aSa BOB H 19 Br» m rhbhI m m fffl H ■ i§§i _■ DSB ■ mi ■BBl Book 'RESENTED BY ( % % (o — ^2- I WHITNEY'S MODERN LANGUAGE BOOKS. WHITNEY'S FRENCH GRAMMAR. A Practical French Grammar, with Exercises and Illustrative Sentences from French Authors $i 60 WH1TNEY-KLEMM GERMAN SERIES. By William D. Whitney, Professor in Yale College, and L. R. Klemm, Author of Lèse- und Sprac/iâùcAer, etc. RUDIMENTS OF GERMAN. {In Preparation) GERMAN BY PRACTICE $1 10 ELEMENTARY GERMAN READER 100 A COMPENDIOUS GERMAN GRAMMAR 1 5° BRIEF GERMAN GRAMMAR 75 GERMAN READER 180 GERMAN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY 3 So GERMAN TEXTS. Edited by Prof. W. D. Whitney. Lessir.q's Minna von Barnhelm. Annotated by W. D. Whitney, Prof, in Yale College 75 cents. Schiller's Wilhelm Tell. Annotated by Prof. A. Sachtleben, of Charleston, S. C 75 cents. Goethe's Faust. Annotated by Wm. Cook 80 cents. Goethe's Iphigenie auf Tauris. Annotated by Prof. Franklin Car- ter, Williams College 75 cents. Schiller's Maria Stuart. Annotated by E. S. Joynes, Prof, in Uni- versity of South Carolina 80 cents. Lessing's Nathan der Weise. Annotated by H. C. G. Brandt, Prof, in Hamilton College 75 cents. HENRY HOLT & CO., Publishers, NEW YORK. / PRACTICAL "7X3 FRENCH GRAMMAR WITH EXERCISES AND ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES FROM FRENCH AUTHORS BY WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY m Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology and Instructor in Modern Languages in Tale College. NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY F. W. Christern Boston: Carl Schoenhof tfiU ow* Copyright, 1886, BY HENRY HOLT & CO. P, L.oJ.Tr ÏV Dbummond & Net;, Printed by Electrotypers, C. F. Vogklius. New York. New York, PREFACE. This volume is the outcome of the author's experience as a teacher of French during many years in one of the departments of Yale College. The design had in view in it has been to furnish for such classes, and for preparatory schools (where training in French is coming to be more and more demanded), a grammar which should combine the advantages of practice and theory in a higher degree than others now existing. To this end, the most important facts of the language have been grouped and arranged in a series of Lessons, in an order suggested by practical con- venience, each Lesson being accompanied by sufficient Exercises. These Lessons constitute the First or Practical Part of the grammar, which it is expected that every learner of the language will work through. Its general plan, while not unlike the method followed in many gram- mars, is so far accordant especially with that of the widely used and valued " Conversation-Grammar" of Otto, that it may fairly be said to be founded upon the latter — though no more than that, since both text and Exercises are en- tirely new, and deviations from the older plan not only numerous, but of much importance. As one example among many, a more systematic course is followed in the important item of the learner's introduction to the verbs : all the principal forms are learned and practised, one after another, before any complete paradigm is set forth ; and the commonest and most useful of the irregular verbs are worked in by degrees, before they are taken up as a body. IV PKEFACE. It is believed that the method here adopted of presenting and teaching the irregular verbs has decided practical advan- tages over any other, and lightens, as much as it is possible to lighten, this heaviest burden in French grammar. In the Exercises, care has been taken not to embarrass the learner with long lists of words of which little use is to be made, but rather to make him practise over and over a more limited and slowly increasing vocabulary. If, in the case of any class, the Lessons are found too long, the intelligent teacher will easily divide the Exercises, returning to take up what was omitted, in the course of that review and reiteration by which alone the desired degree of mastery of the material can be obtained. Where an early introduction to reading is especially aimed at, the Exercises may be reduced to a minimum, and (so much like English are French words and construction) a Reader or a text can be taken up as soon as the auxiliaries, the regular conjugations, and a feAv of the commonest irregular verbs are learned. This summary process will be greatly aided by the French Vocabulary, in which are to be found, besides many of the oftenest used words of the language, nearly all the form-words — the auxiliaries, the articles and pronouns, and the prepositions and conjunctions— with full references to the explanations and illustrations of their use that are given in the volume. The Second Part is to be regarded and used both as a supplement and as a successor to the First. Resting upon the basis of the First Part (while not rejecting the occasional repetition, in more proper connection or in fuller form, of statements there made), it gives a more penetrating view of the usages of the language, especially of its syntactical usages. The framework of Lessons, which could only em- barrass such a presentation, is discarded in it. That it should be worked and written through as soon as the First Part is despatched, does not at all lie in the author's plan. No class should be expected to take it up in that way until PKEFACE. V after having read considerable French text as well, and thus gained some practical familiarity with the facts of the lan- guage which the grammar attempts to systematize. Noth- ing is worse than to try to make pupils learn more French grammar than they learn French. But the practical knowledge of the language gained in connection with the First Part stands in need of frequent reference to the Second, for the explanation or further elucidation of special points, in order to their proper understanding ; and with many students the chief use of this Part will be as a book of reference, to be consulted under the guidance of the teacher. Another way to use it with profit is to read with care the sets of Illustrative Sentences, noting in connection with the reading the grammatical points which those illus- trate. One has there a series of selected phrases from French authors of repute, exemplifying most of the usages of which it is the duty of a grammar to take note ; after despatching those, with the accompanying explanations of the volume, one will meet with little in French reading that will cause grammatical difficulty. The English Themes of this Part give the means of reaching the same result in a different or an additional way ; and the English Vocabulary will, it is believed, be found full enough, in its phrases and references, to make their rendering into French fairly easy. Here, again, the working through of these Themes will be found a sufficient grammatical preparation for rendering into French, or writing in French, in a more general and freer way. A class, finally, that has due preparation, in age and knowledge, may profitably go through the whole Second Part, just as it stands. An attempt has been made to lead the way toward that comparison of French with Latin which forms a natural and even a necessary part of the more advanced study of the former, by directing attention from point to point to the correspondences between the two languages, by setting forth their general relations in a chapter introductory to VI PREFACE. the Second Part,, and by giving, in a brief and unsystematic form, the Latin (and other) etymologies of French words in the first Vocabulary. The comparative study of the two languages cannot, of course, be taken up otherwise than by the way, while the pupil has his hands full with learning the modern language itself; but this task may be made both easier and more interesting by the use, under the guidance of an intelligent teacher, of such material as is here put within convenient reach. The pronunciation of a new language is not a thing that can be learned out of a book and by rule ; it must be gotten through the ear of the pupil from the mouth of the teacher. Yet there is sufficient consistency in French orthography to render it possible to hold a pupil, after sufficient intro- ductory practice, to responsibility for not making too blundering work of uttering a word that is normally pro- nounced, or even of an exceptional one that he has met with before. In order to this, however, distinct statements as to the facts of pronunciation are required. And they are of no small value to the teacher also, unless he have enjoyed very exceptional advantages. It is partly in view of the needs of the great majority of teachers not French by birth or education, that so much fulness has been given in this work to the preliminary chapter on pronunciation, and that all the commoner words that are exceptionally pronounced (whether they do or do not occur in the Exercises and Themes) are entered, marked as such, in the Vocabularies. Different teachers will make different use of the chapter in instruction, according to their various training and habit. It is believed, however, that a class of beginners may to their decided advantage be required to learn at the outset certain points : namely, the division of syllables (4#, I) ; to name correctly the orthographic marks (5-10); to tell when e is mute (18) ; the value of y as double i (37) ; the chief rules as to the nasal vowels (46-7, 52, 53) ; those as to final consonants (56a, l) ; as to ch (59) ; to gn (63) ; to h PEEFACE. Vil (64a, e) ; to liquid 1 (68, G$e) ; to r (73, 73a) ; to s pro- nounced as z (74a) ; to ti in endings (77a) ; and as to the linking of final consonants (84a, b, 85£, 86a). The rest may well be left to oral teaching, one and another rule being later brought in as found desirable : especially, the pupil will need further on to note the rules as to the occur- rence of mute e and é and è (19, 20a, 21a), which settle so many cases of otherwise doubtful orthography. The grammars of which most use has been made in the preparation of this one are that of Màtzner (of which there is a re-working in English, under the name of "French Syntax," by Professor J. A. Harrison — a valuable work, especially for teachers) and that of Ploetz. From them have been taken also a few of the Illustrative Sen- tences. Yale College, New Haven, August, 1886. TABLE OF CONTENTS. The references are to pages only. FIKST PART. PAGE Alphabet and Pronunciation, 1-26 Alphabet, 1-2 ; division of syllables, 2 ; accents and other orthographic marks, 2-4 ; accent, 4 ; pronuncia- tion of the simple vowels, 4-10 ; of the digraphs or vowel compounds, 11-2 ; of the nasal vowels, 12-5 ; of the consonants, 15-25 ; linking or carrying-on of final consonants, 25-6. Lessons, with Exercises, ....... 27-198 I. Gender, articles, etc. ; present of avoir, . . 27 II. Plural of nouns ; present of être, . . .30 III. The prepositions à and de ; imperfect of avoir and être 33 IV. Partitive and inclusive senses of the noun ; pret- erit of do. , 36 V. Material and measure ; future of do. , . . 40 VI. Prepositions ; proper names ; conditional of do. , 43 VII. Adjectives— gender ; imperative of do., . . 46 VIII. Adjectives — number, position ; present subjunc- tive of do. , 50 IX. Adjectives — comparison ; imperfect subjunctive of do. , 54 X. Conjugation — the verb avoir have, . . .57 XI. Conjugation of the verb être he, ... 62 XII. Negative conjugation, 65 XIII. Demonstrative and interrogative adjectives, . 69 XIV. Possessive and indefinite adjectives, . . .72 XV. Cardinal numerals, 76 XVI. Ordinal numerals, . . . " . . .79 XVII. Numerals continued — months and week-days, . 82 XVIII. Regular verbs ; first conjugation, . ... 85 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIX. Second regular conjugation, . . .90 XX. Third regular conjugation, . . . .94 XXI. Irregular verbs : first conjugation, . . 98 XXII. Conjunctive personal pronouns, . . . 102 XXIII. Disjunctive and conjunctive pronouns, . . 107 XXIV. Demonstrative pronouns ; irregular verbs, vouloir Ill XXV. Interrogative pronouns ; the irregular verb pouvoir, 117 XXVI. Relative pronouns ; the irregular verb devoir, 121 XXVII. Possessive and indefinite pronouns ; the ir- regular verb aller 126 XXVIII. Passive verbs ; auxiliaries, .... 131 XXIX. Reflexive verbs, . 135 XXX. Impersonal verbs, 139 XXXI. Adverbs from adjectives; the irregular verb venir, 143 XXXII. Various adverbs ; the irregular verb faire, . 148 XXXIII. Prepositions ; the irregular verb dire, . . 153 XXXIV. Conjunctions ; the irregular verb savoir, . 157 XXXV. Irregular verbs ending in ire (1-14), . .162 XXXVI. Irregular verbs in aindre etc. and aître etc. (15-20), 166 XXXVII. Further irregular verbs in re (21-29), . . 171 XXXVIII. The remaining irregular verbs in re (30-37), 175 XXXIX. Irregular verbs in ir (38-51), . . .180 XL. The remaining irregular verbs in ir (52-64), 185 XLI. Irregular verbs in oir (65-71), . . .190 XLII. The remaining irregular verbs in oir, and those in er (72-83), 194 Index of Irregular Verbs, Simple and Compound, . 199-201 Abbreviations of Authors' Names ; References, . . 202 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI SECOND PART. PAGE I. The Relation of French to Latin, . . 203-9 II. Nouns, 209-23 Gender, 209-13; number, 213-15; case-relations, 215-21 ; noun used absolutely, 215-6 ; noun with de, 217-8 ; partitive noun, 220 ; noun with à, 221. III. Articles, . 223-32 Definite article, 223-8 ; indefinite, 229-30. IV. Adjectives, 233-41 Adjective forms, 233-4 ; agreement with noun, 234-6 ; place, 236-7 ; noun-adjuncts, 239-40. V. Numerals, 241-4 VI. Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives, . . 244-63 Personal pronouns, 244-8 ; possessives, 251 ; de- monstratives, 253 ; interrogatives, 254-5 ; rela- tives, 255-6 ; indefinites, 258-60. VII. Verbs, 263-340 Uses of the tenses, 264-8 ; uses of the indicative mode, 272 ; uses of the subjunctive, 272-82 ; sub- junctive in independent clauses, 272-3 ; in sub- stantive clauses, 274-6 ; in adjective clauses, 278-9 ; in adverbial clauses, 280-2 ; uses of the imperative, 283-4 ; verb and subject, 286-9 ; and predicate noun and adjective, 292-3 ; and object, 294-6 ; and prepositional phrase, with à, 298-300 ; with de, 301-2 ; and adverb, 305 ; negative ex- pression, 305-11; expletive ne, 310-11; the infini- tive, 313-32 ; as subject, as predicate, in apposi- tion, 313-5 ; as object of, or dependent on, a verb, 316-26 ; without sign, 316-8 ; with de, 320-1 ; with à, 323-5 ; with de or à, 325-6 ; infinitive as dependent on an adjective, 327-8 ; on a noun, 328-9; on other prepositions than de and à, 330-1 ; the present participle, 332-3 ; the gerund, 333 ; the past participle, 334-7. VIII. Adverbs, 340-1 IX. Prepositions, 341-4 X. Conjunctions, 345-7 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE XI. Interjections, 347 XII. Arrangement of the Sentence, . . . 350-3 XIII. French Versification, 354-8 Illustrative Sentences (in the second part). I. Noun used absolutely, 216 II. Noun with de, qualifying a noun, .... 218 III. Partitive noun, 220 IV. Noun with à, qualifying a noun, .... 221 V. Partitive and iDclusive article, .... 224 VI. Article with proper names, 226 VII. Various uses of the article, 229 VIII. Indefinite article, 230 IX. Agreement and place of adjectives, . . . 237 X. Noun-adjuncts of adjectives, 240 XI. Numerals, . . . . . . . .243 XII. Personal pronouns, . . . . . . . 248 XIII. Possessives, 252 XIV. Demonstratives, 253 XV. Interrogatives, 255 XVI. Relatives, 256 XVII. Indefinites, 261 XVIII. Tenses of the verb, 268 XIX. Subjunctive in independent clauses, . . . 273 XX. Subjunctive in subject and object clauses, . . 276 XXI. Subjunctive in adjective clauses, .... 279 XXII. Subjunctive in adverbial clauses, .... 282 XXIII. Imperative, 284 XXIV. Verb and subject, 290 XXV. Verb and predicate, 294 XXVI. Verb and object, 296 XXVII. Verb and case-phrase with à, 300 XXVIII. Verb and case-phrase with de, 302 XXIX. Negative expression, 308 XXX. Expletive negative, 311 XXXI. Infinitive as subject and as predicate, . . . 315 XXXII. Object-infinitive without sign, 318 XXXIII. Object-infinitive with de, 322 XXXIV. Object-infinitive with à, 326 XXXV. Infinitive dependent on an adjective or noun, . . 329 XXXVI. Infinitive after other prepositions than de and à, . 331 XXXVII. Present participle and gerund, .... 333 XXXVIII. Past participle, 337 XXXIX. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, . . . 347 XL. Inverted arrangement of the sentence, . . . 353 TABLE OF CONTENTS. X11I Themes (in the second paet). PAGE 1. Case-relations of nouns, 222 2. Articles, . . .231 3. Adjectives, . . . . . . . . . .240 4. Numerals, . . . . . . . . . 243 5. Personal pronouns, . 250 6. Possessives, . . . 252 7. Demonstratives, 254 8. Interrogatives and relatives, 257 9. Indefinites, 262 10. Tenses of the verb, 270 11. Subjunctive in independent and in substantive clauses, . 277 12. Subjunctive in adjective and adverb clauses, and imperative, 285 13. Yerb and subject, 291 14. Verb with predicate and object, 297 15. Verb and case-phrase, with à or de, 303 16. Negative expression, 312 17. Subject and predicate infinitive, 316 18. Object-infinitive without sign, 319 19. Object-infinitive with de, 322 20. Object-infinitive with à, 327 21. Infinitive dependent on an adjective or a noun, . . . 330 22. Infinite after other prepositions than de or à, . . . 331 23. Present participle and gerund, 334 24. Past participle, 339 25. Prepositions, 349 . 359-433 . 359 . 410 . 414 435-41 Vocabularies, I. French-English vocabulary, II. Vocabulary of French proper names, III. English-French vocabulary, General Index, FIRST PART. ALPHABET AND PEOMJlSrCIATIOlSr. For suggestions as to the use of this introductory chapter on pronunciation, see the Preface. u u pé ku v vé w double vé erre x iks esse té y i grec z zed ALPHABET. 1. The French alphabet is the same with the English. a. But the letters k and w occur only in a few words, borrowed out of other languages. 2. The letters of the alphabet and their names are as follows (the names pronounced as French words) : a a h ache o b bé i i p c ce j ji q d dé k ka r e é '1 elle s f effe m emine t g gé n enne a. In reading and spelling, however, it is now common to name each consonant by its own sound followed by a mute e (18), which is pronounced only just enough to let the character of the conso- nant be distinguished : thus, for b, be instead of bé ; for g, gue or je (according as the g is hard or soft) instead of gé ; and so on. But when any letter is named by itself, it is always by the name given in the above table. 3. Use of Capitals. — As regards the use of capitals, French agrees in general with English, but with the fol- lowing important exceptions : a. An adjective derived from a proper name does not take a capital when used as an adjective, but only when it has the value of a noun. Thus, un livre français, a French booh, but un Français, a Frenchman ; des chevaux américains, American horses, but des Américains, Americans. 2 ALPHABET. [3— h. The names of the days of the week and of the months are not written with capitals in French. Thus, lundi, Monday, juin, June. c. The word for 7, namely je, is not written with a capital. DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 4. The rules as to how a French word is to be divided into syllables are of much practical importance in their bearing on the mute e (18) and on the nasal vowels (46). a. A single consonant between vowels always belongs to the following vowel. Thus, fi-ni, ai-me-rai, dé-cou-ra-ger, gé-né-reu-se-ment, i-ni- mi-ta-bi-li-té. h. Also two consonants, if they are such as may begin a French word, belong to the following vowel. Thus, a-près, ré-gler, a-bri, é-clos, a-droit, trè-fle, ou-tre, ou-vris. ** Such groups have r or 1 as their final member : they are br, bl ; cr, cl ; dr ; fr, fl ; gr, gl ; pr, pi ; tr ; vr. c. A consonant digraph, or group of two consonants repre- senting a single sound, is treated as if one consonant only ; such are ch, ph, th, gn : thus, a-che-ter, pro-phé-ti-e, pa-thé-ti-que, a-gneau. d. Other groups of two consonants are divided, the former consonant going to the preceding vowel, the latter to the follow- ing vowel : thus, al-ler, frap-per, in-su, es-pé-ran-ce, ad-mi-ra- ble. e. Groups of three or more consonants follow the same princi- ples of division : thus, com-bler, per-dre, in-stant. f. A few exceptional cases occur : x belongs to the preceding vowel, as ex-em-ple; n and h (in words of compound origin) are divided, though the h is stent, as bon-heur; also divide in-strui-re, at-mo-sphè-re, etc. ACCENTS AND OTHER ORTHOGRAPHIC MARKS. 5. Three accent-marks are used in French, and consti- tute a part of the necessary written form of French words. They are the acute accent, as in été, créé ; the 9] OKTHOGKAPHIC MAEKS. 