,_i'"'?1V'*-,-^Cv-='..' •• ^■''"' ->■: V '■;!^^■•'• ■■■<■ %ij < '■^/•.■.•T1f'''-4'l'''- '•• ' I . •/ ■ ■•. V ■: ,■ ■/;• / •' ■• * > te::iV>.^?Sv^f:•;;^:;^r■V ■■>'.: ^- ■■"■:■■ -^^ ■• ■-w, • ■•'.• .>^ .-^iv:;: '':]■•' ,l:.v'' •■ . / • :y. ^■y. '''^■iMli^^m: '::'■'/.'■■ '■■■■■(■ :. ■ '', :J>■,-■^^i•f^■^^'i:•! Class ^201 CopyiiglitN?—/^-/^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm ^K-*W^,>' >>-'J^ --J^lix ■:#<'■>;! ' ■/ -;/ . ■''•■^. .^(!- .-. - ■•v>- ■'■ iT.^^' ■ ' ■■.■■ v'T ^-^ ^1 WORKS OF PROF. F. W. WOLL. A Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen. Sixth Edition. New York, 1914. xv+490 pp. $1.50. Grotenfelt's Modern Dairy Practice. American Edi- tion by F. W. Woll. Third Edition, Revised. New York, 1910. 286 pp. $2.00. A Book on Silage. Second Edition. Chicago, 111., 1900. 234 pp. (Out of print.) Decker's Cheese Making, Domestic and Foreign. Fifth Revised Edition, by F. W. Woll. Madison, Wis., 1913. 2n pp. $1.75. Jointly with Prof. E. H. Farrington. Testing Milk and Its Products. Twenty-second Edition. Madison, Wis., 1914. 297 pp. $1.25. A HANDBOOK FOR FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN f/w.'^'^woll, Professor of Anhnal Nutrition. University of California WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF WELL-KNOWN SPECIALISTS W^ix^ illustrations SIXTH EDITION, REVISED TOTAL, SIX THOUSAND NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc. London: CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited 1914 COPYRIGHT, 1897, 1900, 1907, 1908, I914 BY F. W. WOLL SEP -4 1914 I THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPAN* BROOKLYN, N. Y. ©CI,A879365 PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION. The present edition of the Handbook has been carafully revised, with a view to including therein only the latest and best information on agricultural topics of importance to American farmers and dairymen, A number of new subjects have been added, and tables and articles have been brought up to date where better data were available. It is hoped that the changes and additions made will further increase the usefulness of this little volume to American farmers and students of agriculture. F. W. WOLL. June, 1914. PREFACES TO FIRST EDITION. The effort of the author has been to make this small volume a compendium of useful information on farm and dairy topics. Brief discussions on subjects of importance and interest to farmers and dairymen have been introduced, and useful facts, tables, formulas, receipts, agricultural statistics, etc., are given to such an extent as the plan of the work permitted. Valuable data scattered throughout our agricultural literature, in the publications of our experiment stations and the scientific divi- sions of the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as in other public documents, and in farm papers and standard iii IV PREFACE, works, have been gathered in this Handbook and arranged in such a manner as to make them easily accessible and con- venient for reference purposes. The present volume is founded on the Dairy and Agricul- tural Calendars previously published by the author. Much new material, both original and compiled, has, however, been included, and special articles, tables, statistics, etc., have been verified and brought up to date, making the book, as it is hoped, of considerable value, and securing for it as favorable a reception as was accorded its predecessors. The author takes this opportunity of thanking the follow- ing specialists who have so materially increased the useful- ness of the book by comprehensive, concise contributions on subjects in their particular lines of study: Professors W. H. Caldwell, J. A. Craig, John W. Decker, L. H. Dewey, F. H. Farrington, B. E. Fernow, E. S. Gofif, A. W. Richter, H. L. Russell, Thos. Shaw, Wm. P. Wheeler; and Messrs. John Boyd, W. G. Clark, M.D.C., N. S. Fish, J. D. Frederiksen, H. B. Curler, S. Hoxie, J. Noer, M.D., J. H. Pickrell, H. B. Richards, L. P. Sisson, J. McLain Smith, and C. M. Winslow. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART I. AGRICULTURE. I. FEEDING STUFFS. PACK Composition of Feeding Stuffs i Table Showing Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs. . 3 Ready Reference Table of Composition of Feeds 6 Classification of Cattle Foods it Classification of Concentrates According to Protein Content 11 Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 12 Rations for Dairy Cows i4«i6 Calculation of Components of Feed Rations 14 Average Weights of Concentrated Feeding Stuffs 18 Food Requirements of Farm Animals 18 Comparative Value of Cattle Foods lO Calculated Value of Fniits Compared with Hay, Grains, etc 19 Amounts of Different Feeds Required to Equal One Feed Unit. . . , 19a Pounds of Dry Matter, Digestible Matter, and Digestible Protein to be Furnished in Rations for Dairy Cows 19b Prices of Cereals per Bushel and per Ton 20 Valuation of Feeding Stuffs 20 II. FARM ANIMALS. Characteristics of Breeds of Live Stock. By the Late Prof. John A. Craig, of Iowa Agricultural College 21 Market Classes of Farm Animals 28 Table for Estimating Live Weight of Cattle 35 Determination of the Age of Farm Animals by Their Teeth 36 Body Temperature of Farm Animals 38 Duration and Frequency of Heat in Farm Animals 38 Period of Incubation of Poultry 38 Gestation Calendar ^g Feeding and General Care of Poultry. Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station 41 Loss in Weight of Eggs During Incubation 46 Standard Weights of Poultry ^7 Synopsis of Breeds of Poultry 48 Heredity. Prof. Thos. Shaw, late of Minnesota Experiment Sta- tion ^8 V VI TABLE OF COi^TENTS. III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. PAGB Common Diseases of Farm Animals. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Mari- nette, Wis 53 Veterinary Remedies and Doses. W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Marinette, Wis 63 Suppression of Hog Cholera and Swine Plague 67 Directions for making Tuberculin Tests 69 List of Disinfectants 70 Rules for the Disinfection of Stables 71 Regulations for the Government of Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Columbia 71 IV. FIELD CROPS. Quantity of Seed Required to the Acre 74 Seed Mixtures for Hay and Permanent Pastures 75 Important Data as to Field Crops 77 The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Pounds per Acre 80 Soiling Crops Adapted to Northern New England States 81 Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops 83 Replacing Winter-killed Clover 82 Crops for Partial Soiling for Illinois 82 Succession of Soiling Crops for Dairy Cows 84 Capacity of Cylindrical Silos 85 Relation of Horizontal Feeding Area and Number of Cow^s Kept for Silos 24 and 30 Feet Deep 85 Relation between Size of Silos and Number of Cows They Will Keep 86 Number of Plants or Hills for an Acre of Ground 86, 87 Yield of a Good Crop of Farm Products per Acre 87 V. HORTICULTURE. Gardener's Planting Tables 88 Distances Apart for Fruit -trees. Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity 90 Time of Germination of Vegetable Seeds and Maturity Table 90 Average Yields per Acre of Various Crops 91 A Combined Fruit and Vegetable Garden. . 92 A Vegetable Forcing Calendar gs Seasons of Varieties of Apples in Various Storages 94 Packages Used in Shipping Fruit 94 Relation of Specific Gravity, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of Potatoes 95 Specific Gravity, Sugar Content, and Boiling-point of Maple Sirup. 96 Weight of Sugar Obtained from 100 lbs. of Maple Sirup 97 Sorghum Sirup Obtained from Juice of Different Densities 97 Temperatures to which Perishable Goods may be Subjected With- out Injury 98 Temperatures Injurious to Plants 99 Best Temperatures for Preserving Horticultural Products, , , , .... 100 TABLE OF COi^TENTS. Vll PAGE The Preservation of Soft Fruits for Exhibition Purposes loo The Standards of the Baltimore Canned Goods Exchange 102 Packages Used in Shipping Fruit 103 VI. SEEDS. Seed-testing for the Farmer, by the late Gilbert H. Hicks, of U. S. Department of Agriculture 104 Standards of Purity of Seeds 106 Table of Germination Standards 109 Number, Weight, Cost of Grass Seeds, and Amount to Sow per Acre 109 Notes on the Adaptability and Uses of Grasses and Clovers 1 1 r Vitality of Seeds if Properly Kept 113 Seedsmen's Customary Weights per Bushel of Seeds 114 Weight and Size of Garden Seeds 115 Average Time Required for Garden Seeds to Germinate 115 Yield of Seeds from an Acre 115 VII. WEEDS. Table of Noxious Weeds. L. H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist U. S. Department of Agriculture ii6 VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. Treatments for Injurious Insects and Fungous Diseases of Plants, by the late Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. . . 121 Spraying Calendar 123 A Cheap Orchard-spraying Outfit 126 Prevention of Oat-smut 127 The Formaldehyd Treatment for the Prevention of the Smuts of Cereal Grains and of Potato Scab 129 Fighting the Chinch-bug by Means of Kerosene Emulsion 130 IX. FORESTRY. Forestry for Farmers. Dr. B. E. Femow, late Director N. Y. State College of Forestry i^i Number of Trees on an Acre. 13s Fuel Value and Specific Gravity of Some of the More Important Woods of the United States x^g Distance Table for Tree-planting i^g States and Territories Observing Arbor Day, with Dates 139 Forest-fire Laws in the United States 140 X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. Manures and Fertilizers 14^ Approximate Losses of Fertilizing Materials in Different Systems of Farming i . ^ Average Chemica Composition of American Soils 146 Manuria. Value of Feeding Stuffs j^j Fertilizing Constituent of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products 148 Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE Amount of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Crops 150 Amount of Fertilizing Materials Contained in Different Crops Grown on One Acre 151 Farmyard Manure Required to Replace Ingredients Abstracted from the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops 152 Amount and Quality of Manure Produced by Stot.lc 152 Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure Produced by Differ- ent Kinds of Farm Animals 153 Quantities of Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Voided by Animals. . 153 Percentage Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials 154 Exhaustion of Fertilizers 156 Equivalent Quantities of Fertilizing Materials 157 Proportion of Plant Food Recommended for Crops 158 VaKiation of Manures and Fertilizers 158 Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and Chemicals, 1 908 159 Conversion Table for Calculating Fertilizing Ingredients 1 60 Prices of Nitrate of Soda on the Ammoniate Basis 160 XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Drainage: Reasons for Tile-draining Land 161 Number of Rods and of Tiles per Acre, with Drains at Various Distances Apart 162 Size of Tiles Required for Draining under Average Conditions. . 162 Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain 163 Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes 163 Number of Acres which a Tile of a Given Diameter and Per Cent Grade will Drain when Used as an Outlet 164 Number of Acres Drained by Tiles Removing i in. Depth of Water in Twenty-four Hours 165 Number of Acres Drained by Open Ditches 166 Advice to Land Owners About to Construct Drains 168 Points to Note in Planning a Drainage System 169 Sizes of Drain-pipe Required for Culverts in Proportion to Capacity and Fall 169 Areas from which i in. of Water will be Removed in Twenty-four Hours by Outlet Tile Drains of Different Diameters and Lengths with Different Grades 1 70 Rise of the Slope for 100 Feet 171 Quantity of Earth Removed per Rod of Drains of Various Dimen- sions 171 Limit of Size of Tile to Grade and Length 172 Rainfall. , 172 Windmills: Table Showing the-Force and Velocity of Wind 173 Number of Sqtiare Feet and Acres Irrigated by Windmills of Different Sizes. 173 Table Showing Capacity of Windmills 174 Table Showing Economy of Windmills 175 Nominal Horse-power Required for the Discharge of Given Quantities of Water with Lifts of 10 and 20 Ft 1 76 TABLE OF COi^TEKTS. « PAGB Irrigation: Definition of Technical Terms 176 Carrying Capacity of Pipes 179 Flow of Water Through Straight Pipes 179 Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells by Pumping.. 180 Approximate Cost of Different Kinds of Pipe used for Irrigation. 180 Average Cost per Mile of Constructing Irrigation Canals and Ditches 180 Capacity of Windmills and Pumps 181 The California Weir Table 182 Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks 182 Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, per Foot in D^pth 183 Koads: Road-making 183 Importance of Good Roads 185 Tractive Force Required for Carriages 185 Fraction of the Weight of a Vehicle and Load Required to Move Same on a Level Road 186 Tractive Power of Horses at Different Speeds 186 Effect of Inclination on Tractive Force 187 Effects of Surface on Tractive Force 188 Cost of Hauling Farm Produce in the United States 188 Transportation on the Farm 189 Labor Done by one Horse on Canals, Railroads, and Turnpikes. . 189 Labor Done by Team in Plowing 189 The Effect of Wide Wagon Tires 190 Average Quantity of Stone Required to Keep Roads in Rejiair. . 190 Interior Dimensions of Farm Buildings 191 Recipe for Whitewash 191 Table of Cut Nails 192 XII. HUMAN FOODS. Composition of Human Food Materials 193, 198 Percentages of Nutrients, Water, and Refuse in Food Materials. . . 197 Pectmiary Economy of Food 200 Amounts of Nutrients Furnished for 25 Cents in Food Materials. . . 201 Dietary Standards 203 Summary of American Dietary Studies 203 Diagram of a Good Steer's Carcass as Cut up and Priced in East- em Markets 204 Diagrams of Cuts of Veal, Mutton, and Pork 205 Live. Weight and Dressed Weight of Steers of Different Breeds and Ages 206 Proportion of Beef to the Live Weight of Cattle 206 Comparativ3 Results Obtained with Fattening Animals 207 Live Weight and Gains Made by Swine 207 Proportions of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. . . . 208 T TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART II. DAIRYING. I. DAIRY COWS. PAGE On the Origin and Charac eristics of the Different Breeds of Dairy- Cattle 211 I. Jersey Cattle. By the Author 211 II. Guernsey Cattle. Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Sec'y 214 III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. M. H. Gardner, Supt. Adv. Reg. 21 S IV. Ayrshires, C. M. Winslow, Sec'y 222 V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. By the Late J. H. Pickrell, Sec'y 224 VI. Red Polled Cattle. By the Late J. McLain Smith, Sec'y 227 VII. Devon Cattle. L. P. Sisson, Sec'y 230 VIII. Dutch Behed Cattle. H. B. Richards, Sec'y 232 IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. N. S. Fish, Sec'y 234 Yield of Milk and Fat from Dairy Cows 236 Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Experi- ment Stations 237 Results of Breed Tests Conducted at World's Columbian Exposi- tion, 1893 238 Results of "Cow Demonstration" at La. Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904 239 Highest Record for Yield of Fat Made by any Cow in a Public Test in America 239 Official Milk and Butter Records of Holstein Jersey, Guernsey, and Ayrshire Cows 240 Results of English Milking Trials 241 Requirements for Admission to the Advanced Register of Ameri- can Cattle Clubs 241 Average per Cent of Fat and Production of Milk and Butter Fat by Pure-bred Dairy Cows, per Breed 242 Average Percentage Composition of Milk from Different Breeds. . . 242 Method of Judging the Value of Dairy Cows 243 Buying and Selling Cows by Tests of Their Milk 244 Fifty Dairy Rules 244 II. MILK. Percentage Composition of Various Kinds of Milk 248 Average Analyses of American Samples of Dairy Products 248 Average Composition of Cows' Milk, with Variations 249 Composition of Morning and Evening Milk, and of Morning, Noon, and Evening Milk 249 Composition of Different Parts of the Same Milkings 249 Calculation of Components of Cows' Milk 250 Relation of Fat to Casein and Other Solids 250 Fertilizing Ingredients in Dairy Products 251 Composition of Colostrum ,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,., .,. 251 TABLE OF COXTEiq'TS. XI PAGE Composition of Ash of Cows' Milk and Colostrum 251 A Chapter on Milk Testing 252 Table for Converting N. Y. Board of Health Lactometer Degrees to Quevenne Lactometer Degrees 255 Temperature Correction Table for Specific Gravity of Milk 256 Calculation of Total Solids of Milk 258 Table for Calculating Total Solids from Specific Gravity and Fat. . 260 Calculation of Specific Gravity of Milk Solids 261 Standards for Dairy Products 262 Government Standards of Purity for Milk and its Products 264 Adulteration of Milk 267 Ranges of the Variations in the Composition of Herd Milk 268 Tables for Converting Quarts of Milk into Pounds, and vice versa. . 269 ]Milk Prices by Measures 269a Relative V^alue of ]\Iilk and Cream of Different Fat Contents. 26gb Amounts of Milk, Cream, or Skim-milk to be used in Modifying Milk 270 Standardization of Milk 271 Rules and Regulations for Care of Cows and Handling of Milk 272 in. CREAM. Percentage Composition of Cream and Other Dairy Products 273 Yield of Cream from Milk of Different Richness 274 Calculation of Per Cent Fat in Cream 275 Hand and Power Cream Separators on the American Market, 1913, 276 Formulas for Finding the Fat Content of Cream 278 Formula for Diluting Cream to a Desired Fat Content 279 Handling and Care of Cream Separators. J. D. Frederiksen, Mgr. Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, X. Y 279 Per Cent Fat in Centrifugal Skim-milk 280 Ltiss of Butter Caused by Inefficient Skimming 285 Standardization of Cream 286 Steam-boiler and Engine Management. Prof. A. W. Richter, of the University of Montana 286 On the Preservation of Milk and Cream by Heat. Dr. H. L. Rus- sell of Wisconsin Experiment Station 290 Directions for the Sterilization of Milk 293 Quantity of Water or Ice Required for Cooling Milk or Cream. . . . 294 IV. BUTTER. Butter-making. H. B. Gurler. ex-President Illinois State Dairy- men's Association 295 On the Use of Pure Cultures in Butter- and Cheese-making 297 Boyd's Process of Cream-ripening. John Boyd. Chicago, 111 301 The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Prof. E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School 304 Directions for the Use of Manns' Test for Ascertaining the Acidity of Cream 306 XU TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGB Percentage Composition of Butter 307 Average Chemical Composition of Sweet-cream and Sour-cream Butter 307 Analyses of American Premium Butters 308 Analyses of Foreign Samples of Butter 308 Commercial Grades of Butter 309 Formula for Calculating the Yield of Butter 311 Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the Yield of Butter Fat 311 Yield of Butter from 100 Pounds of Cream of DiflFerent Richness. . 311 Yield of Butter Corresponding to Yield of Butter Fat, per Day and per Week 31a Value of for Specific Gravities 1.019 to 1.0399 313 Relation of Fat Content to Acidity of Skim-milk, Milk, and Cream. 313 The Sliding Scale Overrun 314 Comparative Prices of Milk, Cream, Butter-fat, and Butter.... 314 Pounds of Milk Required for Making One Pound of Butter. . .315, 3i6 Distribution of Milk Ingredients in Butter-making 316 Score for Judging Butter 316 English Scale of Points for Judging Butter. 317 Score in Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers 317 Analyses of American Dairy Salts 318 Temperatures at which Dairy Products should be Stored in Cold Storage 318 V. CHEESE. How American Cheese is Made. By the Late Prof. John W. Decker, of Ohio Dairy School 319 A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese 319 B. Cheese Made on the Farm 321 Causes of Tainted Milk 322 Detecting Bad Milk. Directions for Operating the Wisconsin Curd Test 322 The Fermentation Test 32^ Determination of Humidity in Cheese-ciuing Rooms 32A Table Showing Relative Htmiidity of the Air 327 Score for Judging Cheese 329 Percentage Composition of Cheese 329 Varieties and Analyses of Cheese 330 Distribution of Ingredients in Cheese-making 330 Formulas for Finding Yield of Cheddar Cheese 331 Yield of Different Kinds of Cheese from 100 lbs. of Milk 332 Average Loss of American Cheddar Cheese in Curing 333 Loss in Weight of Different Kinds of Cheese During Curing 333 Yield of Cheese from, and Relative Cheese Value of. Milk of Different Richness 334 Synopsis of Manufacture of Principal Varieties of Cheese 336 The Cheese Market of the United States 3360 Commercial Grades of American Cheddar Cheese 3360 Quantities of Whey to be Returned to Patrons 337 TABLE OE CONTENTS. Xlll VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. PACK Directions for Taking and Preserving Composite Samples of Milk in Creameries and Cheese Factories 338 Payment for Milk at Creameries and Cheese Factories 340 Methods of Payment for Milk at Cheese and Butter Factories 341 Price of Milk of Different Richness per Hundred Pounds 343 Directions for Making Dividends in Creameries and Cheese Factories 345 Yield of Butter from 100 lbs. Milk, according to Different Overruns 346 Table Showing Average Per Cent of Fat in Milk 347 Suggestions to Patrons of Cheese Factories and Creameries 349 By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Creamery Associations 351 By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Cheese Factories 354 Rules for Patrons and Instructions to Cream or Milk Gatherers. . . 356 PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. Constitution and By-laws of Agricultural Clubs 359 Constitution of Village-improvement Societies 364 Constitution of Road Leagues 366 Co-operative Breeders' Association 367a Pairy Test Associations 367^ II. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. Explanation of Flag and Whistle Signals Adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureat: 368 'Explanation of Storm and Hurricane Warnings 369 List of Headquarters of State Weather Services 370 Beneficial and Harmful Hawks and Owls 370 How Patents are Issued 371 Legal Holidays 375 What to do in Case of Accidents. J. Noer, M.D., Stoughton, Wis. 377 Treatment for Poisoning 380 Interest Tables 382 Wages by the Week and the Day 383 Number of Days between Dates within Two Years 384 Domestic and Foreign Postage 385 Postal and Express Money Order Rates 386 III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Customary System of Weights and Measures 387 Metric System of Weights and Measures 388 Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and vice versa 389 Kilograms Converted into Pounds, and vice versa 390 Inches Reduced to Decim^s of a Foot 3go Ounces Reduced to Decimals of a Pound 3go Weight and Measure Conversion Table 391 XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGB Table of Reciprocals of Numbers 392 Comparisons of. Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur Thermom- eter Scales 392 Government Land Measures 396 To Measure Com on the Cob in Cribs 397 Reckoning of Amount and Value of Hay in Mows or Stacks 397 Strength of Hemp, Manila and Wire Ropes 399 Legi.l Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc 400 Commercial Grades of Grain 401 Grades of Hay and Straw 406a Specific Gravity of Various Substances 407 Values of Foreign Coins 409 Money Conversion Table 410 IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. United States, Area and Population, 1910 411 Canada, Area and Population, 1912 411 Normal Mean Temperature of the Air in the United States 412 Average and Actual Date of Last and First Killing Frost 413 Normal Precipitation in the United States 415 Meteorological Data for Canada 416 Comparison of Leading Industries in the United States 416 Areas of Appropriated, Vacant, and Reserved Lands in the United States 417 Farming Population of the United States, 18S0-1000 417 Number and Classification of the Agricultural Population, 10 Years and Over 418 Number of Farms in the United States, and their Value 418 Statistics Concerning Farms in the United States 419 Statistics of the Principal Crops in the United States in 1912 420 Average Agricultural Wages in the United States in 1893-1895. . . . 424 Industry Groups in the United States 424 Area, Production, and Value of Principal Crops in the United t«J States, 1912 42s The Principal Cereal Products of the United States, 1850-1910. . . . 425 Production of Various Crops in Canada, 1901 425 Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat, Corn, and Cotton in the United States, 1893 426 Average Farm Price of Agricultural Products, 1890-1910 426 Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1880-1910 427 Values of Farm Property and Products in Canada, 1901 427 Number of Farm Animals and Animal Products in Canada, 1901. . 427 Breeds and Number of Registered Live Stock in the United States, Dec. 31. 1905 428 Pure-bred Cattle of Breeds Used for Dairying 429 Number and Average Price of Farm Animals in the United States, January i, 1913 430 Dairy Statistics for the United States, 1900 43a TABLE OP CONTENTS. XV PAGE Statistics of Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories (Twelfth J Census) 434 Butter- and Cheese-making in Canada, 1901 435 Wool Product of the United States, 19 12 435 Production of Sugar in the United States, 1870-1911 435 Statistics of Beet-sugar Factories in the United States for 1912.. . . 436 Production of Cane- and Beet-sugar, 1903- 19 11 436 Maple-sugar and Sirup, and Sorghum Sirup Produced in the United States, 1899 437 Statistics of the Lumber Industry of the United States, 1906 437 Poultry and Egg Products in the United States, 1879-1899 438 Production^of Honey and Beeswax in the United States, According to Census Returns of 1869- 1899 438 Bees, Honey, and Wax in the United States, 1899 438 Imports and Exports of Agricultural Products in the United States, 1911-1912 439 Domestic Exports of Butter and Cheese, 1870-1912 446 Exports of Dairy Products from Canada, 1870-1910 446 The Fertilizer Industry of the United States 447 Imports and Exports of Fertilizers in 1896 4.17 Imports of Fertilizers and Fertilizer Materials, 1896 447 Rank of States as Regards Value of Agricultural Products 448 V. DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS. Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 452 Ministers and Commissioners of Agriculture in Canada 453 State Officials in Charge of Agriculture in the United States 453 American Educational Institutions Having Courses in Agriculture . 454 Statistics of Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United States. 456 List of American Veterinary Colleges 456 Veterinary and Sanitary Officers in Charge of Live-stock Interests. 456 Dairy Schools in the United States and Canada 457 Schools of Forestry 457 Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States and Canada. 458 Officials in Charge of Farmers' Institutes 459 VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. More Important Works on Dairying 460 A List of Sixty Agricultural and Horticultural Books 462 List of American and Foreign Dairy Papers 464 The Main American Agricultural and Horticultural Papers 466 Index 47 1 COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. Chart showing Pounds of Wate7- and of Digestible Matter in 100 lbs. Water I 1 I>igestible Protein Digestible Digestible Carbohydrates Fat 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOOJbs. Past'ure grass Oreen clover Green corn Com silage Fodder Corn Com stalks Timothy hay Red Clover hay Oat straw Potatoes Mangel-wurzela Carrots Indian Com Wheat Barley Oata Bye Pea meal Com & cob meal Com cob Wheat bran. Wheat middlings Rice bran Linseed meal O.P. Linseed meal N.P. Cotton seed meal Cotton seed hulls Gluteti meal Malt sprouts Brewers' grains y jm ~t^m 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOOlb* PART I. AGRICULTURE. I. FEEDING STUFFS. COMPOSITION OF DEEDING STUFFS. In the ordinary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs the following constituents are determined, viz., water, ash, pro- tein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, ether extract (fatl V/atc)- is present in all feeding stuffs, from above 90 per cent in green foods and some kinds of roots, to below 10 per cent in very dry hay and in concentrated food stuffs. Ash, or mir<^ral matter, is the non-combustible part of plants, and goes to make the bones of the animal, or to sup- ply material for the maintenance of other parts of the ani- mal body. Protein is the name of a large group of substances, all characterized by the fact that they contain the element ni- trogen; hence they are also called nitrogenous substances, and foods rich in protein are spoken of as nitrogenous foods. The protein substances supply the material necessary for the formation of lean meat, ligaments, tendons, hair, horns, hoofs, etc., and also of casein of the milk. Crude protein includes albuminoids and af?iides; among the former are found white of Qgg, lean meat, curd of milk, and gluten; among the latter, asparagin and other crystallizable and water-soluble substances, generally speaking, of a somewhat inferior nutrlave value. Crude Fiber or woody fiber is the framework of plants, forming the walls of their cells ; it is usually the least digestible portion of feeding stuffs, and the nutritive value of a plant is decreased as its crude fiber content increases. Nitrogen-free Extract includes starch, sugar, gums, or- ganic acids, etc., and forms a m.ost important and usually a very large part of cattle foods. Together with cellulose, nitrogen-free extract forms the group of bodies called carbo 1 2 AGRICULTURE. hydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is hcat-produc' ing siibstances, as against flesh-forming substances^ i.e., nitrogenous compounds, the names indicating the main offices of the substances in animal nutrition. Ether Extract, or crude fat {oil) includes a group of com- pounds dissolved out by ether in the analysis of foods; fat forms the main part of the extract; most feeding stuffs contain only a small quantity of fat, but this component is nevertheless of considerable importance in the feeding of animals. Organic Matter signifies the combustible portion of chemi- cally dry feeding stuffs, i.e., all the components given in the preceding except water and ash. Digestible Components. — The food stuffs used in the feed- ing of farm animals are only partly of direct value to the animals, the portion which their digestive fluids are unable to dissolve being voided in the excrements. The digesti- bility of fodders has been determined by direct experiments with different kinds of farm animals, in this country or abroad. The digestion coefficients (see pp. 6-8) mean the percentages of any one component which have been found to be digested by the animals experimented on. Nutritive Ratio signifies the ratio between the digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous components in a feeding stuff, or a combination of such. As fat has been found to yield about 2.2 times more heat, when burned, than do starch, sugar, and other carbohydrates, the per cent of digestible fat in a food is multiplied by 2.2 when the nutritive ratio is to be calculated; the product is added to the per cent of digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract -f- crude fiber), and this sum is divided by the per cent of digestible protein. (The factor 2^ or 2.^ is sometimes used for obtain- ing "the starch equivalent" of fat.) Example: Clover hay contains on the average 6,5 per cent digestible protein, 34.9 per. cent digestible carbohydrates, and 1.6 per cent digestible fat (see following table): 1.6X2.2 = 3.52; 34.9+3.52 = 38.42; 38.42^6.5 = 5.9. Nutritive ratio, i : 5.9. FEEDING STUFFS. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN FEEDING STUFFS. Feeding Stuffs. Green Fodders and Silage. Pasture grass Green fodder corn (maize) Alfalfa (lucern) Green clover Alsike clover, in bloom Rye fodder Oat fodder Sorghum fodder Red top, in bloom Meadow fescue, in bloom Timothy Blue-grass Prickly comfrey Corn silage Corn silage, Wis. anal. Clover silage . . Sorghum silage Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. Fodder corn (maize), field cured. Same, Wis. analyses.,.. Corn stalks (stover), field cured. Hay from red clover. Hay from mammoth clover Hay f'm alfalfa (lucern) Hay from alsike clover. Oat hay Timothy hay Hay from mixed mea- dow grasses Hay from Hun, grass... Flax hay. Crab-grass hay ....... Marsh hay Oat straw Barley strawt Wheat straw Rye straw Buckwheat straw Pea vinet 126 Percentage Composition.* 79-3 71.8 70.8 74.8 76.6 62 79-4 64.8 69.9 61.6 65.1 88.4 79- 73-6 72.0 76 42.2 29.0 40.1 '5-3 21.2 8.4 9-7 8.9 13.2 7-9 9.2 14.2 9.6 7-1 9.9 13.6 1.2 2.7 2.1 2.0 2-5 1. 1 2.3 1.8 2.1 2.7 4.2 3-4 6.2 3-5 4.« 4.4 3-9 2.6 3-4 1-3 3-3 2.4 3-1 4.1 2.4 1-7 2.7 4.2 U 5-0 7-4 8 7-4 II. 6 II .2 6.1 9.4 10.8 II. 8 c2 tucx (3h 9-7 12.3 13-5 II .0 6.8 193 II. 6 19. 1 14-3 20 17. 6 51 II. I 12. y 11. 6 153 4.5 14.3 34.7 6.5 22.1 36.5 3.8 19.7 12.3 24.8 6.1 10.7 24.5 7.4 14.3 25 o 3 12.8 25.6 7.6 29.3 5.929.0 6 4.4 4.6 6.0 5-5 7-3 5-2 5-1 5-7 4.2 3-2 .S-5 6.6 6.4 7-5 15- 6. 7- 4- 3- 3- 5 4 3-0 5-2 9.0 29.9 27.7 32.0 32.9 30. 1 37-0 36.0 38.1 38.9 430 35-5 3^-9 38.1 33.6 42.7 40.7 45-1 45.0 41.0 49 -o 30.1 41.0 46.3 42.4 390 43-4 46.6 35-1 33-7 W c tL O .8 18.0 •5 19-5 •025.5 .1127.1 .9 23.2 .6 21.6 4 35-3 •5 19-5 •2:32-9 .8 28.-, 1.2 36.3 I 3 32 ■ I ■3 9-4 .8,19.5 •9 24.2 1.2 254 •3 22.8 1.6 .SS-i 1-7 66.8 I.I .S6.5 3-3 78.5 3.9 72.7 2.2 84.2 2.9 82.0 2.9 84.9 2.5 82.4 2.1 70-4 2.1 86.3 ^.i 80.2 1.6 82.4 2.7 86.9 2-3 85-7 1.5 80 . 1 1.3 86.2 1.2 89.7 1.3 84.6 1.6 1 79.8 Per cent Digestible Matter. "w 2 Ph •a 3 U ■0 £ U 2.6 10.6 ^•3 II. 8 3-6 11.4 2.9 14. 1 2.7 131 2.1 14. 1 2.7 .8 22.7 12.7 2-3 20.5 1-7 17.8 2.2 23.0 2.9 1.4 .8 19.2 4.6 II. 6 1 .3 14.0 2.0 .6 135 14.9 2.6 33-3 3-7 40.4 2.0 33^4 6^5 34-9 5^7 32.0 10.3 6.8 4-3 41.4 36.8 46.4 3 43-9 3-6 42.7 4-5 40.4 7.2 36.6 2.2 42.8 3-5 1.6 44-7 41.4 • 9 41^3 .8 .8 37-9 42.7 2-3 37^7 4-3 32.3 tq a .6 1.6 1.9 i.x 1.4 1-5 1.2 i.o 1.8 .6 1-7 •7 .6 •5 •4 .6 * Largely from Jenkins and American Feedinff Stuffs. t Winton's Compilation of Analyses of Koniff. 4 AC4RTCULTURE. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF A3IERICAN FEEDING ^TVFVii.—Coniznued. Feeding Stuffs. Roots and Tubers. Potatoes Sweet potatoes lied beets SuLfar beets . . . M.iiigel-wurzels. liutabajjas. ... 'I'urnips Cai lois Artichoke Grains and FIpu7- M i II Products. Corn (maize) Corn and cob meal. . . Corn cob Corn bran (hulls) Oats Oat shorts * Oat feed Oat hulls. O.it dust Barley . Barley screenings.. .. Wheat Wheat bran— roller pro- cess. ... Wheat bran -old pro- cess Wlieat shorts Wheat middlings Wheat screenings. . . Low-grade flour ("red dog") Rye Rye bran Rye shorts Buckwheat Buckwheat bran Buckwheat sliorts.. . . Biickwhcat uiiduhngs.. Rice Rice bran Rice hulls Rice polish ... Pea meal Percentage Composition. 12 78 6 7t 9 88 19 86 9 90, 4 88.6 3 8 90.5 88.6 2 79-5 -08 to.g 7 i5-» 18 10.7 5 9.1 iO II. 6 10. 4 7-7 1 3 6.5 ID 10. 9 2 12.2 310 ID. 5 7 12.0 9 12.0 12 II. 8 33 12.1 IC II. 6 8 10. 6 II. 6 7 IX. 6 I 8 9-3 12.6 2 10.5 2 II. I 6 12.7 10 12.4 5 3 9-7 8.2 4 io.o| 2 TO. 5 u 1-5 1-5 1.8 1.4 1.4 '•3 3-0 52 3-7 6.9 10.5 8.5 2.4 9.0J 12 9 U 6 6 16 16.0 3-3 13-5 2.4112.4 3.6 12.3 1.8 II. 9 5 6 16.; 4.9 13.0 4.6 14.9 15-7 12.5 3-4 2.0 1.9 3 5 2 •3 5 5 15-8 10.6 6,14.7 9 18 o 0! 10. o 012.4 1 1 27. 1 1 28.2 •4 7-4 lO.O I2.li 13. 7] 3.6 ;-,, 6.7 I r.71 6 2.6,20.2114, * Konig. 173 24.7 8. 9- 5-5 7-5 6.2 7.6 15-9 50.2 69.8 61.8 71.9 53-7 58 2 56.8 60.2 65. T 67.7 72.5 63.8 9.9 64 -5 o'^8.« 3140.8 2 42.3 2 79.2 5 4Q.Q 738.6 3 58.0 4 5I-' w 5-4 3-5 •5 5-8 5-0 6.6 7 J 1 .0 4.8 4-2 3-8 4-5 4.0 2.7 1-7 2.8 2.2 3- ? 7.6 7-5 •4 8.8 •7 7-3 .-S ai O 20. T 27.9 10.5 12.6 8.0 10.2 8.7 10.4 19.5 87.6 83.4 87.9 89.6 86.0 84.8 88.6: 86.0' 86.6 86.7 84.2 87.7 82.4 83.6 5 85.5 87.8 86. 5 84.8 85.8 854 86. r 83.8 82.2 87.2 80.3 78.6 33.3 •9 p er cent Digestible Matter. d ^ v rt k. X Oh w o.8 5 9-6 15 75-7 S\ 7-7 14 10.9 14 600 41 144. 3 8-3 8.2 9-5 9.0 10.4 5-7 65 8.2 9.9 9.2 10. 1 10.4 88.0 88.4 84-5 90.9 84.8 76.7 20.8 4.4 3-7 10.7 8.5 96190.4 85J90.1 46 93-4 03 I-. 3-4 10.2 4-3 22.6 3-2 20.8 4-7 34-0 5-9 24.8 I.O 5-4 3.0 22.2 2.5 9.9 .9 21.6 1-3 32.8 .9 35.8 2.4 24.8 3.'^ 10. 2.7 3I.O -3 6.1 7.2 42.4 2.9 4.2 5-7 32.9 5.8 33-2 4.3 16.8 2.4 2.6 2.2 2.4 2.0 2.3 •5 1-3 • 5 •4 •5 1-4 10.6 9.1 .6 .9 4.1 8.3 4-5 9.8 4.1 71.2 4.7 84.4 .7 3-3 • / 4.0 ■ 7 .9 2.6 69.8 7.1 63.6 7.1 23.2 4-1 55-7 4.8 28.8116.9 S4.5 W O (U o 3-685.1 3-0 85.1 33-7186.5 4^82 f). 5-0 II. 4 3-1 5-6 47-4 47.0 12.5 47-9 64.4 49.6 42.0 46.8 43.6 61.. 2 34-8 22.0 23-8 33-2 8.9,35-4 9-5138.5 24.0J35.0 2.2! 4.4 1.6 2.6 1-7 1-5 12.5 3.9 16.2 '59.5 2.4 6.3 19.0 63.5 18.6 62.7 .3 5-1 8.4 5-2 4-7 4.0 4.8 1.7 1.6123, 6.388. 8.586. 12.7,90. 14. 1 90. 5-680. i3-5;88. 6.886. 14.2 91. 3-il34. 12.9 84. 2.287. 7-985.1 3-0 9-5 •4 • 3 • 5 •4 -3 1-3 84.1 85-3 9.6 9-4 13-5 8.6 14.7 22.8 68.6 9.6 91-5 91.8 13.7,85-2 Per cent Digestible Matter. Dh 7.0 7-4 20.6 18.3 O 52.1 48.3 17. 1 54 29.6 17.9 36.2 9-i; 35-5 61.0 48.3 39-6 44.1 42.6 61.2 38.8 21.7 18. 1 26.2 28.3 32 W 32.9 52.6 4.6 4.6 2.5186.8 58.1 5-8 12.8 II. 9 1159-5 .61 7-3 8'67.7 667. 9 4i -3 8-9 9.2 5.9' 3-1 2.9 29.0 15-9 1-7 1-3 5-3 7.8 II. I 12.8 5-1 12.3 6.2 12.4 2.3 12.3 7-1 2.7 9.0 13 4-7 4.0 4.7I -3 * Konig. 6 AGRICULTURE. READY REFEREIVCE TABLE OF COMPOSITION OP FEEDS. (Hills.) The following tables save calculations of percentages, since, the weights and contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to find the kind and desired amount of a certain feed, and the tables give the exact food contents in pounds; e.g., 15 lbs. of Green Fodder Com contain 3.1 lbs. of dry matter, 0.17 lbs. of digestible protein, and 1.9 lbs. digestible car- bohydrates and fat. Pounds of Feed. Green Fodder s. 2^ 5 10 , 15 20 , 25 30 35 40 2* 5 10 IS 20 25 30 35 40 2i 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 ^^ 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 d, in O rt'C Xi u p TO o Pasture Grass I : 4-8 o.S 3-0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 0.06 0.12 o. 23 0.35 0.46 0.58 o . 69 0.81 o . 92 0.3 0.6 1-7 2. 2 2.8 3-3 3-9 4-4 Green Fodder Corn , I : 1 1 . 7 5 03 3 I 06 6 2 I II I 3 3 I 17 I 9 4 I 22 2 6 5 2 28 3 2 b 2 33 3 9 7 2 39 4 5 8 3 44 5 2 Oats and Peas, I : 4.2 0.5 3-2 4-3 5-3 6.4 7-5 8.5 o .07 o . 14 o . 27 0.41 0.54 0.68 0.81 0.95 1 .08 0.3 0-5 I . I 1-7 2.3 2.9 3-4 4.0 4.6 Com Silage , 14-8 0.7 I -3 2.6 3-9 5-3 6.6 7-9 9.2 10.5 Q^ ^1 >. • 4-> bohy- rates nd Fa .S '3 h'O oj u ni u Oh CJ H cu Timothy Grass I : 14-3 o .04 0.08 o.is o. 23 0.30 0.38 0.45 0.53 o . 60 0.5 I . I 2 . I 3-2 4-3 5.4 6.4 7-5 8.6 Green Oat Fod- der, I : 8.7 o . 06 0.12 o . 24 0.36 0.48 o . 60 0.72 0.84 o . 96 0.5 1 .0 2 . I 3-1 4.2 5-2 6.2 7-3 8.3 Barley and Peas, I : 3-2 0.5 1 .0 2 . 1 3-1 4.1 5-2 6.2 7.2 o .07 0.14 0.28 o . 42 0.56 o . 70 0.84 O . 2 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.8 2.3 2.7 3-2 3.6 Com lage Stover Si- , I : 16.6 0.03 0.4 0.5 .02 0.06 0.8 I .0 0.03 0.12 1.8 I .9 .06 0.18 2.7 2.9 0.09 0. 24 3.6 3-9 0.12 0.30 4-5 4.8 0.15 0.36 5-3 5.8 0.18 0.42 6.2 6.8 0. 21 0.48 7-1 7-7 0. 24 0.3 0.5 1-5 2 . o 2.5 3.0 3-5 4.0 ill CO CJ Ky. Blue Grass, I : 9.2 10.5 12.2 14.0 0:05 o . 10 o . 20 0.30 o .40 o. 50 o . 60 o . 70 0.80 Green Rye Fod- de r, I : 7.2 "oT6~ Red Clover fereen) i : 5.7 0.7 .07 0.4 1-5 0.15 0.8 2.9 . 29 1.6 4.4 0.44 2.5 5-9 0.58 3-3 7-3 0.73 4.1 8.8 0.87 4.9 10. 2 1 .02 5.7 II. 7 1 . 16 6.6 Clover Silage, I : 4-7 0.7 .07 0.3 1.4 0. 14 0.6 2.8 0. 27 1-3 4.2 .41 1.9 5.6 0.54 2.6 7.0 0.68 3-2 8.4 0.81 3-9 9.8 0-95 4-5 II . 2 1.08 5-1 FEEDING STUFFS. COMPOSITION OF FEEDS — {Continued). Pounds of Feed. Roots. 2i 5 lo 15 1 . 20 25 30 35 40 2i 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Milk. 2i 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Hays. Q. CL, 2 ^V. Co u Potatoes, I : 1 7.3 5 02 I 05 I og 2 14 2 18 3 23 3 27 4 32 4 3f) 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.3 Mangel Wurtzels. I : 4.9 0.03 0.06 O. II 0.17 O . 22 0.28 0.33 0.39 0.44 0.3 0.5 0.8 I . I 1.4 1.6 1 .9 2 . 2 Skim Milk, i : 2.0 2i 5 7^ 10 15 i7i 20 25 o. 2 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.8 3-2 3-7 .07 •15 •29 • 44 .58 • 73 • 87 .02 .16 0.3 0.6 0.9 1 . 2 1.6 1.8 2 . 1 2.4 Mixed Hay I : 10. o 2 . 1 4.2 6.4 8.5 10 . 6 12.7 14^8 16.9 21.2 o. I I 0. 22 0.33 0.44 0.55 0.66 0.77 0.88 1 . 10 ■4-J o _H o CL, S ^^ Co O Sugar Beets, i : 6.8 .04 .08 .16 .24 .32 .40 .48 .56 .64 0.3 o.S 1 . I 1.7 2. 2 2.7 3-3 3.8 4.4 Rutabagas, I : 8.6 0.3 0.5 1 . 1 1.6 2.3 2.9 3^4 4.0 4.6 03 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0.4 0.9 1 .3 1-7 2 . 2 2.6 3-0 3-4 Buttermilk, i: 1.7 . 10 .19 .38 • 57 .76 •95 .14 ■ 33 • 52 1.9 2. 2 2.6 Timothy Hay, I : 16.5 4-3 6.5 8.7 10 .9 13.0 15-2 17.4 21.7 0.07 o. 14 O . 21 0.28 0.3s o .42 0.49 0.56 o . 70 2^3 3^5 4.6 5.8 6.9 8.1 9.2 II. 6 -4-> 2 "J '2 i-j-a cij cu o Carrots, i : 9.6 0.03 0.05 o. 10 o.iS o. 20 0.25 0.30 0.3s 0.40 Turnips, i : 7.7 0.5 1 .0 1 .4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3-3 3.8 ■ 05 •05 . 10 • J'S . 20 •25 •30 • 35 .40 0.4 0.8 I . 2 1^5 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.1 Whey, I : 8.7 0.3 0.6 0.9 2^5 02 03 06 09 12 15 18 21 24 O . I 0.3 0.5 0.8 1 .0 1-3 1.6 Ky. Blue Grass Hay, I : 10.6 3-' 5-' 7-- 9. II. 13-' 14.: o .09 0.19 0.28 0.37 o .46 0.56 0.65 0.74 0.93 8 AGRICULTURE. COMPOSITION OF FEEDS — (Continued). Pounds of Feed. Havs. 2i 5 7i lO 12i IS i7i 20 25 Dry Fodders . 2i 5 7* 10 . 15 i7i 20 25 2^ 5 7i 10 20 25 Grains. i I 2 3 4 10 (X O n3T3 CO o Oat Hay, I : 9.9 2.3 4.6 6.8 9.1 II .4 13-7 16.0 18. 2 22.8 o . 10 0.21 0.31 o .41 0.51 o . 62 o. 72 0.82 1 .03 1 .0 2 .0 3-0 4.0 5-1 6.1 7-1 8.1 10 . 2 Red Clover Hay, I : 5-9 2. 1 4.2 6.4 8.5 10 . I 2 . 14. 16. 0. i» 0.36 0.53 0.71 0.89 1 .07 1 . 24 1.42 1.78 3-2 4.2 5-2 6.3 7-3 8.3 10.5 Com Fodder, I : 14-3 1.4 2.9 4-3 5.8 7.2 8.7 14 o . 06 o. 13 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.38 0.44 0.50 0.63 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4-5 5-4 6.2 7-1 8.9 Com Meal, I : 1 1 . 3 o . 2 0.4 0.9 1-7 2.6 o . 02 0.03 o .06 0.13 0.19 0.25 0.32 0.48 0.63 O . 2 0.4 0.7 1.4 2 . I 2.9 3.6 5-4 7-1 -C +J _, o Oat and Pea Hay, I : 4.1 8.9 0.28 0.56 0.84 1 . 12 1 .40 1.68 1 . 96 2. 24 2.80 2.3 3-5 4.6 5.8 6.9 Alsike Clover Hay, 1 : 5-5 1 1 13-5 15.8 18. I 22 . 6 0.21 o .42 0.63 0.84 1.05 1 . 26 1-47 1.68 2 . 10 2.3 3-5 4.6 5.8 6.9 8.1 9. 2 II. 6 Com Stover, I : 23.6 i.S 3-0 4-5 6.0 7-5 9.0 10.5 12.0 15-0 .04 .07 0.25 0.28 0.35 Com and Cob Meal, I : 13.9 o . 2 0.4 0.9 r-7 2.6 3-4 4-3 6.4 8.5 o .01 0.02 0.05 o. 10 o . 14 o. 19 o. 24 0.36 0.48 0.3 0.7 1-3 2 .0 2.7 3-4 5-1 6.7 Out Straw, I : 38.3 2.3 4.6 6.8 9.1 II. 4 13-9 16.0 18.2 22. 7 0.03 o .06 o .09 0.12 o.iS 0.18 O. 21 o . 24 0.30 I . 2 2.3 3.5 4.6 5.8 6.9 8.1 9.2 Ii.S Wheat Straw, I : 93-0 2 3 01 9 4 5 02 I 9 6 8 03 2 8 9 04 3 7 1 1 3 05 4 6 13 5 06 5 6 15 8 07 6 .S 18 I 08 7 4 22 6 10 9 3 Oats, I : 6.2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4-5 6.7 8.9 o .02 0.05 o .09 0.18 o. 28 0.37 0.46 o . O9 o. 92 4-3 5-7 FEEDING STUFFS. COMPOSITION OF FEEDS — (Continued). Pounds of Feed. By- products. C oj^ ^ 1- c cd O Barley, i : 8.0 o .02 o . 04 o . og 0.17 o. 26 0.3s 0.44 o . 65 0.87 3-5 5-2 6.9 Wheat Middlings, I : 4.6 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.6 3-5 4-4 6.6 ■ 03 .06 • 13 .25 .38 ■ 50 .63 • 94 • 25 I -7 2.3 2.9 4.4 5.8 Rye, I : 7-8 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3-5 4-4 6.6 8.8 0.02 o .04 o .09 0.18 o. 27 0.36 o .46 o. 67 0.89 0.3 0.7 1.4 2. I 2.8 3-5 5-2 6.9 Cottonseed Hulls, o. 2 0.4 0.9 o . I . 2 0.4 0.7 1 . I 1-5 Q. Oh o Barley Screenings, T : 7.7 2 02 4 04 09 r 8 17 2 6 26 3 5 34 4 4 43 6 6 65 8 8 86 Wheat Screen- ings, 1 : 5.2 . 2 02 r 0.4 05 2 0.9 10 5 1.8 20 I 2.7 29 I 5 3-5 39 2 4-4 49 2 ^ 6.6 74 3 8 8.8 98 5 I Rye Bran, i : 5.1 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3-5 4.4 6.6 0.03 o .06 0.12 0.25 0.37 0.49 o. 62 0.92 1 .23 0.3 0.6 1.3 1.9 2.5 31 4-7 6.3 Linseed Meal, o.p. I : 1.5 o. 2 0.5 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.9 6.8 9.0 0.08 o.is 0.31 o. 62 0.92 I -23 I -54 2.31 3.08 o . I . 2 0.5 1 .0 1.4 1.8 2.3 3-4 4.6 TO Wheat Bran, 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.6 i-S 4-4 6.6 0.03 o .06 0.12 o. 24 0.36 0.48 . 60 o . 90 1 . 20 o . I o . 2 0.5 I .0 I .4 2.3 3-4 4.6 Red-dog Flour, I : 3-3 . 2 .04 0. 1 o.S 0.09 0.3 0.9 0.18 0.6 1.8 0.36 I . 2 2.7 O.S3 1-7 3.6 0.71 2.3 4.6 0.89 2.9 6.8 1-34 4.4 9. 1 1.78 5.8 Cottonseed Meal, I : i.o o.S 0.9 1.8 2.8 3-7 4.6 6.9 9.2 o . 10 o. 20 . 40 0.80 1 . 20 1 . 60 2 .00 3.00 4.00 0.4 0.8 1.6 Linseed Meal, n.p. I : 1-3 o . 2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4-5 6.7 8.9 0.08 0.16 0.32 0.65 0.97 1.30 1 .62 2.43 3-24 0.4 0.8 I -3 1-7 10 AG-RICULTUKE. COMPOSITION OF FEEDS — (Continued). Pounds of Feed. By- products. i i 1 2 3 4 5 7i lo i I 2 3 4 5 7i r 2 3 4 5 7i lO Q. e^ O niT^ o Flax Meal, 1.4 O . 2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4-5 6.7 8.9 0.08 o . i6 0.32 o . 64 . 96 1.28 1 . 60 2 .40 3-21 Gluten Feed, Bufifalo, I : 2.4 o .06 0.12 o. 23 0.47 o . 70 0-93 I. 17 I-7S 2.33 2.8 4-3 5-7 Atlas Gluten Meal, I : 2.6 o-S 0.9 1.8 2.8 6.9 9.2 o .06 0.12 0.25 0.49 0.74 0.98 1-23 1.85 2 .46 0.3 0.6 1-3 1.9 2.6 3-2 4-Q 6.5 O, CD u Gluten MeaKChi.) I : 1. 5 2 08 4 16 9 32 8 64 6 06 5 I 28 4 I 60 6 2 40 8 3 21 O . I O . 2 0.5 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.3 3-5 4-7 Hominy Chop, I : 9.2 o . 2 o.S 0.9 1.8 2.8 3-7 4.6 6.9 9.2 0.02 o .04 o . 09 o. 17 0.26 0.35 0.44 o . 65 0.87 0.4 0.8 1.6 2.4 3-2 4.0 6.0 8.0 Malt Spruvits, I : 2.2 30 4-5 6.7 9.0 0.05 .09 0.19 0.37 0.56 0.74 0.93 1 . 40 I .86 0.4 0.8 1 . 2 1.6 3.0 4.0 Oi 2 ^^ CD o Gluten Meal, Cream, i : 1.7 .07 0. I o.iS . 2 0.30 5 0.59 I .0 0.89 i.S I .19 2 . T I .49 2.6 2.23 3-9 2.97 5-1 O . 2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4-5 6.7 9.0 Dried Brewers' Grains, i : 3.0 0.9 3-7 4.6 6.9 9.2 o .04 0.08 0.16 0.31 0.47 0.63 0.79 1. 18 1-57 Pea Meal i : 3.2 0. 2 .04 0.4 0.08 0.9 0.17 1.8 0.33 2.7 0.50 3.6 0. 67 45 0.84 6.7 I . 26 9.0 1.68 O . I 0.3 I . I 1.6 2 . 1 2.7 4.0 5-3 FEEDING STUFFS. 11 CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. (Lindsey.) A. Coarse Feeds (Roughage). I. Low in protein, high in carbohydrates: (a) 50-65 per cent, digestible: Hays, straws, corn fodder, corn stover, and silage. (b) 85-95 P^^ cent, digestible: Carrots, potatoes, sugar beets, mangels, turnips. II. Medium in protein and in carbohydrates, 55-65 per cent, digestible: Clovers, vetches, pea and bean fodders and brans. B. Concentrated Feeds {Concentrates). III. Low in protein, high in carbohydrates, 80-90 per cent, digestible: Wheat, rye, barley, oats, Indian corn. IV. High in protein, medium in carbohydrates, 80-90 per cent, digestible: Bean and pea meals, gluten feeds and meals, linseed meals, cottonseed meal. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATES, ACCORDING TO PROTEIN CONTENT: (a) Very rich in protein (about 80 per cent.) : Dried blood, meat scraps, cottonseed meal. (6) Rich in protein (25-40 per cent.) : Gluten meal. Atlas meal, linseed meal, buckwheat middlings, soja beans, grano-gluten. (c) Fairly rich in protein (12-25 P^^ cent.) IVIalt sprouts, dried brewers' grains, gluten feed, cow pea, pea meal, wheat shorts, rye shorts, oat shorts, wheat middlings, wheat bran, low-grade flour (red-dog). {d) Low in protein (below 12 per cent.): Wheat, barley, oats, rye, corn, rice polish, rice, hominy chops, germ meal. 12 AGRICULTURE. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. (Wolff- Lehmann.) (Per day and per looo lbs. live weight.) 1. Steers at rest in stall Steers slightly worked Steers moderately worked Steers heavily worked. , 2. Fattening steers, ist period 2d " " 3d " 3. Milch cows, daily milk yield, 11 lbs. " " ' 16.5 " " 27.6 " 4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds. " " finer breeds.. . . 5. Breeding ewes, with lambs. 6. Fattening sheep, ist period. 2d " . Horses lightly worked Horses moderately worked. Horses heavily worked 8. Brood sows, with pigs. 9. Fattening swine, ist period. 2d " . •' 3d " . 10. Growing cattle: Dairy Breeds, Age^ Months. 2-3 3-6 6-12 1 2-1 8 18-24 A-ver. live weight per head, 154 Ihs 309 " 507 " 705 " 882 " -. — XI lbs. 25 28 30 30 26 25 27 29 32 20 23 25 30 28 24 36 36 32 as 23 24 27 26 26 Nutritive (Digestible) Substances. •So o-S u u lbs. 0.7 1.4 2.0 2.8 2-5 30 2.7 1.6 2.0 2-5 3-3 1 .2 1-5 2.9 3-5 1-5 2.0 2.5 2.5 4-5 4.0 2.7 1.8 ^•5 lbs. 8.0 10. o 13.0 15.0 14-5 15.0 10. o 1 1 .0 13.0 13.0 10.5 12.0 150 15.0 14-5 9-5 II .0 13-3 15-5 25.0 24.0 13.0 12. 8 12.5 12.0 k. 4-1 lbs. 0.1 03 0-5 0-5 0.7 0.7 0.2 0-3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.4 2.0 1 .0 0.4 0-3 > . •n II) .- . V X PCX ^^ •bw u U W" lbs. lbs. lbs. 4.2 13.0 2.0 3-5 12 8 1-5 2.5 13-2 0.7 2.0 .2.5 0.5 1.8 C2.0 0.4 3-4 15-4 0.7 2.8 13. « 0.6 2.1 11.5 0.5 1.8 II. 2 0.4 1-5 10.8 0.3 4.4 15-5 0.9 3-5 15-0 0.7 3-0 14-3 05 2.2 12.6 5 2.0 12 .0 0.4 7.6 28.0 I.O 50 23.1 0.8 3-7 21.3 0.4 2.8 18.7 0-3 2.1 15.3 0.2 7.6 28.0 1.0 5-0 23.1 0.8 4-3 22.3 o.b 3.6 20.5 0.4 3.0 18.3 0-3 > . — XI lbs. 20.0 19.9 17. 4 15-7 14.8 20.5 18.0 14.8 14.0 130 22.1 20.2 18.5 16.0 15.0 38.0 30.0 26.0 22.2 17.9 38.0 30.0 28.0 25 I 22.0 4-2 4-7 6.0 6.8 7.2 5-0 5-4 6.0 7.0 7-7 1:4.0 1:4.8 1:5.2 1:6.3 1:6.5 1:4.0 1:5-0 1:6.0 1:7.0 1:7.5 1:4.0 1:5.0 i:5-5 1 :6.o 1 :6.4 14 AGRICULTURE. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. Woods & Phelps Wo'.l Wolff'sGcrman Stand'. WolfE-Lehmann. .. .. Digest ble. Orgr'nic Matter. Protein Carbo- hydrates Fat. Total. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 25.0 2.5 12.5 .65 15-65 24-5 2.2 13-3 •7 16.2 24.0 2.5 12.5 •4 15-4 (See page 12) Nut. Ratio- 1:5.6 1:6.9 1:5-4 CALCULATION OF COMPONENTS OF FEED RATIONS. Let us suppose that we have at our disposal the following common feeding stuffs : Fodder corn, clover hay, and wheat bran, and that we want to know how much is required to keep a milch cow of 1000 lbs. live weight in good condition and to secure a maximum yield of milk. We will feed 15 lbs. of corn fodder, 5 lbs. of clover hay, and 10 lbs. of wheat bran. According to the table these quantities contain the following number of pounds of digestible matter : Dry Matter. Digestible. Protein. Carbohy- drates and Fat. 15 lbs. of corn t odder Lbs. 8.7 4.2 8.8 Lbs. -36 1 . 20 Lbs. 5-4 5 lbs. clover hay 4.6 Total 21.7 1 .94 This ration falls somewhat short of the feeding standard in both total dry matter and digestible substances. To bring it nearer to the standard, we add a couple of pounds of some con- centrated feed. In selecting the feeds and deciding the quan- tities to be given in each case, the market prices of the feeds must be considered. We will suppose that a supply of corn meal is available in this case, and will add two pounds of this feed to the above ration. FEEDING STUFFS. 15 Dry Matter. Digestible. Crude Protein. Carbohy- drates. Nutritive Ratio. Lbs. 21.7 1-7 Lbs. 1.94 .13 Lbs. 12 . 1 1.4 2 lbs. of com meal Total 23.4 24.5 24.0 2.07 2. 2 2.5 13-5 13-3 12.5 I : 6.5 Proposed American feeding ration for. milch cows. . . Wolff's feeding standard for milch cows I : 6.9 I : 5-4 The ration now corresponds fairly well with the proposed American feeding ration; there is a small deficit of dry matter and of digestible protein; but there is no necessity of trying to follow any standard ration blindly, as they are only intended to be approximate gauges which the farmer may use in estimat- ing the quantities of nutrients required by farm animals in order to do their best, cost and product both being considered. Cows, Hke all farm animals, vary greatly in their productive capacity, as well as in their food requirements, and their capacity to make economical use of their feed; hence feeding standards can only be applied to average conditions, a point which should always be kept in mind in using them. In constructing rations according to the above feeding standards, several points must be considered besides the chemi- cal composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs; the standards cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk and other properties of the fodder; the ration must not be too bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of rough- age to keep up the rumination of the animals, in case of cow and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animals generally. The local market prices of cattle foods are of the greatest importance in determining which feeds to buy; the conditions in the different sections of our continent differ so greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be made. Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour-mill, brewery, and starch-factory-refuse feeds the cheapest in the Northwest. 16 AGRICULTURE. PRACTICAL. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. Fed by 16 American Dairymen Producing 325 lbs. of Butter or more per Cow per Year.* 1. Colorado. — 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. corn meal. 2. Connecticut. — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs Chicago gluten meal. 3. Illinois, — 1\ lbs. clover hay, 7| lbs. timothy hay, 12 jbs. corn and cob-meal, 8 lbs. bran, \\ lbs. linseed meal, i^ lbs. cotton-seed meal. 4. New Jersey. — 24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 4 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal. 5. New York. — 20 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. cotton- seed meal, 2 lbs. hominy meal. 6. New York. — 12 lbs. timothy hay, i lb. wheat bran, i lb. middlings, 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 40 lbs. skim-milk. 7. Nezu York. — 42 lbs. corn silage, 2\ lbs. clover hay, i\ lbs. timothy hay, 8 lbs. corn and cob meal, 14 lbs. dried brewers* grains. 8. North Carolina. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 3 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. 9. Pennsylvania. — 24 lbs. corn fodder, 5.1 lb. wheat bran, 5.1 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 10. Pennsylvania. — 10 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. hay, 3^ lbs. wheat bran, i^ lbs. cotton-seed meal, i^ lbs. oil meal, 2| lbs corn meal. 11. Texas. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 13^ lbs. sorghum hay, 1,3 lbs. corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs. wheat bran. 12. Vermont. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 4.2 lbs. corn meal, 4.2 lbs. wheat bran, .8 lb. linseed meal. 13. West Virginia. — 48 lbs. corn silage, 2| lbs. corn and cob meal, 2^ lbs. ground wheat, 2\ lbs. oats, 2^ lbs. barley meal. * See Woll, "One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows," Bul- letin No. 38, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. FEhDING STUFFS, 17 14. IViscotisin. — 26 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs. timoihy hay, 8 lbs. wheat middlings, i^ lbs. oil meal. 15. IVisconsin. — 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sheaf oats, 5 lbs. corn fodder, i lb. clover hay, i lb. millet, 2.7 lbs. cottonseed meal, 1.3 lbs. oil meal, 6 lbs. wheat bran. 16. Catuida. — 40 lbs. corn silage, 7^ lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. straw. li lbs. oats, i^ lbs. barley, i^ lbs. pea meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, \ lb. cotton-seed meal. The preceding radons contain approximately the following aniounts"bf nutrients, calculated for 1000 lbs. live weight : Organic Digestible. tritive No. fMU Miitter. Carbo- hydrates. R atio. Protein. Fat. Total. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1 DS. I 31.09 2.70 15.78 .80 ig 28 I 6.5 9 25 70 2.69 13.96 •97 17.62 I 6.0 3 22. og 2.37 12.06 •75 15 18 I 5-8 4 19-41 2 06 11.71 .87 14 64 6.5 5 26 19 2.35 13-78 •79 16 93 ^ 6.6 6 25 73 3-50 14.05 1. 12 18 67 4 7 7 31.30 3-37 16.31 I-3I 20 99 I 5-7 8 20.38 1.79 11.98 .80 14 57 I 7-7 9 26.52 2-53 1574 .90 19 17 I 7.0 10 20.05 2.31 11.00 .72 14 03 I 5-4 II 26.58 2.21 12.31 1.30 15 82 I 6.9 12 24.23 1.86 14.03 •75 16 64 t 8.4 »3 22.37 1-54 M-iS .72 16 41 I 10.2 14 31.00 3.01 l6.02 .87 19 90 I 6.0 >5 23.79 2-73 12.46 99 16 i3 1 5 4 16 22.96 2.08 12.17 •71 M 96 1 6.6 18 AGRICULTURE. AVERAGE WEIGHTS OF CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS. Feeding Stuff. Barley meal Barley, whole Beet pulp, dried Brewers' grains, dried Com and cob meal. Com and oat feed Com bran Com meal Corn, whole , Cottonseed meal Cottonseed _ Distillers' grains, dried Germ-oil meal Gluten feed Gluten meal Homin y meal Kafir meal Linseed meal, new process " old process Malt sprouts Mixed feed (bran and middlings) Molasses beet pulp Oat feed Oat middlings Oats, whole Rye bran Rye feed (rye bran and rye middlings) Rye meal Rye, whole Wheat bran Wheat feed, mixed Wheat, ground Wheat middlings (" flour") " " (' standard' ) Wheat, whole One Quart One Pound Weighs. Measures. Pounds. Quarts. 1 I . I • 9 1-5 • 7 • 55 1.8 .6 1-7 1 1.4 .7 • 7 1.4 .5 2.0 1-5 • 7 1-7 .6 1-5 • 7 I .o I .o •5-.7 2.0-1.4 1.4 • 7 1-3 .8 1-7 .6 I.I .9 1.6 .6 • 9 I.I I . I .9 .6 1.7 .6 1-7 • 75 1.3 .8 1.3 1-5 .7 I .o I .0 .6 1-7 1-3 .8 1-5 • 7 1.7 .6 •S 2.0 .6 1.7 1-7 .6 I . 2 .8 .8 1.3 I . •5 1 FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS. It is generally assumed in comparing the food require- inents of the different classes of farm animals that one cow at pasture will eat about seven tenths as much daily as a full-grown horse, or as much as two yearling colts, heifers, or young bulls, or as three to five calves, or four colts taken from the mare, or ten to twelve sheep, or as twelve to twenty three-months-old lambs, or as four to five swine. It may be figured that the quantity of pasture grass eaten by a cow per day, which of course will vary with the season and the condition of the pasture, will equal 25-30 Ibs- of good meadow hay or 40 lbs. hay of inferior quality. FEEDING STUFFS. 19 COMPARATIVE VALiUE3 OF CATTLE FOODS. Comparing concentrated foods with coarse feeds, one pound of the former may be considered a food unit; the quantity of grass eaten by one cow at pasture during one day is assumed equivalent to 12 to 13 food units during the early part of the summer, and to 4 food unite in the late fall, 10 units being considered an average figure. The following quantities of different feeding stuffs are considered approximately equivalent, as determined by European, largely Danish, feeding experience (Schroll): I lb. concentrated feed (cereals, mill refuse-feeds, oil meals, etc.) = 2I to 3 lbs. of good meadow hay = 4 lbs. of poorer quality hay = 10 lbs. rutabagas = 12^ lbs. turnips = 6 lbs. potatoes = 10 lbs. green fodder = 6 lbs. buttermilk = 6 lbs. skim-milk = 12 lbs. whey = i lb. new milk. (See table on p. 19a, also Wis. Exp. Sta., Circ. 37.) CALCULATED VALUE OF FRUITS COMPARED WITH HAY, GRAINS, ETC. (Jaffa and Anderson.) 100 lbs. of each of the fruits named below is equiva- lent to the amounts of the materials given in the columns to the right. Fresh Fruits. Apples Oranges Pears Plums Prunes Apricots Nectarines Figs Grapes Watermelons Nutmeg melons. . Dried Fruits. Prunes Apricots Peaches Figs Raisins >' 1- m 1 u pq 3 ■ cd rt (U »-t~. e w Lbs. 9 14 13 1 1 12 14 14 6 5 48 53 51 SO S9 19« AGRICULTURE. AMOUNTS OF DIFFERENT FEEDS REQUIRED TO EQUAL ONE FEED UNIT. (Wis. Exp. Sta., Circ. 37.) Feed, Feed Required to Equal I Unit. Concentrates: Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried brewers' grains, wheat middlings, oat shorts, peas. Unicorn Dairy Ration, molasses beet pulp Cotton seed meal Oil meal, Ajax Flakes (dried distillers' grains), glu- ten feed, soy beans Wheat bran, oats, dried beet pulp, barley feed, malt sprouts. International Sugar Feed, Quaker or Sugarota Molasses or Dairy Feed, Sucrene Dairy Feed, Badger Dairy Feed, Schumacher Stock Feed, molasses grains Alfalfa meal, Victor feed, June Pasture, alfalfa molasses feeds Aver- age, Lbs. 1 .0 0.8 0.9 Hay and Straw: Alfalfa hay, clover hay Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley and pea hay, red top hay Timothy hay, prairie hay, sorghum hay Corn stover, stalks or fodder, marsh hay, cut straw Soiling Crops, Silage, and Other Succulent Feeds Green alfalfa Green corn, sorghum, clover, peas and oats, cannery refuse Alfalfa silage Corn silage, pea vine silage Wet brewers' grains Potatoes, skim milk, butter milk Sugar beets Carrots Rutabagas Field beets, green rape Sugar beet leaves and tops, whey Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp Range, Lbs. I . 5-3 . o 2 i 4 7 8 5 5 2 2 3 6 7 0-3 . 5-40 5-6.0 0-8.0 o-io.o 6 5 0-7.0 6 7 8 9 in 8 o-io.o T? 12 10 0-15.0 The value of pasture is generally placed at 8 to 12 units per day. on the average, varying with kind and condition, FEEDING STUFFS. 195 POUNDS OF DRY MATTER, DIGESTIBLE MATTER, AND DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TO BE FURNISHED IN RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. (Wis. Exp. Sta. BuL 200.) Live Weight, Lbs. Dry Cows. Production of Butter Fat per Day, Pounds. Less than 0.5 lb. 0.5- 75 0.75- I .o I .o- 1.25 1.25- 1-5 1.5- 1.75 I.7S-2 POUNDS DRY MATTER TO BE FURNISHED IN RATIONS. 8oo 10. 13-7 16. 2 18.6 21 . 1 23.5 26.0 28.4 goo II. 3 150 17. 5 19.9 22.4 24.8 27.3 29.7 lOOO 12.5 16.2 18.7 21 . I 23.6 26.0 28.5 30.9 IIOO 13.8 17.5 20.0 22.4 24.9 27.3 29.8 32.2 1200 150 18.7 21.2 23-6 26. I 28.5 31.0 33.4 1300 16.3 . 20.0 22.5 24.9 27.4 , 29.8 32.3 34-7 1400 17.5 21.2 23-7 26. I 28.6 31.0 33.5 35-9 1500 18.8 22.5 25.0 27.4 29.9 32.8 34-7 37.2 POUNDS DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN TO B'J FURNISHED IN RATIONS. 800 .56 1.04 1.35 1.66 1.97 2. 29 2.60 2.91 900 .63 I . II 1.42 1.73 2.04 2.36 2.67 2.98 1000 .70 1. 18 1.49 1.80 2. II 2.43 2.74 3.0s IIOO .77 1.25 1.56 1.87 2.18 2.50 2.81 3.12 1200 .84 1.32 1.63 1.94 2.25 2.57 2.88 3.19 1300 .91 1.39 1.70 2.01 2.32 2.64 2.^5 3.26 1400 .98 1 .46 1.77 2.08 2.39 2.71 3.02 3-33 1500 1.05 1.53 1.84 2.15 2.46 2.78 3.09 3-40 POUNDS TOTAL DIGESTIBLE M.\TTER TO BE Fl RNISHED IN RATIONS. 800 6.3 9.0 10.7 12. 5 14.2 16.0 17.7 19. 5 900 7.1 9.8 11.5 13.3 15.0 16.8 18. 5 20.3 1000 7.9 10.6 12.3 14. I 15.8 17.6 19.3 21. 1 IIOO 8.7 II. 4 13-1 14.9 16.6 18.4 20. 1 21.9 1200 9.5 12.2 13-9 lS-7 17-4 19. 2 20.9 22.7 1300 10.3 13.0 14.7 16.5 18.2 20.0 21.7 23. S 1400 II. I 13.8 15.5 17.3 19.0 20.8 22.5 24.3 1500 II. 9 14.6 16.3 18. 1 19.8 21.6 23.3 25.1 20 AGRICULTURE. PRICES OF CEREALS PER BUSHEL. AND PER TON. Name. Wheat Corn, c^ 4-. "J u ui H5 Weig per Bus 4-1 cS Oh Price per (2000 lbs. $ $ 60 33-3 40 45 50 60 75 13-33 H5.00 16.67 20.00 25.00 I 00 33-33 56 35-7 30 35 40 45 50 10.71 12. 50 14.28 16.06 17-85 Name. Oats . . Rye ... Barley. 'eight per Bushel. u u :^ ti. a. lbs. $ 32 62.5 .18 20 •25 •30 .35 • 50 56 35-7 .40 . 50 48 41.7 .40 -50 .60 O (f> DUO 11.25 12.50 15-63 18.75 21.90 3«-25 14 28 17.85 16 68 20.83 25.02 VALUATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. The commercial value of protein, fat, and carbohydrates in concentrated feeding stuffs has been calculated from the average composition and market price of common feedinfj stuffs as follows: ,— Cost of one pound of-^ Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. In Germany. . .(1890) 3: 2: i (Konig, Wolff. Connecticut (1888) 1.6 cts. 4.2 cts. .96cts. (Jenkins.) " (1890)1.4 2.9 1.4 " Delaware. . .(1889)1.23 4-45 .52 (Penny.) Wisconsin . .(1891)1.5 3.6 .5 (Woll.) Indiana . . . .(1891) I.O 2.75 -63 (Huston.) New Jersey. (1891) .91 5-91 1. 12 (Voorhees.) Minnesota. •(1893)3-1 3-1 .24 (Hays.) Vermont. . .(1895)2.02 - .19 .91 (HiUsefa/.) FARM ANIMALS. 2i II. FARM ANIMALS. CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS OF LIVE STOCK. By the late Prof. J. A. Craig, formerly of Iowa Agricultural College. I. Light Horses. The Thoroughbred. — Leading characteristics: running speed (Salvator, 1:35!, holds the world's mile record), quality, stam- ina, and ambition. Common colors : brown, bay, chestnut. Distinctive features : refined appearance, lengthy neck, deep chest, long body, straight croup, long thighs and pasterns, dense bone, firm muscle, active temperament, rangy type standing 16 hands. Most common defects : light bodies, lengthy pasterns, long legs, irritable temperament. Bred principally for racing, which has given them endurance and spirit. They are suited for mating virith mares weighing 11 to 12 cwt., with the object of producing strong drivers or stylish carriage and saddle horses. The American Trotter. — Chief characteristics : speed at the trotting gait. World's record for one mile against time is that of Alix, 2:o3f. The type of the leading campaigners is that towards which the trotter is tending; it is that of a horse re- quired to have the endurance, ambition, and conformation to maintain trotting speed. Most general features: intelligent heads, light necks, low deep chests, oblique shoulders, long forearm, short cannons, round body rising slightly over loin, long croup and thighs, low hocks. Most common defects: undersize, deficiency in style, finish, and substance. Sphere: coacli or carriage horses, roadsters, and fotters. 22 AGRK'l^LTURE. Cleveland Bay. — Uniform in color, being bay with black points. They stand at least i6 hands and are horses of larger size and more power than those of most other breeds of light horses. Rough joints, coarse bone, and deficiency in actior are • their most common defects. Their size, power, and evenness I of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms, I but owing to the defects mentioned they are not as popular for breeding road and carriage horses as those of other breeds. French Coach. — Smooth, symmetrical, and generally of fine quality ; very graceful in movement, with high knee-action and 1 good back-action. Heads intelligent looking ; necks graceful, ' bodies snugly ribbed, and quarters muscular. As a rule, they are striking in appearance, being upstanding and high-headed. | Common colors: bay, brown, and black. Best suited for * breeding coach-horses with moderately fast and graceful action. Defects : coarseness and lack of prepotency in the stallions due to their mixed breeding. Hackney. — The typical hackney is a horse of extreme smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines. The head is light, neck muscular and curved, but free from heaviness ; shoulders smooth and laid well back; body circular, compact, short ; hips smooth ; quarters plump with muscle ; legs short, with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its grace- fulness and stylishness, being very high m the forelegs, and the hock movement is regular. Common colors : bay and brown. They are usually about 15,3 hands. Best suited for production of high-stepping cab and coach horses for city driving. II. Heavy Horses. Clydesdale. — Usual colors: bay, brown, black, or chestnut with white markings. The head is intelligent in features, but some- times out of proportion with the other parts. Shoulder excep- tionally good ; being sloping, it gives them a free, easy, and long stride in the walk or trot ; arm well-muscled, and legs clean and flat, with the fine and long feather springing from the edge ; pasterns sloping, easing the feet from concussion; FARM ANIMALS. 23 feet large and durable. The croup is muscular and the quarters especially heavily-muscled. Their combination of weight, quality, and action is exceptional in draught-horses. Shii'e. — The best type is low, broad, and stout. They are heavily built, muscular, with heavy bone and slow movement. The shoulder is usually too upright, making the action too short and stilted. The body is of large girth, deep and strongly coupled, with broad, short back and heavily-muscled quarters. Deficiencies : lack of quality, sluggish temperament, and limited action. In general they are heavier than the Clydesdale, though there is little difference between representa- tive animals. The best type is suitable for breeding the heaviest class of draught-horses adapted to slow work demand- ing strength and heavy weight. Percheron, — Types : the original gray in color, and the modern of black color. Most peculiar characteristics of the former were their action, style, endurance, and strength. They hatl intelligent heads, prominent chests, round bodies, large bone, inclined to roundness. The modern type is shorter- legged, more compact and stouter, but lacking the size of the original. The Percheron's excellencies are seen in their active temperament, intelligent heads, crested neck, deep body, and wide croup. Their deficiencies appear in defective legs, being light or round, straight pasterns, feet narrow at the hoof, heads and quarters lacking muscle. Best type adapted tor breeding energetic, quick-gaited, strong horses suited for draught work of light nature. Stiffolk. — Color uniform, being some shade of chestnut. They are low-set, short- legged, deep-bodied, muscular horses, with clean bone and durable feet ; decile, easy keepers, and steady when working. General deficiency: a lack of weight due to their smaller size in comparison with other draught-horses. Suited for general farm labor ; they are not the highest-priced horses on the market owing lo the demand for heavier weights- 24 AGRICULTURE. III. Beef Cattle.* Short-horns. — The three family types are: Bates, Booth, and Cruikshank. Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks, straight level backs, light bone, and combination of milk and beefing qualities. Booths are especially excellent in girth, wide backs, lengthy quarters, deep flesh, and beefing qualities, though lacking in finish and style. Cruikshanks, noted for scale ; low, broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, and mossy criats. The short- horn breed is specially noted for beef form, early maturity, and thrift under a variety of conditions. Their weakness in con- stitution and sterility is traceable to in-and-in breeding and artificial treatment. Their chief utility is to give beef form, quality, and rapid fattening tendencies to grades for stall feed- ing. Some families possess unequalled combination of beefing and milking qualities. Aberdeen Angus. — Characteristic color, black. Head, hornless ; neck free from loose skin, exceptionally good shoulder-vein ; shoulder oblique, fitting close to body ; ribs deep, very circular ; hips moderately far apart, smoothly curved ; rump long, level, smooth ; thighs muscular, twist low and full, quarters long and rounded. Type : cylindrical, dis- tinguished for smoothness, symmetry and quality ; bone light, hide mellow, and coated with fine black hair. They are pre- potent and prolific. Chief utility, production of beef of high quality. Hereford. — Most popular color, dark claret or cherry, with white face, belly, switch, and small strip of white on neck and over shoulder. Type: low-set and broad; heavy in fore- quarters, with low heads ; full, deep chest ; hanging dewlap, level lack, wide thick loin, full quarters and thin thighs. Worst deficiencies, looseness in build and rough, coarse bone. They are strong-constitutioned, active rangers, prepotent and long-lived. Being active, hardy, and good feeders they make good grazing cattle, and on that account havj been popular on ranches. Galloway. — Color black, no white admissible, except on * For description of breeds of dairy cattle, see Part II, Dairying. FARM AJNiiUivi.S ^^ udder or below underline. Type: thick, close to ground, and symmetrical ; hair long, wavy, and thick ; head large, horn- less, with no scurs ; neck strong, giving a burly appearance to forequarters ; shoulders snug, legs short and heavy, barrel round, tight-ribbed ; quarter long and smooth ; flesh even over all parts; hardiness and strength of constitution, strong feat- ures. Require more time to mature and yield larger percentage of 'offal than most other breeds. They are liked as ranch cattle, as they are hardy, hornless, and yield excellent beef and robes. IV. Fine-woolecl Sheep. Merino. — The two types include those wrinkled and those smooth in body. They are chiefly noted for the heavy weights of fine wool that they shear. The fleece is dense, even, ex- tending over all regions. The wool is bright, soft, fine, lustrous, and pure. They are hardy and strong in constitution, of a quiet disposition, and do well in large flocks. \. 3Iiittoii Sheep. Southdown. — Symmetrical, compact, close to the ground, and of fine quality ; head medium size, hornless ; forehead and face covered with wool, ears small, face brown or gray tint, neck short, breast broad, back and loin wide and straight, body deep, hips wide, twist full, fleece dense, and medium in length and fineness. The mutton is of high quality, and lambs mature early. They represent an exceptional combination of wool and mutton of fine quality. Shropshire. — Face and legs dark brown in color. They are symmetrical and stylish. Rams are required to weigh 225 lbs. in full flesh, and ewes 175 lbs. Head short, covered with wool, hornless; neck well attached, full; body circular, round ribbed; quarters lengthy, inclined to narrowness and slackness. The fleece dense, fibre strong, about three and one half inches in length. The ewes are prolific and kind nurses. They combine quality and quantity of wool and mutton in a high degree, and are adapted to conditions of general farming and rolling land. Hampshire. — Color of face dark brown or black; head large, nose prominent, neck regular, taper from head to shoulder; 26 AGRICULTUREo strong-boned ana lengthy. Especially noted for early develof ment of lambs. They are vigorous and prepotent. The wool is short, dense, strong, and slightly coarse. Suffolk. — Faces and legs deep black color. They are large sheep when mature ; lengthy and straight in form. Noted chiefly for prolificness and good milking and nursing qualities. A large percentage of lambs are reared in flocks of this breed; wool medium in quality and length. Oxford. — Face either brown or gray, and lengthy. When mature they are the heaviest of the Down breeds, being larger in size and heavier in bone. Their fleece js also heavier and the fibre longer, coarser, and more open than most others. Squarer in form than the Shropshires, and not so closely covered with wool. Adapted to strong land; respond readily to high feeding. Leicester. — Face bare and pure white, body square, straight^ forequarters exceptionally full, hindquarters rounded siightiy. Offal is light, bone fine, but fat too plentiful. The Border type is stronger boned, heavier, and more vigorous than the English. The Leicester has been extensively used for crossing on grades. Wool lustrous, five or six inches long, soft, but too frequently open and absent on the belly. Cotswold. — Face white or slightly mixed with gray. Form large, square, upstanding, and stylish. A tuft of wool grows from forehead; fleece open, long, and heavily yielding. Body long, level, and wide. The gray-faced strain is considered hardier than the white-faced. The popularity of the breed lies in the large yield of wool and of mutton, though the quality of both is deficient. Lincoln. — The largest of the long-wooled breeds. The wool is long and coarse, and especially lustrous. Square in form and, when mature, very heavy. The mutton lacks quality. Cheviot. — Face bare, white, hornless; wool fine, and the fleece dense and even. Mutton agreeably flavored and fine- grained. They are hardy, active, prolific, and the lambs come active. They clip about four pounds of fine wool. Adapted to rough and high pasturage. Dorset. — Face white ; rams and ewes horned. Type : long, round-bodied, and compactly built. Wool medium in length, fineness, and weight; average clip 6 pounds. Chief character- FARM ANIMALS. 27 istics: proHficness, hardiness, and breeding early, so as to drop lambs in winter. Highland. — Rams and ewes horned, face and legs black and white. Low and blocky in type ; fleece long, coarse. Their mutton has a superior flavor. Mountain breed hardy, active, and very strong of constitution. VI. Swine. Berkshire. — Color black, white on face, feet, tip of tail. Face short, dished; ears sharp-pointed, erect; jaws full, back broad, straight, full over shoulder ; loin thick, level ; hams excep- tionally full, legs short, strong, and straight. Sows prolific, good nurses. Active and vigorous in temperament. Poland- China. — Color dark, spotted, or black; head small, slightly dished; ears drooping, girth full, ribs well sprung, deep; nindquarters lengthy, though inclined to be drooping. They I'atten readily, reach heavy weights, and are quiet-dispositioned. Yorkshire. — White in color; separated into large, middle, and small varieties. The first-mentioned, are strong-boned, long- bodied, and deep-sided, and have mixed meat; middle or im- proved type, lighter in weight and bone, with smaller quantity of offal ; small variety, quick in maturing and compact in form. Chester- White. — White in color, strong-boned, vigorous, and attain to very heavy weights, though slow in maturing. Sows of good disposition and breeding qualities. Dtiroc- Jerseys. — Deep, cherry red in color, large size, good breeders, and liked in Southern countries because of ability to withstand heat. Victoria. — White in color with occasional black spots on skin; head small, face slightly dished ; skin free from scurf ; flesh of good quality and evenly laid over body. Yearling boars 3hould weigh not less than 300 lbs. Tamzvorth. — Red or dark brown color ; snout very long, body narrow, exceptionally deep and long in sides. Their form and the mixture of fat and lean in their flesh make them a special bacon hog. Essex. — Color black; type : small, compact, early ma-uring, and yielding a large percentage of edible meat. 28 AGRICULTURE. MARKET CLASSES OF FAR3I ANUMALS. A. — Horses. Drafters. — A typical draft horse, so considered in the market, should stand i6 hands or over; light draft horses range in height from 15.3 to 16.1 hands. Drafters should weigh 1600 lbs. and over in fair condition. Heavy weight in addition to desirable conformation, soundness, and action enhances value. Loggers. — Horses of this class are heavy drafters, possessed of weight, great power, and strength of bone, but blemished or slightly unsound so that they cannot be sold to advantage for use in the cities. Largely bought by lumbermen for use in the woods. Farm chunks. — These are usually of mixed draft blood, stand 15 hands or over and weigh 1 100-1500 lbs. General-purpose Horses. — These animals are not recognized as a standard market class, but form a large proportion of the entire number of horses marketed. They usually are serviceably sound and often of fair to good c[uality, but they lack the char- acteristics fitting a horse for a distinct market class. Expressers. — This class comprises active, light draft horses that are expected to do most of their work at a trot. The typical expresser stands 15.2 to 16 hands, and weighs 1350 to 1500 lbs. or over, according to the class of work to be done. They are commonly considered "draft horses with coach-horse finish." Bussers. — Horses of this class stand 15. i to 15.3 hands and | weigh 1 200-1 400 lbs. Their chief work is done at a trotting gait, hence they must be active, energetic, straight, and somewhat stylish in carriage and gait. Many go abroad to serve as '. * trammers." Artillery Horses. — In this class geldings are required. They should be uniform, of a hardy color, from 15 J to 16 hands high, quick and strong in action, well-bred, of a kind disposi- tion, square trotters, well broken to harness, gentle under saddle, with easy mouths and gait. They should weigh 1 100-1250 lbs. and be from 5 to 8 years old. I FARM AKIMALS. 29 Drivers. — The typical roadster should stand 15. i to 15.3 hands high and weigh 950 to 1150 lbs. His purpose is to draw a light buggy on the road at a fairly rapid rale of speed for a considerable length of time. He should be graceful in form and action sprightly, pleasing, straight, and smooth in all gaits, his disposition good, and his legs and feet sound. Standard Bred. — This class includes trotters and pacers eligible to record in the trotting register and possessed of notable speed, and breed prepotency in that direction. Coachers. — A typical coacher stands 15.2 to 16 hands and weighs iioo to 1250 lbs. He should have high knee action and corresponding high hock action that comes from breeding rather than artificial methods of development. He must move fairly fast with much gracefulness of carriage, possess fine quality, be beautifully molded in all of his curves, and carry his head and tail high. While heavier, smoother, and more compact than the roadster, he must be showy and stylish to carry fine harness and draw handsome equipages. Wagon Horses. — These are used for parcel-delivery- service by large department stores, etc. ; they are big overgrown coachers, stand 1 6. 1 hands and weigh 1250 lbs. Cobs. — A typical cob stands about 15. i, weighs 1000 to 1050 lbs., is more compact and blocky than the coacher, yet must have style and beauty in a marked degree. His action must be extremely high and "trappy." Saddlers. — These horses vary considerably in type, size, and weight, but are, as a rule, 15. i to 15.3 hands high and weigh 1000 to 1 150 lbs. They should have great style and quality, smooth conformation, natural and thoroughly trained saddle gaits, intelligent, clean-cut countenances, sloping pasterns and shoulders, moderately high and narrow withers, short strong- coupled backs, strong and muscular thighs, and well-carried heads and tails. "Walk, trot, and canter" saddlers have become popular of recent years and sell at high prices. (See Alexander, Bull. No. 127, Wisconsin Experiment Station; also Obrecht, Bull. No. 122. Illinois Exp. Station.) 30 AGRICULTURE. B. — Cattle. General Classes. 1. Beef Cattle. — This class includes all grades of fat steers and heifers; also everything from common to prime and from light to heavy. It is finished condition that brings animals into this class. 2. Butcher Stock. — This class includes animals that have not fattened vs^ell; also animals that have not been fed long enough to become properly fattened. It seldom includes steers of really good quality, as such will usually be sold as feeders. The bulk of butcher stock is made up of cows and heifers. 3. Cutters and Canners. — In this class are included old thin cows and very thin bulls, steers, and heifers. The cutters must carry sufficient flesh to permit of the loin or rib or both being used for cutting on the block. Those animals which are so thin that no part of the carcass can be used for block purposes con- stitute the canners. 4. Stackers and Feeders. — This class includer calves, yearlings, two- year -olds, and older cattle. Cattle 18 months old or older, \\hich are ready for immediate use in the feed lot, are called feeders. Those which are younger are referred to as stockers. 5. Veal Calves. — This includes all calves which are sold for immediate slaughter. Special Classes. In addition to the preceding general classes, a number of special classes axe generally recognized and require to be named and defined. I Texas and Western Range Cattle. — A few years ago the typical Texas steer had very long horns and legs, was thin and narrow bodied, and carried a large deep brand, and most of the cattle which came from Texas were of this description. But this t)^e is rapidly disappearing. Animals of the best beef breeds have been imported into the State and used for breeding purposes, especially for crossing v^th the native stock, so that new many of the Texas cattle compare favorably with those liom other sections of the country. There is, however, a wide range between the best r.nd ihc poorest. FARM AN^IMALS. 31 The Western range cattle are classed with the Texas cattle, because foraierly they were made up largely of Southern cattle which were driven northward to winter on the ranges north of the quarantine line. Now, however, a large percentage of the animals in this class are bred on the ranges of the West and Northwest. All the cattle in this class are branded. 2. Distillers. — These are cattle that have been fattened on the by-products of distilleries. Formerly only inferior grades of cattle were purchased for feeding on distillery residues, but at present many feeders of better grades are used. When sent to market these cattle are preferred to many of the same grade, because they dress out a higher percentage of beef. 3. Bahy Beef. — This term applies to choice or prime fat steers between i and 2 years old, weighing from 800 to 1000 lbs. 4. Export Cattle. — The cattle exported are in the main good to choice steers, weighing from 1200 to 1500 lbs. Comparatively lew prime beef steers are brought for export, because of the high price they bring in the home market. 5. Shipping Steers. — This term applies to the animals pur- chased in the Western markets for shipment to the large Eastern markets of the United States. They are mainly of medium and good grades, and range in weight from 1150 to 1600 lbs. 6. Dressed Beef Cattle. — This class includes such cattle as are purchased by the large packing firms of the Middle West. The packers prefer medium to choice steers, weighing from 1200 to 1400 lbs., to make up the bulk of their purchases, but conditions of supply and demand cause them to purchase animals of a much wider range in grade and weight, the extreme range in weight being from 800 to 1700 lbs. 7. Stags. — This class includes such animals as have reached or at least approached maturity before castration and hence have the general conformation of bulls. Comparatively few of these come to the general markets, and they are of a wide range in quality, condition, and weight. A few are good enough for export, while the poorest must be sold for canners. (See Mum- ford, Bull. No. 78, Illinois Experiment Station, also Plumb, Marketing Live Stock, Farmers' Bull. No. 184.) 33 AGRICULTURE. C. — Sheep. The market classification of sheep varies considerably in the different markets of our country. Ordinarily they are, however, classed as follows' Western wethers, ewes, yearlings, and lambs, and native wethers, ewes, and lambs. These terms are seK- explanatory. Western sheep are from the ranges of Montana, Wyoming, and other States beyond the Mississippi, and are strongly impregnated with merino blood. They lack the middle wool or mutton characteristics of sheep from States east of the Mississippi. Western sheep and lambs weigh lighter and dress out less fat than Eastern stock. The various classes are graded on a range of quality, from common to choice or extra prime. (See Plumb, Farmers' Bull. No. 184, and Coffee, Bull. No. 129, I.!. Exp, Station.) D. — ^Swinc. Prime Heavy Hogs. — These are prime heavy fat-back hogs, weighing 350-500 lbs., the extreme of the fat or lard hog. Prime implies marked evidence of ripeness and maturity. Butcher Hogs are principally barrows; they are used for the fresh-meat trade; about 25 per cent, of the hogs coming to Chicago are of this class; they range in age, with good care and feeding, from about 6 months for the light butchers to one year for the heavy ones. They are subdivided into heavy, 280-350 lbs.; medium, 220-280 lbs.; and light butchers, 180-220 lbs. The heavy butchers include prime and good grades, and the two latter subclasses, prime, good, and common grades. Packing Hogs. — These are, as a whole, of a poorer grade than the butcher hogs. They include old brood sows, and all other hogs that are heavy enough for this class and not good enough for the butcher class, except the poorer classes, such as roughs, boars, and coarse stags. About 40 per cent of the hogs on the Chicago market are of this class. They range in age upwards to about 9 months and weigh in the three subclasses, 200-280, 250-300, and 300-500 lbs., each of these being graded as good, common, or inferior stock. Light Hogs.-'This class includes all hogs within the weight limits of 125 and 220 lbs., except roughs, stags, and boars, which FARM AKIMALS. 33 form separate classes. About 15 per cent of the hogs on the Chicago market belong here. They range in age from 5 to 8 months, and vary considerably in form, quality, a"nd condition, hence the subclasses are of more importance than in the preced- ing classes. Bacon Hogs are used for the production of bacon, which is pork that has been salted and then smoked. English bacon hogs weigh 160-220 lbs. and United States, 155-195 lbs. The latter are graded as choice, good, and common. Light 'Mixed Hogs. — This is a somewhat miscellaneous class, comprising about 55 per cent of the Hght hogs on the Chicago market. This class is the "dumping ground" for the outcasts of the two former classes of hogs. They range in age from 5 to 7 months, and weigh 150 to 220 lbs. They are principally used for the fresh-meat trade. Light Light Hogs. — Hogs in this class range in weight from 125 to 150 lbs., and in age from 5 to 6 months. About 25 per cent of the light hogs on the Chicago market belongs to this dass and are used mainly for the fresh-meat trade. This and the preceding subclass include hogs of good, common, and inferior grades. Pigs range in weight from 60 to 125 lbs., and in age from 3I to 6 months. They are choice, good, or common pigs in proportion to t'. eir approach to the ideal of a fat hog. Roughs. — This class includes hogs of all sizes that are coarse, rough, and lacking in condition. The pork from these hogs is used for the c.eaper trade for both packing and fresli-meat purposes. Stags. — These are hogs that were boars beyond the pig stage and have been subsequen^^ly castrated. They sell with a dockage of 80 lbs. According to Iheir freedom from stagginess and their quality and condition, these hogs are sold in the class with the various grades of packing hogs or with boars. Boars. — These are always sold in a class by themselves, and bring from two to three dollars per cwt. less than the best hogs on the market at the same time. The pork from these hogs is used to supply the cheaper class of trade and also for making sausage. 