TN295 
 .U4 
 
 5SSi 
 
 
 .> -f^iXl 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ,'>rvi">Kf; 
 
 l.\.> 
 
 '^^'*'/ '"'*«;•' 
 
 hS'; 
 
 {■^■■'i^J^ 
 
 *vK 
 
 *-' '•*i'tt^'i 
 
 >j:V 
 
 
 
 WMi. 
 
 
 
 1B-»P 
 
 I / 
 
 
 iVi it, I ^ MS \, vV ', <• ■- 
 

 f-ov^^ /^if^.-. '-^^o^' »*^^ia"- ^o^y :m^n.\ '-^^o^' ». 
 
 
 
 -^.Z .-^K- \.^^ .*^&'- X.^^ -^^ 
 
 .^^"^. 
 
 ; .^'-V, 
 
 
 
 f'^rH 
 
 *6^ 
 
 'TVT* /\ 
 
 
 >' ..-•. *^- 
 
 ^oV 
 
 ^. _ , _ . „ V-^ 
 
 
 ^O..*^-*\0^ 
 
 
 l^'* > 
 
 
 
 V • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 **i6 aP . 
 
 ,_/ **'"** -.•.^-. «. 
 
 V-^" 
 
 V ^'^^ -^^ 
 
 *bv' 
 
 
 4>9^ 
 
 
 
 r. ^^ A^ »>Va' >. .c'?^'* »'^siB^'- ^.c. ^ u 
 
 
 
 
 ,• -^^ 
 
 
 
 r..^ oV^^^ia'. -^v*^ :;S^^ "-^^o* '"^M": -ov*" :^K^*- -^^o^ r-'^^fea-. '^ov 
 
 
 
 77* A 
 
 A^ 
 
 
 o. *^-:^- ._<v _ <.^ '0-.7. 0^ 
 
 
 'bV 
 
 '>o^ 
 
 
 ./'^^i-iz^^- ^-^-^ 
 
 O'*" e'VV*, "* 
 
 ^^6* 
 
^°v 
 
 ^^ 
 
 / -A'- ^^/ :^Mk^ \^^^ -A'* ^^s^^"' '' 
 
 ^°-'^. 
 
 
 
 
 'bV" 
 
 '>0^ 
 
 "oV"" 
 
 -^o^ 
 
 
 
 <^ 
 
 V •j:^'*. o. 
 
 'bV 
 
 
 e, vP * 
 
 <. *^T7 
 
 0.-1°^ 
 
 
 • ^V 
 
 
 V" •i:i^'*. cv 
 
 
 
 .it. 
 
 
 «»i,<.v o'«r^:^Pk. '-^^ « -jsim>^\ ^^^-^ 
 
 
 .4 
 
 ,-lo<. 
 
 'bv 
 
 .HO* . 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 
 * » • • , 
 
 
 
 
 ^_> ' • • 
 
 
 C»sP 
 
 
 
 ^'^" . 
 
 'bV 
 
 -^o 
 
i 
 
IC 
 
 8946 
 
 Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1983 
 
 Selected Raw Material Requirements 
 for Japan's Specialty Steel Industry 
 
 By E. Chin, John C. Wu, L. Nahai, Gordon L. Kinney, 
 and Charles L. Kimbell 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 
Information Circular 8946 
 
 Selected Raw Material Requirements 
 for Japan's Specialty Steel Industry 
 
 By E. Chin, John C. Wu, L. Nahai, Gordon L. Kinney, 
 and Charles L. Kimbell 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
 James G. Watt, Secretary 
 
 BUREAU OF MINES 
 Robert C. Horton, Director 
 
As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior 
 has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural 
 resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water re- 
 sources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and 
 cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for 
 the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses 
 our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is 
 in the best interests of all our people. The Department also has a major re- 
 sponsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who 
 live in Island TerritOTies under U.S. administration. 
 
 > 
 
 C\ 
 
 .6 
 
 \y^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 O 
 
 V)- 
 
 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: 
 
 Selected raw material requirements for Japan's specialty steel industry. 
 
 (Information circular ; 8946) 
 
 Bibliography: p. 34. 
 
 Supt. of Docs, no.: I 28.27:8946. 
 
 1. Steel industry and trade— Japan. 2. Steel industry and trade- 
 United States. 3. Steel alloys— Economic aspects— Japan. 4. Raw 
 materials— Japan. I. Chin, Edmond. II. Series: Information circular 
 (United States. Bureau of Mines) ; 8946. 
 
 -f^^m^^m 622s [333.8'5l 83-600090 [HD9526.J32] 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 
 Washington, D.C. 20402 
 
s 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 (^ Page 
 
 Abs tract 1 
 
 i Introduction 2 
 
 ^ Overview of the Japanese economy 2 
 
 ^Japan's mineral dependency 3 
 
 J Status of the Iron and steel Industry 3 
 
 Status of the ferroalloy Industry 4 
 
 Industry structure 4 
 
 Production 6 
 
 C^ Trade 6 
 
 ^ Supply 6 
 
 ^ Consumption 10 
 
 \]\ Raw material requirements and supplies 10 
 
 Chromium 10 
 
 •^ Cobalt 13 
 
 Manganese 14 
 
 Nickel 18 
 
 Tungsten 18 
 
 Status of the specialty steel Industry 21 
 
 Production 21 
 
 Consumption 21 
 
 Trade 21 
 
 Raw materials policy 24 
 
 Measures to assure supply 25 
 
 Stockpile programs 25 
 
 Chromium 26 
 
 Cobalt 27 
 
 Manganese 28 
 
 Nickel 29 
 
 Tungsten 30 
 
 Implications of supply Interruption 31 
 
 Impact on the Japanese economy 31 
 
 Impact on the U.S. economy 32 
 
 Conclusions 33 
 
 Bibliography 34 
 
 TABLES 
 
 1. Iron and steel production, 1970-81 4 
 
 2. Percentage share of ferroalloy output In 1981, by producer 5 
 
 J 3. Ferroalloy production for 1972-81, by type 7 
 
 ^4. Ferroalloy trade for 1972-81, by type 8 
 
 j 5. Ferroalloy consumption for steel production, 1973-81 11 
 
 ^^^ 6. Salient chromium statistics 12 
 
 p 7. Salient cobalt statistics 15 
 
 ^ 8. Salient manganese statistics 16 
 
 9 . Salient nickel statistics 19 
 
 10. Salient tungsten statistics 20 
 
 Kll. Production of hot-rolled specialty steel, by type 21 
 
 12. Production and sales of specialty steel semimanufactures In 1981 22 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^13. Consumption of specialty steel In 1981, by type 22 
 
 X^ 14. Japanese exports and U.S. imports of specialty steel, 1973-81 22 
 
 15. Export of selected products containing specialty steel 23 
 
 16. Gross domestic product in 1980, by Industry 31 
 
 17. Employment in 1980, by Industry 31 
 
 18. Demand for specialty steel products in 1980, by Industry 32 
 
SELECTED RAW MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR JAPAN'S SPECIALTY STEEL INDUSTRY 
 
 By E. Chin, ^ John C. Wu, ^ L, Nahai,^ Gordon L, Kinney,^ and Charles L, Kimbell 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Although Japan is a major producer of crude steel, it is poor in in- 
 dustrial raw materials. This Bureau of Mines report describes Japan's 
 raw material needs for chromium, cobalt, manganese, nickel, and tungsten 
 to produce ferroalloys and alloy steels. Japanese imports of these ores 
 or metals by quantity and source are given for 1972-81, inclusive, to 
 indicate (1) the changes in the consumption and supply pattern, and (2) 
 the degree of Japan's dependence on foreign sources. This report also 
 describes measures implemented by Japan to reduce the risk. of supply in- 
 terruption, and discusses the possible implications of supply shortages. 
 
 ^Physical scientist. 
 ^Economist. 
 Division of Foreign Data, Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Although Japan is poor in industrial 
 raw materials and fuels, it ranks among 
 the top manufacturing countries in the 
 world. Of its metal industries, iron and 
 steel play a crucial role in Japan's 
 economy despite its overwhelming reli- 
 ance on foreign sources of iron ore and 
 coal. In 1982, Japan was the second 
 largest world producer of crude steel. 
 Moreover, downstream production of spe- 
 cialty steel3 is likewise of world sig- 
 nificance. For alloying ingredients, the 
 ferroalloy and specialty steel sectors 
 are similarly dependent on foreign raw 
 materials. Japanese industry is totally 
 dependent on imports for nickel and al- 
 most wholly so for cobalt. In addition, 
 domestic mine production contributes only 
 a modest share of the industrial require- 
 ment for chromium, manganese, and tung- 
 sten. Hence, severe limitations on se- 
 curing raw material supplies of cobalt, 
 chromium, manganese, nickel, and/or tung- 
 sten would affect Japan's industrial pro- 
 duction, and in turn, would affect coun- 
 tries that import a substantial volume of 
 Japanese manufactures containing these 
 metals. 
 
 The bulk of Japan's ferroalloy supply 
 is consumed in the production of various 
 steel compositions; exports represent on- 
 ly a small percentage of demand. The 
 United States has been the largest market 
 for Japanese ferroalloys, but the share 
 
 of total U.S. imports, never large, has 
 been dwindling for the past decade. 
 Japan exports a larger quantity of spe- 
 cialty steel, and exports to the United 
 States have accounted for 30% to 40% of 
 U.S. imports. 
 
 Exports of steel products, on the other 
 hand, make a significant contribution to 
 Japan's overall economy whether in the 
 form of semimanufactures or as an inte- 
 gral component of finished goods. A 
 fairly substantial share of these prod- 
 ucts is exported to the United States, 
 and this constitutes a substantial part 
 of total U.S. imports in these classes. 
 Thus, the impact of any significant 
 shortfall in the supply of cobalt, chro- 
 mium, manganese, nickel, and tungsten 
 would cause Japan to curtail exports of 
 ferroalloys and specialty steel semimanu- 
 factures and to maintain the highest vol- 
 ume of exports of finished goods. 
 
 Because of its import dependency, the 
 Japanese government and industries have 
 adopted measures to cope with supply in- 
 terruptions. These include diversifica- 
 tion of supply sources and metal stock- 
 piling. This report examines the impact 
 of interruptions of raw material supplies 
 to Japan's specialty steel industry and 
 examines the subsequent impact on the 
 United States. 
 
 OVERVIEW OF THE JAPANESE ECONOMY 
 
 Japan's economy ranked third in the 
 world, with a gross national product 
 (GNP) of $1,139.3 billion in 1981 (at 
 Y220.54 = US$1. 00). The GNP nearly dou- 
 bled between 1965 and 1970, doubled 
 
 ^In U.S. usage, specialty steel gen- 
 erally includes stainless steels, tool 
 steels, high-speed steels, high-tempera- 
 ture alloys, superalloys, and miscellane- 
 ous special-use alloys. The Japanese 
 data cited in this report also include 
 indeterminant types and quantities of 
 carbon alloy steels in the specialty 
 steel classification. 
 
 bfetween 1970 and 1975, and increased 70% 
 between 1975 and 1981. Major industries 
 are metallurgical and engineering, elec- 
 tric and electronic, textile, and chemi- 
 cal, all of which depend substantially on 
 imported materials — ores and metals. The 
 dependency is particularly great for min- 
 erals and fuels, which provide the basis 
 for a gigantic processing and manufactur- 
 ing industry for the domestic and export 
 markets. Of total 1980 exports of $130.7 
 billion, 88% was manufactures (including 
 27% machinery, 23% motor vehicles, and 
 14% iron and steel). Manufacturing, min- 
 ing, and construction accounted for 35% 
 
of employment. For the same period. Im- 
 ports totaled $122.9 billion: 50% fossil 
 fuels, 17% manufactures, 13% foodstuffs, 
 and 8% machinery and equipment. Despite 
 Japan's heavy reliance on fossil fuel 
 imports, the country withstood the shock 
 of substantially higher petroleum prices 
 in 1974 and remained competitive in the 
 world marketplace. This was achieved 
 through monetary and fiscal policies 
 such as curtailment of spending for 
 public works, increased taxes, limits 
 on credit expansion, and labor wage re- 
 straints. The economy also benefited 
 from a sustained market for exports and 
 an increase in labor productivity in the 
 
 manufacturing sector. The index for la- 
 bor productivity 1975=100 increased from 
 127 in 1978 to 142 in 1979, and to 160 in 
 1981. The total labor force grew from 
 55.3 million in 1978 to 57.1 million in 
 1981. The unemployment rate decreased 
 from 2.2% in 1978 to 2.0% in 1980, but 
 rose to 2.2% in 1981. The favorable 
 trade balance in 1980 indicates that the 
 second increase in oil prices of 1979 has 
 also been taken in stride by the Japanese 
 economy. Japanese goods and manufactures 
 are expected to remain competitive in 
 world markets and earn for Japan the 
 funds needed for Importing fuels and raw 
 materials, as well as other requirements. 
 
 JAPAN'S MINERAL DEPENDENCY 
 
 Japan is dependent on imports of for- 
 eign ores and metals; the value of domes- 
 tic mine output constitutes less than 1% 
 of the GNP. Its self-sufficiency is lim- 
 ited largely to nonme tallies such as 
 aggregates, bromine and iodine; and lime- 
 stone, dolomite, and seawater magnesia. 
 At the other extreme, Japan is 100% de- 
 pendent on foreign sources of bauxite 
 (aluminum), nickel, and titanium, and al- 
 most wholly dependent on foreign sources 
 for chromium, iron, manganese, oil and 
 natural gas, and uranium. Indigenous 
 ores account for about 5% of the refined 
 copper metal production, about 25% of the 
 lead metal, and to about 35% of the zinc 
 metal. 
 
 In contrast to the very low contribu- 
 tion of domestic mineral production to 
 the GNP, the country's mineral processing 
 and smelting industries account for about 
 19% of the GNP. In fact, industries that 
 
 process minerals and produce metals , 
 specifically iron and steel, nonferrous 
 metals , and cement and nitrogenous fer- 
 tilizers, are very large. Peak annual 
 production during the 1970' s includes the 
 following, in million tons: 4 aluminum 
 1.1, copper 1.0, steel 119, ferroalloys 
 2.3, lead 0.2, zinc 0.9, and cement 87. 
 With respect to fuels, Japan has had a 
 peak production of 1,700 million 42-gal 
 barrels of petroleum refinery products 
 and 46 million tons of coke from imported 
 and some domestic coal. 
 
 Securing a stable supply of overseas 
 raw materials (specifically, ores and 
 metals) at reasonable prices from as many 
 different sources as possible has been a 
 critical element of Japan's foreign eco- 
 nomic and commercial policy. The section 
 "Raw Material Policy" includes a brief 
 outline of the measures taken by the gov- 
 ernment to implement the policy. 
 
 STATUS OF THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY 
 
 Japan's steel industry paralleled the 
 growth of its economy increasing from a 
 crude steel production level of 4.8 mil- 
 lion tons in 1950, to a peak of 119.3 
 million tons in 1973 (table 1). With an- 
 ticipated output of 99.5 million tons in 
 
 1982, Japan ranked second as a producer 
 of crude steel following the U.S.S.R. 
 
 ^Throughout this report, "tons" means 
 "metric tons." 
 
TABLE 1. - Iron and steel production, 1970-81, million tons 
 
 
 
 
 Crude 
 
 Hot-rolled semimanufactures 
 
 
 
 
 
 Share of 
 
 Year 
 
 Pig iron 
 
 Ferroalloys 
 
 steel 
 
 Specialty 
 steel 
 
 Other 
 steel 
 
 Total 
 
 specialty 
 steel in 
 total, % 
 
 1970 
 
 68.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 93.3 
 
 7.4 
 
 68.6 
 
 76.0 
 
 9.7 
 
 1971 
 
 72.7 
 
 1.9 
 
 88.6 
 
 6.9 
 
 65.2 
 
 72.1 
 
 9.6 
 
 1972 
 
 74.1 
 
 1.7 
 
 96.9 
 
 7.2 
 
 74.9 
 
 82.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 1973 
 
 90.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 119.3 
 
 9.1 
 
 92.6 
 
 101.7 
 
 8.9 
 
 1974 
 
 90.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 117.1 
 
 9.3 
 
 91.0 
 
 100.3 
 
 9.3 
 
 1975 
 
 86.9 
 
 2.1 
 
 102.3 
 
 8.0 
 
 77.9 
 
 85.9 
 
 9.3 
 
 1976 
 
 86.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 107.4 
 
 9.9 
 
 83.2 
 
 93.1 
 
 10.6 
 
 1977 
 
 85.9 
 
 1.8 
 
 102.4 
 
 10.3 
 
 79.6 
 
 89.9 
 
 11.5 
 
 1978 
 
 78.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 102.1 
 
 11.7 
 
 79.6 
 
 91.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 1979 
 
 83.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 111.7 
 
 12.5 
 
 89.1 
 
 101.6 
 
 12.3 
 
 1980 
 
 87.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 111.4 
 
 12.9 
 
 88.9 
 
 101.8 
 
 12.7 
 
 1981 
 
 80.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 101.7 
 
 13.3 
 
 79.8 
 
 93.1 
 
 14.3 
 
 During the first modernization program 
 (1951-56) of the iron and steel industry, 
 three integrated steelworks were comr- 
 pleted: Chiba in 1951, Kure in 1952, and 
 Hikari in 1955. Introduction of new 
 technology by the industry included hot- 
 rolled silicon steel sheet, hot strip 
 rolling, continuous galvanizing, electro- 
 lytic tinning, and basic oxygen furnace 
 (BOF) steelmaking. During the second and 
 third modernization programs (1957-61) 
 and (1962-66), five integrated steelworks 
 were inaugurated: Nagoya in 1958, Mizu- 
 shima and Sakal in 1961, and Fukuyama and 
 Kimitsu in 1965. New technology intro- 
 duced during this period included com:- 
 puter control, cold-rolled silicon steel 
 sheet, vacuum degassing, controlled- 
 pressure rolling, continuous casting, di- 
 rect reduction, and blast furnace high- 
 top-pressure operation. During 1967-68, 
 construction of the Kashima, Keihln, 
 Kakogawa integrated steelworks were com^ 
 pleted, in that order. Japan's newest 
 
 integrated steelworks is the Oita Works 
 of Nippon Steel Corp. , which was complet- 
 ed in 1971. Plant operation is complete- 
 ly computer controlled, and the mill fea- 
 tures 100% continuous-casting operation. 
 New technology introduced between 1967 
 and 1980 included blast furnace stove 
 cooling, pelletlzlng, coke dry quenching, 
 and bottom blown BOF steelmaking (Q-BOP). 
 The integrated steelworks are coastally 
 located, facilitating receipts of metal 
 ores and coal from overseas suppliers. 
 Raw materials discharged from giant car- 
 riers feed some of the world's largest 
 (5,000-m^) blast furnaces, which in turn 
 feed large basic os^gen furnaces, and 
 then modern rolling mills. 
 
 A substantial share of Japan's steel 
 production (e.g. , 32% in 1981) is export- 
 ed» Although the United States and the 
 European Comiminity are the principal mar- 
 kets, Japan exports steel to dozens of 
 countries on all continents. 
 
 STATUS OF THE FERROALLOY INDUSTRY 
 
 INDUSTRY STRUCTURE 
 
 In the past 5 years, the active Japa- 
 nese ferroalloy industry has comprised 
 about 35 companies, but 8 of these re- 
 corded no production in 1981. Of the 
 remainder, 17 collectively accounted for 
 over 90% of 1981 output of 10 major fer- 
 roalloy types, as indicated in table 2. 
 
 Moreover, one of these firms. Pacific 
 Metals Co. Ltd., together with four other 
 firms not listed in the table, accounted 
 for all ferronickel output, though the 
 relative share of total provided by each 
 is not available. The four unlisted 
 firms are Nippon Yakin Kogyo Co., Ltd., 
 Nippon Mining Co., Sumitomo Metal Mining 
 Co., and Shlmura Kako Co. Ltd. 
 
y 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 ,0 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 ■u 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 U 
 (U 
 
 O 
 
 0) 
 
 cd 
 
 CO 
 
 (U 
 bO 
 
 4J 
 
 c 
 <u 
 
 CJ 
 
 M 
 (U 
 
 CM 
 
 W 
 
 1 
 
 •H 
 
 
 ir 
 
 t 
 
 c 
 
 
 <y 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ ON 
 
 
 
 
 
 XI 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 t 4 
 
 > 
 
 
 • 
 
 M & 
 
 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 ex 
 
 I 
 
 c 
 
 > c 
 
 ) 
 
 CN 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 3 
 
 
 1— 
 
 
 cs 
 
 
 r— 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 CM -H 
 
 
 
 
 (U H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -H 
 
 
 r> 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cs 
 
 1 f^ 
 
 
 
 
 M -O 
 
 
 < 
 
 » 
 
 fl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 4 
 
 > 
 
 
 • 
 
 M <d 
 
 
 -4 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 00 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 <u a 
 
 
 C" 
 
 1 
 
 cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — « CM 
 
 
 
 
 [X4 Cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •—1 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 ir 
 
 
 r>» 
 
 
 vC 
 
 > 
 
 
 CO 
 
 r>. vD vO 
 
 
 
 
 M ta 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 U Xi 
 
 
 I— 
 
 
 vC 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 ' 
 
 c 
 
 > r> 
 
 . 
 
