^'- ""^^ <f » 
 
 
 
 '^0 
 
 >-l°^ 
 
 Ci. * 
 
 
 *^.* ^.^^ \ ^^ 
 
 ^ o^-^ssMWfc- '^ « ^im^^. -^^^ o 
 
 •^o^ 
 
 ^♦1°^ 
 
 
!> »Jt,. • 
 
 .'^«<*^ J^ c 
 
 m 
 
 
 O^ *o,c 
 
 '.•• **% l^!'" /% '-WWs **''- 
 
 
 
 «*lO^ « 
 
 • « - A 
 
 <^^ 6»"»»! 
 
 3vl 
 
 o. '►.To' -o"^ "^^ **.,i' 
 
 '*'.. * 
 
 
 
 ,» i.^-n^. V 
 
mm»mm//;m!!!imiim'^m'//^immms^^. 
 
 Questions and Answers 
 
 COVERING 
 
 THE HISTORY OP 
 
 GERMANY 
 i=B AUSTRIA 
 
 AND THE CAUSES OF THE 
 WORLD WAR 
 
 BY 
 
 PROF. JAMES B. TAYLOR, A. M. 
 
 Head of History Department in Huntington School 
 Northeastern College 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY TO 
 
 THE WORLD^S HISTORY AT A GLANCE 
 
 THE BALL PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. 
 
Copyright, 1917, by The Ball Publishing Company 
 
 )GI.A473287 g^p ., ,9,7 
 
r ^ 
 
 
 Germany and Austria 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The reason for the inclusion in one volume of the 
 history of Germany and Austria-Hungary will be ajJ- 
 parent when it is remembered that until the latter half 
 of the nineteenth century the history of these Teutonic 
 peoples was intimately associated throughout the long 
 existence of the Holy Roman Empire and the confedera- 
 tions which followed the Napoleonic era. 
 
 The German Empire of today is altogether different 
 from any of the earlier confederations and dates from the 
 constitution of April 16, 1871, under which all the states 
 of Germany formed " an eternal union for the protection 
 of the realm and the care and welfare of the German 
 people." 
 
 The states of southern Germany having, during the 
 Franco- Prussian War, united with the then existing North 
 German Confederation, its president, the King of Prussia, 
 was crowned " German Emperor " at the palace of Ver- 
 sailles in France, after the triumphant entry of the Ger- 
 ! man armies into Paris. 
 
 The German Empire is composed of twenty-five States, 
 comprising four Kingdoms, six Grand Duchies, five 
 Duchies, seven Principalities and three Free Cities, which 
 are federated under the Kaiser, who has supreme direction 
 of the imperial military and political affairs, while the 
 internal government of each state is administered by its 
 i hereditary ruler (in the free cities by duly elected magis- 
 ; trates). Alsace-Lorraine, taken from France in 1871, is not 
 [Strictly a member of the union, being Reichsland or im- 
 perial territory — somewhat analogous to a territory of 
 the United States. - - - 
 
 ' In the nature of its confederation the German Empire 
 I differs radically from American conceptions of a federal 
 government. There is no semblance of equality in the 
 rights of its component states. Dr. A. Lawrence Lowell 
 very aptly compares the confederation to " a compact 
 .between a lion, half a dozen foxes and a score of mice." 
 'The larger states are accorded all sorts of special privi- 
 
 '^•^•'^ 
 
4 ^HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 leges and so much of the lion's share falls to Prussia that 
 it may fairly be said that she rules the empire with the 
 advice and assistance of the other states. 
 
 It will be easier to understand the situation when it is 
 remembered that the present empire was formed after 
 the achievement of Prussian supremacy, both in arms 
 and in statecraft, and that the constitution was drawn 
 up by Bismarck, the most astute statesman of modern 
 Europe, who not only knew exactly what he wanted, but 
 just how much concession he needed to make in order to 
 get what he wanted. As premier of the King of Prussia 
 he framed the constitution to maintain Prussian suprem- 
 acy, creating a powerful military state with its administra- 
 tion firmly in the hands of the King of Prussia and his 
 chancellor. Therefore, it will be found that, while the 
 articles on most subjects are slightly defined, those relat- 
 ing to the army, the navy and the revenue are as minutely 
 elaborated as the by-laws of a modern business corpora- 
 tion. While the whole system is outwardly based on 
 democratic lines, the legislative powers being vested in 
 two chambers, one of wluch is a popular assembly elected 
 by universal manhood suffrage, analysis will prove that 
 the people have little power to control legislation, which is 
 firmly secured to the emperor and his federal council. 
 
 Before explaining the branches of the government in 
 detail it is well to further emphasize the extent to which 
 Prussia dominates the empire. Comprising in area nearly 
 two-thirds of the land area, and in population almost the 
 same proportion, with the crown of the empire made 
 hereditary to its king and with most of the actually vital 
 legislation vested in the Bundesrath or federal council, 
 it is provided that while any changes in the constitution 
 require only a majority vote in the Reichstag (popular 
 assembly) fourteen negative votes (out of a total of fifty- 
 eight) in the Bundesrath can defeat such an amendment — 
 and Prussia has in her own right seventeen votes and 
 controls three more. And to make assurance doubly sure 
 it is expressly provided that the vote of Prussia in the 
 Bundesrath, if cast in favor of maintaining existing insti- 
 tutions, will act as a veto upon any new legislation affect- 
 ing the army, the navy, customs, duties and excises. 
 There is no chance of a division in the Prussian vote, since 
 the vote of each state in the Bundesrath is cast as a unit 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 5 
 
 and the whole vote may be cast by a single member, just 
 as a duly authorized agent can by proxy vote the entire 
 stock owned by his principal in a business corporation. 
 The legislative powers of the federal government are 
 more extensive than in America, controlling not only sub- 
 jects obviously national, but many domestic matters such 
 as transportation systems, travel, changes of residence, 
 regulation of trades, banking and medical and veterinary 
 inspection. They include also regulation of the press and 
 the whole field of jurisdiction and procedure, whether civil 
 or criminal. The administrative power of the central govern- 
 ment by contrast is very limited, the laws being carried 
 out by officers of the individual states. Except for foreign 
 affairs, the army, the navy, postal and telegraph services, 
 the executive powers of the German Empire go no further 
 than general regulation and supervision. While the federal 
 government imposes tariffs and appoints inspectors of 
 customs, the duties are collected by state officers. 
 
 The Bundesrath decides controversies about the inter- 
 pretation of a law but, should a state definitely refuse to 
 administer a law, the only way its execution could be 
 compelled by the federal government would be by force 
 of arms ordered by the Bundesrath and executed by the 
 emperor. This, indeed, is a reductio ad ahsurdum^ since 
 Prussia is too overwhelmingly predominant to be thus 
 coerced, while all of the other states are too weak to dare 
 to invite such an appeal to force. 
 
 The legislative powers of the German Empire are vested 
 under the constitution in the Reichstag, the popular 
 assembly, and the Bundesrath, or federal council. 
 
 The Reichstag is composed of 397 members appointed 
 as follows : Prussia, 236 (about three-fifths of the house) ; 
 Bavaria, 48; Saxony, 23 ; Wiirttemberg, 17; Alsace-Lorraine, 
 15; Baden, 14; Hesse, 9; Mecklenburg- Schwerin, 6; Saxony 
 (Grand Duchy), Oldenburg, Brunswick and Hamburg, 3 
 each; Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Anhalt 
 2 each, and the other states 1 each. 
 
 Election is by ballot, or universal manhood suffrage, 
 an absolute majority being necessary for election. In 
 case of no choice, the second ballot is restricted to the 
 two candidates who received the largest number of votes. 
 The term of office is five years and, since 1906, members 
 have been paid a salary of 3000 marks (about $750) per 
 
6 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 session, with a deduction of 20 marks per day for absences. 
 They have free passes over the railways during sessions. 
 
 The state of parties in the Reichstag May 1, 1916, was: 
 Centre Party, 91; Social Democrats, 89; National Liberals, 
 45; Conservatives, 44; Radicals, 45; the German Party, 
 27; Poles, 18; Social Democratic Labour Union, 18*; 
 Independent, 20. 
 
 Voters must be twenty-five years old and not in active 
 service in army or disqualified by pauperism, etc. 
 
 Electoral districts were originally based on a proportion 
 of one member to 100,000 population but, not having been 
 revised for years, great irregularities exist. For example, 
 Berlin has only six members for a population of two and 
 one-half million, but as Berlin elects radicals the govern- 
 ment does not want any reapportionment. 
 
 The powers of the Reichstag appear very large on 
 paper. All laws require its consent, as do the budget, 
 loans and treaties involving legislative matters. It has 
 the right to initiate legislation, to ask for information, 
 and to express its opinion on governmental affairs. 
 
 In reality, however, its powers are nowhere near as 
 great as they seem. Although the constitution provides 
 for an annual budget, the principal revenue laws are 
 permanent and cannot be changed without the consent 
 of the Bundesrath. So, also, army appropriations are 
 practically determined by the law governing the number 
 of troops, voted for a number of years at a time. 
 
 The chief function of the Reichstag is the consideration 
 of bills prepared by the chancellor and Bundesrath which 
 it criticizes and amends pretty freely, but its real power 
 is negative rather than positive, and it can be dissolved 
 at any time by the emperor with the approval of the 
 Bundesrath. 
 
 The Bundesrath, or federal council of the empire, is 
 composed of delegates appointed by the reigning princes 
 of the states and the senates of the free cities. There are 
 61 members, but as the three members from the Reichs- 
 land of Alsace-Lorraine are not permitted to vote, its 
 actual membership is 58. Of these, Prussia has 17 and 
 also controls the two votes of Brunswick and the one vote 
 of Waldeck; Bavaria has 6; Saxony and Wiirttemberg 4 
 
 * Broke away from Social Democratic Party, March 24, 1916. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 7 
 
 each; Baden and Hesse 3 each; Mecklenburg- Schwerin 
 2, and the remaining thirteen states and three free 
 cities 1 each. 
 
 The Bundesrath, the powers of which cover in reaHty 
 nearly the whole field of government, is unlike any other 
 body in the world. A combination of legislature, executive 
 council, court of appeal and permanent convention of 
 diplomatists, it is part of a constitutional system with 
 power to make laws, and yet is not a deliberative assembly, 
 since the delegates have to vote as instructed by their 
 home governments. Essentially it represents the rulers 
 of the states and not the people. And the whole vote of 
 each state may be cast by a single member present. In 
 legislation, it has practically the first word and the last 
 word. As a part of the executive, it regulates the adminis- 
 tration, has executive authority over finance, shares the 
 appointing power, and its consent is necessary to war, 
 except where an attack has been made on the territory of 
 the empire. In judicial matters it decides disputes be- 
 tween federal and state governments and appealed cases 
 from state courts. Its members are given the privileges 
 of foreign ambassadors, are appointed and removed at 
 will by the states they represent and paid or not paid as 
 these states choose. 
 
 The extent to which Prussia dominates the affairs of 
 the empire through its powers in the Bundesrath has 
 already been indicated. It is in the same way that the 
 powers of the emperor and his chancellor, while appar- 
 ently carefully regulated by the constitution, are actually 
 most potent. The reigning German Emperor (Deutscher 
 Kaiser) is Wilhelm II, King of Prussia, grandson of 
 Wilhelm I (the Great), the imperial title being, under the 
 constitution, hereditary in the ruling house of Prussia, 
 the Hohenzollern family. 
 
 The Kaiser Wilhelm II was born January 27, 1859, the 
 son of the Crown Prince of Prussia (afterwards Emperor 
 and King Friedrich III) and Victoria, Princess Royal of 
 England. He succeeded to the thrones of Prussia and 
 the empire on the death of his father, June 15, 1888. 
 Wilhelm II married February 27, 1881, Princess Victoria 
 of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg (born 
 1858) and has six sons and one daughter, the eldest son 
 
8 HISTORY OP GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 being Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born May 6, 1882; 
 married, 1905, to Princess Cecilieof Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
 with issue of four sons and one daughter. 
 
 Being on his mother's side the grandson of Queen 
 Victoria, Emperor Wilhelm II is first cousin to King 
 George V of England, the Queens of Spain, Norway, 
 Roumania, and the Tsarina of Russia. His sister is Queen 
 of Greece. 
 
 According to the constitution, " The Emperor repre- 
 sents the Empire internationally." He can declare de- 
 fensive war and make peace and enter into treaties with 
 other nations. But for treaties relating to matters regu- 
 lated by imperial legislation or war not merely defensive 
 the emperor must obtain the consent of the Bundesrath. 
 As commander-in-chief of the army and navy, the Kaiser 
 has personal direction of military matters. He has charge 
 of foreign affairs, summons and adjourns the legislative 
 chambers and, with the consent of the Bundesrath, can 
 dissolve the Reichstag. He appoints the chancellor and 
 other officers but, as the executive power of the federal 
 government is very limited and that limited power is 
 shared with the Bundesrath, his power as emperor is 
 comparatively small, but his functions as king of Prussia 
 immensely increase his potentiality as ruler of the empire. 
 
 While as emperor he is given no initiative in legislation, 
 as king of Prussia he has a complete initiative through the 
 Prussian delegates to the Bundesrath whom he personally 
 appoints and may recall. The fact that as emperor he 
 has no veto rights over legislation becomes unimportant 
 when it is remembered that his appointees in the Bundes- 
 rath have absolute veto rights over all amendments to the 
 constitution or changes in laws affecting the army, navy 
 or taxes. As emperor, he has supreme command of the 
 army and appoints the highest officers; as king of Prussia, 
 he appoints the lower officers and manages the troops over 
 most of the empire; as emperor, he instructs the chancel- 
 lor to prepare a bill; as king, he has delegates introduce 
 it into the Bundesrath and can absolutely control one- 
 third of the votes in that body in its favor. After this, the 
 bill is laid before the Reichstag in the name of the emperor, 
 and as king he can direct what amendments the Bundes- 
 rath may accept. After the bill is passed he promulgates 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 9 
 
 it as emperor and in most cases administers it in Prussia 
 as king; and finally as emperor he supervises his own 
 administration as king. 
 
 There is no imperial cabinet. The chancellor, who has 
 subordinate assistants, but no colleagues, is the only 
 federal minister. As in the case of the emperor, the 
 great power of his position is due to the combination of 
 his imperial and his Prussian prerogatives. As imperial 
 chancellor, he is at the head of the national administra- 
 tion and presides over the Bundesrath as a Prussian dele- 
 gate to that body. He casts as he chooses the twenty 
 votes which Prussia controls in that body. In the Reichs- 
 tag he attends and speaks nominally as a member of the 
 Bundesrath, but his actual importance there is as the 
 head of the federal government. While it must be ap- 
 parent that in actual democracy the system of government 
 in Germany is very far from American or even English 
 ideals as to self-government, it must not be overlooked 
 that the actual welfare of the people, and especially the 
 working people, has been very assiduously regarded by 
 the government and in the opinion of many the prosperity 
 of the rank and file of the citizens is superior to that of 
 almost any country in Europe, if not in the world. 
 
