should be 
 put on as warm as the hand can bear. 
 
 The theory of tliis is that the arsenic hardens the 
 hoof, and not only does it act as an antiseptic, but 
 also kills the germ of the disease. 
 
 In the applying of this solution it is well to have 
 a long trough for the sheep to put their feet in. 
 
 Fermentation of the Stomach. — This is caused by 
 sheep being put into a too rich pasture. The symp- 
 toms are, the sheep breathing fast, the body being 
 largely swollen and the sides stick out, especially the 
 
 Inflammation of the Eyes. — If the eye seems to be 
 inflamed it is well to see if there is any foreign sub- 
 stance ; if so, it should be removed, and then bathe 
 the eyelids with weak salt and water. A little lauda- 
 num and sulphate of zinc will in most cases relieve 
 the trouble. 
 
 Poisoning. — Often sheep and lambs are poisoned 
 by eating shrubs of a poisonous nature, such as laurel 
 or ivy. When the sheep has been poisoned one 
 might think that it was affected with the colic, on 
 account of the sides being distended ; but rather than 
 being active, as in the case of colic, he is dull and 
 stupid, and there will be generally a frothy, greenish 
 substance about the mouth. The usual remedy is 
 
 A Fine Specimen. 
 
 left side. As soon as fermentation can be stopped 
 in the stomacli, relief will immediately follow. 
 Oftentimes driving around the pasture will accom- 
 plish this ; but the best remedy is to give a teaspoon- 
 ful of spirits of ammonia in a pint of water, and then 
 follow this soon after with a dose of Epsom salts. 
 If this prove ineffective it is necessary to open the 
 stomach and let the gas out, being careful not to 
 let any of the contents get into the abdominal cav- 
 ity. If a doctor is not handy, a penknife can be 
 used, inserting a tube which prevents any of the 
 contents of the stomach from getting out ; the inci- 
 sion should be made in the stomach half way be- 
 tween the haunch-bone and the last rib near the 
 back-bone. 
 
 to give a dose of castor-oil and milk in order to free 
 the stomach as soon as possible. 
 
 A stomacli pump is a very good thing to use ; di- 
 lute the poison with a great deal of water. 
 
 Sca6.— This is caused, like the mange in the dog, 
 by small insects burrowing in the skin and hatch- 
 ing their young there, and unless this burrowing is 
 stopped the death of the animal will follow. It 
 causes itching and pain, the sheep scratches and 
 bites itself, and pulls out his wool, which is only 
 the worse for itself and for others, as in this way it 
 forms sores, and thus the contagion spreads. 
 
 E.xamine the skin in the early stages of the dis- 
 ease ; it appears as yellow pimples ; the wool gradu- 
 ally falls out and hangs in shreds. This should be 
 
SHEEP 
 
 263 
 
 prevented rather than cured ; if they have good food, 
 warm dry place in winter, good ventilation, housed 
 in proper conditions, tliey will be free from this 
 most contagious disease. When, however, the dis- 
 ease appears, let those that are sick be separated 
 from the well ones, and thus prevent contagion. A 
 strong decoction of tobacco steeped in gallons of 
 water until the strength has been extracted. Five 
 or six pounds of tobacco to as many gallons of 
 water should be used ; some add a pound of blue 
 vitriol for every pound of tobacco, soft and hard 
 soap. 
 
 The sheep should be washed in this, and if the 
 scabs are of a hard nature lard may be used so that 
 they can be easily softened. 
 
 Arsenic Bath. — Although it may be very desirable 
 it is never done. Poisoning generally takes place 
 either by the sheep licking one another, or by the 
 sheep drinking out of a pond which is used for the 
 
 bath. In bathing the sheep it is always well to let 
 them down into the pond on a board, as they are 
 thus easily handled. However, many recommend 
 that when the disease is only located in one or two 
 animals that it is better to kill them outright ratlier 
 than to jeopardize the whole flock. 
 
 Sore Lips. — The remedy for this is two ounces 
 of glycerine, a half a dram of camphor, one-half 
 dram of alcohol, one-half ounce of flour of sulphur; 
 also a little tar sulphur and lard mixed together is a 
 good salve. 
 
 Ticks and Lice. — Ticks and lice cause a great 
 deal of suffering to the sheep as well as making 
 them thin and uneasy. When the sheep are sheared 
 these infesters make their homes upon the lambs. 
 These infesters are cured by washing the sheep and 
 the lambs in a solution of cut plug tobacco and 
 water ; the animal should be dipped into this solu- 
 tion. 
 
264 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 LEICESTERSHIRE 
 SHEEP 
 
 SOUTHDOWN 
 SHEEP 
 
 SHEEP AND THEIR VARIETIES 
 
 Breeds, Principal: 
 
 American Merinos 264 
 
 Black-faced Heath 266 
 
 Cheviot 265 
 
 Cotswolds 264 
 
 Devonshire Notts 264 
 
 Moorland Sheep of DeTonsbire... 270 
 
 Hampshire-Down 264 
 
 Leicester, Old 264 
 
 Leicester, New or Border 265 
 
 Lincolnshire, Old 264 
 
 Oxford-Down 264 
 
 Rocky Mountain 265 
 
 Breeds, Principal; 
 
 Romney Marsh 264 
 
 Shetland Sheep 266 
 
 South-Down 263 
 
 Shropshire- Down 264 
 
 Diseases of Sheep ...^ 268 
 
 Domestication, Early 262 
 
 Industrial Importance 262 
 
 Rearing and Keeping 266 
 
 Feeding, Winter 267 
 
 Insects, Protection from 267 
 
 Lambing Time 266 
 
 Lambs, Weaning 266 
 
 Rearing and Keeping: 
 
 Marking 267 
 
 Pasturage 266 
 
 Pastures, Early and Late 267 
 
 Rutting 266 
 
 Water 267 
 
 Weeds, Fondness of Sheep for 367 
 
 Shearing 267 
 
 Washing 267 
 
 Sheep-Husbandry, and Statistics 263 
 
 in United States... 263 
 
 Tying the Wool 268 
 
 Varieties of the Sheep 263 
 
 £aHy Domestication. — There can be little doubt 
 that sheep were the earliest domesticated animals. 
 Abel, the second son of Adam, was a keeper of 
 sheep, and the pastoral life was the favorite occu- 
 pation of man in the early ages, agriculture being 
 followed from necessity rather than from choice. 
 The antiquity of their domestication is further 
 proved by their widely diversified character ; the 
 Linnsean classification giving the Hornless, Horn- 
 ed. Black-faced, Spanish. Many-horned, African, 
 Guinea. Broad-tailed. Fat-rumped, Bucharian, 
 Long-tailed. Cap-bearded and Bovant. In addi- 
 tion to these are the Siberian sheep of Asia, 
 found also in Corsica and Barbary, and the 
 Cretan sheep of the Grecian Islands, Hungary 
 and some portions of Austria, which are about 
 all the orincioal sub-soecies. 
 
 industrial importance. — Sheep were the chief ele- 
 ment of wealth among the Hebrew patriarchs ; 
 and the Latin term pecus (cattle), whence was de- 
 rived pecu7tia (wealth), was especially applied to 
 them. In ancient times they were bred mainly 
 for their skins and milk, the latter abundant, 
 agreeable and very nourishing. Now they are 
 prized chiefly for their wool, flesh and fat. Mut- 
 ton, as is well known, is the most highly nutri- 
 tious of all flesh meats, and the demand for it is 
 steadily increasing. To supply the markets of 
 New York City alone more than a million sheep 
 per annum are needed. Farmers, hitherto daily 
 consumers of pork, are becoming eaters of mut- 
 ton, and the convenience of keeping a few sheep 
 merely to supnlv the family table is aooreciated 
 as never befora. 
 
SHKEP. 
 
 265. 
 
 Sheep-Husbandry, and Statistics. — In Great Bri- 
 tain the breeding and feeding of sheep has been 
 second in importance only to that of cattle. 
 Since the settlement of Australia and the other 
 British dependencies, the rearing of fine-wooled 
 sheep, however, has been almost entirely aban- 
 doned, sheep-raisers confining themselves main- 
 ly to the breeding of long-, medium- and short- 
 wooled sheep — valuable as well for mutton as for 
 their fleeces — leaving to the United States and 
 to the British colonies the almost exclusive 
 rearing of fine-wooled sheep — Saxony, Silesian, 
 and French and Spanish Merinos. This produc- 
 tion has grown vastly, as these Merinos may be 
 kept in immense flocks, and because, as every- 
 body knows, in Australasia and in Texas, New 
 Mexico, and the great American plains east of 
 the Rocky Mountains, there are vast ranges of 
 country where stock of all kinds may be herded 
 at a minimum cost. 
 
 Last year (1882) the sheep of the world were es- 
 timated to be 600,000,000 head, yielding 2,000,000,- 
 000 pounds of wool annually. Of this number 
 Great Britain had 35,000,000 sheep, shearing 
 218,000,000 pounds of wool annually. This wool 
 is'mainly of long, middle and short .staple, but 
 is not Jirte wool. The rough wool, medium fine 
 to coarse, but not uniform in its texture, is pro- 
 duced in South America and Mexico from 58,- 
 000,000 sheep, yielding annually 174,000,000 
 pounds of wool ; in North Africa, with 20,000,- 
 000 sheep, yielding 45,000,000 pounds ; and in 
 Asia, with 175,000,000 sheep, yielding annually 
 350,000,000 pounds of wool. Now if we add to 
 these numbers 25,000,000 sheep for the moun- 
 tainous and northern regions of Europe, Greece 
 and Turkey, and 50,000,000 for Russia, producing 
 in all 164,000,000 pounds of wool, the remaining 
 portions of the world may be set down as the 
 home of fine-wooled sheep. Of these Australia 
 has 60,000,000; the United States, 36,000,000; 
 the Cape of Good Hope, 12,000,000; Germany, 
 29,000,000; Austro-Hungary, 21,000,000 ; France, 
 26,000,000; Spain, 22,000,000; Italy, 11,000,000; 
 Portugal, 2,750,000 sheep. Of all these coun- 
 tries, Australia produces the finest wool, while 
 the JJnited States and Canada come next, al- 
 though Canada is essentially a mutton-producing 
 country, which the United States is not, for the 
 number of sheep kept. 
 
 /n the United States. — Notwithstanding the vast 
 territory in the United States adapted to sheep- 
 husbandry, the industry has not kept pace with 
 the demand, and until about ten years ago our 
 wool imports were constantly increasing in spite 
 of the yearly increment of our flocks. From 1870 
 to 1875 only two thirds of our manufactured wool 
 product was home grown. Since that time our 
 annual imports have not increased. The bulk 
 
 of imported wool is of low-grade carpet-wools 
 and unwashed Merino, and constituting only one 
 fourth of the product manufactured. 
 
 VARIETIES OF THE SHEEP. 
 
 The numerous varieties of sheep that now exist 
 in different parts of the globe have all been re- 
 duced by Cuvier into four distinct species : i. 
 Ovi's Amnion — the Argali. This species is re- 
 markable for its soft reddish hair, a short tail, 
 and a mane under its neck. It inhabits the rocky 
 districts of Barbary and the more elevated parts 
 of Egypt. 2. Oin's iragclaphus — the bearded 
 sheep of Africa, 3. Ovis imcsmon — the Musmon 
 of Southern Europe. 4. Ovis montana — the Mou- 
 flon of America; but this species, which inhabits 
 the Rocky Mountains, is now believed to be 
 identical with the Argali, which frequents the 
 mountains of Central Asia, and the higher plains 
 of Siberia northward to Kamtchatka. This 
 leaves only three distinct species of wild sheep as 
 yet discovered. 
 
 It is still a point in dispute from which of these 
 races our domestic sheep have been derived ; nor 
 is the question of great practical importance, 
 though its solution is very desirable in a phy- 
 siological point of view. Whether the wild races 
 may be regarded as of one species, as some natu- 
 ralists contend, or of different species, according 
 to others, the best judges are next to unanimous 
 that the domestic races are of one species ; and 
 what are called different breeds are nothing more 
 than varieties, the result of different culture, food 
 and climate. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BREEDS. 
 Among the principal breeds reared in Great 
 
 Britain and the United States are the following: 
 South-Down Sheep. — Of this variety the Chicago 
 Breeder's Gazette thus speaks : 
 
 " Wherever symmetry in outline and perfection 
 in detail are appreciated, the South-Down stands 
 the peer of domestic animals of any breed. With 
 an origin beyond the sweep of history, its merits 
 as a flesh-producing animal have had special 
 recognition for more than a century, during 
 which time it has been so bred within its own 
 blood as to perfect and intensify its best features, 
 while being employed for the' improvement of 
 many other types claiming popular favor. Its 
 flesh has long been deemed the synonym of per- 
 fection in its line — the ambition of fanciers of 
 other types rarely extending beyond the stan- 
 dard of South-Down mutton. As a meat-producer 
 the South-Down has in its favor all of the recog- 
 nized requisites; i. Precocity — its deep chest 
 and rounded rib insuring the fullest play of the 
 vital organs; 2. Prolificacy — flocks wherein the 
 lambs outnumber the ewes being by no means un- 
 
266 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 common ; 3. Propensity to thrive under average 
 conditions — being ready for market at any time 
 from six weeks old to maturity; 4. Prepotency — 
 its long years of pure breeding having so inten- 
 sified its characteristics as to insure them pro- 
 
 SouTH-DowN Ram. 
 
 minence when crossed witli other breeds ; 5. 
 Hardiness— it being found to thrive well under 
 such treatment as the average farmer usually de- 
 votes to his stock." 
 
 Oxford-, Shropshire- and Hampshire-Downs. — These 
 breeds attain a much larger size than the original 
 South-Downs, and also carry heavier fleeces. It 
 is supposed that this has been attained by a cross 
 of the South-Downs with Lincolnshire or Cots- 
 wold blood ; be that as it may, they are now' 
 acknowledged as separate breeds of great value, 
 ■combining the finest mutton with a heavy and 
 valuable fleece ; but certainly the Shropshire- and 
 Hampshire-Downs are deficient in form. The 
 cultivation of the Oxford-Downs, in particular, is 
 rapidly spreading, and likely to extend in all low- 
 lying districts where pure flocks are raised simply 
 for the butcher-market. 
 
 American Merinos. — To quote again from the 
 Breeders Gazette: "Probably three fourths of 
 the now nearly fifty million sheep in the United 
 
 Group of American Merinos. 
 
 States have a certain proportion of Merino blood 
 in their veins. For eighty years the importations 
 
 of Spanish Merinos made between 1800 and 
 1 81 2 have had especial interest for American 
 breeders, who found in the improvement of fleece 
 and carcass opportunity for displaying their 
 highest skill in breeding and management. 
 Their success in these respects has been such 
 that the typical American Merino — (properly 
 called American, because it is as distinct from 
 the type of its Spanish progenitor, and as fixed 
 in its characteristics, as the French, or Saxony, 
 or Australian types)— possesses every needed re- 
 quisite for a profitable flocking sheep. Where 
 so many eminent breeders have achieved suc- 
 cesses, when so many localities are justly noted 
 for the excellence of their flocks, the day has gone 
 by for any man or any State to consistently claim 
 pre-eminence in the superiority of its flocks. 
 Money and enterprise have scattered flocks from 
 the Eastern Stales, where the importations of 
 fourscore years ago were cradled and brought into 
 general prominence, until to-day animals of the 
 highest individual excellence are to be found 
 West and South, as well as East." 
 
 There are three families of American Merinos 
 — the Atwood, the Rich and the Hammond. 
 
 The Merinos are not so much prized for their 
 flesh as for their wool, which has a fineness and 
 felting quality not found in other breeds, and 
 weighs heavier. Shearing is a yearly operation, 
 and eating is final. The sheep that shears ad- 
 vantageously is, therefore, the most profitable, 
 and in that respect, there is not a question as to 
 the claims of the Merino. 
 
 Cotswolds. — This breed has been long raised on 
 the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and is 
 abundant in the fertile valleys of South Wales. It 
 possesses long open wool, and is among the largest 
 sheep in the United Kingdom. Of all English 
 breeds it is the variety most widely disseminated 
 in the United States. It is hardy and mode- 
 ratelv early in maturing ; strong in constitution ; 
 broad-chested ; round-barreled ; straight-backed; 
 and fattens kindly at thirteen to fifteen months 
 old to yield 15 pounds of mutton per quarter. 
 The wool is rather strong and coarse, but white 
 and mellow, 6 to 8 inches in length, and averag- 
 ing 7 to 8 pounds per fleece : some American 
 fleeces have been sheared weighing 18 pounds. 
 It is valued for its mutton, the lean meat being 
 large in proportion to the fat. It is used to some 
 extent in crossing ewes of smaller breeds, for 
 raising feeding-stock or lambs for the butcher. 
 
 The Devonshire Notts. Romney Marsh. Old Lincoln- 
 shire, Teeswater and Old Leicester Sheep. — There 
 are two varieties of the Devonshire Notts : one 
 is called the Dun-faced Notts, from the color of 
 the face ; this is a coarse animal, with flat ribs 
 and crooked back, but it yields a fleece weighing 
 10 pounds, and when fat weighs 22 pounds pet 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 267 
 
 quarter when only thirty months old. The sec- 
 ond variety is called the Baiiipton Notts ; it re- 
 sembles the former in many respects, but is 
 easier fed, yields less wool, and has the face and 
 legs white. 
 
 The Romney Marsh breeds are very large ani- 
 mals, with white faces and legs, and yield a 
 heavy fleece, the quality good of its kind. Their 
 general structure is defective, the chest being 
 narrow and the extremities coarse. The result 
 of their being crossed by the New Leicester is 
 still a point in dispute — one party alleging that, 
 though the quantity of wool has been lessened 
 and the size of the animal diminished by the 
 cross, the tendency to fatten and the general 
 form have been much improved. On the other 
 hand, some well-informed breeders contend 
 that, besides the loss of the quantity and quality 
 of the wool, the constitution of the animal is 
 rendered less fitted to the cold and marshy pas- 
 tures on which it feeds. 
 
 The Old Lincolnshire breed are large, coarse, 
 ill-shaped, slow feeders, and yield indifferent 
 mutton, but a fleece of very heavy long wool. 
 The Teeswater breed were originally derived 
 from the preceding, and pastured on the rich 
 lands in the valley of the Tees, from which they 
 derive their name ; but Professor Low remarks 
 that '■ it is entirely changed by crossing with the 
 Dishly breed, and that the old unimproved race 
 of the Tees is now scarcely to be found." They 
 are very large, and attain a greater weight than 
 almost any other breed — the two-year-old weth- 
 e's weighing from 25 to 30 pounds per quarter, 
 and yielding a long and heavy fleece. 
 
 The Old Leicester is a variety of the coarse, 
 long-wooled breeds. On rich pastures they 
 feed to a great weight ; but being regarded as 
 slow feeders, their general character has either 
 been changed by crossing, or altogether aban- 
 doned for more improved varieties. 
 
 The New or Border Leicester. — Mr. Bakewell of 
 Dishly, in the county of Leicester, has the honor 
 of forming this most important breed of sheep. 
 He turned his attention to improving the form 
 of feeding animals about the year 1755. The 
 exact method he followed in forming his breed 
 of sheep is not, accurately known, as he is said to 
 have observed a prudent reserve on the subject. 
 But we now know that there is but one way of cor- 
 recting the defective form of an animal — namely, 
 by breeding for a course of years from animals 
 of the most perfect form, till the defects are re- 
 moved, and the properties sought for obtained. 
 Though the Border Leicesters have been bred 
 from the New or English Leicesters, their forms 
 and chief characteristics are now widely diffe- 
 rent, and they are frequently classed as a distinct 
 breed. Forty years ago, the ewes of some of the 
 
 present flocks of Border Leicesters in Scotland 
 were then composed of English blood, and rams 
 from Mr. Buckley of Normantonhill, Leicesters, 
 and others were regularly purchased to maintain 
 the desired purity of blood. At, that time pur- 
 chasers of rams for crossing began to give larger 
 prices for sheep of greater size and bone than 
 those lately imported from the south. There 
 can be little doubt this increased size and activi- 
 ty were merely produced by the more extended 
 fields and cooler climate of Scotland ; while the 
 stock was still fed on pasturage rich enough to 
 keep them in high condition. The great proper- 
 ties for the farmer of the Border Leicesters, as 
 they are now called, are their early maturity and 
 disposition to fatten. They are also of a most 
 productive nature, three fourths of a flock have 
 frequently twins, and triplets are common. They 
 have long open and spiral wool ; ordinary fleeces 
 weigh about eight pounds, but ram fleeces often 
 reach double that weight. 
 
 Rocky Mountain Sheep. — All the wild sheep 
 known are natives of mountainous districts, and 
 are gregarious. The Rocky Mountain sheep, 
 called also Big Horn, is famous for its enormous 
 horns, good quality of meat, and fine wool with 
 
 
 >; 
 
 Rocky Mountain Sheep. 
 
 here and there, however, long overlapping hairs. 
 None of the domesticated breeds can be traced 
 to this variety, but it would, no doubt, readily 
 cross with any of tliem. 
 
 The Moorland Sheep of Devonshire — sometimes 
 termed the Exmoor and Dartmoor — have horns, 
 with legs and face white, wool long, with hardy 
 constitution, and are said to be well adapted to 
 the wet lands which they occupy. Their wool 
 weighs about four pounds the fleece ; but they 
 are rather small, and in some respects ill-formed. 
 
 The Cheviot breed, deriving their name from the 
 Cheviot Hills, are longer and heavier than the 
 Black-faced. Their wool is fine and close ; a 
 medium fleece weighs about three pounds and a 
 half to four pounds ; a carcass, when fat, weighs 
 from 16 to 18 pounds and upward per quarter. 
 
268 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Their faces are white ; their legs are long, clean 
 and small-boned, ^nd clad with wool to the 
 hough. Their only defect of form is a want of 
 depth in the chest ; yet, with this exception, 
 their size, general shape, hardy constitution and 
 fine wool are a combination of qualities in which, 
 as a breed for mountain pasturage, they are yet 
 unrivaled in Scotland, though they require a 
 larger proportion of grass to heather than 
 
 The Black-faced Heath breed, which, being the 
 most hardy and active of all domesticated sheep, 
 are the proper inhabitants of every country 
 abounding in elevated heathy mountains. They 
 have spiral horns, their legs and faces are black, 
 with a short, firm and compact body ; their wool 
 is coarse, weighing from three to four pounds 
 per fleece ; but the improved breed, which is of 
 mi.xed black and white in the face and legs, 
 yields a finer and a whiter wool. They fatten 
 readily on good pastures, and yield the most de- 
 licious mutton ; the wedder flocks, when three 
 
 Black-faced Ewe and Ram. 
 
 years old, are generally fattened on turnips in 
 arable districts, and weigh from 1 6 to 20 pounds 
 per quarter. They exist in large numbers in the 
 more elevated mountains of Yorkshire, Cumber- 
 land, Westmoreland, Argjdeshire, and in all the 
 higher districts of Scotland where heather is 
 abundant. Recent severe winters have led to 
 their re-introduction in high grounds where they 
 had for a time been supplanted by the Cheviot 
 and other varieties. 
 
 This breed, though not acclimatized in the 
 United States, is thought by some authorities to 
 be admirably adapted to our exposed mountain 
 localities or our unsheltered plains. 
 
 The Shetland Sheep inhabit those islands from 
 which they derive their name, and e.xtend to 
 the Faroe Islands and the Hebrides. In gen- 
 eral they have no horns. The finest fabrics 
 are made of their wool, which resembles a fine 
 fur. This wool is mixed with a species of coarse 
 hair, which forms a covering for the animal when 
 the fleece proper falls off. A similar variety is 
 
 known to inhabit the most northerly parts of 
 Europe, from which it is supposed the fine- 
 wooled sheep of the northern islands of Great 
 Britain and the Highlands of Scotland have 
 been derived. They are hardy in constitution, 
 and well adapted to, the soil and scanty pastures 
 on which they are reared, but would ill repay 
 their cultivation in lowland districts. 
 
 REARING AND KEEPING. 
 Rutting. — The "rutting" is from September till 
 
 the middle of December, according to the variety 
 of sheep and the system of feeding. White-faced 
 modern breeds have the tups early among them, 
 and the hill flocks are later. The period of ges- 
 tation is from 20 to 21 weeks. 
 
 Lambing Time. — Ewes occupying sown or low- 
 ground pastures lamb in March, while those not 
 so well provided for — the mountain sheep — do 
 not drop their lambs usually till April. The 
 ancient breeds generally have only one lamb in 
 a season, but modern highly fed varieties fre- 
 quently have twins, occasionally triplets, but 
 rarely more. Lambs intended to come early 
 into the market are as often as possible dropped 
 in January. 
 
 Weaning Lambs. — Generally Iambs are weaned 
 in July and August. Weaning of breeding or 
 store lambs, however, is a feature of modern 
 sheep-farming ; at one time it was not uncommon 
 to see several generations persistently following 
 the parent stem. 
 
 Pasture Suitable for Sheep. — The land best suited 
 for sheep is one that is naturally drained, with a 
 sandy loam or gravelly soil and subsoil, and 
 which bears spontaneously short, fine herbage, 
 mi.xed with white clover. It should be rolling, 
 and may be hilly in character rather than flat 
 and level. Low spots or hollows in which marsh 
 plants grow are very objectionable and should 
 be thoroughly drained. One such spot upon an 
 otherwise good farm may infect a flock witli deadly 
 disease. No domestic animal is more readily 
 affected by adverse circumstances than the sheep, 
 and none has less spirit or power to resist them. 
 It is by long experience that shepherds have 
 learned that the first requisite for success in the 
 rearing of sheep is the choice of a farm upon 
 which their flocks will enjoy perfect health, and 
 that dryness of soil and of air is the first necessity 
 for their well-being. By a careful and judicious 
 choice in this respect most of the ills to which 
 sheep are subject are avoided. 
 
 The nature of the soil upon which sheep 
 are pastured has great influence in modifying 
 the character of the sheep. Upon the kind of 
 soil depends the quality of the herbage upon 
 which the flock feeds. Soils consisting of de- 
 composed granite or feldspar, and which are rich 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 269 
 
 in potash, are unfavorable for sheep. Even tur- 
 nips raised on such lands sometimes affect the 
 sheep injuriously, producing disease under which 
 they waste away, become watery about the eyes, 
 fall in about the ffanks, and assume a generally 
 unhealthy appearance. Upon removal to a lime- 
 stone or a dry sandstone soil, sheep thus affected 
 improve at once and rapidly recover. The lambs 
 are most easily affected, and many are yearly lost 
 by early death upon lands of an unfavorable 
 character. As a rule, lands upon which granite, 
 feldspathic or micaceous rocks intrude, or whose 
 soils are derived from the degradation of such 
 rocks, should be avoided. Such soils are, how- 
 ever, not without their uses, for they are excel- 
 lently adapted to the dairy. The soils most to 
 be preferred are sandstone and limestone lands, 
 of a free, dry, porous character, upon which the 
 finer grasses flourish. The soils which are de- 
 rived from rocks called carboniferous, which 
 accompany coal-deposits or are found in the 
 regions in which coal is mined, are those upon 
 which sheep have been bred with the most suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Fondness of Sheep for Weeds. — Sheep eat a variety 
 of vegetation other than the true grasses. They 
 are fond of many weeds, and if allowed will soon 
 reduce the weeds that spring up after harvest. 
 All the pasture grasses are natural to sheep, 
 except those which close feeding is apt to kill. 
 Blue grass, orchard grass, the fescues, red-top, 
 rye grass, etc., may be the main dependence for 
 sheep; clovers they do not like so well. In pas- 
 turing ewes with lambs it is well to have spaces 
 through which the lambs can pass, and yet which 
 will not permit the egress of the ewes. In Eng- 
 land these are called lamb-creeps : this arrange- 
 ment often enables the lambs to get much succu- 
 lent food outside, and they do no damage to 
 crops. In fact, sheep are often turned into corn- 
 fields and other hoed crops, late in the season, 
 to eat the weeds. They will soon clean a crop if 
 it be such as they will not damage. 
 
 Water. — It has been said that sheep require no 
 water when pasturing. But that is absurd. On 
 very succulent grass they will live without it, and, 
 as a rule, take but little. Like any other ani- 
 mal, sometimes their systems require more than 
 at others. This is especially true during suck- 
 ling time. See that they have it, and of pure 
 quality. Sheep should never drink from stag- 
 nant pools. 
 
 Protection from /nsects. — In summer sheep 
 should have shelter where they may escape from 
 the insects that torment them, especially the 
 gadfly, and others producing internal parasites ; 
 also, during July and August, provide a plowed 
 surface of mellow soil, and smear their noses, 
 when necessary, with tar. 
 
 £arly and Late Pastures. — The better your early 
 and late pastures are, the easier you can winter 
 your sheep, especially in the West, where few 
 roots are raised. Attend to this, and supplement 
 the pastures by sowing rye and other hardy ce- 
 real grains, which may be done on corn land of 
 the same season, at the last plowing, and upon 
 grain land intended for hoed crops next season. 
 Light grain of little worth will prove very valu- 
 able in this way if sown as directed. 
 
 Never allow your sheep to fall away in flesh 
 before they are put into the feeding yards and 
 barns for the winter. The time to feed is before 
 they begin to lose flesh; They will, of course, 
 shrink somewhat in weight as the feed becomes 
 dry, but if properly fed it will be chiefly moisture 
 that they lose. When the full succulence of the 
 flesh is to be kept up. there is nothing better than 
 roots — Swedish turnips, beets and carrots being 
 the most profitable in the West. At any rate, as 
 the pastures become dry, let the sheep have one 
 feed a day of something better than they can 
 pick up in the fields. 
 
 Winter Feeding. — You cannot have an even tex- 
 ture of wool if sheep are allowed to fall away 
 greatly in flesh. Nor can heavy fleeces be raised 
 on hay. If you do not intend to take the best of 
 care of sheep, and keep them thriving, you had 
 better not keep any but the commonest kinds. 
 
 Roots are essential to the best care of sheep. 
 Carrots are excellent for ewes before lambing 
 time, and parsnips for those giving milk ; the 
 latter may be left all winter in the ground and be 
 fed up to the time grass becomes flush. Beets 
 should not be fed until after January, on account 
 of an acrid principle they contain when first pit- 
 ted. They are best when used after the Swedes 
 are exhausted. 
 
 Marking Sfieep. — To mark sheep without injury 
 to the wool or to the animal, take J pint linseed 
 oil, 2 ounces litharge and i ounce lampblack ; 
 boil all together. Apply the mixture when 
 needed. 
 
 SHEARING. 
 
 Previous to shearing, all the sheep should be 
 collected and washed, to rid the fleece of impuri- 
 ties. After being washed they ought to be driven 
 to a clean pasture-field, and there remain three 
 or four days before they are clipped. Before 
 commencing the shearing of sheep, they ought to 
 be carefully examined, to ascertain whether or 
 not they are really ready for being shorn. Few 
 greater errors can be committed in the manage- 
 ment of stock than that of too early clipping. 
 The practice is highly injurious both to fat and 
 lean stock, and not only retards their improve- 
 ment, but not unfrequently originates organic 
 disease, both acute and chronic. 
 
70 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 It is important that the shearing be properly 
 done, and no unskillful person should be allowed 
 to use the shears. May is the usual time for 
 shearing in the Northern States. The tools 
 are a pair of shears and a shearing-bench. 
 The common shears with a thumb-piece upon 
 one side, and an easy spring, is the best tool 
 for the shearer. The shears should be brought 
 to a fine, sharp edge upon a fine oil stone. 
 The bevel of the cutting edge should be some- 
 what more than that of a common pair of 
 scissors and less liian that of a plane-iron. 
 
 The floor'of the shearing-room should be kept 
 free from straw, chafT or litter; and if a boy be 
 kept at Work removing dirt, tags and rubbish, 
 his time will be well employed. In shearing, 
 the shearer catches the sheep by the left hind 
 leg, backs it toward the bench and rolls it 
 over upon it. He then sets the sheep on its 
 rump, and standing with his left foot upon the 
 bench, lays the sheep's neck across his left knee, 
 with its right side against his body. The two 
 fore legs are then taken under the left arm. and 
 the fleece is opened up and down along the 
 center of the belly by small short clips with the 
 shears. The left side of the belly and brisket are 
 then sheared. The tags are clipped from the 
 inside of the hind legs and about the breech, and 
 thrown upon the floor. They should be swept 
 up at once and gathered into a basket, and not 
 allowed to mingle with the fleece-wool. The 
 breech is then shorn as far as can be reached. 
 The wool from the point of the shoulder is then 
 clipped as far as the butt of the ear. The wool 
 is shorn around the carcass and neck to the fore- 
 top, proceeding down the side, taking the foreleg 
 and going as far over the back as possible, which 
 will be two or three inches past the back-bone. 
 When the joint of the thigh (the stifle) is 
 reached, the shears are inserted at the inside of 
 the hough, and the wool shorn around the leg 
 back to the thigh-joint. The wool over the rump 
 is then shorn past the tail. 
 
 The sheep being now completely shorn on 
 one side, and two or three inches over on the 
 other side, along the back from neck to tail, is 
 then taken by the left hind leg, and swung 
 around with the back to the shearer, leaving 
 some wool beneath the left hip, which will ease 
 the position of the animal and keep it more 
 quiet. The wool is then shorn from the head 
 and neck down the right side, taking the legs 
 and brisket on the way. The fleece is now 
 
 separated. The job is completed by clipping 
 the tags and loose locks from the legs. 
 
 When the sheep's skin has been unavoidably 
 cut in shearing, each cut should be smeared with 
 tar, which will prevent flesh flies from deposiiiiig 
 their eggs in the wound, and probably avoid 
 after-trouble. 
 
 Tying the Wool. — The fleece should be as little 
 broken as possible in shearing. It should be 
 gathered up carefully, placed on a smooth table, 
 with the inside ends down, put into the exact 
 shape in which it came from the sheep, and 
 pressed close together. If there are dung-balls, 
 they should be removed. Fold in each side one 
 quarter, next the neck and breech one quarter, 
 and the fleece will then be in an oblong square 
 form, some twenty inches wide and twenty-five 
 or thirty inches long. Then fold it once more 
 lengthwise, and it is ready to be rolled up and 
 tied or placed in the press. 
 
 DISEASES OF SHEEP. 
 
 Diseases in sheep are not numerous, in com- 
 parison with the maladies of other domestic ani- 
 mals, but they are severe ; one of the worst being 
 
 Scab, a kind of itch, arising from an insect in 
 the skin, and peculiarly destructive. The dis- 
 eased animal seeks to relieve itself of an intoler- 
 able itching by rubbing against every projection ; 
 and wherever it rubs, the icarus remains to carry 
 the infection through the flock. Sometimes a 
 malicious sheep-owner will let a scabby sheep 
 run at large over ground occupied by a neighbor, 
 and the consequences may be ruinous. 
 
 Treaitnent. — Take sulphur, 2 ounces ; pow- 
 dered sassafras, i ounce ; honey sufficient to 
 make a paste. Dose, a tablespoonful every morn- 
 ing. If a few doses do not remove the trouble, 
 take 4 ounces fir balsam and l ounce sulphur, 
 mix thoroughly, and anoint the sores daily. 
 
 Foot-rot customarily makes its appearance in 
 flocks ill cared for — allowed to graze on poorly 
 drained lands. The sheep suffer greatly, and 
 fall into poor condition otherwise. A good 
 shepherd knows the consequences that must, in 
 a majority of cases, follow perseverance in feed- 
 ing over ill-drained meadow or swamp : but some- 
 times that cannot be avoided. 
 
 Treatvient. — Remove to better conditions as 
 soon as possible, and apply to the affected feet a 
 preparation of tobacco, which tones up the dis- 
 eased members. Foot-rot will always yield to 
 treatment if taken in time. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 271 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 Barn-yard Fowls. 271 
 
 American Breeds 274 
 
 Brahmas 876 
 
 Cochin-Chinas or Shanghais 275 
 
 Dorkings 271 
 
 French Fowls 272 
 
 Game 277 
 
 Hamburgs 273 
 
 Leghorns 274 
 
 Modifications due to Breeding 271 
 
 Native Country of Barn-yard Fowls 271 
 Spanish Fowls 273 
 
 Ducks 284 
 
 Aylesbury 284 
 
 Ducks : 
 
 Black Cayuga 284 
 
 Common White 284 
 
 Muscovy 285 
 
 Rouen 284 
 
 Varieties for the Farm, Best 284 
 
 Word of Caution, a 285 
 
 Geese 285 
 
 Canada 285 
 
 Chinese 285 
 
 Embden or White 285 
 
 Gray or Toulouse 285 
 
 Management, General 285 
 
 Keeping and Rearing Poultry 279 
 
 Keeping and Rearing Poultry ; 
 
 Capons 283 
 
 Diseases of Poultry 284 
 
 Feeding 281 
 
 Hatching 282 
 
 Hen-Houses 279 
 
 Hens for raising Eggs 283 
 
 Laying 281 
 
 Purity of Breed 283 
 
 Turkeys 266 
 
 Black-Bronzed 286 
 
 Common 286 
 
 English 286 
 
 Hints, a few 286 
 
 The word Poultry — derived from the French 
 poule, hen — is a collective name for domestic 
 fowl bred or fed for human food and for the 
 eggs and feathers. In a more recent sense, how- 
 ever, the term is specially applied to 
 
 BARbl-YARD FOWLS, 
 
 to a description of the commoner breeds of which 
 we shall mainly confine ourselves in this article. 
 Native Country of Barn -yard Fowls. — The originals 
 of the various species of barn-yard fowls were 
 first found in thickets and other openings of for- 
 ests, but not in the dense forest itself. The Son- 
 nerat fowl, a native of the Ghautes, separating 
 Malabar from Coromandel, is a variety having 
 a close resemblance to our common barn-yard 
 fowl. Wild fowls much like our old barn-yard 
 fowls were found by Damphier, previous to the 
 discovery of Sonnerat, in the islands of the In- 
 dian Archipelago. Hence it may be confidently 
 asserted that our fowls with long flowing tails 
 are natives of India. 
 
 Modifications due to Breeding. — The wild species 
 of Southern Asia and of the Malay Peninsula and 
 Chittagong were, there can be little doubt, influ- 
 ential in modifying the large Asiatic breeds of 
 the present time ; and our bantams very likely 
 spring from the Bankiva jungle-fowl, although 
 judicious breeding and careful selection have pro- 
 duced bantams of nearly all the breeds of barn- 
 yard fov/ls, including the Games. We may clas- 
 sify our fowls, then, into the common or mixed 
 breeds, Asiatic fowls, European and American 
 varieties, and bantams. We will describe some 
 of the popular breeds, beginning with the 
 
 Dorkings. — These are preeininently English 
 fowls, and general favorites, especially with lady 
 fanciers, not only for the great beauty of all the 
 varieties, but even more perhaps for their un- 
 rivaled qualities as table-birds — a point in which 
 ladies may be easily supposed to feel a peculiar 
 interest. 
 
 The varieties of Dorkings usually recognized 
 
 are the Gray or Colored, Silver Gray and White. 
 The White are believed to be the original breed, 
 from which the colored varieties were produced 
 by crossing with the old Sussex or some other 
 large colored fowl. That such was the case is 
 almost proved by the fact that only a few years 
 ago nothing was more uncertain than the ap- 
 pearance of the fifth toe in colored chickens, 
 even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in 
 
 Gkav Dorkings. 
 
 any important point is always an indication of 
 mixed blood ; and that it was so in this case is 
 shown by the result of long and careful breeding, 
 which has now rendered the fifth toe permanent, 
 and finally established the variety. 
 
 In no breed are size, form and weight so much 
 regarded in judging the merits of a pen. The 
 body should be deep and full, the breast being 
 protuberant and plump, especially in the cock, 
 whose breast, as viewed sideways, ought to form 
 a right angle with the lower part of his body. 
 Both back and breast must be broad, the latter 
 showing no approach to hollowness, and the en- 
 tire general make full and plump, but neat and 
 
272 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 compact. Hence a good bird should weigh 
 more than it appears to do. It is difficult to 
 give a standard, but we consider that a cock 
 •which weighed less than lo lbs., or a hen under 
 8i lbs., would stand a poor chance at a first-class 
 show ; and cocks have been shown weighing over 
 14 lbs. This refers to the colored variety. White 
 Dorkings have degenerated, and are somewhat 
 less. 
 
 The legs must be white, with perhaps a slight 
 rosy tingo ; and it is imperative that each foot ex- 
 hibits behind the well-known double toe, per- 
 fectly developed, but not running into monstrosi- 
 ties of any kind, as it is rather prone to do. An 
 excessively large toe, or a triple toe, or the fifth 
 toe being some distance above the ordinary 
 one, or the cock's spurs turning outward in- 
 stead of inward, would be glaring faults in a 
 show pen. 
 
 The comb may, in colored birds, be either sin- 
 gle or double, but all in one pen must match. 
 The single comb of a cock should be large and 
 perfectly erect. White Dorkings should have 
 double or rose combs, broad in front at the beak, 
 and ending in a raised point behind, with no hol- 
 low in the center. 
 
 In the Gray variety the color is not material, 
 so long as the two hens in the pen match. The 
 cock's breast mav be either black or mottled 
 with white; the hackle, back and saddle are 
 usually white, more or less striped with black ; 
 and the wing often nearly white, with a well-de- 
 fined black bar across. 
 
 In the Silver Gray Dorking, however, color is 
 imperative. This variety, there is not the slight- 
 est doubt, was at first a chance offshoot from 
 the preceding, but has been perpetuated by care- 
 ful breeding. Colored birds will occasionally 
 throw silver-gray chickens, and such are some- 
 times exhibited as "bred" Silver Grays; but it is 
 needless to add that disappointment is sure to 
 ensue, unless the strain has been kept pure for 
 many generations. The Silver Gray color is as 
 follows : Cock's breast a pure and perfect black ; 
 tail and larger coverts also black, with metallic 
 reflections ; head, hackle, back and saddle fea- 
 thers pure silvery white ; and the wing-bow also 
 white, showing up well a sharply-marked and 
 brilliant bar of black across the middle. A sin- 
 gle white feather in- the tail would be fatal. 
 Hen's breast salmon-red, shading into gray at 
 the thighs; head and neck silvery white, striped 
 with black ; back " silver gray," the white of the 
 quill showing as a white streak down the center 
 of each feather; wings also gray, with no shade 
 of red ; tail dark gray, passing into black in the 
 inside. The general appearance of both birds 
 should be extremely clean and aristocratic. 
 
 The white birds should be what their name 
 
 implies — a clear, pure and perfect white. There 
 is generally in the cock more or less tendency to 
 straw or cream color on the back and wings, and 
 this should by no means disqualify a really first- 
 class bird in all other points on account of it; 
 but it is decidedly a fault. 
 
 White Dorkings are usually much smaller than 
 the colored, which fact is believed to have hin- 
 dered the popularity of this truly exquisite va- 
 riety. 
 
 The Dorking is not, however, a good layer, ex- 
 cept when very young; and in winter is even de- 
 cidedly bad in this respect. The chickens are 
 also of very delicate constitution when bred in 
 confinement, and a few weeks of cold wet weather 
 will sometimes carry off nearly a whole brood; 
 they ought not, therefore, to be hatched before 
 May. But it is only right to say that when al- 
 lowed unlimited range the breed appears hardy, 
 and as easy to rear as any other, if not hatched 
 too soon. 
 
 French Fowls. — The varieties of French breeds 
 best known in the United States are the Hou- 
 dans, the Crevecceurs, La Fleche and the Breda. 
 
 Houdans. — This fowl resembles the Dorking in 
 many respects, and Dorking blood has evidently 
 assisted in its formation. Houdans have the 
 
 HouDAN Cock. 
 
 Urjju/ 
 
 size, deep compact body, short legs and fifth toe 
 of the Dorking, but with less offal and smaller 
 bones. The plumage varies considerably, but is 
 most usually white, with large black spangles. 
 The head should be surmounted by a good Polish 
 crest of black and white feathers. The wattles 
 are pendent and well developed, and the comb is 
 the most peculiar in formation of all the French 
 breeds, resembling, as has been said, the two 
 leaves of a book opened, with a long strawberry 
 in the center : in the hen it should be very small 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 273 
 
 and rudimentary. Imported Houdans frequently 
 want the fifth toe, evidently derived from the 
 Dorking. The chiclvens feather very rapidly and 
 early, but are nevertheless e.xceedingly hardy, per- 
 haps more so than any except Cochins or Brah- 
 mas, and are therefore easily reared with little 
 loss. They are emphatically the fowl for a far- 
 mer, and will yield an ample profit on good feed- 
 ing, both in eggs and flesh. 
 
 Almost their only drawback is their refusal to 
 incubate. Many, however, will consider this an 
 advantage. The bird will bear a moderate 
 amount of confinement well, but in this respect 
 is not quite equal to 
 
 Tlie Crh<ci(Viir. — This breed is the one most 
 preferred in France for the quantity and quality 
 of its flesh. The full-grown cock will not un- 
 frequently weigh lo pounds, but 7^ to 8 pounds 
 is a good average. In form the Creve is very 
 full and compact, and the legs are exceedingly 
 short, especially in the hens, which appear al- 
 most as if creeping about on the ground. In 
 accordance with this conformation, their motions 
 are very quiet and deliberate, and they appear 
 the most contented in confinement of any fowls 
 we know. The comb is in the form of two well- 
 developed horns, surmounted by a large black 
 crest, giving the bird a very "diabolical" appear- 
 ance. Wattles full, and, like the comb, a very 
 dark red. The throat is also furnished with 
 ample whiskers and beard. Plumage mostly 
 black, but in the largest and finest birds not un- 
 frequently mixed with gold or straw on the 
 hackle and saddle. The merits of the Creve 
 consist in its edible qualities, early maturity, the 
 facility with which it can be both kept and 
 reared in confinement, and the fine large size of 
 its eggs. The hen is, however, only a moderate 
 layer, and the eggs are often sterile. 
 
 La Flhlie. — In appearance this variety resem- 
 bles the Spanish, from which it is believed to 
 have been partly derived, but exceeds that breed 
 in size, the cock often weighing from 8 to even 
 lo pounds. Both sexes have a large, long body, 
 standing on long and powerful legs, and always 
 weighing more than it appears, on account of 
 the dense and close-fitting plumage. The legs 
 are slate-color, turning with age to a leaden 
 gray. The plumage resembles the Spanish, 
 being a dense black with green reflections. The 
 look of the head is peculiar, the comb being not 
 only two-horned, much like the Crevecoeur, near 
 the top of the head, but also appealing in the 
 form of two little studs or points just in front 
 of the nostrils. The wattles are very long and 
 pendulous, of a brilliant red color, like the comb. 
 The ear-lobes are dead white, like the Spanish, 
 and exceedingly developed, meeting under the 
 neck in good specimens. In fact, no breed 
 i8 
 
 could show stronger traces of its Spanish origin. 
 The appearance of the La Fleche fowl is very 
 bold and intelligent, and its habits active and 
 lively. The hen is an excellent layer of very 
 large white eggs, and does not sit. The flesh is 
 excellent, and the fine white transparent skin 
 makes a very favorable appearance on the table, 
 which is only marred by the dark legs. The 
 breed is, however, very delicate, and does not 
 lay well in winter, except in favorable circum- 
 stances. As an egg-producer it is as nearly as 
 possible similar to the Spanish, not only in the 
 size and number of the eggs, but the seasons and 
 circumstances in which they may be expected. 
 In juiciness and flavor the flesh approaches nearer 
 to that of the Game fowl than any other breed. 
 The cocks suffer much from leg-weakness and 
 disease of the knee-joint. They require, there- 
 fore, special care and the moderate use of stimu- 
 lants. 
 
 Breda, or Cueldres. — This fowl is of exceedingly 
 well-proportioned shape, with a wide, full, prom- 
 inent breast. The head carries a small top-knot 
 and surmounts a rather short, thick neck. The 
 comb is very peculiar, being hollowed or de- 
 pressed instead of projecting, which gives to the 
 head a most singular expression. Cheeks and 
 ear-lobes red ; wattles ditto, and in the cock very 
 long and pendulous. The thighs are well fur- 
 nished and vulture-hocked, and the shanks of 
 the legs feathered to the toes, though not very 
 heavily. The plumage varies, black, white and 
 cuckoo or mottled being most seen. The 
 cuckoo-colored are known exclusively by the 
 name of Gueldres, and the black bear chiefly 
 the name of Bredas ; but it is much to be desired 
 that one name should be given to the whole 
 class, with simply a prefix to denote the color. 
 The flesh is excellent and tolerably plentiful, 
 very large cocks weighing as much as 8 or 9 
 pounds. They are very good layers, and the 
 eggs are large. , Like the other French breeds, 
 the hens do not sit. The chickens are hardy, 
 and the breed is decidedly useful. 
 
 Spanish Fowls. — Some of the Spanish varieties, 
 as the Minorca or Red-f;iced Black, the Ancona, 
 the Gray or Mottled, and the .\ndalusian or Blue 
 Spanish, have long been prized in the United 
 States for their great laying and non-sitting 
 qualities, and as good table-birds, but are too 
 delicate for a northern climate, and do not do 
 well anywhere when exposed to wet. To the 
 average farmer they are not a valuable breed. 
 
 Hamburgs. - -V nder the name of Hamburgs are 
 now collected several varieties of fowls — Black 
 Hamburg, Gold and Silver Penciled, and Gold and 
 Silver Spangled — presenting the general charac- 
 teristics of rather small size; brilliant rose combs, 
 ending in a spike behind, projecting upward; 
 
274 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 blue legs, and beautifully penciled or spangled 
 plumage. None of the Hamburgs ever show- 
 any disposition to sit unless in a state of great 
 freedom, but lay nearly every day all through the 
 year, except during the moulting season, whence 
 they used to be called " Dutch every-day layers." 
 Hamburgs are strongly commended as a profit- 
 able breed. Each hen will lay from 200 to 250 
 eggs in a year, which certainly exceeds the pro- 
 duction of any other fowl ; and if they are gen- 
 erally small, the consumption of food is com- 
 paratively even more so. Though naturally 
 loving a wide range, there is no real difficulty in 
 keeping them in confinement, if cleanliness be 
 attended to. 
 
 Golden-Penciled Hamburgs. 
 