 <1 
 
 <i- 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U >% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cs 
 
 1 rH ^ 
 
 
 
 
 PP n^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ?•■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o> m 
 
 vO 
 
 
 
 r^ rH rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 • • • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 M ^H 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 <-H cs CM 
 
 00 00 00 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 M .H 
 
 
 
 
 cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH CM 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) -H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 pc* CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 C3C 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 cs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 > 
 
 Xi 
 
 < 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 ir 
 
 > 
 
 cs 
 
 
 
 CN 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 00000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 cd 
 
 c^ 
 
 1 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 CN 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wM 
 
 J- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ___ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ex: 
 
 > 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 c 
 
 > r^ 
 
 
 
 
 1— * 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 xi 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 « 
 
 1 • 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 M 
 
 W) 
 
 h 
 
 c^ 
 
 > 
 
 oc 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 > 00 
 
 c 
 
 > -;! 
 
 ■ 
 
 10 00000 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 •H 
 
 cd 
 
 r— 
 
 
 CN 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 1 
 
 
 CN 
 
 1 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pd 
 
 Pd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 
 r> 
 
 
 ir 
 
 ■<r 
 
 IT 
 
 ( 00 
 
 c 
 
 ON ON 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 i 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 
 > • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 •H cd 
 
 
 cr 
 
 t 
 
 CN 
 
 CO 
 
 c 
 
 1 CM 
 
 w 
 
 ( r>. eg 
 
 00000 
 
 Cs| 
 
 
 
 H bO 
 
 
 
 
 CN 
 
 <-i 
 
 cs 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •H C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <—> 
 
 CO g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 <T 
 
 t 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ir 
 
 » 00 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 
 » • 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 )-l 
 
 .— 
 
 
 CS 
 
 m 
 
 
 <T\ 
 
 c 
 
 ) >3- 
 
 00000 
 
 VO 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 iJ 
 
 cd 
 
 1— 
 
 1 
 
 >i 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 <T 
 
 \ 
 
 vC 
 
 > C» 
 
 r^ 
 
 . r^ 
 
 c 
 
 » vO 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 bO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 » 
 
 1 
 
 t • 
 
 4 
 
 > • 
 
 
 » • 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 fl 
 
 •H 
 
 ^ 
 
 CN 
 
 1 
 
 C 
 
 > -* 
 
 00 
 
 cs 
 
 r^ 
 
 00000 
 
 CN 
 
 
 
 
 -ca 
 
 M 
 
 I— 
 
 t 
 
 c- 
 
 1 
 
 r- 
 
 1 
 
 CN 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iB 
 
 Cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 r> 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 OC 
 
 ) 00 
 
 oc 
 
 > m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &H 
 
 Xi 
 
 43 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 4 
 
 1 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 W) 
 
 M 
 
 1— 
 
 
 C 
 
 > m 
 
 ON vO 
 
 oc 
 
 » r>. 
 
 00000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Cd 
 
 
 CN 
 
 
 CM 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » • 
 
 
 
 
 1 • • • 4 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 ■ • • • • 
 
 : • ' 
 
 
 
 
 > CO 
 
 
 > • 
 
 
 
 ^ 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 1 • • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « r-i 
 
 
 t m 
 
 
 
 • 4 
 
 » 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 > r-t < 
 
 
 » • • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « Cd 
 
 
 > TS 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 > 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 > Cd 
 
 
 ► • • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 > -U 
 
 
 
 u « 
 
 » 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « -H < 
 
 
 . . . 73 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 :i 
 
 
 - hJ 
 
 
 . 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >» < 
 
 > i-> < 
 
 
 > • • 4H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 4-> 
 
 >> ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u < 
 
 > 4J • 
 
 
 ; ^ ^ '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' (U 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 I ^ 
 
 « 
 
 » 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■M < 
 
 • CO < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' X! 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 rH < 
 
 
 1 M 4 
 
 
 
 CO < 
 
 . 3 4 
 
 
 1 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' U 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 • 
 
 ^ : 
 
 1 4 
 
 > s ^ 
 
 ' 73 
 
 3 < 
 
 , -T3 < 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 73 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ; 
 
 » 4 
 
 > 
 
 - hJ 
 
 T3 ' 
 
 > M < 
 
 • >, >%o 
 
 « U bO bO 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 : ^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 < 
 M < 
 
 > T) OO M &^ 
 
 1 ** 
 
 M 4 
 
 . ca < 
 
 000 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 iH 
 
 M < 
 
 > +j -u fe^ 
 
 • 
 
 rH 4 
 
 
 ' C 3 
 
 
 
 
 Cd 
 
 
 c 
 
 ) CO 
 
 
 • i^ 
 
 C 
 
 : cd 
 
 <U < 
 
 ' ^ i^ Qi 
 
 
 
 Cd < 
 
 ! bo '< 
 
 ' -H 3 0) 
 
 
 
 
 i- 
 
 
 ,i<: 
 
 rH 
 
 
 1 
 
 cc 
 
 t u 
 
 (x< 
 
 4J C 
 
 ! " 
 
 +J < 
 
 ' a < 
 
 ' 3 CO ^ Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 Cd 
 
 
 ► 'H 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' (U 
 
 
 > rH Cd -H 4< 
 
 
 Q) < 
 
 > -H ' 
 
 • -H 'H Cd 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 » -U 
 
 
 l-^ 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 (d < 
 
 • 0) ^ OJ C 
 
 > (U c CO a 
 
 c 
 
 a ; 
 
 ' C ' 
 
 - a <U bO Cd 
 
 
 Cd 
 
 u 
 
 
 c 
 
 1 <U 
 
 X 
 
 &^ 
 
 
 S 4 
 
 ) cd 
 
 
 :id : 
 
 t»i cd g 
 ' cd « -H 
 
 
 ■U 
 
 
 
 
 . a 
 
 *-_ 
 
 1 (U 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 •H ' 
 
 • 4-t (U c 
 
 ) CO 
 
 cd < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 1 Q 
 
 c 
 
 ' 'H 
 
 x: ' 
 
 1 CO Q 'H 
 
 q 
 
 f-4 < 
 
 
 > M C 43 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 ) M-l 
 
 CO 
 
 > bO CI 
 
 ! ^ 
 
 3 
 
 . 
 
 > cd -H CO 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 lu cd 
 
 
 • 
 
 e 
 
 U-H 
 
 3 t: 
 
 1 (U (d 13 
 
 
 g X 
 
 I >% < 
 
 . 3 (X J«! 3 
 
 <V 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 U (X 
 
 c 
 
 ) 3 
 
 c 
 
 U CJ 
 
 N 4- 
 
 1 Xi >>J3 C 
 
 i (U 
 
 • -H C 
 
 ) (U a 3 ^ 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 •r 
 
 1 cd 
 
 c_ 
 
 > J3 
 
 •r 
 
 1 cd 
 
 •H _: 
 
 1 cd j: 
 
 ! 43 
 
 > h: 
 
 1 cd c 
 
 » cd -H dJ cd 
 
 4J 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ! T) 
 
 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 : PM 
 
 a 
 
 fx: 
 
 ; E- 
 
 > 
 
 t CA 
 
 1 t3 
 
 <J 
 
 H 
 
 E- 
 
 2: Q tH 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 u 
 d) 
 o 
 
 3 
 T) 
 O 
 M 
 (X 
 
 CO 
 
 0) 
 •3 
 
 3 
 H 
 O 
 
As in most other market economy na- 
 tions, Japan's major ferroalloy producers 
 by and large are not major steel produc- 
 ers. Of the firms listed in the table, 
 only Nippon Kokan KK and Kobe Steel Ltd. 
 rank as major integrated steel producers; 
 of the ferronickel firms, only Sumitomo 
 (through its affiliation with Sumitomo 
 Metal Industries) could be regarded as 
 connected with a major steel firm. 
 
 PRODUCTION 
 
 As shown in table 3, Japan produces a 
 virtually complete range of ferroalloys, 
 principally for domestic production of 
 alloy steel rather than for the export 
 market. In terms of tonnage, the man- 
 ganese ferroalloys (f erromanganese and 
 f errosilicomanganese) are the largest 
 category, accounting for over 49% of 
 total output, during 1972-81, inclusive, 
 followed by the chromium ferroalloys 
 (f errochromium and ferrosilicochromium) 
 with nearly 22% of the total for the 
 same period. Next in importance, and the 
 only other substantial types are ferro- 
 silicon, with 16% of the total, and fer- 
 ronickel with 12%; all others together 
 account for less than 1% of total 1972-81 
 output. 
 
 Total ferroalloy production in Japan 
 reached a record high in 1974, the year 
 after its record high in crude steel 
 output level. Ferrochrome, ferrosilicon, 
 and ferrosilicomanganese reached maximum 
 output levels in 1974; thereafter, their 
 production turned generally downward and, 
 although there were individual recoveries 
 from time-to-time, these ferroalloys did 
 not reach new record highs from 1975 
 through 1981. Ferromanganese production 
 peaked in 1975, then generally turned 
 downward, with 1978 being a particularly 
 poor year. Unlike the other major ferro- 
 alloys, ferronickel output reached a rec- 
 ord high in 1979, following a less promi- 
 nent peak in 1974. Among the minor 
 
 alloys, the years of record output seem 
 less clearly defined. 
 
 TRADE 
 
 Table 4 summarizes Japan's imports and 
 exports of ferroalloys during 1972-81. A 
 clear shift occurred between the first 5 
 years of the decade and the last 5 years: 
 Japan changed from a modest net exporter 
 to a large net importer. During 1972-76, 
 exports (totaling nearly 805,000 tons) 
 exceeded imports by 146,000 tons; in con- 
 trast, during 1977-81, imports (totaling 
 nearly 2,036,000 tons) exceeded exports 
 by nearly 1,631,000 tons. 
 
 SUPPLY 
 
 Domestic production of ferroalloys, 
 overwhelmingly from imported raw materi- 
 als, accounted for 87.5% of total new 
 supply (domestic output plus imports) of 
 these important materials during 1972-81, 
 inclusive. Of these materials, imports, 
 although quantitatively substantial, rep- 
 resented only a relatively modest share 
 of that supply for the decade. A sharp 
 shift in the supply pattern began in late 
 1977 and resulted in more than doubling 
 the import share of the 1978 total. The 
 following tabulation shows the percentage 
 of the total new supply of ferroalloys 
 contributed by domestic production and by 
 imports : 
 
 Domestic 
 
 1972.. 
 
 Year 
 
 production 
 
 96.7 
 93.4 
 92.4 
 96.0 
 91.8 
 90.5 
 80.7 
 79.1 
 79.6 
 76.5 
 
 Imports 
 3.3 
 
 1973.. 
 
 
 
 6.6 
 
 1974.. 
 
 
 
 7.6 
 
 1975.. 
 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 1976.. 
 
 
 
 8.2 
 
 1977.. 
 
 
 
 9.5 
 
 1978.. 
 
 
 
 19.3 
 
 1979. . 
 
 
 
 20.9 
 
 1980.. 
 
 
 
 20.4 
 
 1981.. 
 
 
 
 23.5 
 
 Weighted 
 
 average. . 
 
 87.5 
 
 12.5 
 

 
 vO 00 
 
 <• 
 
 cy> 
 
 m 
 
 O so 
 
 so 
 
 so m O ^ CM 
 
 on eg r>. 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 00 -H 
 
 o 
 
 so 
 
 CM 
 
 eg CM 
 
 St 
 
 m en ON CM so 
 
 so m so 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 00 cs 
 
 I-H 
 
 -* 
 
 00 
 
 ^ so 
 
 h» 
 
 o I-H in in en 
 
 O 00 '-H 
 
 CTi 
 
 
 
 i-H 
 
 9k M 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 
 m, 0s 
 
 •k 
 
 9k 9k /-N 9k 9k 
 
 9k 9k 9, 
 
 «« 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 m o 
 
 SO 
 
 o 
 
 
 o r^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 on <- CM eg ^ 
 
 ^ eg on 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 <T\ 
 
 v£> ■* 
 
 O 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 m -H 
 
 so 
 
 sr s.^ en 
 
 00 CM 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 f— i 
 
 eg 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 >* -H 
 
 IT) 
 
 CM CM 
 
 CM 
 
 so 
 
 9k 
 
 
 
 
 O r^. 
 
 r^ 
 
 <-H 
 
 ey\ 
 
 vO ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 r>^ ON ON >* eg 
 
 sO St O 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 
 sr m 
 
 (T\ 
 
 en 
 
 m 
 
 -* o 
 
 ■* 
 
 so CM m m «* 
 
 CM rH sO 
 
 eg 
 
 
 
 
 <T> o 
 
 a\ 
 
 m 
 
 I-H 
 
 m so 
 
 ^H 
 
 on 00 00 r>» eg 
 
 m r>» on 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 #t •« 
 
 «s 
 
 •^ 
 
 «i 
 
 A «« 
 
 9k 
 
 9k 9k X-N 9k 9k 
 
 ^ ^ 9k 
 
 «k 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 cr> CO 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 I-H 
 
 CM SO 
 
 ON 
 
 sj- vo pvi on en 
 
 en o o 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 <Ti 
 
 ~* m 
 
 O 
 
 e^J 
 
 
 m ^ 
 
 SO 
 
 1^ N_X o 
 
 rH <—* 
 
 SO 
 
 
 
 •-H 
 
 en 
 
 si- 
 
 
 
 ■* -H 
 
 m 
 
 CM en 
 
 en CM 
 
 00 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 m m 
 
 o 
 
 on 
 
 r>> 
 
 00 —t 
 
 CJN 
 
 sO sO ON en I-H 
 
 oo o 00 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 
 {NJ VO 
 
 CT> 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 eg a\ 
 
 -H 
 
 o --H sr m in 
 
 CM 00 C3N 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 
 CT. 
 
 ^ en 
 
 ■«3- 
 
 so 
 
 eg 
 
 CM r^ 
 
 O 
 
 •^ r^ on m CM 
 
 sO sO CM 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 «^ ft 
 
 «\ 
 
 0>> 
 
 t\ 
 
 «^ vs 
 
 •% 
 
 •k •« ^^ 9k 9k 
 
 n 9k fk 
 
 #t 
 
 
 
 a^ 
 
 -H ^ 
 
 in 
 
 CM 
 
 I-H 
 
 cTi on 
 
 en 
 
 en en CM en on 
 
 St CTi CJN 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 .—1 
 
 CNJ -;t 
 
 so 
 
 .-H 
 
 
 vi- m 
 
 o 
 
 O ^-^ I-H 
 
 CJN CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 <r ^ 
 
 so 
 
 en en 
 
 CM 
 
 CJN 
 
 9k 
 
 
 
 
 m ^ 
 
 i-H 
 
 00 
 
 en 
 
 so on 
 
 cy> 
 
 sr CM so CM on 
 
 on ON r^ 
 
 rH 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00 on 
 
 CM 
 
 O 
 
 o\ 
 
 m r^ 
 
 CM 
 
 o 00 C3N in -^ 
 
 CJN St on 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 C 
 
 00 
 
 ^ r^ 
 
 ■<1- 
 
 CM 
 
 -H 
 
 r^ ON 
 
 t^ 
 
 ON St 00 O eg 
 
 rH CM sO 
 
 r-« 
 
 
 o 
 
 r>. 
 
 «« *>. 
 
 
 M 
 
 «^ 
 
 •^ «« 
 
 9k 
 
 9k 9k /«— S * «* 
 
 9k 9k 9k 
 
 9k 
 
 
 4J 
 
 On 
 
 -H CM 
 
 ^" 
 
 a\ 
 
 I-H 
 
 1^ r^ 
 
 m 
 
 on 00 CM ^ o 
 
 on en ON 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 vi- m 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 so 00 
 
 m 
 
 ON ^ — ' r^ 
 
 O Osl 
 
 •—t 
 
 
 #1 
 0) 
 
 a. 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CNl 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 -* 
 
 ^ CM 
 
 en 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4J 
 
 
 CO <T> 
 
 CM 
 
 f-H 
 
 r-H 
 
 >* -* 
 
 00 
 
 m CJN -^ so ^ 
 
 sO CM CM 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 m CM 
 
 00 
 
 r-H 
 
 00 
 
 CM o\ 
 
 I-H 
 
 O on en St r» 
 
 •vt C3N m 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 >» 
 
 r«. 
 
 CM in 
 
 t^ 
 
 ■^ 
 
 CM 
 
 on o 
 
 -* 
 
 r^ en so St en 
 
 m vo en 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 43 
 
 r». 
 
 •» •« 
 
 9% 
 
 
 
 •% 0* 
 
 9\ 
 
 9k 9k y~\ 9k 9k 
 
 
 
 
 
 a\ 
 
 en m 
 
 00 
 
 •— 1 
 
 I-H 
 
 a\ 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 en -vt CM m ^ 
 
 CM on r^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 r-^ 
 
 m sf 
 
 a\ 
 
 ■— 1 
 
 
 cy> CM 
 
 eg 
 
 CM v-^ C3N 
 
 en CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 en 
 
 on 
 
 
 
 en -H 
 
 m 
 
 eg eg 
 
 en 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I-H 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -<r r-. 
 
 ^H 
 
 sO 
 
 00 
 
 m m 
 
 O 
 
 ^-1 ^^ 00 r>» r^ 
 
 rH so rH 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 <yi 
 
 
 <■ <y\ 
 
 -* 
 
 ■<r 
 
 o 
 
 on eg 
 
 so 
 
 O ^ cTi r^ St 
 
 O CJN sO 
 
 St 
 
 
 ■— ( 
 
 vO 
 
 vO 00 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 so 
 
 m so 
 
 0t «s 
 
 ^H 
 
 m <t- 00 o St 
 
 CJN rH O 
 
 00 
 
 9k 
 
 
 M 
 
 f-^ 
 
 m (T> 
 
 en 
 
 ■—I 
 
 I-H 
 
 m so 
 
 CM 
 
 St 00 CM on en 
 
 on on CM 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 O 
 
 a\ 
 
 r>» 00 
 
 vO 
 
 -H 
 
 
 00 -^ 
 
 en 
 
 ON s— ' '-H 
 
 r^ esi 
 
 o 
 
 
 M-l 
 
 •—t 
 
 en 
 
 <3- 
 
 
 
 •^ r-l 
 
 so 
 
 ^ en 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 cu 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •H 
 
 CO 
 
 
 r^ o 
 
 r^ 
 
 a\ 
 
 o 
 
 a\ irt 
 
 si- 
 
 00 C3N CM 00 ~* 
 
 m r^ in 
 
 00 
 
 +J 
 
 
 in ^ 
 
 vD 
 
 a\ 
 
 
 O CM 
 
 en 
 
 eg so — < r^ C3N 
 
 so o on 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 
 O CTi 
 
 o 
 
 -H 
 
 
 ■<t on 
 
 00 
 
 ON m ^H St St 
 
 rH rH -^ 
 
 en 
 
 rH 
 
 3 
 
 in 
 
 «« «s 
 
 •« 
 
 «\ 
 
 
 9% m, 
 
 9k 
 
 9k *k /-S 9k 9k 
 
 9k 9k 9k 
 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 r^ 
 
 r^ <T\ 
 
 vO 
 
 m 
 
 
 m v3- 
 
 ON 
 
 en o CM in r^ 
 
 en in CM 
 
 ON 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 a\ 
 
 00 <Ti 
 
 00 
 
 eg 
 
 
 — t en 
 
 <■ 
 
 O ^^ CM 
 
 en OM 
 
 en 
 
 •H 
 
 ^ 
 
 1—1 
 
 on 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 lO ^ 
 
 SO 
 
 eg en 
 
 St 
 
 rH 
 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9k 
 
 eg 
 
 9k 
 
 <—< 
 
 >> 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 
 a\ r^ 
 
 vO 
 
 cyi 
 
 o 
 
 en so 
 
 ON 
 
 eg CM en CM 00 so 
 
 rH sO -d- 
 
 00 
 
 iH 
 
 
 \0 vD 
 
 on 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 eg -* 
 
 so 
 
 00 on St 'H St r^ 
 
 SO CM ^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 in 
 
 rH 
 
 
 cr. cTi 
 
 cy> 
 
 so 
 
 
 so m 
 
 I-H 
 
 sD CM CM -* C3N r^ 
 
 eg -H m 
 
 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 « 
 
 ^ 
 
 #> #> 
 
 n 
 
 •s 
 
 
 «^ #« 
 
 9k 
 
 9k 9^ 9k 9k 9k 
 
 
 #t 
 
 CJN 
 
 o 
 
 r^ 
 
 o o 
 
 I-H 
 
 -* 
 
 
 CM rH 
 
 <t 
 
 on -H CM so 00 
 
 en 00 rH 
 
 so 
 
 •—< 
 
 M 
 
 ON 
 
 m ON 
 
 <d- 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 ON en 
 
 eg 
 
 m so 
 
 St 
 
 sO 
 
 
 M 
 
 ^-« 
 
 <i- 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ^ -H 
 
 so 
 
 eg on 
 
 St 
 
 eg 
 
 CO 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >N 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 rH 
 
 1 
 
 
 ■vT 00 
 
 eg 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 eg CM 
 
 sl- 
 
 >* St -^ m 00 St 
 
 r^ en 00 
 
 r-l 
 
 
 
 1— ( 1— 1 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ so 
 
 O 
 
 ON St r^ in in en 
 
 -H CM rH 
 
 SO 
 
 • CO 
 
 • 
 
 
 <f vO 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 
 00 sO 
 
 m 
 
 in -* ON en r^ ON 
 
 -H en r^ 
 
 CJN 
 
 <U O 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 «^ #1 
 
 #t 
 
 M 
 
 
 9k 9\ 
 
 9\ 
 
 9k 9k ^ 9k 9k 
 
 9k 9k 9k 
 
 ^ 
 
 o u 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 r^ m 
 
 en 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 r^ 
 
 sO 
 
 CM o CM r^ on 
 
 en vo ON 
 
 St 
 
 u u 
 
 w 
 
 <T> 
 
 m 00 
 
 <a- 
 
 I-H 
 
 
 r^ en 
 
 I-H 
 
 o m 
 
 r^ 
 
 en 
 
 3 Q> 
 
 J 
 
 1— ( 
 
 m 
 
 <r 
 
 
 
 <i- ^ 
 
 SO 
 
 CM on 
 
 en 
 
 O 
 
 O 4H 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 #1 
 
 eg 
 
 CO 
 u 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (3 (U 
 •H 43 
 
 
 eg o 
 
 CM 
 
 SO 
 
 o 
 
 00 sD 
 
 sr 
 
 ^ so ON on en I-H 
 
 o r-» 00 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 o en 
 
 en 
 
 sO 
 
 
 O ON 
 
 o 
 
 ■^ r^ -H CM en -H 
 
 ■<t o eg 
 
 m 
 
 •U 
 
 
 
 m m 
 
 vO 
 
 irt 
 
 
 CM o 
 
 en 
 
 CM r^ r^ sO CM so 
 
 -* rH ON 
 
 I-H 
 
 U O 
 
 
 <N 
 
 #t *s 
 
 «^ 
 
 A 
 
 
 A •« 
 
 n 
 
 9k 9k 9^ 9k 9k 
 
 9k 9k 9k 
 
 9k 
 
 (U 
 
 
 rv. 
 