 Education is compulsory and general throughout the 
 German Empire, and its schools and colleges are unequalled 
 in the world. In the empire in 1911 there were 61,557 
 elementary public schools with a total of 187,485 teachers 
 and 10,309,949 enrolled pupils. The system of secondary 
 education is homogeneous, with excellent training for 
 business life and higher education, and children of the 
 working class may continue their education at schools 
 open in the evening. 
 
 There are twenty- two universities in the German 
 Empire, which, for the winter half-year 1914-15, carried 
 an enrollment of 3450 professors and 53,074 undergradu- 
 ates in theology, medicine, philosophy, jurisprudence, 
 etc. And there are, besides these, numerous lyceums, 
 agricultural, commercial and other professional or trade 
 schools and colleges, giving ample opportunities for 
 technical education. In 1913 the proportion of illiteracy 
 among recruits to the army was only .04 per cent. 
 
 Of 48,480 men included in the above total as entered 
 at German universities it is estimated (1916) that 83 
 per cent are in the field in war service. 
 
iO HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 1 
 
 Compulsory insurance laws protect workmen against 
 sickness, .accidents and old age and infirmity. Pauperism 
 is alleviated by poor relief administered by local unions. 
 
 In national defense the German Empire since its 
 organization in 1871 has maintained a system of pre- 
 paredness which has been the most marvellously minute 
 of any the world has ever seen. During the greater part 
 of this period the aim has been to keep everything requisite 
 to war on a basis of readiness for " war tomorrow." In 
 the army, military service is compulsory and universal; 
 with the usual exemptions. Liability begins at the age 
 of seventeen and ends at forty-five, but actual service 
 commences at twenty, with a seven-year term in the 
 First Line, or active army, of which two years are in the 
 ranks and five years in the reserves (in cavalry and horse 
 artillery these periods are three and four years, respec- 
 tively). The next service is five years (cavalry and horse 
 artillery three years) in the first " ban " of the Landwehr, 
 or Second Line army. These 'have two short service 
 musters of a fortnight or less during this period. After 
 this five years the soldier passes to the second " ban " of 
 the Landwehr, where he remains until he has completed 
 his thirty-ninth year with no training requirements, but 
 subject to call for duty if needed. At thirty-nine all 
 soldiers pass into the Landsturm, in which they remain for 
 six years. This is a purely home defensive force and also 
 registers all those between seventeen and thirty-nine who 
 for one reason or another have had no military training. 
 The estimates in the last edition of the handbook of 
 the German army, published in 1912, of the available 
 trained and untrained men of the German army, excluding 
 officers and officials, were as follows: 
 Trained rank and file, including Reserve and 
 
 Landwehr 3,302,000 
 
 Trained Landsturm 623,000 
 
 One year volunteers 85,000 
 
 Non-commissioned officers of Peace Establish- 
 ment 92,000 
 
 Total trained 4,102,000 
 
 Partially trained Ersatz Reserve . . . 113,000 
 Untrained Ersatz Reserve and 
 
 Landsturm 5,683,000 5,796,000 
 
 Grand total 9,898,000 
 
 J 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 11 
 
 The Peace Establishment of the German army in 1914 
 at the outbreak of the war was given as 769,938 non- 
 commissioned officers and men, with 36,088 officers. 
 
 The German navy was reorganized after the War of 
 1870-71 and a grand plan of naval armament was adopted, 
 the administration of which, in 1889, was again entirely 
 reorganized. 
 
 " The Statesman's Year Book for 1916 " gives the 
 following as a statement of the strength of the German 
 fleet so far as it can be estimated, allowing for admitted 
 losses, foreign ships bought, and accelerated construction. 
 The 1916 figures are, of course, based on what the 
 strength would be were no further losses incurred: 
 
 Effective at the end of 
 Class 1914 1915 1916 
 
 Dreadnaughts 21 22 28 
 
 Pre-dreadnaught battleships. . 22 20 20 
 Old and coast service battle- 
 ships 2 + 7 
 
 Armored cruisers 6 4 3 
 
 Protected cruisers 34 32 34 
 
 Destroyers 150 164 ? 
 
 Torpedo boats (old) 47 47 47 
 
 Submarines 20 ? ? 
 
 German naval plans were disorganized at the outbreak 
 of the war by the fact that the British fleet was ready, 
 and as a result of the British blockade the greater part 
 of the fleet has spent the time in inactivity, while the few 
 war vessels actually afloat in the oceans were pursued and 
 destroyed. It appears (January, 1917) that two or 
 three converted war vessels are actively engaged in raid- 
 ing and have inflicted considerable losses upon the mer- 
 chant vessels of the allied nations. 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 The Austro-Hungarian monarchy consists of a confeder- 
 ation of two independent states: the Empire of Austria 
 and the Kingdom of Hungary. The existing union be- 
 tween these states is defined by the so-called Compromise 
 of 1867. Under this agreement each state is perfectly 
 independent of the other, possessing each its separate 
 constitution, legislative and executive departments, for 
 
12 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 most branches of state affairs. The identity of the sover- 
 eign and community in those departments of national 
 affairs which relate to the outside world unite the " dual " 
 monarchy into an actual political unit. 
 
 Besides Austria and Hungary, the dual monarchy in- 
 cludes as a dependency the provinces of Bosnia-Herze- 
 govina, but these territories have no representation in the 
 dual government. 
 
 All foreign affairs are administered through a common 
 ministry and all diplomatic representation abroad is com- 
 mon to the two states. In national defense the greater 
 part of the armed forces and the entire navy are common 
 and, although the Austrian " Landwehr " and the Hun- 
 garian " Honvedseg " and the '' Levies in Mass " of each 
 country are special institutions separately administered 
 by each state, they stand in organic connection with the 
 Common Army when needed for national service. In 
 matters of finance relating to common affairs the costs and 
 expenses are equally shared, each state providing sepa- 
 rately for the assessment, collection and transmission of 
 its contribution, which is administered and disbursed 
 through a bureau in common. The control of the official 
 actions of the common ministers and the voting of the 
 common budget is exercised by two delegations, each con- 
 sisting of sixty members, of whom twenty are chosen from 
 the upper house of Austria (Herrenhaus) and of Hungary 
 (Forendihaz) and forty from the lower houses, the Ab- 
 geordnetenhaus of Austria and the K6pviselohaz of Hun- 
 gary. These delegates are elected for one year, meeting 
 alternately at Vienna and Buda Pesth, each chamber of 
 delegates electing its own president and vice-president. 
 Each body debates and votes separately, but to become 
 operative every law must be separately approved by both, 
 all enactments being, therefore, mutually transmitted. In 
 case of a deadlock, a joint session is held for voting, but 
 not for debating. In every other respect legislation on 
 common affairs belongs to the individual parliaments of 
 Austria and Hungary. 
 
 The two states form one commercial and customs terri- 
 tory to the outside world but free trade between them 
 depends upon a commercial treaty renewable every ten 
 years. They possess the same system of coinage, the same 
 weights and measures and a joint bank of issue. There 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 13 
 
 is no dual citizenship in the dual monarchy. Every citizen 
 is either an Austrian or a Hungarian subject. 
 
 The sovereign is one in person, but two in office. His 
 title is Emperor of Austria (King of Bohemia, Dalmatia, 
 Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria,. and Illyria, King 
 of Jerusalem, etc.) and Apostolic King of Hungary. The 
 monarch begins his reign with two separate coronations, 
 one at Vienna where he takes oath to the Austrian con- 
 stitution before the " Reichsrath " ; and the other at 
 Buda Pesth, where he swears to uphold the Hungarian 
 constitution before the '' Orszaggyiiles," these being the 
 respective parliaments of the two monarchies. 
 
 The two crowns of Austria and Hungary are hereditary 
 in the Hapsburg-Lorraine dynasty. The monarch must 
 be a Roman Catholic. The present occupant of the dual 
 throne is His Imperial and Apostolic Majesty, Karl I 
 (IV of Hungary) who was born August 17, 1887, a grand- 
 son of the Archduke Karl Ludwig, who was a brother of the 
 late Emp ror-King Franz Josef I. He succeeded to 
 the thrones upon the death of his grand-uncle, November 
 21, 1916. Married October 21, 1911, to Zita, Princess 
 of Bourbon and Parma. The Emperor has two sons and 
 a daughter, the heir apparent being Crown Prince Franz 
 Joseph Otto, born November 20, 1912. 
 
 As the new Emperor Karl has so recently succeeded 
 mention should also be made of the late Emperor Franz 
 Josef I, who was born August 18. 1830, being the son of the 
 Archduke Franz Karl and Sophia, Princess of Bavaria. 
 He was a grandson of the Emperor Franz II, the father of 
 Napoleon's Empress Marie Louise. Franz Josef was pro- 
 claimed Emperor of Austria December 2, 1848, after the 
 abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I (V of Hungary), his 
 father having renounced the crown in his favor. Although 
 claiming sovereignty over Hungary through his accession 
 to the Austrian throne it was not until June 8, 1867, that 
 he was actually crowned King of Hungary, taking, oath 
 to the Hungarian constitution at the same time. 
 
 Emperor Franz Josef married April 24, 1854, Elisabeth, 
 daughter of Duke Maximilian of Bavaria, bom December 
 24, 1837, assassinated at Geneva September 10, 1898. His 
 family life had been desolated by tragedy and misfortune. 
 His son and heir, Rudolph, died years ago under mysteri- 
 ously tragic conditions, and his nephew, Franz Ferdinand, 
 
14 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 the heir presumptive, was murdered at Saravejo June 28, 
 1914, the tragedy having been the initial cause of the great 
 European war. At the time of his death the Emperor 
 Franz Josef was both in years and in length of reign the 
 oldest sovereign of Europe. 
 
 The emperor-king is supported in the executive ad- 
 ministration by a common ministry, consisting of a 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, of War, and of Finance. These 
 ministers are responsible for the discharge of these official 
 functions to the delegations. 
 
 • In national defense the peculiarities of the dual mon- 
 archy are shown in the organization of its military forces. 
 The first line of the army is under the common govern- 
 ment and is known as the " Common Army," including 
 troops raised not only in the two component states but 
 also in the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. As has 
 already been explained, the Austrian Landwehr and Land- 
 sturm are entirely separate from the Hungarian similar 
 bodies (Honv6d and Nepfolkeles), the latter forming the 
 Hungarian National Army but being eligible for service 
 with the Common Army at need. Military service is uni- 
 versal and compulsory throughout the empire, liability 
 extending from the nineteenth to the forty-second year, 
 actual service usually beginning in the twenty-first year. 
 In the Common Army and both Landwehrs continuous 
 service is for two years (three years for cavalry and horse 
 artillery) followed by ten years in the Reserve>/seven years 
 for cavalry and horse artillery and then two^ears in the 
 Reserve of the Landwehr). In Bosnia and Herzegovina 
 there is no Landsturm, but men remain in the Reserve 
 until they reach the age limit. After completion of his 
 twelfth year of service the soldier passes to the Landsturm, 
 in which he remains till he has reached his forty-second 
 birthday. The empire is divided into sixteen army corps 
 districts; each district is supposed to furnish a complete 
 army corps of two divisions of the Common Army, but one 
 district has three divisions. Each army corps district has 
 also one Landwehr, or Honv^d, division and one district 
 has two Honv6d divisions. 
 
 There are six permanent cavalry divisions, but eight 
 could be mobilized in war. Each army corps contains 
 about 34,000 combat9,nts and each cavalry division about 
 4000 combatants. The total strength of the regulars in 
 
 28, I 
 
 i 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 15 
 
 the field army may be taken as about 590,000 combatants. 
 To these must be added eight Austrian Landwehr and 
 seven Hungarian Honved divisions, about 230,000, making 
 a grand total of 820,000 combatants. The Peace Estab- 
 lishment of the Common Army, Austrian Landwehr and 
 Hungarian Honved in 1913 totaled 34,069 officers and 
 390,249 men. 
 
 The Austro-Hungarian navy is administered by the 
 Naval Department of the War Ministry. In effective 
 ships in August, 1916, it comprised approximately: 
 
 Dreadnaughts 4 
 
 Pre-dreadnaughts : 12 
 
 Armored cruisers 3 
 
 Cruisers 10 
 
 Torpedo gunboats. 3 
 
 Destroyers 28 
 
 Torpedo boats 47 
 
 Submarines 12 
 
 In Austria legislation is vested in the Reichsrath, or 
 Parliament, consisting of an upper house (Herrenhaus) 
 and a lower house (Abgeordnetenhaus). The Herrenhaus 
 comprises the following members : 
 Archdukes of the imperial family (who are of age) .... 15 
 
 Hereditary landed nobility 81 
 
 Ecclesiastical princes 17 
 
 Life members (nominated by the emperor for emi- 
 nent public services) 159 
 
 Total membership 271 
 
 The Abgeordnetennaus is composed of 516 deputies 
 elected by universal manhood suffrage (voting age twenty- 
 four years) on secret ballot. The maximum duration of the 
 lower house is six years and deputies receive a salary of 
 20 Krone (about $5) for each day's attendance, and allow- 
 ance for travel expenses. 
 
 The Reichsrath meets annually; bills must receive the 
 assent of both houses and the sanction of the emperor. 
 
 In Hungary, legislation is vested in a parliament 
 (Orszaggyiiles) consisting of a House of Magnates (Foren- 
 dihaz) and a House of Representatives (Kepviselohdz). 
 The parliament is summoned annually by the king at 
 Buda Pesth. ^he language is Hungarian but representatives 
 
16 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 of Croatia and Slavonia may speak their own tongues. 
 The House of Magnates in the session of 1912-13 consisted 
 of: 
 
 Archdukes of the royal family 15 
 
 Hungarian hereditary peers, each paying at least 
 
 6000 crowns a year land tax 227 
 
 Ecclesiastical dignitaries of Roman Catholic and 
 
 Greek Churches 38 
 
 Ecclesiastical and lay representatives of Protestant 
 
 faith 12 
 
 Life peers appointed by the crown 61 
 
 State dignitaries, members ex officiis 17 
 
 Delegates of Croatia and Slavonia 3 
 
 The Governor of Fiume 1 
 
 Total membership 374 
 
 The House of Representatives by the electoral law now 
 in force consists of 453 members, of whom 413 are deputies 
 of Hungarian towns and districts, and 40 delegates of 
 Croatia and Slavonia. Its members receive 4800 crowns 
 (about $1000) a year, with an allowance of 1600 crowns a 
 year for house rent. New elections must take place every 
 five years. The deputies to the Hungarian lower house 
 are elected by vote of all male citizens of twenty years of 
 age, who pay a small direct tax on house property or land, 
 or on an income varying with occupation, but in all cases 
 low. Certain large classes of educational attainments are 
 permitted to vote without other qualifications. 
 