 The great difficulty in keeping them arises 
 from their erratic propensities. Small and light, 
 they fly like birds, and even a lo-foot fence will 
 not retain them in a small run. They may, it is 
 true, be kept in a shed ; but if so, the number 
 must be very limited. Where six Brahmas 
 would be kept four Hamburgs are quite enough, 
 and they must be kept dry and scrupulously 
 clean. The penciled birds are also, most cer- 
 tainly, delicate, being very liable to roup if ex- 
 posed to cold or wet ; they should not, therefore, 
 be hatched before May. The spangled are 
 hardy, and lay larger eggs than the penciled ; 
 but the latter lay rather the most in number. 
 For profit, however, we should recommend the 
 Black Hamburg, on account of the large size of 
 the eggs ; and this variety is certainly the most 
 extraordinary egg-producer of all breeds known. 
 
 Hamburgs are too small to figure much on 
 the table. They carry, however, from the small- 
 ness of the bones, rather more meat than might 
 be expected, and what there is of it is of first- 
 rate quality and flavor. 
 
 Leghorn Fowls, except in color, are of the Span- 
 ish type. The White Leghorn is the most pop- 
 ular, though some fancy the Brown. The former 
 variety are among the most elegant of farm-yard 
 fowls. In appearance they closely resemble the 
 Spanish, except that the plumage is white, with 
 hackle or neck, and the saddle or rump feathers, 
 golden-tinged. But whatever their color, the 
 
 Standard White Leghorns. 
 
 Leghorns all have the good laying qualities of the 
 Spanish, without their delicacy, and indeed equal 
 the Hamburgs in every good point. 
 
 American Breeds. — There are only three distinc- 
 tive American breeds that have gained wide cele- 
 brity — the Dominiques, the Ostrich fowls and the 
 Plymouth Rocks. ' 
 
 Doniiniques are probably one of the oldest va- 
 rieties, and resemble the cuckoo-colored fowls 
 known as Scotch Grays, with the e.xception of 
 having rose combs and yellow legs. They are 
 plump and tender on the table, and capital lay- 
 ers, and might make a valuable cross for the 
 Cuckoo Dorking. In color they are slaty-blue 
 of a soft undulating shade on a light ground all 
 over the body, forming narrow bands, and deli- 
 cately penciled among the smaller feathers. The 
 feet and legs should be bright yellow or buff. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 275 
 
 and the bill of the same color. The combs of 
 the cocks vary, some having a single and others 
 a double comb. 
 
 DoMlNiQL'E Fowl. 
 
 The Ostrich breed are highly valued in Bucks 
 County, Penn. — their native region — for their 
 hardiness, weight, excellent laying qualities and 
 fine flesh. The hens at maturity will weigh from 
 7 to 8 pounds, and often lay as many as 40 eggs 
 before sitting. The cock's color is blue-black, the 
 
 Ostrich Fowls. 
 
 ends of the feathers tipped with white, the wings 
 a golden or yellow tinge, the hackle a rich dark 
 blue; the hens are similarly but more soberly 
 marked. The cock has a double rose-colored 
 comb and large wattles; the comb of the hen be- 
 ing single, high and serrated. The legs are short 
 and the body plump. 
 
 Plymoidh Rocks are apparently only a cross be- 
 tween Dominiques and Cochins. They nearly 
 resemble Cuckoo Cochins in all but having clean 
 legs. This breed has never become extensively 
 
 popular, and can only be recommended to those 
 who desire a large bird of the Asiatic type without 
 the accompaniment of leg-feather. Inrecentyears 
 an Improved Plymouth has appeared which shows 
 careful and uniform breeding, and is said to grow 
 fast, fledge early, take on flesh rapidly, and to 
 combine excellent qualities as an egg-producer 
 and as a table-bird. 
 
 Cochin-Chinas, or Shanghais. — As now brought to 
 perfection, this breed presents the following char- 
 acteristics ; 
 
 The cock ought to weigh not less than 10 or 11 
 pounds; the hens from 8 to 9 or 10 pounds. The 
 breast in both sexes should be broad and full. 
 The neck can hardly be too short in either sex, so 
 that it does not look clumsy ; and the back must 
 be short from head to tail, and very broad. The 
 legs to be short and set widely apart, and the 
 general make to be as full, wide and deep as pos- 
 sible. The shanks are profusely feathered down 
 to the toes, and the thighs should be plentifully 
 furnished with the fine downy feathers denomi- 
 nated "flufT." The color of the shanks is yellow, 
 a tinge of red being rather a recommendation 
 than otherwise. The head should be neat and 
 rather small ; the comb of moderate size, straight, 
 erect and evenly serrated. The ear-lobes must 
 be pure red. The tail of the hen is very small, 
 and nearly covered by the feathers of the saddle, 
 which are very plentiful and form a softly rising 
 cushion on the posterior part of the back ; the 
 tail of the cock is larger than in the hen, but still 
 small and not very erect ; the wings in both sexes 
 very small, neatly and closely folded in, and the 
 general carriage noble and majestic. The prin- 
 cipal colors now bred are white, bufif and par- 
 tridge. The white and buff are most popular. 
 
 The chickens, though they feather slowly, are 
 hardier than any other breed except Brahmas, 
 and will thrive where others would perish ; they 
 grow fast, and may be killed when twelve weeks 
 old. The fowls will do well in very confined 
 space, are very tame and easily domesticated, and 
 seldom quarrel. They cannot fly, and a fence 
 two feet high will effectually keep them within 
 bounds. As sitters and mothers the hens are un- 
 surpassed ; though they are, unless cooped, apt 
 to leave their chickens and lay again too soon 
 for very early broods. Lastly, they are prolific 
 layers, especially in winter when eggs are most 
 scarce. 
 
 This breed is considered moBt useful to supply 
 the family demand for either chickens or eggs, 
 or to provide sitters for numerous broods ; but it 
 is little valued as a market fowl unless crossed 
 with the Dorking or Crevecoeur; neither will 
 it be found profitable where eggs are the sole 
 consideration, and the hens cannot be allowed to 
 indulge their sitting propensities. 
 
276 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Brahmas. — The following description of Light 
 Bra/imas has been carefully drawn up under the 
 supervision of John Pares, Esq., of Postford, 
 near Guildford, Eng., well known as the most 
 eminent exhibitor of this variety for many years 
 past : 
 
 " Light Brahmas are chiefly white in the color 
 of the plumage; but if the feathers be parted, 
 the bottom color will often be found of a bluish 
 gray, showing an important distinction between 
 them and white Cochins, in wliich the featliers 
 are always white down to the skin. The neck- 
 hackles should be distinctly striped with black 
 down the center of each feather. That of the 
 cock is, however, often lighter than in the case 
 of the hen. The back should be quite white in 
 both sexes. 
 
 " The wings should appear white when folded, 
 but the flight-feathers are black. 
 
 " The tail should be black in both sexes. In 
 the cock it is well developed, and the coverts 
 show splendid green reflections in the light. It 
 should stand tolerably upright, and open well 
 out laterally like a fan. 
 
 "The legs ought to be yellow, and well cov- 
 ered with white feathers, which may or may not 
 be very slightly mottled with black: vulture- 
 hocks are a great defect. 
 
 " The ear-lobes must be pure red, and every 
 bird should, of course, have a perfect pea-comb." 
 
 The Dark, or Penciled, Brahmas are similar to 
 the above in comb, form, symmetry, etc.. but as 
 different in color as can well be. The following 
 description is bv an eminent English breeder : 
 
 " The head of a perfect Brahma cock should 
 be surmounted by a good ' pea-comb," which re- 
 sembles three small combs running parallel the 
 length of the head, the center one slightly the 
 highest, but all evenly serrated and straight, and 
 the whole low and set firm on the head. Beak 
 strong, well curved, and the color of horn. Wat- 
 tles full ; ear-lobes perfectly red, well rounded 
 and falling below the wattles. 
 
 " His neck should be rather short, but well 
 curved, with very full hackle, which is silvery 
 white, striped with black, and ought to flow well 
 over the back and sides of the breast. At the 
 head the feathers should be white. Back very 
 short, wide and flat, rather rising into a dainty, 
 soft, small tail, carried upright. The back al- 
 most white. The saddle-feathers white, striped 
 with black, as in the neck, and the longer they 
 are the better. The soft rise from the saddle to 
 the tail, and the side feathers of the tail, to be 
 pure lustrous green-black, except a few next the 
 saddle, which may be slightly ticked with white; 
 the tail-feathers themselves pure black. 
 
 " The breast should either be all black, or 
 black with each feather slightly and evenly 
 
 tipped with white, but on no account splashes of 
 white ; it should be well carried forward, full and 
 broad. Wings small, and well tucked up under 
 the saddle-feathers and thigh-fluff. A good 
 sharply defined black bar across the wing is very 
 important. 
 
 " The fluff on the thighs and hinder parts 
 ought to be black or very dark gray. The lower 
 part of the thighs shchild have plenty of delicate 
 soft feathers, almost black, roundingoff about the 
 joint and hiding it, but on no account running 
 into vulture-hocks, which are a great eyesore. 
 
 " The cock should carry himself upright and 
 sprightly, and great width and depth are impor- 
 tant points : a good bird should show great size 
 and 'look big.' 
 
 " The hen's head should be small, with a per- 
 fect pea-comb as in the cock, but smaller ; and 
 the beak also resembling his in the decided 
 curve and color. Wattles quite small and neatly 
 rounded, the red ears hanging below them. 
 Neck short, and gradually enlarging from head 
 to shoulders. Feathers about the head grayish, 
 verging to white, and the hackle more striped 
 with black than in the cock, 
 
 " General make of the back, tail, thighs, wings 
 and breast the same as in the cock, but of course 
 in proportion. 
 
 " The color of the hen, except the neck and 
 tail, is the same all over, each feather, even up to 
 the throat on breast, having a dingy white ground, 
 very much and closely penciled with dark steel- 
 gray. The penciling on the throat and breast is 
 very important, and is one of the first points 
 looked at in a prize hen. 
 
 " The hen's legs are short and thick, not quite 
 so yellow as the cock's, and profusely feathered 
 on the outside with feathers the same color as 
 the body. Her carriage is scarcely so upright as 
 that of the male bird." 
 
 With regard to the merits of Brahmas. they 
 must certainly rank very high. In size the dark 
 variety surpasses every other breed yet known ; 
 the heaviest cock ever recorded, so far as we are 
 aware, having attained the enormous weight of 
 eighteen pounds, and thirteen and fourteen being 
 not uncommon at good shows ; though only 
 good strains reach this weight, and miserable 
 specimens are often seen which are inferior in 
 'size to Cochins. They also lay nearly every day, 
 even in the depth of winter, and if pure-bred 
 scarcely ever sit till they have laid at least thirty 
 or forty eggs. When the)^ sit more frequently, the 
 hen will usually be very brown, and is, we believe, 
 crossed with the Shanghai. As winter layers, 
 no breed equals them. Brahmas are likewise 
 very hardy, and grow uncommonly fast, being, 
 therefore, very early ready for table, in which 
 particular they are profitable fowls, having plenty 
 
rOULTRY. 
 
 277 
 
 of breast-meat. They bear confinement as well 
 as Cochins, but are far more sprightly, and 
 scarcely ever, like them, get out of condition 
 from over-feeding. 
 
 The flesh, however, though better than that of 
 Cochins, is much inferior, after si.\ months, to 
 that of the Dorking; and this is their only real 
 fault ; but a cross with a Crevecoeur or Dorking 
 cock produces the most splendid table-fowls pos- 
 sible, carrying almost incredible quantities of 
 meat of excellent quality. Such a cross is well 
 worth the attention of the farmer. 
 
 On the whole, there is no more profitable fowl 
 " all round " than the Brahma ; and a few hens at 
 least should form part of the stock of every mo- 
 derate yard. 
 
 Game. — No variety of fowl has been so enthu- 
 siastically cultivated by amateurs as the Game, 
 and in none perhaps is there so much room for 
 legitimate difference of opinion. The varieties 
 are legion ; and to describe every one would be 
 hopeless, except in a work specially devoted to 
 the purpose. We shall therefore only give de- 
 scriptions of the leading breeds, as written by 
 Trevor Dickens. Esq., of London, one of the 
 most eminent authorities on all points connected 
 with the Game fowl. 
 
 " T/ie Game Cock, as the undisputed king of 
 all poultry, requires more careful judging in 
 regard to shape than any other bird. The 
 Brown-reds have long been most perfect in out- 
 line ; but the following description will apply to 
 a perfect bird of any breed : 
 
 " The beak should be strong, curved, long and 
 sharp ; the comb single, small and thin, low in 
 front, erect and evenly serrated ; it is usually 
 red, but sometimes darkish red. Head long and 
 sharp, with the face and throat lean and thin. 
 Ear-lobes small and red, never whitish. Neck 
 long, strong and well arched ; the hackle short, 
 hard, close, firm, and broad in the feather ; 
 Back short, and very hard both in flesh and 
 feather ; broad at ^shoulders, narrow at tail, and 
 rounded at the sides. Breast broad and very hard, 
 but not by any means too lean or too full — the 
 last would be useless weight ; a good hard breast 
 is most essential, as it is the most vulnerable part 
 of the bird. The rump should be narrow, neat 
 and short, the saddle-feathers close, hard and 
 short. Wings very strong, and of a just medium 
 length, well rounded to the body, and carried 
 neither high nor low, but so as to protect the 
 thighs. Very long-winged birds are usually too 
 long in the body, and short-winged birds too 
 broad in the stern. Tail neither long nor short, 
 but medium length, and carried erect to show 
 good spirit, but not ' squirrel-fashion ' over the 
 back; it should be ' well fanned,' or spreading, 
 and the sickle-feathers of a good round full 
 
 curve, and standing clearly above the points of 
 the quill tail-feathers. Very long-tailed birds 
 are soft and long-bodied, and short-tailed birds 
 are too short-winged, and often have broad 
 rumps; thighs short and very muscular, hard 
 and firm ; placed well wide apart, and well 
 up to the shoulders, in order to give a fine fore- 
 hand and make the bird stand firm on his legs ; 
 which latter should be sufficiently long, but not 
 too much so, and placed wide apart as the thighs. 
 Spurs low down, long, sharp and rather thin ; 
 curved slightly upward, and not turning in too 
 much. Feet flat, broad, spreading and thin ; the 
 claws and nails straight, long and strong; the 
 back claw especially long and flat to the ground, 
 to give a firm footing. The whole plumage 
 should be very close, short and hard, with glossy 
 reflections, and the quills or stems strong and 
 elastic. Body in hand short and very hard, and 
 the general carriage upright, quick, fierce and 
 sharp. The back is best rather curved, provided 
 it be flat crosswise, and not hump-backed or lop- 
 sided. Weight for exhibition, 4^ to 5^ lbs.; for 
 the pit, not over 4i lbs. 
 
 '■ T/n- Hen should correspond in form, but of 
 course in proportion, hardness of flesh and 
 feather, with shortness of body, being main 
 points. Good hens generally become spurred, 
 and such breed the hardest and best cocks. The 
 proper weight of a hen is from 3 to 3I pounds. 
 
 "A short or clumsy head, short or soft neck, 
 long body, narrow shoulders, long thighs, .legs 
 set close together, loose or soft plumage, and 
 especially what is known as a ' duck-foot,' are 
 serious defects. It should be remembered that a 
 Game fowl is always judged mainly in reference 
 to its fighting qualities, and anything which in- 
 terferes with them is a fault in the bird. 
 
 " With respect to the varieties of Game, the 
 sorts which take nearly all the prizes and cups 
 are the Brown-red, Black-breasted Red, Silver 
 Duck-wing Grays, and Piles ; all which are cup- 
 birds. 
 
 " The Brown-red is essentially dark in blood, 
 the eyes being a very dark brown, with a comb 
 and face inclining to a^ark gypsy purple, and the 
 beak dark also. Breast of the cock a red-brown, 
 shoulders sometimes passing into a rich orange- 
 red color. Wing-butts of a dusky or dark 
 smoky brown, and general color a dark red. 
 Legs dark iron-brown or blackish bronze, with 
 dark talons. Hackle with dark stripes, and 
 thighs like the breast. The tail a dark greenish 
 black, and the wing is often crossed with a glossy 
 green bar. The general color of the hen is very 
 dark brown, grained or penciled with lighter 
 brown ; her neck-hackle a dark golden copper- 
 red, thickly striped with dark stripes ; and her 
 comb and face darker than in the cock-bird. 
 
278 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Good hens are usually spurred, and their tail- 
 feathers show a slight curve. 
 
 " The Brown-red, of all the breeds, take the 
 most cups at the principal shows. They are also 
 the favorite breed with sportsmen, and are best in 
 shape of all ; but, like all the dark-combed varie- 
 ties, are not such good layers as those with bright 
 red combs. 
 
 " Black -breasted Reds are essentially red- 
 blooded birds, the plumage being generally a 
 bright red, rather deeper on the body than in the 
 hackle. Red eyes are absolutely essential to 
 good birds, all others being inferior, and infalli- 
 bly denoting a cross. The cock's wings are 
 bright red in the upper part and rich red chest- 
 nut in the lower, with a steel-blue bar across; 
 breast bluish black, with glossy reflections; 
 thighs the same ; tail greenish black, the feathers 
 without much down at the roots. The comb 
 and wattles of all Black-reds must be bright red, 
 and the legs are usually willow-color in cup 
 birds, though any leg will do if the birds are 
 bright in color and have red eyes. The general 
 color of the hen is a rich red partridge-brown, 
 with a red fawn-colored breast, and reddish 
 golden hackle with dark stripes ; the cock's 
 hackle also is striped underneath, but clear 
 above. Spurred hens are the best, but are not 
 so frequent as in the preceding variety. 
 
 " Silver Diick-uiing Grays are purer in blood 
 than the Yellow or Birchen Duck-wings, and are 
 white-skiimcd when of pure breed General 
 
 ,, 'I' V y ^ \ 
 
 V I nm . 
 
 Duck-Wing Game. 
 
 color of the cock a silver gray ; hackle striped 
 with black underneath, but clear above ; back a 
 clear silver-gray ; breast either bluish black or 
 clear mealy silver-color; wing crossed with a 
 steel-blue bar, and the lower part of a creamy 
 white; tail greenish glos.sy black. Hen a silvery 
 bluish gray, thickly fro.sted with silver ; breast a 
 pale fawn-color ; neck-hackle silvery white, 
 striped with black. The comb and face in both 
 sexes are bright red. The legs may be either 
 white, blue or willow ; but of course the whole 
 pen must match, and white leg to silver feather- 
 
 ing is certainly the most correct match. Willow 
 is, however, most common in the legs, but least 
 pure in blood ; the white- or blue-legged birds 
 being the true-bred Silver Duck-wings. Eyes 
 should be red in Willow- and Blue-legged strains, 
 and yellow in Yellow- and White-legged strains 
 in all the Duck-wing Game fowls. 
 
 " The Yellow Duck-wings are similar to the 
 above except in the straw-color or birchen tinge 
 and the copper-colored saddle. They have 
 yellow skins and willow or yellow legs. In this 
 variety the cock's breast is always black, the 
 hen's a pale fawn-color, whilst the silver hen 
 often has a clear mealy or silver breast instead of 
 fawn. 
 
 " Red eyes and willow legs are the only correct 
 colors for prize Duck-wings ; bright red eyes 
 and white legs for prize Piles. 
 
 " The color called Piles consists, in the cock, 
 of a bright red piled on a white ground, the 
 hackle being red and white striped ; the back is 
 chiefly red. and the breast mostly white, but 
 often with red markings ; the tail should be 
 white, but a few red feathers are not amiss ; black 
 in the tail, as seen in the Worcestershire Piles, 
 is, however, very objectionable. The hens are 
 red-streaked or veined on a white ground, the 
 breast redder than the cock, and the tail white, 
 with a few red feathers occasionally. The red- 
 dest Piles are the best birds, and prize pens 
 should be selected with bright red eyes and 
 white legs. 
 
 " Whites should have bright red eyes, and 
 white legs are essential. 
 
 " Black Game fowls should have black eyes and 
 bluish-black legs. Have won a few cups. 
 
 " Dark Grays ought always to have black eyes 
 and legs. The hens are very dark. 
 
 " The original wild varieties of Game fowls are 
 three : (i) The Black-breasted Red, with fawn- 
 breasted partridge hens ; (2) Brown-breasted 
 Reds, with dark legs, and dark brown (not black) 
 hens; and (3) Red-breasted Ginger Reds with 
 yellow legs, and the hens a light partridge-color. 
 These three colors were probably reclaimed at a 
 verv early period, and are still found in India as 
 wild birds. From them all the other colors were 
 originally bred ; the varieties hatching dark 
 chickens from the brown or dark reds, and all 
 others from the other two sorts. These varieties 
 can be merely named, and are most conveniently 
 classed thus, according to the color of their 
 chickens when hatched : 
 
 Light Chickens. 
 
 Striped Chickens. 
 
 Dark Chickens. 
 
 I. Whites. 
 
 5. Black-br. Reds. 
 
 10. Brown Reds. 
 
 2. Files. 
 
 6. Red-br. Ginger 
 
 II. Dark Grays. 
 
 3. Blue Duns. 
 
 Reds. 
 
 12. Dark Birchens 
 
 4. Red Duns. 
 
 7. Duck-wing-s. 
 
 8. Yeliow Birchens. 
 
 9. Mealy Grays. 
 
 ij. Black. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 279 
 
 " There are also four other varieties not gene- 
 rally known, called Red Furnaces, Cuckoos, Span- 
 gles and Polecats, making at least seventeen 
 well-defined sorts of Game fowls ; but besides 
 these there are at least twenty-seven named sub- 
 varieties, or forty-four in all. To describe these 
 in detail would be useless, and I shall only, there- 
 fore, add the following general remark : 
 
 " The best criterion of blood in all Game fowls 
 is the color of the eyes, a point which has been, 
 strange to say, totally overlooked in every work 
 on poultry hitherto published. Black eyes show 
 dark blood, and the hens of such strains lay 
 white eggs, /i'tv/ eyes denote red blood, and lay 
 pinkish eggs. Yellow or daw eyes lay yellowish 
 eggs. These last are inferior in spirit to the 
 others. Brown and bay eyes result from cross- 
 ing different breeds. 
 
 " The only sorts of much use for fighting are 
 those with black or red eyes, and the three varie- 
 ties now usually employed are the Brown- 
 breasted Reds, Dark Grays (which are strongest 
 and hardiest of all), and Black-breasted Reds, 
 with white legs and dark red eyes. The sorts 
 which fight the quickest are, however, the Red 
 Cheshire Piles, with bright red eyes and white 
 legs, the Red-breasted Ginger Reds, with bright 
 red eyes and yellow legs, and Whites, with white 
 legs and bright red eyes ; but they have not quite 
 so much strength arid power of endurance. The 
 Black-breasted Reds with willow legs are gene- 
 rally too slow and soft for the pit, as are the 
 Blacks also. 
 
 " The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds 
 with willow legs, the hens being partridge-color; 
 and Red Cheshire Piles with white legs. The 
 worst layers are the grays, Dark Grays and Dark 
 Birchens being worst of all. With the exception 
 of these. Game fowls lay remarkably well, and in 
 favorable circumstances will, I believe, surpass 
 any breed. My willow-legged Black-breasted 
 Red hens have averaged from 211 to 284 eggs 
 per annum. To reach this, however, they will 
 require a good run, but if well attended to are 
 always good layers. It is worth remarking that 
 yellow- and blue-legged birds generally lay best 
 in all poultry. 
 
 "Game-cock chickens should be shown un- 
 dubbed ; but at their first Christmas they become 
 ' stags,' and should then have their comb and 
 wattles taken neatly and closely off with a very 
 sharp pair of scissors. 
 
 '■ Different varieties ought not to be crossed, 
 but kept distinct. In breeding either for stock 
 or exhibition, nothing is so necessary as to have 
 a good proportion of cocks. There should be 
 one to every six hens at least ; and as in a large 
 yard it is impossible, from their pugnacity, to 
 keep more than one full-grown brood-cock, there 
 
 should be a good supply of fine young birds or 
 'stags' kept under him, and breeding with the 
 hens, when all the eggs will be fecundated, and 
 the chicks vigorous and healthy. This is the 
 only way of breeding good stock from a large 
 yard ; and it is of course preferable, when prac- 
 ticable, to keep each cock to his own limited 
 family of hens. Pullets ought never to be bred 
 from at all, and should be kept away from the 
 cocks, using their eggs for household purposes. 
 Good old birds will always breed strong chickens, 
 and in this breed it scarcely matters how old they 
 are so long as they remain strong and healthy. 
 The breeding-pens should be selected with great 
 care, not from the largest, but from the best- 
 shaped and strongest birds. The more cock 
 chicks in a brood the better, as it is always an 
 evidence of strength and vigor in the strain ; 
 and the pullets, though fewer, are finer and 
 handsomer birds invariably. 
 
 "Game eggs should not be hatched before the 
 2ist of March nor after the end of May. This 
 breed is of warmer blood and stronger constitu- 
 tion than any other, and the chicks consequently 
 hatch earlier, often breaking the shell at the end 
 of the nineteenth day. As soon as they begin 
 to fight, the cocks should be separated, and, if 
 possible, put out to ' walk ' at a farm ; the pullets 
 will rarely injure themselves, and their quarrels 
 are only amusing." 
 
 On the whole, this breed is pronounced the 
 very one for a country gentleman who can give 
 his fowls ample range ; and it will in such cir- 
 cumstances afford a constant and abundant sup- 
 ply of the most delicious eggs and meat to be 
 obtained. Their good laying qualities may also 
 recommend them to the farmer in some locali- 
 ties. But they cannot be considered a profitable 
 breed for domestic purposes in general, or to 
 those whose object in poultry-keeping is to sup- 
 ply the market with table-birds. 
 
 KEEPING AND REARING POULTRY. 
 
 Hen-Houses. — Until proper housing accommo- 
 dation is provided, the sort of prejudice that ex- 
 ists with many farmers against poultry, as being 
 more destructive than profitable, is not likely to 
 be removed. Of course, when the fowls have a 
 cold, damp, imperfectly thatched, irregularly 
 cleaned, ill lighted habitation, and are otherwise 
 inadequately attended to, they do become more a 
 pest than a pleasure or profit, for they stray away, 
 roosting in the cow-house, the stable, or the 
 cart-sheds, and thus court the hostility alike of 
 the farmer, cattleman, and horseman. Eggs, too, 
 are dropped in nearly every conceivable place 
 about the barns, and often not discovered till 
 either rotten or broken. In this carelessly kept 
 state the mischievous propensities of the fowls 
 
280 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 are fully demonstrated. During the day they 
 cater the most of their food on the grass and 
 other fields, and about the barns, often doing 
 mischief. Treated in this manner, eggs are com- 
 paratively few, and the birds are not so big nor 
 so valuable in any respect. 
 
 That poultry can be kept with profit seems 
 undoubted, if the animals are properly treated. 
 One of the primary if not the principal means to 
 this profitable end, however, is unmistakably 
 good house-accommodation ; and though hen- 
 hduses are rapidly improving, there is still much 
 to accomplish in this direction. 
 
 The results would amply reward any additional 
 trouble and expense involved by a more speedy 
 substitution of comfortably erected hen-houses 
 for the pitiful .sheds still existing in some parts, 
 though happily on the wane. Without clean- 
 liness and warmth in the hen-house, any amount 
 of attention otherwise will not realize nearly the 
 maximum profit. Every poultry-house should 
 be well cleaned at least once a week, to free it 
 from vermin, hurtful odors, etc. At farms and 
 other places where a great stock of poultry is 
 kept, a proper house, with separate accommoda- 
 tion for the different varieties, should be pro- 
 vided. The hen-house should have at least four 
 compartments and a court-yard. The annexed 
 figure exhibits the requisite 
 accommodation : a a, the 
 court-yard ; 6 b, for ducks 
 and geese, the apartment for 
 which is at c, with laying 
 and hatching nests, d; g, 
 the roosting-house for hens 
 and turkeys ; e, the hatching- 
 house ; and /, the apartment for laying. Each 
 compartment should be provided with a shutter- 
 door, which must be closed every night. If, 
 through inattention, the hen-house should be- 
 come tainted, the health of its inmates will be 
 greatly endangered. A new site should be 
 chosen, and another house erected, or fumigation 
 resorted to. Care should be taken in the selec- 
 tion of the site to have it on a dry, sloping piece 
 of ground, with a southern exposure, and well 
 sheltered. Ventilation, light and warmth ought 
 never to be lost sight of in the construction of 
 these houses. Into the more modern poultry- 
 houses steam heating-pipes have been intro- 
 duced, which admit of the hatching of chickens 
 early in spring very successfully, and keep the 
 hens in laying trim over the most of winter. The 
 enhanced price of eggs in winter, and the advan- 
 tage of getting chickens early into the market, are 
 declared by those who have experience to repay 
 fully the cost of the artificial heating. The roof 
 should be quite weather- tight, as poultry never 
 thrive when exposed either to cold draughts or 
 
 «■ 
 
 ill 
 
 m 
 
 £& 
 
 W^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 moisture. The interior should be at least six 
 feet high, for the convenience of the person who 
 cleans the house. The perches should be placed 
 so that the fowls on the top row may not be im- 
 mediately above those on the second, and so on ; 
 a hen-ladder must be provided, but this, like the 
 roosts, should not be too high, as fowls are apt to 
 injure themselves by flying from lofty perches. 
 The floors should be strewn with sand or dry- 
 earth, and swept clean every day : those sweep- 
 ings will be found most useful for the garden. 
 The door should be kept open in fine weather 
 for the sake of ventilation ; it should also have a 
 hole at the bottom, with a sliding panel. 
 The laying-boxes require frequent washing 
 
 Fig. 2. — Poultrv-Pen. 
 
 with hot lime-water inside, to free them from. 
 vermin, which greatly torment the sitting hens. 
 For the same purpose, poultry should always 
 have a heap of dry sand or fine ashes laid under 
 some covered place or shady tree, near the yard, 
 to dust themselves in. this being their resource 
 for getting rid of the vermin with which they 
 are annoyed. The poultry-yard should contain 
 some lime in a dry mortar state, of which the 
 fowls eat a little. It is necessary for the for- 
 mation of the egg-shell. If possible, also, the 
 yard should include a patch of grassland. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents a section of a range of pens 
 for the exhibition of poultry of the various kinds, 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 281 
 
 constructed on the principle of showing all the 
 animals of the same species under the same 
 light, and the same conditions generally. The 
 suit of ground-compartments is adapted for 
 geese, ducks, turkeys, rabbits ; the next stage is 
 for gallinaceous fowls of the various breeds; 
 and the upper stage is provided with a perch for 
 pigeons, and might also be used for dwarf-fowls. 
 It is a French design. 
 
 Feeding. — Most persons are doubtless aware 
 that fowls swallow food without mastication. 
 That process is rendered unnecessary by the 
 provision of a crop, an organ which is somewhat 
 similar to the first stomach of the cow, and in 
 which the food from the gullet .is macerated, and 
 partly dissolved by secreted fluids. From the 
 crop the food passes downward into a second 
 srriall cavity, where it is partly acted on by a 
 digestive juice ; and finally it is transferred to 
 the gizzard, or last stomach, which is furnished 
 with muscular and cartilaginous linings of very 
 great strength. In the gizzard the partially 
 softened food is triturated, and converted into a 
 thin paste, fit to be received into the chyle-gut, 
 and finally absorbed into the circulation. Such 
 is the power of the gizzard in almost all kinds of 
 poultry, that hollow globes of glass are reduced 
 in it to fine powder in a few hours. The most 
 rough and jagged bodies do no injury to the 
 coats of the gizzard. Spallanzani even intro- 
 duced a ball of lead, with twelve strong needles 
 .so fixed in it that their points projected a fourth 
 of an inch from the surface, and the result was 
 that all the rfeedles, with the exception of one 
 or two, were ground down in a short time to 
 the surface of the ball, while those left were re- 
 duced to mere stumps. To add to the tritu- 
 rating powers of the gizzard, fowls are gifted 
 with the faculty of swallowing gravel with their 
 food. 
 
 Fowls, when left to roam at large, pick up all 
 sorts of seeds, grains, worms, larvae of insects, or 
 any other edible substances they can discover, 
 either on the surface of the ground or by scrap- 
 ing. They also pick a little grass as a stomachic. 
 The more that hens can be allowed to run about 
 to gather their food, provided always their 
 housing is good and supplementary feeding 
 judicious, the better for their health and for the 
 pockets of the owner. It has been demonstrated 
 that some of the more fashionable breeds will 
 turn out remunerative even when kept in com- 
 parative confinement and fed artificially; but 
 this process requires the strictest attention to 
 character of the diet, and considerable skill in 
 the produce of poultrv. 
 
 Going at large over a farm, the fowls at certain 
 seasons damage some kinds of crops, and in con- 
 sequence the number of birds fed in large yards 
 
 regularly, in comparative confinement, especially 
 about the larger farms, is gradually increasing. 
 
 In a state of domestication, the hard food of 
 which fowls seem most fond are peas, barley, 
 oats, etc. ; and besides a proportion of these, they 
 may be given crumbs of bread, lumps of boiled 
 potatoes, not too cold, cabbage, turnips chopped 
 small, etc. They are much pleased to pick a 
 bone ; the pickings warm them, and excite their 
 laying propensities. If they can be supplied 
 with caterpillars, worms or maggots, the same 
 end will be served. Any species of animal food, 
 however, should be administered sparingly; and 
 the staple articles of diet must always be of a 
 vegetable nature.' They should be fed three 
 times a day. When wanted for the table, the 
 quantity of food may be increased, and be more 
 substantial ; they should also be kept more with- 
 in the coop, and as quiet as possible. A fort- 
 night's feeding in this way will bring a fowl of a 
 good breed up to a plump condition. The 
 flavor of the chicken on the table will be en- 
 riched by feeding for ten days or so with oat and 
 barley meal, and with a little sweet milk, to 
 drink. To be valuable in the nest, or on the 
 table, none of those fashionably bred, early 
 matured fowls should be kept longer than two 
 years, though many, indeed most, of the old 
 barn-door birds are kept with advantage longer. 
 
 The duties of hen-wife should be discharged 
 constantly by one and the same person, as the 
 voice and presence of a stranger scare the fowls, 
 and disturb the operations of the hen-house. 
 The profits of the poultry department are very 
 often considerably lessened by a breach of the 
 above rule, by intrusting the duties of the hen- 
 wife to perhaps, in the case of a large growing 
 family, half a dozen different individuals in one 
 day, and occasionally to mere urchins. 
 
 Laying. — The ordinary productiveness of the 
 hen is truly astonishing, as it usually lays, in the 
 course of a year, 200 eggs, provided it has not un- 
 natural confinement, is well fed, and has a plenti- 
 ful supply of water. Instances have been known 
 of hens laying 300 in a year. This is a singular 
 provision in nature, and it would appear to have 
 been intended peculiarly for the use of man, as 
 the hen usually incubates only once in a year, or 
 at most twice. Few hens are capable of hatching 
 more'than from twelve to fifteen egi^^s ; so that, 
 allowing they were all to sit twice a year, and 
 bring out fifteen at a time, there would still be at 
 least 170 spare eggs for the use of man. It is 
 therefore evident that, in situations where hens 
 have comparative freedom, are well fed, and 
 otherwise carefully attended, they must prove 
 ver\' profitable. As the number of eggs which 
 are annually brought out by a hen bear no pro- 
 portion to the number which she lays, schemes — 
 
282 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 to be subsequently noticed — have been imagined 
 to hatch all the eggs of a hen, and thus turn her 
 produce to the greatest advantage; so that, in 
 place of twelve or fourteen chickens, upward of 
 200 may be raised from the annual produce of a 
 single fowl. 
 
 Hens will lay eggs which have received no im- 
 pregnation, but from these, as a matter of course, 
 no hatching can take place ; they are equally 
 good, however, for eating. When the chief ob- 
 ject is to breed chickens, a cock should be 
 allowed to walk with ten or twelve hens ; but 
 when eggs are principally required, the number 
 of hens may be from fifteen to twenty. En- 
 deavor to procure a cock of a good breed, not 
 game, and let him be in his prime, which is at 
 eighteen months to two years old. Cocks will 
 last two years, after which they lose their live- 
 liness of colors, and become languid, inactive, 
 and mere consumers of food. It is fit, therefore, 
 that younger cocks should then take their place 
 in the poultry-yard. Crowing hens should be re- 
 jected, as worthless layers. 
 
 If left to themselves, hens produce not more 
 than two broods a year. Early spring, and, after 
 a cessation, the end of summer, are the two 
 seasons in which they begin naturally to lay. In 
 the depth of winter, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, hens very rarely lay eggs, though, by 
 artificial means, as already explained, they can 
 be made to do so. If the temperature of the 
 place where they are kept be raised by a stove, 
 or otherwise, they will produce eggs. The fowls 
 of the Irish peasantry, and of some of the High- 
 land Scotch cottars, which are usually kept in 
 the cabins of the owners, lay often in wint-sr, in 
 consequence of the warmth of their quarters. 
 The fecundity of hens varies considerably. 
 Some lay but once in three days, others eveiy 
 second day, and otMers every da-y. In order to 
 induce laying, each hen should have its own 
 nest, or nearly so, made with soft straw or 
 heather, and furnished- with a piece of chalk as 
 a decoy or nest-egi;. The signs which indicate 
 when a hen is about to lay are well known. She 
 cackles frequently, walks restlessly about, and 
 shows a brighter redness in her comb and wat- 
 tles. After the process of laying is over, she 
 utters a series of loud and peculiar notes, to 
 which the other fowls usually respond. Shortly 
 after the egg is laid, it should be removed, for 
 the heat of the hen soon corrupts it. When the 
 eggs are taken away by the poultry-keeper, they 
 should immediately be laid in a cool and dry 
 place. If allowed to absorb damp, they soon 
 spoil ; indeed, one drop of water upon the shell 
 quickly taints the whole egg. When the hens 
 lay in a secret corner or covert, the keeper may 
 sometimes discover it by placing a few grains of 
 
 salt in the oviduct, which hurries on the process 
 of laying, and causes the animal to retire to the 
 spot anew. 
 
 Various methods have been tried to prevent 
 the absorption of air through the shell, and pre- 
 serve the freshness of the eggs. Some keep 
 them secluded from the air in bran, rye, crashes, 
 which may do very well where the eggs are to be 
 kept in this way till eaten, but is utterly useless 
 if quantities of them have to be sent to market. 
 If the eggs are gently rubbed with fresh butter 
 when newly laid, they will keep perfectly, and be 
 as fresh for breakfast three months afterward 
 as when newly dropped. Mr. Mollison says he 
 has found the following, with less trouble, to 
 answer the purpose even better, namely: " Place 
 them in a water-tight cask, the small end of the 
 egg down, and keep the whole always covered 
 with a strong solution of lime-water." 
 
 Hatching. — When eggs are to be hatched, it is 
 necessary to pay attention to the choice of pro- 
 per ones for the purpose. Those too much 
 pointed at the ends should not be selected. The 
 eggs must also be fresh ; from the time they are 
 laid, they should lie aside in a cool place. It is 
 said to be possible to ascertain, from the appear- 
 ance of the egg, whether the forthcoming pro- 
 geny is to be male or female ; but this is doubt- 
 less a delusion. When eggs are left to be 
 brought forth by the hen, a certain number are 
 placed under her in the nest, when she is in the 
 full inclination to sit. From nine to fourteen 
 eggs are placed, according to the extent of the 
 breast and wings ; and the time required for 
 hatching is about twenty-one days. Sometimes 
 a hen will desert her eggs, a circumstance which 
 may occasionally be traced to an uncomfortable 
 condition of the skin, caused by vermin or want 
 of cleanliness ; and this affords a strong reason 
 for keeping the hen-house clean, and giving the 
 animals the means of purifying their feathers. 
 Occasionally the hen is vicious, or, in short, a 
 bad sitter, and experience in pitching on the 
 best hatching-hen is the only remedy. Some- 
 times a hen will break her eggs with her feet; 
 and in such cases the broken eggs must be re- 
 moved as soon as observed, otherwise she may 
 eat them, and from that be tempted to break and 
 eat the sound ones, and thus spoil the whole. 
 
 It has generally been found that hens which 
 are the best layers are the worst sitters. Those 
 best adapted have short legs, a broad body, large 
 wings, well furnished with feathers, their nails 
 and spurs not too long or sharp. The desire to 
 sit is made known by a particul.ir sort of cluck- 
 ing note, and a feverish state ensues, in which 
 the natural heat of the hen's body is very much 
 increased. The inclination, or, as physiologists 
 term it, the storge, soon becomes a strong and 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 283 
 
 ungovernable passion. The hen flutters about, 
 hangs her wings, bristles up her feathers, searches 
 everywhere for eggs to sit upon ; and if she finds 
 any, whether laid by herself or others, she im- 
 mediately seats herself upon them, and continues 
 the incubation. 
 
 With a proper provision of food at hand, 
 warmth, quiet and dryness, a good hatching-hen 
 will give little trouble, and in due time the brood 
 will come forth ; one or two eggs may perhaps 
 remain unhatched or addled, but their loss is of 
 little consequence. As soon as the hen hears 
 the chirp of her young, sh'e has a tendency to 
 walk oft with them, leaving the unhatched eggs to 
 their fate. It is therefore advisable to watch the 
 birth of the chicks, and to remove each as soon as 
 it becomes dr)^ which may be in a few hours 
 afterward. By this means the hen will sit to 
 hatch the whole ; yet she should not be wearied 
 by too long sitting. If all the eggs are not 
 hatched at the end of twelve or fifteen hours 
 after the first chick makes its appearance, in all 
 probability they are addled, and may be aban- 
 doned. It is a good arrangement to " set" two or 
 more hens at the same time, so that in the event 
 of only some half-dozen chickens from each 
 nest, two broods can be taken charge of by one 
 hen. 
 
 The chicks must be kept warm the first day or 
 two. The food given to the young chicks 
 should be split grits, which they require no 
 teaching to pick up; afterward, the ordinary 
 food of the poultry-yard, or what the mother dis- 
 covers for their use, is sufficient. Some give the 
 yelks of hard-boiled eggs or curd when a nourish- 
 ing diet seems advisable. The extreme solicitude 
 of the hen for her young, or the brood which may 
 be imposed upon her, is well known. She leads 
 them about in quest of food, defends them by 
 violent gesticulations and the weapons which 
 Nature has given her, calls them around her by 
 a peculiar low clucking cry, and gathers them 
 carefully under her wings, to shelter them from 
 danger, or to keep them warm at night. This 
 maternal care is bestowed as long as the chickens 
 require her assistance ; as soon as they can shift 
 for themselves, the mutual attachment ceases, 
 and all knowledge of each other is very speedily 
 lost. The young now go to roost, and the mother 
 again begins to lay. Young hens, usually called 
 pullets, begin to lay early in the spring after they 
 are hatched. As heat is all that is necessary to 
 develop the chick in the egg, eggs may be 
 hatched artificially, without the intervention of 
 the hen. The art has long been practiced in 
 Egypt, and has since been adopted in many 
 other quarters, but with indifferent success. 
 
 Where Purity of Breed is of importance, as when 
 fowls are to be exhibited in prize competitions, 
 
 great care must be taken to keep the different 
 kinds perfectly separate ; otherwise intermixture 
 to a certain extent is not undesirable. It is 
 always, indeed, to be desired that each good kind 
 be kept pure and in as great perfection as pos- 
 sible, for improvement of the stock. But even 
 in a small poultry-house it is desirable to have 
 different kinds, some being particularly estimable 
 for their flesh, some for the abundance and 
 quality of their eggs, some for their disposition 
 to incubate, etc. For web-footed birds, free 
 access to water is required ; but some of the 
 kinds are well enough provided for by a pretty 
 capacious trough. 
 
 Capons. — By removing the reproductive and 
 oviparous organs from the male and hen chick- 
 ens respectively, a great change is produced in 
 them as regards voice and habits, and they can 
 be made remarkably fat for the table. Fowls 
 thus operated on are called capons, and can be 
 trained to watch chickens, hatch eggs, and do 
 many useful offices of the poultry-yard. Upon 
 the whole, however, the special benefit derived 
 from rearing capons does not counterbalance the 
 trouble which they give, and the danger of the 
 primary operation ; and the consequence is that 
 the number of capons is decreasing. 
 
 Hens for Raising Eggs. — Hens to supply the 
 table with eggs should be purchased in the 
 spring, and care should be taken to procure 
 young, healthy birds not over i8 months old. 
 An old .hen may readily be detected by her 
 horny-looking legs, and her comb and wattles 
 will look dry, not fresh as in young birds. If 
 the hens be sound, they will almost immediately 
 begin to lay, and continue until they molt in 
 the autumn if they be well taken care of. When- 
 ever a hen shows a desire to sit she must be pre- 
 vented. A good plan is to invert a small cask, 
 of which the head has been removed, upon three 
 bricks. A hole being bored near the top for 
 ventilation, this will make a capital pen for a 
 " broody" hen, the food and water being placed 
 just under the rim. A few days' confinement 
 will take away all desire to sit from almost anv 
 hens but Cochins, which should not be kept on 
 that account under the circumstances we are 
 considering ; and in about a fortnight the fowl, 
 if not older than we have recommended, will be- 
 gin to lay again. 
 
 Directly these hens stop laying in the autumn, 
 and before they have lost condition by molting, 
 they should, unless Hamburgs or Brahmas, be 
 either killed or sold off, and replaced by pullets 
 hatched in March or April, which will have 
 molted early. These again, still supposing 
 proper food and good housing, will all be pro- 
 ducing eggs by November at furthest, and con- 
 tinue more or less. They may then either be 
 
284 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL-. 
 
 disposed of, and replaced as before, or, as they 
 will not stop laying very long, the best of them 
 may be retained till the autumn, when they must 
 be got rid of. For if fowls be kept for eggs, it is 
 essential to success that every autumn the stock 
 be replaced with pullets hatched early in the 
 spring. By no other means can eggs at this 
 season be relied upon, and the poultry-keeper 
 must remember that it is the winter which deter- 
 mines whether he shall gain or lose by his stock ; 
 in summer, if only kept moderately clean, hens 
 will pay for themselves treated almost anyhow. 
 The only exception to this rule is in the case of 
 Cochins, Brahmas or Hamburgs, which will lay 
 through the winter up to their second or even 
 third year. 
 
 The stock to be selected, if a pure strain be 
 chosen, are Hamburg or Spanish ; either, in 
 favorable circumstances, will give a plentiful 
 supply of eggs, and give no trouble on the score 
 of sitting propensities. The Spanish lays five or 
 six very large eggs a week in spring and summer, 
 but is not a hardy or free-laying breed for winter, 
 and must have a warm aspect and perfect shelter 
 from wind if the supply is to be kept up. Ham- 
 burgs are tolerably hardy, and are capital winter 
 layers ; they also produce more eggs in a year 
 than any other breed, laying almost every day 
 except when molting, and never wanting to sit ; 
 but the eggs are rather small. More than four 
 or five Hamburgs should not be put in a shed, 
 and they must be kept scrupulously clean. 
 
 Diseases of Poultry. — Among the diseases of 
 poultry, i^apcs, is one which very frequently de- 
 mands attention, particularly in young chickens. 
 Pip or roup is .another. Some of the maladies 
 which cut off great numbers of young chickens, 
 and still more of turkey-poults, may be in a great 
 measure prevented by supplying abundance of 
 nourishing and sufficiently varied food with 
 water and lime ; and by preventing the young 
 birds, particularly turkeys, from getting among 
 wet grass. 
 
 DUCKS. 
 
 Ducks on the Farm. — Every year ducks are be- 
 coming more popular, and are receiving more 
 and more attention, from the fact that, first, they 
 are more easily reared than any other farm-birds ; 
 second, their feathers are valuable ; third, the 
 eggs and young ducks find ready sale in the mar- 
 kets; and fourth, the ducklings are the most 
 active and indefatigable insect-hunters known. 
 Market-gardeners who knew their value in this 
 last respect would raise them if only as insect- 
 destroyers in the fields. ' 
 
 Best Varieties for the Farm. — Where the princi- 
 pal objects are flesh and feathers, the white 
 breeds are to be preferred ; but where fiesh only 
 
 is sought after, the Rouen and the Black Cay- 
 uga will be found satisfactory. As insect-de- 
 stroyers, the Rouen ducklings rank highest 
 among the large breeds, and the young of the 
 common gray among the smaller. The Mus- 
 covy breed has really little in its favor but size, 
 and even in this respect the Rouen, the Cayuga 
 and the Aylesbury can compete with it. and are 
 far superior as table-birds. 
 
 The Common White Duck is too well known to 
 need description. It is not unlike the Aylesbury, 
 except in size. The breed has fallen into disre- 
 pute since the introduction of the larger breeds, 
 and is now seldom found pure. 
 
 The Aylesbury is the best of all the English 
 breeds, and one of the most useful species intro- 
 duced into the United States. They are not as 
 heavy as the Rouen, but iS pounds per pair is 
 not uncommon. They are good layers, the eggs 
 of pure white and thin ift the shell. The Ayles- 
 bury is prone to fall down behind through the 
 stretching of the abdominal muscles, and care 
 should be taken in breeding to avoid such birds. 
 When ducks are thus disabled they become ster- 
 ile, and should be killed and dressed for market. 
 
 Rouen and Avlesburv Duck.*;. 
 
 Rouen Duclcs. — The name of this breed would 
 imply that they originated in the French town 
 Rouen, but there is no evidence to that effect, 
 and the term is probably a corruption of /loaa 
 duck. This variety evidently sprang from the 
 Mallard or Gray duck, which in color and 
 markings it closely resembles. The eyes, how- 
 ever, are more deepl,y sunken, and the ducks 
 have the disability of the .'\ylesburys of soon 
 falling down behind, the abdominal protuberance 
 being early developed. 
 
 Black Cayuga. — This variety, of whose origin 
 nothing is positively known, has been bred 
 about Cayuga Lake for many years, and is one 
 of the most celebrated of American breeds. 
 They rarely rise from the water, and when on 
 land seldom wander far, being too clumsy. They 
 are rusty black, with a white band about the 
 neck and white flecks on the breast ; the drakes 
 
I'OUI.TKV. 
 
 285. 
 
 generally have more white than the ducks, and 
 the green tinge on head and neck is much 
 more pronounced. In breeding select the dark- 
 est males, since they incline to breed white. 
 They are prolific in eggs, laying from 80 to 90 in 
 a season when well fed. The birds are hardy, 
 and the flesh excellent, dark and high-flavored. 
 If well fattened, they will weigh at si.x to eight 
 months old from 12 to 14 pounds, and 16 
 pounds is not unusual. Being essentially a 
 water-duck, they can only be profitably bred 
 near lakes, ponds and streams. 
 