3 grave accent, as in dès, là, où; and the circumflex ac- cent, as in pâte, fête, île, hôte, fûtes. a. These accent-marks do not at all point out the actually ac- cented syllable of a word ; but they in part show differences of vowel-sound, in part are means of distinction of words otherwise spelt alike, and in part show something respecting the history of the word. b. It is just as great a fault in writing French to leave off an accent or to write a wrong accent, as to leave out a letter or to write a wrong letter. c. In spelling, the accent should always be mentioned along with the vowel to which it belongs : thus, été is " e acute, t, e acute"; à is " a grave 1 '; île is " i circumflex, 1, e 1 '; and so on. 6. a. The acute accent occurs only on the vowel e. b. The grave occurs almost always on e ; but also on a in a very few words (16), and on u in où, where. c. The circumflex occurs on all vowels, usually as a sign of con- traction, and in the great majority of cases showing the loss of an s, formerly written after the vowel now circumflexed : thus, hâte for older haste (Eng. haste), fête for feste (Eng. feast), hôte for hoste (Eng. host), île for isle (Eng. isle), fûtes for fastes (Lat. fuistis), maître for maistre (Eng. master), coûter for couster (Eog. cost), and so on. 7. The cedilla is a mark placed under a c (thus, ç), to give it its soft or s-sound before the vowels a, o, u (where it would otherwise be pronounced hard, like k : 585) : thus, plaça, façon, reçu, c'a. 8. The dlekesis (Fr. tréma) is a double dot, set (as sometimes also in English) over a vowel which is to be pronounced separately from a preceding vowel, not form- ing with it a diphthong : thus, haïr (i.e. ha-ir), ouï (i.e. ou-i). a. It is also used on the vowel that follows a gu, if the u is to be pronounced (compare 62/) : thus, ambiguïté, ambiguë (where the e itself is silent). 9. The apostrophe shows, as in English, the loss of a final vowel which has been cut off before another vowel : thus, l'ami, s'il. a. The vowel thus cut off is almost always e (26c); but in a few cases it is a (15) or i (295). 4 PRONUNCIATION. [10— 10. The hyphen is used, as in English, but more fre- quently and strictly, between parts of words, and whole words regarded as having an especially close connection with one another. The cases where it is required will be stated below. ACCENT. 11. The actual accent, or stress of voice on one of the syllables of a word of two or more syllables, rests in French on the last syllable that is fully pronounced — i.e. that does not have as its vowel a mute e. Thus, palais', mala'de, maladroit', maladroi'te, mélancoli'e, indubita'ble, réconcilier', réconciliè'rent, indivisibilité'. a. This accented syllable regularly and usually represents the one which had the accent in Latin: see l'art Second, § 2a. h. But the stress of voice is very slight. In general, the syllables of a French word (except those containing a mute e) are uttered with equal distinctness and nearly even stress. c. This evenness of utterance, and equal distinctness of vowel sound in all the syllables of a word, is one of the most striking peculiarities of French pronunciation as compared with English, and cannot be too much insisted on and practised. PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. 12. Quantity. — There iâ no strongly-marked distinc- tion of long and short vowels in French, such as there is in English (and in German). French vowels are in general short, though sometimes a little prolonged — oftenest be- fore a final pronounced r, and when circumflexed. 13. A, a. — a. When final, or followed at the end of a word only by a silent consonant or by r, a has very nearly the full open sound of English a m far or father. Thus, ira, donna, la, a, cas, bras, plat, drap, car. b. Elsewhere, a is a little flattened, like English a in flat, cap, jack, only not quite so much so. !8] VOWELS. 5 Thus, ami, animal, cabane, malade, bague, place, passe, âme, pâte, âge, château. c. For an and am nasal, see 48. 14. The a is silent in août, August, aoûteron, reaper, taon, horse-fly, Caen, Curaçao (last syllable), Saône. 15. The final a of la (article and object-pronoun) is cut off be- fore a vowel (or a silent h) : thus, l'amie, l'histoire, il l'aime. a. But not that of la as pronoun after the verb, except before another object-pronoun: thus, trou ve-la aimable ; but envoyez- l'y. 16. An a has the grave accent in the preposition à, to, and the adverbs là, there (with most of its compounds, but not cela, that), and çà, here (with its compound deçà, on this side), to distinguish these words from a (verb), la (article and pronoun), and ça (pronoun) ; also in déjà, already (and the almost obsolete jà). It often has the circumflex ; but never the acute. 17. E, e. — This vowel has in French a greater variety of written form and of pronunciation than any other, being written as e, é, è, ê, and pronounced with a mute, a closer, and an opener sound. 18. Mute ok Silent e. — a, A simple e (that is, one without accent-sign) standing at the end of a syllable (4) has the so-called " mute" or " silent" vaine (e muet) : that is, it is pronounced as briefly and lightly as possi- ble, and what sound it has is like that of English u in hut or hurt. b. The sound is quite precisely that in English the before a consonant in real colloquial utterance : thus, "tell us the name of the man." Examples are le, me, de, te-nir, re-gard, re-gar-de, re-le-va, ra-me-na, en-ne-mi. In many situations — especially at the end of a word of more than one syllable, as table, rare, ma- chine, abortive — it is in ordinary utterance entirely silent ; but still it makes theoretically a syllable (thus, ra-re, ma-chi-ne, a- bor-ti-ve), which counts as such in poetry, and in singing must be uttered as much as any other syllable. In learning French pronunciation, the pupil must first be able to give the right sound to the vowel, and then duly to slight or omit it. c. The same sound belongs also to the e of es at the end of a word (excepting in the monosyllables les, des, ces, mes, tes, ses), and to that of ent at the end of the 3d pers. plural of a verb : thus, rares, machines, certes, donnes, donnent, regardent, don- nassent. 6 PRONUNCIATION. [18— d. More exceptional cases are dessus, dessous, ressource, and most other words beginning with ress-; also faisant etc. (39c), and monsieur (546). e. The e of je, i", when following the verb, is completely silent, in the same manner as at the end of a word of more than one syllable : thus, ai-je, Jiave I? pronounced as if written aige ; suis-je, am If as if suige ; avais-je, had 1? as if avaige ; and so on. 19. The acute and grave accents, as used on e, are signs giving it a full pronunciation, where otherwise it would be mute. No é or è is ever written unless with- out the accent the e would (by the rules of the preced- ing paragraph) have its mute value. 20. a. As between the acute and grave, the general rule is that the grave is written if a next following sylla- ble in the same word is a mute one; otherwise, the acute. Thus, pè-re, chè-re, lè-ve, cè-de, mè-ne-rai, pè-le-rin ; but cé-der, cé-da, cé-dé, cé-lé-bri-té ; and dé-cè-de, cé-lè-bre, cé-lè- brent, pré-fè-res, té-nè-bres. But to this rule there are some exceptions: b. An é remains in the future and conditional of a verb having ë in the infinitive: thus, cé-de-rai, cé-de-rais. c. An é, and not è, is usually written before g : thus, col-lé-ge, ab-re-ge. But the French. Academy has recently ruled that è should stand before g, just as before other consonants: thus, collège, abrège. d. On the other hand, è is written before s at the end of a few words : thus, dès, très, près, après, exprès, progrès, succès. e. There are a few other special exceptions : thus, only é is in- itial, as in é-le-ver ; é is used in certain individual words, as dé- velopper, événement, médecin. 21. a. It is to be noted that the occurrence of two successive mute syllables in the same word is generally avoided. Thus, no word is ever composed of, or ends in, two mute syllables ; nor do two often come together in the middle of a word ; at the beginning they are not quite so rare (especially when re or de is prefixed to a verb already beginning with a mute syllable, as venir, 25] VOWELS. 7 revenir, devenir, and even redevenir). And no word ever begins with a mute e. b. Hence, such words as levé, mené, jeté, chere, complete, ap- pelés, levés, menés, chères, or (as 3d pi. of a verb) lèvent, mè- nent, are impossible in French; and wherever they would occur in the regular processes of word-formation or inflection, the con- currence of the two mute syllables is avoided by giving a full pronunciation to the first. This is of tenest done by writing the grave accent over it : thus, lève, mène, chère, complète, mènes, mènent — but sometimes by doubling the consonant (if it be 1 or n or t) instead : thus, belle (bel-le), appelles, sienne, prennent (3d pi.), nette, jette. c. Hence also (since a following je is pronounced as if a part of the same word with a preceding verb : 18e) the final e of a verb- form before je takes an accent, and this accent is the acute : thus, donné-je. 22. The e with acute accent, or é, has the sound of English so-called " long a" in day and they, and the like (yet without the vanishing sound of " long e" with which our " long a" usually ends). It is called the close e (e fermé). 23. The e with grave accent, or è, has an opener sound, nearly like our " short e" in ebb, send, and the like ; and it even in some cases, especially before a following r, ap- proaches our still opener sound of e in there and the like. It is called the open e (e ouvert). 24. The e with circumflex accent, or ê, has the open sound, like è. a. The ê is not, like é and è, restricted to situations where the e would otherwise be mute, but it is found (though not often) be- fore a consonant in the same syllable : thus, forêt, benêt. 25. An e that is followed by a consonant in the same syllable (whether that consonant be pronounced or silent) is not mute, but has either the closer sound of é or the opener of è. a. It has the closer sound in the final syllables (with silent con- sonants) er, ez, ed : thus, citer, chantier, nez, citez, pied. b, It has the opener sound before a pronounced r (whether 8 PRONUNCIATION. [25 — final or not), and usually before a double consonant ; also before (silent) t final : thus, fer, verre, elle, nette, mienne, richesse, valet. 26. E in a few words has an irregular pronunciation : a. It is pronounced as an a would be, before n and m, in femme, woman, solennel, solemn, and its derivatives, and ad- verbs ending in -emment; also in nenni, nay, hennir, neigh, indemnité, indemnity. b. It is sometimes used after g merely as a device for showing that the g is to have its soft sound, being itself not pronounced (62e): thus, mangeai, mangeons. g. The final mute e of a monosyllable is generally cut off before a vowel, and replaced by an apostrophe. Such monosyllables are : the article le ; the pronouns je, me, te, se, ce, le, que; the preposition de; the conjunction que; the negative particle ne. But the subject-pronouns je and ce are not thus abbreviated when they come after the verb ; nor the object- pronoun le in the same position, except before another object- pronoun, as envoyez-1'y. The same elision takes place also in jusque ; and in lorsque, puisque, quoique before il, elle, on, un. Further, in a few com- pound words, as quelqu'un, presqu'île, entr'acte, aujourd'hui. d. For en and em nasal, see 48. 27. I, i. — The vowel i has in French invariably the sound of English " long e" or of i in the words machine, pique. Thus, il, ri, vite, ici, midi, défini, divisé, visibilité. a. The error of pronouncing a French i anywhere like the English " short i " of pin, finish, and the like, must be very care- fully avoided. 6. For i before a liquid 1, see 68 ; for in and im nasal, see 50. 28. a. An i followed by mute e has, of course, its full pro- nunciation, the e being the vowel of a succeeding mute syllable : thus, vie, amies, rient (divided vi-e, a-mi-es, ri-ent). 6. But an i followed in the same syllable by an e not mute, or by any other vowel (or diphthong), is uttered very briefly, as a mere y-prefix to the following sound : thus, pied, ciel, métier, étiez, arrière, arriéré, vierge, vienne, vient, vieille, lieu, mon- sieur, viole, avions, fiacre, diable, bestiaux. And even if the i is (in verse) regarded as forming a separate syllable, it is apt to lose more or less of its full quantity before another vowel : thus, manier, prière, pieux, mendiant, niais, action. 33] vowels. 9 29. a. An i never takes any other accent-mark than the cir- cumflex : thus, île, plaît, fît, maître. b. A final i is elided only in the conjunction si, if, before the pronouns il, ils, he, they : thus, s'il, s'ils. 30. 0, o. — a. The vowel o has in general the sound of the English o in note (but without the vanishing sound of oo, in which the English " long ) to that of the following syllable. Thus, essayer is pronounced as if written essai-ier ; appuyer, as if appui-ier ; envoyer, as if envoi-ier ; and so on. a. The same value belongs to the y in pays (pronounced as if written pai-is), and in its derivatives paysage, paysan. b. A y is not allowed as final, nor in general before mute e ; and, both in derivation and in inflection, the interchange of i and y, according as final or not, and as a mute e or any fully pro- nounced vowel follows, is very common : thus, joie, joyeux ; roi, royal ; aie, ayons, ayez, aient ; appuie, appuies, appuyons, ap- puyez, appuient ; and so on. c. But y is in some verbs allowed to stand after a even before mute e, as essaye ; and it is the rule (though rare) after e, as grasseyé, asseye. 41] VOWELS. 11 DIPHTHONGS OR VOWEL COMPOUNDS. 38. There are a few very common combinations of two vowels (or three), which represent for the most part sim- ple sounds, but which are commonly called diphthongs ; they are ai and ei, au (and eau), eu (and œu), ou, and oi. a. It is to be noticed that real diphthongal sounds, like those in English file, foul, foil, are altogether wanting in French. b. As to vowels followed by mute e, see 45 ; as to the vowel- groups, compound both in form and in pronunciation, which be- gin with i and u, see 286, 35. 39. Ai and ei. — These compounds have no other sounds than those of e when not mute, or of é or è. a. Ai final is pronounced as é : thus, gai, donnai, donnerai. Elsewhere, it is usually like è, especially in the endings ais, ait : thus, étais, aurait. 6. Ei (which is never final) has usually the sound that e (not mute) would have in the same situation : thus, peine, reine. c. In certain forms of the verb faire, do (XXXII. 8) — namely, the près. pple. faisant and those following its analogy, also in the compounds of faisant and the derivatives faisance and fai- seur — ai is pronounced as a silent e. d. For ai and ei nasal, with following n or m, see 50c; for their pronunciation before liquid 1, see 686. 40. Au and eau are pronounced as o would be in the same situation. Thus, au, eau, beau, beauté, tombeau, chevaux, aurai, Maure. 41. Eu has a peculiar sound, nearly like that of Eng- lish u va fur, hurt (or nearly like German o). Thus, feu, lieu, leur, veuve, jeune, peuple, aveugle, heureux. a. Œu, which is much less common, is pronounced in the same manner as eu : thus, vœu, œuf, bœuf, œuvre. 6. In all parts of the very common verb avoir, have, eu is pronounced as if simple u (32) : thus, eu, eue, eus, eurent, eusse, etc. The same is true in a few words after g, where the e is only written in order to preserve the soft sound of the g (62e) : thus, mangeure, gageure. c. In a word or two occurs œ before liquid 1 (68 : written il) ; it is pronounced like eu : thus, œil, eye. d. After c and g, before liquid 1 (written il or ill), in a very 1/ 12 PEONTOCIATIOtf. [41— few words, ue is written instead of en, and is pronounced like eu : thus, cueillir, orgueil. e. For eu nasal, with following n, see 51. 42. Ou. — The combination ou is everywhere pro- nounced like English oo, in pool, boon, etc. Thus, ou, où (34), cou, bout, hiboux, coupe, source, courte, jou- jou, douloureux. a. In a few words, ou is followed in the same syllable by a pronounced vowel (not mute e). In such a case, the following vowel has the principal vowel-sound of the syllable, and the ou is shortened before it to a sound nearly like that of English w : thus, oui, ouais, ouest, bivouac, fouet, fouetter, etc. 43. Oi. — The combination oi, which is extremely com- mon in French, is everywhere pronounced like the Eng- lish wa in was (not with the broader sound of wa in water). Thus, moi, soi, foi, oiseau, toile, ploie, cloître, crois, trois, adroite, froideur, proie. a. The i is silent in oignon, onion. 44. a. As to oy as substitute and equivalent of oi-i, see 37 ; as to oi nasal, with following n or m, see 50a\ b. Until recently, many syllables now written with ai were written with oi, and the latter spelling is still occasionally met with : thus, étois, Anglois, connoître, foible, and so on. They should be pronounced as when written with ai. It is still in good usage to write oi in roide and its derivatives, but the usual pro- nunciation is that of raide. 45. As after i (28a) and u (35), so also after é and the vowel- compounds, a mute e may stand without making (in prose) any difference in their pronunciation: thus, fée, crée, crées, créent (3d pi.); gaie, gaies, aient (3dpl.); bleue, bleues ; moue, loue, loues, louent (3d pi.); oie, croie, croies, croient (3d pi.); pluie, appuie, appuies, appuient. In all such cases, the e is the vowel of an additional mute syllable : thus, fé-e, lou-es, croi-ent. NASAL VOWELS. 46. If a vowel, simple or compound, is followed in the same syllable by n or m, the n or m loses its separate pronunciation, and the vowel itself is made nasal. a. A nasal vowel is one that is pronounced partly through the mouth and partly through the nose : that is, while the mouth- 50] VOWELS. 13 organs are fixed as in the utterance of an ordinary vowel, the passage from the mouth into the nose is also opened, so that a part of the expelled air goes through the nose and resounds there, giving a nasal twang to the vowel-tone. Beginners may help ac- custom themselves to recognize and produce this nasal twang by shutting the nostrils with the fingers, in which case the nasality becomes especially loud and conspicuous. 6. In learning to pronounce the nasal vowels, the fault especi- ally to be avoided is the shutting of the mouth-organs after the vowel-sound, so as to end it with anything like an n or ng-sounà. A habit of so doing, if once formed, is extremely hard to get rid of. Better than this is to leave the vowel at first unnasalized, hoping to learn by degrees to give it the right quality. 47. There are in French four nasal vowels, or nasalized vowel-sounds. They are very nearly those heard in the English words town, song, sang, and sung, or on, pawn, pan, and pun — as these would be if the n- and w^-sounds in them were not separately uttered, but had their nasal tone as it were absorbed into the vowel itself. 48. The nasalized vowel-sound of English wan or on belongs in French to an and am, and to en and em. Thus, an, pan, banc, quand, lance, manger, ébranler, ban- quet, anse, ayant, vanter ; camp, lampe, ample, chambre ; en, dent, enfant, pente, prudence, genre ; temps, trempe, «•emplir, membre, emblème. a. The same sound is heard, of course, after the prefixed half- vowel sounds of i, y, etc., in the same syllable: thus, viande, croyant (pronounced as croi-iant), patience, orient, pingouin. But en after i or y has sometimes a different sound ; see 50e. 49. The nasalized vowel- sound of English pawn or song belongs in French to on and om. Thus, on, non, donc, long, plonge, annonce, conter, ronde; nom, plomb, tomber, romps, rompre, combler, comte. So also action and the like. 50. a. The nasalized vowel-sound of English sang or pan belongs in French especially to in and im. Thus, vin, vint, vinrent, vinsse, pincer, Inde, ingrat ; imbu, timbre, simple, impur. ô. The same sound belongs to ym and yn, in the few words in which they occur : thus, thym, nymphe, symbole ; syntaxe. 14 PRONUNCIATION. [50— g. The same sound belongs to the compound vowels ai and ei with following n or m. Thus, sain, sainte, craindre ; faim, essaim ; sein, serein, pein- dre, peinture. d. The oi of oin has not its ordinary value, but the in of it has the regular nasal sound of in, to which the o gives a prefix like a w. Thus, loin, moins, ointe, oindre, joindre, accointance. e. Final en after i (or y), and en everywhere after i in the forms of the verbs tenir and venir, has the sound of in : thus, rien, bien, sien, moyen (pronounced as moi-ien), tiens, viendra. Many pronounce in the same way final en after é : thus, euro- péen, vendéen. En and em are also pronounced as in in a few proper names and foreign words : thus, Mentor, Memphis, Ben- gale, Rubens, agenda, appendice, pensum, examen, pentamè- tre, etc. 51. The nasalized vowel-sound of English sung or pun belongs in French to un, urn, and eun. Thus, un, brun, tribun, défunt, lundi, emprunter ; parfum, humble; jeun. a. Jn a few foreign proper names, un has the sound of on : thus, Dunkerque, Sund. 6. In reading Latin, and in a few words taken unchanged from the Latin — as album, pensum, muséum, Te-deum, triumvir, also in rhum, rum — um is pronounced very nearly as in English, the vowel not being nasal. 52. If the n or m is followed by a vowel, the preced- ing vowel is of course not nasal, because (4«) the n or m is not in the same syllable with it. Thus, tenir, semer, honorer, une, inutile (divided te-nir, ho- no-rer, i-nu-ti-le, etc.) ; also inhumain, inhabité, etc. (the h be- ing silent, and not counting as a consonant : see 64). a. But in enivrer and enorgueillir and their derivatives the e is nasal. 53. Also when the n or m is doubled, the preceding vowel is not nasal. Thus, année, hébamme, tienne, ennemi, femme, lionne, homme, innocent, immoler. a. But in ennui and its derivatives, in ennoblir, also in em- mener, and most other words beginning with emm (from en-m), the e is nasal. 6. The combination mn is also treated as if a double letter, so 57] CONSONANTS. 15 far as concerns th.3 nasalization of a preceding vowel : thus, con- damner (cf. 69a), indemnité (26a), hymne, gymnase. 