 Questions and Answers 
 
 1. Why are the Germans and Austrians called Teutons? 
 
 Ans. Because these nations are the most conspicuous 
 representatives of the very important division of the 
 great European peoples known by that name. 
 
 2. What other Teutonic people are there? 
 
 Ans. All the Scandinavian peoples, viz.y Swedes, Nor- 
 wegians, Danes, and Icelanders form one Teutonic group, 
 while the German-speaking people in Germany, Austria, 
 and Switzerland, the Dutch of Holland, the Flemings of 
 Belgium, form another group. Moreover, the Jutes, 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 17 
 
 Angles, and Saxons of England, their descendants in 
 North America, Australia and other British and German 
 and Dutch colonies are all of Teutonic origin. 
 
 3. Is not the bulk of the civilized world, then, Teutonic? 
 
 Ans. The greatest working forces of the world today 
 are undoubtedly of Teutonic origin. 
 
 4. What other European races are there besides the 
 Teutonic? 
 
 Ans. The Celtic and^the Grseco-Roman tribes were 
 probably the first of known people to occupy central and 
 southern Europe, coming presumably from western Asia 
 many centuries B.C. Next, the great, forceful Teutonic 
 race descended like a glacier into the forests and valleys 
 of central Europe from the frozen North and crowded the 
 Celts to the west of Europe, where the Romans found 
 them occupying Spain, France, and the British Isles, in the 
 first century B.C. The Slavic race, of which the Rus- 
 sians are the most prominent nation, is the fourth and last 
 of the four leading races in Europe. 
 
 5. Are there other people of any prominence in Europe 
 besides Celts, Teutons, Slavs, and Graeco-Romans? 
 
 Ans. The Turks, an alien race, penetrated eastern 
 Europe in the fourteenth century, though they occupy 
 more territory in Asia than in Europe, and the Huns, 
 fierce pagans, who, after conversion to Christianity, de- 
 veloped into the modern Hungarians, are all that require 
 notice. 
 
 6. How early did the Germans begin to be known as 
 such? 
 
 Ans. The first we know of the people who inhabited 
 the dense forests that stretched from the Rhine to the 
 Vistula and from the Danube to the Baltic is told us by 
 Tacitus, the Roman historian of the first century A.D. 
 The first clash between them and the Romans occurred 
 in 113 B.C. when the Cimbri and Teutons invading Styria 
 in Austria were defeated by the Romans. In 102 and 101 
 B.C. the same tribes tried separately, in successive years, 
 to invade Italy but were met by the great Marius and 
 defeated with fearful loss. 
 
18 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 7. What were the characteristics of the early Germans 
 or Teutons? 
 
 Ans. The early Germans, or Teutons, are credited by 
 Tacitus and Caesar with the virtues of chastity in their 
 women, great bravery in their men, and of temperance in 
 both sexes. 
 
 8. What was Caesar's experience with the Germans? 
 
 Ans. When given Gaul, or France, in 58 B.C. as his 
 province to subdue, Caesar found Germans living betw^een 
 the Rhine and the Vosges and even on the western slope 
 of the latter. Appealed to for help by some of the Gauls, 
 he administered a crushing defeat to Ariovistus, their 
 general, and drove him across the Rhine. 
 
 9. After Caesar's victory did the Romans have any 
 further trouble with the Germans before the fall of Rome? 
 
 Ans. In A.D. 9, Varus, a Roman general, suffered a 
 severe defeat in the Teutoburg wood from the Germans 
 under Arminius. The Emperor Augustus Caesar was 
 greatly upset by this rare misfortune to Roman arms and 
 was heard to exclaim again and again, " O Varus, give me 
 back my legions!" 
 
 10. What development do we find after the third 
 century A.D. in the German tribes? 
 
 Ans. After the third century the Germans rarely 
 appear as small single tribes, but rather as great confedera- 
 tions of tribes, such as the Goths, Alemanni, Franks, 
 Frisians, Saxons, Thuringians and one or two smaller 
 combinations. 
 
 11. Which of the German confederations was the first 
 to settle within the Roman Empire? 
 
 Ans. The first Germans to find lodgment among the 
 Romans were the Goths living north of the low^er Danube. 
 In 376 they begged of Valens, the eastern Roman Emperor 
 at Constantinople, leave to cross the Danube in order 
 to escape the fierce Asiatic Huns then crowding into 
 Europe from Tartary. They were allowed to cross on 
 condition of receiving baptism, giving up their arms and 
 also their children as hostages. Wherever they could 
 
 1 
 I 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 19 
 
 they concealed and retained their weapons and soon 
 wandered at will over Macedonia and Thrace. These were 
 the Visigoths or Western Goths. 
 
 12. Who next followed the Visigoths into the Roman 
 domain? 
 
 Ans. Next to the Visigoths came the Ostrogoths, or 
 Eastern Goths, and fought with and overcame the Visi- 
 goths. Their leader was Theodoric, an able man; he led 
 his tribe into Italy proper and demanded land for his 
 soldiers who had fought for Rome. 
 
 13. What became of the other tribes of Germany in 
 the break-up of the Roman Empire? 
 
 Ans. The Burgundians settled in southeastern France, 
 in the region afterwards called Burgundy. The Franks 
 settled on both sides of the lower Rhine. The Suevi and 
 Vandals invaded Spain. The Vandals, from whom An- 
 dalusia in Spain takes its name, crossed the Strait of 
 Gibraltar and skirted northern Africa till they resettled 
 ancient Carthage. Their wide, ruthless wanderings have 
 given us the common word, vandals. The Angles, Saxons, 
 and Jutes also settled in England. 
 
 14. Which of all the German tribes became the most 
 distinguished? 
 
 Ans. The Franks, by conquering Gaul, afterwards 
 called France, and later, under Charlemagne, adding 
 Germany and Italy under the same crown, became easily 
 the most illustrious of the various German confederations. 
 
 15. Who was the most illustrious ruler of the Franks? 
 
 Ans. Charlemagne, or Charles (Karl) the Great, the 
 only monarch in history to be dignified by having the 
 phrase welded into one word, was crowned by the pope 
 as Emperor of the Roman Empire of the West, as he 
 knelt to receive the papal blessing on Christmas Day, 
 A.D. 800. 
 
 16. How had Charlemagne become Emperor of the 
 West? 
 
 Ans. In 732 Carl Martel, or Carl the Hammer, had 
 hammered the invading Mohammedans for three days at 
 
20 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Tours in France and driven their hordes back over the 
 Pyrenees, where they lingered in southern Spain till 1492. 
 Carl was then Mayor of the Palace, or chief executive 
 officer to the weak Merovingian Prankish kings who had 
 degenerated from their early vigor. Pepin, son and suc- 
 cessor of Charles Martel, shut up the effeminate king 
 in a monastery and, occupying the throne himself, es- 
 tablished the Carlovingian line, named after his forceful 
 father. Pope Stephen II, troubled by the Lombards, an- 
 other German tribe that had invaded northern Italy, 
 sought the aid of Pepin who, readily granting it, chastised 
 the Lombards and gave the pope some of their territory, 
 thus first establishing (755 A.D.) the temporal power of 
 the papacy. Charlemagne, as a good son of the church, 
 confirmed and strengthened the acts of his father, Pepin, 
 in Italy and received his proud title in return. 
 
 17. What else is there to know about this first very 
 illustrious Teuton? 
 
 Ans. Charlemagne reigned from 771 to 814. He was 
 an indefatigable worker, warrior, and scholar. He caused 
 learned men to discourse to him at the table and began 
 the study of Greek when sixty years old. He invaded 
 Spain; he pushed the Slavs back into what is now eastern 
 Prussia ; but he had his hardest conflicts with the Saxons, 
 who remained unsubdued until he cut off the right hand 
 of some ten thousand of them. 
 
 18. What became of the great Roman Empire of the 
 West? 
 
 Ans. Charlemagne's empire was too vast to hold to- 
 gether under weaker men ; the three leading countries that 
 formed it were divided in 843 at Verdun, France, among 
 his three grandsons, Lothaire, Charles, and Louis, on the 
 death of their weak father, Louis I. Henceforth, we have 
 the three separate modern countries of France, Italy, and 
 Germany. Moreover, after the termination of the Carlo- 
 vingian line, the crown ceased to be hereditary and Ger- 
 many became an elective feudal monarchy. 
 
 19. Of what did the early modem Germany of the 
 ninth century consist? 
 
 Ans. There were in the ninth century five German 
 nations: Franks, Saxons, Bavarians, Swabians, and Lor- 
 
 1 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 21 
 
 rainers. Of these, the Franks, who had conquered and held 
 the land, were most prominent and the firsts emperor 
 chosen by the five nations after the extinction of the 
 Carlo vingian dynasty was the chief of the Franks, the 
 Duke of Franconia, who reigned as King of Germany from 
 911 to 918 as Conrad I. He was succeeded at his own 
 suggestion by his rival and adversary, Henry, Duke of 
 Saxony. Henry was an able ruler and defeated Danes, 
 Slavs, and the fierce Magyars, or Huns. His son. Otto I, 
 936-973, extended his father's conquests and added 
 Lombardy to his domains, thus starting complications 
 between German and Italian rulers that lasted for cen- 
 turies. It was this emperor, known as Otto the Great, 
 who revived the title of the " Holy Roman Empire." 
 
 20. What progress did German affairs exhibit in th^ 
 eleventh and twelfth centuries? 
 
 Ans. Other Ottos, Conrads, and Henrys of Fran- 
 conian or Saxon origin followed the first of their names as 
 kings of Germany, one of them adding Burgundy and 
 another Denmark, Bohemia, and Hungary, though all 
 this territory was not retained long. In Conrad III, 1138- 
 52 we have the first of the House of Hohenstaufen. In the 
 thirteenth century the right of election which had been 
 exercised by all the grand nobles of the empire became 
 restricted to the holders of the highest civil and ecclesiasti- 
 cal offices. In 1352 Frankfort became the regular place of 
 election and continued as such until the dissolution of the 
 German Empire in the nineteenth century. 
 
 Frederick Barbarossa (Redbeard), nephew of Conrad 
 III, was elected king on Conrad's recommendation and 
 was the first of the Swabians to occupy that position. 
 His reign, from 1152 to 1190, was very splendid. 
 
 21. What was the popular belief about Barbarossa? 
 
 Ans. Frederick Redbeard lost his life in the Third 
 Crusade and so great had been his efforts and aspirations 
 for Germany that the belief grew common that he would 
 come again some time and lead his people into wider 
 territories. This old belief was recalled when William I 
 was crowned German Emperor at Versailles, after the 
 fall of Paris, 
 
22 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 22. Why do we not hear of Prussia and Austria in the 
 eariy history of Germany? 
 
 Ans. Prussia and Austria are comparatively late Ger- 
 man developments, especially Prussia. Austria dates back 
 to the eighth century and Prussia only to the tenth. 
 
 23. What was the early history of Austria? 
 
 Ans. The empire of Austria arose from the smallest 
 beginning at the end of the eighth century* In 796 a 
 margraviate, called the Eastern Mark (i.e., march, or 
 frontier land; hence " marquis "), was founded as an out- 
 post of the empire of Charlemagne in the country between 
 the rivers Enns and Raab. The name Oesterreich ap- 
 pears first in 996. In 1156 the mark was raised to a 
 duchy and under the House of Hapsburg, beginning in 
 1*282, it rapidly became powerful. By marriage, by pur- 
 chase and otherwise, the princes of that house extended 
 their power over several other states and from 1438 held 
 the throne of the German Empire almost without inter- 
 ruption. 
 
 24. Who was the first of the House of Hapsburg? 
 
 Ans. Rudolph I, 1273, is the first of the present House 
 of Hapsburg, still ruling Austria; and from the dissensions 
 and foreign wars which marked his reign something of 
 the mishaps that have attended this house might be said 
 to have been foreshadowed. 
 
 26. What was the early history of Prussia? 
 
 Ans. Prussia, like Austria, rose from an insignificant 
 beginning, ranking far behind Austria in leadership until 
 the middle of the nineteenth century. ^ Prussians were 
 first known in history as Borussi in the tenth century. 
 Bishop Adalbert from Prague suffered martyrdom while 
 trying to convert them to Christianity in 997. About 
 1018, Bolesias, Duke of Poland, succeeded in compelling 
 their submission and baptism, but it was not till the middle 
 of the thirteenth century that the Christian faith was 
 established among them by the Teutonic Knights. 
 
 26. Who were the Teutonic Knights? 
 
 Ans. The Teutonic Knights were one of the three 
 military religious orders of knighthood formed to assist 
 during the Crusades, the others being the Knights Temp- 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 23 
 
 lars and the Knights Hospitallers of Malta or of St. John. 
 They were an early form of Red Cross workers. Some 
 merchants of Bremen and Lubeck, moved with compassion 
 for wounded Crusaders, in 1190 created tent hospitals and 
 provided surgical and nursing attendance. They were 
 supported by the Duke of Swabia and his brother, the 
 Emperor Henry VI, and were confirmed by the pope as 
 a monastic order in 1191. Seven years later they changed 
 into a knightly, or military, order, gaining the pope's 
 approval in 1199. They bound themselves to tend the 
 sick and wounded and to wage incessant war on the 
 heathen. They wore white mantles with black crosses 
 thereon. About 1225 the Duke of Masoira in Poland 
 invited them to help him against the heathen Prussians 
 and by 1283 they were masters of the territory between 
 the Vistula and the Memel, beside holding parts of Livonia 
 and Courland. In 1309 they established headquarters in 
 Marienburg near the Vistula. They commenced a contest 
 against the Lithuanians, who were soon converted to 
 Christianity, and their prince became King of Poland in 
 1386. The order then began to decline, its work being 
 done, until it was suppressed throughout the German 
 states by Napoleon in 1809, but three chapters still exist 
 in Austria and Holland of a very aristocratic character 
 in both countries. 
 
 27. What are the next steps in the development of^ 
 the Prussians after their subjugation and forcible Chris-' 
 tianization by the Teutonic Knights? 
 
 Ans. The noble and municipal classes of the Prussians, 
 with the aid of Poland, rose in rebellion in 1454 and by 
 1466 compelled the Knights to cede West Prussia to Poland 
 and to regard the rest of their territories as fiefs of Poland. 
 