 The Muscovy — called also Musk, or Brazilian — 
 ducks are large and handsome, the drakes fre- 
 quently weighing 10 pounds and more. The 
 color is a rich dark blue-black, with a white bar 
 on each wing and more or less white about the 
 head and neck. In the drake the feathers in the 
 back are fine and plumy ; the legs and feet are 
 dark. But, as we said above, they have little to 
 recommend them but their size, and they are 
 neither hardy nor good layers. A characteristic 
 by which they may readily be distinguished is the 
 red membrane surrounding the eyes and cover- 
 ing the cheeks. 
 
 A Word of Caution. — It should be remembered 
 in keeping ducks that the wild birds are mono- 
 gamous, and not more than two or three given 
 to one drake, if eggs are wanted for sitting. The 
 duck usually sits well, and always covers her 
 eggs with loose straw when leaving them, a sup- 
 ply of which should therefore be left by her. 
 The usual number laid is fifty or sixty ; but 
 ducks have laid as many as two hundred and 
 fifty in one year ; and we believe with care this 
 faculty might be greatly developed, and their 
 value much increased as producers of eggs. At 
 present they are mostly kept for table. 
 
 GEESE. 
 
 The two principal breeds of domesticated 
 geese are the Gray or Toulouse and the Whiie or 
 Embden, concerning which we quote from an Eng- 
 lish authority : 
 
 " We very much prefer the Gray or Toulouse 
 to the White or Embden, being larger and hand- 
 somer. We have had a Toulouse gander which 
 weighed thirty-four pounds, a weight never, we 
 are sure, attained by the White breed. They are 
 also better shaped, as a rule, and every way the 
 more profitable variety. The forehead should be 
 flat, and the bill a clear orange-red. The plu- 
 mage is a rich brown, passing into white on the 
 under parts and tail-coverts. 
 
 " The Embden goose is pure white in every 
 feather, anji the eye should show a peculiar blue 
 color in the iris in all well-bred birds. 
 
 " We should recommend for market to cross 
 the Toulouse goose with the White, by which 
 
 greater weight is gained than in either variety 
 pure-bred ; but much will depend upon circum- 
 stances. White or cross-bred geese require a 
 pond, but the Toulouse, with a good grass run, 
 will do well with only a trough of water, and will 
 
 Embuen Geese. 
 
 require no extra feeding, except for fattening or 
 exhibition." 
 
 The only foreign varieties requiring mention 
 are the Chinese and the Canada geese, both of 
 which appear to be really midway between the 
 geese proper and the swans, which they resemble 
 in length of neck. 
 
 The Chinese goose is of a general brown 
 color, passing into light gray or white on the 
 breast, with a dark brown stripe-down the back 
 of the neck. The voice is very harsh and peculiar. 
 This breed is not a good grazer, and is best 
 reared in the farm-yard. 
 
 The Canada goose also is not a good grazer, 
 and does best near marshy ponds, in which cir- 
 cumstances they will thrive and be found profi- 
 table. 
 
 General llfanagement. — With regard to the gen- 
 eral management of geese little need be said. 
 Not more than four or five should be allowed to 
 one gander, and such a family will require a 
 house about eight feet square ; but to secure fine 
 stock three geese are better to one male. Each 
 nest must be about two feet six inches square, 
 and, as the goose will always lay where she has 
 deposited her first egg, there must be a nest for 
 each bird. If they each lay in a separate nest, 
 the eggs may be left ; otherwise they should be 
 removed daily. 
 
 Geese should be set in March or early April, 
 as it is very difficult to rear the young in hot 
 weather. The time is thirty to thirty-four days. 
 The goose sits very steadily, but should be in- 
 duced to come off daily and take a bath. Be- 
 sides this she should have in reach a good supply 
 of food and water, or hunger will compel her, 
 one by one, to eat all her eggs. The gander is 
 usually kept away ; but this is not very needful, 
 
286 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 as he not only has no enmity to the eggs or 
 goslings, but takes very great interest in the 
 hatching, often sitting by his mate for hours. 
 
 The goslings should be allowed to hatch out 
 entirely by themselves. When put out, they 
 should have a fresh turf daily for a few days, and 
 be fed on boiled oatmeal and rice, with water 
 from a pond, in a very shallow dish, as they 
 should not be allowed to swim for a fortnight, 
 for which time the goose is better kept under a 
 very large crate. After two weeks they will be 
 able to shift for themselves, only requiring to be 
 protected from very heavy rain till tiedged, and 
 to have one or two feeds of grain daily, in ad- 
 dition to what they pick up. 
 
 For fattening they should be penned up half 
 a dozen together in a dark shed and fed on 
 barley meal, being let out several hours for a 
 last hath before being killed, in order to clean 
 their feathers. 
 
 TURKEYS. 
 
 The turkey has been domesticated for nearly 
 three hundred years, yet still retains some of its 
 wild habits, doubtless due to the fact that it will 
 bear confinement less than any of the domestic 
 land-birds. All varieties of turkeys, whether 
 wild or domestic, breed together and continue 
 fertile, proving that they had a common origin. 
 Nearly every color is represented among them, 
 black-bronzed and white-mottled being the 
 original wild color. Some of the sub-species 
 are the Common turkey. Black-and-white mot- 
 tled ; Black-bronzed; Mexican; White; Buff; 
 
 ""!%!^ 
 
 Common Turkey. 
 
 Fawn-colored : Copper-colored ; Parti-colored. 
 Of these 
 
 The Black-Bronzed — said to have been produced 
 by a cross of the Wild turkey upon the Common- 
 turkey hen and improved by subsequent careful 
 selection and breeding — is the largest, as it is the 
 best, of the domestic varieties. They are hardy 
 and of beautiful plumage, and will weigh when 
 
 mature, for average birds, about 30 pounds', 
 while 40 has sometimes been reached by extra 
 male birds. 
 
 The Common Turkeys are the most profitable to 
 breed where only dollars and cents are con- 
 cerned, as they are hardy, of medium size, little 
 inclined to wander, and mature early. At eight 
 months old they will weigh when fattened from 
 10 to 12 pounds, and at maturity 16 and even 18. 
 In color they are white and black mottled, hav- 
 ing the head and wattle of the wild turkey. 
 
 English Turkeys, so called, are merely a sub- 
 variety of the common American turkey, but 
 careful breeding and selection have increased the 
 size and rendered them quite uniform in color. 
 
 A Few Hints are here given to those who desire 
 to raise turkeys. Turkey-cocks may be used for 
 breeding at two years of age, and a hen at one 
 year. The hen who is to sit should be good- 
 sized, while the cock should have good shape 
 and strength. The hen will lay an immense 
 number of eggs. For this reason the first seven 
 or eight eggs laid may be taken and put under a 
 common hen ; the turkey-hen will then have as 
 many as she can well cover. May and June are 
 the best months for hatching. The hen is very 
 constant in her sitting, and she must be watched 
 or she will not leave the nest to get her own 
 food. She must also be kept quiet. Young 
 turkeys are hatched in about 26 days, and as a 
 usual thing they are very stupid about learning 
 to feed. To help them two hen's eggs are often 
 hatched with them, being put under the turkey 
 three days later ; and as the chickens will come 
 out about the same time as the turkeys, they 
 will very soon teach them how to eat. The food 
 is much the same as for chickens ; a little 
 dandelion mixed with boiled eggs is found very 
 beneficial, as it corrects the tendency to diarrhea 
 which all young turkeys have. Great care must 
 be taken of the young birds until they are 9 or 
 10 weeks old, when they will begin to " put out 
 the red," as it is called, or to develop the singular 
 red excrescences on the neck so characteristic 
 of the turkey breed. This process will last some 
 little time, and when completed thetirds will be 
 pretty fully fledged. They are now hardy, but 
 must not be too suddenly exposed to rain or cold 
 winds. Take some reasonable care of them for 
 a while longer, and very soon they will have be- 
 come the hardiest birds known in the poultry- 
 yard, braving with impunity the fiercest storms, 
 and even preferring, if permitted, to roost on 
 high trees through the depth of winter. In 
 fact, turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house ; 
 and a very high open shed should therefore be 
 provided. 
 
 To attain great size, animal food and good 
 feeding generally must be supplied from the first. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 287 
 
 ARTIFICIAL POULTRY RAISING. 
 
 The saving of eggs is the first thing, and 
 should be carefully attended to. First, handle 
 with great care, and do not allow them to be 
 too much shaken up. Secondly, place the eggs 
 on end, and turn each egg twice a day. Then, 
 when you have a sufficient number, place them 
 in the incubator. 
 
 The Phenomenon of incubation has two 
 principal factions controlling it, i. e. , warmth 
 and fresh air. Warmth being the stimulant to 
 vital action of the germ, and pure air gives the 
 oxygen necessary to make the chemical changes. 
 
 As to the proper lamp, only the safety lamp 
 must be used. This should be made of an 
 upper and lower chamber : the upper for the 
 flame, and the lower for the wick. The mois- 
 ture pan is now done away with in the modern 
 incubators, and the machine supplies it itself 
 
 How to Use Incubator. — When you have the right 
 number of eggs in an incubator to suit you, place 
 the eggs in the egg tray, then light the lamp 
 and regulate, keeping the temperature at 103^. 
 When lighting the lamp, turn up but a moderate 
 flame and heat the incubator first. Then put the 
 tray in the incubator when your temperature is reg- 
 ulated. After the second day the eggs must be 
 turned twice a day. The unfertile eggs and dead 
 germs should be tested. Always mark doubtful 
 eggs and test again later. 
 
 In testing eggs, the simple method is a round 
 telescope arrangement, at one end of which you 
 place the egg and look through this tube, holding 
 the egg at the further end and next to the light ; 
 then look through the egg at the light ; if the egg is 
 dark, it ought to have a chick, if clear, it is not 
 fertile and it may be put back with the fresh eggs. 
 
 The room in which the incubator stands should 
 be above ground, dry and well ventilated. 
 
 The Chicks. — About the twentieth day the chick 
 has used up the entire nutriment in the shell, and 
 being vigorous, wants to get out. The shell breaks 
 first at the large end, being less moist and more 
 brittle, and the head of the chick is turned there 
 for air. The beak breaks through the shell on find- 
 ing more air, and soon gets its freedom. 
 
 The chick starts in life with food enough for 36 
 hours, and should not be fed during that time, but 
 should be kept dry and warm. To do this, the 
 brooder is the best, hence we will turn to the 
 brooder. 
 
 The Brooder. — The brooder should be kept at a 
 heat of from 80 to go degrees ; though the chick will 
 run out into the cold, he must have a place to run 
 into which is warm. 
 
 The best thermometer for the brooder is the 
 chicks themselves ; if it is too hot they will scatter 
 and sleep near the entrance ; if too cold, they will 
 
 crowd together ; and this crowding together with 
 low temperature means bowel disease invariably as 
 a result. Care in this is very necessary. The chick 
 should for the first month have but little space out- 
 side the mother, giving it more range as it grows 
 older. 
 
 Do not keep more than fifty chicks in a pen, and 
 do not put chicks hatched by hen with incubator 
 chicks, as one lousy chick will soon give vermin to 
 the whole brood. Clean brooders daily, and if 
 necessary, paint with kerosene to kill lice. 
 
 Feeding. — Chicks, like mature birds, have giz- 
 ,zards for grinding their food, and this fact would in- 
 sure giving them hard food; bufthe best possible 
 food for the first week is hard boiled eggs, chopped 
 up fine, shells and all, mixed with bread-crumbs. 
 But first of all, do not over-feed. After the first ten 
 days, wheat screenings, millet and cracked corn, 
 Indian pudding, bran mash, oatmeal, and corn meal 
 scalded with boiling water. A dish of crushed 
 charcoal and bone meal is good. 
 
 Chicks need, too, good fresh water, food rich in 
 nitrogen for muscle and bone, carbonaceous mat- 
 ter to make them fat and plump. At an age of two 
 months, the birds ought to weigh two pounds. 
 
 Early Broilers. — If early broilers are to be raised, 
 a large house divided into pens, six or eight feet 
 wide, with nms outside the sajiie width, and about 
 twelve feet long, is the best method. Here brood- 
 ers can be placed, and when the chickens are old 
 enough these can be removed. 
 
 A dirt floor in this house is advisable, as rats are 
 liable to infest a board-floored house. The chickens 
 should be kept here until ready for market. But if 
 kept during the winter, they ought to be allowed to 
 run or to be kept in coops which can be moved from 
 place to place. It is a fact that chickens confined 
 after April do not do as well as though allowed to 
 run. If confined longer, they drop off and lose 
 appetite. 
 
 Dont's. — Don't over-feed with too much animal 
 food ; the lack of grit gives crop-bound and bowel 
 trouble. 
 
 Don't let the water get dirty. 
 Don't be afraid of green food. 
 Don't hatch late, i.e., in June and July. 
 Don't crowd the quarters, only allow those in a 
 
 coop that can roost there. 
 Don't feed warm food in summer. 
 Don't fail to provide shade. ; 
 
 Prize Birds. — It is always well to keep fine birds ; 
 they are no more expensive than common ones, and 
 every farmer should have one or two prize breeds, 
 and take none else and keep these separate. He 
 derives a two-fold benefit. He can put them in the 
 shows and get his premium money, and can thus 
 have a chance to sell his birds at high prices. Sec- 
 ondly, he can sell the eggs for sitting purposes, get- 
 ting thus fancy prices. 
 
•288 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 03 
 
 
 c 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 n 
 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 > 
 
 b 
 
 M 
 
 ji 
 
 o 
 
 Cd 
 
 IB 
 
 jj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 -0 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 S 
 
 HH 
 
 Ed 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 (I4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-i 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 (^ 
 
 Q 
 
 f 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 
 CO 
 
 td 
 
 ^ 
 
 U 
 
 
 iZ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^■5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3J lU 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■d-C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 rt rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 1 
 
 □ 
 < 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 S 
 
 2 
 
 Ji^2i 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 J3 
 
 g 
 
 
 x J= 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 
 -u rt rt 
 
 « 
 
 
 c^ «, 
 
 ^« 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 Si^ 
 
 
 ^ = S 
 
 ^?? 
 
 
 
 E uo; 
 
 H- :: 
 
 
 -^ S: : 
 
 : -S H- = 
 
 * . u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '^^ 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 3a 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E>2 
 
 e- _ 
 
 
 ■3^1- . 
 
 . -SI.. 
 
 . . . B 
 
 
 cJ^cTiOt^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 uo5' ■ 
 
 ' dc!?"" 
 
 ■ "£ 
 
 
 3 2 ■-? 
 
 s &o ^-S iJi; o-i.= 
 -■g « ^ s = « " «- 
 
 ■2M 
 
 •So 
 
 ^ s ^ s s* s 
 
 13 o> 
 
 nam 
 
 g 5 
 
 - w |_^ w 
 
 ■gSE 
 -00: 
 
 >.>.>. Q^mP PES 
 
 g~ ^00= S 
 
 *- ^ O C D.J^ ^ ^ tJ -^ 
 
 ? P>. KPfcOPoSfc. 
 
 
 o s S " 
 P^ in (A PL, 
 
 
 - - K 
 
 >, Kp3' Xm m 
 
 - O 3^ 
 oOMCQ 
 
 2 
 
 IjP « 3^ _ 
 
 2 
 
 C S'S 
 
 Sj3i«2 
 
 " rt c 
 -c/:CLi 
 
 K& 
 
 P3^ 
 
 T3-U 3 
 
 o'o- 
 
 S8i 
 
 „ u «; «j § >.«) g 
 
 ■3>^a c^-^Eo34J 
 
 IJO.S 
 
 Oi 
 
 = i 
 1^ 
 
 •a -3 
 3 w 
 
 E c 
 rt 2 
 
 *© • 
 
 {/) 
 • - a» 
 
 5S 
 
 ■=t;-2 
 
 .S2 8 
 -"" o 
 
 c s; '■ 
 
 S O M 
 
 5 o.S 
 
 . 3 C O 
 
 We"™ 
 
 > « MS 
 
 o „.=•= 
 
 J rj I- v 
 ■<• o oj: 
 
 T3Q — 
 
 X S."S 
 H ^ J- 
 
 ^ U- -- 4J 
 
 O -2 S^ 
 
 3 atfj 
 
 CO o c c 
 
 S "- 2 
 o 
 
 OJ .. O 
 
 a^ Ml 
 
 lis 
 
 •n o S 
 •3 o ^ 
 oU g 
 
 •3t,-3 
 
 ^ t 
 O rtji 
 
 p<o_§ 
 
 3 S M 
 
 3 >(». -if- 
 
 S 3 3- 
 O O HP 
 
 E |3 G 
 
 ° S 2 
 
 M bo 
 
 a 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 289 
 
 bT 
 
 u. 
 
 D 
 .J 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 CQ 
 
 Barred, feathers being grayish white crossed with 
 black 
 
 Male, under color black, white, white dusting, 
 dusted dark fluff; female, dark, with white cen- 
 ters, fluff dusted with white 
 
 All parts same as Silver Wyandottes, except golden 
 color in place of silver 
 
 Plumage color 
 
 Same as Plymouth Rocks 
 
 White, fluff white 
 
 lilack, peppered with white, fluff the same; female, 
 
 gray with dark penciling. 
 Male, black; female, brown, penciled with darker 
 
 brown 
 Plumage black 
 
 Huffs are buff in color and Whites are white 
 Black, the outer thighs and outer toes feathered 
 White 
 
 Male, black; female, brown ashy color 
 Black 
 Buff 
 White 
 Barred 
 Black 
 While 
 
 Plumage is dark blue 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Red, spangled with black 
 
 Color, dark red, penciled below wings; female, dark 
 bay, penciled over body 
 
 Color, white with black spangles 
 
 Color, white, penciled below wings; female, white 
 penciled with black 
 
 Body of male black ; female, dark brown with black 
 spangles ■ 
 
 Plumage is mixed black and white, black predomi- 
 nating 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Silverish gray, black stripe to hackle feathers 
 
 iJ 
 
 Yellow 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Black 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow, heavily feathered 
 
 Yellow, heavily feathered 
 
 Yellow, heavily feathered 
 
 Dark, heavily feathered 
 Yellow, heavily feathered 
 Black, pink between scales 
 Blue, pink between toes 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellowish black 
 Yellow 
 
 Black 
 White 
 Blue 
 Dark blue 
 
 Black, 5 toes 
 White, 5 toes 
 
 < 
 
 Barred 
 Black 
 
 Plumage 
 
 Barred 
 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 
 Plumage 
 
 Black 
 
 Black 
 
 Buff 
 
 White 
 
 Barred 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Blue 
 
 Black 
 
 Bl'k and spangled 
 Black ; female 
 
 penciled 
 White, spangled 
 White ; female 
 
 penciled 
 Black 
 
 Black and white 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Black ; female 
 dark brown 
 
 < 
 
 Barred 
 
 Male, silvery white, with black stripe; 
 female, black with white centers 
 
 Plumage color 
 
 Barred 
 
 White, dark at the shoulders 
 Silvery white, with black stripe; fe- 
 male, gray with penciling 
 Orange Red, with black stripe 
 
 Plumage 
 
 Red, with black stripe 
 
 Black 
 
 Buff 
 
 White 
 
 Barred 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Blue 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Red, spangled with black 
 
 Deep Bay ; female penciled with black 
 
 White ; female spangle^ with black 
 White ; female penciled with black 
 
 Red and Black ; female brown with 
 
 spangle 
 Black and white 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 Silvery white 
 
 
 Barred 
 
 Silvery White with black stripe 
 
 Dark Goldcin with black stripe 
 
 Plumage color 
 
 Barred 
 
 Hackle, white with stripe down feather 
 
 Hackle, silv'ry wliite. with black stripe 
 
 Orange Red, with black stnpe 
 
 Plumage color 
 
 Red, with black stripe 
 
 Black 
 
 Buff 
 
 White 
 
 Barred 
 
 Black 
 
 Whhe 
 
 Blue 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Red, with black stripe 
 
 Deep Bay ; female penciled with black 
 
 Wliite ; female spangled with black 
 White ; female penciled with black 
 
 Black, edged with red 
 
 Black' and White 
 
 Black 
 
 White 
 
 Black, with silvery hackle; female sil- 
 veiy white 
 
 
 Plymouth Rocks 
 Wyandottes, Silver 
 
 " P.uff and While 
 Black 
 Dominiques 
 Brahmas, Light 
 Dark 
 
 Cochins, Partridge 
 
 Black 
 
 Buff and White 
 Langshans, Black 
 White 
 Leghorns, Brown 
 Black 
 Buff 
 White 
 " Dominique 
 Minorcas, Black 
 White 
 Andalusians 
 Black Spanish 
 Hamburgs, Black 
 White 
 " Guld-^n Spangled 
 " Golden Penciled 
 
 Silver Spangled 
 " Silver Penciled 
 
 Red Caps 
 
 Houdans 
 
 CreveccEurs 
 La Fliches 
 Dorkings, White 
 
 " Silver Gray 
 
 19 
 
290 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 o z 
 
 
 
 
 I, .— 
 
 
 
 
 ja ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 1 i:- 
 
 
 
 
 rt 1:1- 
 
 
 
 
 " rt « 
 
 
 
 
 X "^ s 
 
 
 
 
 J3 ^ I. 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 1: 2 ^ S 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 bo •*? — -b" 
 
 u 
 
 
 « 
 
 c .3 g 
 
 f- 
 
 
 "H. 
 
 -= g S, 2 
 
 m 
 
 
 V 
 
 „ «» a M-o 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 "2 
 
 •^ •= „- 2S 
 
 > 
 
 
 § 
 
 1 n Ii 
 
 § 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 if 
 
 *0 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 5? 5 - =- 
 
 c - - ^' >. 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _o 
 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 u 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 J= c c 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 > 
 
 5 u^Q kOC 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 hO 
 
 c S 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 s a 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 C 
 
 -;;^ 
 
 ■^ oT 
 
 
 S 
 
 " 
 
 - "rt 
 
 
 £ 
 
 5 
 
 M E 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 .J:^ 
 
 
 ■£ "II 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 < 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 "-"CSC 
 
 
 
 
 a >. rt a. rt 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^' £SjtfT3^2i2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 5 u^5 tt^& 
 
 
 V) ^ 
 
 tf) o 
 
 *- rT 
 
 
 Ci.'H 
 
 c2 
 
 •2 1, 
 
 
 ii 
 
 '3 ^ 
 
 "■2 E S 
 
 
 jii'*^ 
 
 "ui"? 
 
 u -^ -Ml 
 
 li 
 
 
 T3 *^. 
 
 «-^_. ii^ 
 
 
 3 J; 
 
 W >. JD U U w rt - 
 
 
 Is 
 
 j> - ffi 
 
 JS£^j;gJiEjsSf 
 
 
 a' 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 oT 
 
 l-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 ^ 
 
 Z 
 
 
 5^ s 
 
 ^^ 5 c 2 
 S E*c*^'»" 
 
 
 G 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 13 
 
 
 >, 
 
 cd 
 
 
 
 s = rs = 
 
 IXI 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 >> r 
 
 
 i 
 
 E 
 
 ^ 1 s 
 
 
 o 
 
 n 
 
 3 3- - - Sj = 
 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 HO 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 Q 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 white ; 
 
 white, 
 iig bar 
 ing bar 
 
 enciled 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 ■3 ^ ^ £ ^fc 
 S -3 1 - J. 
 
 3 
 
 rt 
 
 a: 
 
 
 x» 
 
 c 
 
 T3 
 
 al 
 
 
 
 
 
 *d 
 
 E 
 
 s-s 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 S 
 
 o^ 
 
 
 
 
 .2 -Q »- K S J a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 2-i.rg f 1: 
 
 
 
 1= 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 •1 Mm 4 ^ 
 
 -=-; M . S u 3 a = = 
 
 ■n2-°™.D= -o £- 
 
 °«£ 
 
 all 
 ■3.-E-2 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 n 
 
 t 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 
 '*'i 
 
 « 
 •S S 2 
 
 c 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 M M 
 
 S C 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 %-^-^ rt rt-5^ =^ 1 ^ rt 
 
 3=-^ 5 
 
 V CJ V 
 
 S.S.Ss-2 
 
 2 g £-3 S-.= 
 j; -a -d j3 jc -^ 
 
 2 £ <^s t« 
 " 5 "■■= S S 
 
 -'"O '""2 « - 
 f5 rt rt =-73 P ! 
 
 
 
 
 ^Jsz 
 
 "::-^i» 
 
 
 
 
 li^inOJU^'U .V .Uil- 
 
 ZSSt 
 
 c 3i 
 
 
 
 
 T j: rt'C'C o-C-^"C J'C'C 
 
 ^ 'C 
 
 E 2-^ 2. 
 
 
 
 
 rtJ;„rtrtT3rtWrti;rtn 
 
 E g 1 E E c S^E^E E 
 
 :; „ jj rt 
 
 o|il- 
 
 £i 
 
 ill 
 
 
 
 2.--L..- rt-c- 
 
 
 
 PU lyifcpH CU Cl, 0,Qh 
 
 c/:a;&i 
 
 0. 
 
 0,2: o^ 
 
 c:&, 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4> 
 
 >s>. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 si" S g 
 
 J=J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■B -^ 1 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 rt 3 £ 
 
 ^13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -a -a 
 
 
 
 "0 
 
 
 
 ^ jJ J£ 
 
 
 
 
 c: 
 
 
 < 
 
 43 . I- 
 
 
 
 
 UJ- 
 
 
 ^ •= g" -g 
 
 c W 
 
 <U « rt 
 
 
 
 p. 
 
 
 
 S g 1 6 
 
 «J w « S= 
 
 
 
 
 c" 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 "rt « 0. T3 
 
 C 3 — 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 
 E 2 -^ -S = 
 
 •- u *: a> i; oj 
 2 X — a ^ rn 
 
 ill 114 
 
 'i'5 I 
 
 !!i 
 
 c 
 
 B 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 "rt p 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 3 tT oj" "J <i>" rt S 
 
 1 " ^ ^ ^ -g-c 
 
 
 <B 
 
 « 
 "rt 3 u 
 
 3i ! 
 
 i 
 
 
 ccSJ 
 
 •^ 
 
 19 g 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 * S , £ s 
 
 rt rt .. 
 
 ,, 
 
 .,«^ 
 
 T W) 
 
 a* 
 
 
 ^ 0—^ ^ jn ca 
 
 V v^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 u'5'^ 
 
 D." 
 
 
 
 
 c-s<-> '-' ^ STtt 
 
 re CJ= ri rs (i Z V 
 
 Pi" 
 
 rt 
 
 >2^ rt 
 
 oj'm 
 
 d 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 S :n^5 S S CO 
 
 J5mpa 
 
 s 
 
 mecQ 
 
 q;^ 
 
 rt 
 
 T3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 3-s 
 
 rt C 
 
 1-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 a. V 
 
 S - 
 
 >, 
 
 
 
 
 cncu 
 
 
 F? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 el 
 
 S " « = = 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 •d 
 - - 
 
 C 3 
 
 a 
 S 
 
 
 1 Mrt r £ 00 
 S ^0 £ « „- 
 
 i'ilif 
 
 ^ tt u ►J X 
 
 
 
 3 rt 
 
 II 
 
 < 
 
 
 •a 
 
 13 
 
 
 |s" 
 
 
 
 (2 
 
 
 P 
 
 cSS 
 
 (5^ 
 
 •2 2 3 
 
 o « E 
 
 -dlTjCL, 
 
 E^E 
 .r o 
 rt uTJ: 
 
 D- 
 
 T) 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 •n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 rt 
 
 SP 
 
 w <y S 
 
 CO n. o 
 ^.•"■ 
 
 «l'C Q. 
 
 o2° 
 
 ftj « a, 
 
 « > 2 
 15 i 
 
 l-si 
 
 rt ^O 
 ■" « . 
 
 C C rt 
 
 s c a> 
 ~ rt u 
 
 •^ T3 
 
 2-2 S 
 
 > VJ2 
 
 I o S 
 
 -a o (J 
 «3 *- 
 
 <J V 
 
 "Z ri > 
 ? ?J rt 
 
 tfiO £* 
 
 i;r-= ■ 
 
 ^ >r- *- M 
 
 tie t 
 
 bfl 
 
 1-5 £rt 
 
 S rt 0-0 
 
 ^3 • £ 
 3 oj rt 
 
 — >^*-'3 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 291 
 
 In view of this we give a table, showing the dif- 
 ferent breeds, ^he characteristics of each, and how 
 they should be, if perfect ; also a table showing how 
 birds are scored. No bird can score over one hun- 
 dred points, as one hundred is supposed to be ideal. 
 
 The points are these : 
 
 .Symmetry 8 
 
 Weight 6 
 
 Condition 6 
 
 Head. Shape 3; Color 5 6 
 
 Comb, Shape 8 
 
 Wattles and Ear-lobes 6 
 
 Neck, Shape 4; Color 6 10 
 
 Back, Shape 4; Color 4 8 
 
 Breast, Shape 5 ; Color 5 10 
 
 Body of Fluff, Shape 5 ■, Color 3 S 
 
 Wings, Shape 4 ; Color 4 S 
 
 Tail. Shape 4; Color 4 8 
 
 Legs and Toes 8 
 
 100 
 How to Cut in Judging. — Mr. Isaac K. Felch, in 
 his book '■ Philosophy of Judging," in explaining 
 the " cuts," selects Light Brahmas, and describes 
 how much to cut for " condition " and for " form," in 
 sections. It will be noticed that he cuts from half 
 a point up. 
 Cuts for Condition. — Too fat or too lean . 4 to 2 
 
 Weeping eye I 
 
 Distemper i 
 
 Roughness of shank 4 to 3 
 
 Uncleanliness 4 to 2 
 
 Cuts for Form. Comb. — Crooked middle 
 
 section I 
 
 All three sections crooked 4 to 3 
 
 Too large 4 to i4 
 
 Head. — Narrowness of skull 4 to i 
 
 Very small wattles 2 
 
 Very large wattles 4 to i 
 
 Lack of throat in hen ,..,... I 
 
 Neck. — Too long 4 
 
 Too short 4 
 
 Too straight I 
 
 Scanty hackle, causing slim neck ... 4 to i 
 Too long and flowing hackle .... 4 
 
 Back. — Too straight or reached .... 4 to l4 
 
 Narrow in front of tail 4 to i 
 
 Convex saddle 4 to i 
 
 Breast. — Flatness 4 to 2 
 
 Lack of forward sweep I 
 
 Body. — Flatness of sides and narrowness of 
 
 fluff 4 to I 
 
 Wings. — Twisted feathers I to 2 
 
 Imperfect folding 4 'o i4 
 
 Tail. — Carried too high 4 to i 
 
 Carried too low 4 to I 
 
 Close and pinched I to 1 4 
 
 Spread too mtich 4 
 
 Straight sickles I 
 
 Legs and Feet. — Approach to vulture 
 
 hock 4 to 2 
 
 Shanks too short ........ 4 
 
 Shanks too long 4 to l4 
 
 Knock-kneed 4 'o 3 
 
 Too hght leg feathering i to i 
 
 Bare outer toe . l4 
 
 Bare middle toe I 
 
 Cuts for Color. Neck. — Want of striping 
 
 in hackle 4 to 34 
 
 Faded color in stripes 4 to 2 
 
 Smutty lacing 4 to 2 
 
 Solid black for two inches from point . 1 4 
 
 Faded stripe in hen's hackle .... 4 to 3 
 
 Back. — Gray or slaty shading on surface . . 4 to I 
 
 Black ticks over shell bone 4 
 
 Black ticks extending across the back to 
 
 hackle Disqualify 
 
 Dark slate spots in back of female . . 4 to l4 
 
 Yellow tinge 4 to l4 
 
 Wings. — White in primaries of male ... 4 to 3 
 
 White in upper edge of secondaries (male), 4 to 3 
 
 Yellow tinge on coverts 1 to 1 4 
 
 Primaries of females, more than one-half 
 
 white 4 to 2 
 
 .Secondaries of females, more than one- 
 half white 4 to 2 
 
 Tail. — White in sickles two inches from 
 
 body I 
 
 White in sickles above coverlets . . . I to l4 
 
 White coverlets I 
 
 White on main tail feathers .... I 
 
 White tips on main tail feathers ... 1 
 
 White coverlets on female I 
 
 White main tail feathers third length . . I to l4 
 White tips, main tail feathers " Cotton- 
 tail " I to 24 
 
 Legs and Feet. — Pale str.-iw color on hen's 
 
 shank i 
 
 WEIGHTS OF BREEDS. 
 
 Disqualifying 
 Weight Limit. 
 
 Cockerel. 
 
 Cock. 
 
 Pullet. 
 
 Hen. 
 
 D. Brahma, 
 
 7i 
 
 lbs. 
 
 9 
 
 lbs. 
 
 54 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7 lbs 
 
 L. Brahma, 
 
 7i 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 " 
 
 6 
 
 (( 
 
 74 " 
 
 All Cochins, 
 
 7 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 " 
 
 5 
 
 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 Langshan, 
 
 7 
 
 << 
 
 9 
 
 " 
 
 5 
 
 " 
 
 6 ," 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Cockerel. 
 
 Cock. 
 
 PiMct. 
 
 Hen. 
 
 L. Brahma, 
 
 10 
 
 lbs. 
 
 12 
 
 lbs. 
 
 8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 94 lbs 
 
 D. Brahma and all 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cochins, 
 
 9 
 
 " 
 
 II 
 
 
 7 
 
 i( 
 
 84 '« 
 
 Langshan, 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 " 
 
 7 " 
 
 Cornish I. Games, 
 
 74 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 
 
 54 
 
 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 Javas and all P. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rocks, 
 
 S 
 
 " 
 
 94 
 
 
 64 
 
 " 
 
 74 " 
 
 All Wyandottes and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. Dominique, 
 
 lh 
 
 " 
 
 84 
 
 
 54 
 
 (1 
 
 64 " 
 
 W. Dorking, 
 
 64 
 
 (( 
 
 7h 
 
 
 5 
 
 " 
 
 6 " 
 
 S. S. Dorking, 
 
 7 
 
 " 
 
 8 
 
 
 54 
 
 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 C. Dorkings, 
 
 8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 9-4 
 
 lbs. 
 
 6 
 
 lbs. 
 
 7i " 
 
 .411 Minorcas, 
 
 54 
 
 t( 
 
 8 
 
 
 54 
 
 " 
 
 64 " 
 
 Red Caps, 
 
 6 
 
 11 . 
 
 74 
 
 
 5 
 
 (C 
 
 64 " 
 
 Jersey Blues, 
 
 8 
 
 " 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 (( 
 
 7 " 
 
 Houdan, 
 
 6 
 
 (( 
 
 7 
 
 
 5 
 
 C( 
 
 6 " 
 
 La Fleche, 
 
 7i 
 
 " 
 
 84 
 
 
 64 
 
 (< 
 
 7i " 
 
 Creve-Cceur, 
 
 7 
 
 " 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 <( 
 
 7 " 
 
292 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 Classification of Breeds. — The breeds that are 
 divided into varieties of different colors vary only 
 in the difference of plumage, all being equal as lay- 
 ers, etc. 
 
 American Class.- — Plymouth Rocks. — Barred, 
 Buff and White. The Javas (Black, Mottled and 
 White) are really about tlie same as Plymouth 
 Rocks except in a few minor exterior points. 
 fFya:;/^/^//^.— Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black. 
 The American Dominiques, White Wonder and 
 Jersey Blues also belong to the American class. 
 Asiatic Class. — Brahmas. — Light, Dark. 
 Cochins .—V>v&, Partridge, White and Black. 
 Langshans. — Black, White. 
 All Asiatics have feathered legs, the Langshans 
 not quite so much as the Cochins and Brahmas. 
 The White Langshans are not regarded by some 
 as very hearty, but the Blacks are e.xcellent birds 
 in every respect. 
 
 Mediterranean Class. — Leghorns. — Brown, White, 
 Buff, Dominiques, Black, Silver Duckwing, Red 
 Pyle. The Duckwing and Pyle are bred only as 
 novelties, and are rare. There are also Rose-comb 
 Browns and ^so of Whites, differing from other 
 Leghorns only in having rose-combs. 
 
 Minorcas. — Black, White. There are also rose- 
 comb varieties. 
 
 Andalusians. — Blue (really Blue Minorcas). 
 6'/««z'.r//.— White-face Black. All of the Medi- 
 terranean class are non-sitters, and lay eggs that are 
 white in color of shell. 
 
 Polish and Hamburg Class. — Hamburgs. — White, 
 Black, Golden Penciled, Silver Penciled, Golden 
 Spangled and Silver Spangled. 
 
 Polish. — Golden, Silver White, White-crested 
 Black, Buff-laced, Bearded Golden, Bearded Silver 
 and Bearded White. 
 
 Hamburgs and Polish are non-sitters, the eggs 
 are white, and the Polish are more ornamental than 
 useful. To the Hamburg class belong Red Caps 
 and Campines, breeds that are not generally bred, 
 as they lack in hardiness in this country. 
 
 French Class. — Houdans, Cr^ve-coeurs and La 
 Filches compose the French class. They are non- 
 sitters and excellent table fowls, but are not good 
 winter layers as a rule. 
 
 English Class. — Dorkings. — White,' Silver Gray 
 and Colored. Dorkings are not prolific layers, but 
 excel as sitters and for the table. 
 
 Game Class. — The Indian Game is the only one 
 bred for utility. There are quite a lot of " fancy"' 
 Games, such as Black-breasted Reds, Brown Reds, 
 Golden Duckwing, Silver Duckwing, Red Pyle, 
 White, Black and Birchen. The Game Bantams 
 correspond except as to, size. Pit Games have no 
 descriptions, as they may be of any color or size 
 It would require a large book to describe all the 
 Games. All Games are sitters, and the eggs are 
 nearly white in color. 
 
 Bantam Class. — Bantams comprise all the Game 
 varieties to correspond with the large Games. 
 There are also the following Bantams : 
 
 Cochins. — Buff, Partridge, White and Black. 
 The class includes, other than Cochins, the Japa- 
 nese, Polish, Booted White, Rose-comb Black, 
 Rose-comb White, Golden Sebright, and Silver 
 Sebright. 
 
 Miscellaneous Class. — This includes the Suma- 
 tras, Russians, Frizzles, Rumpless, Suttans and 
 Silkies, which are bred only as novelties. 
 
 Sitters and Non-Sitters. — Of the above the Asi- 
 atic, American, English, Game, Bantam and Mis- 
 cellaneous classes comprise sitters (except Polish 
 Bantams), all other classes comprising non-sitters. 
 All non-sitters lay eggs with very white shell. 
 
 Before the Show. — Begin six weeks ahead of time. 
 Oil the legs, combs, wattles and beak with a gill of 
 lard oil and teaspoonful of oil of pennyroyal. This 
 will clean the legs. About two weeks before, feed 
 sunflower seed at least twice a week. Wash the 
 comb, wattles and legs with one part alcohol, two 
 parts water. 
 
 About two days before you ship the birds it is 
 well to wash them. This is done by heating a room 
 up to about loo degrees ; then fill a tub half full of 
 warm water, make a lather of castile soap, and put 
 the male in first and wash him well, lightly at first, 
 then harder as he needs it. Do not fear that the 
 feathers will break, as when wet they will not. 
 Wash from head to tail. When the dirt or stains 
 are gone, place the bird in the rinsing-tub, which, 
 by the way, should have a little cooler water than 
 the first. When rinsed, place the bird in the 
 coops which have been placed around a stove, and 
 kefp the temperature high. 
 
 When the birds begin to dry they v/ill fluff up 
 their feathers, and each will dry and assume its 
 proper place. As the birds dry, let the fire die 
 down, so as to have as little change in temperature 
 as possible. 
 
 Pluck any false feathers before you ship. Also, 
 before you ship moisten the comb with glycerine to 
 keep them from freezing on the road to the show. 
 
 At the show, wipe oft" the glycerine after properly 
 arranging them, get all the niceties you can for thera. 
 On the day of judging sponge their comb, head, wat- 
 tles, etc., with alcohoj half, and water half. Then 
 apply oil of pennyroyal to beak, legs and toes, and 
 wipe dry ; if necessary to remove, scour with a brush. 
 
 For success in keeping poultry, four things are 
 well to know : how to select the breed best adapted 
 to vour special desire, how to feed the fowls, what 
 cleanliness is, and how to house the birds well. 
 
 Diseases of Poultry. — Dirt is a common cause of 
 sickness ; a damp location for your poultry-house is 
 another cause, and improper drainage is very bad. 
 All advise against a drafty hen-house, though do 
 not have a stuffy house. 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 293 
 
 Don't let lice get in your houses. 
 
 A bad thing is to confine your birds, as it causes 
 weak legs. Over-feeding is as bad as to under-feed. 
 Don't give impure food or water. 
 
 It is always cheaper and easier to prevent disease 
 than to cure it. Avoid dampness, keep clean, nice 
 dry earth in your houses. Keep white-washed and 
 well kerosened. Take out sickly fowls. Give good 
 space to all fowls, and don't overcrowd. Have 
 spare room for sickly ones. 
 
 A good mixture for fowls is one pound of cop- 
 peras dissolved in two gallons of water, adding one 
 ounce of sulphuric acid. Keep in a corked jug, and 
 give to fowls and chickens twice a week, one table- 
 spoonful to a quart of water. It is sometimes best 
 to get rid of the bird which is sick rather than try 
 to cure it, especially if the disease is well set. 
 
 Chicken Cholera. — Cholera can be easily discov- 
 ered by the fact, that the bird is excessively thirsty, 
 has a slow staggering gait and a drowsy look. Then 
 there is a diarrhea with a greenish discharge. The 
 quickest and best way to cure this disease is to kill 
 the bird lest the contagion spread. Bury the body 
 deep, and go to work and disinfect your houses and 
 yards. Do this by burning sulphur and alcohol, 
 one pound of sulphur to a pint of alcohol. After 
 this whitewash your house with lime. Put lime in 
 your yards after cleaning it up thor'oughly. 
 
 If you wish to save the bird the remedies are ^o 
 teaspoonful of castor-oil ; feed warm cooked food, 
 especially corn-meal worked into dough. After this 
 give boiled milk with a little red pepper. Another 
 remedy, powdered chalk, powdered charcoal, gum 
 camphor and pure carbolic acid, and assafetida ; mix 
 equal parts, and give twice a day in food, one tea- 
 spoonful to ten fowls. 
 
 Diarrhea. — This is caused in fowls by the giving 
 of too much green food, dirty quarters or unclean 
 food. To cure, change their diet, give a pill of 
 cayenne pepper, rhubarb, and powdered chalk, 
 equal parts, and roll into a pill, wetting with cam- 
 phor enough to moisten it. 
 
 Chickens ought to be kept warm, and should be 
 fed on boiled rice, boiled milk and warm foods. If 
 not cured in a few days give the pill mentioned for 
 fowls . 
 
 Constipation. — Caused by too close confinement, 
 or by being in-doors. Give to chicks ^i teaspoonful 
 of castor-oil and green food, and to fowls give one 
 teaspoonful of castor-oil ; also give green food and 
 oyster-shells. 
 
 Roup. — This prevalent disease is simply an aggra- 
 vated cold in the head. The symptoms are sneez- 
 ing, hoarseness, watery eyes and a little watery 
 discharge from the nostrils. The head later be- 
 comes swollen, and canker comes in the throat. 
 
 First, remove the fowl to a warm place. Sponge 
 head with vinegar, and water equal parts. Give % 
 teaspoonful of castor-oil. Another good remedy is 
 
 a teaspoonfijl of lard, % teaspoonful of pepper, mus- 
 tard, and ginger, and mix with powdered rice into 
 a pill, and give each fowl one. Then add bromide 
 of potassium to the water for the whole of the fowls, 
 about i}., grains for each bird. 
 
 Capes. — This disease is caused by a small worm 
 getting into the throat. The disease can be recog- 
 nized by the fowl continually gasping for breath, or 
 by trying to clean the throat. One way of curing is 
 this : put the chick or fowl in a slatted box, invert it, 
 and raise it a bit from the floor. Put a hot coal under 
 it, but not red hot, and drop some carbolic acid on it, 
 allowing the fumes to rise until the bird chokes and 
 sneezes. Do not, however, let them choke to death. 
 This will make the worms loose their grasp, and the 
 bird can thus get rid of them. 
 
 Another good method is to put the fowls in a 
 box, and drop in some powdered air-slack lime, so 
 that the fine particles of lime will sift down among 
 the chickens. The lime is thus inhaled by the 
 fowls ; coughing is the result, thereby expelling the 
 worms. Another remedy is to run a feather down 
 the chicken's throat, pulling it back and forth, thus 
 loosening the worms. 
 
 Lice. — These are more easily prevented than got- 
 ten rid of. Lice are liable to come from the setting 
 hen. When a hen is set, dust her with insect pow- 
 der, keeping it out of her eyes, and about two or 
 three days before the chickens are hatched dust 
 her again. If, however, lice take possession of the 
 hen-houses remove all the earth from the floor, 
 wash the entire house thoroughly with kerosene and 
 whitewash, being sure that the latter fills every crev- 
 ice, put new earth on the floor, and make new 
 nest boxes. 
 
 Sca/y Legs. — This disease is due to small insects 
 which burrow under the scales of the legs. They 
 cause rough and scurvy legs ; and this, being conta- 
 gious, should be promptly attended to. The legs 
 should be waslied in carbolic soap-suds. Another 
 remedy is a preparation of sulphur and lard, which 
 is to be rubbed on, after which, dip the legs in kero- 
 sene-oil for a sufficient length of time for the oil to 
 penetrate the scabs. Also wipe the roosts with 
 kerosene-oil. 
 
 Molting. — During molting, which is a natural ac- 
 tion and not a disease, it is best to feed the hens 
 good nutritious food, and keep them too fat rather 
 than too lean, expecting no eggs. 
 
 Feather-Eating. — This is a very harmful habit ; 
 and its causes are idleness, lack of animal food and 
 green stuff. The only cure is forced exercise, 
 which can be accomplished by covering the floor 
 with straw, throwing grain amongst it, thus making 
 them scratch for their living. Also give them plenty 
 of green food. 
 
 Crop-Bound. — This disease is found when the 
 crop is hard and swollen to twice its natural size, 
 and is caused by the inability of the hen to pass 
 
294 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 food into the stomach. One cure is to pour warm 
 water down the throat, worl<ing the crop with the 
 hand; afterwards give it a teaspoonful of castor-oil, 
 still working it with the hand, and give the hen no 
 food for a day. If this does not relieve it, make a 
 cut about an inch and a half long in the top of the 
 crop, being careful not to make any cross-cuts, lest 
 a blood-vessel should be cut. Then jemove the 
 contents of the crop, taking out any obstructions 
 there may be. Take tliree or four stitches in the 
 incision, and give only soft, cooked food for a week, 
 and no water for two days. 
 
 Pip. — This is a bony cap on the end of a hen's 
 tongue, making it impossible for the fowl to pick up 
 grain or corn. Eventually if it is not cured it will 
 cause starvation. This can be easily cured by tak- 
 ing a knife, and on the under part of the tongue com- 
 mence and peel off the cap from the back towards the 
 front, being careful not to cut off the end of the 
 tongue. This is a very effective cure. 
 
 To Prevent Hens from Setting. — Put the hen or 
 
 hens in a roomy coop, separated from the rest, in 
 which there are no boxes, and nothing but the roost. 
 Put in for their company a very lively young rooster, 
 and this will cure them. Another plan is to shut 
 them up tin a barrel as dark as possible. 
 
 How to Dress Poultry for Marlcet. — This should al- 
 ways be done by killing the bird, bleeding it in the 
 mouth or neck, and picking clean. 
 
 Do not attempt to stick poultry in the mouth 
 unless the operation is clearly understood ; for if 
 this is not properly done the bird will only half 
 bleed, and blood will ooze out each time a feather 
 is plucked, thus spoiling the appearance of the bird 
 for market. 
 
 All such poultry should be without food for at 
 least twelve hours before killing that their crops 
 may be empty. 
 
 Dry-pick the feathers, rather than scald them. 
 
 Advantages of Ducks ....•• 294 
 
 Aylesbury Ducks 295 
 
 Care of Ducks 295 
 
 Cayuga Ducks 296 
 
 Feeding of Ducks 295 
 
 DUCKS. 
 
 General Duck-Raising . . . ^ . . . 294 
 
 Housing of Ducks ....... 294 
 
 Important Features of Duck-Raising . 298 
 
 Mode of Feeding ........ 295 
 
 Muscovy Ducks 296 
 
 Mandarin Ducks 294 
 
 Management of Ducks 294 
 
 Metliod of Dressing Ducks .... 294 
 
 Pekin Ducks 292 
 
 Raising Ducks by the Incubator . . . 294 
 
 General Duck-Raising. — The public, only in the 
 last few years, have awakened to the importance of 
 the duck-raising interest in this country. 
 
 Formerly it was supposed to be of small propor- 
 tions, as compared to the beef, pork and poultry 
 product. 
 
 This industry, if we may so call it, is vastly on 
 the increase year by year, and duck culture assumes 
 a most important part in the fancier's business. 
 
 People within a few years did not think ducks 
 were fit to eat ; but the public is fast beginning 
 to know the fact that a nice roasted duckling, of 
 about ten weeks old, is ahead of any other kind of 
 bird or fowl. Thus, this sudden popularity of the 
 bird in our markets, the great demand for them by 
 the people, and the profits that can be realized from 
 raising them, led me to advise each and every farmer, 
 and those people who have the room, to keep ducks, 
 and in consideration of this I will take up duck 
 raising by artificial means, showing forth experiences 
 of different men in the business for the last 20 years. 
 
 The first thing to be remembered in raising 
 ducks is the fact that it is no child's play ; that the 
 care of ducks and chickens means early hours and 
 late ones. The closest application and confine- 
 ment are necessary for at least six months in the 
 year ; and if one is afraid of hard work and soiling 
 his fingers, do not let him go into duck-raising, for 
 he had better stay where he is. 
 
 It is no occupation, as supposed, for little children. 
 
 girls or boys ; but it requires the attention of a good, 
 strong man. 
 
 Advantages of Ducks.— U the hen is confined, she 
 will grovif drowsy, lose her ambition, and spend the 
 most of her time on the roost. However, with a 
 duck this is just the opposite. She is constantly 
 in motion, and continually keeps in exercise. She 
 is satisfied in snow and ice, which is not true of 
 the hen. She likes nothing better than to be out 
 on the snow-bank during a thaw ; she does not 
 mind the cold, only wishing to keep her feet warm. 
 Her feathers and coat of down keep her body warm 
 in all kinds and conditions of weather. She does 
 not like confinement, and would rather be in the 
 cold than in the heat of the house. 
 
