531 ■Ts U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— BULLETIN NO. 127. A. C. TRUE, Director. INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY AT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. A. G. TR^TJE and ID. J. CROSBY. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1!)0 3. aass_SjL5. u. s. ui':PAi<'i"Mi':N'r oi" At.uici ltukii OFFICE OP EXPERIMENT STATIONS- BULLETIN NO. 127. A. C. TRUE, Director. J' i- 6. INSTIiK'TlON IN AIJRONOMY AT SOME AURIOULTllUL ('UJ.LECE8. A. O. TKTTK una J). .1. (JROtSJiY WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING GEFICE. 1 9 3 . -ynr\ov% c §-A^^ ^*^ *^ .- t^ «"> r ' : : '■': J OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. A. C. True, Ph. \\—I)imior. E. AV. Allex, Ph. D. — .l.s.s/.s7(0(< Director and Kdltor of E.rpcrbnail Slaiiuii llccord. W. H. Beal — CI uef of Editorial Division. C. E. Johnston — Chief Clerk. KDITOKIAl. J)KrAUT.MENTS. E. W. Allen, Ph. D., and H. W. La\v.son — Chanidrii, Dairtj Fannimj, and Dairi/inij. W. H. Beal — Agricultural Physics and Engineering. Walter H. Evans, Ph. D. — Botany and Diseases of Plants. C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D. — Foods and Animal Production. J. I. SciiuLTE — Field Crops. E. Y. Wilcox, Ph. D. — Enlouutlogii and Veterinary Science. C. B. Smith — Horticnlture. D. J. Crosby — Agricultural Institution.^. mVM OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Wa.^/u')ifft(w, D. C, Man 1^^ 1-^03. Siu: L h:i\'o tlu' lionor to tninsinit herewith ii report on eoui-fses in ai»roM(jiuy in sevenil agricultural eollcg(\s. There is now consideral)le aetivity in our agricultural colleges in developing and strengthening the courses of instruction in this division of the science of agriculture. Th(> report has been prepared at the suggestion of th(> couuiiittee on methods of teaching agriculture of the Association of American Agri- cultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, and is an outcome of the work of that committee. I feel sure that such a comparati\'e presenta- tion of courses actually l)eing given in some of our colleges will aid in the further development and strengthening of this line of work in other institutions, and I therefore recommend the publication of the report as Bulletin 127 of this Ofhce. The illustrations have })een carefully selected from a large number furnished by the colleges, and are intended to show distinctive features of the e([uipment for instruction in agronomy at the institutions repre- sented in the ])ulletin. Respectfully, A. C. True, Director. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agrlcnltarc. CONTILXTS. Page. Purpose and scope of this liulletin 9 Work of the coiiiniittee on methods of teachiiia' atrrieulture 11 Sj'Uabns of course ui agronoinj' '. 1 o OutHne for a course of lectures or a text-book <>n atirnndiny 16 Practicunis or laboratory work in agronomy 18 Detailed description of courses in agronomy 18 Alal)ama Polytechnic Institute 18 Kxhil)it No. 1. — Examinations in agroudmy 21 Exhibit No. 2.— Students' field notes 22 The College of Agriculture of the University of Illinois 23 Exhibit No. o. — Judging corn 30 Exhibit No. 4. — Students' laboratory blanks in soil physics 32 Michigan Agricultural College 37 Exhibit No. 5. — A few of the practicums in agronomy 42 Exhibit No. 6. — Examination questions in soils and crojis 47 College of Agriculture of the University of JMinnesota 47 The University of Nebraska 51 Ohio State University 5(5 Exhibit No. 7. — Laboratory work in the elementary course in soils.. 59 Exhibit No. 8. — Detailed schedule of laboratory work 69 Exhibit No. 9. — Examination in elementary course in farm crops. ... 70 Exhibit No. 10. — List of laboratory or field ])racticums in elementary course in farm crojis 71 The Agricultural Institute of tiie University of (i(>ttingen 74 History 74 Present organizati< m 76 Requirements for admission 77 Course of study 77 Methods of instruction 78 Instruction in agronomy 79 Facilities for instruction 82 5 ILLUSTR.VriONS. PLATES. Page. Plate I. University of Illinoiy, Inrd's-evi' view of ajirieultural Iniildin^' ansl experiment fields 28 ir. Fiu'. 1. — University of Illinois, class in agronomy studyin<,' root development of corn. Fig. 2. — University of Illinois, class in agronomy collecting samples of soil 28 III. Fig. 1. — University of Illinois, soil fertility laboratory for analy- sis and synthesis of soils and fertilizers. Fig. 2. — Univer- sity of Illinois, class in agronomy in pot cnltiire laboratory 28 IV. Fig. 1. — University of Illinois, soil physics laboratory. Fig. 2. — University of Illinois, farm crops seed laboratory 28 V. Michigan Agricultural ( V)llege, Agricultural Hall 40 VI. Fig. 1. — INIichigan Agricultural College, students making me- chanical analj'ses of soils. Fig. 2. — Michigan Agricultural College, soils laboratory and class room 40 VII. Fig. 1. — University of Minnesota, Dairy Hall. Fig. 2. — Univer- sity of Minnesota, emasculating and cross pollinating wheat. . 50 VIII. Fig. I. — University of Minnesota, Centgener thrashing machine and fanning-mill separator in use in the field crop nursery. Fig. 2. — University of ^linnesota, machine for planting grain in nurserj' beds 50 IX. University of Nebraska, agricultural building 52 X. Fig. 1. — University of Nebraska, field crops laljoratory, students judging seed corn. Fig. 2. — University of Nebraska, soils lal moratory 52 XL I'ig. 1. — University of Nebraska, apparatus for making determi- nations of soil moisture. Fig. 2. — University of Nel)raska, experiment plats 52 XII. Fig. 1. — University of Nebraska, seed laboratory. Fig. 2. — Uni- versity of Nebraska, a corner in the seed storeroom 52 XIII. Ohio State University, Townshend Hall 58 XIV. Fig. 1. — ( )hio State University, mechanii'al anal vsis of soil. Fig. 2. — Ohio State University, torsion balance used in soil jihys- ics lal )oratorj' ()8 XV. Guttingen Agriodtural Institute, main 1 )uilding 76 XVI. Fig. 1. — Gottingen Agricultural Institute, looking southeast. Fig. 2. — G(")ttingen Agricultural Institute, looking northeast from institute buildings across the exjieriment plats 84 XVII. Gottingen Agricultural Institute, greenhouse 84 7 rsXT FIGURES. Page. Fig. 1. Centrifuge, phaker, and electric motor used in mechanical analysis of soils 28 2. Tubes of galvanized iron used to stud,v effectiveness of mulches upim moisture losses 40 o. King's aspirator to determine the effective size of soil grains 41 4. Apparatus used to study the movement of air througli soils 43 5. Apparatus used to study percolation of water through soils 44 6. Hot-air drying oven 46 7. Centrifugal seed-grading machine 51 8. Movable soil thermometer 53 9. Soil sampling apparatus 54 10. Apparatus for determining specific gravity of soils 60 11. Determination of volume weight, ajijiarcnt specific gravity, and poros- ity of soils 61 12. Soil-compacting machine 02 13. Determining the i)Ower of soils to retain moisttn-ti 63 14. Rate of percolation of water through soils 64 15. Apparatus to determine the rate of flow of air through soils 65 16. Soil tubes for showing the effect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils 65 17. Determining the power of air-dry soils to absorb moisture from tlier.ir. 66 18. Measuring capillarity in soils 67 19. Apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils 68 20. Card's apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils 69 2 1 . Apparatus for taking soil samjiles 70 22. Plan of experiment grounds at CJottingen Agricultural Institute 83 INSTRUCTION IN AGRONOMY AT SOME AGRICUL- TURAL COLLEGES. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THIS BULLETIN. Thi.s l)ulletin is ])asod on the reports of the committee on methods of teaching agriculture of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations and on further inquiries made b}' the OtHce of Experiment Stations. It is intended to supplement the work of the committee in collating detailed information regarding instruction in agronomy. The status of that work at the time the committee made its sixth report "^ is indicated li}^ the following para- graph from that report ; After consultation with tlie instructors in agriculture in the different colleges, it has seemed well for your committee to undertake to j^resent in some detail informa- tion regarding the courses in agriculture and the facilities for instruction in this subject in our colleges. It is especially desirable to put on record data regarding distinctive features of these courses and the materials for demonstration and illustra- tion already existing in different institutions. Your committee has, therefore, undertaken during the present year to collate such information regarding the course in agronomy. Considerable material has already been accumulated, but some time must elapse before it will be in form for publication. Your committee therefore asks that it may be granted leave to print its report on agronomy in our agricultural colleges, in whole or in part, in the next proceedings of this association, and l)e given authority to negotiate with the Office of Experiment Stations for the separate pub- lication of its detailed report on this subject. Authority to publish its detailed report in accordance with the above request was granted the committee, which, however, was not able to prepare the material in time for printing in the proceedings of the association. This Office undertook, therefore, to complete the report and publish it. Subsequent inquiries on the part of the Office of Experiment Stations by correspondence, by members of the Office force making ^'isits of inspection to the agricultural experiment stations, and by a special officer sent to visit a number of the colleges, showed that while many CI Presented at the convention of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations in Washington, D. C, November 12-14, 1901. 9 10 of the agTiciiltunil colleg-es have made some progress in differentiating agronomy from the other ,sul)divisions of agriculture, onl}- a few have developed well-balanced courses in agronomy, with laboratory and tield practicums in which special fornis for scoring different crops and specially devised apparatus are used. It soon became apparent that it would not be feasible to publish within the scope of a Department bulletin detailed information regarding the courses of study in all the agricultural coll(\iies in the I'^nited States and, furthermore, that such pu])lication would not at present be desirable because (1) it would include a munl)er of institutions that have not yet ))een able or have not found it desiral)le to differentiate agronomy from the general sub- ject of agriculture; and (2) it would include some colleges that are just reorganizing their courses of instruction with reference to the su])di\isions of agriculture, including agronomy, and are not now in a position to make a showing commensurate with their facilities for instruction. It has been decidinl, therefore, to include in this l)ulletin (1) a brief review of the work of the conunittee on methods of teaching agricul- ture, together with such excerpts from the reports of that committee as have a l^earing on the present discussion; and (2) detailed descrip- tions of courses in agronomy in seven agricultural colleges — six in the United States and one in Europe. The institutions selected include (1) two colleges not connected with universities — Alabama in the South and Michigan in the North; (2) two university colleges having schools of agriculture (agricultural high schools) connected with them — Minnesota and Nebraska; (3) two universit}- colleges in which no provision for preparatory work is made — Illinois and Ohio; and (1) a university college in (xermany — the Agricultural Institute of the Universit}^ of (Tottingen. In the detailed statements regarding the course in agronomy in these institutions the four-year agricultural course has been consid- ered in a general wa}' as to its purpose, requirements for admission, and scope; then attention has been given to agronomy, its position in the four-year course, preparation for it secured by means of previous work in botany and chemistry, its scope and the method of presenta- tion to the students. Under this last head an account has been given of the equipment used, such as l)uildings, lecture and la))oratorv rooms, apparatus, collections, special forms, libi-ar}' facilities, and land, and the leading features of this equipment have l)een illustrated. In th(^ prep- aration of these detail(Ml statements Prof. J. F. Duggar, of Alabama; Dr. C. G. Hopkins, of Illinois; Prof. J. A. Jeffrey, of Michigan; Prof. W. M. Hays, of Minnesota; Prof. T. L. Lyon, of Nebraska, and Prof. W. D. Gibbs, of Texas (fornun-ly of Ohio), have rendered valuable assistance. 11 WORK OF THE COMMITTEE ON METHODS OF TEACHING AGRICULTURE. The first report of the conunittee on methods of teachino- agricul- ture" pointed out that "one great ol)stach^ to the intelligent discussion of thef^chenie of agricultural instruction and the methods of agricul- tural teaching is the lack of a (h^liidte uomeiiclalui'c^ of the sul>ject,"' and suggested "■ for the consideration of the association a tentati\e schonu^ for the (Ii\ision of what is commonly ' tural teclinology. -1. Ikural engineering, farm mei-hanic'S, or farm iHjuipment. ri. liural economy oi' farm management. sugar makinv'. Roads, drains, irrii l)uil(linjects to l)e included in a four-year course in a4;ricul- tur(^ leading- to tlie degree bachelor of science." as follows: lldiirs. .Vgricultui'c 486 Horticulture and forestry 180 Veterinary science, including anatomy 1 80 Agricultural chemistry, in addition to general ri'qiiiremeut 180 Botany (including vegetable physiology and ])athol(igy) ,. 180 Zoology ( including entomology) 1 20 Physiology 1 80 Geology 1 20 Meteoroli )u'y 60 Draw ing 60 T. ital 1 , 74(> Taking' up. then, the subject of agriculture, the couuuitteo I'ccom- mended the foHowing allotments of time to its subdivisions: ll.mrs. 1. Agronomy, or plant ])rodut'tion i;)2 2. Zootechny, or animal industry 162 .">. Agrotechny, or agricultural tcclm< >logy 72 4. Kural engineering, or farm mechanics 60 r>. Kural economics, or farm management 60 T< .tal 486 It was also annoiuict'd that the committiM' woidd next take up in detail the topics ])roperly included under the head of "•Ag-ronomy," " with a view t(^pre.senting• a syllabus of a course in tliat subject which shall show with som(> fidlness tin* topics to be treated, their relative importance, the tim(> which shoidd be devoted to each, and especially the order of presentation which conforms most closely to sound peda- g-()g-ical principles." This was done in tlie third report" of the com- mittee, which was di\ ided into three ])ai'ts. as follows: ( 1 ; A syllabus defining the limits of a course in agronomy, and stating the to])ics included in agronomy in the order in which they should be i>reseuted to students, i. i'., in their logical and j)edagogical order. (2) A scries of lecture or chapter headings showing how the syllabus for agronomy maybe ai)iilic(l in |)rei)aring a course of lectures or a text-book on this sub- ject, i-overing ninety-nine class-room hours or periodfjof sixty mimites each, i. e., three lecture or recitation i)eriods a week. (:{) A series of subjec-ts for practicums or laboratory exercises to be used in con- nection with the class-room work in agronomy, and covering the thirty-tln-ee remaining liours or periods (equivalent to sixty-six liours of sixty minutes each), assigned to the course in agronomy, i. e., one i>racticum per week. "See r. S. Dept. -Vgr., Office of Experiment Stations Kul. (i5, p. 70, and Cir<^ 39. 13 It lias liccu tlic ubjcct (if llic coiuniittL-c to make surh an (Hitliric nf this coiirst^ as can easily he adjusted to the re([uirenieiits of institutions with different organization and environment. Wliile the syllabus is intended to limit the range of subjects which may properly be included under agronomy, the amount of attention which shall be given to particular topics will vary according to circumstances. The series of chapters and practicums are in a measure intended simply to show a way in wliich the subject of agronomy may l)e presented in actual itractice. This is especially true of that i)ortion of the course which relates to individual farm crops, to which atten- tion will naturally be given according to their relative importance in different localities SYLLABUS OF COURSE IN AGRONOMY. Definition The plant Plant ckoduction Envikonment (Clcncral fiu'tors. Theory and practice of tlie production of farm crops. In agronomy we need to consider the several kinds of plants grown as farm crops under the following subjects: Structure (anatoii'y). Composition. Physiology. Environment. f In agriculture has for its object the adaptation of environ. I ment to the anatomy and physiology of the jilants under I cultivation, with a view to securing crops whicli are l)est I suited to the uses of man or the domestic animals. We may conveniently begin the study of jilant production by considering the general characteristics of the environment of plants as grown in the tielil. Light. Heat. ^Moisture 1 Air Soil Natural With fertilizers Plant food. But environment may Ije conveniently divided acconlin;. to position, as follows: ENVim)N.MENT (Divided according U> position.) (Chapters I-III of lecture out- line page 16.) 1. Above ground. ( climate ) Under ground. (soil) Light ... Heat Moisture Air Heat Moisture Air Earth (soil) . Fertilizers . . . Study the relation of each of these factors to jilant growth, and also briefly their ef- fects in different com- Tnnations, i. e., differ- ent (ilimates. Point out that the rela- tion of these factors to plant growth may l)e most clearly per- ceived by first consid- ering them in their relation to each other 14 Uefinition — Nature. Fuiiftiuns. Oritjin . Properties Temperature. Air. jMoisture Soil ( (Chapters IV-XXXI.) Tillage Fertilizers Brief geological outline. Weathering of rocks. Accuuuilation of organic matter. Transfonnation of organic matter (nitrifi- cation and denitrification, etc.). Additions from atmosphere. Chemical. Physical. Weight Color Texture Capillarity. . Permeability Absorptive power. Classification of soils, on the basis of their prop- erties. I AVater tal)le. S( lurces I Hygroscopic moisture. Amounts 1 Kainfall. ' Irrigation — Methoils. T^ . f Purpose and effects. ^''"•""-" {Methods. ,, ,. I Purpose. Conservation ..'^i , :dethods. Purpose and effects. Methods. Chemical. Physical. Bioloirical. Definition. Methods action. and effects of Chemical. Physical.. Biological. Clas- sifica- tion. 1. According to constituents — a. Nitrogenous. h. Phosphoric. r. Potassic. (/. Other amendments. 2. According to form — (I. Green ma- \ nures. [ Farmma- h. Animal ma- I nures. nures. J ('. Commercial — c 1 a s s.i f y principal forms. (Study first the general theory of ferti- lizers according to above sc'heme and then consider in as much detail as may l)e deemed desirable different kinds of fertilizers, using Schedule A.) 15 Soil — Continued . . . (Chapters IV-XXXI.) Farm cnors (Chapters XXXIII.) Fcrtili/.or.'- Srhfi repres- T'roduction. Marketing, llistorv. OUTLINE FOB, A COURSE OF LECTURES OR A TEXT-BOOK ON AGRONOMY. [The Ircluri's arc iiiletided U> cover '.I'.t hours.] Chapter 1. ( ienerai climatic c(jnditions. II. Plant food and growth. III. Air as a source of plant food. IV. The nature, functions, origin, an(i hours.] 1. Determination of specific gravity of soils. 2. Determination of volume weight of soils. 3. The power of retaining moisture in the soil in its highest degree of looseness. 4. The power of retaining moisture in the soil when compacted. 5. Kate of percolation of water through soils. 6. Rate of percolation of air through soils. 7. Effect of mulches upon evaporation of water from suils. 8. Behavior of soils toward gases. 9. Capillary attraction in soils. 10. Determination of cohesion in soils. 11. Mechanical analysis of soils. 12. Mechanical analysis of soils. 13. Study of root systems of principal crops. 14. Study of root systems of principal crops. 15. Study of root systems of principal crops. 