34 AGKICULTURE. Miscellaneous Classes: Roasting Pigs. — Three to six weeks old and weighing 15 to 30 lbs. T. ey come to market in small numbers and only during the holiday season. They are usually of a very uniform grade and command prices ranging from those paid regular live hogs to that paid for poultry. Feeders. — These are hogs that are bought on the market and taken back to the country to be further fed. This class is of but small importance, as this practice of feeding is followed only to a very small extent. Governments. — -These are hogs that are not considered sound in every respect by the Government inspectors, and are retained for further inspection. They are usually bought by local dealers and taken to one of the smaller packing houses, wheie they are slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector. If their flesh is found unfit for human food, they are tanked and used for fertilizers. Pen Holders are long-legged hogs of poor form, coarse in quality, and much lacking in condition, kept at the stock yards simply for the purpose of holding pens for commission men. Dead Hogs. — These are hogs killed in transit, and are used for the manufacture of grease, soap, and fertilizers. If they weigh 100 lbs. or over, they sell for 75 cents per cwt.; if less, they furnish no revenue to the producer or shipper, the cost of handling them being held equal to their value. (See Dietrich, Bull. No. 97, Illinois Experiment Station.) FARM AKIMALS. 35 TABLE FOR ESTIMATING LIVE WEIGHT OF CATTLE. (Whitcher.) Girth in Feet and Store Cattle. Medium Fat. Inches. Fair Shape. Good Shape. Fair Shape. Good Shape. Ft. In. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 5 o 650 700 700 750 S I 675 72s 72s 775 5 2 700 750 750 800 S 3 725 775 775 825 5 4 750 800 800 850 5 5 775 825 825 87s 5 6 800 850 850 900 5 7 825 875 875 92s S 8 850 900 900 950 5 9 875 925 925 975 5 lo 900 950 950 1000 5 11 92s 975 975 1025 6 o 950 1000 1000 1050 6 I 1000 1050 1050 IIOO 6 2 1050 IIOO 1 100 1150 6 3 IIOO 1150 1150 1200 6 4 II 50 1200 1200 1250 6 S 1200 1250 1250 1300 6 6 1250 1300 1300 1350 6 7 1300 1350 1350 1400 6 8 1350 1400 1400 1450 6 9 1400 1450 1450 1500 6 lo 1450 1500 1500 155° 6 II 1500 1550 1550 1600 7 o 1550 1600 1600 1650 7 I 1600 1650 1650 1700 7 2 1650 1700 1700 1750 7 3 1700 1750 1750 1800 7 4 1750 1800 1800 1850 7 5 1800 1850 1850 1900 7 6 1850 1900 1900 1950 36 AGRICULTURE. DETERMINATION OF THE AGE OF FARM ANIMALS BY THEIR TEETH. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) Horse. — The horse has 24 temporary teeth. The male has 40 permanent teeth, the female 36 or 40. The smaller number is more usual in females, due to the lack of the tusks. The temporary teeth consist of 12 incisors and 12 molars; the 4 center front teeth, 2 above and 2 below, arc called pinchers ; the next 4 are called intermediate or lateral, and the next 4 corner teeth. The permanent teeth consist of 12 incisors, 4 tusks, and 24 molars. The dental star is a yellowish ring appearing next the enamel on the table or crown of the tooth. The following table shows approxi- mately the changes of the teeth with age : 3 to 10 days: Temporary pinchers and 3 molars cut. 40 to 60 days : Temporary intermediates or laterals cut. 6 to 9 months : Temporary corner teeth cut. 19 to 25 months : Leveling of temporary corner teeth. 2^ to 3 years: Pinchers replaced by permanent teeth. 3^ to 4 years : Intermediates or laterals replaced. 4 to 4| years : Tusks cut. A\ to 5 years : Corner teeth replaced. 5 to 6 years : Leveling of lower pinchers. 7 years : Leveling of permanent intermediates. 8 years : Dental star and notches in pinchers. 9 years : Dental star in intermediates. I© years : Dental star in corner teeth. Cattle. — Cattle have 20 temporary and 32 permanent teeth. The temporary are 8 incisors in the lower jaw and 12 molars. The permanent teeth are 8 incisors and 24 molars. Cattle have no incisors in the upper jaw. The table for cattle is as follows : At birth : Temporary incisors appear. 5 to 6 months : Teeth decayed on border. 6 to 7 months : Leveling of pinchers. 12 months : Leveling of first intermediates. 15 months : Leveling of the second intermediates. 18 months : Intermediate incisors become stumps. PARM ANIMALS. 37 2 years : Permanent pinchers cut. 2| to 3 years : Permanent first intermediates cut. 3^ years : Second intermediates or laterals cut. 4 years : Corner teeth replaced. 5 to 6 years : Leveling of permanent pinchers. 7 years : Leveling of first intermediates. 8 years : Leveling of second intermediates. 9 years : Leveling of corner teeth. 10 to 12 years: Dental star in pinchers and intermediates. 13 years : Dental star in corner teeth. Sheep. — Sheep have 20 temporary and 32 permanent teeth. The table for changes is as follows : 1 month : Milk incisors appear. 3 months : Milk incisors decayed on border. 15 months : Permanent incisors cut. 2 years : First permanent intermediates cut. 33 months : Second permanent intermediates cut. 40 months : Corner teeth cut. Hogs. — Hogs have 28 temporary and 44 permanent teeth. The table for changes is as follows : At birth : Temporary corner incisors cut. I to 2 months : Temporary central incisors cut. 3 months : Temporary lateral incisors cut. 9 to 12 months : Permanent corner incisors cut. 12 to 15 months : Permanent central incisors cut. 18 to 20 months : Permanent lateral incisors cut. S8 AGRICULTURE. BODY TEMPERATURE OF FARM ANIMALS. (Dammann.) Deg. F. Horse gg.5-101.3 Cattle 100.4-103. 1 Sheep 101.3-105.8 Deg. F. Swine loi. 3-104.0 Dog 99.5-103.1 The temperature is greater after exercise than after rest, and in the evening, as a rule, 0.2-1.1° F. higher than in the morning. DURATION AND FREQUENCY OF HEAT IN FARM ANIMALS. (Wolff.) In Heat for If not Impreg- nated, Heat will Recur after After Coming In, Heat will Recur after Mares ...... Cows Ewes 5-7 days 2-4 3-4 weeks 3-4 " 17-28 days 9-12 " 5-9 days 21-28 '* 7 months 4-5 weeks* Sows * 8-9 weeks at the latest. PERIOD OF INCUBATION OF POULTRY. Name of Fowl. Days. Name of Fowl. Days. Common hen 21 25 28 28 25 Goose Partridge Duck, Barbary Turkey 30 24 Duck, common 30 28 1 FARM ANIMALS, 39 GESTATION CALENDAR. Average Gestation Period. Mares, \^Yi weeks (340 days, extremes 307 and 412 days). Cows, 40^ *' (283 " " 240 " 311 " ). Etves, 22 " (150 " " 146 " 157 " ). S01VS, t6 " (112 " " 109 " 143 " ). Time of Marcs. Cows, Ewes, Sows, Service. 340 Days. 283 Days. 150 Days. 112 Days. Jan. I Dec. 6 Oct. 10 May 30 April 22 t> 6 " II 15 June 4 " 27 " II " 16 " 20 9 May 2 ti 16 " 21 !! "5 " 14 :: 7 (t 21 " 26 J: 30 1! '9 12 (fc 26 " 31 Nov. 4 " 24 " 17 *' 31 Jan. 5 9 " 29 " 22 Feb. 5 " 10 " 14 July 4 t" '7 (I 10 " 15 " 19 9 June I " 15 " 20 " 24 !! ^^ 6 (( 20 " 25 " ^9 " 19 " II ti 25 " 30 Dec. 4 " 24 " 16 Mar. 2 Feb. 4 9 " 29 " 31 " 7 9 " 14 Aug. 3 " 26 (( 12 " 14 " 19 8 July I it 17 1! '9 1 "^ " 13 6 i ( 22 " 24 29 " 18 " II ii 27 Mar. I Jan. 3 " 23 '* 16 April I 6 8 " 28 " 21 6 " II " 13 Sept. 2 " 26 ti II " 16 " 18 7 " 31 «i 16 " 21 " 23 " 12 Aug. 5 ti 21 " 26 " 28 " 17 " 10 it 26 " 31 Feb. 2 " 22 " IS May I April 5 '' 7 ^" ^7 " 20 " 6 *' 10 " 12 Oct. 2 " 26 t< II " 15 " 17 7 30 it 16 " 20 " 22 " 12 Sept. 4 it 21 " 25 " 27 " 17 9 it 26 " 30 Mar. 4 " 22 " 14 it 31 May 5 9 " 27 " 19 Tune .■; " 10 " 14 Nov. I " 24 it 10 " 15 " 19 6 " 29 it 15 " 20 " 24 " II Oct. 4 it 20 " 25 " 29 " 16 " 9 ti 25 " 30 April 3 " 21 :: ^* it 30 June 4 8 " 26 " 19 July 5 :: 9 :: ^3 Dec. I - 24 it 10 " 14 " 18 6 " 29 it 15 " 19 " 23 " II Nov. 3 it 20 " 24 " 28 " 16 8 40 AGRICULTURE. GESTATION CALENDAR.— ( Continued.) Time Serv of ce. Mares, 340 Days. Cows, 283 Days. Ewes, 150 Days. Sows, 112 Days. July 25 30 June 29 July 4 May 3 8 Dec. 21 " 26 Nov. 13 " 18 Aug. 4 9 " 9 14 " 13 •' 18 " 23 Jan. 5 " 10 " 23 " 28 Dec. 3 4 33 8-9 4 q^ 4 mM 27^2 7-10 5 4^2 4 M ^7^ 6- 9 S 4 3 12 24 5- 6 3 IS^ 2 7% 2o}4 4- 5 2 3V^ 2 7^ 19^ 3^-4 I 15% 2 7^ 26 6- 7 3 7 2 ioJ4 29^ 6- 7 3 5H 2 9% 27 7-10 4 14% 5 iJ4 22 5- 6 3 i,S^ 2 10J4 281/« 5^-7 27»/« 6-7^ 29 6 3 4^ 2 12 25 5^-7 O W5 Q 63^ 9V^ 17^ 7^ 6% 4^ 6% HEREDITY. By Prof. Thos. Shaw, formerly of Minnesota Experiment Station. Heredity in breeding relates to transmission. It is doubtless governed by fixed laws, but many of these are as yet imperfectly understood. It may be defined as the outcome of the operation of that law whereby properties and qualities of like kind with those of the parents are transmitted to the offspring. This transmission is cer- tainly comprehensive in its character, since it relates to structure, function and qualities, and indeed to every feature of the organization. But in instances not a few there are apparent exceptions to this law of transmission. These, however, are apparent rather than real. They appear to us as exceptions because of the limitations of our knowledge of this great question. These supposed exceptions are doubtless the result of the predominant in- fluence of other laws acting in opposition to the hereditary tendency, and it is characterized as normal, abnormal, and acquired, according to its nature. FARM ANIMALS. 49 The heredity of normal characters means the transmis- sion of those characters which are natural to the type. These may be original traits bestowed upon the species, as for instance, timidity in sheep; or they may have been acquired and rendered permanent by long-continued trans- mission, as in the changed form of all the improved breeds of domestic animals. The heredity of abnormal characters means the transmission of irregular characters, or those which have deviated from the natural and acquired char- acteristics of the type. These abnormal characters may appear as malformations of structure, derangement of function, or they may assume one or the other of various forms of disease. Illustrations of the first are found in certain families wnth an irregular number of fingers and toes; of the second in the inheritance of deafness, dumb- ness and impaired vision; and of the third, in the reap- pearance in the offspring of certain diseases possessed by the parents, as, for instance, any of the forms of scrofula The laws which govern heredity are those also which determine the results in practical breeding. In practice the rules which govern it are almost entirely empirical in their origin, since they have been almost exclusively de- rived from the accepted methods of the most successful breeders. Those who have given thought to the question will concede that breeding live-stock is at once a science and an art. They will see in it a science in so far as it discovers and systematically arranges those truths and principles which relate to the improvement of live-stock, and it will appear to them an art in so far as they perceive that those principles can be successfully utilized in prac- tice. It is apparent therefore that the relation between the science and the art of breeding is both close and intimate. Without some knowlege of the former the latter is not likely to be successfully practised, and the measure of success which attends the efforts of the breeder will be largely proportionate to the measure of the knowledge which he may possess of the principles of heredity. Reference has been made to certain laws which govern transmission. Of these three may be considered as funda- 50" AGRlCLL'i ( RE. mental, viz.: first, the law that "like begets like"; sec- ond, the law or principle of variation; and third, the law or princi pie k nown as atavism. Since these laws or prin- ciples appear to us to lack uniformity and regularity of action, the art of breeding is in consequence much more complicated and uncertain than it would otherwise be. This want of uniformity and of regularity of action, how- ever, is apparent rather than real. But so long as we are ignorant of the cause or causes of these apparent irregu- larities in transmission, we are unable to prevent them. And yet there is so much of uniformity in the action of these laws that the intelligent breeder cannot be said to play at a game of chance. If well posted in the art, his efforts will in the main be entirely successful. The law that " ///v hegets like'" implies that the char- acteristics of the parents will appear in their offspring. This law would seem to pervade all animated nature ; generally speaking it is uniform in its action, but there are some exceptions. Were it not so, examples to illus- trate such a law of heredity and proofs to support it would not have been needed. That the existence of this law was recognized, and that many of its principles were well un- derstood from an early period, finds ample illustration in the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch Jatob, in the monstrous forms that were bred for the amusement of the Romans when the decline of the empire was pend- ing, and in the care with which the Arabs kept their pedi- grees from a remote antiquity. So uniform is this principle of heredity in its action that it may be designated the compass which guides the breeder into the harbor of success. But before he can anchor there he must give attention to certain principles, a close adher- ence to which is absolutely essential to higher attainment in results. He must, for instance, breed to a standard of excellence; he must set a proper value on improved blood; and he must understand the art of selection and the princi- ples of good management generally. Without a standard of excellence in his mind, that is, without an ideal type, the breeder does not himself know what he is seeking. FARM ANIMALS. 51 Without dominant or stable characters, in at least one par- ent, no stability in transmission can be looked for, and without purity of breeding for generations dominant char- acters cannot be secured. Hence the great importance of purity of blood in effecting improvement in domestic ani- mals. Since some inferior animals will occasionally ap- pear, even where the breeding is the most skilful, the necessity will always exist for the exercise of a most rigor- ous selection on the part of every breeder who is to stand on the-upland of success. When aided by judicious selec- tion, the law that like produces like enables us to effect improvement until a certain standard of excellence is reached, to maintain improvement when it has been secured, and to mould new types and form new breeds. By the law or principle of variation is meant the ten- dency sometimes found in animals to produce characters in the progeny which differ from those of the parental type. These changes relate to both form and function; in time they may become modifications of the systems of animals. They may be classed as gradual, or general and ordinary ; and as sudden, or spontaneous and extraordinary. General variation is that tendency to change from the original type which characterizes in a greater or a less de- gree all the individuals of a breed. Illustrations of the principle of general variation may be found, first, in the tendency of grain to deteriorate which has fallen upon an unkindly soil ; and second, in the quick deterioration of the heavy breeds of sheep when confined to unproductive and rugged pastures. Chief among the numerous causes leading to general variation are changed conditions of life in animals, as climate, food, habit, and environment. Some- times these influences act independently and sometimes in conjunction. The principle of spontaneous variation may be defined as that tendency sometimes found in animals to produce progeny more or less unlike either of the parents or the ancestry of these. Illustrations of the operation of this principle may be found in the occasional production of progeny very unlike the parents or the ancestry in color, form, and other characteristics, and in the existence of horn- /ess breeds of cattle. 52 AGRICULTURE. By atavism is meant that innate tendency in animals to revert to the original type. It differs from the principle that like produces like in the reproduction of resemblances to an ancestry more or less remote rather than to the par- ents, and differs from spontaneous variation in produc- ing resemblances to an ancestry more remote than the im- mediate parents, whereas the latter produces characters unlike those of the ancestry, whether near or remote. Il- lustrations of atavic transmission are found in the occa- sional apearance of scars or horns in the polled breeds of cattle bred pure for many successive generations, and in the occasional appearance of tan-colored spots on the ears and face of the American merino. It is evident, therefore, that an intimate knowledge of the principles which govern breeding is highly important to those engaged in the production of live-stock. Hence they should study these with the utmost care and should em- body them in their practice to the greatest possible extent. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 53 III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS. By W, G. Ci.ARK, M.D.C.. Marinette. Wis. I. HORSES. The common method of administenng medicine to the horse is in the form of a. drench. In drenching a horse the bottle should be clean, strong, and smooth. The head should be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid from the mouth. If the animal refuses to swallow, tickle the roof of the mouth with the finger or the neck of the bottle. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw the tongue out. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and often do harm. If coughing occurs or by any mishap the bottle is crushed in the mouth, lower the head at once. Do not attempt to pour medicine through the nose; it is liable to strangle the animal. Irritating substances, as turpentine, should be given in bland fluids such as oil or milk. Warm-water injections are of great value in treating many bowel troubles. A very good injection pipe may be made with about 30 inches of inch rubber hose and an ordinary tin funnel. Oil the hose and insert it in the rectum from 12 to 18 inches, and elevate the funnel above the back and pour in the water. The force of gravitation will carry it into the bowels. Soap and water, or salt and water, may be injected in this manner m quantitities of a gallon or more every hour. Spasmodic Colic. Causes. — Error in diet is the most prolific cause, as improper food in improper quantities at irregular intervals ; large draughts of cold water when warm ; eating when exhausted ; intestinal parasites; or foreign bodies in the bowels. Symptoms. — The horse manifests uneasiness, moves forward and back in the stall, looks toward the flank, switches the tail, paws, lies down and rolls; after a little the spasm will subside and the animal become quiet. Soon the spasm returns with 54 AGRICULTURE. Increased severity. As the disease progresses, the animal will become more violent and the intervals between the spasms shorter. Treatment. — Always urgent, as it often runs a rapid course, terminating fatally in a few hours. Give as a drench laudanum i oz., baking-soda one table- spoonful, sweet spts. nitre i oz., water one half-pint. This may be repeated in half an hour i( noi relieved. Always give injections of soap and warm water. Blanket the ani- mal and rub the abdomen briskly. If inclined to hang on, apply a paste of mustard to the abdomen and give raw lin- seed oil I pt., chloral hydrate 4 dr., dissolved in warm water. Flatulent Colic. The causes and symptoms are similar to those of spas- modic colic. The pain is not so severe at the outset and gradually in- creases in severity as the bowels become distended by gas. No intervals of ease as in spasmodic colic. The abdomen becomes rapidly distended and the animal dies from suffo-^ cation or rupture of the bowels unless soon relieved. Treatment. — Usually necessary to puncture vvith a tro- car and canula, which requires a knowledge of the anat- omy of the parts. Internally give hyposulfite of soda 2 oz., fl. ex. ginger 4 dr., spts. turpentine 4 dr., water i pint. Repeat in half an hour if necessary. Give injection of soap and warm water at short intervals. Pneumonia — Lung F^ever. The most common cause is exposure to a cold draught when tired and sweaty. Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in with a chill, fol- lowed by fever. The ears and legs' are cold, pulse-rate in- creased, labored breathing, elbows turned out, increased working of the ribs, the animal persistently stands, appe- tite usually lost. Treatment. — Place in a comfortable well-ventilated box- stall. Blanket warmly, rub the legs and apply bandages. VETEki.^ARY SCIENCE. OJ During the chill give large doses of stimulants, as whisky, alcohol, ginger, etc., at short intervals. [f the breathing is not relieved in a few hours, apply mus- tard over the ribs, just back of the shoulder-blades. Give nourishing, easily digested food. Keep the animal perfectly quiet. Give ^-oz. doses of nitrate of potash in the drinking-water three times daily. After the chill is relieved keep a pail of fresh wa,ter before the animal at all tinaes. Azotiiria — Black- water. This disease is quite common among farm horses, and is due solely to overfeeding on nitrogenous foods and lack of exercise, followed by the accumulation in the sys- tem of waste matters. Symptoms. — The animal is taken from the barn after a few days' rest on full rations, apparently as well as usual. After driving from half a mile to six or eight miles the hcrse will begin to lag and sweat profusely. Shortly will begin to go lame, usually in one hind limb. If urged on, will soon lose the use of the limbs and fall to thi^ ground, unable to rise. The urine if passed will be dark and coffeecolored. This is a diagnos- tic symptom. The muscles over the hips become hard and swollen, and the animal will struggle convulsively and attempt to rise. Treatment. — Unhitch the animal as soon as the first symp- toms are noticed and take the horse to the nearest barn. Fold a woolen blanket and wring out of hot water and place over the hips, covering with a dry blanket. Repeat as soon as it becomes cool, and continue this until the more acute symptoms are re lieved. internally give laudanum i oz., raw linseed oil one pint, and repeat the laudanum in an hour if the pain is not relieved. It possible, the urine should be drawn with a catheter, as it is rarely passed when the animal is down. Give injections of soapy warm water at 'requent intervals. Distemper — Strangles. This is a contagious disease due to a specific virus that very few horses escape. It usually runs a benign course and termi nates favorably. 50 AGRICULTURE, Treatment. —It Is not of much use to attempt to check the course of the disease; in all cases proper shelter and nursing are most important. Give laxative sloppy food and apply warm poultices to the throat, to hasten suppuraiion. In no case give purging or de- pressing medicines. In fact, the whole treatment consists in producing and favoring the discharge of the abscess. As soon as fluctuation can be detected the abscess should be opened. When the disease assumes the malignant form or is complicated, apply to a competent veterinarian. Sprains. Treatment. — Rest in a quiet well-bedded stall. If the injury is below the knee or hock and the weather is warm, bathe the part three times daily for an hour at a time with cold water and rub dry. If above the knee or hock, or the weather is cold, use hot water. After bathing apply a mild stimulant, as spirits of camphor, arnica, etc. If the lameness persists after the active inflammation is re^ duced use the following liniment: aqua ammonia and spirits turpentine, 4 oz. ; of each linseed oil 8 oz. ; mix and apply twice daily with friction. Punctured Wounds of the Foot. In all cases the horn around the seat of the injury should be thinned down and a free opening made for the escape of the products of suppuration. Cauterize the wound with 95 per cent carbolic acid and apply a poultice. Change twice daily and dress the wound with the following lotion: Zinc sulph, I oz., sugar lead i oz., carbolic acid 4 dr., water i pint. Thrush* The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of the stable in which the horse is kept. Muddy yards and roads, also hard work on rough, stony roads may excite this disease. Symptoms. — Increased secretion in the cleft of the frog and an offensive odor. After a time considerable discharge takes place and there is rapid destruction of the tissue of the frog. Treatment. — Remove the cause. Cut away all diseased tissue and cleanse the foot thoroughly. Take white vitriol I oz., and water 6 ozs. Saturate pledgets of tow or cotton with the solu- tion and crowd into the cleft and each side of the frog. Dresj* once daily until the 'lif^^'^'^rffe ceases. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 57 Cuts ft"oin Barb-wire, etc. When bleeding to any extent follows a wound, this must first be checked. A moderately tight bandage with oakum, tow, or cobwebs will usually stop the bleeding in a short time. If the blood is bright red and flows in jets, apply a compress between the wound and the heart. If it is dark and the flow regular, apply pressure between the wound and the extremity. Cleanse the wound thoroughly with warm water and a soft sponge. Then dress with a 3 per cent solution of carbolic acid and apply a bandage so as to bring the edges together. If proud flesh appears, treat it with burnt alum. II. COWS. Milk Fever. Symptoms. — Dulness, uneasy movements of the hind limbs, head and horns hot; the animal soon becomes weak and unable to rise, head laid back on the flank or dashed to the ground, bowels constipatc<^, sensation usually lost. Treatment. — Air treatment properly administered under antiseptic conditions has practically removed the danger of this disease. The necessary apparatus, which costs $2 to $3, can be purchased of veterinary instrument dealers or dairy-supply houses. Directions for use accompany the apparatus. Prevention. — Do not milk the udder dry at any time for the first few days after calving, withdrawing a portion of the milk at intervals of 4 to 5 hours to relieve distention of the udder. Give a spare diet for a week before and after calving. If con- stipated after delivery, give a purgative dose of salts. Garget. Causes. — Irregularities of diet, overfeeding on stimulat- ing food, exposure to cold, external injuries, as blows, etc. Symptoms. — Seldom attacks the whole udder. Swelling, heat, pain, and redness of the inflamed portion. The milk is curdled, whey-like, and mixed with blood. In severe cases there is much constitutional disturbance. Treatment. — Endeavor to discover the cause and remove it. The food should be devoid of milk-producing constitu- ents. Draw the milk frequently, using a milking-tube if 58 AGRICULTURE. neces.snry. If the weather is wiirm, bathe the udder for an hour or more with hot water. Tiike fluid extract belladonna i oz. , glycerin 2 oz.; mix and apply three times daily with mild friction. Give two teaspoon- tuls fluici extract belladonna three times daily. If constipated, give Epsom salts i lb., ginger I oz., water i qt. Abortion. The cow may abort from any cause profoundly disturbing the nervous system, inflammation of the internal organs, diarrhoea, acute indigestion, blows on the- abdomen, expos- ure to cold storms, drinking ice-water, feeding on ergotized grains and grasses, and infection from abortion discharges of other animals. Symptoms. — If it occurs within the first two months it is not apt to be noticed. During the latter part of gestation abortion resembles normal delivery, except that more effort and straining are present. Treatment. — ^The most important object in an impending abortion is to recognize it as soon as possible and applj; preventive measures. Place in a quiet dark stall and check straining by sedatives. Laudanum i oz.; repeat in twf» hours if necessary; or fl. ex. black haw. in same doses. After an abortion burn the foetus and afterbirth and all fitter that is soiled, or bury deeply and cover with quick- lime. Flood tne womb with a 2% solution of carbolic acid and wash the external organs once daily with a 5^ solution. Separate from the herd for 30 days. In epizootic abortion material benefit has in many cases been derived from phosphate of lime. Small doses (-| dram) mav be given daily in the food. Hoven or Bloat. Causes. — Overeating, choking, frosted roots, and fermen- tation of the food. Treatment. — In urgent cases tap on the left side at a point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last rib and the processes of the lumbar vertebrae, pointing the trocar VETERIN^AEY SCIENCE. 59 or knife downward, inward, and forward. If slight give spts. turpentine i oz., raw linseed oil ^ pt., and place a gag in the mouth. When relieved give a purgative and keep on a light diet for a few days. Diarrhoea In Calves. Always d^ie to indigestion and caused usually by over- feeding or improper food. Prevention. — Feed at least three times daily. The milk should be sweet and fed at a temperature of 90° to 100° F. The pails used in feeding should be kept sweet and clean. Treatment. — Cut down the ration, scald the milk or add lime-water in the proportion of i to 5. If the discharges are bright yellow give castor oil i to 2 tablespoonfuls. If there is great weakness give small doses of stimulants (ginger, brandy, whisky). Choking. Common among cattle when fed on roots, etc. To pre- vent tie the head so that it cannot be thrown up, or withhold dangerous foods. Symptoms. — Head extended, bloating, labored breathing, continuous coughing. If in the throat there is great distress and the animal may die quickly. If lower the symptoms are not as acute. Treatment. — If in the throat remove with the hand. If below reach and the object can be located from the outside, give small drenches of linseed oil and manipulate from the outside. Take time. Do not apply too much force. Usu- ally best to work the object toward the throat. If unable to remove the object it must be pushed down; this may be done with a piece of i-in. rubber-hose, 6 ft. in length, well oiled, and inserted in the gullet, and gently force the object down. Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the formation in the various organs of the body of tubercles or GO AGRICULTURE. nodules, and is due to a specific micro-organism, the bacillus tuberculosis. Tuberculosis in animals is identical with tuberculosis (consumption) in the human family, the ravages of which are far greater than those of any other disease. The death rate from consumption, which is but one of its many forms, is about one in seven. All domestic animals are more or less subject to the dis- ease. Dairy cattle, however, in consequence of their mode of life and the heavy drain on their system from excessive breeding and milking, are more predisposed to the disease than any other of the domestic animals. Cause. — The essential cause is the specific germ, the tubercle bacillus, without which the disease could not exist. Since the disease is found in the lungs in a large proportion of cases, it is evident that tuberculosis is usually contracted by inhaling the germs with the air. It may also be caused by the ingestion of infected meat and milk and by direct inoculation. The development of the disease is favored by anything that tends to impair the general health of the animal, as overcrowding in poorly ventilated stables, hereditary pre- disposition, in-and-in breeding, lack of exercise, errors in diet, etc. Symptoms. — The symptoms are very obscure, and in some cases where the disease is well advanced there is seemingly little alteration in the health of the animal. The most prominent symptoms are a short, husky cough, enlargement of the lymph glands around the throat, dulness, capricious appetite, staring coat, and emaciation. Persistent oestrum or heat, with barrenness, especially when there is a harsh, staring coat and general unthrifty condition, is suspicious. The Tuberculin Test. — Tuberculin is a glycerin ex- tract of the soluble products produced by the growth of the tubercle bacillus, concentrated, filtered, and sterilized. When properly prepared it contains no living germs and cannot produce tuberculosis. It was introduced to the medical profession by Dr. Koch as a cure for tuberculosis. VETERINARY SCIENCE. Gl Although it has not found practical application as a curative agent, it furnishes us the best diagnostic agent for bovine tuberculosis yet known (see page 69). A summary of statistics indicates that about 88 per cent of tuberculous animals show the reaction fever on inocula- tion, while go per cent that were declared free from disease on account of the absence of fever did not show on autopsy any signs of the disease. Prevention. — The stables should be light and well ven- tilated. • Cattle should be kept from interchange of stalls or stanchions. Breed only from healthy animals. No con- sumptive person should be allowed to care for stock. Isolate all suspected animals. Such animals should be examined by a competent veterinarian, and if found to be tuberculous the whole herd should be tested. Tuberculous animals should be killed and the carcasses burned or buried deeply and covered with quicklime. Disinfection should be thorough. Remove and burn all litter. Burn sulphur in the closed stable. Wash or spray all woodwork with a solution of corrosive sublimate, one part, to '^ne thousand parts of water. Corrosive sublimate is a deaaiy poison and should be used with care. Whitewash with freshly slaked lime. III. SHEEP. Scab. Due to parasitic mites which infest the skin. Symptoms. — Intense itching, small reddish pimples ap- pear, rupture, and discharge a watery fluid; scabs form, the wool falls out in patches. Large sores sometimes result from the incessant rubbing. The pai;asite may be seen with a low-power lens. Treatment. — Take one pound of tobacco to each five gallons of water and boil until the strength is exhausted from the leaves. Strain and add one pound of sulphur to each five gallons. Allow each sheep to remain in the bath for five minutes, working the solution into all parts of the skin and breaking up the scabs. Place on a slooping rack and press the liquid out of the fleece, allowing it to run back into the trough. The same dip may be used for ticks. 62 AGRICULTURE. Foot-Rot. Separate the sound animals from the diseased ones and from contaminated pastures and buildings. Carefully /emove all diseased horn and foreign bodies and walk the sheep through a trough containing one pound of blue vitriol to three gallons of water. Place the infected flock on a dry upland pasture, if possible. Grub in the Head. This is the larvae of a small gadfly {vestrtis ovis) which deposits its eggs within the nostrils. It stays there during the winter and spring, often proving harmless, but some- times causing much irritation, a white muco-purulent dis- charge, with dullness and stupor. Prevention. — Smear the nose with tar, or feed salt from two-inch augur-holes bored in a log, the surface of which is smeared with tar. Treatment. — Place in a warm building and introduce into the nostrils snuff, a solution of tobacco, or turpentine and olive-oil equal parts, to kill the larvae or cause their expulsion by sneezing; or place in a close room and subject to the fumes of burning sulphur for 15 min., as strong aa can be endured, once daily for 3 or 4 days. IV. SWINE. Hog Cholera. A specific contagious fever of swine. Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from three to fifteen days. Shivering, nose hot and dry, later refuses food, lies under the litter, eyes sunken, gait unsteady. Heat and soreness of the skin, with tenderness, red patches and black spots; labored breathing; hard, dry cough; sore- ness of the belly; costiveness, followed by a foetid diar- rhoea. Prevention. — If it breaks out in a herd, kill and bury the diseased. Thoroughly disinfect everything they have come in contact with, using one-half ounce of corrosive sublimate in four gallons of water. Burn all straw and litter. Give the healthy ones clean, dry quarters. If possible, divide up the herd, placing a few in each pen. Allow free access to VETEBINARY SCIENCE. 63 wood or animal charcoal and give in the drinking-water tec drops of carbolic acid for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight. Take the temperature daily, inserting a clinical thermometer in the rectum, and remove every animal showing a temperature of 103° or over. Kill and bury as soon as the symptoms of the disease are well manifested. Medicinal treatment of the disease is of but little avail. A good dietetical treatment, including a strict obsei vance of sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the use of medicines. The pens should be kept scrupulously clean. The food given should be clean, of the best quality, and easily digested. The troughs used in feeding should be thor- oughly cleaned at least once daily. Keep away from in- fected herds, as the germs may be carried on the shoes or clothing. It is said that the virus will blow half a mile on the wind. It may also be spread by birds and dogs. Intestinal Worms. This is one of the most common troubles of swine. Symptoms. — A cough is usually the first symptom noticed; animals have a voracious appetite, yet lose flesh and exhibit general signs of ill health. If the faeces are examined the worms or their eggs can usually be found. Treatment. — Give one teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight once daily in milk or oil. Place common salt where they can have free access to it. Give nutritious, easily digested food. VETERINARY REMEDIES AND DOSES. By W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Marinette, Wis. Graduation of Doses. Horse. Ox. Dose. 3 years. 2 " I " 6 months. 1-6 2 years. I " Q months. 3-6 ■• .-3 •• I part. 2/3 " 1/3 " 1/8 " 1/16 — T/32 part. 64 AGRICULTURE. When not specified, the doses given apply to a full-grown horse of medium size. Dose for the ox, from il to 2 parts: sheep, f to i part. Animals of a nervous temperament are usually more susceptible to the action of drugs. No agent should be given until sufficiently diluted to prevent irritation of the mouth, and irritants that will not mix with water (turpentine, etc.) should be given in linseed oil, milk, or eggs, after being thoroughly mixed. Raw Linseed Oil. — Dose : Horse, one half-pint to one quart. Laxative in small doses, purgative in large. Not so active as castor oil. A valuable laxative in young and delicate animals. For calves and lambs it is more gentle and safer than salts. In adults it is the best laxative to use where there is an irritable condition of the bowels, and in all febrile diseases where a laxative is needed. In im- paction of the bowels a pint may be given two or three times daily until relieved, supplemented by warm-water injections every two hoUrs. Valuable in cases of choking on account of its lubricating qualities. Castor Oil. — Causes more griping and nausea than lin- seed oil and is more certain in its action. Used chiefly as a laxative for calves, foals, sheep, swine, and dogs. Useful in diarrhoea of calves and other young animals when the discharges are bright yellow and irritating. Dose for a calf, from i to 4 tablespoonfuls. Epsom Salts. — For cattle this is the purgative in most frequent and general use. Adult cattle take from i lb. to i^ lbs. In small doses in febrile diseases it lowers the tem- perature, improves the appetite, and helps to maintain a healthy and regular action of the bowels. Epsom salts is one of the best antidotes for lead poisoning. When used as a purgative, give from i to 2 oz. ginger with the salts. Oil of Turpentine (Spts. Turpentine). — Dose : Horse, ^ to I oz. Very irritating to the mucous mem.brane, and when used internally should be given in oil or some bland fluid. Stimulant and anti-spasmodic. One of the most useful remedies in flatulent colic in the horse, and hoven or bloat in the ox. Also used to kill and expel intestinal worms. When used for this purpose, it is given after fasting in VETERINARY SCIENCE (jq large doses, i-^ lo 2 oz. for the horse, followed in 12 hours by a purgative. Applied externally it is an irritant and is used in many liniments. The following liniment may be used where a mild counter-irritant is desired : Oil of turpentine and aqua ammonia, of each 4 oz., linseed oil 8 oz. Mix. This lini- ment is used chiefly for rheumatic swellings, sprains, and bruises after the active pain is subdued by fomentations, and for sore throats, as seen in distemper. Alcohol. — Dose : Horse, ^ oz. well diluted, whisky or brandy 2 to 4 oz. Alcohol is a narcotic poison. It first stimulates, then deranges, and ultimately depresses the functions of the brain and spinal cord. It kills, as a rule, by paralysis of respiration. Medicinally it is a very valuable, diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic heart tonic and anti- septic. Moderate doses increase the gastric secretions and aid digestion, but large doses destroy pepsin, arrest secre- tion, and interfere with absorption. There is probably no drug more extensively used than alcohol. It is useful in indigestion, spasmodic colic, cases of poisoning by aconite or cobacco. It is valuable in influenza and debilitating dis- eases. In blood-poisoning whisky combined with quinine is one of the most effective agents we have in controlling the temperature and keeping up the strength of the animal. The following is very useful in some cases of indigestion: Whisky i pt., quinine (sulfate) i oz., water i pt. Mix. Give 3 ounces at intervals of 3 to 4 or 6 hours, according to the nature of the case. Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash). — Dose : Horse, i tea- spoonful to half an ounce. Large doses are irritant and cathartic and are liable to cause inflammation of the bow- els. Medicinal doses are discretive, alterative, antiseptic, febrifugal, and refrigerant. In febrile, inflammatory, and rheumatic complaints it allays fever, lowers excessive tem- perature, and removes by the kidneys both solid and fluid matters. Dissolved in water and applied externally it ab- stracts heat and is a useful refrigerant. Combined with sulfate of iron it makes an excellent tonic for horses recovering from debilitating diseases. 66 AGRICULTURE. Saltpeter 2 02., dried sulf. iron 3 oz. Mix. Give 2 teaispoonfuls with the feed 2 or 3 times daily. Alum. — Alum is an astringent. Chiefly used externally. Use a saturated solution in hot water. Applied to- the shoulders of horses in the spring it toughens the skin and prevents collar-galls. Useful in healing harness-galls. One of the best lotions to apply to barb-wire cuts and other wounds of a similar nature to prevent growth of proud flesh. Sometimes dusted over the surface in the form of burnt alum ; not so effective as the saturated solution. Ginger. — Dose : Horse, ^ to i oz. Ginger stimulates the various mucous membranes with which it comes in contact. Administered internally it increases the gas- tric secretions, facilitates digestion, and checks formation of gas. It is a useful adjunct to many medicines and is given with tonics and stimulants. Combined with purga- tives it diminishes their liability to nauseate and gripe, and also hastens their efifect. It is used in all domesticated ani- mals to fulfil those purposes, and is especially adapted to cattle and sheep. Carbolic Acid. — One of the best and cheapest disinfec- tants known. For dressing fresh wounds it may be used in from 2 per cent to 5 per cent watery solution. In oil i part to 15. Inhalation of the vapor with steam is of great service in malignant sore throat and abscesses following strangles. Carbolic acid is a narcotic irritant poison, and considerable care must be exercised in its use, as it is liable to become absorbed and produce poisonous effects if ap- plied over a large surface in a strong solution. It has been highly recommended in the treatment of hog cholera. It may be given to hogs in doses of from i to 5 drops well diluted. Pine Tar. — Not much employed internally. It is a good dressing in thrush and canker of the horse's foot. It is also of special service in foot-rot in sheep. It acts as a stimulant and deodorizer to foul-smelling wounds and prevents the attacks of flies. Lime Water. — Lime water is piepared by slaking a small quantity of freshly burned lime with a large quantity of VETERINARY SCIENCE. 67 water, allowing the undissolved matter to settle and pour- ing off the clear solution. This should be kept in tightly corked bottles. Lime water is an alkali and is used in in- digestion, bloat, and diarrhoea, especially among calves. Given with the milk in the proportion of 1:5, Scalds and burns may be treated with carron oil, which is composed of lirrie water and linseed oil, equal parts. Fresh lime in powder and solution is used in cleansing and disinfecting stables. For this purpose a little carbolic acid may be added to the solution. Sulfur. — In large doses it is an active irritant poison. In medicinal doses it is a laxative, alterative, and stimulates secretion. Care should be taken to prevent the animal from taking cold when given sulfur. It opens the pores of the skin and stimulates perspiration. Chiefly used in treat- ing rheumatism and chronic skin diseases. Dose : Horse, i oz. to 2 oz. SUPPRESSION OF HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE. (Craig.) Causes. — Hog cholera and swine plague are caused by different bacteria, but they are equally dependent for the success of their attacks on the unhealthiness of the hogs, due in most instances to unwholesome food and filthy sur- roundings. The causes are so similar and the symptoms are so much alike and often complicated that it will be best to consider the diseases together in what follows. The germs that cause them are easily spread over large terri- tories by being carried by cars, wagons, or the shoes of per- sons that have been among infected hogs. Most frequently the origin of the outbreak maybe traced to the importation of hogs from diseased districts or to spread from such centers by running streams. Symptoms. — The first symptoms usually shown in attacks of these diseases are those that indicate fever — a rise in temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, and redness of the skin on the lower part of the neck and inner side of the thigh. Usually a hog so diseased begins to cough when started 68 AGRICULTURE. from its bed. A constipated condition of the bowels changes to diarrhoea as the disease progresses, and this results in a rapid loss of flesh. Dissection generally shows the lungs to be inflamed, the spleen enlarged, or the lining of the large intestine covered with numerous ulcers. Prevention. — To protect hogs from attacks of these dis- eases it is necessary to observe the following recommen- dations: The hogs should not be watered at running streams, as the germs are readily carried by these. Per- sons coming from infected districts should not be allowed to go near your hogs, and you should not go among your neighbors' hogs if they are sick. When other hogs are brought to your farm, assume that they are infected and keep them away from yours at least for six weeks. Observe as much cleanliness as possible in regard to food and sur- roundings. Feed a mixture of foods in a sloppy or soft con- dition, and withhold heavy grain feeding. Disinfect the quarters of the hogs by sprinkling liberally with a five per cent solution (by volume) of carbolic acid, and use a two per cent solution of the same for washing the hogs. Treatment. — The hogs showing any of the symptoms described should at once be separated from the others, and put in cheaply constructed quarters, so that the latter may be burned when no longer required. The well hogs should be removed to disinfected quarters. Give all the hogs the following mixture, recommended by Dr. Salmon, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry: Wood charcoal i lb. Sulfur I '• Salt 2 lbs. Baking-soda 2 " Glauber's salts . . . . , i lb. Sodium hyposuifite 2 lbs. Antimony sulfid i lb. This should be given in soft food in the proportion of a teaspoonful daily to a two hundred pound hog. Remove all refuse from the pens in which the infected hogs were kept, and dig out the old soil, put in fresh earth, disinfect VETERINARY SCIENCE. 69 with carbolic acid solution, and allow the pens to remain vacant for at least six months. The same feeder should not attend the well and the sick hogs unless his shoes are changed after each visit to the sick hogs. The bodies of the dead hogs should be thrown into a rubbish heap and burned; but if this cannot be easily carried out, a long, deep trench should be dug, and when the carcases are thrown into it they should be covered with a layer of quicklime and at least six inches of earth. When the disease has spent itself or has been effaced, the entire mass in the trench should be covered with six inches of quicklime and at least six feet of earth. The place selected for the burial of the hogs should not drain towards a stream, and it would be better to fence it. The dead hogs should never be drawn over the ground, and the wagon used should be washed with a disinfectant. During the last few years the serum treatment of swine plague and hog cholera has been introduced experimentally by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Although the results so far obtained are very promising, further studies are required before the efficacy and practicability of the method can be considered proved. Farmers whose hogs are attacked by hog cholera, or who fear such an attack, should at once communicate with the Bureau or with the State authorities and ascertain what assistance can be had. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING TUBERCULIN TlESTS. Animals must be kept in as nearly a normal condition as possible during the test. Before injection take four tempera- tures, about two hours apart. Inject in the evening at about nine o'clock; begin taking temperatures eight to ten hours after the in- jection and continue until at least five temperatures, two hours apart, have been taken. In case an animal shows an abnormally high temperature at the end of this period continue taking temperatures until a decided drop toward the normal is noted. A rise of 2 to 2.5 deg. F. above the average normal body tem- perature, maintained for several hours, is considered a positive 70 AGRICULTURE. reaction, especially when the maximum temperature goes above 104 deg. F. Precaution. — Water before beginning the temperature readings the first day of the test; on the second day give a small quantity (a pailful or so) in barn, if necessary, and turn stock out in the afternoon for further watering. Large quantities of cold water reduce the temperature, and if animals are watered at the usual time in the morning on the day following the injection, marked errors may be caused in the test. (Wis. Exp. Station.) LIST OF DISINFECTANTS. (Sternberg.) The most useful agents for the destruction of spore- containing infectious material are: 1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 2. Steam under Pressure, 105° C. (221° F.,) for ten minutes. 3. Boiling in Water for half an hour. 4. Chlorid of Lime (should contain at least 25 per cent of available chlorin). — A 4 per cent solution. 5. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-500. For the destruction of infectious material which owes its infecting power to the presence of micro-organisms not containing spores, any of the following agents are recom- mended: 1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 2. Boiling in water for ten minutes. 3. Dry Heat, iio' C. (230° F.), for two hours. 4. Chlorid of Lime. — A 2 per cent solution. 5. Sohition of Chlorinated Soda (should contain at least 3 per cent of available chlorin). — A 10 per cent solution. 6. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-2000. 7. Carbolic Acid. — A 5 per cent solution. 8. Sulfate of Copper. — A 5 per cent solution. 9. Chlorid of Zinc. — A 10 per cent solution. 10. Sulfur Dioxid (this will require the combustion of between 3 and 4 lbs. of sulfur for every 1000 cubic feet of air-space). — Exposure for twelve hours to an atmos- phere containing at least 4 volumes per cent of this gas, in presence of moisture. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 71 RULES FOR DISINFECTION OF STABLES. lu Case of Appearance of Contagious Diseases. (TrUM BOWER.) 1. Have all loose litter, hay, and rubbish removed and burned. 2. Have all manure removed to land where cattle have no access. 3. Have all feed-troughs, hay-racks and all woodwork thoroughly cleaned by washing with hot water in which two ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water are dissolved. 4. Thoroughly whitewash the whole of the interior of the building with a whitewash containing one pound of chloride of lime to each four gallons of water. Enough freshly burned quicklime should be added to make the wash show where applied. Especially should this be applied tc the sides and front of the stalls, feed-troughs and hay-racks (inside and outside). 5. All rotten woodwork to be removed and burned, and replaced with new. 6. All buckets, forks, shovels, brooms, and other objects used about the stable to be washed and covered with the same solution, 7. All drains to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected with a solution of chloride of lime, one pound to four gal" Ions of water. 8. In cases of glanders, all harness, poles, and shafts of wagons, neck-yokes and pole-straps should be thoroughly washed with hot water and soap, and afterwards oiled with carbolized oil (one part of carbolic acid to ten of oil). Before applying the oil, harness should be hung up in the open air for one week. REGULATIONS FOR THE GOVERNMENT OF Dairies and Dairy Farms iii tlie District of Colum- bia. Section i. — No building ;shall be used for stabling cows for dairy purposes which is not well lighted, ventilated, drained, and constructed. 73 AGRICULTURE. Sec. 2. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for dairy purposes which is not provided with a suitable floor, laid with proper grades and channels to immediately carry off all drainage; and if a public sewer abuts the premises upon which such building is situated, they shall be con- nected therewith whenever, in the opinion of the health officer, such sewer connection is necessary. Sec. 3. — No building shall be used foi stabling cows for dairy purposes which is not provided with good and suffi- cient feeding-troughs or boxes, and with a covered water- tight receptacle, outside of the building, for the reception of dung and other refuse. Sec. 4. — No water closet, privy, cesspool, urinal, in- habited room, or workshop shall be located within any building or shed used for stabling cows for dairy purposes, or for the storage of milk or cream, nor shall any fowl, hog, horse, sheep, or goat be kept in any room used for such purposes. Sec. 5. — The space in buildings or sheds used for stabling cows shall not be less than five hundred cubic feet for each cow, and the stalls therefor shall not be less than four feet in width. Sec. 6. — It shall be the duty of each person using any premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to keep such premises thoroughly clean and in good repair and well painted or whitewashed at all times. Sec. 7. — It shall be the duty of each person using any premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to cause the building in which cows are kept to be thoroughly cleaned, and remove all dung from the premises so as to prevent its accumulation in great quantities. Sec. 8. — It shall be the duty of any person having charge or control of any premises upon which cows are kept to notify the health officer, in writing, of the existence of any contagious or infectious disease among such cows, within twenty-four hours of the discovery thereof, and to thor- oughly isolate any cow or cows affected or which may rea- sonably be believed to be infected, and to exercise such VETERINARY SCIENCE. 73 other precautions as may be directed, in writing, by the health officer. Sec. 9. — Any person using any premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes shall provide and use a sufficient number of receptacles made of non-absorbent materials, for the reception, storage, and delivery of milk, and shall cause them at -all times to be cleansed and purified, and shall cause all milk to be removed without delay from the rooms in which the cows are kept. Sec. ro. — Every person keeping cows for the production of milk for sale shall cause every such cow to be cleaned every day and to be properly fed and watered. Sec. II. — Every person using any premises for keeping cows shall cause the yard used in connection therewith to be provided with a proper receptacle for drinking water for such cows; none but fresh, clean water to be used in such receptacle. Sec. 12. — Any enclosure in which cows are kept shall be graded and drained so as to keep the surface reasonably dry and to prevent the accumulation of water therein, ex- cept as may be permitted for the purpose of supplying drinking water; no garbage, urine, fecal matter, cr similar substances shall be placed or allowed to remain in such en- closure, and no open drain shall be allowed to run through it. Sec. 13. — These regulations shall apply to all premises upon which cow's milk is produced for sale. Sec. 14. — That any person violating any of these regula- tions shall, on conviction in the police court of said district, be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than ten dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as other fines and penalties are collected. (See also p. 272, Rules and Regulations to be observed in the care of cows and the handling of milk shipped to the City of New York.) 74 AGHICULTURB. IV. FIELD CROPS. QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE. (Waring.) Designation. C-nmy Wheat I J to 2 bu. Barley i^ to 2^ bu. Oats 2 to 4 bu. Rye I to 2 bu. Buckwheat f to i^ bu. Millet I to i^ bu. Corn i to I bu. Beans i to 2 bu. Peas 2^ to 3^ bu. Hemp I to i^ bu. Flax i to 2 bu. Rice 2 to 2^ bu. Designation. Q-^^^ Broom-corn. ... i to i-J bu. Potatoes 5 to lo bu. Timothy i2to24qts. Mustard 8 to 20 qts. Herd grass 12 to 16 qts. Flat turnip 2 to 3 lbs. Red clover 10 to 16 lbs. White clover. ... 3 to 4 lbs. Blue grass 10 to 15 lbs. Orchard grass. .. 20 to 30 lbs. Carrots 4 to 5 lbs. Parsnips 6 to 8 lbs. When planted in rows or drills: Broom-corn i to i| bu. Beans i^ to 2 bu. Peas li to 2 bu. Onions 4^0 5 lbs. Carrots 2 to 2^ lbs. Parsnips 4105 lbs. Beets 4 to 6 lbs. SEED USED PER ACRE. (McKerrow.) Wheat Oats Barley Rye Peas Buckwheat Beans Oats & peas, i Oats mixed for hay t Peas Flax Millet Corn Potatoes Drilled, Bus. 1% i^ ^ Broad- cast, Bus. 2^ 2.V^ i^toi^ Clover (red) Clover CAlsike). ... Clover (white) . . . Clover & 5 8 clover timothy < 2timothy Timothy Orchard-grass Rape , Turnips Carrots Beets Sugar Beets Drilled, Lbs. ^H Broad- cast, Lbs. 12 4 3 10 5 3 FIELD CROPS. 75 SEED MIXTURES FOR HAY AND PASTURES PERMANENT 111 Pounds per acre. Names of Grasses. I. Flint II. Law- son. III. For Good Medium Soils. De Laune IV. For Wet Soils. De Laun^ V. For Chalky Soils. De Laund VI. For Perma- nent Lawns. Flint. Meadow foxtail . . Orchard grass 2 6 t 2 2 2 4 10 4 3 3 2 Meadow fescue 2 2 2 2 2 6 3 I I 3 8 I 2 2 2 Hard fescue. Sheep's fescue Redtop 4 4 2 2 3 4 Kentucky blue grass. Italian rye grass Perennial ryegrass.., Timothy Rough meadow grass Wood meadow grass. 4 4 6 3 2 3 5 6 8 .^ 2 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 I I I I 14 5 I I I 10 2 2 I 2 Perennial red clover. White (Dutch) clover Alsike 2 5 I I I 7 2 li I 2 a Yellow oat grass I I Cock's-foot Crested dog's-tail . . . Fiorin Yarrow 2 3 Cat's-tail Cow grass I I 40 45 41 40 38 43 For the Northwest the following mixture will, according to Shaw, be found suitable: Timothy 4 lbs., blue grass 3 lbs., redtop 2 lbs., orchard grass 2 lbs., meadow fescue i lb., tall oat grass i lb., meadow foxtail i lb., alsike clovers lbs., white clover 2 lbs., lucern (alfalfa) 2 lbs., yellow clover i lb., total 22 lbs. And for the Stales east of Michigan and for the provinces of Canada eastward of Lake Huron: Lucern (alfalfa) 5 lbs., orchard-grass 4 lbs., meadow fescue and alsike clover 3 lbs. each, tall oat grass, timothy, meadow foxtail, and white clover 2 lbs. each, yellow clover I lb.; total 24 lbs. 76 AGRICULTURE. The following mixtures of seeds are sug^pjested for meadows and for pastures by the U. S. Department of Agriculture : A. Hay Mixtures. No. I. Pounds. Tall oat grass 70 Red clover 30 ^Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) No. 2. Red top 30 Orchard grass 40 Meadow fescue 20 Red clover 10 (Sow 40 to 45 lbs. per acre.) No. 3. Pounds. Italian rye grass 20 Orchard grass 25 Red clover 10 Tall oat grass 20 Red top 25 (Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) No. 4. Timothy 40 Red top 40 Tall oat grass 20 (Sow 40 lbs. per acre.) B. Pasture Mixtures. No. I. Kentucky blue grass.... 25 White clover 10 Perennial rye 30 Red fescue 10 Red top 25 (Sow 35 lbs. per acre.) No. 2. Canada blue grass 5 Red clover 5 Orchard grass 5 Tall oat grass 5 Perennial rye grass 20 Red top 35 (Sow 40 to 45 lbs. per acre.) No. 3. For wet pastures. Red top 35 Alsike 20 Creeping bent 15 Perennial rye 3c (Sow 40 lbs. per acre.) No. 4. For light sandy soils. Red fescue 50 Red top 25 Kentucky blue grass. . . 20 White clover ■ . . 5 (Sow 35 to 40 lbs. per acre.) FIELD CROPS. 77 H 5 e ^ ^ to •o" c a; o S-l 4-. O i-i c3 '^1 d GPi ^ W a Ol m . > O fO ■c Sc 'd" u M o (U a C -u g >P< •e^ 1^ "o o - ge of ■ice 1 ushel. 1^ O ''i ty--(- IN O o O, ro t^W t- • • '■'■. O lO 1 MM 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 • 1 • 1 §£« t o r-~ iTi (N ui C. >o \r, ro lO uo t-, f; iA)\0 ■'f J^ fO H O P< o R n M m * . o •^ S ^ Ml- " W " lount Seed Acre. tfi :3: ; -^ ^ w ^ C<« Ih 1 1 -C - M fl ^O <°a r CO (S ■ ►^ c3 > P o rt r^^ B rt ^ fs !^ U c o a CO TO — ' p: c .— ■ TO 5^ COCfi TO O c/: h-i »o ^ ft ro . v^ bc o CO CL, ^ c o : : 1 c ■M +-> C in 00 CO 00 •"• nXl 00 CO E ^ 5 rf 'i^'' o ^ M I- agog H >. (fl 4-> ^-o ^ o O 1 o 1 1 . u p. 53- ft S U3 d O o r: +J >, ,; ^ ■'S u p: c mpi / AGRICULTURE. I ft CJ O H •si Q H ;? -si H o ^^'-> V- >-, '^ :3 o o P^ VO o O (N lO () {> lO ITi • t^ hH (N • M ►^ • •N O O trj lO ir, O fO CS w • o 3 ■c HI N h-t 1 M GO 1 1 M 1 o M 1 ^ +-> 00 O 00 o woo m 6- - '::§ M M 1 00 1 Hn I O 1 1 o N - c4 w w t: ii ^ ^' "5 'c3 c +:^ ^'Z V 1> v. ;> OK ■g-Si^ts 1-3 fe O c > > ^ >. o ■+ a vo M w r^ O O vO r- ■+ so vC t^ • r- 1 1 1 -O so O 1 1 1 1 1 M C ►- o (N Tt Pt rO ro I/-, Tf M ■ix «" sc o 2 ^o " I I I I I 0> m f^ •* O M w CO (N •* rO CN ? T^ ip " ■> 'd a is y o rt : c c3- '- o Oiri:; u rt - W rt- CQ CO U hJO 02 z2 «-! rr .? fa S C c« - S 3:^ t" ^ (U ° O pqpieci^cu FIELD CROPS. 79 C o (X b a! 5 On m "1 O o C4 lO XT) lO CN O t^ O M O 00 1 I I H ■* O 00 C4 (^1 M ■ a o N in IT) PI M W ■ ID M o P)0 o ^1 O ,y ^ rt c6 C 5 f5 Q aS O oj UP H H I-' 1 I. I u u wJ2 • g ^^JS o V- t/2 h '- -<" ^ o :3 § -2^ "^x-^ o o rt n! a; ^ CL> - - 5: ^Q c 0) "VJ?"^ o a o 6 . cd Oh C ^ ra C P o Pi §° .»- CO 1-3 C/3 PiCsi E O Wi o" CIS u. barley.. Time of Seeding. Sept. 10-15 Julyis— Aug. I I Sept. April 20 " 30 '' 20 " 30 May 10 " 25 " 20 " 20 " 30 July 15 Aug. 5 Area. i^acre }4 acre 1^ acre '14 acre I acre Time of Cutting; May 20- June 1- June 15- -May 30 -June 15 -June 25 June 15 — June 30 June 25- July 10- June 25- July 10- July 2s- Aug. 10- Aug. 25- Aug. 25- Sept. 10- Sept. 20- Oct, I- -July 10 -July 20 -July TO -July 20 -Aug. 10 -Aug. 20 -Sept. 15 -Sept. 10 -Sept. 20 -Sept. 30 -Oct. 20 82 AGI?ICULTrRE. TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING CROPS. (PHFi.rs') Kind of Fodder. 1. Rye fodder 2. Wheat fodder 3. Clover 4. Grass (from grass-lands). 5 Oats and peas 6. " " " Amount (il Approxi- Seed I mate Time per Acre of Seeding. 2i to 3 bu. 2^ to 3 bu. 20 lbs. 2 bu. each I '» busheis 8 Hu'-iparian . g. Clo\er rowtn ;froin 3).. lo. S' i I b aiis ,1 bushel 11 Cou-pc*.is . 11 buslic. 12 Rovven grass (fiom grass-j lands; I 1 3. [?arley and peas j ? bu. each Sept. I Sept. 5-10 July 20-30 April 10 •' 20 ■* 30 June 1 May 25 June 5-10 Aug. 5-10 Approximate Tim>i of Feeding- May 10-20 May 20. June 5 June 5-15 June 15-25 June 25, July ic July 10-20 *' 20. Aug. 1 Aug. I -10 " 10-20 " 20. Sept. 5 Sept. 5-20 " 20-30 Oct. 1-30 1 he dates given in the lab e rply to Central Connecticut and regions under approximately similar conditions. CH )P3 i\>Il PARTI\T. SOILING FOR ILLINOIS i^LRIVG; -^liiiSUMMER. (Fraser.) Kinds of Fodder. C rn, carlv, sweet, or dent. Corn, medium, dent C jw peas S >v b3ans Oats and Canada peas. . . . Rape (Dwarf Essex), sec'ind sowing. ' ' third s.owing. . Amount of Seed pf^r Acre. 6 qts. 5 T bu. I ' ' I bu. each 4 lbs. 4 " 4 " Aoprox. Time of Seeding. Approx. Time of Feeding. May r July i-Aug. i 15 [Aug. I -Sept. 30 15 " 1- " IS " 15 " I- " IS April 15 July i-July 15 May I " is-Aug. i I " I- " r June I Aug. i-Sept. i July I Sept. i-Oct. i REPLACING WINTER-KILLED CLOVER. The following brief article gives a list of forage plants that will be found suitable for furnishing green feed for cattle and other farm animals in regions where the clover nas been winter-killed. It was originally published as a newspaper bulletin from the Wisconsin Experiment Station and is written with special reference to conditions in the Northwestern States. //otiv A/j'^Y ///e Quickest Pasttcre. — A f'cld cf oats or barley will furnish the quickest f.asture it is possible to obtain, barlev being a little earlier than oats. Sow oats or barley FIELD CROPS. 83 as for a grain crop, and \vhen the young plants are a few inches high, turn in the stock and treat the field as though it were a pasture. If the cattle do not g^aze '.he field evenly, run the mower over the patches where the growth is excessive. By keeping the growth short it will last much longer than if allowed to head out. It is recom- mended that, as an experiment, clover and timothy seed be sown with a part at least of the oats or barley, in the hope of securing a stand for next season. The farmer who can pasture his oat or barley field and get a crop of clover started at the same time will be one year ahead. This rec- ommendation must be regarded as an experiment, but it has been successfully tried in a number of cases. Oafs and Peas, — Let the farmer also put in a patch of oats and peas. Sow a bushel and a half of peas per acre, cover- ing three or four inches deep on light soil, and one or two inches on heavy soil. After these are planted sow or drill the oats in the usual manner. Cut the green forage for the cattle, or cure for hay. Millet. — For winter hay sow millet or Hungarian grass from the lotb to the 30th of June, using from a bushel to a bushel and a half of seed per acre. When the seed-heads are coming into blossom, cut and cure for hay. Millet or Hungarian grass will yield from one ton to two and a half tons of good quality hay per acre. Horses should not be given over one feed of millet hay per day. Corn Fodder. — Any variety of corn will do for green or dry forage, the early kinds being the most suitable for early fall feed. Sweet corn is very satisfactory because the stalks are soft and palatable. Plant in hills or drills just thick enough to decrease the size of the ears to about half their normal size. Begin feeding as soon as the ears are glaz- ing, and continue with the dry forage throughout the win- ter. From three to six tons per acre of winter forage, suit- able for all kinds of farm stock, can be secured from a corn crop grown on good land. (Henry.) 84 AGKICULTUKE. C M < o O o 5? 6 o a O oi rt o o o g> J> o o o ™ TO ,^ ,^ "r "r ^ >> >. >.^ Oi p O i^ V, V, O > > O a; 1) !U O o >> I- 3 0; TO tc be d c 'si ";:; XJ H a; 5; o o u u O o ^ :: a V ?< o <^ O ~, tc TO ^ Hrt'+^H^ -+o !-♦» i-<(o -♦«i-+o«Sh»H«> I I iy~ r" ir. 'J » I I "^ I I ' ' i:? ^— ^ ^ ^ c. a c bo c8§ a 03 o 5J,< OhOOiO O a! a! b els';:: -£ £r u -i5 o a c ?f "i ,"0-0 3.S o OJ o i^ n S.53 vh o3 O 3 O ^ CO., c '^ ° 03 g ;: 03 t^y 5 t« S ^ aS"'"'" ^0.03 -§ -C 3 „ o ?; +^ , c-^ O! ?-■-- +j !-■ . !u a c C TO D X-S 6 ^ :4 ^ . o ^ ^ ai--^ " S ^-S*" • =^ ^-i^^ O OS .S-ac5 -d § rt« •--; *-< V-i j_, Q> rQ be cS uOT t" H t t/5 •- "5 "^ « I >. to .t3 1 ^^ _, cfi^ 2 :t^ ^"^ >. rv > a ™ FIELD CROPS. 85 CYLINDRICAL SILOS. Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well- matured Corn Silage, in Tons. (King.) 10 Inside Diameter of Silo, ?eet. P'^ ] 2 14 15 16 18 20 21 22 23 24 1 25 26 20 26 38 51 59 67 85 105 115 127 138 151 163 177 21 28 40 55 63 1 72 91 112 123 135 148 161 17s 189 22 30 43 59 67 77 97 120 132 145 158 172 187 202 23 11' 45 b2 72 82 103 128 141 154 169 184 199 216 24 49 66 76 87 1 10 135 149 164 179 195 212 229 25 36 52 70 81 90 116 143 158 173 190 206 224 242 26 3« 55 74 «5 97 123 152 168 184 201 219 j 237 257 27 40 58 7« 90 103 130 160 177 194 212 231 251 271 28 42 br «3 95 108 137 169 186 204 223 243 264 285 29 45 04 88 100 114 144 178 196 215 235 26s 278 300 30 47 68 93 105 119 151 187 206 '226 247 269 292 315 31 49 70 96 1 10 125 158 195 215 236 258 282 305 330 32 51 73 lOI 115 131 166 205 226 248 271 295 320 346 3b 64 105 130 139 iSS IQO 235 40 75 121 150 165 180 228 279 RELATION OF HORIZONTAL FEEDING AREA AND NU3IBER OF COWS KEPT, FOR SILOS 24 AND 30 FEET DEEP. (King.) Feed for 240 Days. Feed for 180 Days. No. of Silo 24 Feet Deep. Silo 30 Feet Deep. Silo Silo 24 Feet Deep. 30 Feet Deep. Cows. Rate 1.2 In. Daily. Rate 1.5 In. Dail3^ Rate 1.6 In. Daily. Rate 2 In. Daily. Tons. Inside Diam. Tons. Inside Diam. Tons. Inside Diam. Tons. Inside Diam. 10 15 20 25. ■ 30 35 43 4' 50 6d 70 8^ 9^ ro3 48 72 96 1 20 144 168 192 216 240 28S 336 384 432 480 Feet. I 2 IS 17 19 21 22 24 26 27 29 32 34 36 38 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 288 336 384 432 480 Feet. 10 12 14 16 18 19 20 21 23 25 27 29 30 32 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 216 252 288 324 360 Feet. 10 13 15 16 18 19 21 22 23 25 27 29 31 33 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 216 252 288 324 360 Feet. 9 1 1 12 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 23 25 26 28 86 AGRICULTURE. RELATION BETWEEN SIZE OF SILOS AND NU3IBER OF COWS THEY WILL KEEP. * Dimensions. Capacity, Tons. Acres to Fill, 15 Tons to Acre. Cows it Will Keep 6 Months, 40 lbs. Feed per Day. lo X 20 28 2 8 12X 20 40 3, II 12 X 24 49 3l 13 12X28 60 4 15 14X 22 61 4i 17 14 X 24 67 4i 19 14X28 S3 5* 22 14X30 87 6 23 16X24 93 6§ 24 16X26 97 7 26 16X30 119 8 29 18X30 151 loj 37 18X36 180 I2i 45 NUMBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. Distance apart, Number of Inches. Plants. 3X3 696,960 4X4 392,040 6X6 174,240 9X9 77,440 Feet. I X I 43,560 liX li 19,360 2X1 2X2. . 2^X2i. 3X1.. 3X2.. 3X3.- 3iX3i- 4X1. . 4X2.. 4X3.- 4X4.- 4iX4i- sXi.. 5X2.. 5X3.. 5X4.. 5X5.. siXsi- 21,780 10,890 6,960 14.520 7,260 4,840 3,555 10,890 5,445 3,630 2,722 2,151 8,711 4,356 2 904 2,178 1,742 1.417 Distance apart. Number of Feet. Plants. 6X6 1,210 6iX6i^ 1,031 7X7... 8X8... 9X9.. 10X10.. 11X11.. 12X12.. 13X13- • 14X 14. . 15X15.. 16X16. . i6+Xi6i. 17X17. . 18X18. . 19X19.. 20 X 20. . 25X25. . 30 X 30 . . 33X33- ■ 40 X 40 . . 50X50. . 60 X 60 . . 66X66.. 881 680 537 435 360 302 257 222 193 170 160 ISO 134 120 108 69 48 40 27 17 .12 10 FIELD CROPS. 87 NUMBER OP HILLS OR PLANTS ON AN ACRE OF land, for any distance apart, flfom lO in. to 6 ft., the lateral and longitudinal distances being un- equal. (Waring.) 1 u C/l o lO in. 12 in. 15 in. 18 in. 20 in. 2 ft. ft. 3 ft, 3^ ft. 4 ft. 4^ ft. 5 ft. f 6 ft. in. lO 62726 12 52272 43560 15 41817 34848 27878 i8 Mi^4^ 29040 2323a 19360 2 31363 26136 20908 17424 15681 26136 21780 17424 14520 13068 10890 2V^ 20908 17424 13939 11616 10454 8712 6969 3 17424 14520 11616 9680 8712 7260 5808 4840 3^ 14935 12446 9953 8297 7467 6223 4976 4148 3565 4 13068 10890 8712 7260 6534 .'>44.'; 4356 3630 3"i 2722 aV9 I i6t6 9680 7744 6453 5808 4840 3872 3226 2767 2420 2151 s 10454 8712 6969 5808 5227 4356 3484 2904 2489 2178 1936 1742 -.% Q504 7920 6336 5280 4752 3900 3168 2640 2263 1980 1760 i5«4 1440 6 8712 7260 5808 4840 4356 3630 2904 9420 2074 1865 itii3 1452 1320 1210 YIELD OF A GOOD CROP OF FARM PRODUCTS PER ACRE. (Various Authorities.) Alfalfa 4 tons Barley 50 bus. Beans, field 20 " Buckwheat 20 " Cabbage 3 tons Clover 2i " Corn (shelled) 60 bus. Cotton I bale Cowpea 15 bus. Field peas 20 " Flax 15 " Hay 2 tons Mangels 24 " Millet 3 " Oats 50 bus. Potatoes 200 ' ' Rape 20 tons Rice 50 bus. Rutabagas 25 tons Rye 25 bus. Sorghum 10 tons Sugar beets 15 " Sugar-cane 20 " Sweet potatoes 200 bus. Tobacco 1 200 lbs. Turnips 20 tons Wheat (spring) 25 bus. Wheat (winter) 30 " ^<8 AGRICULTURE. .C • o -*- a w "S® ?? M K — Tj r . *^ -d ^ ® S o ^ «M O o ^ To; 5 ai be -t^ So .S 5 ^ J^ fj-" pq o p 9 o a; bo a5 O S« M'OTJ'O „ n o E r r IT) o >^ I I I o o o o o " 7 H " .0000*^ I O O O O O O I 0. o bo o •HZ Ah 3 -o CO cS . - ^ - Q, U .S .S .S .S ^--.^ '->'T3 •£ '^ 2ft , 3 3 U >. ''^ "^ oj oJ ct3 oj QJ H nS (u 3 G o bo Oh Q St- ^ ^ .S.S.H.S.S.S.S I I I I I I I """^ « cs -I '^,Hn i-i 1-1 -*■"+> .S-S.S . . . . ^ . _c_c_d_c"b.g •"I I I I G I "^ C'-t-i "^-i C G an c o +-' +^ +j 'too I I I in c I O^ '^ C<*-i G i u \. c^ CC CGG GGG I I I CN M M t tii 00 o o I I t I I I N 00 I (N Tf Tt M M ro M M N o t o I I I G . G C C Tj-"*^ 00 vO 00 - I ■sr-s1^. o o 03 t/5fV, O OJ G o .^.rt N N N o cr o ^ a o. c F^ I-I M -t».HNr+»-+».^ « (D ..a I; is J2 ^ U3 tn ^ a ft oJ nj o 3,Q [/] [/I OJ 0) U I-. oJ <;. i>,0'-'00'-'i-i ■>&h13 >, 0^ C a—. C aj C 1 rrf r* 'bfiW § P-'^'c c ojr-'cSrtnJfX'-'aJaJrfroa.p^rrta.TO™"™ 13 uj i4^ •- z, •>, a^ .5 t;i-^.i3 J) ^ ^ c c ^ ;3 Q K>. j-j "^ • . — ^ .' — ' 03 CT] . — ^ --- J2ni;3rtcTig'a&rt'^^-aa T}- c d c c (N .S .S.S.S.S .S.3 •S.S.S.S.S.S.H.S.S Minro^^i-iOtWOiH I I I I I I I I I £.2 I I -*< I I CO CO so--; ^co 111m «+-'U- 2d d d 2 I, I, 'I 1^1 I e"-"^ 00 O TO ^ I I I rj- n ir, TfsO I O O O I I I 01 rorooOfOt^rot^rO a] C O O M "! . .n . ^rt^ P, Doooocroo^o VI C^ M -t;; N ^ '3*X3 "^ O Q o o o o o NNCl,NtS!NNNN oo„oooooo ' Hr* ^OH^ '-I t-i Hc^-^F^ .G u .i2 o Vh n n! '2" G Gii'c • ^ C d m :fi fi ^ ■-;•-; v^ t, cS a G G ci3 ci3 OJ 0) _G ".3 6 G -d G 0; 03 XJ3 rQrS _j'-''-'rs .A-i-^ — U X Oj dS-^ >< "'S'S -^ .22XJX i,-*-. nJ ^ ^ ct! -O G G -M^.C ;3 3 C •X3 a ni C OJ 3 OJ no AGRICULTURE. DISTANCES APART FOR FRUIT TREES, Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity. (Bailey4 Usual Distances. Time Required to Bear. Average Profitable Longevity under high Culture. Apples " dwarf... 30 to 40 ft. each way. 10 ft each way 3 yrs. Good crop in about 10 years 25-40 yrs. Blackberry 4x 7 to 6x8 ft 4x5 feet I yr. Good crop in 2-3 years 8-12 yrs. Currant I yr. Good crop in 2-3 years 1 yr. Good crop in 2-3 years 2-3 yrs. Good crop 2-3 years later 2 yrs. Good crop in 4 years Gooseberry Orange and 1 lemon f . . Peach 4x5 feet 20 years. 25 to 30 ft. each way. 16 to 20 ft. each way. 20 to 30 ft. each way. 20 to 25 ft. each way. 16 to 20 ft. each way. 3x6 feet 20 years. 50 or more; 8-12 yrs. Pears 3 or 4 yrs. Fair crop in 6-12 years I to 3 yrs 3 yrs. Good crop in 5 to 6 years I yr. Good crop in 2 or 3 years I yr. Heaviest crop usually in 2 years... Persimmon Plum 50-75 yrs. 25-40 yrs. Raspberry Strawberry 20-25 ys. T X 3 or 4 feet 8-12 yrs. 3 years. xIME OP GERMINATION OF VEGETABLE SEEDS AND 3IATURITY TABLE. (Morse.) oeet , 'Cabbage , Carrot , C luliflower. . . '. 'lery , U )m (sweet). , ( . ucumber. . , ]' idive , 1 . ttuce , Melon, water. " musk. Time of Ger- Maturitvl mma- tion. Days. S-io 7-10 S-io 12—20 S-io 10-20 5-8 6—10 5-10 6-8 Table. Days. 40—60 40-50 90-115 90—110 150—160 65-90 55-75 65-75 125-150 125-150 Onion. . Parsley. Parsnip. Pea. . . . Pepper. , Radish. Salsify. . Spinach. Squash. Tomato. Turnip. . Time of Ger- Matunty rnina- Table, tion. Days. 7-10 10—20 6-10 10-14 3-6 7-12 6-12 4-8 Days. 130-150 90—120 120—150 40—90 140-160 20-30 60-80 120—150 I 10-120 6o-7S HORTICULTURE. 91 AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE OF VARIOUS CROPS. (Bailey.) Apples A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected to yield from 25 to 40 bus. every alter- nate year. Artichoke 200 to 300 bus. Beans, green or snap 75 to 1 20 bus. Bean, Lima. ... 75 to 100 bus. of dry beans. Beet 400 to 700 bus. Carrots 400 to 700 bus. Corn 501075 bus. , shelled. Cranberry ] 00 to 300 bus. ; 900 bus. have been reported. Cucumber About 150,000 fruits per acre. Currant . . 100 bus. Egg-plant. . ..... I or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large sorts like New York purple, and from 3 to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties. Gooseberry 100 bus. Grape 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in California, 15 years old, will produce from 10 to 12 tons. Horse-radish. ... 3 to 5 tons. Kohlrabi 500 to 1000 bus. Onion, from seed 300 to 800 bus. ; 600 bus. is a large average yield. Parsnip 500 to 800 bus. Pea. green, in pod 100 to 150 bus. Peach In full bearing a peach-tree should produce from 5 to 10 bus. Pear A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from 25 to 45 bus. Pepper 30,000 to 50,000 fruits. Plum 5 to S bus. may be considered an average crop for an average tree. Potato 100 to 300 bus. Quince 200 to 400 bus. Raspberry and blackberry. ... 50 to 100 bus. Salsify 200 to 300 bus. Spinach 200 barrels. Strawberry. .... 75 to 250 or even 300 bUBi Tomato 8 to 16 tons. Turnip 600 to 1000 bus. 92 AGRICULTURE. A COMBINED FRUIT AND VEGETABLE GARDEN. (CORBETT.) The following plan is suggested for a combined fruit and vegetable garden for a farm or city home on a lot 100X80 ft., the fruit garden occupying an area of 60X80 ft. and the vegetable garden an area of 40X80 ft. A. Fruit-hearing Plants that can be grown on an area of 60X80 ft.: 32 grape-vines, dispersed at intervals of 10 ft. around the entire garden. 3 rows of dwarf pears, each containing 6 trees (rows Nos. 2, 10, 14). I row of peaches, 6 trees (row No. 4). I row of cherries, 6 trees (row No. 8). I row of dwarf apples, 6 trees (row No. 6). I row of plums, 6 trees (row No. 12). 1 row, 20 specimens blackberries (row No. i). 2 rows, 40 specimens black-caps (rows Nos. 3 and 5). 2 rows, 40 specimens red raspberries (rows Nos. 7 and 9). 3 rows, 300 specimens strawberries (rows Nos. 11, 13, and 15). B. Vegetable Plants that can be grown on an area of 40X 80 ft. : I row, I row rhubarb, ^ row asparagus (occupying 4 ft.). I row, salsify (i| ft.). 1 row, parsnips (li ft.). 2 rows, beets (3 ft.). 1 row, egg-plant, plants set 18 in. apart, 2 doz. (3 ft.). 2 rows, tomatoes, plants set 2 ft. apart, 2 doz. (6 ft.). 1 row, summer squash, 12 hills, 3 ft. apart (3 ft.). 2 rows, cucumber, 24 hills, 3 ft. a^irt (i ft.). 2 rows, early cabbage, 4 doz. plants, set 18 in. apart (4 ft.). 2 rows, late cabbage, 4 doz. plants, set 18 in. apart (4 ft.). 1 row, early celery, 6 doz. plants, set 6 in. apart (2 ft.). 8 rows, peas, plant in double rows, 4 in. apart; follow by 6 rows, late celery, 36 plants (16 ft.). 2 rows, lima beans, 4 doz. hills, 18 in. apart (4 ft.). 6 rows, bunch beans; in succession sow seeds in drills, placing HORTICULTURE. 93 seeds about 6 in. apart in the row; follow by late cabbage, turnips, or spinach (12 ft.). 2 rows, radishes, 4 sowings, planted in double rows 6 in. apart (3 ft.). 2 rows, lettuce, 2 sorts, adapted for early and late use (3 ft.). I row,, parsley and pepper grass (ij ft.). The space occupied by the last three plants may be given over to winter squashes by planting these before other crops are off the ground. (See Farmers' Bull. No. 154.) A VEGETABLE FORCING CALENDAR. (Wood.) Night Day From Seed. Tem. p Tem. p_ Soil. Notes. Tomato. . 60-65 75 5 mos. Rich loose loam. Transplant twice into pots, hand pollinate, grow on benches. Lettuce. . 45-50 55-65 lO-I 2 w. Open, porous, dry on sur- face. Open ,_ well Solid or ground beds best, transplant. Parsley.. . 45-50 55-65 8 wks. Best from spring-sown drained. plants; transplant and cut back. /Vater- 45-50 55-65 4-6 wks. Moist, cool Not at all particular. cress uniformly grow under bench any- where. Pepper- 45-50 55-65 3-4 wks. Well drained Grow in beds with cau- cress cool soil. liflower, lettuce, etc. Radishes. 45-50 55-65 5-6 wks. Warm, quick no coarse manure. Rapid growth essential; no old manure. Beans. .. . 60-65 70-80 6-8 wks. "Quick," i.e., loam and i thoroughly rotted man'e Best as catch crop be- tween melons and to- matoes. Peas 45-50 55-65 70-So d. Solid beds of rich, sandy oOil. Do not yield heavily, and are useless after April I. CauH- 50 60-65 4-5 mos. Solid bed gar- Transplant once, abun- flowei den loam and i rotten ma- nure. dance of air and free drainage, yet plenty of water. Mush- 50-60 50-60 6-8 wks. Moist (not Grow under benches, or rooms wet) manure, 4 parts, loam, I part. anywhere that even temperature can be had. Asparagus 50-55 60-70 2-3 wks. Pack under benches in any material. 3-4 years' roots from field; crop depends on vigor. Spinach. . 45-50 55-65 8- 10 w. Open, porous, well enriched. Grow as a catch crop between cauliflower. etc. 94 AGRICULTUKE. SEASONS OF VARIETIES OF APPLES IS VARIOUS STORAGES. (Beach and Clark.) Alexander * Baldwint t... Esopus, Spitzenburg t II it 4- + Falla water * t t Fall Pippin * Fameuse * t Hubbardston * Jonathan J Maiden Blush * Mcintosh X Northern Spy t R. I. Greening * " t Season in Chemi- cal Cold Storage Nov. June 1 5 May June 15 March April Mar. 30 May Nov. Dec. April I March March Nov. Jan. April Feb. April Ice Storage Nov. May I April June I March Mar. 2o Nov. Dec. Feb. 15 Feb. Nov. March Feb. March Cellar Storage Oct. April I March May I Jan. Jan. Mar. 1 Jan. Oct. Oct. Feb. I Dec. Jan. Oct. Nov. Feb. Dec. Feb. Difference in Season between Cellar and Ice Ice and Chem- ical Stor- Stor- age. age. Mos. Mos. I o I li I I I i 2 I * i I o 2 o i I^ 2 I I o I I 2 o I I Cellai and Chen> ical Stor age. Mos. I 2i 2 Ti 2 3 I 4 *, t, t, Reports of Chicago, Minneapolis, and New York Commission men, respectively. PACKAGES USED IN SHIPPING FRUIT. (Waugh ) Fruit. Package. Approximate Cost. Apple Barrel, loo quarts, or 3 bushels . . . Boxes, various sizes $25 the 100 Variable Slat crate, mostly half bushel Basket mostly bushel $4.50 the 100 $1 to $1.25 a doz. Peach Delaware basket $2 to $3 the 100 Michigan basket, one-fifth bushel . . Six-basket carrier $3 the 100 $7 to $10 the 100 Pear Barrel 3 bushels $25 the 100 Plum Half-barrel, i^ bushels .• • •• Boxes and baskets of various kinds Grape basket 10 pounds $15 to $20 the 100 $2.50 the 100 Six-basket carrier $7 to $10 the 100 HORTICULTURE. 95 PACKAGES USED IN SHIPPING FRUIT— Confin-r' Fruit. Package. Approximate Cost. Cherry Strawberry quart boxes and crates. . 5 -pound grape basket Quart boxes, $?. to $3 the 1000; i6-- qt. crates, $5 to $6 the I 00 Quince Slat crate, 3 bushel 1 " $3 the 100 $4. so the 100 ' ' ' ' I ' ' $7 the 100 • Berries .... Baskets in various styles. barrels. Quart boxes in crates Also Quart boxes, $2 to $3 the 1000 i6-qt. crates, $5 to S6 the 100 24-qt. crates, $7 to $15 the 100 RELATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of Potatoes. (WuLFK ) Spec. Grav. Dry Sub- Starch Con- Spec. Gr.v. Dry Suh Starch Con- Spec. Grav. Dry Sub- Starch Con- stance, tCilI. stance tent. stance. tent. Per ct. Per CI. Per ct. Per ct. Perct. Per ct. ( .oSo 19 7 13 9 1 . 107 25 5 19.7 I 134 31-3 25-5 08 I 19.9 14 t . 108 25-7 19.9 '35 3' -5 25 7 082 20. 1 74.3 . 109 25.9 20. 1 •'3(^ 31-7 25.9 08:! 20 3 14.5 I 110 26 T 20. 3 •137 3'-9 20. 1 084 '/0.5 •4-7 .III 26,3 20.5 1.3B 32.1 26.3 085 20.7 14.9 .112 2b. 5 20. 7 ■'39 32 -3 26 5 .08) 20.9 15 ' ■'13 2 7 20.9 T . 140 32 5 26.7 087 21 2 15 4 114 2t, 9 2 r I .141 32.8 27.0 088 21 4 15 6 .115 27 2 21 4 . 142 33.0 27.2 .o8g 2T . 6 .5 8 .116 27.4 ■^1.6 •>43 33 2 27.4 I OQO 21.8 16.0 .117 27.6 21.8 .144 33 4 27 6 091 22 .0 16 2 .1.8 27 8 22.0 •M5 ■•) i •"> 27 8 01 ! 2 22 . 2 16 4 ! .119 28.0 22.2 . 146 3^ 8 28.0 093 22 4 16 6 1. 1^0 28 3 2^ 5 ■147 34-' 28 3 09 + 22 7 t6 9 ' 21 28.5 22.7 .148 34-3 28 5 095 22 .9 17 I . 1^2 28.7 22.9 .149 34-5 28.7 09 23 I 17.3 123 28 9 23' t . 150 34 7 28.9 097 23 3 17 - .124 29. 1 23-3 .151 34-9 29 I OyS 2j S 17 7 125 -'9 3 235 152 35 I 29 3 009 23 7 W 9 1.^6 2Q.=; 23-7 ■ ' ,S3 3S-4 20 6 10 J 24 18.2 . 127 2y 8 24 .0 .154 35.6 29 8 lOI 24 2 iB 4 123 30 24 .2 •155 ^5 8 30.0 ;0-' 24 4 18,0 • '29 30 2 24.4 ..56 30.0 30.2 '^3 54. iS 8 1 . 1 30 3" 4 24.6 •157 36 2 30 4 104 24.8 10 , •'3> 30.6 24.8 ..s8 36.4 30.6 .105 25 ig.2 .132 30.8 25 .0 • 159 36 6 30.8 ic6 25.2 ^9 4 •133 31.0 25.2 1. 160 36.9 3'-i 96 AGKICULTURB. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SUGAR CONTENT, AND BOILING-POINT OF MAPLE SIRUP. (Cooke and Hills.) 1 > mate nt of ugar. « bid ^ a 5-= ,«*<" 1r^ rA •s i^cn rt'o c* be ts, baskets A^par.igus . . . Banai:as Beans, snap Beets Cabbage, early or late Cantaloupes Cauliflower Celery Cheese. Cranberries (.'ucUiiibers E^jis, bbPd or crated Fish p'lowers. Grapes Kale Leek Lemons . Lettuce Mandarins Milk Olives, in bulk " " glass Onions, boxes Onions Oranges . . Parsley Parsnips Peaches,fresh,b'skets P-as Pineapples Plums Potatoes, Irish . . . . '■ sweet Radishes Rice. . . . Siirubs, roses, or trees Spinach Strawberries Tangerines Thyme Tom.itoes. fresh Turnips, late Watermelons Lovv< st O uiside a; QQ Temperature ^y •25 i' 1 t> K be { 0-« m >j^. t. Co 1! D-ra a 9 "S5 E5 i^ c* l-( c ofc ^^ = ¥. ° F. " F. op 20 10 — 10 75 28 15 - 10 75 .35 24 10 70 28. ■2 2 70 SO 3a 90 S2 26 65 26 20 70 2=; 20 zero 75 32 25 10 8q 22 15 70 10 zero 65 30 25 10 75 28 20 zero 32 20 65 30 20 zero 80 10 zero 65 3S 20 — 10 34 20 zero «S zero 65 28 20 65 3^ 20 10 75 26 15 70 32 20 zero 75 32 28 zero 75 28 25 zero 2S 20 zero 20 15 zero 20 10 80 28 20 zero 80 32 20 75 32 20 70 32 20 10 80 32 20 80 32 25 zero 75 35 32 zero 75 35 25 10 80 35 28 10 80 20 15 65 20 10 90 35 10 — 10 15 15 75 33 25 — TO b5 25 15 zero 70 20 10 90 33 28 10 90 15 zero 75 20 10 ' «5 Remarks. Covered with straw. Packed in straw. In boxes covered with mo9s. Bulk or boxes with straw. In barrels or crates. In ciates. Barrels or crates. In barrels with straw. Packed in crates. In boxes with moss. In barrels always iced. Packed in moss. Packed in cork. Packed in boxes or crates. Packed in boxes. In boxes or crates. In boxes or crates. In boxes. In barrels. In barrels, boxes, or crates. Baskets. boxes,bbls., or crates. In baskets. In baskets or barrels. In baskets or barrels. In barrels, crates, or in bulk. In boxes with paper. In barrels or baskets. In barrels or baskets. In baskets. In baskets or sacks. In canvas or sacking. In barrels or crates. In boxes. In small baskets. In barrels. /n barrels and in bulk. HORTICULTURE. 99 TEMPERATURES INJURIOUS TO PLANTS. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) The following table shows the temperatures at which the plants mentioned are liable to receive injury from frost. The temperatures are, as nearly as possible, those of the air in contact with the plant itself. Plant or Fruit. Almonds Apples Apricots Asparagus Bananas , Barley Beans Beets Cabbage Cantaloupes Cauliflower Celery Cucumbers Cymlings or squash. Flowers * Grapes Grape-fruit Lemons ... Lettuce Mandarins Oats Okra. Olives Onions.... Oranges t Parsnips .... Peaches Pears Peas Plums Potatoes: Irish Sweet Prunes , Radishes Shrubs, trees, or roses. Spinach Strawberries Tangerines Tomatoes Turnips Watermelons . Wheat Walnuts, English In Bud. 28 27 30 29 31 32 31 31 31 31 30 30 31 3^ 30 30 29 28 29 30 30 3» 30 26-30 28 31 31 30 In Blossom. 30 29 31 29 31 29 31 32 31 31 31 31 3^ 31 31 31 31 30 29 30 3^ 30 3» 31 28-32 28 31 31 31 31 In Setting Fruit. 30 30 32 29 32 31 31 31 30 31 3^ 31 31 30 29 30 31 30 31 3^ 28 31 31 At Other Times. 28 26 30 26 31 25 15-27 30-31 20—27 28 32 30 30 28 28 28 12-28 28 31 (24§ 2Q I 26* 27 29 28 25 29 3* 3» 29 25 30-26 21 30 28 31 26 28-3t 28 * Depends on variety, t Injured at 2 higher if continued 4-6 houis. $ Ripe. § Green. 100 . AGRICULTURE. BEST TEMPERATURES FOR PRESERVING HORTICULTURAL! PRODUCTS. (Faville and Hall.) Product. Temperature, Degrees. Package. Time. Apples, summer Apples, winter Pears .... Poaches 38 to 42 32 to 35 33 to 3« 36 to 38 38 to 40 38 to 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 38 to 42 38 to 40 35 34 to 38 34 to 40 36 to 40 34 Barrels or boxes. Crates. In sawdust, in boxes. Crates. Quart boxes. Crates. Boxes, 2 to 4 months. 5 to 8 months. 2 to 4 months. 2 10 4 weeks. Grapes Plums Berries and cherries.. Bananas 2 to 4 weeks. :>. to 3 weeks. 8 to 12 weeks. Lemons, oranges Figs, raisins 8 to 12 weeks. 8 to 12 weeks. Watermelons 3 to 6 weeks. 2 to 3 weeks. 