54. Other cases of vowels which, against the general rule, are not pronounced as nasal are : a. The en of ent in the 3d plural of verbs (the e being here mute : 18c). b. The on of monsieur, being pronounced as a mute e (lSd). c. Final am, em, en, im in many foreign proper j names : thus, Priam, Abraham, Jérusalem, Niémen, Ibrahim, Éphraim. d. A few other / words of foreign origin and form : thus, amen, hymen, spécimen, Éden, decemvir, Nemrod, Kremlin. 55. As to the pronunciation of the n or m of a final nasal syl- lable upon a following vowel, see 86c. PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS. 56. General Eules. — a. Final consonants, either one or more than one, are in general silent at the end of a French word. Thus, pied, trop, les, fait, prix, maux, nez ; plomb, rand, pieds, draps, romps, faits, doigt, vingt, vents, vends, instincts. h. But final c, f, 1, and r are usually pronounced. Thus, sec, avec, tic, bloc, suc, turc ; fief, vif, neuf; bal, cruel, vol, seul ; par, fer, finir, or, sur, martyr. For exceptional cases, in which these four finals are silent, or others than these are pronounced, see under the several letters ; for the pronunciation of a final usually silent upon a following initial vowel, see 84 etc. e. Consonants written double are, as in English, pro- nounced as single. Thus, abbé, grenier, pelle, couronné, frappant, arriver, blessé, jettera. For certain exceptions, see below, 58c (c), 62c (g), 73cZ (r). 57. B, b. — The letter b is pronounced as in English. Thus, beau, bien, robe, barbier, bombe, subtil. a. Final b is silent after m : thus, plomb ; but after a vowel (in a few cases only, mostly foreign words and proper names) it is pronounced : thus, club, radoub, Achab, Joab. b. B is silent also in a few proper names : thus, Doubs, Lefeb- vre. 16 PKCmtJ^CIATIOK. [58— 58. C, c. — This consonant has in French, as in Eng- lish, two sounds : a soft sound, like s ; and a hard sound, like k. As to ch, see the next paragraph. a. C is soft before e and i (or y), and the compound vowels in which e or i is first (ei, eu, ie). Thus, ce, ceci, ici, placé, procès, douce, ceint, ceux, adoucie, ciel, cymbale. h. In all other situations — before other vowels, before consonants, and as final — c has its hard sound. Thus, car, caisse, cause, col, cœur, cour, curé, cuir; croc, clair ; lac, sec, tic, roc, duc. c. A double c is pronounced as single only if the second c would be hard according to the above rule ; otherwise, cc is like ks or x : thus, succès, accident ; but accord, acclamer, accroc. d. C is soft also before a, o, u, if it has the cedilla (7): thus, plaça, plaçons, français, reçu, c'a (from ce a). e. For the exchange of c and qu, when c comes to be followed by a soft vowel, see 12a. f. The c of second and its derivatives is pronounced like g. g. A final c is usually pronounced (566). But it is silent after a nasal vowel: thus, blanc, donc, vainc; — also in some words after r: thus, clerc, porc, marc; — also in estomac, stomach; tabac, tobacco; lacs, snare; eric, jack; broc, jug; croc, hook; accroc, nook; caoutchouc, india-rubber. 59. Ch, ch. — This combination has in French regu- larly and usually the sound of English sh, or ch in mor chine. Thus, chasse, chaise, chaud, chez, cochon, choux, choix, chute, chuinter ; hache, recherche, chuchoter, ponche. a. But there are many words of foreign origin (chiefly Greek) in which ch has the sound of k. Thus, always before a conso- nant, as Christ, chrétien, chronique, technologie, chloral, fuchsia, yacht ; — but often also before a vowel, as in archange, archéologie, chaos, chœur, choléra, orchestre, écho, and other less common words ; and in proper names, as Chaldée, Bacchus, Charybde, Antiochus, Chanaan, Moloch, Munich, Michel-Ange, Achab. b. As special irregularities, ch is silent in almanach ; it is usu- ally pronounced as g in drachme. For sen, see 75c. 62] COKSOKANTS. 17 60. D, d. — This consonant is pronounced as in Eng- lish. Thus, de, des, dédire, dindon, droit, guide, mode, poudre, plaindre. a. Final d (usually silent : 56a) is pronounced in sud, south, and in most proper names, as Alfred, David, Cid, Nemrod, Joad (but not in Madrid, Saint-Cloud). 61. F, f. — This consonant is pronounced as in English. Thus, faux, feu, fou, fleur, froid, fief, sauf, affaire, forfait, serf, neuf. a. Final f (usually pronounced : 566) is silent in clef, Tcey, in cerf (as usually pronounced), in the chef of chef-d'œuvre, in the plurals œufs, bœufs, nerfs (though pronounced in the singular of these words, except in nerf used figuratively), in the combina- tions bœuf gras, œuf dur, œuf frais, nerf de bœuf, and in Neuf- châtel. Also the f of neuf, nine, is silent before an initial con- sonant of a word numbered by it : thus, neuf livres, neuf cents (not in le neuf janvier, Jan. 9th; neuf par an, nine a year, etc.). 62. G, g. — This consonant has in Trench, as in Eng- lish, two sounds : a soft sound, like English z in azure or s in pleasure ; and a hard sound, like English g in gig. a. G has its soft sound before the vowels e, i, y. Thus, gelé, gèle, génie, geindre, orageux, gilet, bougie, gymnase. h. In other situations — before any other vowel than e, i, y, and before a consonant — g has its hard sound. Thus, gant, gai, gauche, gomme, goitre, goût, aigu ; gloire, gros, flegme, ogdoade. For g with following n, see the next paragraph. e. Of double gg (which very rarely occurs), the second g is pronounced soft if followed by e, i, y : thus, suggérer (but ag- glutiner). d. A final g (generally silent : 56a) is pronounced (hard) in joug and in a few foreign words and proper names, as zigzag, grog, Zadig. By some it is pronounced in legs. e. In order to preserve the soft sound of a g, when in the changes of inflection or derivation it would come to stand before a or o or u, an e (not itself pronounced) is often written after it : thus, from manger come mangeant, mangeons, mangeure. The same silent e used to soften a g is found in a few independ- ent words, as geai, George, GeofiEroi, pigeon. 18 PRONUNCIATION. [62— /.Au after g, when the u is followed by e or i or y, has usu- ally in like manner the office of giving the g its hard sound, and is itself silent. But u after g is pronounced when the following vowel has the diaeresis (8), also in aiguille, aiguiser, lingual, linguiste, arguer (and their derivatives), and a few proper names, as Guise, Guide, Guy, Guyane. g. The u of a verb like conjuguer is retained through the whole inflection : thus, conjuguant, conjuguons, etc. 63. The combination gn has in general a peculiar liquid sound, nearly like English ny in lanyard or ni in union. Thus, gagner, régner, règne, ligne, cicogne, répugne, cygne, magnifique, ignorant, rognon, seigneur. This is in reality a palatal w-sound, made with the flat of the tongue, instead of its tip, against the fore part of the roof of the mouth. a. But in a considerable number of words, coming from other languages and not yet fully naturalized, the g and n are pro- nounced separately, the g having its usual hard sound before a consonant. Some of the commonest of these are : gnome (and all other words with initial gn), agnat, cognât, magnat, géog- nosie, cognition, stagnant, expugnable. 6. In a few words, the g is silent before n : thus, signet, Com- piègne, Clugny, Regnard, Regnault. 64. H, h. — This consonant is not pronounced in French ; no such sound as the English h should ever be heard in any French word. a. But there is a considerable number of words in which an initial h, though now silent, is treated as if it were still pronounced — namely, by the absence before it of the elision (26c), of the carrying-on of a final consonant (84), etc. Such an initial h is called " aspirate h," the other being called, for distinction, " mute or silent h." b. The commonest of the words beginning with aspirate n are as follows : hache hanter harnais héros hors haie harangue harpe heurter houille haïr harasser hasard hibou huguenot halle hardes hâte hideux huit halte hardi haut homard humer hameau , haricot héraut honte hurler 68] COKSOKAKTS. 19 c. In general, the other words related with these have aspirate h also : thus, haine and haïssable, like haïr, hauteur and hausse like haut ; but héroïne, héroïque, héroïsme, have mute h, though héros has aspirate. And the h of huit is silent after dix. d. Initial aspirate h is generally marked in the dictionaries with an inverted apostrophe — thus, ' haie, ' héros, ' honte, etc. ; and the same method will be followed in this work in the vocabu- laries. e. The silent initial h is treated as if it had no exist- ence, or as if the word actually began with the following vowel ; the aspirate initial h is treated like any other con- sonant. Thus, l'homme like l'ombre, cet homme like cet ombre, son heure like son euphonie, etc. ; but le hasard, ce héros, sa harpe, etc. /. The words oui and onze (with onzième) are treated as if they began with an aspirate h : thus, que oui, le onze. g. H with preceding c forms a compound consonant, pro- nounced like English sh ; see 59 above. In a number of words of foreign origin, it follows other consonants, but without changing their usual pronunciation: thus, thée, athéiste, Rhin, rhum, myrrhe. Ph is pronounced as f : thus, philosophe. 65. J, j. — This consonant has in French invariably the sound of English z in azure, or s in pleasure (the same as soft g : 62). Thus, jamais, je, jeu, joie, joujou, juge, juif. 66. K, k. — This consonant occurs in French only in a few borrowed words ; it has the sound of English h. Thus, kilomètre, képi, kermesse, kiosque. a. The ft-sound is represented in French words by c hard (586), by ch (59a), and by qu (72). 67. L, 1. — This consonant, except when liquid, is pro- nounced in French as in English. Thus, le, la, lilie, loi, lui, lucre, lamelle, folle, nul, table, boucle, souffle, ébranle, simple, hurle. a. L is silent in soûl, surfeited, pouls, puise, aulx, pi. of ail, garlic; and before a consonant after au, eu, ou in the endings of a few other words. 68. An 1 following i in the same syllable is generally made liquid — that is, it is pronounced as a close y. 20 PRONUNCIATION. [68 — Thus, cil, babil, mil, millet, avril, péril, grésil, fille, cédille, billard, artillerie, guillotine, barbillon. a. The sound of French " liquid 1" (1 mouillé) was formerly that of a palatal Z, one made with the flat of the tongue, instead of its tip, against the roof of the mouth, nearly like English ly in steelyard, or Hi in brilliant ; and this sound it still has in parts of France ; but the now prevailing and accepted pronunciation has changed the Z*/-sound into a simple y. b. If the i before 1 is preceded by another vowel, simple or compound, that vowel has its own sound, not forming a com- pound with the i, the latter's sole office being to show the liquid sound of the 1: thus, travail, travailler, conseil, conseiller, vieil, vieillir, seuil, feuille, feuillage, houille, houilleur. And ue (after c or g) and œ before liquid il have the sound of eu : thus, accueil, orgueil, œil. But in poil the oi is the usual diph- thong, and 1 has its full sound. c. But final 1 is silent after i in a number of words. The com- monest of these are : baril, barrel, chenil, kennel, coutil, tick- ing, fournil, bakehouse, fusil, gun, nombril, navel, outil, tool, sourcil, eyebrow; also 1 in fils, son (74cZ), and the plural gen- tilshommes, gentlemen (in gentilhomme it is liquid ; also in gentil, nice, except at the end of a sentence or when followed by a consonant, when it is silent). d. Final 1 has the proper 1-sound after i in a number of words : thus, il, he, fil, thread, mil, thousand, Nil, Nile, vil, civil, exil, profil, subtil, viril, puéril, volatil; further, according to the more usual pronunciation, in cil, avril, and péril (pro- nounced also with liquid or with silent 1). In fact, il final except after a vowel is liquid only in the few words given at the beginning of this paragraph ; in some of the others, usage varies. e. At the beginning of a word, ill is not liquid : thus, illatif, illégal, illimité, illogique, illustre. /. Double 1 after i has the full 1-sound also in the interior and at the end of a number of words : thus, ville, town, mille, thousand, tranquille, pupille, ward, distiller, distil, vaciller, vacillate, pusillanime, axillaire, axillary (with their compounds, and derivatives), and a few others. 69. M, m. — Except where it makes the preceding vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (46 etc.), m has the same sound in French as in English. Thus, me, ma, même, moi, meurt, mûr, femme, homme, immé- moré, hymne. 73] CONSONANTS. 21 a. But m is pronounced as n in automne (not in automnal), etc. ; also in damner and its compounds and derivatives. 70. N, n. — Except where it makes the preceding vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (46 etc.), n has the same sound in French as in English. Thus, nappe, naine, ne, neuf, nid, non, noir, nouveau, nul, nuire, bonne, brune. 71. P, p.— This consonant is in general pronounced as in English. Thus, pape, père, peuple, pourpre, pur, puits, plaire, pré, frapper, huppe, soupe. a. Final p is usually silent (56), as drap, trop, coup; also, a p followed by another silent final, as rompt, temps, corps. It is also silent in sept, seven, and septième, seventh (not in other derivatives of sept, as septembre) ; in baptême, baptism, and baptiser, baptize ; in compter, reckon, dompter, subdue, exemp- ter, prompter, sculpter, and the words related with these (ex- cept exemption, impromptu). But final p is pronounced in cap, cape, and in a few proper names, as Alep. For ph, see 64^. 72. Q, q. — This consonant is almost always followed in French, as in English, by u ; but in French the u is generally silent, and the combination qu has the sound of Jc. Thus, quatre, quai, que, queue, quelque, qui, quint, quotidien, quoique, calquer, marquer, vainquis, vainquons. a. A hard A-sound before e or i cannot be written in French except by qu ; and hence qu sometimes takes the place of c in inflection and derivation when e or i is added: thus, vainquez, vainquent, vainquis, from vaincre; turque, from turc; ca- duque, from caduc. b. But in a number of French words qu has the same sound as in English. The commonest of these are quadrat, quadri-, quadru-, quarto, quaterne, questeur, quiescent, quiet (according to some authorities), quinqua-, quinque-, quintette, quintuple, équateur, équation, équestre, equilateral, requiem. c. A final q occurs (save in a very few proper names) only in cinq,./?z;e, and coq, cock, and is usually pronounced as a k; but it is silent in coq d'Inde, and in cinq before an initial consonant of a word numbered by it : thus, cinq livres, five books (not in le cinq mai, May bth, etc.). 73. R, r. — This consonant is always more or less rolled 22 PRONUNCIATION-, [7S— or trilled in French, and so is made much more distinct than in ordinary English pronunciation. Thus, rare, frère, rire, aurore, parure, roi, trois, froid, croix, droit, partir, porteur, arbre, meurtre, bruit, grand, près, vrai, arriverai. a. A final r is regularly pronounced (56 J) ; but it is usually silent after e in words of more than one syllable. Thus, silent in fier (verb), aimer, parler, léger, entier, officier, etc.; pronounced in cher, fer, fier (adj.), hier, mer, etc., and, before other silent finals, in clerc, perd, perds, cerf, tiers, sert, etc. 6. Final r is also pronounced after e in the words of more than one syllable, amer, bitte?', cancer, cuiller, spoon, enfer, hell, hiver, winter, and a few foreign words, chiefly proper names, as magister, Jupiter, Esther, Oder. It is not silent in such words before another silent final, unless that final be the plural-sign s : thus, it is pronounced in envers, Anvers, univers, acquiers, désert, Robert (but silent in entiers, officiers, etc.). c. Final r is silent in monsieur, messieurs. d. In the future and conditional of the verbs courir, run, mourir, die, quérir, ask, and their compounds, the double r is dis- tinctly to be heard as two separate r's : thus, courrai, mourrais, acquerront: 74. S, s. — This consonant is in general pronounced with the sound which it ordinarily has in English (in our words sense, sister, etc.). Thus, sa, se, si, son, sur, espace, estime, poste, prisme, fiasque, disparu, descriptif, transcrire, anse, penser. a. But s between two vowels bas the sound of our z. Thus, raser, raison, lèse, misère, rose, blouse, ruse; also déshonneur (silent h), désha oilier, etc. 6. S has the sound of z also in trans- before a vowel : thus, transaction, transhumer (h silent), transitif; also in Alsace and alsacien, and in balsamique; also in a few other words where followed by a sonant consonant, as presbytère, Desdé- mone, desmode, and disgrâce (according to some authorities). c. On the other hand, s has its own s-sound even between two vowels, when it is the initial of the second part of a compound word, as in vraisemblable, parasol, polysyllabe, désuétude, resauver, Desèze ; also in the conjugation of gésir (XL. 4), ex- cept the infinitive gésir itself. d. S final is regularly silent (56) ; but it is sounded in as, ace, 76] CONSONANTS. 23 aloès, cens, census, express, fils, son, hélas, alas ! jadis, for- merly, laps, lis, lily (except in fleur-de-lis), maïs, maize, mars, March, mœurs, morals, ours, bear, sens, sense (except in sens commun), sus (in en sus), tous, all (except when followed by a word which it limits àdjectively), vis, screw ; also in a number of words of unchanged Latin form, as atlas, bis, twice, blocus, gratis, omnibus ; also in most foreign proper names, as Romulus, Adonis, Memphis, Lesbos, Andalous, Ladislas, Gil Bias, and a number of French ones, as Mons, Rheims, Senlis, Fréjus, Sieves (usually si-èze). e. S in the interior of a word is usually pronounced, even in the compounds lorsque, presque, puisque, plus-que-parfait ; but it is silent in many proper names (which have kept unchanged an ancient style of spelling), as Cosme, Cosne, Rosny, Duguesclin, Praslin, Vosges, Pélasges. 75. There are certain consonant compounds containing s and having a simple sound. Thus : a. A double s, or ss, is pronounced like a single s (as usual : 56c), but always with the hissing s-sound, never as z : thus, assez, blesser, disse, grossesse, poussasse, prussien, vinsse. 6. Se, before e, i, y, is sounded as ss : thus, scène, scie, science, ascétique, lascif, obscénité, Scythe. c. Sch occurs only in a few foreign words, and is mostly pro- nounced as ch would be (English sh) : thus, schisme, schamane ; but sometimes like sk, as in scheme and its related words, scho- lastique. 76. T, t. — This consonant is. generally sounded as in English. Thus, ta, taire, taux, tâter, te, tête, titre, ton, toute, tuteur, nette, trottoir, étroite. a. Final t is regularly silent (56a) ; but it is pronounced in a number of words : namely, after a vowel in ut, do, brut, crude, chut, hush ! déficit, dot, dowry, fat, fop, ma,t, dull, net, neat, subit, sudden (according to many authorities), transit, and huit, eight (except before the initial consonant of a word num- bered by it) ; after a consonant in est, east, ouest, west, lest, ballast, Christ (but the s and t are silent in antichrist, and usually in Jésus-Christ), whist, rapt, rape, sept, seven (except before an initial consonant of a word numbered by it), and vingt, twenty, in the numbers 21-29. As to words ending in ct after a vowel, there is much différence of usage ; ordinarily, c and t are both pronounced in tact, contact, exact, abject, correct, direct, infect, strict ; only c is pronounced in circonspect, suspect, dis- trict; both c and t are silent in aspect, respect. Final t is further pronounced in a few unchanged Latin words, as exeat, 24 PRONUNCIATION. [76— and in many foreign proper names, as Japhet, Achmet ; also, 'ac- cording to some, at the end of a sentence, in but, goal, and in fait, deed, and sot, fool, used as nouns. 77. a. T followed by i, in certain endings where ti in English has the s7i-sound, is sounded as s (not as sh) : thus, partial, es- sentiel, égyptien, ambitieux, plénipotentiaire, Actium, pa- tient, patience, portion ; also in tie corresponding to cy or tia in English, as démocratie, prophétie, minutie, inertie, Béotie ; and in tier (of a verb) corresponding to -tiate in English, as initier, balbutier ; and in satiété. o. But where the ti is preceded by s or x (and ti has in Eng- lish the c/i-sound), t retains its proper value : thus, question, mixtion. The same is the case in chrétien and in châtier. c. Elsewhere, t before i has its own proper sound : thus, moitié, portier, contient, portions and portiez (i. e. , before the endings ions and iez of 1st and 2d pi. of verbs), etc. 78. The combination th is everywhere pronounced as simple t: thus, théâtre, thé, pathétique, athéiste, sympathie. It is silent in asthme and isthme. 79. V, v. — This consonant is sounded as in English. It never occurs as final. Thus, valu, venir, veuve, vivant, vienne, vol, voir, vrai, active, vivre. 80. W, w. — This consonant occurs only in a very small num- ber of foreign words. It is usually pronounced like English v ; thus, wagon; but in a word or two rather* as English w: thus, whist, whig (the h silent). 81. X, x. — This consonant is for the most part pro- nounced like ks, as in English. Thus, saxe, sexe, fixer, boxeur, luxe, Alexandre, annexation, exciter, excuse, expérience. a. In the initial syllable ex before a vowel, it is pronounced like gz : thus, exalté, exemple, exister, exil, exode, exhorter, exhumer (h silent) ; as also, of course, in the compounds of such words, as inexact. Initial x has in most words the same gz- sound : thus, Xénophon, Xavier, xylographe. Xerxès is pro- nounced gzersesse. o. Final x is regularly silent (56a) . but it is pronounced, like s, in the numerals six, six, and dix, ten (except before an initial consonant of a word numbered by them), in dix-sept, seventeen, Beatrix, Cadix, Aix en Provence ; in Aix-la-Chapelle it is pro- nounced like ks, also in a few foreign words, as Ajax, Styx, larynx, index, prefix. In the compound numerals dix-huit, eighteen, and dix-neuf, nineteen, it is sounded as z. 84] CONSONANTS. 