 This is mentioned concerning the duck to show 
 the reader the nature, and the kind of a house to 
 build for his ducks. 
 
 The first requisite is to keep the ducks' feet 
 warm ; for if they have cold feet it affects them as a 
 frozen comb does a hen, namely, that it stops their 
 laying. 
 
 In the arranging of the buildings the only things 
 to keep in mind are, that they should be as warm as 
 possible, dry as possible ; with a view of always 
 having room enough to lengthen out, in case you 
 should wish to enlarge your flock. 
 
 A very good house is arranged so that a person 
 should have as little walking to do as possible, and 
 is built after this method, namely : that it is about 
 
DUCKS. 
 
 295 
 
 100 feet long and 20 feet wide. On one side, tak- 
 ing up about three feet in space, is a walk running 
 the whole length of the house. The remaining 
 space is divided into pens, separated from one an- 
 other by lath or wire-netting ; each one of these 
 pens is entered by a door from this passage-way, 
 giving access to each separate pen, thus enabling 
 one to keep the different varieties separate. One or 
 more of these pens may be given up entirely to set- 
 ters if so desired. 
 
 On the side of the pen, next to the walk, there 
 can be arranged bo.xes as nests, opening from the 
 back into the walk by a board let down by a hinge, 
 so that it does not necessitate the person going in 
 the pens to collect the eggs ; but by walking through 
 the passage-way, and letting down the different 
 boards, he can gather all the eggs there are. 
 
 Care, however, should be taken to arrange a 
 
 One of the most important points about ducks 
 is, that they will not produce the proper percentage 
 of fertile eggs if fed on hard food alone. The nat- 
 ural food of the ducks is purely vegetable and ani- 
 mal, and is obtained in swampy places. The duck 
 has no crop like the hen, and is not so well fitted 
 to thrive on hard food. It is essential also to 
 feed ducks for breeding, and ducks for the market. 
 One object is to make them weigh the more, the 
 other is to give them material for egg supply. 
 
 It is always well to give the ducks, during the 
 molting-season, a complete and retired rest, giving 
 soft feed and plenty of green food. 
 
 Aylesbury Ducks. — This is one of the best breeds 
 of English ducks. Although they are more degen- 
 erate in size in this country, yet by careful selection 
 in breeding, using only the largest and strongest 
 birds, this tendency may be obviated. They are 
 
 Swans. 
 
 slanting board on the top of these boxes arranged 
 as nests, to prevent the birds from going on top of 
 them. 
 
 The majority of people liave the impression that 
 ducks' eggs are unfertile unless there is water to 
 bathe in. This, however, is a great mistake, as a 
 great many fanciers keep their birds in confinement, 
 giving only water enough for drinking purposes. 
 
 It has also been found that free range is unneces- 
 sary for the fowls, and that they do as well in con- 
 finement and better, than as though they were 
 allowed at roam at large. 
 
 The Mode of Feeding varies at different seasons 
 of the year. In autumn and the winter months it 
 is well to feed twice a day equal quantities of corn- 
 meal, bran and potatoes ; then about noon it is 
 well to give dry food, such as corn, oats and wheat. 
 About June first, however, it is better to decrease 
 the amount of bran, and increase the amount of 
 animal food and the quantity of meal. 
 
 not quite as large as the Rouen variety, although 
 they so nearly equal them in this respect that they 
 often weigh 18 pounds per pair. 
 
 Theii* plumage is of a pure white ; and they are 
 good layers, the eggs being pure white and of thin 
 shell. They have flesh-colored bills, and legs of 
 orange hue. They are oval in sha^e, with abroad, 
 long back, full, round breast, strong wings and short 
 straight legs. This duck is prone to fall down be- 
 hind, by the stretching of the abdominal muscles, 
 and care should be taken in breeding to avoid such 
 birds. When ducks are like this, they should be 
 killed and dressed for market, because they are 
 liable to lay unfertile eggs. 
 
 These ducks commence laying in February and 
 continue for about five months with two to three 
 brief intervals. They are excellent foragers, and 
 will return regularly at night to their home. 
 
 Rouen Ducks. — This breed of ducks, sprung from 
 the Mallard or Gray duck, to which in color one sees 
 
296 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 a close resemblance. It is like the wild duck with 
 its weight increased. The plumage is very beauti- 
 fiil. The head is long, and in the dark is of a lumi- 
 nous-green color. The bill is long and broad, of a 
 greenish-yellow hue, wider at the end than at the 
 base ; the neck is long and slender the same as the 
 head, with a white ring on the lower part that does 
 not quite meet in the back. The upper part of the 
 back is ashy-gray blended with green. The breast 
 is broad and deep ; the body broad, long and deep. 
 The wings are grayish-brown in color, blended with 
 green also. The plumage of the thighs is gray ; the 
 legs and feet, orange with a slightly bluish tinge. 
 This breed of ducks does not come to maturity 
 
 Their eggs hatch well, the ducklings raise easily, 
 and mature rapidly, and in six weeks are larger than 
 any other breed. This makes them of excellent 
 market value. They need no water, cannot fly or 
 climb fences, and are easily restrained. 
 
 Cayuga Ducks. — This is an American breed, and 
 has long been raised in the United States and 
 Canada. They are entirely a water-duck, and sel- 
 dom come on land. 
 
 The head is small and slender, the bill broad, 
 short and dark. The plumage is metallic-black, 
 with green reflections on the head and neck and 
 wings ; legs are dark, head of black. They are ex- 
 tremely hardy, early in maturity, prolific layers, and 
 
 Morning Bath. 
 
 quite as early as the Aylesbury, but is prolific, laying 
 eggs of a rathef thick shell, bluish-green in color. 
 They, too, are excellent foragers. 
 
 These have very good market value, the flesh 
 being very delicate, and the birds are easily fat- 
 tened. These, too, are apt to fall down behind. 
 
 Pekin Ducks. — This breed of ducks was imported 
 into this country from China. They are very hardy, 
 easily reared, excellent table fowl and good layers, 
 while their crop of feathers is nearly as great as 
 that of an ordinary goose. They are white in plu- 
 mage and are very large, although not as large as 
 the two former breeds just mentioned, although they 
 seem to be on account of their feathers being loose 
 and fluffy. 
 
 their flesh has a rich game flavor, but when dressed 
 for market their skin is quite yellow. 
 
 They are not an advisable breed to raise on land ; 
 but in the vicinity of lakes, ponds and streams, they 
 are quite practical and best to raise. 
 
 The Muscovy Duck. — The Muscovy duck is some- 
 times called the Musk, or Brazilian duck. They 
 are large and handsome, the color being a rich dark 
 blue-black with a white bar on each wing. 
 
 In the drake, the feathers in the back are fine 
 and plumy, the legs and feet are dark, and they 
 have little to recommend them except their being 
 hardy and good layers. 
 
 A characteristic by which they may be easily dis- 
 tinguished, is the red membrane surrounding the 
 
DUCKS. 
 
 297 
 
298 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 eyes and covering the cheeks. They never quack, 
 and are favorites with those who like eccentricities. 
 Their flesh is good, and they may be said to be 
 nearly equal in egg production. 
 
 The Mandarin Ducks. — These are a Chinese vari- 
 ety, and are common in this country. The liead is 
 a long crest pointing backwards, which can be 
 raised or lowered at will ; the color of this crest is 
 green and purple on top, shading into a chestnut 
 and green. The feathers of the back are brilliant 
 light brown, and the under parts white or nearly so. 
 The quills or secondaries are brownish gray, edged 
 on the lawer web with white. The bill is crimson, 
 the legs a lightish pink, and the back black. The 
 garb of the duck is much plainer, being a mottling 
 of greenish brown, with grayish under parts. 
 
 About May the drake loses his conspicuous 
 feathers, even his wings, fans and crest, and be- 
 comes very much like the female ; in August he 
 again assumes his fine clothing, and by September 
 is in full plumage. 
 
 Management of Ducks. — A brood of young ducks 
 in a garden would well pay their raising, merely as 
 insect destroyers. When kept in confinement they 
 are not as profitable as poultry, because they will 
 consume more food and lay less eggs. Ducklings 
 mature rapidly, and at si.x months old are ready for 
 market. 
 
 It is better to set ducks' eggs under hens, cochins 
 or brahmas, the brahmas being preferred. The 
 breeding-ducks should be kept in their yards in the 
 morning until about lo A.M. by which time they 
 will have laid their eggs, after which they can have 
 their liberty. It is a good plan to keep them lay- 
 ing all the breeding-season, and to set their eggs 
 under hens. 
 
 In setting hens, they should be given from 12 to 
 15 eggs ; there should be sufficient water for the duck 
 to bathe in, and food placed near at hand. The 
 usual time for incubation is 28 days. When hatch- 
 ing, the duckling ought not to be disturbed for at 
 least 24 hours, at the end of which time they are 
 ready tor their first meal, which should consist of 
 hard boiled eggs and bread crumbs soaked in 
 milk. 
 
 After 4 or 5 days old, give them oatmeal fixed 
 with milk, and other warm food. They will feed 
 on dirt, grass, and insects ; it is a good plan to 
 give them a run in the garden each day. 
 
 Ducks should be fed every night when they re- 
 turn from their foraging expedition, which will In- 
 sure their regular return. When two months old, 
 coarser feed may be given. All ducks are the 
 heaviest and fattest in December. Later, as the 
 breeding-time approaches, they will become lighter, 
 and on this account will they lay better. 
 
 In raising ducks by incubation, the method is the 
 same as in raising chickens, e.xcept that the time of 
 hatching is longer, taking 7 days more ; in raising 
 j ducks, the incubator which has a nursery below the 
 egg-tray is the one to use by all means, as re- 
 *moving the duckling from the trays so reduces the 
 temperature of the incubator as to chill the remain- 
 ing eggs. Forcing the bird to lay its eggs, re- 
 duces the vitality of the eggs, and hence a poor 
 hatch of ducklings results. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary, in order to produce 
 healthy, vigorous young ducklings, to have good 
 breeding-stock ; for no living man can afford to breed 
 from unfertile stock. Another essential is the car- 
 ing for the ducklings when hatched, and seeing that 
 the breeder is not too warm, lest death follow from 
 over-heating and over-crowding. 
 
 Special care should be taken of the sanitary 
 arrangement of your house. All ducklings should 
 be kept as clean and healthy as possible. 
 
 There is great necessity of feeding green food ; 
 and it is always well as rye comes the first in the 
 season, to give it. One would be astonished to 
 see how much green fodder ducks can make away 
 with. • 
 
 Care is one of the important features of duck- 
 raising. It is especially necessary that all ducks 
 should have a bounteous supply of water ; they will 
 consume and waste vast quantities, and the supply 
 should be made as convenient and as great as pos- 
 sible. Shade is also absolutely necessary for the 
 ducks. 
 
 Method of Dressing Ducks. — The process is very 
 simple ; all that is necessary is a chair and a large 
 box and a few knives ; one knife should be double- 
 edged and sharp-pointed. For the bleeding, let 
 the man take the bird between his knees, the bill 
 held down with the left hand, and make a cut across 
 the roof of the mouth just below the eyes. The 
 bird should then be struck on its head in order to 
 stun it, the man taking the bird in his lap, its 
 head held down firmly between one knee and the 
 box. He should then go to work as soon as possi- 
 ble, and have the bird well plucked by the time it 
 is dead. 
 
 All feathers should be carefully sorted while pick- 
 ing, the wing and tail feathers and the pins thrown 
 away, the body feathers with the down thrown mto 
 the box. Some of the pins cannot be taken out 
 without tearing the skin, and these together with 
 the down should be shaved off. 
 
 When the bird has been picked, it should be 
 turned into a barrel or basket of floating ice ; this 
 will harden it so that its outline will be well 
 preserved. 
 
GEESE. 
 
 299 
 
 GEESE. 
 
 Breeds 299 l Kinds 
 
 General Management 2991 
 
 The two principal breeds of domesticated geese 
 are the Gray or Toulouse, and the White or Emb- 
 den, concerning which we quote from local author- 
 ity : "We very much prefer the Gray or Toulouse 
 to the White or Embden, being larger and hand- 
 somer. We have had a Toulouse gander which 
 weighed 24 pounds, a weight never, we are sure, 
 attained by the White bird. They are also better 
 shaped as a rule, and every way a more profitable 
 variety. The forehead should be flat, and the bill 
 a clear orange-red. The plumage is a rich, rich 
 brown, passing into white on the under parts and 
 tail coverts. 
 
 " The Embden goose is pure white in every 
 feather, and the eye should show a peculiar blue 
 color in the iris in all well-bred birds. White or 
 cross-bred geese require a pond ; but the Toulouse, 
 with good grass around, will do well with only a 
 trough of water, and will require no extra feeding, 
 except for fattening or e.xhibition." 
 
 The only foreign varieties requiring mention are 
 the Chinese and the Canada geese, both of whicli 
 appear to be medium between the geese proper and 
 the swans, which they resemble in length of neck. 
 
 The Chinese goose is of a generally brown color, 
 passing into light gray or white on the breast, with 
 a dark brown stripe down the back of the neck. 
 The voice is very harsh and peculiar. This bird is 
 not a good grazer, and is best raised in the farm- 
 yard. The Canada goose, also, is not a good gra- 
 zer, and does best near marshes and ponds, in 
 which circumstances they will thrive and be found 
 profitable. 
 
 General Management. — The raising of geese is a 
 very simple process, and can be made quite profit- 
 able where there are proper surroundings. They 
 may be raised with only suflScient water for drink- 
 ing ; but it is better to have access to water if 
 possible. No more than four or five geese should 
 be allowed to one gander, and such a family will 
 require eight feet square of space. To secure 
 even stock, three geese are allowed to the gander. 
 Each nest should be about two feet six inches 
 square, and the goose will always lay where she laid 
 her first egg. There should be a separate nest for 
 each goose, and thus the eggs when laid can be 
 left ; otherwise they should be removed daily. 
 
 299 t Raising of Geese 
 
 299 
 
 Geese should be set in March or early April, as 
 it is very difficult to rear the young in hot weather. 
 The time of hatching is between twenty to thirty- 
 four days. Each goose should be induced to come 
 off daily and take a bath ; besides, she should have 
 good food and water, or hunger will compel her to 
 eat her eggs one by one. The gander is usually 
 kept away, but it is not necessary as he has no 
 grudge against the eggs or goslings. 
 
 Old geese make better mothers than voung ones. 
 The geese should be allowed to hatch out entirely 
 by themselves. They should be fed on boiled oat- 
 meal and rice, with water from a pond and from a 
 shallow dish ; they should not be allowed to swim 
 for a fortnight, during which time the goose should 
 be kept under a very large coop. After two weeks 
 they will be able to shift for theiiiselves, except for 
 being sheltered from severe rains, until they are fully 
 fledged, and should be fed twice a day on corn. 
 
 When first commencing to lay, geese are apt to 
 be irregular ; but as they mature they will lay with 
 more regularity, and will be worth a litter of from 
 15 to 25 before declining to sit. 
 
 Breeding-geese should be kept rather thin, and 
 have free grass range. When breeding, the goose 
 will remain upon her nest after laying ; she should 
 have a deep nest, soft and firm to sit upon. 
 
 Old geese are very apt to be ugly when they have 
 goslings, and will very often destroy young ducks' 
 chickens with a stroke of their strong bill. They 
 should have their coops removed from other poultry 
 to do away with this danger. Geese are peculiarly 
 inquisitive birds. 
 
 Rats are to be especially avoided in the vicinity 
 of geese, as they will devour young goslings or 
 other young poultry if they have the opportunity. 
 The fox is also an enemy of the goose, as well as 
 the skunk and weasel. The building therefore in 
 which geese are kept should be thoroughly pro- 
 tected from such torments. 
 
 The house for geese should be similar to that of 
 the duck, and is not necessarily an expensive struc- 
 ture, but should be built warm and dry ; when prop- 
 erly cared for, geese will generally have no disease 
 whatever. 
 
 For fattening geese, corn meal and potatoes mixed 
 into a thin mush is as good a food as can be given. 
 
300 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Bre^d 300 
 
 Black 300 
 
 Bronze . . . . • 300 
 
 Breasts 300 
 
 Common 300 
 
 Care of Young Turkeys 300 
 
 TURKEYS. 
 
 Crooked Breasts 301 
 
 English Turkeys 300 
 
 Fattening of Turkeys 300 
 
 General Management 800 
 
 History of Turkeys 300 
 
 Kinds 300 
 
 Profits of Turkey Raising ..... 301 
 
 Raising Turkeys 301 
 
 Shelter for Young Turkeys .... 301 
 
 Turkeys for the Market 301 
 
 Roost for Young Turkeys 301 
 
 Turkeys. — The turkey has been domesticated for 
 nearly three hundred years, yet it still retains some of 
 its wild habits, doubtless due to the fact that it will 
 bear confinement less than any of the domesticated 
 land-birds. Nearly every color is represented among 
 them, black-bronzed and white-mottled being the 
 common wild color. Some of the species are the 
 Common turkey. Black-and-white mottled ; Black- 
 bronzed ; Mexican; White; Buff; Fawn-colored. 
 
 The Black-Bronzed, said to have been produced 
 by a cross of the Wild turkey upon the common 
 Turkey-hen, by subsequent careful selection and 
 breeding, is the largest, as it is the best of the domes- 
 ticated land varieties. They are hardy and of 
 beautiful plumage, and will weigh about thirty 
 pounds, while forty is sometimes reached by some 
 birds. 
 
 The Common Turkey. — The Common turkeys are 
 the most profitable to breed where only dollars and 
 cents are concerned, as they are hardy, of medium 
 size, little inclined to wander, and mature early. 
 At eight months old they will weigh, when fattened, 
 from ten to twelve pounds, and at maturity sixteen 
 and even eighteen. 
 
 In color, they are white-and-black mottled, hav- 
 ing the head and wattle of the wild turkey. 
 
 English Turkeys, so called, are small and a sub- 
 variety of the common American turke}', but cross- 
 breeding and selection have increased the size and 
 rendered them quite uniform in color. 
 
 Besides these breeds there is a Narragansett tur- 
 key ; the White turkey; Black turkey; Buff turkey. 
 
 The General Management of Turkeys. — Those who 
 understand the proper method of rearing turkeys, 
 the appliances and the convenience, do not find it a 
 hard business, and a very profitable one when prop- 
 erly managed. The first essential is, to know the 
 habits of the fowl. Turkey geese may be used for 
 breeding at two years of age and the hen at one 
 year. Farmers are very negligent in this respect ; 
 the hen which you choose to hatch eggs should be 
 of good size, as the hen will lay an immense num- 
 ber of eggs. The first eight or nine should be 
 set under a good hen ; and after that the turkey-hen 
 will have as many as she can cover. May and 
 June are the best months for hatching. The hen 
 is very constant in her sitting, and must be watched 
 or she will not get her own food ; she must always 
 be kept quiet. Many turkeys are hatched out in 
 about twenty days, and as a usual thing are very 
 stupid in learning to feed, so that it is a good plan 
 
 to put two or three hens' eggs to be hatched out 
 with the turkeys' eggs, putting them in about five 
 days later than when you set the turkey-hen, so that 
 at least one or two chickens may come off with the 
 brood of young turkeys, and thus teach them how 
 to feed, which is the same as for young chickens. 
 A little dandelion mixed with boiled eggs is found 
 very good. 
 
 Great care must be taken of the little turkeys 
 until they are nine weeks old, or until they com- 
 mence to put on the red. Under no circumstances 
 should they be exposed to the rain or cold. Take 
 good care of them and they will become the hardi- 
 est breeds known in the poultry-yard, braving with 
 impunity the fiercest storms, and even preferring to 
 roost on high trees in the depth of winter. In fact, 
 turkeys will rarely roost in the fowl-house, and 
 therefore a very high open shed should be provided. 
 They will not bear confinement at all well, and must 
 have plenty of range in order to thrive. They are 
 of a roaming disposition, and they are quite liable to 
 do much damage in gardens and cultivated places 
 and fields. It is always well to remove the turkey- 
 gobbler from the flock before the hens commence sit- 
 ting. Foxes, skunks, hawks, and crows are great 
 thieves of eggs. Turkey-hens are good sitters, but 
 sometimes uncertain ; turkeys are very liable to steal 
 their nests, being sly in their habits. It is therefore 
 a good plan to decoy, in the places which are fre- 
 quented by them, by placing nest-boxes in corners 
 remote from intrusion, and in tops of trees where 
 they are in the habit of roosting ; it does not need to 
 be an elaborate nest ; it may be in a cluinp of bushes, 
 or in fact any place that is secure from the driving 
 storms, and which will act as a hiding-place for 
 them. 
 
 In setting turkey-hens, they should not be set near 
 together, as one clutch will be hatched before an- 
 other, thus enticing one of the other setters to leave 
 her eggs to take care of the young turkeys which she 
 hears near by. As soon as the chicks peep through 
 the shell, you will know it by a peculiar sound 
 which the turkey-hen makes, as she does not make 
 this noise at any other time. Care should be taken 
 lest before you even suspect it, you have a large nest 
 full of young turkey chicks. 
 
 Care of Young Turkeys. — Turkeys require no food 
 for twenty-four to thirty-six hours after they are 
 hatched out. They should be put with the mother 
 in a pen, and fed practically the same food as you 
 would feed young chickens; they should always 
 
TURKEYS. 
 
 301 
 
 be fed four or five times a day. They should be 
 •confined in the pen for two weeks, until they are 
 strong enough to follow the mother ; for it is always 
 the way with the mother to lead the young brood 
 on long rambles among tall grass and green fields, 
 thus tiring out the little chicks. 
 
 Essential care should be taken not to expose 
 them to wet before being full fledged. Dew is 
 very fatal to young turkeys before they are fully 
 fledged, and it is always well to keep them in a 
 covered shed. Sour-milk curds is an e-xcellent 
 food for young turkeys ; after the first week or two, 
 the egg and bread crumbs may be done away with, 
 and corn meal mixed with skim-milk will take its 
 place. Grass and other green food can be given at 
 that time. Cayenne pepper should also be put in 
 with the food. As the turkeys grow old, the 
 amount of food may be decreased ; and if there is 
 no danger from dogs, turkey-hens may be left to 
 select their own nests, and at the end of four 
 months they will bring home with them a fine 
 brood of young turkeys. When young turkeys 
 commence to droop and appear sleepy and drowsy 
 it is a sure sign that they have vermin, and it will 
 be wise to e-xamine your broods. 
 
 Shelter for Young 7'ur<-e>'s.— If a farmer wishes to 
 have a fine crop of young turkeys as well as old 
 ones, it is necessary for him to see that they are 
 well sheltered at night. These shelters can be a 
 shed, barn, or hovel, it makes no difference which. 
 Most young poults up to six weeks old should be 
 kept in a small coop surrounded by a yard, boarded 
 up about fifteen inches high. A very good method 
 is, if the young poults do not come back at night, 
 to have some one go after them, and very soon 
 they will get into the habit of coming by them- 
 selves. 
 
 Roosts for Young Turkeys. — Turkeys are usually 
 left to seek roosting-places on trees or buildings. 
 This is a very bad practice, and should at all times 
 be avoided. Roosting on trees causes the breast- 
 bone to become deformed, especially in the early 
 period of their life. Roosting on barns and other 
 buildings is a very filthy habit, and no first-class 
 farmer would permit it. It is well in locating a 
 roost to put it on the south side of some building, 
 thus protecting it from the winter colds ; it should 
 be higli, and four or five inches in diameter; care 
 being taken not to have one side under the 
 other, but along in a parallel line about two feet 
 apart. The advantages of this system can be 
 easily seen in that you have access to your flock 
 morning and evening where you can count them, 
 - and by putting a few carloads of manure under- 
 neath the roost, you will have a fine mass of com- 
 posit nitrogen. 
 
 Crooked Breasts. — This is caused by a weak con- 
 stitution, or by injury received from sitting upon 
 small Hmbs of trees, and it also may be caused by 
 
 too much inbreeding ; if this is the case, change 
 either the gobbler or the hen. Birds having such 
 deformities should be killed and sent to the market. 
 
 Fattening Turkeys. — Turkeys should always be 
 sent to the market in the finest condition possible. 
 The economy in feeding is to give the young tur- 
 keys all that they can digest of corn food up to the 
 time they are killed for market. They should be 
 fed morning and night, and should be put through 
 a regular course for fattening. The first of October 
 is the time to kill for Thanksgiving; it is also a 
 first-rate plan to reserve the smaller birds for Christ- 
 mas and New Year's market, and they will ninety- 
 nine times out of a hundred pay for the long feeding. 
 
 The best food is old corn and warm meal ; milk 
 is also an excellent fattening food. The corn should 
 be given plentifully, and a good way to do is to put 
 it in a field of grass if possible, making long throws 
 of corn so that the turkeys can help themselves. 
 
 Turkeys for Market. — In caging turkeys, it is well 
 to spread the ground over with corn, placing a 
 noose in the center, and when the turkey steps into 
 this, pull it quickly and you have a turkey on the 
 string ; but, however, if you follow out our sugges- 
 tion and have roosting-places the birds can be very 
 easily caught at night. Prepare in a room, shed, or 
 stable as many nooses as you have turkeys, hang 
 up each bird by the feet as high as will be conve- 
 nient for handling; then take a sharp-pointed knife 
 and stick them in the mouth across the roof near 
 the top of the back, thus penetrating the brain with 
 the point of the knife. 
 
 As soon as the bird is dead, pick clean of all 
 pin-feathers, cut off the neck as near the head as 
 possible, cut off" the wings, and draw the crop and 
 entrails. 
 
 The bird should be taken from this noose ready 
 for market. It is also a first-class plan to put the 
 bird, after dressing, on a table or clean board to 
 cool off. In all circumstances great care should be 
 taken not to break the skin, and not to leave any 
 of the feathers on the birds. 
 
 In order to keep up your reputation as a turkey 
 raiser, the bird should be as clean and as fine-look- 
 ing as possible, and doing this will make a great 
 difference, not only with your class of customers 
 but also with the size of your bank-book. 
 
 Th Profits of Turkey Raising. — The profit of tur- 
 ke'v raising is very large, the outlay being compara- 
 tively small, as turkeys always command a good 
 price in the market. 
 
 The one great secret for a large profit in turkeys 
 is to take care of them and to look out for them all 
 summer long, and do not think, -'Well, let the tur- 
 keys take care of themselves, they are a good hardy 
 fowl," because if you do this, you will let some of 
 the smallest details go which are necessary in tur- 
 key-raising. Always watch the small ones, and the 
 large ones will take care of themselves. 
 
;o2 
 
 THE KKIKNU OV ALL 
 
 W •; 
 
 3 E 
 
 o- 
 
 1 J 
 
 z .. 
 
 liJ = 
 
 O " 
 
 I s- 
 
 _i = 
 
 LU a 
 
 o : 
 
AGKICULIUKK: tAKMS AND i'AKMlNG. 
 
 303 
 
 AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 Agriculture In Early Times 303 
 
 China 30J 
 
 Egypt 303 
 
 Egyptian Land , Transfer of 304 
 
 Israelites, the 304 
 
 Greece 304 
 
 Paintings and Inscriptions 303 
 
 Rome ; 304 
 
 Agriculture, Development of, within 
 
 the last Century 305 
 
 Agricultural Societies 305 
 
 England and America 305 
 
 Machinery and Tools, Improved.... 305 
 
 Barns 307 
 
 Cereals : 
 
 Barley 320 
 
 Ceres 319 
 
 Cereal Grasses, the 319 
 
 Grains, Climates^dapted todifferent 319 
 
 Indian Corn, or Maize 321 
 
 Millet 320 
 
 Oais 320 
 
 Wild Oat, the 320 
 
 Rice 323 
 
 Rye 320 
 
 Sweet-Corn, and Succotash 322 
 
 Wheat 321 
 
 Spelt Wheat 319 
 
 Ensilage 311 
 
 Advantages of, great 316 
 
 Condition of, when opened 314 
 
 Corn, Kind of, best for 313 
 
 Corn , Sweet, for 313 
 
 Crops for 313 
 
 Cultivation, Planting and 313 
 
 Dairy Products, Effects on 314 
 
 Deterioration after Opening 314 
 
 Feeding, Method of 314 
 
 Planting and Cultivation 313 
 
 Profitableness of 314 
 
 Ensilage : 
 
 Ration of. Daily 314 
 
 Remarks 314 
 
 Silos 312 
 
 Capacity 312 
 
 Cost 313 
 
 Cover 313 
 
 Crops, best Time to put, into Silos 313 
 
 Filling ; Cost of Filling 313 
 
 Filling, Time from, to Opening.. 313 
 J"odder, preparing, for the Silo. .. 313 
 
 Form 312 
 
 Location 312 
 
 Walls 313 
 
 Weight 313 
 
 Stock fed on Ensilage, Condition of 314 
 Value of Ensilage for Mil -cows.. 314 
 
 Value of, for other Stock 314 
 
 Ensilage Congress 315 
 
 Ensilage Crops, Yield of 313 
 
 Fences 308 
 
 Fertilizers 307 
 
 Food of Plants 307 
 
 Guano 308 
 
 Manure, Domestic Birds 308 
 
 Farm-yard 307 
 
 Manures, Bone and other 308 
 
 Cheap Home-made 309 
 
 Liquid 307 
 
 Waste, the enormous 309 
 
 Food Ingredients. — Chemical Terms 
 
 explained 311 
 
 Albuminoids 311 
 
 Ash 311 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 31 1 
 
 Fats 311 
 
 Organic Substance 311 
 
 Water 311 
 
 Grasses 317 
 
 Clover, or Trefoil 318 
 
 Grasses : 
 Meadow Grasses, properTimetocut SIS 
 
 Red Top 3ig 
 
 Timothy, or Herd's Grass 318 
 
 Hotbeds 320 
 
 Bed, Situation for the 320 
 
 Cold Frame 32I 
 
 Dung, Preparation of the 320 
 
 Land-Measurement 305 
 
 Acre, the 305 
 
 Government Land 30& 
 
 Square Feet 306 
 
 Square Yards 305 
 
 Tobacco 337 
 
 Vegetables : 
 
 AsparagTjs 332 
 
 Beans 331 
 
 Beets 327 
 
 Beet-Sugar 329 
 
 Cabbage 33-4 
 
 Carrots 327 
 
 Cauliflower 331 
 
 Celery 335 
 
 Cucumbers 334 
 
 Lettuce 336 
 
 Melons 333 
 
 Muskmelons 333 
 
 Water-melons 333 
 
 Onions 336 
 
 Peas 332 
 
 Potatoes 324 
 
 Potato-Bug, the 326 
 
 Rot, to preserve Potatoes from. . . 32s 
 
 Sweet-Potato, the 326 
 
 Pumpkins 334 
 
 Rhu barb 336 
 
 Squashes 334 
 
 Tomatoes 334 
 
 Turnips 327 
 
 Water 306 
 
 IN EARLY TIMES. 
 
 Of all the arts essential to human life, that of 
 agriculture is the earliest. The word originally 
 means, cultivation of the field, but its practice 
 began, even before the existence of anything 
 deserving the name of a field, the first time a 
 savage undertook in any way to assist Natui:e in 
 the processes by which he expected his food. 
 Long before written history, men had made 
 great progress in the cultivation of the soil, and 
 had succeeded in drawing results from the ground, 
 in many cases such as would do credit to modern 
 means of cultivation. 
 
 Egypt. — Bible readers will recall its frequent 
 references to Egypt as a land so rich in corn, that 
 it not only produced abundance for her own 
 dense population, but yielded supplies for export. 
 Diodorus Siculus bears explicit testimony to the 
 
 success of the farmers of ancient Egypt. He 
 says they practiced skillfully the rotation of 
 crops, and that they furnished to Rome an ordi- 
 nary annual supply of corn of 20,000,000 bushels. 
 He tells us that they fed their cattle with hay 
 during the inundation, and at other times te- 
 thered them in the meadows on green clover. 
 Their flocks were sheared twice a year, and 
 their ewes yeaned as often. Remembering that 
 Egypt is 600 miles long with an average breadth 
 of 7 miles, its productiveness was wonderful. 
 
 Paintings and Inscriptions. — Many of these, after 
 the lapse of two or three thousand years, retain 
 the distinctness of outline and brilliancy of color 
 of recent productions. These seem to give con- 
 firmation to the old saying, " There is nothing 
 new under the sun." Those referring to rural 
 affairs disclose a state of advancement at that 
 early date which may well lead us to speak mo- 
 
304 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 destly of our own attainments. An Egyptian 
 villa comprised all the conveniences of a Euro- 
 pean one at the present day. Besides the man- 
 sion with many apartments, there were gardens, 
 orchards, fish-ponds, game-preserves, with farm- 
 yard, sheds for cattle and stables for carriage- 
 horses. A steward directed the tillage opera- 
 tions, superintended the laborers, and kept ac- 
 count of expenditure and produce. In one 
 painting, in which the sowing of the grain is 
 represented, a plow drawn by a pair of oxen goes 
 first ; next comes the sower scattering the seed 
 from a basket ; he is followed by another plow ; 
 while a roller, drawn by two horses yoked 
 abreast, completes the operation. 
 
 Transfer of Egyptian Land. — The Egyptians at- 
 tached great value to land, and observed the ut- 
 most formality in its transfer. In the time of 
 the Ptolemies, their written deeds of conveyance 
 began with the mention of the reign in which 
 they were executed, the name of the president 
 of the court, and of the clerk who drew them. 
 The name of the seller, with a description of his 
 personal appearance, his parentage, profession 
 and residence, was engrossed. The nature of 
 the land, its extent, situation and boundaries, 
 and the name and appearance of the purchaser 
 were also included. A clause of warranty and 
 an explicit acceptance by the purchaser followed, 
 and finally the deed was attested by numerous 
 witnesses, and by the president of the court. 
 
 The Israelites, along with the Egyptians, Baby- 
 lonians and Romans, rank as one of the great 
 agricultural nations of antiquity. When they 
 reached Canaan, the invading army of more than 
 600,000 men, with wives, children and camp-fol- 
 lowers, found " old corn" in the land sufficient 
 to maintain them from the day they passed the 
 Jordan. To each of these 600,000 yeomen was 
 assigned under an equal division from 16 to 25 
 acres. This land, held in direct tenure from Je- 
 hovah their sovereign, was strictly inalienable. 
 The owners of these small farms cultivated them 
 with great care, and rendered them highly pro- 
 ductive. The soil was very fertile, and their dili- 
 gence and skill kept it in good condition. The 
 seventh year's fallow, and the burning of the 
 weeds and spontaneous growth of the Sabbatical 
 year, prevented the exhaustion of the soil. The 
 crops chiefly cultivated were, wheat, millet, bar- 
 ley, beans and lentils, and probably rice and 
 cotton. The hill districts and neighboring des- 
 erts afforded pasturage for numerous flocks and 
 herds, and thus admitted of the benefits of a mixed 
 husbandry. Not by a figure of speech, but lite- 
 rally, every Israelite sat under the shadow of his 
 own vine and fig-tree ; and the country as a 
 whole is described as " a land of corn and wine, 
 a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil-olive 
 
 and of honey." Scripture agricultural allusions 
 seem natural and appropriate to the modern 
 farmer, and he can hardly hope greatly to sur- 
 pass our Saviour's illustration of increase, " some 
 thirty, some sixty, some an hundred fold." 
 
 Greece. — The Greeks conquered the soil they 
 occupied, and contemptuously improved on the 
 aboriginal tribes the labor of cultivating it, 
 while they devoted themselves especially to po- 
 etry, philosophy, history and fine arts. But 
 when we find that valleys were freed from lakes 
 and morasses by drainage, that rocky surfaces 
 were sometimes covered with transported soil, 
 and that they possessed excellent breeds of the 
 domesticated animals, which were reared in vast 
 numbers, we infer that agriculture was better 
 understood, and more carefully practiced, than 
 the allusions to it in their literature would seem 
 to warrant. 
 
 Rome. — While Roman arts and sciences, and 
 general literature, were borrowed from the 
 Greeks, they created an original literature of 
 their own, of which rural affairs furnished the 
 substance and inspiration. The reading of Cato, 
 Virgil, Pliny and others turns up continually the 
 very same subjects still handled controversially 
 among us, so many centuries later. In ancient 
 Rome each citizen received, at first, an allotment 
 of about two of our acres, increased after the ex- 
 pulsion of the kings, to six. These small inheri- 
 tances must, of course, have been cultivated by 
 hard labor. Pliny says : " Virgil is of opinion 
 that alternate fallows should be made, and that 
 the land should rest entirely every second year. 
 And this is, indeed, both true and profitable, pro- 
 vided a man have land enough to give the soil 
 this repose. But how, if his extent be not suffi- 
 cient ? Let him, in that case, help himself thus. 
 Let him sow next year's wheat-crop on the field 
 where he has just gathered his beans, vetches 
 or lupines, or such other crop as enriches the 
 ground. For, indeed, it is worth notice that 
 some crops are sown for no other purpose but as 
 food for others, a poor practice in my estima- 
 tion." 
 
 China. — Here agriculture is held in higher esti- 
 mation than in perhaps any other country in the 
 world. On the first day of each year, a grand 
 ceremony is performed in its honor. The em- 
 peror, accompanied by his great officers of state, 
 repairs to the sacred field, and, having offered 
 sacrifice on an altar of earth, he traces a furrow 
 with the plow, and his example is followed by 
 princes and ministers. A like solemnity is cele- 
 brated by the governor of every province, who 
 represents the emperor. The agricultural sys- 
 tem of the Chinese is rude, but effective, and 
 every inch of arable land is carefully cultivated. 
 Spade-husbandry and irrigation are carried on 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 305 
 
 to a great extent. The Chinese have a strong 
 perception of the value of night-soil as a ma- 
 nure ; it is everywhere saved, bears a high price, 
 and is collected in a manner highly offensive to 
 European notions. In the northern provinces, 
 the cereals are principally maize, barley and 
 wheat ; but in the south, rice is raised in vast 
 quantities, and forms the staple food of the peo- 
 ple. Tobacco and the poppy are also raised in 
 considerable quantities. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT WITHIN THE LAST 
 
 CENTURY. 
 In England and America at the beginning of the 
 1 8th century agriculture was of the rudest kind. 
 But a change was inaugurated just before the 
 beginning of the present century, traceable more 
 especially to the operations of the French Revo- 
 lution. Still greater changes have taken place 
 in the United States during the last half-century. 
 Among the causes that have contributed to this 
 result is the increased circulation of agricultural 
 books and papers, written by intelligent and 
 practical men, and more especially the invention 
 and widespread use of so many labor-saving agri- 
 cultural implements. Men not yet old can re- 
 member when all the operations of haying and 
 harvesting were done " by hand," when the scythe 
 and the cradle, the rake and the pitchfork, were 
 all the aid the human brain had furnished for 
 the securing and storing of hay and grain. 
 
 Improved Machinery and Tools. — The forerunner 
 of the goodly fellowship of improved tools which 
 reinforce the laborer's hand, was the clumsy 
 wooden horserake. Within forty years reapers 
 and mowers have come into general use ; and 
 with them seed and corn sowers ; subsoil plows ; 
 cutters; cultivators; threshing and winnowing 
 machines, and others of great utility. Farmers 
 have been slow in giving up their old methods, 
 and in welcoming new ideas. They rejected 
 book-farming; their knowledge and their prac- 
 tices were traditional — they did as their fathers 
 did before them. It takes a great while to edu- 
 cate the tillers of the soil up to a wise use of 
 manures, and the application of chemistry to ag- 
 riculture. 
 
 Agricultural Societies. — The formation of agricul- 
 tural societies in almost every part of the coun- 
 try, in which men of education and influence 
 have taken a lively interest, has helped to more 
 skillful husbandry, to the better adaptation of 
 crops to different soils, and to more remunera- 
 tive work. It is hoped that the suggestions and 
 information herewith given from practical 
 sources, will be of service to farmers, as well as 
 to many others who are interested, or may en- 
 gage, in an honorable, and independent, and a lu- 
 crative employment 
 
 LAND-MEASUREMENT. 
 
 The unit of land measurement in the United 
 States is the acre, of the same size as the English 
 acre. Most nations have some measure approxi- 
 mately corresponding; originally, perhaps, the 
 land one could plow in a day ; so that unifor- 
 mity is not to be looked for. The values of the 
 more important corresponding measures are here 
 given, compared with the English and American 
 unit : 
 
 American and English acre i.oo 
 
 Scotch acre 1.27 
 
 Irish acre 1.62 
 
 Austria, joch 1.42 
 
 Baden, morgen or acre 0.89 
 
 Belgium, hectare (French) 2.47 
 
 Denmark, toende 5.5 
 
 _ I hectare (= 100 acres) 2.47 
 
 France ■ . , , 
 
 ( arpcnt (common) 0.99 
 
 Hamburg, morgen 2.38 
 
 Hanover, " 0.64 
 
 Holland, " 2.10 
 
 Naples, moggia 0.83 
 
 Poland, morgen 1.38 
 
 Portugal, geira 1.43 
 
 Prussia, little morgen 0.63 
 
 " great " 1.40 
 
 Russia, deciatina 2.70 
 
 Sardinia, giornate 0.93 
 
 Saxony, morgen 1.36 
 
 Spain, fanegada 1.06 
 
 Sweden, tunneland 1.13 
 
 Switzerland, faux 1.62 
 
 Geneva, arpenl 1.27 
 
 Tuscan y, saccata 1.22 
 
 Wiirtemberg, morgen 2.40 
 
 Roman jugerum (ancient) 0.66 
 
 Greek plethron (ancient) 0.23 
 
 The German morgen above are becoming ob- 
 solete, as the German Empire has adopted the 
 French metrical system. 
 
 In Square Yards. — An acre contains 4840 square 
 yards. The chain with which land is measured 
 is 22 yards long, and a square chain will contain 
 22x22, or 484 yards ; so that fo square chains 
 make an acre. The acre is divided into 4 roods, 
 a rood into 40 perches, and a perch contains 30J 
 square yards. Engineers sometimes use, instead 
 of a chain, a steel measuring-tape, 100 feet long, 
 each foot divided into tenths. An approximate 
 substitute may be made of a pole, i6|- feet long, 
 cut by 24 notches at equal distances into 25 
 divisions. 
 
 In "Government Land," a township 6 miles 
 square consists of 36 sections each i mile square. 
 So that a section of i mile square contains 640 
 acres, a quarter section of half a mile square con- 
 tains 160 acres, an eighth section half a mile one 
 way by a quarter the other contains 80 acres, 
 and a sixteenth section one quarter of a mile 
 square contains 40 acres. In the government 
 surveys the sections in each township are num- 
 bered I to 36. and the townships are numbered 
 
306 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 from west to east, commencing at the northern 
 border of the State. 
 
 In Square Feet. — An acre contains 43,560 square 
 feet, so that 436 square feet are one one-hun- 
 dredth of an acre, and so on. To some, it is 
 easier to calculate each time from the measure- 
 ment. Others may find assistance in tables. A 
 field of any of these dimensions contains one 
 acre: 
 
 5 yards *ide by 968 long. 
 24Z 
 
 80 
 3° 
 50 
 16 
 
 161 " 
 97 '' 
 3°3 
 
 10 yards wide by 484 long. 
 
 The side of a square to contain 
 
 One acre, 
 H acre, 
 % acre, 
 J4 acre, 
 % acre, 
 
 208.71 feet; 
 147.58 feet; 
 120.50 feet; 
 104.36 feet; 
 73.79 feet; 
 
 121 
 69 
 
 88 
 103 
 82 
 
 12.65 rods. 
 8.95 rods. 
 
 7.31 rods. 
 
 6.32 rods. 
 4.47 rods. 
 
 An English acre is a square of about 70 yards 
 each way ; a Scotch of 77^ yards; and an Irish 
 of 88i yards. Every mile of mere hedge and 
 ditch is about an acre. Roads and fences, i rod 
 wide, occupy i acre for every mile of length. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 An abundant and never-failing supply of water 
 is of the very first importance to every success- 
 ful farmer. Now and then a fortunate man 
 can have access to copious springs in the 
 right places, or can draw supplies from hills 
 above. And others can lift water where wanted 
 by a hydraulic ram. But the only resort often 
 has to be, the old-fashioned well or pump. Now 
 that the driven-well monopoly seems to have re- 
 ceived its death-blow, water may in a great many 
 localities be easily and cheaply made accessible 
 through its means. But whether a driven pump 
 or a dug well is to furnish the drinking-water 
 for stock or men, the greatest care should be 
 taken that a place be chosen free from the small- 
 est danger of leakage or drainage into it of any 
 impurity or defiled surface-water. How often 
 does a farmer thoughtlessly use drinking-water 
 which a stable, barn-yard, cesspool or other foul- 
 ness may and does contaminate ! And how often 
 is the clergyman heard to lay at the door of an 
 " inscrutable Providence" the loss of the father, 
 the mother, the husband or the wife, who has 
 died of the poison thus unwittingly taken into 
 the system ! Before you leave this paragraph, 
 reflect whether this shoe pinches you ; and if 
 there is a shade of danger, " oh, reform it alto- 
 gether." 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 What material shall be used for these neces- 
 sary boundaries, must depend greatly on the 
 locality and what is there accessible. Where 
 land has become valuable, the old-fashioned rail 
 
 and Virginia fences have to disappear. Before 
 even these, how picturesque used to appear the 
 long miles of overturned stumps, the outstretched 
 fingers of one interlocking with the outstretched 
 fingers of its neighbor, and conjuring up to the 
 boyish imagination in the gloaming weird shapes 
 of Indians and of spooks ! Sometimes no better 
 use can be made of the stones which " grow" un- 
 planted and unasked on a farm, than to make 
 fence-rows of them. The writer remembers 
 standing on a high hill near New London', 
 Conn., where the eye, traveling in every direc- 
 tion, encountered only long miles of stone fence, 
 no wood an)rwhere visible except an occasional 
 gate. 
 
 The fence of the future seems destined to be 
 of wire. Its cheapness and strength, and the 
 little room it occupies, are continually drawing 
 it into favor. Just back, we read that every mile 
 of mere hedge and ditch occupies about an acre 
 of ground. The wire fence occupies almost lite- 
 rally. «/7. An occasional club inveighs against 
 the unsportsmanlike character of a wire fence. 
 John Leech made pictures of hunting horsemen 
 brought to grief over the invisible but strong 
 barrier. Certainly, one may sympathize with the 
 noble quadruped thus overthrown. But for the 
 biped bestriding it, any latent feeling is qualified 
 by the hope that every accident may help the 
 downfall of such survivals as riding over culti- 
 vated fields and gardens in pursuit of vermin 
 whose life an utterly absurd law preserves, that it 
 may give opportunity for this very mischief. 
 
 The barbed-wire fence is coming into wide- 
 spread use. Like the driven-well patent, the 
 patent under which this fence is made has been 
 vehemently attacked as a monopoly, and at its 
 present status the case looks as though it will 
 be found untenable. Where there must be a 
 fence — and there are now a great many more 
 than are needed — do let us have as little of it as 
 will answer the purpose. How beautiful upon 
 the fields and meadows shows the green growth 
 clean up to the roadside, the passing eye wander- 
 ing unobstructed, except by the infrequent post, 
 and yet the growing crops as safe as behind an 
 English hedge ! At last, everywhere, utility and 
 beauty may be expected to meet and mingle, 
 and on that which serves its purpose best the 
 accustomed eye looks with delight. Let us have 
 our fences as infrequent as possible, and those 
 that remain as near invisible as may be. 
 
 There is a certain picturesqueness and beauty 
 about a well-kept hedge and ditch that please 
 the eye. Suppose we compromise the matter 
 and enjoy with our might what other people, 
 and especially our English cousins, maintain at 
 their own expense for public delectation. As 
 a great poet remarks : " The stars are very well 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 307 
 
 where they are ; I do not want them any nearer." 
 Let us enjoy the hedges, but without thought of 
 cultivating any such on our own land. 
 
 BARNS. 
 
 According to the old legend, a good farmer 
 will have a good barn, though he and his family 
 have to live in a shanty. This may a little over- 
 state the matter, but it is plain that if the farmer 
 is to be dependent for his living on his stock and 
 his products, whatever he neglect he must not 
 neglect his products and his stock. Take care 
 of them, even at the expense of the necessary 
 sacrifice, and they will take care of him. But 
 his barn and his home ought always to remain 
 apart a little distance ; if across the road, the 
 better. 
 
 Every farmer thinks he can best plan his own 
 barn : and this ought to be true. He needs, if 
 he can get it, a side hill, so that he can drive 
 loaded teams into the barn from the ground- 
 level, and often he can embank an inclined plane 
 from the opposite door, that the empty wagon or 
 cart may be driven on and down and out, instead 
 of having either to turn or to back out. Under 
 his main floor he can easily contrive cow and ox 
 stable, hay-press, storage room, and whatever 
 else his special needs may require. There 
 should be shafts through which food, etc., may 
 be passed down from above, and good ventila- 
 tion everywhere. His roof should project so as 
 to have windows at the end which he may keep 
 open and yet not wet his hay. Under or near 
 his barn he should provide ample silos, in which 
 he may preser\'e the ensilage that shall make his 
 stock laugh and fatten the sides and pocket of 
 owner and family. And there or elsewhere he 
 should provide room where every vehicle and 
 utensil he uses may be kept safely under cover 
 and within walls. How " shiftless" to Aunt 
 Ophelia seems the too frequent sight of wagons 
 and carts in the sun and rain, the hay-rake and 
 reaper and mower out of doors when not in use, 
 and sleighs baking in the heat of summer — per- 
 haps even harness hung in an open shed. 
 
 But even more shiftless than this is the waste 
 of many a barnj'iirii. How often does one see in 
 such a place manure going to waste that would 
 greatly increase the owner's crops! If a passage 
 through many a barnyard is necessary in wet 
 weather, how perilous and filthy the transit is ! 
 A great piece of water highly flavored with am- 
 monia "and sich" sending up its perfumes, and 
 " custards of Nature, pancakes of the earth," of 
 all ages and consistencies, cover the ground, 
 and foul the feet-coverings. The writer was 
 once walking with the late Prof. Mapes by a 
 heap of several cords. " That," said the profes- 
 sor, " is night-soil, treated with charcoal-dust. 
 
 and headlands." " Night-soil ? — there is no 
 smell." •' No smell ? I can't afford to let it 
 smell ; if there is any odor, my cash is evaporat- 
 ing." How much such wealth smells to heaven ; 
 and the resources which properly husbanded 
 would give improved health, comfort and abun- 
 dant opportunities for improvement, escape, foul 
 the air, load the clothes and boots, pollute the 
 persons, and threaten the health of the family 
 in barn, yard or house ! 
 