16. Study of varieties of corn in held. 17. Scoring ears of I'orn. 18. Study of effect of fertilizers on one or more crops in fall. 19. Study of effect of fertilizers on one en- more crops in early spring. 20. Study of effect of fertilizers on one or more crops near harvest. 21. Study of varieties of wheat in sheaf and by sample. 22. Study of varieties of wheat in sheaf and by sample. 23. Study of varieties of wheat in field. 24. Study of varieties of oats or other grain in sheaf and by sanii>k'. 25. Study of varieties of oats or other grain in field. 26. Study of varieties oi potatoes by sample. 27. Study of varieties of potatoes in field. 28. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops in field in fall. 29. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops in field in early spring. 30. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops near harvest in field. 31. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crojjs l)y sample and iii\'i>arafion of abstracts of station experiments on climatic and soil conditions and upon quality and yield. 32. Study of varieties of grasses apd forage crops by sample and preparation of abstracts of station experiments on ('limatic; and soil conditions and upon quality and yield. 33. Study of varieties of grasses and forage crops by sample and ])re2)aration of abstracts of station experiments on climatic and soil conditions and uj)on quality and yield. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF COURSES IN AGRONOMY. ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE. In the Alabama Polytechnic Institute live four-year courses lead to the degree of ])achelor of science. These courses are chemistry and agriculture, civil engineering, electrical and mechanical engineering, general course, and pharmacy. P^lementary agricultuiv (])reeds of live stock) is taught in the third terui of the freshman year in all courses. Agriculture is an electi^'e throughout the sophomore year of the 19 course in civil cMuinccriiiL;', iuul is i-(M|uirc(l (lii'ouiiliout the sopliomorc and junior yctirs of the course in chemistry and aoiicuUure. Tliis last coui'S(\ then, may 1h^ considered the aj4ricultural course of the Polytechnic Institute. The student in this course devot(\s a})out one- fifth of his time to EnoJish, history, and economics; alK)ut two-lifths to pure science and two-tifths to applied sciences and teclmical trainini;'. Admission to the four-year courses is ))y examination or b}' certifi- cate from schools having approved courses of study. Applicants for admission must be at least 15 years of age, and, if admitted by examination, nuist be (pialified to pass satisfactory^ examinations in (1) geogi aphy and history of the United States; (2) Eng-lish, including grannnar, comi)osition, reading, and English classics; and (3) mathe- matics, including arithmetic and algebra through quadratic equations. "Those applicants who desire to continue the study of Latin should be (jualitied to pass a satisfactory exauiination in Latin grammar and the first two books of Ca;sar in addition to the alcove subjects." The course in agronomy is given during the second and third terms of the sophomore years. It is preceded ])y a trwo-hour course in ani- mal hus])andry during the third term of the freshman 3'ear, a two-hour course in dair3Mng during the first term of the sophomore year, and a three-hour course of lectures and one laboratory exercise per week in general chemistry during the first term of the sophomore year, and is followed by courses in systematic and stiuctural botany (lectures and laboratory), plant physiology, and agricultural chemistr3\ The course in agricultural chemistry is given in the senior \'ear and ""consists of lectures on chemistr}^ in its application to agriculture (two per week, during second and third terms), and includes a thorough discus^sion of the origin, composition, and classification of soils, the composition and growth of plants, the sources of plant food and how oljfained, the improvement of soils, the manufacture and use of fer- tilizers, the chemical principles involved in the rotation of crops, the feeding of live stock, and the various operations carried on by the intelligent and successful agriculturist."' During the same periods the students do laboratory work in quantitative anal3'sis six hours per week. The principal reference books used in agricultural chemistr3' are Johnson's How Crops Grow and How Crops Feed, Lupton's Ele- mentary Principles of Scientific Agriculture, Johnson and Cameron's Elements of Agricultural Chemistrv, Storer's Agriculture, scientific journals, reports of the United States Department of Agriculture, and the l)ulletins and reports of the various domestic and foreign agricul- tural departments and stations. "The laboratories, which are open from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m, during six da3^s in the week, are amply supplied with everything necessar3' for instruction in chemical manipulation." Instruction in agronomy is given by the professor of agriculture. "In the second term of the sophomore j^ear the following subjects are 20 studied: Soils — chemioal and physical properties, defects, and means of improvement; the control of water, including* means of conserving moisture in times of drought; terracing, underdrainage, and open and hillside ditches; objects and methods of cultivation; agricultural implements; rotation of crops; and improvement of plants by cross- ing, selection, and culture. The third tei'ni of the sophomore yenv is devoted to the staple crops produced in Alabama, to forage plants adapted to the South, and to plants valuable for the renoA'ation of soils. The more important crops are treated with reference to varieties, soil and fertilizer requirements, methods of planting and cultivating, and uses." In all classes there are mid-term examinations and term-end examinations. Two hours per week are devoted to lectures, in which the number of students ranges from 10 to 25, and two afternoons per week are given up to farm practice, during which time the classes are divided into sections of from 6 to 9 students. A part of the tield work is con- ducted l)y the professor of agriculture and a part is in charge of an assistant in agriculture: In every class the student is encouraged to independent thought on agricultural problems rather than to depend on " rules of thuml)," so that he may be prepared to adapt his practice in after j-ears to changed conditions of soil, climate, capital, market, etc. An effort is made to keep before the student the difference between the widely applicable })rinciples on which every rational system of farming rests and the details that vary with changing conditions. The conditions of soil, climate, etc., prevailing in different parts of Alabama are kept con- stantly in view. As far as limited time allows, attention is directed to agricultural literature now accunuilating so rapidly in this and in foreign countries, to the end that in future years the student may know where and how to seek the information that he may need. Among the reference books and other literature used by students in agronomy are Soils and Crops of the Farm, Morrow and Hunt; For- age Plants, Shaw; The Fertility of the Soil, Rol)erts; Corn Culture, Plumb; The Physics of Agriculture, King; other recent American works on agriculture; bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the experiment stations in the different States, and a number of farm journals. Lectures in agronomy are given in the main building in a class room provided with chairs and arm rests for 60 students, two sides of the room being occupied by cases for specimens. Three small barns and a gin room serve partly as laboratories for students when engaged in indoor work. Plats on the experiment-station farm showing the effect of fertilizers, methods of cultui-e, etc. and collections of varieties are used as object lessons for students. 21 The followino- oxhibits Avill yivo an idea of tlu^ naturo and scopo of the examinations r(M|uir(>d in auiononiy and ol' (he notes taken by students in the tield: IVMOIUT No. 1. EXAMINATIONS IN AGRONOMY. J^lrdinlnalion in h('(jimi!rui (ii/rdiioiiii/, second Icnii, sapliotnorc //car. I. (d) 111 wliat kind of weather and at what tiiiu' of year can wetter soils he safely plowed than under other conditions? p]xplain. {I>) Does a clay or a sandy soil contain more moisture when plants begin to wilt? Explain. II. («) Discuss the importance or nonimportance of the hygroscopic power of soils, {hj Discuss the practicability or otherwise of determining what fertilizers to apply by an analysis of the soil. III. Discuss caiiillarity in the soil (direction of movement, favoralile conditions, effect of slight rain after long drought, etc.). IV. Explain fully the effect of cultivation on the moisture in the different layers of soil. V. Discuss fully the size and use of the roller and its effects on the soil, and state conditions when it should be used. VI. Discuss the general direction for ditches, methods of making junctions, and draw cross section illustrating (a) carrying canal, (6) shallow hillside ditches, {(■) open drainage ditch. VII. {(() Discuss grades for open tile drains, {h) INIake drawing of homemade level and show how used (r) in making a terrace and (d) in giving a uniform grade to bottom of a ditch. VIII. Irrigation, (rr) Give three commonest sources of water in order of cheap- ness, {h) What advantages in furrow system over flooding system? (c) What levels would head ditches follow and how would nature of soil influence the grade of the rows? IX. Discuss fall versus spring plowing in the Gulf States. X. (ft) Give a three-year rotation for cotton farm, showing why the crops should follow in the order stated, (b) Outline a rotation that will put half the land in cotton each year, (r) Construct a five-year rotation for a mixed cotton and stock farm in t-he central prairie region of Alabama, stating when each crop is planted. E.niiiilrKiiioii in (Kjrovomi/ {forage p!(iiift<), tliird fenn, soplioinorc yenr. I. [a) What advantages has fall sowing of grasses and clovers over spring sowing? (' ) Mention three legumes that can not be sown in fall and give best month for sowing each of the three. II. (a) Compare early versus late cutting of hay. {h) When cut red clover? III. Give means of distinguishing small grains of oats, wheat, barley, and rye. IV. Discuss Texas blue grass. V. Discuss redtop. VI. Discuss white clover. VII. Discuss culture and uses of rape plant. VIII. Give time of sowing, amount of seed, soil recjuirements, and u.ses of melilotus. IX. Velvet beans— uses and culture. X. Hairy vetch — discuss best mixtures of this with ot iier seed for given conditions. 22 Exhibit No. 2. S5TtIDENTS' FIELD NOTES. Notes on varieties of corn. Hickory King Shaw Arnol(l.= Experiment Station Yel- low. Cocke Moshv Te n n e ssee White. Nnmber of ears and nnbbins per lUO stalks. Ears. 48 90 IMstanoe from ground to lower ear. yubbiii.'<. I Ft.IiiK. f 2 i) Aver- age dis- tance from ear to ground. Ft. Ins. ■A 2 8 5 4 4 4 Ft. Ins 3 2 8 1. I. I. 2 L . 1. 3 I. 4 6 4 6 .5 4 Per- centage of ears below hori- zontal line. Ft. Ins. > 2 9i :• 4 9 i 4 Tipcov- ered by shuck, 5; tip ex- posed, 0. 4.5 Remarks. /Stalks very small \ and .very early. I Medium light and late; ears above m e d i II m i n length. ., c: fLat e ; ni ed ium '■ it ears. Above medium height; medium early. ISmall stalk, long, l slender ears; [ early. Medium or late; prolific and well filled. (Tall stalks, large •j ears; late to me- [ dium. (Small e;iri'(i; pro- l lific. JVtile.'i nil rnrielii'.y of cotton. I. Bolls, position. II. 8talk.. TIT. Bolls Cotton. ) Field No. (Row) (i. (Variety : Dick.Mon Cluster. [Cluster, seniieluster, noneluster: Cluster. iTenninal or nonterminal, fNuniber: 2 to 5, orenerally 2 to 3. Base limbs .J Length: Medium. ilnternodes: Medium. Upper liml)S — ^Length: Short. Compactness: Erect. Height: Medium. rlO. Weight ]10. ilO. Size (field estimate), Point: Both acute and blunt. Adherence, 28 IV. Sci'd Y. EarliiiesH. I'l'rceiitau;^ of lint, NW'i^'ht riO. l5(). Shajie ami size, Color, I^'ield estimate: A'ery early. a b c .\vonisro. Number open 54 liil 'Al 8S Numl)ergro\vn ..^ .5 g ^i 10 Numl)er younger 15 l)est i>lantH. Total 57 85 52 48 Percentage of bolls open, 79. ,TT 71 1-.- (Selected plants (field estimate); percentage, 100. Vl. rroliticacv \ ^ ^ [li best i)lants (ofnce), VII. Lint (field estimate), THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. The colleo'o of ag'i'iculturo if< one of the six colleges of the University of Illinois. Candidates for admission to the college of agriculture are required to have the same number of high school credits as candidates for admission to other colleges of the university. This numl)er is -iO credits at the present time, but it will l)e increased to 42 credits in 1905. By the term credit is meant the work in a sub- ject continuously pursued with dailj' recitations through one of the three terms of the high school year; or, in other words, the work of OO recitation periods of forty minutes each, or, the equivalent in labora- tory or other practice. Of the total num))er of credits rec[uired for admission, 9 must be in English, T in mathematics, and in science and history. For graduation from the college of agriculture, students are required to have obtained 130 university credits. B3' the univer- sity credit is meant a class period a week for one semester, each class period presu]3posing two hours'- preparation l)y the student, or the equivalent in laboratory, shoji, or held practice. The work for 79 credits is prescribed as follows: 15 credits in agronomy. 5 credits in thremmatology. 2i credits in animal hus])andry. 2^ credits in dairy husl)andry. 8 credits in horticulture. 15 credits in chemistry. 5 credits in geology. Of the remaining 56 credits required for graduation at least 4imust be chosen in animal hus])andry or dair}^ husbandry, 5 in natural his- tory, 3 in English, and 25 in technical agriculture. The remaining credits ma}^ ])e obtained from any subjects offered in the university 5 credits in botany. 5 credits in zoology. 2 credits in economics. 6 credits in rhetoric. 5 credits in military science. 3 credits in physical training. 24 which the student is prepared to take, provided only that two ^^earsof foreign language nnist l)e taken in the university if not offered for admission. A thesis is also required for graduation for Avhieh from 5 to 10 credits will he allowed according to the nature of the subject. The students in the college of agriculture are given courses in Eng- lish or other languages in the college of literature and arts; courses in chemistry, physics, geology, botany, zoology, mathematics, etc., in the college of science; blacksmithing, carpentry, etc., in the college of engineering, the work of the college of agriculture being devoted to the sul)ject of agronomy, animal husbandry, dairy husbandry, horti- culture, and veterinary science, or, in other words, to the subjects in technical agriculture. In the department of agronomy 15 courses are offered (not including the courses in farm mechanics), which are descrilxxl briefly in the fol- lowing excerpts from the college catalogue: The semester, the days, and the class period or ])eriods during which each coarse is given, and the number of credits per semester for which the course counts are shown after each course, as follows: The semester is indicated by the Roman numer- als I, II; the days, by the initial letters of the days of the week; the class period or periods (of which thee are nint^ each day, numbered consecutively from 1 to 9), by Arabic figures; and the amount of credit, by Arabic ligures in parentheses. For example, the al)breviations I; M., W., F.; 1; (3) are to be read first semester, Mon- day, Wednesday, and Friday, first period, three credits. 1. Drainage and irrigation. — Location of drains and irrigation conduits, leveling, digging, laying tile and pipes, filling, and subsequent care; cost of construction and efficiency; sewers for the disposal of waste w"ater from farm buildings and the sew- age from kitchen and toilet; farm water pipes, pipe and thread cutting. Class work, laboratory and field practice. I; first half; daily; 6, 7; (2^). 5. Farm crops — QualiUi and improreinent. ^Judging of corn (see Exhil)it ?>, j). 30 ) and oats, wheat grading, methods of improving (juality, shrinkage of grain, care of stored crops to prevent injury and loss. Class and lal)oratory work. I; first half; daily; 6, 7 (or 3,4); (2J). 6. Farm crops — Germination and grovlh. — Vitality and germination of seeds, pres- ervation of seeds, methods of seeding; conditions of plant growth; peculiarities of the different agricultural plants in respect to structure, habits, and requirements for successful growth; enemies to plant growth; weeds and weed seeds, their identifica- tion and methods of destruction; fungus diseases, such as smut of oats and wheat, and blight, scab, and rot of potatoes, methods of prevention; insects injurious to farm crops and how to combat them. Class room, laboratory, and field work. II; first half; daily; 6, 7; (2^-). 7. Special crops. — A special study of farm crops taken up under an agricultural outline — grain crojis, root crops, forage crops, sugar and fiber crops — their history and distribution over the earth, methods of culture, cost of production, consumption of products, and residues or by-products. Class work, supplemented by practical field work and a study of the results of previous experiments, such as detasseling corn, injury to roots of corn by cultivation, selection and breeding of corn and other crops, with special reference to practices which apply directly to Illinois conditions. Students will have an excellent opportunity to study the work of the Agricultural experiment station. II; daily; 1,2; (5). Required: Agronomy 2, '% 6. 8. Field experiments. — S^iecial work l)y the students conducted in the field. This work consists in testing varieties of corn, oats, wheat, potatoes, and other farm crops; 25 nictliods of planting corn, noedinfj grains, grassen, and otlior forago orojis; onltnro of corn, potatO(.\s, and sugar beets; practice in treating oats and wheat for smut and jiotatoes for seal) and studying the eflV-cts upim the crops; cond)ating chinch bugs and other injurious insects. Other practical experiments may be arranged with the instructor. Special opportunities will be given to ailvanced students of high class standing to take up experiments, under assignment and diivction of the instructor in farm crops, on certain large farm.s in the State, arrangements having lieen made with the farm owners or managers for such experiments. II, second half, and sum- mer vacation; daily; arrange time; (22 to T)). Required: Agronomy 7, 12. 9. Sail pliifslcs (oxl vfatKigemciti. — This course is designed to prejiare the student better to understand the effects of the different methods of treatment of soils and the influence of these methods upon moisture, texture, aeration, fertility, and produc- tion. It comprises a study of the origin of soils, of the various methods of soil for- mation, of their mechanical composition and classification; also soil moisture and means for I'onserving it, soil texture as affecting capillarity, osmosis, and diffusion, as affected by plowing, harrowing, cultivating, rolling, and cropping; of the wasting of soils by washing; fall or spring plowing and drainage as affecting moisture, tem- peratures, and root development. The work of the class room is supplemented by laboratory work, comprising the determination of such questions as specific gravity, relative gi'avity, water-holding capacity and cai^illary jjower of various soils; also the study of the physical effects of different systems of rotation and of continuous crop- ping with various crops, and the mechanical analysis of soils. I; daily; 1, 2; (5). Required: Physics 1, 3 (first semester's work), and Agronomy, 2. 