mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm»mm»Mmmimtmmmmmmm MWMi /Hs ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE mmmmmmmmm»mmmmmmmmmmmmmm HATCH AN D HASELWOOD Row, Peterson &Go. tmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmv mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmK Class Book _5.Jiii XJ) Copyii^ht]^^. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. < ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE WITH > PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC K. L. HATCH V\ PRINCIPAL, SCHOOL OF AGRICULTUKK AND DOMESTIC KCONOMY. WINNKCONNK. WISCONSIN AND J A. HASELWOOD SUPERINTF.NDKNT OF SCHOOLS. JKFFKRSON COUNTY. AND SENATOR FRt)M THE 23d DISTRICT. WISCONSIN } J i ) > CHICAGO ROW, PETERSON & COMPANY 1907 ^ .\\^ LI3KARY of CONGRESS? Two OoDies Sxeifbd ) JUL 3 190/ i Ccc^nirht Ent.T CLASS Jl XXc, No. copy ti. *. I CorYKiciiTKD. 190.1. 100(). 1907, by K. L. Hatch • ♦ « < t < c * & r ACKNOWLEDGMENT The tables used in this hook are taken from the piihhslied reiK)rts of the United States Department of Agriculture, and a(lai)te(l to the needs of this ])uhlica- ♦*tion. Only averaj^es and a])proximate values are g'iven. Conditions vary so widely that accuracy is impossible. The value of the tables lies in familiarity with their use rather than in the numerical results obtained from them. We extend our thanks to L. Lewellin & Sons, Percheron Breeders, Waterloo, and J. W. Martin, Red Polled Preeder, Richland Center, Wis. Grateful acknowled.gnient is also made to the Universitv of Wisconsin for material used in illustra- tion, and to the friends who have i^iven us valuable as- sistance and suggestions. H. & H. CONTENTS. Chapter. Tage. I. THE GROWTH OF PLANTS 9 II. THE PLANT AND THE WATER 18 IIL PLANT FOODS 23 IV. SOIL 30 V. THE SOIL AND THE CROP 38 VL WEARING OUT THE SOIL 44 VIL LEGUMES 49 YIIL TILLING THE SOIL 55 IX. DRAINING THE SOIL 63 X. THE CROP 69 XL INSECTS AND DISEASES THAT INJURE THE CROPS 76 XIL THE DESTRUCTION OF WEEDS 86 XIIL THE STOCK ON THE- FARM 90 XIV. FEEDING THE STOCK 98 XV. THE THREE C 'S— COWS, CORN AND CLOVER. .112 XVL THE DAIRY 118 XVIL POULTRY 129 XVIIL SPECIAL CROPS 135 XIX. FARM BUILDINGS 146 XX. FARM ACCOUNTS I54 XXL FORESTRY 161 XXIL HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 168 XXIIL SCHOOL GARDENING 173 XXIV. HOME GARDENING 177 XXV. BARN PLAN AND VENTILATION 181 « PREFACE As the population of our country increases, it is fast becoming evident that two things must Ije clone : poorer soil must be cultivated, and what is already under cultivation must be made to produce more. In either case more thoughtful methods in agriculture are absolutely essential. The farmer of to-morrow, who is to-day the farmer's boy, must know how to farm better than his father does. In order to do this, he must acquire a more or less complete knowledge of the sciences on which agriculture is based. The farmer of the future must be able to read farm papers understandingly, or better still, he should be trained for his life work in some agricultural school as doctors, lawyers and teachers are now trained. It is the purpose of this book to give to the farmer's child, who studies it, a start in such necessary knowl- edge. The language used is plain and simple, and may be readily understood by any bright boy or girl of twelve years of age. All scientific terms are defined in a sim])le way whenever it has been necessary to introduce them. Each chapter is followed by a set of practical farm problems to be used as exercises for the arithmetic class. These problems have a definite relation to the subject matter which they folUnv, as well as a close relation to farm life. Wherever appropriate at the close of a chapter some experimental studies are added. It is believeil that the working- out of these ex- ercises will enable the farmer's children to solve ordi- nary practical problems arising on the farm, and pre- pare for the more complex ones of experimental agri- culture. It is hoped that the careful study of this book will lead to a deeper interest in farm life, and to a more careful and systematic study of the soils, crops, feeds, fertilizers, and the like, by the children in the rural schools and perhaps, incidentally, by the farmers themselves. It is a wholesome indication of the trend of educa- tional thought, that the le^-islatures of several states have made compulsory the study of agriculture in. the district schools. Wq trust that this little book, by combining the subjects of arithmetic and agriculture, will be of material assistance to teachers in their efforts to do effective work in both branches. H. & H. ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE CHAPTER I THE GROWTH OF PLANTS What Makes Plants Grow. — If you were asked, "What mnkes a pi^ grow?" you would reply, *'Milk, grass, corn, etc.," but if you were asked, ''What makes a plant grow?" would you answer so readily, "The food which it consumes?" But this is precisely what you should re])ly. Plants, like animals, must have food and drink, and like animals, they ])erish without them. At some later time, we shall tell you what tliese foods are, in such a way that you will readily recognize them at sight. For tlic jjresent, however, we shall observe the way in which plants grow and find out, if possible, the source from which they get their first food. The little pig, or lamb, or calf lives and grows upon the milk of its mother until it is large enough to search for its own food. Tt then begins tr) use the same food as the larger animals of its kind. Now, from what source does the little plant get its first food? ro ELEMEN TARY AGRICULTURE How Plants Store Food. — If yon will carefully remove the skin from a bean that has been soaked over night, and then separate it into two parts, yon will discover two tiny leaves near one end, between the two halves of the bean. Extending in the oppo- site direction is a tiny stem and root. This little plant is called the germ or embryo, and it is this germ which A r>i:AN I'LANT. A DICOTYLEDON. A SPLIT BEAN. E — Embryo. C — Cotylodou. A COnx PLAXT. A MONOCOTYLEDON later develops into a fnll grown plant. The two halves of the bean serve as a storehonse for food, and are called cotyledons. If a kernel of corn is taken instead, and examined in the same way, the same kind of little plant will be fonnd. Instead of two leaves pointing upward, as in the bean, Imt one will be fonnd in the corn. The peanut will be fcnind to resemble the bean in this respect : wheat and rye resemble the cc^rn. WHY PLAN'IS GKCJW ii ClassiFication of Plants. — In tlic s])ring, as soon as the yoiing" jjlants begin to come up, go put into tlie garden and field and notice how many leaves are first seen from the seed. In one list write the names of all plants showing but a single leaf or sprout, and name that list monocotyledfjns. In anr)ther list write the names of all ];lants showing a pair of first leaves and call these j^lants dicotyledfjns, and you will have begun the systematic study of botany. If you are interested, you will not wait for spring, but will want to begin now, which you may clo by ])lanting all kinds of seeds grow^n on the farm in sawdust in an old pan ke])t in a light, warm ])lace. You can then examine these seeds from day to day and watch their growth. Germination. — If you keep these seeds wet they will grow well for a few clays, anrl then they will wither and die. Now, why is this? Because the little jjlant- let lives on the food contained in tlie seed until this f(jod is all used up, and the ])lant has attained sufficient size and strength to get its food from the sfjil. But it cannot get srifficient food from the sawdust, and of course it starves to death, just as a little pig would starve if it were not given sufficient food. Why Plants Store Up Pood. — When asked why Jjlants store up so much food matter in seeds we usually answer, "To furnish food for animals and men." Nothing could be further from the truth. Nature intended this food matter, not for man, but for the little ])lantlets, fr)und in the seeds, to use for their own growth until they are large en(jugh to get it 12 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE for themselves directly from the soil. ]\Iake this experiment : From soaked beans or kernels of corn, cut away about two-thirds of this food matter, being very careful not to injure the embryos, and watch the sprouting of what remains. These sprouts will wither and die much sooner than those from perfect seeds, be- cause not enough nourish- ment is left to supply them with food until they are large enough to get it from the soil. This should teach us that we cannot be too careful in the selection of large, w^ell developed seeds if we wish strong, healthy plants and, consequently, good crops. Every farmer's child must have noticed how pota- toes shrivel up when they sprout in the cellar. This is due to the fact that the young sprout uses up a part of the potato as food for its own growth. Necessity of Moisture, Heat, Air, and Light. — But there are other things necessary for the growth of plants. Grain rarely grows in the bin or stack, and if it does, you will say that it is because the grain is too wet. Moisture, then, is another requisite for plant growth. But even wet grain fails to grow in the winter time because heat is necessary. Neither Drawing from life, show- ing effect of cutting away a portion of the cotyledons on the growth of the plant. The same results will be obtained by using small and large seeds. Try it. WHY PLANTS GROW 13 will crops grow in ground covered with water, because all growing plants must have air, and much water keeps the air out of the soil. There is still another requisite to plant growth, and that is light. No plant grows well in dense shade, and without sunlight plants always have a yellow and sickly appearance. Siunmary. — Good seeds and proper conditions of soil, moisture, air, heat and light are essential to plant growth, and a part of the study of agriculture consists in determining just how to control these conditions. ''What?" you ask, "Can the farmer control the amount of heat, air and moisture in the soil?" He can, and it is the purpose of this little book to teach the farmer's children how it may be done. A good bulletin on the subject treated in this chapter may be had free on application to the Secretary of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C. or to your Senator or Representative in Congress. Write for Farmers' Bulletin, No. in. — The Farmer's Interest in Good Seed. Experimental Study of Seeds. 1. Place a folded newspaper in the bottom of a cigar box, a crayon box, or on a plate ; moisten with water, and place another folded newspaper over the first one. Between the papers place one hundred of the seeds to be tested, and set aside in a warm place for a few days. Keep the paper moist but not wet. At the end of a week the number of sprouted seeds represents the percentage of good seeds. 2. Select ten very small seeds and an equal num- ber of very large seeds of the same kind, and plant 14 ELEMEN lARV AGRICri.TrRr: them at e(inal distances in parallel rows in the same box. Note which make the most rapid antl vigorous growth during the tirst week; the second week; the third week. 3. Select seeds from a supply that has been pre- viously tested and t\nnul to be good. Place a dozen of these seeds on paper in each of three dishes. Cover the seeds in the first dish with water and keep them completely cmered. In the second dish keep the seeds half covered with water. In the third dish keep the paper on which the seeds are placed always moist, but do not allow water to stand around the seeds. Which seeds germinate most rapidly? Why? What finally happens to the seeds immersed in water? Explain. 4. Plant sc^me seeds in moist soil and others in the same kind of soil kept very wet. Note the dif- ference in germination and growth. Explain. 5. Start some beans growing well in each of two boxes side by side on the windmv sill ; then cover one li^t with ani^ther box ov a paper ccMie. At the end of a week reuKne the cover and note the effect that absence of light has had on the growth and ajipearance of the plants. 6. Provide for the crrowth of scedlino-s acrainst glass. This may be done by planting seeds in a glass jar, a tumbler, or even in an old crayon box set on end, the other end removed, and a piece of glass put in the place of the cover. By pressing the seeds close against the glass their germination and growth can be easily observed from day to day. wiiv I'l.wrs CROW 15 Table I. Table showing legal weight per bushel of farm products in the majority of states: Wheat Cxj lbs. Potatoes 60 lbs. Peas 60 lbs. Beans 60 lbs. Koot crops (average) 60 lbs. Onions 57 lbs. Corn (shelled) 56 lbs. Rye 56 lbs. Piarley 4^ lbs. I'm k wheat 4S lbs. Oats 32 lbs. Handy Values. A bushel requires about ij4 cubic feet of space. A bushel of corn in the ear requires about 2 cubic feet of space. A barrel oi water refjuires about 4 cubic feet of space. A ton r>f hay fills about 512 cubic feet of space, or 8x8x8 cubic feet. A cubic foot of water weighs 62]/^ jjounds. Note I : All the above should be memorized. Note II: Pupils should also memorize tables of avoirdupois weight, dry measure, licjuid measure, long measure, .square measure, and cubic measure, with all the necessary abbreviations. Problems, 1. How many prninrls of wheat are grown on an acre yielding 25 Ijusliels? 2. ITrjw many ponnds arc f^rown on cii^dil acres at the same rate? How many tons? 3. How many square rods in an acre? How many pounds would that Ijc per s(juare rod? i6 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 4. What is the value per acre of the above at 80c per bushel ? 5. At the same rate what is the value of all the wheat grown on a piece of land containing 240 square rods? 6. At 90c per bushel what is the value of the wheat gfrown on an acre if the vield is 20 bushels? 7. \\'hich is the more valuable, the crop in problem 4 or that in problem 6? 8. If 20 bushels of 90c wheat can be grown on an acre, how many pounds is that per acre? What is the price per pound ? How many pounds are grown on a square rod ? What is the value of the wheat grown on a square rod ? 9. At the same rate and price, what is the value of the wheat grown on a piece of ground 14 rods wide and 20 rods long? 10. How many acres in a field 40 rods long and 24 rods wide? 11. If a man can plow 2 acres per day, how long will it take him to plow the above field? What will it cost at $2 per day? 12. What will be the cost of plowing a 40 acre field at the same rate? 13. If a man and team can seed 8 acres per day how long will it take to seed a 40 acre field? \Miat will it cost at $2 per day? 14. At 50c per acre what will be the cost of cut- ting this crop? WHY PLANTS GROW 17 15. It will cfjst about $0.25 per acre to stack the grain. Find the cost of stacking. 16. What is the threshing hill at 2 cents pe^- bushel? Finrl the entire cost of the crop. 17. If the yield has been 20 bushels per acre, worth 90 cents per bushel, how much has the farmer made over and above the entire cost of labor? 18. How much has he made if the crop has yielded 25 bushels per acre, worth $0.80 per bushel? 19. Have any items of the cost of producing this wheat been omitted? If so, what? Should we allow for them? Let us do so and find the result. 20. AA^ith a crop of 50 bushels of shelled corn per acre, worth $0.40 per bushel, work the same series of problems, omitting such as do not apply to corn raising. To the Teacher : The above list of problems is intended to suggest others. Ask the pupils to find the current prices of corn, oats, barley, hay, etc. What is considered a good crop per acre of each of these? Then estimate the cost of labor. Have them furnish all the necessary data. This they can get from home. Make up a list of problems similar to the above from data furnished by the pupils. Let one pupil furnish data for one set of problems, another pupil furnish data for another set, and so on. Pass the honors around. You should have both parents and pupils interested before you have progressed far with this work. Observe this policy throughout the course of instruction in this branch. It will be observed that there is a logical order in arrangement of the problems ; in many cases the conditions necessary for the solution of a problem are found in one preced- ing it. CHAPTER II THE PI^ANT AND WATER Kinds of Plant Foods. — We have already seen that the seed furnishes the food for the Httle plantlet until it is large enough to get food from the soil, in much the same way that the mother cow furnishes mi-Ik for her calf until the calf is large enough to find its own food. If asked, ''What are the foods which a cow eats?" you w^ould probably answer, ''Grass, hay, straw, oats, bran, etc." Not many of us could answer so readily if asked to give a list of plant foods. There are but a dozen of them, and half of these are nearly as well known to you as cattle foods. The most familiar are : water, lime, iron-rust, soda, ammonia and sand. The other six are : magnesia, potash and four acids, viz. : carbonic, phosphoric, hydrochloric and sulphuric. Plants and Water. — Now let us consider these plant foods. Every one knows that plants cannot live with- out water, but few persons stop to think of the enor- mous amount of water consumed daily by an acre of growing vegetation. You may make this experiment : Put exactly the same amount of water in each of two THE PLANT AND THE WATER 19 similar vessels — tumblers, glass fruit-jars or even old tin cans will answer. Pull up a thrifty bunch of clover and put its roots into one of these vessels of water. Stand both on a table or shelf side by side. In a few days you will notice that the water in the vessel containing the clover is disappearing much more rap- idly than that in the other vessel. As soon as the clover begins to wilt take it out of the water and by Relative amounts of water at the beginning of the experiment. Relative amounts of water at the end of the experiment. measuring compare what remains in the two vessels. Of course, both have lost by evaporation — that is, both have ''dried up," as we say — but, if the vessels are of the same size, there should be ecpial evaporation. Why, then, should not the remainders be equal? Be- cause the clover plant has been using up water. The difference between what remains in the two cans repre- sents the amount used by the clover plant. H01V Plants Use [Fa/^r.^Plants make use of water in two ways. In the first place, they use it as food just the same as animals do. In the second place, a plant cannot eat solid food. It has neither mouth nor teeth and it must suck in its food in liquid form 20 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE through its roots. The sohcl foods mentioned above dissolve in water — just as sugar dissolves in coffee — and in this dissolved condition thev are easilv taken in by the roots of the plant. Substances such as salt, that dissolve in water, are said to be soluable, and the plant fluid containing these dissolved substances is called sap. The solid food, with a portion of the water, is taken from the sap to be used in plant growth, and the remaining water is passed off to the air through little holes in the leaves. This is the reason why plants need so much water. Grain uses up thousands of tons of water per acre during the grow^- insr season. Moisture Can Be Regulated. — :But you ask : "Can the farmer regulate the amount of moisture in the soil? Does not that depend wholly upon rainfall?" No, it does not depend upon rainfall. If the ground is too wet, the farmer can drain it by ditching or tiling, and by careful cultivation he can keep the moisture in the soil in times of drought. Just how this is done is left for later discussion. Experimental Study of Water in Plants. 1. Place a clean, dry glass vessel over a growing plant. A fruit- jar or a tumbler will do. In a few hours what appears on the inner surface of the glass? Where does this moisture come from? How can you show that it does not come from the soil ? 2. Place a thrifty clover plant in a clean, dry glass jar and seal it tight. In a few hours what appears on THE PLANT AND THE WATER 21 the inner surface of the bottle? Explain what you observe. 3. Place some cut flowers that have begun to wither in a vessel containing cold water, immersing all except the blossoms. Set in a cool place for several hours. What change occurred? Explain. ■ Tree Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fanners' Bulletins. No. 46. — Irrigation in Humid Climates No. 116. — Irrigation in Fruit Growing. No. 138. — Irrigation in Field and Garden. No. 158. — How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches. Table II. Table showing proportions of water in farm crops. One bushel of root crops contains about 55 pounds of water. One bushel of potatoes contains about 45 pounds of water. One bushel of corn (dry, shelled) contains about 5 pounds of water. One bushel of wheat contains about 6 pounds of water. One bushel of oats contains about 3 pounds of water. One ton of dry hay contains about 300 pounds of water. One ton of green feed contains from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of water. Note: This represents only the water left in the plants and seeds as a part of them. By far the greater amount used by the plant passes off to the air through the pores in the leaves. Problems. I. If rain falls an inch deep on the level, how manv cubic inches is that per square foot? Per square 22 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE yard? Per square rod? How many cubic feet per square rod? Per acre? 2. About how many barrels of water fall on an acre with i inch rainfall? 3. How many tons will this water weigh? 