 <r 00 
 
 CSl 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 C3N >* 
 
 en 
 
 CM 00 CM 00 ON 
 
 CM on rH 
 
 on 
 
 43 C 
 
 
 a\ 
 
 CM r^ 
 
 O 
 
 CM 
 
 
 en I-H 
 
 IT) 
 
 00 o 
 
 <3- 
 
 St 
 
 d -H 
 
 
 <—i 
 
 CM 
 
 en 
 
 
 
 -* r-f 
 
 lO 
 
 rH en 
 
 on 
 
 9k 
 k—l 
 
 (U 
 (U T3 
 
 
 "~" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 • ••••• 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 •H rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 • ••••• 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 4J O 
 
 
 
 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 • ••••• 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 CO (3 
 
 
 
 
 
 •H 
 
 
 
 • • • d * * 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 bO-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 • • • ^ • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 
 
 •H 
 
 
 
 • • • -H • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 C CO 
 
 
 >. 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 • •• • • 
 
 
 d • CO y . . 
 
 . (U . 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 o 
 
 • • • • 
 
 
 1 
 
 d cu . • 
 
 
 3 . 3 -H . . 
 
 • CO • 
 
 
 CO P 
 
 
 .-1 
 
 a c . 
 
 
 d 
 
 3 CO C • 
 
 
 C • M CO . C 
 
 d <u • 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 r-t 
 
 3 O C 
 
 
 3 
 
 •f-l <u o c 
 
 
 0) . O CJ d Q> 
 
 3 C CD 
 
 
 CO 4: 
 
 
 to 
 
 •nj ^ O 
 ^1 43 
 
 
 •g 
 
 43 C 43 O 
 
 
 TJ r-l 43 O O 4J 
 
 •rl CO • 
 
 
 CO a 
 
 
 o 
 
 rH 
 
 d CO W 43 
 
 I-H 
 
 43 (U 0< CJ CJ CO 
 
 T3 bO Q) 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 
 M 
 
 O CO M 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 3 bO CO )H 
 
 CO 
 
 >>M CO -H -H bO 
 
 CO (3 . 
 
 CO 
 
 Tj 
 
 
 M 
 
 M CJ CO 
 
 4J 
 
 M 
 
 r-l C O CO 
 
 u 
 
 iH O O rH rH C 
 
 {3 eg C 
 CO d 
 
 4J 
 
 (U 43 
 
 
 (U 
 
 43 1 CJ 
 
 O 
 
 XJ 
 
 O rt 1 O 
 
 CJ d 4: 1 
 
 o 
 
 Q -H 43 -H -H 3 
 
 O 
 
 4J 0, 
 
 
 fn 
 
 O 42 1 
 
 H 
 
 t> 
 
 H 
 
 d !3 CX CO CO -U 
 
 > O •> 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 O bO S 
 
 
 o 
 
 O O bO S 
 
 
 O O O O O O 
 
 O O U 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 ^J -H O 
 
 
 M 
 
 Vj m -h o 
 
 
 M Vi P M M ^ 
 
 M -H (U 
 
 
 0. u 
 
 
 
 M M J 
 
 
 M 
 
 M M ad J 
 
 
 M M P V4 M M 
 
 M rH 43 
 
 
 <u cu 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 
 0) 
 
 0) <u 
 
 
 (U CU 3) 0) 4) (U 
 
 CU -H -U 
 
 
 ^ h 
 
 
 
 fXH 
 
 
 fc( 
 
 ftl 
 
 (x< 
 
 
 ft, fzi fn fn ;jL, :n 
 
 fe C« O 
 
 
 — eg 
 

 
 oo --a- v£> 
 
 m sO 
 
 CO r^ in 
 
 O O 
 
 ■<f 
 
 O sO CM ON 
 
 >* 
 
 00 00 
 
 r-» 
 
 
 
 
 CM sO 00 
 
 O vO 
 
 ON 00 <!■ 
 
 CO CM 
 
 CM 
 
 r^ NO <r ON 
 
 00 
 
 m rH 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 -H 
 
 ON r^ m 
 
 m CM 
 
 <r -a- 
 
 00 rH 
 
 o 
 
 Sr 00 t^ rH /-V 
 
 
 ^ CO 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 M M «« 
 
 «k 
 
 «^ 0k 
 
 «« 
 
 9k 
 
 ^ •« «^ •% r— 
 
 
 •k •« 
 
 9k 
 
 
 
 <T\ 
 
 ON ON -H 
 
 vO 
 
 vD vO 
 
 •—> 
 
 CO 
 
 CO >* O CM -w 
 
 
 rH <—* 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 -H 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM ON 
 
 t— ( 
 
 r^ 
 
 o 
 in 
 
 CO CM 
 
 
 
 NO 
 
 
 
 
 r^ o ON 
 
 CM 00 
 
 ON CM vO 
 
 >>0 -"d- 
 
 CO 
 
 vo rH in in 
 
 r^ 
 
 o m 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 
 
 in •— < ^H 
 
 vO >* 
 
 ^ ^ 00 
 
 O r^ 
 
 ON 
 
 ON r^ CM CJN 
 
 C3N 
 
 Csl CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 — 1 <N ^ 
 
 so <r 
 
 rH O 'H 
 
 CO r^ 
 
 CM 
 
 00 CM rH vO '-N 
 
 
 >* o 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 M M ^ 
 
 «« 
 
 A * 
 
 «^ 
 
 •k 
 
 •S A ^ 9sr— 
 
 
 «« 
 
 «« 
 
 
 
 cr> 
 
 r^ m — < 
 
 CM 
 
 ^ CM 
 
 00 
 
 r«» 
 
 00 o r^ CM v-^ 
 
 
 rH 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 >— ( 
 
 in CN 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO CM 
 
 CO 
 
 r^ 
 -* 
 
 >* rH 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 r>. vo ON 
 
 00 r^ 
 
 CM -vf CO 
 
 m m 
 
 >£> 
 
 CM vO CO CO 
 
 CO 
 
 r^ <-> 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 ^ sS- 00 
 
 in -<f 
 
 m ON 00 
 
 NO -* 
 
 C3N 
 
 in 00 CJN o 
 
 rH 
 
 T^ CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 CO O ON 
 
 r^ m 
 
 -H sr -^ 
 
 CM r^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 00 00 — 1 O '-N 
 
 
 CO rH 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 r-^ 
 
 0s 0^ m> 
 
 *■. 
 
 •V A 
 
 •« «^ 
 
 M 
 
 «« n 0i •»•— 
 
 
 9S 9k 
 
 9k 
 
 
 
 a\ 
 
 O CO ^ 
 
 00 
 
 CO CO 
 
 -H O 
 
 CO 
 
 C7N CM CO CM v^ 
 
 
 CM CM 
 
 si- 
 
 
 
 -H 
 
 in CM 
 
 CM 
 
 r— 1 
 
 CO CO 
 1—1 
 
 <r 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 rH ON rH 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 r>. ^ 1^ 
 
 r^ — t 
 
 in vo CO 
 
 cvi m 
 
 C3N 
 
 m r^ CO NO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CM NO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ON m r>. 
 
 -H m 
 
 00 rH ,H 
 
 ON 00 
 
 00 
 
 NO >* r^ CO 
 
 r>. 
 
 >d- vO 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 \0 ON -H 
 
 O NO 
 
 ^ CO rH 
 
 VO rH 
 
 1—1 
 
 CO rH r^ CO '^ 
 
 
 CO CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 A ^ «« 
 
 •^ 
 
 9k *k 
 
 «k #1 
 
 #1 
 
 •* •» •« ^•— 
 
 
 9k 
 
 •k 
 
 
 CO 
 
 cy> 
 
 00 m -H 
 
 r-^ 
 
 o o 
 
 rH m 
 
 T-^ 
 
 VO r»«. rH CM ^— ' 
 
 
 CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^H 
 
 vO 
 
 1— 1 
 
 CM O 
 
 <r 
 
 NO 
 
 CO CM 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 00 r^ in 
 
 r-^ cnI 
 
 00 CO ON 
 
 vo in 
 
 o 
 
 r>. N^- 00 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 CM CM 
 
 00 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 C3N C3N o 
 
 r>. CM 
 
 m ON o 
 
 C3N NO 
 
 CM 
 
 o CO NO r^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 rH O 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 
 ex 
 
 r-» 
 
 O -* ON 
 
 r>. CM 
 
 00 CM CM 
 
 CM CM 
 
 -* 
 
 CO NO CM ON ^^ 
 
 
 rH m 
 
 00 
 
 
 >» 
 
 r^ 
 
 M 9k 
 
 M 
 
 9k •% 
 
 «^ 
 
 9t 
 
 «^ as M «k^— 
 
 
 #« «k 
 
 A 
 
 
 u 
 
 o> 
 
 «* m 
 
 in 
 
 cjN m 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 \0 00 CM CM >^' 
 
 
 CO CM 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 r^ <f 
 
 
 ON 
 
 rH ^ 
 
 
 
 h>. 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 .-4 
 
 
 
 
 <—i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 CM r^ CO 
 
 O vO 
 
 r-* r^ m 
 
 ON 00 
 
 <f 
 
 ON <a- CM >* 
 
 cr> 
 
 CO m 
 
 NO 
 
 
 ■— ( 
 
 
 o m CM 
 
 in CO 
 
 o -H m 
 
 in o 
 
 rH 
 
 O CO \0 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 NO ON 
 
 CM 
 
 
 c» 
 
 vO 
 
 O vO t^ 
 
 CO o 
 
 CO r^, m 
 
 m t^ 
 
 rH 
 
 m ON CM CM ^-N 
 
 
 00 ON 
 
 00 
 
 
 1 
 
 r* 
 
 A •« »t 
 
 «v tf^ 
 
 •V A 
 
 •« 0t 
 
 •k 
 
 •% M «^ M <— 
 
 
 A #1 
 
 9> 
 
 
 CM 
 
 o\ 
 
 CO CO — < 
 
 ^H ^H 
 
 -* NO 
 
 -H ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 »* rH CO 00 ^-^ 
 
 
 CJN CM 
 
 O 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 .-1 
 
 <JN rH 
 
 
 rH <r 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 m CM rH 
 
 
 
 r-i 
 
 
 <T> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t—i 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 •— 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 -* 
 
 O vO 
 
 00 m ^ 
 
 >* 
 
 00 
 
 00 m NO CO vo 
 
 <t 
 
 CO m 
 
 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o -^t 
 
 in o CM 
 
 m 
 
 00 
 
 CM CM \0 NO rH 
 
 m 
 
 CO CM 
 
 ^-< 
 
 
 <4-l 
 
 in 
 
 1— 1 /-N /-^ 
 
 ON \0 
 
 00 ON --H 
 
 ^-N \0 
 
 rH 
 
 CM NO m rH rH 
 
 
 CJN m 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 p-» 
 
 •* ^— ^- 
 
 •% 
 
 •k Vk 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 «s 
 
 M tfk M •% 
 
 
 f^ 9k 
 
 9k 
 
 
 (U 
 
 CTi 
 
 ON N— ' ^w' 
 
 ■— t 
 
 ON CO 
 
 <^ ^ 
 
 o 
 
 in o «* NO 
 
 
 00 -* 
 
 O 
 
 
 T3 
 
 p^ 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
 C3N 
 
 00 CO CM 
 
 
 
 vO 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 4J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 CO CM 
 
 rH 00 ^ 
 
 -;r 
 
 ■* 
 
 00 m «* «* vo 
 
 m 
 
 CM CO 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 >> 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 m r^ 
 
 o in CO 
 
 CM 
 
 m 
 
 i>» NO 1^ r>» ON 
 
 ^^ 
 
 O NO 
 
 NO 
 
 
 O 
 
 <* 
 
 00 --N /-N 
 
 r-H r^ 
 
 O NO CM 
 
 /~\ vO 
 
 vO 
 
 m CM CM m rH 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 
 r-l 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^ ^— ^- 
 
 •V tf^ 
 
 •k 9i 
 
 r- •« 
 
 9k 
 
 «K 0^ «s c^ 
 
 
 9k M 
 
 «i 
 
 
 iH 
 
 ON 
 
 00 ^-^ s^ 
 
 \£> CM 
 
 00 o 
 
 •>^ o 
 
 vO 
 
 1^ -<r CM CM 
 
 
 vO >d- 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^H 
 
 CO 
 
 1—1 
 
 rH I>» 
 
 sr 
 
 00 
 
 mm CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 r*» 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 r-l 
 
 O -H 
 
 00 CO 00 
 
 CO 
 
 <d- 
 
 ^ CM rH rH CM 
 
 o 
 
 CO 00 
 
 r-t 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 00 cy> 
 
 — 1 m ON 
 
 -* 
 
 m 
 
 rH rH 00 r^ 
 
 m 
 
 CO >d- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO /-N --^ 
 
 o cs 
 
 r^ 00 m 
 
 ^N ON 
 
 00 
 
 CM >^ r^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 >3- CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 1 
 
 r«» 
 
 •* »— ^ 
 
 •« A 
 
 A •« 
 
 ^- f^ 
 
 9k 
 
 •« f^ 9k 
 
 
 9k 9k 
 
 9k 
 
 
 
 <T> 
 
 i— t v—' v-^ 
 
 CM CM 
 
 —1 r>* 
 
 s_/ vO 
 
 Osl 
 
 r^ NO ^ 
 
 
 rH CO 
 
 O 
 
 
 • 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 rH >* 
 
 CM 
 
 -* 
 
 rH Cvl 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-4 
 
 
 ON 
 
 O NO 
 
 CM O CO 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 r>. CM CO CO m 
 
 00 
 
 o m 
 
 CO 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 o 
 
 CM .^ 
 
 vo CO m 
 
 r^ 
 
 NO 
 
 r>. 1^ m o ON 
 
 00 
 
 CM O 
 
 rH 
 
 
 CM 
 
 ^ ^^ /-> 
 
 CM in 
 
 vO rH 
 
 /"v vO 
 
 vO 
 
 ON >* o r-v CO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o m 
 
 CO 
 
 
 H 
 
 r^ 
 
 «« ^- ^— 
 
 
 #« fv 
 
 r- ts 
 
 9k 
 
 «« #1 #« M 
 
 
 *i *k 
 
 *t 
 
 
 
 a\ 
 
 •^ V-/ S-' 
 
 
 vO f^ 
 
 V-' O 
 
 " CJN 
 
 CM O ON CM 
 
 
 r^ CO 
 
 NO 
 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 •—t 
 
 CM 
 
 m 
 
 CM m rH 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 • • • 
 
 • • » 
 
 • • • 
 
 • O • 
 
 • o • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 • -H • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 • r-i . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 >. 
 
 • •H • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <U 
 
 
 o 
 
 • CD • 
 
 * & 
 
 
 
 
 
 <U • 
 
 
 Xi 
 
 
 .H 
 
 • 1 g 
 
 <u 3 
 
 
 
 . . a> • • • 
 
 
 CO • 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 .H 
 
 & & ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 • ^ (3 
 
 d • 
 
 * € u * * d 
 
 ^ 
 
 OJ • 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 3 3 iH 
 
 <u <u 
 
 • a 0) 
 
 3 • 
 
 3 <u . d 3 
 
 3 
 
 d • 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 O 
 
 ll-i 
 
 C tJ 
 
 iH O 4J 
 
 •H • 
 
 . H d rH O -H 
 rH S CO 0) o d 
 
 •H 
 
 CO • 
 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 0) CJ 00 
 
 •o • 
 
 T3 
 
 bO • 
 
 rH 
 
 d 
 
 
 M 
 
 O O 3 
 
 W) >^ 
 
 J*! -H W) 
 
 t3 rH C 
 
 CO • 
 
 CO O bO^ -H CO 
 
 4J M d O rH +J 
 
 CO 
 
 d • 
 
 CO 
 
 •H 
 
 
 0) 
 
 P M .H 
 
 d H 
 
 d • 
 
 d 
 
 
 4J 
 
 
 
 U4 
 
 J3 ^ O 
 
 Si 
 
 •H -H 3 
 
 CO • 
 
 O j3 rt -H -H ^ 
 H •• O S d CO J-) 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 .. O O O 
 
 d CO 4J 
 
 > . 
 
 > 
 
 o • 
 
 H 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 CO o o o 
 
 o o 
 
 o o o 
 
 O M 
 
 CO o o o o o 
 
 o 
 
 o u 
 
 
 T> 
 
 
 
 iJ M M M 
 
 M M 
 
 M M M 
 
 M (U 
 
 4J h h M M M 
 
 M 
 
 •H 0) 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 l-i M M M 
 
 M M 
 
 M M M 
 
 M j: 
 
 M M M M M M 
 
 M 
 
 rH Xi 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 O 0) (U (U 
 
 (U <U 
 
 0) 0) (U 
 
 Q) 4J 
 
 O 0) 0) 0) <U CU 
 
 (U 
 
 •H « 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 Q. [Xl (X4 |JL4 
 
 Cl4 (14 
 
 [Z4 pL4 pE4 
 
 b o 
 
 Ol (X4 PM (X4 fo pC4 
 
 (H 
 
 CO O 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 '- 
 
This increasing dependence on the im- 
 port of ferroalloys, as opposed to import 
 of the ores of these metals, is consid- 
 ered to be primarily the result of dif- 
 ferences in relative costs of energy for 
 production of the ferroalloy and for 
 transport of the processed materials. 
 These costs reflect the producing coun- 
 tries' desire to export value-added 
 material. 
 
 Considering those ferroalloys that can 
 be clearly identified in both production 
 and import statistics, there are substan- 
 tial differences in the shares of total 
 supply that are met by imports and by 
 
 domestic production, both from commodity 
 to commodity and across the 10-year peri- 
 od 1972-81. The following tabulation 
 demonstrates that, in terms of total new 
 supply, ferromanganese, ferronickel, and 
 ferrosilicon have been produced chiefly 
 in Japan rather than being imported as 
 the finished ferroalloy. However, in 
 each of these cases, there has been a 
 small trend toward increasing the depen- 
 dence upon ferroalloy imports in the sec- 
 ond half of the decade. The tabulation 
 shows domestic production and imports for 
 two successive 5-year periods and for 
 the 10-year period, in percent of total 
 new supply: 
 
 
 1972- 
 
 76 
 
 1977- 
 
 81 
 
 1972- 
 
 81 
 
 Ferroalloy 
 
 Domestic 
 production 
 
 Imports 
 
 Domestic 
 production 
 
 Imports 
 
 Domestic 
 production 
 
 Imports 
 
 Ffrrnrhrnmi iim *«..**#.* 
 
 91.5 
 144.7 
 U8.3 
 98.6 
 71.8 
 94.5 
 88.5 
 
 67.7 
 165.0 
 
 93.9 
 
 8.5 
 
 155.3 
 
 151.7 
 
 1.4 
 
 28.2 
 
 5.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 32.3 
 135.0 
 
 6.1 
 
 64.3 
 48.8 
 44.5 
 98.2 
 89.6 
 90.5 
 70.4 
 
 58.5 
 75.6 
 
 81.1 
 
 35.7 
 51.2 
 55.5 
 
 1.8 
 10.4 
 
 9.5 
 29.6 
 
 41.5 
 24.4 
 
 18.9 
 
 70.5 
 248.1 
 245.2 
 98.4 
 80.1 
 92.3 
 80.0 
 
 64.5 
 278.6 
 
 87.5 
 
 29.5 
 
 Ferrochromium-silicon. 
 
 Ferrocolumbium 
 
 Ferromanganese 
 
 Ferromolybdenum 
 
 Ferronickel. .......... 
 
 251.9 
 254.8 
 
 1.6 
 19.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 Ferrosilicon. ......... 
 
 20.0 
 
 Ferrotungsten. ........ 
 
 35.5 
 
 Ferrovanadium. ........ 
 
 221.4 
 
 All ferroalloys 
 
 12.5 
 
 iData for 1976 only (imports not reported separately 1972-75). 
 2Data for 1976-81 only (imports not reported separately 1972-75). 
 
 Of these ferroalloys, only ferrosilicon 
 is produced chiefly from domestic raw 
 materials; output of ferromanganese is 
 heavily dependent upon imported ore, and 
 ferronickel is wholly dependent upon im- 
 ported ore. 
 
 The tabulation further shows that im- 
 ports of ferrochromium constituted only 
 8.5% of the total new supply during 1972- 
 76 but 35.7% during 1977-81. Among the 
 
 less common ferroalloys, import receipts 
 of ferrocolumbium, ferrochromium-silicon, 
 and ferrotungsten have represented a 
 substantial part of total new supply 
 throughout 1972-81, generally with the 
 share edging higher in the latter half of 
 the period. In contrast, ferromolybdenum 
 and ferrovanadium showed a measurable 
 downturn, when comparing the first 5 
 years with the second 5 years. 
 