 FERTILIZERS. 
 
 Food of Plants. — The food of all plants is very 
 much alike. The great mass of vegetables is re- 
 solved into carbonic acid, water and ammonia, 
 on being subjected to heat or burned in a fire. 
 It is these same substances which constitute the 
 chief food of all plants. The light of the sun 
 enables plants to decompose and assimilate car- 
 bonic acid and ammonia, and to manufacture out 
 of them the various products they contain. All 
 organic substances yield these by slow decompo- 
 sition, as well as by combustion. It is for this 
 reason that such substances increase the fertility 
 of land when added to it. 
 
 Farm- Yard Manure. — This stands at the head of 
 all fertilizers in common use. It consists of the 
 excrements of stock, their litter, and the refuse of 
 their fodder ; usually first trodden down in suc- 
 cessive layers, and partially fermented in the 
 farm-yard, and thence removed and left in heaps 
 where, by further fermentation and' decay, it be- 
 comes a dark, moist, homogeneous mass. It is 
 thus the residuum of the whole products of the 
 farm, minus exported grain, and that portion of 
 the other crops which, being first assimilated in 
 the bodies of the live-stock, is sold in the form of 
 butcher-meat, dairy produce or wool. In apply- 
 ing farm-yard manure to land, there is thus a re- 
 turning to it of what it had previously produced, 
 /ess the above exceptions, and such waste as gas- 
 eous exhalation or liquid drainage may cause 
 during the process. Of course the value of the 
 manure ii dependent upon the richness of the 
 food of the animals producing it, and the reten- 
 tion of its properties against exhalation and 
 drainage. The richer the food upon which stock 
 is fed so much the richer the manure produced. 
 Stock fed upon straw and water leave a very in- 
 ferior manure, that requires to be largely supple- 
 mented by other materials. . 
 
 Liquid Manures. — The urine of all housed live- 
 stock ought to be carefully retained, and ab- 
 sorbed in the solid matter of the manure-heap. 
 Its surplus should be collected into a suitable 
 tank, where it may be made available. English 
 and Scotch farmers in general endeavor to have 
 all the liquid excrements of the stock absorbed by 
 the straw, and carried out in the solid form. But 
 
308 
 
 THE FKIIiND OF ALL. 
 
 often much more is produced than could be dis- 
 posed of in this way. In a large farm near Glas- 
 gow the drainage of a dairy of 700 cows flows in 
 a full continuous stream into a tank containing 
 30,000 or 40,000 gallons, whence an engine pumps 
 it to various vats on the highest points of land to 
 be irrigated. From these • heights it is distribu- 
 ted where needed, miles of iron pipe being used 
 in taking it up and down. But experiments on 
 this scale are a matter more of interest than of 
 use to our readers ; and the profit of such opera- 
 tions, so conducted, is still a moot point. 
 
 Guano. — Next in importance to farm-yard ma- 
 nure, comes guano. This substance is the dung 
 of sea-fowl, and is found on rocky islets in parts 
 of the world where rain seldom falls. The drop- 
 pings of the myriads of birds by which such places 
 are frequented have in many cases been permit- 
 ted to accumulate during untold ages, and are 
 now found in enormous deposits. The princi- 
 pal supply has hitherto come from the Chincha 
 Islands, on the coast of Peru. Less than forty 
 years ago a few casks were brought to Liverpool. 
 In 1872 there were imported into Great Britain 
 118,704 tons, valued at ^1,201,042, and in the 
 same year into the United States 14,309 tons, 
 valued at $423,323; and 4209 tons, valued at 
 $60,865, were gathered from islands, rocks and 
 keys belonging to the United States. The qua- 
 lity of guano varies greatly, but in good speci- 
 mens there are 65 to 80 per cent of organic mat- 
 ter and fixed salts. The dung of birds, from its 
 including both liquid and solid excrements, is 
 superior as a manure to that of quadrupeds. On 
 the grasses, guano is sown broadcast in the early 
 part of spring, when vegetation begins to start. 
 At this time the roots take it up and prevent it 
 from being washed out of the soil. But ctover, 
 being a deep-rooted plant, is best dressed with it 
 in autumn, that the roots may store up its active 
 principles till spring, and the plants be in a more 
 vigorous state for the next summer's growth. It 
 is too soluble to apply to early autumn-sown 
 wheat. In moist springs, when there are abun- 
 dant rains to wash it in, it forms an admirable 
 top-dressing for winter wheat. For spring-sown 
 wheat and other cereals, no manure has a more 
 powerful influence. The usual dressing is 300 to 
 400 pounds for cereals. The stronger the land the 
 more may be profitably applied. 
 
 Domestic Bird-Manure. — Pigeon's dung has long 
 been in high repute as an excellent fertilizer, 
 and brought a high price in days when portable 
 manures were scarcely to be had. It is now little 
 heard of, guano, the excrement of fowls which 
 feed upon fish, being superior, weight for weight. 
 The manure of domestic poultry is usually mixed 
 with the general heap, but it could be turned to 
 better account if kept by itself. It has been re- 
 
 commended to strew the floors of poultry-houses 
 daily with sawdust or sand, and to rake this 
 with the droppings into a heap to be kept under 
 cover and used like guano. 
 
 Night-Soil. — Baron Liebig is credited with the 
 saying that an adult human being can be made 
 to keep fertile an acre of ground. An untold 
 quantity of fertilizing material thus produced is 
 more than wasted every day. The products of 
 the water-closet, both liquid and solid, should be 
 deodorized and composted by mi.xture with dried 
 peat, ashes or dry earth of a loamy nature. The 
 privy vault or box should be easily accessible at 
 all times, and ought to be kept well supplied 
 with a mixture of these absorbents. No better 
 fertilizer than this exists under the sun ; about 10 
 bushels of the compost will be a good dressing 
 for an acre. In China no other fertilizer is used, 
 and about 400,000,000 of people exist on the 
 crops nourished by it. The dry earth-closet in- 
 troduced into England by the Rev. Mr. Moule, 
 and the Wakefield closet in the United States, 
 are most powerful auxiliaries of the agriculturist, 
 and deserve the highest commendation. 
 
 Bone and other Manures. — The employment of 
 bones as a manure is one of the greatest mo- 
 dern improvements in agriculture. They are ap- 
 plied either simply reduced to small fr^ments 
 or a coarse powder called bone-ditsi, or, after un- 
 dergoing chemical preparations of various kinds, 
 as the basis of highly valuable artificial manures. 
 All the substances which enter into the compo- 
 sition of bones are desirable additions to the soil, 
 but particularly the phosphates. Phosphoric 
 acid, usually found in combination with mag- 
 nesia, and more particularly lime, enters into the 
 structure of every plant and animal ; it is a sub- 
 stance, therefore, which cannot be dispensed 
 with either in the vegetable or animal economy. 
 
 Soda can be easily obtained in the form of 
 common salt, but as this substance is usually as-' 
 sociated with potash, the one is found in the 
 dung-heap as well as the other. Common salt 
 is applied to corn-crops that are growing too 
 rapidly. The salt has the effect of stiffening the 
 straw, and rendering it less liable to lodge. Salt 
 is also used with great success in growing man- 
 gel-wurzel, as this is a plant which was origi- 
 nally taken from the sea-shore. 
 
 Potash is a substance most essential for all our 
 cultivated plants ; its market-price, however, is 
 so high, that farmers seldom apply it directly to 
 the soil. They employ certain crops, such as 
 clover and turnips, to gather it up for them in the 
 soil. These are consumed on the farm by cattle 
 and sheep, and as little potash enters into animal 
 tissues as a permanent constituent, it is mostly 
 returned to the dunghill in the excrementitious 
 matters. Farm-yard dung thus possesses a value 
 
AGRICULTURE : FARMS AXD FARMING. 
 
 309 
 
 of its own, by supplying this constituent, which 
 cannot be bought economically in the market. 
 
 All perennial plants, such as grasses, are ena- 
 bled to extract phosphoric acid from the soil 
 more readily than annual plants, owing to their 
 numerous and well-developed roots, which are 
 ready, even at the beginning of the growing sea- 
 son, to draw supplies from a large mass of soil. 
 Grasses, therefore, are only benefited by phos- 
 phoric manures when the soil is more than usu- 
 ally deficient in phosphates. If grass-lands are 
 sterile, it is easy to ascertain if a deficiency of 
 phosphoric acid is the cause, by adding calcined 
 or crushed bone, and watching their effect. An 
 experiment of this sort is a much better guide 
 than any analysis of the soil. 
 
 The Bnormous Waste. — John Stuart Mill, follow- 
 ing his legal preceptor John Austin, prates of the 
 " niggardliness of Nature." But the great source 
 of human poverty is not any niggardliness on the 
 part of Nature, but ignorance, neglect and lazi- 
 ness on the part of man. There are very few 
 farms on which a scanty living is now made by 
 hard work and rigid frugality, where a generous 
 one may not be had, with less labor and more 
 brains. In the single article of manures, fortunes 
 go to waste yearly all over the country. As in 
 any commercial business, it is not necessarily 
 hard work that wins, though hard work is every- 
 where wanted ; it is what the New Englanders 
 used to call " faculty," gumption ; old Dr. S. H. 
 Co.x called it " spizarinctum." The treasures that 
 lie in ensilage were uncovered by a Frenchman 
 of business : and yet how open they have all 
 along lain ! The mere judicious putting back 
 into the soil of all waste and refuse matter 
 produced from the soil, with judicious supple- 
 menting of the elements taken wholly away, is 
 the secret. Bailey, in the " Book of Ensilage," 
 says : " I am experimenting upon an old run- 
 down farm, which, in 1877, could keep but 6 cows 
 and one horse. I have now in my barn (Dec. i , 
 1880) sufficient hay to keep 6 horses, and forage 
 in my silos ample for the sustenance of 60 
 head of horned cattle, nearly 200 sheep, and 60 
 swine. I may also state, that during the past 
 three years I have bought no hay or manure." 
 This he lays to ensilage ; but he saved his ma- 
 terials with jealous care as well as depended on 
 ensilage. 
 
 CHEAP HOME-MADE MANURES. 
 
 Everything on a farm should be utilized ; even 
 the outflow of the kitchen-slops should be dis- 
 charged on a bed of swamp-muck. Good wood- 
 ashes weigh about 60 pounds to the bushel ; of this 
 6| are soluble in warm water. They are worth to 
 the farmer from 60 to 70 cents per bushel as a 
 
 fertilizer; if leached, they are worth perhaps a 
 quarter of that sum. They are excellent for all 
 crops, altogether unequaled for fruit-trees, and 
 in a most unfavorable season 250 bushels of 
 potatoes have been raised from 1 acre dressed 
 with them. 
 
 Ashes from Soil by Spontaneous Combustion. — Make 
 your mound 21 feci long by loi feet wide. To 
 fire,'use 72 bushels of lime. First a layer of dry 
 sods or parings on which a quantity of lime is 
 spread, mixing sods with it; then a covering 
 of 8 inches of so^s. on which the other half of 
 the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick, 
 the height of the mound being about a yard. 
 In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime 
 should be fresh from the kiln, It is better to 
 suffer it to ignite itself than to effect it by the 
 operation of water. When the fire is fairly 
 kindled, fresh sods must be applied ; but get a 
 good body of ashes in the first place. It may be 
 fairly supposed that the lime adds full its worth 
 to the quality of the ashes; and when limestone 
 can be got, burn a small quantity in the mounds, 
 which would be a great improvement to the 
 ashes, and would help to keep the fire in. 
 
 Barn-Manure. Substitute for. — Dissolve a bushel 
 of salt in water enough to slack 5 or 6 bushels of 
 lime. The best rule for preparing the compost 
 heap is, i bushel of this lime to i load of swamp- 
 muck, intimately mixed ; though 3 bushels to 5 
 loads makes a very good manure. In laying up 
 the heap, let the layer of muck and lime be thin, 
 so that decomposition may be more rapid and 
 complete. When lime cannot be got, use un- 
 leached ashes — 3 or 4 bushels to a cord of muck. 
 In a month or six weeks overhaul and work over 
 the heap, when it will be ready for use. Sprinkle 
 the salt water on the lime as the heap goes up. 
 
 Manure from Large Bones without Expense. — Take 
 an old flour-barrel, and put into the bottom a 
 layer of hard-wood ashes ; put a layer of bones on 
 the top of the ashes, and add another layer of 
 ashes, filling the space between the bones with 
 them ; then add bones and ashes alternately, 
 finishing off with a thick layer of ashes. When 
 your barrel is filled, pour on water (urine is bet- 
 ter) just sufficient to keep them wet, but do not 
 on any account suffer it to leach one drop ; for 
 that would be like leaching your dung-heap. In 
 the course of time they will heat, and eventually 
 soften down so that you can crumble them with 
 your finger. When sufficiently softened, dump 
 them out of the barrel on a heap of dry loam, 
 and pulverize and crumble them up till they are 
 completely amalgamated into one homogeneous 
 mass with the loam, so that it can be easily 
 handled and distributed when required. You 
 may rely on it this manure will leave its mark, 
 and show good results wherever used. 
 
310 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Fish-Compost, Substitute for Bone-dust, Manure from 
 Fish-Refuse, etc. — The fish owes its fertilizing value 
 to the animal matter and bone-earth which it 
 contains. The former is precisely similar to flesh 
 or blood, consisting of 25 per cent of fibrin, the 
 rest being water ; and their bones are similar in 
 composition to those of terrestrial animals. As 
 fertilizing agents, therefore, the bodies of fishes 
 will act nearly in the same way as the bodies and 
 blood of animals ; 100 pounds, in decaying, pro- 
 duce 2} pounds of ammonia. Hence 400 pounds 
 of fish rotted in compost are enough for an acre. 
 The great effect is due to the'ammoniacal por- 
 tion ; for it renders the herbage dark green, and 
 starts it very rapidly. 
 
 Home-made Guano of Unequaled Excellence. — Save 
 all your fowl-manure from sun and rain. To pre- 
 pare it for use, spread a layer of dry swamp-muck 
 (the blacker it is the better) on your barn-floor, 
 and dump on it the whole of your fowl-manure ; 
 beat it into a fine powder with the back of your 
 spade ; this done, add hard-wood ashes and plas- 
 ter of Paris, so that the compound shall be com- 
 posed of the following proportions : dried muck, 
 4 bushels ; fowl-manure, 2 bushels ; ashes, I 
 bushel; plaster, i| bushels. Mix thoroughly, 
 and spare no labor ; for in this matter the elbow- 
 grease expended will be well paid for. A little 
 before planting, moisten the heap with water or, 
 better still, with urine ; cover well over with old 
 mats, and let it lie till wanted for use. Apply it 
 to beans, corn or potatoes, at the rate of a hand- 
 ful to a hill ; and mix with the soil before drop- 
 ping the seed. This will be found the best sub- 
 stitute for guano ever invented, and may be 
 depended on for bringing great crops of turnips, 
 corn, potatoes, etc. 
 
 How to Double the Usual Quantity of Manure on a 
 Farm. — Provide a good supply of black swamp- 
 mold or loam from the woods, within easy reach 
 of your stable, and place a layer of this, one foot 
 thick, under each horse, with litter as usual, on 
 the top 6f the loam or mold. Remove the drop- 
 pings of the animals every day, but let the loam 
 remain for two weeks ; then remove it, mixing it 
 with the other manure, and replace with fresh 
 mold. By this simple means any farmer can 
 double not only the quantity but also the quality 
 of his manure, and never feel himself one penny 
 the poorer by the trouble or expense incurred, 
 while the fertilizing value of the ingredients ab- 
 sorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely be 
 estimated. 
 
 Twenty Dollars' Worth of Manure for almost Nothing. 
 — If you have any dead animal — say, for instance, 
 the body of a horse— do not suffer it to pollute 
 the atmosphere by drawing it away to the woods 
 or any other out-of-the-way place, but remove it 
 a short distance only from your premises, and 
 
 put down four or five loads of muck or sods, 
 place the carcass thereon, and sprinkle it over 
 with quicklime, and cover over immediately 
 with sods or mold sufficient to make, with what 
 had been previously added, 20 good wagon-loads, 
 and you will have within twelve months a pile of 
 manure worth $20 for any crop you choose to 
 put it upon. Use a proportionate quantity of 
 mold for smaller animals, but never less than 20 
 good wagon-loads for a horse ; and if any dogs 
 manifest too great a regard for the inclosed car- 
 cass, shoot them on the spot. 
 
 HOTBEDS. 
 
 The direction to use a hotbed occurs so often, 
 in notices of half-tardy annuals, that we feel we 
 shall be materially aiding those who are their own 
 gardeners if we give a few simple directions on 
 the subject of a hotbed composed of stable ma- 
 nure, the most frequent and useful form in which 
 it is to be found. 
 
 The Preparation of the Dung is a matter of great 
 importance, and if the bed be expected to retain 
 its usefulness for any length of time it should be 
 well worked previous to being used. If obtained 
 fresh from the stable-yard, and found to be too 
 dry, it should be well watered and thrown lightly 
 together to ferment ; this will take place in the 
 course of a few days, and three or four days after- 
 ward it should be completely turned, well shaken 
 and mixed, keeping the more littery portion to 
 the interior of the heap ; a second turning and 
 watering may be necessary, although one will be 
 generally found to be sufficient ; when thus 
 cleaned of its rankness the ied may be made. 
 
 The Situation for this should be dry under- 
 neath, sheltered from the north as much as pos- 
 sible and fully exposed to the sun ; it should be 
 built up from two feet six inches to four feet 
 high, and wider by si.x inches every way than the 
 frame to be placed upon it. The dung should 
 be well shaken and mixed while being put to- 
 gether, and firmly pressed by the feet. The 
 frame should be kept close until the heat rises, 
 and three or four inches of sifted sand or ashes 
 should be placed on the surface of the bed ; in a 
 few days it will be ready for use; but air should 
 be given night and day while there is any danger 
 from the rank steam, and if the sand or ashes are 
 drawn away from the side of the bed they should 
 be replaced. 
 
 When the hotbed is used for seeds only noth- 
 ing further is necessary ; they are to be sown in 
 pots or pans, placed or plunged in the bed, the 
 heat of which will soon cause them to germinate. 
 As this will after some time decline, what are 
 called linings should be added: that is. fresh, hot. 
 fermenting (but not rank) dung applied about a 
 foot in width all round the bed : this renews its 
 
AGRICULTURE : FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 311 
 
 strength, and will greatly aid its successful ma- 
 nagement. 
 
 A Cold-Frame is formed by placing the ordi- 
 nary hotbed-frame upon a bed of light rich soil 
 in some place in the garden where it will be pro- 
 tected from cold winds. They should both be 
 shaded from the sun by mats during the middle 
 of the day. 
 
 The frames may be made of common boards, 
 with a post in each corner. The front should be 
 enough lower than the back to give the needed 
 slope to carry off rain. Cross .strips should be 
 put every three feet, strong enough to support 
 the sashes. Sash-frames are easily bought, and 
 ought to be of well-seasoned wood. 
 
 FOOD INGREDIENTS.— CHEMICAL 
 TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 The A/nerua/! Ai^rictilturist. Jan. 1879. con- 
 tained the following : 
 
 Water. — If a piece of wood or wisp of hay be 
 dried some time in a hot oven, more or less 
 water will be driven off. The water in feeding- 
 stuft's varies from 80 to 90 pounds in every 100 
 pounds of young grass or fodder-corn, to only 8 
 or 10 pounds to the 100 in dry straw or hay. 
 
 Organic Substance. — If the dried wood or hay be 
 burned, most of it will pass off as gas, vapor or 
 smoke. The part thus burned away is the or- 
 ganic substance. The residue — 
 
 The Ash — contains the mineral matters, that is, 
 the potash, lime, phosphoric acid, etc., of the plant. 
 The most important part for our present purpose 
 is the organic, the combustible matter. This 
 consists of three kinds of ingredients, albumi- 
 
 noids, carbo-hydrates and fats. The main point 
 in economical feeding is to secure the right pro- 
 portions of these at the lowest cost. 
 
 Albuminoids — also called protein compounds, pro- 
 teids and flesh-foruiers — contain carbon, o.\ygen, 
 hydrogen and nitrogen. Thus they differ from 
 the carbo-hydrates and fats, which contain no 
 nitrogen. The name albuminoids comes from 
 albumen, which we know very well as the white 
 of eggs, and it is found in milk. The fibrin of 
 bone and muscle (lean meat) and the casein 
 {curdj of milk are also albuminoids. Indeed, the 
 solid part of blood, nerves, lean meat, gristle, 
 skin, etc., consists chiefly of albuminoids. In 
 plants they are equally important ; plant albumen 
 occurs in nearly all vegetable juices, especially in 
 potatoes and wheat, casein or legumin in beans 
 and peas, and fibrin in the gluten of wheat, the 
 basis of what farmer-boys call "wheat gum." 
 Clover, bran, beans, peas, oil-cake, and flesh and 
 meat-scrap are rich in albuminoids. 
 
 Carbo-hydrates consist of carbon and hydrogen. 
 The most important are starch, sugar and cellu- 
 lose (woody fiber). They make up a larger part 
 of the solids of plants, but only a little of them 
 is stored in the animal body. Potatoes, wheat, 
 poor hay, straw and cornstalks consist largely of 
 carbo-hydrates. 
 
 Fats have more carbon than carbo-hydrates, 
 and like them have no nitrogen. Fat meat, tal- 
 low, lard, fish-oil, the fat (butter) of milk, and 
 linseed-oil are familiar e.xamples of fats. Indian 
 corn, oil-cake, cotton-seed and linseed are rich 
 in fatty matters. [The last three are also rich 
 in albuminoids.] 
 
 ENSILAGE. 
 
 Description. — This word is applied to a system 
 of storing green fodder in vats, the invention of 
 a Frenchman, M. Auguste Goffart, who ensilaged 
 cut maize at Burtin. in France, in 1873. The vats 
 or pits, or receptacles, in which the ensilage is 
 made and kept, and from which it is fed out, are 
 called silos. The crop most used now for the 
 purpose is Indian corn or maize, though other 
 growths are much used, and others still will pro- 
 bably be utilized. Bailey's " Book of Ensilage," 
 18S0, reads ; " A Silo is a cistern or vat. air- and 
 water-tight on the bottom and sides, with an open 
 top, constructed of masonry or concrete. It may 
 be square, rectangular, round or oval in shape, 
 with perpendicular sides, used to store in their 
 green state forage-crops, such as corn, sorgho, 
 rye, oats, millet, Hungarian grass, clover and all 
 the grasses. The forage is cut and taken direct- 
 
 ly from tb.e field, run through a cutter which cuts 
 it in pieces less than half an inch in length, and 
 trampled down solidly in the Silo, and subjected 
 to heavy and continuous pressure. The struc- 
 ture is the Silo, which may be above ground, or 
 partly or entirely below the surface of the ground. 
 The fodder preserved in Silos is Ensilage." 
 
 This description accords with the arrange- 
 ments and processes introduced by M. Goffart, 
 who built expensive stone structures, partly above 
 and partly below ground, cut the fodder into 
 small pieces, evenly spread the mass and covered 
 it with a layer of straw, over the straw laid planks 
 side by side as long as they could be without 
 binding, and on these planks placed heavy 
 weights. All this is, that the air may be kept 
 out of the mass. The o.xygen of what little air is 
 packed in initiates the process of fermentation. 
 
312 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 and a little carbonic-acid gas is produced. But 
 if no further air is admitted, the fermentation is 
 arrested, and the mass will remain indefinitely 
 unchanged, retaining all its nutritious and succu- 
 lent juices, with a slightly acid twang; and the 
 resulting ensilage, care being taken to so cut it as 
 not to admit air to the remaining mass, is eagerly 
 eaten by stock, and with profitable results in 
 the shape of flesh, of wool, of milk, of butter and 
 of working power. 
 
 Ensilage is yet in its callow youth, but is at- 
 tracting attention and coming into use. One en- 
 thusiastic adherent describes the discovery of 
 Goffart as one " that is destined to confer a 
 greater benefit upon mankind than any other 
 that has ever been made." Mr. Bailey's book just 
 quoted bears on its title-page, " How to produce 
 milk for one cent per quart ; butter for ten cents 
 per pound ; beef for four cents per pound ; mut- 
 ton for nothing if wool is thirty cents per pound." 
 And a body of facts is gathering in newspapers 
 and elsewhere of great value. The Department 
 of Agriculture at Washington issued in July 
 1882 a pamphlet, " Special Report No. 48. Silos 
 and Ensilage : a Record of Practical Tests in 
 Several States and Canada." There have been 
 held two " Ensilage Congresses," the last of them 
 in January 1883, whose reports in pamphlet form 
 are accessible. Mr. Bailey's book is very inter- 
 esting reading. So is " Silos and Ensilage," etc., 
 by Dr. George Thurber of the American Agri- 
 culturist. 
 
 George B. Loring, Esq., Commissioner of Agri- 
 culture, addressed, in June 1883, letters to various 
 gentlemen asking from them answers to the fol- 
 lowing questions relative to silos and ensilage ; 
 
 1. Location of silo with reference to feeding- 
 rooms. 
 
 2. Form of silo. 
 
 3. Dimensions of silo. 
 
 4. Walls of silo — materials, and construction. 
 
 5. Cover. 
 
 6. Weight — materials used for, amount re- 
 quired, and how applied. 
 
 7. Cost of silo. 
 
 8. Crops used for ensilage. 
 
 9. Method of planting and cultivation. 
 
 10. Stage of development at which fodder is 
 most valuable for ensilage. 
 
 11. Weight of fodder produced per acre. 
 
 12. Kind of corn "best for ensilage. 
 
 1 3. Value of sweet corn as compared with field 
 varieties. 
 
 14. Preparation of fodder for silo — machinery 
 used. 
 
 15. Filling the silo. ' 
 
 16. Cost of filling per ton of fodder put in. 
 
 17. Lapse of time before opening the silo. 
 
 18. Condition of ensilage when opened. 
 
 19. Deterioration, if any, after opening. 
 
 20. Value of ensilage for milch-cows. 
 
 21. Effects of ensilage on dairy products. 
 
 22. Value of ensilage for other stock. 
 
 23. Quantity consumed per head.' 
 
 24. Method of feeding — alone, or with other 
 food. 
 
 25. Condition of stock fed on ensilage, both as 
 to gain or loss of weight, and health. 
 
 26. Profitableness of ensilage, all things con- 
 sidered. 
 
 To these letters there are published ninety re- 
 plies from twenty States, from which the follow- 
 ing is generalized : 
 
 SILOS AND ENSILAGE: A SUMMARY. 
 
 The following is a summary showing the gen- 
 eral drift of practice and opinion, on the several 
 points enumerated in the .schedule of questions, 
 of those who have responded to the inquiries of 
 the Department : 
 
 1. Location of Silo. — A few have been built at a 
 distance from the stables, but generally the silos 
 are located with reference to convenience in 
 feeding, in, under or adjacent to the feeding- 
 rooms. Local considerations will determine 
 whether the silo should be below the surface, or 
 above, or partly below and partly above. This is 
 not essential. Where the stables are in the base- 
 ment of a bank barn, the bottom of the silo may 
 be on the same level, or a few feet below, and the 
 top even with the upper floor. This arrange- 
 ment combines the greatest facilities for filling, 
 weighting and feeding. 
 
 2. Form of Silo. — With rare exceptions the silos 
 described show a rectangular horizontal section ; 
 a few have the "corners cut off," and one is oc- 
 tagonal. 
 
 A given weight of ensilage in a deep silo 
 requires less extraneous pressure, and exposes 
 less surface to the air, than it would in a shallow 
 silo. For these reasons depth is important. If 
 too deep there is danger of expressing juice froiTi 
 the ensilage at the bottom. Where the ensilage 
 is cut down in a vertical section for feeding, a 
 narrow silo has the advantage of exposing little 
 surface to the air. 
 
 3. Capacity of Silo. — The silos reported vary in 
 capacity from 364 to 19,200 cubic feet. If entire- 
 ly full of compressed ensilage the smallest would 
 hold 9.1 and the largest 480 tons, estimating 50 
 pounds to the cubic foot. Practically, the capa- 
 city of a silo is less to the extent that the ensi- 
 lage settles under pressure. This should not ex- 
 ceed one fourth, though in shallow silos, or those 
 filled rapidly and with little treading, it is likely 
 to be much more. A temporary curb is some- 
 times added to the silo proper, so that the latter 
 may be full when the settling ceases. 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 313 
 
 4. Walls of Silo. — For walls underground, stone, 
 brick and concrete are used. In firm soils that 
 do not become saturated with water, walls are 
 not essential to the preservation of ensilage. 
 Above ground, two thicknesses of inch-boards, 
 with sheathing paper between (the latter said, by 
 some, to be unnecessary), seems to be sufficient, 
 if supported against lateral pressure from the en- 
 silage. 
 
 5. Cover. — A layer of straw or hay will serve in 
 some measure to exclude air, but is not neces- 
 sary. Generally boards or planks are placed di- 
 rectly on the ensilage. The cover is sometimes 
 made in sections 2 feet, or more wide ; oftener 
 each plank is separate. The cover is generally 
 put on transversely, having in view the uncover- 
 ing of a part of the silo while the weight remains 
 on the rest. Rough boards, with no attempt at 
 matching, have been used successfully. A little 
 space should be allowed between the walls and 
 cover, that there may be no interference as the 
 settling progresses. {See Remarks.) 
 
 6. Weight. — Any heavy material may be used. 
 The amount required depends on various condi- 
 tions. It will be noticed that practices and opin- 
 ions differ widely. The object is always to make 
 the ensilage compact, and thereby leave little 
 room for air, on which depend fermentation and 
 decay. In a deep silo the greater part is sufficient- 
 ly compressed by a few feet of ensilage at the 
 top, so that there is small percentage of waste, 
 even when no weight is applied above the ensi- 
 lage. Screws are used by some instead of 
 weights. The objection to them is that they are 
 not self-acting, like gravity. 
 
 7. Cost. — The cost of silos, per ton of capacity, 
 varies fro.m $4, or $5, for walls of heavy masonry 
 and superstructures of elaborate finish, and 50 
 cents or less for the simplest wooden silos. Earth 
 silos, without wall, can' be excavated with plow 
 and scraper, when other work is not pressing, at 
 a trifling cost. {See Remarks.) 
 
 8. Crops for Ensilage. — Corn takes the lead of 
 ensilage crops. Rye is grown by many in con- 
 nection with corn — the same ground producing a 
 crop of each in a season. Oats, sorghum, Hun- 
 garian grass, field-peas, clover — in fact, almost 
 every crop used for soiling has been stored in 
 silos and taken out in good condition. There 
 are indications that some materials have their 
 value enhanced by the fermentation of the silo, 
 while in others there is loss. The relative values 
 for ensilage, of the different soiling crops, can 
 only be determined through careful tests, often 
 repeated, bv practical men. 
 
 9. Planting and Cultivation. — Thorough prepara- 
 tion before planting is essential. Corn, sorghum 
 and similar crops should be planted in rows. The 
 quantity of seed-corn varies from eight quarts 
 
 to a bushel and a half for an acre. A smoothing 
 harrow does the work of cultivating perfectly, 
 and with little expense, while the corn is small. 
 
 10. When Crops are at their Best for Ensilage. — The 
 common practice is to put crops into the silo 
 when their full growth has been reached and be- 
 fore ripening begins. Manifestly, one rule will not 
 answer all purposes. The stock to be fed and the 
 object in feeding must be considered in determin- 
 ing when the crop should be cut. On this point 
 must depend much of the value of ensilage. 
 
 11. yield of Ensilage Crops. — Corn produces more 
 fodder per acre than any other crop mentioned. 
 The average for corn is not far from 20 tons — ■ 
 which speaks well for land and culture. The 
 largest yield from a single acre was 58 tons ; the 
 average of a large area on the same farm was 
 only 12J tons. 
 
 12. Kind of Corn Best for Ensilage. — The largest 
 is generally preferred ; hence seed grown in a 
 warmer climate is in demand. 
 
 13. Sweet Corn for Ensilage. — It is conceded by 
 many that the fodder of sweet corn is worth 
 more, pound for pound, than that of larger kinds, 
 for soiling. Some hold that the same superi- 
 ority is retained in the ensilage, while others 
 think that the advantage after fermentation is on 
 the other side. The sweet varieties generally do 
 not yield large crops. 
 
 14. Preparing Fodder for the Silo. — Tlie mowing- 
 machine is sometimes used for cutting corn in 
 the field — oftener the work is done by hand. 
 Various cutters, having carriers attached for ele- 
 vated silos, are in use and are generally driven 
 by horse, steam or water power. Fine cutting 
 — a half-inch or less — is in favor. It packs 
 closer, and for this reason is likely to keep bet- 
 ter, than coarse ensilage. Fodder of any kind 
 may be put in v/hole, and, if as closely com- 
 pressed as cut fodder, will keep as well, if not 
 better; but it requires much greater pressure. 
 
 15. Filling the Silo. — During the process of fill- 
 ing, the ensilage should be kept level and well 
 trodden. A horse may be used very effectively 
 for the latter. Some attach much importance to 
 rapid filling, while others make it more a matter 
 of convenience. With the packing equally tho- 
 rough, rapid filling is probably best. 
 
 16. Cost of Filling the Silo. — The cost, from field 
 to silo, is variously reported, from 35 cents — and 
 in a single instance 10 or 12 cents — for labor 
 alone, to $2 and upward per ton ; though the 
 higher amounts include the entire cost of the 
 crop, not the harvesting alone. There is a gene- 
 ral expectation that experience will bring a con- 
 siderable reduction in the cost of filling. 
 
 17. Time from Filling to Opening Silo. — The ensi- 
 lage should remain under pressure at least until 
 cool, and be uncovered after that when wanted. 
 
314 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 i8. Condition of Ensilage when Opened. — In nearly- 
 all cases the loss by decay was very slight, and 
 confined to the top and sides where there was 
 more or less exposure to air. 
 
 19. Deterioration after Opening. — Generally the 
 ensilage has kept perfectly for several months, 
 showing no deterioration while any remained in 
 the silo, e.xcepting where exposed for a consider- 
 able time. 
 
 20. Value of Ensilage for Milch-Cows. — Ensilage 
 has been fed to milch-cows more generally than 
 to any other class of stock, and no unfavorable 
 results are reported. There can be little doubt 
 that its greatest value will always be found in 
 this connection. Several feeders consider it 
 equal in value to one third of its weight of the 
 best hay, and some rate it higher. 
 
 21. Effects on Dairy Products. — There is a marked 
 increase in quantity and improvement in quality 
 of milk and butter after changing from dry feed 
 to ensilage, corresponding with the effects of a 
 similar change to fresh pasture. A few seeming 
 exceptions are noted, which will probably find 
 explanation in defects easily remedied, rather 
 than in such as are inherent. 
 
 22. Ifalue for other Stock. — Ensilage has been fed 
 to all classes of farm stock, including swine and 
 poultry, with results almost uniformly favorable. 
 Exceptions are noted in the statements of Messrs. 
 Coe Bros., and Hon. C. B. Henderson, where it 
 appears that horses were injuriously affected. It 
 should be borne in mind in this connection that 
 ensilage is simply forage preserved in a silo, and 
 may vary as much in quality as hay. The ensi- 
 lage that is best for a milch-cow may be injurious 
 to a horse, and that on which a horse would thrive 
 might render a poor return in the milk-pail. 
 
 23. Daily Ration of Ensilage. — Cows giving milk 
 are commonly fed 50 to 60 pounds, with some 
 dry fodder and grain. 
 
 24. Method of Feeding. — Experiments have been 
 made in feeding ensilage e.xclusively, and results 
 have varied with the quality of ensilage and the 
 stock fed. It is certain that ensilage of corn cut 
 while in blossom, or earlier, is not alone sufficient 
 for milch-cows. It is best to feed hay once a 
 day, and some grain or other rich food, unless 
 the latter is supplied in the ensilage, as it is when 
 corn has reached or passed the roasting-ear stage 
 before cutting. Ensilage, as it is commonly un- 
 derstood, is a substitute for hay and coarse fod- 
 der generally, and does not take the place of 
 grain. 
 
 25. The Condition of Stock fed on Ensilage, both as 
 to health and gain in weight, has been uniformly 
 favorable. 
 
 26. Profitableness of Ensilage. — There is hardly 
 a doubt expressed on this point — certainly not a 
 dissenting opinion. , 
 
 Remarks. — The general use of ensilage must de- 
 pend largely on its cheapness. Costly silos and 
 expensive machinery must always be insurmount- 
 able obstacles to a majority of farmers. For this 
 reason, experience tending to show what is essen- 
 tial to the preservation of fodder in silos, is of 
 the first importance. 
 
 Especial attention is invited to the earth-silos 
 mentioned in the statement of Francis Morris, 
 Esq., of Oakland Manor, Md. Mr. Morris is a 
 pioneer in ensilage in America, his first silos 
 having been built, and filled, in 1876. These 
 were in the basement of his barn, walls of ma- 
 sonry. The ne.xt year he made a trench in slop- 
 ing ground so that a cart could be backed in at 
 the lower end for conveying ensilage to the feed- 
 ing-room. The sides are sloping and the aver- 
 age depth does not exceed six feet. 
 
 The cost is simply the cost of digging a ditch 
 of similar dimensions. This trench was filled in 
 1877 and regularly since, and has kept its con- 
 tents perfectly. Mr. Morris has several silos of 
 the same kind, in different places, for conve- 
 nience in filling. He uses a large cutter driven 
 by a steam engine, and packs in the silo by 
 treading with horses. The filling is carried 
 several feet above the surface of the ground, and 
 rounded up at the center, the excavated earth 
 serving to confine the ensilage. The covering is 
 first roofing-felt, then earth for weight. 
 
 Mr. Morris has put in whole fodder and it has 
 kept perfectly. He cuts it fine, mainly for con- 
 venience in handling and feeding. Whole fod- 
 der should be laid across, rather than lengthwise 
 in the trench, so that it can be taken out easily. 
 
 In order that the extent of Mr. Morris's opera- 
 tions may be understood, it is proper to add that 
 his estate of Oakland Manor comprises about 
 1700 acres. His wheat crop last year (1882) was 
 5000 bushels. The meadows yield upward of 
 200 tons of hay annually. The stock consists of 
 50 horses and mules, 100 cattle, 500 sheep and 
 50 hogs. And as the whole is managed on busi- 
 ness principles, Mr. Morris very justly esteems 
 his earth-silos of primary importance. 
 
 We give a single specimen reply : from the 
 gentleman who translated Goffart's French work 
 into English, and thus introduced the invention 
 to the notice of the American public : 
 
 J. B. Brown, 55 Bcckman St., New York City: 
 
 The following answers are the sum of practical 
 experience, collected from examination of many 
 silos : 
 
 I. Preferably on sloping ground, so that the 
 discharge-door may be on level with feeding- 
 room, and so that a car may be used from silo to 
 manger. 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 315 
 
 •z. Oblong or elliptic, but not important. 
 
 3. Immaterial, but economy in depth. 
 
 4. Concrete is better than stone, which is liable 
 to be damp ; wooden walls above ground suffi- 
 ciently strong to bear pressure, not necessarily 
 air-tight, and do not need to be double, or lined ; 
 earth pits, well surface-drained, are in some soils 
 as good as is necessary. 
 
 5. Immaterial, so that there be continuous 
 pressure on the whole. 
 
 6. Whatever is cheapest ; cord-wood, sacks of 
 earth or grain, barrels of earth, casks of water, or 
 stone. 
 
 7. From 20 cents to $1 per ton of contents. 
 Cheap silos preserve as well as expensive ones ; 
 it is only a question of durability. 
 
 8. Maize and grass for cattle ; also rye, oats 
 and peas for horses and sheep, even Canada this- 
 tles and salt-meadow grass. 
 
 9. Corn, in double rows, space 2 or 3 feet ; 
 space between kernels in rows not yet settled. 
 
 10. Not, as the French advise, in the flower- 
 ing, but to have the sweetest and greatest nutri- 
 ment when the fruit is in the milk. This is a 
 point of great importance. Must be careful to 
 anticipate any fading of the leaves. 
 
 1 1 . 86 tons of maize have been raised on an 
 acre ; 100 tons may be raised on an acre ; average 
 of good seasons, 40 tons ; average of bad seasons. 
 20 tons. 
 
 12. Southern seed produces much the larger 
 crops, and the more tropical the greater the 
 growth. 
 
 13. Sweet corn, having been cultivated for the 
 grain, is not best for ensilage, as the stalk is not 
 large enough. 
 
 14. Three eighths to three fourths inch is best 
 length to cut, and as keenly as possible, not 
 shredded or mashed as is best for dry stalks. 
 Cutting-machines should not be liable to injury 
 from stones, and the revolving apparatus should 
 not turn towards operator ; elevators or carriers 
 may be used to convey cut stalks to silo, and un- 
 cut stalks to feed rollers of machine, if it is im- 
 portant to economize labor. 
 
 15. Not important to be in a hurry when filling 
 silo, e.xcept to save cost ; if trampled every morn- 
 ing it will not heat sufficiently to injure it. even 
 if the process of filling consume a month, with 
 intervals of days. 
 
 16. Thirty-six cents per ton is the lowest cost 
 as yet by hired labor ; in this case the silo was 
 convenient to the crop, and the machinery was 
 powerful and efficient — strong engine and large 
 cutter, with high speed. 
 
 17. Two months at least; the longer the bet- 
 ter. 
 
 18. Always good when the crop is good, and 
 ■when it does not get wet in the silo by leakage ; 
 
 the silo improves the quality of the material by 
 increasing its digestibility. 
 
 19. Does not deteriorate if the face is changed 
 every day or two ; 24 hours' exposure diminishes 
 acidity. 
 
 20. Nothing so good as good ensilage. 
 
 21. Improves color of butter, increases quantity 
 and richness of milk, where ensilage is good. 
 
 22. Oats, peas, and rye or maize, in moderate 
 quantities, for horses ; also fattens sheep, and is 
 economical for hogs, steers and bulls. 
 
 23. 25 to 75 lbs. a day, or 5 per cent of weight 
 of animal ; for horses 2^ per cent is sufficient. 
 
 25. Good ensilage in proper quantities and 
 varied with dry food at times makes healthy, 
 thrifty animals; it must not be too sour; ani- 
 mals will fatten on it alone that cannot be fat- 
 tened with hay or dry stalks alone. 
 
 26. For cows, steers, sheep and hogs it has 
 been found, without e-xception, profitable ; New 
 England cannot do without it. It is a protection 
 from drought in Nebraska and elsewhere ; it is a 
 safety from fire, grasshoppers and worms, and, 
 more than all, is valuable in Texas. 
 
 At the Ensilage Congress, previously referred to, 
 there were some two hundred in attendance; 
 and the sessions occupied two days. The results 
 reported are in general harmony with the tone 
 of the replies received by the Commissioner of 
 Agriculture. The Secretary of that Congress re- 
 ports of it : 
 
 " At the Ensilage Co gress, held in New York 
 two weeks ago, invitations to which were sent, 
 as far as known, to all the persons who had 
 written about or knew practically anything about 
 ensilage, no one in that room full of farmers 
 could find an)'thing to say against it, though 
 urged to do so repeatedly, and to tell us of their 
 failures ; but all of them, millionaires and work- 
 ing farmers, anxiously sought an opportunity to 
 pile up the testimony that this was no common 
 blessingthat had befallen the world. One of the 
 most able speakers, in every sense, Le Grand B. 
 Cannon, armed with e.xact figures, said : ' My 
 profit from ensilage, in cost of feeding and in 
 increase of product, over the old way, is 51^ per 
 cent.' This was the result with a herd of ninety 
 Short-Horns. My own experience shows not 
 only a larger percentage of profit, but that the 
 system is adapted to the very smallest farmer. I 
 have two cows on a piece of ground in New York 
 City of four acres. A stony half-acre was cov- 
 ered with drought-killed sod. It co.st me $10 to 
 get that half-acre plowed and harrowed by a 
 neighboring contractor, $1 more for a half-bushel 
 of the best kind of Southern seed-corn. The 
 rest of the work was done by the family horse 
 and the gardener. That crop never saw a drop of 
 
316 
 
 THE KKIHND UK ALL, 
 
 rain, and before it made any ears it began to fade; 
 like a consumptive girl, it grew whiter day by 
 day. But the silo was ready. It is made like a 
 bin, single thick, not even matched, second-hand 
 one-inch boards, in the cellar beneath the stable ; 
 cost. $io. It will hold ten tons, but I had only 
 half that amount. Dropped in from above, taken 
 out from below. I was a week, purposely, in 
 ensilaging that small crop ; my two boys brought 
 in the mowed stalks to the cutter in hand-carts, 
 and trampled the silo each morning and night. 
 It was cut one inch. It was very hot when the 
 cover and thirty pounds of stones to the square 
 foot were put on, but it cooled off very quickly ; 
 in twenty-four hours could feel that boards were 
 cool. Every one is astonished to see how the 
 cut maize shrinks under pressure, as it gives up 
 its elasticity. The effect upon the milking cow 
 (ten months) was to increase two pounds per day 
 or ten per cent. It saved me two tons of hay, at 
 $20 per ton. Now you see from this that silos 
 need not be air-tight : even the bottom of my 
 silo is on sleepers, so that water could flow under 
 it. Silos need not be filled rapidly. They need 
 not be filled when the plant is full of juice, but 
 as soon as convenient after ripening the juice, or 
 after the pollen has fallen. The fact is, cut stalks, 
 wider pressure, evenly spread, if no water enters, 
 cannot fail to make good ensilage, whether under 
 ground or aboi>c ground. 
 
 " The French farmei-s found that you can take 
 out of the silo something that you do not put in ; 
 and that is condition, or digestibility." 
 
 Numerous letters were read at this Congress, 
 from gentlemen unable to attend, all attesting to 
 similar results from the use of ensilage. 
 
 Great Advantages of Ensilage. — Mr. Bailey's book 
 claims 40 to 75 tons as the product adapted to 
 ensilaging which may be expected from an acre 
 of ground. Mr. J. B. Brown : " 86 tons of maize 
 have been raised on an acre; 100 tons may be 
 raised on an acre ; average of good seasons, 40 
 tons ; average of bad seasons, 20 tons." These 
 claims sound large. But in an acre there are 
 43,560 square feet. An average of five pounds 
 per square foot will add over 100 tons to the 
 acre. Under favorable circumstances, and with 
 proper manuring, the 100 tons may be approxi- 
 mated if not reached. But no such extraordinary 
 yields per acre are needed to establish the advan- 
 tage of ensilaging. The waste of food element, 
 as far as man's use is concerned, which follows 
 the process of evaporation, is enormous. From 
 her exhaustless reservoirs Nature builds up in a 
 few days from a single kernel of Indian corn a 
 growth of from five to twenty pounds. Man may 
 cut, secure and preserve it at its best, if he will. 
 These juicy stalks and leaves which you must 
 carefully fence your cattle away from lest they 
 
 gorge to repletion, you may keep almost as fresh 
 and succulent, and quite as nutritive, through the 
 winter as now, if you will. But if you don't 
 take time by the foretop. Nature begins to reclaim 
 what she .so generously lent : to put back into 
 her storehouses what man has been too ignorant 
 or too unenterprising to lay his grasp upon. The 
 curing hay, as it loses its juicy life, and turns into 
 the withered corpse of its prime, salutes the 
 sense of smell with its balmy breath ; appealing 
 on the side of fragrance as the exposed and 
 bleaching barnyard or manure heap does on the 
 side of malodor, against the human waste in- 
 volved. 
 
 Conrad Wilson, in the article referred to 
 under Cattle, says : " The total yield of corn 
 stover in its various forms is not less than 120,- 
 000,000 tons. It may be further added that if 
 this entire product were converted into milk, 
 under right conditions, of feeding, it would 
 amount to 60,000,000 tons a year, which would 
 be equivalent to 2100 pounds for each man, 
 woman and child in the country. Strangely as 
 this stalk crop has been ignored by the Census 
 Bureau, it has none the less influenced, and for 
 many years largely increased, the sum-total of 
 milk, butter and cheese supplied by our farmers 
 to the markets of the world." Perhaps Mr. Wil- 
 son is sanguine when he assumes a pound of milk 
 to every two pounds of stover. At any rate, the 
 added muscle, fat, milk,' butter and cheese, which 
 the now almost wasted juice of plants can be 
 made to produce, would reach a sum absolutely 
 staggering. 
 
 There are several considerations, aside from 
 the economy of saving food otherwise wasted, 
 pertinent in this connection. Mr. Wilson, in the 
 article just quoted from, says : " Experience has 
 already proved the possibility of keeping two 
 cows on an acre under full feed throughout the 
 year." Bailey claims that an acre may be made 
 to keep four cows. Even if you halve the smaller 
 estimate, there is an enormous gain. Shall 
 not the labor of the stock in cropping its own 
 pasturage during the pasturing months be saved ? 
 And the droppings, which the poet has apostro- 
 phized : 
 
 " Custard of Nature, pancake ot' the earth. 
 What gentle nymph presided at thy birtli ?" 
 
 What is their value spread singly over the pas- 
 ture to be withered and pass into the atmos- 
 phere, compared with their value carefully pre- 
 served and composted ? And in the winter, the 
 ensilage retaining almost as much water as is 
 needed by the stock, saves the animal heat re- 
 quired to bring the otherwise needed ice-cold 
 water up to the temperature of the body. 
 