4. The total rainfall during- the year in Wisconsin is about four feet. What does the water weigh that falls during the year on a stjuare yard of ground? On a square rod? How many tons to the acre? 5. Suppose the plants use one-eighth of this, what is the weight of the water used by a square yard of vegetation? A scfuare rod? An acre? 6. Suppose potatoes contain three-fourths of their weight of water. How many pounds of water in a bushel of potatoes? f 7. If 150 bushels per acre of potatoes is a good yield, how many pounds of water in the potatoes grown on an acre ? 8. By the aid of data furnished by the members of the class make and solve at least ten other similar problems. CHAPTER III PLANT FOODS Lime. — Lime is known to every child. It is known, too, that h'me will dissolve readily in water, and thus become available for plant food. Large quantities of lime are found in the soil. Of course, it comes from the lime rock. Soda. — Soda, or saleratus, as it is sometimes called, is also easily dissolved in water. Soda is made from common salt and the plants get it from the soil. Iron-Rust. — Iron-rust gives the red or yellow color to rocks and soils. It dissolves easily in water, espe- cially after a little acid is added. The Use of Acids. — But what is an acid? The commonest kind of acid, without which no farmer's wife could well get along, is vinegar. Acids are usually sour in taste, and their presence in the soil as- sists water in dissolving rock. A copper penny can be made bright, or an old brass ring to look like gold, bv rubbinc: it with a little vineijar. This is because the acid dissolves off the tarnish and leaves the clean surface exposed. Some of the plant foods dissol\e much more readily in water to which a little acid has been added. Soda is a good example. Put a tea- 24 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE spoonful of it in a cup about one-fourth full of water without stirring. Add a little vinegar and notice what takes place. The soda disappears because the acid acts on it. Gas is given off very rapidly, causing it to bubble and "foam." This gas is carbonic acid, one of the four acids named in the last chapter. These acids help the water to dissolve the plant foods in the soil and are themselves taken in as plant foods. Sand. — Sand needs no discussion. By some it is believed to be the food that gives stiffness to the stalks of barley, oats and other grains, which, when grown on rich bottom land, usually ''lodge" partly because they are unable to get sufficient sand from the soil. Ainrnonia. — Ammonia is known by its odor. It is used for cleaning clothing and windows. If you go into the barn on a warm morning when the barn has been closed during the night you will get a strong odor of ammonia from the horse manure. Ammonia is always given off to the air when animal matter decays. It contains the element, nitrogen, so essential to plant growth. Carbonic Acid. — Carbonic acid is a plant food and it is also found in the air. You will remember it as the gas that came off when you put vinegar on soda. This gas is always given off to the air when vegetable mat- ter burns or decays. You are throwing it off from your lungs with every breath that you breathe. So, too, are all animals. Here is a simple test for it that any child can easily make. Put a piece of fresh lime in some water, shake well and let it stand until it settles PLANT FOODS -:) and the water is perfectly clear. Pour off this clear liquid into another bottle. This clear liquid is lime water. Some of the lime has been dissolved. Taste it to satisfy yourself. Now pour some of the lime water into a tumbler and with a straw blow bubbles through it. It gets milky because of the carbonic acid in your lungs. Now mix up some more "soda water" and add vinegar. Carefully tip the tumbler so that the gas can run into the lime water. It is heavier than air and will run over the edge of the tumbler like water. Shake the lime water. It is milky again. This shows that the gas given off by the so^a water when vinegar is added is the same as the gas given off by your lungs. Make one more experiment : Place a little lime water in a saucer and set this on the floor in your sleeping room over night. In the morning it, too, will be found to be milky. This shows the presence of carbonic acid in the air. Ma^incsia. — Map-nesia is known to most of us. It is tlie white powder used to whiten the skin and prevent soreness from the wind. Potash. — Potash is found in wood ashes and gives to lye, made therefrom, its soapy feel. Sources of Plant Foods. — The water, soil and air are the sources of plant foods. The air contains two — ammonia and carbonic acid — soil and water the other nine. All of these foods except carbonic acid dissolve in water and enter the plant by its roots. Carbonic acid is taken in directly from the air by the plant through the little holes in the leaves. 26 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Plant Starvation. — Now, if these foods are not found in sufficient quantity in the soil, the plant grows slowly and finally dies. Again, the soil may contain plenty of plant food, but it may not be in a form read- ily soluble by the water, and the plant suffers from a lack of food, just as one may starve within ten feet of plenty of food that is securely locked up so that he can not get at it. One problem which the farmer is called upon to solve is, how to make the soil of his farm more easily soluble. Effect of Too Much Food. — Plants may be killed by too ipuch food. Who has not seen spots of grass killed out where the cattle have been salted or have dropped manure? This is because the plants have taken in too much solid food. Plants can live on so small an amount as one part of solid food dissolved in a million parts of water, and more than one part in a thousand kills them. One way to kill noxious weeds is to cover them with salt, lime, or ashes, so that they will get more than one part of this food in every thou- sand parts of water that they use. Soil Exhaustion. — From what we have learned it is clear that, if the farmer raises grain on his farm to sell, and never returns manure to the soil, he will rob it of its plant food, and it will soon begin to show evidence of being "worn out." Plant foods are being continually used up by the growing plants, and re- moved with them, and none are returned to take their place. The heavier the crop the greater will be the PLANT FOODS 2^ loss. Tobacco and root crops, being so much heavier, exhaust the soil faster than small grains. ' But worn-out soil does not mean soil in which all the different kinds of plant foods are used up. In fact, soil usually contains all plant foods in inexhaust- ible quantities with but three exceptions, namely : potash, phosphoric acid and the nitrogen found in ammonia. To restore the fertility of the soil means only to restore these three substances. The general rule for fertilizing soils will be taken up later. Experimental Study of Plant Foods. 1. Make a collection of the following plant foods: Lime, iron-rust, soda, ammonia, magnesia, acid, sul- phur, and sand. Place each specimen in a small bottle and label properly. 2. Potash may be easily prepared from wood ashes. Place about two c[uarts of wood ashes in a pan, cover with water, and let stand for a few hours, stir- ring frequently. Then allow the ashes to settle and pour off the clear liquid into another tin dish. Place this lye on the stove and evaporate all the water. The dry powder found on the bottom of the dish is potash. A little potash dissolved in w^ater makes it feel soapy. This ''soapy feel" is the test for potash. Put some of the potash in a small bottle, label, and add to the collection. 3. It is very difficult to obtain uncombined phos- phoric acid. The easiest way to procure it is in com- bination with lime. Burn a bone to whiteness, crumble 28 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE it up, and put it into a bottle. This powder is a com- bination of lime and phosphoric acid. Now, if a little water is poured over this powder and a small quantity of sulphuric acid added, the lime will soon settle and the clear liquid will be phosphoric acid. 4. To prepare nitrogen, provide a glass bottle with a large neck, a piece of wire, a bit of cotton, a little alcohol, and a shallow dish containing lime water to the depth of two inches. Twist one end of the wire around a small piece of cotton, and then bend it nearly double about three inches from the end bear- ing the cotton. Dip the cotton in alcohol and light it. Resting the wire loop on the bottom of the dish with the torch standing upright, place the inverted empty bottle over the torch so that the bottle rests on the bottom of the dish and the bend in the wire. Soon the flame dies out because the fire uses up the oxygen in the bottle. The oxygen has united with the carbon of the alcohol, forming carbonic acid gas. Without taking the mouth of the bottle from the water, remove the torch, put one hand under the mouth of the bottle to close it tight, invert the bottle quickly, and shake. The lime water becomes milky, showing that the car- bonic acid gas has been taken up by it. The colorless, odorless, invisible gas now remaining in the bottle is nitrogen. Plunge a lighted taper or splinter into the gas and the flame is immediately extinguished, showing that the gas is not air. PLANT FOODS 29 Table III. Table showing proportions of fertilizing substances in farm crops: OUNCES PER BUSHEL. Phosphoric Crop. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. Wheat 20 oz. 8 oz. 5 oz. Rye 17 oz. 9 oz. 5 oz. Corn, shelled 14 oz. 5 oz. 3 oz. Barley 12 oz. 6 oz. 4 oz. Buckwheat 12 oz. 4 oz. 2 oz. Oats 10 oz. 3 oz. 2 oz. Potatoes 3 oz. i oz. 4 oz. Root crops, average 3 oz. i oz. 2 oz. POUNDS PER TON. Phosphoric Crop. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. Timothy or red top hay 20 lbs. 9 lbs. 30 lbs. Clover hay 40 lbs. 10 lbs. 40 lbs. Tobacco (leaves) 60 lbs. 13 lbs. 80 lbs. Straw (average) 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 20 lbs. Sugar beets 3 lbs. 1-5 lb. 4 lbs. Problems. 1. How many pounds of each of the three im- portant fertihzers in a crop of wheat that yields 20 bu. per acre? 25 bu. per acre? 2. A corn crop of 50 bu. per acfe ? 60 bu. ? 75 bu. ? 3. An oat crop of 40 bu. per acre ? 50 bu. ? 60 bu. : 4. A barley crop of 40 bu. ? 45 bu. ? 50 bu. ? 5. A potato crop of no bu. per acre? 120 bu. ? 150 bu.? 6. A clover hay crop of y/i tons per acre? 4 tons? 5 tons? :> 30 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 7. A meadow hay crop of 2 tons per acre? 2;^ tons? 3 tons? 8. A tobacco crop of 1,500 lbs. per acre? 1,800 lbs. ? 9. Compare the results and notice which crop is hardest on the soil. 10. Pupils should furnish data for similar prob- lems. Tell how many acres of corn, wheat, hay, etc., were raised on the farm at home, the number of bush- els or tons per acre, and find the amount of the three essential fertilizers taken off with the crop. CHAPTER IV SOIL Hozv Soils Are Made. — A good deal has been said about soils, and it may interest you to discuss how soils are made. The soil in Wisconsin, and most of the northern states, contains much hard o-ravel mixed with fine soil. This "drift," as it is called, varies in depth from a few inches to hundreds of feet. Underneath this drift is solid rock. Any 'Svell-driller" will tell you this. He can also tell you how far he has had to go down into the earth, before striking rock, in the dif- ferent wells that he has drilled. Further he will tell you that this rock does not resemble the stone or gravel above it. Where, then, did this drift come from? Glacial Drift and Rock Decay. — Many years ago, before man made his appearance on the earth, a great mass of ice and snow, called a glacier, moved down from the polar regions, scraping up the loose earth, rocks, and stones as it passed slowly along, crushing and grinding them together, wearing off hilltops, fill- ing up valleys and leaving, as it passed, the gravelly soil in which the farmer now sows his seed. The reason why the stones that may now be picked up are 3,2 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE SO hard is that only the hard ones could withstand the grinding'. The softer ones were easily ground up and formed soil. In the western part of the state of Wisconsin, in eastern Iowa, and in northern Illinois is a tract known as the "driftless area," over which the glacier did not pass. Here the soil may be seen in the actual process of formation. The rock on top grad- Drawing. showing how rock gradually breaks up and de- cays from the top downward. Drawing, showing glacial drift deposited on top of the solid rock. ually "rots" and breaks up. The water washes the lighter portions down and spreads them out at lower levels. The rain and snow work their way into the cracks of the rocks and, freezing there, break them up into smaller pieces. Even the wind breaks off small pieces and carries them away. Great drifts of sand, like snow, may sometimes be seen piled up by the action of the wind. Plants die and decay, and thus help to build up the soil. Roots of trees sometimes work their way into crevices of the rock and, growing there, split off great pieces. Roots also secrete a kind of acid that helps to dissolve the rock. The gases in the air help in breaking up the rock, thus forming soil. SOIL 33 Animals, too, like the gopher and woodchuck. burrow into the earth and help to tear up and I5reak down the rock. When they die their bodies decay and be- come a part of the soil. Earthworms, or ''angle- worms" as they are called, feed on the soil and break up the particles into still finer ones. Agencies of Soil Formation. — These are the aq-en- cies, then, that assist each other in the formation of soil : Glaciers, wind, water, frost, plants, animals, and gases in the air. Kinds of Soils. — What kinds of soils are formed by all these ao-encies? It must be remembered that all soil originally came from the rock, and the kind of soil must therefore depend on the kind of rock from which it was made. That is, we have sandy soil in sandstone regions, and in limestone regions clay is usually found. The black soil, found on low flat land, is made, principall3^ from decayed leaves and plants. This soil is called humus. Humus mixed with clay and sand is called loam. If there is more sand than clay in the mixture it is called sandy loam, and if there is more clay than sand in the mixture it is called clayey loam. The Treatment of Soils. — Of course, these soils are found mixed in every possible proportion. This fact leads to a great variety of soils, and it is the farmer's business to learn the nature of the soil on his farm and how best to handle it. Loamy soils are the best farm lands, because of the ease with which they may be cultivated. Thev are warm soils and hold moisture 34 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE well. A stick} clay soil may be improved in texture, and warmed up at the same time, by a plentiful addi- tion of barnyard manure containing much straw. This adds humus and makes clay more like clayey loam. The same treatment is also good for sand, as it in- creases the capacity of sand for holding moisture and makes it like loam. If it were possible, and less ex- pensive, many barren sandy places might be made fer- tile by adding to them plentiful quantities of swamp muck. This treatment would convert them into a loam of good quality. Plowing under full grown crops of rye or clo\'er has much the same effect. Either method adds humus to the soil and tends to make it more loamy. Rye grows well on sandy soil, and clover is a good crop to raise on clay for plowing under. A good loam contains all the foods needed by growing plants. Plant Foods that Become Exhausted. — As has been said before, only three of these foods, with the possible addition of lime, ever become exhausted. You will remember that these three are nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. It is the purpose of the next chapter to tell how you may judge from the character of the soil, and the growing crop, which one of these plant foods is most needed. Experimental Study of Soils. I. Rub a pinch of soil between the thumb and fore- finger. Are its particles fine or coarse ? Spread a little on the palm of the hand. Are the particles all of the SOIL 35 same size? Does there seem to be any decayed vege- table matter in the soil? What is the color of the par- ticles? Are they all of the same color? 2. Small samples of soil may be spread out in a thin layer on white paper and further examined with a magnifying glass. 3. Thoroughly dry a sample of fine sand without lumps, and fill a water-tight tin can with it. Fill another can of exactly the same size with loam pre- pared in the same way. From a graduate^ pour water on the sand, allowing time for it to soak in. Soon the sand will have absorbed all the water it can hold, and the level of the water will be even with the surface of the sand in the can. What has become of the water which you poured onto the soil ? How much water have you used? Now do exactly the same thing with the loam soil and compare results. Which soil has more pore space? 4. Fill three soil tubes~ respectively with fine dry sand, clay, and loam. Set the filled tubes in separate ^ A graduate may be made by ruling lines one-eighth inch apart on a strip of paper and pasting the paper vertically on a glass tumbler. " To prepare soil tubes : Take some tall glass bottles, wrap a cloth wrung out of cold water around each about half an inch from the bottom, and place the bottles on a hot stove. The sudden expansion of the bottom will usually break it off even. Smooth the edges with a file or on a grindstone. Plug the neck of each bottle with cotton, and turn it upside down. A rack for holding these tubes in an upright position can easily be made by nailing slats or stretching wire or strong cord across the top of a small box. 36 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE dishes, and pour into each from the top the same amount of water. AMien it soaks out of sight pour in more. Use your graduate for this, so that you will get exactly the same amount of water in each tube, ^^'hich soil holds water best? \Miich soil allows it to soak through most rapidly? Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Soils. Circular No. 4. — Soils of Salt Lake Valley, Utah. Circular No. 8. — Reclamation of Salt Marsh Lands. Circular No. 13. — The Work of the Bureau of Soils. Tatile IV. Table showing fertilizing substances in average soils: POUNDS PER TOX. Phosphoric Soil. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. Loam 7 lbs. 3 lbs. 8 lbs. Clay ' 3 lbs. 3 lbs. 15 lbs. Drift 3 lbs. 3^ lb. 6 lbs. Sand I lb. 2 lbs. 5 lbs. (Adapted from Stockbridge.) Problems. 1. Suppose soil is cultivated to the depth of 4 in. How many cu. ft. of cultivated soil per sq. ft. of area? Per sq. yd.? Per sq. rod? Per acre? 2. If a cu. ft. of soil weighs 75 lbs., how many lbs. of cultivated soil per sq. yard? Per sq. rod? Per acre ? SOIL Z7 3. Find the number of pounds of nitroc^en, potash and phosphoric acid in the culti\'ated soiLper acre for each of the four kinds of soil. 4. If the soil is cultivated to the depth of eight inches, how many pounds of each of the three fer- tilizing substances per acre in each of the soils given in the table ? 5. How many pounds of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid are used, annually, per acre, by a crop of 20 bu. of wheat? In how many years will one-half of all the nitrogen in clay be used up by this crop feeding to the depth of eight inches ? 6. How will this afifect future crops? 7. Work the same problem for the other soils. 8. Use a 50 bushel corn crop per acre and work problem 7. Also a 60 bu. oat crop. A 120 bu. potato crop. 9. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. CHAPTER V THE SOIL AND THE CROP Lack of Plant Food in Soil. — As sugg-ested in the last chapter, the crop will usually tell the farmer by its appearance the kind of food it most needs. How- ever, the only way by wdiicli he can find this out for a certainty is by making careful experiments with the three essential fertilizers. Good, fertile, well-drained soil, properly cultivated, usually produces healthy, dark green plants with strong, good-sized stalks and numer- ous well-filled seeds. Nitrogen. — Now, the growth of the stalk and foliage of the plant is largely due to the nitrogen in the soil, provided, of course, that the drainage is good and other conditions of heat, light, air and moisture are favorable. If the plant has a yellow and sickly appear- ance and, with proper cultivation, refuses to grow, it is likely starving for want of nitrogen. What should the farmer do? The Best Fertilizer. — Barnyard maniu'e Is an almost perfect fertilizer; that is, it has the right amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in it in a form readily obtainable by the plant. A plentiful application THE SOIL AND THE CROP 39 of barnyard manure will improve the next crop, and is the best remedy for yellow and sickly plants. Plants as Fertilizers. — In the next place, clover, alfalfa, peas and like plants which bear their seeds in pods may grow w^ell on this kind of soil, because they have the power of using the nitrogen of the air in a w^ay that will be explained later. These plants store up the nitrogen that they take from the air, and if they are plowed under when full grown t!iey add this store of nitrogen to the soil, besides forming an excellent soil mulch. While generally not so good as barnyard manure, clover is an excellent means of restoring nitro- gen to the soil. In some cases it does more for the soil than barnyard manure can, and it is easier of application. Conunercial Fertilizers. — Another method consists of applying commercial fertilizers containing nitro- gen directly to the soil. These may be bought in the market, but as yet they are little used by the farmers, because manure and clover are ordinarily cheaper, more convenient and easier to apply. Guano, saltpeter, fish and animal refuse from slaughter houses are the prin- cipal commercial fertilizers that contain large amounts of this much-needed plant food. Phosphoric Acid. — A shortage of phosphoric acid in the soil is usually shown by small, undeveloped and shrunken seeds. The grain does not ''fill well," as the farmer says. The ground has been carefully prepared, tilled and drained. What is he to do? Nothing is simpler. Apply phosphoric acid fertilizers to the soil. 40 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Here, again, barnyard manure, because it is a nearly perfect fertilizer, is one of the best and most easily obtainable for the purpose. Ground bones, burned bones, marls and rock phosphates are the fertilizers of commerce and are being more and more extensively used. THE EFFECT OF FERTILIZERS. Fertilized with 560 lbs. of mixed Nitrate, Potash and Phosphate. 