25 c. Medial x is sounded as s (not z) in soixante sixty, and in a few proper names, as Bruxelles, Auxerre ; and as z in deuxième second, sixième sixth, dixième tenth, sixaine half a dozen. 82. Y, y. — This letter has generally the value of a vowel, being pronounced as i, or as double i, and as such has been treated of above (36, 37). In a few foreign words, it has the value of the English consonantal (semi- vowel) y : thus, yacht (pronounced yak), Yemen, Yucatan, etc. 83. Z, z. — This consonant has in general the same sound as in English. Thus, Zama, zèle, zigzag, zone, zymotique, gazon. a. Final z is regularly silent (56a) : thus, nez, aimez, riz. But it is pronounced, as z, in gaz gas, and in certain proper names, as Achaz, Berlioz ; and as s in a few other proper names, as Cortez, Velasquez, Suez. LINKING OR CARRYING-ON OF FINAL CONSONANTS. 84. A final consonant usually silent is liable to be pro- nounced when followed by another word beginning with a vowel (or mute h). This is called the linking or carry- ing-on of the final (in French, liaison). a. The final consonant thus carried on is pronounced directly upon the «following vowel, as if a part of. the same syllable with it ; any relaxation or pause is to be made before the consonant, not between it and the vowel. b. The carrying-on of the final in any case depends upon the closeness of connection between the two words, and also in part upon the general style of utterance. e. Thus, close grammatical connection between the two words, dependence of the one on the other, favors the linking. This, then, generally or invariably takes place between an article or possessive or other adjective and the following qualified noun ; between a verb and its preceding or following pronoun, subject or object, or a verb and its preceding subject noun ; between an auxiliary and following participle ; between an adverb and the fol- lowing qualified adjective or adverb < between a preposition and its governed noun ; and so on. In cases of less close connection, the linking depends in part on euphony as determined by the general habits of the language, in part on the style of delivery : 26 PRONUNCIATION-. [86 in reading aloud, namely, and in formal or solemn discourse, a great deal more linking is done than in the freedom of conversa- tion. This class of differences, of course, is only to be learned by much experience. And linking is to be avoided where there is a natural pause, whether marked by a sign of punctuation or not. 85. a. Some final consonants have their own proper sound when carried on to the following initial vowel. Thus, de broc^en bouche, il est donc^arrivé, un.homme, rien^à faire, trop^avant, beaucoup^occupé, cinq^enfants, aimer^à boire, le premier^homme, cet^habit, est^il, mot c à- mot, avez^été, allez c y. h. But final s and x, when linked, take the sound of z ; d takes that of t ; and g (rare) takes that of k. Thus, les^hommes, nos^amis^ont, nous^aurons_eu, pas^en- core, sans^elle; deux^hommes, de beaux_yeux, des cha- peaux^énormes, tu peux^y aller; un grancLhomme, vend. il, quand^il vient, pied^à-terre ; un rang^élevé, ce long^hiver, le joug^insupportable. But the d of nord keeps its d-sound. c. A final consonant that is not silent has in general the same sound before a vowel as before a consonant : thus, sud-ouest, David était, Ajax eut. But six and dix are linked with a fol- lowing numbered noun after the manner of words ending in silent x (i.e., with z) ; and the f of neuf in a like situation has the sound of v : thus, six^enfants, dix^hommes, neu£_,ans. Al- so, according to most authorities, the s of fils, jadis, sens, is linked as z. 86. Special exceptional cases are to be noted as fol- lows: a. The t of et and is never carried on. b. A final consonant after r (unless it be the plural sign s) is averse to linking : thus, vers une heure, hors un seul, il ne sert à rien (but sert - il). c. The final n of a nasal syllable is carried on only in cases of close grammatical connection ; and when the carrying-on takes place, the preceding vowel loses more or less (sometimes all) of its nasal tone, while retaining the same vowel-quality as in its nasal utterance : thus, un^enfant, mon^ami, ce bon^homme, en^Italie, bien^aimable, rien^à dire, en plein^air, enivrer, enorgueillir. fl^ff All words having an exceptional pronunciation will be marked in the vocabularies below by a prefixed asterisk : thus, *fils. Then the general vocabulary at the end of the volume will give the neces- sary references. GENDER, ARTICLES, ETC. 27 LESSON I. GENDER, ARTICLES, ETC. 1. All nouns in French are either masculine or femi- nine. For the distinction of masculine and feminine nouns as shown by their meaning or by their ending, see Second Part, § 13 etc. In general, names of male beings are masculine, and those of female beings are feminine ; the names of things having no sex are mas- culine or feminine, for the most part according as they were so in Latin ; but, the old neuter having been lost, nouns of that gender in Latin have become masculine in French. 2. Hence, words qualifying or relating to nouns — as articles, adjectives, pronouns — have also usually a dis- tinction of masculine and feminine form, so as to agree in gender with the nouns to which they belong. 3. There are, as in English, two articles, the definite and the indefinite. 4. The definite article has in the singular a different form for each gender: namely, le before a masculine noun, and la before a feminine. Examples are : le père, the father la mère, the mother le roi, the king la reine, the queen le cheval, the horse la vache, the cow le livre, the book la fleur, the flower But in the plural there is one form of the article, les, for both genders : thus, les pères, the fathers les mères, the mothers les livres, the books les fleurs, the flowers 5. Before a word beginning with a vowel (or h mute : 64é), le and la both lose their vowel, and take the apos- trophe, becoming alike 1' (26elow, 7 . follow the analogy of adjectives in el and eil. 5. Adjectives ending in the masculine in x and f 48 LESSON VII. change these respectively to s and v before the added e mute : thus, m. f. m. f. heureux, heureuse, happy jaloux, jalouse, jealous vif, vive, lively neuf, neuve, new For an exception or two, see below, 8. 6. In some adjectives, changes of spelling are the ne- cessary result of the addition of e for the feminine : thus, a. Adjectives having in the masculine an e before a final consonant (whether pronounced or silent) change it to è in the feminine, if the consonant is not doubled (21 J) : thus, m. f. m. f. cher, chère, dear complet, complete, complete And ef in like manner becomes ève : thus, bref, brève, brief. b. Final c is changed for the feminine to que (72a), and final g to gue (62/) : thus, m. f. m. f. public, publique, public [franc,] franque, Frankish turc, turque, Turkish long, longue, long And so oblong oblong. But grec Greek makes grecque (not grèque) ; and blanc white, franc frank, sec dry, make more irregularly blanche, franche, sèche. c. Adjectives ending in gu add ë for the feminine (8a) : thus, aigu, aiguë, acute ; ambigu, ambiguë, ambiguous. 7. Five adjectives have two different forms in the masculine, from one of which the feminine is made ; they are : J m. f. beau bel, belle, beautiful nouveau nouvel, nouvelle, new, novel vieux vieil, vieille, old fou fol, folle, foolish, mad mou mol, molle, soft a. Of the two masculine forms, the one in 1 is used be- fore a word beginning with a vowel (or h mute) : thus, un bel homme, a handsome man le nouvel ordre, the new order un fol espoir, a foolish hope ADJECTIVES — GENDER. 49 but un beau livre a handsome book, le livre est beau the book is handsome, and so on. 8. Some adjectives form their feminine more irregu- larly ; of these the commonest are : m. f. m. f. frais, fraîche, fresh faux, fausse, false doux, douce, sweet favori, favorite, favorite VERB-LESSON. 9. The imperatives of avoir have and être be are as follows : aie, have, have tliou, do thou have sois, be, etc. ayons, let us Juive, have we soyons, let us be, etc. ayez, have, have ye, do you have soyez, be, etc. a. While the English imperative may be used either with or without a subject expressed, the French never allows one. b. Third persons imperative are supplied from the present sub- junctive : see below, VIII. 7c. VOCABULARY. bon, bonne, good mauvais, -aise, bad, wicked beau bel, belle, handsome, beautiful joli, jolie, pretty grand, grande, large, tall petit, petite, small, little vieux vieil, vieille, old jeune, young rouge, red noir, noire, black blanc, blanche, white long, longue, long heureux, heureuse, happy cher, chère, dear la *ville, the city le *village, the village le maître, the master l'élève, the pupil très, very trop, too Exercise 7. 1 Votre sœur est-elle jolie ? 2 Ma petite sœur est sage et jolie. 3 La maison de mon père est belle, et son jardin est grand. 4 Le fruit de son arbre est bon. 5 Votre oncle est-il beau ? 6 Oui, mon oncle est un bel homme, et ma tante est une très belle femme. 7 Le maître est bon, et l'enfant sera heureux. 8 Le petit enfant a un vieux maître. 9 Le village est-il grand ? 10 Non, il est petit, mais la ville est grande et belle. "Le petit vieil homme est mon cher ™ 50 LESSON VIII. maître. M La fleur est blanche, mais le fruit est rouge ou noir. 13 Le maître était très vieux, et l'élève était trop jeune. " Ma vieille tante est chez ma chère cousine. 15 Le beau jeune homme est le cousin de mon vieil ami. 16 Votre robe est trop longue. Theme 7. 1 Is your brother large ? 2 Yes, I have a tall brother and a pretty little sister. 3 The house is handsome, but it is too small.' 4 We have a large house and a small garden. 5 The flower is red and the fruit is white. fl Your city is large and beautiful ; our village is small and pretty. 7 1 was young and happy, but my master was old. 8 The old man is tall and black. 9 The woman is young, white, and hand- some. 10 The beautiful woman is my dear aunt. " The master was too old, or the pupil was too young. 12 Is your mother beautiful ? 13 No, but she is good and happy. 14 My cousin (f .) is a pretty young woman. 15 Milk (IV. 5) is white, wine is red, and ink is black. 16 The tree is tall and handsome, but the fruit is small and bad. VERB-EXERCISE. Be. Let us have. They were. He would be. Be (ye). You will have. They would have. He is. We were. Have (thou). Will he have? Would they be? She has. They (f.) will have. Let us be. He will be. We were. Should I be ? LESSON VIII. ADJECTIVES — NUMBER, POSITION. 1. The plural of an adjective is generally formed as the plural of a noun of like ending would be : thus, a. A feminine adjective (since it ends in e) always adds s for the plural. ADJECTIVES — NUMBEK, POSITION. 51 6. Masculines in general add s; but final s or x (z does not occur) remain unchanged ; au and eu (not ou) add x ; al is usually changed to aux. c. But bleu blue makes bleus ; some in al make als (as fatals, finals, ovals, etc.) ; of the adjectives having two forms in the sin- gular (VII. 7), the plural is made from the form ending in u: thus, beaux, nouveaux, fous, mous. 2. The adjective in French comes more usually after than before the noun which it qualifies. a. Adjectives have great freedom of position in French, and it depends very much upon the euphony of the sentence and the choice of the writer or speaker whether in a given case the adjec- tive shall precede or follow the noun. The following rules point out some of the leading considerations that help to determine the question. 3. A few of the commonest adjectives are almost in- variably placed before the noun. a. These are especially the adjectives meaning good and had (bon, mauvais), large or hig and small (grand or gros, petit), young and old (jeune, vieux), also beau hand- some, vrai true, with some others : thus, le bon *sens, good sense un beau livre, a handsome book de grands hommes, great men mon vieux cousin, my old cousin 4. a. An adjective denoting a physical quality, as color or form, inclines to follow the noun ; one denoting an ideal or moral quality, to precede it : thus, des fleurs rouges, red flowers une tête ronde, a round head son lit dur, his hard bed le bouillon chaud, the Iwt broth o. An adjective tends to follow the noun when taken in a more literal sense, and to precede it when taken in a more figurative sense : thus, un fossé profond, a deep ditch un profond silence, a deep silence la barbe noire, the black beard une noire trahison, a black treason un livre cher, a dear book un cher ami, a dear friend 5. a. An adjective having adjuncts rather follows the noun ; but a simple adjective rather precedes a noun that has other ad- juncts : thus, une fille assez jeune et passablement belle a rather young and tolerably handsome girl ; l'immortel auteur du Paradis perdu the immortal author of Paradise Lost. b. An adjective used more appositively, or having a special prominence or emphasis, or signifying something brought for- 52 LESSON VIII. ward as new rather than referred to as already understood, comes after the noun : thus, c'est un livre excellent this is an excellent book, but cet excellent livre est à moi this excellent book is mine. c. In virtue of these differences, some adjectives have a well- marked distinction of meaning, according as they precede or fol- low the noun : thus, cher dear means costly after the noun, but loved before it ; brave is brave after, but excellent, worthy be- fore ; honnête is nice, civil after, but honest before ; pauvre is indigent after, but of poor quality or pitiable before ; simple is mere before ; certain is certain in the sense of one or some be- fore, of sure after ; dernier is last elapsed after, but concluding, final before ; propre is neat after, but own before — and so on. 6. ' The partitive sense of a noun that is preceded by an adjective is usually expressed by de alone, without the definite article : thus, de bon pain, good bread de petits enfants, little children de mauvais sucre, bad sugar de belles fleurs, beautiful flowers a. But if the adjective follows the noun, the article is not omitted : thus, du pain excellent excellent bread, des fleurs magnifiques magnificent flowers. b. Also, if the adjective and following noun form together a current combination, a kind of compound name for something, the article remains : thus, du bon sens good sense, des jeunes gens young folks, des petits pois green peas. VERB-LESSON. 7. The present subjunctives of avoir have and être be are as follows : que j'aie, that I may have que je sois, that I may be que tu aies, that t7wu mayest have que tu sois, that thou mayest be qu'il ait, that he may have qu'il soit, that he may be que nous ayons, that we may have que nous soyons, that we may be que vous ayez, that you may have que vous soyez, that you may be qu'ils aient, thai they may have qu'ils soient, that they may be a. For the exchange of i and y in these forms, see 376. 6. It is customary to prefix the conjunction que that to the inflection of the subjunctive tenses in French grammars, because a subjunctive usually (not always) has that conjunction before it. For the abbreviation of que to qu', see 26c. • c. The 3d persons of this tense are often used in an imperative sense, and in some grammars they are given also with the impera- tive, as its 3d persons : thus, ADJECTIVES — NUMBER, POSITION. 53 qu'il ait, let him hate qu'il soit, let him be qu'ils aient, let them have qu'ils soient, let them be d. This tense corresponds to the one of the same name in Latin. VOCABULARY. l'école f., tlie school l'église f., the church la vie, life la famille, the family pauvre, 'poor riche, rich bleu, blue brun, brown actif, active laborieux, laborious aimable, amiable honnête, honest simple, simple modeste, modest intéressant, interesting excellent, excellent nouveau (VII. 7), new aveugle, blind • Exercise 8. 1 Avez-vous de belles fleurs ? 2 J'ai des fleurs bleues et rouges. 3 Les jeunes filles ont de beaux chapeaux. 4 Elles ont aussi de nouvelles robes simples et modestes. 5 Mon pauvre oncle a un fils aveugle. 6 Les hommes pauvres ont une vie active et laborieuse. 7 La vieille église est de bois noir. 8 L'enfant vertueux est à l'école chez un maître ex- cellent. 9 L'excellent maître est un bon ami des enfants riches et des enfants pauvres. 10 Nous avons des livres très bons et très intéressants, mais nous avons aussi de mauvais livres. u L'honnête homme laborieux aura une vie heureuse. 12 Mon frère est un garçon honnête et aima- ble. 13 J'ai de bon vin blanc dans des bouteilles noires. 14 Ils ont de bon pain noir, du beurre, et de très-mauvais fromage. 16 La pauvre fille aveugle a un père riche. J6 Elle a de grands yeux noirs'. 17 Mon père a une famille aimable et intéressante. Theme 8. 1 Have you good friends ? 2 1 have interesting friends and dear sisters. 3 She is a laborious young girl. 4 My poor cousin is very unhappy.. 5 She has a little blind daughter. 6 1 have a rich uncle. T My rich uncle is an 54 LESSON" IX. honest man. 8 He has a simple and modest life. • 9 We shall have an excellent school in our little village. 10 There is an interesting old church. u Mary is a pretty and mod- est girl. " She has small hands and large blue eyes. 18 Have you black bread and good butter ? 14 Here is good white bread and excellent butter. 15 You have old red wine in new black bottles. 16 My good old uncle has very interesting books in his little brown house. " He has a large family. LESSON IX. ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON". 1. Adjectives in French are for the most part not otherwise compared than by putting before them ad- verbs meaning more etc. a. The comparative adverb is plus more, and this is made superlative by prefixing to it the definite article : thus, le plus the most. b. We may also prefix moins less and le moins least to an adjective, producing a comparison downwards, or of diminution. 2. Hence, examples of the ordinary comparison of a French adjective are as follows : beau, handsome plus beau, handsomer le plus beau, handsomest jeune, young plus jeune, younger le plus jeune, youngest aimable, amiable plus aimable, more ami- le plus aimable, most able amiable a. The article before plus is of course varied for gender and number, like the adjective : thus, la plus belle handsomest (wo- man), les plus jeunes youngest (men or women). 3. But three adjectives have a special form for the comparative, which then is made superlative by prefix- ing to it the definite article. They are : bon, good meilleur, better le meilleur, best mauvais, bad pire, worse le pire, worst petit, small moindre, smaller le moindre, smallest ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. 55 a. But mauvais and petit are also compared with plus ; and even bon, in the sense of good-natured. 4. Comparison of equality is expressed by aussi as before the adjective. After the adjective, both as and than are expressed by que. Thns : aussi belle que sa sœur, as handsome as her sister plus petit que mon frère, smaller than my brother 5. Special rules are : a. The article showing the superlative has to be dropped after a possessive : thus, mon plus jeune frère my youngest brother (not distinguishable from my younger brother). b. If a superlative adjective is put after a noun having the definite article, the article must be repeated : thus, l'homme le plus savant the most learned man, la ville la plus peuplée the most populous city. c. After a superlative, the preposition de of, and not dans in, is used before a word of place : thus, le plus bel homme du monde the handsomest man in the world, la plus grande ville de l'Europe the largest city in Europe. VERB-LESSON. 6. The imperfect subjunctives of avoir have and être be are as follows : que j'eusse, that I might have que je fusse, that I might be que tu eusses, that thou mightest que tu fusses, that thou mightest have be qu'il eût, that he might have qu'il fût, that he might be que nous eussions, that ice might que nous fussions, that we might have be que vous eussiez, that you might que vous fussiez, that you might have be qu'ils eussent, that they might qu'ils fussent, that they might be have a. Every imperfect subjunctive in the language, without excep- tion, is inflected like these, with the endings -sse, -sses, -t, -ssions, -ssiez, -ssent, and with a circumflexed vowel (û or a or î) before the t of the 3d singular. b. The subjunctive tenses are by no means always to be ren- dered in English with the auxiliaries may and might, but some times with others, as should and would, and sometimes by simple- subjunctive or even indicative forms. 56 LESSON" IX. c. This tense is from the Latin pluperfect subjunctive : compare fusse etc. with Lat. fuissem etc. VOCABULARY. plus, more moins, less meilleur, better pire, worse le paysan, the peasant la rose, the rose laid, ugly haut, high Exercise 9. 1 Mon frère est le plus joli garçon du village. 2 Mon ami est plus beau que ton frère. 3 Le pauvre garçon est le plus jeune des enfants de mon vieil ami. 4 Étiez-vous plus jeune que votre sœur ? B Non, ma sœur était la plus jeune et la plus jolie de notre famille. "Paris est la plus grande ville de la France, mais elle est moins grande et moins riche que Londres. 7 L'Amérique est plus grande que l'Europe, et moins grande que l'Asie. h Louise est la jeune fille la plus aimable du monde. 