 28. What was the main outcome to the world of the 
 overthrow of Roman civilization and rule by tiie Teutonic 
 tribes? 
 
 Ans. For a few centuries after the fall of Rome, called 
 the DarkAges (500-1100), civilization seemed crushed, but 
 a subtle alchemy was suffusing and transfusing the mass; 
 more was going on below the surface than appeared and 
 when the Dark Ages were over a stronger, better race 
 controlled Europe than the effete Romans of the first 
 
24 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Christian centuries. Nearly all the Teutonic tribes em- 
 braced Christianity before or soon after invading the 
 empire. Gradually Roman law, civilization and even 
 speech prevailed over ignorance and ruder ways; and 
 France, Spain, and Germany appear to play their part, 
 with Romance languages in France and Spain, and Roman 
 law largely prevalent even in Germany. 
 
 29. When did Christianity conquer Germany? 
 
 Ans. The Goths were the first barbarians outside the 
 empire to be won from paganism. Ulfilas translated the 
 Bible into the Gothic tongue, omitting the " Book of 
 Kings " for fear it would excite the martial spirit of his 
 new converts by its stirring -recital of wars and battles. 
 This translation is still preserved in Gotha and, as it is 
 the oldest specimen of Gothic literature, is very valuable. 
 Ulfilas showed marked ability in composing an alphabet 
 of runic and Latin characters. He was a native Goth who 
 had studied at Constantinople in the fourth century. 
 
 30. What is meant by runic rhymes and characters? 
 
 Ans. The Saxons, who invaded England in the fifth 
 century, were of the low German origin. Many of their 
 words were like the German of today and can be readily 
 noticed in the English of today, as bruder, brother; 
 schwester, sister; moder, mother; fader, father, etc. When 
 written, the characters were called runes, or secrets, and 
 very few could make them out. They were seldom used, 
 and mainly on sword hilts, or charms or drinking horns. 
 
 31. What prevented Germany from becoming a closely 
 knit nation centuries ago? 
 
 Ans. The great stumbling block in the Middle Ages 
 that prevented Germany's" progress was her dream of 
 becoming a world power, a dream that never came to 
 fruition, but resulted in the most woeful consequences to 
 Germany. " Trying to grasp too much, these rulers seized 
 nothing at all. Attempting to be emperors of the world, 
 they failed to become even kings of Germany." 
 
 32. Who first after Charlemagne adopted the unfortu- 
 nate policy of a world empire? 
 
 Ans. Otto II of the Saxon line, crowned King of Ger- 
 many at Aachen in 936, something more than a century 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 25 
 
 after Charlemagne's death, became King of Italy as well 
 as of Germany, wrested large tracts of land from the Sla- 
 vonians and forced Danes, Poles, and Hungarians to ac- 
 knowledge his suzerainty. Then this Otto the Great began 
 to feel himself a second Charlemagne, and in 962, a century 
 and a half and more after Charlemagne's coronation in 
 Rome, Otto was crowned, in the same place by the same 
 papal authority, Emperor of the Romans, thus holding 
 three crowns at once, being German King, crowned at 
 Aachen, King of Italy, crowned at Milan, and Emperor at 
 Rome. It was a grand scheme ably played, but impractic- 
 able. Home affairs were neglected during foreign wars 
 and vassals succeeded in increasing their local power and 
 making it hereditary. Italy, as well as Germany, suffered 
 much by this policy. 
 
 33. Was there no compensation for these injuries? 
 
 Ans. Germany gained much from Italian civilization 
 through the connection of the emperors with Italy. The 
 art of Europe was then concentrated in Italy. 
 
 34. Was this impracticable policy of Otto I continued 
 by subsequent German rulers? 
 
 Ans. The main feature of the Hohenstaufen, or Swa- 
 bian, dynasty (1138-1254) was the continuance of the 
 bitter conflict with the popes. It lasted over a hundred 
 years ; it is known in history as the Wars of the Guelphs 
 and Ghibellines, the former party, both in Italy and 
 Germany, supporting the- popes, while the Ghibellines 
 supported the emperors. It ended in the triumph of 
 Rome and the utter ruin of the Hohenstaufens. 
 
 35. What started the conflict between the successors 
 of Charlemagne, who had championed the pope, and the 
 later papacy? 
 
 Ans. Hildebrand, or Gregory VII (1073-1080), was the 
 greatest figure of the Middle Ages, except Charlemagne. 
 He was a great reformer and advanced both the spiritual 
 and the temporal power of the church. His decree that 
 no ecclesiastic should do homage to a temporal lord, but 
 must receive the symbols of investiture, the ring and 
 staff, from the pope alone, was largely prompted by his 
 effort to correct the evil of simony, or the bestowal of rich 
 fiefs of church lands on court favorites or the highest 
 
26 HISTORY OF GERMx\NY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 bidders. This attempt to restrict the power of feudal lords 
 caused opposition from both the nobles and the emperors. 
 
 36. What was the most famous case of the conflict 
 between the kings of Germany and papal authority? 
 
 Ans. Henry IV refused to recognize the papal decree 
 concerning investiture, and even called a council of the 
 German clergy and deposed the pope. The pope by a 
 council at Rome deposed and excommunicated Henry. 
 This gave some of Henry's vassals a chance to revolt. 
 The king was abandoned by all good churchmen as a man 
 accursed. All his authority and his kingdom were slipping 
 out of his grasp. In desperation he sought the pope among 
 Apennine snows of winter and for three days stood in 
 a courtyard in sackcloth with bare feet till the pope was 
 ready to see him. 
 
 37. How much was Germany broken apart as the result 
 of its fatal foreign policy? 
 
 Ans. By the close of the Hohenstaufen period, 1268, 
 Germany had separated into no less than two hundred 
 and seventy-six states, each virtually independent, whose 
 princes and nobles had taken advantage of the absences 
 of the emperors, or of their troubles with the popes, to free 
 themselves from the control of the crown. There was no 
 longer either a German kingdom or a Roman kingdom. 
 
 38. Did the Hohenstaufen period have no attractive 
 feature of mark? 
 
 Ans. The age of the Hohenstaufens was the age of the 
 Crusades, of the heroic Barbarossa, and, above all, of the 
 splendid cathedral buildings which expressed the fervent 
 religious enthusiasm of the German people; the beautiful 
 Strasburg Cathedral was begun in the eleventh century 
 and the massive Cathedral of Cologne in 1248. 
 
 39. What earlier history is suggested by the name 
 Cologne? 
 
 Ans. The name Cologne indicates a Roman colony 
 located there before the fall of Rome, in order to keep the 
 Germans from crossing into the Roman Empire, which 
 then extended to the Rhine. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 27 
 
 40. What finally ended the Hohenstaufen rule after 
 more than a century's control? 
 
 Ans. Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), who lost his 
 life in the Third Crusade, was succeeded by his son, Henry 
 VI (1190-1197), who by marriage acquired a claim to the 
 Kingdom of Sdcily. Almost all his time and resources were 
 expended in reducing that remote realm to his authority. 
 In 1265 the pope gave it as a fief to Charles I of Anjou, 
 brother of Louis IX of France, who, in 1268, beheaded the 
 boy king, Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen race. 
 
 41. How did the House of Hapsburg get its name? 
 
 Ans. The House of Hapsburg, today the oldest ruling 
 royal family on the continent, is so called from a castle in 
 German Switzerland, where the family originated. 
 
 42. How did the House of Hapsburg regain much of 
 the lost strength of Germany? 
 
 Ans. In the year 1438 Albert, Duke of Austria, was 
 raised to the imperial throne of Germany by the seven 
 electors who had usurped the right of choosing their king. 
 From the accession of Albert, the imperial crown was 
 regarded as hereditary in the Hapsburg family until the 
 German (or Holy Roman) empire .was dissolved by Na- 
 poleon in 1806. The electors always met on the death of 
 an emperor and went through the formality of an election, 
 but almost always chose one of the House of Austria (or 
 Hapsburg) to the position. So by this almost uninter- 
 rupted occupation of the imperial throne the power and 
 importance of the family increased until it looked as if 
 Austria would rule all Germany as Francia ruled all Gaul 
 or France. 
 
 43. Who was the first prominent ruler of the House of 
 Hapsburg? 
 
 Ans. Maximilian I (1493-1519) was active, ambitious 
 and scheming, though somewhat lacking in persistency. 
 He married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of Bur- 
 gundy, and by her acquired possession of the Nether- 
 lands, became involved in the politics of Europe. His 
 reign also marked the beginning of the Reformation under 
 Luther, which he opposed. By the marriage of his son 
 'Philip with Joanna of Spain the Houses of Austria and 
 
28 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Spain were united and Charles I of Spain, son of Philip, 
 became the celebrated Charles V of the empire. He 
 united Spain, Austria, the Netherlands, and the Empire of 
 Germany under his sole control 1519, making the House of 
 Hapsburg the most powerful dynasty in the world. But 
 Charles later resigned all his German territories to his 
 brother Ferdinand. 
 
 44. What were the relations of Austria with Switzer- 
 land? 
 
 Ans. As the House of Austria sprang from Hapsburg 
 in Switzerland, and as Switzerland w^as a part of the Holy 
 Roman Empire from the early eleventh century, the 
 Dukes of Austria tried to enforce their authority there, 
 but the Swiss would only acknowledge the emperor as 
 their master and yielded him only a nominal obedience. 
 In 1315 the hardy mountaineers severely defeated the 
 Austrians at Morgarten Pass and again at Sempach, 1386. 
 A third victory at Wafels, 1388, placed the Swiss confed- 
 eration on a firm basis. The legend, or myth, of William 
 Tell belongs to this conflict. 
 
 45. Was Austrians strong opposition to the Reformation 
 the first act of the kind in Germany? 
 
 Ans. About the beginning of the fifteenth century the 
 doctrines of the English reformer Wycliffe began to spread 
 in Bohemia. John Huss, a professor in the University of 
 Prague, was the leader of the new sect called Hussites. 
 His doctrines were condemned by the Council of Con- 
 stance and he was burnt at the stake in 1415. Jerome of 
 Prague was likewise burnt and a cruel, desolating war of 
 extermination follow^ed, lasting for fifteen years. 
 
 46. What was the beginning of the Reformation that 
 made such great changes in Germany? 
 
 Ans. In 1517 Martin Luther, an Augustine monk and 
 teacher of theology in the University of Wittenberg, 
 nailed a document containing ninety-five theses, or articles, 
 to the door of the church in Wittenberg, wherein he boldly 
 stated his views respecting indulgences (papal pardons 
 for sins) and challenged criticism by scholars. By means 
 of the press his opinions were rapidly spread throughout 
 every country in Europe. Soon Luther attacked the 
 entire system and teaching of the Roman Catholic church. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 29 
 
 47. What were the results of Luther's acts? 
 
 Ans. The pope, Leo X, issued a bull against the auda- 
 cious reformer, 1520. Luther burnt the papal bull at one of 
 the gates of Wittenberg. In 1521 the pope asked the aid 
 of the new emperor, Charles the Fifth, in stamping out 
 the spreading heresy. Charles summoned the famous 
 Diet of Worms; Luther appeared under the safe-conduct 
 of the emperor but was denounced as a heretical author. 
 His own prince, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 
 protected him by keeping him concealed for a year. 
 
 48. What further results followed later after the Diet 
 of Worms? 
 
 Ans. The peasants of Swabia and Franconia, stung by 
 the oppression of their feudal lords and stirred by the 
 religious excitement in the air and the incendiary preach- 
 ing of their own prophets, rose in revolt against nobles 
 and priests. This rebellion was crushed in a year but cost 
 one hundred thousand lives; a large part of south Germany 
 was ravaged and much reproach was cast on the reformers, 
 whose teachings were held by their enemies as responsible 
 for the revolt. 
 
 49. What was the origin of the name Protestant? 
 
 Ans. As the doctrines of Luther continued to spread, 
 notwithstanding all efforts to suppress them, the Diet of 
 Spires in 1529 forbade all persons doing anything to spread 
 the new doctrines until the church should investigate and 
 pronounce on them. Seven German princes and a large 
 number of cities issued formal protests against this action 
 of the Diet ; hence from this time the reformers were known 
 as Protestants. 
 
 50. What checked the spread of Protestantism which 
 had taken such a start in Germany? 
 
 Ans. The spread of Protestantism in Germany and 
 elsewhere was checked by the numerous sectarian divisions 
 among the Protestants; by the vigorous Catholic counter- 
 reform, which quite thoroughly removed the causes of 
 dissension; and by the activity of the new order of Jesuits 
 founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish soldier, who 
 organized an institution whose members should by their 
 zeal counteract the work of the Protestant reformers. 
 
30 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 51. What was the general outcome of the Reformation 
 in Germany? 
 
 Ans. The main result of the religious revolt of the 
 early sixteenth century was the separation from the Roman 
 Catholic church of the northern, or Teutonic, nations; 
 that is, of northern Germany, portions of Switzerland, the 
 Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, as well as 
 England and Scotland. One-half of western Christendom 
 was lost to Rome. But the Romance nations of Spain, 
 France, Italy, Teutonic Austria, and Celtic Ireland still 
 adhere to the mother church. 
 
 62. How did the Prussian Kingdom come into existence? 
 
 Ans. In 1611 the mark, or electorate, of Brandenburg 
 and the duchy of Prussia united; Brandenburg had been 
 slowly growing into prominence since the tenth century. 
 Near the beginning of the sixteenth century its ruler was 
 a prince of the House of Hohenzollern and one of the 
 seven princes to whom belonged the right of electing the 
 German emperor; In 1640 Frederick William, called the 
 Great Elector, came to the electorate and infused much 
 vigor into the state, greatly enhancing his prominence 
 among German princes. He ruled from 1640 to 1688 and 
 in the Peace of Westphalia, 1648, at the termination of the 
 Thirty Years' War, he was able to gain new territory and 
 finally to leave to his son, Frederick III, a standing army 
 and a strongly centralized and despotic authority. This 
 son- of the Great Elector, Frederick III (1688-1713) was 
 ambitious for the title of king. It was necessary to gain 
 the consent of the emperor, a somewhat difficult matter, 
 as the Catholic court of Austria was naturally opposed 
 both on political and religious grounds to the elevation 
 of an heretical prince; but on the condition of assisting the 
 emperor in the war of the Spanish succession, just then 
 beginning, the new title and dignity were permitted in the 
 duchy of Prussia which did not form part of the empire as 
 Brandenburg did. So in 1701 Frederick was crowned king 
 at Konigsburg. He had been Elector of Brandenburg and 
 Duke of Prussia; now he retained the first designation 
 coupled with that of King of Prussia. Thus did the House 
 of Hapsburg in Catholic Austria create and invest with 
 royal dignity the rival House of Hohenzollern. 
 
 i 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 31 
 
 53. What were the nature and cause of the Thirty 
 Years' War? 
 
 Ans. The Thirty Years' War was the last great struggle 
 between Protestantism and Catholicism in Europe. It 
 started in Germany and gradually involved almost all 
 the states of the continent and degenerated into a shame- 
 ful, cruel struggle for power and land. Both parties were 
 to blame at the start by encroaching on each other. The 
 Protestants formed a protective league called the Union in 
 1608; the CathoHcs followed with the Holy League in 1609. 
 