10 
 
 Ferrosilicomanganese is the only ferro- 
 alloy produced in substantial amounts in 
 Japan for which separate import statis- 
 tics are not available; consequently, the 
 precise share of total supply provided by 
 import of the finished ferroalloy cannot 
 be determined. The amount of ferrosili- 
 comanganese imported could be less than 
 10% of the newly available supply for the 
 1972-81 decade. 
 
 Exports of ferroalloys from Japan never 
 represented a substantial share of new 
 supply during 1972-81, averaging only 
 5.6% for the entire period, and varying 
 between a high of 11.7% in 1975 and a low 
 
 of 2.3% in 1973. Table 4 summarizes 
 these exports by type. The United States 
 was the principal destination for these 
 ferroalloy exports, accounting for over 
 half of the total for 1972-81. However, 
 these exports are merely a small part of 
 Japan's new supply of ferroalloys, and 
 are generally declining; the U.S. share 
 of the total has also diminished. The 
 following tabulation shows the declining 
 share of total new supply destined for 
 export, the share of total ferroalloy ex- 
 ports destined for the United States, and 
 the Japanese share of total U.S. ferro- 
 alloy imports, in percent: 
 
 
 Share of Japanese 
 
 Share of total 
 
 Share of total 
 
 Year 
 
 total supply^ of 
 
 Japanese export 
 
 U.S. import 
 
 
 all ferroalloys 
 
 destined for 
 
 provided by 
 
 
 exported 
 
 United States 
 
 Japan 
 
 1972 
 
 5.9 
 
 62.6 
 
 8.0 
 
 1973 
 
 2.3 
 
 60.8 
 
 4.8 
 
 1974 
 
 7.2 
 
 66.5 
 
 6.9 
 
 1975 
 
 11.7 
 
 58.1 
 
 20.8 
 
 1976 
 
 9.6 
 
 63.7 
 
 12.6 
 
 1977 
 
 3.8 
 
 48.7 
 
 5.7 
 
 1978 
 
 3.8 
 
 28.7 
 
 1.6 
 
 1979 
 
 5.2 
 
 29.6 
 
 3.1 
 
 1980 
 
 3.0 
 
 25.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 1981 
 
 3.0 
 
 35.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 'Production plus Imports 
 
 CONSUMPTION 
 
 The alloy and specialty steel industry 
 of Japan is the principal consumer of 
 ferroalloys available to the Japanese 
 economy. Consumption data for most of 
 these commodities by Japan's steel indus- 
 try during 1972-81, inclusive, appear in 
 table 5. It is assumed that virtually 
 all of the tonnages of ferrochromium and 
 f erromolybdenum shown in the table were 
 used in the production of stainless 
 steels, as were 200,000 to 300,000 tons 
 of ferronickel per year (based on appar- 
 ent consumption computations, in lieu of 
 a reported consumption). The other fer- 
 roalloys shown presumably were used in 
 producing other types of specialty steel, 
 such as electrical steel. 
 
 Significantly, the general trend in 
 ferroalloy consumption does not parallel 
 the trend in crude steel production. 
 
 Although steel output peaked in 1974, the 
 record consumption for ferroalloys oc- 
 curred in 1980, totaling 2 million tons 
 (includes an apparent consumption of 
 290,000 tons of ferronickel). The annual 
 configuration by type of steel produced 
 changed during 1974-80. In this period, 
 a larger percentage of the annual steel 
 output was in the form of alloy steel. 
 Moreover, production of hot-rolled alloy 
 steel reached a new record high in 1981. 
 
 RAW MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS 
 AND SUPPLIES 
 
 Chromium 
 
 Salient statistics of chromium are 
 shown in table 6. Although Japan has 
 produced chromite domestically, the out- 
 put in terms of its requirements is 
 insignificant . 
 
11 
 
 00 
 I 
 
 CO 
 
 r>. 
 
 i 
 
 
 vO O 
 
 vO 
 
 CM 
 
 CM ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 VO CO 
 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 ON 
 
 -* CJN 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00 00 
 
 CM 
 
 St 
 
 t-H 
 
 ^H 
 
 CO CO 
 
 vO 
 
 CO 
 
 St r^ 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO o 
 
 >— t 
 
 y-i 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 A •« 
 
 A 
 
 n 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 
 •k #t 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ON 
 
 C>1 ON 
 
 ■— 1 
 
 CO 
 
 r^ St 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO St 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 1— 1 
 
 in CO 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 .^ ON 
 
 I-H 
 
 
 r— 1 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 sr 
 
 St 
 
 
 St 
 
 lA 
 
 
 
 csl 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 sr 00 
 
 <N 
 
 CJN 
 
 r>. CO 
 
 O 
 
 
 r^ i^ 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 vO 
 
 
 r^ r>. 
 
 IT) 
 
 St 
 
 o r^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 00 o 
 
 r>^ 
 
 St 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CO -. 
 
 ir> 
 
 -* 
 
 00 -H 
 
 ON 
 
 
 in o 
 
 CO 
 
 vO 
 
 o 
 
 00 
 
 0> 00 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 » « 
 
 A 
 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 9k 
 
 CT\ 
 
 O vD 
 
 VO 
 
 -* 
 
 m CM 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 CO -* 
 
 vO 
 
 St 
 
 St 
 
 ^H 
 
 -* sf 
 
 00 
 
 
 CM ON 
 
 r-H 
 
 
 rH 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 St 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 
 -* 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 csl 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 -<t o 
 
 -* 
 
 ON 
 
 O CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO m 
 
 r*. 
 
 in 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 00 ON 
 
 r>. 
 
 CO 
 
 CM St 
 
 vO 
 
 
 00 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 a\ 
 
 vO CM 
 
 ON 
 
 «* 
 
 1— 1 t— 1 
 
 CM 
 
 
 m o 
 
 St 
 
 CM 
 
 m 
 
 r^ 
 
 A * 
 
 *t 
 
 •^ 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 9k 
 
 ON 
 
 00 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ir» 
 
 vO CO 
 
 ON 
 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 ^H 
 
 CO «* 
 
 00 
 
 
 —1 00 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 t— 1 
 
 00 
 
 
 in 
 
 
 lO 
 
 m 
 
 
 «* 
 
 St 
 
 
 
 eg 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 m o 
 
 m 
 
 
 vO vO 
 
 o 
 
 -t 
 
 -* 
 
 
 ON 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 vO 
 
 Csl vO 
 
 00 
 
 
 rH ^H 
 
 m 
 
 00 
 
 St 
 
 00 
 
 rH 00 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 o -* 
 
 >* 
 
 
 O CM 
 
 vO 
 
 ^H 
 
 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 A f^ 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 «« •« 
 
 «« 
 
 
 *« «« 
 
 «« 
 
 A 
 
 M 
 
 ON 
 
 vo ro. 
 
 St 
 
 vO 
 
 CO vO 
 
 ON 
 
 
 -d- CM 
 
 CM 
 
 -d- 
 
 vO 
 
 ^^ 
 
 CO CO 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 00 r^ 
 
 m 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 m 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 >* 
 
 -* 
 
 
 CO 
 
 «* 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 so o 
 
 vO 
 
 r^ 
 
 00 CM 
 
 o 
 
 
 00 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 
 r^ CO 
 
 o 
 
 ON 
 
 r>. o 
 
 00 
 
 
 rH 00 
 
 St 
 
 CJN 
 
 vO 
 
 r^ 
 
 ON CO 
 
 CO 
 
 ON 
 
 m m 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO r>» 
 
 vO 
 
 I— t 
 
 in 
 
 r^ 
 
 M A 
 
 mt 
 
 M 
 
 M M 
 
 «k 
 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 a\ 
 
 CM O 
 
 CO 
 
 vO 
 
 CO CM 
 
 vO 
 
 
 -* CJN 
 
 r«. 
 
 >d- 
 
 in 
 
 r-t 
 
 si- <d- 
 
 00 
 
 t— 1 
 
 VO 00 
 
 St 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 <t 
 
 
 sr 
 
 St 
 
 
 CO 
 
 St 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 -I o 
 
 ^^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 CO -H 
 
 «* 
 
 
 r>v o 
 
 00 
 
 r^ 
 
 m 
 
 
 vO >a- 
 
 O 
 
 vo 
 
 00 VO 
 
 St 
 
 
 ^ CM 
 
 >d- 
 
 m 
 
 <—* 
 
 SO 
 
 00 r^ 
 
 vO 
 
 00 
 
 vO ^ 
 
 00 
 
 
 CO CM 
 
 CJN 
 
 CO 
 
 ^H 
 
 r». 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ON 
 
 -H ^ 
 
 vO 
 
 00 
 
 00 ^ 
 
 ON 
 
 
 St -H 
 
 I-H 
 
 >* 
 
 ^H 
 
 ^H 
 
 csi .<r 
 
 vO 
 
 CM 
 
 vO ON 
 
 m 
 
 
 1— t 
 
 in 
 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 <* 
 
 St 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -* 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 00 00 
 
 VO 
 
 «* 
 
 CM r^ 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 ^ CO 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 vO si- 
 
 r-t 
 
 CO 
 
 ON CM 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 00 o 
 
 r^ 
 
 in 
 
 rH 
 
 m 
 
 CO CM 
 
 VO 
 
 Cvl 
 
 r^ ON 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 vO vO 
 
 o 
 
 vO 
 
 vO 
 
 r^ 
 
 «^ A 
 
 9k 
 
 «» 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A A 
 
 M 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ON 
 
 00 00 
 
 vO 
 
 o 
 
 St O 
 
 m 
 
 
 St 00 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 
 
 oH 
 
 ON Sf 
 
 >* 
 
 CO 
 
 r^ 00 
 
 vO 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 vO ^ 
 
 l>. 
 
 ON 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 
 O 00 
 
 r»* 
 
 CO 
 
 CJN 
 
 
 1^ St 
 
 fH 
 
 lO 
 
 ON CO 
 
 CM 
 
 
 C3N ON 
 
 m 
 
 00 
 
 >* 
 
 ^ 
 
 00 CO 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 c^ St 
 
 St 
 
 
 -^ m 
 
 CO 
 
 VO 
 
 vO 
 
 r-* 
 
 A «l 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A A 
 
 A 
 
 
 A A 
 
 M 
 
 «« 
 
 A 
 
 ON 
 
 r^ CO 
 
 ^H 
 
 CM 
 
 r^ ON 
 
 r>. 
 
 
 in ^ 
 
 vO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 pH 
 
 r«» 00 
 
 VO 
 
 -* 
 
 St 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 I— t 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 CO 
 
 St 
 
 
 St 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 St 
 
 
 00 «* 
 
 CM 
 
 -^ 
 
 vo m 
 
 r-t 
 
 
 m r* 
 
 r^ 
 
 00 
 
 vO 
 
 
 r^ cs 
 
 O 
 
 CM 
 
 >* rx 
 
 CM 
 
 
 1-^ o 
 
 ON 
 
 r>« 
 
 vO 
 
 CO 
 
 00 -< 
 
 O 
 
 CM 
 
 CM o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ON St 
 
 -d- 
 
 CO 
 
 St 
 
 r^ 
 
 A A 
 
 9% 
 
 M 
 
 M A 
 
 A 
 
 
 #k A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ON 
 
 r>. CO 
 
 i-H 
 
 ^H 
 
 vO ON 
 
 m 
 
 
 CO o 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 1— ( 
 
 ON 00 
 
 00 
 
 m 
 
 vO 00 
 
 m 
 
 
 pH 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 St 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ti 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • a 
 
 
 (d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • o 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 43 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • d 
 
 • M 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 • (d 
 
 
 
 • 4J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • o 
 
 • O 
 
 
 'O 
 
 • (U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • -H 
 
 • 1 
 
 
 d 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • rH 
 
 • Q 
 
 
 (d 
 
 g cr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • "H 
 
 • 3 
 
 
 
 3 "H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 00 
 
 • • • "H 
 
 
 d 
 
 d M 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 •• • • 
 
 1 
 
 0) . -a 
 
 
 3 
 
 0) rO 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 g a • 
 
 • s 
 
 CO a ^ 
 
 
 d 
 
 TJ 
 
 
 d 
 
 (U 
 
 
 3 o fl 
 
 <H 3 
 
 0) o g 
 
 iH 
 
 0) 
 
 •A g 
 
 d 
 
 3 
 
 d 
 
 
 1 b -^ 
 
 2 1 
 
 c ^ 
 
 (d 
 
 •o .. 
 
 >» 3 
 
 o 
 
 •H 
 
 cd 
 
 
 Cd M TS 
 
 4-1 
 
 43 CO 
 
 -H d 
 
 o 
 
 T3 
 
 bO 
 
 
 O (4 h 
 
 o o 
 
 bo cd d 
 
 o 
 
 >^^^ 
 
 Q <u 
 
 •H 
 
 Cd 
 
 d 
 
 
 M O «0 
 
 H U 
 
 d o cd 
 
 H 
 
 rH Cd 
 
 g TJ 
 
 iH 
 
 d 
 
 § 
 
 
 xi 1 o 
 
 A 
 
 Si^ . 
 
 
 Q -H 
 
 O 43 
 
 •H 
 
 Cd 
 
 
 5i -R 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 i M 
 
 M >% 
 
 CO 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 
 p bO * 
 
 o 
 
 O bO ^ 
 
 
 O <U 
 
 M H^ 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 M -H O 
 
 u 
 
 M -H O 
 
 
 U 4J 
 
 0) o 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 •H 
 
 
 n a H-q 
 
 u 
 
 M pa hj 
 
 
 ^S 
 
 P^ s 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 iH 
 
 
 0) 
 
 (0 
 
 (U 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 (U 
 
 •H 
 
 
 Pi^ 
 
 
 F^ 
 
 Ps< 
 
 
 Pm 
 
 
 Px 
 
 pti 
 
 CO 
 
12 
 
 TABLE 6. - Salient chromium statistics, thousand tons 
 
 
 1972 
 
 1973 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 1980 
 
 1981 
 
 Raw material supply: 
 
 Domestic production of chromite: 
 
 Gross weight 
 
 Chromium content. .................. 
 
 25 
 8 
 
 
 40 
 
 154 
 25 
 19 
 78 
 
 445 
 10 
 
 104 
 
 
 23 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 
 221 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 619 
 
 45 
 
 95 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 9 
 
 
 15 
 
 311 
 64 
 60 
 
 127 
 
 424 
 
 
 123 
 31 
 
 23 
 8 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 360 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 153 
 
 343 
 
 98 
 
 95 
 
 52 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 238 
 
 78 
 
 134 
 
 149 
 
 416 
 
 84 
 
 59 
 
 56 
 
 18 
 6 
 
 27 
 71 
 
 138 
 54 
 66 
 41 
 
 373 
 15 
 48 
 67 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 
 72 
 73 
 26 
 32 
 74 
 350 
 10 
 25 
 8 
 
 12 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 156 
 
 0) 
 
 62 
 
 184 
 
 443 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 4 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 170 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 208 
 
 407 
 
 27 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 11 
 4 
 
 Imports: 
 Chromite: 
 
 Albania. ......................... 
 
 31 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 India 
 
 142 
 
 Iran 
 
 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 
 
 Philippines 
 
 151 
 
 South Africa, Republic of 
 
 Turkey 
 
 U.S.S.R 
 
 Other 
 
 348 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 26 
 
 Total 
 
 875 
 1 
 
 1,164 
 2 
 
 1,155 
 2 
 
 1,269 
 
 1 
 
 1,217 
 3 
 
 900 
 3 
 
 670 
 4 
 
 962 
 3 
 
 950 
 
 2 
 
 744 
 
 Chromium oxide and hydroxide 
 
 2 
 
 Ferrochromium: 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 V) 
 
 
 
 (') 
 
 
 
 28 
 3 
 
 (') 
 
 
 
 34 
 5 
 
 (') 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 203 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 202 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 India 
 
 4 
 
 South Africa, Republic of 
 
 126 
 3 
 
 Zimbabwe 
 
 21 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 14 
 
 31 
 
 39 
 
 29 
 
 93 
 
 104 
 
 169 
 
 250 
 
 257 
 
 190 
 
 South Africa, Republic of 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 (2) 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 (') 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 7 
 
 Other 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 (2) 
 400 
 
 NA 
 NA 
 
 (2) 
 500 
 
 984 
 144 
 
 (2) 
 530 
 
 1,049 
 224 
 
 (2) 
 580 
 
 966 
 282 
 
 14 
 600 
 
 848 
 338 
 
 5 
 460 
 
 774 
 107 
 
 6 
 400 
 
 523 
 199 
 
 23 
 580 
 
 648 
 295 
 
 23 
 570 
 
 798 
 
 NA 
 
 10 
 
 Approximate chromium content of all 
 imports® 
 
 450 
 
 Processing: 
 
 Use of chromite: 
 
 In ferroalloy and iron and steel 
 
 594 
 
 In chemical, refractory, and other 
 industries^ 
 
 NA 
 
 Production of ferrochromium: 
 
 224 
 79 
 
 357 
 86 
 
 451 
 91 
 
 387 
 99 
 
 374 
 90 
 
 353 
 46 
 
 241 
 33 
 
 321 
 44 
 
 350 
 53 
 
 266 
 
 Low-carbon 
 
 90 
 
 Total 
 
 303 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 443 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 (') 
 2 
 
 542 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 (') 
 
 1 
 
 486 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 (') 
 1 
 
 464 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 399 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 274 
 9 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 365 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 403 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 306 
 
 Production of ferrochromlum-silicon 
 
 Production of chromium metal 
 
 Exports: 
 
 Chromite. ............•••...•....•..•• 
 
 10 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Chromite oxide and hydroxide 
 
 2 
 
 To United States. 
 
 18 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 27 
 
 57 
 28 
 
 32 
 23 
 
 5 
 11 
 
 2 
 4 
 
 2 
 18 
 
 3 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 23 
 
 17 
 
 58 
 
 85 
 
 55 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 NA Not available. 
 
 ® Estimated. 
 
 'Less than 1/2 unit. 
 
 ^Not reported separately. 
 
 ^Calculated by subtracting reported industry 
 
 figure from reported total. 
 
13 
 
 Total reserves of chromlte in Japan 
 were estimated at 325,500 tons averaging 
 32% Cr203 in 1979, of which about 39% 
 represented demonstrated reserves. The 
 deposits occur mainly in the Iburi and 
 Hidaka districts of southern Hokkaido, 
 and in the Chugoku region of western Hon- 
 shu; a small chromite placer deposit oc- 
 curs in northern Hokkaido. Up to 11 
 mines have operated in these areas at 
 various times . 
 
 The peak production of chromium in 
 Japan occurred in 1939 when military 
 needs required mine production from sub- 
 marginal domestic resources. Production 
 dropped to 2,400 tons in 1947, but then 
 rose intermittently, reaching a high of 
 70,000 tons in 1961. Since then, there 
 has been a downward trend in mine out- 
 put as reserves were depleted and as min- 
 ing costs rose. In 1981, three mines 
 (Hirose, Wakamatsu, and Takase) produced 
 a total of about 11,000 tons of chromium 
 concentrate. This ore supplied less than 
 2% of the domestic demand for chromium. 
 
 Japan's requirements for chromium are 
 met principally by iiiq)orts of chromite as 
 well as ferrochromium. The latter is al- 
 so produced in Japan from imported ore. 
 High-carbon ferrochromium dominates Ja- 
 pan's production. Of the 306,000 tons of 
 ferrochromium production in 1981, 87% was 
 high-carbon and 13% low-carbon. The in- 
 crease in imports of ferrochromium has 
 idled some of domestic production. At 
 least one ferrochromium producer went out 
 of business in 1977. 
 
 Two companies produce chromium metal 
 in Japan: Toyo Soda Manufacturing Co., 
 which has a 3,600-ton-per-year capacity, 
 and Nippon Denko (700 tons per year). 
 From 60% to 70% of Japanese chromium met- 
 al production is usually exported, prin- 
 cipally to the United States and Western 
 Europe. Because of extensive metallurgi- 
 cal uses, the total annual quantity im- 
 ported varies directly with demand in the 
 steel industry. During the past two dec- 
 ades, a high of 1,269,000 tons of chro- 
 mite was imported in 1975 and a low of 
 670,000 tons was imported in 1978. 
 Principal sources of chromite imports are 
 shown in table 6. In 1981 imports were 
 
 predominately from the Republic of South 
 Africa, followed by the Philippines and 
 India; these countries accounted for over 
 86% of Japan's chromite imports. Much of 
 the chromite imported from the Philip- 
 pines is refractory grade. 
 
 Japan's imports of chromium ore are be- 
 ing replaced increasingly by those of 
 ferrochromium. These imports increased 
 from 29,000 tons in 1975 and 104,000 tons 
 in 1977 to peak imports of 257,000 tons 
 in 1980. Twelve countries have supplied 
 Japan with ferrochromium, but the major 
 source has been South Africa, with Brazil 
 ranking second in recent years. 
 