 It is not pretended that ensilage contains all 
 the food-elements necessary to fatten stock and 
 
AGRICULTURE : FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 su 
 
 to keep milch-cows in the most profitable condi- 
 tion. Other food must be given with it, and 
 what that food should be depends on the compo- 
 sition of the ensilage, and on what it is fed for. 
 Bailey proposes " to mix the concentrated nitro- 
 genous grain, such as the refuse from flour-mills, 
 wheat, rj'e or buckwheat bran, shorts or mid- 
 dlings, the refuse grains and feeding-stuff from 
 breweries, or prepared animal food from fish or 
 meat-scraps, such as Bowker's animal meal, fish- 
 scraps prepared by Goodale's process or other- 
 wise, with the green corn-stalks or oflier forage 
 crops, at the time of ensilaging. For, while the 
 ensilaging of green corn, rye and other succu- 
 lent forage crops is an immense advance over the 
 old system of curing forage crops by desiccation, 
 and while such ensilage is a most excellent and 
 succulent food for all domestic animals, still it is 
 by no means a perfect food, being deficient in 
 albuminoids ; therefore it is necessary to add to 
 the ration of ensilage a certain amount of con- 
 centrated nitrogenous food in the form of grain, 
 or animal scrap-meal, or other concentrated cat- 
 tle foods containing albuminoids to excess. Ani- 
 mals fed exclusively upon ensilaged corn will 
 become fat, dull, heavy and lymphatic, the ner- 
 vous and muscular systems not receiving that 
 
 degree of nutrition which they require for their 
 full development." Whether there is any practi- 
 cal value in this suggestion we do not know, as 
 we are not aware of any attempts to act upon it. 
 But if any reader who tills land and keeps 
 stock has not become interested in the ensilage 
 business, he had better investigate the matter, 
 and learn if there is not a great deal in it for him 
 too. The bugbear of large cost for masonry, 
 etc., at the outset has disappeared ; and any man 
 can easily and cheaply experiment in the matter 
 and note the result. There are fortunes in the 
 mastery of this open secret, as there are in every 
 direction in utilizing the gifts of nature. Wealth 
 springs, not from the amount of resources that 
 flows into one's hand, but from the amount of 
 resources those hands utilize and retain. The * 
 man who could save for himself half the value 
 of the coal that now passes off unused into the 
 atmosphere, even with the best appliances, 
 would have a richer placer than Gould or Van- 
 derbilt. And the farmers who shall intelligently 
 retain the vital juices of their green crops, and 
 transmit those juices into flesh, into wool, into 
 milk and butter and cheese, will reap a large re- 
 ward ; and the rewards of those who go in early 
 will probably be proportionally larger. 
 
 GRASSES. 
 
 Under this heading are included natural and 
 cultivated grasses, and those other crops which 
 are grown expressly for the sake of the cattle- 
 food yielded by their leaves and stems. This 
 kind of farm-produce is either consumed where it 
 grows by depasturing with live-stock, or mo\yn 
 and given to them in a green state under cover, 
 or dried and stored for after-use. There is no 
 kind of soil which is not suitable to some or 
 other of the grasses ; and whilst some are pecu- 
 liar to dry and sterile soils, others are only found 
 on rich soils with abundant moisture ; some 
 grow in marshes, stagnant waters or slow 
 streams, some only on the sea-coast ; none are 
 truly marine. Some grasses are annual, and 
 some perennial ; they have fibrous roots ; the 
 root-stock often throws out runners ; the stems 
 {culiiis) are round, jointed, generally hollow, ex- 
 cept at the joints, rarely filled with pith, gene- 
 rally annual, and of humble growth, but some- 
 times perennial and woody, occasionally — as 
 in bamboos — attaining the height and magni- 
 tude of trees. The leaves are long and narrow. 
 The flowers are disposed in spikelets. and these 
 again generally in spikes, racemes or panicles ; 
 they have no proper calyx nor corolla. Among 
 
 farmers, the term grasses is extended to include, 
 along with the true grasses, other plants culti- 
 vated for fodder and forage, such as clover, etc., 
 and these are distinguished by the term artificial 
 grasses, whilst the true grasses are called natural 
 grasses. 
 
 Botanists have divided the natural orders of 
 grasses into the following tribes, of which the 
 names of some of the more important are given 
 as examples : 
 
 Oryzca. Rice. 
 
 Plialareci. Maize ; Canary, foxtail, soft and 
 timothy grasses. 
 
 Panicece. Millet ; fundi : Guinea grass. 
 
 Stipc<T. Feather grass ; esparto. 
 
 Agrostea. Bent grass. 
 
 Aruiidece. Reeds; marrum grass; pampas 
 grass. 
 
 PappophorecE. 
 
 ChlorccT. Cord grass. 
 
 Avencce. Oats ; vernal grass ; aira. 
 
 Festucca: Fescue ; meadow - grass ; manna 
 grass ; cock's-foot and dog's-tail grasses. 
 
 Horiifcc. Wheat ; barley ; rye ; spelt ; rye- 
 grass ; lyme-grass. 
 
 RottballecB. Gama grass. 
 
318 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Andropogonca. Sugar-cane ; shaloo or sugar- 
 grass ; durra, lemon-grass. 
 
 But the more important of these are usually 
 ranged here as Cereals, or Cereal Productions. 
 Under which latter heading the U. S. Census 
 enumerates, Barley, Buckwheat, Indian Corn, 
 Oats, Rye and Wheat. Under " principal vege- 
 table productions" it ranges. Hay, Hops, Sugar- 
 cane, Rice, Cotton, Tobacco and Potatoes. 
 What are usually described under the word 
 grasses, when not pastured, soiled or ensilaged, 
 become Hay. Three of them will be mentioned. 
 
 Red CuiVVXt(Tri/olium pratense). 
 
 Clover, or Trefoil. — This name is given to a large 
 genus of plants which for the most part abound 
 in temperate climates and offer most valuable 
 
 White Clover {Tri/oliutn repens). 
 a^ head of flowers when the pods are ripening:. 
 
 pasturage and fodder for cattle. From its three 
 leaflets it derives its name Trefoil. The true 
 clovers have herbaceous stems, roundish heads 
 
 or spikes of small flowers. There are several 
 varieties, the most important of which is the 
 Common Red Clo^ier. 
 
 It is a biennial plant, but under certain condi- 
 tions of cultivation becomes perennial. Land 
 may be seeded down to clover with any of the 
 cereals. The seed should be sown early, that it 
 may get the benefit of spring rains. It should 
 be cut after the dew is gone, as it holds the mois- 
 ture, and must not be allowed to gather damp- 
 ness after it is cut. Good clover-lands will bear 
 two cuttirigs each season. 
 
 White Clover is adapted to pasture-land, and 
 from its interlacing roots makes excellent turf 
 for lawns. 
 
 Crimson or Italian Clover is much cultivated for 
 hay and soiling, and also as a plant for borders. 
 Timothy or Herd's grass is said 
 to owe its name to Timothy 
 Hanson, who carried it to 
 England from America about 
 1 780. It is one of the leading 
 grasses, perhaps the leading 
 grass, of the United States, and 
 is of great value for feeding 
 cattle. It is a perennial grass,, 
 but springs up rapidly even in 
 the year in which it is sown. 
 
 Red Top is another variety of 
 grass much used for hay. 
 
 The proper time to cut the 
 grass of meadow-lands is when 
 it is in flower: usually in the 
 middle or toward the end of 
 June. In making hay, the stan- 
 dard to be attained to is dried 
 green grass with a fine odor and 
 flavor. The quicker hay is made, 
 the better. Take care not to al- 
 low it to remain too long un- 
 der the heat of the sun without being turned. 
 Coarse grass does not require as much making 
 as fine succulent herbage. Hay should never 
 be housed if so moist as to heat or get burnt. 
 The more of the juice can be retained in the hay 
 and prevented from fermenting, or souring, or 
 becoming musty, the better. 
 
 The Census returns the Hay crop of the United- 
 States : 
 
 Tons. 
 
 T850 13.838,642 
 
 1860 19,083,896 
 
 1870 27,316,048 
 
 t88o 35.205,712 
 
 New York State produced more than one sev- 
 enth of the whole in 1880, 5,240,563 tons, or 
 about no tons to the square mile. St. Lawrence 
 Co. heads the list with 276,566 tons. But St. 
 Lawrence contains more square miles than either 
 Rhode Island or Delaware. 
 
 Timothy Grass 
 
 (P/t/euifi pratense). 
 
agriculture: farms and farming. 
 
 319 
 
 CEREALS. 
 
 Ceres, according to the old mythology, was 
 the daughter of Saturn by Rhea, sister of Jupiter, 
 Neptune, Juno, etc. Her father devoured her, 
 along with other brothers and sisters, but after- 
 ward, under the influence of an emetic given him 
 by Metis, threw her up. She became the mother 
 of Proserpine, and had various adventures of no 
 pertinence here, being, among others, the subject 
 of a myth in which she became symbolical of the 
 growth of grain. In her worship were held yearly, 
 among the Greeks, the celebrated EUusinia, at 
 which were performed the famous Elettsinian 
 Mysteries, the meaning of much of which still 
 remains a mystery. Among the Romans her fes- 
 tivals were styled Cerealia. She is represented 
 in a chariot drawn by dragons, having her head 
 crowned with a garland of corn-ears, and holding 
 a torch, a basket or a poppy in her hand. From 
 her name is derived the word Cereals. 
 
 The Cereal Grasses are the plants which' produce 
 grain or corn ; in other words, all the species of 
 grass {graminea) cultivated for the sake of their 
 seed as an article of food. They are also called 
 corn-plants or bread-plants. They do not belong 
 to any particular tribes of the great order of 
 grasses, but differ from each other botanically, 
 perhaps as much as any plants within the limits 
 of that order. The seeds of the grasses in gen- 
 eral being indeed farinaceous and wholesome, 
 the employment of particular species as bread- 
 plants seems to have been determined chiefly by 
 the superior size of the seed, or by the facility of 
 procuring it in sufficient quantity, and of free- 
 ing it fpom its unedible envelopes. Some of the 
 grains, as wheat and barley, are produced in ears 
 or close-set spikes ; some, as a few of those called 
 millet, in spike-like panicles ; others, as oats and 
 rice, in very loose panicles. The form and size 
 of the grains vary not a little, some being round- 
 ish, and some elongated ; maize is the largest ; 
 many of the millets are very small. The plants 
 themselves vary in size almost as much as their 
 seeds, the millets being the smallest, and maize 
 the largest, of ordinary corn-plants. 
 
 Climates adapted to Different Grains. — The grains 
 most extensively cultivated are wheat, barley, 
 rye, oats, maize or Indian corn, millet and rice. 
 Barley, oats and rye are the grains of the coldest 
 regions, the cultivation of the two former extend- 
 ing even within the arctic circle. Wheat is next 
 to these, and in the warmer regions of the tem- 
 perate zone its cultivation is associated with that 
 of maize and rice, which are extensively culti- 
 vated within the tropics. The millets belong to 
 warm climates. Rice is the food of a greater 
 
 number of the human race than any other kind 
 of grain. Maize has the greatest range of tem- 
 perature. Some few other grasses are used as 
 food here and there in different parts of the 
 world, whose names may be omitted here. Of 
 all the cereals, wheat is by common consent ad- 
 mitted to be that of which the grain is best fitted 
 for the making of bread, although others are to 
 some extent employed for this purpose. But 
 some, as rice and maize, are scarcely suited 
 for it, and other methods are chiefly employed 
 of preparing them for food. All the grains are 
 also used to produce some kind of fermented 
 liquor or beer, and spirituous liquors are ob- 
 tained from them by distillation. 
 
 Wheat. — For the successful cultivation of wheat 
 a mean temperature of at least 55° Fahr. is re- 
 quired for three or four months of the year. The 
 cultivated varieties of wheat are very numerous. 
 Besides being classed as bearded and beardless, 
 the varieties are distinguished by the color, as red 
 and white wheats. The red varieties of wheat 
 are usually more hardy than the white, but the 
 grain is inferior and yields less flour. Red wheats 
 are more cultivated where the soil is poor. 
 When the climate is moist, a light soil is most 
 suitable. Spring wheat is sown and harvested the 
 same year. Wheat is often sown after green crops. 
 It may be sown late in autumn when the ground 
 is very moist, and when other grains would perish. 
 It remains dormant in the ground during the 
 winter, ripens in the spring, and is reaped in the 
 early summer. It is either sown broadcast or in 
 drills. 
 
 The wheat-fields in the eastern part of the 
 United States are usually manured with farm- 
 yard or other manures. In the West the farmers 
 are saved the expense of enriching their wheat- 
 fields. Wheat ought to be reaped before it is dead 
 ripe, unless intended for seed. The value of 
 wheat depends upon the quantity of fine flour it 
 contains. The greater part of the husk of wheat 
 is separated from the flour, and is called bran. 
 The average yield in England is said to be 
 36 bushels to the acre. The Census of i88o 
 gives the production of wheat as 459,483,137 
 bushels, raised on 35.430.333 acres, an average of 
 less than 1 3 bushels to the acre. 
 
 Spe/i Wheat is considered as a distinct species 
 from common wheat. It is of little value com- 
 pared with many other kinds, but is much culti- 
 vated where coarse flour is used. Lesser spelt, 
 which is one-grained, and is often called Si. Pe- 
 ter's com, is grown on poor soil. Spelt wheat is 
 almost unknown in the United States, is sup- 
 
320 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 posed to be native of countries near the Me- 
 diterranean, and is cultivated considerably in 
 Switzerland and Germany. 
 
 Wheat suffers from the ravages of numerous 
 species of insects, as the Hessian fly, wheat-fly, 
 corn-moth and wire worm. Diseases caused by 
 the presence of parasitic fungi are common. 
 Bunt, or siunt, is one of the most common varie- 
 ties of disease. It is now thought to be caused 
 by the decay of wheat, or by manure in which in- 
 fected grain-straw has been mixed. It is best pre- 
 vented by carefully cleansing the seed, and even 
 dressing it before sowing with some substance 
 which, without destroying the vitality, destroys 
 that of the spores of the fungus. Flour made of 
 wheat affected by smut is peculiar in taste and 
 dark in color. 
 
 According to the Census of 1880, Illinois led off 
 in the production of wheat with 51.110,502 bush- 
 els, followed closely by Indiana with 47,284,853, 
 and Ohio with 46,014,869. In 1850, Pennsylvania 
 led off with 15,367,691 bushels, followed by Ohio 
 with 14,487,351, and New York with 13,121,498. 
 In i860, Illinois led with 23,837,023 bushels, fol- 
 lowed by Indiana with 16,848,267, and Ohio with 
 15,119,047. In I S70, Illinois led with 30,128,405 
 bushels, followed by Iowa with 29,435,692, and 
 Ohio with 27,882,159. Illinois produced in 1880 
 almost as much wheat as in i860 and 1870 com- 
 bined. 
 
 In 1850 the wheat product of the country was 
 a little under five bushels of wheat for each per- 
 son ; in 1880 it exceeded nine. 
 
 Rye. — A cereal much cultivated in regions too 
 cold for wheat, and on soils too poor for any 
 other grain. Some varieties are best suited for 
 autumn sowing, others for spring. Winter rye is 
 extensively cultivated, being the most productive. 
 The straw of rye is often of more use than the 
 grains, and so care is shown in cutting and 
 threshing. As green rye. is good for fodder, it is 
 often cut and kept for use. The grains of rye 
 when roasted are a substitute for coffee. The 
 meal made of rye is dark and somewhat coarse, 
 but used by the peasants of Northern Europe in 
 bread. New England brown-bread is made of 
 rye and Indian-corn meal. Rye is much used 
 for fermentation and distillation, particularly in 
 making gin and whisky. 
 
 The product of rye in the United States in 
 1880 was 19,831,595 bushels. 
 
 Barley. — This grain is cultivated more or less 
 all over the country, being adapted to hot and to 
 cold climates. The product in 1880 was 43,997,- 
 495 bushels, of which California produced 12,- 
 463,561. Its principal use is as a basis of malt, in 
 the production of beer, ale and porter. Thou- 
 sands who are connoisseurs in the flavor of the 
 last-mentioned beverages, are entirely ignorant 
 
 of the taste ol the natural barley-grain. This 
 cut, showing heads of two kinds of barley, will 
 
 Barley. 
 rt, two-rowed barley; b, sprat or battledore barley. 
 
 awaken no recognition in many a man to whom 
 the stanza 
 
 '* But the cheerful Spring came kindly on, 
 And showers began to fall; 
 John Barleycorn got up again, 
 And sore surprised them all " 
 
 will recall the whole of Burns's famous ode. 
 
 Millet is rarely cultivated in this country for its 
 seed, but is raised in small quantities for green or 
 dried fodder. The Hungarian millet or grass is 
 the most satisfactory variety. 
 
 Oats. — A valuable cereal adapted to a moist and 
 cold climate. They are used mostly as food for 
 horses, and to a considerable extent as human 
 food in the shape of oatm.eal or grits. There are 
 many varieties in cultivation, and new ones are 
 being introduced. A popular variety is the po- 
 tato-oat. Oats should be sown early in the sea- 
 son, as heat checks their growth. They are 
 generally a paying crop to the judicious farmer. 
 
 The production of this grain in the United 
 States is very large, following in the third place 
 after Indian com and wheat. The last Census 
 returns the acreage of oats in 1880 as 16,144,593 
 acres, and the product as 407,858,999 bushels, an 
 average of about 25 bushels to the acre. Indiana 
 leads with 63,189,200 bushels, followed by Iowa 
 with 50,610,591. and New York with 37,575,506. 
 
 The Wild Oat, although used in some countries 
 for food, is generally regarded as a weed. " Its 
 panicle spreads equally on all sides, the outer 
 palea are merely bifid, and there are long hairs 
 at the base of the glumes." Its seed is some- 
 times used as an artificial fly for catching trout, 
 but whether the trout were taken by it is not re- 
 corded. These oats should not be confounded 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 321 
 
 with the variety so often foolishly sown by young 
 people, on crowded pavements as well as on rus- 
 tic fields, and which are always weeds. 
 
 Wild Oat (Avtna /aiua). 
 
 Indian Corn, or Maize. — Dr. Sturtevant, in the 
 Massachusetts Ploughman, tells us : The corn- 
 plant is only known as a cultivated plant. When 
 Columbus first reached the shores of the West 
 Indies in 1492, he found mahiz grown and used 
 by the Indians, and also in Yucatan upon its dis- 
 covery in 1502. While Cabeca de Vaca was toil- 
 ing his intermittent way from Florida to the 
 Pacific coast in 1528 to 1536, he found maize 
 grown in large fields, and stored in cribs, by the 
 natives of those regions. Cortez had previously 
 found maize in Mexico, at the period of the in- 
 vasion, and at Cempoalla, in 1519, had eaten 
 maize made into bread-cakes, and on the march 
 to Mexico passed amidst flourishing fields of 
 maize. When De Soto invaded Florida in 1539, 
 maes occurred everywhere in large fields ; and 
 the same year Marco de Vica found maize grow- 
 ing in New Mexico in fields. In 1540 Vasquez 
 de Coronado mentions fields of maize in the 
 valley of San Miguel, and also in store at Cibola; 
 and it is also mentioned in Castanedo's Rela- 
 tions for the same date. Alarcon, in 1 540, found 
 it growing in his journey up the Colorado River, 
 and Antonio de Espips in 15S3 found it under 
 cultivation by the Concho Indians of this region. 
 When Cartier visited Hochelaga, now Montreal, 
 in 1535, that town was situated in the midst of 
 extensive corn-fields. In 1586 Heciot refers to 
 maize cultivated in Virginia, and called by the 
 natives " pagatour ;" and John Smith in 1606 de- 
 scribes the Indian method of culture then. 
 Champlain in 1605 found it growing in fields all 
 along the New-England coast, and describes the 
 manner of its culture. Our Puritan fathers 
 found it in store upon their first expedition of 
 discovery, and speak of the deserted corn-fields, 
 21 
 
 for the time was winter. The Five Nations, in 
 1603, made corn-planting their business before 
 the French arrived in Canada. The Iroquois 
 raised it in such large quantities that in the inva- 
 sion into the country of the Senecas, in 1687, 
 some 1,200,000 bushels were destroyed. The 
 Indians of Illinois cultivated corn when the 
 country was first described by Marquette in 1673, 
 by Allouez in 1676, and Membre in 1679. In 
 Louisiana they had even invented a hoe for its 
 culture. 
 
 This list might be indefinitely extended ; for 
 so universal was the use of maize by the aborigi- 
 nes, that its mention is to be found in nearly all 
 the early chroniclers, and it seems never to have 
 been grown as a luxury simply, but rather as a 
 source of supply, and as a staple food. In the 
 southern country it was so largely grown that 
 many tribes may be considered as agriculturists 
 rather than as hunters ; in the northern countries 
 it shared with the products of the chase the 
 claims of a sustenance. Its merits, too, were 
 quickly recognized by Europeans, and it soon 
 found introduction to Europe and a wide distri- 
 bution. It had a strong agency in the settle- 
 ment of this country, as it afforded relief from 
 starvation to the " Conquisitors " in the South, 
 and to plain Miles Standish and his contempo- 
 raries in the North. The Indian made his con- 
 quest the more easy by feeding his invaders from 
 the produce of his corn-field, and the parched 
 grain supported him again 
 in his defense. Among the 
 more imaginative Indians 
 of the South maize became 
 an object of worship, and 
 a means of conferring hon- 
 or : it formed portions for 
 gifts, and in one instance 
 was poured upon the ground 
 for the trampling of the 
 horses, as an earnest of 
 welcome to the Spaniard, "f 
 Everywhere the grain sup- 
 plied food, in many places /'^ 
 was parted into a drink, and >^ 
 the leaves and stalks were 
 crushed to secure the juice ,-^ 
 to be boiled into a sirup or 
 sugar, and the stalks were 
 used to form bags and other 
 material of wigwam use. It 
 is passing strange that the 
 corn-plant does not appear upon the coat of 
 arms of any of the States whose earl)' necessities 
 it relieved. 
 
 There is some reason to believe that this grain 
 was a native of the East, and thence transplanted 
 centuries ago to this continent. There is a rep- 
 
 Maize, or Indian Corn 
 
 (Zea mays). 
 
322 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 resentation of the plant found in an ancient 
 Chinese book in the royal library in Paris, and 
 grains of it are alleged to have been discovered 
 in the cellars of ancient houses in Athens. Some 
 even hold that it is the " corn" of Scripture. 
 However all this may be, its use on the eastern 
 continent was wholly extinct when Columbus 
 sailed to find the desired northwest passage, and 
 stumbled, instead, upon America. He intro- 
 duced, or re-introduced, it to Spain, It is now in 
 general cultivation in the south of Europe, and 
 supplies a principal part of the food of the in- 
 habitants of many countries of Asia and Africa. 
 William Cobbett tried to introduce it as a regu- 
 lar crop into Great Britain, but unsuccessfully. 
 No variety yet tried can be ripened in the ordi- 
 nary seasons of that country. The be.st and most 
 productive varieties require about five months 
 from planting to ripening. 
 
 Indian corn is by far the most productive of all 
 the cereals, yielding sometimes an increase of 
 800 for one. It succeeds best in light, rich, deep 
 and rather moist soils, and is generally planted 
 in hillocks, a few grains in a hill. It is generally 
 made the first crop in newly cleared land. Its 
 uses are various, and so widely known as not to 
 need enumeration. The late discovery of ensi- 
 lage opens a new field, whose extent it is impos- 
 sible at present to conjecture. And not only is 
 this grain the most productive grown, but it is 
 exceedingly rich in the elements of food. 
 
 This grain takes the lead of all others in ex- 
 tent and importance in the United States. The 
 Census returns 
 
 Acres. Bushels. 
 
 1850 502,071,104 
 
 i860 838,792.742 
 
 1870 ,. 760,944,549 
 
 1880 62,368,504 1,754,59,1676 
 
 in 1880 an average of over 28 bushels to the acre. 
 In 1850, Ohio led off with 59,078,695 bushels, 
 followed by Kentucky with 58,672,591, and Il- 
 linois with 57,646,984. In 1880, Illinois led with 
 325,792,481 bushels, followed by Iowa with 275,- 
 014,247, and Missouri with 202,414,413. Thus 
 Illinois and Iowa in 1880 produced more Indian 
 corn than the whole United States did in 1850, 
 by nearly one hundred million bushels. 
 
 Let Whittier bid the farewell to Indian Corn 
 
 here, in 
 
 THE CORN SONG. 
 
 Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard ! heap high the golden 
 
 corn ! 
 No richer gift has Autumn poured from out her lavish horn. 
 Let other lands exukinjj glean the apple from the pine, 
 The orange from its glossy green, the cluster from the vine. 
 We better love the hardy gift our rugged vales bestow, 
 To cheer us when the storm shall drift our harvest-fields with 
 
 snow. 
 Through vales of grass and meads of flowers, our plows their 
 
 furrows made, 
 While on the hills the sun and showers of changeful April 
 
 played. 
 
 We dropped the seed o'er hill and plain, beneath the sun oi 
 
 May, 
 And frightened from our sprouting grain the robber crows 
 
 away. 
 All through the long bright days of June its leaves grew green 
 
 and fair, 
 And waved in hot midsummer's noon its soft and yellow hair. 
 And now with autumn's moonlit eves, its harvest-time has 
 
 come ; 
 We pluck away the frosted leaves, and bear the treasure home. 
 There, richer than the fabled gift Apollo showered of old. 
 Fair bands the broken grain shall sift, and knead its meal of 
 
 gold. 
 Let vapid idlers loll in silk around their costly board: 
 Give us the ■ bowl of samp and milk, by homespun beauty 
 
 poured ! 
 Where'er the wide old kitchen-hearth sends up its smoky curls, 
 Who will not thank the kindly earth, and bless our farmer- 
 girls ! • 
 Then shame on all the proud and vain, whose folly laughs to 
 
 scorn 
 The blessing of our hardy grain, our wealth of golden corn ! 
 Let earth withhold her goodly root, let mildew blight the rye. 
 Give to the worm the orchard's fruit, — the wheat-field to the 
 
 fly; 
 But let the good old crop adorn the hills our fathers trod: 
 Still let us, for his golden corn, send up our thanks to God ! 
 
 Sweet-Corn, and Succotash. — Certain varieties of 
 maize are cultivated with special reference to 
 their use in a green state, and have been de- 
 veloped into what now bears the name of sweet- 
 corn. Country boys, and grown-up men who 
 were boys in the country, know how eagerly the 
 corn was invaded when the ears were first fit to 
 roast, and how delicious the milky kernels are, 
 even if half done inside and scorched and black- 
 ened outside in the extempore out-door roasting 
 pit improvised with a few stones. And to the 
 most experienced and educated palate, sweet- 
 corn fresh plucked and properly boiled is a 
 dainty dish, whether alone or joined with beans 
 in succotash. But eaters who are too fastidious 
 to eat the corn from the cob, lose half the glory. 
 The teeth themselves yearn for the cob, and can- 
 not be quite placated if the pleasure legitimately 
 theirs be thrown away on a piece of senseless 
 steel. And a dish of succotash properly made 
 leaves one in doubt whether the savory com- 
 pound, or its regal constituents separately, be 
 more appetizing. 
 
 Sweet-corn should be planted for a succession 
 of crops every three weeks from April to July in 
 hills three feet apart each way, and six seeds in a 
 hill ; cover about half an inch, and thin out to 
 three plants. The.se distances should be made a 
 little greater or less, according to the variety 
 grown and the richness of the soil. The taller 
 the variety and the richer the soil, the farther 
 apart should be the hills. 
 
 Stowell's Evergreen is a favorite variety, not 
 early but very productive ; is of large size, four- 
 teen- to sixteen-rowed, very tender and sugary, 
 remaining for a long time in an eatable con- 
 dition. 
 
agriculture: farms and farming. 
 
 323 
 
 Early Narragansett and F.arly Marbhiicad are 
 newer varieties in high esteem. 
 
 Darling's Extra Early is very popular, and, 
 as the name shows, one of the first kinds to ripen. 
 
 The Mavunoth Sweet is a very large late 
 variety, the ears having usually i6 rows of ker- 
 nels. 
 
 Rice. — This is one of the most useful and e.x- 
 tensively cultivated of all grains, supplying the 
 principal food of nearly one third of the human 
 race. Originally a native of the East Indies, it 
 is now cultivated in all quarters of the globe, and 
 almost wherever the conditions of warmth and 
 moisture are suitable. It is an annual, varying 
 from one foot to si.x feet in height. Its cultiva- 
 tion is most e.xtensively carried on in India. 
 China, Cochin-China and other south-east parts 
 of Asia, Japan, Egypt and several of the South- 
 ern States of the Union. A good specimen 
 yields the following to analysis : 
 
 Moisture 13.00 
 
 Nitrogenous matter.. ., 7.44 
 
 Starch 77.63 
 
 Fatty or oily matter 0.70 
 
 Ash 1.23 
 
 100.00 
 
 Rice contains, therefore, according to the 
 prevalent views of modern chemists, a smaller 
 amount oi flesh-for}ning substances, and a larger 
 amount oi fat-forming or heat-givi?ig substances 
 than any other grain. As a food it is peculiarly 
 well adapted for hot climates, as it appears to be 
 
 Rice {Oryza patina). 
 
 almost a cure for dysentery- and other bowel 
 complaints, independently of which it is a suffi- 
 ciently nutritious food without being heating. 
 Owing to the small quantity of gluten which it 
 
 contains it is capable by it.sclf only of an imper- 
 fect fermentation, and is unlit for being baked 
 into bread. It is, however, subjected to fermen- 
 tation in many countries. The beer made from 
 rice by the Japanese is called saki, and is in 
 general use among them ; but before being 
 drunk it is heated in kettles. Several kinds of 
 rice wine are made by the Chinese, some of them 
 highly esteemed and very intoxicating. A spirit 
 is distilled from the lees, called sl/ou-c/ioo or saiii- 
 c/ioo. The common arrack of the East is made 
 from rice, and rice is also employed to a very 
 great e.xtent by distillers in Britain. 
 
 The origin of the growth of rice in America is 
 referred to the latter part of the 17th century, 
 when a vessel from Madagascar is said to have 
 brought a sack of the grain to Charleston, S. C, 
 which was planted there and yielded largely. 
 The culture spread, and eventually it became the 
 staple product of that State, and was nowhere 
 else grown so e.xtensively until after the war of 
 the rebellion. The mode of culture best adapted 
 to the plant in South Carolina has been found to 
 be by irrigation, and it is chiefly grown where 
 the land is overflowed by the tides. The cultiva- 
 tion of rice spread rapidly from the beginning 
 into most of the Southern States, and even so 
 far north as Missouri, Tennessee and Illinois. 
 But of late years rice has been most successfully 
 cultivated in Louisiana, where it is grown on 
 lowlands subject to overflow from the river, 
 with due precautions against a possible crevasse. 
 The water is conveyed by ditches and laterals, 
 and is alternately turned on and drained off, as 
 the condition of the plant and its progress may 
 demand. When mature, the water is finallv 
 drained off, and the grain is cut and left to dry. 
 After threshing, it is winnowed and placed in 
 sacks, ready for the mill or market. The " up- 
 land " rice is dry cultivated, and is claimed by 
 some planters to be better than the lowland, but 
 the yield is not so generous. 
 
 Rice has a long and harsh beard, which is not 
 removed by a simple threshing process. Ma- 
 chinery has to be provided to which the pro- 
 ducer carries his crops. The milling process de- 
 velops three products : first, or prime rice, 
 seconds, or broken rice, and the flour of rice. 
 Only about half the yield is left as prime rice. 
 
 Of course the method of cultivating lowland 
 rice on the coast has proved very deleterious to 
 the health of white men, developing malarial 
 fevers, which, however, the negro rarely takes. 
 On the Mississippi and other rivers, the cultiva- 
 tion of this crop does not seem to produce more 
 unhealthy results than the cultivation of other 
 crops in the same sections. There is, however, a 
 profit in its cultivation, the net revenue of six 
 different planters amounting to $140 per acre. 
 
324 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 The production of rice in the United States is 
 not on the increase. The returns are : 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1850 2i5.3'3i497 
 
 i860 187,167,032 
 
 1870 73,635,021 
 
 1880 110,131,373 
 
 The product of South Carolina alone in 1850 was 
 159,930,613 pounds, fifty per cent more than that 
 of the whole United States in 1880. In the lat- 
 ter year South Carolina still led, but with only 
 
 52,077,515 pounds, about one third of her pro- 
 duct forty years before. This is notliing to 
 mourn over. The industry once expended on 
 rice is better employed. In 1840, the slaves 
 themselves consumed enormous quantities of 
 the grain, and the rice-fields were the dread of 
 negroes in the more northern of the slave States, 
 and inspired Whittier's famous " Lament of the 
 Virginia Slave Mother," beginning 
 
 " Gone ! gone ! sold and gone ! 
 To the rice-swamps, dank and lone.** 
 
 VEGETABLES. 
 
 Potatoes. — These are among the most important 
 of cultivated plants, and in universal use in the 
 temperate parts of the world. The potato is a 
 native of mountainous districts of tropical and 
 sub-tropical America, but it is not known where 
 it is really indigenous. Indian corn and the po- 
 tato are the two greatest gifts of America to the 
 rest of the world. No food-plant is more widely 
 diffused ; it is cultivated from near the equator 
 to the arctic circle, where it fights for existence 
 in gardens, yielding small and watery tubers. 
 Its introduction into Europe prevented the once- 
 frequent return of famine. But when the whole 
 dependence of a people comes to be placed on 
 this, and this fails, as sometimes in Ireland, terri- 
 ble famine is necessarily the result. Humboldt 
 calculates that the same extent of ground which 
 would produce thirty pounds of wheat would 
 produce 1000 pounds of potatoes. But the con- 
 stant employment of potatoes as the chief article 
 of food is not favorable to the development of 
 the physical powers, and is consequently unfavor- 
 able to mental energy. It is calculated that 100 
 parts of good wheat-flour, or 107 parts of the 
 grain, contain as much actual nutriment as 613 
 parts of potatoes. The inferiority of the potato 
 in nutritious power is very much owing to the 
 comparatively small quantity of nitrogenous sub- 
 stances it contains, in consequence of which it is 
 most advantageously used along with some very 
 nitrogenous article of food, with animal food, 
 with curds or with cheese. The potato tuber, in 
 a fresh state, contains about 71 to 80 per cent of 
 water, 1 5 to 20 of starch, 3 to 7 of fiber or woodj 
 matter, 3 to 4 of gum, dextrine and sugar, and 2 
 of albumen, gluten and casein. There are con- 
 siderable differences, however, in different vari- 
 eties, in diflerent stages of maturity, and in dif- 
 ferent soils and seasons. 
 
 Potatoes are raised by planting eyes or cuttings 
 from the tubers. They are planted in drills made 
 by the spade or plow. Farm-yard manure is 
 
 commonly used ; after they are growing, care 
 should be taken to keep the hills free from 
 weeds and in loosening the earth. They are dug 
 for table use long before they are ripe, new pota- 
 toes being a favorite dish and bringing a large 
 price in city markets. Potatoes to be thoroughly 
 healthy should be allowed to ripen, then after 
 digging they may be stored for winter use. They 
 should be kept in airy cellars or sheds where the 
 light is excluded, as this gives them a green color 
 and bitter taste. 
 
 Besides its value as a culinary vegetable, and 
 for feeding stock, the potato has other important 
 uses. Its starch is in large proportions and is 
 easily separated ; hence it is cheaper than any 
 other kind and much more used. The tubers are 
 washed, and are then rasped by machinery. The 
 pulp thus obtained is received upon a sieve, and 
 is washed continuously by a gentle stream of wa- 
 ter as long as the washings run through milky, 
 the milkiness being due to the granules of starch 
 held in suspension. This milky fluid is received 
 in vats, in which the amylaceous or starchy mat- 
 ter is allowed to subside, and where it is repeat- 
 edly washed, again suspended in water, run 
 through a fine sieve, allowed to settle, and 
 drained in baskets lined with ticking. The mass 
 is then placed on a porous floor of half-baked tiles, 
 and dried in a current of air, at first of the natu- 
 ral temperature and afterward raised by artifical 
 heat. 
 
 The varieties of the potato in cultivation are 
 very numerous, and admit of endless increase by 
 propagating from seeds. A few of those regarded 
 as the best are here enumerated. 
 
 The Ei7i-fy Rose is one of the most popular 
 varieties. None stands higher. 
 
 The Peerless is a larger and more product.ve 
 variety, and ripens later. 
 
 The Dykeman has long been a standard potato 
 in the New York market, and is raised in large 
 quantities on Long Island. 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 325 
 
 The Early Mohawk is a productive variety, 
 which keeps a place, not on account of superior 
 
 Eakly Rose. 
 
 
 Peekli> 
 
 The Pcachbhyw is still a great favorite, 
 though its popularity is perhaps on the wane. 
 
 quality, but because it is ready to market so 
 early. 
 
 D^k'IMAN. 
 
 Its flavor is fine, but it does not come to matu- 
 rity till late in the season. 
 
 <-•/ 
 
 Peachblow. 
 
 The Kidney is not as much raised for market 
 as some of the others, but is a productive vari- 
 ety, and keeps well through the v/inter. 
 
 The Jackson White is a late potato, much 
 grown for market. 
 
 The first potatoes in market in New York are 
 from Bermuda, and next from the Carolinas and 
 Virginia. They bring high prices. 
 
 Potatoes are subject to many diseases. Dry-rot 
 and wet-rot indicate the presence of fungi. Po- 
 tato murrain is one of the chief diseases. The 
 farmer may safely conclude when these and 
 other diseases appear that the tubers, from being 
 too often propagated, have become weak. Po- 
 tato rust or blast destroys the foliage. 
 
326 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 To Preserve Potatoes from Rot. — Dust over the 
 floor of the bin with lime, and put in about 6 or 
 
 ^/ 
 
 Kidney. 
 
 7 inches of potatoes, and dust with lime as be- 
 fore, then more potatoes, using about i bushel 
 of lime to 40 bushels of potatoes. The lime 
 improves the flavor of the potatoes, and effectu- 
 ally kills the fungi which cause the rot. 
 
 The Colorado Potato-Bug. — But the worst enemy 
 which the farmer has to contend with is the 
 
 Colorado Potato-Bug. 
 
 Colorado potato-bug or beetle. This trouble- 
 some insect has traveled eastward with astonish- 
 ing rapidity, and has done great damage. He .is 
 one third of an inch long, yellow in color, with 
 
 ten black stripes on his wing-sheaths, five on 
 each.' During the winter he is under the 
 ground. When vegetation starts, up starts the 
 beetle. The female lays its eggs in clusters on 
 the under side of the leaf, and the larvae which 
 are produced feed upon the young potato-leaves, 
 becoming beetles in about four weeks after hatch- 
 ing. Fortunately for man the potato-bug has 
 many enemies. 
 
 How to Destroy the Potato-Bug. — But Paris green, 
 a poison, is the farmer's principal weapon to 
 destroy this pest. Persistently used it will save 
 the crop, and no bad results have seemed ever 
 to follow either to the ground or the plants. It 
 may be made and applied as follows : Dissolve 2 
 pounds sulphate of copper in i gallon hot water 
 in a stone jar. In another jar put i pound of 
 white arsenic and 2 pounds pearlash in 44 pounds 
 hot water, and stir till dissolved. Mi.\ when re- 
 quired in the proportion of 1 part of the former 
 to 5 of the latter, and use with a sprinkler. It is 
 certain death to vermin. 
 
 AnotJier Method. — Mix i pound Paris green 
 with 10 pounds poor flour or tine whiting. To 
 use, take a circular piece of wood 4 or 5 inches in 
 diameter (it may be cut out of a 2-inch plank), 
 insert a mop-handle in the center, tack on an old 
 tin can with one end removed for the reception 
 of the block, punch the other end with holes 
 through which to sift the compound on the 
 hills as you pass along the rows, and bore a hole 
 in the wooden end for the reception of the 
 mixture, and fit a plug to secure it. The com- 
 pound should be sifted on the hills while the 
 vines are wet with dew or rain. 
 
 The Census reports the production of Irish 
 potatoes as follows, in bushels ; 
 
 1850 65,797,896 
 
 i860 111,148,867 
 
 1870 '43.337.473 
 
 1880 169,458,539 
 
 In all these years New York has an enormous 
 lead. In 1850 she raised 15,398,368 bushels, the 
 next Stale being Pennsylvania with 5,980,732. 
 In i860 New York 26,447,394 bushels, followed 
 again by Pennsylvania with 11,687,467. In 1870 
 Nev? York raised 28,547,493 bushels, followed 
 still by Pennsylvania with 12,889,367. In 1880 
 New York raised 33,644,807 bushels, Pennsyl- 
 vania coming next with 16,284,819. 
 
 The Sweet-Potato {Ba/atas). — This is said to be 
 a native of the East Indies, but is now cultivated 
 in all tropical and sub-tropical countries for 
 its tubers, which are highly esteemed as an 
 article of food, and are eaten either roasted or 
 boiled ; they are sweet, wholesome and nutritious, 
 but somewhat laxative. The sweet-potato was 
 one of the products Columbus carried back to 
 Spain, where it had come to be generally cul- 
 
AGRICULTURE : FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 327 
 
 tivated by the middle of the i6th century. 
 There is reason to believe that it is the potato 
 of Shalcspeare and of other early English authors, 
 and that it was known in Europe before what is 
 now called the Irish potato was introduced. The 
 leading varieties are, in northern localities, the 
 Nansemond and the Southern Queen, and farther 
 south, the Yam. The mealy ones, abounding in 
 starch, are best liked at the North, while at the 
 South the moist or soggy ones, containing more 
 sugar, are preferred. 
 
 Sweet potatoes are generally produced from 
 sets or slips. To get these sets potatoes are laid 
 upon the earth of a hotbed, the larger roots split 
 lengthwise and put the slit side down, and cov- 
 ered with a few inches of light rich soil. Sprouts 
 soon appear, which when they have made roots 
 are broken oK to be planted, and the potatoes 
 returned to the hotbed to produce more sprouts. 
 The usual method is to lay strips of well-rotted 
 manure about three feet apart, toward which 
 a furrow is turned on each side, and on the ridges 
 thus formed, after being well dressed with the 
 rake or hoe, the sets or sprouts are planted about 
 fifteen inches apart. These ridges must be kept 
 clear of weeds till the vines cover them. Toward 
 the end of the season the vines take root at the 
 joints. Where there is no danger from frost 
 this may be allowed, the vine becoming peren- 
 nial. But farther north this must be prevented 
 by occasionally moving the vines, and thus con- 
 centrating the vitality of the plant in the tuber. 
 A slight frost kills the vines, when the roots 
 should be at once dug, dried, and stored where 
 the temperature can be kept at about sixty 
 degrees. 
 
 The production of sweet potatoes does not in- 
 crease with the growth of the country. The 
 Census returns are as follows : 
 
 1850 38,268,148 bushels. 
 
 1860 42,095.026 *^ 
 
 IS70 21,709,824 " 
 
 1880 33,378,693 " 
 
 In 1850 Georgia led off with 6,986,428 bushels, 
 followed by Alabama with 5,475,294 and North 
 Carolina with 5,095,709. In i860 Georgia again 
 led with 6,508,541, followed by North' Carolina 
 with 6,140,039, and Alabama with 5,439,917. In 
 1870 North Carolina led. but with only 3,071,840, 
 followed by Georgia with 2,621,562, and Te.xas 
 with 2. 188.041. In 1880 North Carolina produced 
 4,576,148 bushels, Georgia 4,397,778, and Missis- 
 sippi 3,610,660. Sweet potatoes were raised for 
 the use of slaves before emancipation, and fell 
 off about half from 1S60 to 1870, the same causes 
 decreasing the production as in the case of rice. 
 
 Carrots. — The carrot is supposed to be native 
 in countries bordering the Mediterranean, but 
 has spread to many parts of the world, being 
 
 introduced to English gardens early in the i6th 
 century. In the reign of Charles I. ladies wore 
 carrot-leaves as an ornament in place of feathers, 
 and the beauty of the leaves is still occasionally 
 acknowledged by placing a root, or the upper * 
 portion of one, in water, that it may throw out 
 young leaves to adorn apartments in winter. 
 The carrot contains a large amount of what 
 are called heat-producing compounds, with a 
 small proportion of flesh-forming matter. A 
 dried carrot yields by analysis : 
 
 Starch and sugar 93-7i 
 
 Albumen 4.35 
 
 Red neutral substance (carotin) 0.34 
 
 Fi.ved and volatile oils i.oo 
 
 'Ash 0.60 
 
 100.00 
 
 Carrots promote digestion, and are valuable 
 as a substantial food for horses and stock. Prof. 
 Mapes used to maintain that they were useful to 
 horses, not only for the nourishment in them- 
 selves, but because the acid they contained en- 
 abled the animal to digest and assimilate food- 
 elements which would otherwise pass off unused. 
 A few carrots morning and night fed to a milch- 
 cow will improve the quality and the color of 
 butter made from her milk. The root is a large 
 bearer, an- acre of ground yielding 500 to 1500 
 bushels. Its cultivation is troublesome, but may 
 be made profitable. 
 
 Carrots grow well on deep soil which has 
 been made fine by three plowings before sow- 
 ing. The first plowing should be in the au- 
 tumn. The manure should be spread broadcast 
 on the surface before the last time of plowing. 
 Harrowing should be done twice, and before the 
 last time the soil should have a dressing of com- 
 post which will insure a vigorous start for the 
 carrots. The field should be laid out in ridges 
 made by plowing through in straight lines, 
 and on them the seed is sown, which should be 
 fresh and about four pounds to the acre. If 
 radish-seed be sown at the same time, the 
 carrots can be kept weeded, as the radishes 
 spring up in a few days, thus indicating the line 
 sown. The radishes are of course marketable, 
 and may be pulled as soon as ready. Carrots 
 should be dug and housed for the winter in the 
 region of New York as early as November. If 
 cellar-room is limited, pits may be dug in a 
 sloping piece of ground, and in these hundreds 
 of bushels of carrots may be placed, covered 
 well with straw and earth, and provided with 
 ventilating pipes or shafts. 
 
 Turnips {Brnssn-a rapa). — The turnip, generally 
 regarded as a native of Great Britain, has long 
 been cultivated, and is to be found in every 
 garden of the temperate and cold parts of the 
 world as a culinary esculent. It is also exten- 
 
328 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 sively grown in fields for feeding cattle and 
 sheep. There are two distinct classes of turnips : 
 the Common, or English, or Round, with the 
 root rounded and often broader than long, and 
 having usually lobed, hairy and rough radical 
 leaves ; and the Swedish or Russian turnips, often 
 called "ruta-bagas," having larger, more elon- 
 
 American Improved Ruta-baga. 
 
 gated and more solid roots, and with the radical 
 leaves smooth and covered with a bloom, like 
 those of the cabbage. There are yellow and 
 white varieties in both classes. They like a 
 loamy soil, midway between the extremes of 
 clayey and sandy. The flat Dutch is a round 
 quick-growing kind much liked, and must be 
 sown early. Ruta-bagas and the field-crop 
 should be sown later, and are usually planted 
 in drills. 
 
 Strap-leaf Red-top. 
 
 Notwithstanding their value as food for cattle, 
 the amount of nutritive matter contained in them 
 is very small, ruta-bagas showing about 87 per 
 cent and the common kinds over 90 per cent of 
 
 water. Some varieties grow to an enormous size, 
 often weighing more than twenty pounds. Of the 
 ruta-bagas, the white French variety has its root 
 entirely under ground, and is a great favorite for 
 the table. 
 
 The American Improved Ruta-haga is much 
 grown, and possesses a very delicate flavor. 
 
 The White Dutch is an early kind, white, and 
 of medium size. 
 
 The Yellowstone is a profitable variety for mar- 
 kets ; light yellow, and sweet. 
 
 The Strap-leaf Red-top is well known. A flat 
 turnip, showing purple above ground and white 
 below, with flesh very white and delicate when 
 cooked. 
 
 The Cow-horn, on good soil and under proper 
 cultivation, yields enormously. It is about a 
 
 Cow-horn, 
 
 foot long and three inches in diameter, showing 
 green above ground and white below. This 
 variety is not only good on the table, but is 
 grown extensively as a field-crop. 
 
 BeeU. — The common beet {Beta vulgaris) is a 
 native of the shores of the Mediterranean, but is 
 now in very general cultivation both in fields and 
 gardens, chiefly for the sake of its large succu- 
 lent and generally carrot-shaped roots, which 
 are used as food both for man and for cattle, and 
 from which also sugar is largely extracted. The 
 variety chiefly cultivated in gardens is known 
 as Red Beet, from the color of the root, which 
 also more or less appears in the leaves and leaf- 
 stalks. The sub-varieties are very numerous. In 
 
AGRICULTURE : FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 329' 
 
 some the root is rather turnip-shaped than car- 
 rot-shaped, and the size and color also vary 
 much, some being of a deep blood-red or even 
 almost blackish color, both externally and in- 
 ternally; and others of a much lighter red, and 
 internally even white. It forms a favorite pickle, 
 and is also very agreeable as a boiled vegetable 
 when properly dressed. The seed is sown so 
 late in spring that the plants may not produce 
 flowering stems the first year, which, when it 
 occurs, renders the root fibrous and useless. 
 Mangel-wurzel, so valuable as a field-crop for 
 food of cattle, is, in general, regarded as merely 
 a larger and coarser variety of the common beet, 
 in which the red color is comparatively little 
 exhibited, although some botanists have, on very 
 slender grounds, endeavored to erect it into a 
 distinct species. The White Beet of our gardens 
 is now also generally supposed to be a mere 
 variety of the common beet, with little or no red 
 in its roots or leaves, and a comparatively slender 
 root. It is cultivated for the sake of its leaves, 
 which are used in the same manner as spinach, 
 and form an excellent substitute for it, especially 
 in the beginning of spring. 
 
 Chemists have calculated that 
 18 tons of mangel-wurzel are 
 equal to 15 tons of Swedish tur- 
 nips, or 74 tons of potatoes, or 
 3^ tons of good hay, each quan- 
 tity containing the same amount 
 of nourishment. But these roots 
 may be grown upon less than an 
 acre of ground. The beet-root 
 is regarded also as being the 
 least exhausting to the land. 
 
 Among the best kinds are 
 
 The Long Orange, suitable 
 both for garden and for field 
 growth. This variety takes its 
 name from its color and the 
 length of its root. 
 
 The Lo}tg Smooth Blood-Beet 
 is the old standard variety, vvhich 
 still keeps its place at the head 
 of the market. 
 
 The Dark Red Egyptian Beet 
 is another variety becoming 
 popular. It is round and flat in 
 shape. 
 
 The Early Blood-Beet is a 
 round variety, and the earliest 
 in market. 
 
 John M. Bailey before referred 
 to says he raised on an eighth of an acre 225 
 bushels of long red mangels, and on an adjoin- 
 ing eighth 160 bushels of yellow globe mangels. 
 The average of these is 1 540 bushels ; at 60 tons 
 to the bushel, a little over 46 tons to the acre. 
 
 BEET-SUGAR. 
 
 Long Smooth Blood- 
 Beet. 
 