 54. Where and how did the Thirty Years* War begin? 
 Ans. In Bohemia, where the embers of the Hussite 
 
 religious burnings of two centuries before still smouldered; 
 the Protestants rose against their Catholic king, elected a 
 new one and drove out the Jesuits. The war had begun; 
 this was in 1618, a trifle over a century since Luther had 
 posted his theses on the court church at Wittenberg. 
 Perhaps nine-tenths of the population of the empire were 
 Protestants at the end of the century. 
 
 55. What was the next phase of the Thirty Years' War 
 after the Bohemian period? 
 
 Ans. Ferdinand, the Catholic King of Bohemia, was 
 elected Emperor of Germany and was thereby able to 
 crush the Protestant insurrection in his royal domain. 
 All the Protestant -rulers took alarm and Christian IV of 
 Denmark, supported by England and Holland, came for- 
 ward as the champion of Protestantism. This was in 
 1625. The leaders of the other side were Tilly, leader of 
 the forces of the Holy League, and Wallenstein, commander 
 of the imperial army. Christian was defeated and by the 
 Peace of Lubeck, 1629, retired, and the emperor restored 
 to the Catholics all lands and offices in north Germany 
 which the Protestants had taken possession of contrary 
 to the Peace of Augsburg. By the Edict of Restitution, 
 1629, two archbishoprics, twelve bishoprics, many mon- 
 asteries and much other ecclesiastical property were given 
 back to the Catholic church. This terminated the second, 
 or Danish, period of the war. 
 
 56. What was the third period of the Thirty Years' 
 War? 
 
 Ans. Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, now ap- 
 peared in northern Germany witlta veteran army of 16,000 
 
32 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Swedes, as the champion of the leaderless Protestants; ■ 
 but the Protestant princes were slow in joining Gustavus ■ 
 from fear of the emperor, lack of confidence in the great 
 Swede's motives, and from warring jealousy. Tilly was 
 besieging Magdeburg, which had dared to resist the Edict 
 of Restitution. The Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, 
 though Protestant, hindered Gustavus instead of helping 
 him and Magdeburg was sacked and burnt; thirty thou- 
 sand inhabitants perished miserably. This alarmed the i 
 Protestant princes and the Elector of Saxony joined the ] 
 Swedish king and Tilly was severely defeated at Leipsic 
 in 16^1; in a later battle, 1632, the emperor lost this most 
 trustworthy general. Wallenstein had been dismissed on 
 account of discontent and jealousies but was now recalled 
 and given sole command. With forty thousand men he 
 attacked the Swedes at Lutzen in Saxony, 1632. The 
 Swedes won but Gustavus was killed. 
 
 57. What was the concluding period of the Thirty 
 Years' War? 
 
 Ans. The war might have ended after the death of 
 Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 and the assassination of Wal- 
 lenstein in 1634, for both sides were tired of it, but the 
 astute Cardinal Richelieu of France wanted the House of 
 Austria thoroughly crippled and he encouraged the 
 Swedes to continue. So the war became a struggle between 
 the House of Austria for its very existence and the House ^ 
 of Bourbon for territory. 
 
 58. When was the Peace of Westphalia? 
 
 Ans. Richelieu died in 1643 and whisperings of peace 
 were heard at once, but so complicated were the affairs 
 and bounds of the states of central Europe that it was 
 five years before the articles of peace were signed in 1648 
 by the different powers. 
 
 59. What were the terms of the Treaty of West- 
 phalia? 
 
 Ans. Switzerland and the United Provinces were sepa- 
 rated from the Holy Roman Empire. A large part of 
 Alsace and Metz, Trent and Verdun in Lorraine were 
 given to France. Sweden obtained a valuable strip in 
 northern Germany along the Baltic. But this strip still 
 
"- Sweden 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 33 
 
 remained a part of the German Empire and the King of 
 Sweden became a prince of the empire. Brandenburg 
 received considerable territory. 
 
 CathoHcs, Lutherans, and Calvinists were put on an 
 equal footing. The Protestants were to return all the 
 benefices and property they had controlled in 1624. 
 Every prince had the right to enforce his own religion on 
 his people and banish all who refused to conform, allowing 
 three years in which to emigrate. The different states 
 were left in a lax confederation almost independent of the 
 emperor. 
 
 60. What was the effect of the Thirty Years' War on 
 Germany? 
 
 Ans. It is impossible to picture the wretched condition 
 of Germany after the Thirty Years' War. The population 
 had fallen from thirty million to twelve million. Many of 
 its best cities were reduced to shells; two or three hundred 
 ill-clad people constituted the population of Berlin. The 
 duchy of Wiirttemberg had but fifty thousand left out of 
 five hundred thousand people. The palaces of the nobility 
 and the hovels of the peasants were alike charred. Many 
 commercial lines had been abandoned and some trades 
 and industries annihilated. Painting, sculpture and archi- 
 tecture had been driven out of the land. Education was 
 neglected. For a generation men had been engaged in 
 war. Their children grew up in ignorance. Moral law was 
 forgotten. Vice, nourished in the licentious atmosphere of 
 the camp, reigned supreme. " In character, intelligence, 
 and morality Germany was set back two hundred years." 
 
 61. What was the effect on the House of Austria? 
 
 Ans. The House of Austria still bore the title of emperor 
 but it was an empty name. The German states lost what 
 little cohesion had been gained and became a loose assem- 
 blage of over two hundred states; the subjects of the petty 
 states became the victims of tyrannical rulers. German 
 patriotism was dead; pride of race and country seemed 
 extinct. 
 
 62. Why is the Peace of Westphalia to be regarded as 
 a great landmark in universal history? 
 
 Ans. The Peace of Westphalia marks the end of reli- 
 gious wars caused by the Reformation and the beginning of 
 
34 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 political revolutions. Henceforth, men have fought for 
 constitutions, not creeds. 
 
 63. What changes took place in the electors of the 
 German emperors? 
 
 Ans. As has already been explained, the right of elec- 
 tion became restricted in the thirteenth century to the 
 holders of the highest ecclesiastical and civil offices, some 
 of which became hereditary and connected with territorial 
 principalities, as in the case of the Hohenstaufens and the 
 Dukes of Bavaria, Saxony, Swabia, etc. Thus there came 
 to be seven electors, viz.^ the Bishops of Mainz, Treves, 
 and Cologne, the Elector of the Palatinate at Heidelberg, 
 the Elector of Brandenburg, the Elector of Saxony and the 
 Elector of Westphalia. During the Thirty Years' War, the 
 electoral rights of the Palatinate were conferred on Ba- 
 varia. By the Peace of Westphalia, Bavaria and the Palati- 
 nate were each allowed an elector, making eight, and in 
 1692 Hanover made a ninth. In 1777, the Bavarian elec- 
 torate went back to the Elector Palatine, leaving eight. 
 The electors held a very high dignity in the empire, 
 since by them the emperors were selected, but as a matter 
 of fact their choice was practically confined to the reign- 
 ing family; thus the Hapsburg House of Austria secured 
 the election nearly every time one occurred. Later, only 
 Mainz remained of the old eight, but Baden, Wiirttemberg, 
 Hesse-Cassel and, later, Salzburg, made a new group of 
 five. With the dissolution of the empire, the dignity 
 expired, though the rulers of Hesse-Cassel continued to 
 retain the title till 1866. 
 
 64. When did Prussia first become a strong rival of 
 Austria? 
 
 Ans. The Great Elector Frederick William at his death 
 in 1688 left a well-filled treasury, a well-drilled army of 
 forty-three thousand and a population of a million and a 
 half, and Prussia henceforth ranked as a great European 
 power. His successors, Frederick I (1688-1713) and 
 Frederick William I (1713-40) increased the power and 
 reputation of Prussia, which had become a kingdom in 
 1701. Frederick II (1740-86) raised Prussia to the 
 rank of one of the leading political powers of Europe. 
 
i 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 35 
 
 65. What were the peculiarities of Frederick William I 
 of Prussia? 
 
 Ans. Frederick William I was one of the most extraor- 
 dinary characters in history. He was a violent, brutal 
 man who would tolerate no idlers. He carried a heavy 
 cane which he laid on the back of any idle man, woman or 
 child whom he met. He greatly prized big soldiers. He 
 had a regiment of two thousand four hundred men called 
 " the Potsdam Giants," some of them eight feet in height. 
 Europe was searched for them and they were coaxed, 
 bribed or kidnapped. Princes bought substantial favors 
 by the gift of a giant. Rough tyrant though he was, he 
 was able and energetic and left at his death in 1740 a well- 
 drilled army of eighty thousand men and a well-consoli- 
 dated kingdom. 
 
 66. When did the rapidly growing Prussia first clash 
 with older Austria? 
 
 Ans. In 1740 Charles VI, the last direct male repre- 
 sentative of the House of Hapsburg, that had governed 
 Austria for centuries and usually furnished an emperor 
 for Germany in addition, died and left his hereditary 
 possessions, Bohemia, Hungary, and Austria, to his 
 daughter, Maria Theresa. At Charles' death a favorable 
 opportunity was seized by Frederick the Great of Prussia 
 to make an attack upon the Austrian possessions. 
 
 67. What was the Pragmatic Sanction? 
 
 Ans. The Pragmatic Sanction was an agreement with 
 the leading nations of Europe by which Charles the Sixth 
 endeavored to secure for his daughter the thrones from 
 which she would have been barred by the " Salic law " 
 which restricted the royal inheritance to male heirs. 
 
 68. What nations aligned themselves against Austria 
 in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740-48? 
 
 Ans. Frederick II, son of the eccentric Frederick Wil- 
 liam, came to the throne of Prussia the same year that 
 Maria Theresa occupied the throne of Austria. Frederick 
 immediately led his well-drilled army into Silesia and 
 succeeded in holding it and having his acquisition acknowl- 
 edged in the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748. Charles 
 Albert, Elector of Bavaria, laid claim to the archduchy 
 
36 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 of Austria and was backed in that demand by forces from 
 France, always the sworn foe of the Hapsburgs. 
 
 69. What did the Queen of Austria do against the un- 
 expected attack? 
 
 Ans. Maria Theresa, stripped of a large slice of her do- 
 minions, fled into Hungary and appealed, with a beautiful 
 woman's power, to her subjects there to avenge her wrongs. 
 Moved by her sufferings, her beauty, her tears, the babe 
 in her arms, the Hungarian nobles, as they rattled their 
 swords in their scabbards, swore to support her cause with 
 their lives and possessions. England and Sardinia also 
 championed her cause. The war closed in 1748 with Maria 
 Theresa secure on her throne, but left Silesia added to 
 Prussia. 
 
 70. How did Frederick II acquire the title of ** the 
 Great " ? 
 
 Ans. Frederick II had a genius for war, was master of 
 a matchless army, and showed skill and prowess in the 
 War of the Austrian Succession, but it was the Seven Years' 
 War of 1756 to 1763 that proved that the armies of Prussia 
 had one of the great commanders of the world at their 
 head. 
 
 71. How did Frederick get into this second war? 
 
 Ans. After the War of the Austrian Succession, Frederick 
 spent eight years in developing his resources and Maria 
 Theresa spent a like time in organizing a league against 
 him. France, Russia, Poland, Saxony, and Sweden joined 
 her and for a time Frederick was hard pressed. 
 
 72. What were the main features and results of the 
 Seven Years' War? 
 
 Ans. At first Frederick won everything. In three suc- 
 cessive battles he defeated the French, the Austrians, and 
 the Russians. He had England, who had opposed him in 
 the previous War of the Austrian Succession, for an ally 
 and her wealth was poured into his coffers. But in time 
 his country was drained of men. England withdrew her 
 aid and ruin stared Frederick in the face. In 1762 the 
 Russian Empress Elizabeth died and under Peter III, an 
 admirer of Frederick, Russia at once changed sides. The 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 37 
 
 alliance was very short-lived, as Peter was murdered and 
 succeeded by his wife, the famous Catherine II, who 
 turned her armies back against Frederick. But the few 
 months' brief turn of fortune helped Frederick; England 
 and France wearied of the war, especially as England had 
 won control of French America, and signed the Peace of 
 Paris, 1763. By the Peace of Hubertsburg (1763) peace was 
 established between Prussia and Austria and one of the 
 worst wars of Europe was over. 
 
 73. What is a brief summary of Frederick II's reign? 
 
 Ans. Frederick the Great reigned for forty-six years; 
 in the first twenty-three years, by two wars, he succeeded 
 in exalting Prussia to a commanding position in European 
 affairs and in the second half of his long reign he laid a 
 new basis of German unity by making Prussia, around 
 which Germany had hitherto unsuccessfully tried to 
 concentrate, the equal of Austria. From 1763 the two 
 countries were rivals for German leadership, with the final 
 triumph going to Prussia. 
 
 74. What part did Germany take in the French Revo- 
 lution which occurred soon after Frederick II*s death? 
 
 Ans. When the French Revolutionists rose against 
 Louis XVI, the kings of Europe resolved that the move- 
 ment which threatened all aristocratical and monarchical 
 institutions should be crushed and that the heretical 
 doctrines about the sovereignty of the people and the 
 rights of man should be proved false by force of arms. 
 Frederick William III of Prussia and Francis II of Austria, 
 with allied armies numbering over one hundred thousand, 
 crossed the French border, but were promptly met by the 
 French and defeated at Valmy, September 20, 1792, 
 causing their hasty retreat beyond the French border. 
 
 75. What was Germany's experience with Napoleon? 
 
 Ans. In 1796-97 Napoleon defeated the Austrians in 
 northern Italy and formed there a commonwealth called 
 the Cisalpine Republic; then, by his invasion of Austria 
 proper, Austria was forced to cede her Belgian provinces 
 to the French Republic, as well as important provinces 
 west of the Rhine. When Napoleon became first consul 
 in 1799, neither England nor Austria would acknowledge 
 his government. This resulted in the second defeat of 
 
38 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Austria in Italy at Marengo, and in 1801 Francis II 
 signed a treaty of peace, making the Rhine the boundary 
 between France and Germany. After Napoleon became 
 emperor in 1804 and the coalition of England, Russia, 
 Austria, and Sweden was formed against him. Napoleon 
 a third time defeated Austria at Austerlitz. Sixteen Ger- 
 man states declaring themselves independent were formed 
 into a league caUed the Confederation of the Rhine, with 
 Napoleon as protector. Francis II also was obliged to give 
 up the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 76. When was the second Holy Roman Empire dis- 
 solved and how long had it existed? 
 
 Ans. The Holy Roman Empire, revived by Otto the 
 Great, came to an end in 1806 after an existence of over 
 eight centuries. The Kingdom of Germany, created by the 
 partition of the empire of Charlemagne, also passed out of 
 existence. 
 