2 to 4 weeks. I to 3 weeks. Muskmelons Tomatoes Crates. Boxes. Barrels. Boxes. Cucumbers Celery Cranberries Onions Potatoes Asparagus, cabbage.. THE PRESP:RVATI0X of soft FRUITS FOR EXHIBITION PURPOSES. (Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Canada.) To preservestrawberries, raspberries, and other soft fruits, the following mixtures are recommended. The alcohol is not necessarjr except where the bottles will be exposed to frost. The chemicals mentioned in the list may be obtained at any drugstore. General Dij-ecdons. — Select the finest specimens of the fruit both as to form and size. Handle them carefully to avoid all bruising, and place them in bottles, arranging the specimens so as to show them to the best advantage. Fill each bottle to the neck with fruit, then pour on the fluid recommended, filling the bottles to within half an inch of the stopper so as to entirely cover the fruit. Then place the stopper in the bottle and run a little beeswax or paraf- fin over the joint to make it air-tight. Tie the stopper down with a piece of strong cotton and attach to each bottl'^ HORTICULTURE. 101 a label containing the following particulars : Name of the variety of fruit, name and address of the grower. Write also in each case in one corner of the label the letter sug- gested to indicate the fluid which has been used. Wrap the bottles in paper to exclude the light, and preserve in a cellar or other cool place until required for shipment. Strawber- ries and raspberies should be cut from the plants or bushes with a pair of scissors, leaving a short piece of stem at- tached to each. Fluid no. i. — Formalin (formaldehyde), one pound (i6 oz.) ; water, 44 pounds ; alcohol, 5 pints. Allow the mix- ture to stand, and should there be any sediment, pour ofi the clear liquid and filter the remainder through filtering- paper. This two-per-cent. solution of formalin has been found very useful for preserving strawberries so as to give them a natural appearance. In each case where this fluid is used, mark F on one corner of the label. Fluid No. 2. — A solution of boric acid in the proportion of two per cent. Dissolve one pound of boric (boracic) acid in 45 pounds of water, agitate until dissolved, then add 5 pints of alcohol. If the fluid is not clear, allow it to stand and settle, when the clear upper portion may be poured off and the remainder filtered. In each case where this fluid is used, mark B on one corner of the label. Fluid No. 3. — A solution of zinc chlorid in the propor- tion of three per cent. Dissolve one-half pound of zinc chlorid in 15 pounds of water, agitate until dissolved, then add if pints of alcohol. Allow the mixture to stand until settled, then pour off the clear fluid and filter the remainder. In each case where this fluid is used, mark Z on one corner of the label. Fluid No. 4. — Sulfurous acid, i pint ; water, 8 pints ; alcohol, I pint. Allow the mixture to stand, and should there be any sediment, pour off the clear liquid and filter the remainder. In each case where this fluid is used, mark S on the corner of the label. 102 AGRICULTURE. List of Fruits 7vith the Names of Preservatir'es to be Used in Each Case. (Where two flu'ds are named either may be used, but the first named is preferred.) Strawberries. — Solution No. i, form 1 aim. Raspberries, Red. —No. 2, boric acid; iNo. I. formalin. Raspberries, White. -No. 4, sulfur- ous acid; No. 3, zinc chlorid. Raspberries, Black. — No. 2, boric acid. Blackberries. — No. 2, boric acid; No. I, formalin. Cherries. Ued and R ack --No. 1, formalin; No. 2, b^.ic acid. Cherries. White. — No. 4, su'.furous acid. Currants. Red. — No. i, formalin ; No. 2. boric acid. Currants, V\ hite. — No. 4, sulfurous acid; No 3. zinc chlorid. Currants, Black — No. 2, boric acid. Gooseberries — No. 1, formalin; No. 2, boric acid. Apples, Green and Russet. — No. 3, zinc chlorid. Apples, more or less Red. — No. 2, boric acid. App es, Wliite and Yellow. — No. 4, sulfurous ac d. Pears, Russet — No. 3, zinc chl( rid. Tears Cireen or Yellow. — No 4, sul- furous acid. Plums dark-colored varieties. — No. I. formalin; No. -.', boric acid. Plums, Green or Ye ow. — No. 4, sulfurous acid. Peaches, Apricots, Nectaiii es, or Quinces. — No. 4, sulfurous acid; No. 3, zinc chlorid. Giapes, Red or Black. — No. i, form- alin; No. 2. boric acid. Grapes, Green or Ye. low. — No. 4, su furous acid. THE STANDARDS OF THE BAFiTI^IORE CANNED "GOODS EXCHANGE. (Pa. Dept. of Agriculture.) A. Fruits. Apples. — Pared and cored, clear in color; cans to be full of fruit, put up in water. Blackberries. — Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full after draining; fruit to be sound, put up in water. Cherries, White Wax. — Cans to be full of fruit, free of specks and decay, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. Cherries, Red. — Cans full of fruit, free of specks or decay, put up in water. Gooseberries. — Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full after draining; fruit unripe and uncapped; put up in water. Egg Plums and Green Gages. — Cans full, whole fruit, free from reddish color or specks, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. Peaches. — Cans full, fruit good size, evenly pared, cut in half pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. Pie Peaches. — Cans full, fruit sound, unpared, cut in half pieces, put up in water. Pears. Bartlett. — Cans full, fruit white and clear, pared, cut in HORTICULTURE. 103 half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. Pears, Bell or Duchess. — Cans full, fruit pared, cut in half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane- sugar syrup. Pineapples. — Cans full, fruit sound and carefully pared, slices laid in evenly, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane- sugar syrup. Plums and Damsotis. — Cans full, sound fruit, put up in water. Qu4nces. — Cans full, fruit pared and cored, cut in half or quarter pieces, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane- sugar syrup. Raspberries. — Cans to cut out not less than two-thirds full and after draining, fruit to be sound, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. Strawberries. — Cans to cut out after draining not less than half full of fruit, which shall be sound, and not of the variety known as seedlings, put up in not less than ten degrees of cold cane-sugar syrup. Whortleberries. — Cans full, fruit to be sound, put up in water, B. Vegetables. Lima Beans. — Cans full of green beans, clear liquor. String Beans. — Cans full, beans young and tender and care- fully strung, packed during growing season. Corn. — Sweet corn only to be used from the cob while young and tender, cans to cut out full of corn. Peas. — Cans full of young and tender .peas, free of yellow or black eyes, clear liquor. Pumpkin. — To be solid packed as possible, free from lumps and of good color. Succotash. — Cans to be full of green corn and green lima beans. Tomatoes. — Cans to be reasonably solid, of good, ripe fruit, cold packed. STANDARD SIZES FOR CANS. Diameter. Height. 1 Diameter. Height. No. I Cans 2| in. 4 in. I No 6 Cans, twice the quantity of No. 2 Cans 3/g " 41%" I No. 3. No. 3 Cans 4i^a " 4b " No. 10 Cans .... 6i in. ' 7 in. 104 AGRICULTURE. VI. SEEDS. SEED-TESTING FOR THE FARMER. By the late Gilbert H. Hicks, of U. S. Department of Agriculture.* Not less important than good soil and suitable cultivation is seed of the best obtainable quality. In no feature of farm practice is niggardly economy or lack of proper atten- tion more productive of disappointment and loss than in the failure to provide proper seed for sowing. The market gardener is fully alive to this fact, and makes the purchase of desirable seed his foremost care. He wants not only seed which will grow, but also that which will produce an even stand and yield a large crop of the very best vegetables. The matter of paying a few cents or even a dollar extra per pound is to him of no significance, since he knows by long experience that the increased value of his crop will far outweigh the extra cost of the seed. With many farmers this care in the selection of seed is often lacking. Frequently the land is all tilled and ready for sowing before the seed is bought. It is then too late to give it a careful preliminary test, even if the owner de- sired to do so. This results very often in a poor stand, perhaps in a failure of the crop, or in the scattering of hordes of weeds all over the farm, which usurp the place of the cultivated plants, and cost infinite trouble in their eradication. This is especially noticeable in the case of the clovers, grasses, and other forage plants. No matter how poor the seed turns out to be, after once sown it is too late to secure any redress from the seedsman. Besides, there are very few places in this country where one can get seed tested in order that its real value may be ascer- tained before sowing. It becomes, then, a matter of great importance to the farmer to provide himself with some simple but efficient means for testing his seed before it is sown. All seed which is to be used for spring sowing should be procured whenever possible in the previous fall or winter. * Revised by A. J. Pieters, late Botanist in Charge of Seed and Plant Intro- duction, U. S. Department of Agriculture. SEEDS. 105 The long winter months will give ample opportunity for close examination of the seed, and if any of it be found of inferior quality, as will not infrequently prove to be the case, there will be plenty of time to replace it with a desirable article. In all cases seed should be bought of the most re- liable seedsmen. In many instances it will pay to get seed from the large dealers, as they have first-class opportu- nities for handling the very best seed in the country. The extra cost for carriage will be a small item compared with the chance for obtaining good seed. No matter from what source the seed is obtained, nor how reliable the dealer, every farmer should test each lot of seed he expects to plant. Besides learning its quality, he will often obtain valuable information concerning the depth, temperature, and amount of moisture needed, etc. Furthermore, if the seed fails to come up well, the planter will have some intelligent data for ascertaining the reason, and will not be obliged to depend entirely upon the state- ment of seed catalogues, which convey the impression that failure to germinate is more likely to be the fault of the outdoor conditions than of the seed itself. Good seed is marked by three characteristics : purity — or freedom from foreign matter, whether seeds of weeds or other plants ; vitality — or capacity for sprouting under favorable conditions ; and genuineness — or trueness to name. If any of these qualities be lacking, the seed is un- worthy of general trial. Purity. — Most vegetable seeds, especially if grown in America, are quite free from admixture. Seed of the cab- bage family, however, if grown abroad, and sometimes that of American origin, may contain a mixture of wild mustard or similar se^d, often so near like the good seed as to be almost indistinguishable from it. Clover and grass seed is very likely to contain more or less seed of noxious weeds or inferior grasses ; hence a careful purity test is necessary in such cases. Hairy vetch and other leguminous forage seeds, excepting the clovers, generally come from Europe and are frequently impure. Often it will require considerable care to detect impurities 106 ArTRTCrLTIT^E. in the seeds of forage plants, and in case of any doubt samples of such seed should be sent to the nearest experi- ment station or to the Department of Agriculture for ex- amination. Purity tests are usually made by weighing out a few ounces of seed which has been well stirred up so as to make the sample uniform. This seed is placed upon a pane of glass under which is a piece of light-colored paper, and the sample is carefully gone over seed by seed with a small forceps until all the impurities are separated out. After again weighing, the percentage of impurity is easily obtained. If the impurity consists of chaff or dirt, the loss will consist only in paying for something which will not grow. This will render necessary the sowing of more than the usual amount of seed to the acre. If weed seeds are present, there will be greater or less loss according to the character of the weeds. Such seeds as Canada thistle, dodder, Russian thistle, chess, wild mustard, cockle, plan- tain, black medic, daisy, penny-cress, wild carrot, wild oats, and a few others, are serious pests. Every farmer should be able to recognize these weed seeds, and avoid all seed which contains any of them even in small amounts. He should also be familiar with the ordinary grass seeds of trade, such as June grass, orchard grass, the common fes- cues, red top, tall meadow oat grass, etc. Grass-seed mixtures almost invariably contain a large proportion of seed of inferior, if not worthless, species, dirt, and chaff, and should be avoided. It is much better to find out what grasses are adapted to one's fields or pastures and to buy such seed separately, mixing it at home. If scales are not at hand, the amount of pure seed in a given sample can be approximately learned by placing the pure seed in a small bottle with the impurities in another bottle of similar shape and size. The names of the foreign seeds may be learned from some botanist or experiment station.* * The following' standards of purity are adopted by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture : Asparagus, beans, buckwheat, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, SEEDS. 107 After determining the per cent of pure seed in a sample, the. gcrminative ability should be ascertained. This is even more important. One can judge fairly well of the purity of seed by a casual inspection, but no one can tell by its looks whether a seed is capable of sprouting or not. Con- sidering the great amount of labor and expense involved, it is surprising that so few farmers test their vegetable and field seeds before they are sown. Even fresh seed is sometimes incapable of germination through improper care in harvesting or cleaning. Nor can fresh seed be told by its appearance with certainty. Add to this the fact that old seed is frequently offered for sale, and there is no lack of reason for testing the sprout- ing capacity of the seed one intends to sow. If the heat and moisture are properly controlled, seed- testing will be found a very simple matter. Seventy to eighty degrees Fahrenheit must be maintained during the day, with a fall of not more than twenty degrees at night, and the seed must be kept constantly damp, but not wet. A good plan is to plant a hundred seeds of average quality — that is, an average number of large, small, plump, and shrivelled ones, etc. — in moist soil in a box or in a small flower-pot which is set inside of a large pot also containing soil. Water as needed is added from time to time in the larger pot and the whole is kept covered so as to prevent evaporation and sudden cooling. When the seeds begin to come up, the pots should be exposed to the light. After about two weeks for most seeds the seedlings are counted and the percentage of sprouts ascertained. If the soil has been previously heated to kill all weed seeds, and proper precautions have been taken, such a test will give a good indication of the value of the seed. To make sure, a dupli- collards, Indian corn, cow pea, cucumber, eg^gplant, lettuce, melon, millet (common and pearl), oats, okra, onion, peas, pumpkin, radish, rutabaga, salsify, squash, tomato, turnip, vetch (hairy) 99 per cent, Alfalfa, beets, crimson clover, red clover, cotton, Kafir corn, parsley 98 " " Parsnip q7 " »» Hungarian brome grass, carrot, white clover, alsike clover... 95 " •* June grass, poa compressa go " " 108 AGRICULTURE. cate lot of one hundred seeds should be tested at the same time under the same conditions and the results compared. If the variation exceeds ten per cent, the tests should be repeated until the source of error is discovered. Grasses and very fine seed will require more care than other kinds. Such seed should be barely covered with soil, while in all cases too deep planting must be avoided. In testing grass seeds, except timothy, care must be taken that the heavier chaff, which looks like good seed, but does not contain a grain, is not counted with the good seed. Every seed should be gently pressed Vvith the finger-nail or with a small penknife to determine whether or not it contains a grain. The chaff should count as impurity, but should not be tested for germination. Some hard-coated seeds may be soaked a few hours in warm water, but as a usual thing it is better not to do so. Seeds of clovers and most vegetables can be easily ger- minated between two folds of damp flannel cloth placed be- tween two plates. Such tests permit frequent inspection of the seed, which should be thrown away as fast as it germinates, count being kept of the same. Damp blotters, porous dishes, and various kinds of especially prepared germinating apparatus are sometimes used in seed-testing. The amount of moisture to be given varies greatly with the variety of seed and can be best learned by experience. In general, quick-sprouting seeds, like clover, cabbage, radish, etc., will stand more moisture than those varieties which sprout more slowly. To make sure of the vitality of seed it is better to test it in the soil, as previously suggested, and also by the cloth or plate method. Soil tests should be continued a few days longer than those made between cloth or blotters. There is considerable difference of opinion as to the standards of germination to which first-class seed should attain. Those in use at present by the U. S. Department of Agriculture are given in the first table on page 109. While first-class seeds should reach the standards referred to, it may be said that seed which falls as much as ten per cent below them .leed not be rejected as bad. SEEDS. 109 TABLE OF GERMINATION STANDARDS. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Seed. Asparagus . . . . Beans, bush . . , " lima . . . . Beet Borecole Broccoli Brussels sprouts Buckwheat .... Cabbage Carrot Cauliflower Celeriac Celery Chicory Clover, alfalfa. . . " alsike. red " scarlet , '• white... tTollards il^rn Cotton Cowpea Cress Seed. Cucumber Egg-plant Endive ....... Gherkin Grasses: Canada blue. . Fowl meadow Johnson .... Hungarian brome 80 Kentucky blue. . ' 50 Meadow fescue. . 80 Orchard 80 Texas blue 50 Timothy i 90 Kafir corn ! 90 Kohl-rabi j 90 Leek 85 Lettuce I 90 Lupin, yellow 90 Melon . 90 Millet, common [ 90 " pearl 90 Mustard 95 Oats 1 90 Seed. Okra Onion. ... . Parsley Parsnip Peas Pepper .... Pumpkin. ., Radish... . Rape Rhubarb ... Rutabaga. .. Salsify Sorghum Spinach Spurry . . . . Squash Sunflower .. Tobacco Tomato Turnip Vetch, hairy Wheat 90 8g 75 75 98 85 90 95 95 85 95 83 90 89 90 90 90 88 90 95 90 95 NU3IBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACRE. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture ) [Columns i, 2, 3, and 4 are compiled from '" The Best Forage Plants," by 6tebler and Schroeter. The figures in column 5 are obtained by multi- plying the amount of standard quality of seed required (col. 2) by the retail price quoted i'l N. Y. catalogues. The weight of 10,000.000 grains (col. 6) is obtained by dividing this quantity by the number of seeds in one pound (col. i).] (i) (2) c >- (4) (5) (6) iMaine. — 4J UC/2 t to S ere i tanda ality. (U 1) ^ " 3 bf •a (/3 t3 — 8:2 "o 0"^. ^ <« .0 C D '7i "> ■M ii -r u ^ffl ^-0 I Redtop (Agrostis alba) ... 603,000 9-7 7.00 8-32 fi.45 16.58 2 Reed canary grass (Pha- laris arundinacea) . . . 660,000 21 .0 12.00 44-48 7-35 i5-'5 3 Smooth - stalked mt-adow grass (Poa pratensis) ... 2,400,CKX) 17-5 8.40 12-20 2.10 4.17 4 Rough -stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis) .... 3,000,000 ig.5 8.75 11-17 4.88 3-33 no AGIv.CLLTLIllR. NUMBER, WEIGHT, CO.-iT OI'^ GUASS SEEDS, AND AMOUNT TO SOW PER AGUE— 0«//;///^^/. ri) (^) ^3) (4) (5) (6) £-d r- \- C ^- U rti — 4) ir.z rt (A- - 4; V- ./ ■a U) c Name. IK , — u il • - E "-"r-E ID V 'c< «-i >- If. V c c. ^ uT ^20 5 Sheep's fiscue (Festuca ovina) . . ... 680.000 28 I?. 60 10-15 $4.20 14.85 t Various leaved fescue (Fes tuca heterophylla) 400,000 33-5 19 50 8.38 25 00 7 Creepiny^ fescue (Fcsiuca rubra. . 600,000 42 5 1^ 00 10-15 8.50 16.67 8 Awnless brmne grass (Hio- mus inermisl 137,000 44 35 60 10-14 8.80 72.99 9 I'erennial rye grass(Lolium perenne) . . . . . 336,800 55-0 38.50 18-30 4 9.= 29.70 lo Italian rye grass (I.olium italicum) 285.000 48.5 32.40 12-24 3 56 35- JO II Orchard grass (Daclylis frlomerata) . 57Q,5oo 350 12-16 5.60 '7-25 12 Meadow fescue (Ftstuca pratensis) .... 318,200 52.0 1 2--. 6 7.80 31-42 13 Meadow oat grass (Arrhe- natherum avenaccuiii). . . 159,000 70.0 34 ■ 3« 10 12.60 62.89 14 Yellow oat grass (Trisetum fl;ivescens) .... 2.045,000 29 4.64 5-5 24.65 4-89 X5 VeKet grass (Holcus lana- tus) 1.304.000 22.0 8.80 6.5 4.40 7.66 i6 Timothy (Phleum pratense) 1,170,500 16.0 14.00 48 1.50 8-54 17 Meadow fo.xtail (Alopecu- rus pratensis) . . . . 907.000 23.0 6.21 6 6.21 11.02 i8 Vernal grass (Anthoxan- thum odoratumi 924,000 30.0 7.80 15.00 10 8-2 19 Crested dog's tail (Cynosu- rus cristatus) ... 1,127.000 25.0 13-50 io-32 7.50 8.87 20 Alsike clover (Trifolium hybridum) . . 707.000 12 .3 9.00 94-100 1 .60 14.14 21 Sainfoin (Onobrychis sa- liva) 22,500 78.0* 60.84* 40 6.25 444 44 2-2 Red clover (Trifolium pra- tense) . 279.000 18.0 15.84 64 2.50 .35.84 23 White clover (Trifolium repens) 740,000 10.5 7.50 63 2.94 13-51 24 Common kidney vetch (An- thyllus vulneraria) 154,000 17-5 15.00 60-64 4-58 67-15 25 Alfalfa, or lucern (Medi- cago sativa) 209,500 25.0 22 00 6.-63 3 25 48.56 26 Trefoil (Medicago lupulina) 32?- ,000 18.0 M-75 64-66 2. 16 30.48 27 Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) 375.000 11 .0 4.67 60 4.40 26.66 28 Olficin.d gi.at's rue (Galega officinalis) 62,000 22.0 6.90 4.14 161.29 * Unshe lied. SEEDS. Ill NOTES ON ADAPTABILITY AND USES OP PRE- CEDING GRASSES AND CL.OVERS. No. I. Requires moist climate or damp soil. Best propa- gated by transplanting small turf cuttings in autumn. Valuable for late pasturage or lawns in the New England and Middle States. Use 5-10 per cent in mixiures. No. 2. Adapted to stiff, wet lands and flooded fields. Requires moisture. Valuable hay when cut young, and well suited for binding loose banks near running water or for forming a firm sod on marshy ground. No. 3. Grows best on strongly calcareous soils. Well adapted for pasture, and makes a good bottom grass for meadows. An excellent lawn grass. No. 4. Should be sown only on moist, fertile, and shel- tered soils in mixtures. No. 5. Light, dry soils, especially those which are poor, shallow, and silicious. Valuable bottom grass and for sheep pastures. Sown only in mixtures. No. 6. Best on moist, low lands containing humus and sandy loams. Withstands drought; useful in pasture; un- important for hay. Alone it makes no continuous turf. No. 7. Valuable pasture or bottom grass. Withstands drought; endures both cold and shade. On poor land, es- pecially moist sands and raihvay banks, serves to bind the soil. Product small. No. 8. Valuable for light soils, especially in regions sub- ject to extremes of heat or long periods of drought. Used alone or in mixtures for permanent meadows and pastures. No. 9. Excellent and lasting pasture grass for heavy soils in moist, cool climates. On light, dry soils disappears after the second year. Rarely sown alone. No. 10. Excellent for rich and rather moist lands. Re- garded in Europe as one of the best for hay. Lasts only two or three years. No. II. Grows well on any soil, excepting that which is very wet; withstands shade. Affords a large amount of aftermath. Valuable alike for hay and pasturage. No. 12. Thrives in either dry or wet soils. Valuable hay ot pasture grass. 112 AGRICULTURE. No. 13. Thrives on moist, loamy sands or light clays which are not too moist, and marls. Spring most favorable seed-time. Valuable in the South for hay and winter pasture. No. 14. Valuable for temporary or permanent pastures. Thrives on marly or calcareous soil, in all light land rich in humus. No. 15. Sometimes sown on light, thin soils unsuited for more valuable sorts. Rarely used excepting in mix- tures. "No. 16. Best known and most extensively cultivated for hay. Sown alone or mixed with redtop or clover. Suc- ceeds best on moist loams or clays. On dry ground the yield is light. No. 17. Endures cold. Likes strong soil, stiff loam, or clay. One of the best grasses for land under irrigation. Very early. Two to four pounds in mixtures for permanent pastures. No. 18. Grows on almost any kind of soil; sown only in mixtures, i to 2 pounds, with permanent pasture or meadow grasses. No. 19. Especially adapted for loams, light clays, marls, and moist, loamy sands. Moist climates are most suitable. Withstands drought and thrives well in shade. Nutritive value high. Used in mixtures to form bottom grass either in pasture or hay. No. 20. Grows on strongest clay or peaty soil; peculiarly adapted to damp ground. Bears heavy frosts without injury. Sown in August or February. No. 21. Requires good and open subsoil, free from water. Sown alone, from end of March to beginning of May. No 22. Succeeds best in rich, loamy soil, on good clays, and on. soils of an alluvial nature. A standard fodder plant. No. 23. Thrives on mellow land containing lime, and on ail soils rich in humus. Resists drought. Generally used in mixtures for pastures or lawns. No. 24. Cultivated for grazing; on warro soils, if manured SEEDS. 113 and of proper depth. Hardy; resists drought. Sheep, goats, and horned cattle eat it greedily. No. 25. Grows well on any calcareous soil having a per- meable subsoil. Especially adapted to the warm and dry regions of the West and Southwest. Requires irrigation. No. 26. Any soil containing sufficient moisture and lime is suitable. Most successful on clay marls. Cultivated only where the better kinds of clover cannot be grown. No. 27. Thrives on dry or moist, sandy or clayey soils. Well suited to dry lands at high elevations, though poor. No. 28. Excellent fodder plant for warm, sheltered situ- ations. Thrives only in deep soil, and when subsoil is not wet. VITALITY OF SEEDS IF PROPERLY KEPT. (McKerrow.) Turnips 5 years Wheat 2 years Rape 5 Pumpkin 5 Peas 3 Beans 3 Clover 3 Oats 3 .Qarley 3 Buckwheat 2 Corn 2 Timothy 2 Rye , 2 Flax 2 Millet 2 Orchard-grass 2 114 AGRICULTURE. SEEDSMEN'S CUSTOMARY WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF SEEDS. (E. Brown.) Kind of Seed. Alfalfa Amber cane Bent grass: Creeping Rhode Island. . Bermuda grass. . , Bird's-foot clover Bitter vetch. ... Blue grass: Canada Kentucky. ... Texas Broad bean Brome, awnless. . Broom corn Bur clover: Hulled Unhulled Spotted Castor bean Clover: Alsike Crimson'. Egyptian Mammoth. . . . Red White Cowpea Creited dog's tail Fescue: Hard Meadow Red Sheep's Tall Various leaved. Flat pea. Flax Hemp Japan clover: Hulled Unhulled Johnson grt.ss. . Kafir com Lentil Lupine, white. . . Meadow foxtail.. Meadow grass: Fowl. Rough stalked. Wood Pounds per Bushel. 60 45-60 10-20 10-15 24-36 60 60 14-20 14-30 14 50-60 10-14 45-60 60 8-10 60 46-60 60 60 60 60 60 60 56-60 14-30 I 2-16 14-24 12-15 I 2-16 14-24 14-18 50-60 48-56 40—60 60 18-25 14-28 50-60 60 50-60 7-14 1 1-14 14—20 14-24 Kind of Seed. Millet: Barnyard Broom corn Common German Golden wonder Hungarian Pearl. Milo maize Oat grass: Tall Yellow Orange cane Orchard grass Pea: Field Garden, smooth Garden, wrinkled. . .. Peanut Rape, winter Red ton: Chaff Fane " Rescue grass Rice Rye grass: English Italian Sainfi in Serradella Soy bean Spelt . . Sunflower Sweet clover: Hulled Unhulled Sweet c^m (ace. to var.) Sweet vernal, perennial . Teosinte Timothy Velvet bean Vetch: Hriry Spring Water grass, large Wild rice Yellow trefoil SEEDS. 115 WEIGHT AND SIZE OF GARDEN SEEDS. (ViLMORIN.) Name. Anise Asparagus bean . Bean Beet Borecole Broccoli Cabbage Caraway Carrof: With spines. . . Without spines Cauliflower. . . . Celery Chicory Cress, American com. garden Cucumber, com. . gl >bc.. snake. Dill Eggplvnt Endive Gourds, fancv. . . Hop : . . . Kohlrabi Wt.ofa No. of Qt. of Seeds Seeds, in a Uz. Grain. ir .7 13 29.9 32-42 243 *5 9-7 3 27. 2 19 27 . 2 24 27.2 19 16.3 23 9-3 45 14.0 62 27.2 24 18.6 162 15-5 45 21.0 62 28.4 29 19.4 2 19.4 6 17-5 3 II .7 5« 10.4 16 13-2 39 17-5 I 9.7 13 27 . 2 19 Name. Leek Lettuce Maize Muskmelon Mustard, black. . white . Nasturtium, tall. dwari. Okra Onion Pea gray or field. Peanut Pepper Pumpkin Purslane Radish Rhubarb Salsify Spinach Squash Tomato Turnip Watermelon. . . . Wt.ofa Qt. of Seeds, Oz. 21 .4 16. 7 24.9 14.0 26. 2 29. 1 13-2 233 24.1 19.4 27. 2-31. 1 26.4-31.1 No. ot Seeds in a Grain . 15 5 1 17 5 9 7 23 7 27 2 3- I- 8 19 16 4-7 9 8 7 1 1 26 7 17 9 26 52 t2-3 4 45 13 t4-5 I tlO-I2 16 ti-4 t3-S ti-2 10 t2 162 8 3 6 7 6 19-26 29 t3-4 * In 100 grains. t In 10 grains. averagf: time required for garden SF]EDS TO germinate. (Bailey.) Name. Days. Name. Days. Name. Days. 6-10 7-10 6-10 12-18 6-10 r 0— 20 C^rn. . . ...... 5-8 6-10 5-10 6-8 7-10 6-10 Parsnip Pepper Radish Salsify Tomato Turnip 10—20 Beet Cucumber Endive Lettuce Onion Pea 9-13 Cabbage Carrot Cauliflower. . , CePrv 3-6 7-12 6-12 4-8 YIKFiD OF SEEDS FIIOM AN ACRE. (Bailey.) Good Crop ( = 20 bu. Wheat). Maximum Crop ( = 50 bu. Wheat). Yield Seedsmen would Figure in Making Contracts lor Large Quan- tities. Bean 600 lbs. 250 150 125 900 100 100 ■ 1000-2500 (ace. to var.) TOO 150 1500 lbs. 800 700 600 2500 400 700 2500-4000 400 1000 500 lbs. Cabbage (2 years) Cucumber 200 100 Muskmelon 100 Pea 800 Squash, winter summer Sweet corn 100 100 800—2000 Tomato Watermelon 100 100 116 AGRICULTURE. M OSTJ t3 (U TJ 03 ^ 03_>;. Co iC wXi >. 03+-" ,4^ ID t^TD tS >>§ M-l •S£ o M w" 4) o ^ V 3 4-> . § o ClJ •c > ;3 o -ij u -d " •^ a o x: r-:=! ■fe .2> < 4J > 03 tf-4 ;3 * o o • c o o^ cc o s fi H O o H » c/i ^ Q c-^' ti o Q so w 03^-1 6S . O o OJ oi +-> ips IS peas, plant I— J o oc/2 Ct3 o +-> c -(J O c C D thering clover, ( ** pereni Hi] 'c/3 c c +2 C and smo crimson < g season, 1 plant; Q o „ B 1^ o c/3 2 O ti ^ c ^ ;3 K 4^ ►J C -u -d-^S.- 3^ 2 t/3 o 6 ernate c e annua ; during lal plant y alt som weeds Annu ^'HW'^'a,-^ 1 1. 05 1. ^a 1. ^' .5 r; "^ w H Ih H D H O 03 O ^'O o ^ u 1 ^ >> (uZ d c ^ o o fl, o$: •rt be-- c.S" ^-^ c r, ij o3 S >, T) .-d C 3 > <" M ap 2 S' S aj '^'S e :3 ;3 ■ . ^ 5 > t« . a 03 i^f^-^ QO n QC to , 1 .5 'c tOT o; s of tion ribu -d OJ 0) CIS be a: to 1 -d IS ci3 Meth ?*ropa nd D c eds; ?ed. eds; i2 ;.«' cd ■4-J 4-> 4-> 4-> 6 •d 4J 'd Hco >. G£ >> >. bf >. — > < uE. 3 < 03. ou C 03 o3»: % ^""^ 1-. 'J oS Vj 0! bci -d 03 «e M o c ca to — . OJ 3 to -^ i-d.a b£ -d ' O OJ -^ y •rt r- W o rt-r cd o o t/3 C (0 O S a; cO lU to M .J3 -d ,:; "5 iii r-i tTi »-• •- •Tl • - CTJ dJ C (U Qj 0) (U CO 0) t/3 (1) (/} en en w • > Mo ^2 m o 3 bo to >. be S A< 'f > tn S2 > ^ ^ ^ ^2 8 « .-d > C/3 t^ f-, ■".^ 5H +-> ■-; S;3 •t/3_'T;Mn'" 1- :3 -; M bc^ -d -t^ > to <1 OJ (U 3 d=1 7^ t/3 ^ o "5'^'d y t/i 0) -v: aj ::; ;3 o ,c;^ boo r,)0 o a . 73 ^^ o a! 05 oj-c 73 y bo (-.13 bi rH 73 -^ 1j V :3 2 ;3T: o o bo cr •fi'C ™ d '-' !j". X « Ji c cu rt a! 5 O a; a 73 73 o be • C OS >. C ^3 . OJ 3j w S"^ "tit" - t" J; a 3 OK "d oj s- o rt ^ O CJ 118 AGRICULTURE. Co Q 02 o o En o pq < '3 rt a; rt W Mt3 rr-t r* O tX7 bo .s 5f >. .s > 045 c ™ Oh ■2 § > S2 5 C-Td D ■ - . O ™ w > p. ••;3 u i) 7i O, Oh ^ a o u < a, c a . . o Q w ■-H bo o •5.2 ■ -+J bo ri C > Op, >*J c ;3 Tl c S; ■1) "'. ^ c -d ,k^ 0. Q - a; c Ol c *-> (JH fo ^ 2 r y) a> ''Or' ID C rt - o ft ai O ^ -- +J-.H W, C cfl ;3 ^6 •d c . • :;:; '^ w'V O ■1^ ID U O -4-i U O. 3 bo -c o P, vi 5J C c 2 .5 'r^ •a o O 6^ o •a o *-> Hr^ bb br: 3 3 < < bo Q H > o S-2 Ol a iz; C O e a o O a js (U I- cj d ^ 3 ft ft ft ft O a ft- 0) bo 'ft r^ ; I Ih (U^ OJ - ji bo G oj +-> bo> *^ - r; -M CO ^ £ ftii o 13 T) > fe > r. ■^ bo 13 .;:i bo o « s^ "2 13X CD tn ™ bo_aj'd ^ a! ^13 >. .+-> bo ■i- dj ;S OS O Oh o . >,13 2 ^ bON-i WEEDS. 119 r* I. ^■-2 M C^(u'd.-i3 g ta^gM S3 .S .2 .S3 gM ^ i .S ^.S S t» (U.-^ •■?? .. •- . (UGC-.Qlr- ^ 0;3p;0C d OC -^"^ Sc "S "S OJ?--h<"OJ? "1^ ^^ ?, St^^i ^ >o -^c §t^ -^Sti-^s >;^-:3m'H>-S >■ -i^ ^-+j>t-^ -^ '-'C ^^ -^-^ :3.s;j ^Ho;=!.ScatHU v- 00 U M QMS fa3 MM S ^ a, o O li +:? J5 "d c •d '0&2bi'd ^2S'> & (UW3l/3(Uttl 4; 0) 11 ^ n " > > f") a, o > o o (U z W o o ■tJ >. 3 ;3 t— > •— 1 ^ ^Qco^ ^6o6 < ^ ^< < >A < -s. < A < A < ^ > -2-> d ^<" •"• O-f r, •"• r,"i Oi-O ^ ". O -T rr, O o li ^ X O S^^oi •SS§> 2 § ° s i -^ § a-.t5 . .a ^ s j^ ^ ? |:° .s li -^ ^-tir^ ^h % ^ot I jss-^ -§55., -^.3 ^.s;:^^- ,^v. s^i5S?.j^. 120 AGRICULTURE. T Q U O M o 1^: 1^ o <) -^ C ^^ .t3 n o I- o ;3 ? M > a; O ft . ">. bo > C oi ni ,.• b.' "5 S C +J O >'-j j; •-; Vh Oi 3 ft :3 o I-. o o a. o 1^ u > 0) "^ :> cs o ^ c 5^ S-2p ;3 OJ y CJ 13 A; flH go-- Oft, ■ - x/i P. 0) D o 13 c C 13 cj bf. u w) M *-* fll r-( ^ o . S 'H t> o H CT3-^ Oj > -i V) .IJ C 1; oj oj OJ O • - H . w cTj tn OJrU (U '^ O (U c ^ 0) rt on CO bo ft C/2 O 1-^ O 13 C Oh ^ § H rS o •'J >, c3 o". C >. d O < 3 ■-' O 3 0; IS "i* to bo 13 oJU t3^ o .2 c^ 32 j-d-c :; oj ^ EKEMIE3 OF FARM CROPS. 121 VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. TREATMENTS FOR INJURIOUS INSECTS AND FUNGUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. By the late Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. The value of the following treatments for preventing injury to crops from insects and fungus diseases has been proved by abundant experience. It is essential that the treatments be given promptly and thoroughly. In the case of fungus dis- eases, it is generally essential that the applications be made before the disease appears, since they are preventive, rather than curative. l^he treatfuents considered most important are printed in italics. As a rule, those not so printed need be given only \w seasons or localities in which the attack is serious." Formulas. No. I. Bordeaux Mixture. — Place4 pounds of copper sulfate in a cloth sack and suspend this over night in a wood vessel containing 4 gallons of water, immersing the sack. In another wood vessel slake 6 pounds of fresh lime in as many gallons of water. When the lime is cool, pour it and the copper sulfate solution into a barrel and add enough water to make 45 gallons. Apply at once with a force-pump, with spraying nozzle, stir- ring frequently during the application. No. 2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — Dissolve I ounce of copper carbonate in 3 pints of strong ammonia and add this solution to 25 gallons of water. Apply as in No. i. No stir- ring is required. No. 3. Copper Sulfate Sohition. — Dissolve, as directed in No. I, I pound of copper sulfate in 15 gallons of water. Apply as in No 2. No. 4. Stir 4 ounces of Paris green in 40 gallons of water, and add \ pound of fresh lime, slaked in 2 quarts of hot water. Apply as in No. i. No. 5. Bordeaux Mixture {y^o. i), with Paris green added at the rate of i ounce to 10 gallons. Apply as in No. i. * The following scheme for treating crops is after a plan published by the late Mr. E. G. Lodemann of Cornell University, in Trans. N. Y. State Agricultural Society for 1893, PP- 176-179. oo AGRICULTURE. No. 6. London purple, 4 ounces, very thoroughly mixed with 25 pounds of land plaster. Apply with a sprinkling-box. No. 7. Mix I ounce of fresh powdered white hellebore in 3 gallons of water. Apply at once with force-pump or sprinkling pot. No. 8. Kerosene Emulsion. — Dissolve \ pound hard, or I quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling water; place I pint of kerosene in a tin can; pour the boiling-hot solution into this, cork, and shake rapidly for i minute. Before using, dilute with its own bulk of warm soft-water. Apply as in No. 2. No. g. Mix I pound of fresh Fyrethrmn po7vder with an equal bulk of air-slaked lime in a bottle or tin can; cork tightly and leav-e 24 hours before use. Apply in still air, with sprinkling-box or powder-bellows. No. 10. A ir- slaked lime di^'^Yx^di. with a sprinkling-box. No. II. Cut small cards from thin tarred paper, slit one side to the centre, and make a short cross-cut near the end of the slit, as in drawing. No. 12. Corrosive Stibliviate Solution. — Dissolve i\ ounces of corrosive sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, and pour this solution into 15 gallons of cold water. Use wood, enrthen, or glass vessels. For potato scab the formaldehyd treatment is preferable (see p. 107). No. 13. Potassiinn Slilfid Solution. — Dissolve \ ounce of potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur, sulfuret of potassium) in I quart of warm (not hot) water, and add this solution to 3 quarts of cold water. Apply as in No. 2. '<— - - = tr 55 D-c fcjc •2 ct E.= rt 2 v. 3 ^ c rt E jii rt = > ii = c . ^ o - ii ^' S = u "c r" TO "O / ' c ^ ^ -vj c — t c V 6 0< 1 o (u 55 TO TO B7> «; CO . is a u H TO X a ti - o fe^ CXIZ TO i; o d tr ° X = D & 5 Pi t E c 1 <^ S o 1; O 5" ti OJ ,.. o ■Vi ^ ■ -; :t! ! .> O S •oZ ^■y V i- X m ^^biO TO Z TO -Q bJC ** bii; o o TO 01 •- 3 ri c •a c o o w E a "7 TO rt 2° « =S ^o o ax TO E TO "v _o o TO W--^ 3 CO C . c - TO 9J as TO •a tn ^ ft; O :S "C Z 3 _r C OJ J3 J5 ^^^ >-<\, :-^ 5 S »'u5 s: ^ ^ .- - .^' l^^-o? D "C C ;j - ^ .3 COO'S O > U O •*- '' • I- c '^ >- O TO ^ ^^ <^'T3 ^ X^ — u 1) ^ X v., S ■^k O c« C a a CQ U 124 AGRICULTURE. oi CB«M rrt rt o t C S-l f/i Ti c m in o rt <-l 1) g c, a. vi iv) ^ ^^ i (LI _: § oj ^ (I) x; c ii — > 3 g rt c.-'o rt ■«■ T3 •. a; £-6.5 8^^ u jr C 5 i-x:.^ he D v^ « w C« jj o ^ o >- w - ^ P^ Pk O rt few H f> *i ."^ .r ^ ^1^ ~» -V . "■^ 'S ^- 8 >« « -5 «-^ O ^ rt S M O t) <0 8 § ^•- S ■«s 4) <-> 1- C 3 U ._ U > > ^o- i. •- <-> J^ rt rt o. V sT 8 8 ^2 ^^ ^rt - ^ - ,e^8 5 O i- rt 8 5) r ►-' O tl \i -v^ *» y^ C^ f*^ v> i^ ^^ •** %i^ 8 's! port ^ S 3 _ C o- . a 1 ^ m H rt f V) ^ o* ■^^ « t/) r^ . rt i; '^ J. '*-' a. o ^ -^ S « O u §-^ CO (A Ou ^ ^- < ^ -l"^- ^"^2 *^ "Kk :^ 8 Srv; "** e* «I (0 O -kl 4: bi'si:^ JJ^ -.88^ -is «-"^ ":? ^ (U< ^^k,c,s:^8<:rtOrt ^t;g tt cq < bo be o a rt >-■ O -XI C rt 3 O 3 u i; cr3 4) o 73 O Pi is flu EN"EMIES OF FARM CROPS. 125 55 t B, 8 s ■J: s « ^^ >^ y ^ ^ ^ ^ s t -5; CQ 2 £ jj c (/3 tu « O V- »- N w o en tn Jl . J2 c u R 3 O rt b a h Si- o 13 8"^ ■■c ^ -. -a x; 'u ^2 Q O 1^ ^ rt a d 6 :^ S^ • a. 3 > >. ■.^3 O Oi I' '3 >- «-• . c «< c id iJ - c cn-a !j 1) U oj > c >- •V. i > - . •:;-a "^ i; c <« ^ '" • .=* « »^ 0-. :z ^ ■^ 5; k R r hr ,, El r- t» ' ^ "i ►^•o ■poo ,'03 >— u rt ~ «! l; O C« 03 *7X1 c/; 3 -3 ■^ O c a bi - ? z: o c »- O rt u bfXl C X 3 rt oU a s s c« 9 a ^ I- u v« >- S a^ > «CQQ C/2 a o 126 AGRICULTURE. A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly thost of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progres- sive farmer as a nec- essary feature of the year's operations, and in the case of the apple, pear, and plum crops the omission of such treatment means seri- ous loss. The conse- quent demand for spraying apparatus has been met by all the leading pump manufac- turers of this country, and ready-fitted appa- ratus, consisting of pump, spray tank or barrel, and nozzle with ..yjse, are on the market in numerous styles and at prices ranging from $20 upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard work may, however, be considerably reduced by puichasing merely the pump and fixtures, and mounting them at home on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical ex- perience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady stream, provided with two discharge hose-pipes. One of these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer one is the spraying hose and terminates in the nozzle. The spraying-hose should be about 20 feet long, and may be fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in Orchard-spraying Apparatus. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 127 directing the spray. The nozzle should be capabl3 of breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of liquid. The two more satisfactory nozzles are those of the Nivcr and the Vermorel type. A suitable pump with nozzle and hose may be obtained of any pump manufacturer or hardware dealer at a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this way facilitating the spraying of trees, or for more extended operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water tank. PREVENTION OF OAT-SMUT. (Goff.) The smut of oats, which causes an annual loss to the farmers of the United States amounting in the aggregate to millions of dollars, may be entirely prevented by treating the seed oats before sowing, at a cost for labor and materials which need not exceed five cents per acre of oats sown. Two methods of treatment have been found satisfactory. These we will call for convenience the Formaldehyd Treat' ftient and the Hot-water Treatment. The first has the ad- vantage of being the simpler, but it requires a small cash outlay for materials. The second requires no materials or apparatus except what the farmer already has, unless it be a good thermometer. The Formaldehyd Treatment. — Soak the seed oats one hour in a solution of formaldehyd, made by adding one ounce of formaldehyd to every 3^ gallons of water. Place the water in a barrel, or other convenient vessel, add the formaldehyd to it, and pour in one and one-half bushels of seed oats for each 3^ gallons of the solution. At the end of one hour^ draw off or pour off the part of the solution that is not.ab- sorbed by the oats, and spread the oats on a clean floor to dry. They should be shoveled over once or twice a day j until dry enough to sow. 128 AGRICULTURE. Formaldehyd is a liquid that may be purchased at drug- stores. Ask iox forty-per-cent formaldehyd. It costs from 50 to 60 cents per pint, and a pint contains enough for about 30 bushels of seed oats. It is sold in smaller quantities at 10 cents per ounce. If formaldehyd is purchased in consid- ' erable quantities, it will be well to have the druggist weigh out one ounce in a small bottle, and then mark on the bottle the height to which the ounce reaches. This bottle may then be used as a measure in adding the formaldehyd to the water. I The Hot-water Treatment consists in soaking the seed j 10 minutes in water at a temperature of 133° F. Heat the 1 water in a large kettle, and close by sink a barrel in the ground to within a foot of the top. Pour a part of the hot water into the barrel, and take the temperature Avith a good thermometer. Then add either cold or hot water, stirring j it in the mean time, until it shows a temperature of 138°. | Put about a bushel of oats in a coarse gunnysack, tie this to one end of a pole and rest the pole over a post, thus mak- 1 ing a lever, by which the sack of oats may be easily raised | or lowered. Now dip the sack of oats into the water in the } barrel. The water will be immediately cooled, and hot I water must be added to keep the temperature about 133°. ' Let one person attend to the temperature, and another to handling the oats. Keep the oats moving in the barjiel. Take them out at the end of 10 minutes, dip the sack at once in cold water, then spread on a clean floor to dry. Shovel them over three times a day for a few days, when they may be sown with a force drill ; or in two or three hours they may be sown broadcast. As the oats absorb considerable water, it is necessary to sow about half a bushel more per acre than when untreated seed is used. This is on the basis of two and one-half bushels per acre. Two men in one day can treat enough seed to sow twe-nty acr.es. This treatment may also be applied with satisfactory results for the prevention of smut of other cereals than oats, and for prevention of potato-scab, as will be seen from the following article. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 129 THE FORMALDEHYD TREATMENT FOR THE PREVENTION OF THE S3ILTS OF CEREAL. GRAINS AND OF POTATO-SCAB. (Bolley.) For Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Alillet . — Use formalde- hyd (40 per cent solution) at the rate of i pound of the liquid to 45 or 50 gallons of water. Use any method of wetting the grain most suited to your means. Sprink- ling and shoveling is as effective as dipping, if carefully done. It is well to treat one day and allow the grain to remain piled up overnight, thus allowing the fumes of the solution to act throughout the pile. Cautions. — (i) In the case of oats or barley the wetting must be more thorough than in the case of wheat, so that the formaldehyd or gas may penetrate beneath the husks of the grain. (2) Do not allow wet grain to remain in a pile long enough to get hot. A very slight degree of fermentation may greatly reduce the yield. For Potato-scab. — Soak the tubers before cutting one hour and a half in a solution of formaldehyd at .'.le rate of one pound of the liquid to thirty gallons of water ; or in a solution of corrosive sublimate, using one pound of the chemical to each fifty gallons of water. Note : The potato-scab fungus lives from year to year in the soil and upon old vines. Hence it is wise to try to keep it off your lands, by treating all seed-tubers. (See Bull. 37, N. D. Experiment Station.) 130 AGRICULTURE. FIGHTING THE CHINCH-BUG BY 3IEANS OP KEROSENE EMULSION. (Goff ) Experiments have established the fact that with thorough work according to the directions given below the kerosene emulsion will prevent the invasion of cornfields by chinch- bugs, even though the bugs appear in great numbers. How to Make and Apply the Kerosene Emulsion. — Slice half a pound of common bar soap, put it in a kettle with one gal- lon of soft water, and boil until dissolved ; put two gallons of kerosene in a churn or stone jar, and to it add the boiling- hot soap solution ; churn from twenty to thirty minutes, when the whole will appear creamy. If properly made, no oil will separate out when a few drops of the emulsion are placed on a piece of glass. To each gallon of the emulsion add eight gallons of water and stir. Apply with a sprink- ling-pot. Every farmer should learn to make this emulsion, as it is a most useful insecticide. It is especially valuable for kill- ing lice on cattle and hogs. Paris green will not kill chinch- bugs. The bugs will be very likely to enter cornfields border- ing grainfields, after the grain is cut. Before they have had time to do this plough a deep furrow along the side of the field they will enter, and throw into it stalks of green corn. When the bugs have accumulated on the corn, sprinkle with the emulsion. Put in fresh stalks and sprinkle whenever the bugs accumulate. If they break over the barrier, as they probably will, run a few furrows a few rows back in the field, and repeat. When they have at- tacked stalks of standing corn, destroy by sprinkling. If the remedy is tried, it should be used persistently. To kill one lot of bugs and then stop will do little or no good. When the bugs threaten to destroy as much as five or ten acres, it will pay for one or two men to devote their whole time to the warfare. Only a part of each day, however, will be needed. Some corn wi!! b^ 1n<^<- at best, but the most of the field should be saved FORESTRY. 13 L TX. FORESTRY. FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. By Dr. B. E. Fkrnow, late Director of the New York State College of Forestry. There has been much talk about forestry in the U. S., but there has been little application of the teachings of that science. This is easily explained in so far as the lumber- men are concerned, who are in the business of making money by cutting the virgin woods, similar to the mining of ore, but it is less intelligible with the farmer who is pre- sumed to be in the business of making money by the pro- duction and harvesting of crops, which he grows on the soil of his farm. That his wood-lot could and should by him be also treated as a crop seems rarely to have entered his mind. Whether he starts out, as in the prairie portions of the State, by planting a grove, or whether he cuts his wood from the virgin growth which he left after clearing enough for field and meadow, in either case he should fully realize that he is dealing with a valuable crop, which requires and will pay for the attention and application of knowledge in its management, such as a true husbandman would give to it. The Wisconsin farmer, just as his neighbor in Minnesota, living in a State largely covered with timber of great value, has special reason to practise the principles of forestry in order to get the most out of this part of the property both for the present and the future. And those who are located in the prairie portions have no less need of maintaining a forest growth on some part of their farm as a matter of proper management of their resources. The first thing, as with every other crop, that will have to be decided is on what portions of the farm this wood-crop is best propagated. In deciding about the location of the wood-lot the farmer must keep in mind : I. That wood will grow on almost any soil, which is unfit for agricultural use ; that, although it grows best on the 132 AGRICULTURE. best sites, it is to be mainly considered and used as a " stop- gap" to make useful those parts which would otherwise be waste. 2. That a forest growth, besides furnishing useful material, is a condition of soil-cover which affects other conditions, namely, of climate and water-flow, and hence its location should be such as to secure the most favorable influence on these. 3. That the wood-crop does not live on the soil, but on the air, enriching the soil in nutritive elements by its decaying foliage rather than exhausting it, and hence that no ma* nuring and no rotation of crops ife necessary as in field crops; in other words, the location of the wood-crop can be made permanent. A wood growth should therefore be maintained on the farm : a. Wherever the ground is too wet or too dry, too thin or too rocky or too steep, for comfortable ploughing and for farm crops to do well, or for pasturage to last long, or, in general, where the ground is unfit for field and meadow. b. On the highest portions of the farm, the tops of hills and also in belts along the hillsides, so as to interrupt con- tinuous slopes, which might give rise to such a rush of surface-waters as to gully the ground and make it unfit for field crops or pasture ; the gentler slopes which are liable to washing should at least be kept in grass or terraced for crops to prevent the rush of surface-waters. c. Along watercourses, where narrower or wider belts of timber should be maintained to prevent undermining of banks and washing of soil into the streams if ploughed too close to the border ; the shade of a forest growth would also check rapid evaporation of smaller watercourses. d. Wherever the protection by a wind-break against cold or hot winds is desirable, for which purpose the timber belt is of more far-reaching effect than the wind-break of a single row of trees ; the reduced evaporation from the fields due to this protection has been known to increase the yield of field crops by as much as 25 per cent. f. On all unsightly places, which impair the general FORESTRY. 133 aspect of the farm — and there are few farms without these — a few trees, a small grove, will add to the thrifty appear- ance of the farm, make useful the otherwise waste spots, ai.d serve as shelter to grazing cattle, etc. Altogether, the farmer should realize that husbandry of soil and water is the secret of future success, and that successful water management is best attained by the main- tenance of properly located and well-managed forest areas. There is much extravagant talk about the influence of forests on climate and on rainfall especially. We have but little definite knowledge on these subjects, but it takes no expert, only a little observation, to appreciate the effects of a wind-breaking timber belt on one's own feeling, and it takes but little reasoning to appreciate that the field crop in the shelter of the timber belt participates in this feeling. The dry winds are the great bane of field crops in the West, because they dissipate the moisture ; a timber belt breaks their force and reduces thereby their evaporating power. Just so it takes no great philosopher to see that when rain falls on naked ground it compacts that ground and by and by prevents itself from penetrating; the water is forced to drain off superficially and rapidly, instead of sinking into the ground and remaining there for the use of field crops. And that the washing and gullying of the soil is also a result of this rushing off of surface-waters, due to the clearing away of its plant-cover, requires no wise man to point out ; every farmer experiences it more or less every year. That any one farmer's neglect or the devastation of any small part of the forest growth should have an influence on the rainfall or climate of the whole country nobody should claim; but the conditions surrounding each particular farm, its local climate, soil, and water conditions, are changed, and finally the aggregate changes make themselves felt over the whole state. Now as to the management of the wood-lot a few hints may be acceptable. The farmer may not necessarily employ the finer methods of managing the wood-crop, but by the mere application of common sense and a little knowledge of tree-life he may do better than he does at present. 134 AGRICULTURE. He should at least observe the following rules : 1. Fire should be carefully kept out of the wood-lot. for it has in no way a beneficial effect. It kills not only the undergrowth, which is desirable because it helps to shade the soil, and injures, if it does not kill, the young tiee growth, which is to take the place of the older growth, but the worst effect is that it consumes the vegetable mould which has accumulated by the fall and decay of leaves, twigs, and other vegetation, and which forms the manure, the fertility, of the soil. Fire is to be used only when through bad management or otherwise a dense undesirable undergrowth has come in, which it is too expensive to re- move in other ways when the time for natural reproduction has come or planting is to be done. It must then be used with caution in early spring or late fall, before the brush is too dry, when the fire will smoulder rather than burn fiercely and can be kept within bounds, 2. Cattle must be kept out where young forest growth is to be fostered. Sheep and goats especially are of no benefit to wood-crops, but horses and cattle may be allowed to browse through the wood-lot where the young growth has passed out of their reach. Pigs are a benefit by working over the ground and thereby burying seeds, especially acorns ; but after the seed is so brought under ground where a young crop is expected to be reared next year they must be kept out. Altogether, the cattle and farm animals should be kept where you want them, and not where you do not want them. Sometimes, however, the roaming of cattle may be beneficial by keeping down too dense im- penetrable underbrush in young sapling growth. It is better to so cut and manage the old timber that a desirable new growth will spring up than to cut clean and replant. Planting should be done only where there is no desirable natural tree growth. Hence where there is a well- established wood-lot, the whole management of the crop consists in proper cutting. How this is best done cannot be described readily within the short space of this article, but every farmer who is interested in learning the principles of using the axe to FORESTRY. 135 advantage in reproducing a wood crop or how to establish a wood-lot can obtain from the U. S. Department of Agri- culture, free of charge, a pamphlet entitled "Forestry for Fa-mers," in which in plain language is discussed in detail how trees and forests grow, how to start a wood-crop, and how to manage the wood-lot. It does not exhaust the subject, but merely teaches the first steps, and the thinking farmer will find his way of step- ping farther. NUMBER OF TREES ON AN ACRE. (Egleston ) The number of trees needed to plant an acre of ground, at various distances apart, is as follows: 2 ft. apart each way 10,890 by 2 ft 7,260 apart each way 4,840 2,722 3 3 4 5 6 8 10 1,742 1,210 680 435 12 ft. apart each way 15 18 20 22 25 30 302 200 135 no 90 70 50 Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row, 7260 trees per acre. Rows eight feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 5445 trees per acre. Rows ten feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4356 trees per acre. One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt requires 52S0 trees, or cuttings for a single row one foot apart in the row» 136 AtaUCL'LTLKE. H ;? o < « J= >' ^ ^ ^ Vj M ^ r ^ a C4 V j5 c/5 O o u ^ a; •^ •H .c H :/5 'o (U X ^ a jd — C H c a; .-13 H 'o >^ ^ ., *^ S < — o «> 3j -■ w^ ■^ 5 u< 7J u in ^ n3 u •5 a .s 5? •JJ « ^ » 'T P S hJ •»1 > hJ 1 a w U k :?, •sqi Dijpads • ON ■* ■^ ro ir, ro rn -ir cn^-D 00 00 -^ CJ M - t^ U-) lo ooo LO ro - M M 4 •<•■«-■<*■ ■*■ 00 00 in lo t^ ■<(- w vo MM \n m -^ N t--\0 ■* 1-^00 00 o_^ q_ M q r-. ■- -T 'Ti 'i- 4- m -i- o ro r^ "^ VO M tv " N N H 00 N O ■* O in M (N t-^00 »nvo MOO M ■* ■<»• 4 M ro N 0) C CO u-1 ^ t- C>00 VO 00 CO -^ ro M ro cr, rr) rh rn en rn - 00 r* t^ ri OVO -^ On 0\ (N N C>l M M ro CO CO ro fO - ■-I M t^ Tl- o Osvo 1-^ M ►^ q 0_^ 0_^ On o> M M M M pi cT u a. -z u < .u .u.iJ ■:: -S ►-. C/) o c u m C C^ *^ •-^ o c ~ o ^ ^1 owo tAH(/5< =1 b ■- .-«. 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'fi tr. it. tr. 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 rs = CTC 3 3 3 Q. Oh ^ CU h. Oh h. a. 4; ._ ~ 3 ~f 3 E s . r z = - c- a t: 0] X - " 3 3 - o it -^ .= .E ,H s- CJ CI. C- ,5 o ^ '5 u— y 3 ^ «'S e - ^ 3 -s i: t c tj rt u) .■'' _ M u >^3 3 tt-ScS- £.£ ^S o y.£ Cu 0- H CL G, CL ;32 <- c ! r- y .2^ ^e- y 5. ■■>' 5? y p^i.^ rt ri^ re . — , u! y y 3 c y ■J *^ '^ ^ 3 c y y-^K^r" — r; etc y y >,y y u > u y •DiO y o O"^ y u i-.£Z2 t"^^ 9-S-5-^ °^ y ^-^ ^,3 5 t;_:: y2 ^ y_; o :: o ^ ;u u c f- y « • HJ ■ U 1- c-y u 3 c« u y o .3>.^ n:cy^t° t/ ~ r, ~-xL — — -yy^^i^Cyy « ro ■* m 138 AGRICULTURE. be < M H h^ • H H Q < H m 4) 5 a a A Ph ^ d Of5P»<^»nt^MO O O \C O O rOOO lOM OOOVO lO^fON w M o O io-*0 t^r^vo N N mOoocooo O ^ ■^inTf-i-^M t-x-*N 000 t^iO'a-r'irop) t~~lO--i-. O O i^>oO^ t^pj r^O t^oo « 00 O ^ t^oo lo iriNoo>0'0'*rorOMciNNi-iiHi-ii-iMMi-! t^oo P) ■♦Mvooo t^r^ui ooo o ■^ O 00 00 00 n ID IN u-ii-i r-c^o irii-oo loroiH O O^ t^vO lO ■* rrvo w rnvo mvo M myD lot^'- t~no t^mroN o ooo >o mo Moovo io-"^-^'*<^<^0 O N t~.0-0P10'-''O0'*;P^000VO'*N'-'000 VO OO M O^ two lO-'T'^fOmrOCt M N M 0 00 M 1^ PI 100 "*■f»^^oc^■*0 r^'^i-i o t^'O ■* n 1 00 t^^ io-'i-'f-^rororoN N M N N Tj- P) r. M © t^ ro •* u-i\0 O IT) t^ IT) t-% m ro ■♦oo PI lOO lOMOO inrOM ot^m g ro - lOvO PI 00 t^'O iom-*-^rocomr^P) N w in M ►- IH M »o •* f^ m 0\ (r> pj VO ■^ XT) — OVO 00 M t~->o t^vo ►- ID P» ■^ IT) M M ror^M t^-+coo inrorHoo i>.oo O -i- « OOO t».\0 inm-^-^-^rorOPOf^Pi IT) r< w •- " o fo - P) rr> ^ r^vo vo (^vo -^ r^ P» ro VO r<-) P) vO ro i-i m ro .rt-vo omM t~TfMO\t^ro vo m PI ^ ro-*-*-0"roO'-'-*0 0>O O O 1^-^000 O P)^ - t^roo t^OO O O O O O <^i-i 00000 t~»>o O in in in ■0 "» o o>mo-*t~ moo vo O Omoo^WLo-OO ro'O - ^ P) 00 in o OOromoO'^Pi'-'O O\oo t^ t^^ \o m in m d^inroprpr»H"i^i-rH « f^vO "^ rrivO P) 0>^ rovo' -^^ rn pT p( Tf- r<^ N M o Ooo 00 t^ t^\o §t^0 O POhNO P) QOO t^oo O ro O vo w 'OOOminOPiOi-'^mpjiv^int^M OO O O p^'jO inp) 000^ in-*rn i88q Second Friday in April. Option of governor. Pennsvlvnnia, .... 1887 Rhode Island.. . 1887 Do. Sou'h Carolina Uncprt.iin Variab'e. South Dakota. . 1884 Option of governor. Tennessee 1875 November, at designation of county sup- erintendents. Texas iBqo 22d of February. Vermont 1885 Option of governor. Virginia 1892 West Virginia 1883 Fall and cpnng. at designation of super^ intendent of schools. ^^'isconsm i88q Option of governor. Wyi ining 1888 Do. Washington 1892 Do. uo AGHICULTIJEE. FOREST-FIRE LAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. (Fernow.) (See p. 142 for penalties imposed.) State. Alabama Arkansas' ■< California' Colorado -j Connecticut^ , Delaware* Florida , Georgia*. Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland.' Massachusetts^. Michigan^ \ Minnesota' Mississippi Missouri Edition of Code. D. C. C. 1886., S. & H.'s 1894 P. C. 1886. ... Mills, G. S G. S. 1888. . Vol. XVIII. Laws 187Q . R. S. 1887. R. S. 1895 R. S. 1894 McLean's, C. L. 1889. G. S. 1888. Laws 1891 . Sup. 1888 Howell's A. S, G. S. I 1892. R. S. I Title. 24 Chapter. 36 99 93 38 5 3 39 ^63 328 95 29 47 Section. 4226-8 1580-4 384 1414 15, 17-18 1458, 1460-2 1-2 3141 1456-9 6921 18 2001 5185-92 7276-8 5-6 817 5 9402-4 6 1091 3613 * S. 1847: Burning off permitted when consent of neighbors is secured after i day''s notice. ' Pol. Code, S, 3344-5 : Persons firing woods, etc., liable in treble dam- ages. Constable, etc., may order any inhabitants liable to poll-tax 10 assist in extinguishing fire. 3 Must give notice, before burning off, to all residents within one mile, and can only be done between February 15 and March 31, unless otherwise oidered by county commissioner. * Prohibits building fire in woods without owner's permission, and with out first clearing away combustibles, and extinguishing fire. ' Must give I day's notice, before burning off, to adjoining property owners, and then only betwen Feb. 20 and April i. * No law included in Revised Statutes. ' Ch. 296, S. 1-6, G. S. 1883 : Duty of fire wardens to post warnings, extinguish fires, and investigate causes of fires. ' Supervisors and highway commissioners to order assistance in putting out fires; fine S5-$5o for refusal to assist. » See act of April 18, 1895. FORESTRY. FORKST-FIKE \i?^^^— Continued. 141 State. Montana'" Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jerseyii.. . . New Y(jrk North Carolina*^ North Dakota. Ohioi3 Oregoni* Pennsylvania. . Rhode Island,. . South Carolina's South Dakota. . Tennessee'* Texas Utah'T Vermont , Virginia West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming's . . . , Arizona , New Mexico ... , Oklahoma's .. .. Edition of Code. P. C. 1895. i«95. G. S. P. S. R. I«QI.. 1877. 1. I. R Vo ^895 K. S. Sess. 1894. G. S. 1894. Dak. M.& P. C. C. L. 1894 R. S. R S. R. S. 1887. 1887. Ter ... V. C. iJ 893. Title. Fire. 14 Crim. Slat. 17 Chapter. c c. 9-62 277 20 7 P. C. 40 279 101 213 181 I 37 entire, f Section. 1071-2 6713 4794 3-7 \ I find siip- ( plcmenls. 52-4 7314-15 6334 Page 45 J Act of June j II, 1879-81 6 151-7 2398 2277-8 669-70 4576 4934 3701-2 81-84 4406 920-2 608-9 23«3-i4 2269-70 1" Penalty for failing to extinguish camp-fii e or malicious firing of woods, fine not exceeding $5000, or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both. ^' Ch. 188, G. P. Laws 1888, provides detectives for violators of fire law. Ch. 119, Laws 1892, and Ch. 194, Laws 1894, provide for fire mar- shals and define their duties. 12 Fine $10 for leaving unextinguished camp-fire. Two days' notice in writing before firing one's own woods. " S. 4750-1 : Penalty for refusing to assist in extinguishing fires, fine $10. '* Requires governor to issue proclamation annually July i, warning people against forest fires. 'S If turpentine farm, fine $500, or penitentiary 1 year. '* Owner may fire his own woods after two days' notice to neighbors. '^ Ch. 27. Laws 1892: Duty of county sheriffs to extinguish fires. '8 Permits firing grass and sage-bush March, April, and October, if kept within control. 's Camp-fires, and regulations for burning off prairies, etc., Ch. 37 (enacted 1890) provides penalties for setting fires and failure to extinguish. 142 AGRICULTURE. FOREST-FIRE IjATW^— Continued. PENALTY PRESCRIBED BY STATE LAWS, Alabama. — Fine $io-$2oo ; if turpentine forest, $ioo-$iooo, or hard labor for not more than 12 months. Arkansas. — Fine $25-1300, or I'ail 10-60 days. Liable for double damages. California. — Fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or both. Color ado .—Y\\\&%~,o-%loo. or jail 15 days to 3 months, or both If on State lands, $5o-$5oo, or jail 20 days to 6 months, Connecticut. — Y'\w^ .'|2o-$2oo, or jail 2-6 months, or both. Fine $i-$50, or jail not more than 30 days. Delaware. — Fine $25. Florida.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 60 days Georgia. — Fine not more than $1000, or 1 year in chain-gang, or both. Idaho. — Misdemeanor. Illinois. — Y'xne $5-$ioo. Indiana.— Fine $5-$ioo, to which may be added imprisonment not more than 30 days. loiva. — Fine not exceeding $500, or jail not exceeding i year. Kansas. — Fine $5o-f5oo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. Kertucky. — Fine $100, or in discretion of jury. Louisiana. — Fine $5-$5oo. Maine. — Fine not exceeding $100, or jail not exceeding 30 days, or both. Massachusetts .—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 6 months. Michigan. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than i year, or both. Minnesota. — State prison 6 months to 2 years. Mississippi. — Fine $2o-$5co, or jail not more than 3 months, or both. Missouri — Fine not more than $500. or jail not more than 12 months. IMontana. — Fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than t year. Nebraska.— F'xne Ss-Sioo, and jail 1-6 months. Nevada. — Fine $2oo-$iooo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. New Hampshire. — Fine $io-$2ooo, or imprisonment not more than 3 years. Netv Jersey. — Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than i year, or both. Ne-iu York — Fine not exceeding $1000, or imprisonment not exceeding I year. North Carolina. — Fine $50. North Z?a,^^/a. — Wilful, a misdemeanor ; negligent, fine $io-$ioo. Ohio.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 20 days, or both, Oregon. — Fine $io-$iooo, and in certain cases penitentiary not exceed, ing I year. Pennsylvania.— Fine not more than $300, or jail not more than i year, or both. FORESTRY. 143 Rhode Island. — Imprisonment not exceeding 2 years. South Carolifia. — Fine $5-$ioo, or jail not more than 30 days. South Dakota. — Fine not more than $200, or jail not more than i year, or both. Tennessee. — Forfeit $100 to prosecutor and fine Ss-Sso (S. 2277, Code Sup. 1893). Texas. — Fine $50-300. Utah. — Misdemeanor. Vermont .—Yinc not more than $500, or penitentiary not more than j; years. Virginia. — Fine $5-$ioo, and jail 1-6 months. IVest Virginia.— Yine. Sio-Siooo, or jail not more than 12 months. Wisconsin. — Fine not more than S500, or jail not more than i year. IVyoviiiig. — Fine not more than S500, or jail 30 days to 6 months. .,4 r?z^«(t.— Misdemeanor. If on State or U. S. lands, fine not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or both. New Mexico. — Fine $60-^500. Oklahoma.— Yine. $io-$5oo, or jail not more than i year, or both. 144 AGRICULTURE. X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. It is a matter of common experience among farmers that the soil is impoverished by continuous cropping, and the yields obtained therefore gradually decreased. The decrease in yields can only be prevented by applications of farmyard manure or commercial fertilizers; ploughing and thorough cultivation of the soil bring the land in abetter mechanical condition and increase the amount of available plant food present in the soil, but these operations are not sufficient to maintain the fertility of the land so that it will yield equally well from year to year under otherwise favorable conditions. Every crop harvested contains certain quan- tities of fertilizing ingredients, and taking away these amounts in general leaves the soil in a poorer condition for the production of crops than it was before. The fertilizing ingredients of which the soil is thus liable to be robbed are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and sometimes lime. They are not present as such in the soil, or in the fertilizers applied to the soil, but in chemical com- binations with a large variety of compounds. The soil will contain nearly all the different elements which chemists have so far succeeded in isolating, but it is mainly the three elements, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, which are apt to be decreased in the soil below the amounts required for the nutrition of crops, or at least of maxi- mum crops. In rational fertilization the effort therefore always is to return to the soil such quantities of fertilizing ingredients, in the shape of farmyard manure or com- mercial fertilizers, as will restore the loss sustained by the withdrawal of the crops harvested. Other mineral ingre- dients contained in the crops need not generally be re- turned to the soil, since they are nearly everywhere pres- ent in abundance. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. U5 It is the grand work done for the farmer by agricultural chemistry during the past half century which has ex- plained the causes of the decreased fertility of land due to continuous cropping, and has given the remedies for maintaining the fertility. The latter are as follows: First, by selling only such products from the farm as will deprive the soil of the smallest quantities of fertilizing in- gredients, i.e., manufactured products, like milk, cream, butter, meat, eggs, rather than grain crops, hay, etc. The tables given on pp. 148-151 show the amounts of fertilizing ingredients removed in farm products of various kinds and deserve a close study by all farmers. Secondly, by carefully saving the manure produced by stock — both liquid and solid (the former by the use of ab- sorbents, peat, land plaster, kainit, superphosphate, shav- ings, etc., or by building special cisterns for storing it; the latter by placing it under shelter, guarding against leakage) — and returning it to the land ; as the products sold off the land also contain certain quantities of fertilizing constituents, the loss must be repaired by purchase of concentrated food stuffs, at least three fourths of whose valuable ash ingredi- ents will go into the manure and thus be saved for crops. Thirdly, by following a rational system of rotation of crops, and by frequent culture of leguminous crops, — clovers, peas, beans, etc., — since these are able to so fix the free nitrogen of the air as to render it of value to ani- mals and plants. APPROXIMATE LOSSES OF FERTILIZING MATE- RIALS IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF FARMING. (Snyder.) System of Farming. All grain-farming Mixed grain- and general farming... Mixed potato- and general farming.. Stock-farming Dairy-farming Nitrogen. lbs. 5600 2600 2300 900 800 * Gain. Phosphoric Acid. lbs. 2500 1000 IOCX> 50* 75' Potash. lbs. 4200 1000 2400 60 85 146 AGKICULTUi^E. The figures given show the approximate losses on a l6o-acre farm under the different rystems of farming. With stock- and dairy-farming, as well as partly in mixed grain- and general farming, the loss of nitrogen may be avoided by growing clover. In stock and dairy-farming, therefore, no loss of fertility will occur under these con- ditions when all the skim-milk is fed on the farm and a part of the grain is exchanged for more concentrated milled products, but there will on the contrary be a constant gain of fertility to the soil. (See Bull. 41, Minn. Exp. Station.) AVERAGE CHR:MICAIj COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN SOILS. (King.) • « Insoluble n Residue. n c ^ cts. 4>i'cts. Black Bar represents Majiurial Value per Ton. ' '20 '40 '60 '80 '100 '120 ' 140 '160 '180 '200 lbs. Qreen cornfodde r^^^^ lftl.42 Oaffodcler ^i^l.64 Green, tlover f-'-n- 1 i . gQ Corn silage FTiTI 1 1I> Corn stalks .4.03 Timothy hay tT— T-rr"~-l 4.31 Red clover hay \-:-x. - - ,f=\ ■■^:',><,,A 7.29 Wheat straw ^mm 1.93 Potatoes ^m::\ 1.23 Turnijis fg^ .87 Indian corn r^^- — - — -i t '- \ (^naizt) ^^^^_^^^^^,^„^,^_ 0.36 Wheat r. r :i 6.65 Barley V ' ' "^ ^ 77 Oats .0.21 Rye T—: tr^-r- ; »;.fr, R\ee y-^n S't Pen meal i " 1 — i 9.02 Buckwheat fr'~~ ' 1 Tl l.OJ Coj-n # C06 mfoJ t ;;, . i^.'J 4.32 Corn cob ^Wl 1.79 Wicat bran ^"T" Wieaf middlinys'' Bice bran Linseed meal , Jjinseed meal N.P. Cottonseed meal ^ Cotton seed Intll; Gluten yneal Malt sprouts Brewers' graini 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Ibi^ 148 AGRICULTURE. FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Material. Green Fodders. Pasture grass Ijreen fodder corn Sorghum fodder Rye fodder. . Oat fodder Timothy grass Red clover White clover Alsike clover Scarlet clover Alfalfa (lucern) Cowpea Soja bean Prickly comfrey Corn silage Hixy and Dry Coarse Fodders. Fodder corn (with ears) . . . . Corn stover (without ears) Hungarian grass Common millet Hay of mixed grasses Red-top • .. Timothy Red clover Mammoth red clover White clover Scarlet clover.. .. . Alsike clover Alfalfa Barley straw •' chaflE Wheat straw chaff Rye straw Oat " Buckwheat hulls Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc. Potatoes. ... Sweet potatoes Ked beets. Yellow fodder beets Sugar beets Mangel-wurzels Turnips Ru tabagas Carrots per ct. 63.1 78.6 82.2 62.1 83-4 66.9 80.0 81.0 7.S-3 78 8 73-2 84.4 78.0 7.^5 9.12 7.69 9-75 11.99 7.71 7-52 "•33 II .41 18 30 9.94 6.55 11.44 13.08 12.56 8.05 7.61 9.09 11.90 79.24 71.26 87-73 90 60 86.95 87 29 89.49 89 13 89.79 per ct. 3.27 4.84 1-31 2.15 1.47 2.25 1.47 2.45 4-9t 3-74 6.18 6.34 4-59 4-93 6.93 8.72 7.70 .07 30 18 25 4.76 1 .00 1-13 •95 1 .04 1 .22 1 .01 1 .06 1.22 ^ per ct. 91 41 23 33 49 48 53 St) 44 43 72 27 29 42 28 1.76 1 .04 1 . 20 1.28 1. 41 1-15 1.26 2.07 2 23 2.75 2.05 2.34 2.19 131 1 .01 •59 •79 .46 .62 •49 •32 .24 •24 .19 .22 .19 .18 .19 •15 o per ct. •23 •15 .09 •15 •13 .26 •13 .20 . II •13 •13 .10 •15 •54 .29 •35 ■49 •27 .36 •53 •38 •55 •52 .40 .67 •51 •30 .27 .70 .28 .07 .08 .09 .09 . 10 .09 .09 per ct. 75 33 '3 73 38 76 46 24 20 49 56 31 53 75 37 I 40 1.30 1.69 1-55 1 .02 .90 2.20 1.22 1. 81 1.31 2.23 1.68 2.09 •99 •51 .42 •79 1.24 52 • MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 149 FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING STUFFS AND FAR3I PRODUCTS.— (C«////«v/.) Material. Grains and Other Seeds. Corn Sorghum seed Barley .... Oats.. .-. Wheat, spring •' winter Rye Millet, common Japanese millet . Rice Buckwheat Soja beans Other Concentrated Feeds. Corn meal Corn and cob meal Ground oats , " barley Wheat flour Pea meal Corn cobs Hominy feed Gluten meal Starch feed (glucose refuse) , Malt sprouts. . - Brewers'' grains, dry ' " wet Rye bran '■ middlings . Wheat bran middlings Rice bran " polish Buckwheat middlings Cotton-seed meal hulls Linseed meal (old process). ., " " (new process) . . Apples, fruit Apple pomace Dairy Products^ etc. Whole milk Skim milk. ("ream Buttermilk ...., Whey , Butter Cheese Live cattle Shet p S \\' i n e u ! v • rH \L c rt •w ii ^ < g M per ct. per ct. per ct. 10.88 1-53 1.82 14.00 1.48 14-30 2.48 151 18.17 2.98 2.06 14-35 1-57 2.36 14-75 2.36 14.90 1.76 12.68 2.04 13.68 1-73 12.60 .82 1.08 14.10 1-44 18.33 4.99 5-30 12-95 1.41 1-58 8.96 1.41 11.17 3-37 1.86 13-43 2.06 I -.55 9-83 1 .22 2.21 8.85 2.68 3.08 12.09 .82 •50 8.93 2.21 1.63 8-59 -73 S-03 8.10 2.62 18.38 12.48 3-55 9.14 3-92 3.62 7501 .89 12.50 4 60 2.32 12 54 3-52 1.84 11.74 6.25 2.67 9.18 2.30 2.63 10.20 12.94 • 71 10.30 9.00 1.97 14.70 1.40 i.-,8 7.81 6.95 6.79 10.17 2.40 .69 8.88 6.08 5-43 7-77 5-.S7 5.78 85.30 •39 •13 80.50 .27 -^J 87.00 •75 •53 90.25 .80 •56 74.05 •50 .40 90.50 .70 .48 92.97 .60 •15 79.10 •15 .12 33 25 2.10 3-93 50 2 4 40 2 48 44-8 2 .90 1-95 42 1.80 1.76 per ct. ,70 81 79 82 70 89 82 85 69 18 44 87 •63 •57 •77 .66 •57 .82 .06 .98 •33 .29 1-43 1.03 •31 2.28 1 .26 2.89 •95 •29 2.67 .68 2.88 •25 1.66 1-83 .19 .20 •15 •17 • 14 04 .60 .76 ■ ^3 •73 per ct. 40 42 48 62 39 61 54 36 38 09 21 99 .40 •47 •59 •34 •54 •99 .60 •49 •05 •15 1.63 .09 •05 1.40 .81 1. 61 .63 .24 •71 •34 .87 1 .02 '•37 ^•.39 -19 •13 • IS •19 ■13 .16 .18 .04 . 12 .16 .14 10 150 AGKICULTUEE. AMOUNT OF SOIL. INGREDIENTS WITHDRAWN BY VARIOUS CROPS, IN LBS. PER ACRE. (HlI.GARD.) Crops. Grapes, i.ooo lbs Crop of 10,000 lbs Seeds, 646 lbs Flesh, 9,154 lbs Wood, 2.010 lbs Prunes, 1,000 lbs,. Crop of 30,000 lbs Pits, 1,635 lbs. Flesh, 28,365 lbs Apricots, 1,000 lbs . Crop of 30,000 lbs Pits, 1,740 lbs ... Flesh, 28,260 lbs Oranges, 1,000 lbs Crop of 20,000 lbs Seeds, 240 lbs Flesh and rind, 19,760 lbs Roots, percentage Stems, " Leaves " Olives, 1,000 lbs Crop of 2,200 lbs Pits, 429 lbs Flesh, 1,771 lbs Leaves, 4,400 lbs Wood, 11,000 lbs Wheat, 1,000 lbs. (whole plant;. Crop of 4,800 lbs. (hay) Grain, 20 bushels. Straw, 3,60c lbs Alfalfa, 1,000 lbs Crop of 12,000 lbs Sugar beets (fresh), 1,000 lbs. . . Crop of 72,000 lbs . R' >ots, 40,000 1 bs Tops, 32,000 lbs Ramie, i. 000 lbs Crop of 14.25 tons. , Leaves, 4.25 tons, Stalk (without bark), 7.25 tons. Bark (cuticle and ribre), 2.75 tons Cotton, 1,000 lbs Crop of 3,200 lbs Leaves, 400 lbs Stems, 1,200 lbs Seeds, 800 lbs Burs, 400 lbs Lint, 400 lbs 53-42 3 03 1 20 . 90 8.60 112.30 5.16 154.80 12.25 M2-55 4-32 86.40 6.90 79-50 100. 1 2 100.00 99.91 94-63 208.18 19325 14-56 190. 16 123.18 51.26 246.04 24.00 222.04 65.00 780.00 18.73 ^349- 72 287.00 1062. 72 75-19 2143-57 1641.35 410. 4S 91-74 54.26 173.60 48.69 38 -44 29 -37 52.01 509 CU '9 5.00 50.00 1.48 47-44 15.69 2.66 79.70 2 .06 77.64 2.83 84.981 1-36; 83.62 42.28 2 74 39-54 15 43 11.69! 16.51 8.55! 18 81 6-77 12 .04 58.05 24.46 9-15 43-92 7.85 36.07 1349 161.88 5-38 387 -44 152.00 235.44I208 8.84I 23 251.98 657 68.13:566 155.99 71 18 49 55 56 2 5- 4- 66. 27. »b II .00 35.26 7.99 9.17 8.99 7.42 1.69 19.14 13-76 44.04 15.03 10.58 3-07 14.16 1 .20 o ■ 1.52 15.20 5-75 8.93 8.74 •53 15-95 2.80 13-15 -71 21.38 5 36 16.02 -53 10.60 1.61 8.99 13.47 17.09 3.27 1. 18 2.59 2 40 •19 20.08 14.87 4-13 19.80 11.90 7 90 6-43 77.16 1. 61 116. 16 36.00 80.16 6.46 155.70 77-13 67.71 10.86 7-03 22.54 4- U .61 ■ .01 .22 .02 .20 .02 • 94 .19 -75 .04 .80 .04 .76 .7.1 -'5 4.03 .23 .50 .48 .02 .28 i".65 7.89 .02 7.87 1-59 19.08 .86 61.68 12.00 49 68 1 . 12 51-85 41.56 2.50 7-79 2.58 8.27 2-75 2-54 .48 2.14 •36 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 151 od, ooooocoooc OCOOOOOOOOOOO ■"jnTi "So.- S <" y 3 C ■< oooooooooooooooooooooooo O c c o si: cooocoooocooooooooocoocc cr cfl tn i:xx R^ 8 i; in to U t:d >>< t/) S rt i; • >- _ ^ ° ^ - nJ'P r3 artll3cT!.2i:o>-C--njC4;4;^0>>3--003r^ < CQ oa cQ u u u cj O H S o O Pu P- CL eu oi C/3 H H h h ^ 152 AGRICULTURE. MINIMUM A3IOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE required to replace the Ingredients abstracted from the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops. (McConnell.) 1 Wheat 5 tons. Barley 5 Oats 5 Meadow hay 8 Red clover 12 Beans 10 Turnips 15 tons. Swedes 10 Mangolds 20 Potatoes 10 Cabbage 25 Carrots 10 AMOUNT AND QUALITY OF MANURE PRODUCED BY STOCK. The various classes of farm animals will produce about the following quantities of solid and liquid manure during a year, viz. : Solid Manure. Liquid Manure Horse 12,000 lbs. 3,000 lbs. Cow 20,000 " 8,000 " Sheep 760 " 380 " Pig 1,800 " 1,200 " Since a considerable portion of the manure is lost while the animal is working or is out-doors, the quantities secured in the manure-pile will not come up to these figures. The quantities of urine voided by farm animals during twenty-four hours are on the average as follows, accord- ing to Wilckens : cows, 15-20 lbs.; horses, 20-27 lbs.; sheep, 2 lbs.; swine, 7-g lbs. The capacity for liquid manure-tanks or cisterns intended to hold the fluid excre- ments of a herd of a certain size may readily be calculated on a basis of these figures (see tables on p. 182). 6000 lbs. (about 720 gallons) of urine per 1000 lbs. live weight of cattle, is a liberal estimate. The quality of the manure produced will depend on the character of the feeding and the kind of stock kept. Rich feeding produces a rich manure, since, as shown in the table given below, only a relatively small portion of the valuable fertilizing ingredients of the food is retained in MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 153 the bodies of the animals, or is taken away in the products sold. Rich feeding, therefore, has a beneficial influence in two directions, larger yields of products being obtained, and a better quality of manure being produced. COMPOSITION, AMOUNT, AND VAliUE OF 3IANURB Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals. (Results of experiments conducted at Cornell University Experiment Stition.) Analysis and Value per Ton of Manure. 1 Amount and Value per , 1000 lbs. Live Weight per D .y. > 6 a Plios- phoric Acid. a 0. Value per Ton.* Pounds per Day. Value per Day* ^ >- !; Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Cents. Sheep .. 59. S2 •77 9-39 •59 ■f^i.^o 34.1 7.2 $'6 09 Calves Pigs . 77 73 7413 .84 ■>7 •39 •53 •32 2.18 3 29 f7 8 8^ 6 6.7 16.7 21 .t=^ 60.88 Cows .. . Kor^ics 7S-25 48.69 •43 •49 .29 .26 •44 .48 2.02 2.21 1 74-1 [ 48.8 8.0 7.6 29.27 27.74 QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN AND ASH CONSTITU- cats Voided by Animals or Obtained in x\nimal Products. (Lawes and Gilbert.) Horse at rest . . H irNC ;'t work. FaLieiiing oxen . i ttening sheep. l'att:;iiing pigs. Milking cows.. .. Percentage of Nitrogen. Obtain- ed as Animal Prod- uct. Nope. None. 3-9 4-3 14.7 24^5 Voided as Solid E.Kcre- ment. 43^o 29.4 22.6 16.7 22.0 i8.i Voided as Liquid Excre- ment. 57-0 70.6 73^5 79.0 63 -3 57-4 In Total Excre- ment. 100.0 100. o 96. 1 95-7 85^3 75-5 Percentage of Ash Constituents. Obtained as Live Weight or Milk. None. None. 23 3^8 4.0 10.3 Voided as Excre- ment or Perspira- tion. 100. o ICO. 9 97 7 96.2 96.0 89.7 * Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, pnospnoric acid at cents, and potastj at 4J cents per pound- 154 AGRICULTURE. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZING 3IATERIALS. (Beal.) u D 'o c 4) u 2 rij Phosphoric Acid. \ Name. 2 3 "o CO •a u u > 5 H Aln^se {Lyvgbia majuscula). Ammonite 16.26 5-88 425 "-33 -79 • 19 3^43 36.08 .10 .40 1. 14 1-51 1.70 3.80 35-89 28.28 17.00 23.25 17. 60 20.10 29.90 Apatite Aslies, anthracite coal .10 .40 1.20 1.27 5-25 1-31 " bituminous " .... lime-kiln " wood, leached " " unleached 15-45 30.22 12.50 40.09 7.00 4.60 8.20 48.50 28.08 34.00 44.89 B.it guano Bone-ash 2-37 1.24 Bone-black '' " dissolved 15.40 .40 13 1.30 7.60 ■y ■ — ' •53 Booe meal " " dissolved " " free from fat.... 7-50 405 2.60 6.20 1.70 " " from glue factory Carnallite 13.60 Caribbean guano Castor pomace . . 7-31 9-50 7.80 7-75 24.27 12.50 12.75 81.19 22.28 10. 17 3,20 87-75 22.70 4.82 7.27 1-50 1.50 1.50 1.50 12.09 ^3-32 50.00 60.00 2.00 7.60 1.40 8.54 26.77 1-75 8.85 2.88 3.10 13-35 1. 91 8.25 .07 39-95 5-50 6.79 430 1.67 10.52 7-25 •35 1. 10 22.75 1.77 1-50 Cotton-hul' ashes 1-25 6.50 9.60 Coiton-seed meal, decort . . " " " undecort.. Cuba guano Dried blood. . Dried fish .32 •55 2.60 Eel -grass (z^j^^r* marina).. G.is lime -51 43^66 Horn and hoof waste 13-25 .20 1.83 ""^oe Kainit Kelp {laininaria) 13-54 .24 1. 15 .40 2 82 Kieserite Krugite .. . 4-50 10.44 .76 1. 10 .40 15 70 12.12 8.42 •1-3 •2-5 3-5-7 .2-1.5 12.45 22.24 3-34 0-40 1-9 5-45 Lobster shells Marls, Kentucky 3-52 .2 .0-2 .1-4 0-.4 2.07 21.88 .10 .10 ■* Maryland and Virginia " New Jersey green sand " North Carolina Meat scrap Mona Island guano Muck. . •15 •35 51.48 7-55 37-49 Mud, salt.. .90 Muriate of potash . . Navassa phosphate Nitrate of soda 34^27 37-45 Oleomargarine refuse .88 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 155 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF C03IMERCIAIi FEIRTILIZING M\TEIilAIjS—Cofit2Hued. Name. Oyster-shell lime* Peat Peruvian f^uano Phosphates, Florida Plaster, puret Seaweed " ashes " mixed Sewage sludge, precipitated Soot S. Carolina rock, dissolved.. " '• " ground... Spent tan-bark ashes. ... . . . Sumac waste Sulfate of ammonia Sulfate of potash and mag- nesia Sulfate of potash, high grade Sylvanite Tankage Thomas slag Tobacco stalks stems. Wool washings Wool waste Composition of Farm Manures. Barnyard manure, average.. Cattle excrement, solid, fresh Cattle urine, fresh Hen manure, fresh Horse excrement, solid Horse urine, fresh Human excrement, solid.... Human urine Pigeon manure, dry Poudrette, night soil Sheep excrement, solid, fresh Sheep urine, fresh Stable manure, mixed SvviiK- excrement, solid, fresh Swine urine, fresh 15.00 61 .50 14.8 8 1 . 90 I 47 81.50 88.49 5-54 1.50 3.61 63 . 06 4-75 2-54 7-25 10.00 1.4 6.18 15.80 !.87 60. c 77.20 95.90 10.00 50.00 73 -^y .85 7-35 .29 •73 •05 I 19 20.50 6.70 3-7T 2-35 Phosphoric Acid. .05 .18 2.6 s .40 .92 1.50 •05 1.83 3.20 4. 10 11.60 .27 2.04 3-25 25 SO 33 40 16.65 6.50 .49 .29 •58I i.iol •44 1-55 1 .00 .60 3.20 .80 •55 1-95 •50 .60 •43 5 -02 8.20 392 tl.20 •43 . 10 •49 •56 •35 [.50 •25 .20 1 .00 •30 •15 !.26 .60 •^3 ■83 07 • 30 .00 3.06 .08 '5 -30 24 50 15.20 28 C3 1. 61 11.80 2349 .65 .70 •35 •'7 1 .09 •17 1 .90 1 .40 •31 .01 •30 .41 .07 55. CO 28. 50 20.93 6.06 •23 1.58 41.87 33 46 1.14 2.57 48.66 2.22 4.20 .11 2. lo .80 * 18.5 per cent carbonate. + Nova Scotia plaster contains 94 carbonate of lime; Onondaga and 18-28 per cent carbonate of lime. % Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 156 AGRICULTURE. EXHAUSTION OF FERTILIZERS. (Scotch Authority.) ON CULTIVATED CLAY LOAM. I Kind of Fertilizer. Lime Bone meal Phosphatic gfuanos Dissolved bones and plain superphos- phates High-grade ammoniated fertilizers, guano, etc Cotlon-seed meal Stable manure , Per Cent remaining in the Soil Unexhausted at End of Each of First Six Years. 2 3 4 5 65 55 45 35 30 20 10 30 20 10 10 5 20 30 20 10 30 20 10 25 10 75 60 o lbs. dry ground fish loo lbs. fine- J ground bone May be Substituted any One of these Materials. 76 lbs. sulfate of ammonia 132 lbs. nitrate of soda 71 lbs. soda 43 lbs. nitrate of nitrate of bone soda 76 lbs. diss. black 131 lbs. diss, phos phate rock 308 lbs diss, phos phate rock dried dried 235 lbs. cotton- seed meal. 311 lbs. cotton- seed mtal 167 lbs cotton- seed meal 60 lbs. dried blood 141 lbs. blood 186 lbs blood 54 lbs. sulfate of ammoni 32 lbs. sulfate of ammonia 33 lbs. double su- perphosphate 43 lbs. double su- perphosphate 235 lbs. double superphosphate 39 lbs. nitrate of soda and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 29 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 55 lbs. dried blood and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 91 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 80 lbs. dry ground fish and 14 lbs. phosphate rock 33 lbs. nitrate of soda and 4.5 lbs. fine-ground bone. 48 lbs nitrate of soda and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock 37 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 31 lbs. diss. phosph..i- rock. 68 lbs. dried blood and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock 113 lbs cotton-seed meal and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 80 lbs. tankage and 17 lbs. nitrate of soda. 36 lbs. fine ground bone and 44 lbs. nitrate of soda. 13 lbs. nitrate of soda and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 10 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 18 lbs, dried blood and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 30 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 33 lbs. tankage and 72 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 27 lbs. dry ground fish and 76 lbs. diss, phosphate rock 15S AGRICULTURE. PROPORTION OF PLANT FOOD RECOMMENDED FOR CROPS. (Virginia Exp. Station.) Crop. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash Crop. Nitro- gen. Phos- phoric Acid. Potash Alfalfa Barley Buckwheat . Cabbage . . . Clover Corn Cotton % I 4 4 6 I 3 3 % 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 % lO 8 9 9 lO 6 4 Oats Peanuts . . . Potatoes . . Rye Tobacco . . . Tomatoes . . Wheat .... % 4 2 4 4 5 4 3 % 9 lO 7 9 6 6 8 % 6 lO lO 5 lO 7 4 VALUATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. The valuation of fertilizing ingredients shown below (see p. 159) is the one agreed upon by a number of Eastern experi- ment and fertilizer control stations after a careful study of the retail prices of crude products of fertilizers during the six months prior to March i, 1908. It expresses the commercial value of the fertilizers, and not their agricultural value; the latter will vary according to the requirements of the land and the character of the crops grown. Fertilizers are sold in States having fer- tiHzer control, on the basis of a guarantee of a minimum con- tent of potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, singly or com- bined, and it is the office of the fertilizer control stations to watch that goods offered for sale in their respective States are up to the guarantee. Farmers living in States where fertilizer laws have been enacted (Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mis- sissippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin) should only buy fertilizers on guar- antee, and should examine the fertilizer bulletins published by their respective stations to ascertain that the goods put on the market are not below the guarantee, and that the valuation price is not below the selling price of the article. Where a reason- able suspicion of fraud exists, apply to the director of the experi- ment station for information concerning the goods offered for sale or the firm placing them on the market. MAN'UEES AXD FERTILIZERS. 159 TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS, 1913. Adopted by Eastern Experiment Stations for estimating the value of mixed commercial fertilizers. Cents Nitrogen — per lb in nitrates i8 • 5 in ammonia salts 18.5 Organic Nitrogen — in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, and blood 20 in fine bone and tankage and in mixed fertilizers ig in coarse bone and tankage 15 in cotton seed meal and castor pomace 20 Phosphoric Acid — soluble in water 4.5 soluble in neutral ammonium-citrate solutij 1 4 in dry fine-ground fish, bone, and tankag j 4 ' in coarse fish, bone, tankage, and ashes 3.5 in cotton-seed meal and castor pomace 4 in mixed fertilizers, if insoluble in ammonium-citrate solution 2 Potash — as high-grade sulfate, and in forms free from muriate. ... 