10. Spechd problems in Koil plu/sics. — This work is intended for students wishing to specialize further in the study of the physical properties of soils, and will include the determinaton by electrical methods of the temperature, moisture, and soluble salt content of various soils under actual field conditions; effect of different depths of plowing, cultivation, and rolling on soil conditions; effect of different methods of preparing seed beds; the physical questions involved in the formation and redemp- tion of the so-called "alkali," "barren" or "dead dog" soils,- and of other peculiar soils of Illinois. II, or summer vacation; daily; arrange time; (5). Required: Agronomy 9. 11. Soilbacfniologi/. — A study of the morj)hology and activities of the bacteria which are connected with the elal )oration c if plant food in the soil, or which induce changes of vital importance to agriculture, with regard to the effects of cropping and tillage ujion these organisms, and with special reference to the study of those forms which are concerned with the formation of nitrates and nitrites in the soil and with the accumu- lation of nitrogen by leguminous crojis. Class room and laboratory work. 11; dailv; 6, 7; (5). Required: Botany 5; Cliemistry 3b, 4. 12. FerliUzerK, rotations, and fertility . — The influence of fertility, natural or supplied, upon the yield of various crops; the effect of different crops upon the soil and upon succeeding crops; different rotations and the ultimate effect of different systems of farming upon the fertility and productive cajjacity of soils. The al)ove will be sup- plemented by a laboratory study of manures and fertilizers, their composition and their agricultural and conmiercial value; of soils cropped continuously with different crops and with a series of crops; of the fertility of soils of different types, or classes from different sections of Illinois. II; daily; 1, 2; (5). Required: Chemistry 13; Agronomy 6, 9. 13. InreMigation of the fertilitij of spjecial soils. — This course is primarily designed to enable the student to study the fertility of those special soils in which he may be jjarticularly interested, and to become familiar with the correct principles and methods of such investigations. It will include the detennination of the nature and 26 quantity of the elementH of fertility in the soils investigated, the effect upon varions crops of different fertilizers addeecial work in drairuige aud uiaclum'ni. — Studi'iits may arrange for si)ecial work in any of the lines covering drainage or farm macliiuery, either in the second semester or the summer. (22 to 5. ) 18. Inrestigatiou and Ihexis. — This course varies in the subject matter of study, according to the departnu^nt in which theses are written. The work is under the direction of the head of thi' de])ai-tm('nt. 1, II; arrange timi"; (5 to 10). The offices, class rooms, and la))oi'!it()rios of the dopartmont of agronom}" are housed in the aoricultural ])uildino- (PI. I), which was recentlj^ completed at a cost of $150,000. It consists of four separate structures built around an open court and connected by corridors. The main building- is 2J:S feet long- and from 50 to 100 feet wide, and three stories high. The other three buildings are -15 by 116 feet, and two stories high. These Imildings are of stone and l)rick, roofed with slate, and contain, all told, 113 rooms and a total Hoor s})ace of nearly 2 acres. An adjacent glass structure includes a photographic laboratory and a pot-culture laboratory for the department of agronomy. Sev- eral acres of land near to the agricultiu-al l)uilding-s are used for instruction in agronomy, chiefly In' 'means of student experiments. Aside from the ^^ork in farm mechanics, the department of agrononw includes four principal divisions, ^'iz, soil fertility, soil physics, soil hactci'ioloii'v, aiul t'iirni croi^s. SoNcral courses of iiisti-uclioii arc otl'erod in each of llu'se (li\ isioiis, and in each case in.struction is given by the la))oratorv method, as well as by text-books, leetiircs, and refei-enee readinas. 'IVo laboratories are provided for the work in soil fertility. One of these is used for the analysis of soils, fertilizers, and manures; for the determination of the elements of plant food contained in plants and plant products, and for the preparation of soils for ])ot culture exp(n"iments, which include the use of sand cultures, water cultures, and soil cultures, with the addition or elimination of any or all of the diti'erent elements of plant food (PI. Ill, tig. 1). The second is the pot-culture laborator}- (PI. Ill, tig. 2), which is located in the greenhouse near the agricultural building, and in which the pot-culture experiments ai'e carried on ])y the student as a part of his regular laboratory practice. The soil fertility analvtical laljora- tory is provided with desks for 18 students' places, each desk being made double, so that by working two sections 36 students can be accommodated. All apparatus necessary' for the analysis of soils, fer- tilizers, etc., is provided, including analytical balances, digestion furnaces, distillation apparatus, glass and porcelain ware, etc. The laboratory is provided with a hood under which operations which give off i)oisonous or disagreeable fumes or odors are performed. The desks are piped for gas, compressed air, vacuum and water, and pro- vided with sinks and waste pipes. The fertility pot-cidture lal)ora- tor}' is provided with suitable tal)les and with several hundred glazed pots of different sizes suitable for pot-cidture experiments. Most of the water used in the pot-ciUture experiments is drawn from a ■iOU-barrel cistern, which is kept full of exceedingly pure soft water collected from the slate roof of th(> agricultural building, which is a (juarter of a mile distant from the central heating plant of the uni- versity, and hence is verv free from coal smoke, etc., from the chim- neys. For special purposes, distilled water is provided and, when necessary, nitrogen-free water is used. The soil physics laboratory (PL IV, tig. 1) is provided with a suffi- cient nmnber of desks to allow 24 students to work at one time, and, by running two sections, 48 students can be acconnnodated. This laboratory is well equipped with the apparatus necessar}' for stud3'ing the physics of soil, including centrifugal machines and shaking appa- ratus us(k1 in mechanical analyses (tig 1), microscopes, balances, compacting apparatus, apparatus for determining the water content, absorptive capacit}^, water-holding power, and specific gravity of soils; s(^veral electrical instruments for the determination of temperature, moisture, and solu])le salt-content of soils; a 3-horsepower electric motor with a lino shaft, counter shaft, belting, etc.; elutriators, fur- naces, sieves, and nuich other general apparatus. The laboratory is also provided with a side table, hood, large drying oven, and store- 28 room. For the*«work in farm drainago the department of agronomv is provided with several ,surve3'or.s*' leveling instruments, chains, and tapelines, and all necessary tools for running ditches and laying tile. Students are given a consideral)le amount of practice in surveying- systems of drainage, running levels, digging ditches, and laying tile. Two lal)oratories are provided for the study of soil l)acterioIogy, although one of these is also used during part of the year for begin- ning students in general bacteriology. Thirty-two student places are provided for. The laboratory is equipped with incubators, micro- Fiii. ]. — Centrifuge, shaker, anil electric iimtor used in ineclianical analysis of soils. scopes, autoclaves and other sterilizing apparatus, balances, and other materials needed for bacteriological work, including staining solutions, chemicals, media, etc. The hood tables and the tile-top side tables are provided with steam baths, gas, air, Aacuum, and water pipes, and waste sinks. Adjoining the laboratory are a store room, an incubating room, and an animal room with cages for keeping animals under experiment. Two laboratories ai'e provided for the work in farm ci'ops (PI. IV, tig 2), one of which has 36 student places, and the other 24 places, U. S. Dept. of Agr,, Bui. 1 27, Office of Expt. Stations Plate I. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expl. Stations Plate II Fig. 1.— University of iLLiNOib— Class in Agronomy bTuuYiNO Root Development OF Corn. Fig. 2.— University of Illinois— Class in Agronomy Collecting Samples of Soil. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. S+ations. Plate III. Fig. 1 . — University of Illinois— Soil Fertility Laboratory for Analysis and Synthesis of Soils and Fertilizers. Fig. 2.— University of Illinois— Class in Agronomy in Pot Culture Laboratory. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate IV. Fig. 1. ^University of Illinois— Soil Physics Laboratory. ,'> i I i lb : ; liil li_ k.'. - "^ ^-^^1^'' r\-.^\«L MWMHt».iiil!iMgMM^B| ■. >i.aaiui^ t.:3fi^i 1 \m ^ '.^^'^^SI^^^^^HH ^^M^ i "■ -^^ 1 ..-J ■ w i Fig. 2.— University of Illinois— Farm Crops Seed Laboratory. 2'.) mnkiiiii' it possible to have <)<> stiulciits in rariu crops at work at one tinio. These desks arc })rovi(led with a laroc miiiiher of drawers for different sainph's of oraiiis and ('([iiipjied with small uiieroscopes, tape measures, scales, o-erminating' ai)paratus, etc. Th(> lal)()ratory is pro- N'ided with one sid(^ case, containing 253 drawers for samples of corn of ten ears each, used in instruction in corn judging- and the stud}^ of varieties of corn. There are a large number of tilting l)ins, holding from i to H bushels of corn, and a large wall case contains six upright bins, reaching ncarh" to the ceiling of the room, each of several bushels' capacity, nsed for holding a supply of some (jf the stock grains used in the farm crops work. There are six large herbarium cases for preserving specimens of difierent farm crops and of w^eeds injurious to farm crops. There is also a cabinet provided with a large number of cases for a collection of insects injurious to farm crops. Adjoining the farm crops student laboratory is a large germinating room, aljout 7 feet wide, and 20 feet long, with wide shelving around the walls, extending from near the floor to the ceiling, giving sufhcient space for several hundred germinators. Tliis room is provided with steam coils with valves so arranged that any number of coils can be used and the temperature of the room regulated as ma}^ be desired. A large elec- tric incubator is also provided for special germination studies. Besides the laboratory practice the students in farm crops carry on plat experiments imder field conditions, several acres being provided for this purpose and hand tools being provided for student use. Among the text-books and reference books most largely used in the course in soil fertility are Aikman's Manures and the Principles of Manuring, Voorhees's Fertilizers, Roberts's Fertilit}^ of the Land, Johnson's How Crops Feed, Sn3^der's Chemistry of Soils and Fertili- zers, Storer's Agriculture, Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry, Lawes and Gilbert's Reports on Agricultural Investigations at Rothamsted, and the bulletins and reports" of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the various State experiment stations. Among the books used in soil physics are The Soil and The Physics of Agriculture, by King; Rocks and Soils, by Stockbridge; Origin and Nature of Soils," by Shaler; and Land Drainage, l)y Miles. Books used in soil bacteriology are Manual of Bacteriology, by Sternberg; Conn's Agricultural Bacteriology; and Fischer's Structure and Functions of Bacteria. Among the books used in the study of farm crops are Johnson's How Crops Grow; Beal's Grasses of North America; Corn Plants, by Sargent; Plant Breeding, by Bailey; Weeds and How to Eradicate Them, by Shaw; and Storer's Agriculture. In addition to these books the librarv of the Fniversitv of Illinois « Twelfth Annual Report of the U. S. Geological Survey, Part I — Geology, pp. 213-345. 30 contains several hundred A'olunios, journals, and pamphlets, in English, German, and French, relating in part or wholh' to the suliject of agron- omy. These are accessible to all of the students in the department, but are used more largely by students engaged in research work. Lal)()ratorY, lecture, or field notel^ooks are required to be kept by students in all courses in agronomy, and in most courses students are required to prepare two or three essays of from 1,000 to 5,000 words each during the semester. As a rule, preliminary examinations are given at the end of each month and a final examination at the close of the course. The student's standing or grade for the semester's work is based upon four factors: (1) Class records of recitations; (2) prelimi- nary examinations and written exercises; (3) lecture, laljorator^', or fiehl notebooks; and (-t) final examinations. During the past year al>out 2(M) students took work in courses in agronomy. , Advanced classes numbered from 12 to 25 students and lower classes contained from 30 to 75 students. Excursions are occa- casionally made by classes to examine soils, inspect drainage systems, to visit fields and other places of special interest and importance to the work of the classes. Aside from the help of several student assistants, there are six regular instructors in the department of agronomy. One ofi:*ers courses in soil fertilitv, another in soil physics, a third in farm drainage and irrigation, a fourth in soil bacteriology, and two other instructors give courses in fai'm crops. Exhibit No. 3. JUDGING CORN. Students in farm crops, when judging corn, are provided with stiff cardl)oard covers 5) by -if inches, in which special blank forms for scoring may be fastened. On the inside of the front cover is pasted Form A, giving standards for varieties, explanation of points, and rules to be used in judging. On the inside of the back cover and fastened to it by brass paper fasteners are forms B and C. Form B is used ])y the student in scoring a single ear of corn, and Form C for recording the corrected scores of several ears. FoK.M A. — Dh-cciions for scoring. STAXDAKDS FOR VARIETIES. Name of variety. Reid Yellow Dent . . . Golden Eagle Riley Favorite Learning Boone County White Silver Mine White Superior General Length of ear. TncliCK. 10 9 y 10 10 9 8.5 10-11 Circumfer- ence of ear. 7 7 7.5-8 Proportion of corn to cob. Per cent. 88 90 90 88 86 90 88 88 31 K\[M, A NATION Ol' POINTS. 1. (hiiforniity: T''^nifonn shapo, size, iiulentiition, and type of ears. 2. Shape: Shape of ear sliould conform to variety type, usually eylinch'ical, i. e., of eijual t'ircuniference from butt to tiji. 8. Color: Free from mixture and true to variety color. 4. INIarket condition: Ripeness, soundness, ear lirm and well matured. 5. Tip: Kernels tilled over the tip in regular manner. 6. Butt: Kernels swelled about ear stalk, leaving deep depression when shank is removed. 7. Kernel, uniformity: Uniform shape, size, and conformity to variety tyjjc. 8. Kernel, shai)e: Wedge shaped, straight edges, and large germ. 9. Length: Varies with the variety, measure. 10. Circumference: Varies with the variety, measure. 11. Space: Furrow between tops of rows of kernels. 12. Proportion: Proportion of weight of grain to cob. Weight varies with variety. Kl'LES TO BE USED IN .lUnGING. 1. The deficiency and excess in length of all ears not conforming to the standard for the variety shall be added together, and for every 2 inches thus ol)tained a cut of one point shall be made. In determining length, measure from the extreme tip to the extreme butt. 2. The deficiency and excess in circumference of all ears not conforming to the standard of the variety shall be added together, and for every 4 inches thus ob- tained a cut of one jioint shall be made. Measure the circumference at one-third the distance from the butt to the tip of the ear. 3. In determining the proi:)ortion of corn to cob, weigh every alternate ear in the exhibit. Shell and weigh the cobs, and subtract from weight of ears, giving the weight of corn. Divide the weight of corn by total weight of ears, giving the per cent of corn. For each per cent short of standard for the variety a half-point cut shall be made. 4. In judging color, a red cob in white corn, or a white cob in j^ellow corn, shall be cut ten points. For one or two mixed kernels, a cut of one-fourth point; for three or four mixed kernels, a cut of one-half point; for five mixed kernels, a three-fourths- point cut; or for six or more mixed kernels, a one-point cut shall be made. Ker- nels missing from the ear shall be counted as mixed. Difference in shade of color, as light or dark red, white or cream color, must be scored according to variety characteristics. 5. To determine the cut for space, the following rules can be applied if combined with the judgment of the student: For less than one thirty-second inch, ikj cut; for a furrow one thirty-second to one-sixteenth inch, one-half point; for more than one- sixteenth inch, cut one point. The looseness of kernels on the cob does not apply to space, but to maturity. The furrows or angle between the tops of the rows of kernels is the space between rows. Number of exhibit, Name of variety, . Length, . Circumference, . Proportion grain to cob. 32 Form B. — For indirhjwil sample. STUDENT'S REPORT JlDGINt; CORN. ST.\NDARD OF VARIETY, 1. Uniformity 2. Shape 3. Cohir 4. Market condition . 5. Tips 6. Butts 7. Kernel iniiformity 8. Kernel shape 9. Length 10. Circumference 11. .Space 12. Proportion Total Student's | Corrected Instruct- score. I score. or's score. REMARKS. Form C- -Fo r sei eral satnpl es. • Points. 1 10 '.. 10 '.'. 5 .. 10 .. 5 . . .'i . . 10 .. .'i . . 10 1.. 20 .. 100 .. 2 1" 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 1617 1 18 19 ■■ '■'. 20 2122 1 23 24 25 -- \\ " 3. Puritv of color .5. Filling out tips 6. Filling out butts 9. Length . 10. Circuniference 11. Space between rowst 12. Proportion of corn to cob Total 11 Exhibit No. 4. STUDENT "S LABORATOEY BLANKS IN SOIL PHYSICS. Fxpcrhnait So. I. MOISTITHE CAl'ir.b.VRY. Use sand, clay, loam, and iiravel as proviiled. 1. Weigh carefully four drying pans. 2. Place in one of each about 100 grams of each of the above soils. 3. Weigh the pan and soil carefully. 4. Spread out the soil to a thin layer In- shaking, and dry for twenty-tour hours at room temperature. 5. Weigh and repeat the drying and Aveighing at intervals of four to five hours until a nearly constant weight is obtained. The loss of weight represents the amount of capillarj' water. Amount of caiMllary water found wan: Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; gravel, . Define capillary water: . 38 J'J.ri>C7'linciil .\(i. 2. DETEKMINATION OF II VCKOSCOIMC MOISTfKE. Use the air-dried soils from experiment No. 1. 1. Place about 10 grains of the air-dried soil in a tared i)oreelain crucible (a). 2. Weigh the soil and cruci))le [b) and heat in the air bath at iOO to 110° C. for 1 hour. 3. Cool in a desiccator and weii^li rapidly to prevent absor[)tion of moisture from the air. 4. Heat for a shorter time, cool, and weigh, repeating until the weight {<•) becomes constant. Calculation: The loss of weight, or h — r, equals the amount of hygroscoi>ic water in the sample taken, c — a equals the weight of water-free soil. Therefore -— - = per cent of hygroscopic water expressed on the basis of water-free soil. The per cent of hygroscopic water found was: Sand, -; gravel. ■; ^'lay, -; loam, Define hygroscopic water: . From the results obtained in experiments 1 and 2 compute the percentage of cap- illary and total water in the soil, expressed on the basis of water-free soil. Total water content is (percentage) . Sand, ; clay, ; loam, ; gravel, . In adtlition to the capillary and hygroscopic water, the soil may contain, under some conditions, as immediately after a rain, a certain amount of free or gravita- tional water. This portion of tlie soil water is acted upon by the force of gravity, which causes it to percolate tlownward to the level of the ground water. Expa'imenl No. J. HILGAKJ)"S FLOCCULATION EXPERIMENT. Two students will work conjointly in this experiment. 1. Into each of four beakers place about 1 gram of clay and add 200 cubic centi- meters of water. ' 2. To beaker- No. 1 add 0.2 gram calcium hydrate=0. 1 per cent solution. No. 2 add 1 gram calcium liydrate=0.5 per cent solution. No. 3 add 2 grams calcium liydrate=l per cent solution. No. -1 add gram calcium hydrate=Control. 