9 L'enfant sera aussi laid que son pauvre père. ao Le meilleur vin était dans la plus petite bouteille. " Les paysans les plus honnêtes et les plus beaux de l'Europe sont dans les plus hautes mon- tagnes. " Les élèves sont plus jeunes que le maître. 13 Henri est le pire de tous les garçons du village. 14 Avez- vous de meilleur vin ? 15 La rose est la plus belle de toutes les fleurs. Theme 9. 1 His sister is ugly, but his niece is the ugliest girl in the city. 2 The boy is as handsome as his beautiful cousin. 3 The largest pieces of bread are for the poorest children. 4 The good and honest peasants are less poor than the bad men of the city. 5 The Alps are the highest mountains in Europe. 6 A city is larger than a large village. 7 Mary is as pretty as Helen, but she is less amiable and interesting. 8 The youngest of the children are my sisters. 9 The pret- tiest child is my youngest sister. 1U The peasants of the Alps were his best friends. " The women are as handsome as the men. H The smallest horse is larger than the largest conjugation of avoir. dog. 13 The cat is smaller than the dog. H The worst boy in the village was your dearest friend. 15 The red wine is better than the white wine. LESSON X. conjugation — the verb avoir have. 1. In the preceding lessons have been given, with, their complete inflection, examples of all the simple tenses and modes of the French verb. The remaining parts are the infinitive, the present and past participles, and the compound forms, made with an auxiliary verb. 2. The infinitives of the two verbs have and he are : avoir, have, to have être, be, to be a. The infinitive always ends in r or re. 6. The "sign of the infinitive," corresponding to the English to, is either à to or (quite as often) de of. As to the use of the one or the other of these, see Part Second, § 172 etc. But the French infinitive is often also (like the English) used without a sign, as subject of a verb, after various verbs, and after preposi- tions, especially pour in order to (literally for, for to) : thus, parler est mieux to speak is better, il veut avoir lie wishes to have, pour être in order to be. c. The French infinitive corresponds to the Latin infinitive active. 3. The present participles of the same verbs are : ayant, having étant, being a. The present participle invariably ends in ant. b. This participle, when used as a participle, has no variation for gender or number. Often, however, it is used as an adjec- tive, and then is varied like any other adjective : thus, une char- mante femme a charming woman, des yeux perçants piercing eyes. c. This participle is also (apparently) very commonly used after the preposition en : thus, en étant in being, in the act of being, while being (and often best rendered being simply). d. In fact, however, the so-called participle with en answers to the Latin abla- tive gerund in -ndo (en ayant == Lat. in habendo). The participle is the Latin present participle (ayant = Lat. habent-em). 4. The past participles of the same verbs are : eu, had été, been 58 LESSON X. a. This participle is variable for gender and number, like any ordinary adjective. b. The past participle corresponds to the Latin passive participle. 5. Compound forms for all the parts of a French verb (except the imperative and the past participle) are made, as in English, by adding its past participle to the various forms of an auxiliary verb. The auxiliary is usually avoir have ; but some verbs take instead être le (see below, XXVIIL 5-7). a. Hence, to make any given compound form, the correspond- ing simple form of avoir (or sometimes of être) is to be taken, and the past participle of the principal verb added to it. b. The participle is for the most part unvaried, or has its mas- culine singular form, in the compound forms of the verb when made with avoir. But it is a rule in French that if a compound verb-form has a direct object, and that object stands before the verb, the participle is made to agree with it in gender and num- ber : thus, quels livres avez-vous eus what books have you had ? les fleurs que j'ai eues the flowers which I have had, and so on : see Part Second, § 191 etc. 6. The compounds of the present and imperfect tenses are best called, as in English, the perfect and pluperfect ; that of the preterit, the past anterior ; those of the future and condi- tional, the FUTURE PERFECT and CONDITIONAL PERFECT. a. In many grammars, the indicative perfect is called the past indefinite (Fr. passé indéfini). It is very often used where in English we have the preterit ; and especially, of anything that has happened during this day, or during any period of which the present is viewed as a part. b. For the use of the past anterior, see Part Second, § 122. 7. The compound forms of avoir have are made, as in English, with avoir itself as auxiliary. The simple and compound forms are given together in full below. Complete Conjugation of avoir have. Infinitive. Perfect Infinitive. avoir, have, to have avoir eu, to have had Present Participle. Perfect Participle. ayant, Jiaving ayant eu, having had Past (or Passive) Participle. eu, had conjugation or avoir. 59 Pbesent. j'ai, Iliave tu as, thou hast il a, he has nous avons, we have vous avez, you have ils ont, they have Indicative. Perfect. j'ai eu, I have had tu as eu, thou hast had il a eu, he Ms had nous avons eu, we have had vous avez eu, you have had Imperfect. j'avais, I had, was having, etc. tu avais, thou hadsl etc. il avait, he had etc. nous avions, we had etc. vous aviez, you had etc. ils avaient, they had etc. Preterit. j'eus, I had tu eus, thou hadst il eut, he had nous eûmes, we had vous eûtes, you had ils eurent, they had Future. j'aurai, I shall have tu auras, thou wilt have il aura, he will have nous aurons, we shall have vous aurez, you will have ils auront, they will have ils ont eu, they have had Pluperfect. j'avais eu, I had had tu avais eu, thou hadst had il avait eu, he had had nous avions eu, we had had vous aviez eu, you had had ils avaient eu, they had had Past Anterior. j'eus eu, I had had tu eus eu, thou hadsl had il eut eu, he had had nous eûmes eu, we had had vous eûtes eu, you had had ils eurent eu, they had had Future Perfect. j'aurai eu, I shall have had tu auras eu, thou wilt have had il aura eu, he will have had nous aurons eu, we shall have had vous aurez eu, you will have had ils auront eu, they will have had Conditional. j'aurais, I should have tu aurais, llwu wouldst have il aurait, he would have nous aurions, we should have vous auriez, you would have ils auraient, they would have Imperative. ayons, let us 7iave aie, have, have thou ayez, have, have y« Conditional Perfect. j'aurais eu, I should have had tu aurais eu, tlwu wouldst have had il aurait eu, he would have had nous aurions eu, we should have had vous auriez eu, you would have had ils auraient eu, they would have had 60 LESSON X. Subjunctive. Present. Perfect. que j'aie, that I may Mve que j'aie eu, that I may Jiave had que tu aies, that thou mayest have que tu aies eu, that thou mayest etc. qu'il ait, that lie may have qu'il ait eu, that lie may have had que nous ayons, that we may have que nous ayons eu, tliat we may etc. que vous ayez, that you may have que vous ayez eu, that you may etc. qu'ils aient, that they may have qu'ils aient eu, that they may etc. Imperfect. Pluperfect. que j'eusse, that I might have que j'eusse eu, that I might have liad que tu eusses, that thou mightest que tu eusses eu, that thou mightest have have had qu'il eût, that he might have qu'il eût eu, that he might have had que nous eussions, that we might que nous eussions eu, that we might have have had que vous eussiez, that you might que vous eussiez eu, that you might have have had qu'ils eussent, that they might have qu'ils eussent eu, that they might hate had VOCABULARY. l'or m., gold l'argent m., silver, money la main, the hand la poche, the pocket le marchand, the (retail) merchant le boulanger, the baker malheureux, unhappy ignorant, ignorant si, if quoique, although Note.— Quoique (XXXIV. la) always requires the following verb to be in the subjunctive ; si (XXXIV. 16) has the indicative. For the abbreviation of si to s', see 396. Exercise 10. 1 J'ai un morceau de pain, et j'aurai aussi du beurre. 2 Avez-vous eu assez de fromage ? 3 Nous aurions eu au- tant de beurre que de fromage. 4 Eurent -ils de l'argent ? 5 Elle eut de l'argent dans la main, et il avait eu de l'or dans la poche. 6 Mon cousin aurait eu du vin, s'il avait eu un verre. 7 Mes sœurs auront de jolies robes. 8 Aurai- ent-elles eu aussi de beaux chapeaux ? 9 Ayez du café avec votre pain. 10 Ayons de la viande aussi. " Mon frère a eu un grand cheval laid ; il aura un beau petit cheval. conjugation of avoir. 61 12 II aura eu deux chevaux. 13 Qu'il ait aussi un chien! 14 Si nous avions eu un frère, nous aurions eu des amis. 15 Quoique nous ayons beaucoup d'argent, nous sommes très malheureux. 16 Ayant un bon père, elle est heureuse. 1T Quoiqu'il ait eu un maître excellent, l'élève est paresseux et ignorant. 18 Le marchand a-t-il eu de la soie bleue ? 19 II avait beaucoup de soie, mais j'avais très peu d'argent. 20 Le boulanger a du pain noir et de bon pain blanc. 21 II était malheureux, quoiqu'il eût assez de pain et de vin. Theme 10. 1 Had the merchant some pens ? 2 He had pens, and he will have paper, ink, and books. 3 You have had black ink ; he will have had good red ink. 4 Had you had white bread ? 5 1 should have had bread enough, if he had had butter. 6 The boys had money enough ; they will have meat and wine. 7 Our old master would have had a new school, if he had had more pupils. 8 Although he had few pupils, he was satisfied. 9 Had you a bit of gold in your pocket ? 10 1 had gold in my hand, and silver in my pocket. 11 Have a bit of bread and cheese. 12 Let us have new hats and handsome red and blue dresses. 13 We shall have had coffee and tea. 14 Will your sisters have red flowers? 16 Though they had much money, they were unhappy. 16 That I might have some wine and water ! 17 That you might have had a horse ! 18 The man will have a laborious life, if he has too little money. 19 The baker, having had some wine, had a bottle in his hand. 20 Although the peas- ants have little money, they are happy and content. 21 Al- though the girl had beautiful eyes, she was very ugly. LESSON XI. LESSON XI. conjugation of the verb être le. 1. All the simple forms of être he have been given in previous lessons. They are here repeated in their order, along with the compound forms, which are made, as in English, with the help of the auxiliary avoir have. Infinitive. Perfect Infinitive. être, be, to be avoir été, to have been Present Participle. Perfect Participle. étant, being ayant été, having been Past (or Passive) Participle. été, been Indicative. Present. je suis, lam tu es il est nous sommes vous êtes ils sont Imperfect. j'étais, Iwas, used to be, etc. tu étais il était nous étions vous étiez ils étaient Preterit. je fus, Iwas tu fus il fut nous fûmes vous fûtes ils furent Perfect. j'ai été, I have been tu as été il a été nous avons été vous avez été ils ont été Pluperfect. j'avais été, Ihad been tu avais été il avait été nous avions été vous aviez été ils avaient été Past Anterior. j'eus été, I had been tu eus été il eut été nous eûmes été vous eûtes été ils eurent été conjugation of être. 63 Future Perfect. j'aurai été, I shall have been tu auras été il aura été nous aurons été vous aurez été ils auront été Conditional Perfect. j'aurais été, Islwuld have been tu aurais été il aurait été nous aurions été vous auriez été ils auraient été Imperative. soyons, let us be soyez, be, be ye Subjunctive. Perfect. que j'aie été, that I may have been que tu aies été qu'il ait été que nous ayons été que vous ayez été qu'ils aient été Pluperfect. que j'eusse été, that I might have been que tu eusses été qu'il eût été que nous eussions été que vous eussiez été qu'ils eussent été a. Etre corresponds only in part to the Latin esse etc.; the infinitive (dis- puted), participles, and imperfect come from the corresponding forms of stare stand ; the future and conditional are formed in the usual way (V. 5c) from essere made oy adding the usual infinitive-ending re to esse. 2. To express the indefinite subject it of it is, it was, etc., the French generally uses ce, literally this (XXIV. 2), but sometimes also il it. Future. je serai, I shall be tu seras il sera nous serons vous serez ils seront Conditional. je serais, I should be tu serais il serait nous serions vous seriez ils seraient sois, be, be thou Present. que je sois, that I may be que tu sois qu'il soit que nous soyons que vous soyez qu'ils soient Imperfect. que je fusse, that I might be que tu fusses qu'il fût que nous fussions que vous fussiez qu'ils fussent 64 LESSON XI. a. Il is used in statements of time, particularly of the time of day ; and ce in most other cases. Thus : il est quatre heures, it is 4 o'clock il était midi, it was noon il sera dix heures, it will be 10 il est minuit, it is midnight o'clock il est tard, it is late il est temps de partir, it is time to go c'est bien, it is well c'était en vain, it was in tain c'est moi, it is I c'était nous, it was we c'est à vous que je parle, it is to you that I speak b. If the verb after ce is followed by a plural noun, or a plural pronoun of the third person, it is itself made plural : thus, ce furent elles, it was they ce seront mes amis, it will be my friends ce sont nos livres que je vois, it is our books that I see VOCABULARY. malade, sick, ill faible, feeble, weak paresseux, idle, lazy content, contented, happy à la campagne, in t/ie country l'heure f . , the hour, o'clock à présent, at present, now toujours, always Exercise 11. 1 Votre ami est-il riche ? 2 Mon ami est pauvre à pré- sent, mais il a été très riche. 3 Ils seraient heureux, s'ils avaient été honnêtes et lahorieux. 4 Nous avons été à Fêcole, et nous serons à l'église avec nos sœurs. 5 Vous auriez eu de très bon vin, si vous aviez été chez mon oncle. 6 L'homme a-t-il été malade ? 7 II a été très faible, et il sera malade. 8 Quoique les jeunes filles soient très con- tentes à la campagne, elles seront malheureuses à la ville. 9 Sois bon et sage, et tu seras heureux. 10 Vous êtes jeune et belle ; soyez contente. " Il est trois heures à présent ; il sera quatre heures. ia Ce sont les enfants de mon frère. 13 Ils auraient eu de belles fleurs et des fruits, mais ils ont été très mauvais. 14 Il est deux heures, et elle sera à l'église. 15 C'était l'homme le plus paresseux du monde. 10 Quoique le garçon fût à l'école, il était toujours pares- NEGATIVE CONJUGATION, 65 seux. 17 Ayant été malade, la femme est très faible. 18 Quoiqu'il fût riche, il était plus malheureux qu'un homme pauvre. 19 II aura été chez mon père une heure. 20 C'était du vin d'Espagne. Theme 11. 1 It is my children. 2 They have been very bad, but they will be good now. 3 It is three o'clock. 4 My sisters will have been at school two hours. 5 Although they are very young, they are very idle. 6 If the man has been sick, he will be feeble. 7 Although we have been poor, we were always contented. 8 1 should have been at school, if we had had a new master. 9 The boy had been at church dur- ing three hours. 10 Although the girls had beautiful hands, they were ugly. n Be good and active, and you will be happy. 12 Let us be lazy and happy. 13 It will be three o'clock, and the boys will be at school. H I should have been at Paris, but my father is in England. 15 If we had been in the country, we should have had fruit and flowers enough. 16 It was one o'clock, and Henry was in his room. 17 My sister had been very rich, and she was in Rome with my mother. 18 Having been in Italy, she is very happy. 19 It is a good man, but it is a bad merchant. 20 It is a wooden table. LESSON XII. NEGATIVE CONJUGATION. 1. A verb is made negative by putting ne before and pas after it — in a compound tense, before and after the auxiliary. a. It must always be borne in mind that in any compound form it is the auxiliary that is the real verb, the added participle being only a verbal adjective. All rules, therefore, as to the place of negative words, subject and object pronouns, and so on, given with reference to the verb, apply to the auxiliary and not to the participle in compound forms. 5 66 LESSOR XII. b. The ne comes after the subject, but precedes a pronoun-ob- ject (XXII. 7). It is abbreviated always to n' before a vowel or h mute (26c). 2. Examples of tenses inflected negatively are : je ne suis pas, lam not je n'avais pas eu, Ihad not had tu n'es pas, thou art not tu n'avais pas eu, thou hadst not had il n'est pas, he is not il n'avait pas eu, he had not had nous ne sommes pas, we are not nous n'avions pas eu, we had not had vous n'êtes pas, you are not vous n'aviez pas eu, you had not had ils ne sont pas, they are not ils n'avaient pas eu, they had not Jiad 3. Instead of pas is sometimes used point, which makes a stronger or more emphatic negative : thus, il n'est point, lie is not (at all) je n'avais point eu, I (certainly) had not had. a. Pas and point are really nouns, meaning step and point, used adverbially to strengthen the negation, like English not a bit and the like. 6. With some verbs, ne is usually or always used alone, the pas being omitted : see Second Part, § 166. 4. For never, nobody, and nothing, the French say ne . . . jamais (literally, not ever), ne . . . personne (liter- ally, not a person) and ne . . . rien (literally, not a thing), respectively, the two words being separated, and the ne put always before the verb (or auxiliary) : thus, je ne suis jamais malade, I am never ill il n'avait jamais été chez nous, he had never been at our Itouse je n'ai vu personne, I have seen nobody personne n'a eu mon livre, no one has had my book n'avez vous rien, have you nothing ? rien ne serait plus cruel, nothing would be more cruel 5. A verb made negative by ne is also followed by ni . . . ni, to give the sense of neither . . . nor ; by guère, to give the' sense of scarcely, but little ; very often by que (literally than : i.e. else than), to give the sense of only ; and by plus, to give the sense of no longer: thus, il n'est ni jeune ni beau, he is neither young nor handsome il n'a guère d'argent, he lias hardly any money je n'ai que trois livres, I have only three books elle n'est plus ici, she is no longer here NEGATIVE CONJUGATION. 67 6. The negative ne belongs strictly to the verb, and can never be used except with a verb expressed. If the verb, then, is omitted (for example, in answers), the ne is also omitted, and the other word has by itself a nega- tive sense : thus, avez-vous des livres, have you books ? pas un, not one qu'avez vous, what have you f rien, nothing qui est ici, who is here ? personne, nobody 7. After a negative verb, the partitive sense of a noun is expressed by de alone, without the article : thus, je n'ai pas de pain, Ihave no bread nous n'avions guère de vin, we had scarcely any wine vous n'aurez plus de patience, you will no longer have patience a. After ni . . . ni, both preposition and article are omitted, and the partitive sense is left unexpressed, as in English : thus, je n'ai ni pain ni beurre, Ihave neither bread nor butter b. On the other hand, after ne . . . que only both preposition and article are used : thus, nous ne voyons que des ennemis, we see only enemies 8. When a negative verb is made interrogative, the subject-pronoun is put, as usual, immediately after the verb (and joined to it by a hyphen), while everything else remains unchanged. An example of a tense used both negatively and interrogatively is as follows : n'aurai-je pas été, shall I not have been? n'auras-tu pas été, wilt thou not have been ? n'aura t il pas été, will he not have been? n'aurons-nous pas été, shall we not have been? n'aurez-vous pas été, will you not have been? n'auront ils pas été, will they not have been? a. N'est-ce pas is a much- used phrase, meaning, is it not so ? or corresponding to English repeated questions like is he not ? do they not ? and the like : thus, il est encore malade, n'est-ce pas he is still ill, is he not f vous avez mon livre, n'est-ce pas you have my book, have you not f VOCABULARY. No new words are given with this Lesson, but all the negative expressions given above are to be well learned. 68 LESSON XII. Exercise 12. 1 N'avez-vous pas été chez votre oncle ? 2 Non, il n'était pas à la maison. 3 Avez-vous du pain ? 4 Non, nous n'a- vons pas de pain, nous n'avons que du beurre et du fro- mage. 6 Le marchand a-t-il du fruit ou du vin ? 6 II n'a ni fruit ni vin. 7 Le pauvre paysan n'a-t-il pas été ma- lade ? 8 II n'a jamais été malade, mais sa femme est très faible, et il n'a rien pour ses enfants. 9 Quoiqu'elles ne soient pas riches, elles ne sont jamais malheureuses. 10 Votre frère ne sera-t-il pas à Paris avec ses amis ? 11 Non, il ne sera ni à Paris ni à Londres ; il est en Italie. 12 Personne n'a été chez mon père. 13 N'avez-vous rien pour mes pauvres petits enfants ? 14 Vous n'avez jamais eu d'enfants ; vous n'avez que des frères et des sœurs. 15 J'ai eu de bon papier rouge et de l'encre excellente, mais je n'ai plus rien. 16 Les garçons n'avaient-ils pas un très mauvais maître? l7 Non, le maître n'était point mauvais; il n'a été que faible et malade. 18 Nous avons assez d'eau, mais nous n'avons guère de vin. l9 Je n'aurais jamais été à l'école, si mon père n'avait pas eu une maison à Paris. 20 Elle n'a été chez personne. Theme 12. 1 Had you not a sister ? 2 No, I had neither sister nor brother, but I had many good friends. 3 Is not your father at Paris ? 4 No, he has never been in Paris. 5 The young girls will not be either at the house or at the school ; they will be at the church. 6 The poor woman is not happy ; she has been ill, and she has only a bit of bread in the house. 