 77. Did Prussia fare any better than Austria against the 
 genius of Napoleon? 
 
 Ans. At Jena and Auerstadt in 1806, Napoleon over- 
 threw Frederick William III, almost annihilating what the 
 genius of Frederick the Great had created, accomplishing 
 in a month what combined Europe had failed to do in the 
 Seven Years' War. By the Treaty of Tilsit, Prussia lost 
 more than half her domain and the Kingdom of West- 
 phalia was formed. Napoleon's brother, Jerome, being 
 made its king. Prussian Poland, called the Grand Duchy 
 of Warsaw, was given to vSaxony; the. rest of Prussia was 
 practically a French, dependency. 
 
 78. What was the Berlin Decree? 
 
 Ans. The Berlin Decree issued by Napoleon while in 
 Berlin was an attempt to strike England through her com- 
 merce by closing all the ports of Europe. It forbade any 
 of the European nations holding any intercourse with 
 Great Britain, whose ports he declared to be in a state of 
 blockade. 
 
 79. Did Austria or Prussia have further conflicts with 
 Napoleon? 
 
 Ans. In 1809, Napoleon was trying to establish his 
 brother Joseph upon the throne of Spain against the 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 39 
 
 opposition of the high-spirited Spaniards, who were aided 
 by Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of WelHngton. 
 Francis II of Austria gathered half a miUion men and 
 declared war on Napoleon, but after a brief campaign, in 
 which Wagram was the principal battle, Napoleon entered 
 Vienna for a second time as conqueror and Austria was 
 further dismembered. The next year Napoleon married 
 Marie Louise, daughter of Francis II of Austria. 
 
 80. What part did Germany take in Napoleon's over- 
 throw? 
 
 Ans. After Napoleon's disastrous campaign in Russia 
 in 1813 the powers of Europe ventured into a sixth coali- 
 tion, embracing at first Russia, Prussia, England, and 
 Sweden. Napoleon was able to defeat this combination at 
 Lutzen but, on Austria's joining the other allies, Napoleon 
 suffered his first square defeat on the field of Leipsic. The 
 battle lasted three days and has been called the Battle of 
 the Nations. After this defeat Napoleon was compelled 
 to abdicate and was banished to the Island of Elba in the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 81. What happened after Napoleon's abdication?' 
 
 Ans. The Congress of Vienna tried for nearly a year 
 to straighten out the much disjointed map of Europe. 
 The only thought seemed to be to put things as they were 
 before the Revolution. There was no thought for the 
 people, only regard for the claims of princes. Germany, 
 like Italy, was divided among a horde of petty tyrants, 
 but the divine right of kings had received a blow from 
 which it was impossible fully to recover. 
 
 82. If Napoleon was beaten at Leipsic and banished to 
 Elba, where does Waterloo come in? 
 
 Ans. In March, 1815, while the Congress at Vienna was' 
 rearranging landmarks and boundaries. Napoleon escaped 
 from Elba, hastening to Paris, where he was received with 
 joy. He desired peace, but a seventh league was formed 
 against him. He won one battle over Bliicher and the 
 Prussians; but Wellington and Bliicher together proved 
 too strong even for the great Napoleon and his power was 
 finally and completely crushed at Waterloo on June 18, 
 1815. Surrendering himself to the English king, he was 
 banished to St. Helena, where he remained until his death. 
 
40 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 83. What was the organization of Germany after the 
 Napoleonic era? 
 
 Ans. The German states, thirty-nine in number, were 
 organized by the Congress of Vienna as a confederation 
 with the Emperor of Austria as president. A diet com- 
 posed of representatives was to settle all matters of dis- 
 pute or of general interest. Each state was to retain 
 independence in its own affairs; it might form alliances 
 with foreign states or even make war upon them, provided 
 it did no harm to its confederates. All religious sects 
 were to enjoy toleration and every state must grant a 
 constitution. 
 
 84. How well did the scheme of the German confed- 
 eration work? 
 
 Ans. The rulers in the German confederation opposed 
 all changes that would give the people any part in the 
 government; they were wedded to the old order of things, 
 while the German people were moved more and more 
 toward freedom and unity. So when the French expelled 
 the Bourbon king, Charles X, in 1830 there were sym- 
 pathetic demonstrations in Germany, and the princes of 
 the smaller states were compelled to give their people 
 the constitutions that had been promised, but which 
 they had thus far refused or neglected to bestow. 
 
 85. What was the Customs Union? 
 
 Ans. About 1830 the Customs Union was formed 
 which bound those belonging to it to adopt the policy of 
 free trade among themselves, and eventually all the 
 states except Austria joined it. This taught the people 
 to think of a more perfect national union in much the 
 same way as the people of the United States developed 
 the present constitution out of the confederation of 1781. 
 
 86. What was the effect of the Customs Union on 
 Prussia and Austria? 
 
 Ans. As Prussia was a strong promoter and the center 
 of the trade agreement, the Germans commenced to look 
 to her as their leader and chief. 
 
 87. What was the next step in the development of 
 modem Germany? 
 
 Ans. In 1848, when another uprising in France estab- 
 lished a new republic, the Liberal Party in Germany arose 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 41 
 
 everywhere and demanded constitutional government. 
 In several states constitutions had been annulled or 
 ignored. Now almost all the princes were obliged to 
 adopt the reform demanded. In Austria and Prussia there 
 was some bloodshed, but the Liberal Party was successful. 
 The Prime Minister of Austria, Prince Metternich, was 
 forced to flee the country for opposing the Liberals. 
 
 88. What changes took place in Germany after the 
 liberalizing Revolution of 1848? 
 
 Ans. Austria had a severe struggle with her Hun- 
 ■ garian subjects when the distinguished orator Kossuth 
 roused the people to declare independence. After a noble 
 fight for a year, the Hungarians were crushed and Hun- 
 gary became a second Poland. Prussia, meantime, pro- 
 posed a plan for the unification of Germany, with herself 
 at the head of the confederation, from which Austria 
 should be excluded. Though Austria had been made the 
 presiding state of the German confederation in 1815 by 
 the Congress of Vienna, Prussia was actually its most 
 powerful member. Several states now joined her and 
 formed the German Union. 
 
 89. What was the result of Prussia's ** stolen base '* 
 of unification? 
 
 Ans. Austria watched this move with concern and, as 
 soon as she had settled the Hungarian difficulty, made a 
 counter move by forming a confederation of all the states 
 that were willing to accept her leadership. 
 
 90. What changes in Prussia preceded the war for 
 supremacy? 
 
 Ans. In 1861 Frederick William IV of Prussia died and 
 his brother William, ah-eady sixty, became king. He 
 made the famous Bismarck prime minister, a despotic 
 conservative who beHeved in a poHcy of '' blood and iron." 
 
 91. What war followed and what were its chief inci- 
 dents? 
 
 Ans. In 1866 a dispute arose between the rival states 
 as to the control of Schleswig and Holstein, two petty 
 provinces, freshly snatched from Denmark. The smaller 
 states mostly aligned themselves with Austria, but Italy 
 
42, HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 was glad to help Prussia on account of her own interests 
 in Austrian Italy. The population of Prussia was less 
 than twenty million, while that of the Austrian confedera- 
 tion was three times as many. But William I, Bismarck 
 and Von Moltke astonished the world by starting war 
 with a quarter of a million men in the middle of June, 
 winning battle after battle. Finally, on the third of July, 
 by the battle of Sadowa in Bohemia, the Emperor of 
 Austria was forced to sue for peace after less than a 
 month's conflict. 
 
 92. What was Prussia's next move after disposing 
 of her only rival, Austria? 
 
 Ans. The North German Union was organized in 1867, 
 Prussia being its president and having command of the 
 entire military force of the union. A constitution was 
 adopted providing for a diet composed of members 
 chosen by the different states, to manage the affairs of 
 the union. 
 
 93. What was still lacking for full unification in 
 Germany? 
 
 Ans. The large states south of the Main, — Baden, 
 Bavaria, and Wiirttemberg, — mostly Catholic, were 
 strongly opposed to Prussia's exaltation to the chief rank, 
 as she was a Protestant state, while many disliked the 
 despotic character of Prussia's government. 
 
 94. What fervid heat finally welded all Germany into 
 its present unity? 
 
 Ans. Napoleon III, Emperor of France, had viewed 
 the rise of power of the Prussian House of Hohenzollern 
 with intense jealousy and was anxious also to emulate 
 his great uncle's military fame by a second conquest of 
 Germany. An excuse for war was found in the offer of 
 the throne of Spain to Leopold, a prince of Prussia, Na- 
 poleon claiming that this was a plot to unite Spain and 
 Austria, as once before under Charles V. 
 
 95. Was Germany eager for the fight with France? 
 
 Ans. Leopold, rather than give offense to France, 
 declined the proffered crown, but Napoleon then demanded 
 assurance that no Hohenzollern would ever seek the 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 43 
 
 Spanish throne. The request was rudely made and was 
 naturally denied, as incompatible with the self-respect 
 of a powerful nation. 
 
 96. What were the consequences? 
 
 Ans. North and south Germany rushed with equal 
 eagerness to defend the honor of the Fatherland. French 
 armies invaded Germany but were hurled back and 
 pushed back to Paris with great momentum. A large 
 French army was defeated at Gravelotte in August, 1870; 
 Napoleon himself was captured at Sedan. Prussians be- 
 sieged Paris and, after a few months' investment, it sur- 
 rendered in June, 1871. 
 
 97. What were the terms of surrender? 
 
 Ans. That France should surrender the main portion 
 of Alsace and Lorraine, pay an indemnity of one billion 
 dollars and allow parts of France to be occupied by. 
 German troops until the fine was paid. 
 
 98. Just how was the new Empire of Germany the 
 result of the Franco-Prussian War? 
 
 Ans. While the siege of Paris was going on, commis- 
 sioners from Baden, Bavaria, and Wiirttemberg, the 
 states of southern Germany, were sent to King William's 
 headquarters at Versailles, expressing their desire to be 
 received into the North German Union. This was allowed 
 and the name changed to the German Confederation. 
 Then, on the suggestion of the King of Bavaria, King 
 Wilham of Prussia, president of the confederation, was 
 given the hereditary title of German Emperor. 
 
 99. What relation is William II of Germany to 
 William I? 
 
 Ans. William I, first emperor of the new Germany, 
 died in 1888 and was succeeded by the Crown Prince 
 Frederick, his popular oldest son, who had won renown 
 in the war with France. He had married the daughter of 
 Victoria and so was brother-in-law to Edward VII of 
 England. Frederick III died of cancer of the throat 
 three months after accession and was succeeded by his 
 son, the present Kaiser William II. 
 
44 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 100. What relation, then, is the Emperor of Germany 
 to George V of England? 
 
 Ans. First cousin. 
 
 101. What relation are the Kaiser of Germany and 
 the Tsar of Russia? 
 
 Ans. No blood relation, but the dowager Empress of 
 Russia, the mother of the Tsar, was a sister of Queen 
 Alexandra, the mother of George V. The Tsarina of 
 Russia is a first cousin of the Kaiser, being the daughter 
 of the late Princess Alice of England, a daughter of Queen 
 Victoria, who married the Grand Unke of Hesse. 
 
 102. Has the Kaiser any other close relationship in- 
 volved in the war? 
 
 Ans. The Queen of Greece is a sister of the Kaiser 
 and has steadily used her influence to keep Greece from 
 joining the Allies. The Queen of Roumania is his first 
 cousin. 
 
 103. Of how many imits is the present German Empire 
 composed? 
 
 Ans. Germany is a confederation of twenty-five states 
 and one common imperial province. 
 
 104. Do the twenty-five or twenty-six different states 
 have equal rank and the same form of local government 
 as is the case in the federal union of the United States 
 and its common District of Columbia? 
 
 Ans. No. In the German confederation there are four 
 kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven princi- 
 palities, three free towns and one reichsland, viz.y Alsace- 
 Lorraine. 
 
 105. What four kingdoms are included in the German 
 Empire? 
 
 Ans. Prussia, by far the largest, most populous and 
 powerful; Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirttemberg. 
 
 106. How do these four kingdoms compare in size and 
 population with our larger United States? 
 
 Ans. Prussia is about the size of California, our second 
 largest state, but has over 40,000,000 people, or about 
 four times as many as New York state, our most populous 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 45 
 
 state. Bavaria is about the size of New England, if 
 Maine is left 9ut, and its population of 7,000,000 is not 
 much different from the five New England states. Saxony- 
 is considerably smaller than Massachusetts, but has 
 1,000,000 more people than the Bay State and is the most 
 congested section of the empire. Wiirttemberg is some- 
 what smaller than Massachusetts and inferior also in 
 population, though holding over 2,500,000. 
 
 107. What are the leading grand duchies, and how 
 large and populous are they? 
 
 Ans. Baden, Hesse, and Mecklenburg-Schwerin are 
 the only ones larger than Rhode Island in size or popula- 
 tion; Baden is as large as Saxony, but has less than half 
 as many people; Hesse is not much different from Rhode 
 Island in size and population. Mecklenburg-Schwerin is 
 nearly as large as Saxony, but has only two-thirds of a 
 million inhabitants. 
 
 108. Which is the largest of the duchies and what is its 
 size and population? 
 
 Ans. Brunswick, the largest of the duchies, has about 
 the size and population of Delaware. 
 
 109. Are the seven principalities of the German Empire 
 important? 
 
 Ans. None of the German principalities has an area 
 of 500 square miles or over 200,000 inhabitants. 
 
 110. What are the three free towns of the German 
 empire? 
 
 Ans. Hamburg, with a population of over 1,000,000; 
 Bremen, with some 300,000; and Lubeck, with less than 
 150,000. 
 
 111. Are the other cities in Germany larger than the 
 free towns? 
 
 Ans. Berlin, the capital, has over 2,000,000 inhabi- 
 tants; Munich, capital of Wiirttemberg, has over 600,000, 
 and so has Leipsic in Saxony; Dresden, capital of Saxony, 
 Cologne on the Rhine, and Breslau all have about 600,000 
 each, There are about fifty towns with over 100,000 each, 
 
46 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 112. What are the area and population of the whole 
 empire? 
 
 Ans, In 1871, the time of the defeat of France, the 
 population was about 41,000,000; in 1910, 65,000,000. 
 The area o! the German Empire is somewhat over 200,000 
 square miles, or considerably less than that of Texas, and 
 not a very great deal more than that of California. Of 
 this area considerably more than half belongs to Prussia, 
 as does also considerably more than half the population. 
 
 113. Do all the inhabitants of the empire speak the 
 German language? 
 
 Ans. About 93 per cent of the inhabitants of the 
 empire speak the German language, the principal excep- 
 tion being four or five million Poles in east and northeast 
 Prussia. 
 