3. With a stirring rod mix the contents of each Ijeaker thoroughly and then place a sample of each in a Nessler's cylinder and whirl in the centrifuge at the lowest speed and note the time required to completely precipitate each solution. 4. Pour the contents of each cylinder back into the respective beaker, stir thor- oughly and set aside, observing occasionally to determine the time required for com- plete sedimentation in each case. Compare in each case the cylinders and beakers containing the different strengths of solution and the control and tabulate the results in the space l)elow. 0.1 per cent solution , 0.5 per cent solution 1 per cent solution . . . Control Time to cen- Time to trifugate. sediment. Explain how the lime acts and clarifies the water: 26777— No. 127—03 3 34 Expeririu'nt No. 4- EFFECTS OF LIME ON PLASTIC SOILS. Two students will work together as in experiment No. 3. 1. Weigh out five 50-grani samples of the clay soil. 2. To sample — No. 1 add 0. 5 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 2 add 1 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 3 add 5 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 4 add 10 per cent calcium hydrate. No. 5 add no calcium hydrate. 3. Mix each sample thoroughly in a soil pan, and add just enough water to make plastic. 4. Fill into molds in the form of sticks, using care to compress all samples to the same degree, and transfer to the oven and bake at 110° C for 4 to 5 hours. 5. Test the strength of each stick of baked clay l)y supporting upon blocks and suspending weights until the clay is fractured. Note weight required in each case and till in results below: Grams. 0. 5 per cent broke with 1 per cent broke with 5 per cent broke with 10 per cent broke with Control broke with Explain the loss of i)lasticity due to the lime: . E.cpt'rhneid No. 5. DETERMINATION OF THE APPARENT SPECIFIC (iHAVITV 'iF soll.s. Use each of the four soils as in former experiments. 1. Weigh carefully in empty and thoroughly cleaned soil tube (/()• 2. Fil' it with one of the soils to be tested, Avhich must first be well pulverized if lumpy. In filling use the soil-compacting machine, allowing the weight to fall three times from the ti-inch mark upon each cupful epth of culture Total number grams . Ton.s per acre 2 in. Experiment No. 15. EFFECT OF ARTIFICIAL MULCHES UPON EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM SOILS. This experiment is conducted in a similar manner to the last, excepting that the tubes are all filled to the same level and used as follows: No. 1, control; No. 2, 2 inches sand; No. 3, 2 inches clay; No. 4, 2 inches muck; No. 5, 2 inches sawdust; No. 6, 2 inches cut straw. Control. Sand. Clay. Muck. Sawdust. Cut straw. 37 MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL. COLLEGE. The iiiiTicultural course in this colleo-c i-cMjuircs four or live years for completion, dep(Mi(lini>' on the preparation of th(^ candidates for admission, and hnids to the degree of hach(dor of science. The entrance^ examinations for the five-year course cov(m- the following- subjects: Arithmetic, geograph}', grammar, reading, spelling, pen- manship, and history of the United States. The holder of a teacher's c(>rtiticate. or eighth-grade diploma signed by a county conuiiissiner and issued by a school following the course of study outlined by the State superintendent of public instruction, will be admitted to the tive-year course Avithout (>xamination. For admission to the four- 3^ear course, students must hold diplomas from high schools on an accredited list, or nuist, in addition to the reciuirements named abov^e, pass examinations in alge])ra through <[uadi'atic equations, in plane geometry, in elementary physi<-s. and in English. Candidates for admission nuist bi-ing testimonials of good character, and nnist be not less than fifteen years of age. The entrance reijuirements also presuppose that the applicant has the ability to harness and driv^e horses, to plow, harrow, mark corn ground, drill, operate the mower, reaper, and farm im[)lements generally, and to perform in a neat and workmanlike maimer the details of regular farm work. A failure to pass this examination will not exclude from the college; another opportunity will be provided at the close of the second year to pass on these studies. If the student then fails he will be required to remain at the college during the summer vacation between his second and third ^^ears, or to work for the same period on some farm approved by the professor of agriculture. He will receive his final examination on the subject at the l)eginning of the junior year. Since both the four-year and the five-year courses cover practically the same ground in agricultural subjects, only the four-year course will be described. The course is centered around instruction and practice in agriculture and horticulture and the sciences directly bearing upon successful farming. It includes the following credits: Agriculture, 60; agri culture or horticulture (elective), 59; anatomy, 10; bacteriology, 14; bacteriology (elective), 24; botany, ,56; botany (elective), 12; chem- istry, 42; chemistry (elective), 12; civil engineering, 6; civil engineer- ing (elective), 24; drawing, 10; economics (elective), 12; English, 59; English (elective), 12; entomology, 12; geology (elective), 10; Ger- man (elective), 60; history (elective), 12; horticulture, 51; hygiene, 4; mathematics, 29; meteorology (elective), 12; mditary science and tac- tics, 22; ph3'sics, 20; physics (elective), 12; political science, 10; psy- chology (elective), 12; sanitary science, 6; veterinary science, 5; vet- erinary science (elective), 86; zoology, 20; zoology (elective), 12. 38 Until the end of the lirst term, junior year, all four-year agricultural student.s pursue exactly the same studies, ])ut for the remaining tive terms they specialize in their technical work, electing- either agricul- ture, including dairying, stock-feeding, soil work, and farm crops, or horticulture, including vegetable culture, pomology, and floriculture. Instruction in agronomy is given by tlie ]irofessorof agronomy and one assistant in the second and third terms of the freshman year, the first and second terms of the sophomoi'e year, the second and third terms of the junior year, and the first, second, and third terms of the senior year, and is supi)lemented by insti'uction in ])otaiiy, l)acteriol()gy, and chemistry. The courses in bottmy (aside from those ])earing on forestry) for agricultural students include in th(^ freshman year sixty-one liours of structural l><)tany (gross anatomy and morphology of fruits and seeds) and thirty-three hours of systematic botany; in the sophomore j^ear ninety-six hours of ])lant histology (use of compound microscope, preparation of slides, use of reagents, study of plant anatomy, etc.) and thirty-three hours of ecology; one hundred and twenty-six hours of fungi of economic importance during the first term of the junior year; and forty-eight hours devoted to a study of grasses and weeds during the second term of the junior year. A senior elective in plant physiology has been announced. Instruction in botan}" is given in the botanical laboratory, a building 55 by -15 feet, two stories with attic and basement. The l)asement includes a fire-proof room containing the herbarium of about 75,000 specimens, a lavatory, and large work- room for the preparation and storing of specimens and ])oxes; the first floorcontainsadarkroom, two well-lighted rooms very fairly equipped for histological and physiological studies, and an office and la})oratory for the professor in charge; the second floor contains a large room for beginners in botany and for lectures, and a study and laboratory for the assistants; the garret has recently ])een fitted for use as necessity may require. Bacteriology is taught l)y the lal)oratory method, supi)lemented by such lectures as are necessary to direct the work. After one prelimi- nary lecture course and two laboratory courses (first, morphological and cultural bacteriology, and second, physiological bacteriology), the student may elect during the winter term of the senior year a labo- ratory course in bacteriology (ten hours per week) devoted to the biological consideration of the soil. This work is given in a new and well-equipped l)acteriological lal)oratory, which has just been completed at a cost (exclusive of equipment) of i^:^5,00(). Instruction in chemistry includes general elementary chemistry (ninety-eight hours during the first term of the freshman year), ([uali- tative anah'^sis (one hundi'ed and twenty hours during th(> second term of the freshman year), organic chemistry (ninety-eight hours during 89 the lirst tcnii of the soijliomorc year), iiiul !i<:;Tuiiltui"iil chomistry (sixt}' hours duiiiii.'; llic second term of the sophomore year and sixty hours, elective, (hiritii;- the second term of the senior yeai"). The courses in ag'ricultural ciiemistry includes the histor\" of aj^ricultural chemisti'v; the composition of plants, sources of the orf>-aniceonstituents of plants, how to increase their quantity and availability; the soil and the influ- ence of physical agencies on its chemical condition; the natui'e and action of the ash elements in phmt growth; mamires and maimrino-; intensive and extensive agriculture, and conservation of fertility; the chemistry of fodders and stock feeding, of ripening of fruits and grains. The aim in these lectures is to state and solve the chemical problems of the farm. The chemical laboratory building contains a lecture room for 150 students, analytical rooms fitted with evapoi'ating hoods and tables for 68 students, the professor's private laboratory and study, and a suite of rooms for students in metallurgy and quantitative chemical analysis, and is well equipped with chemical apparatus and stores. The courses in agronomy are introduced by a course of twenty lectures on the formation, character, and distribution of soils; the agencies still at work in soil formation and soil destruction; and the care re(iuired to ])e exercised to preserve the soils of agricultural districts. These lectures are given during the last four weeks of the second term of the freshman ye&v and are illustrated by samples of soil, rock, etc., and by the stereopticon, and are supplemented by laboratory work and oral (juizzes. During the third term of the freshman year, ten hours per week are spent in studying soils as regards their characteristics, functions, needs, and treatment in agri- culture; drainage, its theory and practice; reasons for the ditferent operations of the farm and the tools used; the planning of farm work, etc. Throughout this work the lantern is used to illustrate the talks and the student is taken to the tool room and to the field for observa- tion. It is the aim to have quizzes at least as often as once per week. Two hours daily of the first term of the sophomore j^ear are devoted to lectures and laboratory work in agricultural physics, including (besides rural engineering and farm mechanics) laboratory work in the mechanical anal3"sis of soils, the determination of moisture in soils, green and dry fodders, roots and grains, and experiments in moisture and air movements in soils. The su])ject of farm crqps is given in lectures live hours per week during the second term of the sophomore year. In this course, " good seed and conditions affecting its vitality, general requirements for successful plant growth, conditions governing the time and depth of planting, rate of seeding, etc., and the principles of plant improve- ment, are discussed. The history, distribution, general characteristics, 40 adaptability, uses of the several farm crops, and the best method of producing- them are studied." In the second term of the junior year the student ma}' elect '' agri- cultural experimentation," In this course one hour per day is given to lectures and individual work on the part of the student on the experiment station work and literature of this and other countries, the organization and work of the United States Depai'tment of Agri- culture, methods of experimentation, and the principles underlying the same. Each student is lequired in closing up the term's work to outline an experiment along some practical line of live stock, dairy- ing, soils, or crops, and to su])mit the outline to the class for criticism and discussion. The experimentation is continued during the third term two hours p:M- day. For example, the student electing an experi- il ;_;.il\ alii/.fd iiun ilsdl !iisluil\ rlVrcli\clu il' iiiulclics upon iniiistiiix- losses nuMit in agronomy, such as tests of forage crop mixtures, variety tests of field crops, fertilizer experiments, etc., is allotted the necessary land, furnished team, implements, seed, etc., and is required to carry through his expei'iment and report upon it. "The object of this work is twofold. To the voung man going- back to the farm it gives a training which onal)les him at once to pass upon the merits of any line of work described in station literature and to appropriate that portion of it which may be of value to himself; to the young man going into technical fields it gives a training- which should give strength and reliability to his work." In the senior year an elective in soil physics is ofl'ered. In this course ten hours per week during the first term are devoted to lectures and laboratory' work, eml)racinga study of the physical properties and U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate V. U. S. Dept, of Agr., Bui, 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate VI. Fig. 1 . — Michigan agricultural College— Students Making Mechanical Analyses OF Soils. Fig. 2.— Michigan Agricultural College— Soils Laboratory and Class Room. 41 characteristics of soils, such as (Iclenniiiiiig-tho specific i4nivity, apparent specific gravit}', water inoveineiits, capillaritv, etc. During the winter term ten hours per week are devoted ])y the student to original inves- tigation work along some line agreed upon between the student and pro- fessor in charge. During the spring- term ten hours per week, seven weeks, are devoted to advanced work in soils, including lectures, labora- tory work, studying soluble salts in soils ])y the electrical method, the pore space in natural soils, etc. The building in which the instruc- tional and lal)oratory work in agron- omy is chiefly conducted is built of brick, is 53 feet long, o-t feet wide, and two stories high, with attic and basement, and is known as Agricul- tural Hall (PI. V). The basement of this building contains a large lab- oratory for agricultural ph3'sics, a small laboratory for mechanical analysis of soils (PL VI, fig. 1), store- rooms, etc. , and connects with a small plant house. The first floor contains offices, a dark room, and a large gen- eral lecture room provided with IK) square feet of blackboard, two cases of wall maps, a stereopticon, and a 12 by 12 foot lantern screen. The windows of this and other rooms in the building are provided with cloth curtains and wood l)linds. TIk^ lan- tern slides at present include illus- trations of different phases of soil formation and soil destruction and of different kinds of farm machinery. New slides are being added. The soils laboratory, which also serves as a lecture room, is on the second floor of Agricultural Hall (PI. VI, fig. 2) and is supplied with apparatus as follows: Four sets of galvan- ized iron tubes (fig. 2) for the study of moisture movements in soils and three sets of brass tubes for the study of water and air movements (figs. 8 and 4) in soils; a '' King's aspirator"" (fig. 3) for determining the effective size of soil grains; a^'Whitnev's })ridge'" for determining- King's aspirator to di'tcrniine tlie ef- fective size of soil g-niins. 4^ the soluble salts in soils; apparatus for the mechanical analysis of soils; a steam drying oven and a hot-air drying oven (tig. 6); tra3'sand case, sampling auger, and sampling tube for field work in soils; a torsion balance and a number of other lialances; four compound micro- scopes and one micrometer slide; a numlier of samples of typical soils from other States, as well as samples of Michigan soils, to wdiich samples additions are being made as rapidly as opportunity permits; a grade level and rod; specific gravity bull)s, drying tubes, and sundry glass and rubber tubing and glassware. Thv room has al)out 1^20 square feet of blackboard. The college farm comprises over -too acres, not ijicluding the campus, orchards, gardens, stock yards, and the experiment st;ition plats. It is divided into twenty pasture, lield, and wood lots. At present the several acreages are about as follows: AA'oods, l-tO; wild pasture, 30; tame pasture, 37; hay, 09; and roots, cereals, and forage crops, 141 acres. The soil is a drift soil and ranges from a sandy soil to a line cla}^ soil, all of which is interspersed with coarse gravel and hard Iieads and lunvklers. The farm machiner}- is uj) to date in every particular and includes a large collection of modern types of implements and machines, as well as some of the oldei' types, which are used by the students in making comparisons of draft, work, effect on soils, etc. The library contains over 21,000 bound volumes and about 5,000 pamphlets, and is rich in scientific works. The tables of the reading room are supplied with all the leading agricultural papers and journals. In matters concerning crops and soils reference is made, first of all, prol)ably, to station literature, then to Storer's Agriculture, King's works, and others of Baihn's Rural Science Series, and the Kotiiam- sted i-eports. ExniHiT No. 5. A FEW OF THE PRACTICUMS IN AGRONOMY. The viorciiu'iil of air tliniiKjh (Jiffrrtnit xoiU. Description of apimratus. — The apparatus u.sed for the study of air movements through soils consists of an aspirator, as shown in fig. 4, and 12 brass tubes 16 inches in height and having a diameter of 3 inches. These soil tubes are all filled to the depth of 1 inch with a coarse sand, and above the sand are filled to a depth of 12 inches with tlie different soils indicated in the table. By means of apparatus pre- pared for the purpose the soils are introduced into the tubes and packed so that any difference in the pore space in the soils must be due to the physical properties of the soil. It will be seen that the variation of size of soil grain, variation in the propor- tions of large and small grains, variation in amount of organic matter present, etc., must be the factors resulting in the differences in the rates at which the air moves through the soil. Observe that we have not the conditions in the soil in the cylinders that we have in the soil in the field, and that with this apparatus we are studying only the effects resulting largely from the i)roperties named. Erratum.— Oil i)af^es 43 and 44 tlie cuts liave been transposed, i. e., the apparatus shown on page 48 is for the study of percolation of water through soils and the apparatus shown on page 44 is for the study of the niovement of air through soils. 43 DeUiHt^ of llie pntcticKiii. — 1. Willi the i-ul)l)cr tulx' dctuclu'd I'min r attach rublx^' tube to Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, (>, 7, and s and note and recoril the time vequired to pass oxer three divisions of the dial. Fiu. -1. — Apparatus u.scd to study the movement of air through soi G. In like manner attach rubber tube to Nos. i), 10, 11, and 12 and note the time required for the hand to pass over one division on the ilial. .Multiply this time by three and introduce in tal)le. 7. Make computations and till in as indicated in the tal)le. Soil. Number of cylin- der. { I I 3 \ 4 f 5 1 6 i 7 1 8 1 9 1 10 f 11 1 1- Time. 1 Relative Initial. : Final. Net. Average. -^--e- l ' ] ]>er cent lime 1 1 ( ])er cent lime 1 i \ Clay 1 . 