 Chromite is used in the production of 
 ferrochromium, which is used for making 
 stainless steel; a smaller tonnage is 
 used for making other types of specialty 
 steel and alloys. Other users are the 
 chemical industry (pigments, leather tan- 
 ning, and electroplating) and the refrac- 
 tory industry (for basic furnace lining). 
 The metallurgical industry's consumption 
 of chromium is about one and a half times 
 consumption of all other uses combined. 
 Stainless steel production accounts for 
 about 70% of contained chromium used by 
 the metallurgical industry. Japan is a 
 leading world producer of stainless 
 steel, with a production of over 1.8 mil- 
 lion tons in 1980 and 1.54 million tons 
 in 1981. 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Japan has an annual refinery capacity 
 for production of 2,800 tons of cobalt. 
 To meet demands , some cobalt is recovered 
 as a byproduct of domestic ore processing 
 by Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. Ltd. and by 
 Nippon Mining Co. Ltd. An additional 
 supply comes from the recovery of cobalt 
 by Mitsubishi Metals Corp. from copper 
 sulfide ores at the Hokkaido plant of 
 Shimkawa Mining. About 75% of the refin- 
 ery output of cobalt is estimated to be 
 from imported material; the remainder 
 comes from domestic ore. About 20% of 
 the cobalt from overseas sources is toll 
 refined and exported; the rest is sold 
 and shipped to domestic purchasers such 
 as the electronics industry and specialty 
 steel producers. 
 
14 
 
 Imports of cobalt oxide, hydroxide, 
 metal, and other forms are shown in table 
 7. Until the mid-1970' s, Japan imported 
 about 90% of its cobalt metal require- 
 ments from Zaire (includes that metal 
 credited to Belgium in table 7). In 
 most cases, cobalt was imported by a Jap- 
 anese trading company, which negotiated 
 long-term contracts with Societe G^nerale 
 des Mineraux (SGM) of Belgium. Since 
 1976, Japan has increased its production 
 of cobalt by importing mixed nickel- 
 cobalt sulfide from Australia and the 
 Philippines and refining it domestically 
 (by Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. Ltd. and 
 Nippon Mining Co. Ltd.). In terms of re- 
 covered metal content, the Philippines 
 has been the most important source. 
 Japan's imports of nickel- and cobalt- 
 bearing ores, concentrates, mattes, and 
 sulfides, and principal sources of supply 
 for 1972-81 are tabulated in the section 
 on nickel. 
 
 In 1981, Japan produced 2,421 tons of 
 refined cobalt, imported 868 tons, and 
 exported an estimated 400 tons. Con- 
 sumption was 1,511 tons; peak consump- 
 tion was 3,924 tons in 1973. Magnetic 
 alloys, of which aluminvmi-nickel-cobalt 
 alloys represent the largest composition 
 type, account for nearly 30% of total 
 domestic consumption of cobalt. About 
 18% of consumption is in specialty steel 
 (e.g., high-speed and heat-resistant 
 alloys); 10% in ultrahard alloys; 7% in 
 catalysts; 20% in manufacturing pipe, 
 sheet, bar, and wire for machinery and 
 transport equipment industries; and the 
 remaining 15% in chemical and other 
 industries. 
 
 Cobalt consumption in Japan has de- 
 clined annually since 1976. The decline 
 was attributed to higher prices rather 
 than lack of supply. End-use sectors 
 showing a marked decrease in consumption 
 of cobalt were those of specialty steel 
 and magnets, resulting from substitution 
 and use of less cobalt in finished mate- 
 rials. There was however, a significant 
 constancy in the consumption of cobalt in 
 ultrahard machine tools, catalysts, and 
 unspecified, distributive, and/or dissi- 
 pative applications. 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Japan's manganese resources are not 
 large by world standards. The aggregate 
 sources of metallurgical-grade ore, from 
 a number of widely separated sites, are 
 on the order of 3 million tons, contain- 
 ing 658,000 tons of recoverable manga- 
 nese. Battery- and chemical-grade ore 
 reserves probably total 40,000 to 50,000 
 tons of recoverable manganese content. 
 Ore quality and reserves are of marginal 
 value, causing mines to close periodical- 
 ly in response to market conditions. As 
 a result, domestic mines have supplied 
 only a small percentage of Japan's total 
 needs. 
 
 Production of manganese was first re- 
 ported in 1902 and increased slowly to 
 356,000 tons of concentrates in 1944. 
 Production has declined steadily, from 
 339,000 tons in 1967 to about 87,000 
 tons in 1981. The average crude ore 
 grade has declined to about 14% manga- 
 nese. Small amounts of higher quality 
 material have been mined and concentrated 
 for use in the dry-cell and chemical 
 industries. Several companies have re- 
 ported production in varying amounts from 
 different mines. In 1981, three domes- 
 tic companies produced manganese ore: 
 Chuugnai Mining Co. Ltd. , Hama Mining Co. 
 Ltd. , and Hokushin Mining Co. Ltd. 
 
 Japan depends almost entirely on im- 
 ports of manganese ore for its steel in- 
 dustry. It is estimated that the Japa- 
 nese steel industry absorbs 8% of the 
 world's mine output of manganese ore. 
 Japan's imports of manganese ore and oth- 
 er manganese-bearing materials for 1972- 
 81 are shown in table 8. In the early 
 1960's, Japan imported annually about 
 400,000 tons of manganese ore. As its 
 iron and steel industry expanded, imports 
 of manganese ore and ferruginous manga- 
 nese ore increased to about 1 million 
 tons in 1965 and to almost 4 million tons 
 by 1975. Although more than 16 countries 
 have supplied manganese ore to Japan 
 during 1972-81, in the last 5 years, Aus- 
 tralia and the Republic of South Africa 
 have accounted for 72% to 82% (excluding 
 ferruginous manganese ore) . 
 
TABLE 7. - Salient cobalt statistics, tons 
 
 15 
 
 
 1972 
 
 1973 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 1980 
 
 1981 
 
 Imports: ' 
 
 Cobalt oxide: 
 
 Belgium 
 
 586 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 785 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 726 
 
 (2) 
 5 
 
 204 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 616 
 18 
 26 
 14 
 
 406 
 52 
 28 
 16 
 
 435 
 52 
 20 
 21 
 
 477 
 31 
 23 
 15 
 
 150 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 90 
 
 Canada 
 
 20 
 
 United States 
 
 4 
 
 Other 
 
 19 
 
 Total 
 
 602 
 
 794 
 
 731 
 
 204 
 
 674 
 
 502 
 
 528 
 
 546 
 
 193 
 
 133 
 
 Cobalt hydroxide: 
 
 Belgium ...........••••••••••••• 
 
 82 
 
 
 149 
 
 
 81 
 
 7 
 
 46 
 2 
 
 73 
 
 7 
 
 79 
 16 
 
 87 
 
 
 105 
 
 
 99 
 
 
 79 
 
 Other 
 
 15 
 
 Total 
 
 82 
 
 149 
 
 88 
 
 48 
 
 80 
 
 95 
 
 87 
 
 105 
 
 99 
 
 94 
 
 Unwrought cobalt metal: -^ 
 
 Belgium 
 
 366 
 
 136 
 
 215 
 
 2,049 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 328 
 100 
 823 
 3,626 
 
 113 
 
 389 
 121 
 105 
 2,914 
 
 132 
 
 120 
 
 42 
 
 41 
 
 1,272 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 236 
 90 
 165 
 2,658 
 482 
 203 
 
 540 
 
 117 
 
 48 
 
 1,011 
 
 6 
 
 143 
 
 290 
 88 
 82 
 
 679 
 
 1 
 
 97 
 
 329 
 53 
 
 102 
 
 749 
 20 
 
 132 
 
 464 
 43 
 169 
 672 
 5 
 129 
 
 246 
 
 Finland 
 
 96 
 
 United States 
 
 139 
 
 Zaire ••.......••...•••••••••••• 
 
 210 
 
 Zambia ••.••• 
 
 13 
 
 Other 
 
 177 
 
 Total 
 
 2,824 
 
 4,490 
 
 3,661 
 
 1,532 
 
 3,834 
 
 1,865 
 
 1,237 
 
 l,385j 
 
 1,482 
 
 868 
 
 
 
 Waste and scrap cobalt: 
 
 United States 
 
 82 
 42 
 
 123 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 
 32 
 16 
 
 64 
 33 
 
 89 
 129 
 
 49 
 65 
 
 172 
 112 
 
 166 
 
 44 
 
 166 
 
 Other 
 
 40 
 
 Total 
 
 124 
 
 145 
 
 27 
 
 48 
 
 97 
 
 218 
 
 114 
 
 284 
 
 208 
 
 206 
 
 Wrought cobalt : '^ 
 
 United States 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 16 
 6 
 
 25 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 (2) 
 
 1 
 
 (2) 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 (2) 
 
 6 
 2 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Other 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 4 
 
 3,460 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 22 
 
 5,350 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 28 
 
 4,330 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 
 1 
 
 1,810 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 
 1 
 
 5,010 
 
 515 
 
 11 
 (2) 
 
 2 
 3,620 
 1,093 
 
 10 
 
 
 7 
 3,670 
 1,864 
 
 87 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 4,810 
 2,653 
 
 41 
 2 
 
 8 
 4,770 
 2,867 
 
 85 
 
 
 7 
 
 Estimated cobalt content of all 
 imports ^ 
 
 3 670 
 
 Processing: Production of cobalt 
 metal 
 
 2 421 
 
 Exports:^ 
 
 Cobalt oxide and hydroxide 
 exports: 
 Total 
 
 13 
 
 To United States 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cobalt , unwrought , including 
 waste and scrap: 
 To France 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 12- 
 
 195 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 94 
 
 305 
 
 5 
 
 157 
 
 275 
 
 564 
 
 44 
 
 99 
 
 To Germany, Federal Republic of 
 To United States 
 
 75 
 737 
 
 Other^ 
 
 NA 
 
 Total 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 213 
 
 427 
 
 1,040 
 
 911 
 
 NA Not available. 
 
 The principal crude source of cobalt metal recovered in Japan is cobaltiferous nickel ore; 
 lesser amounts may be recovered from cobaltiferous copper ores. For data on imports of cobalt- 
 iferous nickel ore, see table 9. Additional cobalt undoubtedly is imported in nickel matte, and 
 other intermediate nickel metallurgy, but the cobalt content of imported matte is not available, 
 nor can it be reliably estimated from available information. 
 
 2Less than 1/2 unit. 
 
 ^Includes powder and flake. 
 
 ^Includes unknown quantities of not specifically identified "oxides of cobalt" for 1976-81, 
 inclusive. 
 
 Includes figures for estimated recoverable content of imported and domestically produced 
 cobaltiferous ores and intermediate metallurgical products; these estimates are based on Japa- 
 nese metal production, which began in 1974. 
 
 Japan does not record separately its exports of cobalt metal; data presented here for cobalt 
 metal are recorded imports from Japan by listed trading partner countries. 
 
 ^Belgium-Luxemburg, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom only. 
 
16 
 
 TABLE 8. - Salient manganese statistics, thousand tons 
 
 
 1972 
 
 1973 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 1980 
 
 1981 
 
 Raw material supply: 
 
 Manganese ore production: 
 
 Gross weight 
 
 Mn content 
 
 261 
 72 
 
 189 
 53 
 
 167 
 42 
 
 158 
 39 
 
 142 
 33 
 
 126 
 33 
 
 104 
 29 
 
 88 
 23 
 
 80 
 21 
 
 87 
 21 
 
 Imports: 
 
 Manganiferrous iron ore: 
 
 India. 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 29 
 18 
 
 36 
 99 
 
 22 
 70 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 26 
 
 
 16 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 South Africa, Republic of 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 61 
 
 47 
 
 135 
 
 92 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 43 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 Ferruginous manganese ore: 
 
 China 
 
 14 
 
 657 
 
 615 
 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 30 
 
 651 
 
 840 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 811 
 
 1,001 
 
 
 
 101 
 
 53 
 
 41 
 
 641 
 
 904 
 
 6 
 
 143 
 
 36 
 
 32 
 536 
 799 
 20 
 90 
 41 
 
 45 
 523 
 704 
 66 
 89 
 20 
 
 38 
 
 483 
 
 383 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 459 
 
 520 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 516 
 
 538 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 India. 
 
 390 
 
 South Africa, Republic of.......... 
 
 532 
 
 Thailand 
 
 22 
 
 U.S.S.R 
 
 Other ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 1,334 
 
 1,559 
 
 2,010 
 
 1,771 
 
 1,518 
 
 1,447 
 
 952 
 
 1,058 
 
 1,107 
 
 960 
 
 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 5 
 9 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 4 
 8 
 8 
 
 (2) 
 1 
 8 
 2 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 3 
 4 
 2 
 (2) 
 
 5 
 3 
 2 
 2 
 (2) 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 (2) 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 China 
 
 2 
 
 Gabon 
 
 4 
 
 Indonesia. 
 
 
 
 Other 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 17 
 
 (2) 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 11 
 
 Other manganese ore: 
 
 Australia. ......................... 
 
 506 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 248 
 23 
 65 
 45 
 
 461 
 71 
 32 
 50 
 
 626 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 208 
 18 
 44 
 60 
 
 636 
 54 
 64 
 64 
 
 652 
 22 
 11 
 20 
 
 113 
 54 
 33 
 94 
 
 682 
 20 
 
 116 
 
 116 
 
 655 
 
 54 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 166 
 
 47 
 
 29 
 
 130 
 
 703 
 
 15 
 
 134 
 
 134 
 
 804 
 
 42 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 207 
 19 
 29 
 
 129 
 
 467 
 11 
 39 
 57 
 
 500 
 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 53 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 103 
 
 420 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 444 
 
 51 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 310 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 544 
 
 162 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 122 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 660 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 602 
 
 149 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 150 
 
 46 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 761 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 429 
 
 Brazil 
 
 HI 
 
 China 
 
 Congo 
 
 Gabon. ............................. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 Ghana. ............................. 
 
 25 
 
 India. ............................. 
 
 
 
 Mexico 
 
 67 
 
 South Africa, Republic of 
 
 829 
 
 U.S.S.R 
 
 Vanuatu 
 
 
 
 
 Other 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 1,569 
 
 1,785 
 
 1,876 
 
 1,958 
 
 1,834 
 
 1,294 
 
 1,048 
 
 1,622 
 
 1,820 
 
 1,522 
 
 Ferromanganese : 
 
 India 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 22 
 (2) 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 1 
 
 15 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Other 
 
 4 
 
 Total 
 
 (2) 
 1,080 
 
 22 
 1,240 
 
 16 
 1,440 
 
 2 
 1,380 
 
 2 
 1,230 
 
 6 
 990 
 
 17 
 750 
 
 19 
 1,020 
 
 3 
 1,110 
 
 7 
 
 Estimated manganese content of all 
 imports 
 
 940 
 
 Processing: 
 
 Production of ferromanganese: 
 
 439 
 114 
 
 479 
 138 
 
 493 
 131 
 
 515 
 135 
 
 485 
 147 
 
 399 
 128 
 
 368 
 88 
 
 449 
 154 
 
 452 
 117 
 
 450 
 
 Low-carbon 
 
 118 
 
 
 553 
 
 343 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 
 41 
 4 
 
 50 
 38 
 
 617 
 
 376 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 39 
 2 
 
 26 
 17 
 
 624 
 
 448 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 2 
 
 54 
 39 
 
 650 
 
 435 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 23 
 1 
 
 131 
 86 
 
 632 
 
 373 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 34 
 3 
 
 129 
 91 
 
 527 
 
 334 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 
 24 
 4 
 
 49 
 30 
 
 456 
 
 303 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 22 
 4 
 
 37 
 (') 
 
 603 
 
 300 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 19 
 3 
 
 88 
 31 
 
 569 
 
 311 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 23 
 6 
 
 40 
 12 
 
 568 
 
 Production of ferrosllicon manganese. 
 Exports: 
 
 Total 
 
 283 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Manganese dioxide: 
 
 Total 
 
 27 
 
 To United States 
 
 12 
 
 Ferromanganese: 
 
 Total 
 
 35 
 
 To United States 
 
 7 
 
 'All from Malaysia except 23,000 tons in 1972 from Romania. 
 2Les8 than 1/2 unit. 
 
17 
 
 High-grade il]^)orted manganese ore is 
 used for the production of ferromanganese 
 and silicomanganese. Consumption for 
 this purpose is about 1.4 million tons 
 annually. Between 500,000 and 600,000 
 tons of ferromanganese and about 300,000 
 to 400,000 tons of silicomanganese were 
 produced annually in the 1970' s. Of the 
 total ferromanganese produced during 
 1973-81, about 78% was high-carbon and 
 22% was low-carbon ferromanganese. A 
 small tonnage of ferromanganese is also 
 imported, mainly from India. 
 
 Ferruginous manganese ores, which are 
 also imported in large tonnages, are 
 ores with 10% to 30% manganese and a 
 high iron content. Most of the ferrugi- 
 nous ores are used in blast furnaces in 
 the production of pig iron, with only 
 a small portion used as raw material 
 for ferroalloy plants. India and South 
 Africa together have supplied 90% to 95% 
 of this material since 1975. During the 
 1970's, Japan's iron and steel industry 
 consumed annually about 1.4 million tons 
 of ferruginous manganese ore as direct 
 blast furnace feed and raw material for 
 making sinter. During 1973-79, about 
 half of the total ferruginous manganese 
 ore consumed was used for sinter feed; 
 the remainder went directly to blast 
 furnace. 
 
 About 95% of Japan's total demand for 
 manganese is by the iron and steel indus- 
 try. High-grade manganese ore is used 
 for the production of refined ferromanga- 
 nese (high-carbon and low-carbon) . Ja- 
 pan' s steel industry consumed an annual 
 average of about 600,000 tons of ferro- 
 manganese and about 300,000 to 400,000 
 tons of ferrosilicomanganese during 1972- 
 81 (491,000 tons of contained manganese 
 in 1981). Each ton of crude steel con- 
 sumes an average of 3.76 kg of high- 
 carbon ferromanganese, 0.75 kg of medium- 
 and low-carbon ferromanganese, and 3.31 
 kg of ferrosilicomanganese. The world 
 recession that followed the oil crisis in 
 1973-74 resulted in cutbacks in steel 
 
 production and, consequently, a decline 
 in ferroalloy consumption. 
 
 Japan consumes between 60,000 and 
 90,000 tons of high-grade manganese ore 
 annually for the production of electro- 
 lytic manganese, which is used to make 
 specialty steel and to make manganese 
 dioxide for the manufacture of dry-cell 
 batteries. Only a few ores can be used 
 for making dry-cell batteries, and high 
 manganese content alone does not make 
 the ore suitable. Although a small 
 percentage of Japanese ore has the re- 
 quired properties for benef iciation into 
 battery-grade material, Japan is depen- 
 dent on imports for this material. Four 
 companies reported an aggregate produc- 
 tion of 44,295 tons of electrolytic man- 
 ganese dioxide in 1981. 
 
 Japan's annual capacities for manga- 
 nese ferroalloys and dioxide in 1981 were 
 ferromanganese 941,900 tons, silicoman- 
 ganese 597,200 tons, and manganese di- 
 oxide 52,800 tons. Principal domestic 
 firms producing ferromanganese and sili- 
 comanganese are listed in table 2. Pro- 
 ducers of manganese dioxide include Toyo 
 Soda Industries Co. Ltd. (24,000-ton- 
 per-year capacity), Mitsui Mining Smelt- 
 ing Co. Ltd. (19,200-ton-per-year capac- 
 ity), Japan Metal and Chemical Industries 
 Co. (6,000-ton-per-year capacity), and 
 Dai-ichi Carbon Co. (3,000-ton-per-year 
 capacity). 
 
 Japan's production of electrolytic man- 
 ganese metal in the 1972-81 decade has 
 ranged from a high of 12,657 tons in 1972 
 to a low of 4,232 tons in 1981. Current- 
 ly, two firms produce the metal: Chuo 
 Denki Kogyo Co., which sells the metal 
 only in the domestic market, and Toyo 
 Soda Co., which sells both domestically 
 and overseas. Exports of the metal ac- 
 counted for over 60% of the production in 
 1978 but only 4% in 1981. The United 
 States is the principal market; other im- 
 porting countries are Brazil, France, the 
 Federal Republic of Germany, and Canada. 
 
18 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Japan is a major world consumer of 
 nickel. All consumption requirements 
 are met by imports of nickel ore, nick- 
 el matte, nickel-cobalt mixed sulfides, 
 nickel oxide, ferronickel, and nickel 
 metal (including scrap). In^)orts of 
 these commodities in the 1972-81 dec- 
 ade are shovm in table 9. The combined 
 total of the annual imports for 1972- 
 81 are 3 to 4 million tons of nickel 
 ore from Indonesia, New Caledonia, and 
 the Philippines; 13,000 to 52,000 tons 
 of nickel matte, speiss, and other in- 
 termediate products from Australia, In- 
 donesia, and New Caledonia; and 8,000 
 to 19,000 tons of ingots, 7,000 to 
 33,000 tons of ferronickel, and small- 
 er tonnages of other forms from vari- 
 ous countries. The ores are used for 
 making ferronickel; other forms (matte, 
 speiss, and other intermediate products) 
 are used for making the metal. Jap- 
 an's production of ferronickel and metal 
 for 1972-81 is shown in table 9. The 
 production of ferronickel has varied 
 between 200,000 and 300,000 tons (gross 
 weight) and production of nickel met- 
 al has been about 24,000 tons per year. 
 The producers of ferronickel were list- 
 ed previously under Industry Structure; 
 nickel metal was produced by Sumitomo 
 Metal Mining Co. and Nippon Mining 
 Co. Ltd. , with an annual capacity of 
 22,780 tons and 4,100 tons, respective- 
 ly. These two companies accounted for 
 the 23,800 tons of nickel produced in 
 1981. 
 
 In 1981, ferronickel consumption to- 
 taled about 258,000 tons (gross weight). 
 About 90% of the total ferronickel sup- 
 ply was used indigenously for the pro- 
 duction of stainless and other alloy 
 steels; most of the remainder was export- 
 ed. In 1981, a total of 1.5 million tons 
 of stainless steel was produced, of which 
 1 million was nickel-based stainless. 
 