7 Has not the peasant many children ? B No, he has no children ; he has only a wife and a niece. 9 The school was not in the city. 10 Although the master was old, he was not (at all) ugly. " He had good scholars, and he was never unhappy. 12 He would not have been unhappy, if his pupils had not been very bad. i3 We have DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 69 been ill, but no one is ill any longer. 14 If lie bad never been idle, be would not be poor now. 15 1 have only one friend, and be bas neitber books nor paper. 16 Are you not happier than your friend ? "I shall not have had any wine in my glass. 18 If the girls had not had new hats, they would not have been at the church. 19 The children were in the garden, but they had no fruit. 20 No one had any fruit. 21 He is no longer at my father's. LESSON XIII. DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 1. In French is made a fuller distinction than in English be- tween pronominal adjectives, accompanying an expressed noun which they qualify, and pronominal substantives, or pronouns proper, standing for a noun not expressed. The pronoun forms will be given in later Lessons (XXIV. -XXVII.) ; the adjective forms, here and in the next Lesson. The pronominal adjectives always qualify a following noun, and are of the same gender and number with it. 2. The demonstrative adjectives, meaning this or that and these or those, are as follows : cet or ce m., cette f. ; ces m.f. plural. Cet m. is used when the following word begins with a vowel (or h mute) ; otherwise, ce. Thus : ce chapeau, this (or that) liât ces chapeaux, these (or those) hats cette robe, this (etc.) dress ces robes, these (etc.) dresses cet arbre, this (etc.) tree cet homme, this (etc.) man cet honnête homme, this (etc.) honest fellow 3. When the demonstrative is meant to be emphatic, or when this and that are to be distinguished from one another, the adverbs ci here and là there are added re- spectively to the qualified noun ; and they are joined to it in writing by a hyphen : thus, 10 LESSON XIII. ce chapeau- ci, this hat (literally, this hat 7iere) ces robes là, those dresses (literally, those dresses there) cet homme ci et cette femme-là, this man and that woman 4. The interrogative adjective, meaning which or what, is : Sing, quel m. , quelle f . ; plur. quels m. , quelles f . Thus: quel livre avez-vous, which (or what) book have you ? quelles fleurs sont sur la table, what flowers are on the table f 5. a. The interrogative adjective is also used in ex- clamation: thus, quelle bonté, what goodness ! quels beaux livres, what beautiful books I b. It is likewise used as relative : thus, je ne sais quel livre il a, I don't know which book he has c. The indefinite article, sometimes added in English after what, is not expressed in French : thus, quel bel homme, what a hand- some man ! VERB-LESSON. 6. In phrases signifying bodily conditions which one feels or is conscious of, avoir with a noun is used in French, where the English has the verb be with an adjec- tive: thus, j'ai faim, I am hungry (literally, I have hunger) il a soif, he is thirsty (literally, he has thirst) n'avez vous pas sommeil, are you not sleepy? nous avons froid, we are cold vous avez chaud, you are warm tu avais peur, thou wast afraid ils auront honte, they will be ashamed a. Similar phrases are avoir mal à have a pain or ache in, avoir raison be right or in the right, avoir tort be wrong or in the wrong : thus, j'ai mal à la tête, Ihave the headache vous avez raison et j'ai tort, you are right and I am wrong b. In a corresponding manner, questions as to one's personal condition are asked and answered with avoir: thus, qu'avez- vous what is the matter with you f (literally, what have youf) and avez-vous quelque chose is anything the matter with you ? (literally, have you anything f) and je n'ai rien nothing is the matter with me (literally, i" have nothing). DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 71 VOCABULARY. la bibliothèque, the Mbrœry le conte, the story, tale le roman, the romance, novel l'histoire f., the history la tête, the head la dent, the tooth autre, other ennuyeux, dull, tedious pourquoi, why? parce que (XXXIV. 5a), because Exercise 13. 1 Quels enfants ont été à l'école ? 2 Ces bons petits gar- çons-ci sont toujours à l'école, mais ces filles-là n'ont jamais été à l'école. 3 Quels livres avez-vous dans la main ? 4 Ce livre-ci est un roman, et cet autre livre est une histoire. 5 C'étaient des livres de la bibliothèque de mon oncle. 6 Ces livres-là sont-ils intéressants ? 7 Ces romans-là sont très intéressants, mais cette histoire-ci est trop ennuyeuse. 8 Les contes et les romans sont toujours plus intéressants que les histoires. 9 Quelles histoires avaient-ils eues (X. bb) ? 10 Ils avaient eu l'histoire de France ; cet autre livre est une histoire d'Angleterre. " Cet homme est-il l'ami de votre fils ? 12 Non, madame, c'est son cousin. 13 Quel maître vos enfants avaient-ils ? 14 Je n'ai pas d'enfants ; ce garçon-ci est mon neveu, et cette jolie fille-là est ma nièce ; ils avaient un maître très bon, mais très ennuyeux. 15 Cette femme a beaucoup de cousins ; mais elle n'a que ces deux enfants. ie Quels jolis petits enfants ! " Dans quelle mai- son avez-vous été ? 18 J'ai été à Paris chez ma cousine. 19 Quoique cette femme-ci soit très pauvre, elle n'est pas plus malheureuse que cet homme-là. 20 Pourquoi cette femme est-elle malheureuse ? 21 Elle est malheureuse, parce qu'elle est toujours malade. Theme 13. This young girl has been in the country with her father. 1 What dresses has she had (X. 6b) ? 3 She has had these dresses and that hat. 4 These histories are longer and less interesting than those novels. 5 What book have you in 72 LESSON XIV. the hand ? 6 This book is a dull little story. ' This woman is the mother of this little girl, and the aunt of that big boy. 8 These young girls are not her daughters. 9 She has many cousins, but she has only this child. 10 These books belong (III. 6) to my uncle's library. " What beau- tiful books, and what a large library ! 12 If this man had not been ill, these children would have had enough bread. 13 Although this man and this woman are honest and in- dustrious, they have always been poor. 14 He had the bot- tle in this hand, and the glass in that hand. 15 In what cities have you been ? 10 1 have been in this city, but I have never been in that village. 17 This old man is very dull. 18 Why is he so dull ? 10 He is dull because he has always been idle, and because he has never been at school, 20 What an interesting story ! VERB-EXERCISE. Are you cold ? I am cold, but he is warm. Will he be hungry? He will be hungry and thirsty. What is the matter with him ? He is sleepy. Is anything the matter with you ? No, nothing is the matter with me. They have the headache. I am right and you are wrong. I am always right ; I am never wrong. Nothing is the matter with us. Has she not the toothache ? No, nothing is the matter with her. We were afraid. They are ashamed. LESSON XIY. POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 1. The possessive adjectives are : Sing, mon m., ma f.; plur. mes m.f., my ton m., ta f.; tes m.f., thy son m., sa f.; ses m.f., his, her, its notre m.f; nos m.f., our votre m.f. ; vos m.f., your leur m.f.; leurs m.f., their POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 73 a. There is no distinction made in French between his and her and its ; son etc. has all these meanings, and, like the other ad- jectives, is varied only to agree with the nonn which it qualifies. 2. But the feminine singular forms ma, ta, sa are not allowed before a word beginning with a vowel (or h mute) ; instead are used mon, ton, son : thus, mon amie, my (female) friend ton épouse, thy spouse son âme, Ms soul son histoire, her history mon aveugle sœur, my blind sister ton aimable fille, thy lovely daughter 3. The possessives are repeated before every noun that they qualify : thus, my father and mother, mon père et ma mère her friends and relatives, ses amis et ses parents 4. Titles of respect or politeness, used both in ad- dressing and in speaking of persons, are the following : *monsieur, sir, Mr. , the gentleman *messieurs, gentlemen, Messrs. madame, madam, my lady, the lady, Mrs. mesdames, my ladies, the ladies mademoiselle, Miss, the young lady mesdemoiselles, Misses, the young ladies a. These words are compounds with the possessive mon my, and both parts of the compounds are inflected. b. In speaking to any one of his or her relatives, politeness often requires these titles to be put before the possessive : thus, your mother, madame votre mère your brothers, messieurs vos frères your son and daughter, monsieur votre fils et mademoiselle votre fille c. When these titles are used with a surname, they are written with a capital, thus, Monsieur Guizot; or, by abbreviation, M. Guizot. 5. The possessive is often used in French, especially in address, where it is omitted in English : thus, bonjour, ma sœur good- day, sister, oui, mon general yes, General. a. On the other hand, the definite article is often used in French instead of the possessive, where the connection shows clearly what is meant : thus, il l'avait dans la poche he had it in his pocket, fermez les yeux shut your eyes. 6. The commonest indefinite adjectives are : 74 LESSOR XIV. chaque, each, every nul, not any, no tout, every, all aucun, not any, no quelque, some plusieurs, several a. Of these words, chaque is only singular, and plusieurs only plural ; nul and aucun form féminines, nulle and aucune, but no plural ; quelque has the plural quelques ; tout makes the femi- nine toute, and the plurals tous m. , toutes f . b. Tout means all when followed by an article or possessive or demonstrative : thus, toute la ville, all the city {the toute ville, every city whole city) tous ses enfants, all his children tout enfant, each child tout ce temps, all this time à tout temps, at every time c. Quelque signifies a more limited some than the partitive (IV. 1, 2), and is usually better rendered by a little, a few: thus, des pommes, some apples quelques pommes, a few apples de l'argent, money quelque argent, some little money d. Nul and aucun both alike require ne with the verb : thus, nul homme n'est parfait, no man is perfect il n'a aucune faute, he has not any fault VOCABULARY. le hœuf, the ox la vache, the cow la brebis, the sheep le champ, the field la pomme, the apple la pomme de terre, the potato la poire, the pear la pêche, the peach le panier, the basket le vase, the vase le légume, the vegetable le parent, the relative, parent Exercise 14. 1 Monsieur B. a-t-il des enfants ? 2 Oui, madame, ce gar- çon-ci est son fils, mais» la petite fille est sa nièce. 3 Ces demoiselles avec Mademoiselle B. sont ses cousines. 4 Ces messieurs sont-ils les amis de monsieur votre père ? 5 Non, ce sont ses frères. 6 Mon amie a un grand vase d'argent. 7 Quelles fleurs a-t-elle dans la main ? 8 Elle n'a point de POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 75 fleurs ; elle n'a qu'un livre dans la main, et une pomme dans la poche. 9 Mademoiselle votre sœur n'a-t-elle pas été en Allemagne ? 10 Non, elle a été en Angleterre avec madame votre tante. " As-tu des amis, mon enfant ? 12 Oui, madame, j'ai plusieurs amis et quelques parents. 13 Cette femme-ci est-elle ta mère ? 14 Non, madame, elle est ma tante. 15 Voici mon père et ma mère. 16 Ces pay- sans ont-ils des vaches et des *bœufs ? 1T Non, mon oncle, chaque paysan a une vache et quelques brebis, mais aucun paysan n'a de bœufs. 18 Toutes leurs brebis sont dans les champs. 19 Quels fruits avez-vous dans votre panier? 20 J'ai quelques pommes et plusieurs poires. 21 N'avez-vous pas aussi des pommes de terre ? 22 Je n'ai aucune pomme de terre, mais j'ai des pêches. Theme 14. 1 Is your mother at the house ? 2 No, she is in Paris, with her cousin, Miss B. 3 Are these boys your friends ? 4 No, cousin ; they are the children of my teacher. B They have been in all the schools of this whole city. 6 Every friend of my son is my friend also. 7 All these peasants have been in the fields, and each woman has a basket on her head. 8 Several women have vegetables in their baskets. 9 Have you peaches and pears, my good woman ? 10 1 have a few pears, sir, but I have no peaches. " Do all these animals belong to your son ? 12 No, sir, the sheep belong to my son, but he has no horse, and we have only three cows. 13 What vegetables have we, Mary ? 14 We have a few potatoes in the house, and several apples. 15 Each child will have an apple, but no child will have a peach. 18 1 had some little money in my pocket, but my brother had nothing. n I never have potatoes in my pocket. 18 They had some flowers, but they had no vase. 19 This poor old woman had a basket on her head. 20 My friend (f.) had her history in her hand ; she is now at school. ?6 LESSON XV. LESSON XV. CARDINAL NUMERALS. 1. The names of numbers are as follows 1 un 2 deux 3 trois 4 quatre 5 *cinq 6*six 7 *sept 8 *huit 9 neuf 10 *dix 11 *onze 12 douze 13 treize 14 quatorze 15 quinze 16 seize 17 *dix sept 18 *dix-huit 19 *dix neuf 20 vingt 10 dix 20 vingt 30 trente 40 quarante 50 cinquante 60 soixante 70 soixante-dix 80 quatre-vingts 90 quatre-vingt-dix 100 cent 101 cent un 102 cent deux 103 cent trois deux cents deux cent un deux cent six mille, mil 200 201 206 1000 2000 61 soixante et un 62 soixante-deux 63 soixante-trois 64 soixante- quatre 65 soixante-cinq 66 soixante -six 67 soixante sept 68 soixante huit 69 soixante-neuf 70 soixante-dix 71 soixante et onze 72 soixante- douze 73 soixante-treize 74 soixante-quatorze 75 soixante-quinze 76 soixante-seize 77 soixante-dix sept 78 soixante-dix huit 79 soixante dix- neuf 80 quatre-vingts deux mille 1,000,000 un million 2,000,000 deux millions 2. a. Un is masculine only, and forms the feminine une ; no other numeral makes a distinction of gender. b. Vingt twenty, score, and cent hundred, are the only numerals (below million) that make a plural : thus, vingts, cents. This plural form is used when score or hundred is multiplied by a preceding numeral — not, however, if an added numeral follows : thus, cinq cents, five hundred cinq cent dix, five hundred and ten quatre-vingts, fourscore quatre-vingt-un, eighty-one CARDINAL NUMERALS. 77 3. The French has now no separate names for seventy, eighty, ninety, but after sixty-nine (as shown in the table) it counts sixty-ten, sixty-eleven, etc. , up to sixty -nineteen ; and so in like manner fourscore-ten, fourscore-eleven, , etc. , up to fourscore- nineteen or ninety-nine. a. But the older septante seventy, octante eighty, and nonante ninety, are still occasionally met with. 4. The other odd numbers between the tens are made in the same way as those for 61 to 69 in the table. Thus, vingt et un 21, *vingt-deux 22, trente-trois 33, qua- rante-cinq 45, cinquante-huit 58, and so on. a. Vingt-un 21, trente-un 31, etc., are sometimes used; also cent et un 101, soixante et dix 70, soixante-onze 71 ; but only quatre-vingt-un 81, quatre-vingt-dix 90, quatre-vingt-onze 91. 5. A hyphen is always inserted between a ten and a unit immediately following, but not when et stands be- tween ; and it is not used after cent or mille. 6. Un is not used before cent or mille in counting : that is, the French says simply hundred, thousand, not one hundred or a thousand and so on. 7. In giving dates, the briefer form mil is used in- stead of mille : thus, mil sept cent soixante seize, 1776 mil huit cent quatre vingt-cinq, 1885 a. The French never says, in dates or elsewhere, eighteen hun- dred and so on, but always (a) thousand eight hundred etc. 8. Still higher numbers are used than those given in the table : thus, un milliard or un billion a thousand million, un trillion a million millions, etc. 9. After plus more and moins less, before a numeral, than is expressed by de : thus, plus de trois ans more than three years, moins de dix minutes less than ten minutes. VOCABULARY. l'an m., l'année f., the year le mois, the month la semaine, the week le jour, the day la minute, the minute la seconde, the second combien, how much? how many? (V. 4) la chose, the thing la fois, the time font, make (XXXII. 85) 78 ff StI cT (Thefig^esare^bere^ifll* words.) / 1 5 ; 17 ; 23 ; 44 ; 72 ; 98^ 117 ; 361 ; 1492 ; 1776 ; li 2 Ce paysan-ci a 3 chevaux, 4 bœufs, 13 vaches, et 219 brebis. 3 L'année a 365 jours. 4 Chaque jour a 24 heures. 6 L'heure a 60 minutes et 360 secondes. 6 L'année a 12 mois. 7 Le mois a 29, ou 30, ou 31 jours. 8 Combien de minutes le jour a-t-il ? 9 60 fois 24 font 1440 ; le jour a 1440 min- utes. 10 Combien de livres avez-vous sur la table ? " J'ai plus de 7 livres. 12 Mon oncle a plus de 565 livres dans sa bibliothèque. 13 Combien de fruits a-t-il dans son panier ? 14 II a 11 pommes, 7 poires, et plus de 10 pêches. Jû J'ai été en Angleterre 6 mois et 3 semaines. 16 Combien d'heures la semaine a-t-elle ? " La semaine a 168 heures : 7 fois 24 font 168. 18 5 fois 9 font 45. Theme 15. 1 Have you many books ? 2 1 have less than a hundred books, but my father has more than a thousand in his library. 3 How many peasants are in this village ? 4 Nine- ty-six ; and each peasant has a wife and several children. 5 How many animals have you, my good friend ? c I have nine cows, twelve oxen, and a hundred and twenty-one sheep. 7 Charles, how many weeks has a year? B A year has fifty-two weeks and one day. 9 Three times four make twelve. 10 Five times two make ten. " Seven times nine make sixty-three. 12 Eleven times twelve make a hundred and thirty-two. 13 Where is your mother, sir? 14 She has been more than four days in the country, but she is at home now. Vo These boys have had 41 apples ; they will be sick. 16 We shall have been in London less than three weeks. 17 A month has thirty or thirty-one days. OEDIKAL KUMEEALS. 79 LESSON XVI. ORDINAL NUMERALS. 1. The ordinals are mostly formed from the cardi- nals, whether simple or compound, by adding the ending -ième, before which a final e of the cardinal is omitted. But— a. First is premier, and second is either *second or the regular deuxième — except in compound numbers, where first is unième, and second is deuxième only. 1. Cinq makes cinquième, with inserted u ; and neuf makes neuvième, with change of f to v. 2. Examples of the ordinals are : vingt unième 1st premier 21st , ( vingt et unième _■■_ ( *second _ , . , , 2cU , .^ 22d vingt deuxième ( deuxième 3d troisième 43d quarante- troisième 4th quatrième 56th cinquante-sixième 5th cinquième 67th soixante septième 6th sixième 77th soixante- dix septième 7th septième 99th quatre-vingt-dix-neuvième 8th huitième 100th centième 9th neuvième 101st cent unième llth onzième 713th sept cent treizième 18th. dix huitième 1000th millième 20th vingtième 1248th mille deux cent quarante-huitième a. An ordinal is generally preceded by the definite article, le or la or les ; and premier and second have a special feminine form : thus, la première, la seconde. b. Second and deuxième are used somewhat indifferently ; but second is rather preferred where there are only two objects (no third, fourth, etc., to follow) : thus, le second tome the second (and last) volume, or le deuxième tome, the second volume (of a series). 3. The cardinal numeral sometimes stands in French where in English w T e use the ordinal : namely — 80 LESSON XVI. a. In giving the day of the month, except the first : thus, le deux janvier, the second of January le quatre ou le cinq avril, the fourth or fifth of April du douze au vingt-trois mai, from the 12th to the ZM of May le dix du mois, the tenth of tlie month but le premier mai, the first of May b. In giving the title of a sovereign, except the first and sometimes the second : thus, Guillaume trois, William III. Henri quatre, Henry IV. Louis quatorze, Louis XIV. but Henri premier, Henry I. Charles deux or Charles second, Charles II. c. In other numerations also, where the number follows the thing enumerated : thus, tome deux, volume second chapitre quatre, chapter fourth page vingt cinq, page twenty-fifth article quarante neuf, article 49 4. As in English, the ordinals are used also as frac- tional — but only from fifth upward : thus, un cinquième, a fifth part trois vingtièmes, three twentieths a. For half, the French has two words, moitié f. as noun, and demi (demie f.) as adjective. But demi before a noun is joined to it with a hyphen, and is not varied for gender. Thus : la moitié du temps, half of the time un demi- pied, a half -foot, half a foot une demi-heure, a half -hour, half an hour un pied et demi, afoot and a half une heure et demie, an hour and a half b. The words for third and fourth or quarter are tiers and quart respectively : thus, trois et un tiers, three and a third un quart d'heure, quarter of an hour une aune et trois quarts, a yard and three quarters o. Quint is also rarely used for fifth part, instead of cinquième, OKDIKAL NUMERALS. 81 VOCABULARY. le grand-père, the grandfather le petit fils, the grandson, le roi, the king la reine, the queen le siècle, the century le tome, the volume le chapitre, the chapter la page, the page dernier, last (VIII. 5c) prochain, next Edouard, Edward Elisabeth, Elizabeth Exercise 16. (The figures are to be read into words.) 1 Le l r , le 5 me , le 14 me , le 23 me , le 34 me , le 57 me , le 72 me , le 98 me , le 151 me , le 4004 me . 2 Henri était le quatrième fils et le septième enfant de ses parents. 3 Louis XV. fut petit- fils de Louis XIV., et grand-père de Louis XVI. et de Charles X. 4 Les deux fils de Charles I. étaient Charles IL et Jacques IL 5 Henri VIII. avait 7 femmes ; la première avait une fille, Marie. 6 Quel livre avez-vous dans la main ? 7 J'ai le 3 me tome d'une histoire de France. 