44 Percolation of valer iJiruugli differerii soils. Description of apparatus. — This apparatus (fig. 5), consists of soil tuljes similar to those used for the study of the rate of air movement through soils differing only in having tubes at the top by which the series may be connected by pieces of rublDer tubing and supplied automatically with water so that the head or pressure in all the tubes can be kept constant. The tubes are filled in the same manner with soil as for studying air movements, and the rate of percolation depends upon the same i)hysical properties of the soils as in the case of the movement of air. Di'tnils of the practicum. — 1. See that the water supply is properly arranged. 2. Tare the glass or cylinder of each soil tul)e and record its weight in the proper l)lace in a table like the one shown below, but do notreturn them immediately under the drain tul)es. .'1 Remove corks from drain tul)es and insert wire drips. 4. When water drops from all the wires, place the glasses and cylinders quickly under the drain tubes, noting the time. Fui. .'). — Ajiiiaratns iisod lo slu<'li'nnni) weight of dry soil, and {(■) the per cent of moisture in each soil estimated on dry weight of soil. 46 Ih'ti'nniiKitioii uf inoislurc iit (jreen rrojix, fodderx, ronly, diid grains. 1. PREPARATION'. {(i) (ireeii crops. Cut sample close to ground. Either fold or tie into short bun- dles or cut into short lengths and i)ut into a tray. (6) Fodder (including hay and straw). Cut a quantity of the material in a feed cutter or with a knife, mix well, and fill tray with sample. ((•) Roots. Select one or more typical roots, clean with a good brush or wash and wipe carefully. With a sliarj) knife slice in tray quickly and cover. [d) Grain. Place about one i:)int of cleaned grain in a tray. If it is desired to determine the moisture of corn in the ear select a typical ear having all of its kernels and place in tray. II. LABELIXCi. For the material placed in the trays it is sufficient to record the number of the tray. Upon those materials not placed in trays a tag bearing your name should be placed. III. WEIGHTS. Fill. Ci. — Hot-air drviiiff oven. You will need to determine: {y tillage? What aiv the ehiel' (il)jects soiigiit in tillage? Tell quite fully how one of these objects is aeeouiiilished. 2. Explain the action of the connuon American jtlow. Jlow does it differ from the English plow? Speak briefly of their relative merits. What objections to the com- mon plow? What may we do toward obviating some of the bad effects? 3. Why do we cultivate? r)escril)e an ideal cultivator and ideal cultivation. 4. What are some of the methods for removing the surplus water from land? r>. What will govern each of the following: Depth of drain, distance apart of drains, size of tile to be used. H. What grade should tile drains have, what is the least grade allowable, and what precaution should be taken in laying a drain at such a grade? 7. How should laterals be connected with drains? Where and how should silt wells be constructed? 8. What is meant by rotation of crops? ^^'hy do we rotate at all? !). Outline w'hat you woidd call a good rotation, and give reason for the i)resence of each crop in the rotation. 10. When would you apply barn manure? At what rate, and why? n. Speak of the value of clover as a crop. AVhy is it difficult to grow clover in Miciiigan? Tell how you would secure a stand of clover. 12. The effect of lime upon soils? Why? AVould you apply lime to the soils of Michigan? If yes, at what rate and why? If no, why not? b'l. What difference between a good truck soil and a good grass soil, and why is eai'h soil especially adapted to its own crop? 14. In what way is the size of soil grain related to ((() the water holding capacity of the soil, (/>) the jiknit feeding qualities, and (c) to the retaining of plant foods against jiereolation? 15. How does the amount of moisture re(iuired to grow a crop conq^are (a) with our annual rainfall, (b) with the water content of our soils in the month of ]March? What ol)jections to summer fallowing? COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. Candidates for admission to the College of Agricidtiiie of the Uui- versity of Minnesota must have the equivalent of either a three-year eoui'se in the school of agriculture plus one year of work of high- school gi'ade in algebra, geometry, English, history, and economics, or a four-3'ear course in a city high school plus one or two 3"ears in the school of agriculture. The school of agriculture is a technical high school, in which agriculture and subjects closely related to it largely predominate. These subjects include agricultural botan}, chemistr}' and ph3'sics, dairy chemistry, agronomy, farm accounts, animal husbandry, daily husbandly, fruit growing, \egetable garden- ing, etc., presented in a way to fit 3'oung men for successful farm life or for entrance to the college of agriculture. The college course in agriculture is designed for those graduates of the school of agriculture and s'tudents from other institutions equally well prepared who desire 48 fui'tlRT inf^tnictiini in jirartical agricultuial st-ience, in the sciencen related to agri- culture, and in literature and the arts. Since all students who enter this course have had the technical, scientific, and general work offered in the school of agricul- ture, the college course includes only advanced work of a collegiate grade. This course designs to efficiently prepare students for either farm life or for the work of the agricultural specialist. It emphasizes the importance of plant and animal pro- duction and the upbuilding of rural homes and farm life, while the biological and physical sciences are made i^rominent. Following the four years of preparation in practical agricultural lines in the school of agricailture, the freshman and sophomore years are devoted largely to the study of the sciences. The technical subjects relating to agriculture and household economics are mainly offered as electives in the junior and senior years, when the freedom for election enables the student to choose as a specialty a major science or an agricultural or a household subject around which to group related elective subjects. The elective courses during the last two j-ears give an opportunity for further culture in literary and philosophical lines and for becoming more ])r()ficient in scientific research work in some of the many problems pressing for solution in the development of the State and national agricultural experiment stations. The instruction in the various tech- nical agricultural and household divisions in the college course is for the most part a continuation of the work in these subjects in the school of agriculture, each subject being treated from a more technical standpoint. Students who have first graduated from the agricultural school are ready in their junior and senior years to elect spe- cialties for study and research work along lines in which they hope to work after graduation. The ,siU)jects in the school ot" uoriculture wliich more e.speciall}' pre- pare foi" the eollegiate work hi aoroiioiny are ai^riciiltiiral chemistry, aoricultural l>otany, aoricultiiral physics, and the subjects inchided under the title of ao-ricvdture. Agricidtural chemistry is divided into dair>' chemistry; chemistry of foods, soils, and fertilizers, and domestic chemistry. Under the title of soils and fertilizers the student receives instruction in the composi- tion of soils and their properties, the sources of plant food, the kinds and amounts of foods required by crops and the best ways of supplying these demands, the various forms in which plant food exists in the soil, farm manures, their uses and action upon the soil, the income and outgo of fertility from the farm, soil exhaustion and soil improve- ment, the rotation of crops, as based upon the chemistry of soils and the principles governing the conservation of the fertility of the soil. Laboratory practice forms an important feature of all the work in agricultural chemistry. Agricultural botany is taught with special reference to its bearing upon the everydaj^ problems that present themselves to the farmer and the gardener. By means of lioAvers and plants from the green- house and nursery, studied under the simple and the compound micro- scope, students are given a clear idea of the general principles of plant structure and vegetable physiology. In agricultural physics the general principles of physics are taught, special stress being laid upon those principles which to the greatest extent enter into the business of the farmer. About half of the time 49 is cicN'otcd to (wpcM'imciidil worlv whicli iiicliKlcs ciipilliirity of soil; dirtusioii iiiid osmosis of oa.ses and ii([uids; licatiiio', ii<4htiMu-, and ven- tilation; farm machinery, in paiticular pumps, eveners, pulleys, milk testers, eentrifuoals, incubators, windmills, steam and gasoline engines; friction and lubricants; tensile strength of wire and binding twine of ditiereiit grades; lightning and lightning protection. The work designated "agriculture" in the school of agriculture includes (1) "introductory agricultiire-soils; selecting and planting farms; subduing the fields; drainage; irrigation; fences; roads; build- ings; water suppl}-; groves and introductory lessons concerning farm business, farm life, and the relations ot general science to agriculture;" and (2) ticdd crops and farm management, comprising instruction in remodeling farm plans, production and management of farm manures, rotation and handling of field crops, care and use of pastures and meadows, weeds and their destruction, and the laws of heredity and variation in plant breeding, together with instruction in methods of breeding the leading field crops. The college course in agronomy includes soil physics, field crops and seed, and plant breeding. Instruction in soil physics is given in the divisions of agricultural physics and agricultural chemistry, while that in field crops and seed and in plant breeding is given mainly by the professor of agriculture. Under the head of field crops and seed are considered the botan}^ cultivation, use and place in the rotation of the various cereal, forage, root, fiber, sugar, and miscellaneous crops. Special attention is given to the subjects of permanent, rotation, annual, and shift pastures and to soiling crops; to permanent and rotation meadows, and to the pro- duction and preservation of all kinds of dry-cured and ensiled fodders. A thesis on one or more field crops is required of each student. The work in plant breeding includes instruction on such subjects as heredit}', variation, science of breeding, breeding as an art, improve- ment by nature and under scientific experimentation, securing founda- tion stocks, value of very large numbers, immense value of the occa- sional individual which can transmit qualities of peculiar value, use of an ideal, use and misuse of the score card, intrinsic qualities, fancy points and distinguishing marks, pedigree records of prepotency, fundamental principles underlying the arrangement of the record books, bibliography and terminology, study of the literature of breed- ing. Attention is also given to the botany of the reproductive organs of held crops, held-crop nursery management, producing new qualities by hybridizing and by change of environment, hybridizing versus cross- breeding, in-breeding and self-fertilization, originating varieties and improving standard varieties, methods of disseminating new varieties, seed and plant introduction, experimentytion in the theories relating 26777— No. 127—03 4 50 to he)"cdity, var'uitioii and pnu-tical l)reediiiti', f^eed (growing- a.s a farm business, seed nierchandisino'. pjlective practicunis o-ive opportunity to gain practical experience, to acquire greater manual dexterity in doing farm work, to secure practice in conducting experiments, and to gain experience in teaching agricultural subjects. Agronomy is taught in dairy hall (PI. VII, lig. 1) in temporary quarters which include one good recitation room, offices, andla})oratory room. There is also a seed-l)reeding lahoratorv which furnishes facilities for special instruction in field seeds and in laliorator}' work in ])lant ])reeding. The college possesses a stereopticon with several hundred lantern slides, including illustrations of crops, implements, machinery, processes of drainage, etc.; imported models of wheat and of clover flowers and seeds; many charts of root systems and illustra- tions of floral organs which have been drawn at this institution; also maps and designs of farm plans, both for laying out new farms and for reorganizing old ones. Several hundred pastef)oard boxes 2-i inches long, 13 inches wide and 5 inches high, such as tailors use for suit l)oxes, are annually filled with bundles of weeds, grasses, and forage crops. These serve in the classes for material to tear apart, examine the seeds, and get acquainted with the general appearance. Seeds are also preserved in bottles. The collection of farm machinery in use at the university farm is supplemented by collections on exhibition at the State fair grounds, adjoining the farm, and at warehouses in St. Paul and Minneapolis. One unicpie feature of the office equipment is a special index iiling cas(\ Here are collected newspaper clippings, manuscripts, and references to literature in the library. These arc put on sheets, 5^ l)V 81^ inches, separated by division cards, and arranged under a scheme similar to that used by the Office of Experiment Stations in classifying special index cards of the station literature. This iiling case now contains much material and is referred to constantly by stu- dents in the college course in writing essays and theses in connection with their class work. Each student who writes a thesis on a farm crop or other subject is required to furnish a copy for this tiling case, and to include any bibliography he has been able to collect on that subject. Thus the students are assisting in ])uilding up the contents of this iiling case and it is recognized by them as very valuable. No text-books are as yet in use, instruction being given almost entirely by lectures. The agricultural library now contains 6,000 books and about 6,000 pamphlets, including reports and bulletins. Aside from the large number of pamphlets and other ])ublications of the different agricultural institutions and societies, a large number of the more important technical and agricultural magazines are kept on file, bringing together all the agricultural literature of any importance. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate VII. Fig. 1 .—University of Minnesota— Dairy Hall. ^ ?" c ^n^^^^H^H^H ^^PV^^^^^^^^^^^I^^^H^^H IP9HP "^^^ni^B Fig. 2.— University of Minnesota— Emasculating and Cross Pollinating Wheat. U. S. Dept of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate Vlll. Fig. 1.— University of Minnesota— Centqener Thrashing Machine and Fanning- MiLL Separator in Use in the Field Crop Nursery. Fig. 2.— University of Minnesota— Machine for Planting Grain in Nursery Beds. 51 The uni\i'rsi( y l";irMi coiitaitis ^r>() aci'cs of land, of which aWoiit 15(1 acres are (hn^oted to cxpcriiiuMit statioti and coUcinc of agriculture Avork. The soil is a mixture of clay and sand, and is well adapted to the various uses to which it is })ut. On the poi-tion of tiie t'ai-ni used by the colleoe;ind station there ar(^ many experiments in I'arm manao-e- nient, rotation of crops, treatment of pastures. impro\'ement of crops by breediny- (PI. VTI, tig. 2), etc. In the plant hi'eedino- experinuMits there are annually planted nearly HOO.OdO individual plants, including grains, clovers, root crops, etc., and for nuich of this Avork s])ecial machinei-\- has l)een d(Mised (tig. 7 and PI. \"II1, tigs. 1 and 2). FKt. 7. — Centrifugal sfOil-grailiiiK niachiia'. Students who make a specialty of agronomy assist in these experi- ments. Farms in the vicinity serve as a basis for designing farm plans and working out problems in farm management. THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA. The industrial college of the Universit}^ of Nebraska offers several four-j^ear agricultural groups (courses) leading to the degree of bach- elor of science — a technical group, a general group, and two special groups. The technical group is intended for gi'aduates of the three- 3'ear course in the school of agriculture. "The studies in the general groups are arranged to meet the needs and requirements of those students whose primary object is a broad and general education." Those in the special groups are for students "titting themselves to be instructors in agricultural subjects or to be experiment-station work- ers,'' and "have been planned and coordinated to enable students to direct their work so as to meet their individual needs and preferences." Candidates for admission to the general and special groups must pre- sent certificates from accredited schools, academies, or colleges, or must pass examinations (1) on the following requireclsubjects: English, four years of language (ancient or modern or both), algebra through logarithms, piano and solid oeonietry, and elenientaiy botany, cheniis- tiy, and physics; and (2) on a sufficient number of the following- sub- jects for a total of 11 credits: Language, history, manual training, physical science, natural science, plane trigonometr}', mechanical drawing, physiology and hygiene, physiograph}^, civics, and })olitical economy. "All the courses in the first year of residence are prescribed, and form the coiimion ])ases of l)oth the general and the special groups offered." T\w courses included in this year and the number of hours per week for each course are mathematics 5, modern language 4, phys- ics 3, English 2, chemistry 2, militar}^ drill 1. The work in chenu'stry includes "a careful study of the occurrence, methods of preparation, and properties of the connnon elements and their chief compounds."'' After the first year the courses are mostly elective. At least 10 per cent of the work of the last three years is taken in agriculture and chemistry or agriculture and botany, but ""no student shall take or receive credit for more than fort}" hours' work in any department during his undergraduate course." Agi'onomy at the University of Nebraska '"'■ includes on the instruc- tional side the subjects of soils, field crops, farm management, and the care and use of farm machiner3\"'' The course in soils includes the following: The origin, deposition, and natural transportation of soils; physical and chemical constitution of soils and subsoils; influence of the size of soil grains on the rate of solution of plant food, drainage, aeration, water storage, capillarity, etc.; forms in which water exists in soils; movement of water in the soil; soil temperatures; evapora- tion of water from the soil; methods of soil treatment for conserva- tion of soil moisture; the significance of a chemical analysis of soil; fixation of fertilizing materials; nitrification; availability of plant food; tillage, reasons for tillage, effect of drifting, effect of plow- ing wet or dry soil; subsoil plowing, water-holding power of loose and compact soils; disking, listing, etc.; the application of barnyard and green manures and commercial fertilizers. Given by the profes- sor of agriculture. This is followed by "field crops, their general composition and their relation to the air and soil; useful and essential ingredients of the ash of plants; functions of the ash constituents of plants and the forma- tion of plant substance; functions of the roots, stems, and leaves of plants; the breeding of cereals; a treatment of each of the principal field crops, somewhat according to the foUowing scheme: Characteris- tics, varieties, vitality, climate, soil, manures, tillage, seeding, culti- vation, harvesting, preservation, position in rotation, uses. Given by the professor of agriculture." Following these two courses is a laboratory course in the "Proper- ties of soils," continuing throughout the year and given by the pro- lessor of agriculture and the instructor in agriculture. U. S. Dept. of Agr, Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate IX. U. S. Dept. of Agr,, Bui. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate X. Fig. 1 .—University of Nebraska— Field Crops Laboratory, Students Judging Seed Corn. Fig. 2.— University of Nebraska— Soils Laboratory. U S. Dept of Agr., Bui. 127, Office of Expt, Stations. Plate XI. Fig 1.