55 as muriate 4j in cotton-seed meal and castor pomace 5 The manurial constitutents contained in feeding stuffs may be valued as follows: Organic nitrogen 20 Phosphoric acid 4 Potash 5 160 AGRICULTURE. CONVERSION TABLE FOU CALCULATING FER- TILIZING INGREDIENTS. Amount of Nitrogen Ammonia. Nitrate of soda Sulfate of ammonia 4( it It Potash (anhydrous). Sulfate of potash . Muriate of potash Phosphoric acid (anhydrous). Mono-calcium phosphate .. Di-calcium phosphate Tri-calcium phosphate... Lime (calcium oxid). Chlorin 1-915 •325 •565 •459 .845 .786 Multiplied Gives Corresponding Amount by of 1.214 Ammonia. 6.07 Nitrate of soda. 4-7 Sulfate of ammonia. .824 Nitrogen. 3.882 Sulfate of ammonia. 3-M7 Chlorid of ammonia. 3.706 Nitric acid. 5-0 -Nitrate of soda. 5-15 Protein. .165 Nitrogen. .2 Ammonia. .212 Nitrogen. . .258 Ammonia. 1.85 Sulfate of potash. '' 1-583 Muriate of potash. ■54 Potash. .632 " Tri-calcium phosphate. Di-calcium phosphate. Mono-calcium phosphate. Tri-calcium phosphate. Phosphoric acid. Tri-calcium phosphate. Carbonate of lime. Sodium chlorid. PRICES OF NITRATE OF SODA ON THE AMMONIATE BASIS. (Chilean Nitrate Works.) Figured on Basis 380 lbs. Ammonia in One Ton Nitrate of Soda. Equivalent Price per Price per Price Am- Price Am- Equivalent Cwt. of Ton of monia per Lb. monia per Cost of Nitro- Nitrate. Nitrate. as Nitrate. Ton Unit. gen per Lb. $1.80 $36.00 $0.0947 $1,894 $0,115 1.85 37.00 0.0973 1.940 0.118 1.90 38.00 0. 1000 2.000 0.122 1.96 39- 00 0. 1026 2.052 0. I2S 2.00 40.00 0. 1052 2.104 0.128 2.05 41 . 00 0. 1078 2.156 0. 131 2.10 42 .00 0.1105 2.210 0.134 2.15 43.00 0.1131 2.262 0.137 2.20 44.00 0. 1157 2.314 0. 140 2.25 45.00 0. 1 184 2.368 0.144 2.S0 46.00 0. 1210 2.420 0.147 2.S5 47.00 0. 1236 2.472 0.150- 2.40 48.00 0. 1263 2.526 O.I53 2.45 49. 00 0. 1 289 2.578 0. 156 e.5o 50.00 . 1 3 1 5 2.680 0. 150 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 161 XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. REASONS FOK TILE-DRAINING LAND. (Chamberlain.*) Land should be drained, because: 1. Tile drainage makes all tillage and harvesting operations easier and more rapid, physically and mechanically. 2. Drainage removes both the excess surface-water, and the surplus water in the soil and the subsoil. 3. Drainage prevents loss of fertility by surface wash. 4. Drainage will add fertility to the soil with each rainfall. 5. Drainage helps to warm the soil as well as to dry it, giv- ing best conditions for plant growth. 6. Drainage 1 ngthens the season of tillage, crop, growth, and harvest:. 7. Drainage increases the extent of root pasturage. 8. Drainage helps to disintegrate the soil and make pulveri- sation possible. 9. Drainage greatly diminishes the effect of frost in heaving out wheat, clover, etc., in winter and spring. 10. Drainage on clayey soils helps the crops to resist drought better. 11. Drainage often, though not always, diminishes the sud- denness and violence of floods. 12. Drainage, both open and with tiles, improves the health of a region. •Tile Drainage, by W. I. Chamberlain, Medina. Ohio, 1891, 35 cents. 162 AGRICULTURE. \OMBETl OF RODS AND OF TILES PER ACRE, WITH DRAINS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES APART. (Scott.) Distance between Rods (51^ Yards) 12-inch Tile. 13-inch Tile. 14-inch Tile. 15-inch Tile. the Drains per Acre. Feet. 15 ,76 2904 2680 2489 2323 18 146 2420 2234 2074 1936 21 125 2074 1915 1778 1659 24 1 10 1815 1676 1555 1452 27 07 1613 1480 1383 1290 30 83 1452 1340 1244 1161 33 80 1320 1219 1131 1056 36 72 1210 1117 1037 968 39 67 1117 1031 957 893 42 62 1037 958 888 829 SIZE OF TILE PIPES Required for Draining under Average Conditions. (Waring.) The drains being laid four feet, or more, deep, and laid on a well-regulated fall of three inches in a hundred feet : For 2 acres, ij-inch pipes " 8 ** 2i " " " 20 " 3i *• " •* 40 ** , two 3J ** ** •« 50 " 6 " " •* 100 " 8 •' •• These drains will remove the water fast enough for all prac- tical purposes, even after heavy storms; if the pipes are securely laid, the drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleaning they will receive when running "more than full." AGRICULTURAL EXGINEERIKG. 163 Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain. (McCONNELL.) Fall. Acres Drained. 3-inch Tile. 4-inch Tile. 6-inch Tile. 8-inch Tile. lo-inch Tile. 12-inch Tile. I foot in 20 18.6 12.9 H.9 10.9 lO.O 9-3 8.1 26.8 21.8 18.6 17.0 15.6 14-5 134 T7 .a 74-4 60.4 51.6 47-7 43-4 39-9 37-2 35-0 33-1 26.6 22.8 20.4 18.4 16.5 14.8 133 11.4 10.2 8.5 7-4 150.0 128.0 108.8 98.0 90.0 83.0 77.0 72.5 69.2 56.0 48.0 42.4 38.3 32.6 30.1 28.0 24.0 21.2 16.8 150 270.0 220.8 189.6 170.4 156.0 144.4 J350 127.0 120.6 97-3 83-9 74-4 655 60.3 540 48.6 41.9 37-2 30.8 25.0 426.0 346.0 298.4 269.0 246.0 228.1 213.0 200.5 190.5 154-4 132-5 117.0 107.0 90.7 81.6 74.0 65.0 56.0 47.0 40.8 I " " ^0 1 " " 40. ...... I " " 50 I •' " 60 I " " 70 ; " " 80..::::::. I " " QO 7.5 TT .Q i " " 150 6.7 5-7 5-1 4.6 4.1 3-7 3-3 2.9 2.6 2.1 1.9 9-5 8.2 7-5 6.9 5-9 5-2 4-7 4.1 3-7 30 2.8 I " '» 200 t " " 2SO I * 300 I " " 400 I " " SOD I " « 600..:: I " " 800 I " •• 1500 I " " 2000 Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes. — Multiply the square root of the number of small drains (of fair average length) by the diameter of small pipes; the quotient gives the diameter of main. If the distance apart of drains in feet be denoted by JF, that in links by L, and the length of drains in chains per acre by C, then _66o _ 1000 164 AGRICULTURE. NU3IBER OF ACRES WHICH A TILE OF A GIVEN DIAMETER AND PER CENT GRADE WILIj DRAIN WHEN USED AS AN OUTLET. (Elliott.) Table 1. — Discharge of Tile from 4 to 20 inches in Diameter on a Grade of 1 foot per 100 feet. Diameter of Tile, Inches. Discharge in Cubic Feet per Second. Diameter of Tile, Inches. Dischargfe in Cubic Feet per Second. 4 6 8 9 xo o.i6 0.49 I. II 1-53 2. OS 12 15 i8 20 3 -40 6.29 10-37 13-85 I Table 2. — Grades per 100 feet, and their Square Roots< Grade per 100 Feet Grade in Inches (approx- imated). Square Root of Grade per 100 Feet Grade in Inches (approx- imated). Square Root of in Feet. Grade. in Feet. Grade. 0.04 ^ 0. 200 0.40 4?i 0.632 .05 % .224 •45 5% .671 .06 H •245 .50 6 .707 ,08 Vs .283 •55 6% .742 .09 I .300 .60 7M •775 .10 M .316 •65 7% .806 .12 T^ •346 .70 8% •837 .14 rH •374 •75 9 .866 .16 2 .400 .80 9H .894 .18 l^ .424 •85 10^ .922 .20 •447 .90 loM •949 •25 3 .500 •95 11^ •975 •30 .548 1. 00 12 1. 000 •35 4H •592 To determine the number of acres that a tile main of given size and grade will drain, multiply the discharge of the tiles, according to size (see Table i), by the square root of the grade upon which it is proposed to lay the main (Table 2). When it is desired that the main shall carry i inch in depth per acre in twenty-four hours, multiply this result by 24 ; if one-half inch, multiply by 48 ; if one-fourth inch, multiply by 96. (Farmers' Bulletin, No. 40.) AGRICULTURAL ENGIN^EERIIn^G. 165 NU3IBER OF ACRES DRAINED BY TILES RE3IOVING 1/4-INCH DEPTH OF WATER IN 24 HOURS. (ASHBAUGH.) Grades. Diameters of Tile Drains , Inches. Per In. per cent. Rod. 3 4 6 8 10 12 IS 18 20 22 24 0.03 0.0s 1 37 49 59 75 109 131 159 219 205 264 254 332 319 411 ¥ 5 13 '28' 0. 10 ^ 4 7 19 40 69 109 186 289 373 471 582 o.iS ih 4 9 24 49 85 132 232 355 458 577 713 0. 20 i 5 10 28 56 97 153 264 410 529 667 823 0.30 9 Tfi 6 12 33 69 119 188 322 502 648 808 1008 0.40 H 7 14 39 79 138 216 371 580 748 942 1165 0. 50 I 8 16 44 89 154 246 416 648 838 1050 1300 0.60 i^ 9 17 48 97 169 266 457 710 9ir 1154 1422 .70 I* 10 19 50 105 182 287 488 768 988 1242 1549 0.80 '¥ 10 20 55 114 195 307 526 822 1059 i332ji64S o.go i| 10 21 59 119 207 326 558 872 1123 141411747 I .00 2 1 1 22 62 126 218 343 589 917 1176 1495 1838 I -SO 3 13 28 75 153 267 419 722 1123 1450 1824 2256 2.00 4 15 31 88 178 309 485 832 1297 1676 2110 2594 3- 00 sH 19 39 107 216 377 593 1020 1589 1957 2592 4.00 7i^ 22 45 123 253 437 683 1176 5 -oo 9i 25 50 138 280 486 765 7 -50 ^4* 30 61 169 344 10.00 19H 35 71 195 The table is based on*Poncelet's formula, and refers to drain • age of ground water only. If surface water is also to be removed, as in the case of ponds without other outlets, the tiles will drain safely only one-half to one-third the number of acres given in the table. When a part of the land in the watershed is rolling, not requiring tiling, count only one-third of such rolling land in addition to all of the low, flat land, in getting the size of tiles to remove ground water only. If it is not practicable to use such a large tile as is required to carry a large amount of surface drainage, a broad shallow depres- sion, cultivated or kept in grass, may be maintained alongside of the drain to carry the surface overflow from heavy rains. A 12-inch tile may thus often be used in place of the expensive 15-inch or 18-inch tile. 3G6 AGRICULTURE. NU3IBER OF ACRES DRAINED BY OPEN DITCHES. Depth of Water. 3 feet. Depth of Ditch, at least 4 feet> Grades. Average Width of Water, Feet. Per cent. Feet per Mile. 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 50 1 .0 2. 1 725 1000 970 1360 1570 2250 2240 5300 7470 18400 0.04 400 690 4700 26100 0.06 3- 2 4. 2 492 572 850 980 1260 1460 1690 1950 2770 5770 6670 18400 21400 31900 0.08 4820 37400 . 10 5-3 7.8 636 791 IIOO 1330 1630 2010 2180 2670 5360 6600 7440 23700 30200 41400 0.15 19000 52100 . 20 10.6 905 1560 2310 4720 7870 21800 35000 6030 0. 25 13-2 1020 1740 2660 5300 17500 24600 39000 67700 0. 30 15-8 21 . I 1 100 1300 1970 2290 2900 5850 6740 19400 22200 26800 30800 42700 49400 74000 . 40 5050 85700 . 50 26 . 4 1475 2559 5620 7500 24800 34800 55300 95200 . 60 31 -7 1600 2790 6230 16500 27200 37600 60400 0. 70 37 -0 42.2 1720 1850 3010 6650 7170 17800 19100 29400 41 200 0.80 4850 0.90 47-5 1955 5140 7550 20100 1 .00 52.8 2050 5400 7980 Depth of Water, 5 feet. Depth of Ditch, at least 6^- feet. Grades. Average Width of Water, Feet. Per cent. Feet per Mile. 6 8 10 IS 20 30 50 0.02 .04 1 . 2. 1 3-2 4. 2 5-3 7.8 10. 6 13.2 15.8 21 . I 26. 4 31.7 37.0 42. 2 47-5 980 1390 1710 1980 2220 2720 1470 2090 2560 2980 1900 2800 5000 7200 7150 20400 24700 30000 33400 40500 47000 53000 57000 67000 23800 33500 40800 48800 54500 66700 77000 86000 94000 43800 62500 0. 06 0.08 5100 6100 7600 17600 20400 23400 28700 33000 37500 40700 47000 75500 88000 0. 10 5010 6300 7300 98000 0.15 17100 19500 21900 23900 27700 31000 33900 I 20000 . 20 4820 S370 5900 6830 7600 139000 0. 25 0.30 0.40 0. 50 16300 17900 20600 23000 25200 27300 155000 170000 0. 60 0.70 0.80 0.90 16700 18100 19000 20500 1 AGRICULTURAL EKGIHEERIN^G. 167 NUMBER OF ACRES DRAINED BY OPEN DITCHES- (Continued). Depth of Water, 7 feet. Depth of Ditch, at least 9 feet. Grade. Average Width of Water, Feet. Per cent. Feet per Mile. 8 10 15 20 30 50 0.02 1 .0 2. 1 3-2 4.2 5-3 7.8 10 . 6 132 15.8 21 . 1 26 .4 2300 4700 6740 16600 23400 29600 34200 38400 47200 54200 60500 66200 28000 35400 43400 50000 56000 68500 78700 88000 96500 48000 58000 72000 83000 92600 II 2000 130000 146000 88500 0.04 4850 5920 6940 7720 106000 0.06 0.08 0. 10 17000 19100 21800 27000 31300 34800 38200 44100 129000 150000 167000 0.15 . 20 0.2s 0.30 0.40 0.50 19400 22400 25000 27400 31700 35400 202000 235000 Depth of Water, 9 feet. Depth of Ditch, at least 11 ^ feet. Grade. Average Width of Water, Feet. Per Feet cent. per Mile. 10 IS 20 30 50 0.02 1 .0 2. 1 6550 27800 34400 40800 50000 69500 83500 127000 0.04 18500 157000 .06 3-2 22600 41600 61000 103000 193000 0.08 4.2 26300 48300 71000 120000 221000 0. 10 5-3 30400 54000 79100 132000 244000 0.15 7.8 37300 66100 96200 162000 298000 0. 20 10.6 42900 76200 104000 0.25 13-2 48000 85300 125000 0.30 15.8 52500 93200 0.40 21 . I 60800 The above tables are calculated by Kutter's formula, using a "coefficient of roughness" equal to 0.03, as recommended for channels in moderately good condition, having stones and weeds occasionally. For ditches in first-class condition, the number of acres may be increased about 25 per cent. The tables have 168 AGRICULTURE. been calculated for ditches having sides with slopes of one foot horizontal to one foot vertical, but are approximately correct for other slopes. The capacity of the ditches has been made as follows, the ditches to run not more than 8-10 full for the capacities men- tioned: Above the upper heavy line, f in. depth of water per 24 hours. Between the heavy lines, | in. depth of water per 24 hours. Below the lower heavy line, \ in. depth of water per 24 hours. Local conditions may vary the size needed, and it is necessary to consult a drainage engineer in each case. ADVICE TO LAND OTVNERS ABOUT TO CONSTRUCT DRAINS. (ASHBAUGH.) 1. Employ a reliable drainage engineer to make surveys, and plan your system of drainage. Otherwise you are very liable to throw away part of your money. 2. Require from your drainage engineer a complete map or plat of your drains, showing the exact location, sizes, grades, and depths. Remember that your drains v ill be out of reach (except at much cost and trouble) after they are covered. 3. Make your drains of ample size. Drains which are too small fail when you need them most, in wet seasons. 4. Put your tile down to a good depth. Other ise they will not draw well to any considerable distance. Make them four feet deep in the lowest ground if possible. The extra cost of good depth is small in proportion to the total cost. 5. Have your drainage engineer inspect the work during construction and test the grades of the dr ins and see that the work is well done. Many tile become choked with mud because not laid true. 6. Be sure to protect the outlet. Build a bulkhead wall of brick or stone to hold the end. Also use a piece of iron pipe at the end, if tile is not too large, or for large drains use a few feet of sewer -pipe cemented. 7. If you are obliged to construct an open ditch, make it at least five to seven feet deep, if possible, to give good outlets lor tile, and to avoid choking up. AGRICULTURAL EN^GINEERIKG. 169 8. The bottoms of open ditches should be at least three feet wide, and the sides should be given slopes of at least one foot horizontal to one vertical to avoid choking. Dirt should not be piled near the edges of the bank. POINTS TO XOTE IN PLANNING A DRAINAGE STSTE3I. 1. Character of the land, as swampy, low, sloping, dry, etc. also retentive or open, depth of surface soil, condition of sub- soil, etc. 2. Acreage of various kinds just described, their location relative to drains, etc. 3. The outlet, its character, capacity, depth, protection re- quired for tile, etc. 4. Fall or grade for mains, submains, and laterals, with depth of cutting required, 5. Various expedients, such as the use of cut-offs across necks of land, to save distance and gain fall. 6. Your drainage engineer should be competent to handle these problems. SIZES OF DRAIN-PIPE REQUIRED FOR CULVERTS IN PROPORTION TO CAPACITY AND FALL. (Eldridge.) Fall in 100 Feet. 3 Inches. 6 Inches. 9 Inches. Gallons per Minute. 6 inches 8 " 9 " 10 '* 12 '* 15 " 18 *• 24 " 129 265 355 463 730 1282 2022 4152 183 375 503 655 1033 1818 2860 5871 224 460 617 803 1273 2224 3508 7202 170 AGRICULTURE. AREAS FROM WHICH 1/4 INCH OF WATER WILL BE REMOVED IN 24 HOIRS BY OUTLET TILE DRAINS OF DIFFERENT DIAMETERS AND LENGTHS WITH DIF- FERENT GRADES. (Elliott.) Diam- eter of Tile in Inches. 5 6 7 8 9 lO I 2 14 i6 i8 20 Grade per loo ft. in Decimals of a Foot (with Approx. Equiv. in Inches). 0.05 (1 in.). 0.08 (i in.). O.IO (i^ in.). 0.12 (liin.). 0.16 (2 in.). Length of Drain in Feet. 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 Acres of Land Drained. 17-7 14.0 19.1 iS-7 19.8 16.7 20. 6 17-6 22. I 28.0 22. 2 29.9 24.8 31-2 26.4 32.5 27.8 34.8 41. 1 32.7 44.1 36.4 45-9 38. 7 47-7 40.8 51 -I 57-3 45-6 6t .4 50.7 64.0 53-9 66.5 57-0 71.2 76.5 61 . 2 82. 2 68.1 85-6 72-3 89. I 76.3 95-3 99-5 79.5 106. 7 88.5 II 1 . 2 94-0 II5-6 99- 2 123-9 156. 1 124.9 167.7 139-3 174-8 147-9 181. 7 156.2 194-6 228.7 183.7 245-3 204.3 256. I 217.4 265.8 229.7 284.9 317.8 255-9 341-4 284.6 355-4 302.5^369.5 319-7 396.3 424.9 342.5 456.4 381.3 475-7 405-5 494-4 428.1 529-1 551-6 444-9 591-5 495-8 616.4 526.7 640.4 556.6 686.3 19.4 30.5 44-8 62.6 83.8 108.9 171 .6 251.7 350.4 470.1 610. 5 Diam- eter of Tile in Inches. 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 Grade per 100 ft. in Decimals of a Foot (with Approx. Equiv. in Inches). 0.20 (2I in.). 0.25 (3 in.). 0.30 1 0.40 (3i in.). (4i in.). 0.50 (6 in.). Length of Drain in Feet. 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 1000 2000 Acres of Land Drained. 23- 37- 54- 75- lOI . 131- 206. 302. 420. 562. 729. 20.9 25.1 22. 7 26. 7 24-5 29-5 27-5 32.0 33-0 39-6 35-9 42 .0 38.6 46.4 43-5 50.5 48.5 58.0 52.8 6r .6 56.7 68.2 63-8 74-0 67.7 80.9 73-6 85.8 79-0 95-0 89.1 103-3 90.7 108.4 98.6 114. 9 106.0 127 .0 119. 4 138. 1 117.9 140 . 6 128. 1 149-3 137-6 165.2 155.3 179-2 185.6 221 . 1 201.8 234-5 216.9 259.2 244.1 281.8 272. 2 323-5 296. 1 343-5 318. 1 379-7 358.2 412.9 379- I 449-9 412.2 477-4 442.9 527.8 498.4 573-7 508.1 601 .8 552.5 638.1 593-7 705. 2 668.0 767.4 660.3 780.0 718.2 826.9 771 -I 914-7 867.8 994- 5 30. 47- 70. 98. 131. 268.6 393-9 548.8 735-1 954-6 Three feet of soil above the top of the drain has been assumed. The grade, length of drain, and openness of soil are important factors in the capacity of a tile drain for discharging soil-water. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 171 RISE OF THE SLOPE FOR lOO FEET. (Waring.) Table I. gives the rise of the slope for loo feet of the horizontal measurement. Table II., the rise of the slope for loo feet of its own length. Tabl eNo. I • Table No. II. Deg. Feet. JDeg. Feet. Deg. Feet. Deg. Feet. 5 8.749 50 119-175 S 8.716 50 76 . 604 lO ^7-633 55 142.815 10 17 365 55 81.915 IS 26.795 60 173.205 15 25.882 60 86.602 20 36.397 65 214.451 20 34.202 65 90.631 25 46.631 70 274.748 25 42.262 70 93.969 3^ 57-735 75 373.205 30 50 75 96 -593 35 70.021 80 567.128 35 57 358 80 98.481 40 83.910 as 1143.010 40 64.279 8S 99.619 45 100 45 70 711 Example. — If the horizontal measurement is 100 feet, and the slope is at an angle of 10°, the rise will be 17.633 feet. If the sloping line (at an angle of 15°) is 100 feet, it rises 25.882 feet. QUANTITY OF EARTH REMOVED PER ROD OF DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. (Scott.) c" VIean Width of Drains Q ■ In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. 1) 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Cubic Yards. 2^ 0.S9 1.02 1.14 1.27 1.40 1-53 1.65 1.78 1.91 2.04 2.16 2.29 3 1.07 1 .22 1-37 1.53 1.68 I 83 1.98 2.14 2.29 2.24 2.60 2-75 3^ 1.25 1.42 i.6q 1.78 i.q6 2.14 2.32 2.49 2.67 2.85 3 -03 3.21 4 1.42 I.O:) 1.83 2.04 2.24 2.44 2.65 2.85 305 3.26 3 46 3.66 5 1.78 2.03 2.29 2-54 2.80 3-05J 3-31 3.56 3.82 4.07 4-33 4.58 *' If a 4-ft. drain be cut 14 in. wide at top and 4 in. at bot- tom, the mean width will be 9 in., and the quantity of earth excavated in cutting each rod will be 1.83 cubic yards ; if 172 AGRICULTCTRK the same drain be cut i8 ii>- at too and 8 in. at bottom, tne mean width will be 13 in., ana 2.65 cubic yards of eartj> will have to be removed in cutting each rod : so that if tue digging of the drain costs 6 cents per cubic yard of earth moved the narrow drain will cost 11 cents per rod, and the other nearly 16 cents per rod, showing the cost to be one half larger, quite unnecessarily. " The same table will be found useful in helping to fix the relative prices of deep and shallow drains ; but it must be recollected that the deeper drains will be increased in cost not only by reason of the greater quantity of earth which has to be moved, but also because of the increased labor of lifting the earth to the surface from a greater depth." LIMIT OF SIZE OF TILE TO GRADE AND LENGTH. Size of Minimum Limit of Size of Minimum Limit of Tile in Grade per Length in Tile in Grade per Length in Inches. 100 Feet. Feet. Inches. 100 Feet. Feet. 3 .09 800 8 • OS 3000 4 .05 1600 9 .05 3500 5 .05 2000 10 • 04 4000 6 • OS 2500 II .04 4500 7 • OS 2800 12 .04 5300 RAINFALL. (McConnell.) Inches Cubic Imperial Tons Inches Cubic Imperial Tons of Feet Gallons per of Feet Gallons per Depth. per per Acre. Depth. per per Acre. Acre. Acre. Acre. Acre. I 3,630 22.635 lOI . I 7 25.410 158,444 707.7 2 7,260 45.270 202. 2 8 29,040 181,072 808.8 3 10,890 67.905 303.3 9 32,670 203,714 909.9 4 14.520 90,539 404.4 10 36,300 226,349 lOII .0 5 18,150 113,174 505.5 II 39.930 248,984 II I 2. 1 6 21,780 135,809 606.6 12 43,560 271,619 1213. 2 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 173 TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE AND VELOCITY OF AVIND. (Waring.) Miles per Hour. 3 4 S 6 8 lO 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 80 Feet per Minute. 88 176 264 352 440 528 704 880 1320 1760 2200 2640 3080 3520 3960 4400 5280 7040 8800 Lbs. Press- ure on I sq. ft. .005 .020 1 .045) .080 •125) .180 .320) .500 I 1. 125 ! 2.000 1 3.125 1 4.500J 6.125 ! 8.000 i 10.125 i 12.500 18.000 32.000 50.000 Description. Barely observable. Just perceptible. Light breeze- Gentle, pleasant wind Brisk blow. Very brisk. High wind. Very high. Storm. Great storm. Hurricane. Tornado, uprooting trees, sweeping off buildings, etc. NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET AND ACRES THAT A First-class Windmill can Irrigate One Inch in 8 Hours, Raising the Water lO, 15 or 25 Feet. (A. R. Wolff.) 10 Feet. 15 Feet. 25 Feet. Size of Windmill. Sq. Ft. Acres Sq. Ft. Acres Sq. Ft. Acres Si ft. diam. of wheel.. "<736.34 .269 7,824.74 .180 4i744-74 .109 10 " " " " .. 37,161.74 •853 24.774-75 •569 14,767.83 -339 12 " " " " .. 66,765.16 1-533 44.509.85 1.022 26,134.57 .600 14 " ♦• " " .. 85,982.05 1.974 57,321.11 1. 316 34,757-03 .798 16 " '* " " .. 120,106.14 2-757 80,070.76 1.838 49,742.00 1 . 142 18 *• " " " .. 192,446.10 4.418 123.164 58 2.827 75,215.14 1.727 20 '* " " " . 238,395.08 5-473 158.930-31 3-649 9 J, 2 11. 50 2.209 410,0^8.00 9-413 273,359.24 6.275 163,533 37 3-75 30 " " " " . 831,686.24 19.093 561, .97.56 12.883 331,752.96 7.616 174 AORTCULTURE. Q >i H » as pq o t rt CJ flj ►* aj -^ c Aver Numb lours p( Duririfi this R( will Obtai ooooooooooocoooo 1 -^ ivalent al Use- Hnrse- ower eloped. 1 ^C«*'00>4>->00^ O - W W 'l-vo tx CO P 3 CX> S^ Q , • • 00 in 1- oo «■ ii • • c O t^ c (0 8 • • ■^oD w mvo C4 • • «H w N o w t> O t^ ►- lA Tt O -•-> 00 t^OO 00 •«*■ a vo 00 r^ ^ c en a O m tv Qs t^ o t^ i hi ao ** M >-■ C O >- vO ►- 00 m >n LD m Tf IT) W -"T M t^OO M M Tj- p) i-s •o c 8 -.- M w vd 4- " 0\ 1) o M 11 !-■ N (T) Tt («•- Pi > 00 N ^ (S fO O 1- 4-* ro m ■<*- M **H U-) On ro m inoo vo *iW vo t^ m o P) O w s w ►. « ro •♦ t» vom(NO^■>^li)0■* 1 (H xo irivo m\o lovo 1 •s o m 0\ m^ M t^ o- 1 1 Ov t^ N M M fn\o 1 M c ►-Mm lovo o o MO-OxOINOl-i vo r^ T^ ro C oo moo "rt , O C4 « 0> w vo vo Ov ro 1 O- r'l U-) ■* t>. •»*- N 1 •H f; -q-vo O^ N "H •1 w 1 m«oO >nO mo m rs.xo O m U-) -^ ■>«■ ro O Cvw 1) O^ 3 3 - i - - ?;.2 o-ci ^- ^ OOioomOuiO t^vo in m •* ■* m ro >. .ti ^ in . eloc of Wim in Mile per hour ^0^0^0^0^0^0^0^0 > a "S o ■"i s - - S 2 •* •s j^***-**- ti -I ^ c»«-a bt03 di 3 3 5 3 S S V H" Q 00 O C4 ■^VO 00 kO H M 11 M IH n M • »i^ AGRICULTURAL E>, G1^"ELR1^'G. 175 M Q >^ o O M w o ~ ^ en ^ w u u « SJ u X) c U 3 a Q. o > 4, a o 0.2 !^i \A M N « f»l • V- • •^ ■+ ■^^ 1-^ r^ r- O or= O w M fcO O (U <^ t 'fe^ en a O. in o ^ O en H n H M Q . _ O y ~ > M M H M a> o rt t> 5 lu d o 4j ™ u J3 C — in ooooooooooooeow «•. ^- •" ^ o Q c O 0) « w ^ O ™ 'IS « o O mvooovo m e^fi C^ IT) fO o r^vo On m- CO 11 O C^OO 00 ■*■ t^ w N cT to »n ri « <4 ^ j3- - ■ I 00 O « 176 AGRICULTURE. NOMINAL HORSE-POWER REQUIRED FOR THE DISCHARGE OF GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER WITH LIFTS OF 10 AND 20 FEET. (Scott.) Diameter of Pipe, TnrhpQ Gallons Discharged per Nominal H.P. required for a Nominal H.P. required for a XllUUCtS* Minute. lo-foot Lift. 20-foot Lift. 3 lOO I a 4 200 i^ 3 5 350 2 4 6 500 2^ 5 2 759 3 6 8 1000 4 8 lO 1500 6 10 12 2300 8 14 "4 2800 10 16 >5 3300 12 20 x8 6000 20 35 IRRIGATION. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) A water right is the right or privilege of using water lor irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a prescribed area of land, such right or privilege being cus- tomarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceed- ingly valuable property. The average value of the water rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the cen- sus of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing districts in California where water rights have been sold at as high as $1500 per miner's inch, or from $100 to $500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given area of land. The duty of zvater is the extent of the service it will per- form when used for irrigating purposes, that is, the num- ber of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irri- gate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. Where water is abundant the duty has been known to be as low as 50 acres, and where very scarce as high as 500 acres, to the second-foot. AGRICULTURAL ENGIN^EERING. 177 A miner's inch is theoretically such a quantity of water as will flow through an aperture i inch square in a board 2 inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one sec- ond of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337 cubic foot, per second, or to 11.64 gal., or i.556o24cubic ft., per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given aperture in a given time varies, however, with the head of water over the opening, and also with the form of the opening. In Colorado the miner's inch legalized by statute equals 11.7 gal. per min. The California miner's inch, how- ever, equals only 9 gal. per min., 100 Colorado inches being, accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 ft. in 24 hours ; 100 California inches will cover the same area only to a depth of 4 ft. in the same time. Fifty California inches are, therefore, approximately equal to i second- foot, and 50 Colorado inches equal to about three tenths more. An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of i foot. This is 43,560 cubic feet, or 325,851.45 gal. Its weight is 1213 tons 2113 pounds, at 2240 pounds to the ton. The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground to a depth of i inch is 3630 cubic feet, or 27,154.29 gal. Its weight is loi tons 362I pounds, at 2240 pounds to the ton. A second-foot is the most satisfactory because the most definite unit of measurement for flowing water. It is used by the U. S. Government in the gauging of rivers and streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner's inch in the measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity rep- resented by a stream i foot wide and i foot deep flowing at the average rate of i foot per second. In other words, it is I cub. ft. per second, 60 cub. ft. per min., 3600 cub. ft. per hour, etc. A stream flowing continuously at the average rate of i second-foot would carry in one day of 24 hours 86,400 cub. ft., or 646,316.9 gal., sufficient to cover i^lf acres to a depth of i ft. Flowing continuously for one year of 365 days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cub. 178 AGRICULTURE. ft., or 235,905,678.7 gal., sufficient to cover 723f|f acres to a depth of I ft. The sub-humid region is the strip of country running north and south between the arid region, where irrigation is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of agriculture, and those portions of the United States in which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural pur- poses. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Da- kota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but where agricultural operations cannot, with any assurance of success, be undertaken without it. The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the United States was ascertained by the census of 1890 to be $83.28 per acre, and that of the non-irrigated land in farms $20.95 per acre. The average annual value of the agricultural products of the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irri- gated, and that of those of the non-irrigated land $6.80 for each acre improved. The average first cost of the irrigated land, including purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of the water supply $1.07 per acre. The total value of the irrigated farms of the United States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283 per cent, upon their cost, including land, water right, fences, and preparation for cultivation. The total value of the productive irrigating systems was found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, c^ aig per cent, upon their cost. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 179 CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER 3IINUTE. (Wilcox.) _ . ^^ _^. — . „ . _^. -w _ . a!- o!^ ;«'•" «•*- rt'*-' rt '*^ ri"*" Size of ClH C ll- b-o ^8 U,g -8 t^8 tS I'ipe. x: " -G - JZ " -'3 -^ *-> *~ 4-t ^ «-i •- <-> u u u y u u 2 >- s ^- 2 V c V ■ c S - u C 1) C i; ^ « 5 V a 7 a ■7 a 7 a 7 a. "7 a 'V a ^ a HI N 23 'O *" N f»i 3 inch. 13 15 32 40 46 64 79 4 " 27 3^ 47 66 81 93 131 163 6 " 75 105 129 183 224 258 364 450 8 " '53 21 J 265 375 460 527 750 923 9 " 205 2QO 355 503 6.7 712 1,006 1.240 lO " 267 373 4^3 6S3 SoH 926 I. 310 >,6i3 12 " 422 596 7io '•'i,?3 i,'^73 1.468 2.076 2.554 JS " 740 1,021 1.282 i,8t8 2,224 2,464 3.617 4.467 13 " i,i^'8 ■,'^5> 2.022 2,860 3.508 4.045 5.704 7.047 24 " 2.-^o6 3-387 4'5=> 5.874 7,202 8.303 11.744 14.466 30 " 4,187 5.920 7.252 '0.557 12,580 14.504 20,516 2.5,277 FLOW OF WATER THROUGH STRAIGHT Fll'ES Flowin/ij l^'ull, in Gallons p«'r Miiiute, (Collet.) c <" Head of Water Divided by Length of Pipe. E '^ 1 1 1 1 2 Vt R 8 \ (5 rffu ZS 2' TT5 ig- TU T?T TO I'r. .024 .036 .046 .06 .077 .086 i .056 •075 .080 .124 .158 .18 t*« .14 .21 .26 •34 •44 •50 i •3' •44 •52 72 .92 I 04 t .22 •3^ •5 .83 1.2 1-5 2.0 2.6 2.9 i .46 70 I.O 1.8 2-5 31 4.1 5-3 6 * 1-33 I 98 2 4 9 7-' 8.9 11.7 •5 16.9 1 2-79 4 IS 6.T 10 14.8 18.4 24 31 35 li 4.96 7 36 JO. 8 18 26 32 42 54 61 T > 7.9^ ' I 75 17.2 28 41 5' 67 86 97 If 11.7 17 4 25-5 42 61 76 100 128 144 2 16.6 24 ■x6 59 86 106 140 179 202 2.J 29 43 63 104 151 188 246 315 354 3 46 69 lOI J 66 240 ^98 390 500 562 4 98 144 210 344 498 6.7 808 1033 1162 5 '73 254 370 606 876 1085 14*9 ■ 8.5 2040 6 227 404 589 959 1389 T720 2248 2876 3230 li the diameter be doubled, nearly 5.8 limes the quantity can be passed 180 AGRICULTURE. POWER REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER FROM DEEP AVELLS BY PUMPING. (Appleby.) Gallons of water raised per hour. Height of lift for one man, in feet. . . " " " '* " donkey, in feet " " " " " horse, " " " " " *' H.P. steam, ( in feet ) 200 350 500 650 800 90 51 36 28 22 180 102 72 56 45 630 357 252 196 154 990 561 396 308 242 18 36 126 APPROXIMATE COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PIPE USED FOR IRRIGATION. (Wilcox.) (3 " Q Sheet Iron or Steel Pipe, No. j6 B.W.G. Sheet Iron or Steel Pipe, No. 14 B.W.G. Sheet Iron or Steel Pipe, No. 12 B.W.G. Cast-iron Pipe, Class B, or Medium. > 0. c •u a c u a u U 6 8 10 12 ^4 16 18 20 22 24 $0.32 .42 •53 .63 .69 .82 .91 I. GO 1.05 $0.41 • 51 .60 .68 •75 •93 I. CO 1. 14 1.30 1.46 $0.52 .62 .85 .98 1. 17 125 1.43 1.63 i^8s 2.00 $0.72^ i.o4i 1.42 1.84 2.30 2.83 3-37 3-97 4.02 5-33 $o.i6J .22 •33 .4ii •55 .68J .82^ •96i 1.21 ^■37i $0.74 •94 1.08 1 .22 1.32 1.40 $O.I2 .20 .26 •32 •38 •45 •53 .60 .68 .80 AVERAGE COST PER 3IILE OF CONSTRUCTING IRRIGATING CANALS AND DITCHES. (Eleventh U. S. Census.) States and Territories. General average Arizona California Colorado Idaho Montana Nevada New Mexico Oregon Utah Washington Wyoming Sub-humid region... Under 5 Feet in Width. 380 205 325 200 3T0 260 493 285 303 5 to 10 Feet in Width. fi.628 $1,674 5.957 1,131 810 800 t.150 S8i 1,060 1,025 1,236 837 447 10 Feet and Over in Width. $5,603 •P51274 15. 511 5,258 1,320 2,300 ' 6,666 1,300 3,072 2.571 3.884 1,884 AGRICULTURAL ENGIi^EERII^G. 181 CAPACITIES OF WINDMILLS AND PUMPS. (Irrigation Age.) Sizes of Irrigation Mills and Pvinips best Adapted for each other to Work Successfully under Ordinary Conditions. o. ^ a 3 o (J u •^ ct > ^.9 ta • w & u o u. . C 1) ^ C 11 >- mount Land C ered.* o V N a 'IS o w i; cn Q Q kJ <; <: < < C/3 Ft. In. Ft. and under. In. Gals. Gals. Gals. Acres. Feet. lo-foot Mills. lO lO 8 30 10 If 3,660 87,840 6 50 10 li 2,580 61,920 4 75 10 5 1,320 31,680 12-foot Mills. 10 30 12 4^ 7.500 180,000 103 8 50 12 3i 6,300 151,200 86 6 75 12 A 2,700 64,800 37 4 125 12 \ 1,320 31,680 18 90X75 90X60 60X40 50X30 1 4. foot Mills. 14 12 30 14 6i 10,620 254,880 146 125X80 14 10 50 14 4h 7,260 174,240 100 90X75 ^4 8 75 14 2-1 4,620 100,880 63 75X50 14 6 125 14 I| 2,940 71,560 40 65X40 14 4 175 14 I 1,680 40,320 23 50 Xa*- * Amount of land that can be covered 1 ft. deep with windmills work- ing at the rate of 15 hours per day for 300 days in the year. Acres cov- ered 1 ft. deep. t Capable of holding water for 24 hours' continuous pumping. These sizes should have 4 ft. depth of water, height of bank 5 ft., width of base 16 ft., 2 ft. of water below discharge-pipe not included. These reservoirs to connect with additional reservoir by overflow-pipe in order to utilize full capacity of mills and pumps. Overflow-reservoir should be of i- and 2- acre capacity, 8 ft. deep, banks 9 ft. high, base of bank 45 ft., acre size 209 ft. on each side, corners rounded; 2-acre size 209 X 418 ft. 182 AGKICULTURE. THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. (W.lcox) Depth. Miner's Inches. ■ Depth. Miner's Inches. Depth. ! Miner's Inches. Depth. Miner's Inches. % .01 ! 3% 2.56 ^ 7% 7.04 I2p4 15.27 Va .04 4 2 '^9 j 7H 7 22 '3,, 15^72 % .07 j 4H 2.81 i 7% 7 40 13^ 16.18 M . 12 aH 2 93 ' 8 7 58 13^ 16.64 Yb •17 M 3^07 1 m 7 76 13% 17.10 H .22 \ 4^ 3 '9 : SM 7 93 14 17-57 % •27 ; A% 3-33 i 8% 8 12 14H 18.04 I •33 M 3-47 8J^ 8 30 1 mM 18.52 i^ •3Q 4l4 3.61 8% 8 43 mH 19.00 iH .46 5. ^ 3^75 1 SH 8 67 15 19.48 1% •54 5}4 3 89 1 8% 8 86 15,^ 19.98 iJ^ .62 • 5!4 4-03 9 9 05 1 ^5% 20 47 1% .69 1 5% 4.18 9H 9 23 I5-M 20.97 1% •77 ' 54 4-32 9^ 9 42 , 16 21.47 iH .86 ! 5^>^ 4-47 9% 9 62 1 i6t^ 22.47 2 •95 5'M 4.62 9)4 9 81 i 17 23.50 2»^ 1.04 5J^ 4 77 9% 1 . 00 I7l^ >'4-54 2 14 2% 1.73 6 4,92 9% 10 19 18 25.58 1.22 i 61^ 5.08 j 9% 10.39 1 81^ 26.65 2^ I 32 614 5-24 ! 10 10 59 19 27.74 2'/^ 1.42 ! 6% 5 • 39 ioJ4 ro 99 i 19^ 28.83 2-M 1.52 6^ 5-54 lO^ II . 30 20 29.95 1.63 i 6^^ 5-71 lo-M 11.80 20j^ 31-07 3 1-74 i ^'H 5-87 II 12. 22 21 32.21 3^^ 1.86 6-/8 6.04 II14 11^ 12.65 21^ 33-36 3 14 1.97 7 6.20 13 06 22 34 52 3% 2.08 7% 6.37 I<% 13.50 ( 22^^ 35-70 3^ 2. 19 7M 6^53 j 12 13-94 23 36 90 39g 2.31 7% 6.70 i 12^ 14-38 1 234 38.10 3>4 2.43 7^ 1 6.S7 1 12}^ 14.82 1 24 39-32 CAPACITY OP CISTERNS AND TANKS, in Gallons, for Each Twelve Inches in Depth. (A. R. Wolff.) Diameter in Gallons. Diameter in Gallons. Diameter in Gallons. Feet. Feet. Feet. I.O 5-87 6-5 248.23 11. 710.90 2.0 23 •so 70 287.88 II. 777.05 2-5 36 72 7-5 330.48 12.0 846.03 3-0 52.88 8.0 376.00 13.0 992.91 3-5 71.97 8.5 424.48 14.0 "51-54 4.0 94.00 9.0 475-89 15.0 1321.92 4-5 118.87 9-5 530.24 20,0 2350.08 5.0 146.88 10. 587-52 25.0 3672.00 5-5 177.72 10.5 647-74 30.0 5287.68 6.0 21X.51 AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERINa. 183 Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, Per Foot in Depth. (Hall.) Square Cistern. Barrels. 5 feet by 5 feet holds 5.92 " 8.54 " 11.63 " IS. 19 " 19-39 * 23.74 6 ' ' " 6 7 • ' " 7 8 ♦ • " 8 9 ' : " 9 10 ♦ • "10 Circular Cistern. 5 feet in diameter holds. 6 9 10 Barrels. 4.66 8.54 J 1 .63 15-19 19-39 23 -74 ROAD-MAKING. (Campbell.) Drainage. — Perfect drainage, first of the foundation of the roadbed, secondly of the road surface, are the points in road-making on which too much stress cannot be laid. The first is accomplished by underdrainage, tile drains being laid at a depth of three or more feet below the sur- face on each side of the roadbed at the foot of the grade and parallel to it. Care should be taken to fit and settle the tile in the trench so that, when refilling with earth, they will not be displaced. As a rule 2|- to 4-in. tile will be sufficient. The joints should be close, and the grade a true line. Loose joints and an uneven grade allow silt to pass into the tile and remain there, destroying the drain. Surface drainage is accomplished by open drains on each side of the grade, having sufficient capacity to drain, both the roadbed and the land adjoining. With open drains and with tile drains make and maintain a free outlet to the nearest watercourse. A drain without an outlet is useless. Crozvning the Road. — The graded portion of the road should be wide enough to accommodate the travel upon it, and not greater, the slope being uniform, not heaped in the centre. The crown should be well above the overflow of storm water, and should have a grade sufficient to shed water readily to the open ditches on either side. Do not round it up so as to make the grade steep and dangerous, under the mistaken impression that better drainage will thereby be secured. Nor should it be so low as to allow water to stand upon it in depressions. Under ordinary circumstances one inch or one inch and a half to the foot is 184 AGRICULTURE, i a proper grade; that is, a roadbed twenty-six feet wide should be from thirteen to twenty inches higher at the center than at the side. Quality of Gravel. — The gravel should preferably be sharp, clean, and of uniform size. Pit gravel usually con- tains too much earthy matter, and where the latter is in excess, the gravel, as a road-making material, is useless. Lake gravel is apt to be rounded, water-worn, and lacking in the necessary earthy matter to make a solid and compact surface, but is generally a better road material than pit gravel. A coating of pit gravel with a surfacing of creek gravel is a good combination. All large stones should be removed, as they will work to the surface, and will then roll loosely or form rough protuberances. Placing the Gravel. — The gravel should be spread evenly over the surface of the sub-grade to a depth of six or eight inches, and to the required width, then rolled with a heavy roller. Rolling should be performed in showery weather, as it is impossible to consolidate dry earth or gravel. The heavier the roller the better will be the results, but if a heavy roller cannot be obtained, a light roller is much bet- ter than none. The roller should be passed over the sur- face until the gravel or earth is so compact as not to be displaced and rutted by the wheels of a wagon passing over it with an ordinary load. The surface must be main- tained smooth and hard, to shed water and resist wear. Every municipality should have a roller, but whether one can be obtained or not the gravel should not be left in a heap just as it falls from the wagon. Spread it evenly. Repairs. — Gravel roads already constructed will need re- pair. By the use of road machinery, scrape the surface and cut off the corners, which will have formed at the foot of the grade by the washing down of dusty material from the crown of the road. Loosen the surface, particularly that part of the traveled portion and where the road is rutted, with picks, or, if possible, with road machinery ; then apply a coating of gravel, and roll thoroughly. It is of more im- portance, however, to see that the drains are not obstructed in their course and that their outlets are free and open.* * See Farmers' Bulletin, No. pe, "Good Roads for Farmers,'" Washing ion, 1899. AGRICULTURAL ENGIN^EERING. 185 I3IPORTANCE OF GOOD ROADS. It is estimated that it costs a farmer more to haul a bushel of wheat than it does a railroad to haul a ton ; that our poor roads cost the farmer at least $15.00 a year for every horse, and that good earth roads would save more than half the cost of hauling, and good permanent roads more than three quarters of it. (GiLMORB.) Force Required to Draw a Load on Different Kinds of Roads, Earth road , Gravel " , Macadam road . . , Telford " ... Plank " ... Stone trackway. Force Required to Draw a Gross Load of 2240 Pounds. Pounds 200 65 46 41 12^ Steepest Grade (rise per 100 ft.) on which Vehicle will not Roll Back. Feet 8.9 6.4 2.9 Draught on a Level Com- pared with that on Dif- ferent Grades. Rise in feet per 100 feet. 3 6 9 12 1-3 »-7 2.0 2-3 1-5 1.9 2.4 2.9 2.0 3-1 4.1 5-1 2-5 3-9 5-4 6.8 2.b 4-3 5-9 7-5 0.4 II. 7 17. 1 22.3 IS TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIRED 1 OR CARRIAGES of one ton, on a level road. (McConnell.) Force of Trac- Description of Road. tion per Ton. 1. On rails 8 lbs. 2. Well-made pavement 33 3. Macadamized road 44 to 67 4. Turnpike, hard and dry 68 5. " dirty 88 6. Hard compact loam 119 7. Gravel 150 8. Sandy and gravelly 210 g. Ordinary by-road 237 10. Turnpike, newly-gravelled 320 11. Loose sandy road 457 A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a load 2^ miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs. 18G AGKICULTUitE. FRACTION OF THF WEIGHT OF A VEHICLI?] AND LOAD URQUlliFD TO MOVE SAME ON A LEVEL ROAD. vMukin.) Character of the Vehicle. Character of the Road. •a Ci ' 6 •0 ■/■■ ^ c k-a ^ ^^ 1 9 l\ 1 5 9 1 4 a 1 Si 1 35 54 1 BB 4-horse Stage- coaches, on Springs. 2-horse Car- riages. Body on Springs. Firm soil, covered with gravel 4 to 6 inches deep Firm embankment, covered \Vi li gravel i^ to i^inch. deep. Eaith embankment, in very good condition . Bridge flooring of thick oak plank 1^5 1 15 1 ^\ s'3 1 IS 1 9 iV 1 55 5^B Broken-stone Road : In very good condition, verj'^ dry. compact and even . A little moist or a little dusty.. Firm, but with ruts ;ind n-ud. Very bad. ruts 4 to 4^ inches deep, thick mud Walk 1 3?5 I 5? 5 I l'5 1 B7 Trot. 5V 1 IS i^n Walk. 1 31 1 55 1^5 1 E5 is Trot. *^5 1 i7 Good pavemerit, drv " " covered with mud 1 3*g tractive poaver of horses at different spep:d. (Tkautwinr.) The average traction of a horse on a level and actually pulling for ten hours in the day may be assumed as follows: Miles per hour. Lbs. Traction. Miles per hour. Lbs. Traction. i 333-33 2j III. II I 250 2i 100 200 166.66 T42.86 2f 3 3i 90.91 83.33 71-43 2 125 4 62.50 If the horse works for a smaller number of hours, his traction may increase as the hours diminish, down to about 5 hours per day ^.pd for speeds of about frpfn i;^ to 3 niile§ per hour, AnillCULTUIlAL "ENGIXEERIITG. 187 EFFECT OF INCLINATION OX Til ACTIVE FORCE. (U. S. Department of Agriculiuke.) Rale of Aii{4 le with the Tractive Force, Equivalent I.enyih of Level Road in Miles. Inclinaiion. Level. Pounds. Le el. 0° 00' 00" 38 1 .00 1 in 503 6 53 42 1 . ID I in I oo 34 23 58 1.52 I in 80 42 58 63 1.66 I in 60 57 i8 71 . 1 87 I #11 50 I 08 16 78 2.05 I in 40 T 25 57 88 2.30 1 in 30 I 54 37 104 2-73 I in 25 2 17 26 Tl8 3.10 I in 20 2 SI 21 138 363 1 in 15 3 48 5t 171 4.50 I in 10 5 4. 58 238 6.26 The table gives the tractive force necessary to draw i ton over the best macadam road of various grades, and the equivalent length of each mile of grade in miles of level road. The effect of the inclination can be calculated from the following formula: J^ = F-\- aW, where F = force required to draw the load on the level, a = the grade, expressed by a fraction, W =^ the weight of the load in pounds, J\ = force required to draw the load up the incline in question. According to Gillespie, if a horse can pull on a level 1000 pounds, on a rise of I /^ooi in 100 feet he draws 900 lbs. 50 " " " 810 " 44 " " " 750 " 40 " " •* 720 " 30 •• •• '• 640 '* I /oot in 25 feet he draws 540 lbs. 24 " " " 500 " 20 " " •• 400 " 10 " •♦ " 250 " 188 AGRICULTUKE. EFFECTS OF SURFACE ON TRACTIVE FORCE. (Various Authorities, compiled by Herring.) Description of Road. Loose sand Loose gravel (deep) . . . . Loose gravel (4 inches) Common gravel road . . Good gravel Hard-rolled gravel Ordinary dirt road. Hard clay Hard, dry dirt road Macadam, little used.. Macadam, bad Macadam, poor Macadam, common.... Good macadam, wet . . . Best French macadam. Tractive Force, Lbs. 448 320 222 147 88 75 224 112 89 140 to 97 160 112 64 75 to 42 45 Description of Road. Very hard and smooth macadam Best macadam Cobblestone, ordinary ... Cobblestone, good Belgian block Belgian block in Paris ... Belgian block, good Stone block, ordinary Stone block, good Stone block, London Asphalt Granite tramway Iron railway Tractive Force, Lbs. 46 52 to 32 140 75 56 to 26 54 to 34 34i 90 45 36 17 12^^ to I3J 8 to III The velocity is in all cases taken at 3 miles per hour. COST OF HAULING FARM PRODUCE IN THE UNITED STATES. .5 bo c tart «<« > Average Weight of Load for two Horses. u .7 .8.3 16.8 0.3 I 2 82.6 17 4 IS 8 4 I 2 70.6 29.4 18.6 9 .=; 1-3 73-4 26.6 18.2 71 1.3 75 4 24 6 iS 3 S 2 I I 63 6 36 4 21 6 13 4 1.4 53 tJ 21.4 "3 . 1 6 34-6 36 4 15. 8 • I 5 43-4 17 3 26 4 2 6 87.1 12 9 6.0 1 .2 3-' ? 2.0 12 5 87.5 II .0 I I 74. c ) 0.5 13 I 86.9 11.7 1-7 71.' r 18 13-1 86.9 6.7 0.8 78.' r 0.7 14.6 «.5 4 6 q 1.4 76.1 I.O 7.6 92.4 15 I 7-1 68. ■. ! 2.0 15.0 85.0 9-' 3-8 70 t ) 1.4 12.4 87.6 7-4 4 79-'1 ^ 0.4 12.3 87.7 26.7 1-7 56.4 ^ 2 9 12 6 87.4 23.1 2.0 59 -' 31 78 9 21 I 2. 1 0. 1 17. c ) 1.0 71. 1 28.9 1-5 4 26. c ) 1.0 89.4 10 6 1.2 0.2 8.2 1.0 88 6 II. 4 1 .1 0.4 8.C ) 1.0 87 6 12 4 1-4 0.3 10.] 0.6 87.2 12.8 2.2 0.4 9-A [ 0.8 78.1 21.9 4-4 0.6 16. c > 0.9 81.3 18.7 2.8 I.I 13- ! 0.6 f.6.0 4.0 0.8 0.4 2. = 0.3 91.9 8.1 2.1 0.3 5-f I.I 83.2 16.8 0.2 0.4 15c 0.3 98.0 75-4 97. fc 73 I 0.2 24.6 2-3 32 -3 67.7 8.8 1-7 5b. 3 9 8-3 91.7 10.7 9-9 6 a 7 24 200 Ar,ia(;ULTURE. PECUNIAIIY ECONOMY OF FOOD. Amounts of aciuallij nutritici inyrtdients obtained in different fuod materials for 25 cents. [Amount of i.utiientd in pounus. Futl value in calories.] Protein. Fats. Carboh ijrf^rates. Fuel r-alue. Weights of nutrients and calories of energ-y in 25 cents worth. lOOOCTCal. 'Voit iAticater. HUMAN FOODS. ^01 AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS AT ORDINARY PRICES. (Atwater.) Food Materials as Furnished. Meats, etc. Beef :* Neck *. Chuck-ribs. Ribs Shoulder , Sirloin , Rump Round, first cut Round, second cut.. Flank, corned Corned and canned. Liver Mutton: Shoulder Leg Loin Pork: Rib roast Smoked ham, whole Salt fat pork Pork sausage Poultry, etc.: Chicken Turkey Fisk, etc. Mackerel, whole Bluefish, dressed... , Cod, dressed «5 3 Oh cts. \l \t J 22 1i8 S H "l>o ]fs li8 I 15 \t VI I lO tx8 I M 8 J 20 \ 15 J =5 j 20 i=5 ( 20 Twenty-five Cents will pay for *x6 I 12 I 12 I 12 J 22 1i6 1i8 15 lO \ lo Nutrients. 313 4.17 1.56 2.08 1.14 1-39 1-79 2.50 1. 14 1-39 1-39 1.67 1-39 1.67 2.50 3 13 1 .67 2.50 1-39 1.79 313 1 25 1.67 1.00 1-25 I .CX3 1.25 2.08 2.50 1.56 2.08 1.67 2.08 1.67 2.08 1.14 1.56 1.09 1.38 1-39 1.67 2.50 1 .67 2.50 2.50 3-13 4-17 lbs. lbs lbs. .49 .65 •23 •31 .14 • 17 •30 •43 • 17 .21 •19 .23 • 25 •30 •35 •44 .21 •31 •37 .48 .63 .18 .25 • 15 •19 •13 .15 .28 •34 •25 •3 .02 .02 •13 •29 .28 •38 .26 •32 •14 .17 •25 .16 •25 ■25 •33 •44 lbs. 44 58 31 42 32 39 25 34 19 23 43 52 17 21 15 18 49 73 24 31 17 22 31 16 20 29 37 58 70 58 72 38 72 72 89 02 03 09 lbs. 3-2 >, c c c U cals. 2765 3655 1735 2350 1610 i960 1615 2235 1 1 20 1360 2170 2620 1180 1445 1285 1580 2460 3655 17CXD 2200 2095 1265 1775 955 1195 1465 1840 2970 5885 2915 3615 586U 7295 3465 4295 605 835 865 51s 610 930 3^0 550 6.5 202 AGRICULTURE. AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS AT ORDINARY PRICES, -Continued. Food Materials as Furnished. Fish^ etc. Halibut steaks Canned salmon Oysters, 50 cts. per quart " 35 " Lobster, whole " canned Eggs and Dairy Products Eggs, 35 cts. per doz " 25 *' " " 15 " " Milk, 8 cts. per quart " 6 " " Butter Cheese, full cream Vegetable Foods. Potatoes, $1.00 per bushel.. , .80 .50 " Sweet potatoes Beets Turnips Sugar Dried beans Maize "corn" meal , Oatmeal Wheat flour , Wheat bread Crackers tn -3 Cts. ( 20 1 16 20 25 17.5 12 10 25 18.2 1-7 1.25 0.85 5 3 5 6 5 4 3 I 5 4 3-5 3 7 5 Twenty-five Cents will pay for o ™ ^ 4) H lbs. 125 1.56 1.25 1 .00 1-43 2.08 S.50 1.25 1. 00 1-37 2.27 6.25 8.33 12.50 •7^ 1. 00 1.38 2.o3 14.70 20.00 29.40 5.00 8-33 12. 25.00 12.50 25.00 5.00 4.17 5.00 6.25 8.3 25.00 5.00 6.25 7.14 8.33 3-57 5.00 2.08 Nutrients. lbs. • 23 •32 •53 .81 1.08 1.63 .64 .90 .96 1-45 •31 .42 .62 .14 •24 .14 .29 •13 .27 4.90 3-64 4-37 5-46 7.08 21.25 4.61 5-47 6.25 7.29 2.42 3-38 1. 91 lbs. .19 • 24 • 25 .06 .09 .11 .14 •23 •17 .23 •23 • 30 .40 •03 .04 .06 .00 .01 .02 .04 .02 •03 .00 .96 ■ 15 •44 •77 !.3o •74 .69 •79 .92 •31 .44 .21 .32 lbs. .06 .07 .20 .01 .02 •^^ u o o c U lbs. .02 .04 .26 •36 •53 •13 4.8m 2.47 2.96 3^70 5- 17-65 3^42 4.68 5^35 6.24 2.01 2.82 1.47 2.31 HUMAN FOODS. 203 DIKTAKY STANDARDS. (J\ffa.) Children, 1-2 years (average) Children, 2-6 years (averau^e) .... . Chidren, 6-15 years (average) Adult ill full health— PI lyf.iir Active laboi ers — Playfair ^[.m at mod r;ite woi k — Voit ... .. M.m at iiat d work — Voit Mali with iii.lc physical e.xercise — Atwaier Man vvIlIi light mu-^cular woik--At- water Man wi h moderate wo; k— .\t water . . Man with active woik — Atwater Man with h.ird vvorK —Atwater Subsistence diet- PI. ly'-ir Average of 7 diet.iiie ^i prolessional men. Europe Averagf.' of 5 dietaries of profcssiona! men, United States '3 07 COMPARATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED WITH FATTENING ANIMALS. (Lawes and Gilbert.) (a) Per loo lbs. live weight fer week. Received by Animal. Results Produced. Total Dry Food. Digestible Organic Matter. Food Con- sumed for Heat and Work. Dry Manure Produced. Increase in Live Weigiit, Oxen ... ... Sheep Pigs lbs. 12.5 16.0 27.0 lbs. 8.9 12.3 22 .0 lbs. 6.86 9.06 12.58 lbs. 4-56 5.10 451 lbs. 1.76 6.43 {b) In relation to food consumed. Increase in Live Weight. On 100 lbs. of Dry Food. Per 100 lbs. Dry Food. Per 100 lbs. Digested Organic Matter. Consumed for Heat and Work. Dry Manure Produced. D.y Increase Vitlded. Oxen Sheep Pigs lbs. 9,0 1 1 .0 23.8 lbs. 12.7 14-3 29.2 lbs. 54-9 56.6 46.6 lbs. 36.5 31-9 16.7 lbs. 6.2 8.0 17.6 LIVE WEIGHT AND GAINS MADE BY SWINE. (Henry and Sanborn.) Per 100 Lbs. Live No. of Aver. Daily Feed Weight. Live Ani- Feed per Lb. Weight. . mals. Weight. Eaten. Made. of Gain. Feed Eaten. Gain Made. Lbs. Lbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Under 50 59 37-7 2.31 .701 3-30 6.13 1.86 50-100 91 75-5 3-33 .900 3- 70 4.41 1.19 100—150 119 126. 1 4.29 1 .029 4.T7 3 40 .82 150-200 138 176.2 6.45 1 . 123 5-75 3.66 .64 200-250 65 214.1 6.89 1.287 5-35 3.22 .60 250-300 41 266.4 7.64 1-457 5.24 2.87 •55 300-350 12 525 333-0 6.02 I • 352 4-45 1.81 .41 208 AGRICULTURE. 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Q ro 00 O ►- VO f.CO 8 - ■«■ in m >-' "'do 6 d t P) ■pa J c< 00 m t^ m .^ r*- ro lo 6 m ■>!- O N m r-^ ro r'-. 8 0^ in ■■rvo H." o d m N M d M d o •IBJ pa J 00 f^ o^o o VO r OJ r ^ <1J ta O •a z c rfl o y rt C/3 o E 0- :s, o o !/l rt u c jfci o a lA^ Cl Ou <^ u o (/) o . c/) CAW C15Z rt u t/; K^ O C g x;.- bX) rt rt S •^ -^ -a .r ^ «-i 1-< o or;: 3 2 OiJ^CUt/itAc/i PART II. DAIRYING. I. DAIRY COWS. ON THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. I. Jersey Cattle, The origin of the Jersey cattle, like many of our other improved breeds of live-stock, is not known with cer- tainty. The theory is that they descend from rattle brought from the Scandinavian cbuntrie3 to Normar.d} France, during the tenth century or before, whence thty were introduced into the Island of Jersey, off the French coast. The breed has been kept pure on this Kt'Je island for a longer period than any oth:r English breeds, as a result of the enactment in lySg of a law forbidding im- portations of foreign cattle into the island. According to Flint, Jerseys were first imported into this country about 1838, but heavy importations did not begin until after 1850. The following is a description of typical Jersey cows: Head fine and tapering; cheek small; throat clean; the muzzle fine and encircled with a slight stripe; the nostril high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black; ears small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; bar- rel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with the back, and hanging down to the hocl s; skin thin, light color, and mellow, covered with fine coft hair; foielegs short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs 2i2 DAIRYING. short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide apart, milk veins very prominent; color is generally cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white. The Jerseys are generally considered a butter-producing breed, and justly so. The milk produced is as a rule richer in fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the quantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower. Milk from good Jersey cows often contains over six per cent of fat, the average being about five per cent. Produc- tion of rich milk has been the primary aim of Jersey breeders; in 1881 the secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club wrote: " The sole office of the Jersey cow is to produce the largest possible amount of rich, highly colored cream from a given amount of food. Everything else in connection with the breeding of the race is, or should be, incidental." The highest yields of butter-fat or butter, in case of Jersey cows as well as other dairy breeds, are not, how- ever, apt to come from cows producing exceptionally rich milk, but rather from such producing an exceptionally large quantity of good milk; generally speaking, an ex- traordinarily high fat-content is accompanied by a small milk yield. Typical Jerseys generally have a high-strung, nervous temperament, and in order to do their best must receive good care; they cannot be abused as to feed or treatment without injury; for this reason they will only prove a suc- cess in the hands of intelligent feeders who care for and take an interest in their stock. The dairy type predomi- nates, viz.: a wedge-shaped, deep-chested body, with good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed milk-veins, and a soft, mellow skin. The cows are gentle and docile, while the bulls have the reputation of being hard to handle, and often ugly and dangerous after a couple of years' service. The maximum yields of milk and butter produced by Jersey cows are given on page 240, the table giving the DAIRY COWS. 213 official records. In the breed-tests conducted by the ex- periment stations in Maine, New Jersey, and New York (Geneva), the Jerseys have ranked amonp^ the first, but have seldom been the foremost. As the average of all tests of dairy breeds up to date, we notice that the Jerseys rank after the Shorthorns and the Guernseys in total yield of fat during a full period of lactation, and after Guernseys in the cost of producing one pound of fat; they rank first as to richness of milk produced. In the English milking trials conducted by the British Dairy Farmers' Association, the Shorthorn cows have generally led the Jerseys in the total quantities of fat produced per day, and other breeds have also, on the average, given better results than these. The Jerseys came out victorious in the breed-tests con- ducted at the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893; they produced more milk, butter-fat, butter, 'and cheese, and gave a higher net gain than either of the two other breeds competing (Guernsey and Shorthorn); the Guernseys, on the other hand, led as regards the cost of the food con- sumed. Also in the Dairy Cow Demonstration at the La. Pur- chase Exposition in St. Louis, in 1904, the Jersey cows produced more butter-fat, on the average, than either of the other com- peting breeds, and at a lower feed cost per pound (see p. 239). The champion Jersey cow in this demonstiation, Loretta D., produced in 120 days 5802.7 lbs. milk; average per cent of fat, 4.82; 280.16 lbs. butter-fat, equivalent to 330 lbs. of butter, and an average daily production of 2.334 lbs. butter- fat. The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in July, 1868; the Herd Register of the club, the first volume of which was published in 1871, has been issued in seventy-two volumes up to date, including in all 92,000 bulls and 244,000 cows. Register of Merit of Jersey Cattle gives records of all Jersey cows and bulls entered in the Register of Merit, which was established by the club in 1903; the latest volume published is Vol. Ill, containing entries to Nov. 10, 1913. The present" Secretary of the American Jersey Cattle Club is R. M. Gow, No. 324 W. 23d St., New York City. 214: DAIRYING. II. Guernsey Cattle. By Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Peterboro, N. H., Sec'y Am. Guernsey Cattle Club. The Guernsey breed takes its name from the Island of Guernsey, one of the Channel, or sometimes termed Alder- ney, Islands. The origin of the Channel Island cattle, 'hil( hat wniie somewhat involved in controversy, is generally be- lieved ta have come from stock originally from the French provinces of Normandy and Brittany, and that the founda- tion for the Guernseys was laid by crossing the Normandy bull on the Brittany cow. It is very interesting to turn to the Island of Guernsey, cut off as it is from the main land by the little strip of sea, and protected on all sides by a rough, rocky coast, and note the characteristics which we find there that have played so important a part in moulding the character of the Guernsey of to-day. There the shrewd, careful, sturd}- people have labored many years to produce a cow that should excel in butter production. Their labors have been rewarded in the Guernsey, which is noted the world over for producing butter of the highest natural color and with the least outlay for cost of feed. Fate might have been different with these people but for their insular situation, pride of self-government, habits and customs, which led them to zealously fight invasions, and even as earh' as 1789 to take measures against the fraud- ulent importation of stock. In 1826 came more stringent laws, that prohibited importation to the island except for slaughter. It thus isolated the islanders and their cows from the cattle kingdom. The striking appearance of the Guernsey is at once seen in its rich yellow skin, which has always been noted as the characteristic of a good butter-cow. In appearance they are rangy, deep, business-looking animals, with a particularly quiet, gentle, tractable temperament, free from nervous- ness. The prevailing color is a delicate shade of fawn with white markings, and cream-colored nose; and their most remarkable characteristic of richness is apparent in the DAIRY COWS. 215 golden color around the eye, on the udder and teats at base of horn, and at end of the bone of tail. Until recently Guernseys in America were kept chief!}' for family use. They were introduced into private dairies around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and since that time no other breeds have been permitted to replace them. The gentlemen who first introduced Guernseys had no motive to advertise them. They esteemed their golden-colored products so highly that they were kept for the supplying of families with the best milk and butter that could be pro- duced. About 1865 a few Guernseys were introduced by the importers, which laid the foundation of some of our herds of to-day. A few years later the Massachusetts So- ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture, realizing the great promise of the breed, imported some and distributed them at a public sale to dairymen in the State. A few years later a number of Connecticut farmers joined together and sent a man to the island to bring over a lot. It soon became obvious to these gentlemen that some organization was necessary to preserve the purity of these cattle and to encourage their recognition. Accordingly on February 7. 1877, the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in New York City. At that time there were about one hun- dred and fifty pure-bred Guernseys in the country, whose pedigrees could be traced without question to importation ^rom the island. At present there are about 60,000 animals in the Register. In the last few years — in fact since the World's Fair Dairy tests in 1893, and the work at the New York and New Jersey Experiment Stations — great interest has been taken in the Guernseys. More entries and trans- fers have been recorded, and more members have joined the Club than at any similar period in its history. The public are just realizing the straightforward work that has been quietly done for the last quarter of a century, and find in a study of it that there are many valuable records to the credit of the breed. These are all the more valuable as the Guernsey has not been forced for high records, but haye honestly won their way. The best records reported of Guernseys are those of Lilv 216 DAIRYIN^G. of Alexandre, No. 1059, and Imp. Bretonne, No. 3660. Lily of Alexandre gave 12,855!^ pounds of milk in one year ; and two months before calving tested 7.2 per cent of butter-fat. Bretonne gave in the year ending October 20, 1894, ii,2ig pounds of milk. Her milk was tested carefully once a month by taking a composite sample of eight consecutive milkings. The lowest test was 5.2 per cent and highest 6.1 per cent butter- fat. Her milk yielded 6o2^Vt7 pounds of butter-fat, or equivalent to 753^0 pounds of butter con- taining 80 oer cent butter-fat. She is a large, well-built • ow, and weighed at the close of her year's work 1150 pounds. In addition the cow Fantine 2d, No. 3730, owned by Mr. Chas. Solveson of Nashotah, Wis., gave in one year, besides dropping a fine calf and being dry four weeks, 9748 pounds of milk, the lowest test being 5 and the highest 5.6 per cent butter-fat, which would yield a year's record of 516.6 pounds butter fat or 602 pounds of butter. Mr. Ezra Michener of Carvers ville, Pa., owns the cow King's Myra, No. 5339, who has just completed the year's test under the direction of the Guernsey Breeders' Association and received their first prize. She is four years old, and gave in the year 861 1 pounds of milk, which yielded 539 pounds of butter. Nearly a hundred cows have been re- ported that have made a record of 14 pounds or over of butter a week, and several that have made exceedingly fine single-day tests, as one cow, Pretty Dairymaid 2d of Guernsey, No. 6366, who in an official test gave in three consecutive days 61 pounds 2 ounces, 62 pounds 12 ounces, and 52 pounds and 9 ounces of milk, a total of 176 pounds 7 ounces. Their ability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low cost demands the careful attention of the dairymen. At the New York Experiment Station several of the dairy breeds are being carefully tested. The annual report of the director, which was recently issued, gives the result of the first two periods of lactation. In both instances the Guern- seys produced butter-fat at the least cost, as the following shows : DAIRY COWS. 217 Their ability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low cost de- mands the careful attention of the dairyman. At the N. Y. (Geneva) and N. J. Exp. Stations several of the dairy breeds have been carefully tested. In both instances the Guernseys produced but- ter-fat at the least cost, and the same result was obtained in the World's Fair test, 1S91, as the following shows: COST OF BUTTER-FAT PER POUND, CENTS. Breed. Guernsey Jersey Ayrshire.. ... . . . . Shorthorn Holstein Devon Am. Holderness. N. Y. (Geneva.) Lactation Period. First. 18.4 20.0 24-3 26.3 23.0 26.3 Second. 15.6 18.5 24.8 26.4 19.0 22.8 New Jersey.* 15-3 17.9 20.6 20.8 22.4 World's Fair . * 13 I 133 15 -8 * Cost of butter per pound. This shows the Guernseys to be the most economical producers of butter ; and such golden-yellow butter, too ! The American dairyman, in his endeavor to improve his own herd and collectively to improve the herds of his sec- tion, naturally takes a great deal of interest in the grade dairy cow. In the progressive dairy sections the influence which pure bred bulls exert is readily acknowledged. They intensify the good qualities of the breed to which they belong, and make such a section a desirable place for the seeking of good family and profitable dairy cows. The value of the Guernsey bull in effecting this improvement has been well understood for many years, and especially is it realized to-day in the desire to secure in the dairy cattle of America greater physical strength and more profitable butter production without reducing size or sacrificing rich- ness of milk production. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, in his writings several years ago, spoke especially of his experience with the Guernsey for grading. He said his experience was good, large-sized animals, free and persistent milkers, and 218 DAIRYING. the making of the first quality butter for private family oi hotel use. He believed that on a whole the Guernseys were more satisfactory for the dairy than any which in his forty years' experience he had ever had. His cows had good square udders, well set front and behind, teats of good size and easy to grasp. The Herd Register is published by the American Guern- sey Cattle Club, whose headquarters are at Peterboro, N. H. The breeders of Guernseys have always been harmoni- ous in letting their favorites win their way by their own straightforward efforts in the dairy. By addressing the Secretary of the Club at Peterboro, N. H., further informa- tion will cheerfully be furnished. III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. By Malcolm H. Gardner, Delavan, Wis., Supt. Advanced Registry •^ Holstein-Friesian Association of America. The cattle known in America as Holstein-Friesians belong to the shorthorn, low-land race, native to the fertile lands of Europe bordering on the North Sea; of which race, from the dairy stand- point, the Holstein-Friesian family is the most highly developed. These cattle might have been better named Friesian, since Friesland, and the neighboring provinces of Holland, is the central home from which this breed of cattle has been so widely disseminated over the (Ad World, and from which some 10,000 head of foundation stock has been brought to America. The Friesian people are among the most conservative of the Ger- manic race; still holding to and speaking among themselves the old Friesian language, although also able to speak Dutch, the official language of Holland. They have been equally conserva- tive in holding to their ancient industry of cattle-rearing, an occupation for which their low-lying lands are especially fitted; and as Tacitus speaks of them nearly 1900 years ago as cattle breeders, paying a tribute in cattle and hides to the Roman Empire, so we find them to-day making dairy husbandry their main industry. Holding mainly to one occupation down through the centuries, and passing the business from father to son, it would be strange indeed if their breed of cattle did not reach a very high degree of development; so it is in no way surprising that we should find these Friesian dairymen possessed of a breed DAIRY COWS. 219 of cattle which, as an all-around dairy breed, is superior to any other breed known. While the Holstein-Friesians are essentially a dairy breed and are so regarded in America, yet as an all-around dairy breed the matter of beef and veal must not be lost sight of, and in Holland these'are very important points. There few cattle are allowed to pass their seventh year; but before they pass out of their prime they are fattened and sold as beef. Prof. I. P. Roberts in speaking of Holstein-Friesian beef said: "I ate it for three weeks, and the English beef for two; and while not so fat as the short-horn, it was to my taste superior." The breed reaches full growth and maturity at about five years of age; reach- ing full height at between two and one-half and three years of age, and each year for the two following years adding about one and three-fourth inches in length, three-fourths of an inch in width of hips, and two inches in girth of chest. Mr. S. Ho.xie, fonner Supt. of H.-F. Advanced Registry, states that the average measurements of cows upwards of five years of age received to entry in the fourth volume of the Advanced Register were as follows: "Height at shoulders, 51.8 inches; height at hips, 53 inches; length of body, 64.9 inches; length of rump, 21.4 inches; width of hips, 21.9 inches; width at thurl, 19.6 inches; girth at smallest circumference of chest, 75.6 inches." The average weight of these cows was 1262 lbs., and the average measure- ments are those of what might be deemed a typical animal of what is technically knowti as the milk-and-flesh form of the breed, the form most popular in America. The first association of breeders of these cattle in this country was fonned in 1871, the first herd-book being published the following year. The present Holstein-Friesian Association was formed in 1885 by the union of two earlier associations, and is now the largest association of breeders of pure-bred dairy cattle in America. How many H.-F. cattle there are now living is unknown; but since the juncture of the two old associations in 1885, over 180,000 females and 96,000 males have been recorded. The H.-F. Advanced Regicler, based for entry upon individual merit, was established in 1885; 23 volumes having been pub- lished, containing entries of over 18,500 cows and 1300 bulls. The age of any female is computed as that at the time of last calving 220 DAIRTIN^G. or aborting, and the requirements for entry vary with the age, being not less than 7.2 lbs. butter-fat in seven consecutive days for a heifer calving at just two years of age or younger, and in- creasing proportionately to not less than 12 lbs. butter-fat for a cow calving at five years old or older; there being no increased requirements for increased age after a cow reaches the age of five years. Only bulls having four or more daughters which have been entered in the Advanced Register on oflScial records of butter-fat are accepted for entry. The rules for the entry of cows in the H.-F. Advanced Register are very stringent, being designed to place every H.-F. record beyond even a shadow of doubt. Every milking during the period of test is watched, weighed, sampled, and tested by a representative of a State Agricultural College; and thus, because of resulting expense, the bulk of its records are for short periods, mainly for one week. It will be readily admitted that 18 lbs. of butter-fat will make 21 lbs. of the best of butter, or an average of three pounds butter per day when 18 lbs. of fat is produced in seven consecutive days, and that very few cows other than Holstein-Friesian have ever under strict rules produced such an amount. The records of the H.-F. Advanced Register show that 224 H.-F. cows have produced officially in excess of 18 lbs. butter-fat; of which 82 cows have produced between 18 and 19 lbs.; 64 cows, between 19 and 20 lbs.; 46 cows, between 20 and 21 lbs.; 15 cows, between 21 and 22 lbs.; 8 cows, between 22 and 23 lbs.; 6 cows, between 23 and 24 lbs.; i cow, between 24 and 25 lbs.; i cow, between 25 and 26 lbs.; and i cow, over 27 lbs. It must be remembered that while many of these records were made by cows much under five years of age, there were a large number of records made by two and three-year-old heifers, which were, considering age, proportionately as large, yet fell short of the i8-lb. limit required for this list. As to the per cent of fat in average H.-F. milk, 1545 cows and heifers of all ages entered in the 17th volume of the H.-F. Advanced Register, of which more than one-half were heifers, produced in seven consecutive days an average of 376.7 lbs. milk, containing 12.75 ^^^- butter-fat, showing an average of 3.39 per cent fat. There were 71 cows and heifers producing over 18 lbs. butter-fat; and these cows averaged 540.9 lbs. milk, DAIRY COWS. 5521 containing 19.758 lbs. butter-fat, showing an average of 3.65 per cent fat. Eighty-three H.-F. cows and heifers have made 30-day official records exceeding 72 lbs. butter-fat, of which 24 made from 72 to 76 lbs.; 27, from 76 to 80 lbs.; 18, from 80 to 85 lbs.; 6, from 85 to 90 lbs.; 6, from 90 to 100 lbs.; i, from 100 to no lbs.; and i made over no lbs. of butter-fat. A few H.-F. cows have been officially tested for longer periods; and one cow produced in 100 days over 284 lbs. fat, while a heifer under three years of age produced over 227 lbs. in the same length of time. At the Wo'-ld's Fair at St. Louis, where three Missouri H.-F. breeders pitted their individual herd against the pick of the Jersey world, one H.-F. cow produced over 282 lbs. fat in 120 days, surpassing the foremost Jersey by over two pounds; and since then a H.-F. cow has produced officially over 316 lbs. fat in the same time. One H.-F. cow has produced over 453 lbs. fat in 182 J days, while another produced over 721 lbs. fat in one year. This last was owned by the Michigan Agl. College. Prof. Oscar Erf, Kansas Agl. College, writes that one of their H.-F. cows has produced nearly 16,000 lbs. of milk in one year, testing from 3.2 to 3.7 per cent fat, and that at the end of the year she was still giving from 25 to 30 lbs. milk per day; while Prof. A. L. Haecker, Nebraska Agl. College, states that a heifer calving at just past three years has given in 39 weeks 15,063.9 lbs. milk, containing 492.05 lbs. butter fat, and that she was still giving 45 lbs. milk per day, with 13 weeks before her in which to complete the year's record. A heifer, calving at just past three years of age, in semi-official test under the rules of the Wisconsin Exp. Station, produced in one year, 13,213.6 lbs. milk containing 584.080 lbs. butter-fat. Many H.-F. cows have made very large private records; but it is not the practice of the H.-F. Association to report private records. It has been asserted by some persons illy posted as to the facts, that while H.-F. cows did yield large quantities of milk, the milk was below standard in quality. Ten gallons of milk per day, by weight 84 lbs., might be considered more than any cow could ever produce; yet under the strictest ofiicial test 40 H.-F. cows have yielded in excess of 588 lbs. in a period of seven consecutive days. This herd of 40 cows, of which some were not of full age, produced in a period of seven consecutive days 25,032.2 lbs. milk, containing 821.497 lbs. butter-fat; thus showing an average 222 DAIRYIN^G. of 3.28 per cent fat. The average for each cow was 625.8 lbs. milk, containing 20.537 lbs. butter-fat, equivalent to 89.4 lbs. milk (over 10^ gallons) per day, and nearly 24 lbs. of commercial butter per week. After such proofs of large production of both butter-fat and of milk, and showing that even in the largest yields of almost incredible amounts of milk the content of butter- fat was 10 per cent in excess of the usual legal requirements, further comment would seem unnecessary. Owners and breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle base their claims for the superiority of this breed over all other dairy breeds mainly on the following points: First, that the Holstein-Friesian is a large, strong, vigorous cow, full of energy and abounding in vitality; second, that her physical organization and digestive capacity are such that she is able to turn to the best advantage the roughage of the farm, converting the same into merchantable products; third, that she yields large quantities of most excellent milk, fit for any and all uses, and especially well fitted for shipping purposes; fourth, that heredity is so firmly established through her long lineage that she is able to perpetuate herself through the production of strong, healthy calves; and fifths that, when for any reason her usefulness in the dairy is at an end, she fattens readily and makes excellent beef. IV. Ayrshires. By C. M. WiNSLOW, Brandon, Vt., Secretary Association of Ayrshire Breeders. The original home of the Ayrshire cow is in Scotland, in the county of Ayr. This county has always been noted for its dairy industry and the thrift of its inhabitants. The soil is strong, giving good pasturing and abundant crops, the climate is rough, and people and cattle hardy. The Ayrshires began to attract the attention of dairjonen in other parts of the world some sixty years ago, and there was an importation made into Canada and the New England States, where they are bred in considerable numbers and highly prized. They have been sent South, and are said to endure the heat better than any other breed. They also are said to stand the cold of Canada better than any other dairy breed. The Ayrshire cow is of medium size, weighing about one thousand pounds, of blocky build, low on legs, and usually DAIRY COWS. 223 spotted in color, being red and white as a rule, though sometimes nearly red or nearly white. They are hardy and healthy, endur- ing changes of heat and cold with little discomfort, and quickly adapt themselves to surrounding conditions. They perhaps show to the best advantage where the food-supply is limited and they are compelled to hunt for a full supply. It is claimed for the cows of this breed that they will give the largest return of dairy product for food consumed of any of the dairy breeds. There has never been much said or done by the owners of Ayrshires to bring their merits to the attention of the public. They are a popular cow for the milkman, because they are econom- ical producers and give milk of good quality that satisfies the trade. High-grade Ayrshire cows always command the highest fancy price in Brighton, to go into the stables of milk producers. It is said by the milk inspectors of Boston that they have no trouble with the milk from A}Tshire herds, it being up to the 13 per cent total solids required by Massachusetts law. The average yield of Ayrshire cows is a little over 6000 lbs. of milk in a year, on ordinary dairy food and care, but there are a large number of individual cows with authenticated records all the way from 7000 lbs. to over 12,000 lbs. of milk in a year. It is only within a very few years that the Ayrshire Breeders' Association instituted a system of official tests, and only a few of the breeders have entered their herds, consequently we have the records of a comparatively small number of cows, but enough to show that the Ayrshire cow is by nature a wonderful dairy cow both in milk and butter production, and that it would be an easy matter to produce families of phenomenal cows adapted to the production of either butter or milk. The association has confined itself chiefly to the yearly tests, believing that it is the long period that shows the staying quality of the breed and the true value of a dairy cow. We have in the ordinary work of the dairy found a number of cows that gave from fourteen to nineteen pounds of butter in seven days, and from sixty to nearly 100 pounds in the month. We have compiled from the official files of the association tests the following yields from individual cows: Milk. — 78 cows gave over 8000 lbs. of milk in a year; 51 cows gave over 8500 lbs. of milk in a year; 43 cows gave over gooo lbs. of milk in a year; 17 cows gave over 0500 'bs, of milk in a year; 224 DAIRYIiq^G. 14 cows gave over 10,000 lbs. of milk in a year; 7 cows gave over 10,500 lbs. of milk in one year; 6 cows gave over 11,000 lbs. of milk in one year; 4 cows gave over 11,500 lbs. of milk in one year; 2 cows gave over 12,000 lbs. of milk in one year; i cow gave over 12,500 lbs. of milk in one year. Butter. — 181 cows gave over 300 lbs. of butter each in one year; 87 cows gave over 350 lbs. of butter each in one year; 33 cows gave over 400 lbs. of butter each in one year; 13 cows gave over 450 lbs. of butter each in one year; 5 cows gave over 500 lbs. of butter each in one year; i cow gave nearly 550 lbs. of butter in one year; i cow has for the last five consecutive years dropped five calves and given an official record of 52,000 lbs. milk and 2130 lbs. butter. The Ayrshire, being a dairy cow, has never been claimed for beef or even for a general-purpose cow, but her easy keeping- qualities and hardy disposition cause her to lay on flesh rapidly when dry, and she will probably return to her owner in beef the full cost of raising her. Farmers who fatten calves for veal tell me the calves are small when born, but grow rapidly, so that when of age to sell they are large and heavy for their age and are good handlers. V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. By the late J. H. Pickrell, Springfield, 111., Secretary American Short- horn Breeders' Association. Away back in the early history of this country, there were occasionally cows imported from England. Buffalo and wild game were abundant for meat, but milk, butter, and cheese did not come that way. As creatures of circumstances, cows were in demand. Soon after the Revolutionary War, cattle that were pure- bred Shorthorns were imported into Virginia, and after- wards, in 1797, found their way into Kentucky. The cows were said to be great milkers, and are reported to have given as much as 32 quarts of milk per day, and were called by the natives " the milk breed." Later importa- tions with more particular reference to their beef qualities were made, but, in spite of all that had been fed into them with that end in view, many of the cows developed into remarkably heavy milkers, and were very noted for their large yield of a good quality of milk. The late L. F. Allen, in his history of "American Cat- tle," published in j868, says: "We have numerous well- DAIRY COWS. 225 authenticated instances of their (Shorthorns) giving six, seven, eight, and even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, in the height of their season, and yielding fourteen to eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in their milk in proportionate quantity, as well as other breeds of cows, through the year. Cows so much larger in size than other kinds should be expected to give more than smaller ones that consume less food, and without as- serting that they do give more, in proportion to their size, it is -claimed that when educated and used for the dairy chiefly, they give quite as much as others. That the in- herent quality of abundant milking exists in the Short- horns, no intelligent breeders of them need doubt. Our own observation in more than thirty years' experience with hundreds of them, first and last, under our own eyes, is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in thoroughbreds and grades." The Columbian dairy tests, though made under un- favorable circumstances, proved the milking qualities of Shorthorns. I say unfavorable, because the matter was not taken hold of soon enough by the American Short- horn Breeders' Association, under whose auspices the ex- hibit was made, to select the best cows in every instance so as to have them bred to produce and have them at their highest flow of milk at the proper time. As a conse- quence, cows had to be picked up that had produced at hap-hazard, and were not in every instance the best that might have been used, if selections had been made in sea- son to have them bred so as to have them produce just prior to the tests. But with all these disadvantages, the two strictly acknowledged dairy breeds — bred for that purpose almost exclusively — which were selected with the greatest care, so much so that it is doubtful whether they could be duplicated, had but little the advantage of the Shorthorns in the general " round-up," as a few comparisons will prove. In test No. i (cheese), with 25 cows of each breed, the score stood as follows: Jerseys 906. i points Shorthorns 905.5 " Guernseys .^ 871.9 " /w .-v VJ DAIRYIiq"G. In the score for perfection of loo points flavor was counted 55 points. Shorthorns headed the list by taking 504.3 points. Jerseys 497-8 " Guernseys 489-4 " The cost of production was : Shorthorns $99.36 Jerseys 98. 14 Guernseys 76.25 The champion cheese cow of the Jerseys netted $6.97 " " " " " " Shorthorns netted.. 6.27 " " " " " " Guernseys " .. 5.27 In the second test, 90 days, for butter, loss and gain in live vreight, where maintenance was counted against the cows, the net gain was for Jerseys (25 cows) $1,323.81 Guernseys (25 cows) 997-63 Shorthorns (24 cows) 9ii-i3 To produce this result it cost the Jerseys (25) $587-87 Shorthorns (24) 506.50 Guernseys (25) 487.25 The champion Shorthorn cow (Nora) produced 3679.8 lbs. of milk. Jersey (Brown Bessie) " 3634 " " " Guernsey (Materna) " 3548.8 " " When reduced to gain in the products over cost of pro- duction, the account stood as follows : Jersey cow $73.22 Guernsey cow 57-82 Shorthorn cow 52.63 Again, in tests 2. 3, and 4 (Guernseys were not in test No. 4) the three best Shorthorns (one in each test, including the two-year-old heifer) gave 5861 lbs. While the Jerseys of the saiue description gave. • 5330 " Showing in favor of Shorthorns 531 " DAIRY COWS. 227 In test No. 3 (butter), "go as you please," The champion Jersey cow at a cost of $8.57 pro- duced net f'24-6g The champion Shorthorn cow at a cost of $8.18 produced net 19-57 The champion Guernsey cow at a cost of $5.57 pro- duced net $19.37 In test No. 4 (heifers) 7 Jerseys cost for food $34.43 and netted 56.27 6 Sh(Trthorns cost $23.52 and netted 47-42 making an average of 13 cents per head in favor of the Jer- seys, While butter was rated by points, beef was not, and the Jerseys got as much allowance per pound for gain in live weight as the Shorthorns. As hinted above, dairy cows are not always wanted for butter alone, or cheese alone, but very frequently to sup- ply city customers with good milk for their tables. The tests at the Columbian Dairy School proved that for a large supply of milk of the best flavor, Shorthorns not only were good dairy cows in every sense of the term, but that they led the other two breeds. Therefore, if milk of good quality and lots of it is wanted, Shorthorn cows can supply it, to say nothing of their " general-use " qualities that will just suit the farmer who wants milk, butter, cheese^ and beef. VI. Red Polled Cattle. By the late J. McLain Smith, Dayton, Ohio, Secretari' Red Polled Cattle Club of America.* Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, England, from time immemorial. Originally there were two distinct types: the Suffolks, usually of a pale red or dun color, and hence known as Suffolk duns — large and rather rough cattle, but celebrated for their milking qualities; and the Norfolks, commonly deep red in color, smaller, finer, more compact in build, not so large milkers, but great favorites with the butcher. * Revised by H. A. Martin, Secretary, Gotham, Wis. 228 DAlEYIi^G. Youatt, speaking of the old Suffolk strain as it existed in his day (some half century ago), says: *' In the height of the season some of these cows will give as much as eight gallons of milk (80 lbs.) in a day, and six gallons (60 lbs.) is not an unusual quantity." The modern Red Polled cow is a result of the combina> tion of these old strains, and it is the aim of the most pro- gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood- red in color, of fine bone, smooth and compact of form, hardy, docile, fatting easily, and giving a good flow of fairly rich milk all the year round. The breed, in other words, is being developed as a general farm cow, suited to the wants of the general farmer. While the cows can- not, I think, compete in flow of milk with the best Hol- steins, or in yield of butter with the best Jerseys, and the steers have not, as yet, taken a place in the front rank at the fat-stock shows, it is believed that the breed combines the several desirable traits as well at least as any other, and with them the equally essential qualities of hardiness, do- cility, and a hornless head. As an illustration of the points named, and a proof of their possible combination, the cow No. 2213, Gleaner, V, 9, is credited in 1894, according to the accepted record of the owner, with a yield of 14,189 lbs. of milk, an average of 38 86 lbs. a day for the entire year. The cow was then twelve years old, and was milking with her tenth calf (or tenth calving, as one or more of them produced twins). Among these is a pair of twins (Freemartins), shown as fat stock, at Norwich and London, England. The steer (ist and cup at Norfolk and ist at Smithfield') weighed at I year 5f months old, 1238 lbs., and when shown again, at 2 years 6 months old, had a live weight of 1735 lbs., a gain in a few days over a year of 497 lbs., and a gain from birth of about 2.12 lbs. a day. The heifer, twin to above (ist and reserve foi cup at Norfolk and ist and reserve for cup at Smithfield), had a live weight when shown (2 years 6 months old) of 1452 lbs., a gain from birth of nearly 1.8 lbs. a day. DAIRY COWS. 229 An illustration nearer home is reported by Dr. J. R. Slingerland, Trustee of the Shaker Society at Union Vil- lage, O. In January, 1895, he bought 35 head of Shorthorn steers, coming 2 years old, for feeding. At the same time they had 18 head, the same age, of their own breeding, the produce of a Red Polled bull on Shorthorn cows. At the time named the full-blood Shorthorns averaged 940 lbs. in weight, and the cross-breds 790 lbs. All were pastured the summer of 1895, fed out in the late fall, and sold to the same buyer on the same day in January, 1896. The full-blood steers consumed an average of 85 bushels of corn, besides hay and corn-fodder, in fatting, and weighed v/hen sold an average of 1540 lbs. each — a gain of 600 lbs. in the year. They sold for $4 a hundred. The polled cross- breds consumed an average of 50 bushels of corn, with corn-fodder only for roughage, and weighed when sold an average of 1492 lbs. — a gain in the year of 702 lbs. They sold for $4.25 a hundred. The Red Polled bull, Osman 1251, used in producing the cross-bred steers in this trial, is the son of a full sister to Eleanor, and is the sire of many fine dairy cows. In appearance the Red Polls greatly resemble Devons, save the horns, and except that they are somewhat larger, and the cows, as a rule, are better milkers. They have the same rich color, fine bone, round, smooth, compact form, free from prominent points, and the same muscular habit and active disposition ; and their meat is of the same fine- grained, juicy character. Milking Qualities. — The modern Red Polled cow does not milk so largely as the old Suffolk, but her milk is of better quality. Sixty pounds a day, which Youatt says in his time was not unusual, is now, I think, somewhat rare. Four and a half to five gallons a day, or say 40 to 45 lbs., is a good yield from a mature cow in the flush of the season. But she will easily give, with proper care, 6000 to 8000 lbs. in a year, and some will considerably exceed this. In the report of English herds, published in the Red Polled Herd Book, the average yields of mature cows in the best herds is fiom 5000 to over 7000 lbs. a year. In Lord Rothchild's 230 DAIRYING. herd, 22 cows, seven milking with first or second calf, gave in 1895 an average of 7744^ lbs. of milk each. In my own little herd the mature cows will average over 6000 lbs. of milk a year and 4 per cent of fat. Beef Qualities. — In this line, so far, we are entirely de- pendent for facts on the English records. No full-blood steers of the breed have as yet been shown in this country. A few samples will suffice. At the Smithfield Club Show in i88g, two Red Polled steers, two years old, showed the largest daily gain of anything on exhibition that old — 2.18 lbs. and 2.29 lbs., respectively. At the Smithfield Club Show of i8go a Red Polled steer dressed the highest per cent of his live weight of any animal slaughtered — 73.72 per cent. This, according to the London Live Stock Jour^ial, has only once been exceeded in England — by a cross-bred steer, which dressed 74 per cent of his live weight. At the fat-stock shows in England in 1894 the following live weights were recorded : A steer i year \o\ months, 1374 lbs., and a year later 1702 lbs. ; a steer i year \o\ months, 1323 lbs.; a steer i year io| months, 1208 lbs., and a year later 1656 lbs. ; a steer i year 9 months, 1250 lbs., a year later 1728 lbs., and at 3 years 9 months 2112 lbs. Mature Red Polled cows, in breeding condition, should weigh 1200 to 1400 lbs., and bulls 1800 to 2000 lbs. A few will greatly exceed these weights, but many, as now bred, are smaller. These, however, are about the weights at- tained in the best herds. VII. Devon Cattle. By L. P. Sbsson, Wheeling, W. Va., Secretary American Devon Cattle Club.. The Devon breed of cattle is one of the oldest of the English cattle. Their native home is on the highlands of Devonshire, in southwestern England. Our records show that in the year 1800 Messrs. Winthrop & Davenport im- ported Devons into Plymouth, Mass. ; in 1805 General Eaton imported some into Otsego county, New York; in 1817 Mr. George Patterson came into possession of some De\ ons, brought over bv T. W. Coke, who presented them to a DAIRY COWS. 231 brother of George Patterson; these afterward were the foundation of the above-mentioned herd (George Patter- son of Sykesville, Md.). These and other animals im- ported by Mr. Patterson, our records show, were all brought from Devonshire, and from the best that could be found there. Others Avere imported into New York State; among im- porters whom we might mention are John Cowlin of Trux- ton, N. J.; L. F. Allen, Miles Vernon, A. Becket, W. P. & C.-S. Wainwright, Col. L. G. Morris, D. W. Catlin, W. R. Sanford, J. Howard McHenry of Pikesville, Md.; C. P. Halcomb of Delaware, and others. Later importations are by James Murray of Virginia, R. W. Cameron of New York, Frank Brown of Baltimore, Md., and still later John Hudson, Moweaqua, 111., Dr. J. Cheston Morris, Philadel- phia, Pa., and A. S. Worden, Ulysses, Pa. As to the beef qualities of the Devons one only has to turn to the records of the markets of the country to see that they are among the leading beefers, bringing the top prices at all times. As to milk and butter production from Devons, it will be found from records that they produce from 12 to 25 lbs. of butter per week. Mr. A. E. Baker, of Wisconsin, says his cows average him 365 lbs. of butter per cow for the j^ear, which is about as much as any breed will do on farmers' feed and care. Dr. J. Cheston Morris says, in regard to Devons for milk: " A herd of Devons may be relied upon to give an annual yield of 2000 quarts of milk from each cow; the length of the period averages be- tween 10 and II months, though single cows will continue in profit from 13 to 14 months. An average yield of seven quarts daily from each cow may therefore be expected, and an examination of milk records of Devon herds will show that they are remarkably uniform in their yields. As comparatively little attention has been paid to their milking qualities, a large improvement may be looked for by proper selection and breeding. As my animals weigh only 700 lbs. each, it follows that each cow has given be- tween five and six times her own weight in milk during the course of the year, besides maintaining her own 232 DAIRYING. weight, and producing healthy offspring. This I consider a physiological fact well worthy of notice, and very creditable to the ' little red cow.' Of course the same nutritive power applied in other directions would give beef-producing results, such as we all know of." Devon cattle are active and very hardy, qualities that make them especially valuable in dry or mountainous re- gions. The bulls are quite intelligent and active, and are not as liable to be cross as some other breeds; they weigh from 1800 to 2000 lbs. at three to four years old. The cows have strong vital organs, and large digestive and assimi- lating powers. Their udders are not large for the amoun:. of milk they give, with good elastic teats, seldom sore^ The milk is of good quality, either as food for infants and invalids, for the manufacture of butter or cheese, or for market delivery; it does not churn in the cans, nor look blue in the bottle. Devons will pay their way at the dairy as well as in the feeder's stable; they will keep in good condition, and look plump and sleek on pasture that other breeds can hardly live on; they are easy keepers, good producers of the finest kind of milk, and also make the very best quality of beef. VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. By H. B. Richards, Easton, Penna., Secretary Dutch Belted Cattle Asso- ciation of America. Dutch belted cattle are natives of Holland, and originated in that country during the seventeenth century, when the cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condi- tion; in fact, it was the chief industry of the country. At that time breeding had been developed to a science, and cattle of remarkable contrast of color were bred whose foundation color was black, with a broad white band around the centre of the body, a white head, a black ring around each eye, and a full white tail. Wonderful and remarkable as it may appear, a feat was accomplished during that period that would defy our modern breeders and can be safely classified as a lost art. Dutch belted cattle became a classified breed and were DAIRY COWS. 233 bred to a remarkably high standard. For several centuries they were owned and controlled by the nobility keeping them pure and limiting their number to their ownership. They were first imported into this country about the mid- dle of the present century, the importers procuring the finest herds in Holland; the herds in the United States to-day are purely of American breeding. The American Association have adopted as their standard of color a pure black, with a continuous white belt around their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending nearly to the hips; this sharp contrast of colors makes a beautiful and imposing contrast and a most beautiful sight; when seen in number grazing on the green, they are admired by all, even if not interested in cattle or farm- ing. This belt is almost invariably reproduced, and is so perfectly fixed that it will crop out in their grades for many generations, even against cold strains of blood; the potency of this feature is very striking, as the belt is often reproduced after the foundation color is lost; and grades of any foundation color can be produced to an unlimited extent. Their form is a strong characterized dairy type, medium size, and possessing all the qualifications of an ideal dairy animal. They are strictly a dairy breed, and are large and persistent milkers; strong constitutions, peaceable and quiet dispositions of a very compact form. Cows range from eight to twelve hundred, and bulls reach eighteen to twenty hundred. The late P. T. Barnum, the showman of national fame, said: "They struck my lancy in Holland about 1850; I imported a few, and then found their unique and novel appearance not their only quality, for they proved to be wonderful milkers, far superior to any other cattle to which my attention has been drawn." Nearly all the herds now in the United States are owned in New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, with a few scattering South and West. A herd of eighteen were exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, where they attracted great attention and were admired by thousands who had never heard of such novel ana beautiful 234 DAIRYII^G. cattle before. This herd was sold and exported to a wealthy resident of the City of Mexico, where they are now kept and are doing well in that congenial climate. There is an association of breeders of these cattle known as the Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, who have adopted a high standard of excellence, requiring breeders to breed typical animals of correct markings, thereby gaining uniformity and correctness of type. The association issues a herd-book, of which vol. lo of recent issue, is the last number. IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. By N. S. Fish, Groton, Conn., late Secretary Brown-Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association.* Brown-Swiss cattle were first imported into this coun- try by Mr. Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mas*^., in 1869. He imported seven cows and one bull; since then there have been several importations. Most of the animals have come from the famed Canton of Schwyz, and the adjacent Cantons of Zug, Uri, and Unterwalden. The Rigi mountains, covered to their tops with fine, rich herbage, lie here, and some of the finest breeds of cattle in the whole country are here produced, the cattle grazing in the valley in winter and on the mountains in summer. The United States consul at Zurich in 1882 made a report to our government of the cattle and dairy interest of Switzerland. He writes: "For a hundred years Switzer- land has been famous for the production of its dairies. At the cattle show of Paris, 1878, every Swiss cow exhibited bore away a prize in competition with exhibits from Hol- land, England, Denmark, and other famous cattle countries. The Brown-Swiss cattle are fed on grass or hay only the year through. A fair average for cows in Canton Zurich is ten quarts of milk per day the milking-year through; in Schwyz and Zug the average is but little less." The consul of St. Gall says: "When a farmer in Ger- many, Italy, or France wishes to improve his breed, he ♦ Revised by C. D. Nixon, Secretary, Owego, N. Y. DAIRY COWS. -235 makes a selection from Swiss herds as the healthiest and hardiest known to the herd-book. . , . Tne Brown- Swiss is considered the dairy breed par excellence of Swit' zerland; it not only gives more milk, but this is richer than any other European breed of cattle." Marked Characteristics. — Size large; form firm; color shades from dark to light chestnut brown. The tuft of hair between the horns, on the inside of ear, and a narrow line along the back generally light. Horns rather short, waxey, with black tips. Nose black, with mealy-colored band sTirrounding nose. Switch, hoofs, and tongue black. Straight hind legs, wide thighs, and heavy quarters. The cows often weigh 1600 lbs., bulls 2000 lbs. Calves large, some weighing no lbs. when dropped. They mature fast, have healthy constitutions, yielding generous returns for whatever care, time, labor, or money is expended on them. A cow shown at the Chicago Fat Stock Show in November, 1891, gave in three days 245 lbs. of milk, showing 9.32 lbs. of butter-fat by the Babcock test, yielding during one day of the test 3i lbs. of fat, the largest amount of butter-fat ever shown at an official test of any cow of any breed up to that time. The cow Muotta calved about November i, 1893, and in February, 1894, gave 67 lbs. of milk in one day. The milk of Brown-Swiss cows has a sweet flavor which is very noticeable, and makes it very desirable for family use. With good farm care the cows give under favorable circumstances from 20 to 25 quarts of milk per day. They make the finest of beef and veal; when intenaed to be used for working oxen, they are easily broken and are fast walkers. The cows are persistent milkers, with good teats; where used to produce grade animals they give the best of sat- isfaction, with the Swiss characteristics predominating. There are now about 8600 recorded animals in this country, located in almost every State, and some in Mexico. 236 DAIRYING. YIELD OF MILK AND FAT FROM DAIRY COWS. A good dairy cow should give at least 5000 pounds ol milk during a whole period of lactation. As the quality 01 milk given by different cows varies greatly, however, as will be apparent from the tables given in the following, the yield of fat produced during a lactation period is a better standard to go by than that of the milk; three-fourths of a pound of lat per day for an average of 300 days may be con- sidered a good yield (total 225 pounds). Many dairy farmers aim to have all mature cows in their herds produce a pound of fat, on the average, for every day in the year. To do this, a cow whose milk tests about 4 per cent, must give 25 pounds of milk a day (3 gallons) as an average for the whole year; a cow producing 3 per cent milk must give 33^ pounds of milk daily, and one producing 5 per cent milk must yield 20 pounds of milk daily, on the average, etc. The flow of milk is usually at its highest shortly after calving, and then gradually decreases, the rate of decrease being determined by the inbred milking qualities of the cow and the system of feeding practised. The average de- crease in milk yield for good dairy cows on good feed is from one half to three fourths of a pound per head per ten days. Where cows are not fed liberally and receive but lit- tle concentrated feed, the decrease will be more marked, and often exceed one pound of milk per head per ten days. The decrease is more marked during the latter stages of the period of lactation than in the earlier ones, and is also more marked in cows with poorly developed milking qual- ities than in good dairy cows. A cow is considered at her best when from five to seven years old; the constitutional strength of the animal, the system of feeding practised, and the general treatment given the cow will determine her period of usefulness. The quality of the milk produced by individual cows generally remains fairly uniform through the greater por- tion of the lactation period, and is not permanently influ- enced in any marked manner by feed or any external conditions. During the last couple of months, when the i DATPvY COWS. 237 yield of milk is decreasing more rapidly than before, the quality is generally improved to some extent, the variation loeing, as a rule, within i per cent. Variations of several per cents of fat may sometimes occur from day to day, or milking to milking, in the milk from single cows; variations amounting to I per cent are common. Herd milk varies much less, the percentages of fat on subsequent days being as a rule within two tenths of one per cent, and only excep- tionally near one per cent. RESULTS OF TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS Conducted by American Agricultural Experiment Stations. Breed. u ■ c o—< Ave Yield Lact Per Milk. rasre s per aiion iod. Fat. (U ■ < 5.60 5.35 3-3^ 3.60 4.44 4.60 3-73 5-50 3-47 3.67 4.89 5.09 3-55 3-69 3-79 Ave Food Eaten per Day. rage Cost Produc- ing 100 lbs. Milk. of Produc- ing I lb. Fat. New York (Geneva): Jersey Guernsey Holstein Ayrshire Short Horn.... Devon American Hol- derness Maine: Jersey Holstein Ayrshire New Jersey: Jersey Guernsey Holstein Ayrshire Short Horn . . . 4 4 4 4 I 3 2 2 2 2 3 4 3 4 3 II 6 4 12 2 5 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 lbs. 5045 5385 7918 6824 6055 3984 5721 5460 8369 6612 7695 7446 8455 7461 10457 lbs. 282.1 285 5 266. 1 244.8 269.0 183.3 213. 1 297.0 285.0 233-0 376.3 379 -o 300.2 275-3 396.3 cents 12.4 12.5 ^3-9 13-5 12.7 10.3 12.2 16.2 19.5 17. 1 16. 1 14.9 19-3 15-0 15.4 cents go 86 65 74 78 94 76 113. 85.2 94-9 87.1 78.1 79-3 76.0 79.2 cents 16. 1 16.1 19. 1 20.2 17.2 20.5 20.1 20.4 25.3 26.8 17.9 153 22.4 20.6 20.6 Averages for all Breeds and Lactation Periods. Jersey Guernsey Holstein Ayrshire ... Short Horn. Devon ...... .American Hol- derness . . . Total 9 8 18 10 5579 6210 301. 1 322 9 5-40 5.20 9 10 4 3 10 20 5 5 8215 6909 8696 3984 282.0 248.5 345-4 183-3 3-43 3 60 3-97 4.60 2 4 5721 213. 1 3-73 45 1 72 139 13-5 17.2 14-5 14.3 10.3 II .2 94-7 82.8 74-7 78-5 78.7 94.0 76.0 174 15.8 21.5 21-5 19.4 20.5 20.1 238 DAIRYING. The animals included in the foregoing breed tests rani? on the average as follows: 1. As to yield of fat: Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Hol- stein, Ayrshire, American Holderness, Devon. 2. As to cost of producing i lb. of fat: Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, American Holderness, Devon, Holstein and Ayrshire. 3. As to yield of milk: Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire, Guernsey, American Holderness, Jersey, Devon. 4. As to cost of producing lOO Ihs. of tnilk: Holstein, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey, Devon, Jersey. 5. As to cost of food: Devon, American Holderness, Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein. 6. As to richness of milk: Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, Short- horn, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Holstein. 1 RESULTS OF BREED TESTS CONDUCTED AT WORLD'S COLU31BL\N EXPOSITION, 1893. A. Breed Tesi No. I (Cheese Test), May 10 to 25. Milk Pro- duced, lbs. 25 Jerseys 13,2964 25 Guernseys 10,938.6 25 Short-horns 12,186.9 B. Breed Test No. 2 (Ninety-day Butter Test), June i to Aug. 29. Butter Price of Fat Price of 1 Pro- Cheese, Cheese Cost duced, 'bs. per lb.. of Net lbs. cent,s. Feed. Gain. 601 gr 1451.8 13-36 $98.14 $119.82 488.42 1130.6 11-95 76.25 88.3c 436.60 1077.6 13 CO 99.36 81.36 d 25 Jerseys 73,488.8 25 Guernseys 61,781.7 24 Shoit-horns.. — 66,263.2 credited Butter. 4274.01 $1747-37 3360.43 1355-44 2890.87 1171.77 Jerseys Guernseys . Short-horns. 3516.08 2784.56 2409.97 Averages per day per cow. Fat, per cent. 32.7 1.56 4.78 27. 5 1.24 4.51 30.7 1. 12 3.64 P5«7.50 484.14 501.79 Cost of Food. 26.1 cts. 21.5 " 23.2 " $1323.81 997.64 910.12 C. Breed.Test No. 3 (Thirty-day Butter Test), Aug. 29 to Sept. 28. Butler Price of 15 Jerseys 13,921.9 15 Guernseys 13,5184 i5 Short-horns 15,618.3 D. Breed Test No. 7 Jerseys 3356.6 6 Sliort horns 2581.0 credited Butter. 685.81 837.21 I385.59 $111.24 597.96 724.17 329-77 9277 555.43 662.67 303-69 104.55 4 (Heifer Test), Sept 30 to Oct. 20. 155.38 194-23 $7769 $34-44 97.89 122.36 48.95 23.53 $274.13 237.00 $56.28 47-42 DAIRY COWS. 239 RESULTS OF "COW DE3IONSTRATION " AT LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION, ST. LOUIS, 1904. (Farrington.) Brown- Swiss. Hol- steins. Jerseys. Short- horns. Average data for yiumbcr of cows Milk per day (av. for 1 20 days) lbs 5 44- 2 3.62 1.596 3-92 1.24 14.7 51 -o 3-4 1.748 4-36 15 53-4 3-43 1.832 4.24 I .07 13-5 67.5 3-5 2.355 5-17 25 41-5 4.70 I .936 3.63 1. 16 10.5 48.4 4.8 2.334 4.36 28 34. 6 Per cent fat in mitk 3.80 1.277 2.98 1-32 15-3 43 • 4 Butter-fat per day, lbs Solids not fat per day, lbs. . . Feed cost per qt. of milk. cts. •' *' « lb butter, cts. . Data for best cows: Milk per da v. lbs. Per cent fat in milk 4.0 Butter-fat per day, lbs Solids not fat per day lbs. . . 1-737 3-72 HIGHEST RECORD FOR YIELD OF BUTTER-FAT During Twenty-four Hours Made by any Cow in i». Public Test. At a Fair. Brienz, Brown-Swiss, 11 i'ears old, weighing 1395 lbs. Average daily yield of milk 81.7 lbs. Average daily yield of fat 3.1 1 Average per cent of fat in day's milk 3.81 (American Dairy Show, Chicago, 1891 ; 3-day test.) At Home. DeKol Witkop Wayne 2d, No. 58,709, H.-F. H. B. Yield of milk 70.7 lbs. " "fat 4.77 " Average per cent of fat in daj''s milk . . 6.75 (March 1-2, 190S. 7-day test, Feb. 29-Mar. 7, 1908, conducted by the Cornell Univ. (N. Y.) Experiment Station; total yield for week, 484.5 lbs. milk and 23.095 lbs. fat; average per cent of fat in milk, 4-77); test commenced 6 days from last calving; age of cow, 6 years 10 months). 240 DAIRYING. OFFICIAL RECORDS FOR MILK AND PRODUCTION. BUTTER-FAT Breed. Year. Thirty Days. Seven Days. Twenty-four Hours. (A) Milk Records. Ayrshire Auchenbrain Brown Kate Same, 2322.9 4th. 23,022.0 lbs. Brown Swiss . . College Bra- vura 2d, 2577 ig.460.6 lbs. Guernsey May Rilma Murne Cowan Same. Same. 22,761 19,673.0 lbs. 19.597 2361.S lbs. 564.8 lbs. 82.1 lbs. Holstein Pietertje 2d, Riverside Same, Margie New- 3273 H. Sadie De 902.1 lbs. man, 76,312 30,318.5 lbs. Kol Burke, 70,708 3707.2 lbs. 136.5 lbs. Jersey Eminent's Bess, 209,719 Hector's Fairy Belle, Jacoba Irene, 146,443 18,782.9 lbs. 179,909 1641.9 lbs. 444.1 lbs. 1 Shorthorn .... Rose of Glen- Daisy Oxford Rose of Glen- Same, side, 1788 lbs. side. 62.8 lbs. 18,075.2 lbs. 434- 1 lbs. Red Polled. . . Pear, 24,888 13,160.1 lbs. Popsey 3d, U-43, 9689 Hera N-6, 3505 393.25 lbs. 63.5 lbs. (B) Butter- fat Records. Ayrshire Auchenbrain Gerranton Same, Same, Brown Kate Dora 2d, 23.03 lbs.* 3.29 lbs.* 4th, 23.853 917.60 lbs. 102.04 lbs. Brown Swiss. . College Bra- vura 2d, 2577 798. 16 lbs. Guernsey May Rilma, Same, Same, Golden Elsie 22,761 103.03 lbs. 24.4lbs.t 2d, 33.422 1073.41 lbs. 3.70 lbs. Holstein Banostine Belle de Kol, K. P. Pon- tiac Lass, Same, 35 -34 lbs. 90,441 106,812 1058.34 lbs. 137. 19 lbs. Jersey Sophie 19th Hector's Sophie 19th of Hood Fairy Belle, of Hood Farm, 179,909 Farm, 1 189,748 83.63 lbs. 189,748 999. 14 lbs. 25.44 lbs. Shorthorn. . . . Ruth 3d, 20,440 Rose of Glenside, 706.63 lbs. 63.4s lbs. Red Polled... Pear, 24.888 Same, Nina, 26,710 Hera. N-6, 603 . 66 lbs. 68.85 lbs. 17.80 lbs. 3505 3 . 86 lbs. * Aver, production calculated from 30-day record. t Tied with Murne Cowan, 19, 597* DAIRY COWS. 241 RESULTS OF ENGLISH MILKING TRIALS. (Averages of breed-tests conducted at the annual dairy shows of the Brit- ish Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 1879-98, inclusive.) "rt'c o<: 236 272 32 2 35 I I 44 54 785 Breed. Shorthorns.. Jerseys Guernseys .. Holsteins (Dutch) Ayrshires Devons Red Polls Welsh Aberdeen Angus. Kerries and Dex- ter Kerries Crosses Aver- Total Solids. Fa age Yield of Milk Yield Per Yield per S." Cent. per Day. Day. Day. lbs. lbs. lbs. 45-4 5-77 12.72 1.70 28.9 4.18 14.46 1.44 30.6 413 13-50 1.41 45.2 5-53 12.25 1-54 42.2 5.61 13.29 1.77 30.1 4-32 14.34 1.48 41.9 5.26 ^2.55 1-54 46.0 5.86 12.74 1. 91 60.3 8.29 13-74 3.01 27.1 3.62 13-36 i.:8 53-1 7.07 13-3' 2.07 Per Cent. 3-75 4-q8 4.61 341 4. '9 4.90 3-68 4 . /6 4.99 4.36 3-90 Solids not Fat, Per Cent. 8.97 q 48 8 89 8 84 9 10 9 44 8 87 8 58 8 75 9 00 9 41 Live Weight. lbs. 1405(117)* 856 (157) 1026 (49) 383 (3) 1046 (21) 1162 (32) 787 (4O 1230 (38) * Average for 117 animals. REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO ADVANCED REGISTERS OF BREED ASSOCIATIONS, 1913. Requirements in Pounds at Pounds In- Breed. Based on crease per Day over 2 yrs. 3 yrs. 6500 236. c + yrs. 5 yrs. .3 yrs. Minimum. Ayrshire -I Yrs. milk " fat 6000 214-3 7500 279.0 8500 322. c * * I .37 and 2.74 .06 and . 12 Brown- I Swiss \ Yrs. milk 6ooot 6430 7288 8146 0000 2.35 " fat 222.0 238.5 271.3 304.2 337.0 .09 Guernsey. . Yrs. fat 250.5 287.0 323.5 360.0 * .10 Holstein. . . 7 da. fat 7.2 8.8 10.4 12.0 * .00439 Jersey 7 da. fat 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 * Yrs. fat 250.5 287.0 323.5 360.0 * .10 * No increase, t At 2.5 years. 242 DAIRYING. AVERAGE PER CENT OP FAT AND PRODUC- TION OF MILK AND BUTTER FAT BY PURE- BRED DAIRY CO\^^S, PER BREED.* Breed. Jersey Guernsey Holstein-Friesian Shorthorn Ayrshire Red Polled Brown Swiss. . . . Devon Dutch Belted. . . Polled Jersey. . . . French Canadian. No. of Cows. 491 191 679 370 108 50 20 50 5 S S Per Cent Fat. 4.98 4-77 3.28 73 ,84 73 78 57 3-4° 4.66 3-99 No. of Cows. 42s 151 503 27s 50 so 14 27 S S 5 Average Daily Milk Yield. lbs. 273 29.7 48.8 43-5 37-0 37-3 37-3 13. 2 27 . 2 22 . 9 27 .0 Calcu- lated Average Dailv Yield of Fat. lbs. 1.36 1 .42 1 . 60 1 . 62 1.42 1-39 I. 41 .60 .92 1 . 07 1.08 * See Woll, On the Average Composition of Milk of Pure-bred Cows of Different Breeds (Wis. Exp. Sta., Report 1901). AVERAGE PERCENTAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF MILK FR03I DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Konig.) Name of Bre'-'l. Steyer (Austrian) Simmenthal (Swiss).... TiUerthal (Tyrolean)... Vorarlberg (Austrian). . Algau ( Bavarian) Bohemian Holstein — Oldenburgf (German). . . Angler (Danish) , Short-horn Devon Ayrshire Jersey Guernsey French Scandinavian tfl u 11 (A on „• c 4.J ^ P j= 12 86.90 4 17 S^ (/3 < 3.24 4 96 73 6 87 26 3-79 2.64 5-81 70 22 87-43 3 70 3 07 5-IO 70 19 87. 3H 3-54 2 91 5-40 77 4 87.88 3.20 3.22 5-13 57 2 86.00 5 06 3-67 4 63 64 24 88.04 3-25 3-99 4. 16 56 18 «7.95 3.38 3.10 4.81 76 10 88.15 3.12 67 87.20 3-47 3.21 5-43 69 20 86.57 4-44 b4 43 86.93 3-58 3-42 5 43 64 ^i 85.90 4-32 3-34 5-70 74 26 85-39 5-" 3 98 4.38 I .i4(<') 12 87.20 390 3-07 5.06 77 4 88.00 ^3.5. 2.76 4-97 7b Ctt< in 13.10 12.74 I -^57 12.6219 12 . 12 14.00 11.96 12.05 11.85 12.80 13 43 13-07 14. 10 14.61 12.80 12.00 DAIRY COWS. 243 METHODS OF JUDGING THE VALUE OP DAIRY COAVS. The British Dairy Farmers^ Association, which has con- ducted tests of dairy cows at their annual fair for the last twenty years, has during late years 'cored the dairy cows competing for premiums according to the following scale : I point for each pound of milk; 20 points for each pound of fat; 4 points for each pound of solids not fat. I point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty days (limit 200 days). 10 points are deducted from the total score for each per cent, of fat below three per cent in the milk. The cows entered in the test are separated into four classes, according to the breed, each class being divided into two divisions, cows and heifers. The classes are Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and cross-breeds. Other associations abroad or in this country have not generally followed any definite plan from year to year in awarding premiums to dairy cows at fairs, the awards having been given to cows producing most milk, or richest milk, or most butter-fat, or most solids, during the test, which may have 'asted one to three days. At the Vermont State Fair, 1S89, the following points were given : For each 20 days since calving, i point ; for each 10 days of gestation, I point • for each 2 oz. of total solids in 24 hours' milk, i point ; for each oz. of butter-fat in 24 hours' milk, 2 points; for each 2 oz. of salted butter from 24 hours' milk, i point. In the milking trials conducted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the size of the cows has been con- sidered, the cows being, as a rule, separated into two classes, viz., over and under tioo lbs. live weight. From the best information at hand at the present, the system of awards adopted by the British Dairy Farmers' Association, and given above, must be considered the most perfect and the most just to all concerned Its main short- comings lie, as it would seem, in its not considering the food eaten by each animal during the test, and in the fact that the test is made at the fair, and not at home under 24:4 DAIRYING. every-day conditions and in surroundings familiar to the animals. The former objection would be removed by taking into ac- count the dry matter in the food eaten, as shown by chemical analysis. (See also Wisconsin Exp. Station, Research bull. No. 26, pp. 78-80.) BUYING AND SELLING COWS BY TESTS OF THEIR MILK. (Emery.) The money value of a cow may be estimated by mulLl- plying the number of gallons of milk which the cow gives by 12, adding to or subtracting from this product one dollar for every one fourth per cent of fat in the milk above or below 3.5 per cent. . , pounds of milk per day , , Value =- — X 12 -|-4 (per cent fai --^.S*. OS (See Bull. No. 113, N. C. Exp. Station.) FIFTY DAIRY RULES. (U. S. DllPAKTMENT OF AciKICULTURE.) The Owner and his Helpers. — i. Read current dairy liter- ature and keep posted on new ideas. 2. Observe and enforce the utmost cleanliness about the cattle, their attendants, the stable, the dairy, and all uten- sils. 3. A person suffering from any disease, or who has been exposed to a contagious disease, must remain away from the cows and the milk. The Stable. — 4. Keep dairy cattle in a room or building by themselves. It is preferable to have no cellar below and no storage loft above. 5. Stables should be well ventilated, lighted, and drained; should have tight floors and walls and be plainly con- structed. 6. Never use musty or dirty litter. 7. Allow no strong-smelling material in the stable for any length of time. Store the manure under cover outside the DAIRY COWS. 245 cow-stable, and remove it to a distance as often as practi- cable. 8. Whitewash the stable once or twice a year ; use land plaster in the manure-gutters daily. 9. Use no dry, dusty feed just previous to milking ; if fodder is dusty, sprinkle it before it is fed. 10. Clean and thoroughly air the stable before milking ; in hot weather sprinkle the floor. 11. Keep the stable and dairy-room in good condition, and then insist that the dairy, factory, or place where the milk goes be kept equally well. The Cows. — 12. Have the herd examined at least twice a year by a skilled veterinarian. 13. Promptly remove from the herd any animal suspected of being in bad health, and reject her milk. Never add an animal to the herd untilcertain it is free from disease, espe- cially tuberculosis. 14. Do not move cows faster than a comfortable walk while on the way to place of milking or feeding. 15. Never allow the cows to be excited by hard driving, abuse, loud talking, or unnecessary disturbance ; do not ex- pose them to cold or storms. 16. Do not change the feed suddenly. 17. Feed liberally, and use only fresh, palatable feed- stuffs ; in no case should decomposed or moldy material be used. 18. Provide water in abundance, easy of access, and always pure ; fresh, but not too cold. 19. Salt should always be accessible. 20. Do not allow any strong-flavored food, like garlic, cabbage, and turnips, to be eaten, except immediately after milking. 21. Clean the entire body of the cow daily. If hair in the region of the udder is not easily kept clean it should be clipped. 22. Do not use the milk within twenty days before calv- ing, nor for three to five days afterwards. Milking. — 23. The milker should be clean in all respects; he should not use tobacco ; he should wash and dry his hands just before milking. 246 DAIRYING. 24. The milker should wear a clean outer garment, used only when milking, and kept in a clean place at other times. 25. Brush the udder and surrounding parts just before milking, and wipe them with a clean, damp cloth or sponge. 26. Milk quietly, quickly, cleanly, and thoroughly. Cows do not like unnecessary noise or delay. Commence milking at exactly the same hour every morning and evening, and milk the cows in the same order. 27. Throw away (but not on the floor, better in the gut- ter) the first few streams from each teat ; this milk is very watery and of little value, but it may injure the rest. 28. If in any milking a part of the milk is bloody, stringy or unnatural in appearance, the whole mess should be rejected. 29. Milk with dry hands; never allow the hands to come in contact with the milk. 30. Do not allow dogs, cats, or loafers to be around at milking-time. 31. If any accident occurs by which a pail full or partly full of milk becomes dirty, do not try to remedy this by straining, but reject all this milk and rinse the pail. 32. Weigh and record the milk given by each cow, and take a sample morning and night, at least once a week, for testing by the fat test. Care of Milk. — 33, Remove the milk of every cow at once from the stable to a clean, dry room, where the air is pure and sweet. Do not allow cans to remain in stables while they are being filled. 34. Strain the milk through a metal gauze and a flannel cloth or layer of cotton as soon as it is drawn. 35. Aerate and cool the milk as soon as strained. If an apparatus for airing and cooling at the same time is not at hand, the milk should be aired first. This must be done in pure air, and it should then be cooled to 45 degrees if the milk is for shipment, or to 60 degrees if for home use or delivery to a factory. 36. Never close a can containing warm milk which has not been aerated. DAIRY COWS. 247 37. If cover is left off the can, a piece of cloth or mosquito- netting should be used to keep out insects. 38. If milk is stored, it should be held "in tanks of fresh, cold water (renewed daily), in a clean, dry, cold room. Unless it is desired to remove cream, it should be stirred with a tin stirrer often enough to prevent forming a thick cream layer. 39. Keep the night milk under shelter so rain cannot get into the cans. In warm weather hold it in a tank of fresh cold water. 40. Never mix fresh warm milk with that which has been cooled. 41. Do not allow the milk to freeze. 42. Under no circumstances should anything be added to milk to prevent its souring. Cleanliness and cold are the only preventives needed. 43. All milk should be in good condition when delivered. This may make it necessary to deliver twice a day during the hottest weather. 44. When cans are hauled far they should be full, and carried in a spring wagon. 45. In hot weather cover the cans, when moved in a wagon, with a clean wet blanket or canvas. The Utensils. — 46. Milk-utensils for farm use should be ma,de of metal and have all joints smoothly soldered. Never allow them to become rusty or rough inside. 47. Do not haul waste products back to the farm in the same cans used for delivering milk. When this is unavoid- able, insist that the skim-milk or whey-tank be kept clean. 4S. Cans used for the return of skim-milk or whey should be emptied and cleaned as soon as they arrive at the farm. 49. Clean all dairy utensils by first thoroughly rinsing them in warm water; then clean inside and out with a brush and hot water in which a cleaning material is dissolved; then rinse and lastly sterilize by boiling water or steam. Use pure water only. 50. After cleaning, keep utensils, inverted, in pure air, and sun if possible, until wanted for use. 248 DAIRYING. II. MILK. PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF 3IILK. (KoNiG.) Human .. Mare Buffalo Ass Cow , ."^.we Goat Reindeer* Sow. ... Bitch El phatit Hippopotamus. Camel Llama No. of Casein Analy- ses. Water. Fat. and Al- bumen. Sugar. ^ .sh. 107 87.41 378 2.29 6.21 31 50 90.78 1 21 1.99 5 67 35 8 82.25 7 SI 5.05 4 44 75 7 89.64 1 64 2.22 5 99 51 793 87.17 3 69 3.55 4 88 71 32 80.82 6 86 6.52 4 91 89 38 85.71 4 78 4.29 4 46 76 2 67.20 17 10 "•39 2 82 I 49 20 82.51 5 78 6.34 4 37 I 00 28 75.44 9 57 II. 17 3 09 73 3 79-30 9 10 2.51 8 59 50 I 90.43 4 51 4 40 11 3 86.57 3 07 4.00 5 59 77 3 86.55 3 15 3-90 5 60 80 Specific Grav- ity. 1.0270 1-0347 1.0330 1.0345 I .0316 I. 0341 1.0328 1.0477 1.0385 "•035 1-0313 1.042 1.034 * VVerenskiold. AVERAGE ANALYSES OF AMERICAN SAMPIaES OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. (Goessmann.) Whole Milk. Skim- milk. Butter- milk. Cream from Cooley Creamer. Butter. No. of samples 1889 348 31 197 25 Water 86.53 4.14 3.20 5-43* • 70 100.00 90.52 • 32 3.53^ 4-83* .80 91.67 .27 2.79 4-47"' .80 73.90 17.66 "62 10.89 83.95 .42* Fat Casein and albumen.. Milk-sugar Ash 4-74 T »o.oo 100.00 100.00 Total solids 13 47 9-33 9.48 9. 16 8.33 8.06 26.10 8.44 89.11 5.16 Solids not fat * By difference. MILK. 249 AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0IV OF COWS' 3IILK, WITH VARIATIONS. (KiJNiG.) Average of 705 Analyses (largely Euro- pean). Minimum. Maximum. Water Fat 87 . 27 per cent 3.68 " " 4.94 per cent .72 " 80. 32 per cent 1.48 *' " ^;79l,.o7p.c. 3.23 per cent •50 " 90. 22 per cent 6. 47 " " Casein Albumen Milk-sugar Ash. , . . r 6.48 per cent I .45 " ' ' Total solids. . . . Solids not fat. 100.00 12. 73 per cent 9. T4 " I -0313 9.31 per cent 19. 68 per cent Specific gravity. 1 .0264 1.0368 COMPOSITION OF 3IORNING AND EVENING MILK, AND OF MORNING, NOON, AND EVENING MILK. (KONIG.) No. of Analy- ses. Water. Fat. Casein and Al- bumens Milk- stigar. Ash. Morning milk Evening " 139 139 87.70 87.29 88.28 87.43 87 . 60 3.38 3.58 3-05 3.81 3-59 3.61 3.64 4.64 4.81 .67 .69 Morning milk Noon ' ' Evening " 52 52 52 3.24 3- 26 3. 20 4.69 4.75 4.87 .74 • 75 .74 COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SAME MILKINGS. (Konig.) First portion . Second " Third No. of An Water, Fat. alyses. Pcrct. Per ct. 7 80.84 1,78 7 88.12 3-34 6 86 29 4 52 Casein and Albumen. Per ct. •94 ■59 Milk- Ash. sugar Per ct. P'rct. 4.81 .69 4.92 .68 5.88 .72 Total Solids. Per ct. 10. 16 11.88 i3-7> 250 DAIRYING. caliCuijAtion of components op cows* MILK. According to Vieth the components of the non-fatty milk solids will stand in the ratio to one another of about lo : 13 : 2 for casein and albumen : milk sugar : ash. If the solids not fat in a sample of milk arc 9 per cent, the per cent of casein and albumen in the same will be approximately ^^ X 10 = 3.60 per cent; sugar, /g x 13 = 4-68 per cent; and ash, /^ X 2 = .72 per cent. TABLE SHOWING RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN AND OTHER SOLIDS. (Cooke.) Total Solids. Fat. Casein and Albumen. Milk-sugar and Ash. Solids not Fat. Per Cent, Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. 11.00 3.07 2.92 5.01 7-93 11.50 3-29 3.00 5.21 8.21 12.00 3-5° 3-07 5-43 8.50 12.50 3-75 3-19 556 8.75 13-00 3-99 3-30 571 9.01 »3.5o 4-34 3-44 5-72 9.16 14.00 4.68 3-57 5.75 932 14.50 4-93 3-79 5.68 9-47 15.00 5-38 4.00 5.6a 9.62 15.50 569 4-iS 5.66 9.81 16.00 6.00 4.30 5-70 10.00 This table, which is summarized from the analyses of about 2400 American samples of milk, shows that while the percentage of fat varies from 3.07 to 6 per cent, or nearly three per cent, that of casein varies only from 2.92 to 4.3. per cent, less than one and one half per cent. It also shows that a higher percentage of fat is always accom« panied by a higher percentage of casein. Milk sugar and ash increase but little as the milk grows richer. JtflLK. 251 FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN DAIRY PROD UCTS. Average of American Analyses. (Cooke and Hills.) Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Potash. Value per Ton. Whole milk Skim-milk Cream Buttermilk Whey 3 53^ 56 40 48 15 12 93 .iq% .20 •15 •17 .14 .04 .60 .175^ .185 .130 .158 .181 .036 .120 S 2.17 2.31 .66 1.98 .84 .49 14.19 Butler Cheese COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM!. (Ko nig.) No. of Anal- yses. ri I I 42 Water. 77-9 64. 1 70.1 74.6 Casein. 4.9 5-2 7.6 4.0 Albu- men. Butter- fat. Milk- sugar. 4.6 3-9 2.7 Ash. Ewe Goat Sow 3-4 3-2 8.0 13.6 8.3 24 -5 9-5 3-6 •9 30 •9 1.6 Cow COMPOSITION OF ASH OF COWS' MILK AND COLOSTRUM. Cows' Milk. Colostrun*- Total ash 7 per cent 1.6 per cent 100 parts of ash will contain : Potash 24 " 7 " Soda 6 " 6 Lime 23 " 35 " Phosphoric acid 28 " 41 '* Chlorin 13 " 13 " 25l3- dairying. A CHAPTER ON MILiK TESTING.* The Babcock milk test is the quick and simple method of determining the fat content of milk which has been most generally adopted in this country. The test was in- vented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, and was first published in July, 1890. The following is an outline of the method: A known quantity of milk (17.6 cubic centimeters, or about I of an ounce) is pipetted off into a graduated test- bottle; 17.5 cc. of commercial sulfuric acid, of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.83, is then measured out by means of a graduated cylinder or an automatic pipette, and added to the milk. The two fluids are mixed, and when the curd is dissolved, the test-bottles are placed in a centrifugal ma- chine and whirled for 4 minutes at a rate of 800-1200 revo- lutions per minute, the small hand-machines on the market requiring the higher number of revolutions. Boiling hot water is then filled into the bottles, by which means the liquid fat is brought into the narrow graduated neck of the bottles ; after an additional whirling of the bottles for a minute, the length of the column of fat is read off in per cent. The whole process of testing a sample of milk according to this method will take less than a quarter of an hour when a little skill in manipulation has been reached. The various dealers in dairy implements have placed Babcock machines on the maiket in sizes fiom 4- to 60- bottle machines, and supply the necessary outfit, as test- bottles, pipettes, graduates, and sulfuric acid. There are at present three different types of machines: hand-machines (friction or cog-wheel machines; the latter ones are to be preferred, and have now practically replaced the friction machines), steam turbine, and belt-power machines. The Facile, Twentieth Century, and Agos Babcock testers are * The subject of milk testiiiR is treated exhaustively, and detailed direc- tions for using the Babcock test are i^iven in Farrington-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, Mendota Book Co., Madison, Wis., 21st Edition, 1912. MILK. 253 the "Dest hand-machines on the market at the present time. Steam turbine machines are to be recommended .for factory use; they should always be provided with a speed indicator so as to avoid too slow or too rapid whirling; several acci- dents have happened where the bottles were unable to stand the pressure caused by too rapid whirling. In many turbine testers the bottles are heated to about 200° F., and the bottles should in case of such machines be left to cool to about 150° F. before results are read off. Readings taken at temperatures higher than this come too high, viz., in extreme cases, from .2 to .3 per cent too high in case of new milk, and toward one per cent too high in case of cream. (See Wis. Exp. Sta. Report for 1889-1900.) In Sharpies' Russian Babcock Tester (a steam-turbine test manufactured by the Dairy Specialty Co., West Chester, I'a ) the bottles used can be filled with hot water while the machine is in motion ; the test bottles used are arranged for half the usual quantity of milk. Points to be watched in making tests by the Labcock method : The strength of the acid used is very important; its specific gravity should not go belov/ 1.82 or above 1.84 ; if the acid is somewhat too strong less may be taken, and a little more if it is rather weak. It is, however, not possible to make a satisfactory test with acid of a specific gravity below 1.82. Keep the acid bottle corked when not in use, as the acid will otherwise take up moisture from the air. In testing separator skim-milk use a somewhat larger quantity ot acid than usual, and whirl 5 to 6 minutes; this will insure a nearly perfect separation of all the fat present in such milks. The two-necked so-called Ohlsson bottles are recommended for testing separator skim-milk ; the results should be increased by .05 per cent with these as with other test bottles, in testing separator skim-milk. The centrifugal machine should run at a rate of about 800 to 1000 revolutions per minute; if its diameter is small, whirl 1000 or 1200. Soft or rain-water is used in filling up the bottle after 254 DAIRYING. boiling, or hard water may be used if sorr.e drops of sulfuric acid have Dcen aaded to it before the boiling. In addi tb( ■le, .n aaamg tne acid the bottle should be held at an angJ so as to cause the acid to follow the inside of the wall. Mix the milk ar.d acid at once, or within a short time, and pro- ceed with the test without delay. Read off results before the fat begins to crystallize. If many tests are made at a time, and the room is cold, place the bottles in a pail with water of 140-150° and keep them warm until results are recordel. Application of Babcock's Test. — The method maybe used to advantage in determining the fat content of full milk, skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, cream, condensed milk, and cheese. It cannot be recommended for the estimation of fat in butter, since the error of analysis in this case is too large. In testing separator skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey by this method, no reading should be taken lower than one- tenth of one per cent. If only a small drop or two of liquid fat appears in the neck of the bottles after finished whirling the result is therefore to be put down as . i per cent, ifTstead of estimates of .05, and still lower, which are sometimes made. (See Bull. No. 52, Wis. Experiment Station.) Lactometer. — The Quevenne lactometer, with the ther- mometer tube extending into the narrow stem of the instru- ment, is recommended for dairy work. In the N. Y. Board of Health lactometer, often used, the scale is divided into 120 divisions, the mark 100 corresponding to a specific gravity of 1.029, ^nd that of 120 to a specific gravity of 1.0348. These lactometer degrees can be converted into Quevenne lactometer degrees by multiplying by .29. The following table gives the readings of the two scales be- tween 60 and 120 on the Board of Health lactometer: MILK. 255 TABLE SHOWING THE QUEVENNE LACTOMETER DEGREES CORRESPONDING TO THE SCALE OF LACT03IETERS GRADUATED FROM 60 TO 120. N. Y. Bd. of Health Quevenne Scale. N. Y. Bd. of Health Quevenne Scale. N. Y. Bd. of Health Quevenne Scale. Scale. Scale. Scale. 60 17.4 81 23-5 101 29.3 61 17.7 82 23.8 102 29 6 62 18 83 24.1 103 29 9 63 18.3 84 24.4 104 30 2 64 18.6 85 24.6 105 30 5 65 18.8 £6 24.9 I Ob 30 7 66 IQ.I 87 25.2 T07 31 67 19.4 88 25-5 108 31 3 68 19.7 89 25.8 109 31 6 69 20 90 26. 1 IXO 31 9 70 29-3 91 26.4 III 32 2 71 20.6 92 26.7 112 32 5 72 20.9 93 27 "3 32 8 73 21 . 2 94 273 114 33 r 74 21-5 95 27.6 XI5 33 4 75 21.7 96 27.8 116 33 6 76 22 97 28.1 117 33 9 77 22.3 98 28.4 118 34 2 78 22.6 99 28.7 119 34 5 79 27-9 100 29 120 34 8 80 23.2 In taking the specific gravity of milk by means of a lac- tometer, the temperature of the milk should not vary more than 10° either way from 60" F. The following tables show the proper corrections for temperature to be made, if the milk was either warmer or colder than 60^ F., the tem- perature to which the specific gravities of all liquids are usually referred. In practical work sufficiently accurate corrections for tem- perature may generally be made by adding .1 to the lacto- meter reading for each degree above 60" F. , and by subtract- ing .1 for each degree below 60°; e.g., if the reading at 64° is 29.5, it will be about 29.5 -\- .4 = 29.9 at 60"; if 34.0 at 52°, it will be ''bou*^ s^-'o — .8 = 33.2 at 60°. By reference to the following table we "n{* it is more correctly 33.0. 256 DAIRYING. ^-v c u x: CO ID V u bt> Q c i "o 0) 3 'rJ u u a a C^ O O* O^ On On On On On On On On 0> On On On ■4- ro 0> M N r<1 M IN N N (N ■>!- irivo t^oo N PI PI PI PI On M PI ro PI (O ro ro ro M 00 On O O^OO 00 00 00 00 «0 00 00 00 t^ t^ (^ ■<«■ ro Ov 1-1 N rO ■H N (N O N •* u-)VO t^OO PI M M PI PI On ►- PI ro PI ro ro ro rr f^ 00 00 00 00 t-^ t^ t^ t^ t^ t^ l^vo VO VO VO VO Tt- ro On O " CI ro M M N N (S Tj- IDVO t-~CO PI CI PI PI PI On ►- Pi ro CI ro ro ro ro t-^ t^ t^ t^O VO VO VO NO NO VO m m m ui m ro 0> O w N f^ M (N N N N ■ in •* 'J- 'j- Tt ro ro fO ro PI PI ro 0> •-■ N ro M P) N M N -I- invo t~>oo PI PI PI PI PI On w PI ro n ro ro ro ro IT) -^ T^ T^ -.«- "^ ■* ro ro CO m PI Pi PI M M O 4- ro ON i- N m w N M M N T invo p^oo PI PI PI PI CI ON 1-1 CI ro ci ro ro ro ro IT) ■* ro ro ro M r^ 01 M d PI - M H ON 02 On O 1-1 w fO w N N CJ N T mvo r^oo PI CI CI PI PI ON O w PI ro PI ro ro ro ro ro ro A* ro fO r*^ fO CO N PI PI W M M On On 00 ro ro /~> ON 1-1 N ro i- N W N N ■<*■ tnvo t^oo N CI PI P) CI On 1-1 ►- N Ci ro ro ro ro k— O m N W ft N N w 11 1-1 o O On OnOO t~» VO ro ro On 1-1 N ro H N M N M -r invo r--oo PI Pi CI CI CI On ON w PI PI PI ro ro ro On IN N P) M PI ON 6 1-1 N ro HI P) PI P) PI ►^ w H Tf lOVO P-00 d CI CI PI CI ONOO t^vo m 00 On ►• CI Ci PI ro ro ro tn ro ro ?^ OO O On On 00 t^vo m •<*■ I*- ro ro o Q K On M P) ro M PJ P) P) P) ■* lOVO NO t^ N n CI CI PI 00 On 1-1 PI Pi Pi ro ro ro w o ON >-■ M (^ 1-1 PI P) P) P) On O-OO 00 M- -i- mvo t^ PI PI PI CI CI t^vo m Tj- ro 00 On M Pi PI PI ro ro ro PI ro ro VO q ON On 1- PI PI M PI PI PI PI On On OnOO 00 m Tj- mvo t^ PI PI PI N PI t-^vo m ■* ro 00 On M PI Pi CI ro ro ro M ro ro IT) On On ON On 00 00 00 r-- tv VO m •* ro Pi q ro ro < H 0> On O i-i N 1-1 M CI PI P) rr> rr mvo t^ p) PI N Pt CI 00 On w Pi N PI ro ro ro *>4 a; V S" o o c >< N ro -"t- PI PI PI PI N invo t^OO On CI N « W PI O M N ro ■* ro ro CO ro ro m ro MILK. 257 T >^ H M M ;^ o *^ ;?; o H H H \OvOt>«t^t» 0000OO>0 H w N N ro to "1 I'l^ O \0 t^ t^OO On On O O h rrj^^^io vovONOt^r-. OOOOOnOnO oromroro -^T^^lnlr) vovOC f-00 OCiNCl ClrorO'^'^ HI N m -* "^ ^ ro ro rn (^ r*^ f^ PI r<-) ,(- in \0 fo fo r*^ f^. f^ On O O O O O CJ rn ro f^ t-«00 00 000> OnOOOw whNON CNl N N f) N vo r^ t^ t^ t^ t^o° oot^ON OvOnOOO invo ncnOnO NOt^l^l^t^ 00 00 On On On O " P) r^ ■* r<^ m (T) rfj n ■^ ID m lO IT) in>0 vo >o vO t~ t^ r^oo 00 fr,^^^^ Tj-ininmm lo tnvo no 'O ci en (^ c^ f^ ro m ■* ■* Ti- ■ -S '"§ •~; u «j ■" i> »-< **? ti u bi; '^ w •s ^ a 1- c J5 "2 w „ J3 O ■" o 01 O C — "O fi - rt c « S 3 Ui o 2 "^ S ^ 5 > t-' e c c a >4-l I- G O O O N*-l S :i ■-' XI J^ = -S ^ 6 .- ii ti " — -5 •3 Ji S ^ rt -- W « «- tuD •£ 3 "O 'u o "^ W fa o; « Ji u X! u 3 ■- O U I z a! in o a u 3 fc u H hf 111 V (C •o n V o n1 ^ & S-4 o M o u m 258 DAIRYIiq^G. CALCULATION OF TOTAL SOLIDS OF MILK. The relation existing between the various components of the milk is such as to make possible the calculation of the percentage of solids not fat, and total solids, in a sample of milk when the fat-content and the specific gravity (lactom- eter reading) of the milk are known. Several formulas have been worked out by chemists in different parts of the world, by the application of which the total solids may be calculated from the percentage of fat and the specific grav- ity of the milk. We give here Babcock's formula, pub- lished in the twelfth report of Wisconsin Experiment Station. Solids not fat = | — ^QQ-^ ~ ^J A >< (joq - /) 2.5, \ioo — 1.0753J/ ' J ) ^^ where s = specific gravity of the milk and y per cent of fat found. When s and /"are known the per cent of solids not fat in the milk maybe calculated by means of this formula. In order to avoid making the lengthy calculations in every case, tables for solids not fat are given on the following pages; results obtained by the formula given above, or by means of the following tables, will come within a couple of tenths from the actual percentages present, when reasonable care is taken in the determinations of fat and specific gravity (or lactometer reading). Short fo?'mulas. The following formulas for solids not fat and for total solids are derived from the data given in the following tables. L — lactometer reading at 60" F. (specific gravity X 1000— 1000); /= per cent of fat in milk. Solids not fat = 1- .2/ 4 Total solids = 1- 1.2/. 4 MILK. 259 Rtde : To find per cent of solids not fat, add tivo tenths of the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading. To find per cent of total solids, add one and two tenths times the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading. Results obtained by using the short formulas will agree very closely with those derived from the general formula, or from the tables published below, and may be safely relied upon in practical work. The tables cover a range of .o to 6.0 per cent of fat, and from 26 to 36 lactometer reading. If intermediate values for /"and L are at hand, corrections in the percent of solids not fat found may easily be made, with .02 per cent for every tenth of one per cent of fat, and .25 per cent for every lactometer degree. Example: Given /" = 3.67 per cent and L = 32.5. By referring to the table we find that /^=3.6 and Z = 32 will give 8.73 per cent of solids not fat; correction for fat-content, .01 per cent (3.67 being nearer 3.65 than 3.70), and for lactometer reading, 12 per cent; corrected per cent solids not fat, 8.86. 260 DAIRYING. TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF TOTAL, SOLIDS IN MILK. Corresponding to Quevenne Lactometer Readings and Per Cent of Fat. (Babcock, modified by Leach.) Per Ct Lactometer Reading at 60° Fahrenheit. '^ k Per Ct. of of Fat 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Fat 0.0 6.75 7.00 7.25 7-50 7.75 8.00 8.25 8.50 8.75 9.00 0.0 O. I 6.87 7.12 7.37 7.62 7.87 8.12 8.37 8.62 8.87 9. 12 0. 1 0.2 6.99 7.24 7.49 7.74 7-99 8.24 8.49 8.74 8.99 9.24 0.2 0.3 7. II 7.36 7.61 7.86 8. II 8.36 8.61 8.86 9. II 9.36 0.3 0.4 7.23 7.48 7.73 7.98 8.23 8.48 8.73 8.98 9.23 9.48 0.4 o.S 7-35 7.60 7.85 8. 10 8.35 8.60 8.85 9. 10 9.35 9.60 0.5 0.6 7-47 7-72 7.97 8.22 8.47 8.72 8.97 9.22 9-47 9.72 0.6 0.7 7-59 7.84 8.09 8.34 8.59 8.84 9.09 9-34 9-59 9.84 0.7 0.8 7.71 7.96 8.21 8.46 8.71 8.96 9.21 9.46 9.71 9.96 0.8 0.9 7.83 8.08 8.33 8.58 8.83 9.08 9-33 9.58 9.83 10.08 0.9 I.O 7.95 8.20 8.45 8.70 8.95 9.20 9-45 9.70 9.9s 10.20 1.0 1. 1 8.07 8.32 8.57 8.82 9-07 9-32 9-57 9.82 10.07 10.32 I.I 1.2 8.19 8.44 8.69 8.94 9. 19 9.44 9.69 9.94 10. 19 10.44 1.2 1.3 8.31 8.56 8.81 9.06 9-31 9.56 9.81 10.06 10.31 10.56 1.3 1.4 8.43 8.68 8.93 9.18 9-43 9.68 9-93 10.18 10.43 10.68 1.4 1. 5 8.55 8.80 9-05 9-30 9.55 9.80 10.05 10.30 10.55 10.80 i.S 1.6 8.67 8.92 9.17 9.42 9.67 9.92 10. 17 10.42 10.67 10.92 1.6 1.7 8.79 9.04 9.29 9-54 9-79 10.04 10.29 10.54 10.79 11.04 1-7 1.8 8.91 9. 16 9.41 9.66 9-91 10. 16 10.41 10.66 10.91 II. 17 1.8 1.9 9-03 9.28 9-53 9.78 10.03 10.28 10. 55 10.78 11.04 11.29 1-9 ■ 2.0 2.0 915 9.40 9.6s 9.90 10.15 10.40 10.66 10.91 II. 16 II. 41 2. I 9.27 9-52 9.77 10.02 10.27 10.52 10.78 11.03 11.28 11.53 2. I 2.2 9-39 9.64 9.89 10. 14 10.39 10.64 10.90 II. 15 11.40 11.65 2.2 2.3 9-51 9.76 10.01 10.26 10.51 10. 76 11.02 11.27 11.52 11.77 2.3 2.4 9 63 9.88 10.13 10.38 10.63 10.88 II. 14 11.39 11.64 11.89 2.4 2.5 9-75 10.00 10.25 10.50 10.75 11.00 11.26 II. 51 11.76 12.01 2.S 2.6 9.87 10. 12 10.37 10.62 10.87 II. 12 11.38 11.63 11.88 12. 13 2.6 2.7 9-99 10.24 10.49 10.74 10.99 ir ,24 11.50 11.75 12.00 12.25 2.7 2.8 10. II 10.36 10.61 10.86 II. II ir.37 11.62 11.87 12. 12 12.37 2.8 2.9 10.23 10.48 10.73 10.98 11.23 ir.49 11.74 11.99 12.24 12.49 2.9 3.0 10. 35 10.60 10.85 II. 10 11.36 II. 61 11.86 12. II 12.36 12.61 3.0 3.1 10.47 10.72 10.97 11.23 11.48 11.73 11.98 12.23 12.48 12.74 3.1 3-2 10.59 10.84 II .09 11.35 II .60 11.85 12. 10 12.35 12.61 12.86 3.2 3-3 10. 71 10.96 II . 22 11.47 II . 72 11.97 12. 22 12.48 12.73 12.98 3.3 3.4 10.83 II .09 11.34 11.59 11.84 12.09 12.34 12.60 12.85 13-10 3.4 35 10.95 II .21 11.46 II. 71 11.96 12.21 12.46 12.72 12.97 13.22 3.S 3.6 11.08 11.33 11.58 11.83 12.08 12.33 12.58 12.84 13 09 13.34 3-6 3.7 II .20 11.45 II .70 11.95 12.20 12.45 12.70 12.96 13.21 13.46 3.7 3.8 11.32 11.57 11.82 12.07 12.32 12.57 12.82 13.08 13.33 13-58 3-8 3.9 11.44 II .69 11.94 12. 19 12.44 12.69 12.94 13.20 13.45 13-70 3.9 4.0 11.56 II. 81 12.06 12.31 12.56 12.81 13.06 13.32 13.57 13-83 4.0 4. 1 11.68 11.93 12.18 I2.43;i2.68 12.93 13.18 13.44 13.69 13-95 4.1 4.2 11.80 12.05 12.30 12.55 12.80 13.05 13.31 13.56 13.82 14.07 4.2 4.3 II .92 12.17 12.4212.67 12.92 13.18 13.43 13.68 13.94 14.19 4-3 4.4 12.04 12.29 12. 54^12. 79 13.04 13-30 13.55 13.80 14.06 14-31 4.4 MILK. 261 TABLE FOR SOWyS— (Continued). Per rt Lactometer Reading at 6o° Fahrenheit . Per rt of 1 of Fat 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Fat 4-5 12. l6 12.41 12.66 12.91 13. 16 13-42 13.67 13.92 14. 18 14.43 4.5 4.6 12.28 12.53 12.78 13.03 13.28 13.54 13.79 14.04 14.30 14.55 4.6 4-7 12.40 12.65 12 .90 13. 15 13.40 13.66 13.91 14. 16 14.42 14.67 4.7 4.8 12.52 12.77 13.02 13.27 13.52 13.78 14.03 14.28 1454 14.79 4.8 4-9 12.64 12.89 13.14 13.39 13.64 13.90 14.15 14.40 14.66 14.91 4-9 .S.o 12.76 13.01 13.26 13.51 13.76 14.02 14-27 14.52 14.78 15.03 5.0 •S.i 12.88 13. 13 13. 38 13.63 13.89 14.14 14.39 14.64 14.90 15.15 5.1 .S.2 13.00 13.25 13.50 13.75 14.01 14.26 14.51 14.76 15-02 15.27 5.2 .s..^ 13- 12 13.37 13.62 I3.87;i4.i3 14.38 14.63 14.88 15.14 15.39 5.. 3 5-4 13.24 13.49 13.74 14.00 14.25 14.50 14.76 15.01 15.26 IS. 51 5.4 .■;-.s 13.36 13.61 13.86 14. 12 14.37 14.62 14.88 15.13 15.38 IS. 63 S.5 .S.6 13.48 13.73 13.99 14.24 14.49 14.75 15.00 15.25 15.50 15-75 5.6 .S.7 13 60 13.85 1 4 . 1 1 14-36 14.61 14.87 15. 12 15.37 15.62 15.87 5.7 .S.8 13.72 13.97 14.22 14.48 14-74 14.99 15.24 15.49 15.74 15.99 5-8 5-9 13.84 14. 10 14.35 14.60 14.86 IS. 11 15.36 IS. 61 15.86 16. 12 5-9 6.0 13.96 14.22 14.47I14.72 14.98l15.23 15.48 15.73 15.98 16. 24 6.0 Correction for Tenths of Lactometer Readings. Difference. •25 .26 . I •03 .03 .2 •05 .05 •3 .08 .08 • 4 .10 .10 • T •13 •»3 .6 .15 .16 • 7 .18 .18 .8 .20 .21 •9 •23 •23 CALCULATION OF SP. GR. OF MILK SOLIDS. (Fleischmann.) Sp. gr. of milk solids = 6" = - t — loox — 100 where s = sp. gr. of milk, / = solids of milk. In pure whole milk 6" varies but little, viz., between 1.25 and 1.34. When S comes above 1.34, the milk is suspicious ; if above 1.40, it has been skimmed (see page 313). 262 DAIRYING. Oi iH cc H Q O « o Q 4-} u COCA'S O o j/2 O lOl/l \r) in m o O trt ■!-> c3 o d'^ o o 0) ro (^1 0\ u \f> \r>\r> m ifl lo in V) OOC^ \J10)NOMOMOP«MlOtS>')P» ^ fe ror«5r^ rorofOrorOfOfOrorofjrorOfOro T3 *f -t^ -- O rt u in lo oi/5ioir>0"^'o ; m lo lo lo ^ CO a, 00 00 0. 00 00 00 00 00 00 ioOOO 00 00 r3 <"' ^ \r) v>\r> m \n lo ^'V u u^ • r^ ui t^ r^ lo N lo • O r- lo • t^ lO >-i a, M M M 1-1 I-. I-I M • M M )-H M M W M MUM ■ M M M 2 IS E _3 Ul "o -IJ +J U 01 e r3 w 1 ,; 01 -■ o o;"n ■ ' >-ci ■ •V 3 4- crtiF-o'^g^ "i 5-=; ■r ^' . ;-^ c • to O c! • cr 1 C C N 'C c a u < O u a u o U C o CJ < Q '5^ Op M ^ & o 1— ( .;2 c O oj r:: c > C C '5 o h4 c OJ MILK. 263 • c • a •CO 0)2; O 00 1/1 000000000 00 OOOOOOZOOOOOO iJI l-l CS W l-l M W M M M ki c3 •O . C $ O ^O OJ 00 ^«? CO rO fO PO fO 00 00 O l> u C » - - Wat; U) M C S2.i2 o fO forororOfOfOrOfOfON O "3 O O ro^ in IT) C 0000 00 00^ 00 cc CO fO ro CO 1/^1 vo o 00 CO 0\ 1/1 o OS 0» in 10 10 o N 10 t^ 00 00 00 Os OvOO 00 00 00 H H M N N C^ :m a B o c .3 rt c-A o c fJ .. „ », „ c3 rt ^njt-iioJOQ rt hln H-,<; K-"0 ^ j3 -(„>^5j^ _ ,_,N-,^,^»r-l*'*''"'"'"'"°°'C^V- a'- ,o- ^1 - C L^ f< ^ «, rt t3 S -e ^j "^ " la °£| 1°. (U g . O -u >— , p. o • m , O'O t.:3 O 03 , h '^a J3 . b O "'Z^ oi ft O w ^ O C «. (U ^ ft u ft t 1) rt d) +-> ft 10 n M CO fN D t:i£ I- 3 ft C,S1 +j ti (T) ^-1 C ^ E t^ ft in E 264 DAIRYIN^G. GOVERXMENT STANDARDS OF PURITY FOR MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS.* A.— Milks. 1. Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and ten days after calving, and contains not less than eight and one-half (8.5) per cent of solids not fat, and not less than three and one-quarter (3.25) per cent of milk-fat. 2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have a definite and stated percentage of one or more of its con- stituents. 3. Skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream has been removed, and contains not less than nine and one-quarter (9.25) per cent of milk solids. 4. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling, but sufhciently to kill most of the active organisms present, and immediately cooled to 50° Fahr. or lower. 5. Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the tempera- ture of boiling water or higher for a length of time suflficient to kill all organisms present. 6. Condensed milk, evaporated milk, is milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) per cent of milk solids, of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is milk-fat. 7. Sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar (sucrose) has been added, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) per cent of milk solids, of which not less than twenty-seven and five -tenths (27.5) per cent is milk-fat. 8. Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable portion of water has been evaporated. 9. Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is re- moved from milk or cream in the process of churning. * Proclaimed by the Secretary of Agriculture, June 26. 1906. (Circ. No. 19, Office of the Secretary, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) MILK. 2G5 lo. Goat^s milk, ewe^s milk, et cetera, are the fresh, clean, lacteal secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the complete milking of healthy animals other than cows, properly fed and kept, and conform in name to the species of animal from which they are obtained. B, — Cream. 1. Cream is that portion of milk rich in milk-fat, which rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and contains not less than eighteen (i8) per cent of milk-fat. 2. Evaporated cream, clotted cream,, is cream from which a con- siderable portion of water has been evaporated. C— Milk-Fat pr Butter-Fat. I. Milk- fat, butter- fat, is the fat of milk and has a Reichert- Meissl number not less than twenty-four (24) and a specific '40° C. gravity not less than 0.905 40° C. D. — Butter. 1. Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering in any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a mass, which also contains a small portion of the other milk con- stituents, with or without salt, and contains not less than eighty- two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk-fat. By acts of Congress approved August 2, 1886, and May 9, 1902, butter may also contain added coloring-matter. 2. Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by melting butter and reworking, without the addition or use of chemicals or any substances except milk, cream, or salt, and contains not more than sixteen (16) per cent of water and at least eighty-two and five-tenths (82.5) per cent of milk-fat. E. — Cheese. I. Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from milk or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments 266 DAIRYING. and seasoning, and contains, in the water-free substance, not less than fifty (50) per cent of milk-fat. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 1896, cheese may also contain added coloring- matter. 2. Skim milk cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning. 3. Goat's milk cheese, ewe's milk cheese, et cetera, are the sound ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and season- ing. F, — Ice Creams. 1. Ice cream is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, . with or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than I fourteen (14) per cent of milk-fat. 2. Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than twelve (12) per cent of milk-fat. 3. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and sound, non-rancid nuts, and contains not less than twelve (12) per cent of milk-fat. G. — 3Iiscellaneous Milk Products. 1. Whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat and casein from milk in the process of cheese -making. 2. Kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of mare's or cow's milk. MILK. 267 ADULTERATION OF MILKf The legal standards adopted in the different States of the Union determine the limits for fat or solids, below which the milk offered for sale must not fall. Where no control sample can be taken of a suspected sample of milk, calcula- tions of the extent of the adulteration practised are made on basis of the legal standard in each State. Whenever possible, a control sample should be secured on the prem- ises of the suspected party, and subjected to analysis. If the control sample contains appreciably less fat or solids not fat than did the suspected sample, the latter was skimmed or watered, or both skimmed and watered.* Skimming. — I. If a sample is skimmed, the following for- mula will give the number of pounds of fat abstracted from ICO lbs, of milk : Fat abstracted =: x = legal standard for fat —/, . (I) /"being the per cent of fat in the suspected sample. In this and following formulas the percentages found in the control samples, if such are at hand, are always to be substituted for the legal standards. II. The following formula will give the per ce.it of fat abstracted, calculated on the total quantity of fat originally found in the milk: /X IOC X = ICO — , ~ -— -— (II) leg. stand, for fat Watering. — I. If a sample is watered, the calculations are most conveniently based on the percentage of solids not fat in the milk: Per cent extraneous water in milk s X lOO leg. stand, for solids not fat s being me per cent of solids not fat in the suspected sample. Example. — A sample contains 8.5 per cent of solids not fat ; if the legal standard for solids not fat be 9 per cent, 8.5 X 100 ^ ... . , , 100 =:= 5.6, Will give the per cent of extraneous 9 water in the suspected sample of milk. * See Farringion-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, 226. Ed., pp. 111-117. 268 DAIRYING. II. Watering of milk may also be expressed in per cent of water added to the original milk, by formula IV : Per cent water added to original milk lOO X leer, stand, for solids not fat ,t^t\ — x= ^ ■ — loo. (IV) . s T , 1 • u IOC X 9 In the example given above, — - — — - — loo = 5.9 per cent 8-5 of water was added to the original milk. Watering and Skimming. — If a sample has been both watered and skimmed, the extent of watering is ascertained by means of formula III ; and the fat abstracted found ac- cording to the following formula : Per cent fat abstracted , , , leg. stand, for solids not fat , ,,,.. = AT = leg. stand. for fat - -^ X /. (V) Example. — A sample of milk contains 2.4 per cent of fat and 8.1 per cent solids not fat; then S.I X 100 extraneous water in milk = 100 = 10 per cent; 9 9 X 2.4 tat abstracted = 3 = .33 per cent. 100 lbs. of the milk contained 10 lbs. of extraneous water and .33 lb. of fat had been skimmed from it. RANGES OF THE VARIATIONS IN THE COM- POSITION OF HERD MILK. (Fleischmann.) The specific gravity (expressed in degrees) may go above or below the yearly average by more than 10 per cent^ The per cent of fat may go above or below the yearly average by more than 30 per cent. The per cent of total solids may go above or below the yearly average by more than 14 per cent. The per cent of solids not fat may go above or below the yearly average by more than 10 per cent. MILK. 269 tabijE for converting quarts of milk into pounds. Qts. Lbs. Qts. 29 Lbs. Qts. 57 Lbs. Qts 85 Lbs. I 2-5 62.3 122.4 182.5 2 4-3 30 64.4 58 124-5 86 184.6 3 6.4 31 66.5 59 126.6 87 186.8 4 8.6 32 68.7 60 128.8 88 188 9 5 10 7 33 70.8 61 130.9 89 191 6 12.9 34 73 -o 62 133-1 90 1932 7 15 35 75-1 63 135-2 91 195.3 8 17.2 36 77-3 64 137-4 92 197-5 9 19-3 37 70 -4 65 139-5 93 199.6 lO 21-5 38 81.6 66 141-7 94 201 8 It 23.6 39 83-7 67 143.8 95 203.9 12 25.8 40 85-9 68 146.0 96 206. 1 13 •27.9 41 88. 69 14S. I 97 208.2 H 30.1 42 90.2 70 150-3 98 210.4 15 32.2 43 92 -3 71 152.4 99 212.5 i6 34-3 44 94-5 72 154.6 100 214.7 17 36.5 45 q6.6 73 156.7 200 429.3 18 38.6 46 98.7 74 158.8 300 644.0 19 40.8 47 100.9 75 161 .0 400 858.6 20 42.9 48 103 .0 76 163. 1 500 1073.3 21 45-1 49 105.2 77 165-3 600 1288 22 47.2 50 107.3 78 167.4 700 1502.6 23 49.4 51 109.5 79 169.6 800 1717.3 24 51-5 52 III. 6 80 171. 7 900 1931 9 25 53 7 53 113. 8 81 173-9 1000 2:46.6 26 55-8 54 II5-9 82 176.0 27 58.0 55 118. 1 83 178.2 28 60. 1 56 120.2 84 180.3 TABLE FOR CONVERTING POUNDS OP 3IILK INTO QUARTS. Lbs. Qts. Lbs. Qts. Lbs. 57 Qts. Lbs. Qts. I •47 29 135 26.6 85 39-6 2 •93 30 14.0 58 27.0 86 40.1 3 1.40 31 14.4 59 27.5 87 40.5 4 1.86 32 14.9 60 28.0 88 41 .0 5 2.33 33 15.4 6i 28.4 89 41.5 6 2 80 34 15-8 62 28.9 90 41.9 7 3.26 35 16.3 63 29.4 91 42-4 8 3-73 36 16.8 64 29.8 92 42.9 9 4.19 37 17.2 65 30-3 93 43-3 ID 4.66 38 17-7 66 30.8 94 43 8 II 5.13 39 18.2 67 31.2 95 44-3 12 5-59 40 18.6 68 31-7 96 44 7 13 6 06 41 19.1 69 32.2 97 45.2 14 6.53 42 19.6 70 32.6 98 45-7 15 6.99 43 20.0 71 33 1 99 46.1 16 7.46 44 20.5 72 33-6 100 46.6 17 7.92 45 21.0 73 34-0 200 93.2 18 8-39 46 21.4 74 34 5 300 139.8 19 8.85 47 21-9 75 35.0 400 186.4 eo 9-32 48 22 4 76 35 4 500 233.0 21 9.79 49 22.8 77 35-9 600 279.6 22 10.3 50 23.3 78 36-3 700 326.2 23 10.7 51 23.8 79 36.8 800 372-8 24 11.2 52 24.2 80 37-3 900 419.4 25 117 53 24,7 81 37-7 1000 466.0 20 12. 1 54 25.2 82 38.2 27 12.6 55 25 . 6 83 38.7 28 13.1 56 26.1 1 84 39-1 269« DAIRTIN^G. MILK PRICES BY MEASURES. (N. Y. Farmer.) Cents per Cents per 40-qt. Can. Cents per Cents per Cents per 40-qt. Can. Cents per Quart. 100 Pounds. Quart. 100 Pounds. I . lOO 44 51 • 162 2-375 95 110.465 1 . 125 45 52.325 2 . 400 96 III .628 I . 150 46 53-488 2.425 97 112. 791 I.I7S 47 54-651 2-450 98 113-053 1 . 200 48 55.813 2-475 99 115. 116 I . 225 49 56.976 2 . 500 100 T16. 279 I . 250 50 58.189 2.525 lor 117.442 I. 275 51 59- 302 2-550 102 118. 60s 1 .300 52 60. 465 2-575 103 119. 767 1.325 53 61 . 627 2 . 600 104 120 . 930 I-350 54 62 . 790 2.625 105 122.093 1.375 55 63-953 2.650 106 123. 256 1 .400 56 65 . 1 16 2.675 107 124.419 1.42s 57 66 . 279 2 . 700 108 125.581 1.450 58 67.441 2.725 109 126.744 1.47s 59 68.604 2.750 no 127.907 1 .500 60 69-767 2.775 III I 29 . 070 1.52s 61 70.930 2 . 800 112 130.233 1.550 62 72.093 2-825 113 131 -395 1-575 63 73- 255 2.850 114 132.558 1 .600 64 74-418 2.875 IIS 133-721 1.625 65 75.581 2 . 900 116 134-884 1.650 66 76.744 2.925 117 136.047 1.675 67 77-907 2.950 118 137. 209 1 . 700 68 79 . 069 2-975 119 138.372 1.725 69 So. 232 3-000 120 139-535 1.750 70 81-395 3025 121 140 . 698 1.775 71 82.558 3-050 122 141 .861 1 .800 72 83.721 3-075 123 143.023 1.82s 73 84.883 3. 100 124 144. 186 1.850 74 86.046 3- 125 125 145-349 1.875 75 87 . 209 3-150 126 . 146.512 1 .000 76 88.372 3-175 127 147-675 1.925 77 89.535 3.200 128 148.837 1.950 78 90. 697 3-225 129 150.000 1-975 79 91 . 860 3-250 130 151-163 2.000 80 93-023 3-275 131 152.326 2.025 81 94 . 186 3-300 132 153-489 2 .050 82 95-349 3-325 133 154-651 2.075 83 96-511 3-3SO 134 155-814 2. 100 84 97.674 3-375 135 156.977 2. I2S 8S 98.837 3-400 136 158.140 2.150 86 100 . 000 3-425 137 150.303 2.17s 87 loi . 163 3-450 138 160.465 2. 200 88 102 . 325 3-475 139 161.628 2.225 89 103.488 3.500 140 162. 791 2.250 90 104. 651 3.525 141 163-954 2.275 91 105 . 814 3-550 142 165. 117 2.300 92 106.977 3-575 143 166. 279 2.325 93 108. 139 3.600 144 167.442 2.350 94 109 . 302 3-625 145 168.605 m MILK. 2693 MILK PRICES BY MEASURES.— C^w/^ww^^/. Cents per Cents per 40-qt. Can. Cents per Cents per Cents per 40-qt. Can. Cents per Quart. 'oo Pounds. Quart. 100 Pounds. 3.650 146 i6g.768 3-975 159 184.884 3-675 147 170.931 4. 000 160 186.047 3.700 148 172 .093 4.025 161 187. 210 3.725 149 173. 256 4.050 162 188.373 3-750 150 174.419 4.075 163 189.535 3.775 151 175.582 4. 100 164 190 . 698 3. Co© 152 176.745 4.125 165 IQI .861 3-325 153 177.907 4.150 166 193.024 3-C,-o 154 179.070 4-175 167 T94. 187 3.875 155 180. 233 4. 200 168 195.349 3 • 900 156 181 . 396 4.225 169 196.512 3.925 157 182.559 4.250 170 197-675 3.950 158 183.721 4. 275 171 198.838 RELATIVE VALUE OF MILK AND CREAM OF DIFFERENT FAT CONTENTS. (Fraser ) The table gives the relative value per quart and number of quarts in a dollar's worth of milk or cream of different fat contents, calculated according to the food value of 3-per-cent. milk at 5 cents per quart. Per Cent of Fat. Price per Quart, No. of Quarts ' Per Cent of Fat. Price per Quart, No. of Quarts Cents. a Dollar. Cents. a Dollar. 0. 1 2.8 35.7 17 15.5 6.4 I 3.5 28.6 18 16.3 6 I 2 4.2 23.8 19 17.0 5 9 3 5.0 20. 20 17.7 5 6 4 5-7 17.5 21 18.4 5 4 5 6.5 15.4 22 19.2 5 2 6 7.2 13-9 23 20. 5 7 8.0 12.5 24 20. 7 4 8 8 8.7 II. 5 25 21-5 4 5 9 9.5 10.5 26 22. 2 4 5 10 10 . 2 9.8 27 23.0 4 3 II II . 90 28 23 -7 4 2 12 II. 7 8.5 29 24-5 4 I 13 12.5 8.0 30 25.2 4 14 13.2 7.6 31 26. 3 8 IS 14.0 7.1 32 26.7 3 7 16 14.7 6.8 270 DAIRYING. AMOUNTS OF MILK, CREA3I, OR SKI3I MILK TO BE USED IN 3IODirYING 3IILK. (Pearson.) The amounts of cream or skim milk that are to be used in modifying normal milk may be calculated by use of the follow- ing simple method: Draw a square and write at the two left-hand corners the percentages of fat in the milk and the cream or skim milk that are to be mixed. In the centre place the percentage required. The differences between the latter figures and those at the left- hand corners are then placed at the two corners with which they stand in line. The two right-hand figures will represent the proportions of milk and cream or skim milk that should be weighed out in making the modified milk. B—C{oT C—B) C(or C—A) Example. — How much 5 per cent milk must be added to milk containing 3.5 per cent fat in order to raise its fat content to 4 per cent? In this case ^ = 3.5, B = 4, and C=5 (see above); then 5 — C— i.o and ^ — ^=.5. i.o Xioo= 66.7 and ^^X 100= 1-5 3.33. To make, say, 1000 lbs. of 4 per cent milk 667 lbs. of 3.5 per cent and 333 lbs. of 5 per cent milk must therefore be taken. | This method of calculation may be used to advantage in modifying or standardizing milk or cream, with either cream, new milk, or skim milk, whether a product of a higher or lower fat content is wanted than that at hand. MILK. 271 STANDARDIZATION OF MILK. (Erf.) Quantity of Skim Milk to be Added to, or Subtracted from, ioo Pounds of Milk to Make Milk of a Desired Per Cent, of Fat. To find the pounds of skim milk to be added or removed, trace the vertical column of the desired per cent of fat to where the horizontal column representing the per cent, of fat in the milk on hand intersects; the result will be the nvmiber of pounds of skim milk to be added or removed to loo lbs. nf milk, as indicated by a plus or minus sign before the figtire (see 111. Biill. No. 75). 272 DAIRYING. RULES AND KKGULATIONS to he observed in the care of cows and the handling of milk shipped to the City of New York. (Dept. of Health, City of New York.) The Cows. — I. The cows must be kept clean. 2. Manure must not be permitted to collect upon the tail, sides, udder, and belly of any milch-cows. Stables. — i. Cow stables must be well lighted and ventilated. 2. Floors must be tight and well drained. 3. Manure must be removed from the stalls and gutters before the morning milking and also before the afternoon milking, where the cows remain in the stables all day. 4. Walls and ceilings must be kept clean. 5. The ceiling must be so constructed that dust and dirt therefrom shall not readily fall to the floor or into the milk. 6. Stables must be whitewashed at least once a year. The Water-supply. — i. The water-supply used in the barn and for washing milk utensils must be free from contamination. The Milk House. — i. A milk house must be provided which is separated from the stable and the dwelling-house. 2. It must be kept clean and must not be used for any purpose except the handling of milk. Tlie Milkers. — i. No person having any communicable dis- ease, or one caring for persons having such disease, must be allowed to handle the milk or milk utensils. The Uieusils. — i. All milk-utensils, including pails, cans, strainers, and dippers, must be kept thoroughly clean and must be washed and scalded after each using. The Milk. — i. Milk from diseased cows must not be shipped. 2. The milk must not be in any way adulterated. 3. The straining of milk must be done in the milk house only. 4. All milk must be cooled to a temperature not above 55 deg. F. within two hours after being drawn, and kept thereafter below that temperature, and must be cooled to 50 deg. or less if not delivered at the creamery twice daily. 5. The use of any preservative or coloring matter is an adul- teration, and its use by a producer or shipper will be a sufl&cient cause for the exclusion of his milk from the City of New York. CUE AM, 273 III. CPE^^I. PERCENTAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF CREAM. (KSnig.) Water Fat Casein, Albumen, etc Milk-sugar Ash Specific gravity, i.ioo. . Mean of 47 Analyses. 67 . 61 23.80 4.12 392 ■ 53 Minimum. 43.04 15.78 I. 75 .62 Maximum. 83.23 30.19 8.19 6. 23 1 . 10 PERCENTAGE C03IP0S1TI0N CF DAIRY PRODUCTS. (KiJMG.) • . u Specific • C X. rt ^ Fat Z%i U5 < Gravity. Skim -milk, grav- ity creaming . .. 56 90.43 •87 3.26 4.74 .70 I .0357 Centrifugal skim- milk 7 90.60 • ^i 3.06 5.29 •74 I 0350 Buttermilk 57 90.12 1.09 403 4.04 .72 1.0348 Whey 46 93.38 ■32 .86 4-79 •05 1.0272 Preserved milk .. 4 87 97 3 21 3-34 4.74 •74 I. 0313 Condensed milk. (no sugar added) 36 58.99 12.42 11.92 14.49 2.18 Condensed milk, (sugar added). . 64 25.61 10.35 11.79 50.06* 2.19 ScherfT's condens- ed milk 5 72.87 6.62 8.20 10.63 1.68 Lactic Alco- Koumiss (from acid. hoi. mares' milk) . . 43 90.44 1.46 2.24 1.77 •42 .91 I. 91 Koumiss (from cows' milk). .. II 89.20 1.83 2.66 4.09 •43 •55 I. 14 Kephir 22 91 .21 I 44 3-49 2.41 .68 1.02 .75 * 13.84 per cent milk-sugar, 36.22 per cent cane-sugar. 274 DAIRYING. YIELD OF CREA3I FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. Per Cent of Fat in Cream . Fat in Milk, 12 IS 18 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 Per Cent. Number of Pounds of Cream from 1000 lbs. of Milk. 3.0 244 195 162 146 116 97 86 73 65 58 53 48 3.1 253 201 168 1 isi I 20 TOO 89 75 67 60 55 50 3.2 261 208 173 156 124 104 92 78 69 62 56 52 33 268 215 179 161 129 107 95 80 71 64 58 53 3-4 277 221 184 166 133 no 97 83 74 66 60 55 3-5 286 228 190 171 137 114 100 85 76 68 62 57 3.6 294 235 196 176 141 117 103 88 78 70 64 58 3-7 303 242 201 181 145 120 106 90 80 72 66 60 3.8 311 248 207 186 149 124 109 03 82 74 67 62 3-9 319 255 212 191 153 127 112 95 85 76 69 63 4.0 328 262 218 196 157 130 115 98 87 78 71 65 41 336 268 223 201 161 134 117 100 89 80 73 67 4.2 345 275 229 206 165 137 I 20 103 91 82 75 68 4.3 353 282 23s 211 169 140 123 105 94 84 77 70 4.4 361 289 240 216 173 144 126 108 96 86 78 72 4-5 370 295 246 221 177 147 129 no 98 88 80 73 4.6 378 302 251 226 181 150 132 113 100 90 82 75 4.7 387 309 257 231 185 154 135 115 102 92 84 77 4.8 395 315 263 236 189 157 138 118 105 94 86 78 4-9 403 322 268 241 193 161 140 120 107 96 87 80 5.0 412 329 274 246 197 164 143 123 109 98 89 82 CREAM. 275 2 ^ •SI c li c CIS N = G rt Na O ^ *j C c 'S O- a r a M tn VI ^ 4; o X! ^ *j (/I »*-i u be a s <> ^ o rt u u >/l ro On f^ m rn 10 ro CO (^ 10 ro PI M ■<^ •^ CO fo m CO M N PI PI N P< t^ D fo ro t^ CO w IT) HI r^ ■* M 0\ r^ to ■«• PI M '*■ ■>!- CO ro N c< PI PI PI r< P< ■* -*• ro 00 ^0 t^ 10 PI M ■* n VO ro 00 VO \n ro PI H ■«- ro ro ro N N c* N r< PI p< ffl u^ m -t- ON 1^ 10 10 ro OS "-) N r^ \o ■^ P< M ■<^ ro ro fO « N P) PI N PI p) »o f^ « M CO 00 •^ » « 00 ■* H t^ \n ro PJ H o> ■^ ro ro C) N f) N PI P) PI P* M „ VO 00 »o ■<^ t-» M 00 VO 10 \n ^ 1^ fO 00 vn • 00 -i- r<^ en fO « N N PI P) PI M 'UIB3J3 CO CO P) PI IH M OS 00 P) o> ro OS VO ■<*■ ■* vn 00 IT) M fT> VO lO ro M fTv 00 t^ ro CO ro PJ w PI PI PI PI w M M CO CO PI r^ 10 ■«■ VO VO •>*• ■<(- ■* in VO ro t>. 10 CO P4 OS 00 t>. VO CO CO CO Pt w PI PI M M M M IT) M t^ VO CO 00 00 00 10 M Ch VO 'S- PI » 00 r% VO VO ro CO M M Pl M n P) *^ M M M ■>«• PI 00 ON M t^ ■^ PI PI CO 10 ■* M no 10 CO PI 00 Cv VO 10 ro CO PI M P< PI PI M M ^ M »-< ro CO M -f- 00 t^ t^ 00 ro t~~ IT) ro H 00 t^ VO 10 10 CO CO PI PI N PI p« " ^ t-* M " PI ■* PI CO t^ CO M H M CO IT) PI OS VO -*- PI 00 t^ VO m •* CO PI PI PI PI PI w " M M M Ht M 10 CO 10 q r^ 10 10 VO t-^ q 276 DAIRYING. LIST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPARATORS ON THE AMERICAN MARKET, 1913. Name. Capacity Retail Manufacturer per Hour. Price. or Agency. A. Hand or Dairy Separa- Lbs. tors. I. De Laval Improved Farm Separators. Nos. 4, 5, 10, 12, IS, 17, 22 135-1350 140-$ 1 60 r The De Laval Sep- Nos, 19. 20 and 25 — Steam Turbine 675-1350 ioo-i7sl arator Co., N. Y. 2. U. S. Cream Separators. Nos. 40, 19. 18, 17. 16, 15, 14, 12, Interlocking Style 175-1350 25-135 1 Vermont Farm Nos. IS. 14, 12 — Inter- Machine Co., locking Style Turbine. 750-1350 110-150 [ Bellows Falls, Vt. 3. The Empire Cream Sepa- rators. Nos. 41, 42, 43, 44 350-800 Empire Cream Nos. 31. 32, a, 34. 35. 36 — Center Feed Em- ■ Separator Co., Bloomfield, N. J. pire Disc 200-1050 4. Sharpies Tubular "A" ^ Cream Separators. Nos. I, 2, 3. 4. 6, 9 225-950 40-110 { The Sharpies Sep- Nos. 5, 7. 10 — Dairy arator Co., West Steam Tubular 500-1000 80-125 Chester, Pa. 5. The "Eclipse" Cream Separators. The C. L. Chap- Nos. I, 2, 3, 4, s 400-1600 60-150 . man Cream Sep. Works, Erie, Pa. 6. The American Cream Sep- arators. Nos. 10, II, 12 — Ameri- can Wonder 125-300 15.95-24-95 f American Sep. Nos. I, 2, 3 — American { Co., Bain- [ bridge, N. Y. Low-Down 400-700 37.75-47.50 7. The Rcid Disc Bracket Cream Separators. f A. H. Reid Cry. & Nos. I, 2, 3 300-600 45-65 < Dairy Supply Co., Phila., Pa. 8. Simplex L i n k Blade Cream Separators. Nos. 35. 5- 7. 9. II — Hand Power 350-1100 70-100 f D. H. Burrell Nos. 7, 9, II — Dairy Co.. Little Falls, Turbines 700-1100 110-130 i N. Y. 9. The National Cream Sep- arators. 60-100 1 National Dairy Nos. 22, 24, 26, 28 325-800 Machine Co., Goshen, Ind. 10. The. Iowa Dairy Separa- tors. 75-100 ■! Iowa Dairy Sepa- Nos. 25, 30, 3S 500-850 rator Co., Water- loo, Iowa. CREAM. 277 LIST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPARATORS. {Continued.) Name. 11. Peerless Cream Separa- tors. Nos. S. 7. 9 12. The Cleveland Separators Nos. o, I, 2, 3 (models D, E. F. G) 13. Great Western Cream " Separators. Nos. 20, 30, 40, 60, 70, 90 14. Blue Bell, Dairy Maid, and Lily Cream Sep- arators. Nos. I, 2, 3, 4 — Blue Bell and Dairy Maid. Nos. I, 2, 3, 4. 5— Lily 15. New Improved Golden Harvest Separator. 4 styles 16. Economy Chief Separa- tors. 3 styles 17. The King Sanitary Cream Separators Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8 18. Wisconsiyi Dairy Cream Separators. Nos. 3, 4. 5. 6, 7 — Gearless Victory 19. The Milwaukee Cream Separators. 3 styles 20. The Standard Cream Sep- arators. Nos. 3, 5. 6, 9, 12 — Champion Hand Crank Automatic gasoline en- gine and cream sepa- rator combined 21. The Beatrice Cream Sep- arators. Nos. 42, 47, 52 22. Anker-Hollh Self Balanc- ing Separators. Nos. 3. 5. 7, 9 Capacity per Hour. Lbs. 500-900 350-800 300-900 350-850 350-1050 350-900 250-600 250- 800 350-900 500-900 350-1200 738 550-1000 300-900 Retail Price. 40-60 65-105 55-110 29.80-47.00 27.65-42.35 24.95-48.80 40-75 50-60 65-110 125 55-75 f 55-105 ■! Manufacturer or Agency. Peerless Cream Separator Co., Waterloo, Iowa. The Cleveland Cream Separator Co., Cleveland, O. Rock Island Plow Co., Rock Island, 111. Internat. Harv. Co. of America, Chicago, 111. < Montgomery \ Ward & Co., [ Chicago, 111. Sears, Roebuck, & Co., Chicago, 111. King Separator Wks., Buffalo, N. Y. Starch Bros. Co., La Crosse, Wis. The Milwaukee Separator Co., Milwaukee, Wis. Standard Separa- tor Co., Mil- waukee, Wis. Beatrice Creamery Co., Lincoln, Neb. Anker-Holth Mfg. Co., Port Huron, Mich. 278 DAIRYIN"G. LIST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPARATORS. (Continued.) Name. Capacity per Hour. RetaU Price. Manufacturer or Agency. 23. The Galloway Cream Sep- arators. Nos. I, 2, ID, 14, 16, 18 B. Power Separators. 1. De Laval Separators. "Alpha" Nos. I, 2, Belt "Alpha" Nos. I, 2, Tur- bine "Alpha" Acme Belt.. . . "Alpha" Acme Turbine Standard Belt Standard Turbine Centrifugal Milk Clari- fier, Belt, Nos. 115. 120 Centrifugal Milk Clari- fier, Turbine 2. U. S. Cream Separators Nos. 12, 14, 15 — Turbine Nos. I, o — Turbine.. . Nos. I, o — Belt 3. Tubular Cream Separators Nos. 16, 26, 32, 40 Turbine Nos. IS, 25, 33. 41 — Belt 4. "Simplex" Separators. Nos. 25, 3, 4 — Turbine. Nos. 2i, 3, 4 — Belt Nos. 7, 9, II — Dairy Turbine Milk Clarifier. Belt or Turbine Whey Separator, Belt or Turbine (2 sizes). . . . 5. Victory Cream Separator. Lbs. 200-1200 3500-5000 3500-5000 2000 2000 1300 1300 8-12,000 8-12,000 750-1350 2300-3000 2300-3000 1500-4200 1500-4200 1200-3500 1200-3500 700-1100 12000 3500-4500 800 29.75-91.00 500-750 f 525-800 350 375 250 275 IIO-150 The Wm. Gallo- way Co., Waterloo, la. 200-360 200-360 200-500 225-500 110-130 500 350-500 85 The De Laval Separator Co., New York. Vt. Farm Machine Co., Bellows Falls, Vt. The Sharpies Sep- arator Co., West Chester, Pa. D. H. Barrel! & Co., Little Falls, N. Y. Starch Bros., La Crosse, Wis. FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE FAT CONTENT OF CREAM. Fleischmann's formula: ioo(/-/i) ^ Per cent fat in cream =/2 = h /i, R where R «= per cent of cream obtained, / = per cent fat in milk, /i =a per cent fat in skim-milk; or looF „ CKEAM. 279' where F •= per cent of fat in butter, B = yield of butter from ICG lbs. of milk, A ^percentage churning. Under ordinary conditions of creaming these formulas may be simplified to /2 = 6.67/- 1.42, and /2 = 5-77^. Formula for finding the per cent cream to be separated when a certain fat content in the cream is wanted (FlQischina.nn): _ ioo(/-/0 ^ •"" A- A ' f,fi, and /"a = per cent of fat in full milk, skim-milk, and cre^m, respectively. Formula for diluting cream to a desired fat content: c Y^ f\ Separator skim-milk to be added = x = — - — • — c, c being the pounds of original cream of a fat content o{ fx , andy2 the fat content wanted in the cream. HANDLING AND CARE OF CREAM SEPARATORS. By J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls, N. Y., Manager Chr. Hansen's Laboratory. In selecting a separator, local conditions, space at dis- posal, nearness to its manufacturer who can put it up, be held responsible, and quickly attend to repairs, etc., may be of importance, and the following points should be considered: Thorough Separation. — All manufacturers claim that their machines do perfect work, but they do not always come up to the claims. Under normal conditions the meas- ure for thoroughness of separation is the contents of butter -fat in the skim-milk as ascertained by the Babcock test. The best modern separators skim practically absolutely clean, and there is now no excuse for anything but perfect skimming. With normal milk at the proper temperature run into the machine at the rate of the capacity claimed for it, no sepa- rator should leave juore than o.\% of butter-fat in the skim- milk, which is the smallest percentage that can be ascer- tained by the Babcock test with accuracy. The table below gives the grand averages for the per- centages of fat found in the trials of a number of the leading separators, conducted at the experiment stations of Delaware, Cornell (N. Y.), Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. 280 DAIRTIKG. PER CENT FAT IN CENTRIFUGAL SKI3I-MILK. Style of Separator. Butter Accumulator Columbia Cream Separator Reid's Impr. Danish Separator Danish- Weston " De Laval Alpha No. I " " Alpha Acme " " Alpha Turbine " " Alpha Baby No. 2 Separator. . " Alpha Baby No. 3 " " Horizontal Separator Jumbo Separator Sharpies Russian Separator '• Imperial " S. Butter Extractor Sep. No. i. Do. (as separator) S. Butter Extr. Sep. No. 2 Do. No. 3 S. Separator No. i Do. No. 3 Do, No. 5 Victoria, 30 gal. Separator Do. 70 gal. " U. U. U. Averages of Trials at American Experiment Stations. Number Per cent Fat in Skim-milk. of Trials. II .14 19 .12 8 .14 3 .10 2 .10 21 .09 51 .OQ 112 .08 7 .125 9 19 4 .21 34 .24 30 •34 .24 2 .14 8 •34 10 .21 9 •17 21 .10 27 •13 25 .22 12 . 