 The production of sugar from beets has long 
 been an important industry on the continent of 
 Europe, but did not get a foothold in Great Britain 
 till 186S-9, in which years Mr. James Duncan 
 completed a factory at Lavenham. He had pre- 
 viously contracted with various farmers in that 
 neighborhood to raise beets for him at the price 
 of 2os. per ton of clean roots delivered at his 
 factory, with the option to the growers of re- 
 ceiving back the resulting pulp at 12s. per 
 ton if removed as made. This enterprise has 
 been followed by others of the same sort. Ex- 
 perience has shown that the small roots are 
 richest in sugar, and that 2J pounds per root is 
 the best size to aim at. The part of the bulb 
 that grows above ground contains very little 
 sugar. The objects aimed at therefore are, to 
 have a large weight per acre of roots individually 
 small, and as little of the root as possible exposed 
 to the light. This is accomplished by sowing 
 the crops in rows about 16 inches apart, and 
 leaving the plants close to each other. The re- 
 turn of a single year from 571 acres of land 
 cultivated by 32 growers was 7855 tons, an 
 average of i3f tons per acre, the 89 best acres 
 averaging 17 tons per acre, and the 62 poorest 
 averaging 8 tons per acre. 
 
 The Pulp. — Mr. Duncan did not sell back to 
 the farmers all the pulp he made, having at one 
 time 500 tons remaining on hand. This he of 
 course wished to preserve without deterioration ; 
 and it is curious to see that, the year before M. 
 GofFart announced his discovery of Ensilage, 
 very nearly his methods were successfully em- 
 ployed with this beet-sugar pulp. " On a piece of 
 dry ground a trench is dug out about seven feet 
 wide by one foot deep. Into this trench the 
 pulp is firmly trodden by the feet of the laborers, 
 and gradually drawn to a point, precisely as is 
 done in storing roots. The whole is then 
 covered with earth to the depth of twelve 
 inches ; and thus stored the pulp keeps well for 
 two or three years. In using it. a thin crust 
 from the outside is rejected. Thr^e tons of this 
 pulp are estimated to be equal in feeding value 
 to one ton of good hay. Mr. Duncan regards 
 any preference for fresh-made pulp as a mistake ; 
 as in his own practice he finds that pulp a year 
 old is a better feeding material than when newly 
 made. In one season he fattened 50 cattle on 
 pulp three years old, and in another summer 
 he had 60 cattle consuming the surplus of the 
 previous year. 
 
 On the Continent. — In a single \'ear there have 
 been produced 1,025.000 tons of beet-sugar and 
 250.000 tons of molasses, representing a value, at 
 $120 for the sugar and $15 for the molasses, of 
 
330 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 nearly $127,000,000. Russia produces the finest 
 quality of beet, instances being known in which 
 the root yielded 10 per cent of loaf-sugars. It is 
 said that in Europe the erection of a beet-root- 
 sugar factory enhances the value of the neigh- 
 boring land. The success of the enterprise was 
 greatly owing to the enterprise of Franz Carl 
 Achard, who at almost the close of the 18th 
 century took up the work a Berlin chemist had 
 undertaken nearly fifty years before. Louis 
 Napoleon states that while Achard's e.\periments 
 were going on, the British Government, alarmed 
 lest his discoveries should injure British colonial 
 interests, offered him anonymously 50,000 thalers, 
 and afterward 200,000 thalers, if he would report 
 that his experiments resulted unfavorably. The 
 offer was rejected with contempt, and the suc- 
 cessful results of his experiment made public. 
 This may be so ; and again, there might be better 
 authority for such a statement than " the nephew 
 of his uncle." 
 
 In the United States. — Unsuccessful attempts 
 were made to introduce this industry here as far 
 back as 1830, information being scanty, and the 
 yield of sugar from beets at that time in Europe 
 only 4 to 5 per cent. In 1838 David Lee Child 
 (the husband of Lydia Maria Child) made at 
 Northampton, Mass., 1300 pounds of beet-sugar. 
 There the matter rested again for 25 years, and 
 but very little was really accomplished till 1870, 
 when the Alvarado Sugar Co. in California be- 
 gan work, and the industry has since assumed 
 large proportions. Land planted on a large 
 scale with sugar-beets near one of the California 
 factories averages 12 tons to the acre, and near 
 another 8 tons ; while the average yield of sugar 
 is 160 pounds to the ton of beets, or about 8 per 
 tent. 
 
 While the sugar contained in the beet is in 
 itself identical with cane-sugar, the composition 
 of the beet offers obstacles to the manufacture of 
 sugar not present in the cane. The percentage 
 of sugar in the former is about two thirds that of 
 the latter, and the juice is highly charged with 
 impurities which must be removed. Prof. 
 Chandler, in Johnson's Cyclopadia, writes : " The 
 manufacture of sugar from the beet consists of the 
 following operations : i , washing and cleaning the 
 beets; 2, extracting the juice; 3. defecation by 
 lime and heat; 4, carbonatation, removal of the 
 lime with carbonic acid ; 5. filtration, to remove 
 suspended impurities; 6, filtration through bone- 
 black; 7, evaporation to a thin sirup; 8, second 
 filtration over bone-black; 9, evaporation to 
 crystallization ; separation of the sugar from the 
 molasses. The first molasses is evaporated 
 again, to furnish a second crop of sugar, and a 
 third and fourth crop are subsequently obtained. 
 The final molasses is too offensive in taste and 
 
 smell to serve as food, and is diluted and sub- 
 jected to fermentation and distillation for the 
 production of alcohol, the residue from the dis- 
 tillation being evaporated to dryness and cal- 
 cined for the production of potash." 
 
 Bailey reports 252 bushels yield of sugar-beets 
 on one fourth of an acre. This rate gives 1008 
 bushels to the acre ; at 60 pounds to the bushel, 
 60,480 pounds, amounting, at $5 per ton, to over 
 $150. Where sugar-beets can be marketed near 
 by, their raising seems a profitable business. 
 
 The varieties of sugar-beets mostly raised in 
 the United States are the- White Sugar-Beet, 
 Vilmorin's Improved White Sugar-Beet and 
 Lane's Imperial Sugar-Beet. This last is the re- 
 sult of careful selection in this country, and is 
 recommended as being hardier, more productive, 
 and containing a greater percentage of sugar. 
 
 Cabbage. — This plant. Brassiea o/eracea, is a 
 native of the rocky shores of Great Britain, and 
 in general cultivation as food for man and cattle. 
 The ordinary forms are often called by the gen- 
 eral name of white cabbage, to distinguish them 
 from the red cabbage, of a deep brownish red or 
 purplish, mostly used for- pickling. It contains 
 more than 90 per cent of water, and affords little 
 nutriment. Its digestibility varies according to 
 the state in which it is partaken of. Raw cab- 
 bage alone is digested in about two and a half 
 hours, with vinegar in two hours, and boiled 
 cabbage needs four and a half hours. Immense 
 quantities are used by the Germans, at home and 
 here, in the shape of sajier-kratit. 
 
 For cabbages, the ground must be highly 
 manured, deeply dug or plowed, and thoroughly 
 worked, to insure good, full-sized heads. A 
 heavy, moist and fresh loam is the most suitable. 
 The early sorts are sometimes sown early in 
 autumn, protected in cold-frames through the 
 winter, and transplanted early in spring; but 
 more generally at the North they are sown very 
 early in the spring in hotbeds, or later in the 
 open ground. In the mild climate of the 
 Southern States, where they will stand the win- 
 ter, they are planted out in the fall. One ounce 
 of seed will sow a bed 40 feet square. The plants 
 are usually set in rows about 2 feet apart, and 18 
 inches between the plants in rows. 
 
 Cabbages are an exhausting crop when wholly 
 removed from the soil, and on this account are 
 sometimes grown with advantage on spots 
 greatly enriched by irrigation with sewage or 
 otherwise, and where the succeeding grain-crop 
 is expected to suffer from over-luxuriance. In 
 favorable circumstances 30 or 40 tons may be 
 grown on an acre. 
 
 The Early Jersey Wakefield is a leading early 
 cabbage, of medium size, good quality, and sure 
 to head. Will grow to 7 and 8 pounds each. 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 331 
 
 Hendersoii's Early Summrr is another early 
 cabbage, coming in about ten days after the 
 Wakefield ; but being of nearly double the size, 
 it may be classed as the best large early cabbage. 
 Its short outer leaves allow it to be planted very 
 close — about 1 2,000 to the acre. They sometimes 
 grow to 1 5 pounds. This kept up would make 
 an acre yield 120 tons. 
 
 The Marhlelit-ad Maminof/i Drumhead is the 
 largest of the late cabbages. Heads have been 
 grown weighing 60 pounds. 
 
 The Green Glazed succeeds well in southern 
 latitudes, and enjoys immunity from the attacks 
 of insects. Heads are glossy pea-green. 
 
 The Premium Flat Dicteh is probably more 
 extensively grown than any other variety. It is 
 for fall and winter use. 
 
 Cauliflower. — This is a species of cabbage greatly 
 modified by cultivation. The leaves are not the 
 parts used, but the flower-buds and their stalks, 
 or, properly speaking, the inflorescence of the 
 plant, forming a head or compact mass generally 
 of a white color. Any soil on which common 
 cabbage will grow will also produce cauliflower ; 
 but as the product is more valuable it will repay 
 extra manuring and preparation of the soil. 
 
 For the spring or summer crop sow the early 
 varieties about the middle of September, and 
 when two inches high transplant to two inches 
 apart, into a frame covered with glazed shutters, 
 where they must be protected through the win- 
 ter ; in the spring transplant to two and a half 
 feet apart, into soil prepared as recommended 
 for cabbage. Sow the same varieties for succes- 
 sion in a hotbed in March, and transplant when 
 large enough. For the autumn crop sow the late 
 varieties in April or May in the open ground, 
 and transplant like winter cabbages. In dry 
 weather water freely, and as they advance in 
 growth hoe deep and draw the earth to the stems. 
 As they begin to head they should be well 
 watered. One ounce of seed will sow a bed of 
 forty square feet. 
 
 Letwrmand's Short-Stemmed is a large late 
 variety, with well - formed heads of superior 
 quality. 
 
 Erfurt Early Dwarf is a favorite variety for 
 the market ; very early, fine compact heads, and 
 of fine quality. 
 
 Hetidersoii's Early Snowball. — Henderson says 
 of this : It is the earliest of all cauliflowers. 
 Sown at the same time and under the same con- 
 ditions with ten other kinds, on the first of 
 March last year, we had heads of the Early Snow- 
 ball, measuring nine inches in diameter, ready 
 by June 10 — about one week earlier than any 
 other sort. Besides, of this variety, every plant 
 formed a fine head ; in addition to its earliness 
 and greater certainty to head than any other sort. 
 
 its dwarf habit and short outer leaves allow it to 
 be planted as close as 18 or 20 inches apart each 
 way, so that from 12,000 to 14,000 can be set out 
 on an acre. 
 
 Beans. — The common bean is divided into two 
 classes, dwarf- or bush-beans, growii% a foot or 
 two high, and pole- or running-beans, trained to 
 climb bushes or poles. They are highly nutri- 
 tious, containing 84 per cent of nutritive matter, 
 while wheat has but 74. The bean contains 
 more nutriment for horses than the oat. Baked 
 beans with pork are a favorite dish at the 
 North, and one so hearty that it is a great favor- 
 ite with men performing hard labor on the farm. 
 It is a traditional New England dish. Great 
 quantities of beans are pulled before the pods 
 harden, and either eaten as "string-beans," or 
 pickled before eating. 
 
 Bean Le.wes and Flower. 
 
 The bean originated in Persia, and the Egyp- 
 tians were the first to cultivate it. Afterward, 
 on some religious scruple, they gave it up. 
 Pythagoras forbade his disciples to eat it, teach- 
 ing that it was made at the same time and of 
 the same elements as man, had a soul, and suf- 
 fered transmigration. 
 
 Years ago, Mr. Mechi. a distinguished British 
 agriculturist, in a hot dry summer, looked long- 
 ingly on his bean-crop, then at its full growtls 
 and its green pods filled with soft pulse. He 
 mowed the needed quantity each day, cut it up, 
 and fed it green to his stock ; and with the most 
 satisfactory results. The quantity of green food 
 per acre yielded by a full crop of beans used in 
 this way is very great. This gives a hint in the 
 direction of ensilaging the bean, and it is to be 
 hoped that experiments with it may be made and 
 reported. 
 
332 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 Beans should be planted as early in the spring 
 as the ground can be worked, from two to four 
 inches apart, in drills from 24 to 30 inches apart. 
 As soon as the plants are in full blossom, and 
 the lower pods begin to set, pinch off the tops; 
 this will injure the filling of the pods and hasten 
 the maturity of the seeds. A strong, heavy soil 
 with a considerable portion of clay is needed to 
 insure a good crop. Beans are sensitive to frost 
 and cold, and should not be planted before the 
 middle of spring, when the ground has become 
 light and warm. Hoe often, but only when dry, 
 as earth scattered on the leaves when met with 
 dew or rain will cause them to rust, and greatly 
 injure the crop. 
 
 The Golden Wax is one of the best of the 
 dwarf- or bush-beans. The pods are large, long 
 and brittle, and entirely stringless. It excels 
 both as a snap-bean and as a shell-bean. 
 
 The Early Red Vale?itiiie is another dwarf, 
 early, productive, tender, succulent, and of excel- 
 lent flavor: continues longer in the green state 
 than most of the varieties. 
 
 The Lari^e White Lima is one of the best 
 known ana liked varieties of pole-beans. 
 
 Dreer's Improved Lima comes earWtr to matu- 
 rity, and produces a large yield and extra quality 
 of bean. It is also claimed that it produces 
 more shelled beans to the pole than the large 
 Lima. 
 
 The Dutch Case-Knife is a very productive 
 variety, and one of the earliest ; sometimes used 
 as snaps, but generally shelled. Some prefer the 
 taste and flavor of the Case-Knife to those of the 
 Lima. 
 
 Peas. — Webster says : "When a definite number 
 is referred to, the plural is written peas, as two 
 peas, five peas ; but when an indefinite quantity or 
 bulk is SDoken of, it is written pease." But we fol- 
 low common usage in printing the plural as above. 
 The gaf^den-pea has come down to us from the 
 Greeks and Romans. Sir Humphry Davy found 
 in 1000 parts of pea-flour 574 parts of nutritive 
 matter. A more modern analysis gives 
 
 Water 14. 1 
 
 Casein 23.4 
 
 Starch 37.0 
 
 Sugix 2.0 
 
 Gum 9.0 
 
 Fat... 2.0 
 
 Woody fiber lo.o 
 
 Mineral matter 2.5 
 
 There are innumerable varieties both of the 
 field-pea and the garden-pea. those of the latter 
 being so much the products of horticultural art 
 that they cannot be preserved without the utmost 
 attention. Some of the kinds of garden-peas 
 have long stems, and require for their support 
 
 stakes of six or eight feet in height ; others are 
 of humbler growth ; and certain dwarf kinds, 
 preferred as most convenient in many gardens, 
 succeed very well without stakes. 
 
 The planting for an early crop of garden-peas 
 should be made in the spring, as soon as the 
 ground can be worked, in a warm, dry situation, 
 and covered about three inches. „The ground 
 must have been manured the year previous, or 
 the peas will be apt to grow too much to straw. 
 Use thoroughly decomposed manure, if any, just 
 before planting. The height to which all peas 
 grow depends in a great measure upon the rich- 
 ness of the soil and the wetness of the season. 
 They are usually planted in double rows from 
 three to four feet apart, and those requiring it 
 bushed when about six inches high. The larger 
 and later sorts do better at a greater distance 
 apart, leaving a broad space for planting low- 
 growing vegetables between. They should be 
 kept clean, and earthed up twice in their growth. 
 As soon as the peas are gathered the straw must 
 be pulled and removed. In dry weather the peas- 
 should be soaked five or six hours before plant- 
 ing, and if the ground is very dry they should be 
 watered in the drills. From one to two bushels 
 are generally required to an acre ; one quart of 
 the smaller sorts will sow about 120 feet, and of 
 the larger sorts about 200 feet of drill. 
 
 The American IVonder stands at the head of 
 the very early peas. It is a seedling, the result 
 of a cross between the Champion of England and 
 the Little Gem ; it is one of the earliest wrinkled 
 peas in cultivation, of the finest quality, and won- 
 derfully productive ; its great distinctive feature, 
 however, is its compact and dwarf growth, sel- 
 dom exceeding ten inches in height. 
 
 Laxton's Prolific Long Pod is in great favor 
 among the second early varieties. It is very pro- 
 ductive, with long pods containing 10 to 12 peas 
 each. Is about four feet high. 
 
 The Champion of England stands very high 
 among the not-so-early varieties. It is of deli- 
 cious flavor and a profuse bearer. 
 
 The Marroiifats are the peas of our boyhood, 
 at which period their taste seemed matchless. 
 The • White attains a height of six feet. The 
 Black-eyed Marrowfat does not grow nearly as 
 high, and is extensively grown as a field-pea ; 
 hardy and productive. 
 
 In our northern markets the earliest peas are 
 from the South, and especially from South Caro- 
 lina, whence they begin to be shipped early in 
 April. 
 
 Asparagus is a hardy perennial that, under pro- 
 per management, when planted in the right kind 
 of soil, will produce crops foran indefinite length 
 of time. When well grown and carefully bunched 
 it is sure to meet with a ready sale. The demand 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 333 
 
 for it has always been good, even when other 
 vegetables were dull and selling at low prices. 
 
 Soak the seed twenty-four hours in tepid water, 
 and sow early in spring in rows a foot apart, and 
 keep clean by frequent weeding and hoeing. At 
 ■one or two years old transplant to permanent 
 beds. The ground should be trenched, or du^ 
 over, two feet deep, burying plenty of manure — 
 decayed leaves, leaf-mold, rock-weed or kelp, 
 when it can be had, — and mi.xing it thoroughly 
 with the soil. Lay out the beds four and a half 
 feet wide, and draw three drills, fourteen inches 
 apart and six inches deep, lengthwise of each bed ; 
 place the roots in them, a foot apart, in their 
 natural position, and cover four inches deep. A 
 rich sandy loam is most suitable. Every autumn, 
 after clearing off the stalks, spread on a covering 
 of manure, to be forked in, with a good dressing 
 of fine salt very early in the spring. A new bed 
 should not be cut over before the third year. 
 
 The quality of asparagus will mainly depend on 
 the strength of the soil ; it is a voracious plant, 
 and can Beadily digest any amount of the strong- 
 est manure food, which is better to apply on the 
 surface in autumn, to be forked in early in 
 spring. Salt is also an excellent application to 
 asparagus beds. The brine from beef- or pork- 
 barrels produces strong and vigorous growth. 
 
 The Colossal almost monopolizes the aspara- 
 gus market, some great seed-merchants raising 
 and offering no other variety. 
 
 Smalley's Defiance is very early, of good size, 
 tender, and of delicious flavor. 
 
 Melons. — The melon, as its botanic name, Cu- 
 cwnis viclo, indicates, is of the same genus with 
 the cucumber, an annual, supposed to be a na- 
 tive of the sub-tropical parts of Asia, and to have 
 derived its name from the Greek island Melos. 
 With us they divide into two great varieties, the 
 muskinelon and the watermelon. They adapt 
 themselves to different climates, though they 
 grow to the greatest perfection in southern lati- 
 tudes. 
 
 Muskmelons. — Plant late in spring, in hills five 
 or six feet apart each way, well manured with old 
 rotten compost ; scatter a dozen seeds to a hill, 
 and after they are out of danger from bugs thin 
 to three or four plants. When they have four or 
 five rough leaves, pinch off the end of the main 
 shoot, which will cause the lateral branches to 
 put forth sooner. It will strengthen the growth 
 of the vines, and the fruit will come earlier to 
 maturity. A light, dry. sandy soil and a dry 
 atmosphere are most suitable. Melons should 
 not be planted near other varieties, if it is de- 
 sired to preserve them pure. They have arrived 
 at perfection when the stem will cleave from the 
 fruit. A very rough netted skin is the surest 
 indication of a high-flavored fruit. 
 
 Favorite varieties of muskmelons are : 
 
 Nutmeg. — Fruit nutmeg- shaped, skin deep 
 green, finely netted ; greenish yellow, rich and 
 sugary. 
 
 Cassaba. — A muskmelon of extraordinary size 
 and delicious flavor ; weight from 1 2 to 1 5 pounds. 
 
 Green Citron. — Fruit medium size, deeply net- 
 ted ; shape nearly round, from six to eight inches 
 in diameter; flesh green, and of rich, delicious 
 flavor. 
 
 Large Yellow Cantaloupe. — A good-sized, near- 
 ly round fruit, netted and slightly ribbed ; flesh 
 salmon-colored, thick and musk- flavored; an 
 early and productive variety. 
 
 Large Yellow Musk. — The largest variety, long 
 oval shape, deeply ribbed ; flesh thick, light, sal- 
 mon-colored and of peculiar musky flavor; early 
 and productive. This variety is used in its 
 green state for " mangoes." 
 
 Watermelons. — Plant in hills, six to eight feet 
 apart, in May. Select warm, light, dry ground, 
 and in preparing the hills let them be dug out 
 broad, and deep as the soil will permit ; fill at 
 least one third full of the best decomposed stable- 
 manure, and mix thoroughly with the soil, filling 
 up a little above the level of the ground. The 
 plants will fruit better by occasionally pinching 
 the leading shoots off the vines. One ounce of 
 seed will be sufficient for about one hundred 
 hills. 
 
 The lee-Cream watermelon is a favorite variety 
 of medium size, nearly round ; color pale green ; 
 white seed, thin rind ; flesh "Solid, scarlet, crisp, 
 of delicious flavor. 
 
 The Black Spanish is another excellent varie- 
 ty, round, very dark green, with scarlet flesh and 
 black seeds, very thin rind and rich sugary flavor, 
 sweet and delicious. 
 
 The Scaly Bark watermelon is a new variety 
 first brought into general notice at the Atlanta 
 Exhibition in 1881. The skin is dark green and 
 looks as if covered with fish-scales, although quite 
 smooth. It is said to be an unusually produc- 
 tive sort, the average weight of the melons being 
 35 pounds, although it is not uiiusual for specimens 
 to reach 65 pounds in weight. The flesh is light 
 crimson, solid, tender and of exquisite flavor, but 
 its peculiar value lies in the fact that it remains 
 in choice eating condition from len to fifteen 
 days after being pulled. This with its very tough 
 yet thin rind will make it a most valuable sort 
 for shipping purposes. Already some of the 
 largest melon-growers south believe that it must 
 displace all other sorts on this account alone. 
 
 Varieties of melons have such a tendency to 
 mix that growers generally restrict themselves to 
 a very few kinds, taking care that their borders 
 are not contiguous one to another. An attempt 
 was made in California to produce sugar from 
 
334 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 watermelons, but the industry was not a success- 
 ful one. 
 
 Melon-vines are in especial danger from in- 
 sects, and seed is therefore sown freely, that 
 enough may succeed; and it is often necessary to 
 dust the vines with lime or ashes. 
 
 Cucumbers. — The common cucumber is a native 
 of tropical Asia. Cucumbers succeed best in 
 warm, moist, rich loamy ground. They should 
 be sown in small pots in a hotbed or hot-house, 
 in January, February and March. They should 
 not be planted in the open air until there is a 
 prospect of settled warm weather. Plant in hills 
 about four feet apart each way. The hills should 
 be previously prepared by mixing thoroughly 
 with the soil in each a shovelful of well-rotted 
 manure. When all danger from insects is past, 
 thin out the plants, leaving three or four of the 
 strongest to each hill. The fruit should be 
 plucked when large enough, whether required 
 for use or not, as, if left to ripen on the vines, 
 it destroys their productiveness. Sixteen or 
 eighteen hills well grown will supply an ordi- 
 nary family. 
 
 Early Russian. — This is the earliest variety in 
 cultivation ; fruit produced in pairs, and the first 
 blossoms usually make fruit ; small, hardy and 
 productive, and flavor pleasant and agreeable. 
 
 Improved Early White Spine. — An improved 
 variety of the well-known White Spine, which 
 has succeeded better than any other variety for 
 forcing on a largg scale. Medium size, deep 
 green, flesh crisp and of fine flavor. 
 
 Green Prolific. — One of the best varieties for 
 pickling. It is a very uniform producer, hardly 
 ever yielding cucumbers too large for pickling, 
 and is immensely productive. With good culti- 
 vation 200,000 may be produced upon an acre. 
 
 Early Frame. — This old and popular variety 
 has not lost its hold on public favor, for the table 
 or for pickling. Medium size, straight and 
 handsome, and makes a beautiful pickle that 
 keeps well. 
 
 Squashes. — These, as well as pumpkins, are 
 members of the gourd family, modified by long 
 periods of cultivation into delicious edibles. For 
 practical purposes they fall into two great divi- 
 sions, one the summer- or bush-squash, the late 
 varieties forming the winter-squash. 
 
 They are of vigorous and lu.xuriasit growth, and 
 will well repay generous treatment, although they 
 will grow after a fashion almost everywhere. 
 They should not be sowed until the weather has 
 become settled and warm. Light soils are best 
 suited for their growth. The hills should be pre- 
 pared for seeds in the usual way, a couple of 
 shovelfuls of well-decayed manure being mixed 
 with the soil of each hill. Hills should be three 
 or four feet apart each way for the bush varieties. 
 
 and six to eight feet for the running sorts. Put 
 in each hill eight or ten seeds, afterward thinning 
 out so as to leave three or four of the strongest 
 plants. 
 
 White Bush Scalloped. — This is an early, flat. 
 
 V..i>,^ 
 
 ScAiLOPED Summer. 
 
 scallop-shaped sort, light cream-colored. It is 
 called'" Patty-Pan" in the Southern and Middle 
 States. 
 
 Boston Marroiv. — A much-esteemed variety, 
 coming in about ten days later than the bush 
 sort. It is a good keeper, and of unsurpassed 
 flavor. 
 
 Ihish Summer Croohneck. — This is the richest 
 
 / 
 
 wksss 
 
 Summer-Squash. 
 
 and best sort for summer ; very early and pro- 
 ductive ; fruit orange yellow, with warty excres- 
 cences. 
 
 The Huhhard is one of the best late squashes, 
 the finest table-squash known, the quality being 
 about equal to the sweet-potato. It has a hard 
 shell, and will keep three months later than the 
 Marrows. 
 
 Pumpkins. — These can be grown on any good 
 soil that is warm. They are excellent for pies, 
 and for feeding to cows. They are usually 
 planted in corn-fields where the vines can grow 
 to a great length, but can be profitably raised in 
 fields by themselves. Plant in hills eight feet 
 apart. One pound of the common field sorts 
 will plant from two hundred to three hundred 
 hills. 
 
 The Large Cheese is hardy, very productive, and 
 superior in all respects to most of the field-grown 
 sorts. 
 
 The La)-ge Tours, or Mammoth. — This is a 
 fine French variety, very productive, and grow- 
 ing to a large size, often weighing from 100 to 
 150 pounds. 
 
 Tomatoes. — This plant is a native of tropical 
 America, probably of Peru, and has come into 
 general use only during the last fifty years. The 
 old Indian name was iumatl or tomatl. Older 
 English writers call it love-apple which name it 
 
AGRICULTURE: FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 335 
 
 still bears in Italy and France. The tomatoes 
 earliest in northern markets are from Bermuda. 
 
 Sown in a hotbed, green-house or elsewhere, 
 keeping the temperature not less than 60°, in 
 late February or early March. When about two 
 inches high prick tliem out singly in small pots, 
 and nurse carefully in frames, and when the dan- 
 ger of frost is past plant them out in a sheltered 
 situation, where the sun may get at them. To 
 hasten the maturity of the first fruit which sets, 
 pinch off the extremities of the tops and all the 
 secondary shoots which afterward appear above 
 the flowers. For early crops plant them about 
 three feet apart in well-manured hills. On heavy 
 
 White Solid Celery. 
 
 soils, not suited to yield early crops, four feet is 
 near enough. Water freely at the time of trans- 
 planting. The vines often have to be supported 
 by bushes or frames, and the fruit must be thin- 
 ned out when there is danger cf breaking. 
 
 The Trophy is one of the best tomatoes in cul- 
 tivation. The fruit is large, generally smooth, 
 solid ; ripens early, and is of fine quality. 
 
 The Canada Victor is one of the earliest, of 
 medium size, very symmetrical in shape. 
 
 The Conqueror is another fine early variety, of 
 good size, uniform in shape and size, color deep 
 red ; flesh solid, of rich, mild flavor, ripens well 
 clear to stem, and does not crack. 
 
 Celery. — This plant is a development from the 
 wild smallage. which is about two feet high, has 
 a tapering slender root, an unpleasant odor, a bit- 
 terish acrid taste, and almost poisonous qualities. 
 
 For the first crop sow early in March in a gen- 
 tle hotbed, and for tlie main crop early in April 
 on a warm sheltered border, and water carefully. 
 The plants must be transplanted as soon as they 
 will bear handling; plant out at intervals until 
 the middle of July. The ground for this crop 
 should be dug into trenches two spades deep and 
 one foot in width, banking up the soil on each 
 side of the trench. In all cases let the distance 
 between the trenches be such as will furnish suf- 
 
 fNCOMPARABLE DWARF. 
 
 ficient soil tor earthing up the plants. The bottom 
 of the trench should be covered si.x inches deep 
 with thoroughly decayed manure, and then cov- 
 ered with one or two inches of soil for planting. 
 When planting upon the surface instead of in 
 trenches is adopted, the soil should be very rich 
 and deep, and tlie plants placed in rows three 
 feet apart, and from si.x to eight inches apart in 
 the rows, according to the size of the variety. 
 Place the plants about eight inches apart in the 
 rows, removing them with a good mass of roots; 
 keep them well supplied with water. Earth up 
 the plants as they advance in growth, but leave 
 the hearts uncovered until the final soiling. This 
 
336 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 operatioh of earthing should be performed only 
 when the plants are dry. and at the final occasion 
 neatly slant and smooth the soil so as to throw 
 off the wet. 
 
 The Giant White Solid is the variety most 
 commonly grown ; clear, white, solid, crisp. 
 
 The Boston Market is a favorite variety, re- 
 markable for its tender, crisp and succulent 
 «tems, and its peculiarly mild flavor ; the Boston 
 market-gardeners grow this almost exclusively. 
 
 Mammoth Red. — This is the largest grown, at- 
 taining under good cultivation the great weight 
 of ten or twelve pounds, and is perfectly solid. 
 
 Incomparable Dwarf White. — A very dwarf 
 late white, of stiff, close habit, solid, crisp and 
 juicy. 
 
 Lettuce is a hardy annual and one of the most 
 generally cultivated and popular of vegetables. It 
 is divided into two classes, the Cabbage or Head 
 lettuce, and the upright sorts known as the Cos 
 lettuce. Lettuce grown in field may be planted 
 between cabbages ; and as it matures long before 
 the cabbages need the space, the economy is 
 evident. The best seed should be saved for 
 planting, which should be done in autumn, 
 and the plants moved into cold-frames which 
 are kept covered during severe weather. For 
 family use seed may be sown in hotbeds early in 
 the spring, to be transplanted as soon as the 
 weather will permit. By planting seed in suc- 
 cession and transplanting, the table will be well 
 supplied during the season. Lettuce for winter 
 market is an extensive business near large cities ; 
 and in its production large use is made of hot- 
 beds and forcing-houses. 
 
 Tennis Ball is a black-seeded lettuce, which 
 forms a close, large head, with a few outer leaves ; 
 a favorite forcing variety. 
 
 Boston Market is a superb variety, which grows 
 very compact, and is white and crisp ; one of the 
 best for forcing. 
 
 The Large India is one of the largest varieties, 
 which withstands summer heat better than most 
 kinds ; forms an immense solid head, which cuts 
 white, brittle and almost transparent. 
 
 The Paris Green Cos is one of the best of the 
 Cos varieties. Grows upright with long, narrow. 
 dark green leaves. It should be tied up to blanch 
 a week or ten days before cutting. 
 
 Onions. — The nativity of the onion is not cer- 
 tainly known, it being credited sometimes to 
 India and sometimes to Egypt, as in each of 
 these countries it has been cultivated from a re- 
 mote antiquity. In Spain and Portugal a raw 
 onion is frequently eaten like an apple, and often 
 with a piece of bread forms the dinner of a work- 
 ing-man. It isvery nutritious, containing a large 
 quantity of nitrogenous matter and of uncrys- 
 tallizable sugar, with an acrid volatile sulphurous 
 
 oil resembling that of garlic, which, however, is 
 largely dissipated by boiling. 
 
 The onion thrives best in a rather deep, rich 
 loamy soil, and, unlike most vegetables, succeeds 
 well when cultivated on the same ground for 
 successive years. The best culture requires that 
 the ground should be deeply trenched and ma- 
 nured the previous autumn, and laid up in ridges 
 during the winter to pulverize. As early in the 
 spring as the ground is in working order com- 
 mence operations by leveling the ground with a 
 rake, and tread it firmly ; sow thinly in drills 
 about a quarter of an inch deep and one foot 
 apart, cover with fine soil and press down with 
 the back of a spade or a light roller. When the 
 young plants are strong enough, thin gradually 
 so that they stand three or four inches apart. 
 Keep the surface of the ground open and free 
 from weeds by frequent hoeing, taking care not 
 to stir the soil too deeply, or to collect it about 
 the growing bulbs. 
 
 Extra Early Red. — Rather smaller and flatter 
 than Large Red, close-grained and heavy ; fit to 
 gather the last of July, and keeps well. 
 
 Wethcrsfield Large Red. — The staple variety of 
 Eastern growers ; large-sized, deep red, thick, 
 nearly round, fine-grained, pleasant-flavored and 
 productive ; an excellent keeper. 
 
 Yellow Dutch. — The common yellow variety; 
 rather fat-shaped, and of excellent flavor. Good 
 to keep. 
 
 Large Italian Red Tripoli. — As its name indi- 
 cates, an Italian onion ; an excellent variety of 
 quick growth and mild flavor. Grows to two and a 
 half pounds. 
 
 Rhubarb. — The roots of this plant have long 
 been famous for their medicinal qualities. The 
 best comes from Turkey and China. Russia 
 rhubarb used to stand at the head of all, a strict 
 supervision being exercised by government offi- 
 cials over all offered for export, a supervision 
 which has been abandoned. The rhubarb of 
 gardens is derived from different species of 
 Rheum, especially R. rhaponticum and R. undu- 
 latum. The parts chiefly utilized are the fleshy 
 footstalks of the leaves, much used for puddings, 
 tarts and pies, as well as for stewing. 
 
 Sow in spring in a seed-bed, in drills one foot 
 apart. Cultivate well during the season, and in 
 the autumn or following spring transplant the 
 roots into deep, rich soil, from three to four feet 
 apart. They are fit for use about the third 
 spring after planting. The most expeditious 
 mode to procure a supply is to plant roots already 
 grown, which will come into use immediately. 
 
 The Linnceus is an early, large and tender va- 
 riety. 
 
 The Victoria is a very large variety, and is later 
 than the Linnaeus. 
 
AGRICULTURE : FARMS AND FARMING. 
 
 3.J7 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 Tobacco is a word of uncertain derivation. 
 Webster and Worcester take tlie word from tlie 
 Indian tabaco, the tube or pipe in which the In- 
 dians or Caribbees smolced the plant. Sir Wal- 
 ter Raleigh enjoys the credit of introducing to 
 the other continent the use which he found the 
 aborigines making of it in this. We use the 
 word credit, although there are multitudes of 
 people who regard his achievement as worthy of 
 blame rather than of credit. And unnumbered 
 articles and books and verbal pleas have been 
 made for and against its use. The genus bears 
 the name Nicotiana, so named from Nicot, 
 French ambassador to Portugal, who first brought 
 to it the attention of scientific men, and who did 
 much to render its use fashionable in France. 
 
 The plants have large, broad leaves; a five- 
 
 ViRGiNiAN Tobacco 
 {Nicoiiana iabacum). 
 
 Green Tobacco 
 {^Nicotiana rustica). 
 
 parted calyx ; a funnel-shaped, five-lobed corolla, 
 and five stamens ; the flowers growing in pani- 
 cles at the top of the stem ; the fruit a two-celled, 
 five-valved. many-seeded capsule. The species 
 are mostly herbaceous plants, rarely shrubby, 
 with large broad leaves, and everywhere covered 
 with clammy hairs. They are natives of warm 
 countries, most of them American, although 
 some are found in the East Indies. They all 
 possess the narcotic property, on account of 
 which a few of them are extensively cultivated. 
 It resides in almost all parts of the plant, although 
 the leaves are almost exclusively used. The plant 
 is about 5 or 6 feet high, erect, with lanceolate, 
 sessile leaves, 6 to i8 inches long, and rose-colored 
 flowers, the throat of the corolla inflated, the 
 
 22 
 
 segments pointed. There are numerous varieties, 
 differing more or less in the size and form of the 
 leaves and in the form and color of the flowers, 
 some of which are regarded by some botanists as 
 distinct species. 
 
 Vast quantities of tobacco are raised in the 
 United States, vast quantities are exported to the 
 continent of Europe, and a great deal imported. 
 If all sold as Havana were really Havana, the 
 importations would be still larger. The produc- 
 tion in the United States, according to the 
 Census, was for 
 
 1850 199,752,655 pounds. 
 
 i860 434,209,461 " 
 
 1870 262,735.341 *' 
 
 1880 472,661,157 '* 
 
 Kentucky and Virginia have been "and are 
 the leading States; Kentucky returning 56,501,- • 
 196 pounds in 1850 and 171,120,784 in 1880 ; and 
 Virginia 56,803,227 in 1850 and 79.98S.868 in 1880, 
 to which latter may be added 2,296,146 from West 
 Virginia, whose territory was a part of Virginia in 
 1850. Of the old Northern States, in 1880, there 
 were reported in 
 
 Connecticut 14,044,652 pounds. 
 
 Illinois 3,935,825 " 
 
 Indiana 8,872,842 " 
 
 Iowa 420,477 " 
 
 Kansas 191,669 '* 
 
 Maine 250 " 
 
 Massaciiusetts 5,369,436 ** 
 
 Michigan 83,9^9 " 
 
 New Hampshire 170.843 " 
 
 New Jersey 172,315 '* 
 
 New York 6.481.431 " 
 
 Ohio 34.735.235 " 
 
 Pennsylvania 36,943,272 " 
 
 Rhode Island 785 " 
 
 Vermont 131,432 " 
 
 Wisconsin 10,608,423 " 
 
 The cultivation of tobacco can be carried on 
 in a range almost as great as that of Indian 
 corn, but as it is destroyed by frost there is a 
 great risk in northern latitudes. It 'requires 
 a rich loose soil, and the strongest manures 
 are advantageous. The influence of soil, cli- 
 mate and manures on the quality of the pro- 
 duce is very great. Vegetable manures are 
 best for tobacco intended for smoking; animal 
 manures are preferred for that which is to be 
 made into snuff. In the Northern States the seed 
 is sown in a hotbed, protected from frost by 
 mats, and the plants are put out in rows from two 
 feet to three feet apart in the field. The ground 
 is frequently hoed and stirred. Where the plants 
 are not intended for seed, the top is usually 
 broken off, so as to prevent flowering, that its 
 whole strength may be directed to the leaves. 
 
338 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL. 
 
 When the leaves begin to become yellow, or 
 are marked with yellow blotches, the plants are 
 cut down and hung up in a large barn to dry. 
 The cultivation of tobacco is comparatively easy, 
 although a warm climate suits it best. The 
 usual plan is to sow the seed in seed-beds of rich 
 soil, and, as it is extremely minute, it is first 
 mixed largely with sand or wood-ashes to assist 
 in spreading it thinly. In Virginia this is usu- 
 ally done in the first week in January. After 
 the seed-beds have been carefully prepared and 
 sown, small branches of trees are laid over, to 
 protect the seed, when it germinates, from the 
 effects of frost ; but these are removed as soon as 
 can be done with safety, and the plants then grow 
 rapidly, and are ready for transplanting into the 
 fields about the beginning of June. The land in 
 the fields is very carefully prepared, and small hil- 
 locks are raised up in rows ; each is about a foot in 
 diameter, and flattened at the top. With the first 
 appearante of rain, the plants are carefully raised 
 "from the seed-beds and planted, one on each 
 hillock. Only wet weather will do for planting, 
 so that this operation often lasts until the end of 
 July. When planted,. the tobacco-crop requires 
 much careful attention to weeding, and a watchful 
 eye to prevent the ravages of various insect ene- 
 mies. Much of this latter work is done by flocks 
 of turkeys. As soon as the plants begin to throw 
 up the flower-shoot it is nipped off; otherwise it 
 ■would weaken the leaves. This process is neg- 
 lected in some countries, especially in Turkey 
 and Greece, where small leaves are preferred, and 
 where in some cases, as in the celebrated Latakia 
 tobacco, both leaves, buds and flowers are used. 
 The time generally chosen for cutting it is 
 mid-day, or when the sun is powerful and the 
 morning and evening dews absent. The cut- 
 ting is done by hand, and only such plants are 
 chosen as are ready, which is known by a clammy 
 exudation which forms over the leaf, often giv- 
 
 ing it a spotted appearance. If the plants are 
 very large, the stalk is often splij. down to facili- 
 tate the drying. They are then removed from 
 the field to the tobacco-house, around which are 
 erected light scaffolds, to which the plants are 
 suspended, generally by passing a thin stick 
 through a split in the stalk of each, and so plac- 
 ing a number of plants on each stick, just near 
 enough to prevent them touching each other. 
 After some lime hanging in the open air, the 
 plants on the sticks are removed, and suspended 
 in a similar way inside the curing-house until 
 the drying is completed. The leaves are next 
 removed from the stalks, and all bad ones re- 
 jected. The chosen ones are tied up in bundles 
 called hands, and these are packed in hogsheads, 
 enormous pressure being applied in the packing. 
 These hogsheads are 48 inches in length and 32 
 inches at the head, containing from 650 pounds 
 of the lightest Maryland to 1500 of Ohio. 
 There is a State inspection in nearly all the 
 States where tobacco is grown, and the grade 
 branded by the inspector determines the value. 
 
 Nearly half in value of all the tobacco grown 
 is manufactured into cigars. In the revenue 
 system here 25 pounds of rough leaves are 
 allowed for 1000 cigars ; and these cigars when 
 ready for sale will average 15 to 17 pounds per 
 1000. Tobacco is the subject of heavy taxation 
 in all civilized countries, and in some its sale is a 
 government monopoly. In this country every 
 form of preparation of the leaf for consumption 
 is taxed, and the Internal Revenue Department 
 is supposed to keep its eye open on tobacco every- 
 where. 
 
 Connecticut Seed-Leaf is a well-known variety ; so 
 are Imported Havana, Vitginia and Kentucky. 
 
 The General Grant is the earliest tobacco in 
 cultivation ; produces immense foliage, of fine 
 texture, small-veined and elastic ; ripens as far 
 north as Minnesota. 
 
DOGS 
 
 339 
 
 DOGS, VARIETIES AND TREATMENT. 
 
 Back 346 
 
 Basset Hound 340 
 
 Beagle 341 
 
 Black-and-Tan 343 
 
 Bloodhound 340 
 
 Bulldog 344 
 
 Care of a Brood Bitch 347 
 
 Care of a Brood Bitch after whelping . 348 
 
 Care of Stud Dog 347 
 
 Chest 346 
 
 Choice of Puppies 347 
 
 Clumber Spaniel 342 
 
 Coach-Dog 343 
 
 Cocker and Field Spaniel 342 
 
 Cross-Breede 340 
 
 Dachshund 340 
 
 Deerhound 340 
 
 Dhole 340 
 
 Dingo , 340 
 
 Diseases of Dogs 348 
 
 Acute Laryngitis 348 
 
 After a Bitch wlielps 350 
 
 Anaemia 349 
 
 Asthma 349 
 
 Balanitis 350 
 
 Bronchitis 348 
 
 Canker 350 
 
 Colic 351 
 
 Complication attending parturition . 348 
 
 Diarrliea 351 
 
 Diet and Care of the Sick .... 348 
 
 Disease around the Anus .... 350 
 
 Disease of the Ear 350 
 
 Disease of the Liver 350 
 
 Diseases of the Blood ..... 349 
 
 Diseases of the Mouth 349 
 
 Disinfection 348 
 
 Distemper 35i 
 
 Disorders of the Digestive Organs . 349 
 
 Diseases of Dogs : 
 
 Dysentery 350 
 
 Eczema 351 
 
 Fevers 348 
 
 Fits 351 
 
 Fleas 351 
 
 Follicular Mange 351 
 
 Fractures or Dislocations «... 352 
 
 Hydrophobia 351 
 
 Inflammation of the Digestive Organs 349 
 
 Influenza 348 
 
 Lice 351 
 
 Malpresentations 350 
 
 Meningitis 351 
 
 Obstruction 349 
 
 0|>hthalmia 351 
 
 Peritonitis 349 
 
 Piles 350 
 
 Pneumonia 348 
 
 Retention of the Urine 350 
 
 Respiratory Diseases 348 
 
 Rheumatism 351 
 
 Sarcoptic Mange 351 
 
 Skin Diseases 351 
 
 Sprains or Bruises . 352 
 
 Teeth 349 
 
 The Pulse 348 
 
 Use of Instruments 350 
 
 Worms 351 
 
 Dog, Housing 346 
 
 Domesticated Dog 339 
 
 Elbow 346 
 
 English Greyhound 340 
 
 Exercising 347 
 
 Feeding 346 
 
 Feet 346 
 
 Foxhound 340 
 
 Fox-Terrier 340 
 
 Great Dane 340 
 
 Head 342 
 
 History of Dogs 339 
 
 Irish Terrier 340 
 
 Irish Water Spaniel 342 
 
 Italian tlreyhound 34s 
 
 MaTiagement of Dogs 346 
 
 Mastiff 344 
 
 Mating 347 
 
 Mexican Hairless Dog 346 
 
 Neck 346 
 
 Newfoundland 344 
 
 Otter Hound 340 
 
 Pariah 340 
 
 Pastoral 340 
 
 Pomeranian 344 
 
 Poodle 343 
 
 Retrievers 343 
 
 Rough Collie 343 
 
 Russian Wolfhound ....... 340 
 
 Scotch Terrier ......... 342 
 
 Setter and Pointer ....... 342 
 
 Sheep-Dog 343 
 
 Shoulders 346 
 
 Smooth Collie 343 
 
 Spaniels 342 
 
 Standards 345 
 
 St. Bernard 344 
 
 Terriers 340 
 
 The Bitch 347 
 
 Thighs 34S 
 
 Toy-Dogs 344 
 
 Toy Spaniels , 344 
 
 Treatment of Bitch after Conception . 347 
 
 Washing of Dogs 347 
 
 Watch-Dog 340 
 
 Weaning Puppies ....... 348 
 
 Wild Dog 339 
 
 Yorkshire Terrier ........ 342 
 
 No one can doubt that the varieties of dogs exist- 
 ing to-day have been produced by selection and 
 crossing. 
 
 Some breeds which existed twenty years ago have 
 almost, if not quite, disappeared at the present day. 
 The French naturalist Cuvier attempted to make 
 a scientific classification of dogs, founded on the 
 shape of the head, length of jaws, etc., although 
 these distinctive features vary according to the 
 
 peculiar qualities, habits, etc., of the breed. This 
 
 classification does not seem possible ; and as the 
 purpose for which a particular breed is used has 
 largely to do with the form and psychic characteris- 
 tics of the animal, the following classification given 
 by Stonehenge is suggested : 
 
 1. Wild and half-reclaimed dogs, hunting in packs. 
 
 2. Domesticated dogs, hunting chiefly by the eye, and 
 killing their game for the use of man. 
 
340 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 3. Domesticated dogs, hunting chiefly by the nose, 
 and both finding and killing their game. 
 
 4. Domesticated dogs, finding game by scent, but not 
 killing it; being chiefly used in aid of the gun. 
 
 5. Pastoral dogs and those used for the purposes of 
 draught. 
 
 6. Watch-dogs, house-dogs, and toy-dogs. 
 
 7. Crossed breeds, retrievers, ttc. 
 
 Class L 
 
 Among this class are the dingo, dhole, pariah, 
 the wild dog of Africa, and the North and South 
 American dogs. 
 
 The Dingo. — Is much like the fox in appearance, 
 twenty-four inches in height, but, unlike the fox, 
 carries the tail curled over the hip. 
 
 The Dhole. — A native wild dog of India, resem- 
 bling the dingo, but without a bushy tail. He is a 
 foe to wild animals, even the tiger, and has great 
 speed and endurance. 
 
 The Pariah. — Also is a native of India, and al- 
 though roving by nature, they can be taught to 
 hunt. 
 
 The wild African dogs are wild, ferocious, and 
 scavengers of the refuse in the village streets. 
 
 Class II. 
 
 The English Greyhound. — A combination of 
 strength, grace and great speed. 
 
 The head of the greyhound is long, thin and 
 tapering, with a full, clean eye. The ears small, and 
 folded back closely to the head. The coat is glossy 
 and smooth and may be of almost any color. A 
 small greyhound is preferable for speed. 
 
 The Deerhound. — An animal suitable for any 
 work, with a heavy head and neck. Color, dark- 
 blue, fawn, grizzle, brindle. Coat, rough, coarser 
 on the back than on other parts of the body. 
 
 The Russian Wolfhound. — This is a more recently 
 popular breed, and is seen to some degree in Amer- 
 ica, although used more in Russia and Britain. The 
 dog is of great size, a combination of greyhound 
 and setter, with an elegant, strong form, and is 
 exceedingly muscular. 
 
 Class III. 
 
 The Bloodhound. — The largest of hounds ; he re- 
 sembles the English foxhound. 
 
 Skull, narrow and domed. Eyes, small, set in 
 head far back, and with a third red eyelid. Ears, 
 very long and silky, hanging closely to the. head. 
 Muzzle, blunt on the end and long. Coat, short 
 but soft. Color, tan and black. 
 
 The Foxhound. — The breeding of this dog has 
 been most rigidly selected to fit him for his particu- 
 lar work, and his form is considered a model one 
 for speed and endurance. 
 
 Head, large with good-sized brain. 
 
 Muzzle, long with open nostrils. Back, very 
 
 muscular. Legs and feet of great strength. Coat, 
 thick and short. Color, black, tan, and white, 
 black and white, and a yellowish tan. 
 