 114. When did Hungary become a part of the Austro- 
 Hungarian Empire? 
 
 Ans. In 1526 the Turks, under Soliman the Great, 
 annihilated the Hungarian forces and carried off 30,000 
 Hungarians as slaves. The king, Louis II, was killed in 
 or soon after the disastrous battle, and the throne became 
 the prize of contending claimants, falling eventually to 
 the Hapsburgs in the person of Ferdinand of Austria. 
 
 115. Where did the Hungarians come from and when? 
 
 Ans. Not much is known about them before their 
 appearance in Europe toward the end of the ninth century. 
 They are generally believed to be the descendants of the 
 ancient Scythians and to have come from the region of 
 the Caspian Sea. They first settled along the middle 
 Volga, but, under pressure westward, crossed the Car- 
 pathian Mountains and conquered the ancient Pannonia 
 and Dacia of the Romans; and in the year 1000 were 
 formed into a regular kingdom by Stephen, who was 
 made a saint by Pope Sylvester II for his efforts in Chris- 
 tianizing his people. The title of " Apostolic King " and 
 the crown, both given by the pope, have been used since 
 by all Hungarian kings. 
 
 116. When was Hungary at its best as an independent 
 nation? 
 
 Ans. In 1301 the house of Arpad, reigning for over 
 three hundred years, became extinct and after much 
 
 I 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 47 
 
 rivalry and various vicissitudes, Hungary was fortunate 
 in gaining a good king in Charles Robert of Anjou, France, 
 who did much to civilize his adopted country; and his 
 son Louis the Great made Hungary the most powerful 
 nation of central Europe in the middle of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 117. How long did Hungary maintain the eminence 
 secured in the middle of the fourteenth century? 
 
 Ans. In 1457 Mathias Corvinus was elected king and 
 carried Hungary to its pinnacle of prosperity and power, 
 conquering Vienna and making it his capital. This was 
 in 1485 and Hungary then covered more ground than at 
 any time before or since. 
 
 118. How did Hungary thrive? 
 
 Ans. When not fighting the Turks, the successors of 
 Ferdinand concentrated their energies on the suppression 
 of Protestantism in Hungary. A Protestant rising in 1683 
 very nearly led to the capture of Vienna and the destruc- 
 tion of Austria, but the King of Poland, John Sobieski, 
 saved Austria. 
 
 119. What has been Hungary's history du ring the nine- 
 teenth century? 
 
 Ans. During the Napoleonic wars Hungary supplied 
 money and troops to the Austrian army and did her share 
 in combating the French, but in 1848 the narrow policy 
 of Metternich drove the Hungarians into revolt under 
 Kossuth. The Austrians were driven out of Hungary, but 
 Russia intervened and Hungary was incorporated as a 
 hereditary province of Austria. This was unsatisfactory 
 to Hungary and, after various efforts, harmony was 
 restored when Francis Joseph was crowned King of 
 Hungary in 1867. 
 
 120. How large is Hungary now? 
 
 Ans. Hungary is still the larger half of the empire and 
 contains about 125,000 square miles, or somewhat less 
 than California. 
 
 121. Just what is the relation existing between Austria 
 and Hvmgary? 
 
 Ans. Hungary, comprising Croatia, Slavonia, Transyl- 
 
48 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 vania, and Fiume, forms the realm of St. Stephen's crown, 
 a factor in the empire-kingdom of the Hapsburg dynasty. 
 The two states form a union under one monarch for 
 mihtary, diplomatic and customs purposes, but otherwise 
 retain their distinct independence. 
 
 122. Were there any outbreaks in Francis Joseph's 
 long raign? 
 
 Ans. There is a fairly numerous party in Hungary that 
 insists on complete separation from Austria, though not 
 hostile to the king. In 1904-5 violent scenes occurred, 
 and the government party was defeated. The nationalists 
 insisted on separation of the two armies, on the use of the 
 Hungarian language in commands, and on separate cus- 
 toms. A few years later the younger Kossuth worked for 
 an independent s':ate bank. Francis Joseph died in 
 November, 1916, and was succeeded by Charles I. 
 
 123. What is the capital of Hungary? 
 
 Ans. Pesth, or, more correctly, Buda-Pesth, on both 
 sides of the Danube, 163 miles farther down the river from 
 Vienna in an east-southeast direction is the capital and 
 leading city of Hungary. Its population is about 900,000, 
 excelled by only three cities in America. It was formed 
 in 1873 by the union of Buda on the west side of the 
 Danube, and Pest, or Pesth, on the east side. The houses 
 of Parliament were built in 1903. Buda was the capital 
 of Roman Pannonia. Pest also existed in Roman history, 
 
 124. How did Germany become involved in the present 
 war? 
 
 Ans. The immediate cause was in the support of her 
 ally, Austria- Hungary, in its attempt to chastise Serbia 
 for the assassination, on June 18, 1914, of the heir pre- 
 sumptive to the Austrian throne, the Archduke Francis 
 Ferdinand, and his wife at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia, a 
 recently acquired province of Austria. The assassin was 
 a Serbian student. The Austrian government believed 
 he was executing a plot laid in Serbia by the government, 
 or at least by men in close touch with the government. 
 
 125. What greater interest did Germany have? 
 
 Ans. It is generally believed that the Serbian incident 
 was not displeasing to Germany and but brought to 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 49 
 
 speedier fruition a plot that Germany had been forming 
 for years to conquer for herself " a place in the sun." 
 
 126. What is meant by " a place in the sun " ? 
 
 Ans. It is a phrase coined by the Kaiser to express the 
 opinion that Germany was being hampered in her develop- 
 ment by England and her allies — overshadowed, as it 
 were, in all attempts to colonize and expand her trade. 
 
 127. Was there foundation for this belief? 
 
 Ans. In so far as her colonization schemes were con- 
 cerned, England had blocked plan after plan, but Ger- 
 many was not hampered in extending her trade, as wit- 
 nessed by her great steamship lines, which traded un- 
 molested in every part of the world. 
 
 128. What was England's object in blocking Germany's 
 colonization? 
 
 Ans. Germany attributed it to the commercial jealousy 
 of an effete country, beaten at its own trade of manu- 
 facturer and trader; but the real reason was that England 
 had colonies in every part of the world. England naturally 
 preferred to choose who should be her neighbors. Bellicose 
 parties are not desirable neighbors and Germany is a firm 
 believer in the idea that might makes right. 
 
 129. How did England block Germany's plans? 
 
 Ans. Because of her insular position and her dependence 
 upon her fleet, both for her food and her commerce, Eng- 
 land's naval policy has been that prudence required a 
 navy equal to that of any other two nations. Largely 
 because of the strength of her navy, England has always 
 been able to wield a decisive hand in all conventions where 
 the balance of power has been settled. 
 
 130. What is meant by ** the balance of power " ? 
 
 Ans. An arrangement among a community of nations 
 such that no single nation or a few in combination may 
 acquire a degree of power that endangers the independence 
 of any other. Where it is impossible to make such an 
 alignment the matter is adjusted by making certain terri- 
 tory neutral. 
 
50 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 131. What notable example is there of such a decree? 
 
 Ans. At the downfall of Napoleon I in 1815, England 
 demanded that the Kingdom of the Netherlands be 
 created. It consisted of what is now Holland and Belgium. 
 This territory had been the cockpit of Europe for centuries. 
 In 1830, Belgium declared her independence and asked for 
 recognition. England and France were willing to grant it 
 but Prussia, Austria and Russia refused, fearing that 
 Belgium would not be strong enough to resist an attack of 
 France. It was finally agreed that Belgium should be 
 " neutral in perpetuity," with the idea that if it were made 
 impossible for a great power to invade it, war would be- 
 come increasingly difficult and dangerous. Ratified by 
 two treaties (1831-1839), the neutrality of Belgium was 
 observed for eighty-three years. 
 
 132. How does ** the balance of power " ent^r into the 
 present struggle? 
 
 Ans. Germany has believed that " the balance of 
 power " was an obstacle to her advancement; that the 
 plans for maintaining equality between the Powers was 
 only a scheme to hold her in fetters. England, on the 
 other hand, for over four hundred years has been the prime 
 factor in maintaining the balance of power. In support 
 of it she fought with Philip II of Spain, Louis XIV and* 
 Napoleon. 
 
 133. When may Germany's modem political relations 
 with England be said to have begun? 
 
 Ans. In the eighteenth century when George I, the 
 Elector of Hanover, became King of England; but it was 
 not until the time of Frederick the Great of Prussia that 
 Germany was given consideration by England as a factor 
 in the balance of power. Austria, as the dominant power, 
 was England's ally as a balance against France; but when 
 Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France to recover 
 Silesia from Frederick, England lent her support to Fred- 
 erick, paying him a subsidy of £670,000 a year. Although 
 Russia, Saxony and Sweden supported Austria, the result 
 of the war was to confirm Prussia, in the possession of 
 ilesia. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 51 
 
 134. What was England's gain as the result of Fred- 
 erick's war? 
 
 Ans. While Frederick was fighting France on the 
 continent, England's navy practically destroyed French 
 maritime competition. As a result of the war, England 
 received Canada, Florida and all French territory east of 
 the Mississippi. Spain received the French territory west 
 of the Mississippi. In India, France renounced the right 
 of exerting political influence. 
 
 135. How did England repay Frederick? 
 
 Ans. Frederick himself has written as follows: " When 
 she concluded peace with France, England sacrificed 
 Prussia's interest in the most shameful manner. She 
 offered Austria the reconquest of Silesia and, in return 
 for this humiliation inflicted on Prussia, the court of 
 Vienna was to be allowed to resume its former friendly 
 relations with England. As if all this treachery were not 
 enough, English diplomacy was busy at St. Petersburg 
 trying to stir up a feud between the King of Prussia and 
 the Tsar Peter III. The alliance, which common inter- 
 ests had concluded, was replaced by bitter enmity and 
 intense hatred." 
 
 136. What is the relationship between Frederick the 
 Great and the present Kaiser, William II? 
 
 Ans. The grandfather of the Kaiser's grandfather was 
 the nephew of Frederick the Great. 
 
 137. What were Germany's relations with England 
 during the Napoleonic Wars? 
 
 Ans. Germany and England fought together to over- 
 throw Napoleon. German historians claim the honor of 
 the defeat for Bliicher and his Prussians, but without the 
 aid of England Napoleon would not have been defeated. 
 
 138. What complaint against England did Germany 
 have at the Congress of Vienna in 1815? 
 
 Ans. England would not allow the annexation of 
 Alsace-Lorraine or Saxony by Prussia, although Russia 
 favored the idea. England saw her advantage in the 
 formation of a weak German confederation under the 
 tutelage of Austria and, with the help of France and 
 
52 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Austria, thus defeated Russia, which was supposed to have 
 designs on Constantinople. 
 
 139. What was the English opinion of Germans at 
 that time? 
 
 Ans. Lord Palmerston described the country as "a 
 land of damned professors." He said that " the German 
 flag was unknown to international law and that British 
 cruisers might treat the ships of the Confederation as 
 pirates." His views were popular with Englishmen. 
 Even Prince Albert, the consort of Queen Victoria, was 
 disliked as a foreigner and considered unw^orthy of the 
 queen. German opinion of Palmerston w^as expressed in 
 a popular rhyme, 
 
 " Hat der Teufel einen Sohn, 
 1st er sicher Palmerston." 
 
 (If the devil has a son, surely it is Palmerston.) 
 
 140. When did the unification of Germany begin? 
 
 Ans. In 1864 when Bismarck annexed Schleswig and 
 Holstein to Prussia. By this move Prussia obtained Kiel 
 and the canal through Holstein, which made possible 
 Germany's great double naval base which is so useful in 
 the present war. Although Palmerston had objected and 
 with Lord John Russell advocated resistance, Queen 
 Victoria interfered in behalf of Prussia, and Bismarck won. 
 
 141. Why did not England intervene in the war of 
 1866, when Prussia defeated Austria? 
 
 Ans. The growing power of France, which had annexed 
 Savoy and Nice, was a menace and England welcomed the 
 new Germany as a factor in the balance of power. 
 
 142. Where were England's sympathies in the Franco- 
 Prussian War m 1870? 
 
 Ans. At the beginning the sympathy was with Ger- 
 many, but when France was w^hipped and Germany arro- 
 gantly insisted upon settlement on her own terms, the 
 sympathy changed to France. England's objections to 
 the exactions of Germany irritated Bismarck, although 
 little consideration was given to them. 
 
 143. Why did England acquiesce? 
 
 Ans. She had troubles of her own. Russia declared 
 itself released from the provisions of the Treaty of Paris 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 53 
 
 (1856), which forbade her to keep a navy in the Black Sea, 
 and was upheld by Bismarck in the repudiation. France 
 was crushed, Austria was not strong enough to oppose both 
 Germany and Russia, England found herself powerless in 
 continental affairs and Germany controlled continental 
 policies. England was in a state of "splendid isolation." 
 
 144. What led to this ** splendid isolation " ? 
 
 Ans. England and France had jointly controlled the 
 finances of Egypt. In 1882, during a revolt in Alexandria, 
 there was a massacre of Europeans. The Turkish govern- 
 ment showed no disposition to straighten out the affair 
 and Great Britain decided to intervene. She invited 
 France to join, but France refused. Sir Garnet Wolseley 
 overthrew the khedive's army in 1883 and the " occupa- 
 tion " of Egypt followed. Lord Granville stated that the 
 occupation would cease when order had been restored. 
 This was not done and the French government continued 
 to call for a fulfillment of the promise. The hostility 
 between the two countries was such that an outbreak was 
 possible at any time and Germany was left a free hand on 
 the continent. 
 
 145. What new policies did Bismarck now inaugurate? 
 Ans. The policy of colonial expansion and that of a 
 
 protective tariff for German industries. 
 
 146. What was England's attitude toward Germany's 
 colonial policy? 
 
 Ans. In each case where she thought it to her dis- 
 advantage she opposed it. She planted her flag in Santa 
 Lucia Bay a short time ahead of the arrival of a German 
 warship coming there for the same purpose in 1884. The 
 next year Bechuanaland was occupied so as to divide the 
 Transvaal and" German Southwest Africa. In other cases 
 England yielded to Germany's efforts. 
 
 147. In what affair did England make a serious mis- 
 take? 
 
 Ans. In settling the affair of the island of Zanzibar* 
 which Germany claimed. While refusing to allow Ger- 
 many's claims to Zanzibar, those to German East Africa 
 were admitted. In this settlement the island of Heligo- 
 land was ceded to Germany. This island, lying forty 
 
54 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 miles northwest of the mouth of the Elbe, has since been 
 fortified by Germany, making it a second Gibraltar. 
 
 148. What brought to England a knowledge of her un- 
 popularity with the world at large? 
 
 Ans. The Boer War in 1899 brought out the fact that 
 English policies and institutions were hated all over the 
 continent. The press of France, Russia and Germany 
 attacked England and her rulers in the most vicious 
 manner, and especially the German papers gloried in the 
 British reverses. The vilest and most Scandalous articles 
 and cartoons appeared, attacking even the beloved 
 Victoria, grandmother of the Kaiser. 
 