10 With the constant improvement in machines it is not difficult to find separators which will do perfect work. Simplicity, durability and safety of construction are con- siderations of vital importance. The separator must be simple in construction so as to be easy to handle, to clean, and to oil. It must be durable, so that it will need but few repairs, and, first of all, it must be absolutely safe. Too many deplorable fatal accidents are already due to burst- ing separator bowls, and too much stress cannot be laid on the demand that the machine must by strongly built, of first- class material and workmanship, so that accidents are made impossible with reasonably careful handling. As the pressure on the circumference of the bowl increases with the square of the speed, it is evident that the modern high-speed separators are exposed to a tremendous strain — in fact the tensile strain in some of them is as high as 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. to the square inch. Fortunately, the im- provements in bearings and other features of construction CREAM, 281 which have enabled manufacturers to increase the speed, have caused them at the same time to reduce the diameter of the bowl, which makes the modern machine much safer than the first crude and heavy separators. Power. — Considering its capacity, a well-built separator requires comparatively little power, whether coal or muscle. But as either is money, it is a matter of impor- tance that none be wasted. Many so-called hand separa- tors are altogether too heavy to run by hand, hence in selecting one see that it is easy to keep it running for several hours. The tests made at the experiment stations by dynamometer, as well as by measuring the steam con- sumed, show that there is a great deal of steam wasted in a creamery above that actually required to drive the separa- tor; that "the turbines use steam extravagantly, but that the small engine of the creamery uses it still more extrava- gantly." Due allowance must therefore be made for this waste in comparing results obtained by various methods of testing. The following table gives some of the results published by the stations: Horse-power per 1000 lbs. 3Iilk. Style of Separator. Batter Accumulator Columbia Cream Separator. Reid's Iinproved Danish.... De Laval Standard '' Alpha No. I " Alpha Acme Baby No. 2. " " No. 3 k Jumbo United States No. I No. ^ No.5 Victoria, 700 lbs 3og-als " 20 gals De Laval Alpha Turbine.. . Sharpies Imperial " Russian Dela- ware. 0.37 0.74 0.85 New York. 2.69 317 0.26 0.76 2.78 Ver- mont. 1.83 0.79 1.87 1-37 Wisconsin. 2.45 1.52 2. 12 0.81 0.98 0.46 1. 12 0.63 0.72 1.47 to 1.79 1.42 1.75 to 2. II k These tests are made with single machines and do not guarantee that all separators of the same makes consume 282 DAlti^lNG. ^ the same power or steam. The accumulating results of such trials being compiled, however, become a guide in estimating the value of the various machines in the market. As between belt and turbine (or direct steam) power, the former is preferable in large creameries. In small plants one is about as economical as the other, and the choice may depend upon whether an engine is needed for churning, butter-worker, pump, and other purposes, or you can do without it. Capacity. — In selecting a separator it is best to have plenty of capacity. In a large creamery it is better to have two separators of moderate size than one very large machine. Only in very large creameries may separators of largest capacity be preferable. The capacity should be such as to finish the day's work in 4 to 6 hours at the lime when there is most milk. In the private dairy, using a hand separator, the work should require only one hour, rather less. The following would be our idea of the proper capacity: Largest Supply of Milk per Day, lbs. 15,000 or more . 10,000 to 15,000. 7,500 " 10,000. 5,000 " 7,500. 2,-00 " 5,000, 1,000 " 2,500. 500 " 1,000. 300 '' 500. 100 " 300. Less than 100, Number of Machines. j 2or ( I more ( Capacity of Each Machine, lbs. per hour. 2,000 to 2,500 1,500 " 2,000 1,200 " 1,500 1,000 1,200 600 to 1,000 600 300 to 500 300 150 Power. Engine Eng. or Turb. J Sheep, or dog, I or turbine, j Hand, or dog, \ or sheep. Hand Condition of Creaf?i. — As discharged from the separator, the cream should be smooth and even, free from froth and of perfect " churnability." As to cost, the best 7nachirie is ahvays the cheapest in the long run. Repairs, waste of fat in the skim-milk, of oil, and ol coal, by an inferior machine, will more than make up any saving in first cost. CKEAM. 2iS3 Running the Separator. The Operator should understand his Business, — \{& should have thorough training in creameries as a helper and, if possible, in a dairy school, before undertaking to manage ;•. creamery separator on his own responsibility. A new machine should be put up and started by the manufacturer or his agent, and prove in perfect shape and efficiency be- fore he leaves. Every manufacturer gives detailed in- structions as to the care of the separator, and such an instruction book should always be at hand. The operator of hand as well as of power machines should make him- self familiar with every detail of the construction. Condition and Temperature of the Milk. — Fresh a7id juarm from the cozu, the milk is in the best condition to be skimmed. If it cannot be had in that condition, it should be aerated and cooled on the farm, so that it arrives at the creamery or the dairy at not over 60°. Then reheat it to 80° or 85°, not under 75° and not over go°. This heating is prefer- ably done in some continuous heater, as it is dangerous to heat it in bulk, because milk standing some time at 85° is apt to spoil. While the separator will skim at a lower temperature, either the skimming is not clean or less milk must be run through the machine in the same time. Of course, the milk must be sweet. Starting. — Oil all bearings thoroughly, using only the very best oil. Ascertain that everything is in trim order, then start according to instructions, which vary for different kinds of machines. Always start carefully, and where the belt from the intermediate is shifted from loose to fixed pulley, do it slowly and gradually, helping with the hand on the belt to start the bowl. When the bowl appears to be running at full speed without shaking, ascertain if it really does so by means of the speed indicator, which should always be found on any power machine. Never allotv the tnachine to run faster than per7nitted hy the manufacturer. If you do, it is at your risk and at the risk of the lives of your assistants. Use the speed indicator often. 284 DAIRYING. See that the feed of new milk is correct and that the. pro- portio7i of C7'ea?n to milk is as wanted. Hold a quart meas- ure under the skim-milk spout and a measuring glass un- der the cream outlet, and, when the quart measure is full, see how much cream you have in the measuring glass, tak- ing the time by your watch. If you have 6 ozs. of cream to I quart of skim-milk in 9 seconds, you have taken 6 parts of cream from 38 of new milk, or a little less than one sixth, or about 16^, and you are running at the rate of 950 lbs. per hour. How large a proportion of cream to take from the milk depends upon the richness of the milk and the consistency of cream desired. If you have 4^ milk and you wish cream of 28^ fat, you will take i part of cream from 7 of new milk, or 14^ . Keep the oil-ctips Ji lied a.n6. look frequently at all working parts of the machinery. Well started and regulated, it will run uninterrupted until all the milk is skimmed. When the last milk has entered the bowl, pour in suffi- cient skim-milk to crowd out all the cream left. If the skim-milk is removed from the building while the separa- tor is running, take samples freqtiently, or, if it is all left after the work is done, take a few average samples to test with the Babcock fnachine, so as to control the day* s tvork. Stop the machine cautiously, removing the motive power and letting the bowl come to a stand-still of itself without applying any brake. Remove the skim-milk left in the bowl by a siphon or otherwise, take off the covers, etc., and lift out the bowl. Cleaning. — First rinse the bowl and other parts which have been in contact with milk in cold or tepid water, and then scrub them in boiling water, frequently using some solution of sal-soda. Scrub and brush every corner. Rinse in clean boiling water and steam out the tin covers, etc. Wipe with a cloth and set the things to dry. Pump out every pipe that cannot be reached by hand and brush. If possible, avoid the use of rtibber hose to conduct the milk from the vat or heater to the separator, but use open tin conductors or short tin pipes, which can be easily kept clean. Rubber hose cannot be washed in boiling water 4 CREAM, 285 or soda, and is a source of contamination. Clean the separator stand carefully with a cloth and wipe the spindles, etc. Occasionally clean out tke oil-chaitibers with kerosene oil, and always see to it that no gum is formed and that the oil-grooves and tubes are open. If the separator shakes, or in any way works imper- fectly, find the cause without delay and remedy it. If you fail to find the fault, or you cannot remedy it yourself, notify the manufacturer or his agent, and have him attend to it at once. Treatfnent of the Creafn. — As the cream leaves the separa- tor, it should at once be cooled to 50° or lower. This in- sures " body " in the butter, and should not be neglected, at least not unless the cream is thoroughly chilled after it is ripened, before churning. LOSS OF BUTTER CAUSED BY INEFFICIENT SKIMMING. If three-tenths of one per cent of fat is left in the skim- milk, instead of two-tenths, in a separator creamery receiv- ing 1000 lbs. of milk a day, there will be a loss of about 340 lbs. of butter for the whole year, on the supposition that 1000 lbs. of milk yield 800 lbs. of skim-milk, and i lb. of butter contains .86 lbs. of fat. If the separation is still poorer, greater losses will be sustained, as will be seen in the table given below. (Friis.) Excess of Fat Left in Skim-milk. Lbs. of Milk per Day. .05 per cent. .10 per cent. .20 per cent. .30 per cent. Loss of Butter During Whole Year. 1,000 170 340 680 1,020 2,000 340 680 1300 2,040 3,000 510 loao 2040 3,060 4,000 680 1360 2720 4,089 5,000 850 1700 3400 5,100 6,000 1020 2040 4080 6,120 7,000 1190 2380 4760 7.140 8,000 1360 3729 5440 8,160 Q.OOO 1530 3060 6120 9,t8o 10,000 1700 3400 6800 10,200 286 DAIRYIITG. STANDARDIZATION OF CREAM. (Erf.) Percentage Quantity of Cream of a Desired Fat Content made FROM Cream of a Certain Fat Content by Diluting with Milk Containing 4 Per Cent of Butter Fat. I Per Cent Fat in Cream on Hand. Cream of Desired Fat Content. 17 20 22 25 27 30 18 92.857 86.666 81 .250 76.4706 72. 2222 68.4222 65 .0000 61 .905 59.0909 56.5217 54. 1666 52.0000 50.0000 19 100 94.706 88.8888 84. 2222 80.0000 76.1905 72.7272 69.5651 66.6666 64.0000 61.5385 100 94.2125 90.0000 85.7143 81.81S1 78.2608 75.0000 72.0000 69. 2308 23 24 25 26 100 95.4545 01.3044 87 . 5000 84.0000 80.3461 27 28 29 30 TOO 95.8333 Q2 .0000 88.461s 100.00 If cream is to be standardized with 4 per cent milk, the result found by the intersecting columns represents the pounds per hundred, or the per cent of the quantity which is cream of the per cent fat on hand. Example. — If cream containing 20 per cent of butter fat is desired, and cream containing 26 per cent of fat is on hand, then 72.7 per cent of the quantity desired must be cream containing 26 per cent of fat, and 27.3 per cent of the quantity must be 4 per cent milk. (See 111. Bull. No. 75; also p. 272.) STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE MANAGEMENT. By Prof. A. W. Rilhter, of the University of Montana. Boiler. Fe^d Apparatus. — Every boiler should be provided with a check-valve, placed between the feed apparatus and boiler, and in such a manner as to have the weight of the valve assist in closing it. Between this check-valve and boiler there should be an additional globe or gate-vnlve which may be closed, thus permitting repairing or cleaning of the check-valve while the boiler is in operation. Water Supply. — Feed-water should enter a boiler in such a manner that the plates do not receive the direct impact of cold water. The usual practice is to have the feed enter through the blow-off pipe, thus preventing this pipe from clogging. The feed supply should be regulated so as to keep the water level as stationary as possible, The greatest care must be taken that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. Neg- Ject in this direction will cause the metal to become overheated and consequently weakened, causing leakage of joints and in* CREAM. 287 creased wear and tear, but more often resulting in an explosion of a more or less serious nature. Water-glass and Water-gauges. — Every boiler should have three water-gauges in addition to a water-glass ; these are usually attached to a hollow cast-iron cylinder or tube con- nected with the water and steam spaces. The water-glass should be blown out daily, and, if clogged, can be safely cleaned with a bent wire. In no case should the water glass alone be depended upon to indicate the water level. Steam-gauge. — Each boiler should be provided with a steam- gauge, which gauge should be directly connected with it. Safety-valve. — Every boiler should be provided with a safety- \'alve having direct communication with the steam space, and there should, moreover, be an intervening valve. Some of the most disastrous explosions can be traced to faulty ar- rangement in this respect. The valve thoughtlessly left closed after cleaning or repairs prevents the safety-valve from relieving the pressure when it rises above the safe working pressure of the boiler. Safety-valves are of two kinds : spring and lever safety- valves. Of the two valves the lever-valve has the most dis- advantages, one of the most important being the ease with which it may be made useless by adding an additional weight to that already provided, in order to keep the valve on its seat, and therefore greatly increasing the pressure at which it will blow off. A safety-valve should be raised each day by hand so as to allow steam to escape; this prevents clogging and rusting. The dealer will usually set the spring-valve so that it will blow off at the desired pressure. It can be adjusted, however, by loosening or tightening a screw provided for that purpose. The lever-valve may be set v;ith the aid of the following formula: - ^^-^ -Vb- w: ^~ W ' /— distance from weight to fulcrum; ^ = " '* valve centre to fulcrum; c = distance from the centre of gravity of the lever of the ful- crum; 288 DAIRYING P = boiler pressure; A = area of valve; F= weight of valve; w =: " " lever, \. W ^= weight hung upon the lever. i Firing. — Firing should be gradual, and the grate kept com- pletely covered with coal or ashes. The fire should not be more than four or five inches deep unless the pieces of coal are large, in which case the depth may be increased. The fire-doors and flue-doors should not be opened in order to keep down the steam pressure. This practice not only wastes fuel but is injurious to the boiler, and will not be necessary if the boiler is properly attended to. Priming or Foainiug. — Foaming is a rapid disturbance of the water, in consequence of which it rises in the boiler in the form of spray or foarn; it is usually caused by dirty water, presence of oil, etc., the boiler not having been cleaned for some time or not thf)roughly cleaned. Foaming may, however, be due to other causes, such as too small a steam space, sudden demand of a great quantity of steam, etc. In case a boiler foams all steam connections should be shut off and the fire dampened by means of a fresh supply of live coal or ashes. These precau- tions will usually suflJice to allow the water to settle, and to enable one to ascertain the true water level. If the glass shows a small amount of water, start the pump or injector, and fill the boiler to a point between the second and third gauge. The 'boiler may then be blown off to the first gauge by means of the surface blow-off, if one be present, and if not present the regular blow-off valve may be used. This operation being repeated, the impurities are gradually diminished, but care must be taken that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. The boiler can now be used as before, but in all cases it should be thoroughly cleaned as soon as possible. Kenioval of Scale. — Potatoes, about eight or ten in number, are sometimes placed in the boiler after cleaning. Soda or kerosene may also be injected with the feed- water in quantity to be determined by observation. Boiler compounds should be used viith caution, and when used should be obtained from a reliable dealer. Too great a quantity of anv of the above will be harmful. CREAM. 289 Cleaning. — The Interval during which a boiler requires no cleaning depends upon the quantity and the quality of water evaporated. Under usual conditions, in order to obtain the best results, a boiler should be cleaned every six or eight weeks. If a boiler is to be cleaned it should be allowed to stand until it is partially cooled off. When blown out cold the metal in the interior will usually be found covered with a thick coating of soft deposit, which can easily be scraped off or washed off with a hose and stream of water. If a boiler be blown off while the metal is at a high tempera- ture, the deposited matter is usually baked and forms a solid and hard coating, increasing rapidly if not carefully removed by the process of chipping. Boiler Power. — The manner in which the horse- power of a boiler is usually calculated is far from satisfactory, depending rather upon its size than its power of evaporation. In 1884 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers adopted the following definite standard: " A horse-power shall be equivalent to an evaporation of thirty pounds of water into dry steam per hour from feed- water at 100° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure of 70 lbs. per square inch above the atmosphere." St eajn- engine. — The engine should be provided with a gov- ernor to regulate its speed, a lubricator to oil valve and piston, and a sufficient number of oil cups, so that all bearings may be properly oiled. Starting the Engine. — Before starting, all bearings should be supplied with oil, and all waste pipes connected with cylinder and steam-chest opened. The engine should then be started slowly, so as to allow the water to escape. A quantity of steam will always condense as it comes in contact with the cold cylinder- walls, in addition to the water already present in the steam-pipe. This water does not pass off as readily as steam, neither can it be compressed to any great extent. Therefore, if more water be present in the cylinder than will fill the clear- ance space, and this water not be allowed to escape, the piston moving towards the end of its stroke will strike the water, and consequently be compelled to stop. The greater the speed of the piston as it advances, the greater the force with which it strikes the water, resulting in many cases in a broken cylinder liead. 290 DAIRYING. It is well to have a waste-pipe connected to the steam-pipe at a point just above the engine- valve, in order that the water which has collected in the steam pipe may be blown out before opening the steam-valve. After the engine has been in operation for a minute or two the waste-valves should be closed. Horse-power, — The horse-power of an engine may be calcu* lated by means of the following formula: H. P. = ^ii!L; 33000 H. P. = horse power; P ■=■ mean effective pressure in the cylinder; L = twice the length of the stroke, in feet; a =■ area of piston in square inches; n = number of revolutions per minute. 0\ THi: PllESKRVATlOX OF MIL.K AND CUE AM BY HEAT. By Dr. H, L. Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Siation, Author of " Dairy Bacteriology". ^^B On account of the innumerable bacteria that gain access to milk during the process of milking, and subsequent to that time, and the rapid increase of the same in this nutri- tious fluid, this material universally undergoes fermentative changes, the rapidity of which is largely dependent upon the surrounding temperature. To increase the keeping quality of milk, it is necessary to annihilate these bacteria or keep them under influences unfavorable to their growth. Heat has been found to be the most efficacious agent in preserving milk in its natural condition. It is applied in i' two ways, viz., i. Pasteurization, where the milk or cream \ is heated for a short time (20-30 min.) at a temperature near ^ the coagulating point of the proteid constituents of the milk j (i50°-i6o° F.). 2. Sterilization, where the temperature ap- : proximates or exceeds the boiling-point and is applied for a longer time. The object in both cases is to kill the bacteria present in the milk. CREAM. 291 Sterilization accomplishes this most successfully, but it changes the proteid compounds so that the milk has an un- desirable " cooked " flavor and odor. This defect is not found in pasteurized milk, and if prop- erly handled, milk treated by this process will remain sweet from 4 to 8 days. For use in the near future the pasteurized product is, on the whole, the most satisfactory; the sterilized material being best adapted for export purposes. The essential condition in pasteurization is that the pas- teurizing temperature shall exceed the thermal death point (the temperature at which growing bacteria are destroyed) of disease-producing as well as fermentative bacteria. This temperature for most forms is about 140° F., but certain dis- ease organisms like the tubercle germ of tuberculosis is not killed below 149° F. for 30 minutes, or 155° F. for 15 minutes. As this germ is often found in milk from tuberculous cows, prudence dictates the use of this temperature as a standard for the pasteurization of milk and cream. The proteids in the milk are slightly affected at this temperature, but if the milk is thoroughly chilled, the "cooked" flavor disappears. The application of this temperature kills only the growing bacteria, and does not affect the latent spores. If after being heated the milk is allowed to cool slowly, and is left at a comparatively warm temperature (exceeding 55° F.), these spores germinate and soon change the character of the milk, so that the value of the heating process is lost. To be efficient, it is necessary to rapidly coo\ the pasteurized prod- uct below the germinating point of the spores, for if they are once allowed to sprout, they will develop slowly at a very low temperature. In pasteurizing milk or cream, the apparatus should be constructed so that a definite quantity of the fluid can be held at any desired temperature for any length of time, and during the process protected from infection from the air. The apparatus must also be made so as to be easily cleaned and thoroughly sterilized by steam throughout. The milk must be protected from air infection during its withdrawal from the pasteurizing vat into storage vessels (cans and 292 DAIRYING. I bottles), and should be thoroughly chilled in a refrigerator for several hours (better over night) before being delivered to the consumer. This chilling process should succeed the heating operation as quickly as possible, as the sudden transition in temperature from 155° F. to 55° F. or less has a paralyzing effect on the development of those organisms (spores) that are not killed by the heat. The machines that have been put on the market have for the most part been designed primarily from the dairyman's standpoint, and while they fulfill their requirements as to capacity, cheap- ness, etc., yet they cannot in general be relied upon to treat the milk in a way so as to free it with certainty from all pos- sible disease-producing bacteria. The Potts' Pasteurizer, which has been sold quite extensively in this country during late years, may, however, be considered an entirely satis- factory and practical machine. Pasteurization in this country is applied with great suc- cess to milk and cream where these products are used in the liquid form. It is used to some extent in this country, but much more widely in continental Europe, in the prepara- tion of cream for the manufacture of butter by the use of a pure culture-starter. It can also be used advantageously in the hot months for increasing the length of time that by-products of the factory like skim-milk and whey may be preserved. Pasteurization, as well as sterilization, reduces the body, consistency, of milk and cream, and these products therefore seem thinner after having been subjected to the process oi heating than before. To obviate this. Dr. Babcock and the writer in 1896 recommended the addition of a small quantity of a solution of sucrate of lime (" viscogen ") ta the milk or cream, which will restore the consistency of the products, and in case of cream, greatly increase its whip- ping quality. (See Bull. No. 54 or thirteenth report ot Wisconsin Experiment Station.) CREAM. 293 DIRECTIONS FOR THE STERIIilZATION OF MILK, (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) The sterilization of milk for children, now quite exten- sively practised in order to destroy the injurious germs which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger vessel of metal, which contains the water. If a bottle, it is plugged with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its absence, other clean cotton will answer. A small fruit-jar loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The re- quirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised about half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk. The apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered for half an hour. The milk-bottles are then taken out and kept in a cool place. The milk may be used any time within twenty-four hours. A temperature of 150 degrees main- tained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs likely to be present in the milk, and it is found in practice that raising the temperature to 155 degrees and then allow- ing it to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures the proper temperature for the required time. The tempera- ture should not be raised above 155 degrees, otherwise the taste and quality of the milk will be impaired. The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a per- forated tin pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a removable false bottom perforated with holes and having legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water. The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermom . eter put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the water. The temperature can thus be watched without re- 294 DAIRYING. moving the cover. If preferred an ordinary dairy ther- mometer may be used and the temperature tested from time to time by removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold for the same purpose. ^ 4 QUANTITY OF WATER OR ICE REQUIRED FOR COOLING MILK OR CREAM. (Martiny.) The quantity of water or ice required to cool milk or cream may be calculated from the following formulas, where 7J/= quantity of milk or cream to be cooled, in lbs. / = its temperature. IV =^ quantity of water required for cooling, in lbs. /= " " ice " " " '• '• /' = temperature of water or ice at beginning. Z" = end temperature of cooled milk or cream. r = end temperature of cooling water. S = specific heat of milk (-95*) or of cream (.92*). 79.25 = latent heat of water. (a) Water required for cooling milk or crearn — 1. Cooled in tin cans holding milk or cream to be cooled: „, (Mt - MT)S T-t' 2. By application of coolers and running water: ^^{Mt_-_MT)S r — t' {Jj) Ice required for cooling milk or cream — {Mt - MT)S 1 = T'\-f X 79-25 In these formulas the influence of the surrounding air is not considered. * Figures subject to variations ; in practice the sp. heat of both milk and cream may be assumed = \. — W. BUTTER. 295 IV. BUTTER. BUTTER-MAKING. By H. B. GuRLER, ex-President 111. State Dairymen's Assn., Author of "The Farm Dairy." Butter is made from milk. The cow manufactures the milk from the food she eats, hence the necessity A sound food. Unsound food makes off-flavored milk and poor butter. Some cows can manufacture food into milk at a profit, others cannot; hence the necessity of knowing the individuality of each cow, or her ability to work at a profit to her owner. At this stage of the dairy work there is no excuse for a dairyman not knowing what each and every cow is doing for him, thus being able to "weed out" the unprofitable ones. Be careful and cleanly in milking. Remove the milk to a pure atmosphere as soon as drawn from the cows. If the cream is raised by gravity process be careful of the sur- roundings, as milk will absorb bad odors from decayed vegetables, the hog-pen, the cow-yard, the kerosene-can, a filthy stable, from cooking in the kitchen, and various other sources. When milk is put through the separator as soon as it is drawn from the cow this source of danger is removed. Cream from the separator should be cooled immediately to a temperature of 60°; 55° is better. A cooler that will a?rate at the same time it is cooling is very desirable. This is a vital point which many butter-makers stumble over. When through separating and cooling, temper the cream to the temperature necessary to have it ripen at the time you wish to churn. If it is to be churned the following day this temperature should be 65°-7o°. If the second day, 55°-6o°; and if it is to stand four to seven days, cool to 40°, if possi- 296 DAIRYING. ble, as soon as practicable, and hold at that temperature until the day before you wish to churn, when it should be warmed to a temperature that will give the right acidity by the time you wish to churn. This temperature will depend on the kind of cream, whether separator cream or cream from some gravity process. Cream from shallow setting may be sufficiently ripened when taken from the milk. I recommend the use of Prof. Farrington's acid tablets for testing the acidity of cream (see p. 270). They are a great help to a beginner. Churn at as low a temperature as you can. This will de- pend on the per cent of fat in the cream. Rich cream can be churned at a much lower temperature than cream poor in fat. Cream from deep, cold setting may be churned at 58° to 62°; and thick, rich cream from shallow setting at a much lower temperature. An ironclad rule cannot be made that will fit all cases. The separator will give cream containing various per cent of fat, from 15 to 40 per cent. Separator cream containing 15 per cent fat will need to be churned at about the same temperature as deep, cold setting cream. Separator cream containing 40 per cent can be churned at a temperature of 50", can be gathered at 50 , so the buttermilk will draw at that temperature. A low tem- perature gives the most exhaustive churning. At this tem- perature the buttermilk should contain no more fat than the average separator skim-milk. Cream containing a large per cent of fat does not develop acid as fast as cream with more milk in it. Cool cream for churning about two hours before, so as to let the butter-fat have time to solidify or harden. This gives a more waxy texture to the butter. Stop the churn when the butter granules are the size of wheat. If the granules are too small there is danger of a loss from its passing through the strainer. Wash no more than is necessary to remove the buttermilk. The colder it is churned the less washing is needed. When butter gathers at 54" one washing is sufficient ; if at 62° to 64°, two or three washings will be needed. Washing removes some of the delicate flavor or aroma. Remove the water from the churn as soon as possible — as soon as it has done its BUTTER. 297 work. Never allow it to lie and soak unless there is no other way of hardening the butter to a temperature where you can handle it. Salt to suit your trade. Work once or twice, as you pre- fer; twice working is preferable, as it makes the nicer-ap' pearing butter. Work just enough to remove the mottled or streaked appearance. When worked twice this can be told at the time by the appearance of the butter. When worked but once it cannot be told until the butter has stood long enough for the salt to dissolve. If worked but once examine the butter the following day, until you make your* self a rule of thumb to work by. I have found this neces- sary. I am compelled to look after this point in my creamery work when the butter is worked but once. Use the kind of butter-package that suits your trade, but always let it be neat. Never send a mussy-looking package to market. You cannot afford to do it. ON THE USE OF PURE CULTURES IN BUTTER- AND CHEESE 3IAK1NG. The ripening of cream is brought about through the action of minute plants, so-called bacteiia. These are practically omnipresent where man lives, and get into the milk during the milking and the handling of the milk and cream in the dairy. They multiply enormously in the cream during the ripening process, owing to the very favorable conditions of life which they find there. Some forms of bacteria are de- sirable and even essential in the manufacture of sour-cream butter; these feed largely on the milk-sugar of the cream, and decompose this component into lactic acid, which is the characteristic acid of sour cream (as well as of sour milk). Along with this formation of lactic acid in the cream other complicated, and yet but little understood, decomposition processes take place, the results of which show themselves in the fine aromatic flavor of the butter produced. Other forms of bacteria cause obnoxious fermentations in the cream, and produce a butter of "off" flavor, in aggravated cases making the product unfit "^o eat or at least unsalable as a fiist-class article. The 298 DAIRYIKG. process of sour-cream butter-making is therefore, at the bottom, a question of keeping the fermentations during the ripening of the cream in the right track, of controlling the same so as to exclude all but lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The old original way of reaching this end was to allow the cream to sour spontaneously, trusting to luck to obtain the desired fermentation of the cream by leaving it standing in a warm room for a couple of days. Later on, a buttermilk starter from a preceding churning or a skim-milk starter was added for the purpose of ripening the cream ; by this means the lactic-acid bacteria contained in the starter were intro- duced in such large numbers that they generally were able to crowd out other kinds of bacteria that might be found in the cream, and which, if left alone, would produce undesirable fermentations in the cream and bad flavor in the butter. The next step in advance was the introduction of pure cultures of lactic-acid bacteria; these consist of one or a few forms of bacteria, and when introduced in milk or cream will be apt to overpower all other forms of bacteria therein, and thus produce the pure mild flavor of sour- cream butter desired. The honor of having first introduced pure cultures in butter-making belongs to Dr. V. Storch, the chemist of the Danish state experiment station in Copenhagen; the bulletin describing Dr. Storch's investigations of this subject, "On the Ripening of Cream," was published in 1890. Other bacteriologists in Europe and in this country have worked along this same line, and as a result we find that pure cultures are at the present time used almost universally in the manufacture of sour-cream butter in the creameries and dairies of northern Europe, and also in this country their use has become general and is spread- ing. The expected result of adding a pure culture-starter, viz., that of excluding all undesirable fermentations in the ripening of the cream, will not, however, follow with any certainty unless the seeding with the pure culture is preceded by pasteurization or sterilization of the cream, that is, at least a partial destruction of the bacteria already found therein. In Europe, notably in Denmark and the BUTTER. 299 other Scandinavian countries, pasteurization cf th:; milk (or of the cream) is practised regularly in all the best creameries, in the former country at present in perhaps 95 per cent of the creameries in operation. In this country the firms manufactur- ing and selling pure cultures unfortunately did not insist on this point at the start, and where pure culture-starters were used with us it was nearly always without previous pasteurization. One reason why pasteurization has not been generally adopted in the manufacture of butter in this country is that the market demands a higher flavored, "stronger" butter than is wanted by the puropean market, and the pure cultures on the market, when used with pasteurized cream, do not produce such a butter, T .c expense of pasteurization of the cream and the absence of proper apparatus, or non-introduction of such as have proved successful in European practice, furthermore tend to explain why our butter-makers do not generally pasteurize the cream in using pure culture-starters. During late years, however, pasteurization of cream has become more general in American creameries. The five pure cultures now on the market in this country are Chr. Hansen's Lactic Ferment (Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Fells, N. Y.), Ericsson Butter Culture (Elov. Ericsson, St. Paul, Minn.), Flavorone (Parke, Davis & Co., Detroit, Mich.), Elgin Butter Culture (Creamery Pkg. Mfg. Co., Chicago, 111.), and the Boston Butter Culture (O. Douglas Improved Boston Butter Cul- ture Co., Boston, Mass.). These cultures are placed on the market in dry form as a powder, or in liquid form. Directions for their use accompany each package sold. In general, the method to be followed is to seed the culture in a quantity of sterilized skim -milk or cream; this is kept for one to two days at a temperature below 90°; about 5 per cent, of the starter is then added and mixed with the cream to be ripened; some makers add considerably more than this amount. The cream will be ready for churning the next day. A portion of the starter prepared is used for the see , ing of a new lot of sterilized skim-milk which will make the starter for the following day, and the same process is continued until deterioration of the starter sets in, as shown by lack of flavor in the ripened cream and in the butter; a fresh batch is then prepared from a new 300 DAIRYIN"G. package of ferment. If proper care in sterilizing the skim -milk and in handling the starter is taken, the pure culture may be propagated in this manner for months. With lack of cleanliness and care it must be renewed every other week or of tener. While the use of pure cultures has not as yet become general in American creameries, the agitation caused by their introduction and the discussions in dairy papers and dairy meetings which they have brought about have doubt- less been of great benefit to our dairy industry in empha- sizing in the minds of butter-makers the necessity of thorough cleanliness in the creamery and the importance of the proper conduct of the ripening process for the manufacture of high-grade butter. They have enabled us to make butter of uniform fine flavor and of greater keep- ing quality than was previously possible. Where abnormal fermentations appear, and the butter produced is diseased or "off flavor," the evil may be remedied by the use of pure cultures. In case of the estab- lishment of an export trade of American butter of high quality, the pure cultures used in connection with previous pasteurization of the milk or cream will prove of great benefit, insuring uniform goods and perfect keeping quality in the product. The use of pure culture-starters in the manufacture of Cheddar cheese is of recent date, and but limited experience has so far been gained in this line. According to the testimony of some of our leading cheese-makers, and of recent experiments conducted at Wisconsin experiment station, their use for this purpose is very beneficial, cheese of improved, clean flavor and high keeping qualities being produced. Pure cultures may therefore be safely recom- mended lor this purpose. The general method of applica- tion is similar to that followed in the manufacture of pure culture butter. The starter is propagated in sterilized milk and kept at 90° F. for one day, when it will be slightly lobbered, having an acidity of about .8 per cent. Prof. Decker, late of the Wisconsin Dairy School, gives the fol- lowing hints on the use of the starter by the cheese-maker : "The starter is introduced into the milk by rubbing it BUTTER. - 301 through a fine hair sieve so as to break up curd particles. If too large quantities of starter are used, there is a tendency to produce a sour cheese. The best results are obtained when a 2 per cent starter, of the aeidity given, is added. "In propagating the starter from day to day care must be taken to keep it free from contamination. It should always be prepared in a covered vessel that has previously been sterilized, and the milk used should first be pasteurized (or sterilized) and cooled before adding the 'seed.' Some of the original starter should be taken for 'seed,' not the whole milk after the starter has been added. " The starter cannot be used for cheese-making if the milk is overripe, which is the case when the rennet test is 65 seconds or under (see p. 282). In sweet milk, testing by the rennet test 120 seconds, the addition of a 2 per cent starter will increase the acidity, so that the rennet test will act in 70 seconds. " With sweet milk the use of a pure lactic starter will result in the saving of 3-5 hours in time. With tainted milk in which the acid develops imperfectly the addition of the starter aids in producing the acidity required for the manufacture of Cheddar cheese." BOYD'S PROCESS OP CREAM RIPENING. By John Boyd, Chicago, 111. It is an accepted fact that the fine aromatic flavor and also the keeping properties of butter depend largely upon the treatment of the cream from the time it is separated from the milk until it is ready for the churn, that is, in the best possible condition to yield the maximum quantity and the best quality as to flavor, texture, solidity, etc., free from casein and other undesirable substances. This perfect condition of cream is understood by the term " ripened cream," and when this condition can be pro- duced by the butter-maker with uniformity, regardless of the seasons of the year or extremes of climate, the process may be reckoned as nearly perfect as possible, and not until then. It is most desirable that the process be as sim- 302 DAIRYIi^'G. pie as possible, in fact within the reach of every creamery and dairyman in the country, and all the means required to attain these results can and should be a part of every dairy and creamery, large or small. Boyd's process or system of ripening cream or milk is the result of years of practical work in a private dairy of about 40 Jersey cows. After it had been thoroughly tested and used, during all the seasons of the year, it was pat- ented in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, and given to the public in the year 1889, a very consider- able time in advance of any of the artificial methods of ripening, now being advocated under the representations of " pure cultures of bacteria." When first introduced it was met by a sea of opposition from the experts, who would see nothing good in it, but gradually it has been making its way in a quiet manner into popularity until at present it is being successfully practised in every state in the Union, and is gaining favor every day with the most practical butter-makers. The apparatus necessary to practise the process supplies all the conditions required to produce a uniform result every day in the year, the temperature of the lactive ferment and also of the cream being entirely under the control of the operator during the entire process. The directions for using the process, which go with every purchase of the apparatus, are as follows: To make the Best Ferment. — Take milk from fresh-milk- ing cows (that from pregnant cows will not answer); sub- merge the milk warm from the cows in Cooley cans in ice water. Skim at twelve or twenty-four hours, as most con- venient, and use this skimmed milk for making the fer- ment; or select milk as above, run it through a separator, and save the skimmed milk for making the ferment. The skimmed milk so selected is then brought to a tem- perature of 90°, in a water bath, being constantly stirred during the operation of heating. As soon as the tempera- ture of the milk reaches 90°, place it in the fermenting-can and close the cover tightly, having first rinsed out the can with warm water. Allow the can to remain closed for BUTTEB. 303 iwenty or twenty-four hours, when the ferment will be found thick and in the proper condition for mixing with the cream or milk to be ripened. Hozv to use the Ferment. — First bring the cream or milk in the vat to a temperature of 66° to 70° Fahrenheit, when the ferment is to be thoroughly mixed with the cream or milk in the proportion of 2 per cent of the ferment to the amount of cream or milk to be ripened. Remove one or two inches of the top of the ferment, which is not desirable to use, and strain the rest through a fine strainer or hair sieve into the milk or cream. The finer the ferment is broken up the more effective its operation will be. After the cream or milk and ferment are well stirred and mixed at the above temperature, the vat must be closed and al- lowed to remain undisturbed until the cream is ripened, requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours for the opera- tion; the cream when ripe will be found thick, mildly acid, and in the proper chemical condition, requiring only to be cooled to the proper temperature for churning. Churtiing, — The best temperature for churning depends DO much upon circumstances that the range is very wide, from 55° to 68° Fahrenheit. The richer the cream in but- ter-fat the colder the temperature should be, and the more milk the cream contains the higher the churning tempera- ture should be. After the cream or milk and ferment are mixed, no more stirring is admissible, as any agitation of the cream afterwards retards the ripening process. Butter by Shallow-pan Creatning. — Raise the cream in a v'.emperature of about 60° F. ; avoid as much as possible skimming milk in with the cream; ripen at about 65° F. ; churn at 60° to 62°. Free the granules of butter from the buttermilk by washing in water, temperature about 55°. Salt, I oz. to I lb. of butter. Butter by Deep Cold Setting and Cooley System. — Raise the cream in ice-water; milk may be skimmed in with the cream or not as desired; with the Cooley cream a very considerable portion of milk added to the cream will pro- duce no bad effects. Ripen at a temperature of 68° by adding lactive ferment; churn at temperature of 58° to 65°; 304 DAIRYING. wash the granules in water, temperature 50° to 55°, and salt as above. Butter from Separator Cream. — Cool the cream from sep- arator to 66" to 68^, add lactive ferment, and churn at 55 to 58"^, according to the percentage of butter-fat in the cream. The cream should be cooled after ripening so that the temperature of the cream will register not over 55 . This cooling requires time and patience, but will be rewarded with solid granules. Wash in water at 50' to 52\ Salt. I oz. to I lb. of butter. Good butter should not contain mort than i6:» of water (and may contain as little as 8>0 when properly worked. It is sufficiently worked when it presents a delicate elastic- ity to the touch, and when broken should show a perfect uniformity of grain and color. THE ALKALINE TABLIOT TE^T OV ACIDITY IN MILK Oil CREAM.* By Prof. E. H. Fakrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School. This test is now extensively used by persons interested in either one or all of the dairy products: milk, cream, butter, and cheese. It shows the extent to which acidity has developed in a given sample and gives this information quickly. Briefly stated, it may be used for the following purposes: First. — For testing the acidity of milk. To detect those lots which are apparently sw^eet, but too nearly sour for pasteur- izing, for retailing, or for making the best butter or cheese. Second. — For testing the acidity of each lot of cream dur- ing its ripening, to trace the progress of its souring, and to show whether the fermentations should be hastened or checked in order to have the cream in a certain acid condition at a given time and ready for churning. Rapid Method oj Testing Many Lots of Milk. — In addi ion to the tablets, the only apparatus necessary for testing the acidity of eilhcr n.ilk or cream is a common white teacup, a 4, 6, or 8 oz. bottle, and a No. 10 brass cartridge shell or sii ilar measure. The testing solution is prepared by dissol\ing one tablet in one ounce of v/ater. This i3 the standard sjlu.ion. Four ounces of * For a more detailed discussion of the alkaline tablet test, see Far- rin^ton-Woll, Testing Milk and its ProJucts, 22I Zll., pp. 124-131. 1 BUTTER. 305 the tablet solution are made by filling a four-ounce bottle with water and adding to it four tablets. The No. lo shell is filled with the milk or cream to be tested. This measured quantity is poured into a white cup. The same measure is then filled with the tablet solution and this is poured into the cup. The two liquids are thoroughly mixed, and the color of the mixture is noted. If there is no change of color, another measure of tablet solution is added. This is continued until the sample which is being tested retains a pink color. As soon as the pink color is obtained no more tablet solution is added. The per cent of acid in the sample tested is found from the number of measures of tablet solution it is necessary to add to one measure of the milk or cream sample in order to produce the pink color. Each measure of tablet solution represents one-tenth of one per cent acid when tests are made in this way. The Most Delicate Method. — A more exact testing of acidity can be made by using a 17.6-cc. pipette for measuring the milk or cream to be tested and a loo-cc. graduated cylinder for measur- ing the tablet solution. Five tablets are dissolved in 97 cc. of water in the cylinder, and this solution is gradually poured into the 17.6 cc. of milk or cream in a white cup. When sufl&cient tablet solution has been added to produce the pink color in the sample tested, the operator observes on the scale of the graduated cylinder the number of cc. tablet solution used. Each cc. of this tablet solution is equal to 0.0090 gr. lactic acid, and when 17.6 cc. of a sample is tested, each cc. of the tablet solution is equal to .01 per cent acid in the sample. The per cent of acid in each sample is therefore indi- cated by the amount of tablet solution used in each case. Milk does not smell or taste sour until it contains about three- tenths of one per cent acid. It has been found, however, that milk containing over two-tenths per cent acid cannot be safely pasteurized, because such milk sours very soon. These tablets supply a quick means of sorting different lots of sweet milk, by showing which contain less and which more than two-tenths of one per cent acid. Cream is often ripened so far that the quality of the butter is injured. The usual method of the butter-maker for testing 306 DAIRYIi^G. the sourness of the cream is by the sense of smell and taste. A tablet test shows exactly what per cent of acid each lot of cream contains, so that the butter-maker is better able to manufacture a uniform grade of butter by always ripening his cream to the same point before it is churned. Sweet cream contains about 0.15% acid. Cream has reached the proper point for churning when it contains about six-tenths per cent acid. As the souring of cream is largely influenced by the temperature at which it is held, the butter-maker is able to know from an acid test of the cream whether it should be warmed or cooled in order to have it ready for churning at a given time and just sour enough for making butter of good flavor (see page 313). Cheese-makers are beginning to use this test as a substitute for the hot-iron and other tests, because of the exactness with which it shows the acidity of the milk, the w^hcy, and the curd. DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MANNS' TEST FOR ASCERTAINING THE ACIDITY OF CREAM. 1. Stir the cream thoroughly; insert small end of pipette in cream and draw until nearly full; then put the finger over upper end of pipette and allow cream to escape slowly (by admitting air) until mark on neck of pipette is reached. Transfer to a tumbler, rinse the pipette three times with lukewarm water, adding the rinsing water to the cream in the tumbler. Now add to contents of the tumbler three drops of the solution marked " Indicator" (phenolphtalein). 2. Fill the burette up to the o mark with the solution marked " Neutralizer" (alkali solution). 3. While constantly stirring the cream with the glass rod, allow the liquid to flow from the burette into the tumbler until the entire contents of the tumbler shows a pink tinge. Stop adding the solution from the burette the moment the color is permanent. 4. Read the level of the liquid remaining in the burette. The reading shows the amount of acid present. The experience of those using the test indicates thai; where the acidity of the cream is right, to secure the bes' results in yield and flavor of butter, from 38 to 42 cc. of the neutralizer wi.i be required for the test. It is a simple BUTTER. 307 matter for each butter maker to learn by experiment the exact degree of acidity and churning temperature suited to the best results, and with these as standards reduce the process of butter-making to a certainty. By testing his cream in the afternoon the butter-m.aker will be able to set it to ripen at such a temperature that it will show the proper acidity for churning next morning. In testing the milk for cheese-making the same directions are to be followed, excepting that a much less acid condition is required; probably 15-20 cc. will give the best results. The whole numbers are cubic centimeters; the intermediate divisions are fractions of a cubic centimeter. Precautions in Using the Test. — The solution marked "Neu. tralizer" is prepared of a certain strength. It is essentia.' that this strength remain constant. Never let this solution stand without a stopper. Keep in glass or stoneware, PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. (Konig.) Aver- age. Mini- mum. Maxi- mum. Sweet Cream Butter. Sour Cream Butter. No. of analyses included. .. . 351 13-45 83-70 .76 .50 . 12 1-59 10 12.93 84-53 .61 .68 1-25 II Water 4-15 69. 96 .19 ! ■« .02 35-12 90.92 4-78 1.63 15-08 13-08 Fat 84.26 Casein .81 Milk sugar .66 Lactic acid Ash 1 . 19 AVERAGE CHEMICAL. COMPOSITION OF SWEi:» CREAM- AND SOUR CREAM-BUTTER. (Fleischmann.) Made from Sweet Cream, not Salted. Made from Sour Cream, Salted. Not washed. Washed. Not washed. Washed, Water Per ct. 15.00 83-47 .60 .80 • 13 Per ct. 15.00 83-73 •55 .60 .12 Per ct. 12.00 84-75 ■50 -55 2.20 Per ct, 12.50 84.62 .48 ,40 Fat Casein and albumen Other org^anic substances Ash, or ash and salt 308 DAIRYING. AXATjYSES op PRE3IIUM BUTTERS, FAT-STOCK SHOW, CHICAGO, 1889.— IN PER CENT. (Mokkow.) Description of Samples. 1. Sweepstakes — Creamery, gathered cream. 2. *' " whole milk 3. " Dairy .. . . 4. " From a grade cow 5. First prize— From a Jersey cow 6. " " From a Shorthorn cow 7. " " From an Ayrshire cow 8. " " P'rom a Devon cow 9. " " From a Holstein cow Average * V u u ^ ° n! u 3 96 U u 9.99 85.41 1. 01 04 12 iq 82 66 I. 21 Q.3 8 49 86.53 .86 15 ■ S 9 71 85.96 1.03 91 8 99 88.08 •79 91 12 07 84.79 1 . 34 q.3 9 s^ 86.53 .81 H7 10 7« 86.20 .72 92.5 92.5 10 56 85 -53 .88 .96 10.23 85-74 3-58 3-93 4.12 .29 •'3 •79 32 .29 3-03 3-05 ANALYSES OF FOREIGN SAMPLES OF BUTTER. (In Per Cent.) Country. No. of Anal- yses. Water. Fat. Curd. Ash (Salt). A. Salted Butter. Denmark Sweden ... , . . Finland Netherlands . . France Great Britain. Germany Italy Australia Canada United States. France Germany Great Britain. Austria Italy Switzerland. . Australia 55 12.86 83.78 1.21 139 14-13 82.57 .98 2 13-05 84.11 1.58 4 12.97 84.13 1.39 235 13-32 84.48 1-43 322 12.09 84.66 1.14 162 .»3-38 83.70 1-25 6 II 52 85.c:6 1.07 59 11.16 85.32 .96 207 8.07 84.29 1.44 473 11.44 84.64 1.02 B. Unsalted Butter. Average for salted butter. . . . " " unsalted\i\xX.\.^r . 58 13-73 85.80 1-39 86 12.03 85.70 2.15 24 13-43 85.64 .80 5 14-15 84.14 1-54 53 13-67 85.08 I. II 14 13-76 84.65 «-55 2 10.63 87.71 1.38 1676 "•95 84.27 1.26 242 13-07 85.24 1-57 2. IS 2.32 1.26 1-5" -77 2. II 1.67 1.86 2.56 5-17 2.90 .08 .12 .13 •17 -15 .04 .28 !.58 .12 * The standard of the scale of points in a total of 100 was grain, 30; color, 15 ; salting. 10. + Chiefly salt. Flavor, ^t m BUTTER. 309 COMMERCIALi GRADES OF BUTTER. (New York Mercantile Exchange.) Extras. Shall be composed of the highest grades of butter made in the season when offered under the different classifications; 90 per cent, shall be up to the foUovNdng standard. The balance shall not grade below Firsts. Flavor. — Must be fine, sweet, clean, and fresh if of current make, and fine, sweet, and clean, if held. Body. — Must be firm, smooth, and uniform. Color. — A light straw shade, even and uniform. Salt. — Medium salted. Package. — Good, uniform, and clean. Score. — Shall average 93 points, or higher. Firsts. Shall be a grade just below Extras, and must be fine butter for the season when made and offered under the different classifica- tions, and up to the following standard: Flavor. — ISlust be good, sweet, clean, and fresh if of current make, and good, sweet, and clean, if held. Body. — Good and uniform. Color. — Reasonably uniform. Neither too high nor too light. Salt. — Medium salted. Package. — Good and uniform. Score. — Shall average 87 points, or higher. Seconds. Shall be a grade just below Firsts and must be good for the season when offered under the different classifications and up to the following standard: Flavor. — Must be reasonably good and sweet. Body. — If creamery or dairy, must be solid boring. If fac- tory or renovated, must be 90 per cent, solid boring. 310 DAIRYING. Color. — Fairly uniform. Salt. — May be high, medium, or light salted. Package. — Good and uniform. Score. — Shall average 80 points, or higher. Thirds. Shall be a grade just below Seconds. Flavor. — Must be reasonably good; may be strong on tops and sides. Body. — Fair boring, if creamery or dairy, and at least 50 pe' cent, boring a full trier, if factory or renovated. Color. — May be irregular. Salt. — High, light, or irregular. Package. — Fairly uniform. Score. — Shall average 75 points, or higher. Fourths. Shall be a grade just below thirds, and may consist of prc» miscuous lots. Flavor. — May be off flavored, and strong on tops and sides. Body. — Not required to draw a full trier. Color. — May be irregular. Salt. — High, light, or irregular. Package. — Any kind of package mentioned at time of sale. Packing Stock. No. I — Shall be original butter, without additional moisture or salt, sweet and sound, packed in large, new barrels, having a wooden head in each end, or in new tubs, both to be parchment- paper lined, or a good uniform second-hand barrel having a wooden head in each end and parchment-paper lined. Barrels and tubs to be packed full. No. 2 — Shall be original butter, without additional salt or water, sweet and sound, and can be packed in promiscuous or different kind of barrels, tubs, or tierces, without being parchment- paper lined, and may be packed in either two-headed or cloth- covered barrels. No. 3. — Shall be of any grade or quality above grease, and packed in any and all kinds of packages. Charges for inspection shall be the same as the rules call for on other grades. Grease. Shall consist of all grades of butter below Fourths, free from adulteration. BUTTER. 311 FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE YIELD OF BUTTER. In ordinary dairy or creamery practice, where modern methods of creaming and churning are applied, the yield of butter will exceed that of fat in the milk by 12 to 15 per cent, or i pound of fat in the milk will produce about 1.15 pounds butter, i.e., yield of butter from 100 lbs. of milk = 1,15/", /being the per cent of fat in the milk. FleischmanrCs formula: Yield of butter = 1.16/— .25 Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the Amount of Butter-fat. — The following resolution was passed by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations at the annual convention of the asso- ciation, July, 1895: " Resolved, That this association recommends to the several stations that the results of tests of dairy cows or herds be expressed in terms of butter-fat, and that when desirable to express these records in terms of approximate equivalent in butter such equivalent be computed by multi- plying the amount of butter-fat by i|." (Report of Curtis.s, Armsby, and Cooke.) The factor i^ is based upon the results of the Columbian dairy test, in which it was found that 117. 3 lbs. of butter were, on the average, made from each 100 lbs. of butter-fat in the whole milk, and 96.67 lbs. of butter-fat of the milk was recovered in the butter. YIELD OF BUTTER FROM lOO POUNDS OF CREAM OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. (Martiny.) Per Ct. Fat Yield of Per Ct. Fat Yield of Per Ct. Fat Yield of in Cream Butter. in Cream. Butter. in Cream. Butter. lbs. lbs. lbs. IS 15.7 22 23.0 29 30.3 16 16.7 23 24.0 30 31.4 17 17.7 24 25-1 31 32.4 18 18.8 ^^ 26. 1 Z2 33. 5 19 10.9 1 26 27 . 2 iT, 34-5 20 21 .0 27 28.2 34 35. S 21 22.0 28 29.3 35 36.6 ;ii^ DAIRYING. TIELiD OF BUTTER CORRESPONDING TO YIELD OF BUTTER-FAT PER DAY AND PER WEEK, ill Pounds. Fat. Butter. Fat. Butter. Fat. Butter. Fat. A. Per Day. 0.30 •35 .40 .45 .50 •55 .60 .65 .70 •75 .80 .85 .90 >-35 .41 •47 •53 .58 .64 .70 .76 .83 .88 •93 •99 :-o5 0.95 1. 00 1.05 1 . 10 I-I5 1 .20 1-25 1.30 1-35 1 .40 1-45 I 50 1-55 1. 17 1 .23 1.28 1.34 1.40 1 .46 ^•52 i^58 1.63 1.69 1-75 1. 81 1.60 1. 6s 1 .70 1-75 1.80 1.85 I.QO 1-95 2.00 2.05 2. 10 2 15 2.20 1.87 1.93 1.98 2.04 2. 10 2. 16 2.22 2.28 2-33 2.39 2^45 2-51 2-57 2.25 2.30 2-35 2.40 2.45 2.50 2-55 2.60 2.65 2.70 2-75 2.80 2.85 B. Per Week. 5.00 5-83 7-50 8.75 10.00 11.67 12.50 14.58 5.10 5^95 7.60 8.87 10. 10 11.78 12.60 14.70 S-20 6.07 7.70 8.98 10.20 II .90 12.70 14.82 5-30 6.18 7.80 9.10 10.30 12.02 12.80 14-93 540 6.30 7.90 9.22 10 40 12. 13 12.90 15.05 5-50 6.42 8.00 9-33 10.50 12.25 13. 00 I5-I7 5.60 6.53 8.10 9-45 10.60 12.37 13. 10 15.28 5-70 6.65 8.20 9-57 10.70 12.48 13.20 15.40 5.80 6.77 8.30 9.68 10.80 12.60 13,30 15-52 5 -90 6.88 8.40 9.80 10.90 12.72 13.40 15.63 6.00 7.00 8.50 9.92 11.00 12.83 13.50 15-75 6. 10 7.12 8.60 10.03 11.10 12.95 13-60 15.87 6.20 723 8.70 10.15 II .20 13.07 I3^70 15.98 6.30 7-35 8.80 10.27 11.30 13.18 13.80 16.10 6.40 7-47 8.90 10.38 11.40 1330 13.90 16.22 6.50 7.58 9.00 10.50 11.50 13.42 14.00 16.33 6.60 7.70 9.10 10.62 11 .60 13.53 14. 10 16.45 6.70 7.82 9.20 10.73 11.70 1365 14.20 16.57 6.80 7-93 9-30 10.85 11.80 13.77 14.30 16.68 6.90 8.05 9.40 10.97 11 .90 13.88 14.40 16.80 7.00 8.17 9-50 11.08 12.00 14.00 14.50 16.92 7.10 8.28 9.60 11.20 12.10 14.12 14.60 17.03 7.20 8.40 9.70 11.32 12.20 1423 14.70 171S 7-30 8.52 9.80 "43 12.30 14.35 14.80 17.27 7.40 8.63 g.90 II-. 55 12.40 14.47 14.90 17.38 Fat. Butter. Fat. Butter. .01 .01 .06 .07 .02 .02 • 07 .08 •03 .04 .08 .09 .04 .05 .09 .11 .05 .06 .10 .12 BUTTE li. 'dTd VALUE OF *i!^^_L*i* FOR SP. GR. OF MILK FROM 1.019 TO 1.0399. (See p. 261.) Sp.Rr. 1. 019 1 .020 1. 02 1 1 .022 1 .023 1.024 1. 025 1.026 1.027 1.028 1.029 1.030 1. 03 1 1.032 1-033 1.034 1.035 1.036 1.037 1.038 1.039 0.0000 O.OOOI 1.864 1.874 i.q6i 1.970 z-C'S? 2.066 2.153 2 . 162 2.249 2.258 ' 2 344 2-353 2-439 2.449 2-534 2 544 2.629 2.638 2.724 2-733 2.818 2 828 2.913 2.922 3.007 3.016 3.101 3.110 3 ■ 195 3.204 S.288 3.298 3-382 3-39' 3-475 3.484 3 -56a 3-577 3.661 3.670 3-754 3-763 0.0002 0.0003 . 0004 0.0005 . 0006 0.0007 0.0008 1.884 1.894 1.903 1-913 1.922 1.932 1.941 1.980 r.990 1.999 2.ooq 2.018 2.028 2.038 2.076 2.086 2.095 2.105 2.114 2. 124 2.133 2.172 2.181 2.191 2.200 2210 2. 220 2.2?q 2.267 S.277 2.286 2.296 2.306 2 3>5 2.325 2 363 2.372 2.382 2.391 2.40] 2.410 2.420 2.45S 2.468 2-477 2.487 2.496 2. S06 2-51.'' 2-553 2.56:; 2-573 2.582 2-59' 2.fOl 2.610 2.648 2 •6; 7 2.667 2.676 2.686 2.695 2.705 2-743 2.7S2 2.762 2.771 2.781 2.790 2-799 2-837 2.847 2.856 2.865 2.87s 2.884 2.89:1 2 931 2.941 2-95^ 2.960 2 909 2.979 2.988 3.026 3-C35 3-044 3 054 3.063 3.072 3-082 3 ■ '20 3.129 3- '38 3.148 3-157 3.166 3-176 3213 3.223 3.232 3 24 1 3-251 3 260 3 269 3 307 3-3't. 3.326 3-3.35 3-344 3-354 3-563 3 400 3 4'o 3-419 3.428 3-438 3-447 3-456 3-494 3-503 3-512 3-521 3-531 3-540 3-549 3 -.587 3-59^ 3.605 3.614 3.624 3 633 3-642 3.679 3.689 3.698 3-707 3-717 3.726 3-735 3-772 3-781 3-791 3.800 3-809 3.818 3-828 o . 0009 I-95I 2.047 2.143 2.239 2-334 2.430 2-5''5 2.620 2.714 2.809 2.903 2.997 3.091 3-185 3-279 3-372 3.466 3-559 3 652 3-744 3-837 RELATION OF FAT CONTENT TO ACIDITY OF SKIM-MILK, MILK, AND CREAM. (A. Vind.) (See p. 306.) Skim- milk. Whole Milk. Cream. Fat contents per ct. 5 per ct. 25perct. 3operct. 35 perct. 40 perct. cc. 10 % .t8 cc, 9-5 -17 cc. 7-5 % -14 cc. 7 % •13 cc. 6.5 .12 cc. 6 % Equal acidity test .11 45 .81 43 -77 34 .61 31-5 •57 29 -52 27 • 49 48 .80 45-5 .82 36 -65 33-5 .60 31 -56 29 • Sa ii SO .90 48 .86 37-5 .67 35 -63 32 • 5 ..58 30 •54 52 -94 49-5 .8q 39 .70 .36-5 .66 34 .61 31 -56 54 •97 51 ■92 40.5 -73 38 .68 •^^5 .63 -2.5 -58 ♦ 55 -99 52 -94 41 -74 38-5 .69 36 -^5 33 -.59 57 1 03 54 -97 43 •77 40 .72 37 .67 34 .61 59 1 .00 5t3 1. 01 44 -79 4' -5 -75 38. S .69 3S-5 .64 Oo 1.08 57 (.03 45 .81 42 .76 39 .70 36 -65 314 DAIRYING. THE SLIDING-SCALE OVERRUN. (Farrington.) Fat Fat Re- Butter Fat Fat Re- Butter Fat Fat Re- Butter covered from covered from covered from in Milk. m Butter. 100 lbs. Fat. m Milk. in Butter. 100 lbs. Fat. m Milk. m Butter. 100 lbs. Fat. Per Cent. Per Cent. Lbs. Per Cent. Per Cent. Lbs. Per Cent. Per Cent. Lbs. 2.5 95 -So iiS-4 4.1 97-45 117.4 5.6 98.13 118. 2 2.6 95 96 115.6 4 2 97 51 117 5 5.7 98.16 118 2 2.7 96. 12 II5-8 4 3 97 56 117 5 5-8 98. 20 118 3 2.8 96.25 1 1 6. 4 4 97 62 117 6 5-9 98.22 118 3 2.9 96.38 116. 1 4 5 97 67 117 7 6.0 98.25 118 4 30 96.51 116. 2 4 6 97 72 117 7 6.1 98.28 118 4 3.1 96. 62 116. 4 4 7 97 77 117 8 6.2 98.31 118 4 3-2 96.73 116. 5 4 8 97 82 117 8 6.3 98.33 118 5 3.3 96.83 116. 7 4 9 97 86 117 9 6.4 98.36 118 5 3-4 96.91 116. 8 5 97 90 117 9 6.5 98.38 118 5 3.5 97.00 116. 9 5 I 97 95 118 6.6 98.41 118 S 3.6 97.10 117.0 5 2 97 99 118 I 6.7 98.43 118 6 3.7 97.16 117. 1 5 3 98 03 118 1 6.8 98.46 118 6 3.8 97.24 117 . 2 5 4 98 06 118 I 6.9 98.48 118 6 3.9 97-31 117 . 2 5 5 98 10 118 2 7.0 98.51 118 7 4.0 97.38 117-3 The table is based on the assumptions that 85 per cent skim-milk and 10 per cent buttermilk are obtained, testing .1 and .2 per cent of fat, respectively; furthermore, that the butter contains 83 per cent fat. Example. — 3450 lbs. of milk testing 4.2 per cent fat contain 345o_X .042 = 144.9 lbs. of butter-fat; this multiplied by the overrun for milk testing 4.2 per cent, 1.175 gives 170.25 lbs. as the calculated amount of butter which the milk would make. COMPARATTVK PRICES OF MILK, CREAM, BUTTER-FAT AND BUTTER. (Doane.) Cream Price 3-5% 4-5% 5-5% Butter Butter Per Cent per Milk. Milk. Milk. Fat per T.P^^, Fat. Gallon. . Pn ze per Qu art. . Pound. Pound. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. Cents. 20 50 12 14.5 17 28 23-5 20 55 12 155 18 31 26 20 60 13-5 16.5 19-5 34 28 20 65 14-5 18 21 37 31 20 70 15-5 19 22 40 3^ 22 50 1 1 13 15 25 21 22 5 5 I 2 14-5 17 28 23-S 32 60 13 15-5 18 31 26 22 6S 13.5 16.5 19.5 33-5 28 22 70 14-5 17-5 20 .5 36 30 22 75 15 18.5 22 39 32. s 25 55 1 1 13 15 25 21 25 60 1 1 • 5 14 16. 5 27 22. s 25 65 I 2 . s 15 17-5 29-5 24 -5 25 70 I 3 16 18.5 32 26. 5 25 7 5 14 17 195 34-5 28. s 25 80 145 17-5 20 .5 36.5 30.5 BUTTER. 315 POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED TO MAKE ONE POUND OF BUTTER. Per Cent Fat in Milk. 2.8. . 3.0 .. 3-2... 3-4-.. 3.6... 3-8... 4.0... 4.2.,. 4.4... 4.6... 4.8... Lbs. of Milk per I lb. of Butler. 3I-I 29.0 .. . . . 27.2 25.5 24.2 22.9 21.7 20.7 . ... 19.8 18.9 18.I Per Cent Fat in Milk. 5.0... 5-2... 5.4... 5.6. . 5.8... 6.0... 6.2... 6.4... 6.6... 6.8... 7.0... Lbs. of Milk pel I lb. of Butter. 17.4 16.7 16. 1 15-5 ..... 15.0 14-5 14.0 13-6 13-2 12.8 12.4 ?..bs. of Milk per I lb. of Butter. 10 II. 12. 13- H- 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23 24. 25 Per Cent Fat in Milk. . 8.70 . 7.90 ■ 7-25 . 6.69 . 6.21 - 5.80 • 5.44 . 5.12 . 4-83 . 4.58 . 4-35 • 4-14 • 3-95 • 3-78 . 3-62 . 3-47 Lbs. of Milk per i lb. of Butter. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33- 34- 35 36. 37- 38. 39- 40. Per Cent Fat in Milk - 3-34 . 3-22 . 3-II . 3-00 . 2.90 . 2.81 . 2.72 . 2.64 . 2.56 . 2.48 . 2.42 . 2.35 . 2.2g . 2.23 2.17 The two preceding tables are based on ordinary creamery experience, i pound of fat in the milk producing 1.15 pounds of butter. 316 DAIRYIITQ. NUMBER OF POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED FOR MAKING ONE POUND OF BUTTER. (Kirchner.) Lbs. Butter per Lbs. Milk per i Lbs. Butter per Lbs. Milk per i IOC lbs. of Milk. lb. of Butter. 100 lbs. of Milk. lb. of Butter, 24 41.67 3-8 26.32 2-5 40.00 ^^•9 25.64 2.6 38.46 4.0 25.00 2.7 37-04 4.1 24-39 2.8 35 71 4.2 23.81 2.9 34 48 4-3 23.26 30 33-33 4.4 22.73 31 32.26 4-5 22 22 3-2 31 25 4.6 21.74 3.3 30-30 4-7 21.28 3-4 29.41 4.8 20.83 3-5 28.57 4.9 20.41 3-6 27.68 5-0 20.00 3-7 27.03 5-5 18.18 DISTRIBUTION OF MILK INGREDIENTS IN BUTTER 3IAKING. (Cooke.) c Proportion -a c S 3 rt of the Total CTi-Q v "/n' Milk Fat oc/3 ■t^ ^ — C/3 found in the - Ibs fc U < lbs. < Product. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1000 lbs. of whole milk. . . . 130.0 40.0 26.0 7 49-5 7-5 800 lbs. of skim-milk. ... 78.0 24 22.0 6.0 41.2 6.4 6 200 lbs. of cream 52.0 37-6 4.0 1 .0 8.3 I . I 94 187 Ihs. of buttermilk 14.91 .8 3-77 -94 8.3 I.I 2 43 3 lbs. of butter 37-09 36.8 -23 .06 92 SCORE FOR JUDGING BUTTER GENERALLY ADOPTED IN AMERICAN CONTESTS. Flavor 45 Grain (body) 25 Color 15 Salt 10 Packing (style) 5 100 BUTTER. 317 This score has been adopted in judging butter exhibits at various State fairs and dairymen's conventions during late yeais; in some cases the score has been changed to 50 for flavor and 5 for salting, otherwise as above, or to flavor 40, grain 30, with other points as above. Minimum number of points entitling exhibitors to a premium: Wisconsin Dairymen's Association, 93, 95, and 94 points, for dairy, separator creamery, and gathered-cream butter, respectively. New York State Fair, 75 points. engijIsh scale of points for judging BUTTER. (MCCONNELL.) Perfection, 100. 25 Flavor : nutty, aromatic, sweet. 20 Moisture : as free from beads of water as possible. 10 Solidity : firm, not melting easily, nor softening. 25 Texture : closeness of grain, distinct fracture ; not greasy. 10 Color : natural, even. 10 Make : remaining points, cleanliness, salting, nicely put up, etc. 100 SCORE IN JUDGING PROFICIENCY OF BUTTER- MAKERS. (Adopted by British Dairy Farmers' Association.) Butter-niakiiig. Preparation of cream 4 " " utensils 6 Ventilation of churn 4 Judgment and skill in churning. . 15 Washing butter in churn 10 Use of strainer 4 " "thermometer 7 " "butter-worker 7 Salting 5 Making up 15 Flavor and color 7 Texture and freedom from moist- ure. 7 Cleaning utensils 4 Rapidity and cleanliness of work- ing 5 318 DAIRYING. ANALYSES OF AMERICAN DAIRY SALTS. (In Per Cent.*) Name of Brand. Acme Anchor Ashton Bradley Canfield &VVheeler.. Diamond Crystal... Empire Genesee HiRgins Le Roy Lone Star Vacuum Pan , Warsaw Worcester Coleman Rice Windsor •a . ^ •a > >::: rt 3 )- — rt o aco §0 u 24 31 39 63 26 33 31+ 28 25I: 28 30 39 29 28 30 2f§ * See Jl'ol^, " A Study of Dairy Salt/' Bulletin No. 74, Wis. E.xp. Sta. + Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .671; rate of solubility 34 sec. t Butter-salt; ch.ese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .944; rate of solubility 37 sec. § Butter-salt; cheese-salt, appar. sp. gr. .891; rate of solubility 32 sec. TEMPERATURES AT WHICH DAIRY PRODUCTS SHOULD BE STORED IN COLD STORAGE. (Douglas.) Article. Temper- ature , deg. F. Article. Temper- ature , deg. F. Butter 25-38 20 20-35 28-35 35 28-35 i Milk Oleomargarine Poultry, frozen Poultry, to freeze Poultry, long storage . . 32 20-35 28-30 10—18 Butter, to freeze Butteiine Cheese Cream Eggs CHEESE. 319 V. CHEESE. HOW AMERICAN CHEESE IS MADE. By the late Prof. John W. Decker, of Ohio Dairy School, Author of "Cheese Making: Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, etc." A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese. As soon as the milk is received at the factory it is heated to 86" F. and a rennet test made.* If the jnilk is not ripe enough it is held till the proper acidity is reached. If the milk is very sweet a starter of sour milk is added to hasten it. The milk should be set at such a ripeness that there will be one eighth of an inch of acid (fine strings) on the hot-iron in two hours and a half from the time rennet is added. If the cheese is to be colored the color is added just be- fore setting the milk. When it is thoroughly stirred in, the rennet may be added. The amount of rennet to be used depends on the kind of cheese desired. If a soft fast-cur- ing cheese is wanted, enough rennet is used to coagulate the milk in fifteen to twenty minutes ; if a slow-curing cheese, enough to coagulate in thirty to forty-five minutes. It is stirred in thoroughly in four or five minutes and then the dipper is run lightly over the top, to keep the cream down till the milk begins to thicken, when a cloth cover is spread over the vat and the coagulation allowed to continue till the curd will break clean over the fingers. * The Monrad rennet test is recommended. It consists of a i6o cc. tin cylinder for measuring the miik, a 5 cc. pipette, a 50 cc. graduated flask, and a half-pint tin basin. The rennet is measured with the 5 cc. pipette and delivered into the 50 cc. flask, the rennet adhering to the pipette being rinsed into the flask with a little water. The flask is then filled with water 10 the 50 cc. mark, and the solution mixed by shaking. The milk, the temperature of which should be 86° F., is measured in the tin cylinder, emptied into the half-pint basin, and 5 cc. of the dilute extract is measured into the 160 cc, of milk, and the number of seconds required to curdle it (loted. If a few specks of charcoal are scattered on the milk and the milk started into motion around the dish with a thermometer, the instant of curdling can be noted by the stopping of the specks. They will stop so suddenly as to seem to start back in the opposite direction. The Marschall rennet test is a very convenient device for ascertaining the exact moment of coagulation, and is used extensively in cheese factories. 320 DAIRYIN^G. The curd is then cut, using the horizontal knife first and cutting lengthwise of the vat. The cutting is finished from this point with the perpendicular knife, the curd being thus cut into cubes one-half inch in diameter. Without waiting for the curd to settle, begin stirring very carefully with a wire basket, and rub the curd off from the sides of the vat with the hand. As soon as this is done, turn on the heat carefully and raise the temperature slowly to 98° F. ; when the curd is firm enough a wooden rake is used to stir it. The temperature is raised at the rate of one deg. in 4-5 min. As soon as the temperature of 98° F. is reached, begin trying the curd on the hot iron for acid. The curd must be firm enough when the w'hey is drawn, so that a double handful pressed together will fall apart readily. This is the test for a proper cooking. When fine threads | in. long show on the hot iron the whey is ready to draw.* This should be 2^ hrs. from the time the milk was set. The whey is drawn off by means of a whey gate and strainer, and the curd dipped into a curd-sink or on racks placed in the vat, over which a linen strainer-cloth is thrown. The curd should be stirred on the cloth to facilitate the escape of the whey, and'is then left to mat together. In 15 or 20 min. it can be cut into blocks 8 or 10 ins. squai-?, and turned over. After turning several times these blocks can be piled two or three deep. The acid will continue to develop in the curd; when it will string about an inch it will have assumed a stringy or meaty texture, so that it will tear like the meat on a chicken's breast. It is then run through the curd-mill and cut up into srall pieces. These pieces are stirred up every little while to ai'^. In the course of another hour and a half there will be 2 in. of acid on the curd; it will smell like toasted cheese when pressed against the hot iron, and half fat and half whey will run out * The acidimeter is sometimes used to take the place of the rennet test and hot iron. The apparatus is sold by firms handling dairy supplies.. The milk is set at an acidity of .2 per cent. When cut the whey will| have a lower acidity, probably .17 per cent. When the acidity in the whey reaches .2 per cent the whey is drawn. The drawings from the curd will show a rapid increase in acid. This test should be used with care and in combination with rennet test and hot iron. CHEESE. 321 v.'hen a handful is squeezed. It is then ready to salt; It is cooled to 80° F. betore salting. It a fast-curing cheese is wanted use 2 lbs. per 100 lbs. of curd; 2\ lbs. are used for a medium cheese, 3 lbs. for a slow-curing cheese. The curd should be spread out at an even thickness and the salt applied evenly. It should then be thoroughly stirred several times. As soon as the harsh feeling has left the curd it is ready to go to press. The screw should be turned slowly, but fast enough so that a stream of brine is kept flowing. The full pressure should not be applied for ten minutes. In an hour the bandages can be turned down, and full pressure is then applied. The Helmer continuous-pressure gang-press is the most satisfactory, as the cheese will not loosen during the night. The next day the cheese are placed on the shelves and the rinds greased. They should be turned and rubbed every day. The temperature of the curing-room should be 60° to 65° F., and moisture should be supplied in dry weather. The cheese are boxed and shipped in about a month. B. Cheese Made on the Farm, For a farm dairy it will be much easier to make up sweet-curd cheese than sour-curd cheese, described in the preceding. For this purpose it is necessary to have a curd-knife, a cheese-vat, and a cheese-press; the method of procedure is as follows: The milk, which must be clean and sweet, is heated to 90° F., and if any artificial color is required it is added at this time. Set the milk with enough rennet extract to coagulate in 20 to 30 minutes. About four ounces of Hansen's rennet extract per 1000 lbs. of milk will prove a sufficient amount. As soon as the curd will break over the finger cut it fairly fine; then raise the temperature one degree in 3 minutes until 108°' F. is reached, at the same time stirring carefully to keep the curd particles apart. Hold at 108° F. till the curd is firm, that is, till the pieces do not feel mushy. Then draw the whey and stir till the whey is well drained out. Salt at the rate of 2\ lbs. of s-^lt to 100 lbs. of curd, and when the salt is well worked in it may be put to press. It will, however, improve the quality if kept warm and allowed to stand a number of hours before salting and pressing. Ths cheess should be cured in a room (preferably 322 DAIRTII^^G. a cellar) where the temperature can be kept at 60° F. Higher temperatures may spoil it. The cheese should be cured for two to three months before it is sold. CAUSES OP TAINTED MILK. The causes of tainted milk have been classified as fol- lows, by the Swiss scientist, Dr. Gerber: 1. Poor, decayed fodders, or irrational methods of feeding. 2. Poor, dirty water, used for drinking-water or for the washing of utensils. 3. Foul air in cow-stable, or the cows lying in their own dung. 4. Lack of cleanliness in milking; manure particles on udder. 5. Keeping the milk long in too warm, poorly ventilated and dirty places. 6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after milking. 7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which cause the greater number of milk taints arise. 8. Poor transportation facilities. 9. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc. 10. Cows being in heat. 11. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can. 12. Rusty tin pails and tin cans (Boggild). DETECTING BAD MILK: DIRECTIONS FOR OP- ERATING THE WISCONSIN CURD-TEST. Cheese-makers are often troubled with so-cSiUed Jioatin^ , pinholed, or ^ajj-j curds which produce cheese defective in flavor and texture. The cause of this poor quality of cheese often seems beyond the power of the operator to determine. While he has heretofore usually laid it to "bad" milk, it was often impossible for him to locate the trouble. By means of the curd-test the operator is usually able to tell which patron or patrons are furnishing the bad milk; and often in the patron's herd it will be shown to be due to a single cow. This test as here described originated at the CHEESE. 323 Wisconsin Dairy School in 1S95. Apparatus for making the test is now furnished by dairy supply-houses, although a home-made test can be improvised by using pint fruit- jars and a wash-tub or some small tank, in which the jars of milk can be heated in warm water. Details of the Test. — i. A pint glass jar which has been thoroughly cleaned, and sterilized with live steam, is filled about two thirds full with the milk to be tested. 2. It is not necessary to take an exact quantity of milk, but each jar should be plainly labeled. 3. The numbered jars of milk are placed in a tank or tub of water which is heated until the milk in the jars has a temperature of 98" F. 4. The thermometer used should first be rinsed in boiling water before being placed in another sample, to avoid con- tamination of good milk with bad milk. 5. When the milk has reached a temperature of 98° F., add 10 drops of rennet extract to each jar of milk, and mix by giving the jar a rotary motion. 6. The rennet soon curdles the milk, and the curd is al- lowed to stand for about twenty minutes until it is firm. 7. The curd should then be cut into small pieces with a case-knife, and after settling the whey is poured off. The best tests are made when the separation of whey is most complete. By allowing the samples to stand for a short time, more whey can be poured off, and the curd thereby rendered firmer. 8. The jars containing the curd are then again placed in the tub and the temperature of the water around the jars is maintained at or near 98° F. by adding hot water from time to time. The tub or vat is covered, the curds are allowed to ferment in the sample jars for six to twelve hours and are then examined. 9. The impurities in any particular sample will cause gases to be developed in the curd, so that when it is cut with a knife pin-holes or gas-holes can be easily detected. Milks having a putrefactive or stinking odor should be classed as bad, even though the curd has a good texture and is free from pin-holes. 334 DAIRYING. The curds in this test are made under conditions mosi favorable for developing in them any defects which may be caused by the presence of undesirable bacteria that are brought to the niilk by dust, dirt, and other impurities. The odor of a curd should be noticed as soon as the covci- is taken from a jar. This is often sufficient to convince a patron that the milk is tainted, and may suggest to him the particular cause of the odor by its resemblance to some fa miliar smell that he recognizes and can remove. A solid firm curd shows that the milk is pure and clean and has been properly handled. The rather firm curds which show fine pin-holes when cut with a knife are indi- cations of some of the worst impurities in milk, while the spongy curds show the presence of bacteria which in some cases have developed sufficient gas to float the curd. Per- sons familiar with milk soon learn to use the evidence obtained by this test to distinguish betAveen good and bad m.ilk, and to convince the milk-producers of the value of the test. (Dairy Bull., Wis. Exp. Station.) THE FERMENTATION TEST. The Gerber fermentation test (modified by Monrad) fur- nishes a convenient method for discovering tainted milk on the farm or at. the factory. The test consists of a tin tank which can be heated by means ot a small lamp, and into which a rack fits holding a certain number of cylindrical glass tubes ; these are all numbered and provided with a mark and a tin cover. In making the test the tubes are filled to the mark with milk, the number of each tube being recorded in a notebook opposite the name of the particular patron whose milk was placed therein. The tubes in the rack are put in the tank, which is two thirds full of water ; the temperature of the water is kept at 104-106° F. for six hours, when the rack is taken out, the tubes gently shaken, and the appearance of the milk, its odor, taste, etc., carefully noted in each case. The tubes are then again heated in the tank at the same temperature as before for another six hours, when observations are once more taken of the ap- CHEESE. 325 peatance ol the milk in each tube. The tainted milk may then easily be discovered on account of the abnormal coagu- lation of the sample. Gerber concluded from over 1500 tests made by this method : 1. That good and properly handled milk should not co- agulate in less than 12 hours, nor show anything abnormal when coagulated. 2. If it does, it shows the milk to be abnormal, either on account of its chemical composition or because it is impreg- nated with too much ferment (rather, abnormal ferments, causing an undesirable fermentation). 3. Milk from sick cows, cows that are strongly in heat, or cows with diseased udders will always coagulate in less than 12 hours. 4. Only about 20 per cent of the tests coagulated within 12 hours. Monrad proposes the following rules for the adoption of this test by cheese factories : 1. '' A proper journal is kept of all the tests. 2. " The patrons whose milk is tainted have to pay the cost of making the test. 3. " The patrons whose milk is tainted will be kept track of, and in case there is any loss caused thereby they will have to stand it. 4. " Patrons having tainted milk shall be notified at once, and another test made three days later. If then the milk is still bad, a test of each cow's milk is made on the farm and otherwise the reason sought to be discovered, and until then the milk will be refused." 326 DAIRYIN'G. DETER3IINATION OF HUMIDITY IN CHEESE- CURING R003IS. The proper degree of humidity in the cheese-curing room will vary with different kinds of cheese and at differ- ent stages of the curing process. Green cheese should be placed in a somewhat drier curing-room than older ; the latter kinds, according to Fleischmann. require a relative humidity of go°-Q5°, against 85°-qo° for green cheese. Kirchner states that the humidity of curing-rooms should not, in general, go below 80' or above 95°. Temperatures^ from 50^-70^ F. are preferable in the curing-room. The following temperatures and percentages of humidity are recommended by Martiny: Per Cent Deg. Fahr. Humidity (a) For hard cheeses (Swiss, etc.). Green 59-^3 9*^-95 Half cured 54-59 85-90 Cured 50-54 So-gs {b) For soft cheeses (X^wcCowxg^Xy t\z.) 50-59 80-95 In the interior of our continent it is somewhat difficult to obtain as much moisture in the air of curing-rooms as is represented by the preceding figures ; the relative humid- ity of ordinary curing-rooms in this region, therefore, but rarely goes over 60". A higher degree of humidity may be obtained by hanging wet sheets of canvas in the curing- room (Decker), or by similar devices, as described in the thirteenth ann. report of Wis. Experiment Station. Self-recording thermometers are to be recommended for use in curing-rooms. For observation of relative humidity a wet and dry bulb thermometer, a Mittchoff's hygrometer, or a Lambrecht's polymeter may be used to advantage. Any of these instruments may be obtained through dealers in chemical glassware or dairy supplies; the prices range from $8 to $30. CnEESE. 317 TABLE SHOAVING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. (King.) Directions.— Notice tliat the table is in three column sections. Find air temperature in tiist column, then find wet-bulb temperature in second column, same division. In third column opposite this is relative humidity. Exafiiple. — Air temperature is 50", in first column; wet-bulb is 44°, in second column, same division. Opposite 44° is 61, which is the percent of saturation, or the relative humidity of the air. Caution. — Fan the bulb briskly for a minute or two before taking reading. >.J3 '-'CQ -•a >.J3 %a -^1' C^E 53 40 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 37 44 52 59 68 76 84 92 45 35 36 31 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 31 37 44 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 49 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 48 54 60 67 73 80 86 93 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 58 63 69 75 8i 87 94 54 55 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 32 33 34 36 37 38 39 40 3^ 38 46 53 60 68 76 84 92 50 39 40 4^ 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 32 37 43 49 55 61 67 74 80 87 93 32 37 41 46 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 26 32 33 45 51 58 65 72 79 85 93 42 48 53 59 64 7" 76 82 88 94 31 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 33 40 47 54 61 69 77 84 92 51 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 33 39 45 50 56 62 68 74 81 87 93 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 33 38 43 49 54 59 65 42 47 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 28 34 40 46 52 59 66 72 79 86 93 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 28 34 41 48 55 62 70 77 85 92 70 76 82 88 52 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 35 40 46 51 57 63 69 75 81 87 94 94 4S 56 57 48 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 29 35 41 47 53 60 66 73 79 86 93 34 39 44 50 55 60 65 71 77 82 88 94 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 4t 42 29 36 43 49 56 63 70 78 85 5= 44 53 4T 42 43 44 45 31 36 41 47 52 49 38 39 40 30 36 42 45 46 47 36 40 45 328 DAIRYING. HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. - -Con. >.xi ' X^ ^ e >-£ 1 t;-^' ^ a >.J3 t!