 The about 34,000 tons of nickel metal 
 consumed in 1981 was distributed as 
 follows: specialty steel, 38%; plat- 
 ing, 20%; nonferrous alloys, 17%; mag- 
 netic materials, 7%; and other uses, 
 18%. To supplement domestically pro- 
 duced nickel, Japan also imported about 
 19,000 tons of nickel metal and powder, 
 principally from Canada, the U.S.S.R., 
 Australia, the Philippines, the United 
 States, Zimbabwe, Norway, and six other 
 countries. 
 
 Tungsten 
 
 Salient tungsten statistics for 1972- 
 81 are shown in table 10. Currently, 
 domestic mine production of tungsten 
 accounts for about 25% of Japanese tung- 
 sten consumption. The balance is met 
 by imports of concentrate, ferrotung- 
 sten, and metal. In 1981, Japan con- 
 sumed about 3,200 tons of concentrate 
 for producing ferrotungsten and the 
 metal. 
 
 Japan uses tungsten in the form of 
 metal and carbide for the production 
 of ultrahard alloys and for making 
 cutting and wear-resistant materials; 
 about 1,500 tons of tungsten was con- 
 sumed in these applications in 1981. 
 About 15% of the total tungsten con- 
 sumption was as ferrotungsten as a steel- 
 alloying element. Domestic mine pro- 
 duction of tungsten has decreased an- 
 nually since 1977, but consumption has 
 increased. 
 
 Domestic consumption accounts for the 
 bulk of the total supply of tungsten 
 metal; during 1972-81, slightly less 
 than 12% of total supply (imports plus 
 domestic production) was exported as 
 elemental tungsten. The proportion of 
 ferrotungsten supply used indigenous- 
 ly cannot be pinpointed because fer- 
 rotungsten exports are not reported 
 separately. 
 
TABLE 9. - Salient nickel statistics, thousand tons 
 
 19 
 
 
 1972 
 
 1973 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 1980 
 
 1981 
 
 Imports: 
 Ore: 
 
 Australia. ............... 
 
 81 
 
 39 
 
 784 
 
 2,246 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 17 
 
 730 
 
 2,720 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 792 
 
 3,363 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 '33 
 
 
 
 872 
 
 2,492 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 
 
 
 812 
 
 2,635 
 
 3 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 
 
 878 
 2,680 
 
 393 
 
 
 
 
 
 822 
 1,545 
 
 632 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,128 
 
 2,128 
 
 759 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,310 
 
 2,000 
 
 640 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada. ............•••••• 
 
 
 
 Tndonfsia. ............... 
 
 1,162 
 
 New Calendonia. ......•».. 
 
 1,662 
 
 Philippines 
 
 638 
 
 Other 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,152 
 
 3,539 
 
 4,218 
 
 3,397 
 
 3,450 
 
 3,951 
 
 2,999 
 
 4,015 
 
 3,950 
 
 3,463 
 
 Matte, speiss, other inter- 
 mediate products: 
 Australia. ............... 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 4 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 8 
 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 (2) 
 10 
 8 
 
 20 
 (2) 
 27 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 Canada. .................. 
 
 
 
 Indonesia. ............... 
 
 19 
 
 Other^ 
 
 2 
 
 Total 
 
 13 
 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 (2) 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 (2) 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 (2) 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 (2) 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 (2) 
 
 4 
 
 42 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 52 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 Nickel oxide. .••.....•..... 
 
 1 
 
 Nickel and nickel alloy 
 s crap 
 
 2 
 
 Nickel ingot: 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Canada. ...•..•...•.•..•.. 
 
 (2) 
 3 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 (2) 
 5 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 — ■ - 
 
 (2) 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 3 
 (2) 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 1 
 4 
 6 
 
 2 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 5 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 Philippines 
 
 2 
 
 U.S.S.R 
 
 Other 
 
 3 
 5 
 
 Total 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 Ferronickel: 
 
 Dominican Republic 
 
 Indonesia. ............... 
 
 
 
 3 
 1 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 1 
 3 
 
 2 
 6 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 4 
 9 
 
 5 
 1 
 1 
 
 7 
 11 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 9 
 
 New Caledonia. .......•.•* 
 
 13 
 
 United States 
 
 (2) 
 
 Other 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 26 
 
 Estimated nickel content 
 of all imDorts ....•..•.•.. 
 
 85 
 
 189 
 16 
 
 79 
 
 19 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 22 
 
 88 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 (2) 
 
 
 120 
 
 251 
 21 
 
 105 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 (2) 
 
 90 
 
 201 
 13 
 
 78 
 
 4 
 (2) 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 110 
 
 198 
 24 
 
 95 
 
 13 
 (2) 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 115 
 
 224 
 24 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 95 
 
 198 
 22 
 
 80 
 
 22 
 17 
 
 3 
 (2) 
 
 125 
 
 304 
 25 
 
 101 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 130 
 
 277 
 25 
 
 99 
 
 17 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 110 
 
 Processing: 
 
 Ferronickel production 
 (sross weisht) ............ 
 
 244 
 
 Metallic nickel production. 
 Nickel content of ferro- 
 nickel produced. •..*.••.•• 
 
 24 
 87 
 
 Exports: 
 
 Ferronickel: 
 
 Total 
 
 21 
 
 To United States 
 
 15 
 
 Ni ckel , unwr ought : 
 
 Total 
 
 1 
 
 To United States 
 
 (2) 
 
 ' Includes 25 ,000 tons credited to New Zealand in source, but almost certainly of Aus- 
 tralian origin, plus 8,000 tons credited to Australia, 
 
 ^Less than 1/2 unit. 
 
 ^All from New Caledonia except 3,000 tons in 1979 and less than 500 tons in 1980, from 
 Guatemala. 
 
20 
 
 TABLE 10. - Salient tungsten statistics, tons 
 
 
 1972 
 
 1973 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 1977 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 1980 
 
 1981 
 
 Raw material supply: 
 Tungsten concentrate 
 production: 
 
 Gross weight 
 
 Tungsten content.... 
 
 1,554 
 898 
 
 1,510 
 869 
 
 1,398 
 810 
 
 1,330 
 768 
 
 1,372 
 814 
 
 1,315 
 772 
 
 2,192 
 775 
 
 2,253 
 746 
 
 1,894 
 667 
 
 1,901 
 667 
 
 Imports: 
 
 Tungsten concentrate 
 (gross weight) : 
 Australia 
 
 119 
 
 41 
 
 160 
 
 141 
 
 1,220 
 
 397 
 
 
 
 283 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 519 
 69 
 
 790 
 
 263 
 1,473 
 
 301 
 30 
 
 842 
 
 
 130 
 
 146 
 
 274 
 
 76 
 
 386 
 
 288 
 
 1,161 
 
 484 
 
 499 
 
 494 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 221 
 
 18 
 
 90 
 
 169 
 
 927 
 
 212 
 
 144 
 
 186 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 313 
 
 18 
 
 151 
 
 105 
 
 855 
 
 378 
 
 60 
 
 540 
 
 127 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 
 514 
 
 108 
 
 347 
 
 178 
 
 949 
 
 414 
 
 139 
 
 480 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 47 
 
 221 
 99 
 
 408 
 50 
 
 901 
 
 290 
 79 
 
 175 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 284 
 
 194 
 
 468 
 
 215 
 
 815 
 
 386 
 
 89 
 
 186 
 
 380 
 
 20 
 
 96 
 
 557 
 299 
 675 
 165 
 733 
 227 
 355 
 244 
 101 
 30 
 94 
 
 336 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 280 
 
 Canada. ........... 
 
 180 
 
 China 
 
 Korea, Republic of 
 Peru 
 
 276 
 507 
 137 
 
 Portugal • 
 
 468 
 
 Thailand 
 
 48 
 
 United States 
 
 Zaire 
 
 
 
 
 Other 
 
 24 
 
 Total. . / 
 
 2,436 
 
 4,563 
 
 3,818 
 
 2,027 
 
 2,605 
 
 3,247 
 
 2,264 
 
 3,133 
 
 3,480 
 
 2,256 
 
 Ferrotungsten (gross 
 weight) : 
 Austria. 
 
 2 
 
 
 13 
 9 
 
 53 
 
 230 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 157 
 
 191 
 
 2 
 
 
 19 
 194 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 30 
 
 177 
 
 
 
 147 
 
 163 
 
 68 
 
 138 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 57 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 255 
 
 158 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 51 
 67 
 28 
 23 
 17 
 
 
 
 Brazil 
 
 5 
 
 China 
 
 24 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Other 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Tungsten metal: ' 
 Austria. .......... 
 
 77 
 
 598 
 
 231 
 
 121 
 
 555 
 
 209 
 
 118 
 
 483 
 
 186 
 
 45 
 
 4 
 19 
 
 26 
 (2) 
 9 
 2 
 
 5 
 47 
 
 73 
 
 1 
 
 119 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 48 
 
 100 
 1 
 
 172 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 (2) 
 11 
 (2) 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 85 
 
 7 
 4 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 1 
 87 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 9 
 85 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 112 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 111 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 France ............ 
 
 1 
 
 Germany, Federal 
 
 Republic of 
 
 Korea, Republic of 
 
 United States 
 
 Other. 
 
 14 
 
 139 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 Total 
 
 Estimated tungsten 
 content of all 
 imports 
 
 60 
 
 1,700 
 
 611 
 1,358 
 
 270 
 15 
 
 246 
 
 3,700 
 
 934 
 2,018 
 
 96 
 
 7 
 
 336 
 
 3,000 
 
 276 
 1,665 
 
 138 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 1,400 
 
 494 
 885 
 
 200 
 64 
 
 106 
 
 2,200 
 
 447 
 1,431 
 
 190 
 50 
 
 112 
 
 2,400 
 
 371 
 1,549 
 
 136 
 33 
 
 127 
 
 2,700 
 
 243 
 1,479 
 
 178 
 24 
 
 161 
 
 2,600 
 
 251 
 1,736 
 
 265 
 43 
 
 158 
 
 2,600 
 
 242 
 2,049 
 
 311 
 61 
 
 187 
 1,700 
 
 Processing: 
 Production of 
 
 ferrotungsten 
 
 Production of tungsten 
 metal 
 
 362 
 1,820 
 
 Exports: ' 
 
 Tungsten metal: 
 
 Total 
 
 309 
 
 To United States.... 
 
 73 
 
 ^Includes waste, scrap, 
 ^Less than 1/2 unit. 
 ■'Exports of ferrotungst 
 not be reported separatel 
 
 powdei 
 en are 
 
 ■y. 
 
 :, flaV 
 report 
 
 ce, in^ 
 :ed wit 
 
 jots, £ 
 :h othe 
 
 ind art 
 ir mine 
 
 :icles 
 )r fen 
 
 of tur 
 roallo) 
 
 igsten. 
 TS , and 
 
 I thus 
 
 5 can- 
 
21 
 
 STATUS OF THE SPECIALTY STEEL INDUSTRY 
 
 PRODUCTION 
 
 Production of specialty steel during 
 1970-81, inclusive, is tabulated in table 
 1. Production of this steel as a per- 
 centage of total steel output has shown 
 an increasing trend. In 1981, Japan pro- 
 duced 13.3 million tons of specialty 
 steel, of which 1.5 million tons was 
 stainless. The configuration of produc- 
 tion by type and shape in 1981 are shown 
 in tables 11 and 12. 
 
 CONSUMPTION 
 
 Much of the specialty steel produced in 
 Japan is used domestically. Compared 
 with the production range of 7.2 million 
 to 13.3 million tons during 1972-81, con- 
 sumption ranged from 5.3 million to 7.3 
 million tons during the same period. 
 Consumption by type of specialty steel, 
 totaling 7 million tons in 1981, is shown 
 in table 13. The following tabulation 
 shows total domestic consumption of hot- 
 rolled specialty steel during 1972-81, in 
 thousand tons: 
 
 1972 
 
 5,301 
 
 1977 
 
 5,900 
 
 1973 
 
 6,579 
 
 1978 
 
 6,347 
 
 1974 
 
 6,136 
 
 1979 
 
 6,923 
 
 1975 
 
 4,711 
 
 1980 
 
 7,278 
 
 1976 
 
 5,673 
 
 1981 
 
 7,122 
 
 TRADE 
 
 Japan is an important exporter of spe- 
 cialty steel. Exports for 1973-81 are 
 shown in table 14. The peak export was 
 in 1977 and has gradually declined since 
 then. During this period, it appears 
 that about 15% of total Japanese produc- 
 tion of these steels was exported as 
 steel semimanufactures (bars, rods, an- 
 gles, shapes, sections, plates, sheets, 
 hoops, strips, rails, single-strand 
 wires, pipes, and tubes). Exports as a 
 percentage of production may have an 
 error of plus or minus two percentage 
 points because classification differences 
 do not allow precise comparison between 
 production and exports. The breakdown of 
 these exports in 1981, excluding pipes 
 and ingots , was as follows , in thousand 
 tons: 
 
 Type 
 Tool 
 
 Quantity 
 38.6 
 
 Structural. ................... 
 
 326.4 
 
 Stainless and heat-resistant 
 steel. •...........••••.••.... 
 
 460.7 
 
 Other 
 
 800.2 
 
 Total 1 ,625.9 
 
 Specialty steel pipe exports totaled 
 320,700 tons in 1981, including 64,500 
 tons of stainless steel pipe and 256,200 
 tons of other specialty steel pipe. 
 Excluding pipe, the largest export des- 
 tinations for stainless and other alloy 
 steels in 1981 were the U.S.S.R. (296,000 
 tons), the United States (283,000 tons), 
 the Republic of Korea (217,000 tons), 
 Taiwan (155,000 tons), India (91,000 
 tons), and Thailand (75,000 tons). 
 
 TABLE 11. - Production of hot-rolled 
 specialty steel, by type, thousand 
 tons 
 
 Type 
 
 Tool steel: 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Alloy 
 
 High-speed. 
 
 Vacutim 
 
 Other 
 
 Total. 
 
 Structural steel: 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Alloy 
 
 Total 
 
 Other specialty steel; 
 Stainless: 
 
 Chromium-based. . . . 
 
 Nickel-based 
 
 Total 
 
 Spring 
 
 Bearings 
 
 Heat-resistant 
 
 Free-cutting , 
 
 Wire rods 
 
 High-strength , 
 
 Other 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand total. . . . 
 
 1981 
 
 119.2 
 
 83.5 
 
 15.1 
 
 4.6 
 
 .8 
 
 223.2 
 
 2,747.3 
 
 3,296.6 
 
 6,043.9 
 
 524.9 
 
 1,103.6 
 
 1,538.5 
 
 621.1 
 
 570.4 
 
 45.2 
 
 888.3 
 
 340.4 
 
 2,958.5 
 
 51.4 
 
 7,013.8 
 
 13,280.9 
 
22 
 
 TABLE 12. - Production and sales of specialty steel semimanufactures in 1981, 
 thousand tons 
 
 
 Shapes 
 
 Bars 
 
 Tubes 
 
 Wire 
 rod 
 
 Plates 
 
 Strips 
 and hoops 
 
 Total 
 
 Production. . . . 
 Sales 
 
 215.4 
 198.6 
 
 4,208.6 
 
 3,924.8 
 
 2,337.0 
 
 
 2,454.5 
 2,321.3 
 
 2,491.8 
 1,360.4 
 
 1,573.6 
 750.4 
 
 13,280.9 
 8,555.5 
 
 TABLE 13. - Consumption of specialty 
 steel in 1981, by type, thousand tons 
 
 Commodity 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Tool steel 
 
 173.9 
 
 Structural steel: 
 
 Carbon and machine. .......... 
 
 2,165.6 
 
 Alloy 
 
 1,308.1 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3,473.7 
 
 
 
 Other specialty steel: 
 Stainless: 
 
 Chromium— based. 
 
 219.8 
 
 Nickel— based 
 
 447.9 
 
 Pipe 
 
 48.8 
 
 Total 
 
 716.5 
 
 Serine 
 
 424.9 
 
 Bearings 
 
 Heat— resistant 
 
 393.5 
 23.6 
 
 Free— cutting 
 
 696.8 
 
 Wire rods 
 
 High-strength 
 
 Corrosion-resistant : 
 
 303.2 
 454.6 
 
 176.5 
 
 Seawater 
 
 3.2 
 
 Low-temperature 
 
 Other 
 
 81.2 
 18.0 
 
 Other alloy pipes 
 
 182.1 
 
 Total 
 
 3.474.1 
 
 Grand total 
 
 7,121.7 
 
 During 1973-81, inclusive, the United 
 States accounted for 14.7% of all of Ja- 
 pan's exports. However, U.S. imports 
 from Japan have been as high as 45.5% of 
 all U.S. imports and averaged 38.3%. 
 Thus , Japan is more important as a sup- 
 plier of specialty steel to the United 
 States compared with the U.S. position in 
 Japan's overseas markets. 
 
 The variance in the data for Japanese 
 exports to the United States and U.S. im- 
 ports from Japan for the same period re- 
 sults from classification differences in 
 the respective foreign trade data. None- 
 theless, since total Japanese exports and 
 Japanese exports to the United States and 
 total U.S. imports and U.S. imports from 
 Japan are both on comparable bases , the 
 percentages calculated in table 14 are 
 essentially valid. 
 
 Trade classification systems of Japan 
 and the United States make it virtually 
 impossible to identify the specific types 
 of alloy steel being traded. In broad 
 terms , about 30% of both the total Japa- 
 nese specialty steel exports and Japanese 
 specialty steel exports to the United 
 
 TABLE 14. - Japanese exports and U.S. imports of specialty steel, 1973-81 
 
 Year 
 
 Japanese exports 
 
 Total, 
 
 thousand 
 
 tons 
 
 To U.S., 
 
 thousand 
 
 tons 
 
 U.S. share 
 of total, % 
 
 U.S. Imports 
 
 Total, 
 
 thousand 
 
 tons 
 
 From Japan, 
 
 thousand 
 
 tons 
 
 "TIT 
 Ul3 
 252 
 260 
 326 
 338 
 257 
 250 
 350 
 
 Japanese 
 share of 
 total, % 
 
 1973. 
 1974. 
 1975, 
 1976. 
 1977. 
 1978. 
 1979. 
 1980. 
 1981. 
 
 1,273 
 1,520 
 1,258 
 1,845 
 1,900 
 1,884 
 1,795 
 1,713 
 1,702 
 
 162 
 184 
 173 
 243 
 331 
 316 
 315 
 198 
 274 
 
 12.7 
 12.1 
 13.8 
 13.2 
 17.4 
 16.8 
 17.5 
 11.6 
 16.1 
 
 1287 
 '285 
 578 
 619 
 716 
 871 
 713 
 656 
 1,140 
 
 39.4 
 39.6 
 43.6 
 42.0 
 45.5 
 38.8 
 36.0 
 38.1 
 30.7 
 
 Total. 
 
 14,890 
 
 2,186 
 
 14.7 
 
 5,865 
 
 2,249 
 
 38.3 
 
 'Partial figure; associated percentages are believed to be reasonably indicative of 
 Japan's share of total. 
 
23 
 
 States over the 1973-81 period can be 
 classified as stainless steel, and the 
 remaining 70% as some other type of alloy 
 steel. On a year-by-year basis, there 
 seems little pattern in the ratio of 
 stainless steel to other alloy steel for 
 total Japanese exports; however, by 1981, 
 the share of the total accounted for by 
 stainless steel was somewhat higher than 
 in any year prior to 1973. A similar 
 year-by-year examination of Japan's ex- 
 ports to the United States seems to show 
 a fairly consistent decline in the per- 
 centage of stainless steel composing the 
 total compared with that of alloy steel. 
 
 As is noted from the above data, the 
 United States imports a substantial 
 share of its requirements from Japan. 
 Actually, the figures for imports of 
 semifinished forms of specialty steel in- 
 to the United States from Japan does not 
 show the full picture. Large tonnages of 
 specialty steel are shipped from Japan as 
 components in manufactured materials, but 
 these tonnages generally cannot be sta- 
 tistically separated from other con5)0- 
 nents of the manufactures. One of the 
 exceptions is tableware, where at least 
 a part of the total is identified specif- 
 ically as stainless steel tableware. 
 
 During 1972-81, inclusive, Japan exported 
 an annual average of over 20,000 tons of 
 tableware, of which an annual average of 
 7,300 tons or nearly 37% was shipped to 
 the United States. (See table 15 for 
 annual details.) Similarly, in the case 
 of drill bits, reamers, screw taps, mill- 
 ing cutters, gear cutters and dies, high- 
 speed tool steel can be separated from 
 other steel. For these 
 Japanese exports averaged 
 during 1972-81, of which 
 (or 9%) was destined for 
 (table 15). 
 
 items, total 
 
 2,403,000 tons 
 
 218,000 tons 
 
 U.S. markets 
 
 The exports of specialty steel in com- 
 plex manufactures such as automobiles 
 represent much larger tonnages, but they 
 are not accurately quantifiable. During 
 1972-81, Japan exported almost 24.9 mil- 
 lion completely assembled automobiles, of 
 which over 12.1 million were destined for 
 the United States. On the assumption 
 that each car contains only 100 kg of 
 specialty steel, an annual average ship- 
 ment of over 120,000 tons of such steel 
 in automobiles to the United States is 
 indicated for the decade. This amount 
 probably understates the actual quantity, 
 but indicates the order of magnitude. 
 