4,310 lbs. of hay per acre. No fertilizers. 2.110 lbs. of hay per acre. Fertilized with 720 lbs. of mixed Nitrate, Potash and I'hosphate. 6,610 lbs. of hay per acre. (Cornell University Bulletin.) Source of Potash. — Potash is especially essential to the production of fruits, potatoes and root crops. In most cases, when other conditions are perfect, under- sized, shriveled and imperfect fruits and roots are due to a lack of potash. Here again barnyard manure is the usual remedy. Wood ashes are especially val- uable because of the potash which they contain. They •should never be wasted, but saved and put on the land. THE SOIL AND THE CROP 41 Potash salts may be bought on the market, but like other commercial fertilizers they have not yet come into general use. Chemical Effect of Commercial Fertilisers on Soil. — There is still another use to which commercial fer- tilizers, like lime and land plaster, are put. They are used not so much because they are themselves plant foods, but because of the chemical effect which they have upon the soil. Your attention has already been called to the fact that plants sometimes starve with an abundance of food near at hand, but in a form in which they cannot use it for food — locked up, as it were, like bread and butter in a pantry. If a boy were starving because his food was '^locked up" he would want the key. No boy will die of starvation with a well-filled cupboard, unlocked, in the house. Neither will plants starve when suitable food is obtainable. Now, lime and land plaster are the keys that unlock other plant foods in the soil and change them into a form in which the plants can use them. It is, princi- pally, for this reason that they are used. Summary. — To sum up what has already been said: TUE HOYS CnORES. 42 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Barnyard manure is called a perfect fertilizer because it contains all the elements that become exhausted from the soil, namely: nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. It is usually easy to get.- and for these reasons is generally recommended. Clover, plowed under, will re- store nitrogen to the soil because it has power to take nitrogen from the air, a power which few other plants have. \\^ood ashes are rich in potash and should never be wasted, but sown on the soil. Commercial fer- tilizers, containing what the soil especially needs, may be bought and applied. When they are wisely selected the profit from their use is large. The subject of fer- tilizers and fertilization is a large and very important one to the farmer. It needs much thought and care- ful study, and is only touched upon here in the briefest possible manner. The problems which follow will help to emphasize the points made in this chapter. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Extracts. No. 169. — Soil Investigations in the L'nited States. Table V. Showing average amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in fertilizers: POUNDS PER TOX. Phosphoric Substance. Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. Clover hay 40 lbs. 10 lbs. 40 lbs. Straw 10 lbs. 4 lbs. 20 lbs. Barnyard manure 10 lbs. 6 lbs. 9 lbs. Wood ashes 60 lbs. 160 lbs. Burned bones 500 ^bs. Ground bones 400 lbs. THE SOIL AND THE CROP 43 Problems. 1. Suppose a load of barnyard manure weighs a ton. How many pounds of nitrogen in it? Of phos- phoric acid? Of potash? 2. How much of each of the above in 15 loads? 20 loads? 50 loads? 3. How many loads of manure were hauled onto your land last year? How much of each fertilizing substance was supplied ? 4. If you put 15 loads on an acre, how much of each fertilizing substance per acre? 5. Suppose you harvested 50 bu. of corn per acre. How much of each fertilizing substance did you take off with the crop ? 6. Was your soil richer or poorer after the corn was harvested? Did you take off more than you put on? How much of each kind? 7. How much of each of these fertilizing sub- stances is taken oft" with a 25 bu. crop per acre of wlieat? A 40 bu. crop of barley? 8. How many loads of manure per acre are neces- sary to restore the fertility lost when a 25 bu. per acre wheat crop is harvested? 9. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. CHAPTER VI WEAKING OUT THE SOIL Soil E.vhaustioji. — From what wo loarnod in the lasl chapter, it is casil\- seen that the farmer who raises g-rain and tobacco to sell, and who returns nothing to the land in the form of fertilizers, is -literally "selling his farm." lie sells soil in small ijuantities, it is true, hut h.e sells it ne\ertheless. There can be but one re- sult from tliis kind of farming. Xo matter how rich the soil, sooner or later it will wear out. The poorer the land the sooner will its fertilit}- become exhausted. 0:-cr-Croppi)ig LuJid. — In the early history of Wis- consin much w lieat was qtowu. the land in manv cases yielding- as high as forty bushels per acre. But the yield rapidly decreased until no more than ten or fif- teen bushels could be grown. The farmers gave up selling wheat, ami the wheat belt moved on to the west. Why was this? Simply because wheat, a heavy feeder as shown by the tables, wore out the soil. No fertilizers were returned to take the place of the soil matter taken c^^T with the wheat, :\ud in a few vears the wheat crop starxed out. What is true o( wheat is equally true of every other crop, in the pn^portion in WEARix*'; ou'i I 111-: son. 45 vvhicli it uses up in its j^rowth nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. How I'crlilily May Be Retained. — Progressive farmers have learned that g-rain farming does not pay, and ihey have gone intcj dairying and have prospered. VVliy is driiry farming so mucli Ijetter? Jkcause tlie grain and hay raised on tlie farm are fed there and returned again to the soil ill the form of harnyard manure. Very little soil matter is sold from the farm. The proportion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and ])otash in butter, cheese, beef and pork is very small for the amount of feed consumed, as the table following this chap- ter will s1k;w. It will take a long time to lessen to any great extent the amount of these substances in the soil Ijy dairy farming. Clover Enriches the Soil. — Again, the dairy farmer raises much clover, and clover, as you have already seen, really enriches the soil by adrling to it nitrogen from the air. Summary. — The wise farmer wastes nothing. If he raises peas and corn, for the canning factory, he hauls the vines and stalks back to his farm. If he grows 'I'uberclc'S on the roots of soja Ix'Mris in vviiich nitrogen from the air is .sloi'fci up. 46 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE beets for the sugar factory, he has the pulp returned to his land. He sells neither hay nor grain, but feeds it on his farm. He saves all manure and carefully returns it to the soil. Experiinental Study of Soil Treatment. 1. Fill one soil tube with dry sand. Take some very dry clover hay and pulverize it very fine with the hands, throwing out all coarse material. Mix this pul- verized hay with about tw^ice its volume of sand, and fill another soil tube with the mixture. Now pour water into the top of each tube and see which holds it the better. What are the effects upon a sandy soil of plowing under clover ? 2. Make a "mud pie" of clay and set it in the sun to bake. Make another mixture of clay and pulverized clover hay, and set this beside the first one. When both pies are baked, see which can be more easily broken up. What are the effects upon a clay soil of plowing under clover ? 3. Take two samples of clay — one very wet, the other only slightly moist — and place them in the sun to dry. Which makes the harder cake ? In what con- dition, as to moisture, should clay soil be when plowed? Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers* Bulletins. No. 44. — Commercial Fertilizers : Composition and Use. No. y'j. — The Liming of Soils. No. 192. — Barnyard Manure. WEARING OUT THE SOIL 47 Table VI. Table showing fertilizing substances in dairy products: OUNCES PER 100 POUNDS. Phosphoric Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. Cheese 63 oz. 10 oz. 2 oz. Milk 8 oz. 3 oz. 3 oz. Butter 2 oz. 3-5 oz. ^ oz. * Table VII. Table showing fertilizing substances in farm animals: OUNCES PER 100 POUNDS. Phosphoric Nitrogen. Acid. Potash. Cattle 40 oz. 29 oz. 3 oz. Sheep 35 oz. 19 oz. 3 oz. Hogs 32 oz. 130 oz. 2^ oz. Problems. 1. How much nitrogen is sold from the farm with every ton of butter? How much phosphoric acid? How much potash ? 2. How many pounds of these three substances are sold with every ton of cheese ? 3. How many pounds of each are sold with 100 lbs. of butter? With 100 lbs. of cheese? \Miich is harder on the soil? 4. How^ much of each of these fertilizing sub- stances in a 300 lb. pig ? 5. How much of each of these fertilizing sub- stances in a 1,200 lb. steer? 6. A farmer sells 20 hogs, each weighing 22^ lbs. 48 ELEMENfARY AGRICULTURE How many pounds of each kind of fertilizing sub- stance does he sell ? 7. Suppose he sells 6 head of cattle weighing 1,050 lbs. each. How much of each of these three sub- stances does he sell ? 8. How much butter did you (each family repre- sented in the class) sell last year? How much of each of these three fertilizing substances did you sell with the butter? Did it wear out the farm much? About how many loads of manure will it take to replace them? (Suppose a load of manure weighs a ton.) 9. How many hogs did you sell last year? About how much did they weigh? How mucli phosphoric acid went with them? How much nitrogen? How" much potash ? 10. Did vou sell anv wheat? Anv other grain? If so, how much? How much of your farm went with it? 11. Pupils will furnish data for other similar prob- lems. CHAPTER VII LEGUMES Restoring Nitrogen to the Soil. — From a study of the table on fertilizing- substances in different soils, and a comparison of this table with the one on fer- tilizing substances in farm crops, it will be seen that nitrogen is the element which, from ordinary soils and under ordinary conditions of farming, is likely to be the soonest exhausted. Ordinarily, then, the farmer's attention should be turned to methods of restoring nitrogen. If a sufficient quantity of manure were produced on the farm, of course the best method of fertilizing would be to apply barnyard manure to the soil, as it not only contains nitrogen, but also phos- phoric acid and potash, the other needed elements. But it is not always possible to do this. There is a class of plants, however, called legumes, that have the power to add nitrogen to the soil. Peas, beans, clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, and soja beans belong to this class. It is the purpose of this chapter to explain the manner in which these plants add nitrogen to the soil. Composition of Air. — The air that we breathe is composed largely of two gases — oxygen and nitrogen. 50 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Both are colorless, odorless and invisible. About one- fifth of the air is oxygen and the other four-fifths nitrogen. Oxygen is a very active element, combining readilv with other substances. It is the oxvo'en that causes iron to rust, coal to burn, or wood to decay. If the air were pure oxygen, any fire once started could never be put out, and even our bodies would take fire and burn. Nature of Nitrogen. — On the other hand, nitrogen is a very inactive element and does not combine readily with other substances. Its presence in the air dilutes the oxygen and makes its less active. It is well known that tea can be made so strong that no person can drink it. It may be readily diluted and its strength greatly lessened, however, by the addition of water. It is much the same way with oxygen. It is so active that it must be mixed with nitrogen before it can be used by man and animals. It is mixed in the air, there being, as has been said, about four times as much nitrogen as oxygen in it. Farm crops cannot use this ''free" nitro- gen in the air. The Use of Bacteria. — There are, however, little plant-like germs, called bacteria, which live in the soil, that ca)i and do feed upon this free nitrogen in the air. These germs are a kind of parasite and are usually found associated with the legumes, i. e., with peas, beans, clover and the like. They fasten themselves to the roots of these plants and build their homes there. Their little "nests" look like tiny potatoes and are called tubercles. They are about as large as pinheads LEGUMES 51 CLOVER AND ALFALFA ROOTS SHOWING TUOERCLES. and are to be found adhering- to the roots of clover, beans and peas. Pull up a bunch of thrifty clover, or any other legume, and examine its roots for these tubercles. A peculiar thing- about these germs is that 52 ELEMEN TARY AGRICULTURE thev do not seem to tlirive without the lei2"umes and the lei2"umes do not thrive without the £>enns. Sometimes clover refuses to grow on certain soils. The reason is that there are no o-erms in the soil. Such soils should be "inoculated," i. e., the germs should be planted there, and then the clover will grow. These germs are sent out by the United States Department of Agricul- ture in little cakes, somewhat resembling yeast cakes, which may be dissolved in water and sprayed on the land. ALFALFA FIELD, ONE-HALF OF WUICU HAD BEEN INOCULATED. Clover Restores Nitrogen to the Soil. — In order to restore nitrogen to worn-out soil it is only necessary to seed with clover or some other legume. The germs found in the tubercles on the roots of the legume will feed upon the nitrogen of the air and store it up in the LEGUMES 53 leo-ume. If this crop is plowed under, nitrogen is added to the soil, which is consequently enriched and at the same time improved in texture, especially if it be a clayey soil. This is the secret of clover growing on tlie farm. It is the common practice among farm- ers to cut the first crop of clover for hay and i)l()w under the second crop. Thus the clover is made to serve a double purpose — first furnishing food for stock, and next a supply of nitrogen for the soil. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletins. No. 89. — Cowpeas. No. 194. — Alfalfa Seed. No. 214.— Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. No. 215. — Alfalfa Growing. Problems. 1. How does clover compare with other kinds of hay in the amount of nitrogen it contains? Phosphoric ■acid ? Potash ? 2. If two tons of hay per acre is an average yield, how much of each fertilizer is removed yearly with this crop from 8 acres of ground. 3. Which kind of hay makes the richest manure? Why ? 4. How much more of nitrogen in a crop of 25 acres of clover hay, yielding 3 tons per acre, than in the same number of acres of mixed hay yielding 2 tons per acre? Where does this extra nitrogen come from 54 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 5. How many tons of each kind of hay did you raise on the farm last year? 6. How many tons of hay did you sell last year? How many pounds of each of the three im])ortant kinds of "soil fertility" did you sell? How many pounds altogether? 7. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. CHAPTER VIII TILLING THE SOIL Tillage. — Tillage stands next in importance to fer- tilization, and with many soils it is even more impor- tant. Tillage is here meant to include both the prep- aration of the soil before planting and, with the crops that admit of it, the cultivation of the crop after it is planted. Effect on Roots. — As we have learned, the plant is fed by its roots that penetrate the soil in every direc- tion. These feeding roots are very small and work their way between the soil particles, gathering up the dissolved food and passing it into the plant. If the soil is coarse and lumpy these little rootlets cannot get at the food locked up in the lumps, but can only feed upon their surface. Proper preparation of the soil will break up these lumps, pulverize them, anct allow the roots of the plants to get at the food matter which they contain. Again, water cannot easily dissolve plant foods in lumpy ground. Stirring the soil will hasten the solution of this food matter. These facts may be easily shown by experiment. How Solids Dissolve. — Throw a handful of fine salt 56 ' ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE into a tumbler of water. Into another tumbler put a lump of salt or a piece of rock salt about the same size. Wliich dissolves the sooner? Stir both and note the effect of stirring-. Does stirring hasten solution? Now put the same amount of fine salt in each of two glasses. Stir one, but do not disturb the other. The Effect of Sfirriiig Soil. — You have noticed, in the above experiments, that lumpy salt dissolves much more slowly than fine salt, and that stirring always hastens solution. It is just so with plant foods con- tained in the soil. Lumpy soil holds the plant foods so that the plant cannot get them, and cultivation has the same effect upon them that stirring has upon the salt in the water. It causes them to dissolve or in some way makes them accessible. The plant cannot use these foods until they are in the right condition, so that excellent preparation of the soil before planting, and constant cultivation of it after planting, both tend to increase the supply of plant food as well as to hasten the growth of plants. Deep Cultivation Best. — The depth to which soils should be cultivated depends in a large degree upon the depth to which the plant roots will penetrate. The grains are shallow-rooted and do not need so deep cultivation as do corn and root crops. The farmer is not likely to plow too deep for any crop, however. Deep plowing brings to the surface plant foods that have never been reached bv shallow cultivati(^n, and it pulverizes the soil so that the roots can penetrate it to a great depth and have more soil to feed upon. TILLING THE SOIL 57 Deep Plozving for Root Crops. — For root crops the ground must be plowed deep and be ver}- carefully ]nilverized. There are two reasons for this. In the first place, poorly pulverized soil spoils the shape of THE RESULT OF CAREFUL CULTIVATION. This tomato plant attained the height of eleven feet, six inches auJ bore one hundred one perfectly formed tomatoes. roots like beets and parsnips. They cannot grow ecjually in all directions, and become crooked, split, and misshapen because of the hindrance of lumps to their growth. In the second place, if they cannot penetrate the soil easily, when they strike the hard soil below. 58 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE thev will be raised out of the j^roiind as thev increase in length. All that has been said about cultivation of plants applies with special force to root crops. Hozv ]\\Ucr Rises in Soil. — Another important reason for cultivation is to be found in the fact that cultivated soils do not dry out so rapidly during a drought. This seems strange at hrst. but it is never- theless true, and the reason is easily seen. There are two kinds of water in the ground — capillary water and "free," underground, water. Undero-round water tlows along beneath the surface and sometimes comes out again in the form of springs. It is this water that supplies our wells. But it is the capillary water, and Jiof the "free" water, that is used bv the plants. A simple illustration will make clear what capillary water is. You have, no doubt, observed how oil rises in the lamp-wick. The oil in the wick is moving- upward and luay be called "capillary" oil, while that in the lamp is "free." • The oil in the wick corre- sponds to the capillary water in the soil, while that in the lamp corresponds to the underground water. Another illustration : At the breakfast table take a spoonful of sugar and just touch the tip of the spoon to the surface of the coffee in your cup, and notice how the coffee creeps up into the sugar. Tt is in exactlv the same wav that the undero-round water creeps upward in the soil and becomes capillary water. Still another illustration: Fill a pan half full of water: set it on a table and thnnv a ra^- over the edi^e so that one end will dip into the water and the other TILLING THE SOIL 59 end will, lie on the table. In a little while the water will be rtinning- from the pan out upon the^table. In other words, it runs ''up-hill," throug-h the cloth, over the Q(\gQ of the pan, and ''down-hill" through the cloth to the table. The water that runs up-hill is capillary water, while that in the pan is free water. The capillary water is being continually supplied from the free water in the pan below. Let us remember that A WIOLL ( T'l/riVATED CORN FIELD. it is the capillary water which the plant uses and which is also evaporating- from the soil. CultiT'otipii Retards Evaporation. — We know that if w^e cover up a kettle it keeps the water from evaporat- ing, "boiling away," as w^e say. In the same way a blanket, spread over the soil, will prevent the evapora- 6o ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE tion of this capillary water. The simplest way to get this blanket spread over the soil is to cultivate it. The layer of cultivated soil dries out very rapidly, but it prevents the air from getting- at the moist soil under- neath, and thus keeps it from drying out. It acts as a sort of dry blanket to prevent the exaporation of mois- ture. Siinnnary. — There are three chief reasons for till- ing the soil: (i) To pulverize it. making it easy for the plant roots to penetrate it in every direction and to get at the store of food it contains. (2) To stir it and thus hasten the solution of plant food as well as to destroy weeds that rob the plants of their food. (3) To form a soil mulch, a sort of ''dry blanket." which will prevent rapid evaporation of the capillary wMter froni the soil. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Xo. 306. — Some Soil Problems for Practical Farmers. Problems. 1. How many square feet in one square yard? In one acre? 2. If soil is cultivated to the depth of 4 in., how many cubic feet of cultivated soil per acre? How many, if cultivated to the depth of 6 in.? If culti- vated to the depth of 8 in. ? 3. How much more plant food is made available with cultivation to the depth of 8 in. than with a 4 in. depth of cultivation? TILLING THE SOIL 6\ 4. How ir.aii}- limes as iiiuch axailable plant food in soil cullixalcd to the depth of 6 in. as in soil cnlti- vated only 4 in. deep? 5. If a man and team can plow i^ acres 6 in. deep, or 2 acres 4 in. deep, in a day, how mnch more does it cost per acre to plow land 6 in. deep than to plow it only 4 in. deep ? Labor worth v$2.40 per day. 6. If a man and team can till 7. acres thorono-hlv in a day, or ; acres in a careless manner, how mnch more per acre does a good job cost, labor being worth $2.40 per day? 7. How mnch more per acre does it cost to both plow and till well ? How many additional bnshels of oats worth $0.36 per bu. will it take to pay for the additional labor? 8. How much will be the gain if bnt 40 bu. of oats can be raised with shallow plowing and careless seed- ing, and 57 bn. with the extra work? H(nv much will these oats be worth at 24 cents per bu. ? At $0.30 per bu. ? At the present price of oats ? 9. A certain piece of land yields 35 bu. of corn per acre. By careful cultivation the farmer is able to increase this yield to 60 bu. With corn worth $0.40 per bu. how many additional days' labor at $1 per day will the extra }ield pay for? 10. Tf he spends but 20 days' extra time on his i2-acre field of corn to produce the increase in crop shown in problem 9, how much does he get per day for his extra time? 1 1. Suppose a farmer is able t(-) double the ayerao-e 62 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE yield of i6o bii. of potatoes from an acre of land by putting 15 days' extra time on it. What wages does he get with potatoes at $0.25 per bu.? 12. From answers to the following questions make other problems similar to the above. What does labor cost per day? How many acres can a man plow per day? How many acres can he seed in a day? How many acres of corn can he cultivate ? \M11 extra labor increase the vield of corn? etc., etc. CHAPTER IX DRAINING THE SOIL Underground Water. — As was stated in the last chapter, the plant makes use of the capillary water in the soil, and this capillary water is being continually supplied from the free water in the ground below. There is a level to this underground water, just the same as there is a level to the water in a pond. On low, flat land this level is very near the surface. It is at or above the surface on swampy ground, and many feet below the surface in high places. High ground needs little attention so far as drainage is concerned, as the water which falls upon it either soaks in or runs rapidly off as surface water. Water Level Must Be Belozv Surface of Soil. — Low ground, however, does need attention. Plants cannot grow without air, and much water in the soil keeps out the air. The level of the underground water must therefore be below the depth to which the roots of the crop ordinarily penetrate the soil. In other words, a crop will not do well on a field where the free water level is too near the surface. You have all seen crops ''drowned out," as the farmer says. If you dig 64 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE a post-hole in such soil it will soon hll with water to within a foot or so from the top. The level of the water in this hole will be the free water level, and if it comes ver\- near the surface no crop can be expected to do well there. JJ\^f Soils Arc Cold Soils. — In wet soils a lars^e A PIECE or MARSHY LAND BEFORE IT WAS DRAINED. amount of heat is used in evaporating- part of the water, and so much is required to raise the tempera- ture of what remains that these soils never become warm. Often such soils are sour, and cannot become sweet until the water is drained off and the heat and air let in. Sometimes it is even necessarv to sow lime DRAINING THE SOIL 65 on these soils, after the water has been drained off, in order to sweeten them. Drainage. — What is the farmer to do \Vith low, wet ground ? Evidently there is but one thing to do — drain off the water. There are two methods of draining- this water off, the open ditch and the tile drain. To begin THE SAME FIELD AFTER BEING TILE DRAINED. with, the land may be so low and flat that no kind of drainage is possible. This, of course, may be deter- mined by noting the level of the water in the nearest stream. If it is within a foot or two of the surface of the land and overflows with every heavy rain, easy drainage is impossible. But if the surface of the soil is 66 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE. a few feet above the level of the stream, the land can be easily drained. Tiling. — It is conceded that the tile system of drain- age is better than the open ditch, though it requires more labor and expense. The tiles should be placed about three feet below the surface, so that the ^round water level will be lowered to this point and the ground cultivated without interfering with the tiles. The size of the tiles to be used, and the distance apart which they should be placed, depends upon the slope and the character of the soil. An experienced drainage engi- neer should have charcre of the work. Open Ditches. — Open ditches may. prove quite as effectual in draining the land, if they be deep enough and not too far apart. Of course they must be kept cleaned out. The greatest objection to open ditches is that they cut up the land and thus interfere with culti- vation. They can best be used in draining out sloughs and narrow, swampy places. Many acres of low land, now uncultivated, might be made very productive if properly drained. Fanners' Bulletins. No. 40. — Farm Drainage. No. 187. — Drainage of Farm Lands. Table VHI. Table showing average cost of drainage tile in large quan- tities: 3 in. tile cost about 3c each. 4 in. tile cost about 4c each. 5 in. tile cost about 5c each. 6 in. tile cost about 6c each. . All sizes are 12 inches in length. DRAINING THE SOIL 67 Problems. 1. A farmer owns a plat of low ground 80 rods long and 50 rods wide; how many acres in this plat? 2. A creek runs lengthwise through this land. The level of the water in the creek is 4 feet below the level of the land. Can it be drained? 3. Will the creek answer as a channel to carry off the water from the tiles? 4. Suppose he puts the tiles crosswise of the field, 4 rods apart, so that they open into the creek. How many rods of tiling will it take? How many feet? How many 4 in. tiles ? 5. What will be the cost of these tiles according to the above table ? 6. What will it cost to dig the ditches and lay the tiles at 20 cents per rod ? 7. What will be the entire cost if 4 in. tiles are used? 3 in. ? 6 in. ? 8. What will be the cost per acre for each kind of tile? 9. Suppose open ditches costing twenty cents per rod will answer. How much more will the tile system cost than the open ditches? 10. If the farmer is able to grow only 13/2 tons of marsh hay worth $4 per ton on this land before drain- ing and can grow 60 bu. of corn worth $0.35 per bu. after draining, what is the increase in the value of the crop due to drainage? 11. In how many years will this increase alone pay 6v^ ELEMEXTARY AGRICULTURE for the open uiteh? For the 4 in. tile system? For the in. tile system? 12. Suppose the open diteh costs 5 cents per rod annually for rejxtirs. In how many years will the open ditch cost as much as the tile drain? 13. If the above is a true example of the cost and value of drain.age. does it pay ? 14. What would it cost to dig- an open ditch on eacit side of a slouii"h 10 rods wide and 100 rods loui^- at $0.J5 per rod? I ;. Is there a place on your farm that needs drain- ing-? Measure it. Draw a plan for ditches and esti- mate the cost of both svstems. CHAPTER X THE CROP Effect of Unwise Cropping. — Every farmer desires to be prosperous. He tries to raise those crops which will give him the largest returns in money; but often, in his anxiety to do this, he takes too little heed for the future. He reasons thus: "If tobacco is a high price and my soil will raise good tobacco, then tobacco is the crop for me to raise." So, year after year, he plants tobacco, until he finds that his soil will no longer raise a good crop of tobacco or anything else. Plainly, he has made a great mistake. What is the matter? Tobacco Exhaiisfs the Soil. — The explanation is not hard to find. Tobacco is very hard on the soil, as you will readily see by consulting the table showing the amount of fertilizing- substances in farm crops. Be- sides, tobacco requires the same kind of food, year after year, and unless the farmer has made a careful study of this crop, and of the fertilizers needed for its proper growth, his soil soon becomes exhausted of some of its fertilizino- substances. The same is true of wheat, or corn, or any other crop, grown year after year on the same piece of ground. So the farmer 70 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE needs to consider not only the immediate retnrns — that is, the amount of money he will get from his crop this year — but the effect that the crop will have upon the soil. Crop Rotation. — Good farmers have devised a plan, known as "crop rotation," whereby they are able to secure the greatest possible returns from the farm with the least possible loss to the soil. This plan consists in growing one kind of crop on a certain piece of ground this year, another kind of crop requiring different food materials next year, still another the year following, and so on. One Plan of Crop Rotation. — Now, what should form the basis of a good crop rotation? Let us see. Suppose tobacco is to be grown this year. It is a heavy feeder and therefore hard on the soil. A large amount of soil matter will be removed with the crop. This should be restored. But how? With barnyard manure. Instead of planting tobacco next year, on this piece of land, better try some light feeder. If the soil is not too rich, oats will be a good crop to follow the tobacco. Clover can be sown with the oats and add more nitrogen to the soil. A crop of clover hay can be taken off the third year and the second crop plowed under. The soil is in good condition again, and wheat or corn can be grown. Corn will afford an excellent opportunity for a thorough cultivation of the soil. A crop of peas may follow the corn. As you will remember, peas belong to the legume family and re- store nitrogen to the soil in the same way that clover THE CROP 71 does. If the peas are sold to the canning factory, the vines should be brought l)ack onto the land and plowed under to enrich the soil. It is now in gdod condition for a second crop of tobacco. HARVEST TIME. Kcsiilfs of Rofafioii. — Now let us see what has been done: A five years' rotation has been planned, con- sisting of tobacco, oats, clover, corn and peas, return- ing to tobacco again the sixth year. During that five years it has been necessary to manure this piece of land but once. During two years legumes have been grown 72 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE and plowed under to enrich the soil. This manure and these legumes have doubtless kept up the fertility of the soil. The farmer has had an opportunity for four years to manure other pieces of land. At the same time he has been following some plan of rotation on the rest of his farm. Each year he has grown tobacco, he has raised corn and sold his hogs, he has made hay for his cattle, and he has sold peas to the canning factory. He has been taking in money all the time, but he has not greatly exhausted his soil. VARIOUS ROOT SYSTEMS. T— Tobacco, O— Oats, CI— Clover, B— Beets, W— Wheat, C— Corn, A— Alfalfa. Crop Rotation and Length of Roots. — There is still another feature of crop rotation worthy of study here. It is the different depths to which the roots of various crops penetrate. In the first place, tobacco is a long-rooted crop, and feeds deep down in the soil. Oats, which follow, are short-rooted and feed near the surface. Then comes clover, whose roots penetrate several feet, bringing food matter to the surface from THE CROP 73 deep clown in the soil. When this crop is plowed under it furnishes a food supply for the corn which follow^s it. Now, if oats had heen grown on this soil year after year, their short roots would soon have exhausted the food supply near the surface. This diffi- culty has been avoided by the rotation of crops. Again, crop rotation affords an opportunity for cultivation which destroys weeds and increases the power of the soil to produce the desired crop. Conditions Determine Kind of Rotation. — The rota- tion given in this chapter is only a "sample" rotation, not an "ideal" one, and is introduced here only for the purpose of illustration. The farmer should devise rotations of his ow^n, suited to the special needs of his farm and to the market for his products. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. No. 289. — Practices in Crop Rotation. No. 320. — Relation of Sugar Beets to General Farming. Experimental Study of Root Systems. 1. Pull or dig up full-grown stalks of oats, wheat, rye, barley, corn, tobacco, clover, alfalfa and other farm crops. Many of the roots will break off in the ground, but those that remain will be sufficient for comparison. Which of these penetrate the soil the deepest? Classify them in the order of length. 2. Bring in radishes, turnips, roots of oats, corn, and other farm crops. Measure their length and count the number of small roots on each of these plants. 74 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Note the manner in which these roots grow. Which are "fleshy'' and good for food? Which are unsuit- able for food because thev are ''fibrous" ? 3. Pull up peas, beans, clover and alfalfa. Exam- ine these roots for little tubercles, like tiny potatoes, the size of a ])inhead, or perhaps a little larger. You will probably find them on all of these plants. These little nodules are the homes of tiny germs that feed upon the nitrogen of the air. The plants in turn feed upon this stored-up nitrogen. Problems. 1. If corn is planted in rows four feet apart each way, how many hills to the acre? \\'^ith three good ears to the hill, how many ears to the acre? 2. If it takes 100 ears to make a bushel, how many bushels to the acre? 3. W hich is the best crop? Five stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 200 to make a bushel, or 3 stalks to the hill that bear ears requiring 100 to make a bushel ? 4. How many bushels per acre is one crop better than the other? 5. Suppose a ten-acre field produces 60 bushels of corn per acre the first year, but falls off 5 bushels per acre yearly when corn is continually grown on it, what will be the yield the fourth year? 6. AAHiat will be the total loss in the four years? \\'ith corn worth $0.30 per bushel, what is the money loss ? THE CROP 75 7. Suppose this loss can be avoided by rotation of crops. What is saved yearly, per acre, on this basis from rotation of crops ? 8. What is the value of one acre of tobacco, 1,500 lbs., at $0.08 per lb. ? 9. What is the value of one acre of oats, 60 bu., at $0.30 per bu. ? 10. What is the value of one acre of clover, 3 tons, at $6 per ton ? 11. What is the value of one acre of corn, 50 bu., at $0.40 per bu. ? 12. W^hat is the value of one acre of peas, 20 bu., at $1.50 per bu. ? 13. You vnll observe that the above problems are based on the crop rotation of the last chapter. What is the entire value of the five years' crop? 14. What is the average yearly value of the crop? 15. Pupils will furnish data for similar problems. Number of acres of different crops raised on the farm at home, yield per acre, price per bushel, ton, etc. CHArXER XI INSECTS AND DISEASES THAT INJURE THE CROPS Insects and Plant Diseases. — The farmer may pre- pare the soil ever so well, he may fertilize with the greatest of care, he may cultivate thoroughly, the weather couditious may be favorable, and yet he may lose all or a portion of his crop through the attacks of insects or the ravages of plant diseases. Every child has seen potato bugs at work and knows full well the damage they will do in a short space of time. If they are not destroyed the crop of potatoes will be. However, the farmer has learned how to fight this pest successfully. But there are many other in- sects injurious to the crop which the average farmer has not yet learned how to fight, and he has paid but little attention to plant diseases. It is not within the province of this book to deal with these subjects in detail, but there are a few general principles which may be laid down here, and which will prove of value in the war that the farmer must continually wage against plant diseases and insect pests. It is necessary for us to know something of the life historv of the insects which we fi^ht — when thev lav INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES -]-] their eggs, where they lay them, when tlie eggs hatch, and the hke. Parts of an Insect. — Insects are so called because they are "in sections." They have a head provided with a pair of feelers, a pair of strong jaws or a suck- ing tube, a body to which are attached three pairs of legs, usually two pairs of wings, and an abdomen. The abdomen is the back portion of the body made up of several ring-like sections and capable of holding a large amount of food. They breathe through little holes in their sides. THE FOUR STAGES OF INSECT GROWTH. Ei;<Si:'",»s' ; Kvv >.;>i*!k-''*s^"^'.-'ss«r»-ssiv.* ..■ --^-swewji^w ^'.JafaK.W'- -i.- --^ ■.■•-JSt«B»».-w."«- I llDLSTEl .\ I'li I KSl AX COW. Stand around the barn, or in any other place where the air is Riled with bad odors. Bacteria in Milk. — But the most fruitful source of bad milk is uncleanliness on the part of the dairyman in the care of the cow. and of the milking- utensils. Milk should be ke]U pure and sweet. Sour milk, or .bad milk, is caused by tiny bacteria, too small to be seen with the naked eve ; in fact, so small that thev can THE DAIRY 121 only be seen with the aid of the strongest microscopes. Under favorable conditions these bacteria increase in numbers very rapidly. They seem to thrive best in warm, damp weather. They live everywhere — on the hay, in the bedding, on the clothes and hands of the milker, on the cow's hair, in the milk cans and pails, and in the air. New milk, freshly drawn from the RED POLLED COW. cow, contains none of these bacteria, but they soon get into it and begin at once their rapid multiplication. When they have increased sufficiently in numbers, the milk beirins to smell and taste sour and "bad." Onlv care and cleanliness will prevent these bacteria from getting into the milk. If the bacteria are kept out, the milk will keep sweet for a long time. Heating it 122 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE to the temperature of 150 degrees kills these germs, and is one common way of keeping milk sweet. Necessary Precautions. — The milker should see to it that his hands are clean. Before sitting down to Open. Cloaed. A BABCOCK TESTER. A CREAM SErARATOR. milk he should carefully brush from the cow all dust, dirt, dandruff and loose hair likely to fall into the pail. He should have his milking clothes frequently washed and scalded to destroy the bacteria thereon, and he should remove the milk to a dean place, where the air is pure and free from bacteria, as soon as he THE DAIRY 123 possibly can. Aerating the milk — that is, allowing it to drain slowly through a strainer placed several feet above the can, where pure air can blow through it as it falls — will do much to remove any bad odors it may already contain. Pails and cans should be kept scru- pulously clean. They should be rinsed with boiling water after each milking to kill all bacteria that may A MODEL cow BARN. (Edgewood Farm.) adhere to them. If little particles of milk are allowed to stick to the rough places in the cans and pails, it is impossible to keep milk sweet in them, because the bacteria live and multiply in these particles. As soon as pure milk is placed in such utensils, these germs at once begin their rapid increase, and the milk spoils in a few hours. The whole secret of keeping milk 124 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE sweet lies in preventing the bacteria from getting" into it. Selection of flic Herd. — Next in importance to the care of the milk comes the selection of the herd. Since most creameries and cheese factories now pay by the test — that is, pay for the amount of butter-fat that the milk contains — it is important to the dairyman that his milk tests well, and that his cows sfive a reasonably large flow of milk. In general, no cow is profitable to the dairyman whose milk tests much less than 3 per cent of butter-fat. Neither is one which gives less than twelve pounds of milk daily, no matter how rich it is. Every farmer should own a small Babcock tester and test ever}- cow in his herd. Such a tester, with directions and complete outfit for testing milk, can be bought for six or seven dollars. Each cow in the herd should be tested, her milk carefullv weighed and her dairy value figured out. All unprofitable cows should be disposed of. The best cows in the herd may then be kept for breeding purposes. In this way the herd will be greatly improved and dairying made much more profitable. Experimental Study of Milk. In all comparisons of milk, samples should be taken under the same conditions and set at exactly the same depth. Test tubes are most convenient for experi- ments with milk. If bottles are used they should be tall and slender, and as nearly the same size as pos- sible. Sample bottles should never be filled above the THE DAIRY 125 point where the bottle begins to nai'fow towards the neck. 1. Compare samples of milk from different cows, noting the color. 