8 Combien de pages ce livre a-t-il ? 9 II a 387 pages ; mais le 2 me tome a 419 pages, et le l r n'a que 278 pages. 10 Com- bien de mois avez-vous été en Italie ? " J'ai été à Rome deux mois et demi, et à Florence une semaine et demie. 12 J'étais à Londres le 15 du mois, et j'avais été à Paris du 18 au 29 du mois dernier. 13 Quel tome avez-vous ? 14 J'ai tome trois, chapitre quarante-deux, page trois cent cinq. 15 Ce garçon a été une demi-heure à l'école ; il sera à l'église deux heures et un quart. 16 Ce mois est le 12 me de l'année. 17 Avez-vous du pain ? 18 Non, monsieur, nous avons trois livres et demie de sucre, et une livre et quart de beurre ; mais nous n'avons pas de pain. 19 J'ai été ici trois quarts d'heure, et je n'ai rien eu. 20 Nous sommes enfants du 19 me siècle. Theme 16. 1 She, is the fifth daughter of her parents. a George III. was grandson of George IL, and father of William IV. 8 Were you in Paris the 13th of last month ? 4 No, I was 6 m LESSON XVII. at Paris the 18th, and I shall be in London from the 12th to the 27th of the next month. & What history have you? 6 1 have volume fifth of the history of Henry VII. 7 Henry VIII. was son of Henry VII., and father of Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 8 Elizabeth was the second queen of England ; Victoria is the fifth. 9 Have you been in Ger- many ? 10 1 was in Germany a year and three quarters. 11 1 shall have been in school two hours and a half. 12 Six months are (the) half of the year. 13 Each child had a half -cup of tea and a bit of bread. u They had a pound and a quarter of cheese, and three pounds and a half of sugar. 1& These (ce) are the children of my fourth son. 16 The first, the fourth, and the sixth of the children are boys. " The second, the third, and the fifth are girls. 18 My grandfather is now in his 83d year ; he has many grandsons. 19 You are the 14th grandson of your grand- father. 20 The France of our days is not the France of the 17th century. LESSON XVII. NUMERALS CONTINUED — MONTHS AND WEEK-DATS. 1. The names of the months are as follows : janvier, January mai, May septembre, September février, February juin, June octobre. October *mars, March juillet, July novembre, November *avril, April *aout, August décembre, December 2. The names of the days of the week are as follows : dimancbe, Sunday mercredi, Wednesday vendredi, Friday lundi, Monday jeudi, Thursday samedi, Saturday mardi, Tuesday a. The names of months and of week-days are not written with capitals, as in English, but are treated like common nouns. 3. In giving a date, the number (generally cardinal : XVI. 3d) of the month-day stands before the month- KUMEKALS : MOHTHS AKD WEEK-DAYS. 83 name, and is not usually followed by de of ; before it stands the article le (in old style, ce this, and in mercan- tile style au on the) : thus, lundi le premier avril (rarely d'avril), Monday, April 1st mardi le quatre juillet, Tuesday, July 4th au trente juin, payez etc., on June S0t7i, pay etc. Paris, ce dix sept août, mil huit cents, Paris, Aug. 17, 1800. a. In asking the day of the month, various expressions are used : e.g. quel jour du mois (or quel quantième) sommes-nous (or avons-nous, or est-il) aujourd'hui what day of the month is it to-day? nous sommes (etc.) le treize it is the 13th. 4. In giving the time of day, o'clock is expressed by heures, literally hours, and the parts of hours, as in the following examples : one o'clock, une heure five o'clock, cinq heures what o'clock is it, quelle heure est il ? it will soon be eleven, il sera bientôt onze heures half past three, trois heures et demie quarter past four, quatre heures et quart (or et un quart) at a quarter to seven, à six heures et trois quarts or à sept heures moins un quart twenty three minutes past eight, huit heures et vingt-trois minutes at twelve minutes before ten, à dix heures moins douze minutes a. As the examples show, heures is not to be omitted. b. But douze heures is not used for twelve o'clock ; in- stead of it is said midi (literally midday) for twelve at noon, and minuit (literally midnight) for twelve at night : thus, half past twelve o'clock, midi (or minuit) et demie twenty minutes to twelve, midi (or minuit) moins vingt minutes 5. One's age is thus expressed : how old are you, quel âge avez vous ? (literally, what age have you) I am fifteen years old, j'ai quinze ans (literally, I have 15 years) my sister is five and a half, ma sœur a cinq ans et demi 6. Measure is expressed as follows : he is 6 feet high, il est haut de six pieds (literally, high by 6 feet) this Iwuse is 45 feet long, cette maison est longue de quarante-cinq pieds or a quarante-cinq pieds de longueur 84 LESSON XVII. 7. For times with a numeral is used fois: thus, deux fois twice, cinq fois sept font trente-cinq five times seven are (lit- erally, make) thirty-five. 8. For other numeral derivatives, see the Second Part, §§ 67 etc. VOCABULARY. longueur, length largeur, breadth aujourd'hui, to-day souvent, often ici, here là, there demain, to-morrow après-demain, day after to-morrow hier, yesterday avant hier, day before yesterday Exercise 17. 1 Paris, le 23 Avril, 1886. 2 Quel jour du mois avons- nous aujourd'hui? 3 Aujourd'hui est le 19 ou le 20; de- main sera le 21. 4 Février est le 2me, et décembre le 12me mois de l'année. 5 Dimanche est le 1er et vendredi le 6me jour de la semaine. 6 Nous avons mercredi aujourd'hui ; avant-hier a été lundi, et après-demain sera vendredi. 7 A quelle heure seras-tu chez mon père demain ? 8 Je serai à l'église à dix heures et demie, et je serai chez ton père à midi et quart. 9 Quelle heure est-il ? 10 II est onze heures moins dix minutes, et nous avons été à l'école pendant deux heures et trois quarts. " Quel âge votre fils a-t-il, madame ? 12 Mon fils a dix-neuf ans et demi, et il est haut de six pieds. 13 Notre maison a quarante-deux pieds de largeur, et elle est haute de trente-cinq pieds. " Ils ont été ici de dix heures à midi. 15 Les enfants ont été à l'école deux fois aujourd'hui, à neuf heures moins un quart, et à deux heures et demie. 16 À midi ils auront été à l'école trois heures et un quart. 17 Trois fois quatre font douze. 18 Sept et huit font quinze. Theme 17. London, Sunday, Nov. 5, 1773. 2 Washington, July 4, 1776. 3 What day of the week is it to-day ? 4 It is Thurs- day, the 9th of June. 5 What day were you in Paris ? 6 1 was at Paris Tuesday or Wednesday of last week. 7 Satur- ITRST REGULAR CONJUGATION". 85 day, Aug. 12th, I shall be in the country. 8 At what hour was my father here yesterday ? 9 He was here at half past six or a quarter to seven. 10 He will be at the house to- morrow at a quarter past twelve. " Is this gentleman often ill ? 12 He was ill yesterday, but he is not ill to-day. 13 He has been here a year and nine months. 14 How old is he ? 16 He is 67 years old, and he is 5f feet high. 16 1 have been three times at the school, but the master was not there. 17 Yesterday we were at church an hour and a half. 18 Our garden was 150 feet long, and 200 feet wide. 19 1 times 9 are 63. 20 10 times 11 are 110. 21 7 and 9 are 16. LESSON XYIII. REGULAR VERBS; FIRST CONJUGATION. 1. There are three regular conjugations of French verbs ; their infinitives end respectively in 1. er ; 2. ir; 3. re : thus, donner, finir, vendre. a. There are also many irregular verbs having these same end- ings in the infinitive, and others having oir. Half-a-dozen of those ending in oir in the infinitive are in many grammars called another regular conjugation (the third, those in re being reckoned as the fourth). The irregular verbs will be given further on. 2. All the forms of regular verbs (and also most of those of irregular verbs) may be inferred from five lead- ing forms, which are therefore called the principal parts of the verb. These are 1. the infinitive; 2. the pres- ent participle; 3. the past or passive participle; 4. the present indicative ; 5. the preterit indicative. a. In learning a French verb, then, regular or irregular, the first thing is to learn and make familiar the principal parts. 3. From the infinitive are made the future and con- ditional, by adding respectively ai and ais (the e of the infinitive ending re being lost) : thus, 86 LESSON XVIII. Infinitive donner finir vendre Future donnerai finirai vendrai Conditional donnerais finirais vendrais a. This is the only case of a real derivation : see V. 5c, VI. 6&. 4. From the present participle may be found the im- perfect indicative and the present subjunctive, by chang- ing ant into ais and e respectively : J;hus, Près, pple donnant finissant vendant Impf. indic. donnais finissais vendais Près. subj. donne finisse vende a. In many verbs, the plural persons of the present indicative need also to be inferred from the present participle : thus, finis- sons etc. from finissant ; see XXIV. 5c. 5. From the past participle are made, with the aux- iliary verb avoir or être (see XXVIII. 5-7), the various compound forms — the perfect infinitive, perfect indica- tive, and so on : thus, Past pple donné fini vendu Perf. infin. avoir donné avoir fini avoir vendu Perf. indic. j'ai donné j'ai fini j'ai vendu etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. 6. From the present indicative may be found the im- perative : thus, Près, indic. donne finis vends Impv. donne finis vends a. In general, the three persons of the imperative are the same with the corresponding persons of the present indicative ; only, in the first conjugation, the final s of the 2d sing. impv. is usu- ally (see below, 10a) lost, so that its form agrees with that of the 1st sing, indicative. 7. From the preterit indicative may be made the im- perfect subjunctive, by changing final s (in the first con- jugation, that of the 2d sing.) into sse : thus, Prêt, indic. donnai, donnas finis vendis Impf. subj. donnasse finisse vendisse a. Verbs of the first conjugation are the only ones in the lan- guage that do not end in s in the 1st sing, preterit. FIRST REGULAR CONJUGATION. 87 First Kegular Conjugation. 8. The first regular conjugation, with infinitive end- ing in er, contains the great majority of all the verbs in the language. a. They are principally the verbs of the first Latin conjugation, in are, but also a few of those of the second and third conjugations, now come to be inflected like them, and many borrowed and new-made verbs. 9. As a model of its inflection may be taken the verb donner give (donate ; Lat. donare). a. The synopsis of its principal parts and the parts derived from them is as follows : donner donnant donné donne donnai donnerai donnais avoir donné donne donnasse donnerais donne etc. etc. . o. The complete inflection of the simple tenses is (with infinitive and participles prefixed) : Infinitive, give, to give. donner (à donner, de donner) Present Participle, giving Past Participle, given donnant donné Indicative. Present, I give, do give, am giving, etc. je donne nous donnons tu donnes vous donnez il donne ils donnent Imperfect, Igave, ivas giving, etc. je donnais nous donnions tu donnais vous donniez il donnait ils donnaient Pretebit, I gave, did give, etc je donnai nous donnâmes tu donnas vous donnâtes il donna ils donnèrent Future, I shall or icill give, etc. je donnerai nous donnerons tu donneras vous donnerez il donnera ils donneront 88 LESSON XVIII. Conditional, I should or would give, etc. je donnerais nous donnerions tu donnerais vous donneriez il donnerait ils donneraient Imperative, give, give thou, etc. donnons donne donnez Subjunctive. Present, that I may give, etc. que je donne que nous donnions que tu donnes que vous donniez qu'il donne qu'ils donnent Imperfect, that I might give, etc. que je donnasse que nous donnassions que tu donnasses que vous donnassiez qu'il donnât qu'ils donnassent g. Of the compound forms, made with the auxiliary avoir, it will be sufficient to give the synopsis, the in- flection of the auxiliary being already familiar (X.) : thus, Perfect Infinitive, to have given avoir donné Perfect Participle, having given ayant donné Indicative Perfect, I have given, etc. j'ai donné etc. Pluperfect, I had given, etc. j'avais donné etc. Past Anterior, I had given, etc. j'eus donné etc. Future Perfect, I shall have given, etc. j'aurai donné etc. Conditional Perfect, I should have given, etc. j'aurais donné etc. Subjunctive Perfect, that I may have given, etc. que j'aie donné etc. Pluperfect, that I might have given, etc. que j'eusse donné etc. 10. a. The 2d sing, imp v. of the first conj. adds an s when followed by the object-pronouns en or y (XXIII. 5-7). FIKST KEGULAK CONJUGATION. 89 b. As in all verbs (I. 10c), the 3d sing, present, preterit, and fu- ture add -t when followed by the subject-pronouns il, elle, or on : thus, donne-t-il, donna-t-elle, donnera-t-on. c. If the 1st sing, present indicative or imperfect subjunctive (the latter, of any conjugation) comes to be followed by its sub- ject, it takes an acute accent on its final e (21c) : thus, donné-je do I give ? donnassé-je should I give. VOCABULARY, donner, give apporter, bring chercher, seek, look for trouver, find aimer, love, like travailler, work, labor le jouet, the plaything, toy la lettre, the letter Exercise 18. 1 J'ai donné un joli cheval à mon cousin. a Aimez-vous votre cousin ? 3 Non, madame, je n'aime point ce cousin-là, mais j'aime beaucoup ses frères et ses sœurs. 4 Ces jeunes filles cherchaient des fleurs, mais elles n'ont rien trouvé. 5 Quelles fleurs ont-elles cherchées ? 6 Elles aiment toutes les fleurs. 7 Donnez du pain à ce petit garçon ; il a faim. 8 Quoiqu'il ait travaillé toute la semaine, il n'a pas d'argent. 9 Pourquoi le marchand ne donna-t-il pas d'ar- gent au garçon hier? 10 II aurait donné de l'argent, s'il n'avait pas été malade. " N'avez-vous pas trouvé le maître ? 12 Nous trouvâmes le maître à l'école à dix heures. 13 Ce bon paysan apportait chaque jour du lait à mon oncle. 14 Hier il ne trouva pas ses vaches, et il n'apporta pas de lait. lb S'il cherchait trois jours, il ne trouverait pas ses vaches. 16 Marie, apporte la lettre de ta tante. " Pour- quoi madame votre sœur ne donne-t-elle pas de jouets aux enfants ? 1S Si elle avait trouvé de beaux livres chez le marchand, elle aurait donné un livre à chaque enfant. 19 Quoique nous ayons cherché dans toute la ville, nous n'avons trouvé que de mauvais livres. 20 Cherchons des fruits, et donnons une pomme ou une poire à chaque garçon, et une fleur à chaque fille. 90 LESSOR XIX. Theme 18. 1 Do you love your friends ? a I love all my friends and relations. 3 What plaything shall I give to your brother ? 4 Let us give a book to her brother. 5 What cows was the peasant looking for ? 6 He was seeking his cows, but he has found nothing. 7 If he does not find his cows, he will not bring milk to the city. 8 Although he had not found his cows, he brought milk enough yesterday. 9 The peas- ants work all day. 10 They love the country ; we love the city. " What letter did Louisa give to this man ? 12 She had not found her father's letter, but she gave to the man her uncle's two letters. 13 1 often give handsome things to my friends. 14 My uncle will bring from (de) Rome some beautiful pictures for (pour) his nieces. 15 Children, let us give some wine to this poor woman. 16 She has worked ten hours, and she is very unhappy. 17 Give your old black coat to this man ; he is cold. 1& Did these young girls look for flowers? 19 Yes, sir ; they had been seeking flowers an hour in the garden. 20 Why have they not brought flowers to their mother ? 21 They have found no flowers ; they have found only leaves in the garden. LESSON XIX. SECOND REGULAR CONJUGATION. 1. The verbs of the second conjugation, with infini- tive ending in ir, are much fewer than those of the first. a. They are principally verbs of the Latin fourth conjugation, in ire, but mixed with a few of the second and third conjugations, and with denominative verbs, made from adjectives and nouns. The forms showing -iss- are of inceptive ori- gin, as if from finisco beside finio. 2. As model of the second conjugation, we will take the verb faux finish. SECOND REGULAR CONJUGATION". 91 a. The synopsis of principal and derived parts is finir finissant fini finis finis finirai finissais avoir fini finis finisse finirais finisse etc. h. The full inflection of the simple tenses is : Infinitive, finish, to finish finir (à finir, de finir) ent Participle, finishing Past Participle, finished finissant fini Indicative. Pbesent, / finish, etc. je finis nous finissons tu finis vous finissez il finit ils finissent Imperfect, I was finishing, etc. je finissais nous finissions tu finissais vous finissiez il finissait ils finissaient Preterit, I finished, etc. je finis nous finîmes tu finis vous finîtes il finit ils finirent Future, I shall finish, etc. je finirai nous finirons tu finiras vous finirez il finira ils finiront Conditional, I should finish, etc. je finirais nous finirions tu finirais vous finiriez il finirait ils finiraient Imperative, finish, etc. finissons finis finissez Subjunctive. Present, that I may finish, etc. que je finisse que nous finissions que tu finisses que vous finissiez qu'il finisse qu'ils finissent 92 LESSON XIX. Imperfect, that I might finish, etc. que je finisse que nous finissions que tu finisses que vous finissiez qu'il finît qu'ils finissent c. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis is : Perf. Infin. avoir fini, to have finished Perf. Part. ayant fini, having finished Indic. Perf. j'ai fini, I have finished Plupf. j'avais fini, I had finished Past Ant. j'eus fini, I had finished Fut. Perf. j'aurai fini, I shall have finished Cond. Perf. j'aurais fini, I should have finished Subj. Perf. que j'aie fini, that I may have finished Plupf. que j'eusse fini, that I might have finished d. Note that, of the simple tenses, the present and preterit in- dicative are alike in the singular, but different in the plural ; also, that the present and imperfect subjunctive are alike throughout, except in the 3d singular. 3. Two or three verbs of this conjugation have slight irregulari- ties, which may be pointed out here : a. The verb haïr hate loses its diaeresis (that is, has its a and i united into a diphthong) in the singular persons of the present indicative and of the imperative. These two tenses are thus in- flected : Present Indicative. Imperative. je hais nous haïssons haïssons tu hais vous haïssez hais haïssez il hait ils haïssent b. The verb fleurir flourish, otherwise regular, has a second present participle and imperfect indicative, florissant, je floris- sais etc. , from the old verb-form florir. The forms with o are used only in a figurative sense. c. The verb bénir Hess has a second past participle bénit, used as adjective, consecrated : thus, du pain bénit consecrated bread, l'eau bénite holy water. VOCABULARY. finir, finish hâtir, build punir, punish 'hair, hate choisir, choose saisir, seize bénir, bless fleurir, flourish la tâche, the task la chose, the thing le prêtre, the priest les gens pi., the people bien, well mal, ill SECOND EEGULAR CONJUGATION. 93 Exercise 19. 1 Ces enfants n'ont-ils pas fini leur tâche ? a Le maître punira les enfants, s'ils ne finissent pas leur tâche. 3 Le mauvais homme n'a point d'amis ; il hait les hommes, et les hommes haïssent le mauvais homme. 4 Le prêtre a béni le pain et le vin. 5 II donnera aux gens le pain bénit, mais il ne donnera le vin à personne. 6 Ces hommes ont bâti une nouvelle église pour le vieux prêtre. 7 Ils finiront l'église le mois prochain. 8 Quoiqu'ils bâtissent l'église, ils ne bâtiront pas l'école. 9 Mon oncle bâtissait une très-jolie maison pour sa fille. 10 Nous choisissions de beaux ta- bleaux pour cette maison. " Le fruit fleurit-il dans votre jardin, monsieur ? 12 Oui, madame ; tous les fruits et toutes les fleurs fleurissent dans ce pays-ci. 13 Pourquoi punissez- vous ces enfants? w Parce qu'ils ont saisi les fleurs de ce pauvre garçon. 15 Mes enfants, ne saisissez jamais les choses des autres. 16 Je choisirai beaucoup de très jolies fleurs, et je donnerai les fleurs à ma mère. 1T Edouard, finis ta tâche. 18 Le maître ne punira pas Edouard, quoiqu'il ne finisse pas sa tâche. 19 II ne hait pas la tâche, mais il a été malade. Theme 19. 1 Have you finished your task, Edward ? 2 No, sir ; but I shall have finished this task to-morrow. 3 Although you have not finished this book, choose another book. 4 1 will choose a history. 5 My sister chose a novel yesterday ; she does not like a history. 6 We hate histories, but we like stories and novels. T My uncle built the last year a library for the people of the village, and he will build a pretty house for the priest. 8 Why does he not build a church also ? 9 Were you choosing a picture for your room ? 10 1 should have chosen a picture, if I had had money. u Charles, choose a present for thy sister, but do not seize the things. 12 Good children never seize other 94 LESSON XX. people's things. 13 Why did you punish the dog? 14 1 punished the dog, because he seized this poor boy's meat. 15 Do the flowers flourish in your garden ? 16 1 have many flowers, and they flourish well in my garden. 17 Although these children hate their tasks, they love books. 18 They did not choose good books ; they chose bad novels. 19 Their master will punish the children. 20 If you have finished your history, give the book to your brother. LESSON XX. THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION. 1. The verbs of the third conjugation, with infinitive ending in re, are but few in number. a. They are certain verbs of the Latin third conjugation. 