 TABLE 15. - Export of selected products containing specialty steel 
 
 Commodity 
 
 1972 
 
 1973 
 
 1974 
 
 1975 
 
 1976 
 
 Tableware, stainless steel, tons: 
 
 Total Japanese export 
 
 Japanese export to United States 
 
 Drills, bits, reamers, screw taps, milling 
 cutters, gear cutters, dies, tons: 
 
 Total Japanese export 
 
 Japanese export to United States 
 
 Passenger autos assembled, thousands: 
 
 Total Japanese export 
 
 Japanese export to United States 
 
 Tableware, stainless steel, tons; 
 
 Total Japanese export 
 
 Japanese export to United States 
 
 Drills, bits, reamers, screw taps, milling 
 cutters, gear cutters, dies, tons: 
 
 Total Japanese export 
 
 Japanese export to United States 
 
 Passenger autos assembled, thousands: 
 
 Total Japanese export , 
 
 Japanese export to United States , 
 
 19,397 
 7,172 
 
 453 
 94 
 
 1,313 
 638 
 
 1977 
 
 19,601 
 6,476 
 
 4,431 
 183 
 
 2,778 
 1,392 
 
 20,611 
 7,277 
 
 492 
 103 
 
 1,283 
 626 
 
 21,172 
 7,080 
 
 544 
 104 
 
 1,551 
 732 
 
 19,972 
 7,357 
 
 1,189 
 144 
 
 1,594 
 739 
 
 1978 
 
 1979 
 
 1980 
 
 18,278 
 6,551 
 
 3,628 
 210 
 
 2,883 
 1,521 
 
 18,655 
 8,013 
 
 3,735 
 458 
 
 3,117 
 1,642 
 
 21,161 
 7,735 
 
 5,247 
 442 
 
 4,027 
 1,921 
 
 20,593 
 8,129 
 
 1,485 
 132 
 
 2,316 
 1,097 
 
 1981 
 
 20,855 
 7,569 
 
 2,828 
 312 
 
 4,009 
 1,841 
 
24 
 
 RAW MATERIALS POLICY 
 
 Of all the industrialized resource-poor 
 countries, Japan has undertaken the most 
 comprehensive policy measures to insure 
 availability of raw materials to its 
 economy. To meet domestic demand, Japan 
 actively seeks overseas supplies from as 
 many raw material sources as possible. 
 By securing supplies, Japan protects its 
 large domestic processing sector. 
 
 A number of factors, inherent in the 
 Japanese mores and modus operandi, con- 
 tribute to the successful achievement of 
 the policy objectives: 
 
 import market for many miner- 
 als, which contributes to its 
 bargaining power. This bargain- 
 ing power is increased by the 
 tendency of Japanese firms to en- 
 ter into negotiation as a group 
 with suppliers. 
 
 Substantive policy measures have been in 
 place to (1) generate overseas supplies, 
 and (2) secure raw materials for Japan. 
 
 The following measures are 
 generate overseas supplies: 
 
 employed to 
 
 Close Government-industry cooper- 
 ation. The consuming industries 
 consult closely with Government 
 on mineral issues. With inter- 
 governmental agency concurrence, 
 the Ministry of International 
 Trade and Industry (MITI) issues 
 policy guidelines to the industry 
 as needed, as well as provides 
 financial assistance to encourage 
 industry in overseas exploration 
 and investment. This cooperation 
 is not hindered by Japan's anti- 
 trust laws, which are not as 
 stringent as those in the United 
 States. 
 
 Worldwide network of contracts 
 through trading companies. The 
 nine major firms (Mitsubishi 
 Corp., Mitsui and Co., C, Itoh 
 Co., Marubeni Corp., Sumitomo 
 Corp. , Nissho-Iwai Corp. , Toyo- 
 Menka Kaisha, Kanematsu-Gosho, 
 Nishimen Co.) may account for 
 more than half of Japan's trade 
 and as much as 8% of the world's 
 total trade activities. The 
 trading companies and their af- 
 filiated metal firms are involved 
 in foreign mineral investment and 
 trade in minerals. These con- 
 tacts also are helpful in target- 
 ing overseas mineral exploration 
 and investment opportunities. 
 
 Bargaining power with producers. 
 Japan has the largest or nearly 
 the largest share of the world 
 
 • Promoting overseas exploration. 
 There are regular programs for 
 overseas mineral exploration by 
 the Metal Mining Agency of Japan. 
 These programs provide financial 
 assistance for Japanese mining 
 companies' geological surveys; 
 for Japanese companies' joint ex- 
 ploration with foreign partners; 
 and for overseas exploration. 
 
 • Promoting overseas investment. 
 Privated investment in overseas 
 mineral resources is promoted by 
 guaranteeing loans made for such 
 purposes , providing political 
 risk insurance, and supporting 
 mineral projects through aid pro- 
 grams. Mining projects also 
 qualify for Japanese Export- 
 Import Bank assistance. Bilater- 
 al aid programs are also coordi- 
 nated with mineral development 
 Interests. 
 
 • Offering tax incentives for over- 
 seas exploration and development. 
 
 • Promoting of research and devel- 
 opment through innovative pros- 
 pecting technology and explora- 
 tion methods, seabed mineral 
 technology projects, etc. 
 
 • Providing technical assistance 
 to suppliers. Joint geological 
 surveys and regional develop- 
 ment surveys with developing 
 countries. 
 
25 
 
 Measures to secure overseas supplies. 
 
 • Japan relies on the diversifica- 
 tion of sources of supply result- 
 ing from all the programs cited 
 above, and In securing a conclla- 
 tory attitude by foreign-policy 
 support for mineral-producing 
 countries. 
 
 • In 1976, Japan established three 
 stockpiling programs: nonfer- 
 rous, light, and "special metals" 
 (which Includes nickel, chromlim, 
 tungsten, cobalt, and molybde- 
 num). Japan's metals stockpiles 
 stabilize supply from possible 
 short-term disruption In terms of 
 either price or quantity; serve 
 as an economic tool for Impacted 
 Industries during protracted re- 
 cessionary times; preserve the 
 terms of ratified contracts that 
 Involve long-term deliveries; 
 and. Implicitly, enhance the Jap- 
 anese negotiations for overseas 
 raw materials. 
 
 Measures to assist the domestic 
 Industry. 
 
 • Emergency financial assistance. 
 Metal Mineral Agency of Japan 
 
 provides guaranteed loans to 
 copper- and zlnc-mlnlng companies 
 to Insure a stable supply of ma- 
 terials from domestic sources, 
 which provides a fall-back posi- 
 tion In extreme situations. 
 
 • Promotion of domestic explora- 
 atlon. Government -run wide-area 
 geological surveys of select- 
 ed districts, subsidies for de- 
 tailed geological surveys, and 
 support for Individual country 
 prospecting. 
 
 Although Interruption of supply may not 
 be completely ruled out. It seems unlike- 
 ly that Interruption would be total. 
 Perhaps as much as 50% of supply may be 
 denied to the economy. The domestic min- 
 ing Industry and the stockpile would be 
 the only factors to mitigate the unfavor- 
 able Impact of the supply Interruption. 
 
 The risk of supply Interruption Is not 
 the same for all ferroally ores. Rela- 
 tive geographical vicinity to the Philip- 
 pines, China, India, and Indonesia, and 
 the mineral trade relationship with Aus- 
 tralia may continue to offer Japan a mea- 
 sure of supply assurance for minerals 
 produced abundantly In the area. 
 
 MEASURES TO ASSURE SUPPLY 
 
 STOCKPILE PROGRAMS 
 
 Japan has Initiated three stockpiling 
 programs, each for a different group of 
 metals. The first stockpiling program 
 was started In 1976, the second In 1982, 
 and the third proposed for 1983. The 
 stockpile objective for each metal Inven- 
 tory In these programs does not exceed a 
 2-month consumption; In fact, many were 
 for only a lO-day consumption. In this 
 respect, Japan's stockpiling program Is 
 different from the U.S. strategic stock- 
 pile. Furthermore, Industry use of the 
 stockpiles (labeled economic) Is not pre- 
 cluded, and In fact, the metals inventory 
 is held by Industry. 
 
 The first program, started in 1976 and 
 administered by the Nonferrous and Light 
 Metals Stockpile Association, established 
 targets of 9,570 tons of aluminum, 50,370 
 tons of copper, and 12,050 tons of lead 
 and zinc. At the end of September 1982, 
 metal Included in the stockpile was 
 29,284 tons of aluminum, 1,986 tons of 
 copper, and 73,158 tons of zinc. Changes 
 in the stockpile inventory objective for 
 each metal reflect economic and market 
 conditions. Purchases for the stockpile 
 were made to assist producers when demand 
 was weak. Disposals were made from the 
 stockpile to benefit the consuming sector 
 when demand was strong or in anticipation 
 of a short-term shortage. Other changes 
 
26 
 
 resulted from assistance to a distressed 
 industry or for the stabilization of do- 
 mestic metal prices. This stockpile pro- 
 gram is financed by bank loans supervised 
 by the Metal Mining Agency of Japan. 
 
 The second stockpile program was for 
 chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, and 
 tungsten and is administered by the Spe- 
 cial Metals Stockpile Association. On 
 November 30, 1982, the following stock- 
 pile objectives, equivalent to a 10-day 
 consumption, were established: cobalt 
 metal, 50 tons; ferrochromivim, 15,275 
 tons; molybdenum concentrate, 395 tons; 
 nickel metal, 1,148 tons; ferronickel, 
 1,620 tons; nickel oxide sinter, 175 
 tons; and tungsten concentrate, 47 tons. 
 Funds for the stockpile program were be- 
 ing financed by a Government-guaranteed 
 loan from Japanese banks. Purchases for 
 chromium, cobalt, and nickel began in 
 December 1982; purchases for tungsten and 
 molybdenum were expected to begin in Jan- 
 uary 1983. 
 
 Beginning in 1983, the Ministry of Fi- 
 nance was to secure revenue for the pur- 
 chase of the following 11 metals for a 
 national stockpile proposed by MITI in 
 August 1982: antimony, chromium, cobalt, 
 columbitmi, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, 
 palladium, strontium, tungsten, and vana- 
 dium. The final stockpile objective for 
 each metal — equivalent to a 2-month 
 consumption — was to be attained by 1987 
 through annual purchases equivalent to a 
 12-day consumption. In early 1983, the 
 national stockpile program, however, was 
 reduced to seven metals, eliminating an- 
 timony, columbium, palladium, and stron- 
 tium. Purchases for the stockpile, to be 
 conducted by the Special Metals Stockpile 
 Association, are to begin in October 
 1983. Molybdenum and tungsten are to be 
 stockpiled in the form of concentrate; 
 cobalt and vanadium as metal; nickel as 
 metal, ferronickel, and oxide sinter; and 
 manganese as metal, ferromanganese, and 
 dioxide. 
 
 CHROMIUM 
 
 Although the Republic of South Africa 
 has been Japan's largest supplier of 
 
 chromite and f errochromium (table 6) , 58% 
 of the total imports of chromite for 
 1972-81 has come from non-South African 
 sources. For ferrochrome. South Africa 
 continues to be the dominant supplier. 
 Nonetheless, the diversification of 
 sources for the ore is a positive factor 
 in future supplies. 
 
 Since 1970, Japan has made several ef- 
 forts to achieve the diversification of 
 sources and establish long-term economic 
 or commercial relationships with a vari- 
 ety of major supplying countries, such as 
 the Philippines, Turkey, South Africa, 
 and Brazil. In 1970, Japan reportedly 
 offered financial assistance to Acoje 
 Mining Co. of the Philippines in exchange 
 for increasing its chromium ore exports 
 to Japan. In 1971, the Japan Metals and 
 Chemicals Co. entered into an agreement 
 with Turkey's state-owned Etibank to im- 
 port 100,000 tons of chromite annually 
 from 1972 to 1981. In return, the Japa- 
 nese firm offered technology transfer and 
 construction of a f errochromium plant in 
 Turkey by yearend 1973. In 1971, Japan 
 Heavy Chemical Industry Co. reportedly 
 was helping Johannesburg Consolidated In- 
 vestment Co. (JCIC) to conduct a survey 
 of chromium ore deposits owned by JCIC in 
 Middleburg-Wietbank in South Africa. 
 In return, the South African organiza- 
 tion agreed to export about 300,000 tons 
 of chromium ore and an unspecified amount 
 of pellets to Japan annually over an 
 unspecified period. In 1971, Nippon 
 Heavy Chemical Industry Co. and Showa 
 Denko Co. of Japan had reportedly of- 
 fei;ed their technical knowledge on pro- 
 cessing powdered chromium ore for ferro- 
 chromium production to the Brazilian firm 
 Cia. de Ferro Ligas da Bahia, S.A. (Fer- 
 basa) . In return, Ferbasa was to guaran- 
 tee chromium ore shipments to the two 
 Japanese firms for an unspecified long 
 period. 
 
 Investment in the Jacobina project in 
 Brazil has been another move by Japan in 
 securing overseas chromium ore and f erro- 
 chromium. In 1972, the Brazil Chromium 
 Resources Development Co., a Japanese 
 consortium composed of Japan Metals and 
 Chemicals Co. and six other companies. 
 
27 
 
 was formed. Later, a joint-venture firm, 
 Cia. de Mineracao Serra da Jacobina 
 (Serjana), was established by the Brazil- 
 ian Ferbasa (51%) and the Japanese con- 
 sortium (49%). Serjana started operation 
 at Campo Formoso in Bahia in 1976, and 
 began shipments of chromite and ferro- 
 chromium to Japan in 1977. Since 1972, 
 the Japanese consortium has reportedly 
 inviested about $8 million for developing 
 the mine. However, in 1980, Japan with- 
 drew from the joint venture because of 
 the high cost of shipping the ore and a 
 planned reduction in the Japanese ferro- 
 chromium capacity. 
 
 During 1975-79, a number of Japanese 
 companies were actively involved in 
 joint-venture exploration and development 
 of chromite resources in Madagascar, Su- 
 dan, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. A 
 brief description and status of these 
 joint-venture projects follow: 
 
 Madagascar . — Madagascar Chromium Re- 
 sources Development Co. , a Japanese con- 
 sortium led by C, Itoh & Co. (and in- 
 cludes Japanese ferrochromium producers) 
 engaged in exploration of deposits in 
 Bemanevika near Andriamena. If devel- 
 oped, most of the chromite output would 
 be exported to Japan. Under a contract 
 signed in 1974, Madagascar began ship- 
 ments of about 60,000 tons of chromite to 
 Japan annually. 
 
 Sudan. — Mitsubishi Corp. and Japan Met- 
 als & Chemical Co., Ltd., conducted ex- 
 ploration in the Ingessana Hills area. 
 The deposits were found to be podiform 
 and not consistently of high grade. In 
 1982, a feasibility study was completed 
 for a $50 million project, which included 
 the construction of a ferrochromium plant 
 and the establishment of a joint-venture 
 mining firm (owned 41% by the Japanese 
 firms). Subsequently, the Japanese pro- 
 posed a scaled-down project involving a 
 20,000-ton-per-year ferrochrome plant, 
 but in late 1982 no agreement had been 
 reached. Nonetheless, under a separate 
 agreement, Sudan exported 50,877 tons of 
 chromite to Japan during 1973-^76 and an 
 additional 4,500 tons in 1980. 
 
 Indonesia . — Japan Sulawesi Chrome De- 
 velopments, Ltd., a Japanese consortium 
 composed of Kanematsu Gosho, Ltd. , 
 Kawatessu Trading Co. , and Chuugnai Min- 
 ing Co. , agreed to conduct a $1 million, 
 2-year exploration for chromium in nickel 
 later ites on Sulawesi Island, an area 
 about 110 miles north of Pare-Pare. If 
 developed, initial output of 200,000 to 
 400,000 tons of byproduct chromite would 
 be exported to Japan annually. Kawasaki 
 Steel Corp. engaged in a $3 million, 2- 
 year exploration project on the islands 
 of Sulawesi and Halmahera, with the same 
 condition that the chromite would be 
 shipped to Japan. 
 
 Papua New Guinea . — Exploration in Sal- 
 amaua and Salua was to be done by Kawa- 
 saki Steel Corp. in a joint venture with 
 AMAX Exploration, Inc. , of the United 
 States. 
 
 The foregoing illustrate actions taken 
 to diversify sources. Nonetheless, in 
 view of the importance of the Republic of 
 South Africa, a supply interruption from 
 this source and one or two other source 
 countries listed in table 6 would result 
 in a supply decrease of about 50% and, 
 consequently, a substantial reduction in 
 the production of stainless steel, heat- 
 resisting and other alloy steels, and 
 such chrome chemicals as dichromate for 
 tanning. Since new technology allows use 
 of lower grade chromite for the produc- 
 tion of ferrochromium, it may be possible 
 to compensate for part of the shortage by 
 increasing imports from the Philippines. 
 Moreover, the potential for development 
 of significant chromite deposits in In- 
 donesia, never before a significant pro- 
 ducer, cannot be overlooked, nor can the 
 possiblity of increased acquisition from 
 such sources as Albania, Vietnam, Mada- 
 gascar, and Iran. Beyond that, availa- 
 bility of stockpile material could only 
 meet a short-term interruption in supply. 
 
 COBALT 
 
 Zaire is a significant supplier of 
 Japan's cobalt in the form of elemen- 
 tal cobalt and basic cobalt chemicals 
 
28 
 
 (virtually all cobalt credited to Belgium 
 originated in Zaire). Over the 1972-81 
 decade, 80Z of Japan's total import of 
 cobalt in the listed chemicals and metal 
 forms was obtained either directly from 
 Zaire or from Zaire through Belgium. In 
 terms of Japan's total supply of cobalt, 
 however, the geographical source pattern 
 change started in 1976, when the country 
 began producing cobalt metal in substan- 
 tial quantities. The cobalt was recov- 
 ered chiefly from nickel-cobalt materials 
 obtained mainly from the Philippines and 
 Australia but partly from domestic ores. 
 As a result, cobalt imports from Zaire 
 during 1972-81 represented about 57% of 
 Japan's supply, but in the 5-year period 
 1977-81, those Imports probably did not 
 exceed 33% of supply. 
 
 The shift was partly the result of the 
 signing of a long-term contract in 1976 
 between Sumitomo Metal Mining and the 
 Philippine Marinduque Mining and Indus- 
 trial Corp. for shipment of nickel sul- 
 fide and nickel-cobalt sulfide, presuma- 
 bly from the Nonos Island deposit that 
 had been developed with Japanese finan- 
 cial and technical assistance. The other 
 contributing factor was Nippon Mining 
 Co. 's acquisition of mixed nickel-cobalt 
 sulfides from Greenvale, Australia, under 
 a long-term contract. 
 
 Current and near-future dependence on 
 Zaire would diminish if cobalt is in- 
 creasingly obtained from other producers, 
 most notably Finland and Zambia, both of 
 which are expanding production. Another 
 possibility for reducing dependence on 
 Zaire is the recovery of cobalt from 
 nickel ores now being mined in New Cale- 
 donia, Indonesia, and elsewhere. Cur- 
 rently, their processing operations do 
 not recover cobalt separately but leave 
 It as a minor coiqponent of the ferro- 
 nickel produced. 
 
 Substitution of other materials for 
 cobalt could reduce dependence on 
 Zaire. For example, high cobalt prices 
 in recent years has resulted in a near- 
 worldwide shift away from cobalt in cut- 
 ting, wear-resistant, and magnetic al- 
 loys. Further, a small share of total 
 
 annual consumption, estimated at about 
 1,500 tons, might be provided by addi- 
 tional recovery from complex domestic 
 ores. 
 
 In the longer term, Japan's Seabed Min- 
 eral Exploration Technology Projects in- 
 clude a series of programs designed to 
 improve exploration methods for deepsea 
 nodules, which contain manganese, nickel, 
 cobalt, and mineral deposits, on the 
 country's continental shelf. The devel- 
 opment of such technologies has been des- 
 ignated a "national project." 
 
 Despite some diversification of co- 
 balt producers, a long-term interruption 
 in the supply of Zairian cobalt would 
 cause problems for all consumers. Includ- 
 ing Japan. Presumably to minimize dis- 
 ruption, the Japanese Government has 
 helped to establish and has participated 
 in three stockpiling associations (e.g., 
 the Special Metals Stockpiling Associa- 
 tion) , which maintain a supply of chromi- 
 um, cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, and tung- 
 sten (Including ores and intermediate 
 products). 
 
 MANGANESE 
 
 In recent years, Japan's domestic re- 
 sources have not met even a fraction of 
 its total demand for manganese. Conse- 
 quently, during 1972-81, Japan imported 
 an average of about 1.1 million tons per 
 year to maintain a relatively stable lev- 
 el for manganese in all forms. Domestic 
 mine output over the decade was only 3.2% 
 of total supply, in terms of metal con- 
 tent, and constituted only 2.2% of the 
 1981 total. In contrast to the situation 
 with chromium, only a small fraction of 
 the need for imports has been met by man- 
 ganese ferroalloys; average annual im- 
 ports in this form were only 9,400 tons 
 during 1972-81. Virtually all imports 
 have been as ores: manganiferous iron 
 ores of 15% or less manganese, ferrugi- 
 nous manganese ores that average about 
 25% to 30% manganese, metallurgical 
 grades of 40% or more manganese, and rel- 
 atively small quantities of battery-grade 
 ore (dioxide ore) with 50% or more con- 
 tained manganese. The lower grades of 
 
29 
 
 ore (manganlferous iron ore and ferrugi- 
 nous manganese ore) have been obtained 
 almost exclusively from the Republic of 
 South Africa and India, particularly 
 since 1977. 
 