 The Beagle. — A symmetrical small foxhound, used 
 in a pack for rabbit-hunting. Eyes, soft and mild 
 in expression, with an indentation between. It is 
 important that the dog should not stand higher 
 than fifteen inches at the shoulder. 
 
 The Otter Hound. — Uncertain in temper but cour- 
 ageous. They are like the bloodhound with the 
 exception of the coat, which is thick and suited to 
 the habits of the dog. 
 
 The Basset Hound. — This dog is a slow traveler, 
 which is considered desirable in hunting deer. 
 The head is similar to that of a bloodhound ; the 
 body is long, but the legs are short with crooked 
 fore-legs, so that the feet turn out. 
 
 The Dachshund. — This is a German name, mean- 
 ing badger-dog.- The body is long with very short 
 legs, the front ones crooked, and turning out at the 
 toes. The head is long, narrow, running to a peak 
 on top. Bright eyes ; long, silky, low-hanging ears. 
 The coat is either long or short and very thick. 
 
 The Croat Dane. — A cross between a mastiiT and 
 the greyliound ; he is gentle and easily managed, 
 although so ferocious in appearance as to make an 
 excellent watch-dog for an estate. 
 
 The minimum height for the dog is 30 inches, 
 weight 130 pounds; for the bitch, 28 inches and 
 100 pounds. The head resembles that of the bull- 
 terrier. The ears are usually cut, but if not, are 
 like those of the greyhound. Neck, long, and set 
 cleanly on the body. Coat, short and thick. Colors, 
 gr.ay, blue, black, white, red, tan, brindle, with 
 patches of dark color. 
 
 Terriers. — Many breeds for different purposes, 
 but with certain characteristics which make the 
 terrier race distinct. The head is somewhat wedge- 
 shaped, with strong jaws and teeth, small, close 
 ears, and bright, deep-set eyes. The body must be 
 very strong and active, capable of speed. The coat 
 may be very long and silky or short and thick. 
 
 The Fox-Terrier. — Used for starting but not kill- 
 ing the fox, a good rat-catcher, intelligent, lively 
 and companionable. 
 
 Head, narrowing toward muzzle; ears small, fre- 
 quently cropped ; black nose ; dark rims around 
 eyes ; teeth level ; neck, clean and muscular ; 
 chest, deep ; well-sprung ribs ; loin, strong, not 
 tucked up in flanks. Stern (tail), usually docked, 
 but if not, should be carried high. Legs and feet 
 resemble the foxhound. Coat, either smooth or 
 wire-haired. If sinooth, it should be rather coarse, 
 flat, and thick ; if wire-haired the coat should be 
 hard, wiry and longer than the sinooth-coated ter- 
 rier. Color, should be brindle, red, or liver, with 
 a large amount of white, and a trace of black. The 
 weight should be from 16 to 20 pounds. , 
 
 Irish Terrier. — This breed is not so extensively j 
 
DOGS. 
 
 341 
 
342 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 used in America as in Britain. He closely resem- 
 bles the fox-terrier but is larger. A fighter, but 
 companionable to man. Coat, straight, flat, much 
 like a wire-haired fo.\-terrier. Color, whole-colored, 
 red, wheaten, yellow and gray. Weight, i6 to 24 
 pounds. 
 
 Black-and-Tan Terrier. — A good dog for vermin 
 but not as popular as the fox-terrier. Not sociable, 
 and sensitive to cold. Head, long and narrow, 
 wedge in shape. Eyes dark, very bright; ears, 
 small, set close together on top of the head; chest, 
 narrow between fore-legs, deep in brisket ; ribs well 
 sprung. Loin, slightly tucked up ; quarters power- 
 ful. Feet, black nails ; two middle toes longest. 
 Tail, short and tapering. Coat, short and glossy. 
 Color, very important, sharply defined. Black pre- 
 vailing color. Weight, about the same as Irish 
 terrier. 
 
 T/ie Yorkshire Terrier. — A toy-dog, the chief fea- 
 ture being the coat, which is long, hanging straight 
 down on each side from the top of the head to the 
 tail. Head, small; nose, black; eyes, bright and 
 dark; ears, small and half erect, sometimes cropped. 
 Coat, steel-blue, with golden tan on muzzle ; deep 
 tan on ears and legs. Weight about five pounds. 
 
 Scotch Terriers. — Comprising the Skye and the 
 hard-haired. These dogs are gentle and great 
 pets. They stand low, with a long body, a Skye 
 being three times his height in length. Weight 
 should not be above twenty pounds. Coat, on the 
 hard-haired type is about two inches long, hard and 
 thick ; on the Skye it is very long, bright and not 
 silky, except on the top of the head. Color, steel 
 or iron-gray, black brindle, brown brindle, and 
 gray brindle. The color of the Skye most preferred 
 is slaty or steel-blue. 
 
 Class IV. 
 
 In this class are included pointers, setters and 
 different kinds of spaniels. All breeds of dogs, 
 wild or domesticated, have a natural faculty for 
 scenting their prey ; but in the case of the class we 
 are now considering there has been going on a rigid 
 process of weeding out the inferior dogs, and breed- 
 ing only from the best, through many generations, 
 until a class of animals has been evolved, in which 
 scenting game is not only a natural instinct, but 
 also the reason for their greatest usefulness to man. 
 A dog thus highly developed in "scenting" and 
 " pointing" qualities, is of great sagacity and usu- 
 ally of a highly nervous organism. So important 
 are these powers in this class of dogs, together 
 with great speed and endurance, that symmetry 
 and beauty of form are secondary considerations. 
 
 Setter and Pointer. — Skull, long, not wide, with 
 long muzzle and widely opened nostrils. Eye, 
 kind and intelligent ; ears, long, low-hanging and 
 soft. Neck, long and graceful ; shoulders, back, 
 loin, suited for speed and endurance. The leg- 
 
 bones, pasterns and feet must be strong. Coat 
 in these breeds must be very thick and heavy, 
 especially on the ears, legs, breast and tail. The 
 pointer's coat is short and soft, but not as silky as 
 the setter's. The Gordon is the largest and heavi- 
 est of the setter family ; the Irish, the lightest built 
 but most wiry. The English is a medium between 
 the two 
 
 Head. — The pointer's head is wider from ear to 
 ear, consisting of two rounded flats with a depres- 
 sion between. The entire head of the Gordon is 
 heavier than the others. The Irish setter's head 
 is long and thin with a domed skull. All setters' 
 noses should be dark in color. Tail is carried 
 erect, curving slightly toward the back of the 
 animal. Color, in the case of the English settei" 
 and pointer, is not of much importance ; liver and 
 white, black, white and tan, blue belton, white 
 flecked with black. The choice color for the Irish 
 setter is dark red. 
 
 Spaniels. — In Britain the Clumber, field. Cocker, 
 Irish water and English water spajiiels are used for 
 hunting. In America the only one of these breeds 
 which is popular is the Cocker. All spaniels are of 
 a sweet, gentle, shy nature. 
 
 Cocker and Field Spaniels. — These dogs are low, 
 heavy and cobby, weighing between eighteen and 
 and twenty-eight pounds. The eyes should be very 
 bright and of the color of the coat. The neck fairly 
 long but cleanly built ; shoulders, muscular; chest, 
 wide ; ribs, well sprung ; legs and feet, strong ; fore- 
 legs not bandy, as is commonly the case ; feet, 
 medium size, thick pads, and a deep fringe of hair 
 between the toes. Length of body should be con- 
 siderable ; for the Cocker, " from tip of nose to root 
 of tail about twice the height at shoulder, rather 
 more than less." Coat very thick, silky, wavy but 
 not too tightly curled ; chest, tail, ears and legs 
 heavily feathered. Color, black, liver and white, 
 and various shades of red. Tail usually docked, 
 especially if the dog is to be used for hunting. 
 
 Clinnber Spaniel. — Very long body, heavy look- 
 ing, with great power. Head very massive, flat on 
 top, depression from between the eyes, running up 
 to top of skull. Jaw long, with deep muzzle of great 
 strength ; nostrils, wide spread ; eyes, soft, deep-set 
 and intelligent ; ears, long, turned over on front 
 edge. Length twice and a half times height at shoul- 
 der. Coat,silky, straight, rather short, thick; color, 
 lemon and white, orange and white, solid lemon 
 or orange ears ; tail usually docked, carried low. 
 
 Irish Water Spaniel. — Not as popular in Amer- 
 ica as in Britain, although no dog is better suited 
 for water retrieving and duck-shooting. Very in- 
 telligent, but not always good-tempered. Head, 
 medium length, broad. Muzzle, long and broad. 
 Eyes, dark and bright. Ears, long and curly. 
 Chest, deep. Loin, rather arching. Tail, strong, 
 coming to a fine point at the end. Legs, long; 
 
DOGS. 
 
 343 
 
 feet, large. Coat, small curls all over except on 
 face and tail. On head a long top-knot, falling 
 over the eyes. Color, dark liver, sometimes a little 
 white on breast and toes. 
 
 Retrievers. — This breed of dogs is used in 
 Britain for retrieving on land, but in America the 
 spaniels, pointers and setters take their place. 
 There are two classes of retrievers : wavy-coated 
 and curley-coated black retrievers. Both kinds 
 are large. This kind of dog was formed prob- 
 
 The Poodle. — In Europe these animals are used 
 for fowling, but in America his chief use is that of 
 lap-dog. He is very intelligent, and is frequently 
 used for performing tricks in the circus, shows, etc. 
 Head, large and broad; muzzle, long; roof of 
 mouth, black ; eyes, dark, with a direct look ; ears, 
 long and silky. Tail, frequently docked. Coat, in 
 the Russian, stiff; in the French, woolly; in the 
 corded, long curls. Color, pure white and pure 
 black, sometimes a kind of liver color. 
 
 Hunters. 
 
 ably by a cross between a Newfoundland and the 
 spaniel or setter. There are a few qualities which 
 are essential, viz., speed, endurance, long neck for 
 stooping power, scenting power, docility and a 
 desire to work. 
 
 The Da/mat/on or Coach-Dog. — In his native coun- 
 try this dog is employed in the same way a 
 pointer is used in this country. Here he is gen- 
 erally used for following a carriage, being adapted 
 for long journeys ; muscular, though not heavy. 
 The markings are his chief attraction, counting 40 
 per cent, by standard of the club, being black 
 spots on a white ground, the spots the size of 
 an English shilling. The spots must also be so 
 close that there will not seem to be patches of 
 white. 
 
 Class V. 
 
 Sheep-Dogs. — This class includes the rough and 
 smooth collies, and the bob-tailed sheep-dog. 
 These dogs must be very intelligent, capable of 
 great traveling powers and endurance, and heavily 
 coated to resist rain and cold. 
 
 Rough Co///e.^Head, flat, tapering toward the 
 muzzle, the upper teeth projecting a little over the 
 lower. Ears, very small and erect when listening; 
 neck, long, also loin. Tail, long, well feathered. 
 Coat, very abundant ; outer coat, stiff and rather 
 harsh ; inner coat, soft and exceedingly thick. 
 Color, sable and white, black and white, and black 
 and tan. Size, twenty-two or twenty-four inches 
 high. 
 
 Smooth Co/lie.— Is much like the rough collie 
 
344 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 excepting his coat ; liis liead also being wider. 
 Coat, sliort and smootli. 
 
 Pomeranian or Spitz. — Used in his native land 
 as a sheep-dog. In this country he has become a 
 pet. He is between the collie and fox, the smaller 
 specimens being more desirable. Coat, more like 
 fur than hair ; much like the collie. Color, black 
 or white, very finely marked. Tail, curled over the 
 back. 
 
 Newfoundland. — Used in native country for 
 draught purposes ; in other places for a companion 
 and watch-dog, being very intelligent and noble, 
 in which virtues he share's popularity with the St. 
 Bernard. He is distinctly a dog of strength and 
 activity. Head, massive, flat on top. Muzzle, 
 short, square on the end. Ears, small, hanging 
 close to the head. Tail, covered with deep fringe, 
 carried low, and slightly curved. Color, jet black. 
 Coat, coarse, thick but somewhat glossy. Height 
 and weight, 27 inches at shoulder and 185 pounds. 
 
 Class VL 
 
 These dogs are used for guarding property and 
 persons on account of their warning bark, and 
 their keen knowledge of intruders. 
 
 The Bulldog. — Tliis race of dogs was originally 
 bred for the express purpose of badger and bull 
 baiting, their strength of jaw being their strongest 
 point. 
 
 It does not of necessity prove that these dogs 
 are always ferocious and on the fight, for their 
 nature depends almost entirely on their bringing 
 up. The appearance is that of a dog smooth- 
 coated, with broad, deep chest, powerful, clean-cut 
 legs, and a large head. 
 
 " The dog conveys an impression of determina- 
 tion, strength, and activity, 'similar to that sug- 
 gested Sy the appearance of a thick-set Ayrshire 
 or Highland bull." (Standard.) 
 
 Tail, smooth, tapering. Weight, about 50 pounds. 
 The " rose-ear " is preferred rather than the " but- 
 ton-ear" variety. Coat, smooth and short. Color, 
 black brindle, liver and white in varying combina- 
 tions. 
 
 The Mastiff. — The strongest and most muscular 
 of dogs except the great Dane, and a great watch- 
 dog, which is an instinct with him. A good com- 
 panion, gentle, a caretaker of small children, and 
 honest. He will catch and hold an intruder with- 
 out doing him violence, as in the case of the bull- 
 dog. Head, broad. Body, massive, powerful. 
 Legs, far apart and muscular. Skull, flat fore- 
 head, wrinkled depression between the eyes, run- 
 ning up on top of head. Proportionate length of 
 muzzle to head and face, one to three. "Circum- 
 ference of muzzle (measured midway between eyes 
 and tip of nose) to that of head (measured before 
 ears) as three to five." 
 
 Ears, small, close to the head. Eyes, small. 
 
 wide apart, dark. Legs and feet, strong and rather 
 large. Coat, short and close. Color, tawny, fawn, 
 fawn brindle. Muzzle, nose and ears black, also 
 around the eyes. 
 
 The St. Bernard. — Large, fine coat and color, 
 courageous, intelligent, dignified. Exceedingly 
 popular among men. Size, very important, es- 
 pecially head. 
 
 Head, very powerful. Skull, wide, curving on the 
 sides. Eyebrows, strongly marked, deep wrinkles. 
 on the forehead. Muzzle, short tip, square end. 
 Upper jaw usually over-hanging. Black roof in 
 mouth. Nose, broad. Ears, very large, standing 
 out slightly. Eyes, medium size, brown, set in 
 deeply. Very good-natured expression. Shoul- 
 ders, rather sloping. Legs, heavy; feet, large and 
 broad. Tail, long and heavily feathered, slightly- 
 curled up. Coat, of two kinds, smooth and rough 
 coat. In the smooth-coat variety the coat is close, 
 wiry and very thick. In the rough-coated dog the 
 coat is slightly wavy, never curly and long. Tail, 
 bushy. Color markings, orange, tawny with white 
 markings and dark shadings. These markings are 
 most desirable : 
 
 White chest, feet, end of tail, muzzle, collar. 
 White on nape of neck. A little dark on face and 
 ears is considered desirable. 
 
 Toy-Dogs. — These dogs are small specimens usu- 
 ally, and frequently lack in stamina, being so much 
 confined to the house and having but little exercise, 
 with a great variety of food. 
 
 Toy-dogs are usually intelligent, but are fre- 
 quently obstinate and not always of a pleasant dis- 
 position ; but they are kept for their good looks 
 rather than for any other quality. 
 
 The chief breeds of America and Great Britain 
 are the pug, spaniels and Italian greyhound, toy- 
 terrier, and the Mexican hairless dogs. 
 
 The Pug. — A dog of not great intelligence, but 
 active and independent. Very much like a small 
 mastiff, but entirely different in disposition. Head, 
 round, large, deep wrinkles. Muzzle, short and 
 square. Eyes, very large, dark, prominent, intelli- 
 gent in expression. Ears, soft and small. Body, 
 legs and feet cobby in build. Tail, curl from tail 
 over the hip ; double curl especially desirable. 
 Coat, smooth, glossy but not silky. Color, silver, 
 apricot, fawn markings on muzzle and ears, dia- 
 mond on forehead. The nose should -be as black 
 as possible. Size, 13 to 17 pounds. 
 
 Toy Spaniels. — Long-haired, affectionate and 
 companionable. The different kinds are known by 
 their color distinctions. Head, skull rather domed, 
 branching from eyes. Muzzle, exceedingly short. 
 Nose, turned up. Eyes, far apart, soft, large and 
 lustrous. Ears, very long, 20 to 22 inches from tip 
 to tip, longer than in either the King Charles or 
 Blenheim. Tail, frequently docked. Coat, long, 
 soft, wavy. Legs and feet, feathered, also the tail. 
 
DOGS. 
 
 34i 
 
 In Full Cry. 
 
346 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 Color, varieties : King Charles, a sillcy black-and- 
 tan. Blenheim, ground white, patches of red or 
 chestnut. Charles I. spaniel, same as Blenheim, 
 but with black in place of red. 
 
 Italian Greyhound. — Nervous, delicate, and ex- 
 ceedingly graceful ; he much resembles the grey- 
 hound with the exception of not having so good a 
 head. Coat, short and silky. Color, fawns more 
 desirable. Size, not exceeding 7^ pounds. 
 
 Mexican Hairless Dog. — This dog has almost no 
 hair, the skin being copper color spotted with black. 
 
 Standards. — A standard of any breed should mean 
 a nearly perfect dog. Clubs have been estab- 
 lished in the interest of almost every breed, and we 
 can attribute the good qualities of most of the dogs 
 about us to the club's care in weeding out the in- 
 ferior ones, and- breeding only of the desirable. 
 Holding dog-shows and giving prizes are a great 
 stimulus to breeders of dogs to excel each other in 
 the perfection of their kennels. 
 
 The dog, like most other quadrupeds, is made up 
 of the following sections. Of the body: 
 
 Head, neck, chest, shoulders, back, loins, quar- 
 ters, tail, legs and feet. Character plays a leading 
 part in the desirability of the dog. He may be 
 properly formed and perfect in almost every other 
 respect, but without a good disposition he is hardly 
 fit for any use. 
 
 Head. — This is a very important part of the dog, 
 as it contains the brain, which is the location of the 
 sensitive organs. It also determines the quality 
 and general characteristics of dogs. 
 
 Neck. — It is not necessary to say much on this 
 subject except that it should be in keeping with the 
 rest of the dog and be free from loose skin. 
 
 Shoulders. — When the animal is to be used for 
 speed the shoulders should be sloping, as in the 
 greyhound, also the race-horse. 
 
 Chest. — The chest should be narrow in front to 
 give room to the heart and lungs, but it must be 
 wide above. 
 
 Back. — Must be rather short and level. Loins 
 and quarters muscular, which means breadth and 
 depth. In bitches there should be more depth 
 than in dogs. 
 . Thighs. — Well-developed and muscular. 
 
 Legs and Feet. — The feet should be very strong 
 and muscular. From the elbow to the pastern the 
 leg should be perfectly straight with a large bone. 
 The pasterns must be strong to enable the dog to 
 gallop, jump, etc. 
 
 Elbows. — Should also be strong and well turned, 
 but neither " in" nor " out." 
 
 The feet are of two kinds, the barefoot and the 
 catfoot. It is a question which is more desirable, 
 but it is probably more a question of thickening of 
 the pads than the former. 
 
 The toe-nails are important, as the loss of one 
 may weaken the foot. 
 
 The tail seems to be of little importance, al- 
 though it has much to do with the character and 
 importance of good breeding. The tail is-used fre- 
 quently to enable the dog to balance himself, and 
 the docked tail frequently causes the animal incon- 
 venience for this reason. 
 
 Management of Healthy Dogs. — Mongrels are much 
 more easily kept in a healthy condition than high- 
 bred animals from the few essentials in management, 
 such as housing, feeding, exercise and grooming, 
 etc. 
 
 There are many opinions expressed on all these 
 subjects ; but the surest way to keep your dog in a 
 healthy condition is to find out for yourself what 
 things do, and do not, agree with him. 
 
 The Dog-Housing. — A life of comparative quiet is 
 almost necessary to a dog's nervous organization. 
 The natural inclination of such a dog is to retire in 
 some corner for a quiet nap three times a day, and 
 a dog's sleeping-place should be, first of all, cool, 
 temperature not exceeding 60°, clean, absolutely 
 dry, and ventilated. 
 
 A very good arrangement for a small dog is a 
 large wooden box turned on its side, with a rug or 
 piece of carpet spread inside of it. If the dog is 
 housed out-of-doors in a kennel the subject of dry- 
 ness becomes more difficult to handle. The floor 
 of the house should be raised above the ground. 
 The kennel should be placed in a sunny, sloping 
 position with the outlook towards the south, so 
 that sunlight can reach it at all times of the day. 
 Fresh sawdust spread upon the floor is a good deo- 
 dorizer. When boxes are used for beds they should 
 be very often cleaned and disinfected to prevent 
 vermin. 
 
 Feeding. — This is a subject of greatest impor- 
 tance to the health of the dog, and is responsible 
 for a large amount of the ills of the canine race. 
 For young dogs milk is most desirable ; but the 
 fact must be remembered that food must be varied 
 according to the environments. Cooked meat is 
 better when fed in large quantities ; when raw meat 
 is used, it should be closely examined to see that it 
 contains no germs. Cooked liver is excellent, but 
 not as a regular diet. An agreeable dish for a dog 
 consists in boiling sheep's or ox's heads until the 
 flesh comes off'. Flavor the broth with salt, skim 
 off the fat, and mix with it meal, corn-meal, spare 
 bread or biscuits. Dog-bread, as Spratfs for in- 
 stance, is convenient, but not good for regular use. 
 Cake, candy, or otlier sweets, it is needless to say, 
 are most injurious to a dog's digestion and bring on 
 many troubles. Dogs that have a great deal of 
 exercise, such as hunting, may be allowed about all 
 the food that they will take ; but dogs who are kept 
 close at home and toy-dogs require a great deal of 
 care. The breakfast should be simple, but at night 
 the meal should be substantial. Toy-dogs must be 
 given very little meat ; milk, stale bread and eggs 
 
UOGS. 
 
 347 
 
 are good substitutes. Two meals a day are sufficient 
 for any dog. 
 
 Exercise. — If a dog is not used for any kind of 
 work he must be exercised. To lead him by a 
 chain is better than nothing, but it is a very poor 
 idea. To keep a dog chained constantly is a 
 cruelty. If it is considered necessary to keep a 
 dog shut up, he should have a yard around his 
 kennel, fenced in for his use. When a dog comes 
 in tired out from a long run he should not be given 
 food at once. 
 
 Care of Dog's Skin. — This requires a great deal 
 of work. Brushing is necessary to all dogs, both 
 to brush out any foreign matter which may have 
 gotten entangled with the hair, and to improve the 
 gloss and appearance of the coat. 
 
 Washing. — Large dogs are rather hard to handle 
 when washed, and a cold is frequently the result. 
 Keep the dog free from draught in a temperature 
 not lower than 60°. For some dogs tar soap 
 may be used ; but in the case of spaniels it fre- 
 quently fades the hair. A good all-round soap is 
 Ivory. Use moderately warm water, with plenty 
 of soap-suds, and use a scrub-brush. When the 
 dog is taken out of the water dry him quickly, as 
 much as possible, and allow him to lie rolled up in 
 an old blanket until dry. 
 
 THE BITCH. 
 
 The female organs of generation at certain times 
 undergo a great amount of energy, resulting in the 
 maturation in the ovary, of eggs, which are dis- 
 charged into the Fallopian tubes, where they be- 
 come impregnated by the male cells. These periods 
 of sexual activity in the bitch occur usually twice a 
 year. Frequently these periods are preceded by ex- 
 citement. The mammary glands become enlarged, 
 and the disposition is somewhat changed. As soon 
 as the ova have become matured the female accepts 
 the male. The bitch may usually be allowed her 
 own time for accepting the male. Dogs " in coitu " 
 must not be forcibly separated. 
 
 The time of being in " heat " extends over about 
 three weeks, and during this time the bitch must 
 be separated from all other dogs except the one 
 chosen. 
 
 It is necessary that the brood bitch be given the 
 greatest care, as her health, temper and occupation 
 influence her offspring. The mother and fetus 
 being so closely connected, it follows that the fetus 
 must influence the mother, which explains in some 
 cases why members of litters may resemble previ- 
 ous sires. " Reversion" or " atavism " implies re- 
 semblance to a previous sire. 
 
 Mating. — In considering this, both animals must 
 be selected carefully. The less closely animals are 
 connected, so long as type can be secured and 
 maintained, the better, and the reasons can be 
 
 clearly seen. Good results cannot be obtained 
 from two extremes. Dogs deficient in health and 
 strength should not be used in a stud. Frequently 
 a show bitch or dog is a poor breeder, while a 
 homely one, strongly made and vigorous, will pro- 
 duce puppies much superior to herself 
 
 Tlie Care of a Stud Dog. — In choosing the dog 
 to mate with the bitch his condition must be con- 
 sidered, for it may have a marked effect on the 
 constitution of his offspring. Of such dogs the 
 greatest care must be taken. His food must be 
 nutritious and strengthening, such as eggs, broths, 
 and even cod-liver oil and phosphates. He should 
 have periods of sexual rest to enable him to re- 
 cuperate, free from excitement. 
 
 The Care of the Brood Bitch. — She should be 
 wholly matured. Bitches when too fleshy are not 
 able to conceive. When in " heat " the bitch must 
 have less exercise than usual, avoid accidents, and 
 her food must be less stimulating. 
 
 Treatment of the Bitch after Conception. — Is 
 greatly to be considered, and it must be remem- 
 bered that there are several young coming to life 
 at the expense of one organism. 
 
 Increase in size is seldom noticed before the 
 fourth or fifth week of gestation. The whole period 
 of gestation extends over nine weeks or sixty days. 
 The last three weeks are of great importance. Ex- 
 ercise should be cut down, and the bitch should be 
 kept quiet. Ventilation is an important point, life 
 out-of-doors being essential. Preparations should 
 be made for whelping. AH vermin and dirt should 
 be removed from the mother by washing. Matters 
 should be so regulated that the puppies come in 
 summer or spring. At this time the bitch has an 
 inclination to retire, and should be allowed a sepa- 
 rate kennel, outside, and away from all other dogs. 
 Porridge and milk are useful in opening the bowels ; 
 but if the bowels are confined, castor-oil is a rem- 
 edy. Medicine should be avoided. A stall or loose 
 box in a stable, with straw in one corner, should be 
 provided. Beneath the straw should be placed a 
 piece of clean carpet which has been disinfected. 
 Only those whom the bitch likes should approach 
 her at this time. The temperature should not be 
 lower than 68. The mother cleans the puppies 
 thoroughly as soon as they appear, although the 
 bedding and herself may be in a very foul condi- 
 tion. So, as soon as the puppies are all born, it 
 is wise to renew the bed, using some disinfectant, 
 and to sponge off the bitch with warm water, adding 
 a few drops of carbolic acid, and dry well with 
 cloths. It is well to allow the puppies to suck as 
 soon as they wish, as it has a beneficial eifect upon 
 the bitch. The mother should be encouraged to 
 leave her young, and go out in the fresh air and 
 exercise. 
 
 Choice of Puppies. — In a litter all the puppies are 
 not equally vigorous and beautiful. It is wiser to 
 
348 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 quickly put out of the way any weak or deformed 
 ones. Ordinarily a bitch cannot well take care of 
 more than four or six puppies, and it would be 
 cruelty to allow her to have a litter of from eight to 
 twelve puppies. 
 
 Care of the Brood Bitch after Whelping. — Consti- 
 pation and diarrhea must be checked or her milk 
 may be affected. Constipation can be relieved by 
 a rectal injection. A nursing bitch ought to be 
 fed three times a day with most nutritious food. A 
 bitch after whelping grows thinner, and, losing her 
 coat, may have eczema. 
 
 Weaning Puppies. — A bitch can seldom feed her 
 puppies more than four or five weeks, and should 
 be aided in her duties after the third week. The 
 only practical substitute is cow's milk, about one- 
 half water for the first two days, and gradually 
 strengthened to full strength. Soon the young 
 dogs can eat boiled rice and oatmeal porridge, with 
 stale bread added to their milk. Meat should not 
 be given until puppies are at least one year old, 
 with the exception of bones, which have been well 
 cleaned. These may be given for the purpose of 
 strengthening their teeth. 
 
 PART II.— THE DOG IN DISEASE. 
 
 Fevers. — The disease known as fever is indi- 
 cated by an elevation of temperature, and the symp- 
 toms are rapid pulse, perspiration and diminished 
 excretion. 
 
 The Pulse — This is found in the under part of 
 the back leg of the dog, near the body, although 
 frequently the pulse can be felt through the chest 
 wall. If the dog is of an excitable nature he must 
 be quieted when the pulse is taken. At birth it is 
 very rapid, being from 130 to 160; after one year, 
 from 70 to 90. 
 
 It is difficult to regulate the size of a dose of 
 medicine for a dog ; but for a full-grown St. Ber- 
 nard it should be the same as for an adult human 
 being ; and for small dogs it should be about the 
 same as for a child. For puppies the less medicine 
 the better. The giving of medicine is sometimes 
 very difficult, and the easiest way is as follows : 
 
 Put the animal in a corner, open the mouth with 
 the fingers, press the jaws apart, pouring the medi- 
 cine, if a liquid, from a spoon down the throat, as 
 far back as possible. To prevent him spitting it out, 
 hold his head up high until he is compelled to 
 swallow it. Pills are usually easily given. Fre- 
 quently medicine can be given by putting it in the 
 food or drinking water. After administering any 
 dose the dog should be petted and encouraged, so 
 that he will not dread it the next time he takes it. 
 
 Diet and Care of the Sick. — Dogs are usually very 
 wise in the knowledge of their stomachs, refusing 
 to eat when the digestion is disordered. When too 
 sick to care for his regular food, broths, milk, eggs 
 and rice in various forms may be used ; but if the 
 dog gets so very ill that he refuses to eat anything, 
 there should be some very strong broth prepared, 
 and give a spoonful of this with a few drops of wine, 
 or some other stimulant, every hour to keep up 
 strength until he is better. 
 
 Disinfection. — To prevent disease an animal must 
 be kept sweet and clean and free from vermin. 
 Good preparations to use are " sanitas sawdust" 
 and " creosin." 
 
 Respiratory Diseases. — All these diseases, espe- 
 cially those having acute inflammation, are much 
 alike. They are frequently caused by exposure to 
 cold, changes in temperature, or sleeping in cold, 
 damp kennels. Draughts must absolutely be 
 avoided. Digitalis and alcoholic stimulants in 
 small doses are found to be useful for a weak heart ; 
 for a dog's strength must be maintained at all 
 costs. 
 
 Injlitenza. — This disease is known also by the 
 the name of epizootic, and is an inflammation of 
 the mucous membrane of the head, sometimes end- 
 ing in pneumonia. The symptoms are sneezing, 
 dryness and burning, high temperature and pros- 
 tration ; the eyes are affected and a watery sub- 
 stance comes from the nose and eyes. Quinine 
 with bromide potassium may be used at the begin- 
 ning. If depressed, give stimulants. 
 
 Acute Laryngitis. — This may result from a cold or 
 tightening of the chain about a dog's neck. Symp- 
 toms are, difficulty in swallowing, change in the 
 voice of the dog, and a husky cough. The bowels 
 must be kept open, and the affected parts be irri- 
 tated by painting over with turpentine or coal oil. 
 
 Bronchitis. — This is an inflammation of the mu- 
 cous membrane of the bronchial tubes. Symptoms 
 are swallowing and dryness of the lining of the 
 tubes with mucus discharge. The dog cannot 
 expectorate, as in the case of man, but frequently 
 vomits, which expells the discharge ; other symp- 
 toms are a cough and catarrh of the eyes and nose. 
 At the beginning give twenty grains sulphate of 
 zinc ; if not effective, follow by two to four drams 
 of wine of ipecacuanha. With a dry cough one can 
 choose from the following remedies: viz., ipecac- 
 uanha, ammonia, spirits of chloroform, paregoric 
 and squills. When the acute stage has passed Nux 
 vomica may be used. When a dog has become 
 enfeebled by disease he may be allowed a small 
 amount of alcoholic stimulants. 
 
 Ptiem/ionia. — This is an inflammation of one or 
 both lobes of the lungs. May be caused by wet- 
 
DOGS. 
 
 349 
 
 ling, cold, etc. It is a disease that carries off a 
 large number of dogs, and the patient's vitality is 
 the main chance for recovery. The symptoms are 
 troubled breathing, red eyes, dry nose, difiSculty 
 in lying down, on account of an attempt to keep his 
 head level. This disease is usually brought on with 
 a chill, the pulse is rapid, and the temperature may 
 be as high as io6° F. When the dog coughs up 
 mucus colored with blood, pneumonia is clearly 
 the disease. An excellent thing is to maUe a close- 
 fitting jacket which covers the chest, absorbs the 
 moisture from the dog's .skin, and protects it from 
 ■change in temperature. Blistering is never neces- 
 sary. The temperature of the surroundings should 
 not exceed 60°. The food must be light and of 
 largely a fluid nature. If the pulse is very rapid, 
 aconite may be given. Give the dog plenty of 
 water and buttermilk, if he will drink it. At night, 
 if restless, give fifteen grains of Dover's powder. 
 Give the same quantity of bromide pota.ssium. 
 Whisky and brandy given with eggnog are very 
 useful. If the heart should become weak five drops 
 of the tincture of digitalis should be given for a dog 
 of medium size. 
 
 Asthma. — This is not common in puppies, but 
 frequently comes to pet dogs, who are overfed and 
 not allowed much exercise. Symptoms, wheezy 
 respiration and difficulty in breathing. Tar may 
 be burned to the dog's relief sometimes. 
 
 To relieve the liver and digestive organs give a 
 compound cathartic pill at night with Epsom salts 
 in the morning. Iodide potassium may produce 
 a cure. From one to five grains should be given. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Anaemia. — Is an impoverished condition of the 
 blood, and may be caused by damp kennels and ill 
 feeding. Make the surroundings as hygienic as 
 possible, and feed the most nutritious food. Muri- 
 ated tincture of iron, cod-liver oil, and citrate of 
 iron may be useful. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 Warts may be cut, but the result is apt to be 
 injurious. Nitrate of silver is the safest remedy; 
 also strong acetic acid. 
 
 Teeth. — Bones, crusts and other hard food help 
 to keep the teeth clean. It is frequently necessary 
 to use a brush in order to keep the tartar from the 
 teeth. Gums, if neglected, become softened and 
 abscesses may appear. When this is the case some 
 of the teeth may require to be removed, or the 
 gums to be lanced. If the teeth break off, leaving 
 stumps that may cause trouble later on, the roots 
 should be extracted. In puppies, if the first teeth 
 do not drop out in proper season, they must be 
 removed to make way for the second set. 
 
 Disorders of the Digesthe Organs. — Vomiting is 
 the easiest way for a dog to save himself from in- 
 digestion, and proves that the food has not suited 
 him. Eating grass is a dog's remedy for indiges- 
 tion. If a dog's appetite is capricious, it is best to 
 find if there is any cause for it. Organic disease, 
 or worms in the feces, are sure indications of his 
 internal condition ; and the feces or stools should 
 never be so stiff as to cause him to strain to pass 
 them, nor so fluid as to run in a stream. 
 
 Diarrhea — Is due either to an excess of or unsuit- 
 able food. If it cannot be controlled by dieting 
 and rest, easily digested food must be given. 
 Opiates and astringents must only be used after a 
 good dose of castor-oil. 
 
 Obstruction. — May be caused by continued con- 
 stipation and is serious. Try enemas of warm 
 soap-suds and castor-oil, kneeding the abdomen if 
 necessary. 
 
 Constipation. — Dogs infrequently exercised are 
 liable to this. Boiled liver is excellent, combined 
 with exercise, or Epsom salts in the morning. 
 Coarse flour should be used in the making of bread 
 for dogs. 
 
 Colic. — May be caused by damp, wet and worms, 
 and is detected by symptoms of uneasiness, moan- 
 ing, sharp cries, arched back and difficulty in walk- 
 ing. Give castor-oil with twenty drops of laudanum. 
 If the bowels do not move, an enema is necessary ; 
 and if not successful, try twenty drops of chloro- 
 dyne, or a dram of spirits of chloroform, with the 
 same amount of aromatic spirits of ammonia, diluted 
 with water. 
 
 Inflammation of the Digestive Organs. — Diseases of 
 the alimentary canal are gastritis, or the inflamma- 
 tion of the stomach ; enteritis, or inflammation of 
 the small intestines; dysentery, or inflammation of 
 the large intestines ; and peritonitis, or inflamma- 
 tion of the serous covering of the abdominal walls. 
 Symptoms. — Catarrh and a dry state of the mu- 
 cous membrane. Caused by unhealthy surround- 
 ings, damp and cold, unsuitable food and nervous 
 shock. First vomiting, change of expression and 
 attitude, diarrhea or constipation, sensitiveness of 
 the abdominal walls, elevated temperature, quick- 
 ened pulse and respiration. In advanced cases, 
 delirium and stupor. A dog must have absolute 
 quiet, rest of body and mind, and his strength 
 kept up by either suitable feeding or stimulants. 
 
 Tlie symptoms of gastritis are, vomiting first, 
 tenderness and pain. There is an inclination to lie 
 stretched out on the belly. 
 
 Enteritis is not always clearly distinguished, but 
 calls the attention to the intestines. Dysentery, 
 if not severe, resembles diarrhea. 
 
 Peritonitis. — Is marked by constipation, with 
 great pain and tenderness, and a rapid pulse. 
 Dogs should be separated from other dogs, and 
 given a comfortable bed. Food should be given in 
 
350 
 
 THE FKIEM) UK ALL 
 
 small quantities, but frequently, beginning with 
 liquid, going to more solid food. Lime-water is a 
 good thing to add to the drinking-water or milk 
 which the dog drinks. To start vomiting, give 
 small pieces of ice or very small doses of carbolic 
 acid, one-half to one grain, in a little ice-water. 
 
 Dysentery. — May be treated much the same as 
 diarrhea. In the former, however, it is very bene- 
 ficial to inject boiled starch, with from twenty to 
 forty drops of laudanum, and a dessert-spoonful of 
 listerine, retaining the whole within the bowels by. 
 holding the hand covered with a soft cloth against 
 the anus for ten minutes. It is considered wise in 
 this case, as well as in diarrhea, to use castor-oil 
 or silver buckthorn. Make sure that the bowels 
 are free from any offensive matter. 
 
 Dysentery become Chronic. — Is most obstmate to 
 cure. In this case, use small doses of ipecacuanha, 
 or three to eight drops of wine. If constipation 
 exists, with either gastritis or enteritis, use enemas. 
 While the symptoms are acute in peritonitis, opium 
 is most valuable. Hot applications are also useful. 
 If the heart fails, stimulants should be given ; milk, 
 egg and brandy making a good preparation. For 
 a time the dog should be fed three times a day, but 
 in small quantities, and the greatest care must be 
 taken of him in exercising, housing, etc. 
 
 Disease of t/ie Liver. — Hepatitis, or inflammation 
 of the liver, is hard to diagnose. 
 
 Symptoms. — Indigestion, pain, bad breath, and 
 lying on the chest or stomach, and characteristic 
 stools. Attention should be called especially to 
 the diet and surroundings. 
 
 Diseases around tiie Anus. — Prolapse of the rec- 
 tum. E.xtrusion of a portion of the gut. The first 
 thing is to put back the gut as soon as possible. 
 It should be washed clean with an antiseptic solu- 
 tion of weak carbolic acid, then press gently back, 
 the hind part of the body being raised, and some 
 cold water injected, and retained for a short time. 
 If, after this, the intestines still protrude, a truss 
 must be used, and the dog not allowed to exercise. 
 Pi/es. — These occur frequently in old dogs, espe- 
 cially if the circulation is weak. If the dog strains, 
 licks the anus, and drags the hind parts, it should 
 lead one to suspect piles. If the piles are internal 
 (if external, a surgeon will be necessary), soft food, 
 such as oatmeal or porridge, should be given, to 
 which add laxatives, one of the best of which is 
 sulphur, which can be mixed up with the food. 
 External piles may be washed with a combination 
 of tannic acid, glycerine, laudanum, and water. 
 This failing, surgical measures will be necessary. 
 
 Retention of Urine. — May ensue from swelling of 
 the mucous membrane of the urethra, enlargement 
 of the prostate glands, or swelling of this part from 
 sexual excitement or injury. Usually, quiet will 
 help this ; but if not, and the bladder is enlarged, a 
 warm bath should be taken, the dog being made to 
 
 sit on his haunches in a tub with water as hot as it 
 can be borne, to reach above his loins, for twenty 
 minutes or so. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE GENITAL ORGANS. 
 
 Balanitis or Inflammation of the Sheath Cohering 
 the Penis. — The sheath becomes swollen and sen- 
 sitive, and soon a muco-purulent discharge is no- 
 ticed. The sheath must be kept clean by frequent 
 washing with warm water ; and if this is not suffi- 
 cient, use such soothing solutions as tannic acid, 
 sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and insert a little 
 surgeon's lint, dipped in the solution, within the 
 sheath for twenty minutes. 
 
 Complications Attending Parturition. — These oc- 
 cur only when tlie bitch has been miproperly at- 
 tended during gestation, or when the sire was too 
 large for the dam, and the young resemble him in 
 size. Regular examinations of the bitch may be 
 made by insertion of the finger into the vagina, 
 but the fewer examinations the better. However, 
 if it becomes necessary the hands must be thor- 
 oughly washed, disinfected, and the examining fin- 
 ger anointed with carbolized oil or vaseline. In 
 whelping for the first time a bitch is likely to be 
 longer in giving birth to the first puppy ; but so long 
 as there is no lack of muscular power m the uterus, 
 no discharge or symptom of a dead puppy, patience 
 is all that is necessary. 
 
 Malpresentations. — Occur very seldom. If the 
 effort of the bitch is not sufficient to remove the 
 puppy, the belly may be pressed and some parts of 
 it brought within reach of the finger. If it should 
 be dead the sooner it is removed the better. 
 
 Use of Instruments. — Is not to be desired. Ergot 
 of rye is exceedingly useful to increase the uterine 
 contractions. 
 
 After a Bitch Whelps. — Cleanse her with a weak 
 solution of carbolic acid, dry her well and put the 
 puppies at her breast. Should the mammary glands 
 be swollen or caked, they must be milked, softening 
 with warm oil. To harden the nipples, wash two 
 days before whelping with alcohol. 
 
 DISEASES OF THE EAR. 
 
 Canker. — External. — This is an inflammation of 
 the inner part of the outside ear, and if not stopped 
 may extend into the inside. The dog shakes his 
 head, scratches his ear, and a kind of husk appears, 
 which drys and forms into scabs. Wet, cold, and 
 improper feeding cause this. The first thing is to 
 thoroughly clean tlie ear, bathing with warm water 
 and lard. Also use a syringe to clean the ear, but 
 no probes ; pointed instruments or cold liquids must 
 never be used. Increase the exercise and restrict 
 the diet. Well-boiled vegetables, carrots, turnips, 
 parsnips, etc., make a good diet. 
 
 Make a thin muslin cap for the dog to wear over 
 his head to prevent him shaking his ears. Touch 
 
DOGS. 
 
 351 
 
 the sore every other day with tincture of muriate 
 of iron, and apply iodoform ointment two or three 
 times a day. 
 
 Ophthalmia. — Is\ simple inflammation caused 
 by some foreign substance getting into the eye, a 
 blow or scratch, and is frequently found in dis- 
 temper and skin diseases. The animal has a watery 
 appearance about his eyes, winking and showing a 
 strong dislike for light. If the inflammation is not 
 reduced, a whitish film forms, followed by ulcera- 
 tion. Warm water might be allowed to trickle 
 through a sponge into the eyes, and a hot fomenta- 
 tion medicated with belladonna laid on the eyes. 
 A solution of nitrate of silver, of from ten to twenty 
 grains to the ounce of water, may be applied with a 
 camel's-hair brush. 
 
 Hydrophobia. — This is frequently mistaken for a 
 fit, and many valuable dogs have been killed through 
 ignorance. 
 
 It is a disease of the nervous system, and the 
 cause is a poison in the saliva. 
 
 Symptoms. — First quietness, shyness, and an in- 
 clination to get away; but sooner or later he begins 
 to show excitement. He is either more or less 
 aflfectionate than usual, and the appetite is abnor- 
 mal, the animal swallowing everything that comes 
 in his way. The voice is changed to a short, quick 
 bark, which ends in a howl or moan. In the excit- 
 able state he will roam over the country at a jog- 
 trot, head down, tongue out, but not of necessity 
 frothing at the mouth, yet snapping at anything 
 that comes in his way. This is an unconscious 
 action. He will not eat, as a rule, nor touch water. 
 
 Fits. — A dog shows no premonitory symptoms 
 except a slight quivering of the muscles, then he 
 falls upon his side, losing consciousness. The limbs 
 work violently, the eyes set, and there is frothing 
 at the mouth. There is no danger from him so 
 long as you do not attempt to touch him, and the 
 best treatment is to put cold water on his head and 
 keep the body warm. Bromide is also good. 
 
 Meningitis. — It may be either spinal, cerebral or 
 both. The cause is usually extreme heat or cold, 
 or the result of blows. The dog shows extreme 
 sensitiveness, followed by a stupor, and in severe 
 cases by paralysis of the rear end of the body. 
 The bowels should be kept open, the fever re- 
 duced by cold applications on the head, and the 
 dog should be allowed to lie in a secluded corner on 
 a rug or piece of carjiet in a cool temperature and 
 be left alone as much as possible. The strength 
 must be kept up at any rate ; and if the dog refuses 
 to eat oatmeal, porridge, etc., strong broth must be 
 given in small doses every hour or two. 
 
 Skin Diseases. — Mange is divided into two 
 classes, follicular mange and sarcoptic mange. 
 
 Follicular Mange. — Though not as troublesome, 
 causes inflammation, and is accompanied by a fetid 
 odor. 
 
 Sarcoptic Mange. — Is caused by the female ver- 
 min boring into the skin, laying eggs, which, when 
 hatched, send out young in every direction. This 
 is very contagious, more so than the former, and 
 causes the hair to come off. 
 
 Eczema. — This is a disease of the skin which is- 
 commonly thought to be mange. One kind comes 
 at the beginning of hot weather, and stays until the 
 frost comes. It can be cured, but is very per- 
 sistent in returning each year. Blood medicines 
 are of real assistance, the trouble being within ; 
 and internal remedies should be used rather than 
 external. 
 
 A long-haired dog should be clipped in summer 
 to prevent this eczema. Scabs may be softened 
 by washing in water containing a little washing 
 soda. Powdered sulphur dusted through the hair, 
 is soothing. 
 
 The bowels should be kept open, and cooling 
 foods used. Sulphur may also be put in the drink- 
 ing-water, and very little meat should be given. 
 
 To allay the irritation the following may be used : 
 
 Sodium carbonate, or bi-carbonate, or borax, of 
 the strength of about ten grains to the ounce of 
 water. v 
 
 To increase^ ^ growth of hair more blood and 
 energy are necesS. y, so that friction and stimulat- 
 ing applications are to be recommended ; such as 
 cocoanut oil, or a combination of this oil with coal 
 oil and olive oil in equal parts. 
 
 Worms. — Puppies are especially subject to this, 
 and death is not an uncommon result. Round 
 worms are most to be feared. 
 
 Symptoms. — Restless, disturbed slumber, cough, 
 unpleasant breath, nausea, diarrhea, caked nose, 
 the animal swallowing foreign substances, pallid 
 and bloated appearance of the abdomen while thin 
 elsewhere. 
 
 For the tape-worm use areca, kousso, pomegran- 
 ate, turpentine and oil male fern. 
 
 For the round worm use worm-seed oil, worm- 
 wood, calomel, kousso, hellebore. Pink and senna t 
 is an effective remedy. 
 
 Fleas. — Constant vigilance is the only way to- 
 keep dogs free from fleas. If in small quantities, 
 they can be caught and killed, or the animal may 
 be dusted by means of a little bellows with Persian 
 powder. Wash the dog in carbolic soap. 
 
 Lice. — Can be as easily destroyed as fleas. Comb- 
 ing of the coat will also greatly help. 
 
 Rheumatism. — This often appears in the joints of 
 the legs. The dog sliows a desire to lie quietly in 
 a warm spot and walks with a limp. Keep the ani- 
 mal in a warm, dry room ; open the bowels, and 
 give rhux tox and iodide of potash. Lime-water 
 should hS added to the drinking-water, and nitrate 
 of potash when fever exists. 
 
 Distemper. — This is a disease which it is much 
 better for the dog to have when a puppy than when 
 
352 
 
 THE FRIEND OF ALL 
 
 he is grown. It is usually caused by a cold, and it 
 is contagious. 
 
 In the early stages the symptoms are, dullness, 
 loss of appetite, sneezing, chills, fever, undue mois- 
 ture of nose, congestion of the eyes, nausea, cough, 
 and vomiting, with a desire to lie in a warm place. 
 These are followed by muco-purulent discharge from 
 the eyes and nose, labored respiration, constipation 
 or obstinate diarrhea. The animal should be given 
 a warm, dry place and hygienic conditions strictly 
 observed. Avoid draughts. The bedding should 
 be changed daily, and the apartment disinfected 
 two or three times a week. Feed on easily digested 
 food, such as, beef-tea, mutton-broth, etc.. and keep 
 cold water at all times within reach of the animal. 
 If he is constipated, give warm water and glycerine 
 
 and perhaps a dose of castor-oil. Should the 
 bowels become too loose, feed on farinaceous food, 
 arrow-root or corn-starch with well-boiled milk. 
 
 The eyes and nose should be bathed to keep 
 them free from mucus, and to keep down the in- 
 flammation, and the nose must be kept clear of any 
 obstructions. 
 
 Sprains or Bruises. — The treatment consists in 
 rest, cooling lotions, and iced cloths. If inflam- 
 mation has begun, hot fomentations, medicated 
 with belladonna, will be useful. 
 
 Fractures and Dislocations. — These should be 
 attended to at once. The part of the body affected 
 should be bound up. If a fracture, it should be 
 set ; if a dislocation, reduced, and the dog kept as 
 quiet as possible. 
 
 THE DEER HOUND 
 
 For tracking game it has a keen scent, It is noted for its swiftness and is used especially in hunting deer. 
 
7^cT zz yav 
 
hVH 22 1902 
 

 y^'M' 
 
 ^m^