— University of Nebraska— Apparatus for Making Determinations of Soil Moisture. Fig 2.— University of Nebraska— Experiment Plats. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui, 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XII. Fig. 1 .—University of Nebraska— Seed Laboratory. FiG. 2.— Un'versity of Nebraska— Corner in the Seed Storeroom. 53 Elective courses arc otlci'ctl as follows: "^[(^tliods of invcstiiiiition witli soils. A study in detail of reported experiments, the object heirio- to familiarize the student with th(> methods of scientilic investigation in the subject under discussion. "Methods of investigation with liehl crops. Conducted similarly to thc^ above. 'VPlant food in the soil; a series of pot exptM-imt'nts. "Production and movement of crops as atl'ectini^' prices, •'Suoar-])eet culture. History of the culture of the sugar beet. Ertect upon ocneral agriculture of sugar-l)eet culture. Varieties of the sugar l>eet. Types. Composition and struc- tur(> of the ])eet plant. Soils and climatic conditions adapted to raising sugar ])eets. Preparation of the soil. Planting the seed. Culti\ation, Harvesting. Siloing. Seed pro- duction; breeding, establishing of strain. Position of the beet crop in the system of crop rotation. "The la])oratory work [in soils] consists of the follow- ing demonstrations: Determination of specific gravit}' of soils; determination of the volume weight of soils: power of loose soils to retain moisture; the power of compact soils to retain moisture; rate of per- colation of water through soils ; rate of perco- lation of air through soils; eti'ect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils; behavior of the soil toward gases; capillary attraction of the soil ; the power of soils to tix aumionia. "" Instruction for students in these courses is by means of lectures and laboratory practice, using books of reference throughout almost the entire course. In the study of field crops the experiment station publications are used very freel3\ Students fitting themselves to be instructors in agricultural subjects or to be experiment station workers are given etery opportunity to stud}' the methods of agricultural investigations at the agricultural experiment station farm. Class rooms and laboratories used for in- struction in agronomy are in the general agri- cultural building(Pl. IX). One class room, 33 by 20 feet (PL X, fig. 1), contains specimens of plants, seeds, etc. , used for purposes of in- struction in field crops. One laboratory, 33 by 20 feet (PI. X, fig. 2), is used for demon- strations of A'arious properties of soils. ffi C B iA Fig. 8.— Movable soil thermometer: A, hollow steel tube, i inch inter- nal (lianieter, 15 inehes long; B, solid steel plunger, 19 inehes long^, which elosi'ly fits the tube A; C, long stem (IS inehes) thermome- ter which closely tits the tube A. 54 This lal)oratoiy is provided with desks, water, gas, etc.. and may be considered a well-equipped lal)()ratory. The desks are Hi feet high and 4 feet wide, with drawers and ciipl)oards on ])oth sides and water and gas cocks in the center. The apparatus is designed to record soil temperatures (fig. 8), to take samples of soils (tig. 9), to deter- mine soil moisture (PI. XI, fig. 1), and to test a num])er of prop- erties of dirt'erent soils, for in- stance, the water-holding power of loose and compact soils, the rate of percolation of air through soils, and cei'tain other physical properties, some of the a})paratus for which was designed by Pro- fessorCxibbs, formerly of the Ohio State University. About 50 acres of land are used for ])urp()ses of instruction, al- thougli other land used forexperi- ifiG. 9.— Soil-sampling apparatus: A, hollow steel sampling tube, ; inch internal diameter, 45 inches long, marked every 3 inches; B, solid steel rod, 461 inches long, which closely fits A; C, ejector; D, driving head lor sampling lube; E, aluminum cans for soil samples; F, case for .sample cans. mentation may also be considered as a part of the instructional equipment (PI. XI, fig. ti). Foi'ty acres are divided into subfields of exactly 5 acres each. These fields are not fenced, but are divided by roadways, the land occupied by which is not a part of the 5-acre tracts. 55 The roadways are 1 rotl wide. Four of the sul)h(;Ul,s are severallv in rotations, intended to deiiioiist rate the etl'ectof Mianiirinij;' and of period- ieall\ seedino- to <>rass. For instance, subliidds C and II are each year j)lan(ed to the same ci'ops and the same character of manui-e applied in ('((ual (|iiantities, the oidy ditt'erencc ])eino' that at certain intervals Mihlield II is allowed to lie in urass for a period of years, while suhtield C is cropjx'd continuously. The followin^jf is the rotation: 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 Subfield C. Corn (manured) Corn Oats Winter wheat Corn (nmnured in winter) Oats Winter wtieat Corn (manured in winter) Subfield H. Brmnus inmnis. BriiiiiiiK iiKriiiin. l{niiiiii!< iiii /■mis. Broiiiiis iiitriiiis. Corn (top-dressing of manure before plowing up Bromiis inermisj. Oats. Winter wheat. Corn (manured in winter). Subtields D and I are in similar rotations, except that subfield D does not receive any manure and that the crops grown on these fields are not the same as those on the other two subfields during the same year. The remainder of the subfields are used for growing new and not generally grown crops or for particularly good varieties or strains of varieties of common crops. In another field are 10 acres divided into plats of one-fifth acre, and each of these is planted to a particular perennial forage plant or combination of such plants. These are mostly grasses and clovers. They serve as an object lesson in profitable seeding to pastures and meadows in this region. Hurdles of special size are provided for fencing these, so that any one of them may be pastured when desired. In this manner the pasturage value is demonstrated. There is also a field of about 10 acres divided into experiment plats of one-tenth acre each. These, although primarily for experimenta- tion, are also of vahie for purposes of instruction. For instruction in implements and machinery, there are walking, riding, and disk plows; breaking plows; disk, spike, acme, and spring- tooth harrow\s; subsurface packer; roller; subsoilers; press drills; lister; corn planter; mowers; rake; hay loader; hay tedder; binder; thrashing machine, etc. There are, for instruction in soils, samples of soils from nearly a hundred different localities in the State. These have ])een analyzed mechanically and the original soil and its constit- uent parts arranged in small vials on a card showing the percentage of the various sized particles. There is a collection of about 90 of the native grasses in the State and some 200 specimens of grains (PI. XII, figs. 1 and 2). The college classes in soils use Snyder's Chemistry of Soils and Fertilizers, but the course is given largely by means of lectures. In field crops frequent use is made of Farmers' Bulletins and State agri- cultural society reports, and of Morrow and Hunt's Soils and Crops of 56 the Farm. The principal books of reference for classes in soils are Le Conte's Elements of Geology, Warington's Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils, Wahnschafl'e's Scientilic Examination of Soils, Johnson's How Crops Feed, Storer's Agriculture, and Roberts's Fer- tilit}^ of the Land; for classes in field crops, the pu])lications of the various experiment stations and of the United States Department of Agriculture. The agricultural lil)rarv contains complete or nearly complete sets of the Annals of Agriculture, Journal of the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England, Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, Journal of Agriculture, Journal fiir Landwirtschaft, Centrall)latt fiir Agricultur- chemie, Forschung-en auf dem Gebiete der Agricultur-Physik, an almost complete set of the publications of the various State experi- ment stations, and a fairly complete set of the publications of the United States Department of Agriculture. There is also a fairly complete collection of text-books and other books dealing with agri- culture in a general or special way, besides files of the more important agricultural newspapers. Altogether, in that section of the library pertaining to agronomy there are upward of l,.50O volumes. OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY. The four-year course in agriculture leading to the degree of bachelor of science in agriculture is given in the College of Agriculture and Domestic Science of the Ohio State University. This course is designed not only to make specially trained agriculturists, but also educated men. The course presupposes that a young man has had a high school training or its equivalent, and that he has had the train- ing in farm matters that necessarily comes to a young man who has lived on a farm. It supplements this ti'aining, but does not displace it. About one-third of the time of the student during the four years is or may he devoted to language (English or foreign), history, and economics; about one-third to pure science, and one-third to technical or professional training. Electives in the senior year allow for some variation in this regard. Applicants for admission to this course must ])e at least 16 years of age and have graduated at a State normal school, or approved high or preparatory school, or have passed examinations in the following sul)- jects: English grammar, composition and rhetoric, English classics; arithmetic, algebra, plane geometry; descriptive and physical geogra- phy, elementary botany, and physics; civil government or general history; and Latin (grannnar and four ])ooks of Cassar), or French (grammar and simple reading and translating), or German (grammar and reading, not less than 300 pages). i'he course in agronomy is given during the third or junior year of 57 the colle^'e course Jind is prcceclt'd l»y iiist ruction in iinricultiiral clicin- istrv (diu'ino- the iirst aiul second years), ])hysioloyical and economic l)otauy and vegctahU' pathoh>- tlic tirst year), and horticul- ture (during the s(H'ond year). In chemistry th(^ coui'se inchides lectures and laboratory work on the principles of cheiuistry and ciiemicai nomenclature, organic cheiu- istry, and the application of chemistry to agriculture. The lattei' is given (luring- the third term of the Iirst yeai'and includes the following- topics: Ingredients of plants, oiganicand inorganic, essential and non- essential; sources of plant food, air, and soil; nature of soil, mechan- ical portion, (uiti'itive portion, assimilahle, and reser\'e plant food; soil exhaustion and am(dioration; harnyard maiuire, its sources, com- position, and ])reservation; conuuercial fertilizers, tlieir rational use and methods of determining the needs of soils. In the second year there are lectures and laboratory work on the industries i-elated to agriculture (e. g. , manufacture of sugar, starch, vinegar, and li([uors); and the analysis of fertilizers, feeding stuti's, dairy products, sugar and sugar producing plants, fruits and vegetables, water, soils, oils, fats, grains, etc. The lecture rooms and laboratories are thoroughly equipped with apparatus and chemicals for the use of instructors and students. The course in botany includes elementary, physiological, and eco- nomic botany, and vegetable pathology, with lectures and recitations three times a week and laboratory and field work twice a week. In economic botany the student receives instruction and practice in handling the microscope and has the opportunity of learning much of the important modern methods in technique. The main part of the course in vegetable pathology is devoted to a study of the parasitic fungi most destructive to cultivated plants, and the means of their prevention forms the last part of the course. Instruction in ))otany is given in the botanical l>uilding which contains a large lecture room, museum, herbarium, three laboratory rooms, dark room, drying room, storeroom, and offices. The lecture room will, the coming year, con- tain a stereopticon furnished with electric light; a large number of charts, many of them colored lithographic photographs and mounted illustrative specimens are the principal appliances for daily class work. In this room are placed fifteen of the more important popular journals of botany for the use of students. The botanical books in the univer- sity library, a valuable and growing collection, arc largel}^ used for reference in connection with the several courses. The museum con- tains a large amount of illustrative material, the native medicinal plants and the collection of Ohio woods being ver\" complete. The State herbarium consists of between 12,000 and 15,000 sheets of Ohio plants. The general herbarium is about the same size. Professor Kellerman's private herbarium of 20,000 specimens, mostly parasitic 58 fungi, is also used l)y the department. The large laboratory is well equipped with dissecting and compound microscopes; also the usual appliances for doing l)oth elementary and advanced histological work. One of the small laboratories is devoted to experimental work in vege- table physiology and the other to s} stematic))otany. The greenhouse attached to the botanical building is an important adjunct to the department. There are four sections containing a total of nearly 3,000 feet of glass. It contains a large number of illustrative plants, perhaps 3,000 specimens, representing the principal plant families and belonging- to several hundred species. The greenhouse furnishes nuich fresh material for laboi'atory use. It is also used as a laboratory to carry on special Avoi'k when growing plants are used. The courses in agronomy are given by the professor of agriculture and the instructor in agronomy and include two elementary courses during the second and third terms of the junior year and two advanced elective courses during- the tirst and second terms of the senior year. The courses in the order in which they must be taken are as follows: Elementary course in mils. — Lectures and recitations three times a week upon the origin, formation, kinds, and physical properties of soils and their impi'ovement by cultivation, fertilization, drainage, and irrigation. Practicum once a week in laboratory, testing physical properties of several soils; determining the relation of soils to heat, moisture, air, and fertilizers, and making mechanical analyses. For a detailed description of the laboratory exercises in this course, see P^xhibit No. 7, page 59. Elementary eaurse !n farm cropn.. — Lectures and recitations three times a week upon thi^ history, production, marketing, cultivation, and harvesting of fai'ui crops. For a iist of examination questions indicating the scope of this work, see Exhibit No. i>, page To. Prac- ticum once a week with growing and dried specimens of farm crops, including grasses, clovers, and other forage crops. A list of labora- tory or held practicums in this course is given in Exhibit No. 10, page 71. Advanced course in soils. — Lectures and recitations once a week on the physical properties of soils; the relation of soils to heat, air, and moisture; the effect of fertilizers on soil structure and fertility; con- sideration of practical methods of tillage as affecting crop producing power of the soil. Laborator}' and held experiments during two two- hour periods each week. A detailed schedule of laboratory work in this course is given in Exhibit No. S, page 69. Advanced course in farm crops. — Lectures and recitations once a week on {a) the effect of climate, soil, and markets on the distribution and adaptation of farm crops in the United States; (/>) the best method of crop production, including a careful study of the details of held U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bui, 127, Office of Expt. Sfalions. PLATE XIII 59 (\\l)('riin('iit:iti()ii ns set forth in cxpoi'iiiKMit stiitioii hiiUctiiis iiiul r('})()rts iiiid the })iil)lic:iti()iis of tlu* United States Depai'lnuMit of Agriculture; (c) tlic consumption of farm crops. Practicums twice a week. Instruction in those courses is o"iven laroely ])\ means of lectures, hut f re({ueiit use is made of such text-hooks as The Soil and the Physics of Ao-ricultur«\ bv Kino-; and Soils and Crops of the Farm, hy Morrow and Hunt; and of hulletins, monographs, and reports issued hy tlie experiment stations and DepartmcMits of the United States ( Government. Instruction in agronom}', as in other branches of aoriculture, is given in the university building known as Townshend Hall, which was completed in 1S!)8 at a cost of $100,00(». TowiiMhend Hall (1^1. XIII) is 260 feet long, and varies in width from (14 to 7.S feet. It contains two stories and a l)asenient wliich is li feet high, making the building practically three stories high. The walls above the l)asenient line are of gray jiressed brick. The basement walls and the front entrance are of Bedford, Ind., Oolotic limestone, and the trimmings are of terra cotta of the same color as the brick. The roof is of dark-red tile. The building is of slow-burning construction throughout, with painted interior brick walls, exposed beams, maple floors, and hard ])ine finish. The lecture rooms and laboratory for the course in agronomy are on the first floor of this building. The soil physics laboratory is supplied with apparatus for studying the specific gravity of soils; volume weight of soils; power of loose soil to retain moisture; power of compact soil to retain moisture; rate of flow of air through soils; rate of percola- tion of water through soils; effect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils; effect of cultivation on evajioration of water from soils; jiower of dry soil to absorl) nioii-tnre from the air; and the capillary rise of water through soils. ^Mechanical analyses are also made of typical soils. In the study of soils, the large glass house with its equipment of i-ailroad tracks, trucks, and pots affords opportunity for the student to test the adajitability of crops to various soils; the fertilizer requirements of soils aiid to experiment on various other i)ro]jlems of cro]) growth. In the study of crops, large use is madt^ of the collection of dried specimens of grasses, grains, and seeds. The grass gaixlen contains about 25 varieties of grasses and clovers growing side by side where comparisons may be made as to the value of each for i)asture, meadow, and grass. The farm is visited frequently by students who make observations and studies of the practical methods there employed in the growing of crops. Exhibit No. 7. LABORATORY WORK IN THE ELEMENTARY COURSE IN SOILS. Experiments are arranged with reference to the number of labora- tor}^ periods in the term, and since there are ten to twelve periods, 12 experiments have been planned which are described on the following- pages. The experiments are designed with special reference to the practical demonstration of some of the important principles underly- ing soil physics, and to supplement class-room teaching with actual work with the soil itself. The following soils used in the experiments are typical agricultural 60 soils selected on the Ohio State Ulli^ersity furni with referein'e to their ditTerences in texture and crop producing power: No. 1. Muck soil. Selected from a very fertile cornliekl. No. 3. First bottom alluvial loam. Very fertile. No. 8. Second l)ottom sandy loam with considerable clay. No. 4. Fine sand (0.25 millimeter to 0.1 millimeter in diameter). No. 5. Coarse sand (0.5 millimeter to 0,25 millimeter in diauK^ter). The soils are brought from the tields and air-dried in the laboratory. Numbers 1 to 3 are sifted through a 2-millimeter sieve having circular holes, and numbers 4 and 5 through finer sieyes. The soils are then placed in niim])ered bins in the lal)oratory. The following is a list of the la]»oratory experiments with descrip- tions and illustrations of each: Kxperiiiii'iit Sn. 1. ])ETERM1.