2. Follow directions given above in the prepara- tion of samples. Set them aside in a cool place for twenty-four hours. Compare the thickness of the cream layers, being careful not to disturb the milk. Measure the cream with a rule. Which is the richest milk? What color was it when first set? What is always the color of very rich milk ? What is the color of poor milk? 3. Take a sample of the first milk drawn from a cow, and another sample of the ''strippings" from the same cow. Place these samples in separate bottles, beiuQ- careful to fill the bottles to exactlv the same depth. Note the color of each. Set them aside in a cool place for twenty-four hours and then compare the thickness of the cream layers. 4. After a quantity of milk has stood in a can for thirty minutes, take a sample from the top of the can. Then plunge the dipper to the bottom and get a sample from near the bottom of the can. Place these sam- ples in bottles as before, note the color, and set aside for the cream to rise. CcMiipare the thickness of the cream layers at the end of twenty-four iKnu's. Which is the richer? Explain. 5. Take two samples of milk from the same sup- ply, under the same conditic^ns. Set one in a very cool place and the other in a warm place, for a few 126 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE hours, and compare the thickness of the cream layers. Set aside for a few hours and compare again. What difference do you observe? 6. Into an unwashed bottle in which milk has been allowed to sour place a sample of fresh, sweet milk. Into anotlier bottle that has been carefully cleaned and scalded place another sample from the same sup- ply. Set the samples side by side in a warm room and smell and taste them at intervals of from four to six hours. Record definitely the differences in preserva- tion of the two samples. 7. Take two samples from the same supply of fresh, sweet milk, and place them in dishes that have been carefully cleaned and scalded. Set one dish over nig'ht in the barn, or in some other place where the air is filled with bad odors. Set the other sample in the open air or in a well ventilated place where there can be no bad odors. Smell and taste of both next morning. Has the bad odor affected the taste or odor of the milk? From this experiment what do you infer regarding the effects of bad air upon milk to be used in making butter, or cheese, or for any other purpose? Free Bulletins, TJ. S, Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletins. No. 29. — Souring of Milk and Other Changes in Milk Products. No. 42. — Facts about Milk. No. 55. — The Dairy Herd : Its Formation and Management. No. 57. — Butter Making on the Farm. THE DAIRY 127 No. 63.^Care of Milk on the Farm. No. 151. — Dairying in the South. "^ No. 166. — Cheese Making on the Farm. No. 201. — The Cream Separator on Western Farms. Definition, — A per cent is a fraction whose de- nominator is 100. Thus: i-ioo is i per cent, 2-100 is 2 per cent, 5-100 is 5 per cent, and so on. There are three ways of writing per cents, thus : 2-100 ^ .02 = 2%. They ah mean exactly the same thing. Problems. ■ 1. How many pounds of butter- fat in 5,000 pounds of milk that tests 4 per cent? 2. A farmer owns a herd of 15 cows that average 24 pounds of milk per head daily. How many pounds of milk does he get in six months (thirty days each) ? 3. If this milk tests 3.5 per cent, and butter-fat is worth 25 cents per pound, what does he receive monthly for his milk? How much per head? 4. A farmer has a herd of 20 cows. The milk for the week weighs as follows: 420 lbs., 418 lbs., 408 lbs., 422 lbs., 417 lbs., 432 lbs. and 423 lbs., respec- tively. I-t tests 5 per cent of butter-fat, the price of which is 30 cents per pound. How much do the cows average per head in money for this week ? 5. A farmer hauls 43,250 lbs. of milk that tests 3.8 per cent to a factory. The price of butter-fat is 26 cents per pound. How much money should he receive ? 128 ELEAIENTARY AGRICULTURE 6. A farmer owns six cows : Bess, Spot, Brindle, Bos, Kate and Red. Bess gives 22 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 2>-^V(^ Spot gives 15 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 4.2%, Brindle gives 30 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.0%, Bos gives 20 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.5%, Kate gives 14 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 3.2%, Red gives 24 lbs. of milk daily, which tests 5.2%. Figure out the dairy value of each. \Miich is the best cow? The poorest one? Classify them in order of dairy value. 7. Figure out the number of pounds of milk given by each cow in a month, and the value of it in butter- fat at 25 cents per pound. 8. Two herds of ten cows each are compared : The Jerseys average 18 lbs. of milk each daily; the Holstein-Freisians average 30 lbs. of milk each daily. The Jerseys test 5.4 per cent ; the Holstein-Friesians test 3.2 per cent. A\'hich is the more valuable herd? 9. With butter-fat at 30 cents per pound, what is the monthly a^•erage per cow of each herd ? 10. Pupils will furnish actual data from home for other dairy problems. CHAPTER XVII POULTEY Profit in Poultry-Raising. — There is no department of diversified farming that yields larger returns for the labor and money expended than the poultry yard, if properly handled. No farmer tries to get along without chickens, and many farmers' wives and chil- dren are made happy by the revenue derived from a flock of turkeys, ducks or geese. But poultry-raising has not been «"iven sufficient attention on manv Amer- ican farms. There is no more wdiolesome or nutritious article of food than eggs, and by most people poultry is highly esteemed as an article of diet. There is a steady demand for fresh eggs, and well-fattened young- fowls always bring a high price in the market. On many farms the money received from the sale of eggs and poultry amounts to several hundred dollars annually. The labor involved in this industry is of a kind that can easily be done by women and children. The feed required is raised on every farm, and the necessary buildings are cheap and easily built. All these factors tend to make poultry-raising very profitable when thoughtfully and intelligently pursued. 130 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Care of Poultry. — If necessary, chickens may be confined to somewhat narrow Hmits, but ducks, geese and turkeys usually thrive best when given free range of the farm. The reason for this is plain. Fowds are insect and seed eaters, and, when allowed to roam, select the kinds of insects and seeds which they like best. But, when kept in confinement, man forces them to eat the things he provides; and, unless a special study has been made of poultry foods, they may not always be the ones the fowls themselves would select. Again, as has been said in another chapter, if hens are to lay eggs, they must be fed egg-producing foods. If confined thev should have constant access to a box of grits, oyster shells, gravel, lime, charcoal, sand, ground bone, and the like, to be used in grinding their food, and out of which to make eggshells. They should be fed meat scraps, skim-milk, barley, refuse from the table, and other foods rich in protein out of which to make eggs. In winter time, green foods like cabbage, turnips, and silage should be given to them. Foods. — To repeat what has been said in another place : ''Nature has provided in summer proper foods for most farm animals, and the nearer summer condi- tions can be duplicated the greater will be the farmer's success." The winter food of chickens should, there- fore, consist of four kinds — minerals, which they get by scratching in summer; meat, to take the place of summer insects; grains; and green foods. Ungrate- ful, indeed, would be the hen who did not respond to this diet with a liberal return of eggs. POULTRY 131 bisects as Food for Fozcls. — One other fact in con- nection with the food of fowls is deserving of special emphasis here. Since their food consists so largely of seeds and insects, it is quite evident that they are worth all it costs to keep them in the assistance which they give to the farmer in devouring seeds of weeds and in holding insect pests in check. HEN HONORS. The Poultry House. — Like other farm animals, fowls must be protected from cold and storms. Their houses should be large, light, airy, clean, and dry. Chickens should have a ''scratching place" where they can get to dry dirt and scratch and wallow in it. Dust acts as a sort of insect powder, filling up the insect's breathing pores, and thus keeps the chickens free from lice. It is important that chickens have plenty of exer- 132 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE else, and this the}' can get in winter if they have a warm and dry place where they can go to scratch. It is a common practice among poultry raisers to force them to scratch for their food by strewing it over a floor thickly covered with chaff or short straw. Cleanliness in Care of Poultry. — Poultry houses should be frequently cleaned and whitewashed to keep them free from bad odors and vermin. Thev should be well lighted by a row of windows, placed along the south side, and they should be built sufficiently warm to prevent the freezing of the chickens' combs and feet. Above all else, they should be kept perfectly dry to avoid disease. Laying Qualities of Poultry. — In the wild state, the hen laid but one setting of a dozen or fifteen eggs a year. This n.umber has been greatly increased by domestication until the "two-hundred-egg-a-year" hen is considered an easy possibility by many poultry rais- ers. If farmers will use care in selecting only the eggs from the most prolific layers for setting, they can, without doubt, greatly improve the laying qualities of their flock. Much, however, depends upon the selec- tion of a breed. Varieties of Foods. — The variety selected for farm use will depend largely upon the purpose for which the fowls are grown. There are some varieties espe- cially desirable for their la3nng qualities, others are adapted to the needs of the early spring chicken mar- ket, and still others which may be called general pur- pose fowls. The intelligent farmer informs himself as POULTRY 133 to the respective merits of the several breeds and selects the one best adapted to his needs. What is true in the selection of a variety of chickens is equally true of turkeys, ducks and geese and is left to the intelligent action of the farmer without further com- ment here. The bulletins named below will be of great GOOD MATERIAL FOR A PRODUCE ACCOUNT. value to the poultry raiser in making his selection and will give him other assistance and direction in the care and management of his poultry. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fanners' Bulletins. No. 51. — Standard Varieties of Chickens. No. 64. — Ducks and Geese, Breeds, and Management. No. 141. — Poultry Raising on the Farm. 134 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE No. 177.— Squab Raising. No. 200. — Turkej^s, Varieties, and Management. Problems. 1. A flock of 60 hens average 80 eggs a year each. With eggs worth 1 5 cents per dozen, what is the vahie of these eggs? 2. How many bushels of corn will this buy at 40 cents per bushel? Of oats at 25 cents? 3. Suppose it takes only 12 bushels of corn, 5 bushels of oats and $7 worth of other food to keep this flock for one year, besides what they pick up for themselves. What is the profit over and above the cost of the feed? 4. What would have been the profit if they had laid 120 eggs each, instead of 80? 5. Ask pupils to furnish data for at least twenty other similar problems. . CHAPTER XVIII SPECIAL CROPS Four Special Crops. — There are a few special crops, which, because of their increasing importance in agri- culture, demand our attention. Four of these will be considered in this chapter — tobacco, sugar beets, pota- toes and onions. All of these crops are grown in the United States today, but, with the exception of pota- toes, not in sufficient quantities to supply the demand. Until we do raise enough for home consumption, these crops will yield larger returns to the farmer than the other crops grown on the farm. TOBACCO. Tobacco a Heavy Feeder. — As we have already learned, tobacco is a heavy feeder and hard on the soil. With every crop of tobacco sold off the farm about twice as much fertility is removed as with any grain crop that the farmer raises for market. But we have agreed that grain farming does not pay. How much more unprofitable, then, is it for the farmer to raise tobacco extensively. There is but one way in which he can keep up the fertility of his soil, and that 136 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE is by the use of commercial fertilizers. In this way soil matter is bought and brought back to the farm to take the place of that sold with the tobacco. Extensive experiments have been made at the different agricul- tural stations to determine the kind and amount of A TYPICAL TOBACCO FIELD. (Oconto County. Wisconsin.) these fertiliers to use. The results show that they are even better than barnyard manure for this crop. The only W'ay that the farmer can find out the kind and amount best adapted to his soil is by careful experi- ment. It must be remembered, however, that com- mercial fertilizers tend to harden the soil, while barn- yard manure improves its texture. SPECIAL CROPS 137 Kind of Soil Required. — Tobacco requires fertile, well-drained soil, rich in humus. Not every soil will grow good tobacco. Even on the same farm, places are found which seem to be especially adapted to its growth. Herein another danger lies. The farmer is likely to grow tobacco, year after year, on this same piece of land until its fertility is exhausted, or else he has robbed the rest of his farm by putting all of his fertilizers on his tobacco land. Again, such conditions make crop rotation impracticable. Cultivation. — Moreover, tobacco requires thorough cultivation and careful attention in harvesting and cur- ing. These things are best learned by actual practice, and a discussion of them is beyond the province of this book. SUGAR BEETS. Beets Compared zvith Other Plants. — Beets, like to- bacco, are heavy feeders, and, like tobacco, require thorough cultivation. Unlike tobacco, however, they can be grown so as to retain the fertility of the soil. Sugar is a carbohydrate, and carbohydrates, you will remember, are made by the plant from the air and the water which the plant uses. If the beets are shipped to the factory, the sugar extracted there, and the pulp returned to be fed on the farm or used as a fertilizer, the soil has lost nothing. It is much the same as if the tobacco ashes were brouoht back to the farm. With tobacco, however, this is impossible, but with beets it 138 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE is possible to return the pulp, and this should always be done. Advantages of Beets. — -Sugar beets have still other advantages o\'er tobacco. In the first place, the price is fixed by the factory before the beets are planted. The factory usually contracts to give about $4.50 per ton for beets that test 14 per cent of sugar, with an additional 25 cents per ton for each additional i per cent of sugar. Thus beets testing 15 per cent will bring $4.75 per ton, and beets testing 16 per cent will bring $5 per ton. They will usually agree to ship the pulp back to the farmer at a small cost, say 25 cents per ton. The farmer knows just what price he is going to get for his crop. What his land brings him per acre depends upon his own efforts, and he will then bend all his energies toward producing a high test and a big yield. \Mth other crops a big general yield usually means a low price, but a big crop of beets does not affect the price. Again, beets require less care than tobacco. They do not need to be housed or cured. No capital need be invested in sheds or curingf rooms. In the third place, they can be grown successfully on a large variety of soils, and they furnish, when the pulp is returned to the farm, an excellent food for stock. In the fourth place, their long roots, and the deep cultivation required, bring to the surface fertilitv from deep down in the soil. In Germany, several years after their cultivation was introduced, more o-rain was SPECIAL CROPS 139 grown per acre on land where the beets had been culti- vated than could possibly have been grown before their cultivation w^as begun. A comparison of beets and tobacco gives the prefer- ence to beets as a farm crop. They grow well on tobacco land and are an excellent crop to be used in HARVESTING SUGAR BEETS. rotation with it. Their cultivation is easily learned, and they are less exposed to injury from storms, in- sects and plant diseases. POTATO. The Best Soil for Potatoes. — Potatoes of the best quality are grown on light, sandy land, rich in humus. Heavy clay soils do not give way readily as the pota- toes increase in size, hence will produce smaller potatoes. Yield of Potatoes. — This crop yields heavily, five hundred bushels per acre being not unusual. Potatoes I40 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE should be planted about four inches deep, in rows three feet apart, and about two feet apart in the row. Extensive experiments, carried on by the different agricultural stations, show that the seed potatoes should be cut in halves or quarters. When the price of seed potatoes is very high, they may be cut in smaller pieces of as nearly equal size as possible. No bad results have come from planting small potatoes,' though one would naturally think that small potatoes, used as seed, would give small potatoes in return. It must be remembered, however, that the potato is not a seed, but an underground stem, and that it does not bear the same relation to the crop that the seed does. Like the seed, it serves as a storehouse for the growing plant, and if the pieces are of sufficient size to furnish this food matter, the next crop will not be affected by the size of the potato planted. Prevcn'tio}i of Potato Rot. — To prevent rot or blight the seed should be rolled in sul]:>hur. the vines sprayed with Bordeaux mixture as soon as blight appears, and rotation of crops practiced. In no case should pota- toes be planted on the same ground where the previous crop has been aft"ected, as the spores are in the soil and will surely attack them. ONIONS. Adz'ajitages of Raising Onions. — Not enough onions are grown in tlie United States to supply the demand. IMillions of busliels are annually imported. They yield heavily, sometimes as much as a thousand bushels per i SPECIAL CROPS 141 acre, and they are not hard to grow. The greatest cost of their cultivation is lahor, but of a kind that a child can easily do. Onion raising offers to the chil- dren on the farm a splendid opportunity to make their spending money, and for that reason it is discussed here. One-fourth of an acre set to onions should ONION GROWING FOR PROFIT. Courtesy of Country Calendar. yield 100 bushels, which, if the market is good, will bring them from $50 to $75. Hard, indeed, would be the farmer who would not give to his children so small a patch of ground on wdiich to grow^ onions, and time enough to cultivate them. Kind of Soil Needed. — Onions, like tobacco, require a fertile soil, rich in humus, but they need considerably more moisture. In the northern states the seed should be sown in boxes in early spring, and the young plants 142 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE transplanted as soon as the ground is in fit condition. There are several reasons for this : In the first place, onions grow \'ery slowly, and, if sown in the ground, the weeds become too large and thick before the young onions are large enough to cultivate. In the next place, they can be transplanted the right distance apart and do not rob each other of plant food, as they would before thinning, if sown in the row. In the third place, onions require a large amount of mois- ture, and if started in the house or hotbed the plants' may be set out in time to get all the benefit of the spring rains. It has been shown that transplanting will double the vield. Hozv to Plant Onions. — They should be set in rows from a foot to eighteen inches apart, and the plants should be placed about four inches apart in the row. The soil should be heavily fertilized, and very thor- oughly prepared. All lumps should be broken and the surface made smooth. The rows may be laid off by stretching a line across the plat. The plat may be marked out along the string by rolling a wooden wheel (an old wagon wheel with the tire removed will answer), on whose edge wooden pegs about three inches long and four inches apart have been set. The plants should be placed in the holes made by the pegs and the soil pressed firmly around their roots. Onion Cultivation. — The cultivation can be done with a steady horse, if the rows are far enough apart, with a hand cultivator or with a hoe. Success depends I SPECIAL CROPS 143 upon cultivation. The soil should be frequently stirred, and it must be kept absolutely free from w'eeds. When Ready for Harvest. — When the tops are dead and dry the crop is ready for harvest. The onions should be pulled, carefully cleaned, dried in the sun for a few hours and stored away in a cool, dry place until ready for market. If they are placed in bushel boxes with lath sides they will keep in good condition. Best Varieties of Onions. — Yellow Danvers, Early Reds, Red Wethersfields, Yellow Globe and Prizetak- ers are the standard varieties. The first named is the heaviest yielder, an onion of excellent flavor and sells well on the market. Fi*ee Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers* Bulletins. No. 35 — Potato Culture. No. 39 — Onion Culture. No. 52 — The Sugar Beet. No. 60 — Methods of Curing Tobacco. No. 82 — The Culture of Tobacco. No. 83 — Tobacco Soils. No. 120 —The Principal Insect Affecting the Tobacco Plant No. 129 — Sweet Potatoes. Problems. 