-^ ^ a u — c = 48 1 '" 3 i ^3 1^^ u — Q 3 4; 3 50 58 84 55 49 61 60 49 55 61 59 89 56 53 62 64 5^ 61 60 94 57 57 63 68 51 66 58 61 64 72 57 52 71 50 41 59 66 70 65 77 53 77 51 45 66 60 71 66 81 54 83 52 50 61 75 67 86 55 88 53 54 62 80 68 90 56 94 54 59 63 85 69 95 62 55 56 64 69 64 65 46 37 90 95 58 59 45 48 47 42 57 74 48 46 58 79 54 41 60 52 49 51 59 84 55 45 61 56 50 56 60 89 56 49 62 60 58 51 61 67 72 61 95 57 58 59 53 58 62 63 64 65 64 68 72 52 53 51 42 71 54 78 52 46 67 60 66 66 77 55 83 53 51 61 7r 67 81 56 89 54 55 62 76 68 86 57 94 55 60 f'3 80 69 91 63 56 64 64 85 70 95 47 38 57 69 65 90 48 43 58 74 66 95 59 60 45 49 47 59 79 -^ 49 50 52 60 84 55 42 61 53 51 57 61 89 56 46 62 57 59 52 62 62 95 57 50 63 61 53 67 .'8 54 64 65 54 72 52 43 59 58 72 65 69 55 78 53 47 60 63 66 73 56 83 54 51 68 61 67 67 77 57 89 55 56 62 71 68 82 58 94 56 60 63 76 69 86 64 57 65 64 81 70 91 48 49 50 39 44 48 58 59 60 70 74 79 65 66 85 90 95 71 95 67 60 46 51 53 61 85 61 50 52 58 62 90 56 43 62 53 60 53 63 68 73 63 95 57 58 59 47 63 64 65 57 61 65 54 55 53 44 51 55 56 78 54 48 60 59 73 66 69 57 84 55 52 61 63 67 73 58 89 56 56 69 62 67 68 78 59 94 57 61 63 72 69 82 65 58 65 64 76 70 86 49 40 59 70 65 81 71 91 SO 44 60 75 66 86 72 95 51 49 61 80 67 90 52 54 62 85 68 95 61 47 6i 53 58 63 90 62 50 54 63 64 95 57 44 63 54 55 56 68 58 59 48 52 74 64 6s sS 62 73 66 53 40 70 57 78 54 45 60 55 66 66 CHEESE. 329 HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING ROOMS. — C^w. >>ji t;-^ ^•s >>j= ^xi --•B >.£> v-^ ^e xxi v-^ -• s 67 3 V 3 ^X 70 63 48 72 78 69 60 68 74 64 52 73 »3 70 64 69 7B 65 55 77 74 87 71 68 74 70 82 66 59 75 91 72 71 7' 86 67 68 69 63 66 70 76 95 79 73 75 72 73 9^ 95 76 65 49 74 75 79 83 70 74 66 53 76 87 62 47 71 78 67 56 77 91 63 51 72 82 68 60 64 55 73 a7 69 63 66 47 65- s8 74 91 •78 70 67 67 51 66 67 62 66 75 95 7t 71 68 69 54 72 75 68 70 64 49 73 79 70 61 69 74 65 52 74 «3 71 64 70 78 66 56 75 «7 80 72 68 71 82 77 67 59 76 91 73 72 72 ^7 68 63 74 75 73 91 69 07 66 50 75 79 74 95 70 71 79 67 53 76 8^ 71 74 68 57 77 78 87 92 SCORE FOR JUDGING CHEESE. World's Fair 1893. New York, 1894. Wisconsin Dairymen's Assoc. 1894. For Export. For Home Trade. Flavor 45 20 15 10 10 45 30 15 ID 50 25 15 10 45 30 15 Texture (and body) C olor Saltinff Make up (finish) 100 ^ 100 100 100 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. (Konig.) Cream cheese.. Full cream cheese Half-skim cheese.. Skim cheese Sour-milk cheese., Whey cheese ... U) 1 , 1 hi <*- >> C ^r^^ OJ 3JT3 B Qi a a •M o cS > ^N 9i a> d 0* ■d u fl cS 05 \4 bll ha •rt M -d g ^ p.' ■d 03 :i w -b> J es Un o o -u g £ •a ^ !r! r^ "2 © CO 50 •1 05 SO CO 05 CO CO CO QO 05 05 © ""U- o 05 TO (N .ra VO C/J 00 -^ 35 rr^O -1-30 ^ 05 M HO oo'co 0--O Ml- mco \D OO 00 m35 ^+0 in 35 Tl-OJ 'tSl TfOi 'l-OS -l-O ^+0 +-0 ino mo inO uT-i lO CO 1! 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VO l> 00 CO K 00 m moo ■+ «1 TO •rao 'l-OD ■«-30 ■«-oc "TOO ■+35 ■+35 ■+35 mOi 1035 I005 ir> «0 3 0*J ♦3 >-0* mm "Tr> 00 00 CO >O30 vo 35 00 ^- N 05 05* ■+Tf VOO TP « CO ^ — r— o 05 05 05 05 05 GO 05 CHEESE. 335 ©1 M •* iO « !>• CO OS O ^ e» ©9 ■* »o w t^ QO OS o ■^ ■>* ■* ->*< ■* •* ■* ■* lO tii us »o •o .© to >9 US US V ^ 0O5 00 if: *0 VOiO CM- OCO 2-S roi-i ?:S - ir: oo NO* \oco VO W 00 t^O 00 ^ T-C IT) 1-1 mr-. o .- ^ W VO '?» vO (N vo O? vo W \0 C> ^ C> t-^CO t^50 I^JO l^w i~^e«3 t^o? t^-.co r--co t^co t^ 05 VOi-i CM- -5J mX) VOI0ODO5 0-1" WO -^^ VO C-J 00 l> Ci^ O ►"I- (N 30 -^O UTTJ vO SO t^inoOO 30 N 05 M OS N 1-1 mco oin "O t^l- 00 O i/ii-i l/li— ' lO^^ \Oi-l« — vOt-h^OTJ^CJvOCJvOCJ^OC* t-^5J t^CO tvCO t^co t^CO t^co t^ 00 vO Oi t^>-i 00 71 " »c -^o vo --C 00 — or- p) CO tk» vo CO 00 3j Tjt ►. 5D N I- f.OJ uiO ^ "it t^CS 00 in O'O 2^ Pi o P) o ■i-co CM> ir,TT< t^«0 00 O lOO IT),-. >/^._ VO — 0^0-^^MVOT<^OCJ*OS>?^00}VO'?> t^w t^CO t^co t^TO r^co t^OS t~. i~\O00 t-O 00 " Oi-i M t- ■*'?> VOOCOOCO OOi N-^ ■♦O ^O »0 00 ^^ OCO - Tp N O ml- -tSi vO O t^O* 00 ■«• OMO l- 8fe f.O inoo loeo VO T)> 00 O lOO in— i io.-( u-,T-i \C y— ^ '— --O y-i ^ ^~ ^ lii ^ irt '^ 7) O 7i t^T* t^W t^eo t^co t-~co t^OO t^ ic mdi- ml- ineo t--QC 00 O t^OO OTt (NC» -"MrtvOOOOSO O'- Nt- •"J-OJ VO 00 00 CO o\" ►- CO o -^ rc» -"j-cc inos t^— 00 w o^Tf o in M i- moo 5S mat VO 00 r^ O inO lOO "">-— in— VO,— vo,-,\Ot-ivc— -iV0C<'O5*V0C* r^-N t^(M «^ec r-co t^oo t-. o u-O "-,o mo ir.^- vO^-vo^-vo^^vo^^ VO ^ VO — VO c? VO '^> t^c? t^7> t^7> r^.-:} t^co r-.co t"- o 00 »n '^ PI 50 CO LOTT t^O 00 l- ■*'rj r^l- C>T> M 00 r<-,Tt> 005 O ►- CJ mco 'l-lC m.OJ r^m 0-05 " «0 m:o VO 30 t^o: Oi-i m— OCO ml- 00 ?J PI in Ot- ■>J-i- P) CO -^OJ VO u-.Oi VO O 1^ o inO lOO mo mO vo^-ivOi-ivOrHVOi-i vOi-ivo — vo— .VOCJ h-'T? t^(r* t^c* t^c» rNCj t^co t>. l- VO T» 00 CO O CO iriCO VO -^ 00 «o PI GO m-^ t^05 OiO " O ovi- oi " o Pi c* -^TT mo m^ t^50 o^?J mm vol- tvoc 00 O 0^ roco VO GO 00 -^ <- CO P) •»*< (TCO ooj M m ml- VO 05 o ir^O loO mo mO voovOt-ivo»— vOi— < vOi— «vO-^"VOi— tvOC? r^5> t^w f-OJ t^C>» t^OJ tvC* w § >nOl fv-^ in^ VO CO „ in ■*— VO 5D 00 i-i o i- Ov!0 00 - C5 PI --1 'i-^J PI -rj -^X) VO CO 00 05 m-TJ< VO O c^l- 00 00 8S PiO mm PI CO mm C7-CO ►- OI Tj-co \oao m o inO iTlO mo mo voovoovot-ivoi-i VO^-VO'— vo^vo--H 1--0J t^c') tv-J} r^-M t-C* t^?» t^ o 05 lOO VO Ci rvO O^'ir PI t- ■^CO VO 00 00 ■* I^CO coin 05D "QO P)C5 m— 05 PI lO 'fO VO to 00 — mlJ VO -rf t^«0 00 I- a^Oi 2S PI-?? mco mco tvco CKOi ■^m m» t^ C55 mo mo mO mo VO O VO O O VO — ' vo-^vo — VO — vo~ VO — tv^J tVJJ r^-?* t^W t~N 1^ ■ •>•••<• 1 1 > I I I 1 I I (NCO-^iOSOt^OOCSO-H 'i* » •a « I^- V. — -S K •o t^ o ^ ''^ T-l •c Cm'' 3 3 2 ° ■ - _ r\ "^ ^ ir— H i^^ -r; u '- V e *^ ^ *- Ti o c j:^ J^ 2 OJ 1> D :: ~ c o.t: o •3b394J JO C^ 00 00 CJ IT) in VO ro m -^ u-> 1 1 M VO ■{uo3 ui 3Jni -rjaduia ] O c ^ c uouBin5'E03 joj paAVDi IV =>rai.T S 0000 00 000 VO vO t^vo -"T •»• VO CI f) P3JJ3UU3>] t^ .t S,3uiU3Ag t. o; tuo •Ox:' .5 § . V 3 o y-o |°« - *j a «> ft D — ^ u o c .«j a a" rt o ™ C 3 u rt O lU C 71 O f CHEESE. 336a THE CHHESI] MARKET OF THE UNITED STATES. Hard Cheeses. English cheddar (best) Canadian or American cheddar Edam Swiss Parmesan Soft or Fancy Cheeses. Cameinbert Gorgonzola Stilton (be?t) Amer." lieufchatel" and Cream Milk. Whole milk Whole milk Low fat Low fat Low fat 3.5-4% fart Whole milk Whole milk Mostly poor in fat Yield of Cheese per loolbs.Milk 9-1 1 9-1 1 8-1 1 8-1 1 8-1 1 12-15 9-1 1 8-10 12-14 (?) Ripening. 6-12 mo. 3-1 2 mo. Long period Long period 2-3 years 4 weeks 4 months 3-6 months Eaten fresh Hard Cheeses. English cheddar (best) Canadian or American cheddar Edam Swiss Paimesan Soft or Fancy Cheeses. Camembert. . , Gnrgonzola Stilton (best;) Amer." Neufrhatel " andCream Market- able Period. 6 mo. or more Months Very long Very long Very long 10 days 1-2 mo. 2 mo. (?) Few days Retail Price per Pound. Europe. $0 22-26 I 5* 15-24 24-28 .32 26-36 23-24 25-35 U.S. ,14-18 33 .26-35 .50-70 .45 .45-60 20-60 * London, October, 1905. COMMEKCIAL GRADES OF AMERICAN CHED- DAR CHEESE. (Ontario Dept. of A«riculture.) First Grade. — Flavor. — Clean, sound, and pure. Body and Texture. — Close, firm, and silky. Color. — Good and uniform. Finish. — Fairly even in size, smoothly finished, sound and clean surfaces, straight, and square. Boxes. — Strong, clean, well made, and nailed. Ends to be of seasoned timber. Close fitting. Weights stenciled or marked with rubber stamp. Second Grade. — Flavor. — "Fruity," not clean, "turnipy," or other objectionable favor. Body and Texture. — Weak, open, loose," acidy," too soft, too dry. Color. — Uneven, mottled, or objectionable shade. Finish. — Very uneven in size, showing rough corners, black mold, dirty or cracked surfaces, soft rinds. Boxes. — Too large in diameter; top ed;;e of box more than I an inch below the top of the cheese. Made of light material. Ends made of improperly seasoned material. 3366 DAIRYING. Third Grade. — Flavor. ^Rancid, badly "off," anything inferior to Second Grade. Body and Texture. — Very weak, very open, showing pinholes or porous, very "acidy," very soft or very dry. Color. — Badly mottled, or very objectionable shade. . Finish. — Anything worse than second grade. Boxes. — No question of boxes sufficient to make Third Grade if other qualities are good. Explanations. — It would be impossible to define exactly the qualities or defects which may appear in cheese. The standards given are intended to indicate the range of quality for the different grades rather than to establish hard and fast rules to guide the grader. The expression "good color" means that the color must be of proper shade. There are cheap, inferior cheese colors used which do not give the proper shade, no matter what quality is used. The expression "clean surfaces" in the definition for First Grade does not exclude from that grade cheese with a slight growth of blue mold, although it is desirable that the cheese should not show any signs of mold. "Black mold" (see defini- tion for Second Grade), is simply the advanced stage of the ordinary blue mold. The following scale of points will indicate the relative values of the different divisions of quality: Flavor, 40; body and tex- ture, 30; color, 15; finish and boxing, 15; =100. It is obvious that a defect in flavor of a certain degree counts nearly three times as much in determining the grade as a defect in finish or boxing of the same grade. Cheese which are strictly sour, or otherwise inferior to Third Grade, will be designated as "Culls," for which there is no classification. Any lot of cheese shall be considered third grade if it shows three or more defects of Second Grade class. If there are not more than 15 per cent of defective cheese in any lot, the inferior ones may be sorted out and classed sepa- rately. If more than 15 per cent are defective, the classification for the defective cheese may apply to the whole lot. This does not apply when inferior cheese have been properly marked so as to be identified, in which case the inferior cheese shall be treated as a separate lot. CHEESE. 337 AVHEY TO BE ALLOAVED AT CHEESE FACTORIES FOR QUANTITIES OF MlUt FK03I 30 TO 360 POUNDS. (ROUERTSON.) The figures in the columns denote the inches of whey. Weight of Milk in Diameters of Milk-cans in Inches. 1 Pounds. 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 30 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 35 2 3 3 3 3 4 5 6 7 40 3 3 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 45 3 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 8 50 3 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 55 4 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 60 4 5 5 6 6 7 8 9 II 65 4 5 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 70 5 5 6 7 7 8 ID II >3 75 5 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 80 5 6 7 8 8 10 II 12 15 85 6 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 16 90 6 7 7 9 9 II 12 14 '7 95 6 7 8 9 10 II 13 15 18 100 7 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 »9 105 7 8 9 9 II 13 -5 16 19 110 7 8 9 10 II 13 J5 17 20 115 8 9 10 10 12 14 16 18 21 120 8 9 10 11 12 U 17 i9 22 1-^5 8 9 10 II 13 15 ^7 19 23 '30 9 10 II 12 13 16 18 20 24 135 9 10 II 12 14 16 19 21 140 9 10 12 13 14 17 20 22 145 10 II 12 13 15 17 20 23 150 10 1 1 12 14 15 18 21 24 155 10 II 13 15 16 19 22 ibo 11 12 13 15 16 19 22 165 11 12 14 16 17 20 23 170 II 12 14 16 17 20 23 '75 12 13 15 16 18 21 24 180 12 13 15 17 18 22 24 ,85 12 14 15 17 19 22 190 13 14 16 18 ^9 23 195 13 14 16 18 20 23 200 13 '5 17 18 20 24 205 14 15 17 19 21 210 14 i6 18 19 21 215 14 16 18 20 22 220 15 16 18 20 23 225 15 17 19 21 24 230 15 17 19 21 24 235 16 18 19 22 240 16 18 20 22 245 16 18 20 23 250 17 19 21 23 260 17 »9 22 24 270 18 20 22 280 19 21 23 290 19 22 24 3C0 20 23 24 310 21 23 320 21 24 330 22 340 23 350 23 360 24 338 DAIRYINQ. VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING AND PRESERVING C03IP0STTE SAMPLES OF MIIjK IN CREAMER- IES AND CHEESE-FACTORIES. (Farrington). The modern creamery and cheese-factory uses the Bab- cock test for determining the quality of the milk delivered by each patron. The most common and satisfactory method of paying for the milk according to Its test is to take a small sample of each lot of milk each day, pour this into a cov- ered glass jar containing a small amount of some preserva- tive, and at the end of a week or ten days test this composite sample. The essential features of the process are given in the following directions: 1. Provide a pint or quart jar or bottle for each patron. 2. Label each bottle with a number, giving the same number to a patron on the milk-recording sheet. 3. Composite-test sample-bottles made for this purpose with a tin cover and numbered brass tag wired to the neck of each bottle can be obtained of creamery supply-firms. 4. These sample-bottles should be placed on shelves within easy reach of the man at the weigh-can, and pro- tected from the light. 5. A small quantity of powdered potassium bichromate, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyd, borax, or preservaline is out into each clean bottle, to keep the miik from souring until testing-day. Some of these preservatives are put up in tablet form, each tablet containing the necessary amount to use in one sample. 6. After each lot of milk is poured into the factory weigh- can and weighed, a small amount of it is dipped from the can and poured into the proper sample-bottle. 7. These samples are usually taken with a small (i-oz i CREAMERIES AXD CHEESE FACTORIES. 339 tin dipper, a Scovell sampling-tube, or from a drip in the conductor-spout. 8. Each lot of milk sampled must be sweet, containing no clots, lumps of curdled milk, or small butter-granules. The sample should be taken just as soon as the milk is weighed, and while it is evenly mixed. 9. The use of a small (i-oz.) tin dipper for taking the composite sample has been proved to be practically correct. As the quantities of milk delivered from day to day by each patron vary but little, the error introduced by taking the same amount of milk for each sample is too small to be worth considering in factory work, and this method of composite sampling is usually adopted in separator cream- eries ^nd in cheese-factories, where the payment of the milk is based on its quality. 10. When it is desired to vary the size of the samples ac- cording to the quantity of milk delivered each day by a patron, it is necessary to use a "milk-thief" or a Scovell sampling-tube. In using either of these tubes, the size of the sample is regulated by the amount of milk in the weigh- can. In all cases cylindrical sampling-cans must be used. 11. Continue adding a sample of each patron's milk to his particular jar every time he delivers milk, for a week or ten days ; then test this composite sample. 12. The composite sample-jars should be kept covered, to prevent loss by evaporation, and in a cool, dark place. Every time a new portion of milk is added to the jar it should be given a horizontal rotary motion to mix the cream already formed in the jar with the milk, and to rinse off the cream sticking to its side. Unless this is done every time fresh portions of milk are added to the jar the cream on the milk becomes lumpy and sticks in patches to the side of the jar, thus making it nearly impossible to evenly dis- tribute this cream through the entire sample. 13. Composite samples having patches of dried cream on the inside of the jar are the result of carelessness or igno- rance on the part of the operator. 14. A test of the composite sample takes the place of the daily tests of each lot of milk and gives accurate informa- 340 DAIRYING. tion regarding the average quality of the milk delivered by each patron during the period of sampling. 15. The weight of butter-fat which each patron brought to factory in his milk during the time covered by the sam- pling is obtained by multiplying the total weight of milk delivered during the sampling period by the test of the composite sample, divided by 100. PAYMENT OF MILiK AT CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES.* Numerous systematic and extensive experiments by vari- ous scientists have proved that the value of milk for both butter and cheese production stands in direct proportion to its fat content. Patrons of separator cheese and* butter factories should therefore receive payment for the milk de- livered by them according to the percentage of fat in the milk, i.e., according to the quantity of fat delivered in their milk. The same applies to gathered-cream factories as well. The tables given on pp. 305-306 will aid in the calculation of the value of milks of different richness, according to prices agreed upon. In paying for the milk delivered by patrons, four, or, essentially, three, different methods are followed at different factories, all of which are just to all parties concerned. The methods and the directions for using the tables in each case are given below. The tables and discussions entered upon are largely taken from Ver- mont Experiment Station Bulletin No. 16. * Dee F arriniton-V/oll, Testing Milk and its Products, 22d Ed., pp. 203-216, 286-289. CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 341 METHODS OF PAYMENT FOR MILK AT CHEESE AND BUTTER FACTORIES. 1. A certain price is to be paid per one Jnindred lbs. of milk containing a definite per cent of fat (e.g., $i.oo per lOO lbs. of four per cent milk). By referring to the second half of the table on p. 271 we find $1.00 opposite 4.00 per cent of fat; the figures in the same column as $1.00 then give the value of 100 lbs. of milk containing percentages of fat rang- ing from 3.00 to 5.00; e.g., 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk is worth 75 cents, of 4.5 per cent milk $1.13. of 5.40 per cent milk $1.35, etc. 2. A certain price is to be paid per pound of fat delivered. If 21 cents is the price agreed upon we multiply .21 by three, and the product, .63, gives the amount in dollars to be paid per 100 lbs. of three per cent milk. The column in which the figure .63 occurs opposite 3.0 per ct. is then to be used in the calculations as long as the price is paid, and 3.5 per cent milk will be paid with 73 cents per 100 lbs., 5.3 per ct. milk $1.10 per 100 lbs., etc. Example : Patron A delivers 840 lbs. of milk during one week, containing, according to the test made, 4.3 per cent fat. If the price agreed upon per pound of fat was as be- fore stated, he is to receive 90 cents per 100 lbs. of milk, or $7.56 in all. Patron B, sending 625 lbs. of milk testing 3.45 per cent, will receive 6.25 X .72 = $4.50, etc. In the table only tenths of per cents are given; 3.45 being half-way between 3.40 and 3.50, for which percentages 71 and 73 cents are to be paid respectively, we multiply by the mean of the two values, or .72. If a test differs less than five-hundredths from any percentages given in the table, the nearest figure is chosen. 3. Patrons are to be paid what is received for the bzctter, less a certain amount for cost of making and marketing. Multiply each man's milk by the per cent of fat it contains, and the sum of the several products will be the total amount of fat contained in the day's milk. Divide the pounds of butter made from the milk by the pounds of fat it contained, to ?j-i'Z DAIRYING. find how much butter each pound of fat makes. Multiply- ing the amount received per pound of butter, less the cost of making, etc., by this last result will give the amount to be paid for each pound of fat delivered. Example: Suppose the patrons furnish milk containing in all 400 lbs. of fat, which made 460 lbs. of buiter, selling for 27 cents per pound. The expense of making the butter is found to be, e.g., 4 cents per pound. 27-4= 23 cents; 460 divided by 400 equals 1.15; 23 multiplied by 1.15 equals 26.45, which is the amount, in cents, to be paid per pound of fat delivered; 26.45 X 3 = 79-35> or nearest 79 cents, is then the money to be paid for 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk, and (see table) 90 cents for 100 lbs. of 3.40 per cent milk, $1.24 for 100 lbs. of 4.7 per cent milk, etc. 4. A certain price is to be paid per 100 lbs. offnilk of average quality. Find the total fat contained in the milk as before; divide this amount by the total weight of milk delivered, and the result will be the average per cent of fat in the milk. Starting from this per cent at the left of the table, go to the right until the price per 100 lbs. agreed upon is reached; the perpendicular column in which this figure is found is the one to be used. Example: Suppose milk of average quality is to be paid $1.00 per hundred pounds, and the farmers furnish 8500 lbs. of milk, containing in all 440 lbs. of fat; 440 divided by 85.00 then equals 5.18, the number nearest to which in the table is 5.20 per cent. To the right of 5.20 per cent $1.00 is found in the column headed .58, which column would be the one to use. CKEAMElilKS AND CIIKESE FACTOKIES. 43 PRICE OF MILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS PER 100 POUNDS. P. ct. Fat. 3 oo 3 lO 3 20 3 3° Price per loo lbs. of Milk, in dollars and cents. I .oo 1.03 1 .07 1 . 10 1-13 i-23 1.27 •97 .00 ■03 .07 1-13 1. 16 1. 19 1.23 1 .26 1-33 1.29 1-37 1.32 1.40 1-35 1-43 1-39 1-47 1.42 1.50 1-45 1-53 1.48 1-57 1.52 1 .60 I 55 1.63 i.5« 1.67 1. 61 1.70 T.65 1-73 1.68 1.77 1.71 1.80 1-74 1.83 1-77 1.87 1. 81 I. go I 84 1-93 1.87 1.97 1.90 2.00 1.94 ■94 ■97 1 .00 1.03 1 .06 1 .09 I . T2 I. 16 1.19 1.22 '■25 1.28 I -31 1 34 1.38 1.41 1-44 1.47 I -5° 1-53 I 56 1-59 1.63 1.66 1.69 1.72 1-75 1.78 T.81 .91 •94 ■97 T .00 1.03 I .06 1.09 I. 12 i-'5 1.18 1.21 1.24 1.27 1.30 1-33 1.36 1-39 1 .42 1^45 ^■52 I-.S5 i.s8 X.61 1 .64 1.67 1 .70 1-73 1 .76 1.79 1.82 .91 94 •97 1 .00 1.03 1 .06 1 .09 t.I2 1-15 1.18 I. 21 I .24 I .26 I .29 1.32 ^•35 1.33 1. 41 1.44 1.47 1.50 1-53 i^56 1.59 1 .62 1.65 I 68 1. 71 1.74 1 .76 .91 •94 ■97 1 .00 1.03 T.o6 1 .09 1. 14 1.17 1 .20 1.29 1-31 1-34 ^•37 1 .40 i^43 I 46 1.49 ^•5t 1-54 1-57 1 . 60 1 .63 1.66 1.69 1. 71 •83 .92 •94 ■97 1 .00 1.03 1 .06 1.08 I . II 1. 14 1. 17 1.19 1 .22 I 25 1.28 1-31 1-33 1.36 ^■39 1.42 1.44 i^47 I 50 ^■53 1.56 1.58 1. 61 1.64 1 .67 .8t .92 •95 •97 1 .00 1.03 1 .06 1.08 I . II 1. 14 1. 17 1.19 1.22 125 1.28 1.30 I 33 1 .36 1-39 1. 41 1.44 1.47 1.50 1-52 1-55 1-57 1.60 1 .62 •79 .82 .85 .87 .90 •93 •95 .98 1. 00 1.03 1 .06 1.08 1 .11 1. 14 1 .16 1.19 1. 21 1 .24 J .27 1 .29 1.32 1^35 137 1 .40 1 .42 145 1.48 I 50 1-53 1.56 ^■58 •77 :79 .82 .84 .87 .89 .92 •94 •97 1. 00 1 .02 1.05 1 .07 1 .10 1. 12 I.I5 1. 17 1 .20 1.23 1-25 1.28 1 .30 1-33 I 35 1.38 1. 41 t.44 1.46 1.49 I-5I I 54 3.00 •75 ■73 •71 .70 .68 .67 .65 .64 •63 .61 3.10 .78 •75 •73 .72 .70 .tq .67 .66 ■^5 •63 3.20 .80 .78 .7b ■75 •73 •71 .69 .68 .67 .65 3-30 .83 .80 •78 •77 ■75 •74 .72 .70 .09 .67 3-40 •85 •83 .81 •79 •77 .76 •74 •73 •71 .69 3-50 .88 •85 •83 .82 •79 •78 .76 •75 •73 •71 3.60 .90 .88 .8=; .84 .82 .80 .78 ■77 •75 •73 3^70 •93 .90 .88 .86 .84 •83 .80 • 79 •77 •75 3.80 •95 •93 .90 .89 .86 •85 .82 .81 .80 •77 3^9° .98 •95 •92 .91 .88 .87 •85 .83 .82 •79 4.00 1. 00 •97 •95 •93 .91 .89 .87 .85 .84 .81 4.10 1.03 1 .00 •97 .96 •93 .91 .89 .87 .86 .83 4 20 1.05 1.02 1.00 .98 ■95 ■ 94 .91 .90 .88 .85 4^30 1.08 I. OS 1 .02 1. 00 .98 .96 ■93 .92 .90 .88 4.40 1 . 10 1.07 1.05 1 .02 1 .00 .98 .95 •94 .92 .90 344 DAIRYING. PRICE OF MIIiK PER 100 POVNDS.— Continued. P. ct. Fat. Price per 100 lbs. of Milk, in dollars and cents. 4-50 ^•13 1. 10 1.07 1.05 1.02 1. 00 ■97 .96 •94 .92 4.60 I-I5 1.12 1. 10 I 07 1.05 1.02 1. 00 .98 .96 ■94 4.70 1. 18 115 1. 12 1.09 1.07 1 .04 1.02 1. 00 .98 .96 4.80 1.20 1. 17 1. 14 1. 12 1.09 1.07 1.07 1.02 1. 00 .98 4.90 1.23 1.20 1. 17 1. 14 I. II 1.09 1.07 1.04 1.02 1. 00 5.00 1-25 1.22 1. 19 1. 16 1. 14 I. II 1.09 1.06 1.04 1.02 5.10 1.28 1.24 1. 21 1. 19 1. 16 113 I. II 1.09 1.06 1 .04 5.20 1.30 1.27 1.24 1 .21 1.18 1. 16 I-I3 I. II 1.08 1.06 530 I 33 T.2Q 1.26 1.23 1 .20 1. 18 I-I5 I-I3 1. 10 1.08 5 40 1-35 1.32 1.29 1.26 1.23 1.20 1. 17 115 1. 12 1. 10 5 50 1.38 1-34 1-31 1.28 1-25 1.22 1.20 1. 17 1. 14 1. 12 5.60 1.40 1-37 ^•34 1 .30 1.27 1.24 1.22 I 19 1.17 1. 14 5-70 1-43 1-39 1.36 1-33 1.30 1.27 T.24 1. 21 1. 19 1. 16 5-8o 1.45 1. 41 1-39 1-35 1.32 1 .29 1.26 1.23 1. 21 1. 18 5-90 1.48 1.44 1. 41 1.38 1-34 1-31 1.28 1.26 1.23 1 .20 6.00 1.50 1 . 46 1-43 1 .40 1 .36 1-33 1.30 1.28 125 1 .22 3.00 3.10 3.20 3-30 3-40 3-50 3.60 3-70 3.80 3.90 4.00 4.10 4.20 4-30 4.40 4- so 4.60 4.70 4.80 4.90 5.00 5.20 5-30 5 40 5-50 5.60 5-70 5.80 5-90 6.00 .60 .62 .64 .66 .90 •92 •94 .96 1 .00 1 .02 1 .04 1 .06 1.08 .14 .16 .18 . 20 •58 ■57 •56 •55 ■54 •53 •52 •51 .60 •59 •58 •57 •56 •55 •54 •53 .62 .61 .60 •59 .58 •57 •55 •54 .64 ■63 .62 .60 •59 •58 ■57 ■5^ .66 •65 •63 .62 .61 .60 ■59 ■58 .68 .66 ■65 .64 •63 .62 .61 ■59 .70 .68 .67 .66 ■65 .64 .62 .6t ■71 .70 .69 .68 .67 •65 .64 ■fa •73 .72 •71 .70 .68 .67 .66 • fs •75 •74 •73 •71 .70 .69 .67 .66 •77 .76 ■75 ■73 .72 ■71 .69 .f8 •79 .78 .76 ■75 •74 .72 ■71 .70 .81 .80 •78 •77 •75 •74 ■73 •71 ■83 .82 .80 ■79 •77 .76 ■74 •73 ■85 •83 .82 .80 •79 .78 .76 ■75 .87 •85 .84 .82 .81 •79 •79 .76 .89 .87 .86 .84 •83 .81 .80 .78 .91 .89 .88 .86 .84 •83 .81 .80 •93 •91 .90 .88 .86 .85 .83 .81 •94 •93 .91 .90 .88 .86 •85 •83 .96 •95 •93 •91 .90 .88 .86 .85 .98 .96 •95 •93 .92 .90 .88 .86 .00 .98 •97 •95 •93 .92 .90 .88 02 1. 00 •99 •97 •95 •93 .92 .90 .04 1 .02 1 .00 •99 •97 •95 •93 .92 .06 1 .04 1.02 1. 00 •99 •97 •95 •93 .08 1.06 1.04 i.oa 1 .00 .98 ■97 ■95 . 10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1 .00 .98 •97 .12 1 .09 1.07 1.05 1 .04 1.02 1 .00 .98 ■13 I. II 1 .09 1.07 I 05 1.04 1 .02 1. 00 •15 I-I3 I . II 1 .09 1.07 I 05 1.03 1 . 02 1 •so •52 •53 •55 •57 58 .60 .62 .6, ■65 67 .68 .70 .72 •73 ■75 ■77 .78 .80 .82 .'?? .85 •87 .88 .90 .92 •93 95 ■97 .93 1 .00 CREAMERIES AXD CllEESK FACTORIES. 345 DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DIVIDENDS IN CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES According to the Per Cent of Fat in Milk Delivered. (S. M. Babcock, in " Hoard's Dairyman.") Find the amount of fat contained in the milk of each patron for any period desired, by multiplying the pounds of milk expressed in hundreds by the per cent of fat found by the test. Add together the amount of fat from all the patrons, thus obtaining the total pounds of fat delivered at the factory. Deduct the expenses of manufacture, etc., from the money received from sales, and divide the re- mainder by the total fat. This gives the price to be paid for each pound of fat. Multiply the pounds of fat de- livered by each patron by the price; the product will be the amount which he is to receive. If it is desired to know the number of pounds of butter made from each patron's milk, divide the total yield of but- ter by the total fat delivered; the quotient will be the amount of butter made from one pound of fat. The fat delivered by each patron multiplied by this figure will give the pounds of butter to be credited to each patron. The accompanying table gives the butter yield from lOo lbs. of milk, when the pounds of butter from one pound of fat range from i.io to 1.20, and for milks containing from 3 to 6 per cent of fat. To use the table find in the upper horizontal line the number corresponding most nearly to the number of pounds of butter from one pound of fat. The vertical column in which this falls gives the pounds of butter from 100 pounds of milk containing the per cents of fat given in the outside columns. Example : A creamery receives during one month 250,000 lbs. of milk, which contained 9531 lbs. of fat; the yield of butter for the same period was 10,983 lbs., which sold for 29 cents per pound, bringing $3185.07. The expense for making, etc., was four cents per pound, amounting to $439.32, leaving $2745.75 to be divided among the patrons. Dividing this sum by 9531, the total number of pounds of fat gives 28. 8 cents per pound for the fat. This multiplied by the number of pounds of fat in each patron's milk gives the amount which he should be paid. 346 DAIRYING. The number of pounds of butter, 10,983, divided by 953:, the number of pounds of fat, gives 1.152 pounds of butter from each pound of fat. The column headed 1.15 in the table is nearest to this ratio, and will therefore give the butter obtained from 100 lbs. of milk containing different per cents of fat. If a patron delivered 9420 lbs. of milk containing 3.2 per cent of fat during the period considered, his milk would have contained 301.44 lbs. o. Jat, which at 28.8 cents per pound v/ould have amounted to §'86. 81. It would have made 301.44 X 1.152 = 347-2<^ lbs. of butter. In the column headed 1.15 in the table, opposite 3.2 per cent of fat, we find 3.68, which is the number of pounds of fat from 100 lbs. of this patron's milk. The error from the use of the table in this way will never amount to more than ^ ounce per 100 lbs. of milk. Yield of Butter from One Hundred Lb:;, of Milk, in Lbs. 4_i Lbs. 0^ Butter per Pound of Fat. 5 • a, 1. 10 I. II 1. 12 1-13 1. 14 1-15 1. 16 X.17 1. 18 1. 19 1 .20 % 30 3-30 3-33 3 -.36 3-39 3-42 3-45 3.48 3-51 3-54 3-57 3.60 3-0 3-1 3-41 3-441 3-472 3 503 3-534 3-565 3-596 3.627 3.658 5.680 3.72 3-' 3-2 3-52 3-552 3-584 3 616 3.648 3 680 3-712 3 744 i.776 3 808 3.84 3-2 3-3 3.63 3.663 3.696 3-729 3.762 3-795 3 828 3.861 5.894 3.927 3.06 3 3 3-4 3-74 3-774 3. 80S 3.842 3.S76 3.910 5 944 3.973 4.012 4-046 4.C8 3-4 3-5 3-85 3 885 3-920 3 955 3 990 4 025 4.060 4.005 4.130 4. 165 4.20 3-5 36 3-96 3-996 4.032 4.068 4 104 4.140 4-176 4.212 4.248 4.284 4-32 3-6 3 7 4.07 4.107 4- '44 4.181 4.218 4-255 4.292 4-329 4.366 4-403 4-44 3 7 3 8 4.18 4.218 4.256 4.294 4-332 4-370 4.40S 4.446 4-484 4.522 a. 56 3-8 J ■ -' 4.29 4-3^) 4.3'^" 4 407 4 -146 4.485 4.524 4 5<^3 4.6o_' 4.64T 4.08 3-9 4 4.40 4.440 4 480 4.520 4 560 4.603 4.640 4.680 4.720 4.760 4.80 4.0 4. 1 4-51 4-551 4-592 4-633 4.674 4-7^5 4756 4-797 4-838 4.870 4-9' 4.1 4.2 4.62 4.6112 4.704 4.746 4.788 4.8^0 4.872 4.914 4-956 4 998 5.04 4.2 4- ? 4-73 4 773 4.816 4-859 4.902 4-945 4.988 5.031 5-074 5-117 5.16 4 3 4 4 4.84 4.884 4.928 4.972 5.016 5.065 5-104 5-148 5.192 5-236 5.28 4 4 4-5 4-95 4-995 5.040 5.083 5-130 5-175 5.220 5.265 5-310 5-355 5-40 4-5 4 ^ 5.06 5. 106 5- '5-^ 5.-98 5-244 5.290 5-336 5-382 5.42S 5-474 5-52 4-6 4 7 5-17 5 217 5 264 5 3" 5-358 5-405 5-452 S . 409 5-546 5 -.'^93 5-64 4 7 4.8 5.28 5-3-!8 5-376 5-4M 5-47^ 5-5^o 5-568 5.616 5.664 5-7^2 5-76 4 8 4.9 5-39 5-439 5 4^<^ 5-537 5-5^6 5-635 5-684 5-733 5-782 5831 r,.88 4.9 50 s • 50 5-550 5 . 600 5 650 5 7^o 5-750 5 800 5.850 T 900 .5 050 6.00 5-0 5-1 5-6r 5.661 5-71^ 5-703 ^ 814 5-865 5.916 5-967 6.018 6.060 6.12 5-1 5-2 5 72 5-772 6.824 5-876 5.928 5.98a 6.C32 6.084 6 136 6.188 6.24 5-2 5-3 5-83 5.883 5-93"' 5.98'S 6.042 6.095 6.T48 6 201 6.254 6.307 6.36 5 3 5-4 5-94 5-994 6 o|S 6 10? 6.156 6. 210 6 261 6 318 6.372 6.426 6.48 5 4 5 5 6.05 6. 105 6. 160 6.215 6 270 6.325 6.380 6-435 6 4QO 6.545 6.60 5-5 5.6 6. 16 6.216 6 27-.; 6.328 6. 584 6 440 6.4^6 6-552 6.608 6 664 6.72 5-6 5-7 6.27 6.327 6.3S4 6.441 6 498 7-551 6 612 6 669 6.726 6.783 6 84 5-7 5-8 6 38 6.438 6 496 6. ^^i, 6.612 6.670 6 72S 6.786 6.844 6.902 6.96 5.8 5-9 6.49 6 . 549 6.6o3 6.667 6 7^c 6.785 6.S44 6. 00 J 6.962 7.021 7.0S ';-9 6.0 6.60 6 660 6.722 6.780 rt.840 6.900 6.960 7.020 7.080 7.140 7.:2u 6.U ^ CHEESE. 317 TABLE SHOWING AVEUAGE PER CENT OF FAT IN 311L(K. (Partly after Martiny.) » ^ Sum of c U It ^ \ Sum of e V Sum of c U oj ui (/> in Cut. ! u5 c/i V3 0^^ ui tA (A ^t tfl i/> in en tn lA Hh (/! (/) U2 (U ^ < ir, ■* ro IT) •>f 9.90 m ■* m 14.50 11.60 8.70 2.90 16.50 13.20 3.30 18.50 14.80 11. 10 3.70 55 64 73 91 55 24 93 31 55 84 13 71 60 ffi 76 92 60 28 96 32 60 SS 16 72 65 72 79 93 65 32 99 33 65 92 19 73 70 76 82 94 70 36 10.02 34 70 96 22 74 14 75 11.80 8.85 2 95 16.75 13.40 10.05 3.35 18.75 15.00 11.25 3.76 80 84 88 96 80 44 08 36 80 04 28 76 85 88 91 97 85 48 II 37 85 08 31 77 90 92 94 98: 90 52 H 38 90 12 34 78 95 96 97 99' 95 56 17 39 95 16 37 71^ 15.00 12.00 9.00 3 00 17.00 13.60 10.20 3 40 19.00 15.20 11.40 3.80 05 04 03 01 05 64 23 4( 05 24 43 81 10 08 06 02 10 68 26 42 10 28 46 82 35 12 09 03 15 72 29 43 15 32 49 83 20 16 12 04 20 76 3^ 44 20 36 52 84 15 25 12.20 9-15 3 05 17-25 13.80 10.35 3 45 19.25 15-40 n 55 3.85 30 24 18 06 30 84 38 46 30 44 58 86 35 28 21 07 35 88 41 47 35 48 61 87 40 32 24 08 40 92 44 48 40 52 64 88 45 36 27 09 45 96 47 49 45 56 67 89 15-50 12.40 9-30 3.10 17-50 14.00 10.50 3.50 19-50 15.60 II 70 3.90 55 44 33 II 55 04 53 51 55 64 73 91 60 48 36 121 60 08 56 52 60 68 76 92 65 52 39 13 65 12 59 53 65 72 79 93 70 56 42 14^ 70 16 62 54 70 76 82 94 15-75 12.60 9-45 3 15 17-75 14.20 10.65 3.55 19-75 15.80 II. 8s 3 95 h 64 48 16 80 24 68 56 80 84 88 96 8s 68 5^ 17 85 28 71 57 85 88 t)' 97 90 72 54 18, 90 32 74 58 90 02 94 98 P5 76 57 ""l 95 36 77 59 95 96 97 99 16.00 12.80 9.60 3.20 18 00 14.40 10.80 3.60 20.00 16.00 12.00 4.00 05 84 63 21 05 44 83 61 05 04 03 01 10 88 66 22 10 48 86 62 10 08 06 02 15 92 69 23 15 52 89 63 15 12 09 03 20 96 72 24 1 20 56 92 64 20 16 12 04 16.25 13.00 9-75 3.25 18.25 14.60 10.95 3.65 20.25 l6.20 12.15 4.05 30 04 78 26 30 64 98 66 30 24 18 06 35 08 81 27 35 68 11 .01 67 35 28 21 07 40 12 84 28 40 72 04 68 40 ^2 24 08 45 16 87 29, « 76 07 69 45 36 27 09 348 DAIRYING. TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF FAT IN MILK. — {Continued.) 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MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AXD TABLES. 385 DOMESTIC POSTAGE. Firsl-class. LeUers and other matter, wh'lly or partly in writing, and matter sealed or otherwise closed against inspec- tion, 2 cents for each ounce or fraction thereof. Post cards, and postal cards, i cent each. "Drop letters," i cent for each ounce or fraction thereof when mailed at post-oftices where letter carrier service is not established and at olTue^; where the patrons can not be served by rural or star route carriers. A "drop letter" is one addressed for delivery at the oflEice where* mailed. Letters deposited in boxes along a rural or star route are subject to postage at the rate of 2 cents an ounce or fraction thereof. There is no drop rate on mail other than letters. Second-class — Unsealed. Newspapers and periodical publica- tions of the second class, when sent by others than the publi:h?r or a news agent, i cent for each four ounces or fraction thereof, on each separately addressed copy or package of unaddressed copies, to be prepaid by stamps affixed. To be entitled to the rate of i cent for four ounces, copies of newspapers or periodical publications must be complete. Partial or incomplete copies are third-class matter. Third-class — Unsealed. Printed matter, i cent for each tv\-o ounces or fraction thereof, on each indixidually addressed piece or parcel. Fourth-class — Unsealed. IMerchandise, i cent for each ounce or fraction thereof, on each individually addressed piece or parcel, except seeds, bulbs, roots, scions, and plants, on which the rate is i cert fcr each two ounces or fraction thereof. Concealed i;lal'.:r. JNIatter of a higher class eic'.osed with matter of a lower class subjects the whole package to the higher rate. For knowingly concealing or enclosing any matter of a higher class in that of a lower class, and depositing or causing the same to be deposited in the mails, at a less rate than would be charged for such higher-class matter, the offender is liable to a fine of not more than one hundred dollars. FOREIGN POSTAGE. The rates of postage applicable to articles for foreign countries are as follows: Cents. Letters for England, Ireland, Newfoundland, Scotland and Wales per ounce 2 Letters for Germany by direct steamers, per ounce 2 Letters for all other foreign countries, and for Germany when not dispatched by direct steamers: For the first ounce or fraction of an ounce 5 For each additional ounce or fraction of an ounce 3 Single postcards (including souvenir cards), each 2 Reply post cards, each 4 Printed matter of all kinds, for each two ounces or fraction of two ounces I Commercial papers, for the first ten ounces or less S For each additional two ounces or fraction of two ounces .... I Samples of merchandise, for the first four ounces or less 2 For each additional two ounces or fraction of two ounces .... i w Registration fee in addition to postage lo ■ PARCEL POST, FOR U. S. AND POSSESSIONS. 1 Weight limit, so pounds (first and second zones), 20 pounds (other ' zones). Size, length and girth combined, 72 inches. 4 ozs. or less, i cent an ounce, regardless of distance. Over 4 ozs. at following rates, a fraction of a pound being considered a full pound. Zone. Local . . . First. . . . Second. . , Third... Fourth. , , Fifth Sixth. . . Seventh. Eighth . . Distances. (within P. O. District) within so miles SO-ioo miles 150-300 " 300-600 ' ' 600-1000 " 1000-1400 " 1400-1800 " Over 1800 " First Pound. S cents S 5 6 7 8 9 II 12 Each Addi- tionalPound. I cent I I 2 4 6 8 10 12 Address of sender, preceded by the word "From," required. In- surance against loss not to exceed $25, 5 cents extra; and not to'ex- ceed $50, 10 cents extra. Money Order Fees. — For Money Orders in denominations of $100 or less, the following fees are charged: Orders not exceed- ing $2.50, 3c.; over $2.50 to $5, sc; $5 to $10, 8c.; $10 to $20, loc; $20 to $30, I2C.; $30 to $40, 15c.; $40 to $50, i8c.; $50 to $60, 20c.; $60 to $75, 25c.; $75 to $100, 30c. international or foreign money-order fees. For orders of $10, or less loc. Over $10, not exceeding $20, 20c. Over $20, not exceeding $30, 30c. Over $30, not exceeding $40, 40c. Over I40, not exceeding $50, soc. Over $50, not exceeding $60, 6oc. Over S60, not exceeding S70, 70c. Over $70, not exceeding $80, 8oc. Over $80, not exceeding jtgo, 90c. Over $90, not exceeding $100, $1. Express Money Orders may be bought of the leading express companies at the following rates: Not over $2.50, 3c.; $2.50 to $5, sc; $5 to $10, 8c.; $10 to $20, loc; $20 to $30, 12c.; $30 to $40, 15c.; $40 to $50, i8c.; $50 to $60, 20c.; $60 to $75, 2sc.; $75 to $100, 30c.; over $100 at above rates. WEIGHTS AND MEASUIiES. 387 III. AVEIGHTS AND MEASURES. CUSTOMARY SYSTEiM OF \I^EIGHTS AND MEASURES. I. Weights. A. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. I ton = 2000 pounds (lbs.);* t lb. s i6 ounces (oz.) = 256 drams = 768 scruples = 7680 grains ; I oz. = 16 drams = 48 scruples = 480 grains j • I dram = 3 scruples = 30 grains : 1 scruple = 10 grains. B. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, FOR DRUGS. X lb. = 12 oz. = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains; I oz. = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains; I dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains; I scruple = 20 grains. C TROY WEIGHT, FOR JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS. X lb. = 12 oz. = 24 carats = 240 pennyweight (dwt.) = 5760 grains ; I oz. = 2 carats = 20 dwts. = 480 grains ; z carat = 10 dwts. = 240 grains ; I dwt. = s>4 grains. II. Measures. A. LINEAR. S mile = 8 furlongs (frigs.) = 80 chains = 320 rods = 5280 feet yf z iurloDg = 10 chains = 40 rods = 660 feet; I chain = 4 rods = 66 feet; I rod = i6i feet; z chain = 100 links ; z link = 7.92 inches ; I yard = 3 feet = 36 inches ; I foot =12 inches. B. SURFACE. t square mile ^ 640 acres ; z acre = 10 square chains = 160 sq. rods = 4840 sq. y^ls. = 43,560 square feet. * I long ton = 20 imperial hundredweights (cwt ) = 2240 pounds. t 1 sea mile (Admiralty knot) = 6080 feet, or 1.1515 statute mi)e. 388 GENERAL TOPICS. C. CAPACITY. I. DRY MEASURE. f bushel = the volume of Tj.dT.-] lbs. of distilled water at 4'C.; I bushel =s 4 pecks = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 2150.4 cubic inches; 1 peck = 2 gallons = 8 quarts = 537.6 *' " I gallon = 4 quarts = 268.8 '* " I quart = 67.2 '* ** I A 2. LIQUID MEASURE. I gallon = the volume of 8.3388822 lbs. = 58,373 troy grains of distilled water at 4° C; * X gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 32 gills = 231 cubic inches; I quart = 2 pints — 8 gills = 57-75 " '* I pint = 4 gills = 28.88 " " Metric System of Weights and Pleasures. I. LINEAR MEASURES. I meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm)= 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimetei' (mm) = .1 decameters (Dm) = ,01 Hectometer (Hm) = .001 Kiloraeta (Km) = '.0001 Myriameter (Mm), I Mm = 10 Km = 100 Hm = 1000 Dm = 10,000 m; I Km = 10 Hm = 100 Dm = 1,000 m; I Hm = 10 Dm = 100 m; * I Dm = zom; S zn s to dm zr. 100 cm -= 1000 mm ; X dm = 10 cm = 100 mm ; • I cm = 10 mm. 8. SURFACE MEASURES. I Are (a) = 100 square meters (sq. m.) = .01 hectare (ha) ; 1 Are = I sq. Dm. = 100 square m ; X sq. Km = 100 Ha = 10,000 A = 1,000,000 sq. m \ I Ha = 100 A = 10,000 sq. m ; I A = 100 sq. m. 3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. I liter (1) = I cubic decimeter (cdm) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (c. c.) =? o.oot cubic meter (cbm) = 10 deciliters (dl) = 100 centiliters (cl) ss .ox hectoliter (hi). I HI = 10 Dl = 100 I = 1,000 dl = 10,000 cl ; X Dl = lo 1 = 100 dl = 1,000 cl; I 1 = 10 dl =s 100 Cl* 4. WEIGHTS. 1 kilogram (kg) = 100 decagrams (Dg) = 1000 grams (g); I gram = 10 decigrams (Qij; = 100 centigrams (cg)= 1,000 milligrams (mgK t ton = 1000 Kg = 100,000 Dg = i,ooo,oco g ; 100 Kg = 10,000 Dg = 100,000 g ; I Kg = 100 Dg = 1,000 g. * I Imperial gallon = 277.274 cub. inches, or ,16046 cub. foot; it equals i.2oo^2, or very nearly li U. S. liquid gallons. 1 cub. foot = 1728 cub. WETGITTS ANt) MEASURES. 389 Conversion of U. S. Weiglits and Measures to Metric^ and vice versa. Inches to Millimeters. » -= 25.4001 Meter to Inches. I = 39-3700 LINEAR. Feet to Meters. Yards to Meters. .3048 .9144 Meter to Feet. Meter to Yards. 3.2808 1.0936 SQUARE. Sq. Inches to Sq. Feet to Sq. Sq. Centmr. Decimeters. = 6.452 9.290 Sq. Centime, to sq. in. •1550 Sq. Meters to Sq. Feet. 10.764 Square Yards to Square Meters. .836 Square Meters to Square Yards. 1.196 Miles to Kilometers. 1.6094 Kilometer to Miles. .6214 Acres to Hectares. .4047 Hectares to Acres. 2.471 CUBIC. Cubic In. to Cu. Centmr. ; = 16 387 Cu. Centmrs to Cubic In. { =x .0610 Cubic Feet to Cubic Meters. .0283 Cu. Decimeters to Cubic Inches. 61.023 Cubic Yards to Cubic Meters. .765 Cubic Meters to Cubic Feet. 35.314 Bushels to Hectoliters. .3524 Cubic Meters to Cubic Yards. 1.308 CAPACITY. Fluid Drams p«i • j pv '°SeteS"'' C"bi^ Centimeter. Quarts to Liters. Gallons to Liters. 1= 3.70 Cu. Centi- meters to Fluid Drams. I = .27 29-57 Centiliters to Fluid Ounces. .338 .9464 Liters to Quarts. Decaliters to Gallons. 1.0567 2.6417 3-7854 Hectoliters to Bushels. 2.8377 WEIGHT. Grains to Milligrams. I = 64.7989 Milligrams to Grains. I =* .01543 Qirintals to Pounds Av. — - 220.46 Avoirdupois Ounces to Grams. 28.3495 Kilograms to Grains. 15432.36 Avoirdupois Pounds to Kilo- Grams. .4536 Hectograms to Ounces Av. 3.5274 Milliers or Tonnes tc Pounds Av. 2204.6 Troy Ounces to Grams. 31.1035 Kilograms to Pounds Av. 2.2046 Kilograms to Ounces Troy. 32.1507 390 GENERAL TOPICS. KILOGRAMS CONVERTED INTO POUNDS AVOIRDUPOIS. Kilos. o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 o.o ooo .022 .044 .066 .088 .110 .132 -154 .176 .194 .1 220 ■ 243 .265 .287 •309 -331 •353 -375 -397 .419 .2 441 • 463 .485 •507 •529 •551 .573 •595 .bi7 •039 • 3 661 •683 -705 .728 -750 .772 •794 .816 .838 .860 •4 882 .904 .926 -948 .970 .992 1.014 1.036 1.058 1.080 •5 I 102 1. 124 1.146 1. 168 1.190 1.213 1-235 I • 257 t.279 1.301 . .6 I ■3,2^, 1-345 1-367 1-389 1 .411 1-433 1-455 1-477 1.499 1.521 •7 I S4^ 1-565 1-587 1.609 1.631 1-653 1.676 1.698 1.720 1.742 .8 I 764 1.786 1.808 1-830 1.852 1.874 1.896 1. 918 1.940 1.962 •9 I 984 2.006 2.028 2.050 2.072 2.094 2.n6 2.138 2.161 2 183 POUNDS CONVERTED INTO KILOGRAMS Pounds. I 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 0.0 .000 .005 .o'->9 .014 .018 .023 .027 .032 .036 .041 .1 •045 .050 -054 •059 .064 .068 •073 077 .082 .086 .2 .091 -095 .100 .104 . 109 •113 .118 122 .127 132 •3 .136 .141 •145 .150 •154 •159 .163 168 .172 .177 •4 .181 .^86 .191 -195 .200 .204 .209 213 .218 .222 •5 .227 .231 .236 .240 •245 •249 .254 259 .263 .268 .6 .272 •277 .281 .286 .290 •295 .299 304 .308 •313 •7 .318 .322 •327 •331 •336 -340 •345 349 -354 •.358 .8 -.3^3 •367 •371 •376 .381 -386 •390 395 •399 .404 •9 .408 •413 .417 .422 .426 •431 •435 .440 •445 -449 INCHES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A FOOT. (Trautwine.) Ins, Foot, .0026 Ins. Foot. Ins. Foot. Ins. 6 Foot. .5000 Ins. Foot. ^'f I •0833 2 .1667 10 •8333 .0052 ^% .0938 2^3 -2083 6^ -5417 10^3 .8750 ^ .0104 ^y^r .1042 3 .2500 7,^ -5833 11 .9167 ^ .0208 1% .1146 3V« .2917 7^ .6250 1 1^3 •9583 •0313 iV« .1250 4 -3333 8 .6667 12 I. 0000 ^ .0417 1% • 1354 4)^ - 3750 8^3 .7083 % • 052 1 1% .1458 5 .4167 9 ^ .7500 H .0625 1% • 1563 5^ •4583 9^ .7917 % .0729 OUNCES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A POUND» I oz. = .06 lb 2 " = .13 '' 3 !! = •^9 ., * = • 25 ' .S " = •31 6 " = -38 '' 7 " = •43 8 " = .50 " 9 OZ. = 10 " = 11 " = 56 1b 63 " .69 *' 12 " = •75 13 " = .81 " 14 " = .88 " 15 " = 16 " = •94 " I WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 391 WEIGHT AND MEASURE CONVERSION TABLE. o d « «■ !" . 1) 03 (13 U in 1) ■J) 4J (fl "a :=: vU^ I .609 iix nj ^ s i • 305 IS 3.28 .621 .868 I 25-4 .0394 1-153 2 50.8 .0787 .610 6.56 3-219 1-243 I-73S 2.306 3 ■j6.-2 .1181 .914 9.84 4.828 1.864 2 603 3-458 4 101 .6 •1575 1 .219 13.12 6-437 2.486 3.470 4.611 5 127.0 .1969 1-524 16.40 8.047 3-107 4-338 5-764 6 . 152-4 .2362 1.829 19.69 9.656 3-728 5-205 6,917 7 177.8 .2756 2.134 22.97 11. 265 4-350 6.073 8.070 8 20^ .2 •3150 2.438 26.25 12.875 4.971 6.940 9.222 9 228.6 •3543 2-743 29-53 14.484 5.593 7.808 10.375 ^ tn '-' tn '^ v v. u U (U ■>-' )-. U (U u ^ w uy D U HJ >- *i C3h . tn . . 3 i2 DJ3 4-1 in •_= 3 oca crc/5 cr2 I3W 'i< 3 3 = u (U w C/3 CO 10.76 -405 2 47 .028 u2 03 E I .0929 35.3 -35 2.84 2 .1858 21.53 .809 4.94 -057 70.6 .70 5.68 3 .2787 32.29 1 .214 7.41 .085 105.9 1 .06 8.51 4 • 3716 43.06 1. 619 9.88 -"3 141.3 1. 41 "-35 5 • 4645 53.82 2.024 12.36 .142 176.6 1.76 14.19 6 .5574 64.58 2.428 14-83 .170 211. 9 2. II 17-03 7 .6503 75-35 2-833 17.30 .198 247.2 2.47 19.86 8 .7432 86.11 3.238 19.77 .226 282 5 2.82 22.70 9 .8361 96.88 3-642 22.24 .255 3i7-» 3-17 25-54 •0 3 E . <2 in « tn c ^ : 1 ) M !•] A S U RES. 395 COMPARISONS OF FAHRFNHEtT, CENTIGRADE (CELSIUS), AND REAU3IUR THERMOMETER SCALES,, — Co7itinued, Fahren- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. Fihren- heit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. -4 — 20 -16 -23 -30-55 -24.44 5 20.55 16.44 24 31. II 24.89 6 21. n 16.89 25 31 67 25-33 7 21.67 17-33 26 32.22 25.7: 8 22.22 17.78 27 32.78 26.22 c 22.78 18.22 28 33-33 26.67 i6 23-33 18.67 29 33 --9 27. II II 23.89 19. II .•^0 34. ^V 27.56 X2 24 •14 19.56 31 35 28 3 ■5 20 32 35-55 28.44 14 25-55 20.44 3: 36.11 28.89 »5 26.11 20.89 34 36.67 29-33 i6 26.67 21.33 35 37.22 29.78 17 27.22 21.78 3^ 37-7^ 30.22 i8 27.78 22 22 37 38.3: 30.67 19 28.33 22.67 38 38.89 31. II 30 28. 89 23.11 39 39-44 ?.i ■ 56 21 29.44 23.56 40 40 33.00 22 30 24 Formula for Co7ivertifig Degrees Centigradj to Fahrenheit, and vice versa : „. F. = (^'"° - 3-)\ c. \ 9 / For Degrees Reaumur, substitute 4 for the figure 5 in thf preceding formulas. ''> O i"* GENERAL TOPICS. GOVEIINMENT LAND 3IKASURES. In the system of government survey, lines running north and south are drawn parallel to a fixed line (principal me- ridian) at a distance of six miles apart ; these are called range lines. At right angles with these, other parallel lines {tozun lines) are drawn, which then run east and west. The two sets of lines form squares containing 36 square miles each, called toivjiships. A certain number of townships form a conJity. Each square mile of a township is called a section, containing 640 acres, and these are numbered regu- larly I to 36, commencing at the northeast corner, as shown in the accompanying diagram. Section 16 in each township is set apart for school purposes. Sections are divided by lines running north and south, and east and west, into quarter sections, designated as the northeast quarter, northwest quarter, southwest quarter, and south-east quarter of the sectitDn. These quarters con- tain 160 acres of land each, and are again divided into quarters, each containing forty acres, which is the smallest | sub-division recognized in government survey. Lands are usually sold in tracts of forty acres, or a multiple thereof, except in case of land bordering on lakes, which are frac- tional sections and may contain more or less than forty acres. These are ca.\\ed govern went lots. TOWNSHIP. SECTION. 6 5 4 3 2 I 7 8 17 9 16 10 II 12 18 19 15 22 14 13 20 21 23 24 30 29 28 27 26 25 36 31 32 33 34 35 N. W. Quarter. NW14 of NEM NE^ of NE14 SW14 of NEI4 SEJ4 of NE^ S. W. Quarter. S. E. Quarter. The description of a 40-acre lot would then, for example, read as follows : The northeast quarter of the northeast quarter of section i in township 24 north, range 7 west. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 397 TO MEASURE CORN ON THE COB IN CRIBS, (Waring.) When the Crib is Ecjuilateral. Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide the product by 274S (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel), and the quotient will be the number of bushels of ears. Take two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. Excumple. — Required the number of bushels of shelled corn contained in a crib of ears, 15 ft. long by 5 ft. wide and 10 ft. high. Solution: 180 in. (length) X 60 in. (width) X 120 in. (height) = i,2g6,ooo -7- 2748 = 471.6 heaped bushels, two thirds of which is 314.6 bushels, shelled. When the Crib is Flared at the Sides. Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the length in inches, and divide the product by 274S; the quotient will be the number of heaped bushels of cars. Take two- thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. HAY AND STRAAV IN MOWS OR STACKS. Four hundred and fifty cubic feet of hay is roughly esti- mated as a ton, but there is great variation in the ratio 0/ weight to volume, ranging from less than 400 to 500 cu. ft.^ according to the kind of hay, time of cutting, and height of mow or stack. In general, the finer the stalk of the plar t; and the larger the mow, the heavier the hay; also, of course, the more closely packed in putting away, and the nearer the bottom of the mow the heavier. Grass allowed to stand till nearly ripe before cutting will be the lighter; loose hay in loft will take toward 500 cubic feet to the ton; in case of timothy hay about 420, and in case of clover hay, about 500 cubic feet will make a ton. One ton of straw will measure 600-1000 cubic feet, according to kind of straw and length of lime in stack or mow. The longer the time in stack, the smaller the number of cubic feet per ton. In estimating by measurement, multiply together the fig- ures representing the length, width, and height of hay, and 398 GENERAL TOPICS. divide the product by the number of feet in a ton. For ex- ample, if the hay is 40 ft. long, 16 ft. wide, and 18 ft from the bottom to the top of the mow, and the bulk agreed is 450 cub. ft. to the ton, the mow will contain 40 X 16 X 18, which equals 11,520 cub. ft.; 11,520 divided by 450 equals 25.6, or 25I tons. The following table is from the American Agriculturist Table for Finding the Value of Hay. T3 C 3 $4 $5 $6 $7 $8 $9 $10 $11 50 O.IO 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.20 0.23 0.25 0.28 70 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.25 0.28 0. 32 0.35 0-39 90 0.18 0.23 0.27 0.32 0.36 0.41 0.45 0.50 100 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.3s 0.40 0.45 0.50 0-55 300 0.60 0.75 0.90 1.05 1 .20 1-35 1.50 1.65 400 0.80 1. 00 I.20 1.40 1 .60 1.80 2.00 2.20 500 1. 00 1.25 1.50 1-75 2.00 2.23 2.50 2-75 700 1.40 1-75 2.10 2-45 2.80 3-15 3-50 3 85 goo 1.80 2.25 2.70 3-15 3.60 4-05 4.50 4-95 1000 2.00 2.50 3.00 3-5° 4.00 4-50 5.00 5-50 1200 2.40 3.00 3.60 4.20 4.80 5 '40 6.00 6 60 1500 3.00 3-75 4-50 5-25 6.00 6.75 7-50 8.25 1600 3.20 4.00 4.80 5.60 6.40 7 20 8.00 8.80 1700 3-40 4-25 5.IO 5-95 6.80 7.65 8.50 9-35 1800 3.60 4-50 5-40 6.30 7.20 8. TO 9.00 9.Q0 1900 3.80 4-75 .5-70 6.65 7.60 8.55 9-50 10.45 2000 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 9.00 10.00 11.00 (A •a c 3 $12 $13 $14 $15 $16 $17 $18 (i^ 50 0.30 0.33 0.35 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.45 70 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 0. 56 0.60 0.63 90 0-54 0.59 0.63 0.68 0.72 0.77 0.81 100 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 300 1.80 1. 95 2.10 2.25 2.40 2.55 2.70 400 2 40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3 40 3.60 500 3.00 3-25 3-50 3-75 4.00 4-25 4-50 700 4.20 4-55 4.90 5.25 5.60 5 95 6.30 900 5 40 5-85 6.30 6.75 7.20 7.65 8.10 1000 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50 9 .00 1200 7.20 7.80 8.40 9.00 9.60 10.20 10.80 1500 9.00 9.75 10.50 11.25 12 .00 12.75 13-50 i6co 9.60 10.40 11.20 12.00 12.80 13.60 14.40 1700 10.20 11.05 11.90 12.75 13.60 14.45 15 30 1800 10.80 II .70 12 .60 13-50 14.40 15 30 16.20 1900 11.40 T2.35 13.30 14-25 15.20 16.15 17.10 2000 12.00 13.00 14.00 15.00 16.00 17.00 18.00 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 399 Annual. The price per ton of 2000 lbs. being known, it is easy to find the value of any fraction of a ton at $4 to $18 per ton. If a farmer has 1565 lbs of hay on his wagon, and the dealer has bought it at $7 per ton, he finds by looking across the table from 1500 lbs. to the column at the top of which is $7, that the value of 1500 lbs. at $7 is $5.25, the value of 60 lbs. 21 cents, and the value of 5 lbs. 2 cents, making a total of $5.48. To find the value of any fraction of a ton at $7.40, $7.60, $7.80, etc., find the value at $7 and add to it one tenth the value at $4, $6, $8, etc. STRENGTH OF HEMP ROPES. Hemp rope, i in. in circumference, is calculated to sus- tain a weight of 200 lbs.; i^ in., 450 lbs.; 2 in., 800 )bs.; 2^ in., 1250 lbs.; 3 in. , 1800 lbs.; 4 in., 3200 lbs.; 5 in., 5000 lbs.; 6 in., 7200 lbs. Hemp is considered twice as strong as manila, and wire rope twice as strong as hemp. {Vear- book U. S. Dept. Agrir.) The diameters corresponding to the circumferences given are, in the preceding order: .318, .477, .636, .795, .955, 1.27, 1.59, and 1. 91 inches. THE STRENGTH OF ^lANILA AND WIRE ROPES. (Cornell Univ.) Manila Rope. 3 strands, 36 in. long. Manila Rope. 4 strands, 36 in. long. Cast-steel Wire Rope. 6 strands. Circum- ference. Breaking Load. Circum- ference. Breaking Load. Circum- ference. 1 No. of Wires in Strand. Breaking Load. ins. 1.625 2.25 2.37s 2.812 3-188 3-625 4-375 lbs. 1,750 3,680 4,750 5,400 6,800 7,635 8,980 11,870 15,100 2,850 4,930 11,650 ins. 2.825 3-375 3-75 4-25 4.825 S.375 3-188 3.125 lbs. 4,250 6,050 7,700 11,140 14,020 16,550 7.700 7,630 ins. 1 .062 r.375 1.563 1.595 1 .780 1.938 6 19 19 19 19 19 lb<. 6,285 11,850 12,590 19,500 19,150 21,510 4-75 5. 125 2. 562 3.033 4.188 400 GENERAL TOPICS. LEGAL WEIGHTS OF GKAIxN, SEEDS, ETC. The table shows the number of pounds per bushel re- quired by law or custom, in the sale of articles specified, in the several States of the Union. States. Maine New Hampshire Vermont. Massachusetts Rhode Island Connecticut .... ... New York New Jersey Pennsylvania ...... Delaware Maryland District of Columbia. Virginia West Virg^inia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida . ..... Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Texas Arkansas Tennessee Kentucky Ohio Michigan , Indiana Illinois Wisconsin Minnesota Iowa Missouri ,. . Kansas Nebraska South Dakota North Dakota . ..„.., Montana Colorado Idaho Washington California Ore!:jon Okl ihoma United States 48 47 47 47 48 80 U, U 56 50 56 50 56 ... 56 50 5^ 50 .s6 50 58 ... 56. 56 48 56, 48 00 70 56' 48 56 50 56 ... 54' 4<5 56 50 56: 48 56; 48 56 48 56, 48 56 50 56... 56 48 56 50 56 50 5f> ... 56: 50 56 50 56: 48 561 50 56,... 56|... 561 50 56! 50 56'... 56... 56;... 56; 50 56 50 56 1 , 561 52 • 56'. 56|. 5d| 48 52 32 ...32 52 32 52 32 50; 32 50 32 •••I 3^ 57 30 50, 30 26 3^ 32 32 30 57, 32 57 1 32 57 j 32 57 32 •• 32 • • • 32 57' 32 57 32 56 32 57 32 55 32 54: 32 48 32 57 32 57! 32 57| 32 57 32 57 32 57, 32 52 32 52 60 70 50 f:o 60 50 60 WEIGHTS A^D MEASURES. 40L iCOM3IERCIAL, GRADES OF GRAIN. (Minneapolis and Duluth Grain Inspection Board.) I. WHEAT. No. I Hard Spring Wheat. — No. i Hard Spring WTieat must be sound, bright, and well cleaned, and must be composed mostly of Hard Scotch Fife, and weigh not less than fifty-eight pounds to the measured bushel. No. I Northern Spring Wheat. — No. i Northern Spring Wheat must be sound and well cleaned; it may be composed of the hard and soft varieties of spring wheat, but must contain a larger proportion of the hard varieties, and weigh not less than fifty-seven pounds to the measured bushel. N'o. 2 Northern Spring Wheat.— 'Ko. 2 Northern Spring Wheat must be reasonably sound and clean and of good milling quality, this grade to include all wheat not suitable for the higher grades, and must weigh pot less than fifty-six pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Spring Wheat. — No. 3 Spring Wheat shall comprise all inferior, shrunken spring wheat, weighing not less than fifty-four pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 Spring Wheat. — No. 4 Spring ^^'heat shall include all inferior spring wheat that is badly shrunken or damaged, and must weigh not less than forty-nine pounds to the measured bushel. Rejected Spring Wheat. — Rejected Spring Wheat shall include all spring wheat grown, badly bleached, or for any other cause unfit for No. 4 Wheat. Note. — Hard, flinty wheat of good color, containing no appreciable admixture of soft wheat, may be admitted into the grades of No. 2 Northern Spring and No. 3 Northern Spring Wheat, provided weight of the same is not more than one pound less than the minimum test weight required by the existing rules for said grades, and provided further that such wheat is in all other respects qualified for admission into such grades. 402 GENERAL TOPICS. Western White and Red Wheat. No. I Western White. — No. i Western White shall be sound, well cleaned, plump, and composed of the western varieties of white wheat. No. 2 Western White. — No. 2 Western ^Vhite shall be sound, reasonably clean, and composed of western varieties of white wheat. No. 3 Western White. — No. 3 Western White shall be composed of all western white wheat fit for warehousing, weighing not less than fifty-four pounds to the measured bushel, and not sound enough or otherwise unfit for the higher grades. Rejected Western White. — Rejected Western White shall com- prise all western white wheat fit for ware°housing, but unfit for higher grades. Note. — Western Red Wheat and Western Wheat shall cor- respond in all respects with the grades of Nos. i, 2, 3, and Rejected. WmTER Wheat. No. I White Winter. — No. i White Winter shall be sound, well cleaned, reasonably p-lump, and composed of the white varieties. No. 2 White Winter. — No. 2 WHiite Winter to be sound, reasonably clean, and composed of the white varieties. No. I Red Winter. — No. i Red Winter to be sound, well cleaned, reasonably plump, and composed of the red varieties. No. 2 Red Winter. — No. 2 Red Winter to be sound, reason- ably clean, and composed of the red varieties. No. I Winter. — No. i Winter to be ound, well cleaned, reasonably plump, and composed of the mixed white and red winter. No. 2 Winter. — No. 2 Winter to be sound, clean, and composed of the mixed white and red winter. No. 3 Winter. — No. 3 Winter shall comprise all winter wheat fit for warehousing, weighing not less than fifty-four pounds to the measured bushel, rot sound enough or otherwise unfit for No. 2 of the other grades. WEIGHTS AXD MEASURES. 403 Rejected Winter. — Rejected Winter fit for warehousing, but otherwise unfit for No. 3. Durum (Macaroni) Wheat. No. I Durum. — No. i Durum shall be bright, practically sound, and well cleaned, and be composed of Durum, com- monly known as Macaroni Wheat. No. 2 Durum. — No. 2 Durum must be reasonably sound and clean, and of good milling quality. It shall include all Durum Wheat that for any reason is not suitable for No. i Durum. No. 3 Durum. — No. 3 Durum shall include all wheat that is for any cause unfit for No. 2. No. 4 Durum. — No. 4 Durum Wheat shall include all wheat that is badly bleached and grown, or for any cause unfit for No. 3. Mixed Wheat. In case of any appreciable admixture of Durum, Western, Winter or Western White, and Red Wheat, with Minnesota Grades of Northern Spring Wheat, or with each other, it shall be graded according to the quality thereof, and classed as Nos. i, 2, 3, etc., Mixed Wheat, with inspector's notation describing its character. II. CORN. No. I Yellow Corn. — No. i Yellow Corn shall be sound, yellow dry, plump, and well cleaned. No. 2 Yellow Corn. — No. 2 Yellow Corn shall be three -fourths yellow, dry, reasonably clean, but not plump enough for No. i. No. 3 Yellow Corn. — No. 3 Yellow Corn shall be three-fourths yellow, reasonably dry, reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. No. I White Corn. — No. i White Corn shall be sound, dry, plump, and well cleaned. No. 2 White Corn. — No. 2 White Corn shall be seven-eighths white, dry, and reasonably clean, but not plump enough for No. I. No. 3 White Corn. — No. 3 White Corn shall be seven-eighths 404 GEKERAL TOPICS. white, reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufl&ciently sound for No. 2. No. I Corn. — No. i Corn shall be mixed corn of choice quality, sound, dry, and well cleaned. No. 2 Com. — No. 2 Corn shall be mixed corn, dry, reasonably clean, but not good enough for No. i; No. 3 Corn. — No. 3 Corn shall be mixed corn, reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. No. 4 Corn. — No. 4 Corn shall include all corn not w^: and no* in heating condition that is unfit for No. 3. III. OATS. No. I White Oats. — ^No. i White Oats shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty-two pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 White Oats. — No. 2 White Oats shall be seven-eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty-one pounds* to the measured bushel. No. 3 White Oats. — No. 3 White Oats shall be seven-eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than twenty-nine pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 White Oats. — Shall include all oats not sufficiently sound and clean for No. 3 White Oats, and shall weigh not less than twenty-five pounds to the measured bushel. Yellow Oats. — The grades of Nos. 1,2, and 3 Yellow Oats shall correspond with the grades of Nos. i, 2, and 3 White Oats, excepting that they shall be of the yellow varieties. No. I Oats. — No. I Oats shall be dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty- two pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Oats. — No. 2 Oats shall be dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less' than thirty-one pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Oats. — No. 3 Oats shall be all oats that are merchantable and warehousable and not fit for the higher grades. WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES. 405 No. I Clipped White Oats.— No. i Clipped White Oats shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and ^all weigh not less than forty pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Clipped White Oats. — No. 2 Clipped \Mute Oats shall be seven-eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty-eight pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Clipped White Oats. — No. 3 Clipped White Oats shall be seven-eighths white, dry> sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than thirty-six pounds to the measured bushel. IV. RYE. No. I Rye.^No. i Rye shall be sound, plump, and well cleaned, and shall weigh not less than fifty-six pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Rye. — No. 2 Rye shall be sound, reasonably clean, and reasonably free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than fifty-four pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Rye. — All rye slightly damaged, slightly musty, or from any other cause unfit for No. 2 shall be graded as No. 3. V. BARLEY. No. I Barley. — No. i Barley shall be plump, bright, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than forty- eight pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Barley. — No. 2 Barley shall be sound and of healthy color, not plump enough for No. i, reasonably clean, and reason- ably free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than forty-six pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Barley. — No. 3 Barley shall include all slightly shrunken and otherwise slightly damaged barley not good enough for No. 2, and shall weigh not less than forty-four pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 Barley. — No. 4 Barley shall include all barley fit for malting purposes not good enough for No. 3. No. I Feed Barley. — No. i Feed Barley must test not less than 406 GENEBAL TOPICS. forty pounds to the measured bushel, and be reasonably sound and reasonably clean. No. 2 Feed Barley. — No. 2 Feed Barley shall include all barley which is for any cause unfit for the grade of No. i Feed Barley. Chevalier Barley. — Nos. i, 2, and 3 Chevalier Barley shall conform in all respects to the grades of Nos. 1,2, and 3 Barley, except that they shall be of a Chevalier variety, grown in Montana, Oregon, and on the Pacific Coast. No Grade. — All Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, and Corn that is in a heating condition, too musty or too damp to be safe for ware- housing, or that is badly bin-burnt, badly damaged, exceedingly dirty, or otherwise unfit for store, shall be classed as No Grade with inspector's notation as to quality and condition. VI. FLAXSEED. All flaxseed inspected shall be classed according to quality and conditions as follows: No. I NortJnvestern Flaxseed. — Flaxseed to grade No. i Northwestern shall be mature, sound, dry, and sweet. It shall be northern grown. The maximum quantity of field, stack, storage, or other damaged seed intermixed shall not exceed twelve and one-half (i2|) per cent. The minimum weight shall be fifty-one (51) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed. No. I Flaxseed. — No. i Flaxseed shall be northern grown, sound, dry, and free from mustiness, and carrying not more than twenty-five (25) per cent of immature or field, stack, storage, or other damaged flaxseed, and weighing not less than fifty (50) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed. No. 2 Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is bin-burnt, immature, field damaged, or musty, and yet not to a degree to be unfit for storage, and having a test weight of not less than forty-seven (47) pounds to the bushel of commercially pure seed shall be No. 2 Flaxseed. No Grade Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is damp, warm, moldy, very musty, or otherwise unfit for storage, or having a weight of less than forty-seven (47) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed shall be No Grade. WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES. 406rt GRADES OF HAY AND STRAAV* (National Hay Association, 1909.) A. Hay. Choice Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not mixed with over one-twentieth other grasses, properly cured, bright, natural color, sound, and well baled. No. I. Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not more than one- eighth mixed with clover or other tame grasses, properly cured, good color, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Timothy Hay. — Shall be timothy not good enough for No. I, not over one-fourth mixed with clover or tame grasses, fair color, sound and well baled. No. 3, Timothy Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough for other grades, sound, and well baled. Light Clover-mixed Hay. — Shall be timothy mixed with clover, the clover-mixture not over one-fourth, properly cured, sound, good color, and well baled. No. I, Clover mixed Hay — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-half timothy, good color, sound, and well baled. No, 2, Clover-mixed Hay. — Shall be timothy and clover mixed, with at least one-third timothy, reasonably sound, and w^ell baled. No. I, Clover Hay. — Shall be medium clover, not over one- twentieth other grasses, properly cured, sound, and well baled. No. 1, Clover Hay. — Shall be clover, sound, well baled, not good enough for No. i. L .No Grade Hay. — Shall include all hay badly cured, stained, thrashed, or in any way unsound. Choice Prairie Hay. — Shall be upland hay, ofbright natural color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 3 per cent of weeds. No. I, Prairie Hay. — 'Shall be upland, and may contain one- quarter midland, both of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 8 per cent of weeds. No. 2, Prairie Hay. — Shall be upland of fair color, and may contain one-half midland, both of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain I2| per cent of weeds. No. 3, Prairie Hay — Shall include hay not good enough for other grades and not caked. 40G5 GEKEHAL TOPICS. No. I, Midland Hay. — Shall be hay of good color, well cured, sweet, sound, and may contain 3 per cent of weeds. No. 2, Midland Hay — Shall be fair color or slough hay of good color and may contain I2| per cent of weeds. Packing Hay. — Shall include all wild hay not good enough for other grades and not caked. No-grade Prairie Hay. — Shall include all hay not good enough for other trades. Choice Alfalfa — Shall be reasonably fine, leafy alfalfa of brightgreen color, properly cured, sound, sweet, and well baled. No. I, Alfalfa. — Shall be coarse alfalfa of natural color or reasonably fine, leafy alfalfa of good color, and may contain 5 per cent of foreign grasses, must be well baled, sound, and sweet. No. 2, Alfalfa — Shall include alfalfa somewhat bleached, but of fair color, reasonably leafy, not more than one-eighth foreign grasses, sound, and well baled. No 3, Alfalfa. — Shall include bleached alfalfa or alfalfa mixed with not to exceed one-fourth foreign grasses, but when mixed must be of fair color, sound, and well baled. No-grade Alfalfa. — Shall include all alfalfa not good enough for other grades, caked, musty, greasy, or thrashed. , B. Straw. No. I, Straight Rye Straw. — Shall be in large bales, clean, bright, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Straight Rye Straw. — Shall be in large bales, long rye straw, pressed in bundles, sound, and well baled, not good enough for No. i. No. I, Tangled Rye Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean rye straw, good color, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Tangled Rye Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. i. No. I, Wheat Straw. — -Shall be reasonably clean wheat straw, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Wheat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. i. No. I, Oat Straw. — Shall be reasonably clean oat straw, sound, and well baled. No. 2, Oat Straw. — Shall be reasonably c.ean, may be some stained, but not good enough for No. i. WrrOHTS AND MEASURES. 407 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES (Trautwine.) Aluminum Anthracite, i. 3-1. 84, usually. " broken, of any size, loose .. (A ton, loose, averages from 40 to 43 cubic feet.) Ash, American white, dry " " " perfectly dry Asphaltum, 1-1.8 Boxwood, dry Brass (copper and zinc) cast, 7.8-8.4 Bronze (copper 8 parts, tin i part, gun metal), ii.4- 8.6 Cement, English Portland Charcoal, of pines and oaks Cherry, perfectly dry Chestnut, perfectly dry Coal, bituminous 1.2-1.5 — broken, of any size, loose (A ton occupies from 43 to 48 cubic feet.) Copper, cast, 8.6-8.8 Cork Coke, loose, of good coal vA ion occupies 80 to 97 cubic feet.) Elm, perfectly dry Fat... Glass, 2.5-3.45 Gold, cast, pure Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. Hemlock, perfectly dry Hickory, perfectly dry Ice, .917-.922 ... India rubber < Iron, cast, 6.9-7-4. <> Lard Lead, n. ^,8-11.. ',7 Lime. q- ick .., " ' ground loose, ^er struck bu. 62-72 lbs. Limestone FDd marMes Mahogai.y, S anish, dry Maple, dry.. Mercury, at 60" F Oak, white, perf e .:tly dry, .66-.88 Average Specific Gravity. 2.6 1-5 .61 •752 .96 8.1 8.5 .672 .66 1-35 8.7 •25 .56 •93 19.258 •4 .85 .92 •93 715 •95 11.38 1.5 2.6 ■85 •79 13 58 .77 Average Weight ot I cu. foot, in Pounds. 162. 93-5 52-56 38. 47- 83.3 60. 504 • 529- 8i-io< 15- ^, "5 ° o " (u «n 5-3 bo- -g2 S :3 c., . ^5 -g ;3 05 w . w rt -•^ o o o o ^3 o 3 - o o O w ft \n — ' . . - - o .2 jS O 00 ■'d X M tfi C o ^ b H P > o - ^ o^ c o-d E o o c Co o S cfl ft c I 03 - - o o o o o (^-•3^'^^ ,bc5 . . lo w m M 1 In I o>J o o o •C-d' o oXi -g c3 "^ o - "^ I I I I 1-*^! M I o o o o o O O O O CO ^^(JC^fj!^ CJ3^(^(^(^C^ CO rovo m in \o 00 t^ po CD rooO vO fO in Tf ''^oc o 00 r^ m fooc f^ T}- Ij- fO O 0> TfvO IH M 04 00 OvvO N Oi 0\ O M Ol t^ M Tj- O O O 00 00 w OvvO H M O. t r^ O i-i O O ►- o w ;3 'c 6'E o ^c^ II O CJ ^ / O O O !X1 " O O c o o _, CO C QJ ^ ft( ft 0!-rJ W |.|jo2 i: ^-^ o " o II S <" II i2^° tD g O U y " go II O 5 rt o3 y rv -^ ^ ^ o Oh o3 ;3 oj cS.S.^ O O [-, o tnO CO C 0) o C Jh cy 'u5 o ^ 2s°r^^ II p il s w ^.^' o3 ■ o o3 (U > =5 Hi O U rt C rt ft X p ? >> p oj o t* UQWW 'd ^ P .2 2 PhPh oo -d c o J J • p-r o g . •d m£3 -;Sa>S7pS ,g O.J, t, p - 410 GEiTEKAL TOPICS. B. Countries with Fluctuating Currencies. Bolivia Central America, China Colombia Mexico Persia Tripoli Boliviano ( =ioo centavos) Peso Shanghai tael Haikwan tael (customs) Dollar. Dollar (peso) ( =ioo centavos) Kran Mahbub ( =20 piasters) about ?o.38,9 .38,9 .69,2 ■ 77.1 I .00 .49,8 .17.04 • 44 MOXEY CONVERSION TABLE. en IT, *j •a V c >y >; oi 01 c rt 3 u a ^ A 1) U •0 ^% C (J OC/5 4-> CO bxPQ c ^ t6 c c It 9 < a & 2 •^ S fe U, ;5 u I % 4-87 $ 0.24 % 0.19 $ 0.40 $ 0.52 $ 0.27 S 0.20 2 9-73 .48 39 .80 1 03 •H .41 3 14.60 -71 58 1. 21 1-55 .80 .61 4 19.47 -9'5 77 1.61 2.06 1.07 .81 .■> 24-33 1.19 97 2 .01 2.58 1-34 1.02 6 29.20 1.43 lb 2.41 3-09 1.61 1.22 7 34-07 1.67 35 2.81 3-61 1.88 1.42 8 38.93 1 .90 54 3-22 4.12 2.14 1.62 9 43.80 2.14 74 3.62 4.64 2.41 1-33 10 48.67 2.38 9^ 4.02 5-^5 2.68 2.03 20 97-33 4.76 3 86 8.04 10.30 5-36 4.06 30 146.00 7.14 5 79 12.06 15-45 8.04 6.09 40 194.66 9-52 7 72 16.08 20.60 10.72 8.12 50 243-33 11 .90 9 bS 20. 10 25-75 13 40 10 15 100 486.65 23.80 19 30 40.20 51-50 26.80 20.30 STATISTICAL TABLES. 411 IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1910. (Thirteenth Census.) States or Territories. Alabama. . . . Arizona ..... Arkansas. . . . California. . . Colorado .... Connecticut . Delaware. . . . D. of Colum. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky. . . Louisiana. . .. Maine Maryland. . . Massachustts Michigan. . . . Minnesota. . . Mississippi . . Missouri. . . . Montana. . . . Nebraska. . . . Nevada Land Area, Sq. Mi. 51.279 113,810 52,525 155.652 103,658 4,820 1.965 60 54.861 58,725 83.354 56,043 36,045 55,586 81,774 40,181 45.409 29.895 9.941 8,039 57,480 80,858 46,362 68,727 146,201 76,808 109,821 Popula- tion. 2,138,093 204,354 1,574.449 2,377,549 799,024 1. 114. 756 202,322 331,069 752,619 2,609,121 325.594 5.638.591 2,700.876 2,224,771 1,690,949 2,289,905 1,656,388 742.371 1,295.346 3,366,416 2,810,173 2,075,708 1,797.114 3.293.335 376,053 1,192,214 81,875 States or Territories. N. Hampshire. . New Jersey. . . . New Mexico. . . New York. ' . . . N. Carolina. . . . X. Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania. . Rhode Island . . S. Carolina. . . . S. Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia. Washington. . . . W. Virginia. . . . Wisconsin Wyoming Total Alaska Hawaii Porto Rico Land Popula- „Area tion. Sq. Ml. 9.031 7,5M 122,503 47,654 48.740 70,183 40,740 69,414 95,607 44.832 1,067 30,495 76,868 41,687 262,398 82,184 9.124 40,262 66,836 24,022 55.256 07.594 2.973,890 590,884 6,449 3.435 430,572 2.537.167 327.301 9.113.614 2,206,287 577,056 4,767,121 1,657,15s 672,765 7,665,111 542,610 1,515.400 583.888 2,184,789 3,896,542 373.351 355.956 2,061,612 1,141,990 1,221,119 2,233,860 145.96s 91,972,266 64,356 191,909 1,118,012 AREA AND POPULATION OF CANADA, 1911. Provinces and Districts. Land Area, Sq. Mi. Popula- tion. Provinces and Districts. Land Area, Sq. Mi. Popula- tion. Ontario Quebec Nova Scotia. . N. Brunswick. Manitoba. . . . Brit. Colum. . . 365.880 690,865 21,068 27,911 231,926 353.416 2,523,274 2,003,232 492.338 35l,88r 455, 6t4 392,480 Pr. Ed. Island.. Saskatchewan. . Alberta Yukon N. W. Territ's.. Total 2,184 243.382 252.925 206,427 1,207,926 93.728 492,432 374,663 8,512 18,481 3,603,910 7,206,643 412 GENERAL TOPICS. HI H < H GC H H d E^ H < iH ■* o o\o me) o « N vo V0f)00>-'00 ONl^O.0 -^vo 00 oo M rovo o 00 IT) ■»!- lOOO rO I-" N '^■oo O O 0> -^ -^^ in •* o M f •4- -^ O 0\ O r<-)-J-wOOOOO >n o vo t^ ■+00 rooo c^'0 m m w lo \0 r-co CO 00 00 t^ ►" f^oo invo 00 0) C3NVO 3i lO f) 0\ in m m •* ommoON cir<~. ro -^-oo O t^ r^ t- O lo N mvo 00 N M r«^00 ■+ N 00 O ■* O N 11 f^~ 00 m M M 00 ^ 00 f) lo CO mo IT) to M N r^ lo^ m lo 00 t-^ ro O MO O t~ ro rx f*i o o -o •<»■ oD m i-i cj r^vo vo o "^ tv N r~ CO ro N vONO-^t^N vOt^^NWvOOO i! S ^ CT) o -'■' 3 -J ii •o c ^ = ^ -^ bj!;. t» c c H.2 2 .2 ^o-t: a[g /n c a o C1-- -O >0 w O '-' ■* — - rt -i O 1) O rt OJ j5 c7) o"'-'^ Q- ^ CL, 1) , ~ -c z; "5 "^ ' 4) tn *j K o «I ^^T3 3 STATISTICAL TABLES. 413 AVERAGE AND ACTUAL. DATE OF LAST AND FIRST KILLING FROST. (U. S. Weather Bureau.) State. Alabama Arkansas Colorado Connecticut.... Dist. of Col,... Florida t( Georgia tllinois 4i it Indiana Iowa 11 Kansas (t Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland .. .. Massachusetts . Michigan 41 Minnesota.... , Mississippi Missouri Nebraska New Jersey . . New Mexico New York (4 44 44 North Carolina Locality. Mobile Montgomery Little Rock.. Fort Smith.. Denver New Haven.. Washington. Cedar Key... Jacksonville Pensacola.... Atlanta Augusta... . Savannah Cairo Chicago Springfield... Indianapolis. Des Moines. . Dubuque Keokuk Dodge City. . Leavenworth Louisville . . . New Orleans. Shreveport.. . Portsmouth . , Baltimore. .. . Boston , Detroit Grand Haven Marquette... St. Paul Duluth Moorhead Vicksburg... . St. Louis Omaha North Platte. Atlantic City Cape May. . . , Santa F^ Albany Buffalo New York.... Oswego Rochester Charlotte. ... Hatteras Spring. Average, Feb. 24 Mar. lo Mar. 21 Mar. 22 May 25 May 30 April 4 Feb. 4 Feb. 24 Mar. 7 Mar. 25 Mar. 17 Mar. I Mar. 31 April 23 April 16 April 17 April 24 April 27 April 10 April 23 April 6 April 8 Feb. 2 Feb. 26 April 14 April 6 May 2 May 30 May 18 May I May 6 May 18 Mar. 3 Mar. 31 April 15 May I April 6 April 6 April 22 April 21 May 27 April 14 April 26 May 3 April I Feb. 27 Last. Fall. April 6 April 6 April 14 April 6 June 6 May 30 April 20 Mar. 12 Mar. 27 April 6 May 21 April 5 April 5 May 8 May 25 May 25 May 21 May 31 May 23 May 2 May 23 May 21 May 15 Mar. 27 Mar. 31 May 5 May 3 May 17 May 28 May 28 June II May 25 June 8 June 5 April 22 May 2 April 29 May 3 May 22 May 22 May 29 April 25 May 29 May 29 May 3 April 5 Earliest. Nov. 2 Oct. 21 Oct. 8 Oct. 7 Sept. 10 Sept. 15 Oct. 4 Nov. 25 Nov. la Nov. 12 Oct. 16 Oct. 8 Nov. 2 Oct. 2 Sept. 27 Sept. 13 Sept. 26 Sept. IS Sept. 5 Sept. 18 Sept. 23 Sept. 13 Sept. 30 Nov. if Oct. 13 Sept. 7 Oct. 6 Sept. 30 Sept. 23 Aug. 21 Aug. 22 Sept. I Sept. 13 Aug. 25 Oct. 19 Oct. 14 Sept. ao Sept. 10 Oct. 4 Oct. 29 Sept. 19 Oct. 15 Sept. 21 Oct. 15 Sept. 26 Sept. 26 Oct. 8 Nov. 22 414 GENERAL TOPICS. DATE OF last: AND FIRST KILLING FROST— Continued. State. Locality. Spring. Fall. Average. Last. Earliest. North Carolina .... North Dakota Manteo Wilmington. Uismarck Mar. 14 Mar. 15 April 19 April 20 June 6 June 8 May 22 June 6 May 17 May 23 May 23 April 13 May 29 April 29 May 22 April 2 May 31 June 22 May 23 Ap ii 24 April 25 April 21 May 24 Mar. 29 Mar. I April 22 Mar. 18 Mar. 30 May 7 April 26 May 23 May 28 Oct. 16 Oct. 13 St. Vincent April 15 April 26 April 18 April 9 April 24 Mar. 15 April 25 April 5 April 27 Feb. 24 May II May 14 April 28 Mar. 23 April 6 Mar. 24 Mar. 31 Mar. 14 Jan. 24 Mar. 27 Feb. 2 April II Mar. 26 May I April 30 Aug. 4 Sept. 30 Sept. 24 Sept 29 Oct. 8 Sept. 9 Oct I Ohio Cincinnati Cleveland Columbus it >i Sandusky Toledo Oklahoma . Fort Sill Pennsylvania. .. . Erie Sept. 16 Oct. 2 Sept. 25 Nov. 8 Sept. 7 Sept. 3 Sept. 13 Sept. 30 Oct. 8 Oct. 2 Philadelphia Pittsburg South Carolina. . . . South Dakota Charleston Dead wood Huron Tennessee Yankton Chattanooga Knoxville Memphis It Nashville Oct 8 Texas Abilene Brownsville El Paso Oct 2d tt Dec. 5 Oct. 24 Nov. 18 tt it Galveston tt Palestine Lynchburg Nov. 10 Virginia Oct. 3 Oct. 10 Norfolk La Crosse Milwaukee Wisconsin tt Sept. 21 Sept. 17 STATISTICAL TABLES. 415 •IBjox H m 5? ^ 3 a ^ 0-) O f*1 t~- r<^ >-• -^OO lO "TO 00 Tj- m M o ■* ■* o U-) t> ■'fixi t>. 00 u-100 -^oio «''*"OfpN j~- >;> 5! I vo vo o <^ rOTfiAt^-- t^^ rn O fl N 3^ ■^ -^\C 0»0f^ (^fOf^NfOro N in o^ tn o en -^vO ^ ^ -^ m rn m^ "o '^ ^ m m t^ ■* "*• m rn "I- -^ ■* ■+ m m m w m m en N -^ -"i- •<^ m -^ N mm O m m TfoD U-) w (N r> « n i^ CT- -i- vDoo'-inOO mnoo rn," !N .;f g" -1- rn •<»• N *o rn U) »-i «; 1) c« .S S «i = ? -O 3 ^^ o 3 11 SJ <" i^ ti c rt 5 ^^3 o "3 (u I" 5 ( a invo 00 00 N m >> ji w o :;?^ D -M ^ ^ (fl p> .2 & a.-t a;;5 (75 _c J75 0- 5 0-1 •5 "O -^ "S ''^ tl Is c w bt oj en 4^ o w • .Oh •iz o 416 GElsEUAL TOPICS. METEOROLOGICAL. DATA FOR CANADA. Province or City. Ontario Quebec New Brunswick Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island Manitoba British Columbia Toronto Montreal St. John, N, B Halifax, N. S Normal Mean Temperature of the Air. Monthly Temperature. Low'est. 19.3° F- 69.8 13-5 16. 1 70.2 62.8 21.2 14.7 0.6 63-3 64 -3 65-9 22.8 72.2 22.9 16.8 67.4 72.2 18.4 22.9 59-7 63.5 Highest. Mean for the Year. 43-8° 42.6 39-9 417 40-5 32.6 48.1 44-1 44-3 40-3 43 I Normal rain/all in inches per year : Toronto 29.42, Windsor 23.78, Peterborough 20.55, Montreal 27.26, Quebec 19.26, St. John 33.27, Halifax 43.08, Glace Bay 55 49, Sydney 49.42, Winnipeg 16.83, Spence's Bridge 3.88. COMPARISON OF LEADING INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Census of 1890. in Round Numbers.) Agriculture ;. . Forest products, total Forest industries, enu- merated Forest products, not enu- merated (estimated) ... Manufactures using wood Mineral products, total Coal Gold and silver Iron and steel. Manufactures of iron and steel Leather Leather manufactures Woolen " Coiton " U Millions. 15,982 562 543 a a Thousands. 8,286 348 513 343 486 414 300 57 176 86 60 102 118 48 186 297 219 354 222 "^ PI - ro ^ 1 — 1 O LT, I^ r/-, C? I^ >- l^-^C »i". PI CO u Ott \C OOl/-. OPlTl-TfO M OC 00 ■*0 PI Tj- lA, ir. Tt q si O in OC CC ^ r~ O 1^. 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' " ' ■ ' " I'oc ^ g: d^!3!«t 3? 6 'to nJ ft S f I- STATISTICAL TABLES. 421 ooo■^|-''-lO►-lC^vO''5C^■^C^t^|-|^^oooo»J^r^c>^C^^o t^ 1-1 ooo <-> o-oo o M \o o o c^ « t^oc w o p» o "^o n on O vO 0>^ ONOOIOOOOOOOOC^ O>oo fs O r^ O. ■* O ■* OOfSOiN-^rO'-'N'+H^OvM "^O <-> r^O M O i-i 00 m O 0\ Nce t^I^t^OOO i-> O iO<~0N00 iT) rtcC CS C^ -^OO t-00 'l- row Ovoi -^M t~.r^inioN lotsoo N i-i OiiOt^oOOOtsiHroioiOulOvN i-i M I-I N t^ ro fO t- ro M hi M M OiOOONOCOOiOOi'JOOOiOOfOO'-iOOO'^ONOO nciOO<^it^r|-Pl(N(Nt^iOOt^OONiO Ovi-i ^00 1>1 O fO Ni-i>-iTtCSO)^i-ii-rcswiN lOO •^woooo roiniciOXO i-i i«xO OOO '^t^rO"lN O t^ iot^rO<5 0\00 roM 0\0 N rot^O ►-i r^mi-i\C "^i-ioo O Ov-O O>oo M (30 O w 00 t^vO C> OJ ■^M NO rofOOvi-i O O O O •^00 OOOMiOOvO'-'OONt^Ov t^\D 00 00 O O OOOO i-iOfO"1>OON "100 /5NrOP0'-'00 ■^r^r^ (SI^Mi-ii-i(-OOc:>On"OOX) •^ PI »A0 t^\0 OcCcOOoCvOOC (NOO M O-C "-i m m O •<^'^t~-t^t^OP»'-lOlO 00'^0P)t^>-'"1"i'". 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CQ looocsoo •^30 Ov'^t^'^M LoroO rOO\00 t^OvO M ts Tft^ MOiMO\OfOOMroO\i^oooOtNi-i i/^vO 0\ fO ■^ lO i/^ cs O MMOf~oCOOMPO<^>-||-'fO't'+rOO\'-'Mt^'OoOir;ir> i-iMMioinOr^oO'^O'tr^oooc-l-iOTti-iNOOM'^'-i (N i-i CN M fV) lO M W M l-H ro i-i M ro ro OOOOiOwOvOmOTfi/^oOOf^iOOOxOO-^'Tt-M \C oo "i-co \C vC vO fOOO O "to li^ O ro N M OO l^ "o -^O "> h-.roOiniO'^'-'OOO'-ii-itMirjOiChONOO'^Pir^rOtNi-' ro cs ro ro O) oO O\00 m '^oo M no w ro lOiO lOOO I/: O tN lO "" S rt m rt S 5 00 o O trt P O ^ ■ 35 s s ^ s^g • • • t S • • ••?! ; ■T' S '^ ^, "S-^ ^^^S cS.S^'-^.^ ca g M CIS ■ m STATISTICAL TABLES. 423 00 O >o CS o (N ^ M •* t- O m PO t^ '+vO 00 •rf IT) Oi 1-1 lO N O tn CO ir> rr) mo sC -ro Tfr tn ^ -1- w m C^t CO in C O OO o ro in I- O " O M 0) Tf* lO o N O 0\ „ POO t^ O 00 ro Tf CN o I-O fO •^00 lO (N t^ -^ rj n vO m ■^ -< ■rt lOvO IOP400 O'tPOOO Cv t^ t~-00 't vO Tj-fo p^ ro fO M Tl-- O 00 ro 0> roM lo ;^ ^ m " O M "*rO '^ ^00 (-1 11 ro CS sO l^ t^ IT) ro ir> M (N w N Of " CO rO " ^ N o M 00 O M ro 1-1 -^O O rf Tj- r}- rj ■rf m lOvO rq N oO oO ro >-i 00 rJ-O in O t^O PJ O O i-> ^O tT M w 00 lO M 00 t^oo PI C w O O C>~700 PI t-ioi-ioo oooO^'tCvromi-i t^PiOOO'l"}^ m" in "rf 00 1-1 Onoo m-^^PJi-iP^ ro mmmtj- roo m MM M O m m p) w O 00 r^ O loo 0000 0«oO»oO«o m\0 msO moo ro >c M ro n r- o cc ^-|-m mo 'tr^O pi m ror~-iot~-'^'^ 30t-OvOOOOO\Ot^^>OvOMinOOMiriM'^roOMt^ o OOC. rO'^-'Ooor^ioCvOOvCMOO conOi-iOOm PirOMrorOM mmm O PJ OOt^t^i-im-^iOOoO P) 00 moo roOv-^r^Ovt^MvO M ro W M PI M M Mt^MioOii-iONPimoomooOv lorOMoO MMrovOOt^Pi M M ro M o o p< -^ t^vo 00 T^ M-vo Tft^-O mo PI t^om ^co ro ■>+ M OivO PI m \C o O f^ m p) PI O ro Ttoo t^ r~\0 PI O O m rooo m mo pi pi •* m r<;oo ror--Pin- PiO'^mMrOPi m OS M ro i^ t^ M M o M M PI M M ro "^ PI CN M CH P« ^-* M o PI o o rOOO O O^OO PJ PI -t -t^O O m pj o o> ^O o ■* PI o o CN ^ M t^ ^ rOOCOO n t^O t- Tl- cq Om \0 00 O O PI o PI n t^oo o m M M ^O M ■^ ro 0> ^ M rj- a 00 n t-- M 00 P« M TtPl PI '^r M Tj- M ro PI m ro P» M o t- ^ M ro p» M O t^O\t^mO OOO ro r^O O' i-i O ri O m ri (~. ro o ri co eather and its finished prodticts Paper and printing Liquors and beverages. . . Chemicals and allied pr'ts. Clay, glass, and stone pr'ts Metals and metal products other than iron and steel Tobacco Vehicles for land transpor- tation Rhinhuildine Miscellaneoiis industries. . Hand trades Wages. $128,667,428 341,734,399 381,875,499 212,124,780 99,759,885 140,092,453 36,946,557 43,850,282 109,022,582 96,749,051 40,852,484 164,559,022 24,839,163 202,746,162 288,118,421 Value of Products. Gross. 2,273,880,874 1,637,484,484 1,793,490,908 1,030,695,350 583,731,046 606,317,768 425,504,167 552,797,877 293,564,235 748,795,464 283,076,546 508,524,510 74.578,158 I,O'^4,O02,294 1^183,61 =;,47S Net. 1,750,811,817 1,081,961,248 983,821,918 547,227,860 329,614,996 419,798,101 349,157,618 372,538,857 245,447,118 371,154,446 264,052,573 250,622,377 42,402,518 653,191,538 7 ""i ,10/1.^-/1 STATISTICAL TABLES. 425 AREA, PRODUCTION, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1912 (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Total Pro- Total Total Ave. Ave. Farm Ave. Crop duction.* Area, Value, Yield Price per per Acre, Dollars. Acres.* Dollars.* per Acre. Unit. Cents. Indian corn . .bu. 3,124,746 107,083 1,520,454 29. 2 48.7 14.22 Wheat, 730,267 45.814 555.280 15.9 76.0 12.08 Oats, 1,418,337 37,917 452,469 37.4 31.9 11.93 Barley, 223,824 7.530 112,957 29.7 50.4 14-97 Rye, 35,664 2,117 23,636 16.8 66.3 II. 14 Buckwheat 19,249 841 12,720 22 .9 66.1 15-14 Potatoes, 420,647 3. 711 212.550 113. 4 50.5 57-27 Hay, tons 72,691 49.530 856,695 1-47 li.79t 17.33 Cotton t bales 15,693 36.045 732,420 207.7 8.8 18.28 Tobacco, lbs. 962,855 1,226 104,063 785.5 10.8 84.83 Flaxseed bu. 28,073 2.851 32,202 9.8 114-7 11.24 Rice, * * 25.054 723 23.423 34-7 93.5 32.44 Hops J, lbs. 51.672 * Expressed in thousands; 000 omitted. t Dollars. X Data for 19 11. THE PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. As Shown by the Census Returns, from 1850 to 1910. Cen- Indian ' Wheat. Oats. Barley. Rye. Buck- sus Corn. wheat. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 1850 592,071,104 100,485,944 146,584.179 5.167,01s 14.188,813 8,956,912 i860 838,792.742 173.104.924 172,643,185 15,825,808 21,101,380 17. 571. 818 1870 760,944.549 287.745,626 282,107,157 29,761,305 16.918,795 9.821,721 1880 1,754.861,525 459,479.505 407,858,999 44,113.495 IQ. 831, 505 11,817,327 1890 2.112,327.5471468,373.968 809,250,666 78,332,976 28,421,308 12,110,349 1900 2.666,324,370 658,534,252 943.389,375 119.634.877 25.568,625 11.233.51S 1910 2,552. 189.630,683,379.259 1,007,142.980 173.344.212 29.520,457 14.849.332 PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN CANADA, 1913. Crops. Wheat bu Barley Oats Rye Peas Beans Buckwheat .... Mixed grains. . . Total Yields. 199,236,000 44,014,000 361,733.000 2,594,000 3.773,500 1,040,800 10,193,000 17,952,000 Crops. Flaxseed bu. Corn (maize) " Potatoes " Turnips and other roots . . " Hay and clover, tons Fodder corn " Sugar beets " Alfalfa " Total Yields. 21,681,500 16,569,800 81,343,000 87,505,000 11,189,000 2,858,900 204,000 310,100 426 GENERAL TOPICS. AVERAGE COST PER ACRE OF RAISING TVHEAT, CORN, AND COTTON IN THE UNITED STATES, 1893.* (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Rent of land Manure or fertilizers Preparing ground .. Seed Sowing or planting Cultivating Harvesting, gathering, or picking.. Thrashing Ginning and pressing Housing Repairing imj kments Marketing • Other e.xpenses Total $11.69 Wheat. Corn. $2.81 2 . 16 $3 . 03 1.80 1.87 .96 1.62 •37 .42 1.80 1. 