\ATK)N OF SI'ECIFIC (lUAVITY OF SOILS. This experiment shows weiglits of the various soils as compared with the weights of equal volumes lif water. The spedlic gravity of most soils is a]x)ut 2.5 — that is, soil calculated free of air space weighs 2.5 times as much as an e(iual volume of Fiii. lU. — Apijanitus for determining' specitic gravity of soils. water. The more organic matter a soil contains the less its specific gravity. In general, the specific gravity of a soil decreases inversely as its content of organic matter. Specific gravity nmst not l)e confused with appaicut specific gravity, which will be explained in experiment No. 2. With a flask of 50 cubic centimeters capacity and provided with a ground-glass stojjper, drawn out to an open capillary tube (fig. 10), determine specific gravity of four soils which will be provided — Nos. 1, 2, Z, and 4. Fill flask with distilled water so that no air bubbles appear after the ground-glass stopper is instrted. Note temperature of water in flask. Wipe flask dry and weigh. 61 roiuiitil alioiit ct of nuilclies on evaporation ol water from soils. machine was ii-sed in tilling the cylinders to insure comparatively uniform compact- ness of soil in all cylinders. No. 1. Not mulched. No. 2. Not mulched. No. o. Surface cultivated 2 inches deep. (Soil mulch). No. 4. Surface cultivated 2 inches d^iip. (Soil mulch). No. 5. Mulched with 2 inches of coarse gravel. No. 6. Mulched with 2 inches of tine sand. No. 7. Mulched with 2 inches of sawdust. No. 8. Mulched with 2 inches of cut straw. 26777— No. 127—03 5 6(3 No. 9. Not mulched. (Placeil in draft). No. 10. Not nmlched. (Placed in draft 1. Fill the cylindert* to the same level with distilled water every twenty-four hours for one week and keep a careful record of the amount of water used each day. The "S" glass tube ('/, fig. 16) will be used to determine the exact level to which the tubes should l)e filled. The cylinder which evaporated the least water during tlie period of o])servation should be the on& having the mjst effective mulch. In recording results show the amount of water put in each cylinder daily, and also the total amount for each cylinder for the entire run of the experiment. Experhnent Xo. S. THE POWER OF AIR-DRY SOIL TO ABSOKH MOISTURE FEOM THE AIR. Use soils Nos. 1 , 2, 8, and 4 in this experiment. Place 400 grams of air-dry soil from the bin in a shallow zinc tray (fig. 17), spreading it out as uniformly as possible. Fig. 17.— Dc'termiuiiig the powur of air-dry suils tu absorb moisture from the air. After weighing the tray (lid on) with the st)il, place an empty weighed l)ox, together with the others (lids off) , upon a shelf in the pneumatic trough. Place a thermome- ter in the trough and at each weighing read the temperature. Weigh each box (lid on) every twenty-four hours and deduct the increase in weight of the empty box from the increase in weight of each of the other boxes. Eepeat the weighings every twenty-four hours until with the same conditions of temperature an approximately constant weight is-obtained. The moisture retained is calculated for 100 grams of the soil dried at 110° C. Add to this increased weight per 100 grams of air-dry soil the weight of hygi'oscopic water contained in 100 grams of the air-dry soil. This will give the total amount of water taken from Wm air by 100 grams of water-free soil. J)etermine the hygroscopic moisture of each soil with a special sample at the time of starting the experiment. This experiment brings out the fact that dry soils absorb only a very small amcjunt of moisture from the air, even when the air is saturated, thus correcting an opinion which is prevalent but erroneous. 67 E.r/icriiiii'iit Xo. 9. A STUDY OK THK UATK OK KISK (IK CAIMLI.AKV WATKK ! X .SOIL-S. Use soils Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 in this experiment. Place a cheese-cloth disk in the bottom of each tube (fifi. 18) to prevent the escape of soil grains. Use the com- pacting machine to till the tnbes, allowing the weight to drop twice -from the r2-inch mark after each measure of soil. Weigh the tilled tubes carefully and place them in the frame \vith the lower ends standing in about 1 incli of distilled water, which should be maintained at constant level. As the water rises liy capillarity into the soil the tubes will increase in weight. Weigh the tubes carefully each day for one week, noting the daily increase in each tulje and also the total increase for each tube for the period. Ex peri) tin it Xi TO TEST THE A DIIESI VENE.SS OF SOILS. In this experiment soils Xos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 will be used. The adhesiveness will be determined bv measuring the Fig. is.— >Icas\iriiig capillarity in soils. force required to overcome the molecular attraction in a column of moist soil 1 square inch in cross section. Weigh out roughly 150 grams of soil Xo. 1 and 180 grams each of Nos. 2, 3, and 4. Determine the force required to start the empty movable cage (a) by running sand from the rubber tube [h) into the tin pan (c) until the weight is sufficient to cause the cage to move (fig. 19). See to it that the cages are clean and the Ijearings clean and oile l^j___j ijt^j 1 nam 1 " fca' -1 1^ f-n=^ 1 - - __ FiG. 2.— Ohio State University— Torsion Balance Used in Soil Physics Laboratory. 69 and should be removed l)y furtlu-r (kH-iutatidii. The t^ediiuent in tlie bottom of beaker "A" should also be tested. If it contains particles larger than 0.05 milli- meter, the washing or deeantation was too rapid. In this case a recovery nuist be made. The sand is transferred from the beaker to a i)()n'elain (Hsh and dried. It is then ignited to destroy organic matter, after which it is sifted through a nest of sieves of 1, 0.5, 0.25 and 0.1 millimeter, respectively, that gt>ing through the tiner ►^ieve being known as very tine sand. These live separations are weighed together before the sifting and sepa- rately after sifting. The amount of silt, fine silt, and clay which was washed away from the sand may be obtained approx- imately by subtracting the total weight of sand, moisture, and organic matter from the earth taken (20 grams) Considerable time and skill is required to make the separation of silt, fine silt, and clay. It will not be attempted in this experiment. Fig. 20.— Card's apparatus for testing the adhesiveness of soils. The following are the sizes into which the soil ]>articles are .seiiarated: No. 1. Gravel, 2-1 millimeters. X(t. 2. Coarse sand, 1-0.5 millimeter. No. 3. Medium sand, 0.5-0.25 millimeter. No. 4. Fine sand, 0.2.5-0.1 nullimeter. No. 5. Very fine sand, 0.1-0.05 millimeter. No. 6. Silt, 0.05-0.01 millimeter. No. 7. Fine silt, 0.01-0.005 millimeter. No. 8. Clay, 0.005-0.0001 millimeter. Students are required to keep a careful record of each experiment, and at the end of the term to present plates showing their results, and also illustrations of apparatus used, together with description of the method employed. E.XHIBIT No. 8. DETAILED SCHEDULE OF LABORATORY WORK. Advanced courm in soils. September 18 and 19. — Collected samples of soil from fallow, alfalfa, and corn ground to determine moisture content of first and second foot, using sampling tubes and other apparatus, as illustrated in fig. 21. 70 September 25 and 26. — Collected samples of surface foot of muck, tirt^t bottom and second botom soil, for determination of weight per cubic foot of soil under field con- ditions, using large tube, as illustrated in fig. 21. October 2 and S. — Discussion of results as obtained in the above experiments with special reference to the methods of expressing amounts of water in the soil; that is, per cent fresh weight, per cent dry weight, amount of water per cubic foot, and sur- face inches water. October 9, 10, 16, 17, 23, 24, 30, and 31. — Mechanical analysis of two samples of soil — a sand and a clay — by the Osborne beaker method, as modified and used by the Bureau of Soils and described in Bulletin Xo. 4 of the Bureau, pages 8-18. November 6, 7, 13, and 14- — Separation of "silt," "fine silt," and "clay" by the centrifugal method as used in the Bureau of Soils. Fi'-i. 21. — Api>nratu.s I'ur taking soil .sampk'.-. Xfireiidier 20, ,.'1, 27, 2S, and Devendier 4, ■'>, 11, and 12. — Determination of moisture, soluble salts, and temperature of soils by the electrical method, as described and used by the Bureau of Soils. KxniHiT No. i». EXAMINATION IN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN FARM CROPS. The following list of examination «iuestions will serve to indicate the scope of the work covered in the course: 1. Name and explain the reasons for crop rotation. 2. Explain three methods of crop improvement. 3. Give the following statistics on corn and oats for tiie United States during the last decade: {a) Average annual acreage; [b) average annual yield; (e) average annual yield per acre; (d) average value per acre. 4. Xame the eight leading l^tates in the pro) varieties best adapted; (c) thickness of planting; (r?) projier stage of maturity for harvesting. 22. (iive directions for growing sugar beets. ExHimr No. 10. LIST OF LABORATORY OR FIELD PRACTICUMS IN ELEMENTARY COURSE IN FARM CROPS. Practicum No. 1. Eight varieties of corn are grown on the university farm annually for instructional purposes. Students are given this work in the fall term of necessity. Each student is provided with the accompanying score card and asked to judge only the stalks in this exercise. Practicum No. 2. The ears, husked from the variety plats, are brought to the laboratory, where a few of the best are selected and the students are asked to score them carefully, according to the card standards as indicated in the following form: Stinh'tits' score curd. DENT CORN. Scale of points. ■6 3 : X L 7 I X • J X t X ;; ) " X 3 X 1 X X 1 X 11 X o 1 X STALK. Hcifjht—n feet for southern, 10 feet for central, and 9 feet for northern Ohio.. Ci ream lor nee between first and second joints. Si-ii inches, giving sufficient ' support to plant without undue coarse- ness of stalk L(are>t abundant, indicatinggrowth and adding to the feeding value of the 3 3 3 3 3 16 6 10 10 10 __ ., Iliiskx abundant and moderately ad- hering for protection of ear against 1 EARS. FirmnesK of grains and cob, and of grains on the cob, indicating ripeness and •■ Perfeetion and unij'ormil!/ of shape of grains making rclws regular, and sur- face of ear smooth and even Spaee bdirt en mu-g should be filled Uniformity of eoUir \n grains and cob.s, indicating trueness to type FiUimj out at (/; •/.-.— ears "should be cy- lindrical and well rounded out at butt and tip 72 Students' score card — Continued. DENT CoRX— Continnt'ii. Scale of fxiints. '6 5: 1 7. i /. 0) 3 1 X o 4 X 1 V. ( 1 X ■6 0) V 11 1 X i f X •6 1 X — 1 10 ■§ -2 X '- 11 S a; C o X C 1 a 0) ■a X 2 ■a o g o o EARS — continued. Per rent nfgraintoenr. 85 per cent. Esti- 10 10 8 6 ■■ - •- Length—lO inches in southern and cen- tral, and 9 inches in northern Ohio ... Cireumference, at two-fifths the length, measuring from base, 7-7^ Inches in southern and central, and 6J-7 inches -- Juncture of cob with stalk, } inch in di- ameter, giving sufficient support for ear without causing inconvenience in 1 i Total 1 1 _l_ 1 1 — 1 1 _ XAME OF VAKIETY. NAME OF VARIETY — continued. 9. 10. n. 12. student: Date: — Praoticinn Xo. 8. The selected ear? a'-e slielled, weighed, and the tigures arranged according to the following outline, which is handed them: No. 2 Variety. Weight ear.! ,^^\^^hj^„_ Per cent shelled corn. Pounds shelled corn in 1 bushel ears (68 pounds). Pounds ears in 1 bushel shelled corn. No. 7 No. 8 Remarks: Prac-ticnm Xo. 4. A STUDY OF TniRTV-XINK V.VRIETIES OF WINTER \VHE.\T CLASSIFICATION. A. Bearded: {a) Glumes white. (a^) Berry red. 1. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 2. Length of straw more than 8 feet (3 inches, (b^) Berry white. 3. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 4. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. 73 A. Beardeil — Continneil. [b) Glumes bron/A-. (a') Berry red. r>. Length of straw less than .'> feet G inches. 6. J.eiiirth of- straw iixirc tliaii I! feet i> inches. (1)') Berry white. 7. J^engtli of straw less than ',i feet (i inches. S. Length of straw more than .S feet (> inches. B. Beardless: (o) Cilunies white. ^a') Berry red. 9. Length of straw less than M feet tl inches. 10. Length of straw more than .S feet (! inches. {]/) Berry white. 11. Length of straw less than 3 feet (> inches. 12. Length of straw more than ;> feet (> inidies. (b) Glumes bronze. (a') Berry red. 13. Length of straw le.ss than 3 feet 6 inches. 14. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches. (1/) Berry white. 15. Length of straw less than 3 feet 6 inches. 16. Length of straw more than 3 feet 6 inches Each student is required to hand in a written report of this work. Practicum No. 5. About ;May 1 each year the class spends one period making notes on the condition of 15 to 20 varieties of grasses and clovers in the grass garden for use later in the term when they come to study the varieties more fully. Practicum No. 6. The "Howe Grain Tester" is used in testing the purity and weight per bushel of wheat, oats, etc. Practicuins Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 10. About four periods at the close of the term are given to the study of 15 to 20 varie- ties of grasses, clovers, and forage plants. Students use the dried specimens in the laboratory as well as the growing plants in the "grass garden." The following out- line is given each student, who is required to present an essay on the subject at the end of the term : DESCRIPTION OF tiRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Describe the following plants from the bundles given and state use, value, and climatic range and adaptation to soil, and give briefly the results obtained with these plants at experiment stations and elsewhere. The following books may be used for reference, while lielow will be given refer- ences under each variety to results at experiment stations: Vasey's Agricultural Grasses of the United States; Beal's Grasses of North America; Ilackel's True Grasses; Handbook of Experiment Station Work; Grasses of Ten- nessee, Part II; Grasses and Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, by Professor Shaw ; Reports of Kansas State Board of Agriculture, 1895 and 1900; Per- manent and Temporary Pastures, Sutton; Forage Ci'ops other than Grasses, Shaw; Bulletins of the Division of Agrostology: 1. Poa pralenms, L., Kentucky Blue Grass, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station; Bul- letin 20, Mississippi Station. 74 • 2. Ayrudli< lulgaris, L., Redtop, Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, Missis- sippi Station. 3. Phleum }vatensi\ 4. Alppecurus praienHts, L., ^leadow Foxtail. 5. Dactt/JIs glomerata, L., Orchard (Irass, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station; Bul- letin 20, Mississippi Station. 6. Festuca elatior. 7. Featuca pratensis, Huds., Meadow Fescue, Bulletins 5 and 15, Illinois Station. 8. LoVmm pcrenne, L.-, Perennial Rye Grass, Bulletin 12, Colorado Station; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, ^Mississippi Station. 9. Arena elatior, L., Tall ^Meadow Oat Grass, Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Annual Report 1889, Mississippi Station. 10. Anthoxanihum odoratum. 11. Medicago satifa, L., Alfalfa, Bulletin 2, Colorado Station; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station; Bulletin 20, INIississippi Station; \J. S. Department of Agriculture Bul- letin 31 ; Kansas Report, 1895. 12. Trifvliuni pratense. 13. Tri folium inrurnatum, Crimson vr Scarlet Clover, Bulletin 16, Delaware Station; Report 89, INIaryland Station; Annual Report 1889, 3Iississippi Station; Bulle- tin 44, Virginia Station. 14. Trifolinrn hyhridiun. Alsike Clover, Report '^'■■\ ^Maryland Station; Annual Report 1889, Mississijipi Station ; Bulletin 15, Illinois Station. 15. Trifoliuiii repen^i. THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN. By F. W. Wo LI., AxxiMaiit Prafetofor aj Ayricnlturdt Clit niistr;/, rKlrcrKlli/ nf Wlscon.^lii. This institution is one of tlio oldest unci foremost of its kind in Ger- many. It is perhaps better known among American experiment sta- tion and eollege men than any other foreign agricultural institution, on. account of the higli cliaracter of investigational work which has been conducted there during the last half centtiry, and because of the many Americans who have studied in Gottingen during this time. HISTORY. Lectures on agriculture have been delivered at Gottingen I'liiversity since 1770, when J. Beckmann was appointed regular professor of agriculture in the universit}'. He lectured on the subject of agricul- ture every summer until his death in 1811, and also founded an agricultural-])otanical garden to supply instructional material for his lectures, in which all Cirerman plants of interest agricidturally were to be grown. It is characteristic that the object of the lectures delivered was not to educate intending farmers, but "to give an insight in farm operations to students who, later on in public service, would be called upon to represent economic interests." With some interruptions, the lectures were continued until 1852. In that year a special agricultural course of instruction was arranged 75 for at the uiiivevsity, through the efforts of the pohticul econoniLst, Professor Hanssen, of Gottino-cn ITniversity. The course was phuuied to hist four semesters and was phiced under the inunediatc charoo of an ag-ricultural faculty composed of four professors, amono- whom were Wohler. the famous chemist, and Gripenkerl. who until his death in 1000 tilled the' chair of agriculture in the university. The plan of study of the new course was comprehensi\e. Besides the various fundamental natural sciences, it included agi-icultural chem- istry, veterinary science, meteorology, agronom}-, farm management, forestry, political science, and rural law. The theoretical studies were to be supplemented by agricultural excursions to estates in the vicinity of Gottingen; special arrangements were made by which the large Government estate, Weende (an old monastery farm, situated about a mile north of Gottingen), could be visited at any time for instructional purposes, and agricultural experiments could also be made on the land belonging to the estate. The new course started under favorable auspices and received an impetus through the establishment of the Weende Experiment Station in 1S5T by the lioyal Agricultural Society of Hanover. One object in establishing the experiment station was to supplement the agricul- tural instruction at the university hy demonstrations, '"just as if it w^ere an organic part of the same." In 1857 the othcial name of the course was changed to the Royal Agricultural Academy of G()ttingen- Weende, so as to give detinite expression to the close cormection between the theoretical instruction offered at the university and the practical work at the model Government farm, Weende. The attend- ance at the acadenw gradually increased from only four students in iSol to over forty in the beginning of the sixties. About this time the number of students that came to receive agricultural instruction began to grow smaller, and there was a steady decrease during the fol- lowing years, until in 1871-72 scarcely more than a dozen attended the academy. The cause of the decreasing attendance during the last years of this period w^as not difficult to understand in view of the fact that the Agricultural Institute of Halle University, which w^as estab- lished in 1863, showed a steadily increasing attendance during the same time. The Nestor among agricultural university teachers, Julius Kiibn, through whose efforts the Halle Agricultural Institute was established, and to whom more than an}^ other man is due the credit foi the splendid growth of agricultural universit}' instruction. ))oth in German}' and in other countries, was the ffrst one to call attention to the fact that an agricultural educational institution that is nothing but a professional school does not supply the facilities for instruction which the times demand. Agricultural science is not merely an aggre- gation of applied sciences, it has its own special sphere, and in order to live and develop it must have opportunities for veritication of prac- 76 tical experiences and tor