1. How many tobacco plants will be required to set an acre in rows three feet apart, the plants two feet apart in the row? 2. Tobacco is usuallv struns: on laths to be cured. With twelve stalks to the lath, how many laths will be needed per acre? 144 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 3. If the stalks need four feet of vertical space and the laths are hung one foot apart in the shed, how many cubic feet of shed room will be required to house an acre of tobacco? 4. Give dimensions of a shed for five acres of tobacco. 5. If the average weight of seed potatoes is four ounces each, and if they are cut in halves and planted in rows three feet apart and eigheten inches apart in the row, how many bushels of seed will be required per acre? 6. How many bushels will be needed if whole potatoes are used? Quarters? Eighths? 7. A sugar factory agrees to pay $4.50 per ton for 1 all beets testing 14 per cent, or less, of sugar. They also agree to give an additional 25 cents per ton for each additional i per cent of sugar or fraction thereof over 14 per cent, if the fraction exceeds one-half per cent. What is the price of beets testing 13.7 per cent? 14 per cent? 14.3 per cent? 14.7 per cent? 15 per cent? 15.2 per cent? 15.6 per cent? 15.8 per cent ? 8. Mr. Smith's beets yield fourteen tons per acre j and test 15 per cent. How much does he get per acre for his crop? 9. On two acres of ground Mr. Jones raises 73,680 pounds of beets which test 14.8 per cent. How much do his beets bring him in money per acre? 10. If Mr. Jones spends $56 worth of labor on his crop of beets, what is his net profit per acre? SPECIAL CROPS 145 11. How many onion plants will be reqiiired to set an acre in rows two feet apart, plants four inches apart in the row? 12. If a boy can set nine plants per minute, how long will it take him to set them? 13. If these onions average four ounces each, how many bushels are raised on an acre? If thev averaere six ounces? Twelve ounces? One pound? 14. What is the value of the crop in each case, at 60 cents per bushel ? 15. If it requires fifty days of a boy's time, worth 75 cents per day, to raise an acre of onions, what will be his profit on an acre of four-ounce onions? 16. Pupils will furnish data for other similar prob- lems. CHAPTER XIX FARM BUILDINGS Nuiubcr and Kinds of Buildings. — That good, sub- stantial buildings are needed on every farm goes with- out saying. The number and kind, of course, vary with the size and location of the farm, and the special crops raised thereon. But a good house, barn, gran- ary, silo, carriage and tool house are almost indis- pensable on every farm. Attention to Arrangement. — Usually too little at- tention is given to the arrangement of these buildings, and, when they once have been placed, it is next to impossible to correct the bad effect of poor arrange- ment. The barn in front of the house, or on the wind- ward side of it, the hog house in front of the house, the barnyard between the house and the barn, the carriage house opening into the barnyard, and the vegetable garden in the dooryard, are some of the common mistakes. Location of the House. — The location of the house should receive first attention. It should be placed on an elevation sufficient to afford good drainage, four or five rods back from the road, leaving room for a FARM BUILDINGS 147 nice lawn in front. The barn should be placed at one side and farther back from the road. If possible, it should be so located that the prevailing wind will carry the barn odors away from the house. The barnyard lAtVV ;^K^ •--.'►^ LA\A/N ■ .^^^;^Ia: ^t a^ | ^ ' .^ ' j » (.»:Wi ' J^■;y ' \m.Vik!^m»i.tiinii^:^l: > < n • tJ 1. I I I J I JM I H I. . II p^l^ljlff ■■■/ FARM BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS NEATLY AND CON- VENIENTLY ARRANGED. should be in the rear of the barn so that the view from the house will be unobstructed by high board fences, stables or sheds. A drive should lead from the road to the barn, and the horse stable and car- riage house should open onto this drive, so that the 148 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE farmer and his sons will not be compelled to pass through the barn3'ard every time they hitch up a team. A walk of cinders, gravel or sand should lead from the house to the barn. Such a walk is cheap, easily built, and will always be clean and compara- tively dry. The vegetable garden can be placed any- FILLING THE SILO. where in the rear, near the house, wdiere it will be convenient. The logical place for the well is between the barn and the house, where it can be used for both places, but not too near the barn. The silo should be attached to or near the barn, and, of course, the granary should be near by. Tool houses, tobacco sheds and all other outbuildings should be kept well FARM BUILDINGS 149 I^:.■: '-^T > • '■ • , \'. ■;- ■■M •. ••;,.•■>, back from the road, so as not to obstaict the view from the house. The Construction of Buildings. — But httle need be said about the construction of farm buildings. The careful farmer will adapt the buildings to the size of the farm, and his own special needs. The silo is the one farm building, however, that needs the most careful con- struction. The importance of silage as a feeding stuff is growing more apparent, but silage will not keep well in a poorly constructed silo. Whatever the type of silo the farmer chooses to build, four things must be ob- served : It must be air- tight, strong, perfectly smooth on the inside and placed on a strong, solid foundation. TJic Silo. — The silo must be air-tight, because the air contains germs that will set to work upon the silage and cause it to spoil and decay. Silage is something like canned fruit, in this respect. The silo must be strong, because the green feed with which it is filled is very heavy and solidly packed down. This exerts a tremendous SILO, VERTICAL SECTION. General plan for wood, brick, stone or cement silo. V — Ventilator. D — Doors. S— Air spaces. F — Stone founda- tion. C — Cement floor. Wlien the silo is attached to the barn, the feeding and filling doors are usually placed on opposite sides, the feed- ing doors opening into the barn. I50 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE side pressure which will spring or burst the walls of a poorly constructed silo and admit air, causing the silage to spoil. It must be perfectly smooth on the inside, because silage should settle evenly. Projections, or rough places on the inner walls of a silo, will prevent this even settling, cause dead air spaces, which spoil the silage. It must rest on a strong, solid foundation, because the side pres- sure and weight at the bottom are very great. This pressure may burst a heavy stone wall — and the great weight will cause a silo placed on a poor foundation to settle out of shape and crack the walls. Silage Is a Satisfactory Feed. — If this building is so constructed as to provide for sufficient ventilation and to prevent freezing, and proper care is used in filling the silo, the silage will be a very satisfactory feed to use on the farm. Free Bulletins, U. S.Dept. of Agriculture. No. 32. — Silos and Silage. No. 126. — Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings. Measurements. Rules. 1. To find the area of a triangle multiply the base by one-half the height. 2. To find the circumference of a circle multiply the diameter by 3 1-7. 3. To find the area of a circle multiply the square of the radius by 3 1-7. 4. The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to .the sum of the squares of the other sides. Note: Make a drawing before attempting to solve any of the following problems. FARM BUILDINGS 151 Problems. 1. How many feet of inch lumber will be required to build a pig pen six feet wide, four feet from peak to ground, and eight feet long? (See rules i and 4.) 2. How many feet of inch lumber will be needed to board up the gables of a barn thirty feet wide, the peaks being twelve feet above the eaves? 3. How much lumber will it take to cover a corn crib with four-inch slats, placed one inch apart, the crib being twenty-four feet long, six feet wide at the bottom, eight feet at the top, eight feet to the eaves, and the peak three feet above the eaves ? 4. How long will the rafters need to be for this crib if they are to project one foot? How many feet of 2x4 rafters will be required if they are placed two feet apart? 5. How many feet of 2x4 studding will be needed if they are placed the same distance apart? How many feet of roof boards will be required if they are allowed to project one foot at each end? 6. How many cubic feet must a bin contain in or- der to hold a thousand bushels? Make a list of con- venient dimensions for such a bin. 7. How many feet of two-inch plank will be re- quired to build a cylindrical tank fourteen feet across and two feet deep? What will be the cost of the lumber at $30 per thousand? 8. How many feet of band iron will it require to make three hoops for this tank? 152 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 9. How many feet of inch lumber will be required to cover the inner wall of a ''round" silo twenty-one feet across and eighteen feet high? How many feet of two-inch plank will be needed for a cover? What will be the cost of all this lumber at $25 per thousand ? 10. \Miat will it cost to put a cement floor in this silo at 10 cents per square foot? 11. How many 2x4 studdings eighteen feet long and placed one foot apart will be required, and what will be their cost at $24 per thousand? 12. What will it cost for the lumber to floor a barn forty by sixty feet with two and one-half inch plank at $18 per thousand? 13. The peak of this barn is twelve feet higher than the eaves. What will inch lumber for sheeting the gables cost at $24 per thousand. 14. The rafters are made of 2x4, and twenty-seven feet long, placed eighteen inches apart. How much will they cost at $20 per thousand ? 15. What will be the cost of the sheeting for the roof at $16 per thousand if the roof projects two feet at each end? 16. What will it cost to shingle this roof with shingles worth $3.25 per thousand, laying them five inches to the weather and allowing for a double course at the eaves? 17.- This building is placed on a wall twelve inches .thick and eight feet high. What is the cost of the stone for same at $5 per cord ? FARiM BUILDINGS 153 18. What will it cost to fence a field sixty rods long and forty-five rods wide with a five'wire fence, posts one rod apart, worth 5 cents each, staples 6 cents per pound (200 to the pound), wire weighing one pound to the rod, worth $4.50 per cwt., and labor amounting to $6? 19. What will it cost to build a five board fence around the same field, using twelve- foot boards, six inches wide, and worth $16 per thousand, posts 5 cents each, nails and labor, $15? 20. Pupils make and solve similar problems from data taken from actual conditions. CHAPTER XX TAEM ACCOUNTS Keeping Accounts. — There are times when every farmer needs to keep accounts. Sometimes it is de- sirable to know just how much cash is received and paid out during the year. A simple cash account will show this. All kinds of accounts require two columns. These columns may be placed side by side at the right of the page, or the page may be divided with double ruling down its center, or two separate pages, facing each other, may be used. Whichever kind of ruling is used, the accounts are all kept in exactly the same way. The divided page method is used in this book. Cash Accounts. — In keeping a cash account the word CASH is first written across the top of the page. All cash received "is placed in the cash space in the left hand side, and all cash paid out is placed in the cash space in the right hand side. At the extreme left of each side the date is placed, and between the date and the cash space the item, for which cash has been re- ceived or paid, is written. The total amount of cash received, or paid out, is easily found by adding the FARM ACCOUNTS 155 amounts on each side, and the difference of these two sums represents the cash on hand. Cash on hand should be carried over into the received side at the top of the next page, when any page is filled up with entries. If it is desired, the totals may be carried over into their respective columns instead, and the new page kept in exactly the same way as the pre- ceding page. This is all there is in keeping a cash account. It is a very simple and easy thing to do. For example : CASH. Date 1905 Item Kec'd Date 1905 Item Paid Jan 1 Cash on hand . $ 24 40 Jan. 2 Groceries $ 3 00 Jan. 3 For hogs 102 75 Jan. 15 For coal 14 40 Jan. 30 For butter .... 42 84 Jan. 17 For books 5 00 Feb. 1 For eggs 2 25 Jan. 20 For overcoat 12 00 Feb. 1 For rubbers 75 Study the above illustration, determine how much cash is on hand Feb. i, 1905, and on a blank sheet of paper, open up a new page in both ways as described above. Submit your work to your teacher to find out whether vou are correct. Personal Accounts. — A personal account is kept in exactly the same way as a cash account. The name of the person is first written across the top of the 156 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE page. Whenever this person receives anything from the one keeping the account, this entry is made in the left hand side under the word debtor, and whenever he pays anything on this account, this entry is made in the right hand side under the word creditor, exactly the same as with a cash account. The dates and items are written in their proper places, which are the, same as those for cash accounts. For example : JOHN SMITH. Suppose that on Sept. 22, 1905, you sell a pig to John Smith for $12.50, for which he agrees to pay either in money or in labor at $1.50 per day. He works on Oct. i, 2 and 3. On Oct. 10 he pays $2 in cash, and on Oct. 25 he works another day. The account is kept in this manner. This account shows, in a brief manner, a complete history of this transaction. It gives all dates, which are of great importance in all accounts. It shows that John Smith owes you $12.50 for a pig, that he has already paid you $8 in labor and cash, and that he FARM ACCOUNTS 157 Still owes you $4.50.- When this is paid, it should be entered under the other items in the credit column, both columns added and the account closed by drawing- two lines across the page below the account, like this : JOHN SMITH. Date 1905 Item Dr. Date 1906 Item Cr. Sept. 22 To 1 pig $12 50 Oct. 3 By 3 days' work. $ -i 50 1 Oct. 10 By cash 2 00 Oct. 25 By 1 day's work . 1 50 Oct. 30 By bal. cash .... 4 50 $12 50 $12 50 PRODUCE ACCOUNTS. Sometimes the farmer wishes to know his profits on his cow^s, tobacco, beets or other things produced on the farm. It often happens that his wife wants to keep account of her profits on berries or poultry. Such an account is called a produce account, and it is kept exactly like a personal account. Suppose that you want to keep an account of your chickens. The word CHICKENS is first wn*itten across the top of the page. \Mienever the chickens receive anything from vou like feed or coops, this entry is made in the left hand column under the word debtor. Whenever they pay you anything in the form of eggs or young chick- 158 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE ens, this entry is made in the right hand cokmin under the word creditor. Study the following account : CHICKENS. Date 1905 Item Dr. Date 1905 Item Or. May 1 To lumber for coops $3 .0 May 30 By eggs for mo.. $ 2 50 June 2 To feed 75 June 30 By eggs for mo.. 1 60 June 30 To corn meal . . 2 40 July 30 By eggs for mo.. 2 10 Aug. 1 To corn 3 00 Oct. 1 By youni chickeos . .. 6 CO Oct. 1 By young chickens eat'fl 3 00 Oct. 1 Profit 10 05 Oct. 1 By eggs eaten. .. 4 00 $19 40 $19 40 The above account shows that these chickens re- ceived from you a total of $9.35 in coops and feed, and that they paid you in eggs and young chickens, which you sold, and in other eggs and chickens, which you ate during the summer, a total of $19.40, giving you a profit of $10.05 ^n the investment. If farmers Avould form the habit of keeping ac- counts of their stock and their crops, much unprofit- able farminq; mio-ht be avoided, as attention would thus be directed to those products which, on the aver- ae:e, vield the laroest returns for the labor and monev expended. FARM ACCOUNTS i59 Problems. 1. A farmer's boy hires out to a neighbor for five months at ^22 per month. He begins work April i, with $7.35 cash on hand. He receives his pay at the end of every month. April 2, he pays $2.75 for shoes. April 20, 25c for a straw hat. May 3, he spends $1.25 for a coat. May 31, he buys a colt for $42. July I, he pays $14.75 ^^^' more clothing. July 4, he spends $2.35. July 20, he sells his colt for $55. August 15, he pays $6.50 for a watch, and, during the sifmmer, he spends $4.85 for sundry small articles. Write out his account and determine how much cash he has on hand when his time is out. 2. Two boys rent for $4 a half acre of land on which to plant onions. They allow themselves 75c each per day for their time. It costs them $2 to get this piece of land fertilized and plowed. They each spend ten days' time planting and cultivating their onions, and four days more each when harvesting time comes. They sell $14.30 worth of green onions, and harvest 142 bushels more. For 100 bushels they get 75c per bushel, and 60c per bushel for the re- manider. Write out their onion account, and find their profit. 3. A farmer runs an account with George White, a merchant. July 7, he buys a pair of shoes for $2.40 and has them charged on account. July 20. he takes in twelve dozen of eggs at 1 1 cents per dozen and gets 50c worth of sugar. August 3, he takes in twelve pounds of butter at 20 cents per pound and gets nine i6o ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE yards of calico at 6 cents per yard, one pound of tea at 50 cents, four pounds of coffee at 18 cents per pound, and a barrel of salt at $1.25. August 14, he gets a pail of fish at 75 cents and 100 pounds of sugar at 5^ cents per pound, and pays $2 in cash. How does his account stand on August 15? Write out this account with Geo. \\'hite. CHAPTER XXI FORESTRY Importance of the Forest. — N'ext to the soil itself, no other part of tlie earth, or its furnishing, is of such importance to man as the forest. Indeed, without the forest, past and present, there would hardly be any tillable soil. But it is also our chief source of building material and of fuel. It is, moreover, the great gar- ment of the earth, protecting and adorning it. Nature of the Forest. — The forest is much more than a collection of independent trees; it is a great organism, composed of many parts, or elements, each dependent on the others. It has a very complex and varied life, comprising not only trees and shrubs, but also herbs, flowers, mosses, lichens, birds, insects, and higher animals in great variety, all dependent for their very life upon their combination and mutual service, in the great living thing we call the forest. IjifJueuce of the Forest. — The forest exercises a great influence upon the earth and its inhabitants out- side of the forest limits. It is often the source of streams, and controls the water supply of surrounding ree:ions. It breaks the force of winds and tempers the i62 ELEAIENTARY AGRICULTURE climate. It supplies veg'etcible mold which is an in- dispensable element in fertile soil. And it affords recreation, and the highest forms of enjoyment to those who can get access to it. In short, the forest is one of man's greatest blessings, and yet it is the one which he has abused wnth most recklessness and ignorance. And in no part of the world has this reck- less waste been greater than in the United States, and especially in the North Central states. TFIE EDGE OF THE FOREST. Destruction of the Forests. — The forest was in- tended for use, but it was meant to serve man for ages, and not to be destroyed in the lifetime of a man. The great causes which have wrecked the forests and wiped them from the earth to so great an extent are (i) unwise and unregulated cutting by lumbermen, and (2) the prevalence of forest fires. These fires, springing up in seasons of drouth, are fed and made FORESTRY 163 destructive by the brush and dead tree tops, left as wreckage on the ground, wherever logging has been carried on. The fires are often started by the criminal negligence of hunters and campers in not putting out all remains of their camp-fires, or in other careless ways. Some of these fires have done immense dam- age to the standing forest, and have caused great dis- tress and loss of human life. Among the most destruc- tive of these are the great Peshtigo fire of 1871, in Northeastern Wisconsin, and the Hinckley fire of 1894, in Minnesota. The Economic Use of the Forest. — The science and art of forestry has for its purpose the perpetuation and, at the same time, the economical utilization of the forest. It teaches men how