19 1 .22 1.20 .... .37 •50 '."76 1 .26 $1 1 . 69 $11.71 ('oiton, UpKaid. 1 .46 2.Sr .21 .28 1-31 3-37 i'65 .42 .64 .41 ?i542 Cotton, Seab'd. $2.36 3-75 3-65 .38 .46 1 73 5-»7 2.61 .42 .91 •51 $21.95 AVERAGE far:*! PRICE OF VARIOUS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 0:V DEC. 1 LV EACH YEAR rR03I 1890 TO 1910. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Crop. Corn per bushel . Wheat Rye Oats Barley Buckwheat Irish pota's Hay per ton Cotton per lb Leaf tobacco, per lb. 189a 0.506 .838 .629 .424 .648 .577 .777 7.74 .086 .077 1895 $ 0.253 .509 ■ 440 . 190 .337 .4.S2 .266 8.35 .076 .089 1900 357 619 512 258 408 558 431 89 I90S I9I0 $ $ 0.288 0.480 .748 .883 .611 .715 . 291 • 344 .403 .578 .587 .661 .617 .557 8.52 12.26 .105 .142 .085 093 * Data for wheat and corn consolidated from returns from nearly 30,000 leading farmers scattered throughout the United States. The data for cotton were secured in 1897. and are the averages of returns from over 3400 planters. STATISTICAL TABLES. 427 NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1880-1910. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Farm Animals. Jan. I, 1880. Jan. I, 1890. Jan. I, 1900. Jan. I, 1910. Horses, number 11,201,800 14,213,837 13.537. 524 21,040,000 value. . $613,296,611 $978,516,562 $603,969,442 $2,276,363,000 Mules, number 1,729,500 2,332,027 2,086,027 4.123,000 value. . $105,948,319 $182,394,099 $111,717,092 $494,095,000 Milch cows. No. 12,027,000 15.952,883 16,292,360 21,801,000 value. . $279,899,420 $352,152,133 $514,812,106 $780,308,000 Other oat.. No. 21,321,000 36,849,024 27,610,054 47,279.000 value. . $341,761,154 $560,625,137 $689,486,260 $917,453,000 Sheep, number 40,765.900 44,336,072 41,883,065 57,216,000 value. . $90,230,537 $100,659,761 $122,665,913 $233,664,000 Swine, number 34.034.100 51,602,780 37,079,000 47,782,000 value . . $145,781,515 $243,418,336 $85,472,321 $436,603,000 Total value of farm animals. $1,576,917,556 $2,418,766,028 $2,228,123,134 $5,138,486,000 VALUES OF FARM PROPERTY AND CANADA, 1901. (Census of 1901.) PRODUCTS IN Farm property, 1901. Total value $1,787,102,630 Land and buildings. . . 1,403,269,501 Implements and ma- chinery 108,665,502 Horses 118,279,418 Milch cows 69,237,970 Other horned cattle.. . 54,197,341 Sheep 10,490,594 Swine 16,445,702 Poultry 5,723,890 Bees 792,711 Agricultural products, 1 90 1 . Total value $364,906,866 Field crops 194,953,420 Fruits and vegetables . . 12,994,900 Nursery stock sold in year 469,501 Live stock sold in year. 52,755,375 Meats, etc., of animals slaughtered on farm . 22,951,527 Dairy products 66,470,953 Wool 1,887.064 Eggs 10,286,828 Honey and wax 356,816 Maple svigar 1,780,482 NUTHBER OF FARM ANIMALS AND ANOIAL PRODUCTS IN CANADA, 1901. (Census of 1901.) Horses over 3 years old . . 1,304,910 Horses vmder 3 years old . . 272,583 Milch cows 2,408,677 Other homed cattle 3.167,774 Sheep 2,510,239 Swine 17,922,658 Poultry - 189.986 Hives of bees 2,353,828 Cattle, killed or sold. . . . 1,110,209 Sheep, killed or sold. .. . 1,342,288 Swine, killed or sold. . . . 2,555,413 Poultry, killed or sold .. 7,063,597 Butter, home made .'lbs. 105,343,076 Wool, lbs 10 657.597 Honey, lbs 3.569,567 Eggs, doz 84,132,802 428 GENERAL TOPICS. BREEDS AND NUMBER OF REGISTERED LIVE STOCK IN THE UNITED STATES, DEC. 31, 1905. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Breed. Cattle: Aberdeen- Angus Ayrshire Devon Dutch-belted Galloway Guernsey Hereford Holstein-Friesian Jersey Polled Durham Red Polled Shorthorn Sussex Swiss, Brown Horses: Cleveland Bay Clydesdale Coach, French ' ' German ' ' Oldenburg Draft, Belgian French Hackneyt Morgan t Percheron (Ohio) Saddle Horse, American Shetland Pony Shire Suffolk Thoroughbred Trotter, American Jacks and Jennies Sheep: Cheviot ( Cotswold Dorset Horn Hampshire Down Leicester Lincoln Merino (Delaine, Ohio.) . " ( " " ). . Pa.)t. .. * ( " " )... (French) (German) " (Spanish, Mich.). , " ( " Ohio).. " ( " N. Y.). " )• " ( " Vt.). . . Oxford Down Number Male i6 10 112 46 71 5 14 249 ,689 .084 573 ,620 6S,? 783 ,031 ,907 -403 ,601 ,800 78 .159 .236 12,370 130 Regis- tered Female, 48,604 20,883 13,717 1.265 1 1,080 19,889 115,620 95.037 193.978 6,460 25,006 391 ,600 185 3.150 502 42 ,656 260 .056 ,000 726 021 ,640 928 .529 .300 ,062 159 45.309 .5971 152,700 ,ooo| 750 10,700 36,610 4 246 23 266 5,000 1.542 2,880 1,460 102 3,549 3.500 2,148 ,395 .573 .538 .754 3.703 12,844 5.437 8,246 9.401 ,000! 14,300 .054 11,259 ,805! 11,599 34.075 162 .550 ,691 ,916 275 191 37.700 33.384 11,91 2 1,500 217,850 32,798t Number Living; Male. Female. 27,496 * 34.994 * 3.500 10,000 * * 8,370 6,480 6,000 1 2 000 45.000 60,000 14.199 31.756 3.935 4,845 5.500 10,500 87.430 176,220 50 100 300 1,500 1.050 * 400 * 125 4 1,500 225 190 14 2,055 265 684 I 416 3.765 2,100 19,000 12,000 *^'' 94 * 2,000 2,500 * * 150 750 575 14,000 1,000 3.000 2,972 4,100 6,900 2,500 1,500 1.500 * 105 400 2,842 280 100 * * 500 2,650 2,800 9,00® 4,567 5.900 8,000 3,000 5, 000 * 175 4.300 8.035 1.875 200 * No data. t Estimates for 1904. STATISTICAL TABLES. 429 BREEDS AND NUMBERS OF REGISTERED LIVE STOCK IN THE UNITED STATES— Continued. Breed. Sheep (Continued). Shropshire South Down Suffolk Hogs: Berkshire Cheshire Chester, White ' ' Ohio Impr Duroc Jersey (Ind.). .. . " (111.) Hampshire (Thin Rind) Poland China (111.) " (Ind.).... " (Mo.) " " (Tenn.). . Tamworth t Yorkshire Number Male. Regis- tered Female. 100,000 134 19,933 1013 88.080 1,225 5.665 3,403 8,026 2 1, 800 294 52,331 32 000 39,008 691 1,949 2,86o| 3 9 18 55 130 72 93 115 91 2 000 450 000 540 620 ,000 234 030 ,640 Number Living. Male. Femal 20,000 40.000 10,200 550 33,000 2751 575 600 2,000 1,8001 6,200 * * 30,000 155 387 27,000 68,000 10,000 23,000 2,000 18,000 400 600 1,200 2,OOo| 3,200 * No data. t Estimates for 1904. PURE-BRED CATTLE OF BREEDS USED FOR DAIRYING. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Estimates of numbers living in the United States, 1 905, and values of same. Breeds. Num- ber Regis- tered. Est. No. Liv- ing. Av. Val. per Headt Breeds. Num- ber Regis- tered. Est. No. Liv ing. Av. Val. per Headt \yrshire Brown-Swiss. Devon Dutch Belted Guernsey. . . . Holstein-Frie- sian 30,572 * 5,309, 1,800 21,801 13,500 1,838 * 30,572 18,000 i 141,068 45,955 $100 75 75 200 140 130 Jersey . . . . Polled Dur- ham .... Red Polled, t Shorthorn 265,885 11,863 39,607 641,400 * 8,780 16,000 263,650 Sioo 80 150 170 * No data. t Figures published 1903. t Chiefly beef stock. 430 GENERAL TOPICS. GO H < H MP»Nr'3'*'*NrOMi-(Ovr-- t^oO t^ i/10 -O t^oO sO t^ Ov (^ i l-i r^ t^ to TfOO w O O 00 lOO to l/^OO 00 vO M M f*) 0\ li^vO 00 Ov O lO O M i-c IC-O \0 f*5 "5 CO rv^ rOvO 00 t^ lOOO m o M 0\ lO ro 0\ CO H p M Pn ,-( 3 g Q n bo •^•^■^■^l^llOlOlOlO'^'^'^rOM w M CS M M P< N rO'^'^'l" i-i M 00 00 OJt^M mmmMmOi-i t^oO ro '^ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO CS O f^ OvO lOOi-ivOOOO'NOMOOJM'^OOMOvO O\00 OvO O 00 M t^ t^\0 *-i ►-< PJ ior^i-Oi-" M 00 O M^trOWOt^'OiO'^OvoiorOiOOO S*- O\i')M0000>-i>-iiN>-i'iT^O>/5 0^'0 O >-" »J0\O rJ-Pi'-j-M^t^iOiv^rO'-'tviMMNMCsro ^ ;;;■■; Tf Tf ^to rooooo oo o o fO'* roo m ov ■^ ■^ wOooOi-'C^r-oOfOC^rot^>-(tsN OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO OrOt^O •^1-1 t-r-POMO-OoO O rOOOvO N t^P) O^iJ^O ^^O r0C^tS'^'*'^r0'1"'~0O>->Ot^O>Jlrl-Troi^C\OOvOiOOOr<>r0iOP»O\ 00 OOvO>HMPJOOO>H>HrO»-i>-ii-iO\«i-i'-iOwO\ OiOO M MMMW MMMhHMMHH MMMMM roO\>OOMOt^i-ioOwvOfOwiOCS(»5>-iMrooOoONi/5 MOi-ifOOMOOi-iO\COvO«C'^OiONooro(V5ir)OtMM rOt^rOOt^t^OOt^i-ifOw N P^MMOOro IHf0'^fiM00"Tfof0W M OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO roO i-ii0'*i-iCSvO-^i-iOt^i-<\O>-it^i-iOOM00 l^vO Oi r^O nooiO'Or^<~OfOi-iMr^ooot^i-ii-iT)-roi-' ro^rOtsr^'^iOMOoOiOiMt^i^OOr^OoOioO'^Ot^ WMM mm lO^fM^rOMMMM P»M OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO MMiot^OOM'^TtrOM ■^oo MOM»'irO>'5»flOp)^0 eiOi-iMOf*5Mi>OMNt^oOOO'5tO\OvoOr'5'^OP»Ovf~ fOO 00 lo Oi r^ ■^00 (N "* r^ r^O MMoONroOOMrtirj t^oo M roroo '^t^O 0> ^ ^ O ^ Ovt^i^ro '^00 if> ir) \n OO P) M MO '*r>.0'00 •^t^iOO\oo t^f<7-^roi-i ■^tJ-m MMMNMMM MM 00 •^t^T^O^t^O^00 t^rJ-r-l/^O MO rflOO C^I CNt^O T OvrOOO(snoOO\OOOt~-OvfOt^>'irOoOOiOMOOMOO r-O O lO M ro r-O OfOf^ i-i MC»Mi/^Tj- ^ •^ Ov rOO O O N Tj- Ttoo •<+^toroO\N rooo '^■•^DOOMOoOOvMOMioioPJOOrOt^t^OvOvO"^ O 00 ■^O oounooor^r^fOMfOMMM c^otsiot^ ^.2 o o c3 'S o o S • ■■^■^ ■ ■ - .2 c i: o ttJ "S 432 GENERAL TOPICS. O o Xtl K H < H Q Liu H £ fli £ u H (^ <^ H W »3 u M h !/) M H <1 H 0} fc- W M <^ ft C^ p^ o ^ lo <^ 00 CL, C^ fo t^ r/^; ir: r^ Q\ I/-, Ov . icoo t^ rr; 1^ O CC I/) ro O lo w vo ■^CO "S f^ ■^OO" 1-^vC 00 c> »:; M CN \o Tto 00 \o •-' ^ M M iriOO O^ o ... M\0 fN U-)^;f^CO l/";G^^C^ f^;0'0 t^Ol O^ rOCSO fOOO HMD M lol/^l/^OO Om 000 f^O m^om rocs wTfro fOM CO o O OM3 00 MO r^ w C/J m: oo mo a KH M M ^ P) M ro o lO OTj ■* M -^VO ro t^ O J^ Tt >/" <5 PI 00 N lO ro rnMO •* H M h- n Tf-co O 't Tj- ro I/". >>^ r^ O-OO MJ Tj- O p) 1^ -t Tt PO t O 1/1 CM H M ■* in vooo M ■* ■* ro 1^00 ■"t PI tJ^ H M ro r^ M ■t - CO O "^i O OCC vo ^^ O O >/i0C P4"Oi'^pipioOMDMDOpi ■- >/-. m:cC'3C 'fi^'^C-'- iJ^O"C0 f^K p) r^MDMD 0"+p^jm t^ IP) POTj-t^O'^'^'^'O^'Oi^P) t^"~, PI HMD PI O'X P) M O ►-^ O-' >/". '^ PI H o P) r-c/l' 1/-, f^ O PI -;OC O >/'-0 O Ov 1- o ^■o >-o'op)iooom:oo •*\o o m 00 m o> ■+ 00 "PI a-Tt-OOC TfTj-Mr^ OOO >')00 00 O »o r^MiOTj-O Mt^vC Tl-O" O CO i-hO0i/1'<}- a, o o ^ ■^PlOO 1/10.100 rOf^'OCC r^rovO^ i/-;1/;t}- rO'^-tO-r^l/'-Tj-PI P) 1-00 >- t^'tOOO IA!M Tfiy-, OOPICO PI M irjTj-M I/; 00 O >- f^t^P) . M O -,00 '/; ^>0 00 OOO PiMOt^-'-lPi Om m\c O Mt^t^o r^MD Tj-^OP) o lOOJ^O >-• W-, 00 '+«^H " <^,o O m; Tt" KH M rt Tj-oc 0> fO PI >/■, o •/-.MO O O PI vO OPI i/)r~rOMD loM-CCOTj-i/-, o>^t^00 "~i 00 M >/i\0 PI POM-'/l POOMD O O O 0>/>M r^p) ii->pjM wroro PI f- O O M 1-00 r^MO r^ior^O'tf^O PI O >o ■too tJ- r^ o r> O oo .O O vor^OOO O OO t^OM O'^J-^O ■+" •^O-^OCmT hO t^ u) O. J^ T)- -t o 1- 00 O ^ I/-, M vo >o r->00 Ov lo O ro^O r^ O rf »/i po 0> rrt O O Pico"co'o Pi>O00'<^f0 00 O'^O PI looo PICO voPOPCrfpi Oi ^ 1- ■+« P) r^OOOOvC lr;rJ-rOP0O mOOOOMDCO PICO O PIO t)-\0 ■^"MD I/, OMt^O O M '1-CNPiM3t-->Oior^Oi-' m pioO OMT' O O m3 QMD M2 PI ro t^ M JjPiO>>/1Pli-i't'/^P100O OMD PlvC^'tOOOiOPI'/l 0'M3 ro r^ O tQ 0>r-c^ J^OO PI 1-00^ M t^'tO i^jMO 't'>+'Or^t'OroOi/>>/1 Br^MMOOPiro t^r^voOi^i- 1^00 M- ro fO lO ^ w^- Tf ir)\0 \0 *o r^ Mm 1-. P) O M O C '^. O r^ O O O r-OOt^CO^iOOOO OWOl^i-iNrOMM TfvC I^M M rots fOM Oil^Of^-OO r~ r^OO '"C t^ t^ irjCC 00 O O mo ir^OO O 00 M o o> Oi "i- o O M O Ov 00 O t^ " \0 <^; "^ ID r^O O ro p<^ (^ rv-, lo r^oo O CC lo t^ re •^ '^ O O M M t^f^Tj-TJ-l-HMI-lOPlO OPiMMOOPiPiooo mCC l^fN f^ ir^. -rt O lOio r-O'O'-'ior^O^i-i N MMMl/^Tfl-IM 00 OOO •* loo O O ox to inoOP00^0000Mr0't0 0'^OO'^ ■^ ro rj- rooC MMr^MCCOO'-'-'Pl'l-iOCSro OOO i-iOOOOi>-'w'-it^iooOOPicCiriOOO>MroOI^i-''^00 lO lO "^00 rOt^Oi-' >Ot^>-i (N -t I- ^tO C-OOOC OfOO> t^OO " vO O O O. lO Ot^(S OO't'^.XioC'NOOiOMOONr^.cCioO'^Tj-OO •H I-Oi^/'Oio^X 0>>0 " M 01 l^O O.'^O) 01 H-vOO t^ioo) OO >000 rOt^O) r^OC OCC U". lOOOOO 0) Tt-or^cO i^oi ^cr^^ looj loO (^oj lo O O t^ t^co 'I- o) Tj- -"tec w TfO"*"". 01 Tj-o >OCO !-» M t^ Tf Tt mO)mm •^ Ol o O t^vO CC ■^O o tT) o o t-O 0) lO o ^ Ol t^ lO M o 01 O O J^ f«~. 00 O o to 01 „ o r- t^ ^ ■* to to ■* ro NCO ^ CH o X o M M to r^ O r^O o rv^. o "^ o I-- •^ lOOO 00 lo o 01 •^j to 01 01 Ol o M X t^ Ol o o 01 M o O "-) 't >^. ^ ^ 't M 00 ^0 ^ I/-, X O Ol ro O to to ro ox o r- ■* r^ Tj- 01 01 O 00 lOOO lOvO 01 lO n r^^ to M to ^30 to M OO f^ too 't to M M Ov vo 0) fo M 01 •- Z^ -^ r*^ loyes average number Total wages paid , dollars Materials used: Aggregate cost dollars For butter: Gathered cream poimds Milk " Total cost dollars For cheese: Milk pounds Cost dollars For condensed milk: Milk pounds Sugar Total cost dollars Products : Aggregate value dollars Butter made: Packed solid pounds Prints or rolls " Total value dollars Cream sold gallons Value. dollars Skim milk sold, fed, or returned to patrons pounds Value dollars All other creamery products " Cheese, standard factory: Quantity pounds Value dollars Cheese, all other made: Quantity pounds Value dollars Whey sold. . pounds otherwise used " Total value dollars All other cheese-factory products " Condensed milk: Quantity pounds , Value dollars Butter and Cheese Factories. 9,242 36,303,164 1,818,519 11,514,198 13,827,667 9,142,780 12,799 6,145,561 108,841,200 203,673,958 ,514,806,634 73,489,355 ,741,898,1 14 21,258,712 421,378,073 50,873,859 7,252,124 130,783,349 328,956,590 91,169,956 84,079,754 7,720,569 4,435,444 ,253,494,156 2,531,460 1,023,402 225,776,105 21,363,477 56,196,219 5,156,352 44,590,752 164,476,195 204,277 66,711 186,921,787 11,888,792 Urban Estabs. 113 204,851 29,875 42,246 69,48s 63,24s 66 25.109 310,005 1,066,756 20,104,778 250,670 7,415,499 44,755 415,928 334,588 492,882 195,662 164,114 112,092 5,517,877 24,008 583 360,450 36,050 301,714 14,601 75,000 75 508. STATISTICAL TOPICS. 435 BUTTER AND CHEESE 3IAKING IN CANADA, 1901. (Census of 1901.) Number of factories . . 3,576 Value of buildings and plant $6,164,649 Persons employed. . . 6,886 Aggregate working days 1,140,702 Salaries aqji wages. . . $1,464,110 Cream for butter, in. . 3,976,406 Cream for butter, lbs. 88,180,441 Milk for cheese, lbs. . 2,296,950,966 Cost of delivery to factory $717,868 Patrons of butter fac- tories 76,394 Patrons of cheese fac- tories 124,726- Paid patrons for butter. $6,036,699 cheese. $19, 2 65, 83 2 Butter made, lbs 36,066,739 Cheese made, lbs 220,833,269 Value of butter made . . $7,240,972 cheese '' . .$22,221,430 Total value of products. $29, 462, 402 WOOL PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES, 191'3. Total. Number of sheep of shearing age, April i, 1912.. 38,481,000 Average weight of fleece, lbs 6.82 Shrinkage, per cent 55 . o Wool, washed and unwashed, lbs 304,043,400 Wool, scoured, lbs 136,866,652 PRODUCTION OF SUGAR IN THE UNITED STATES, 1870-1911. Beet Sugar, Long Tons. Cane Sugar, Long Tons. Year. Louisi- ana. Other South. States. Porto Rico. Hawaii. Philip- pine Islands. Total. 1870-71 1880-81 1890-91 1900-01 1910-11 400 500 3,459 76,859 455.511 75,392 121,867 215,844 275,579 306,000 4,208 5,500 6,107 2,891 11,000 103,304 61,715 50,000 72.800 312,357 ' 87,465 41,870 205,508 125,000 136,035 321,461 : 55,244 506,090 147,016 270,769 436,960 536,445 804,834 1.737.974 43 G GENER.VL TOPICS, STATISTICS OF SUGAR-BEET FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES FOR 1913. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) California Colorado Michigan Idaho and Utah . . 0.,Ind..Ill.,Wis.. Other States United States. . . . ■ . xi n '^ fO lO N lO -- O (N Cs UO C> lO <5 lo ■^ o O OO o lO t^ ■*Oi c^ w PO lo Tt 1^ r- lO M PI r~o 00 t^ r~ fO M Ov fO O P) o P) MOO Ov o 00 o h-i PO O --I t- ro M- r^ •^ lo M O 3 o PI t^ mo lO P) o PI ■^ PI C \r> -I lO P) O 00 •T3 C- 3- OWScoWO n ^ $i n 0) w B 3J3 t-;r; PQOOS W 1/1 CO N 3 -a G O 0) WWPh 440 GENERAL TOPICS. 0) H P Q O P^ Pl4 P H p M < o H p^ O Q < m H P^ O P^ u u5 o O 0> M Oi o lO rO lO 00 Tf Tj- !;;=« 00 O u- O N M . 0\0 f^ O ro • t-* 3 O o" 1 Ttrt-00_ l-;00_ • oo" vd C> O lo i f; ^ Q" t-H M M vO 00 rf-M 05 -l-> U O a X W M . M q; OO O "1 \ri -*-* M** ^ d \o" ■^ lO O *-M t^ t^ lO "t w ^-^ M O Cn°0 lO M O M t~ M 00 '- o> "Of' q 6 00 t^ rO lO r^\0 q 00 ^ ^t- (N CO f-"^ ro ^vO ri O t^ 00 t~ ir> > o o_ Ov q^ r; -* M fO 'l-t HI M l-( ^ M >0 f«" o o w5 o ' S M f w ) 00 C>1 C lo ro •00 *—* vO w r- O M -^ t^ 00 0\ >, CA r- O O ro O q q q^ •<-> •^o w ro ^ lO M o" oo" '+J 00 o 00 00 ro >^ o r^ o C lO ^ - o \ t^ lO M '^ M . t^ 3 o" r* o \ t> ro vo" • t^ N O s *-^ M • ro a N • lO t/3 tn V m tn . 0) TJ tJ C ^O TJ ■ ■Td c. c. c C C ■ a, , . , 3- 3- := d 3 . 3- , . , o O rt o O • o p. ft _ b ) a 0. ■ a 'Q* ^ 1 •5 o Oh o O W 03 3 3 C rt o <" t a S s < 'ti :s£ O -dO "rt 1 s c ^ o 13 oj-.-i C C o < (0 ■r) utting and sk Beef. Pork. Sausa < 4. c o o 1 a 'a c i > a c c PC a T PC V a I- c '5 a 05 STATISTICAL TABLES. 441 H Oioo r^ tJ-oo w O O fO rf N Ovoo fo r~- O 1-1 ■^fO o o O 00 MVO vO m M Tt ts t^ w O '^ o \0 w »^ 1+ lO 1-1 N 00 ^ O ro >0 IflOO •^lO \0 00 M N 00 00 "^^ •* r' IT) Tj-vO NOO rooo Tj- 1-1 lO N \r>c6 OOO ^ O 0\ ooo vO rtroO 1-1 "^ lO Tj-Tl-rcOO -^5 lAOO 1/1 0\ "^ •^°° 00 1/1 MO O '^ M 00 vO t^ l^ O ^ . OvOoO w ■* IT) PO M m .5 & d ^"S c o > g IH to Ml o ,to'':;^ 3 Tl t/i n w a 3 +-> ' » t/j 3 Pnfo U2 GENERAL TOPICS. H P Q O P P P M p:| < O H P< O P Q ;?; H o PLh t^ rOOO 00 M t- Oi t^ o VO •^Tj- o .vO fO f*- (V o o 0\ ■^ lO ro Tj-oo »o w ro ^0 O o rooo 0\ >-i ■^O 00 lO QO^ O • w" rc m" op" w" oo" to l-l o ft >. CO N M 1-1 t^ lO ITi (S "* +j i/:o lO 00 >-l lO O M "+■> \n IT) 00 ro l> \0 <5 G W M lO 0_ l-l IH O; rt M M* o" !S d fO 3 t^ •^ f^ t~ O ►H ro r^ f > tv 5 C\ • vO o t~ rO . r- O O (V ro • r<5 t^ 00 Ov W IN w O f ) 1 ■ q> -^ 00 N 0) I-l - - 3 n! roO 00 r- • o" tC f«5 N ^ 1— ' i-H ro CN t- ro * Tt lO* M >-t ri OO O.CC r' ) 0_ N ro > •^ (N H 5 If 5 1- w fq fO o5 +j iH o P. 1 O IT) t^ o N (N (N lO f >-< >. fO TffO I-) O; +-> 00 fO <^' o 4 '+j vO 1/5 M o t~ C ^ A o u O to s td H "3 t: ) as 5 ^ < "2 0) o 1- n b W ■"H "o ^ ■« _^ M pa < O S (1) o j: ) : C i ° < > 1-. a C 1- b > ■ 4) 4- O - 0) CO »^ J <^ Barle Buck Corn Oats. Rye. > • c ip, a c 1 PQ > be d I-. C (/ be tn c. .S S ' 1 5 J 1 P; < 2 cT 3C ;c 5 c c '3 bo XS *■> O .2 STATISTICAL TABLES, 'l-'i3 •\0 ro fO rl-vO O O t^ M t^ lOO 1-1 M 00 O O ro O lO ^t o O lO Ooo" (-0 ■^ o o o o o n 1-1 ro »^ O ro C\ M t^ 1-1 t~ t^\0 OvrO oo" in POO O^ N M M 30 M O >o M N M '^ Ov CN i ro ■^ ^00 CO >-<' f^ C> t^ ro lO O 00 O •-< M 0\ ^ n ^ 1-1 C\ 'to (T! O ro 'f ^O 00 00 O -^ M O 0\ O ^ o 0> N W lO o ■ 1> O.S O nS S _ " '^ fS rf 4> ft "^ft •XJ CI — 73 O-C o_ w^ q pj_ f> 1-1 oo 3 rt. OS; CU -*-> - . « t, W (/, 01 444 GENERAL TOPICS. Oi H P Q O P H P P U "< to O cc H P^ O fri '»^ Q ;?: H P^ O w . O O) t^ M ro ro >> 00 PO ■l-J Ov PO ,4_3 0\vO c CO O O o a M O : P. u <: O «^ o ^16 N o o o t^ O vO w O t^ r^ r- ri lO t^ lO H t- CN O moo h-t i/^ O ro PJ M 0\ o oo ^ 0\ ^" Ov o CN 1-1 M CS \ri M 0) "+00 t^ r- 1/j 0\ •* o w ^ o M 0\ 00 oo ro M ts Os •^ r^oo 00 o rO OT W W CO W 3 t/3 3- 3 O 3 O JD ft,a P. ^ (U pq 00 t~- (S ■^ ro t~- lo ■^ H O* " o' M 00 rooo O 0\ a o 3 (u-^-S o tsr.-;' OCJPhOcoO CO (U (U !> ^ C6 0) ^.S 3 00 O O 01 rf ^ • PO ro • O O • 'i- ^ . CN Ov . IT) ^^ . 0\ o • t^ t^ • o 0\ i/^O 3 3 CO CO O O STATISTICAL TABLES. 445 \n^ 00 o "^ M 00 ^i M N M '^ f*5 >-i ■* t^oo \r) N (^ O H 00 rt PO TfOvOO lO M ^lO W O M N CS N OvO 00 0_ O ^ lo o c O Ooo 00 1) 4) O cij o £ "3 rt ?3 > C cfl 03 2 g ° ^13 00 a u 3 O-O o .3 o .r-< 4J _^ II 3 O o C 446 GENERAL TOPICS. IDOMESTIC EXPORTS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, 1870-1912. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Butter. Cheese. Year. Pounds. Value. Pounds. Value. 1870 2,019,288 1592,229 57,296,327 $8,881,934 1875 6,360,827 1,506,996 101,010,853 13,659,603 1880 39.236,658 6,690,687 127,553,907 12,171,720 1885 21,683,148 3,643,646 111,992,990 10,444,409 1890 29,748,042 4,187,489 95.376,053 8,591,042 189s 5.598,812 915,533 60,448,421 5,497,539 1900 18,266,371 3,143.509 48,419,353 4,943,609 1905 10,071,487 1,648,281 10,134,424 1,084,044 1910 3,140,545 785,771 2,846,709 441,017 1911 4.877,797 1,059,432 10,366,605 1,288,279 1912 6,092,235 1,468,432 6,337.559 898,035 EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM CANADA, 1870-1910. • (The Canada Year-Book.) Butter. Cheese. Year. Quantity. Value. Quantity. Value. Pounds. Pounds. 1870 12,260,887 12,353,570 5,827,782 $ 674.486 1875 9,268,044 2,337.324 32,342,030 3.886,226 1880 18,535,362 3,058,069 40,368,678 3.893,366 1885 7,330,788 1,430,905 79,655.367 8,265,240 1890 1,951,585 340,131 94,260,187 9,372,212 1895 3,650,258 697,476 146,004,650 14,253,002 1900 25,259,737 5,122,156 185,984,430 19,856,324 1901 16,335,528 3,295,663 195,926,397 20,696,051 1902 27,855,978 5,660,541 200,946,401 19,686,291 1903 34.128,944 6,954,618 229,099,925 24.712,943 1904 24,568,001 4.724,155 233,980,716 24,184,566 1905 31,764,303 5.930,379 215,733,259 20,300,500 1906 34,031,52s 7,075,539 215.834,543 24.433.169 1907* 18,078,508 4,011,609 178,141,567 22,006,584 1908 4,786,954 1,068,703 189,710,463 22,887.237 1909 6,326,355 1,521,436 164,907,139 20,384,666 1910 4,615,380 1,010,274 180,859.886 21,607,692 * Nine months. STATISTICAL TABLES. 447 THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) Commercial fertilizers sold in 1896, in 23 Eastern and Central States . . . in rest of United States Total for the United States Census returns, 1890, value of fertilizers pur- chased: North Atlantic Division South Atlantic " North Central " South Central " Western " Total for the United States Tons (of 2000 lbs.). 1,624,063 270-854 1,894,917 Value (wholesale). 5,387.287 $37,688,869 (retail) 11,449,069 18,759,139 3,067,515 4,952,0x3 241.862 $3^,469.598 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FERTILIZERS IN 1896. (U. S. Treasury Department.) Imports. Exports. Tons. Value. Value per Ton. Tons. Value, Value per Ton. 375,7-33-93 $7,376,615 $19.04 5145I43 $4,400,593 $8.56 IMPORTS OF FERTILIZERS AND 3IATERIALS, 1896. FERTILIZER Articles, Ammonia, sulfate of Apatite Ashes, wood and lye of, and beet-root ashes Blood, dried Bone-dust or animal carbon, and bone-ash, fit only for fertilizing purposes Bones, crude, burned, calcined, ground or steamed Cotton-seed meal and cake Guano ., Kieserite, cyanite, and kainit Lime Oil-cake Phosphates, crude or native Potash, muriate of Potash, sulfate of Soda, nitrate of, or cubic nitrate All substances, not otherwise specified Total... Tons. 12,270.70 434.00 2,983.00 325.61 5.072.29 67,192.91 21,403.02 8,911.50 20,562.29 43,438-35 7,423-67 145,456.64 40,259.95 37S,733-<>3 Value. iti48o,97i 3,030 67,394 1,014* 37,992 154,610 3-170 52.697 320,763 76,302 52,867 153,370 'S372,743 269,810 3,870,734 460,160 $7,376,615 Value per Ton. $39.20 6.98 12.74 9-74 10.39 4-77 3-57 5-93 7.46 31.60 36.34 26.61 "-43 19.04 *\n 448 GENERAL TOPICS. m H Q Q < H n3 M P5 p Q P^ <1 1^ H H i^ ;^ -(J P5 /1% D o O ■+ 1 N o CO T}- M (M 00 MD ■* ro fc CO -t M 1^ rri f<2 l« r^ >0 lO M o_ 00_ OO" lo od" „* o" 00_ O vo" r^ >^ VO 1- o r<^ o r^ H ^ 10 00 w O; o_ >o_ (^ ■* ■ Ov N N ro l-H-O Oo" C> r^ HH p) 1^ °°. 't ■«f 00" M vo M t M lO t-- 00 00 i3v 00 rO CN m ^ m if> TJ Ti- ^ <» «> «? to ~~C0 cO CO CO ■* m +-I N a •S ro C "^ U-) t^ 'O CO lo cd ■* CO ro (LI w O 00 cO "^ c o ™ t^ M 1" fO c2 IS O t- "cS 4-> w t/l cs CO „ 1- t cOSO en u-i "rgoO to *3 « 2 ■* ^^ ;^ o HHOO ^ o ^t- P) CO rq vO t^ C^ o. 00 t o '-' ^ o. 2 ^ cO "^1 <~0 CO M -0 c3 0> w, q^ ,i«: »-i +JOC c/: (^ rfi ^ cr^. i CO u^ C M 0) " t-l c - (LI 00 (U - 00 - CO Tj- X '^ (U P< to •^ 00 ■5 00" C"^ o" ^1^ s •So c«^ s«* H^ S "^ c^ 1— 1 lo *^m 3^ iS '^ M m v> C m V) m 00 VO •* ro o M r- "1 M r) ro cO ^C s ^ coo O cO 10 fO C "^ (/J t^ +-> 00 <^ .;:: Tt cO "^ -u u^ 1^/ • f-» \ri S<^" go CO M cO - 'ScO - rC Vi . CO Ih CU (N (U M ^ •+ .S- (V, C 00 V- ro (U w 1°' c^ 3 '■5 "^ Coo_^ c '^ -? o O o • C O 'S IN* cO > Tt rt 0. o <^ 1— 1 J.^ o <^. P M o; C t- C W a rO rO S^ c«©^ C^ ■* C 1^ C«^ m m m (U (b M (U ^ (U Hh CL, m (Hh 0^ M 00 Ov ro o »-- o tr~ ■0 ID o cO •* CO N C "* ^ ro cOoo fO :^ T}- ^ m V) O^ ■ti 0> tn Tj- ■^ o 1-. r~ c ■* to ■* tH Tj- Vh M ■•-> c '^ o - 0) o t .2 ^ ■3 ^ ^K ^? 'cO o o t ■5 o_ Tl- 53 ^ ^^ ^^ ^^ z^ hJ^? vO •7 "^ ««^ m aj • ^ i o o -l-> *' . d cO ^ ■+H o cO 1) ■d c cO >-> cO «3 (U O c cd ■'5 l-H ■4J 0- ■i- C > Pi (J to STATISTICAL TABLES. 449 m ! lA C ^ ■* •^ o t^ O " rt w 6%. C -^ •S'?^ X. H tr* c> o >«^ w O ro O ;^ t- o t/l i^ 'n o r; 'J- o €^ 2; ^ o u t^ Coo (/) Tf o W 00 1 €© <^ fO u^ O tn (Tt r^ X t^ (1) Ov H ^ Vh 00 ^' o "^ 9^ M - XOO ^ CO O a:? ss. !XX 2 M •- Ov .C .^ ^ o - rt - ^<^ z ^^^ 1— ■ CJ M< rt O ^ 00 o "^ to ^ V- CO cS - be o> -C CO o - ^ in 'O 00 K OO S "^ o « •2 O ^00 to OC ti-* 0) " O M => r^ '^t Oo (/) 1- m ;ii^. S ,^ o c vC o M o M o ^ 6© 00 I^ 00 05 w Tl- c o" o -^ ■a^ :5- >^ u.r ^ T^ lO CtS vo 13 «> =1^ o <^ > N ^«5 ^ (S C uo o c « cu^ (1, -00 it •rH t^ rC CO be o l-i 00 O Tj- o - bo " »-. 00 o o> O' n! 00 C w ol l^ r/l (N P MO O ■* O ^ .5 » 2 'i- rt« rt t > Tf > vO 'E'o C a C t- C«© c<^ OJ (U d^ eu be o .-HOO O - o VO ei a ^ ^ ■* ^ t- *i ^ iH ro u N o - o - o - >^ >H^ Coo c j:, f5°'-'- f5"i ^^ z^ I2«^ c3 M ■goo > M C o C«^ (U TO * bflO •— re _CJ - o o o. >J ro a '^■ 1-. ^ S ■* >^1:; u lo O rO OJ - :s - ^^ l-c O O w 03 vC ■* -S o •* ^ ro Ov 9 "* a! ojoo ^vO .rf o> PO riivO •— M *•"• r^ W^ ro in - d - G - a - o - d M n5 » (-1 fO 1- ^vO X "^ Ooo O IN E-H^o■" 'rtoo" 13 '*■ ^-'2 S N <^ O ^ ^^ ;^V> 00 ^ o u >-> o J" 03 C ft bo M ^H bo o fe ft ."ti M T) I-. <-i n! ,_, .c a ii B U C/D '5 rt Ph •c ll o tC +-> n1 o ^ M-l T) -U c cS 01 Tt rl (U l-i > ^ bO -.13 (l> >. T» tJ (i8 V) rt O bO ^ 3 4-> u> hn bo C C T) Id S pi d CI 450 GENERAL TOPICS. o H P Q t^ Ph < H h^ P O M p Q !^ O !?; -^ a! "3 "5?, S t^ M 00 •Ceo O lo O lo •2 P) o5 ^. t^ cs m m C3 "2 01 " > « en " -.7! ". .i2 '«• C a S^ C " ^ o;^ CU O CO > ^ 'T'CO 0^ C 00 ^ ^ ^< rtco_ 'S) '*■ o n- v t/> u Ih cd >. Q >.oO o '^ o CI, >, u "S Of STATISTICAL TABLES. 451 t^ O- vO •o P) 00 vO f^ r~ M vO HI »o ■* VO N • m M •h- ^ m o o 60 o, >.00 C C CI, It e:- Q o c3 f^ lU 00 W '2 C 0) 2 o 00 c Oh v-co O vO o "^ S o > ■ «/^ tn tn O^ .S '^ to *^ N o O f» o ^^ o o rt -, ;5 ^- ^ o. o^ ^S ^ 00 Ov lo ^ ^ ^ r^ C-o O c3 '^ Ooo .4_i M 1" :h^- C " 'S I c c > o C 00 \o' ^^ o C/3 3 o ■^00 c o ^^ 05 00 rt-o Q N +-> o o Pi •c p. «3 o bO bo ca c >. a; C o w o 3 o o o ■2t5 P O 5^ o o bo ^ 3i2 3 o 452 GENERAL TOPICS. VI. DIRECTORY. DIRECTORY OF OFFICIAL AGRICULTURAIi INSTITUTIONS. Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Secretary of Agriculture — D. F. Houston. Assistant Secretary of Agriculture — B. T. Galloway. Weather Bureau — H. E. Williams, Acting Chief. Bureau of Animal Industry — A. D. Melvin, Chief. Dairy Division — B. H. Ravvl, Chief. Bureau of Plant Industry — Wm. A, Taylor, Pathologist, Physiologist and Chief. Forest Service — Henry S. Graves, Forester and Chief. Bureau of Chemistry — Carl L. Alsberg, Chemist and Chief. Bureau of Soils — Milton Whitney, Soil Physicist and Chief. Bureau of Entomology — L. O. Howard, Entomologist and Chief. Bureau of Biological Survey — H. W. Henshaw, Biologist and Chief. Bureau of Statistics — Victor H. Olmsted, Statistician and Chief. Office of Experiment Stations — A. C. True, Director. Office of Public Roads — L. W. Page, Director. Division of Publications — Jos. A. Arnold, Editor and Chief. Division of Accounts and Disbursements — \. Zappone, Chief and Disbursing Clerk. Library — Claribel R. Barnett, Librarian, ^ DIRECTORY. 453 Canada. Ministers of Agriculture — Dominion, Martin Burrell, Ottawa. Prov. of Ontario, Nelson Monteith, Toronto. Prov. of Quebec, A. Tessier, Quebec. Prov. of British Columbia, R. G. Tatlow, Victoria. Prov. of Manitoba, R. P. Roblin, Winnipeg. Commissioners of Agriculture — New Brunswick, L. P. Farris, Fredericton. N. W. Territories, G. H. V. Bulyea, Regina. Pr. Edw. Island, Benjamin Rogers, Charlottetown. Secretary of Agriculture — Nova Scotia, B. W. Chipman, Halifax. Minister of Agriculture and Mines — Newfoundland, Eli Dawe, St. Johns. State Officials in Cliarge of Agriculture in the United States. Commissioners of Agriculture — Montgomery, Ala.; Little Rock, Ark.; Tallahassee, Fla.; Atlanta, Ga.; Boise, Idaho; Frankfort, Ky.; Baton Rouge, La.; Augusta, Me.; Jackson, Miss.; Helena, Mont.; Albany, N. Y.; Raleigh, N. C; Bis- marck, N. D.; Harrisburg, Pa.; Manila, P. I.; San Juan, P. R.; Columbia, S. C; Nashville, Term.; Austin, Texas; Plainfield, Vt.; and Richmond, Va. Secretaries of State Boards of Agriculture — Sacra- mento, Cal.; Fort CoUins, Colo.; Hartford, Conn.; Dover, Del.; Honolulu, H. I.; Springfield, 111.; Indianapolis, Ind.; Des Moines, la.; Topeka, Kan.; Baltimore, Md.; Boston, Mass.; East Lansing, Mich; St. Paul, Minn.; Columbia, Mo.; Lin- coln, Neb.; Carson City, Nev.; Concord, N. H.; Trenton, 1 N. J.; Columbus, Ohio; Oklahoma City, Okla.; Salem, Ore.; Providence, R. I.; Huron, S. D.; Charleston, W. Va.; Madison, Wis.; and Cheyenne, Wyo. Secretaries of State — ^Tucson, Ariz.; Santa Fe, N. M.; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Olympia, Wash, 454 GENERAL TOPICS. I EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA HAVING COURSES IN AGRICULTUUE. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) State. Name of Institution Locality. J Alabama Alabama Polytechnic Institute. Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege for Negroes Auburn J Normal ^^fl Tucson i^H Favetteville ^^ Berkelev 1 Fort Collins 1 Storrs Newark Dover ^^h Gainesville |^H Tallahassee ■ Athens 1 Savannah I Moscow 1 Urbana 1 Lafayette M Ames ^^H Manhattan ^^| Lexington ^^M Frankfort ^^^ Baton Rouge ^J New Orleans ^^M Orono m^M College Park *^% Princess Anne ^J A mherst 4^| Agricultural College Univ. Farm,S. Paul Agricultural College Alcorn Columbia Jefferson City Bozeman Lincoln Reno ^H Arizona University of Arizona Arkansas University of Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut. . . . Delaware Florida University of California State Agricultural College Conn. Agrictiltural College Delaware College State College for Colored Stud'ts. University of Florida. Florida State Normal and Indus- trial College Georgia State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts Idaho State Industrial College University of Idaho University of Illinois Indiana Iowa Purdue University State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts Kansas State Agricultural Col- lege Kansas Kentucky Agricultural and Mechanical College State Normal School for Colored Students Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College Southern University and Agri- cultural and Mechanical Col- lege Maine The University of Maine. Maryland Agricultural College. .. Princess Anne Academy, Eastern Br., Maryland Agricul. Coll.. . Massachusetts Agricultural Col- Maryland Massachusetts. . Michigan Michigan State Agriciiltural Col- lege Minnesota Mississippi The University of Minnesota. . . . Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan- ical College Missouri The University of Missouri Lincoln Institute Montana College of Agriculture and Me- Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. The Universit V of Nebraska Nevada State University College of Agriculture and Me- J DIRECTORY. 455 EDUCATIONAL I^STITVTIOISSS— (Continued). State. Name of Institution. Locality. New Jersey. . . . New Mexico . . . New York. . . . North Carolina North Dakota. Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania . . Porto Rico . . . . Rhode Island. . South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee. ... Texas , Utah Vermont Virginia. Washington.. . West Virginia. Wisconsin. .. Wyoming. . . . Rutgers Scientific School College of Agriculture and Me- chanic Arts Cornell University College of Agriculture and Me- chanic Arts Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege for the Colored Race North Dakota Agricultural Col- lege Ohio State University. Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege Agricultural and Normal Uni- versitv Oregon State Agricultural Col- , lege 1 Pennsylvania State College University of Porto Rico f College of Agriculture and Me- chanic Arts Clemson Agricultural College. . . Colored Normal, Industrial, Agri cultural, and Mechanical Col lege of South Carolina South Dakota Agricultural Col lege University of Tennessee , State Agricultural and Mechan ical College of Texas Prairie View State Normal School Agricultural College of Utah. . University of Vermont and State Agricultural College Virginia Agricultural and Me- chanical College and Polytech- nic Institute . . . Hamoton Normal and Agricul- tural Institute The State College of Washington West Virginia Universitv West Virginia Colored Institute . University of Wisconsin University of Wyoming New Brunswick State College Ithaca W. Raleigh Greensboro Agricultural College Columbus Stillwater Langston Corvallis State College Mayaguez Kingston. Clemson College Orangeburg Brookings. Knoxville College Station Prairie View Logan Burlington Blacksburg Hampton Pullman Mnrgantown Institute Madison Laramie 456 GEJSTERAL TOPICS. AMERICAN VETERINARY COLLiEGES. California Veterinary College, San Francisco, Cal. National Veterinary College, Washington, D. C. Chicago Veterinary College, Chicago, 111. McKillip Veterinary College, Chicago, 111. Veterinary Department, Iowa State Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa. School of Veterinary Medicine, Harvard University, Boston, Mass. Kansas City Veterinary College, Kansas City, Mo. American Veterinary College, University of the State OF New York, New York City. New York College of Veterinary Surgeons, New York City. Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. School of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, O. Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Ontario Veterinary College, Toronto, Canada. McGill University, Department of Comparative Medicine, Montreal, P. Q., Canada. LIST OF STATE VETERINARIANS. State or Territory. Alabama. . . . Arizona Arkansas. . . . California.. . . Delaware. . . . Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky. . . Louisiana. . . . Maine Maryland. . . . Massachusetts Michigan. . . . Minnesota. . . Mississippi. . . Missouri Montana. ... Post-office Address. Auburn Phoenix Fayette villa Sacramento Wilmington Lake City Atlanta Boise Princeton Lafayette Forest City Peabody Louisville Baton Rouge Saco Chestertown Boston Saline Minneapolis Agricul. College Columbia Helena State or Territory. Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey. . . . New Mexico. . . . New York North Carolina . North Dakota . . Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania. . . Rhode Island. . . South. Carolina. . South Dakota. . Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington. . . . West Virginia. . Wisconsin Post -office Address. Reno Concord Trenton Las Vegas Albany Raleigh Fargo Columbus Guthrie Portland Philadelphia Providence Clemson College Huron Murfreesboro Corpus Christi Heber City Morris ville Blacksburg Pullman Charleston Madison DIRECTORY. 457 DAIKY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA. State or Province. Alabama Colorado Connecticut. .. . Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Maine Maryland Massachusetts. . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska New Hampshire New York Location. Tuskegee Fort Collins Storrs Experiment Moscow Urbana Lafayette Ames Manhattan Orono College Park Amherst Agricultural Col. St.AnthonyPark Agricultural Col. Columbia Lincoln Durham Ithaca State or Province. North Carolina. . North Dakota. . Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania. . . South Dakota. . Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington. . . . Wisconsin Ontario Quebec New Brunswick Nova Scotia. . . Manitoba , Location. Raleigh Fargo Columbus Corvallis State College Brookings College Station Logan Burlington Blacksburg Pullman Madison Kingston Guelph Strathroy St. Hyacinthe Sussex Nappan. Winnipeg SCHOOLS OF FORESTRY. Yale Forest School, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. BtLTMORE Forest School, Biltmore, N. C. University of Michigan Forest School, Ann Arbor, Mich. Howard University Forest School, Cambridge, Mass. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Forestry Course, Ames, Iowa. University of Malne, Department of Forestry, Orono, Me. Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Forestry, Agricultural College P. O., Mich. University of Minnesota, Forest School, St. Anthony Park, Minn. University of California, Forest School, Berkeley, Cal. 458 GENERAL TOPICS. AGRICULiTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. State. Alabama (College).. . . Alabama (Canebrake). Alabama (Tuskegee). . Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut (State).. . Connecticut (Storrs) . . Delaware Florida Georgia Guam. Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana (Sugar). . . . Louisiana (State). . . . Louisiana (North). . .. Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri (College). . . . Missouri (Fruit) Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey (State). . . New Jersey (College). . New Mexico New York (State) New York (Cornell). . . North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon. . . Pennsylvania Porto Rico Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming Location. Auburn Uniontown Tuskegee Sitka Institute Tucson Fayetteville Berkeley Fort Collins New Haven Storrs Newark Gainesville Experiment Island of Guam Honolulu Moscow Urbana Lafayette Ames Manhattan Le.xington New Orleans Baton Rouge Calhotm Orono College Park Amherst East Lansing Univ. Farm, St. Paul, Agricultural College. . Columbia Mountain Grove. . . . Bozeman Lincoln Reno Durham New Brunswick New Brunswick State College Geneva Ithaca Raleigh Agricultural College. . Wooster Stillwater Corvallis State College Mayaguez Kingston Clemson College Brookings Knoxville College Station Logan Burlington Blacksburg Pullman Morgantown Madison Laramie. DIRECTORY. 450 Oanadian Experiment Stations, Central Experimental Farm — Ottawa, Ont. Experimental Farm — Nappan, N. S. " " — Brandon, Manitoba. « " —Indian Head, N. W. T. ^* " — Agassiz, U. C. Experiment Station — Ontario Agriculturrl College, Guelph, Ont. OFFICIALS IN CHARGE OF FAR3IERS' INSTITUTES. (Fanners' Institute Specialist, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, John Hamilton, Washington, D. C.) State or Territory. Address. State or Territory. Address. Alabama Auburn Nevada Reno Alaska Sitka NewHampshire Concord Arizona Tucson New Jersey . . . Trenton Ar'cansas Favetteville New Mexico . . Agricultural Coll. California Berkeley New York Fayetteville Colorado Fort Collins North Carolina Raleigh C< nnecticut. . . . N. Stonington North Dakota . Bismarck Delaware Dover Lake City Ohio Columbus Florida Oklahoma Guthrie Georgia Atlanta Oregon Corvallis Idaho Moscow Pennsylvania . Harrisburg Illinois Springfield Rhode Island . Providence Indiana Lafayette South Carolina Clemson College Iowa Des Moines Manhattan South Dakota . Tennessee .... Gary Kansas Nashville Kentucky Frankfort Texas College Station Louisiana ..... Baton Rouge Augusta Utah Logan Maine Vermont Woodstock Maryland Benson Virginia Richmond Massachusetts . Boston Washington . . . Pullman Michigan Agricultural Coll. West Virginia . Sunlight Minnesota Lvnd Wisconsin Madison Mississippi. . . . Agricultural Coll. Wyoming Laramie Missouri Columbia Ontario, Can . . Toronto, Ont. Montana Bozeman Manitoba, Can. Brandon, Manit. Nebraska Lincoln 460 GEiq^ERAL TOPICS. VII. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITER- ATURE. MORE IMPORTANT WORKS ON DAIRYING. American. Arnold, American Dairying. Rochester, N. Y., 1876. (Out^ of print.) Conn, Practical Bacteriology, N. Y., 1907, 340 pp. $1.25. Dean, Canadian Dairying. Toronto, 1903. 260 pp. $1.00. Decker, Cheese Making: Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, Edam, etc. Fifth edition, by F. W. Well. Madison, Wis., 1913. 211 pp. $1.75- Decker, Elements of Dairying. Columbus, O., 1903. 114 pp. $1.00. Eckles, Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. N. Y., 191 1. $1.60. Farrington-Woll, Testing Milk and its Products. Twenty- second edition. Madison, Wis., 1914. 297 pp. $1.25. Flint, Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. Boston, 1888. Grotenfelt-WoU, Modern Dairy Practice. Third edition, re- vised. New York, 1910. 286 pp. $2.00. Curler, The Farm Dairy. Chicago, 1908. 164 pp. $1.00. Jensen-Pearson, Essentials of Milk Hygiene. Philadelphia, 1907. 275 pp. $2.50. Lane, Business of Dairying. N. Y., 1909. $1.25. Larsen and White, Dairy Technology. N. Y., 1913. $1.50. Michels, Creamery Butter Making. Lansing, Mich., 1904. 271 pp. $1.00. McKay-Larsen, Principles and Practice of Butter Making. New York, 1906. 329 pp. $1.50. Monrad, ABC in Cheese Making. Winnetka, III. Second edition. 68 pp. 50 cents. Monrad, ABC in Butter Making. Winnetka, 111., 1899. 118 pp. 50 cents. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 461 Monrad, Pasteurization and Milk Preservation. Winnetka, 111. 78 pp. 50 cents. Monrad, Cheese Making in Switzerland. Winnetka, 111. 68 pp. 50 cents. Rosenau, The Milk Question. Boston, 191 2. 309 pp. $2.00. Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology. Seventh edition. Madison, Wis., 1906. 190 pp. $i.od. Snyder, Dairy Chemistry. New York, 1906. 190 pp. $1.00. ScHoenman, Butter-fat and Dividend Calculator. Aladison, Wis., 1895. 66 pp. $2.00. Van Sl}'ke, Modern Methods of Testing ]\Iilk. New York, 1906. 214 pp. 75 cents. Vye, Creamery Accounting. Delano, Minn,, 1899. 42 pp. $1.00. Ward, Pure Milk and the Public Health. Ithaca, N. Y., 1909. 218 pp. Willard, Practical Dairy Husbandry. N. Y., 1877. 546 pp. Wing, Milk and its Products. N. Y., 191 2. 324 pp. Winslow, The Production and Handling of Clean Milk. New York. 1907. 207 pp. English. Fleischmann, Book of the Dairy. London, 1896. los. 6d. Richmond, Dairy Chemistry. London, 1899. 384 pp. Sheldon, Dairy Farming. London. 570 pp. 410. Sheldon, The Farm and the Dairy. London, 1889. 154 pp. 2S. 6d. Sheldon, British Dairying. 2d ed., 1896. 170 pp. Aikman, Milk, its Nature and Composition. London, 1895, 180 pp. Willoughby, Milk, its Production and Uses. London, 1904. 259 pp. $2.00. Long, The Dairy Farm. London, 18S9. 115 pp. Matthews, Economics in Dairy Farming. London, 1903. 68 pp. $2.25. Oliver, Milk, Cheese, and Butter. London, 1894. 362 pp. Barthel, Milk and Dairy Products. London, 1910. 260 pp. Freudenreich, Dairy Bacteriology. London, 1895. 115 pp. Swithinbank and Ne\vman, Bacteriology of Milk. London, 1904. 605 pp. $8.00. 462 GENERAL TOPICS. Other European. Martiny, Die Milch, I-II. Danzig, 1871. 438 and 366 pp. Martiny, Kirne und Girbe. Berlin, 1895. 404 pp., 4to. Martiny, Milch wirtschaftl. Taschenbuch. Published annually, Leipzig. Fleischmann, Das Molkereiwesen. Braunschweig, 1876. 1074 pp. Fleischmann, Lehrbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Fourth edition. Leipzig, 190S. 536 pp. Grimmer, Chemie und Physiologic der Milch. Berlin, 19 10. 364 pp. Sommerfeld, Handbuch der Milchkunde. Wiesbaden, 1909. 999 pp. Stohmann, Die Milch- und Molkcrciproducte. Braunschweig, 1898. 1031 pp. Kirchner, Handbuch d. IMilchwirtschaft. Fiith edition. Berhn, 1907. 700 pp. Anderegg, Geschichte der Milchwirtschaft. Zurich, 1894. 207 pp. V. Klenze, Handb. d. Kaserei-Technik. Bremen, 1884. 643 pp. Fugling, Praktische Kaserei. Bremen, 1892. 260 pp. Weigmann, Die Methoden der Milch-conservirung. Bremen, 1893. 72 pp. Duclaux, Le Lait. Paris, 1887. 336 pp. Duclaux, Principes de Laiterie. Paris. 370 pp. Leze, Les Industries de Lait. Paris, 1891. 647 pp. Pouriau, La Laiterie. 5th ed. Paris, 1895. 898 pp. Boggild, Miilkeribrugct i Danmark. Third edition. Copen« hagen, 1907. 627 pp. A LIST OF SIXTY AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICUL- TURAL BOOKS. Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. N. Y., 1907- iQOg. 4 volumes. Hunt, How to Choose a Fann. N. Y., 1906. 412 pp. Bailey, Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1898. 300 pp. Fream, Elements of Agriculture. 8th ed. Loido:!, 191 1. 692 pp. Warren, Elements of Agriculture. N. Y., 1909. 434 pp. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 463 Webb, Advanced Agriculture. London, 1894. 672 pp. Go£f-Mayne, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1904. 248 pp. Hall, Feeding of Crops and Stock. London, 191 1. 298 pp. Storer, Agriculture in some of its Relations with Chemistry. 7th ed. N. Y., 1897. 3 vols. Voorhees, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1896, 212 pp. Roberts, The Fertility of the Land. N. Y., 1897. 415 PP- Voorhees, Fertilizers. N. Y., 1899. 335 pp. Warington, Chemistry of the Farm. 21st ed. London, 1913. 247 pp. Johnson, How Crops Feed. N. Y., 375 pp. Johnson, How Crops Grow. N. Y., 1890. 416 pp. Hunt, Cereals in America. N. Y., 1904. 421 pp. Plumb, Indian Corn Culture. Chicago, 1895. 250 pp. Woll, A Book on Silage. Revised ed., Chicago, 1900. 234 pp. Allen, American Cattle. N. Y., 1881. 528 pp. Wallace, Farm Live Stock of Great Britain. Edinburgh, 1907. 758 pp. Craig, Judging Live Stock. 4th ed. Des Moines, la., 1902. 193 PP- Plumb, Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. N. Y., 1906. 563 PP- Marshall, Breeding Farm Animals. Chicago, 191 1. 287 pp. Day, The Horse, How to Breed and Rear Him. 2d ed. London, 1890. 453 pp. Johnstone, The Horse Book. Chicago, 1908, 299 pp. Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding. N. Y., 1887. 525 pp. Henry, Feeds and Feeding. Madison, Wis., 1910. 613 pp. Jordan, Feeding Animals. N. Y., 1901. 450 pp. Craig, Sheep Farming in North America. N. Y., 19 13. 302 pp. Day, Productive Swine Husbandry. Philadelphia, 1913. 330 pp. Dawson, The Hog Book. Chicago, 191 1. 414 pp. Harris, On the Pig. N. Y., 1889. 318 pp. Collingwood, The Business Hen. N. Y., 1904. 125 pp. Robinson, Principles and Practices of Poultry Culture. Bos- ton, 1912. 611 pp. 464 GENERAL TOPICS. Cook, Bee-keeper's Guide. Lansing, ISIich., 1884. 4th ed. 337 PP- Law, Farmer's Veterinary Adviser. Ithaca, N. Y., 1880. 426 pp. Reynolds, Veterinary Studies. 328 pp. St. Anthony Park, Minn., 1903. Hilgard, Soils. N. Y., 1906. 593 pp. King, Physics of Agriculture. Madison, Wis., 1904. 604 pp. King, The Soil. N. Y., 1903. 303 pp. Elliott, Land Drainage. N. Y. 232 pp. Ogden, Rural H^'giene. New York, 191 1. 434 pp. Wilcox, Irrigation Farming. N. Y., 1902. 494 pp. Bailey, et al.. Cyclopedia of x\merican Horticulture, 4 vols. N. Y., 1902. Goflf, Principles of Plant Culture. 2d ed. Madison, Wis., 1898. 276 pp. Bailey, The Nursery Book. 2d ed. N. Y., 1892. 304 pp. Fletcher, How to Make a Fruit Garden. N. Y., 1905. Rawson, Success in Market Gardening. N. Y., 1910. 271 pp Watts, Vegetable Gardening. New York, 191 2. Card, Bush Fruits. New York, 1899. 549 pp. Fuller, Grape Culturist. N. Y. 218 pp. Henderson, Practical Floriculture. N. Y., 1891. 325 pp. Weed, Insects and Insecticides. Hanover, N. H., 1891, 281 pp. Lodeman, The Spraying of Plants. N. Y., 1908. 399 pp. Gifford, Practical Forestry. N. Y., 1902. 284 pp. Graves, Principles of Handling Woodlands. N. Y., 191 1. 32s PP- Halsted, Barn Plans and Outbuildings. N. Y., 1903. 385 pp. Bailey, The Farm and Garden Rule-Book. N. Y., 191 1. 587 PP- Adams, The Modern Farmer. San Francisco, 1899. 662 pp. Roberts, The Farmers' Business Handbook. N. Y., 1903. 300 pp. Carver, Rural Economics. N. Y., 1905. 327 pp. Warren, Farm Management. N. Y., 1913. 590 pp. Green, Law for the American Farmer. N. Y., 191 1. 438 pp. 1 AGKICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. -iOo Butterfield, Chapters in Rural Progress. Chicago, 1908. 251 pp. Carney, Country Life and the Country School. Chicago, 191 2. 405 pp. AMERICAN DAIRY PAPERS. American Cheese-Maker. Grand Rapids, Mich. Monthly. 50 cents. Chicftgo Dairy Produce. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. Creamery Journal. Waterloo, la. Monthly, $1.00. Dairy Record, St. Paul, Minn. Weekly, $1.00. Elgin Dairy Report. Elgin, 111. Weekly, $1.00. Guernsey Breeder's Journal. Peterboro, N. H. Monthly. $2.00. The Jersey Bulletin and Dairy World. Indianapolis, Tnd. Weekly, $1.00. Hoard's Dairyman. Fort Atkinson, Wis. Wcekl}^, $1.00. Holstein-Friesian Register. Brattlcboro, Vt. Semi-monthly, $1.50. Holstein-Friesian World, Ithaca, N. Y. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. Kimball's Dairy Farmer. Waterloo, la. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. The Michigan Dairy Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Semi-monthly, $1.00. The Milk Dealer. Milwaukee, Wis. Monthly, $1.00. The Milk Reporter. Syracuse, N. Y. Monthly, $t.oo. New York Produce Review and American Creamery. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. Practical Dairyman. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. Pacific Dairy Review. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, Si. 00. Canadian Dairyman. Toronto. Monthly, $1.00. MAIN FOREIGN DAIRY PAPERS. The Dairy. 144 Fleet Street, London, England. Monthly, 3s. The Dairyman. 17 New Castle Street, Farringdon St., Lon- don, England. The Dairy World and British Dairy Farmer. 310 Strand, London, England. Monthly, 3s. 466 GENERAL TOPICS. Nordisk Mejeri-Tidning. Stockholm, Sweden. Weekly, 5 kr. Malkeritidende. Odense, Denmark. Weekly. Milchwirtschaftliches Zentralblatt. Leipzig, Germany. Monthly. Deutsche Molkerei-Zeitung. Berlin, Germany. Weekly, 9.20 mk. Molkerei-Zeitung. Hildesheim, Germany. Weekly, 6 mk. Oesterreich. Molkerei-Zeitung. Vienna, Austria. Semi- monthly, 6 mk. L'Industrie Laitiere. ^t, Rue J. J. Rousseau, Paris, France. Weekly, 20 f r. La Laiterie. 18 Rue des Martyrs, Paris. Bi-weekly, 13 fr. Schweizerische Molkerei Zeitung. Zurich. Weekly, 6.60 fr. Die Milch Industrie. Berne, Switzerland. Revue Generale du Lait. Brussels. Semi-monthly, 16 fr. New Zealand Dairyman, Wellington, N. Z. Monthly, 6s. 6d. MAIN AMERICAN AGRICULTURAI. AND HORTICUL- TURAL PAPERS. American Agriculturist. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. American Bee Journal. Chicago, III. Weekly, $1.00. American Cultivator. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.50. American Fertilizer. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, $2.00. American Gardening. New York City. Semi-monthly, $1.00. American Hay, Flour, and Feed Journal. N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. American Poultry Journal. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $1.00. American Poultry World. Buffalo, N. Y. IMonthly, 50 cents. American Sheep Breeder and Wool Grower. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $1.00. American Sugar Industry and Beet-sugar Gazette. Chicago, Semi-monthly, $2.50. American Swine Herd. Chicago, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. American Thresherman. Madison, Wis. Monthly, $1.00. American Veterinary Review. New York City. Monthly, $3.00. Acker- und Gartenbau Zeitung. Milwaukee, Wis. Weekly, $1.00. Better Fruit. Hood River, Ore. Monthly, $1.00. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 4G7 Breeders' Gazette. Chicago, III. Weekly, $i.oo. California Cultivator and Poultry Keeper. Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $i.oo. Canadian Horticulturist. Peterboro, Ont. Monthly, $i.od. Chicago Live Stock World. Chicago, 111. Daily, $3.00. Colman's Rural World. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $i.oo. Connecticut Farmer. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50. The Country Gentleman. Philadelphia, Pa. Weekl}^, $1.50. CouTitry Life in America. N. Y. Monthly, $4.00. The Dakota Farmer. Aberdeen, S. D. Semi-mjithl}', $r.OD. Drover's Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. Farm and Fireside. Springfield, O. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. Farm and Home. Chicago, and Springfield, Mass. Semi- monthly, 50 cents. The Farm Poultry. Boston, Mass. Monthly, 50 cents. The Farmer. St. Paul, Minn. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. Farm Implement News. Chicago. Weekly, $2.00. The Farmers' Advocate. London, Ont. Weekly, $1.50. Farmers' Guide. Huntington, Ind. Weekly, 75 cents. The Farmer's Magazine. Montreal. Month'y, $2.00. The Farmers' Tribune. Sioux City, la. Weekly, $1.00. Farmers' Review. Chicago, 111. Weeklj'-, $1.25. Farm, Field, and Fireside. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $i.od. Farm News. Springfield, Ohio. Monthly, 50 ce t>. Farm, Stock, and Home. Minneapolis, Minn. Seml-monthl}'', 50 cents. Farming. N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. Farming World. Toronto, Canada. Weekly, $i.oo. The Farm Journal. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, 50 cents. The Field Illustrated. N. Y. Weekly, $3.00. Florida Agriculturist. De Land, Fla. Weekly, $2.00. Flour and Feed. Milwaukee, Wis. Monthly, $1.00. Garden Magazine. N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. Gardening. Chicago, 111. Semi-monthly, $2.00. Horse Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. Indiana Farmer. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $1.00. The Homestead. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. Irrigation Age. Chicago, III. Monthly, $2.00. Journal of Agriculture. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00. 468 GENERAL TOPICS. Journal of Agriculture and Horticulture. Montreal, Canada. Monthly, $i.oo. Kansas Farmer. Topeka, Kan. Weekly, $i.oo. Kentucky Stock Farm. Lexington, Ky. Weekly, $2.00. Live Stock and Dairy Journal. Sacramento, Cal. Monthly, 75 cents. Live Stock Journal, Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. Live Stock Report. Chicago, 111. Weekly. Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans, La. Weekly, $3.00. Market Growers' Journal. Louisville, Ky. Semi-monthly. $1.00. Massachusetts Ploughman, Boston. Weekly, $2.00. Michigan Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Weekly, $1.00. Mirror and Farmer. Manchester, N. H. Weekly, Si. 00. Montana Stockman and Farmer. Helena, Mont. Semi- monthly, $2.00. National Grange Monthly. Westfield, Mass. 50 cents. National Stockman and Farmer. Pittsburgh, Pa. Weekly, $1.50. Nebraska Farmer. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $1.25. New England Farmer. Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.00. New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass. Weekly, $1.00. The Nor'-west Farmer. Winnipeg, Manitoba. Weekly, $1.50. Northwestern Agriculturist. Minneapolis, jMinn. Semi- monthly, 50 cents. Ohio Farmer. Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $1.00. Ohio Poultry Journal. Dayton, Ohio. Monthly, $1.00. Orange Judd Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. Orchard and Farm. San Francisco, Cal. INIonthly, $1.00. Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $3.00. Poultry Husbandry. Waterville, N. Y. Monthly, 50 cents. Practical Farmer. Philadelphia. Weekly, $1.00. Prairie Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. Ranch. Seattle, Wash. Semi-monthly, $1.00. Rural Cahfornian. Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $1.50. Rural New Yorker. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. The Shepherds' Journal. Chicago, 111. Monthy, 50 cents. Southern Cultivator. Atlanta, Ga. Monthly, $1.00. AGRICULTURE AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 4G9 Southern Planter. Richmond, Va. Monthly, $i.oo. Successful Poultry Journal. Chicago, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. Sugar-beet. Philadelphia. Quarterly, $2.00. Swine-Breeders' Journal. Indianapolis, Ind. Semi-monthly Ji.oo. Twentieth Century Farmer. Omaha, Neb. Weekly, $1.00. Texas Stockman. San Antonio, Tex. Weekly, $1.00. Turf, Field, and Farm. New York City. Weekly, $5.00. Wallace's Farmer. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. Western Swine-breeder. Lincoln, Neb. Monthly, 50 cents. Wisconsin Agriculturist. Racine, Wis. Weekly, 75 cents. Wool Markets and Sheep. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. INDEX. Aberdeen Angus cattle, 24 Accidents, what to do in case of, 377 Acidity of milk or cream, determination of, by alkaline tablet test, 304 Manns' test, 306 Acre-foot of water, 177 Adulteration of milk, 267 Advanced register of American cattle clubs, requirements for admission, 241 Age of farm animals, determination of, 36 Agricultural and dairy literature, 460 horticultural books, list of, 462 papers, main American, 466 Agricultural associations, constitution of, 359 books, a list of, 462 clubs, constitutions and by-laws of, 359 crops, rank of states in production of, 448 educational institutions in the United States and Canada, 454 engineering, 161 experiment stations in the United States and Canada, 458 imports and exports, 1 904-1 905, 439 population, number, and classification, 417 products, average farm price of, 1890- 19 10, 426 rank of states in value of, 448 schools and colleges in the United States, 454 wages in the United States, 424 Agriculture, ofificials in charge of, in the U. S., 453 Alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, 304 American trotter, the, 21 agricultural colleges, 454 experiment stations, 458 dairy schools, 457 schools of forestry, 457 soils, chemical composition, 146 veterinary colleges, 456 Apples, seasons of varieties, in various storages, 94 Arbor Day, dates of, in different states and territories, 139 Ash of cows' milk and colostrum, composition of, 251 Atavism, 52 Ayrshire cattle, 222 472 INDEX. Babcock milk test, the, 252 application of, 254 points to be watched, 253 Baltimore Canned Goods Exchange, standards of, loa Barley, commercial grades of, 405 Barnyard manure, 152, 153 composition, 155 Beef cattle, 24 proportion of, to live weight of cattle, 206 Bees, honey, and wax produced in the United States, 438 Beet-sugar production in the United States, 1901-1903, 436 Berkshire swine, 27 Board of Health (N. Y.) lactometer, 254, 255 Boiler, care of, 286 power, 289 Bordeaux mixture, 121 Boyd, John, Boyd's process of cream-ripening, 301 Breed tests of cows, Columbian, 1893, 238 St. Louis, 1904, 239 Breeds of live stock, characteristics of, 21 registered live stock in U. S., 428 dairy cattle, 429 Breeders' Associations, co-operative, Constitution , 3670 Brown-Swiss Cattle, 234 Butter, 295 American premium, analyses of, 308 by deep, cold setting and Cooley system, 303 shallow-pan creaming, 303 cheese and condensed-milk factories in the United States, 43i; commercial grades of, 309 composition of, 307 conversion factor for calculating yield of, 311 domestic exports of, 1870— 1905, 446 English scale of points for judging, 317 factories in the United States, statistics of, 434 fat, highest record for 24 hours, 239 official records, 240 standard of purity, government, 265 foreign samples of, composition of, 308 fresh, composition of, 308 from separator cream, 304 foreign, analyses of, 308 formula for calculating yield of, 311 loss of, through inefficient skimming, 285 makers, score in judging proficiency of, 317 V making, 295 distribution of milk ingredients in, 316 use of pure cultures in, 297 milk, composition of, 273 milk required for making i lb. of, 315, 316 -* overrun, the sliding-scale , 31^ INDEX. 473 Butter, records, official, 240 salted, composition of, 308 score for judging, 316 sliding-scale overrun, 314 sour cream, composition of, 307 standard of purity, government, 265 standards for, 262 sweet cream, composition of, 307 unsalted, composition of, 308 yield from cream of different richness, 311 milk of different richness, 314, 346 By-laws and rules for co-operative cheese factories, 354 creamery associations, 351 Cald veil, Prof. W. H., Guernsey cattle, 214 California weir table, 182 Canada, area and population, 411 butter and cheese-making in, 435 crops, production of, 425 dairy schools, 459 experiment stations, 459 exports of dairy products, 446 meteorological data, 416 Ministers and Commissioners of Agriculture, 453 number of farm animals, 1901, 427 production of various crops, 190 1, 425 veterinary colleges, 458 Canned Goods Exchange, Baltimore, standards, 102 Carcass, a steer's, 204 of farm animals, constituents of, 209 Cattle, breeds, 24 clubs, American, requirements for admission to adv. registers, 241 determination of age of, 28 diseases of, 57 live weight, estimation of, 35 market classes, 30 proportion of beef to live weight 206 the various parts of, 208 pure bred, used for dairying, in the United States, 429 Cattle foods, classification, 11 comparative value, 19 Centrifugal skim-milk, per cent fat in, 280 Cereals, prevention of smut in, 129 prices per bushel and per ton, 20 Cheddar cheese, formulas for finding yield of, 331 commercial grades of, 336a losses in curing, 333 manufacture of, 319 Cheese, butter, and condensed-milk factories in the United States in 1900, 434 Cheese, composition, 320, 330 curing-r^oms, detennin^ + i -t ^>f h-imidity in, 326 474 II^^DEX^ Cheese, domestic exports of, 1870-1905, 446 factories, co-operative, by-laws and rules for, 354 in the United States, statistics of, 434 management 338 whey to be allowed patrons of, 337 loss in weight during curing, 333 manufacture of, 319 market of the United States, 3360 score for judging, 329 standard of purity, government, 265 Chee'^e making, distribution of ingredients, 330 fertilizing ingredients, 331 . use of pure cultures, 297 synopsis of manufacture of principal varieties, 336 varieties and anal^'^ses, 330 yield from 100 lbs. of milk, 332, 334 Chester White pigs, 27 Cheviot sheep, 26 Chinch-bugs, fighting the, by means of kerosene emulsion, 130 Cisterns, capacity of, 182, 183 Clark, W. G., M.D.C., Common diseases of farm animals, 53 Veterinary remedies and doses, 63 Cleveland Bay horses, 22 Clover, winter-killed, replacing, 82 Clovers, notes on adaptability and uses, iii Clydesdale horses, 22 Coins, foreign, value of, 409 Cold storage, temperatures for dairy products in, 318 Colostrum,- composition of, 251 ash, composition of, 251 Components of cows' milk, calculation of, 250 Composite samples of milk, directions for taking and preserving, 338 Composition and weight of ordinary crops per acre, 80 of ash of cows' milk and colostrum, 251 butter, 307, 308 colostrum, 251 commercial fertilizing materials, 154 cows' milk, variations in, 249 cream, 273 dairy products, 273 dairy salt, 318 different parts of same milkings, 249 feeding-stuffs, i, 3, 6 live animals, 208 milk of different breeds, 242 morning and evening milk, 249 morning, noon, and evening milk, 249 sweet- and sour-cream butter, 307 various kinds of milk, 248 Concentrated feeding-stuffs, weight of, 18 Condensed milk, composition, 273 INDEX. 475 Condensed-milk, butter, and cheese factories in the United States, 434 Constitution and by-laws of agricultural clubs, 359 breeders' associations, 367a dairy test associations, 3676 road leagues, 366 village-improvement societies, 364 Contagious diseases, rules for treatment in case of, 71 Conversion factor for calculating yield of butter, 311 of U. S. weights and measures to metric, and vice versa, 389, 391 foreign money to dollars and cents, 410 table for calculating fertilizing ingredients, 160 pounds of milk into quarts, and vice versa, 269 Cooling milk or cream, water or ice required, 294 Com, cost per acre of raising, 426 commercial grades of, 403 Com on the cob, measurement of, in cribs, 397 Cost of irrigating canals and ditches, iSo raising wheat and com, per acre, 426 Cotswold sheep, 26 Cotton, average cost per acre, 426 Cows, buying and selling by tests of their milk, 244 care of, 245, 272, 350 diseases of, 57 See also tmder Dairy Cows Craig, Prof. John A., Characteristics of breeds of live stock, 21 Cream, application of viscogen, 292 calculation of per cent fat in, 275 composition of, 273 formula for diluting, to a desired fat content, 279 finding fat content of, 278 gatherers, instructions to, 356 ice required for cooling, 294 of different fat contents, relative value of, 270 yield of butter from, 311 preservation of, by heat, 290 quantity of water or ice required for cooling, 294 relative value of, 269a ripening, Boyd's process of, 301 separators, capacity of, 282 economy of, 281 handling and care of, 279 list of, 276 power required for skimming 1000 lbs. milk, 281 standard of purity, government, 265 standards for, 262 standardization of, 286 use of alkaline tablet test with, 304 yield from milk of different richness, 274 Creameries and cheese factories, directions for making dividends in, 345 suggestions to patrons of, 349 Creamery associations, co-operative by-laws and rules for, 351 management of, 338 476 INDEX. Crops, farm, enemies of, 121 field, important data as to, 74, 77 fertilizing materials in, 150, 151 soiling, 81, 82, 84 1 various yields per acre, 91 ■ weight and average composition of, per acre, 80 Culverts, sizes of drain-pipe required for, in prop, to capacity and fall, 169 Curd test, the Wisconsin, 322 Curing of cheese, losses in, 333 rooms, humidity in, 326 Cuts of meat, diagrams of. 204, 205 Dairy breeds, composition of milk from, 242 t results of tests of, 237-241 cattle, origin and characteristics of breeds, 211 pure-bred, in the United States, 429 cows, 211 advanced register of, requirements for admission, 241 dry matter, digestible matter and digestible protein to be furnished in rations, 196 methods of judging the value of, 243, 244 pure-bred, average per cent of fat and production, 242 rations for, 12, 14, 16 size of silo for different number of, 86 soiling crops for 84 yield of milk and fat from, 236, 239, 243 farms, regulations for the government of, 71 papers, American, 464 main foreign 465 products, American analyses of, 248 composition of 273 exports of, from Canada 1 868-1 904, 446 the United States, 1 870-1 905, 446 ' fertilizing ingredients in, 251 legal standards for, 262 standards of purity, government, 264 temperatures for cold storage of, 318 rules, fifty, 244 salt, analyses, 318 schools in the United States and Canada, 457 statistics for the United States, 1900, 432 test associations, constitution, 367& Dairies and dairy farms, regulations for the government of, 71 Dairying, 211 more important works on, 460 pure-bred cattle, used for, in the U. vS., number and value, 439 Dates of killing frost, 413 Days between dates within two years, number of, 384 Decker, Prof. John W., How American cheese is made, 319 Dentition of farm animals, 36 Detection of bad milk, 322 Devon cattle, 230 * I Dewey, L. H., Table of noxious weeds, ii6 Dew-point, table of, 327 Dietaries, 196 daily, calculation of, 196 Dietary standards, 196 studies, American, summary, 203 Digestion coefficients, 2 Dimensions, interior, of farm buildings, 191 Directory of official agricultural institutions, 452 Diseases of farm animals, 53 Disinfectants, list of, 70 Disinfection of stables, rules for, 71 Distance table for planting vegetables, 88 tree-planting, 90, 138 Ditches, open, number of acres drained by, 166 Dividends, directions for making, in creameries and cheese factories, 34s Dorset sheep, 26 Doses, veterinary, graduation of, 63 Drainage systems, points to note in planning, 169 Draining of area of land by tiles, removing i in. depth of water in 24 hours, 165, 170 area of land by open ditches, 166 land, reasons for, 161 Drains, of various dimensions, earth removed for 171 advice to landowners about to construct, 168 Duroc-Jersey swine, 27 Durum wheat, commercial grades, 403 Dutch belted cattle, 232 Duty of water, 176 Economy, pecuniary, of food, 200 Egg products in the U. S., 1879-99, 437 Eggs, loss in weight, during incubation, 46 Engine management, 289 Engineering, agricultural, 161 English milking trials, results of, 241 Essex swine, 27 Exhaustion of fertilizers, 156 Exhibition purposes, preservation of soft fruits for, 100 Experiment stations, agricultural, in the U. S. and Canada, 458 Exports, agricultural, in the U. S., 1904-1905, 439 domestic, of butter and cheese, 446 Fair tests of dairy cows, 239, 243 Farm, transportation on the, 189 Farm animals, body temperature of, 38 characteristics of breeds of, 21 commDn diseases of, 53 constituents of carcass, 209 determination of age of, 36 estimated number on farms and ranches, 1905, 430 feeding-standards for i? 478 INDEX. Farm animals, food requirements of, i8 gestation period, average, 39 heat in, duration and trequency, 38 in Canada in igoi, 427 in the United States in 1 870-1 900, 427 live, composition of, 208 market classes of, 28 Farm buildings, interior dimensions of, 191 crops, enemies of, 121 products, fertilizing constituents of, 147 cost of hauling, 188 yield of, per acre, 81 Farmyard manure, amount required to replace ingredients abstracted by various crops, 152 composition, amount, and value, 153, 155 Farmers, forestry for, 131 Farmers' institutes, officials in charge of, 459 Farming population of the United States, 417 approximate losses of fertilizing materials in different systems, 145 Farms in the United States, statistics concerning, 419 Farrington, Prof. E. H., The alkaline tablet test for acidity in milk or cream, 304 Fat content of milk from pure-bred cows, 242 Fat, relation of, to casein and other solids of milk, 250 Fattening animals, comparative results obtained with, 207 Feeding and general care of poultry, 41 standards for farm animals, 12 stuffs, chart showing manurial value of, 147 composition of, i, 3, 6 comparative value of, 19 concentrated, classification, ii weights of, 18 fertilizing constituents, 147, 148 manurial value, 147 ready reference table of composition, 6 valuation of, 20 Feed rations, calculation of components of, 14 Feed unit system, 19a Fermentation tests, 322, 324 Fernow, Prof. B. E., Forestry for farmers, 131 Fertilizer industry of the United States, 447 laws, states having, 158 Fertilizing constituents of feeding-stuffs and farm products, 147, 148 materials, commercial, composition, 154 conversion table for calculation, 160 equivalent quantities of, 157 in dairy products, 251; in different crops, 151 in raw materials and chemicals, trade value of, 159 losses of, in different systems of farming, 145 voided by animals, 153 INDEX. 479 Fertilizing materials withdrawn by various crops, 150, 151 Fertilizers, 145 commercial, composition, 154 exhaustion of, 156 imports and exports, 447 industry of the U. S., 447 valuation of, 158 Field crops, 74 important data as to, 77 Fish N. S., Brown-Swiss cattle, 234 Flag signals adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau, explanation of, 368 Flaxseecl commercial grades of, 406 Food economy, 195 fuel value, 194 Foods, human, 193 Food materials, human, composition of, 197, 198 nutrients furnished for 25 cents in, 201 pecuniary economy of, 200 Forcing calendar, a vegetable, 93 Foreign coins, Value of, 409 Forestry, 131 for farmers, 131 schools of, 457 Forest fire laws in the United States, 140 Formaldehyd treatment for the prevention of smut of cereal grains and of potato scab, 127, 129 Formulas for calculation of total solids in milk, 258 yield of butter, 31 1 converting degrees Centigrade or Reaumur to Fahrenheit, and vice versa, 395 diluting cream to a desired fat content, 279 finding adulteration of milk, 267 fat content of cream, 278 quantity of water or ice required for cooling milk or cream, 294 yield of Cheddar cheese, 331 Frederiksen , J. D., Handling and care of cream separators, 279 French coach horses, 22 Frost, killing, dates of average and actual, 413 Fruit and vegetable garden, a combined, 92 Fruit packages, kinds of, 94 Fruit trees, distances apart, 90 longevity, 90 time required to bear fruit, 90 Fruits, soft, preservation of, for exhibition purposes, 100 calculated value of, compared with hay, grains, etc., 19 temperatures for preserving, 100 Fuel value of food materials, 194 of woods, 136 Fungous diseases of plants treatments for 121 Galloway cattle, 24 480 INDEX. Gardener's planting table, 88 Gardner, M. H., Holstein-Friesian cattle, 218 Gerber fermentation test, the, 324 Germination standards of seeds, 109 of vegetable seeds, time of, 90 Gestation calendar, 39 period in farm animals, 39 Goff, Prof. E. S., Treatments for insect and fimgous diseases, x3X Government land measures, 396 standards of purity for milk and its products, 264 Grades of butter, commercial, 309 grain, commercial, 401 barley, 405 com, 403 durum wheat, 403 flaxseed, 406 oats, 404 rye, 405 wheat, 401 hay and straw, 406a Grades per too ft., and their square roots, 164 Grain, commercial grades of, 401 Grains, prices of, per bushel and per ton, 20 Grass seeds, amounts to sow per acre, 109 number, weight, and cost of, 109 Grasses, notes on adaptability and uses of, iii Guernsey cattle, 214 Gurler, H. B., Butter-making, 295 Hackney horses, 22 Hampshire sheep, 25 Hand separators, list of, 276 flauling farm products, cost of, 188 Hawks and owls, beneficial and harmful, 370 Hay in mows or stacks, reckoning amount and value of, 397 Hay, commercial grades of, 406a seed mixtures for, 75 Heat in farm animals, duration and frequency, 38 Hemp ropes, strength of, 399 Herd milk, ranges in composition of, 268 Heredity, 48 Hereford cattle, 24 Hicks, Gilbert H., Seed-testing for the farmer, 104 Highland sheep, 27 Hills, number of, on an acre of land, 87 Hog cholera, suppression of, 67 Holidays, h^T'^l, 375 Hoi ;tein-Friesian cittle, 218 Ho:i>y ail he-'SV\K i.i I'm United States, production of, 43S Horse, determination of a.^e, 36 INDEX. 481 Horse, labor done by, 189 Horse-power, 290 required for discharge of given quantities of water, 176 1 separating 1000 lbs. of milk, 281 -y Horses, dentition of, 38 diseases of, 53 heavy, 22 light, 21 market classes of, 28 Horticulture, 88 Horticultural books, a list of, 462 products, best temperatures for preserving, 100 Hot-water treatment for smut, 127, 128 Human foods, 193 composition, 198 Humidity in cheese-curing rooms, 326 relative, in curing-rooms, table showing, 327 Hurricane warnings, 369 Ice required for cooling milk or cream, 294 Ice-cream, standard of purity, government, 266 Imports, agricultural, in the U. S., 1904-1905, 439 of sugar into the United States, 436 Inches reduced to decimals of a foot, 390 Incubation, loss in weight of eggs during, 46 Industry groups in the United States, 424 Indian com, commercial grades of, 403 Insects, injurious, treatments for, 121 Interest tables, 382 Irrigated land in farms, value of, 178 Irrigating canals and ditches, cost per mile, 180 ) Irrigation, 176 efficiency of windmills for. 173, 181 pipes, carrying capacity. 179 cost of, 180 Jersey cattle, 211 Kephir, composition of, 270 Kerosene emulsion, 122, 130 Kilograms converted into pounds avoirdupois, 390 Koumiss, composition, 270 standard of purity, government, 266 Lactometer, 254 scales, comparison of, 255 Land, acres of appropriated, vacant, and reserved, in the 17. S., 417 measures, government, 396 ' Legal holidays, 375 Legal standards for dairy products, 262 weights of grain, seeds, etc., 400 Leicester sheep, 26 Lincoln sheep, 26 Live animals, composition of, 210 482 INDEX. Live mineral matters in loo parts, 210 Live stock, characteristics of breeds of, 21 registered, breeds and number of, in the U. S., 428 Live weight of cattle, estimation of, 28 London purple ,122 | Loss of butter from inefficient skimming, 285 ' cheese in curing, 333 Losses of fertilizing materials in different systems of farming, 145 ' Lumber industry of the U. S., statistics, 437 1 Main pipe, rule for obtaining size of, 163 Manila ropes, strength of, 390 ] Manns' test, direction for use, 306 j Manure, amount and quality produced by stock, 15-2 | amount required to replace ingredients abstracted by various crops, ''' .. I Manures aid fertilizers, 144 composition, amount, and value of, from different farm ani- mals, 152, 153 ^ valuation of, 158 l Manurial value of feeding-stuffs, 147, 148 ] Maple sirup, specific gravity, sugar content, and boiling-point, 96 j production of, in the United States, 1899, 437 1 siogar obtained from, 97 \ production of, in the United States, 1 905-1 906, 435 Market classes of farm animals, 28 j Marschall rennet test, 319 Maturity table for vegetable seeds, 90 ■ Meat, diagrams of cuts, 204, 205 \ Merino sheep, 25 i Mineral matters in 100 parts of live animals, 210 : Milch cows, diseases of, 57 - Milk, adulteration, 267 | ash, composition, 251 . l average composition, with variations, 249 ' bad, detection of, 322 ■ , ! calculations of components, 250 \ - ; total solids, 258 : care of, 246 ' composition of, from different breeds, 242 different parts of the same milkings, 249 various kinds, 248 , • cream, butter- fat, and butter, comparative prices, 314 i.j fertilizing ingredients in, 251 ^ "^ gatherers, instnictions to, 356 ingredients, distribution of, in butter-making, 316 - ] cheese-making, 331 . ! measures, prices of, 269a ' modified, amounts of cream or skim-milk used in making, 270 1 morning and evening, composition of, 249 ' morning, noon, and evening, composition of, 249 ' of different fat contents, relative value of, 270 payment of, at creameries and cheese factories, 340 j INDEX. 483 Milk, power required for skimming looo lbs., 281 preservation ot, by heat, 290, 293 price of, per 1000 lbs., 343 prices, by measures 2720 products, standards of purity for, 266 quantity of water or ice required for cooling, 294 records, official, 240 relation of fat to casein, and other solids of, 250 relative cheese value of, 334 required for making one lb. of butter, 315, 316 rules for handling, 2-]2 skimming and watering of, 267, 268 solids, calculation of, 250, 258, 260 sjlids, calculation of specific gravity of, 261 specific gravity of, temperature correction tables for, 356 standards, 262 standards of purity, government, 264 standardization of, 271 table for converting pounds of, into quarts, 269 quarts of, into pounds, 269 finding average per cent of fat in, 347 testing, a chapter on, 252 use of alkaline tablet test with, 304 variation in composition, 268 watering of, 267 yield and composition of, of different breeds, 243 Milking trials. English, results of, 241 rules for, 245 utensils, care of, 247 Milkings, composition of different parts of same, 249 Miner's inch, 177 Money, conversion table, 410 foreign, value of, 409 order fees, 386 Monrad rennet test, the, 319 Mutton, diagrams of cuts, 205 sheep, 25 Nails, cut, table of, 192 New York Board of Health lactometer, comparison with Quevenne' lactometer, 255 Nitrate of soda, prices of, on the ammoniate basis, 160 Nitrogen voided by animals, 153 Noer, J., M.D., What to do in case of accidents, 377 Noxious weeds, table of 116 Number of plants for an acre of ground, 86, 87 trees on an acre, 135 Nutrients, 193 furnished for 25 cents in food materials, 201 Nutritive ratio, 2 Oats, commercial grades of, 404 Oat -smut, prevention of, 127 484 i:n"dex. Official milk- and butter-fat records, 240 Orchard-spraying outfit, a cheap. 126 Ounces reduced to decimals of a foot, 390 Oxford sheep, 26 Overrun of butter, 309, 314 ^ Parcel post, 386 Pasteurization of milk and cream, 290 Pastures, permanent, seed mixtures for, 75 Patents, how issued, 371 Patrons of creameries, rides for, 356 Patrons of chees3 factories and creameries, suggestions to, 34Q1 Payment of milk at creameries and cheese factories, 340 Percheron horses, 23 Perishable goods, temperatures injuring, 98 Pickrell, J. H., Shorthorns as dairy cows, 224 Pipes, carrying capacity of, 179 cost of, for irrigation, 180 straight, flow of water through, 179 Plant diseases, treatments for, 121 food, proportion recommended for different crops, 158 Planting table, a gardener's, 88 Plants, temperatures injuriotis to, 99 Plants, number of, for an acre of ground, 86, 87 Plowing, performance of team in, 189 Poisoning, antidotes in cases of, 380 Poland China swine, 27 Population, agricultural, number and classification, 417 Pork, diagram of cuts of, 205 .Postage, domestic, 385 foreign, 385; parcel post, 386 Potatoes, relation of sp. gr., dry matter, and starch content of, 95 Potatoes, prevention of scab, 129 Poultry and egg products in the United States, 1 879-1 899, 437 breeds of, 47, 48 feeding and care of, 41 period of incubation, 38 standard weights of, 47 Pounds converted into kilograms, 390 Power required for discharge of water, 176 to raise water from deep wells, 180 separators, list of, 276 Precipitation, normal, in Canada, 416 the United States, 415 Preservation of horticultural products, best temperatures for, XOd milk and cream by heat, 290 soft fruits for exhibition purposes, 100 Preservatives for soft fruits for exhibition purposes, loa Prevention of oat -smut, 127 smuts of cereal grains and potatoes, 129 Ptimps, capacities of, 181 Pure cultures, use of, in butter- and cheese-making, 397 INDEX. 485 Purity sta idards of seeds, io6 Quevenne lactometer, 255 Rainfall, 172 Rations for dairy cows, practical. 14, 16; standard, 12 dry matter, digestible matter, and digestibk protein in, 196. farm animals, 12 Reciprocals of numbers, 392 Record, highest, for yield of fat, 239 Records, milk- and butter-fat, official, 240 Red-polled cattle, 227 Rennet tests, 319 Richards* H. B., Dutch belted cattle, 232 Richter, Prof. A. W., Steam boiler and engine management 286 Road leagues, constitution of, 366 Road-making, i8,» Roads, drainage, 183 Roads, different 1'--^'^=; ot. force required to draw a load on 185 186 good, importanc -^5 gravel for, 184 repairs, 184 stone required for maintenance of, 190 Ropes, strength of, 399 Russell, Prof. H. L., Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 290 Rye, commercial grades of, 405 Salt, American dairy, analyses of, 318 Second-foot of water, 177 ^eed mixtures for grass, clover, hay and permanent pastures, 75. 76 quantity required per acre, 74, 77 testing for the farmer, 104 vegetable, quantity required per acre, 90 Seeds, 104 germination standards, 109 grass, number, weight, cost, and amount to sow per acre loc purity, 105 purity standards, 106 vegetable, time of germination and maturity table 90 vitality. 113 weights, legal, 400 seedsmen's, 114 Separator skim-milk, per cent fat in, 280 Shaw, Prof. Thomas, Heredity, 48 Sheep, breeds, 25 determination of age of, 36 diseases of, 61 fine-wooled, 25 market classes of, 32 mutton. 25 proportions ot the various parts of, 308 Shire horses, 33 48G INDEX. Shorthorn cattle, 24, 224 Shropshire sheep, 25 Silos, cylindrical, horizontal feeding area for different sized herds, 85 capacity of, 85 relation between size of, and number of cows they will keep, 86 Sirup, sorghum, obtained from juice of different densities, 97 Sisson, L. P,, Devon cattle, 230 Skim-milk, composition of, 273 per cent fat in, 280 Skimming of milk, detection of, 267 inefficient, loss of butter caused by, 285 Slope, rise per 100 feet, 171 Smith, J. McLain, Red-polled cattle, 227 Smut of cereal grains, prevention of, 129 oats, prevention of, 127 Sodium nitrate, prices of, on the ammoniate basis, 160 Soiling crops adapted to Northern New England states, 81 succession of, for dairy cows, 84 time of planting and feeding, 82 Soils, American, analyses of, 146 Solids of milk, calculation of, 258 sp. gr. of, 261 tables for obtaining, from specific gravity and per cent of fat, 26c Sorghum sirup obtained from juice of different densities, 97 produced in the United States, 1899, 437 Southdown sheep, 25 Specific gravity of buttermilk, 273 cream, 273 maple sirup, 96 milk, 249 milk solids, 261 potatoes, 95 skim -milk, 273 various substances, 407 woods, 136 temperature correction tables for, of milk, 256 Spraying calendar, 123 outfit for orchards, 126 Standard rations for farm animals, 12, 14 varieties of poultry, 47 Standards for dairy products, 262 of purity of seeds, 106 for milk and its products, government, 264 Standardization of cream, 286 milk, 272 Starch content, dry matter, and sp. gr. of potatoes, relation of, 95 equivalent, 2 Statistical tables, 411 Steam boiler and engine management, 28$ Steers, diagram of carcass, 204 INDEX. 487 Steers, live and dressed weights of, 306 proportions of the various parts of, 206 Sterilization of milk and cream, 290, 293 Storm and hurricane warnings, 369 Straw, commercial grades of, 406a Sub-humid region, 178 Suffolk horses, 23 sheep, 26 Sugar in the United States, production, 436 factories in the U. S., statistics of, 436 imports, 1 901-1905, 436 Swine, breeds, 27 determination of age by their teeth, 36 diseases of, 62 live weight and gains made, 207 market classes of, 32 j plague, suppression of, 67 proportions of the various parts of, 308 Tainted milk, causes of, 322 Tamworth swine, 27 Tanks, capacity of, 182 Temperature correction tables for specific gravity of milk, 356 Temperature of the air, normal mean, in Canada, 416 the United States. 413 farm animals, normal, 38 Temperatures injuring perishable goods, 98 for preserving horticultural products, 100 injurious to plants, 99 Test associations, dairy, constitution, 367b Testing milk and other dairy products by Babcock's method, 253 Tests of dairy breeds at American experiment stations, 237 British Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 241 La. Purchase Exposition, 239 World's Columbian Exposition, 238 Thermometer scales, comiparisons of, 393 Thoroughbred horse, the, 21 Tile, limit of size to grade and length, 172 Tile draining land, reasons for, 161 pipe of main drain, size required, 163 Tiles, discharge of, on different grades, 164 number required per acre, table showing, 162, 163 of acres drained by, of different diameters and per cent grade, 164, 165 size required for drainage, 162, 163 Tires, wide, effect of, 190 Tractive force required for carriages, 185 of horses at different speed, 186 effect of inclination on, 187 surface on, 188 Trade values of fertilizing ingredients, 159 Transportation on the farm, 189 488 INDEX. Tree-planting, distance table, 138 Trees, number on an acre, 135 Trotter, the American, 21 Tuberculin tests, directions for making, 69 United States, agricultural experiment stations in, 458 imports and exports. 439 population, 411, 418 products, prices of, 1890- 1905, 426 schools and colleges, 454 wages, 1893-1895, 424 area and population, 411 areas of appropriated, vacant, and reserved land in, 417 bees, honey, and wax produced, 438 beet-sugar factories in, statistics of, 436 production, 1 903-1 906, 436 f breeds and number of registered live stock, 428 | butter, exports, 1 870-1 905, 446 j factories, statistics of, 434 * cattle, pure-bred, used for dairying, number and value, 429 ] cereal products, principal, 425 I cheese factories, statistics of, 434 J exports, 1870-1905, 446 comparison of leading industries, 416 condensed-milk factories, statistics of, 434 > cost per acre of raising wheat, com, and cotton, 1893, 426 J crops, principal, statistics of, 420, 425 j dairy schools 457 statistics for 1900, 432 Department of Agriculture, organization, 453 educational institutions, 454 ] farm animals, 430 ! farming population, 417 - farmers' institutes, officials in charge, 459 farms in, number of. and their value, 418 farms, statistics concerning, 419 j fertilizer industry, 447 ' imports and exports, 1896, 447 i forestry schools, 457 | industry groups in. 424 j live-stock interests, veterinary and sanitary officers in charge of, 456 I number and value of farm animals, 427, 430 I of farms in, and their value, 418 '■ of pure-bred cattle used for dairying, 429 of registered live stock, 428 ; officials in charge of agriculture, 453 poultry and egg product, 1 880-1 900, 437 precipitation, normal, 415 i production and value of principal crops, 425 production of honey and beeswax, 438 ' rank of states in as to value of agricultural products, 448 < soils, analyses of, 146 : IXDEX. 489 United State ., statistics of butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories, 4.34 statistics of farms. 419 principal crops. 420, 425 sugar crop in the United States, 435 factories, beet, statistics of, 436 production of beet- and cane-, 436 temperature of the air, normal mean, 412 value of principal farm products, 425 veterinary colleges in, 456 wages, agricultural, 1893-1895, 424 woc^l product, 435 Valuation of feeding-stuflfs, 20 manures and fertilizers, 158 Val-ie of foreign coins, 409 Veal, diagram of cuts, 205 Vegetable and fruit garden, a combined, 92 Vegetable forcing calendar, a, 93 Vegetable seed required per acre, 90 time of germination and maturity table, 90 VegetabL^s, usual distances for planting, 72 Veterinary colleges, American, list of, 456 remedies and doses, 63 science, 53 Victoria swine, 25 Village-improvement societies, constitution of, 364 Viscogen, 292 Vitality of seeds, 113 "vVages, agricultural, in the United States, 1 893-1 895, 424 by the week and the day, table of, 383 Wagon tires, wide, effect of, 190 Water, acre-foot of, 177 carrying capacity of pipes, 179 duty of, 176 flow through straight pipes, 179 miner's inch, 177 power required for discharge of, 176 to raise, from deep wells, 180 required for cooling milk or cream, quantity, 294 right, 176 second-foot ,177 Watering of milk, detection of, 267 and skimming, detection of, 268 Weather Bureau, the, explanation of flag signals adopted by, 368 services, state, list of headquarters of, 370 Weeds, 1 1 6 noxious, table of, 116 Weight of cattle, estimation of, 35 eggs, loss in, during inctibation, 46 Weights of poiiltry, standard, 47 490 INDEX. "Weights and measures, 387 conversion table, 389, 391 customary system of, 387 metric system of, 388 Weiglits, legal, of grain, seeds, etc., 114, 400 seedsmen's customary, per bu. of seeds, 114 Weir table, the California, 182 Wheat, cost per acre, of raising, 426 commercial grades of, 401 Wheeler, Prof. Wm. P., Feeding and general care of poultry, 41 Whey, composition of, 273 standard of purity, government, 266 to be allowed patrons, 337 Whitewash, recipe for, 191 Wind, force and velocity of, 173 Windmills, capacity, 173, 174, 181 economy, 175 square feet and acres irrigated by, 173 Winslow, C. M., Ayrshires, 222 Winter-killed clover, replacing, 82 Wire ropes, strength of, 399 Wisconsin curd test, 322 Woods, fuel value and specific gravity, 136 Wool product of the United States, 1905, 435 World's Columbian Exposition, results of breed tests at, 238 World's Fair, St. Louis, results of breed tests at, 239 Yield of butter, formula for calculating, 311 from 100 lbs. cream of different richness, 311 Cheddar cheese, formula for calculating, 331 cheese from 100 lbs. of milk, 332, 334 fat, highest record, 239 milk and fat from dairy cows, 237 of dairy breeds, 237-242 Yields, average, per acre of various crops, 87, 91 Yorkshire swine, 27 cv .XS^ ^tv>5 •^X. \v- vr*. ^ . ^•^^lt■ *in ^M; ..;■ 's- : ;^^ ^^.'l: ■^^ ;^,"'Vi '?*>*•*: «. f?i't.v ■^*^-^'^' ;iliferiiii:ff||:iaii#Hi|i: :M«^lil iiii'