investigation of its special problems — similar facilities to those long- ago accorded, e. g., to medicine. Teachers who lack this opportunity to verify and enlarge the knowledge of the principles of agriculture can not do the best work for their students or for their profession. A reorganization of the Gottingen Agricultural Academy took place during 1871-1875, to a large extent in accordance with the ideas which J. Kiihn advanced and advocated with signal success. The new agri- cultural institute of the University of Gottingen (PI. XV) dates from this period. New buildings were erected, laboratories ])uilt, the Weende Experiment Station was removed to the agricultural institute (in 1871), and experimental grounds, with garden and greenhouse, were provided for. Later changes made have been comparatively few, and only one of greater importance, viz, the recent establish- ment of an agricultural-bacteriological institute, the first one of its kind in the workl, so far as is known. The attendance at the institute during late years, according to the published university catalogue, has been about 30. Anum))er of spe- cial students, however, take single lectures or special laboratory work in the institute without being registered as agricultural students, so that the actual mmiber of students attending lectures of professors or working in the laboratories of the institute is somewhat greater than the figure given, but is at any rate small compared with the attendance in agricultural educational institutions of similar standing in this country. PRESENT ORGANIZATION. The Gottingen Agricultural Institute, as organized^ at present, is composed of six different departments, viz: (1) General agriculture and animal husbandr}-, in charge of the director of the institute. Prof. W. Fleischmann. i'2) Agricultural chemical laboratorv of the university. Prof. B. Tollens. (3) Agricultural experimental grounds. Prof. C. von Seelhorst. (4) Animal physiological experiment station. Prof. Franz Lehmann. (5) The veterinary institute of the university, Prof. H. J. Esser. (6) The agricultural 1)acteriological institute of the university. Prof. Alfred Koch. A.s.s/''s. Ia])oratory Avork, demonstration on the experimental grounds and in the garden, agricultural excursions, and the agricultural seminar. This work is in charge of the director of the agricultural experimental grounds, Prof. V. von Seelhorst, who is also professor of agrononi}' in the universit}' . Lectures a?id lahoratory irorl'. — The courses of lectures olfer(>d in agrononw are, in the winter semester, general plant production (plant life) and breeding of agricultural crops; in the summer semester, culture of special crops, and weeds and plant diseases. The charac- teristics of the A'arious kinds 'of grains, roots, tubers, and other agri- cultural crops are discussed in the special course, specimens of grain in the sheaf, potatoes, seeds, etc., being supplit^i in each case, and botanical charts and other illustrative material shown. The labora- tory instruction is given throughout the year one afternoon in the week. It consists of microscopical and agricultural examinations of concentrated feeding stuti's as to more important adulterations, (j[ual- ity, etc.; further seed tests, and. in the winter semester, studies of plant diseases. Chemical analyses of crops, soils, fertilizers, etc., are made only as required in special investigations, the general methods adopted in the lal)oratory work being such as the students will be likeh" to use and can use later on in their work on the farm. Deiiwnstrat/onx. — The demonstrations on the experimental grounds, in the garden and the greenhouse are of special interest and value to the students. They are given once a week (Monday morning from 7 to 8) during the whole year so long as there is anything of interest agriculturally to be seen outside. The writer attended all demonstra- tions given during the summer semester of 1901, and was pleased to observe the interest which the students evidently took in the demon- strations, as well as agreeably surprised to note the regularity with which the students met at this rather unusual hour, a regularity which was the more surprising as the attendance at lectures, in the summer semester at least, at most German universities is far from regular. The popularity of the profcvssor in charge dou])tless contributed to bring about this result, l)ut not more than did the practical nature of the subject and the abundant material for demonstration at hand. In these demonstrations the ])rofessor would conduct tlu» class to the 80 particular part of the grounds which he wished to speak about, and would then explain the experiments in progress and call attention to special points of importance. The next and following weeks a stop would be made at the same plats to note the development of the crop under the different conditions, differentiation of varieties or of crops under different systems of fertilization, etc. The continuity of the demonstrations gave these talks increased value, the eyes of the students became trained to detect minute differences in the color or luxuriance of plants, and they could follow the gradual differentiations in plants from week to week due to different conditions of fertilization or other intiuences. The effects of a scarcity or an excess of moisture; effects of hail on different crops, and how they gradually recover, or fail to recover, fi-oni these effects; estimation of the damage done by hail, weeds, attacks of insect, or fungus diseases; identification of these, their methods of attack and distri])ution, and how to combat them; estimations of yields of different crops, etc., are some of the almost innumerable subjects which furnish a well-informed teacher material for lectures in the field. The lectures were informal talks, often interrupted by tpiestioning of' the students as to their opinions of matters observed or to be observed. The students would jot down in their note books, although not as frequently as desirable, facts or suggestions brought out. Aside from the fact that the demonstra- tions served as a convenient method of gathering a large amount of direct practical information on farm topics, they were of great value to the students in teaching them to use their eyes and to apply knowl- edge obtained in other disciplines, and last, but not least, served to create or maintain an interest and enthusiasm for farm matters which perhaps no other method of instruction would be likely to equal. It might be thought that there could hardly be anything new or interesting to note on grounds but little over 15 acres in area when the demonstrations came as often as once every week, but with the rich niaterial available, which included dozens of different plat experi- ments with ail kinds of farm crops, rotation experiments, fertilizer tests, pot experiments, etc., this was not the case; on the contrary, the hour proved invariably too short to go over only the portion of the grounds planned each time. The arrangement of the German university year is most favorable for observing the larger share of the round of farm operations. The summer semester covers the time from the end of April to the beginning of August, and the winter semester the time from the end of October to the beginning of ]\Iarch. In these two periods nearlv the whole growing periods of most farm crops fall, and most of the important farm work, like preparation of the land in the spring; seeding of spring grains; planting of peas, beans, root crops, and potatoes, and cultivation of the same; cutting and curing of hay; cutting, stacking, and harvesting of small grains, 81 pea.s, and other crops; securing* the second crop of hii}'; harvesting" and storing of root crops and potatoes; preparing and seeding land to winter grains, etc. Thus a full 3'ear\s attendance at the demonstra- tions will bring all the main farm operations up for discussion; it will acquaint the students with the best practices in all cases, and will give them a fund of combined practical and theoretical knowledge which can be drawn upon for assistance throughout their lifetime. Excvrsioiis. — A fourth method of instruction in agronomy at Got- tingen Agricultural Institute is supplied hy the agricultural excursions which are made to estates in the vicinit}' of Gottingen once every week^ general}}' Saturtlay afternoons, but at times covering one or more days. The professor and students are shown around the premises l)y the owner, or in his absence, by his foreman, who explains the sj'stem of farming followed, the character of soil and manuring in the different fields, and the history of these for a couple of 3'ears ])ack as to crops grown and systems of fertilization. Stables, barns, tool sheds, and other farm buildings are also visited, and the owner's experience is ascertained in each case, questions put b}' the professor or any in the party l)eing as a rule answered in an open, businesslike way. The excursion gener- ally ends with a short social time, when light refreshments arc often served, and points not previously touched upon, or more general topics connected with the farm management, are brought up and discussed. The party is apparently heartily welcome at all the places visited, the farmers seeming to consider it an honor to receive their visitors, in spite of the fact that the visit in some cases is a j^early or even a half- year I3' affair. The hospitable spirit shown toward the professor and the 3'oung men Avho are about to enter into practical farm work them- selves, is strong evidence of the high esteem in which German farmers hold their higher agricultural educational institutions and the men who are intrusted with the instruction of their sons or neighbors' sons in their future profession. As the excursions are under the charge of the professor of agronomy they are necessaril}^ of greater benefit to students in furnishing infor- mation in this line than along the line of animal husbandry, or special dair}' husbandry. In the latter subjects there is, in general, less to be learned in a German university, or in Germany on the whole, by an American student, than in almost any other branch of study, so far as the writer's experience goes. The relations of the Government estate, Weende, to the agricultural institute are somewhat different from those of the other estates visited, in so far as the renter is under contract to give agricultural students occasional talks on the work in progress on the estate, and to allow inspection of the estate b}- the students at any time. The fact that the present renter of the estate, Oekonomierat Beseler, is one of the promi- nent grain growers of German}', who, besides being the originator of 26777— No. 127—03 6 82 a number of improved strains of small grains, especially wheat and oats, is a progressive farmer and an excellent instructor, makes the excur- sions to Weende of the highest value to the agricultural students. The Weendc estate has a total area of 672 acres, of which about 480 acres of fields and meadows lie in the alluvial or diluvial soil of the Leine Valley, and the rest is keuper (pcecilitic) soil. To the Weende estate belongs also the Deppoldshausen branch farm, situated on the Gottingen forest plateau, about 1,000 feet high, and 3 miles distant from Weende. This farm lies in the shell-lime formation, and has a thin clay soil calling for methods of farming entirely different from those of the valle}' farms; it includes an area of 360 acres of cultivated land and 77 acres of pastures. The s^^stem of farming followed on estates in th(> vicinity of Gottingen is mostly grain raising and sugar- beet culture, but there are also a number of large dairy farms that are visited at intervals. Seminar. — The fifth branch of the instruction in plant production in Gottingen is the agricultural seminar. This is held in conjunction with the agricultural excursions, and meets once a week from S to 0.30 in the evening ((> to 7.30 in the winter), the professor of agronom}^ conducting the seminar. One of the students, acting as reporter on the agricultural excursion, prepares a paper on the estate visited, which is read at the seminar. In this a full account is given of what has been seen or K^arned about the place visited, and criticisms are offered as to farming methods, etc. The discussion following the paper brings out important points that were not considered in the paper, and enlarges upon such not sufficiently elucidated. The l)usiness side of the farm operations, the economy of systems of fertilization, the statics of fertilizing ingredients in the soil, system of crop rota- tion adopted, and special conditions of soil or markets under which the farmer works are among the su))jects likeh'to come up for discus- sion each time. The regular attendance of the students at the seminar, and the lively discussions which generally arise as to methods of farm practice or principles underh'ing these, testify to the interest Avhich the students take in this work and the benefit which they derive from taking part in the seminar. FACILITIES FOR INSTRUCTION. The facilities for work in the various departments are in general up to the requirements of modern educational institutions, even according to the standards common in this countiw, where, as a rule, buildings and equipment have been provided for the special purpose in view, and are not, as is often the case abroad, the adapted inheritance of earlier times. An American student will most likeh^ be surprised, however, to note the small scale on which the equipment is arranged at Gottingen. as at nearlv all other German agricultural colleges. 83 C The dairy luid buctoriologiciil labonilorv of Professor Floiscliiuann, whose name is identified with the development of dairy science in all its phases from its Vjeginning- until the present time, consists of two rooms, one about 24 l)y 40 feet and th(>, other 24 by 14 feet, with accommodations for less than half a dozen students. The agricadtural chemical lul)orat()ry (Professor Tollens) consists of two rooms, one for quiJitative and (quantitative analysis, with accommodations for 3t; stn- dents, and one for luhanced or thesis work, for 10 students. The gen- eral auditorium or lecture room of the agricultural institute has a seat- ing capacity of a])out 36, and is never crowded — less than ever later in the semester, owing to the German system of non- compU'lsory attiMidance. For pur[)oses of instruc- tion and demonstration in agronomy use is made of the experimental !^;'rounds, greenhouse, and other equipment of the jilant- culture experiment sta- tion. The experimental grounds have a total area of about 15 acres, and ad- join the agricviltural insti- tute on the north (PL XVI, ligs. 1 and 2). Experi- mental work on this land was begun b}' Professor Drechsler in the beginning of the seventies, and has included trials of S3'stems fi of rotations, variety tests of farm crops, fertilizer experiments, and improvement of cereals and other crops through continued selection. The diagram herewith given shows the divisions of the experimental grounds (tig. 22). The crops grown on these in 1001 were as. follows: Field A. — Gottinger r3"e. Field B I. — Square-head wheat. Field B II. — Potatoes, 22 varieties. Potash fertilizer experiments. Field C— Red clover. Field D. — Peas, 2 varieties, and })eans. Potash fertilizer experi- ments. Field E. — Rye, flax, winter wheat, mangel-wurzels, barley, beans, potatoes, spring wheat, oats, sugar beets, and potatoes. Fertilizer experiments. / 5. D I / ; / H \ \ B, \ \ ^ \ \ E V V UJ. — Plan of experimental grounds at Gc'Utingen Agri- cultural Institute. 84 Field F. — Plant l)reeding experiments with rye, winter wheat, spring wheat, oats, sugar beets, and potatoes. Fertilizer experiments with oats and sugar beets. Field F {)io\\\\x of plant-breeding plats). — Clover, tests of 3(> varie- ties of diti'erent origin; spring wheat, 8 varieties; potatoes, breeding experiments with 4 varieties. Field F (east of plant- breeding plats). — Sugar and fodder beets (experiments with diti'erent distances of planting); potatoes, 5 varie- ties; peas, 2 varieties. Field G. — Oats, Gottinger and Beseler's improved, with clover. Field II. — Root crops: Sugar beets, mangel-wurzels. Potash fer- tilizer experiments. Field I. — Square-head wheat. In the trial garden small plats are grown of all plants of agricultural importance to northern (lermany, the dilferent kinds of grasses and iodder plants, cereals, root crops, small fruits, weeds, etc. Mixtures of grasses and leguminous plants are also grown under different S3"S- tems of fertilization, to stud}- the effect or to obtain demonstration material for showing the effect of certain f ertilizei's in favoring the growth of some plants and checking that of others. Similar expeii- ments were also conducted during the season of 1901 in pots in the gi'eenhouse, under liberal or scant supplies of water, in the stud}' of the effect of Avater supply on the action of different fertilizers or com- binations of such. Pot experiments are conducted in the greenhouse shown in PI. XVII. The dimensions of the greeidiouse are 23 by -11) feet, with a workroom added, 13 by 30 feet. It has accommodations for about 600 pots, which are placed on trucks and in good weather aiwa^^s kept outside. The experiments are conducted according to tlie plan worked out at the Darmstadt statioti. The general problem studied during late years is the influence of the water supply on the utilization of different kinds of fertilizers l)y cereals, grasses, and other farm crops. The laboratorv investigations are chiefly supplementary- to experiments conducted in the fleld, garden, or greenhouse, the main work of the assistants l)eing the chemical analysis of materials harvested, soils, fertilizers, etc. A great deal of independent research work has, how- ever, also been conducted in the laboratory, and has from time to time been published in the periodical literature, especially in the Journal fiir Landwirtschaft. Library and museum. — A description of a German agricultural institute would be incomplete without a mention of its library and museum, both of which form all-important parts of the facilities for instruction and research. The library of the Gottingen Agricultural Institute is small, less than 3,000 volumes, but is very complete in German works on agriculture and allied subjects. To an American U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bu!. 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XVI. Fig. 1.— Gottingen Agricultural Institute— Looking Southeast. 'iG. 2.— Gottingen Agricultural Institute— Looking Northeast from Institute Buildings Across the Experiment Plats. U. 5. Depl. of Agr., Bui 127, Office of Expt. Stations. Plate XVII. GoTTiNGEN Agricultural Institute-Greenhouse. 85 student the absence of the best foreio-n (English or American) agri- cultural literature, in this library as in all other German libraries with which the writer is acquainted, will seem strange. In the laboratories of the institute are found special small, but good, reference libraries, which are accessible at all times and arc of great service to students. There is also a reading room, where current numbers of tlie leading German (and other continental -European) agricultural papers and scientitic magazines are kept. The museum of the Gottingen Agricultural Institute was founded in 1851 by Professor Gripenkerl, and therefore represents half a cen- tury's growth. The agricultural faculty have here from year to year deposited collections in their respective lines of instruction and inves- tigation, with the view of making it valuable for instructional pur- poses rather than of establishing an agricultural museum. The collection of feeding stuU's contains samples of feeds used by Henne- berg in his fundamental studies on the nutrition of farm animals, and numerous other specimens in the museum bear testimoii}' of investi- gations conducted at Gottingen during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The rich collections thus accumulated form invaluable material for demonstration and are constantly utilized by the pro- fessors in their lectures. o LhlVIr'07 t ' /