to keep the forest alive by cutting out only the trees that have got their growth and are ripe, in such a way as not to injure or endanger the remaining growth. The younger trees are thus given more light and air and room to grow, while the undergrowth is also preserved. The "forest floor" of decaying leaves, rotten wood, and other debris is pre- served as a means of enriching the soil and, especially, of retaining moisture and preventing the rains from running off too quickly in surface wash and floods. Forestry also teaches the best ways of replanting, or ''re-foresting," areas in which the timber has already been wastefully destroyed. This art of prudently man- aging timber lands, so as to keep up their blessings to their owners and others, has long been practiced in European countries, particularly in Germany, and has i64 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE * proved of the greatest advantage. The people of the United States are just waking up to the necessity of such a course, and the United States Department of Forestry is now doing excehent service in educating the people to greater intelligence and foresight in the management of such remnants of our once magnifi- cent forests as yet remain; though we are reminded of the old saying about locking the stable door after the horse is stolen. The new policy of our government in settinof off Forest Reserves in the unsold lands of the Western States, particularly in the mountain regions, deserves the earnest approval and support of all citi- zens interested in the future welfare of our country. Lumbermen, generally, have blindly followed the ex- •ample of the woman who killed the goose that laid the golden eggs ; and the future good of our land ought not to be left longer at their mercy. The Wood Lot. — But we need not look upon for- estry as a matter which' concerns only the far off forests of the North and West. Every farmer who has a ''wood lot" left ought to understand its prin- ciples and apply them to his own possessions. Care of the Wood Lot. — The importance of caring for the farm wood lot cannot be too strongly empha- sized. When our countrv was new and land had to be cleared to make room for the crops, farmers cared little for timber and less for wood. Great trees were cut down and rolled into the log heap. Good material for lumber went up in smoke, and in those days no one ever thought of saving wood. But now all is changed. FORESTRY 165 In many places the price of wood is exceedingly high. Good lumber is every year becoming harder to get. We have awakened to the fact that the farmer who has a wood lot on his farm has a valuable piece of property. Management of the Wood Lot. — A few acres of wood land, if properly managed, will furnish wood and other timber to the farmer for years to come. Now, what constitutes proper management of the wood lot? First, desirable young trees should be kept growing. Undesirable ones should be cut out and used for fuel or other purposes. Second, it is not, as a rule, a good plan to pasture the wood lot. Animals injure and destroy young trees by browsing upon them and gnawing their bark. Again, their sharp hoofs injure the roots, and their continuous tramping hardens the soil. Third, if grass is allowed to get into the wood lot it starves out the young seedlings or, at least, checks their growth. This is another good reason why the wood lot should never be pastured or seeded to grass. Fourth, old trees and dead trees should be carefully removed, the saw-timber saved, the limbs cut into wood, and the brush piled up neatly. As a rule, it is not a good plan to burn the brush. Many young trees are killed in this way. Fifth, when bare spots appear in the wood lot, voune trees should be encouraged to grow there, either by planting seeds or young trees. Seedlings should be i66 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE thinned so that they will not starve each other out, and only the most useful, thrifty, and hardy kinds should be planted. Profit in the Wood Lot. — With a little care and at- tention on the part of the farmer the wood lot may be preserved and the land devoted to it be made to yield as large returns as other acres of the farm which are more carefullv cultivated. Forests Prevent Droughts. — There are other good reasons why forests should be preserved in agricultural regions. The soil in the woods is very porous, and capable of absorbing large quantities of water, which runs ofif from cleared land and is wasted. This water is stored away as underground water. It feeds our wells and springs, and, moving upward, it increases the supply of capillary water in the soil, and thus be- comes available for the use of plants. It is well known that forest regions are seldom, if ever, affected bv drouo:ht. Then, too, forests furnish homes for game, which all farmer boys delight in hunting, and for birds which feed upon insects that would injure our crops, if they were not held in check by the birds. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletins. No. 54. — Some Common Birds in Their Relation to Agricul- ture. No. 150. — Clearing New Land. No. 173. — A Primer of Forestry, FORESTRY 167 Problems. ^ 1. At $6 per cord, what is the vahie of a pile of wood 240 feet long, six feet high and four feet wide? 2. A farmer gets six cords of wood from ten trees. With wood at $5.50 per cord, what is the value of these trees? 3. What is the value of a single tree at the same rate ? 4. Suppose there are fifty such trees on an acre, what is the value of the wood on this piece of land? 5. What is the value of a wood lot of fifteen acres at the same rate? 6. Suppose a farmer removes the five biggest trees per acre from his wood lot each year. If each tree makes ^ of a cord of wood, worth $6 per cord, and it costs 80c per cord for cutting, what profit does he make per acre on his wood lot ? 7. Compare this with the profit on an acre of oats. 8. Compare it with the profit on an acre of corn. 9. W'hat will the profit on a tw^elve acre wood lot be at the same rate ? 10. Compare this wdth the profit on twelve acres of meadow. 11. Pupils make and solve similar problems from data furnished by the teacher, themselves or their parents. CHAPTER XXII HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS Influence of Home Surroundings. — Beautiful home surroundings exert an educational influence on the young, and add to the enjoyment of life for all. The proper provision of such surroundings is, therefore, a matter of importance to all who have, or expect to have, homes in the country. The tasteful arrange- n*ent and proper planting of home and school grounds require much thought and study in order to insure satisfactory results. Principles of Landscape Gardening. — In all land- scape gardening two principles must be observed : First, care must be taken in the selection of what is to be planted. A bunch of flowers does not neces- sarily constitute a bouquet; intelligence must be em- ployed in their selection and arrangement. So in the planting of grounds wisdom must be exercised in the selection and distribution of plants, trees, and shrubs in order to produce a pleasing and durable result. Consideration should be given to the nature of the surface and soil ; and the location of everything planted HOME AND SCHOOL GROUNDS [69 should harmonize with the lay of the laiiTl, concealing defects and emphasizing the attractive features. Second, the planting itself should be rightly done, so as to insure proper growth and permanence. Ar- bor Day has been celebrated by the planting of many thousands of trees throughout the Western States; but, in all probability, not 10 per cent of these are alive and in healthy growth at the present time. The A CORNER OF A WELL ARRANGED SCHOOL GROUND. (Whitewater, Wis., Normal School.) practice of planting trees and naming them after great men, as Grant, Dewey, and the like, is a commend- able practice, if followed by proper care of the trees thus planted; but quite otherwise if the trees die and are consigned to the brush pile through neglect of our second principle. Application of Principles. — In order to apply these two principles successfully, it is necessary to make a 170 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Study of the grounds and also of the character- istics of trees and plants ; their hardiness, their mode of growth, and their adaptation to the soil and other conditions. There are probably not more than a dozen kinds of trees, and as many species of shrubs, that are adapted to planting in small grounds, under ordinary conditions, in this climate. The proper loca- tion of drives nnd walks should receive due considera- tion before planting begins. Care should be taken not to plant trees too close together, or else there should be a definite plan for thinning them out as they approach full size. We should try to picture, not the small tree that we plant, but the tree that is to be. Selection of Trees for Planting. — Small, thrifty trees should ordinarily be selected for planting, rather than large ones. They are more likely to live and will be larger and more satisfactory at the end of a few years. If large trees are planted, they should be ^'headed in" unsparingly, and staked firmly. No tree, large or small, should be planted wliich is blemished or imperfect, or without a good equipment of roots. Perhaps the majority of trees are practically ruined bv the destruction of roots in the digging. Preparation for Planting. — In preparation for plant- ing, the holes should be dug at least four feet in diameter and two feet in depth. If the soil is hard and poor, it should be replaced by good earth ; and in every case the trees should be well mulched with coarse litter that will remain in place. The work of planting cannot be done rightly by one person alone ; it re- HOAIE AND SCHOOL GROUNDS 171 quires two, one to handle the spade and ©ne to handle the tree and adjust the soil properly around the roots, which should be spread out in their natural position. Do not use water in planting unless the soil is dry, and even then it is not best to use a great amount. Handling of the Trees. — In handling the trees be- tween digging and planting, great care is necessary to prevent the fine, fibrous roots — which are the really important ones — from becoming dry through exposure to sun or wind. The cut ends of all large roots should be re-cut smoothly with a sharp knife immediately before planting. Plants Adapted to School Grounds. — The following trees and shrubs have been planted on the grounds of a certain school, viz. : Arbor Vitas, Colorado Blue Spruce, Douglas Fir, Hemlock, Norway Spruce, Scotch Pine, Cut-leaved Birch, Norway Maple, Com- mon Barberry, Thunberg's Barberry, Dogwood, Golden Elder, Japanese Tree Lilac, Persian Lilac, Syringa, Rosa Rugosa, Russian Olive, Tartarian Honeysuckle, Spirea von Houttei, Snowball, Clematis, and Woodbine. Out of over 1,000 specimens planted, less than a dozen failed to live and thrive, since care was taken to follow the directions sfiven above. Where to Secure Plants. — Some varieties of trees and shrubs may be dug in the woods, in some locali- ties; but it is generally better, for school use, to get them right from the ground, from a reputable nursery- man, or from the gardens of people who are willing to 172 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE contribute them. Sometimes they can be procured without cost from State Experiment Stations. The planting of home grounds may. perhaps, be less elaborate than that of public grounds ; but it needs no less care and attention to right methods. Such work ''pays in the heart ;" and no other work pays so well as that wdiich tends toward happy, cheerful life. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. rarmers' Bulletins. No. 134. — Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. No. 185. — Beautifying the Home Grounds. Extracts. No. 91. — Lawns and Lawn ^Making. Problems. 1. Measure the lot at home on which the house stands. How many square yards in it? How many square rods? 2. Draw a plan by scale of this lot, locating build- ings, trees, flower beds, etc. 3. Is there any way in which this plan might be improved or the appearance of the grounds made more pleasing? 4. Draw another plan showing location of build- ings, flower beds, trees, walks, and drives as you would like to have them arranged. CHAPTER XXIII SCHOOL GAEDENING The Development of School Gardening. — It has been a common practice in several European countries, for fully a century, to conduct gardens in connection with schools. This idea of making gardening a part of school work is rapidly growing in favor in our own country. The garden is a matter of great practical importance to all people living in the country, and it can be made a useful adjunct to the work of almost any school, if intelligently managed. Value of the Garden. — The study of agriculture has rightly been made a required subject in the schools of some states, and this must include some attention to gardening. The home garden ought to be the best part of the farm. And no department of agriculture is so well calculated to develop in boys and girls the power of keen observation and love for the beauty, variety and harmony which nature exlwhits as that of gardening. Therefore, it is important that we do something with school gardening in order to assist and encourage home gardening. Size and Shape. — The size and shape of the school 174 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE garden will depend, of course, upon the area and form of the lot. The nature and condition of the soil must be taken into account when we come to the decision of what shall be planted. Arrangement of School Grounds. — The school gar- den must not encroach upon the playground; play- grounds are an absolute necessity. If the school lot is GIRLS' SCHOOL GARDEN, YONKERS, N. Y. very small, the corners and strips along the fences may be used for garden purposes. If the grounds are large enough, the following arrangement is a good one: Place the flower-beds towards the front of the grounds, on each side of the front lawn. Back of the flower-beds, aixl next to the playgrounds, is a good location for shrubbery of various kinds. In the rear of the playground we may place the vegetable garden. Shrubs and vines may be planted along the back fence, with perhaps a border of wild flowers, ferns, etc. \\q SCHOOL GARDENING 175 shall then have an arrangement like this, viz., front law^n, paths, tlower-beds, playgrounds, vegetable gar- den, wild flowers, vines, etc. The Flozvcr Beds. — In the flower beds a variety of plants may be grown, but good sense will be necessary in their selection ; success will depend greatly on this. Such, hardy bulbs as tulips, crocuses, and narcissuses BOYS' SCHOOL GARDEN, YONKERS, N. Y, should be included for spring blooming. Peonies, iris, phlox and other hardy perennials should have a place, as they survive from year to year with comparatively little trouble. Of annuals, only the more robust and easily grown should be attempted, such as asters, pe- tunias, poppies, nasturtiums and zinnias. Regard should always be had to the water supply, as it is hard to grow beautiful flowers in hot weather without plenty of water. A flower bed witherinu- for want of mois- ture is a sorry sight. Weeds, which grow rapidly and 176 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE rob the plants of light, water and food, should be carefully kept under. Essentials of Gardening. — In preparing the ground for planting, great care and patience should be exer- cised in enriching it and thoroughly pulverizing the top soil. Care should also be taken not to plant the seeds too deep, and not to let the surface become too dry while the seeds are germinating. These are funda- mental requirements in all gardening. List of Plants That May Be Grown. Vegetables : Peas, potatoes, sweet corn, pop corn, tomatoes, beans, lettuce, cabbages, cucumbers, radishes, beets, onions, par- snips, turnips, etc. Flowers, Perennials : Phlox, hollyhocks, sweet William, iris, hemerocallis, columbine, monkshood, etc. Annuals : Asters, four-o-clocks, marigolds, petunias, nas- turtiums, poppies, mignonette, sweet alyssum, phlox Drummondii, coreopsis, zinnias, sweet peas, etc. Bedding Plants : Verbenas, geraniums, salvia, etc. The above list might be greatly extended, but these are the things of easiest culture and surest returns. Probably no one will attempt to grow all of these in the same summer, but variety will be sought from season to season. It is better to grow a few things well than to attempt more than can be given thorough attention. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletins. No. 218. — The School Garden. Extracts. No. 113. — Experimental Gardens and Grounds. CHAPTER XXIV HOME GAEDENING General Statement. — What has been said about the school garden will, much of it, apply equally well to the management of the home flower garden. In con- nection with country schools, vegetable gardening will not often be undertaken, as that requires more room and is more riaturally connected with the home life; but city school children often develop great interest in the growing of vegetables. Importance of the Garden. — Every family in the country should pay great attention to the garden, be- cause of the profit and satisfaction which it affords. No other part of the farm of equal area pays one- tenth as well, financially, as a well-cultivated garden. Yet the garden is very apt to be neglected, and left to itself by farmers generally, from the mistaken idea that other work is more important. It is important, moreover, that the children in the home be trained to take an active part in the garden ; for this furnishes one of the best means for stimulating a love for the beautiful and inspiring things of life. The treatment of the subject of gardening in this book must neces- 178 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE sarily be very general. Gardening includes something of agriculture, horticulture, and floriculture. It is not advisable that the garden should be very large or elaborate, so that its care will become burdensome. The flower garden should not be located directly in front of the house, but at one side. It is not well to place a flower bed in the middle of the lawn. Neither should the front lawn be crowded with trees and shrub- bery; there should be a good, clear stretch of grass, with the shrubbery around the skirts of it. The vege- table garden should be at the back of the house, or well to one side of the lawn and flower garden. It should be well fenced against poultry and other do- mestic animals. Preparation of the Soil. — The soil should be well fertilized with barnyard manure. Neglect of this is fatal to the best results. Weeds will grow in any soil, but good vegetables require good soil as well as good cultivation. In the preparation of the soil, and in planting, the following points should receive attention : (i) Plow carefully and well, so that all grass, weeds, manure, or litter will be thoroughly turned under. Do not plow when the ground is very wet. (2) Harrow and rake until the top soil is fine, removing sticks and stones. (3) The depth at which seeds should be planted depends, largely, upon the size of the seeds. Small "seeds should be covered slightly but evenly. The character of the soil is also to be considered. In light, HOME GARDENING 179 sandy soil, or in situations exposed to tlie wind, plant- ing should be deeper than under other conditions. (4) Many people err in building up the beds too high above the level of the paths, as the soil dries out rapidly when thus raised. If the beds can be worked from both sides, which is better, they may be made four or five feet wide. If they cannot be worked from both sides, three feet is about the limit of width. (5) The seeds should be planted in row^s far enough apart to admit of passing a hoe freely between them. Flower seeds should, as a rule, be planted in rows crosswise of the beds. Judgment should be ex- ercised as to the time of planting. Onions, peas and potatoes may be planted as early as the ground can be worked. Flower seeds, as a rule, should not be planted until the ground is warm and danger from frost is past. Sweet peas, however, may be planted early and very deep. All peas should be planted at least three, or even four, inches deep. They should be planted in rows running north and south and provided with proper support. (6) The transplanting of cabbages, tomatoes, etc., should be done on a cloudy day, or towards evening. Plants should be set rather deep, and shaded from the next day's sun by a shingle or other shield. (7) The surface of seed beds should not be al- lowed to become dry or hard during the time of germi- nation. After plants are above the surface, the ground should be frequently stirred to prevent its baking or drying out, and to keep down weeds, which are much i8o ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE more easily killed while they are young. Properly thin out the plants. Great harm is done by over-crowding. This is one of the most common mistakes. (8) All vines, as cucumbers, melons and squashes should be carefullv watched as thev show the first leaves, to protect them from the bugs. The best pro- tection is to sprinkle them, dry, with Hammond's ''Slug Shot," a preparation which no gardener can afford to be without, as it is especially useful for de- stroying the slugs on cabbages, currant and gooseberry bushes, and rose bushes. It is much safer as well as cheaper than paris green. For potatoes, however, nothing else is so effective as paris green in water. Free Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. No. 94. — The Vegetable Garden. No. 154. — The Home Fruit Garden : Preparation and Care. No. 156. — The Home Vineyard, with Special Reference to Northern Conditions. No. 198. — Strawberries. No. 