 Imports of regular metallurgical-grade 
 manganese ore have been predominantly 
 from the Republic of South Africa (36% of 
 1972-81 total) and Australia (35% of that 
 total) , but the remaining approximately 
 28% was furnished by nine large suppliers 
 and a number of minor sources. Special 
 dioxide ore, essential for its uses but 
 never a major component of total supply, 
 has been obtained from a variety of coun- 
 tries, with Gabon and Australia being the 
 major sources in recent years. In sum- 
 mary, the Republic of South Africa, Aus- 
 tralia, and India have been the principal 
 sources of imports of manganese-bearing 
 ores. In the late 1970' s, India re- 
 stricted exports of high-grade manganese 
 ore but permitted exports of low-grade 
 ore. In the early 1980' s, there were la- 
 bor disputes in Australia. Interruption 
 of supply from either of these countries 
 and the Republic of South Africa would 
 adversely affect the Japanese iron and 
 steel industry. However, Australia and 
 India, because of geographical proximity, 
 will, in all likelihood, continue to be 
 sources. Also, Japan has established 
 trade ties for relatively modest but con- 
 tinuous imports from other major world 
 producers of manganese ore such as Bra- 
 zil, Gabon, and China, as well as with 
 smaller steady suppliers such as Mexico 
 and Ghana; thus, some diversification of 
 import sources has been achieved. Con- 
 ceivably, in a crisis, Japan may, as in 
 the past, obtain a modest supply of ore 
 from the U.S.S.R. 
 
 Any potential supply shortage could be 
 partially alleviated without major dis- 
 ruption to domestic consumers by reducing 
 f erromanganese exports, which have been 
 equal to 11% of domestic output and 10% 
 of available supply (production plus im- 
 ports) during 1972-81, inclusive. None- 
 theless, it may not be feasible to fill 
 the supply gap resulting from an inter- 
 ruption of ore receipts from the Republic 
 of South Africa. 
 
 NICKEL 
 
 Japan is a major consumer of nickel but 
 is wholly dependent on foreign sources. 
 Imports include ore, ferronickel, ingot 
 nickel, and a variety of intermediate 
 metallurgical products, such as matte, 
 speiss, nickel-cobalt sulfides, and nick- 
 el oxide, from sources shown in table 9. 
 Although some ferronickel is exported, 
 Japan is a net importer of ferronickel. 
 
 Nickel ore imports (grading about 1.7% 
 nickel) show no discernible trend; im- 
 ports of intermediate products and ferro- 
 nickel have shown a slightly rising trend 
 during the 1972-81 decade, but the varia- 
 tions in the nickel content of all im- 
 ports generally reflect the ore imports 
 (calculated at 1.5% recoverable nickel), 
 which are the principal raw material for 
 the Japanese industry. Practically all 
 of this ore comes from New Caledonia, In- 
 donesia, and the Philippines; Indonesia 
 and New Caledonia are also the most im- 
 portant suppliers of ferronickel. Since 
 1974, Australia has been a supplier of 
 nickel intermediate products. In effect, 
 the principal sources are either in 
 neighboring Philippines or the Indian 
 Ocean-South Pacific area, which may be a 
 favorable factor in the continued future 
 supply of nickel to the Japanese economy. 
 Japan and Australia have developed close 
 trade relationships in the mineral area. 
 Japan has provided Australia a natural 
 market for its mineral exports. As a re- 
 sult, the two-way trade between the two 
 countries has grown from $7.5 billion in 
 1976 to $12.2 billion in 1981. Japan's 
 investment in Australia has also in- 
 creased. In fiscal 1980, about $431 mil- 
 lion (or about 9.2%) of $4.7 billion in 
 direct overseas investment by Japan has 
 been in Australia. 
 
 The Japanese involvements in overseas 
 exploration and development of nickel 
 mines were principally in Indonesia and 
 the Philippines, and to a lesser extent, 
 in Australia. The activities involved 
 direct investment in equity, technologi- 
 cal assistance, and the so-called loan 
 and sales agreement to secure long-term 
 purchases of output. 
 
30 
 
 Japan's direct investments for the 
 development of nickel mines included 
 the Inco Soroako nickel project in 
 South Sulawesi of Indonesia and the Rio 
 Tuba nickel project on Palawan Island 
 of the Philippines. The Soroako proj- 
 ect of Indonesia was developed in the 
 mid-1970's, with a 2.6% equity partici- 
 pation ($11.25 million) by six Japa- 
 nese companies led by Tokyo Nickel Co. 
 and Shimura Kako Co. The Metal Mining 
 Agency of Japan reportedly provided a 
 $36 million development loan to the 
 project. Rio Tuba project of the Phil- 
 ippines was also developed in the mid- 
 1970' s with a 40% equity participation 
 ($881,000). Participation was distrib- 
 uted among the following companies: 
 Pacific Metals Co. (26.8%), Nippon Steel 
 Corp. (5.2%), Nisshin Steel Co. (4%), 
 and Nissho-Iwai Co. (4%) of Japan. The 
 Metal Mining Agency of Japan reportedly 
 provided a $24.2 million development 
 loan to the projects. Most of the 
 nickel in ore or matte produced by these 
 two projects were being exported to 
 Japan. 
 
 Japanese technological assistance and 
 about $60 million in loans were report- 
 edly extended by Kobe Steel Ltd. , Mitsui 
 Mining and Smelting Co., and other firms 
 to the Nonoc nickel project in Surigao 
 on Nonoc Island of the Philippines. 
 Marinduque Mining and Industrial Corp., 
 the owner and operator of the project, 
 exports annually about 10% of its nick- 
 el output and all of its nickel-cobalt 
 mixed sulfides to Japan for further 
 processing. 
 
 Nippon Mining Co. and four other Japa- 
 nese companies signed a loan and sales 
 agreement in 1971 with Metals Explora- 
 tion Co. of Australia and Freeport Sul- 
 phur Co. of the United States for the 
 development of Greenvale nickel project 
 in northeast Australia. Under the agree- 
 ment, the Japanese were to provide a $30 
 million loan to the project. In return, 
 the owner and operator of the project was 
 to export about 2,500 tons of nickel 
 oxide and 4,000 tons of nickel-cobalt 
 mixed sulfides annually to Japan for 
 15 years. 
 
 TUNGSTEN 
 
 There has been a gradual decline in do- 
 mestic production of tungsten ore and 
 ferrotungsten (from domestic and imported 
 raw materials), but imports have fluctu- 
 ated without a discernible trend (table 
 10), Supply of tungsten in all forms 
 during this decade ranged from a minimum 
 of about 2,170 tons of metal content to a 
 maximum of 4,570 tons, of which 670 to 
 900 tons was from domestic sources. Im- 
 ports of concentrates, ferrotungsten, and 
 metal account for about three-fourths of 
 the 10-year supply. Imports of concen- 
 trates have come from 25 sources, 10 of 
 which have accounted for the bulk of the 
 total and have been consistent suppliers. 
 The Republic of Korea has been the domi- 
 nant single source over the decade (31% 
 of the total) , and the only significant 
 supplier of tungsten metal since 1976. 
 In contrast, Austria, Brazil, Portugal, 
 and China have been the principal suppli- 
 ers of ferrotungsten, with no discernible 
 pattern from year to year. 
 
 By far the largest share of the tung- 
 sten consumption in Japan, as in other 
 industrialized countries, is for the 
 production of ultrahard alloys for cut- 
 ting tools and wear-resistant materials. 
 Tungsten, as ferrotungsten for making 
 alloy steels, accounts for 15% of total 
 consumption. 
 
 As with nickel, a number of significant 
 world producers of tungsten ores, concen- 
 trates, and metals are in Southeast Asia 
 and the Far East (Republic of Korea, 
 Thailand, and China); Australia is also 
 an important producer. This favorable 
 geographical distribution of tungsten- 
 producing countries reduces Japan's risk 
 of supply interruption. Domestic produc- 
 tion of ferrotungsten has declined, and 
 the compensating increase in imports is 
 largely from Austria, Brazil, and Portu- 
 gal. In terms of total supply, ferro- 
 tungsten imports are not large, and large 
 imports from China could fill a gap. 
 Moreover, considering the relatively 
 small quantity required annually, stock- 
 piling might provide the answer to any 
 short-term interruption of supply. 
 
IMPLICATIONS OF SUPPLY INTERRUPTION 
 
 31 
 
 IMPACT ON THE JAPANESE ECONOMY 
 
 A simplistic view of the role of the 
 Japanese steel industry in the nation's 
 economy is reflected in its rather small 
 contribution to the gross domestic prod- 
 uct (GDP). In 1980, the steel industry, 
 the major component of the basic metals 
 industry, provided the largest part of 
 the 3.8% share of the GDP credited to 
 basic metals (table 16) , as well as the 
 largest part of the 1.5% share of GDP 
 credited to fabricated metal products. 
 
 Similarly, as shown in table 17, the ba- 
 sic iron and steel industry accounts for 
 only 0.8% of the total labor force, and 
 the fabricated metal products industry 
 (including nonferrous metal fabricators) 
 employs only 1.3%. 
 
 However, the overall impact of the 
 steel industry on the econocoy is consid- 
 erably greater because other industries 
 listed in the GDP summary table and the 
 industrial employment table have steel as 
 an essential input. These industries. 
 
 TABLE 16. - Gross domestic product in 1980, by industry 
 
 Industry 
 
 Gross domestic 
 
 Sector 
 
 product , bil- 
 
 contribu- 
 
 lion yen 
 
 tion, % 
 
 5,082.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 2,262.7 
 
 1.0 
 
 8,955.7 
 
 3.8 
 
 3,477.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 6,354.3 
 
 2.7 
 
 8,491.3 
 
 3.6 
 
 9,635.8 
 
 4.1 
 
 1,462.2 
 
 .6 
 
 25,356.8 
 
 10.8 
 
 71,079.2 
 
 30.3 
 
 21,480.2 
 
 9.1 
 
 132,199.5 
 
 60.6 
 
 234,758.9 
 
 100.0 
 
 Manufacturing : 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Petroleum and coal products 
 
 Basic metal 
 
 Fabricated metal products 
 
 Industrial machinery 
 
 Electrical machinery, equipment, supplies 
 
 Transport equipment 
 
 Precision instrutments 
 
 Other 
 
 Total 
 
 Construction 
 
 Other 
 
 Grand total 
 
 TABLE 17. - Employment in 1980, by industry 
 
 Industry 
 
 Employment , 
 thousands 
 
 Proportion, 
 
 % 
 
 Manufacturing : 
 
 Chemi cals 
 
 409 
 
 44 
 
 429 
 
 190 
 
 745 
 
 1,027 
 
 1,337 
 
 887 
 
 264 
 
 4,956 
 
 0.7 
 
 Petroleum and coal products 
 
 Iron and steel. .......................... 
 
 .1 
 .8 
 
 Nonferrous metal products 
 
 Fabricated metal products 
 
 Industrial machinery 
 
 Electrical machinery, equipment, supplies 
 
 Transportation equipment 
 
 Precision machinery 
 
 Other 
 
 .3 
 1.3 
 1.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 .5 
 
 9.0 
 
 Total 
 
 10,288 
 
 5,480 
 
 38,592 
 
 18.6 
 
 Construction. ••• 
 
 9.9 
 
 Other 
 
 71.5 
 
 Grand total 
 
 55,360 
 
 100.0 
 
32 
 
 which together account for 30.3% of the 
 GDP and 18.6% of the labor force, depend 
 on steel as an indispensable input and 
 require specialty steel for a substantial 
 part of that input (as in the machine 
 tool industry) or for certain components 
 of the manufacturing process (as in 
 equipment and materials in the chemical 
 or food industry). The diversity of uses 
 of specialty steel within the manufactur- 
 ing sector in 1980 is shown in table 18. 
 
 In addition to its vital role in the 
 manufacturing sector, Japan's specialty 
 steel industry is closely linked to the 
 economic health of the construction in- 
 dustry, which accounts for 9.1% of GNP 
 and 9.9% of total employment. Specialty 
 steel is also essential to numerous other 
 elements of the economy, such as agricul- 
 ture, forestry, fishing, mining, public 
 utilities, transportation, and communica- 
 tions. As a large exporter of industrial 
 and precision machinery, electric machin- 
 ery, vehicles, etc., Japan needs to con- 
 tinue producing about 13 million tons per 
 year of specialty steel to maintain its 
 eminent position as a world exporter of 
 finished products. 
 
 Japan also is an exporter of other al- 
 loy steel. In the 1972-81 decade, these 
 
 exports ranged from 1.26 million tons to 
 1.9 million tons. These exports would 
 suffer if production of specialty steel 
 were interrupted or diminished because of 
 inadequate supplies of the necessary fer- 
 roalloy raw materials. 
 
 IMPACT ON THE U.S. ECONOMY 
 
 Japan's overall favorable merchandise 
 trade balance of $8.7 billion for 1981 
 reversed the annual, negative balances of 
 $7.6 billion in 1979 and $10.7 billion in 
 1980. Japan's deficit trade results pri- 
 marily from the cost of crude oil imports 
 from the Middle East. On the other hand, 
 Japan's positive merchandise trade sur- 
 plus with the United States was $6.0 bil- 
 lion in 1979, $7.0 billion in 1980, and 
 $13.3 billion in 1981. During the mid- 
 seventies , the world energy crisis began 
 to take its toll. Some U.S. industries, 
 including iron and steel, were weakened 
 and began to perform poorly, reflecting 
 depressed domestic and international mar- 
 ket conditions, and perhaps poor planning 
 and management. In January 1978, the 
 United States imposed a trigger price 
 mechanism, primarily aimed at Japanese 
 and European steel exports, as a safe- 
 guard against the "dumping" of lower 
 priced, imported products. 
 
 TABLE 18. - Demand for specialty steel products in 1980, by industry 
 
 Industry 
 
 Domestic demand, 
 thousand tons 
 
 Distribution, 
 
 % 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 1,487 
 
 441 
 
 2,797 
 
 73 
 
 199 
 
 1,079 
 
 35 
 
 73 
 
 845 
 
 130 
 
 119 
 
 20.4 
 
 Construction and repairing 
 
 6.1 
 
 Conversion and orocessins. ......... 
 
 38.4 
 
 Electric machinery and equipment... 
 
 Home and office furnishings 
 
 Industrial machinery and equipment. 
 Rolling stock 
 
 1.0 
 
 2.7 
 
 14.8 
 
 .5 
 
 Shipbuilding and marine equipment.. 
 Dealers and traders 
 
 1.0 
 11.6 
 
 Tanks and containers 
 
 1.8 
 
 Other 
 
 1.7 
 
 Total 
 
 7,278 
 
 100.0 
 
33 
 
 Japan's role as a supplier to the 
 United States of partly processed forms 
 of the commodities covered in this report 
 is not very substantial. Although past 
 Japanese exports to the United States 
 have represented a substantial part of 
 that nation's total exports of ferro- 
 alloys , these shipments have been only a 
 modest and diminishing part of total U.S. 
 ferroalloy imports over the 1972-81 dec- 
 ade. Even when the aggregate ferroalloy 
 imports are broken down by alloy type, 
 Japan's contribution to the total U.S. 
 import has never been the largest single 
 element of total U.S. supply. Although 
 it might not be possible to increase 
 domestic output immediately, U.S. produc- 
 tion capacity for ferroalloys could easi- 
 ly replace current imports from Japan, 
 assuming that imported supplies of manga- 
 nese and chromium ores could be obtained. 
 On the other hand, an increase in imports 
 from other foreign producers, chiefly 
 those in Western Europe, the Republic of 
 South Africa, and/or Brazil, could sub- 
 stitute for the relatively small volume 
 of material obtained from Japan. 
 
 Japan's exports to the United States 
 comprised less than 15% of total Japa- 
 nese exports of specialty steel semimanu- 
 factures, but comprise over 38% of U.S. 
 
 imports. However, the share of total 
 U.S. supply was much lower, owing to the 
 relatively high proportion of total sup- 
 ply met by U.S. production. Although al- 
 loy steel imports from Japan were more 
 substantial than those of ferroalloys, 
 idle U.S. capacity could easily fill the 
 shortfall, or suppliers in Western Europe 
 could fill a supply gap if Japanese ship- 
 ments were reduced. It is assumed that 
 the former option could be implemented 
 expeditiously. If neither is exercised 
 promptly, demand for specialty steel for 
 a number of nonessential decorative uses 
 would have to be reduced. 
 
 Should the level of manufacturing in 
 Japan suffer because of lack of raw mate- 
 rial supply, Japanese export of manufac- 
 tures would result in reduced exports to 
 the United States and to the rest of the 
 world. Currently, this would spur U.S. 
 output, but limited and reduced supply 
 would increase prices. In the long run, 
 it is possible that products such as 
 U.S. -manufactured Japanese automobiles 
 will increasingly appear on the U.S. mar- 
 ket. For consumer durable goods made 
 with specialty steel (e.g., drill bits, 
 cutting tools , and hand tools , and indus- 
 trial items), the costs to U.S. consumers 
 and users would rise. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 Japan is overwhelmingly dependent on 
 imports of chromium, cobalt, manga- 
 nese, nickel, and tungsten in various 
 forms such as ores , concentrates , and 
 metal for producing ferroalloys need- 
 ed in making various types of specialty 
 steel. Interruption of Japan's supply 
 of these raw materials would threaten 
 its immense manufacturing industry, and 
 would also diminish the supply of these 
 materials for countries importing from 
 Japan. 
 
 Although the risk in the interruption 
 of supply of the five essential ferroal- 
 loy ores and metals cannot be completely 
 eliminated, Japan, among the resource- 
 poor industrialized countries, is better 
 prepared to deal with such a contingency. 
 This results mainly from elaborate and 
 multifaceted policy measures and initia- 
 tives , including close Government- 
 industry cooperation, a network of con- 
 tracts through trading companies , and 
 unique individual business acumen and so- 
 cietal ethics of the country. 
 
34 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 1, Arumu Publishing Company (Tokyo). 
 Industrial Rare Metals. No. 75, Annual 
 Review 1981, 164 pp.; No. 78, Annual Re- 
 view 1982, 168 pp. 
 
 2. Japan Economic Journal (Tokyo). 
 Industrial Review of Japan. Annual is- 
 sues, 1978-82. 
 
 9. Ministry of International Trade 
 and Industry (Tokyo). Monthly Report of 
 Iron and Steel Statistics. December is- 
 sues for years 1975-82. 
 
 10. 
 
 Statistics. 
 1981-82. 
 
 Monthly Report of Resource 
 December issues for years 
 
 3. Japan Iron and Steel Federation 
 (Tokyo). Monthly Report of Iron and 
 Steel Statistics. January 1980-January 
 1983. 
 
 4. 
 
 The Steel Industry of Ja- 
 
 pan. Annual issues, 1980-82. 
 
 11. . Yearbooks of Mining, Non- 
 ferrous Metals, and Products Statistics. 
 1972-81. 
 
 12. Prime Minister's Office, Statis- 
 tics Bureau (Tokyo). Japan Statistical 
 Yearbooks. 1978-82. 
 
 5. Japan Tariff Association (Tokyo). 
 Japan Exports and Imports, Commodity by 
 Country. December issues 1972-82. 
 
 13. Sumitomo Corporation (Tokyo). 
 Nonferrous Metals in Japan 1981-82. 
 April 1982, 129 pp. 
 
 6. Kawata Publicity, Inc. (Tokyo). 
 Japan's Iron and Steel Industry. Annual 
 issues. 1978-81. 
 
 14. Roskill Information Services Ltd. 
 (London). Roskill 's Letter From Japan, 
 January 1978-December 1982. 
 
 7. Metal Mining Agency of Japan 
 (Tokyo). Annual Reports. 1978-81. 
 
 15. Tex Report, Ltd. (Tokyo). Ferro 
 Alloy Manual 1978. 286 pp. 
 
 8. 
 
 Mining Activities of Japan 
 
 1980, 34 pp. 
 
 16. 
 309 pp. 
 
 Ferro Alloy Manual 1982. 
 
0087 
 

 
 
 8.°-'* 
 
 .'i--''' 
 
 4 cv 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .f^- 
 
 
 
 rl" r'lfy- - 
 
 
 
 v^' .: 
 

 
 : ^^'^^ '. 
 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 • ^i^«.^ 
 
 'bv" 
 
 
 '>o^ 
 
 bv ^^nnf^:::/^' '^o^' r^M^iKi'. '*bv 
 V .* ..^^•-. *. .* .-.^^.v ■?.^^^,** ^.^-, *^^^^* ,^., **^^^,*' .-, 
 
 
 i!i> .."'• '^^-e 
 
 ••••• "^o. 
 
 'npv^ 
 
 "^-^^^^^ 6, 
 
 «5 0^ 
 
 
 ^^-n.^ .^ 
 
 %'^^'' ^^ %**-^-*^° '*'^^*'.^*\^^' °^*-"\f° .. V^--' S^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • • • aV 
 
 
 
 ^ ♦7^«* A. ^ ,?.t» G^ "^^ *' 
 
 
 
 
 
 •^«0« 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^^o ^'^ 
 ^9^ 
 
 */ V^*\^^' V^%«' %^^\/ %*^^%o^ v^^>^ 
 
 r,»* .G 
 
 
 
 G ^ *■' VVT* ^ 
 
 *- o. 
 
 
 
 '* .j^-. •> 
 
 
 v^' 
 
 
 
 ^"^lu. -.' 
 
 "oV^ 
 
 
 ♦^•v 
 
 
 'A6' 
 
 
 '^"^^^*^'^-'/ V^^*'v!'"^'' '°i.*^^"*\0'^ -^ '.- w 
 
 
 BOOKBINDING 
 
 UIDOLETOWN. PA 
 
 MAR 84 
 
 
 .0^ . .i^ 
 
 \^ ^o«^^^>o^ ^/^,^%\ y^'^^y^ ^' '^'^""^-^^^ <^ y^^&^°^^ 
 

 ,1 M } 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 If' 
 
 
 
 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 002 959 853 8