 149. What act of Germany especially enraged England? 
 
 Ans. At the time of the Boer War, a telegram from the 
 Kaiser to President Kruger congratulated him on his 
 success in repelling the armed bands which had broken 
 into his country and in maintaining independence against 
 foreign aggression. 
 
 150. What was the result? 
 
 Ans. Many Englishmen began to wonder if the game 
 was worth the candle and to reject the old idea of imperial- 
 ism. They thought the energies of the government might 
 better be devoted to the arts of peace ; that the empire had 
 territory enough and that overexpansion would bring 
 downfall as it did to Rome. 
 
 161. What did Germany think of England's plans of 
 preserving the balance of jpower and the status quo? 
 
 Ans. Treitschke, in his Deutsche Kclmfe, writes! 
 " England: the successful burglar, who, an immense for- 
 tune amassed, has retired from business, and desires now 
 the protection of the police." 
 
 162. What did Germany suggest at the time of the 
 Anglo- Japanese alliance in 1902? 
 
 Ans. Germany suggested that it be a triple alliance of 
 Great Britain, Germany and Japan. She was finally 
 ignored because she demanded terms which Great Britain 
 considered did not divide the responsibilities fairly. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 55 
 
 153. What other events tended to widen the misunder- 
 standings between Germany and England? 
 
 Ans. To England, the naval increase policy of Germany 
 and the ill feeling shown toward England during the Boer 
 War were irritating. Germany felt that when the Boer 
 republics became a part of the British Empire her last 
 opportunity to acquire a colony in a temperate climate 
 had been blocked and the two countries were mutually 
 suspicious of each other. 
 
 164. What occurred at this time to increase this dis- 
 trust? 
 
 Ans. After the Boxer rebellion in China, the Russian 
 troops remained in Manchuria, and in 1901, Russia, by a 
 treaty with China, practically made Manchuria a Russian 
 province. England asked Germany to join in a formal 
 protest in accordance with the terms of the Anglo-German 
 Convention of October, 1900. Germany refused on the 
 ground that the Convention did not provide for such an 
 occurrence. 
 
 155. What was the wording of the ** Convention " ? 
 
 Ans. " In case another power should take advantage of 
 complications in China to obtain territorial advantages 
 in any form whatsoever, the two contracting parties bind 
 themselves to conclude a preliminary agreement with 
 respect to measures eventually to be taken for the pro- 
 tection of their respective interests in China." 
 
 156. What deduction did England make from this 
 refusal? 
 
 Ans. That Germany was playing into Russia's hands to 
 the detriment of England with the intention of causing a 
 rupture between Russia and England and profiting thereby. 
 
 157. What action of England at this time led to far- 
 reaching results? 
 
 Ans. On October 14, 1903, England and France agreed 
 on an arbitration treaty and on April 8, 1904, the agree- 
 ment known as the Entente Cordiale was signed. 
 
 158. What was the nature of the Entente Cordiale? 
 
 Ans. By it, France conceded British paramount interest 
 in Egypt, in return for British concessions allowing France 
 
56 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 full sway in Morocco^ Thus two causes of irritation be- 
 tween France and England were eliminated. 
 
 159. Did Germany object to the Entente Cordiale? 
 
 Ans. Germany did not object at the time because she 
 hoped that Russia might break with her ally, France, for 
 coming to an understanding with Great Britain which for 
 years had opposed Russia both in Europe and Asia. 
 
 160. How was the Entente further strengthened in 
 Great Britain's interest? 
 
 Ans. Italy's interest in Tripoli was guaranteed by 
 France. With Cyprus and Malta as naval bases and with 
 England's agreement with Spain to maintain the status 
 quo in the Mediterranean, a free and uninterrupted inter- 
 course with her Indian colonies was assured. 
 
 161. What move of Germany seemed to threaten Great 
 Britain in her Indian possessions? 
 
 Ans. For some time Germany had been cultivating 
 relations with Turkey and Germans had secured a con- 
 cession for a railway line known in Germany as the 
 '* B. B. B.", Berlin-Byzantium-Bagdad. The projected 
 terminus of this line was on the Persian Gulf within easy 
 striking distance of Bombay. Considering this a hostile 
 enterprise, Great Britain announced that she would re- 
 gard the establishment of a naval base or a fortified port 
 in the Persian Gulf as a very grave menace to British 
 interests and would certainly resist it by all means in her 
 power. 
 
 162. Why did Great Britain consider she was justified 
 in taking such a stand? 
 
 Ans. By a treaty with Persia in 1622, Great Britain 
 agreed " to keep two men-of-war constantly to defend the 
 gulf." Since that year, England has been paramaiimt in 
 the gulf. 
 
 163. What act of Turkey confirmed Great Britain in the 
 belief that her interests were jeopardized? 
 
 Ans. The Turkish government had built a railroad 
 from Damascus to Mecca. By connection with the Bag- 
 dad line at Aleppo, Turkish military forces could be 
 landed on the Egyptian frontier. This line has been used 
 in^Turkey's attack on the Suez Canal in the present war. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 57 
 
 164. What action did Germany take after the defeat of 
 Russia by Japan at Mukden? 
 
 Ans. Germany claimed she had no knowledge of any 
 Anglo-French agreement as to Morocco. The Kaiser, in 
 a speech at Tangier, said: ". I arn determined to do all in 
 my power to safeguard efficaciously the interests of 
 Germany in Morocco." Germany demanded that Mor- 
 occo be placed under international control. Without the 
 support of Russia^ France was not in a condition to resort 
 to arms, therefore decided not to resist Germany's claims, 
 although England offered to land 100,000 troops in Schles- 
 wig-Holstein. 
 
 165. What was the final outcome? 
 
 Ans. It was arranged that a conference of the Powers 
 should meet at Algeciras in January, 1906. At this con- 
 ference Germany had but one supporter, Austria-Hungary. 
 Although theoretically she won by the internationaliza- 
 tion of Morocco, France and Spain were favored by the 
 decisions. 
 
 166. What was another of England^s diplomatic moves? 
 
 Ans. August 31, 1907, a treaty was signed with Russia 
 which dispelled the fear of Russian interference in India 
 and left Russia free to combat Turkish and German 
 activity in the Balkan States and Persia. 
 
 167. How did Germany look on this move? 
 
 Ans. Germany believed it a deep-laid plan to isolate 
 her, and conventions between France and Japan, and 
 Russia and Japan strengthened her belief. England 
 claimed that she was only protecting herself against Ger- 
 man aggression which was being directed against her in 
 every quarter. 
 
 168. What was the result of the Anglo-Russian Con- 
 vention of 1907? 
 
 Ans. Northern Persia became practically a Russian 
 Protectorate in exchange for Russian support of England's 
 control of Southern Persia and the Persian Gulf. Ger- 
 many found herself compelled to accept the conditions in 
 order that her Bagdad railway might be completed. 
 This was finally arranged by providing that the part from 
 
58 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 Bagdad to the Gulf should be built tijader Turkish direc- 
 tion, Germans to have no larger share o;f the capital than 
 any other power. 
 
 169. What act of Austria-Hungary threatened the 
 peace of Europe in 1908? 
 
 Ans. Since the Congress of Berlin, a period of thirty 
 years, Austria-Hungary had occupied Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina. In October, 1908, she announced that she would 
 annex them and Bulgaria declared her independence of 
 Turkey; both were acts in defiance of the decrees of the 
 Congress. Russia agreed to this in return for compensa- 
 tion — namely, the opening of the straits, but the annexa- 
 tion was carried through without any consideration for 
 Russia. 
 
 170. What action did Russia and England take? 
 
 Ans. They demanded a European conference and com- 
 pensation for Serbia, which had hoped to unite the Slavic 
 States under Serbian rule. Serbia protested and, with 
 the support of Russia, England and France, contested 
 Austria's right for six months but was finally obliged to 
 accept the annexation as an accomplished fact. Russia 
 decided not to go to war in her support and Serbia was 
 obliged to sign a renunciation of her claims which ended 
 with the promise: " She undertakes, moreover, to modify 
 the direction of her policy with regard to Austria- Hungary 
 and to live in future on good, neighborly terms with the 
 latter." 
 
 171. What was Germany's attitude in this matter? 
 
 Ans. She notified England that " Germany could not, 
 any more than Austria- Hungary, allow discussion of the 
 annexation by the conference." When mobilization of 
 Austria and Russia threatened an outbreak of war, Eng- 
 land and France suggested that the Powers take action at 
 Vienna and at Belgrade (the capital of Serbia). Germany 
 refused and demanded that Belgrade should yield to 
 Austria. Germany further made representations at St. 
 Petersburg and Russia left Serbia without support. This 
 seems almost like a rehearsal of what occurred five years 
 later, in 1914, with the difference that Russia did not give 
 way in the latter case. 
 
HISTORY OP GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 59 
 
 172. What act of Germany on July 1, 1911, led to 
 further friction? 
 
 Ans. The German gunboat, Panther, anchored in the 
 harbor of Agadir, on the east coast c»f Morocco. Germany 
 notified the Powers that it was sent at the request of 
 German firms in Agadir and vicinity to protect German 
 interests in that territory. As there were no German 
 firms in Agadir, no German interests and no disturbances, 
 it was generally believe^ that Germany hoped to establish 
 a German naval base in that port and to share in the par- 
 tition of Morocco which had already been benevolently 
 divided by France and Spain. 
 
 173. What was Germany^s contention? 
 
 Ans. That France was not abiding by the terms of the 
 Algeciras Convention and was laying plans to take over 
 Morocco. 
 
 174. What incident might be cited in support of Ger- 
 many's contention? 
 
 Ans. In September, 1908, some German subjects who 
 were deserters from the French Foreign Legion were taken 
 by force from the German consular agent at Casablanca 
 as they were embarking for Europe on a German steamer. 
 The tension between France and Germany became so great 
 over the matter that Great Britain and Russia promised to 
 support France as against Germany. Germany sub- 
 mitted the matter to ar Lit rat ion. 
 
 175. What was the result? 
 
 Ans. Germany recognized France's " special political 
 interests" in Morocco and France agreed not to interfere 
 with Germany's cojnmercial and industrial interests in the 
 Sheereefian Empire. Afterwards, Germany proposed to 
 France that all concessions in Mqrbcco should be given to 
 French and German companies and that if any third 
 parties should be admitted, their share should be taken 
 from the French part of the division. 
 
 176. Wh^at was France's reply? 
 
 Ans. She insisted that British and Spanish capital 
 ^^hould be allowed to enter but that all concessions should 
 e to groups satisfactory to both governments. 
 
60 HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 
 
 177. What was the direct cause of Germany's demon- 
 stration at Agadir? 
 
 Ans. The sending of an expedition by France to Fez 
 on the ground that European lives were jeopardized by 
 disturbances in that place. Fez was taken without opposi- 
 tion and Germany believed it to be but the beginning of 
 French action to repudiate the Act of Algeciras. 
 
 178. What step did England take in the Agadir affair? 
 
 Ans. She notified Germany that any arrangement 
 France might make willingly with Germany would be 
 concurred in by England provided that the status quo in 
 the Mediterranean was not upset. But any attempt to 
 force France would not be viewed as a friendly act. She 
 intimated further, diplomatically, that if the consideration 
 of the question was to be of long duration there were 
 better places than in Agadir harbor for the Panther to 
 anchor. In an inspired speech before a financial conven- 
 tion, Lloyd George said that if any attempt were made to 
 treat Great Britain as if she were no account in the cabinet 
 of nations, " that peace at that price would be a humilia- 
 tion intolerable for a great country like ours to endure." 
 
 179. How was Lloyd George's speech received in 
 Germany? 
 
 Ans. Germany considered it a threat and England and 
 Germany were nearer war than they had ever been before. 
 Sir Edward Grey sounded the German government as to 
 whether a proposal for a conference would be acceptable 
 and the reply, though not absolutely conclusive, pointed 
 to the fact that a proposal for a conference might not be 
 acceptable. 
 
 180. What was the outcome of the Franco-German 
 Conference? 
 
 Ans. France was allowed a protectorate over Morocco 
 (although not so called) and pledged herself to the open 
 door. Germany received fropi Prance territory which 
 cdnnects her colonies in the Congo and the settlement was 
 considered a triumph for France even in Germany. The 
 Germans also considered that Great Britain had blocked 
 her plans again. 
 
HISTORY OF GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 61 
 
 . 181. In reviewing the many crises that have irritated 
 all of the Eiuropean countries, what may be summed up as 
 the real cause of the present great war? 
 
 Ans. The greed for power and empire. The diplo- 
 matic tritimphs by means o^ questionable methods. The 
 language o^f European diplomacy which has been a vivid 
 example of Voltaire's saying that they " employ speech 
 only to conceal their thoughts." European diplomacy has 
 come to mean expertness in deceit. Men, who in their 
 private affairs would consider it dishonorable to lie, think 
 it i^heir duty in diplomacy not to tell the truth about their 
 nation's plans. Actions which in an individual would be 
 punished as theft, when performed in behalf of a nation 
 become diplomatic triumphs. 
 
 182. Was Germany any greater offender in this regard 
 than the other countries? 
 
 Ans. To an equal degree of deceit and dishonesty, 
 Germany has added brutality in all her dealings. She 
 has rattled her sabre and played the part of a bully in 
 every case when she thought she could win by doing so. 
 Her attempt to foirm an alliance against the United States 
 at the beginning of the Spanish War and German inter- 
 ference with Dewey at Manila are well remembered. To 
 this she adds either blasphemy or insanity, as witness the 
 words of the Kaiser in his Proclamation to the Army, 
 September 13, 1914. 
 
 " The spirit of God has descended upon Me because I am 
 German Emperor. I am the instrument of the Most High, 
 I am His sword, His representative on earth. Woe and 
 death to those who oppose My willl Death to the infidel who 
 denies My mission! Lei all the enemies of the German 
 nation perish! God demands their destruction — God, who 
 by My mouth summons you to carry out His decrees.^' 
 
I 
 
 l«56 
 
r^ 
 
 i 
 

 % 
 
 * %/ '^^ 
 
 
 
 
 5> «'"•♦ '<t 
 
 
 ?* ^ ^<^ • 
 
 * A 
 
 ^V->u 
 
 
 ^^. 
 
 .-l^Xv . 
 
 
 •* ,0^' '•'^ 'O. » - 4, 
 
 
 
 • .^ o^ • 
 
 <0«7*. 
 
^BP 
 
 .0 '^• 
 
 
 
 
 
 O W 
 
 

 
 mm 
 
 m 
 
 ISlli 
 
 
 iiiin.RA!^y OF CONGRESS 
 
 029 937 656 4 
 
 
 
 ^m