213. — Raspberries. CHAPTER XXV BARN PLAN AND VENTILATION (Explanation of Barn Plan on Opposite Page.) A — Feed chutes and ventilating shafts, 3^x4 feet. B — Feed bins, zY^^l i^^t. C — Hay mows, 20x40 feet. D — Trap doors to stairs, 3x3 feet. F — Barn floor, 14x40 feet. G — Driveway, 10x55 feet. H — Horse stalls, 5x5 feet. I — Mangers, 3x5 feet. J — Al- leys, 5x15 feet. K — Alleys, 5x40 feet. L — Small feed spouts from bins. M — Mangers, 3,^/^x35 feet. O — Alleys, 2x15 feet. P — Cow spaces, 3^x4^ feet. R — Drop, 1x35 feet. S — S — Double doors. T — Win- dows hinged for ventilation. U — Alleys, 5x15 feet. V — Stairs to second floor. Suggested modifications of plan to suit convenience of builder : — Position and number of bins and feed chutes may be chansfed. Dimensions mav be cut down by making alleys narrower. Horses may face wall. Partition may be left out. Doors may be hung on hinges instead of rollers, etc., etc. Importance of Ventilation. — In our efforts to pro- vide warm and comfortable quarters for our stock, we have overlooked, in many cases, the most impor- tant matter of all, — proper ventilation. l82 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE ck — Y A s B A F if A A E € SE CONB FLOOTi PLAM . m K T r M -i » P p ^ P P P P P ■ " G c S R — 3 p p p P P p P P P J M i K Fl R5T TLOORPLAN PLAN FOR CONVENIENT TWO-STORY BARN. Dimensions 40x55 Feet. BARN VENTILATION 183 ,/^ ♦ «* *• J3 *•«' VENTILATION PLAN. As we enter some stables on a winter's morning, after the barn has been closed all night, we are almost stifled by the odors and impurities that fill the air. These must be very harmful to the animals that are forced to breathe them over and over again. In such WINDOW VENTILATION PLAN. Note: The above is a modification of the "King System" of ventilation, a system in successful operation on some of our best dairy farms. i84 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Stables no provision is made for admitting fresh air, or for drawing off that which has become charged with impurities and robbed of its hfe-giving oxygen. Without doubt the alarming prevalence of tubercu- losis among cattle is largely due to this neglect. Plan for a Ventilated Barn. — This neglected feature of barn construction is deemed worthy of special men- tion in this book. On the following pages will be found detail plans for a barn provided with an ade- quate system of ventilation. A — Cross section, through feed chutes and venti- lating shafts, of the barn shown on preceding page. B — Cross section of the same barn, through ventilat- ing shafts, placed at the ends, on either side of the double doors. This method will, doubtless, be pre- ferred by some farmers, as it will allow of keeping feed chutes filled with hay-, sufficient for several feed- ings. However, it is not a wise plan to leave hay thrown down in the stables, as it will absorb the im- pure air and bad odors of the barn. In both cases feed chutes must be kept closed, in order to insure proper draft to ventilating shafts. C — Vertical section through floor, feed chute and ventilating shaft, show- ing trap door closed to insure proper circulation of air. D — Same, showing trap door open for feeding. E — Cross section of same at the second floor. Size of chute, 3x3^ feet. Size of ventilating shaft, ^x33/2 feet. F — Section through wall and window, showing sheetiron wind -shield, thrown back, and BARN VENTILATION 185 window open for summer ventilation., G — Same, showing shield in place for winter ventilation. Note I. This shield is made of sheet or galvanized iron, bent, as shown in sections E and F above, and screwed to the window frame. When in place it de- flects the air r.pward towards the ceiling, preventing drafts. The opening between this shield and the win- dow frame for the admission of air should be about two inches in width. When the shield is raised slightly, it allows the window to drop forward on its hinges at the bottom and to open fully. Note II. If round iron pipes are used for venti- lating instead of flues, they should be not less than fourteen inches in diameter. Their tops may be cov- ered with revolving hoods, specially constructed to create drafts. If less than four ventilating shafts are used, they should be large enough to have the same capacity. The bottoms of all ventilating shafts should open not more than one foot above the floor, and these openings should always be kept free from hay, straw or anything else that will prevent a free circulation of air. * CORN AND STOCK JUDGING The following score cards for co7ii and stock judg- ing are the ones in use at the University of Wisconsin and are here reproduced, by permission, with the hope that they will prove of value to those who are inter- i86 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE ested in these more advanced phases of agriculture. They are easily understood and require no additional explanation. OFFICIAL CORN SCORE CARD Note: Ten ears of corn constitute a sample for scoring. EXPLANATION OF POINTS IN CORN JUDGINa 1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics : The ten ears of the sample should possess similar or like characteristics and should be true to the variety which they represent. 2. Shape of Ear: The shape of the ear should conform to variety type, tapering slightly from butt to tip, but approaching the cylindrical. 3. Color : a. Grain ; b. Cob : Color of grain should be true to variety and free from mixture. White corn should have white cobs, yellow corn red cobs. 4. Market Condition : The ears should be sound, firm, well matured and free from mold, rot or injuries. 5. Tips : The tips of the ears should not be too tapering and should be well filled with regular, uniform kernels. 6. Butts : The rows of .kernels should extend in regular order over the butt, leaving a deep impression when the shank is removed. Opened and swelled butts are objec- tionable. 7. Kernels: a. Uniformity of; b. Shape of: The kernels should be uniform in shape, size and color, and true to the variety type. The kernels should be so shaped that their edges touch from tip to crown. The tip portion of the kernel is the richest in protein and oil and hence of the highest feeding value. For this reason the tip portion should be full and plump. 8. Length of Ear : Northern section 8 to 9 inches, central section 8^ to g% inches, southern section 8J/2 to 9^ inches. Long ears are objectionable because they usually have poor butts and tips, broad, shallow kernels, and hence a low percentage of corn to cob. SCORE CARDS 187 9. Circumference of Ear: Northern section 6, to 6^ inches, central section 6^ to 6^ inches, southern section 6>2 to 7 inches. 10. A. Furrow Between Rows; b. Space Between Furrows at Cob: The furrow between the rows of kernels should be small. Space between kernels near the cob is very objec- tionable. 11. Proportion of Corn to Cob: The proportion of corn to cob is determined by weight; depth of kernels, size of cob and maturity all affect the proportion. OFFICIAL CORN SCORE CARD • 1 2 3 4 5 1 Trueness to Type or Breed characteris- tics 10 2 Shape of ear 10 3 Color: a. Grain 5 b. Cob 5 4 Marlvct condition... 10 5 Tips 5 6 Butts 5 7 Kernels: a. Unifor- mity of 10 b. S h a p e of 5 8 Length of ear 10 9 Circumference f ear 5 ' • • • • .... • • • • • • •• ■ • • • • • • • * - • • • • . • . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • ■ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • . • • • • • • • • • ••• • ■ • • 10 Space: a. Furrow between rows . . 5 b. Space be- t w e e n kernels at cob. 5 11 Proportion of Corn to Cob 10 ^- • • • Total 100 i88 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE BEEF CATTLE SCORE CARD SCALE OF POINTS GENERAL APPEARANCE— 26 POINTS Weight, estimated Its. according to age Form, straight top line and underline; deep, broad, low set Quality, firm handling, hair fine, pliable skin, fine bone; evenly fleshed Style, active, upstanding Temperament, quiet, docile HEAD AND NECK— 8 POINTS Muzzle, good size, mouth large, lips thin. nostrils large Eyes, large, clear, placid Face, short, quiet expression Forehead, broad, full Neck, thick, short; throat clean. Ears, medium size, fine texture.. FOREQUARTERS— 13 POINTS Shoulder Vein, full Shoulder, covered with flesh, compact on top. snug Breast, wide; brisket prominent Dewlap, skin not too loose and drooping... Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank flne, smooth BODY— 28 POINTS Chest, full, deep. wide; girth large. flank full Crops, full, even with shoulders Ribs, deep, arched, thickly fleshed Back, broad, straight, evenly fleshed, Loin, thick, broad Flank, full, even with underline fore- HINDQUARTERS— 25 POINTS Hips, smoothly covered, distance apart in other wide; parts tail head smooth; far apart. proportion with Rump, long, even, not patchy Pin Bones, not prominent Thighs, full, wide, deep Twist, deep, plump Purse, full, indicating fleshiness Legs, straight, short, shank fine, smooth. Total 6 8 8 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 2 1 6 3 5 6 5 3 5 3 5 4 2 o SCORE CARDS 189 DAIRY CATTLE SCORE CARD SCALE OF POINTS GENERAL APPEARANCE— 17 POINTS Weight, 800 to 1,000 lbs., estimated lbs., actual lbs Form, wedge shape as viewed from front, side and top Quality, hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose. medium thickness, secretion yellow; bone clean, fine Temperament, nervous, indicated by marked refinement in head, neck and forequarters; backbone prominent HEAD AND NECK— 13 POINTS Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils wide Eyes, large, bright, full Face, clear cut. long, quiet expression Forehead, broad, slightly dishing Ears, medium size; yellow inside; fine tex- ture Neck, fine, medium length; throat clean, light dewlap FOREQUARTERS— 7 POINTS Shoulder, light, sloping, very thin at top... Breast, pointed; brisket light Legs, straight, short; shank fine BODY— 20 POINTS Chest, deep and moderately wide Ribs, broad, deep, wide apart; large barrel. Back, prominent, open jointed Loin, broad with roomy coupling HINDQUARTERS— 43 POINTS Hips, far apart, prominent; level with the back Rump, long, wide; pelvis, roomy Tail, set high, long, tapering, heavy switch Thighs, thin, long, wide-apart; twist very open Escutcheon, spreading over thighs, extend- ing high and wide; large thigh ovals.... Udder, broad, symmetrical, extending well forward, well up between the thighs, free from fleshiness, well held up and quar- ters even in size Teats, good size, evenly placed Milk. Veins, large, tortuous, branching, milk wells large, numerous Legs, straight, far apart, shank fine Total 22 •7 o •A « 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 2 1 4 10 3 3 2 4 1 6 1 18 4 6 1 100 Points Deficient Score Cor- rected igo ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE DRAFT HORSE SCORE CARD SCALE OF POINTS Age GENERAL APPEARANCE— 29 POINTS Height, estimated hands ; actual Weight, over 1,600 lbs.; estimated lbs., score according to age Form, broad, massive, evenly proportioned, symmetrical, blocky Quality, refined; bone clean, large, strong, tendons clean, defined, prominent; skin and hair, fine; "feather," if present, silky Action, walk; fast, elastic, regular, straight; trot, free, springy, balanced, straight Temperament, energetic; disposition, good. HEAD AND NECK— 8 POINTS Head, proportionate size, clean cut, well carried; profile straight Muzzle, neat; nostrils large, flexible; lips thin, even, firm Eyes, bright, clear, full, same color Forehead, broad, full ' Ears, medium size, well carried alert Lower Jaw, angles wide, space clean Neck, muscled, arched; throat-latch fine; windpipe large FOREQUARTERS— 22 POINTS Shoulder, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back Arm, short, strong muscled, thrown back, well set Forearm, long, wide, clean, heavily mus- cled Knees, straight, wide, deep, strong, clean.. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean, defined, prominent Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean. Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense. waxy; soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic; heels wide, one-half length of toe, vertical to ground II Points Deflcleut Score Cor- rected 10 3 1 3 SCORE CARDS 191 DRAFT HORSE SCORE CARD— Continued •^£ rolnts Deficient SCALE OF POINTS 1— i score Cor- rected BODY— 9 POINTS Chest, deep, wide; breast bone low; girth, In r£rp 2 Ribs, deep, well sprung; closely ribbed to Back, broad, short, strong muscular 1 Loins, short, wide, thick muscled 1 HINDQUARTERS— 32 POINTS Hips, broad, smooth, level, well muscled.. Croup, wide, heavily muscled, not mark- 2 pfllv (Irnon ills' 9 Back, broad, short, strong, muscular Quarters, plump with muscle deep Stifles, large, strong, muscular, clean Gaskins (lower thighs), long, wide, clean. Q \ Hocks, large, strong, wide, deep, clean. ') TVpft €sPf ... 8 2 Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons clean. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean. 1 f) " Feet, large, even size, sound; horn dense, waxy, soles concave; bars strong, full; frogs large, elastic; heels wide, ono-half length of toe, vertical to ground 6 Total 100 1 192 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE SWINE SCORE CARD SCALE OF POINTS GENERAL APPEARANCE— 25 POINTS Weight estimated actual lbs., according to age Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely on legs Quality, bone clean; hair silky; skin fine... Disposition, quiet HEAD AND NECK— 10 POINTS Snout, medium length, not coarse Eyes, large, mild, full, bright, wide apart.. Forehead, broad Face, short, cheeks full Ears, medium size, fine, soft Jowl, strong, neat, broad Neck, thick, medium length FOREQUARTERS— 13 POINTS Shoulder, broad, deep, full, compact on top Breast, wide, prominent . . . ^ Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium size BODY— 32 POINTS Chest, deep, broad; girth large Sides, deep, lengthy, closely ribbed Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed Loin, thick, wide Belly, straight Flank, even with underline HINDQUARTERS- 20 POINTS H ips, wide apart, smooth Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight. Hams, heavily fleshed, deep, wide Legs, straight, short, strong; feet medium si ze Total 03 ©CO 6 5 1 1 1 1 1 o 3 2 3 2 5^ 103 Points Deficient Score Cor- rected SCORE CARDS 193 MUTTON SHEEP SCORE CARD SCALE OF POINTS Age Teeth GENERAL APPEARANCE— 24 POINTS Weight estimated actual lbs., according to age Form, low, long, symmetrical, compact, and evenly covered with firm flesh Quality, clean bone; silky hair Temperament HEAD AND NECK— 9 POINTS Muzzle, fair size; nostrils large; lips thin; mouth large Eyes, full, bright, Face, short, bold expression, Forehead, broad Ears, fine, erect Neck, thick, short; throat clean FOREQUARTERS— 13 POINTS Shoulder Vein, full Shoulders, covered, compact Chest, deep, wide, large girth Brisket, full, prominent, breast wide Legs, straight, short, wide apart, strong; forearm full, shank smooth BODY— 13 POINTS Back, straight, wide Loin, broad, thick Ribs, deep, arched Flank, low, thick. making underline straight HINDQUARTERS— 17 POINTS Hips, smooth, far apart Rump, long, level, wide 'Thighs, full, well fleshed Twist, plump, deep Legs, straight, short, strong; shank smooth CONSTITUTION— 10 POINTS Girth, large Skin, pink color Fleece, dense and even over body, yolk aliundant WOOL— 14 POINTS Quantity, long-, dense, even Quality, fine, soft. pure, even Condition, bright, strong, clean Total 4J 1) 55/2 10 (> 2 2 3 3 •> 4 4 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 4 100 Points Deficient Score Cor- rect d \S INDEX Accounts, farm, 154-158. Acid, carbonic, 24, 25. phosphoric, 27, 39. sulphuric, 28. Acids, as plant foods, 18. uses of, 23, 24. Ammonia, 24. Annuals, 87. Alfalfa field, illustration, 52. Babcock tester, 122, 124. illustration, 122. Bacteria, use of, 50. in milk. 120-122. Barn, plan. 181-185. ventilation. 181-185, Beets, advantages of, 138. compared with other plants, 137- Biennials, 87. Bordeaux Mixture, 80, 83. Butter, 118. Carbohydrates, 101-105. Carbonic acid. 24, 25. Cheese, 118. Clover, restores nitrogen to soil. 52. 112, 113. and alfalfa roots, illustra- tion. 51. Corn, 113. Corn field, illustration. 59. Corn judging. 186, 187. Cow, Jersey, illustration, 119. Holstein - Friesian. illustra- tion. TJO. Red-Polled, illustration, 121. Cow-barn, model, illustration, Cows, corn .and clover, 114, 115. in a clover field, illustration, 113- Cotyledons, 10. Cream separator, illustration, 122. Crop rotation, 70-72. plan of, 70. results of, 70. Cropping, effect of unwise, 69. Cultivation, retards evapora- tion. 59. Crops, special, 135. Dairy, cleanliness in, 119, 120. products of, 118. Dicotyledons, 10. Ditches, open. 66. Drainage. 65, 66. tiling, 66. open ditches, 66. Embryo, of plant, 10. illustration, 10. Farm accounts, 154-158. buildings, 146-148. arrangement. 146-148. construction, 149. illustration, 147. silo, 149, 150. Farming, diversified. 112. kind depends on local condi- tions, 115. Fat. feeding value, 104. h^ats, 100. Feeding", economy in, 104. Fertility, how retained, 45. 196 ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Fertilizer, effect of, illustra- tion, 40. in stock food, 93. the best, 38. Fertilizers, commercial, 39-42. plants as, 39. Fertilizing substances, table showing amount of in farm crops, 29. table showing amount of in average soils, 35. table showing amount of in dairy products, 46. table showing amount of in farm animals, 46. table showing amount of in fertilizers, 42. Foods, classification of, 100. different uses of, 102, 103. importance of right selection, 100. special kinds needed, 103. special proportions. 103. experimental study of, 105, 106. Flower beds, 175. Forest, destruction of, 162. 163. economic use of, 163, 164. illustration, 147. importance of. 161. influence of, 161. 162. nature of, 161. edge of, illustration, 162. Forests prevent drought. 166. Formaldehyde, 80. 83. Gardening, essentials of, 176. home, 177-180. home and school. 168-172. school, 173-176. Germination, 11. Glacial drift and rock decay, 31, 32; illustration, ;^2. Graduate, how made, 26. Handy values, 15. Hens, illustration, 131. Harvest time, illustration, 71. Herd, selection of, 124. How plants store food. 10. use water, 19. Humus, ^^. Insect growth, stages of, illus- tration, yy. Insects and plant diseases, 76. experimental study of, 81. kinds, 78. how destroyed, /8. life of, //. Iron-rust, 23. Legumes, 49, 50, 51. Lime, 2;^. Loam, 33. •Magnesia, 25. Marshy land before drainage, illustration, 64. after drainage, illustration, 65. Milk, bacteria in, 120, I2T. bad odors in, 120. care of, 120, 121, 122. experimental study of, 125- 127. separator, 119. Milking, necessary precautions in, 122, 123. Moisture, regulation of, 20. Nitrogen, in soil. 38. in the air, 50. nature of, 50. preparation of, 28. restoration of. to soil. 52. Oat smut, how destroyed, 80. Onion growing, illustration, . 133- Onions, advantages of raising, 140. 141. best varieties, 143. cultivation, 142. how to plant, 142. kind of soil needed. 141, 142. when ready for harvest, 143. INDEX 197 Percheron, a prize, illustration, lOI. Perennials, 87. Pigs, illustration, 93. Phosphoric acid. 27, 39. Plant diseases, 79. foods, experimental study of, 27. foods, kinds of, 18. foods, sources of, 25. starvation, 26. Plants. adapted to school grounds, 171. and water, 18. classification of, 11. experimental study of water in, 20. germination, 11. where to secure, 171, 172. effect of too much food on, 26. Potash, 25, 27, 40. preparation of, 27. source of, 40. Poisons, caution in using, 79. 80. Potato rot. prevention of, 140. Potatoes, best soil for, 139. yield of, 139, 140. Poultry, care of, 130, 132. foods for, 130-132. laying qualities of, 132. house, 131. raising, profit in, 129. Prize package, illustration, 115. Protein, 100, loi. foods and carbohydrates. 102. Ration, balanced, 102, Root crops, plowing for. 57. systems, experimental study of, -jz-, illustration, 72. Sand, 24. Scales, use of, 104. School garden, boys', illustra- tion, 169. girls', illustration, 174. School gardening, development of, 173- School ground, illustration. 169. School grounds, arrangement of. 174, 175. Seeds, experimental study of, 13, 14. Sheep, illustration, 139. Silage, 149, 150. Soda, 23. Soil, effect of stirring, 56. effect of commercial fertil- izers on, 41. how water rises in, 58. lack of plant food in, 38. restoration of nitrogen to, 49. worn-out, 2(i. Soil tubes, preparation of, 37. Soils, experimental study of, 26. formation, agencies of, 2)Z- how made, 31. kinds of, :i)Z- treatment of, 2)2)- Spores, destruction of, 80. Stock, advantages of good. 92. effect of lack of care on. 91. feeding. 90. general attention to. 91. kind of food needed varies, 99. reasons for feeding, 90, 98. shelter of, 91. Stock judging, 188-193. beef cattle, 188. dairy cattle, 189. draft horse, ico. mutton sheep, 193. swine, 192. Sugar beets. 137-138. illustration, 139. Tiling, 66. Tillage. 55-60. effect of on roots, 55. effect of on soil, 56. reasons for, 60. igS ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE Tobacco, a heavy feeder. 135. 136. cultivation, 137. effect of on soil, 69 field, illustration. 57. kind of soil required. 137. Tomato plant, illustration. 57. Trees, preparation of for plant- ing. 170. 171. selection of for planting. 170. M-here procured for planting, 171. 17-2. Tubercles, 45. 50. 5i- illustration, 51. Water, experimental study of, in plants. 20. proportions of in farm crops. 21. proportions of in soil. 58. table showing proportions of in farm crops, 21. ■ underground. 6;^. Weeds, classification. 87. nature of. 86. work of, 86. Weight per bu. of farm prod- uce, 15. What makes plants grow, 9. Why plants store up food. tt.\ Wood lot. care of, 164. management of, 165, 166. profit in, 166. Worn-out soil. 26. JUL 3 1907 ^ ^~i~->.i.fe^a*^l 9 rt: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 00DE7733DES 4U(J|liiULlU»B