2. As model of their conjugation may be taken the verb vendre sell (Lat. vendere). a. The synopsis of principal and derived parts is : vendre vendant vendu vends vendis vendrai vendais avoir vendu vends vendisse vendrais vende etc. etc. h. The full inflection of the simple tenses is : Infinitive, sell, to sell. vendre (à vendre, de vendre) Present Participle, selling Past Participle, sold vendant vendu Indicative. Present, Isell, etc. je vends nous vendons tu vends vous vendez il vend ils vendent Imperfect, Iwas selling, etc. je vendais nous vendions tu vendais vous vendiez il vendait ils vendaient THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION. 95 PRETERIT, Isold, etc. je vendis nous vendîmes tu vendis vous vendîtes il vendit ils vendirent Future, I shall sell, etc. je vendrai nous vendrons tu vendras vous vendrez il vendra ils vendront Conditional, I should sell, etc. je vendrais nous vendrions tu vendrais vous vendriez il vendrait ils vendraient Imperative, sell, etc. vendons vends vendez Subjunctive. Present, that I may sell, etc. que je vende que nous vendions que tu vendes que vous vendiez qu'il vende qu'ils vendent Imperfect, that I might sell, etc. que je vendisse que nous vendissions que tu vendisses que vous vendissiez qu'il vendît qu'ils vendissent g. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis is : Perp. Infin. avoir vendu, to have sold Perp. Part. ayant vendu, having sold Indic. Perp. j'ai vendu, I have sold Plupp. j'avais vendu, I had sold Past Ant. j'eus vendu, I had sold Fut. Perf. j'aurai vendu, I shall have sold Cond. Perp. j'aurais vendu, I should have sold Subj. Perp. que j'aie vendu, that I may have sold Plupf. que j'eusse vendu, that I might have sold d. Notice that the verbs of this conjugation have different vowels in the endings of the preterit and of the past participle : thus, vendis t vendu. In nearly all other verbs, regular and irregular, these two forms agree in vowel. 3. Two or three verbs of this conjugation have slight irregu- larities, which are best pointed out here. 96 LESSON XX. a. Vaincre conquer (Lat. vincere) is perfectly regular to the ear, but is necessarily spelt with qu instead of c before e and i (72a), and then also before a and o; the c remaining only before u, before a consonant, and as final. The synopsis of principal and derived parts is as follows : vaincre vainquant vaincu vaincs vainquis vaincrai vaincrais vainquais vainque avoir vaincu etc. etc. vaincs vainquisse The près, indicative and imperative (in which alone any change of spelling occurs in inflection) are as follows : Present Indicative. Imperative. je vaincs nous vainquons vainquons tu vaincs vous vainquez vaincs vainquez il vainc ils vainquent The compound convaincre convince is conjugated in the same manner. b. Rompre break (Lat. rumpere) adds a t in the 3d sing, indie, present : thus il rompt (not romp) ; in all other respects it is regular. c. Battre beat (Lat. battuere) loses one of its two t's in the singular of the près, indicative and of the imperative, which are thus inflected : Present Indicative. Imperative. je bats nous battons battons tu bats vous battez bats battez il bat ils battent The rest is regular. VOCABULARY. vendre, sell perdre, lose attendre, wait rompre, break battre, beat vaincre, conquer le gâteau, the cake la voix, the voice l'oiseau m., the bird l'ennemi m., the enemy Exercise 20. 1 Ce boulanger vend du pain et des gâteaux. 2 Pourquoi n'a-t-il pas vendu de pain à cet homme-ci ? 8 II n'a pas vendu de pain à l'homme, parce qu'il n'avait pas d'argent. 4 II perdit hier tout son argent. 5 Entendez-vous les oiseaux dans le jardin ? 6 Non, madame ; je n'ai point entendu les THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION. 97 oiseaux, mais j'entends la voix d'une jeune fille. 7 Ma sœur a été malade, et elle a perdu sa belle voix. 8 Quel livre avez-vous perdu ? 9 J'ai perdu l'histoire d'Angleterre. 10 Je perds souvent mon histoire. " Les mauvais garçons bat- tent les pauvres chiens. 12 Henri ne bat jamais son chien. 13 Le roi Louis XI Y. a vaincu tous ses ennemis. 14 II vainc toujours. 15 Avez-vous attendu une lettre ? 16 Oui, j'attends des lettres chaque jour. 17 Quoique ce boulanger vende beaucoup de pain, il perd toujours de l'argent. 18 Le prêtre rompt et bénit le pain, et donne les morceaux aux hommes. 19 S'il vendait tout le fruit, il n'aurait plus de cerises pour les enfants. 20 II n'aurait rien perdu. 21 Rompez le pain, et donnez un morceau à ce pauvre enfant. Theme 20. 1 1 hear a voice in the house. 2 What voice did you hear ? 3 1 heard yesterday the voice of this young girl in the gar- den. 4 Did you expect nobody day before yesterday ? 6 Yes, I expected my brother. 6 1 shall expect many friends to-morrow. 7 This poor man has lost his wife, and he will lose his daughter. 8 This man does not beat his horses. 9 He does not sell his horses, though they are very old. 10 If we sold our horse to this man, he would beat the horse. 11 A good boy never beats his dog. 12 Why does your cousin not break the big cake ? 13 Let us break the cake, and let us give a piece to this little girl. 14 Have you sold your bird ? 15 No, we did not sell the bird ; we lost the bird. 16 If I had not lost all our birds, I should give a bird to this boy. 17 Have the enemies conquered ? 18 No, our king has conquered the enemies. 19 He always conquers his enemies. 20 This bad baker often sells bread to our enemy. 21 He will sell bread to all the people, if they have money. 7 98 LESSON XXI. LESSON XXL IRREGULAR VERBS I FIRST CONJUGATION. 1. Besides the verbs of the three regular conjuga- tions, the French has a large number (near a hundred) that are more or less irregularly inflected. Of all these, the inflection has to be separately learned, and it will be given in the lessons following. 2. a. Of the first conjugation, or with infinitives ending in er, there are but two really irregular verbs, aller go, and envoyer send (for which, see XXVII. 8, and XLII. 11). h. But many verbs of the first conjugation, otherwise regular, have to undergo in inflection certain changes of spelling, iii accordance with the general rules of the lan- guage (laid down above, in the Lesson on Pronunciation). Thus : 3. Since (21a) no word in French may end in two silent syllables, and their occurrence anywhere in a word is generally avoided — therefore a. Yerbs having in the infinitive a mute syllable be- fore the final syllable have to give the former a full pro- nunciation whenever in inflection the syllable after it becomes mute. h. This is usually done by putting a grave accent upon the e of the syllable in question. Thus, from the infinitive mener lead, we have je mène, tu mèneras, il mènerait, mène, qu'ils mènent, etc. ; but nous me- nons, je menais, tu menas, qu'il menât, etc. Also, from acheter buy, we have il achète, nous achèterons, que tu achètes, etc. ; but vous achetez, il acheta, achetons, que nous achetions, etc. c. But a few verbs double instead the consonant (t or 1) following the e. Thus, from jeter throw, we have je jette, tu jetteras, il jette- rait, jette, qu'ils jettent, etc. ; and from appeler call, we have il appelle, nous appellerons, que tu appelles, etc. IEREGTJLAR VEEBS : EIEST CONJUGATION. 99 The verbs thus doubling the consonant are jeter (and its com- pounds) and cacheter; appeler, chanceler, étinceler, renou- veler, and ensorceler. ci. The synopsis of principal and derived forms of mener is as follows : mener menant mené mène menai mènerai menais avoir mené mène menasse etc. etc. mènerais mené The only tenses that show the difference of spelling in their tense-inflection are the près, indicative, the imperative, and the près, subjunctive ; they are : Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. mène menons menons mène menions mènes menez mène menez mènes meniez mène mènent mène mènent And in like manner with the other verbs. 4. Since the accent on an e followed by a silent syllable is regu- larly and usually the grave (20a) — therefore a. Yerbs having in the infinitive an acute é before the final syllable change the accent to grave (è) when the next syllable becomes nmte — except, however, in the future and conditional, where the acute is retained. Thus, of the verb céder cede, for example, o. The synopsis of principal and derived forms is : céder cédant cédé cède cédai céderai cédais avoir cédé cède cédasse - , ^j etc. etc. céderais cede And the inflection of the tenses that show a change of accent is : Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. cède cédons cédons cède cédions cèdes cédez cède cédez cèdes cédiez cède cèdent cède cèdent c. But the verb créer create retains the acute throughout : thus, je crée, ils créent, etc. ; also, in general usage hitherto, the verbs ending in the infinitive in éger : thus, from protéger pro- tect, je protège, ils protègent, etc. (but now better je protège, ils protègent, etc.: 20c). 5. Yerbs having c or g (pronounced soft) before final er of the infinitive retain the soft sound of these letters through their whole conjugation ; and this is signified by LofC. 100 LESSOR XXI. writing a cedilla under the c (thus, ç), and by keeping an e after the g (62^), wherever in conjugation those letters come to be followed by a or o. Thus, from placer place, and manger eat, we have je place, and nous plaçons ; je mange, and nous mangeons je plaçais, and nous placions ; je mangeais, and nous mangions nous plaçâmes and ils placèrent; nous mangeâmes, and ils mangèrent and so on. 6. Since y ( = double i) does not usually stand before a mute e (376)— therefore a. Verbs having a y before the final er of the infinitive change it to i when in conjugation it comes to be fol- lowed by a mute e. 6. Thus, for example, of the verb payer pay the synopsis of principal and derived forms is : payer payant payé paie payai paierai payais avoir payé paie payasse etc. etc. paierais paie And the present indicative is thus inflected : paie payons paies payez paie paient And in like manner with employer employ, appuyer support, and so on. c. But verbs in eyer preserve the y throughout : thus, je grasseyé (not grasseie), etc. And some writers retain the y after a : thus, je paye, etc. 7. When the i of a verb ending in ier comes to be followed by i in inflection (namely, in 1st and 2d plur. impf. indie, and près, subj.), the two i's remain unchanged (do not become y). Thus, from prier pray, oublier forget, we have nous priions, vous priiez ; que nous oubliions, que vous oubliiez. VOCABULARY. appeler, call acheter, buy mener, take, lead protéger, protect manger, eat ' commencer, begin employer, employ nettoyer, clean créer, create ouplier, forget la domestique, servant, maid le berger, the le temps, the time IKREGULAB YEEBS : FIEST CONJUGATION. 101 Exercise 21. : Appelle la domestique, Hélène. 2 Je l'ai appelée, ma mère, mais elle n'était pas ici ; elle nettoyait les chambres. 3 Elle nettoiera votre chambre demain. 4 Ce petit garçon-ci mène aux champs les vaches et les brebis de son père. 5 Le berger et son chien protègent toujours les brebis. 6 Si le berger n'était pas ici, ce vieux chien mènerait et protégerait les brebis. 7 Quel fruit mangez- vous, mes enfants ? 8 Nous mangeons des cerises ; hier nous mangeâmes des pommes, et demain nous mangerons des poires. 9 Achetez-vous beaucoup de fruit ? 10 J'achète du fruit tous les jours de cette vieille femme. " Si nous donnons de l'argent à ce garçon, il achètera du pain pour sa mère malade. i2 Quoi- qu'il ait acheté du pain pour sa mère, elle ne mangera rien. 13 Elle acheta du fruit et du vin pour cet homme, mais il ne mangea rien. 14 Charles, avez-vous commencé ce livre-ci ? 15 Je commençais hier, mais j'avais perdu le livre. 16 Nous commençons l'école aujourd'hui, et je mènerai tous les en- fants à leur maître. " Ont-ils oublié le maître ? 18 Quoique nous oubliions le maître, il n'oublie jamais ses élèves. 19 Emploie bien le temps, mon enfant, et n'oublie point ta tâche. 20 Dieu a créé le monde, et il protège toujours les hommes. S1 II crée les arbres et leurs fruits. Theme 21. 1 Edward is hungry, but he does not eat any bread. 3 Let us buy some fruit, and let us eat two apples» 3 You ate (prêt.) too many peaches yesterday. 4 If they buy bread to-day, they will buy wine to-morrow. 5 The ser- vant was cleaning the windows yesterday ; to-day she will clean the rooms of the house. 6 Did the school begin yes- terday ? 7 It would have begun, but the master was ill. 8 Let us begin the school tomorrow. 9 The servant will 102 LESSOR XXII. take all the children to the school. 10 Call Mary ; I called her, but she was not there. " The shepherd takes the sheep to the fields. 12 At five o'clock he will take the cows to the water. 13 He took the sheep to the water yesterday at two o'clock. H IÎ they call the boy, he will protect the sheep. 15 My cousins build houses, and they employ many men. ]6 We only employ one servant. " Let us begin this pretty story. 18 1 have forgotten the book. 19 We were at the school, and you always forgot the books. 20 These children were employing their time well. 21 They had finished the history, and they were beginning a new story. 22 God created all men, he created also the sheep and the cows. LESSON XXII. CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 1. Many pronouns in French, especially the personal pronouns, have a different form according as they are used conjunctively or disjunctively. 2. A conjunctive pronoun is one that is immediately connected with a verb, as either its subject or its direct or indirect object ; any other is disjunctive. 3. The subject-pronouns are already familiar ; they are: 1st pers. 2d pers. 3d pers. Sing, je, J tu, thou il, he; elle, she Plur. nous, we vous, you ils m., elles f., they a. In rare instances, however, even the subject-pronoun is obliged to take the disjunctive form : see Second Part, §§ 74a, 76. 4. The subject -pronoun stands in general immedi- diately before the personal verb, only the negative ne and the object-pronouns being allowed to come in be- tween the two. CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 103 a. But, as in English, the subject-pronoun follows the verb in questions, and in interjected phrases like dit-il said he, and occasionally in other cases : see Second Part, § 224 etc. h. In a question, only the subject- pronoun changes its place, everything else remaining as it would be if the sentence were an assertion. 5. Of the object-pronouns, direct and indirect object, all the forms are these : Singular. Plural. 1st pees, me, moi, me, to me nous, us, to us 2d " te, toi, thee, to the vous, you, to you 3d " le, him ; la, her ; lui, to him or her les, them; leur, to them 6. The uses of the object-pronouns are as follows : a. Nous and vous are unvaried, standing in every con- struction and position — as conjunctive pronouns and as disjunctive, as subject and as object, as direct and as in- direct object, before the verb and after it. h. Me and moi, and te and toi, are used either as direct or as indirect object, me and te before the verb, and moi and toi after it (for one exception, see XXIII. Qb). Thus: tu m'aimes, thou lovest me aime moi, love me tu te donnes, tliou givest thyself donne-toi, give thyself vous me donnez, you give to me donnez-moi, give to me c. Le, la, and les are used as direct object only, le be- ing masculine, la feminine, and les of either gender ; lui and leur are used only as indirect object,, both being of either gender : thus, il l'aime, he loves Tier aimez-la, love her elle l'aime, she loves him aime-le, love him je lui donne, I give to him or her donnez lui, give to him or her nous les vendons, we sell them vendons-les, let us sell them vous leur vendez, you sell to them 104 LESSON XXII. d. Thus it is seen that the object- pronouns of the 1st and 2d sing, vary in form according to their position before or after the verb, and for that only ; while, on the contrary, those of the 3d pers. vary according to their character as direct or indirect object, and the direct object in the singular also for gender, but they have the same form before and after the verb. e. Notice that the direct-object pronouns le la les have the same form, and the same distinctions of gender and number, with the definite article. Le and la also have their vowels cut off be- fore a following vowel (or h mute), just as when they are articles. 7. An object-pronoun, whether direct or indirect ob- ject, stands in general immediately before the governing verb — in the compound tenses, immediately before the auxiliary : but with this exception, that if the verb is an imperative^ affirmative, the pronoun stands instead direct- ly after it (and is joined to it by a hyphen). For examples, see above, 66, c. a. Nothing is allowed to come between the verb and its pronoun-object; the subject, and the negative ne, when used, are placed outside of them : thus, je ne vous donne pas le livre, I do not give you the book mon ami ne t'a pas vu, my friend has not seen thee ne les aimez- vous pas, do you not love them ? ne l'aura-t-il pas fini, will he not ham finished it? h. If the verb is an imperative negative, the object- pronoun precedes instead of following it : thus, ne lui donnez pas le livre, do not give him the book ne les aimez pas, do not love them 8. When a verb governs two object-pronouns, one direct and the other indirect, they are both together placed either before or after it, according to the rules just given — that is, after it in the imperative affirmative, otherwise before it. a. A verb in French does not have two direct objects; and al- most never two indirect, unless onç be en or y (Second Part, §158). CONJUNCTIVE PERSONAL PEONOUNS. 105 9. As regards their position relative to one another : a. When both come before the verb, the indirect stands first, unless it be of the third person (lui or leur), in which case it follows the direct : thus, je te le donne, I give it to thee vous nous le donnerez, you will give it to us je le lui ai donné, Ihave given it to him (or to Tier) vous le leur aviez donné, you had given it to them il ne me les vendra pas, he will not sell them to me il ne nous les a pas vendus, he has not sold them to us ne me les donne pas, do not give them to me ne vous la vendra-t il pas, will he not sell it to you? h. When both come after the verb, the indirect always stands last : thus, donnez les-moi, give them to me vendons-le-leur, let us sell it to iliem c. As the last examples show, both object-pronouns, when they follow the verb, are joined to it by hyphens. Some, however, prefer to omit the second hyphen : thus donnez-les moi. d. A brief rule, covering all cases of the relative position of direct and indirect object-pronoun, objects of the same verb, is as follows : Before the verb, the indirect-object pronoun, unless of the third person, precedes the direct. VOCABULARY. No new words, except the pronoun-forms above, are given to be learned with this Lesson. Exercise 22. 1 Le maître n'aime-t-il pas ces enfants ? 2 II ne les aime pas; il les punit toujours. 3 Donnez-moi ces gâteaux. 4 Nom mon enfant, je ne te les donnerai pas ; tu ne les mangeras pas. B Avez-vous bâti votre maison à Paris ? 6 Je l'ai bâtie dans la ville. 7 Le boulanger vous a-t-il vendu ce pain-ci ? 8 II ne nous l'a pas vendu, il nous l'a donné. * Les enfants ont beaucoup cle gâteaux ; le boulanger les 106 LESSON XXII. leur a donnés. 10 Si vous avez de bons libres, donnez-les- moi. " Apportes-tu cette fleur à ma sœur? i2 Oui, mon ami ; je ia lui apporte. 13 Apportez-moi aussi des fleurs. 14 Ne lui apportez pas de fruit. 15 Si j'avais du pain, je vous le donnerais. 16 II a faim ; je le lui donnerai. 1T Avez- vous votre livre, ou l'avez-vous perdu ? 18 Je l'ai perdu, monsieur ; je le cherche, mais je ne le trouve pas. 19 Cher- chez-le toujours ; vous le trouverez. 20 Ne me donnerez- vous pas ces jolies fleurs ? 21 Je ne vous les donnerai pas ; je les ai achetées pour ma mère, et je les lui donnerai. 22 Si vous ne me l'aviez pas donné, je ne vous aurais pas aimé. 23 Tu as les pommes de ces enfants ; donne-les-leur. 24 Si tu ne les leur donnes pas, je te punirai. Theme 22. 1 1 give you the book ; you give me the book ; they give her the book ; we give them the book ; he gives us the book ; thou givest him the book. 2 1 give it to my friend ; thou givest them to thy brother ; we give it to our father. 3 1 give it to you ; you give it to me ; they give it to her ; we give it to them ; he gives it to us ; thou givest it to him ; give it to them ; do not give it to her. 4 Will you not give me this apple ? 5 1 shall not give it to you ; I shall give it to this boy. 6 Do not give it to him ; give it to me. 7 Did not the baker sell the bread to this woman ? 8 Yes ; he sold it to her ; he did not give it to her. 9 Will she give it to her children ? 10 She will not give it to them ; she is eating it. " Give it to me ; do not eat it. 12 Eat it ; do not sell it to them. 13 Bring me the book, and I will buy it. 14 If she had brought me cherries, I should have eaten them. I5 The shepherd had sheep, but he has lost them. 16 He is seeking them, and if he finds them, he will lead them to us. 17 Find me the book, and bring it to me. 18 Does the baker sell bread to the poor people ? 19 He does not sell it to them, because they have no money. 20 Let us DISJUNCTIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 107 buy a piece of bread, and let us give it to them. 21 Although we have bread enough, we will not eat it ; we will give it to you. LESSON XXIII. DISJUNCTIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Personal pronouns not immediately connected with a verb, as either its subject or its direct or indirect ob- ject, are called disjunctive, or are said to be used disjunc- tively. 2. The disjunctive forms of the personal pronouns are: 1st pees. 2d pers. 3d pers. Sing. moi, me toi, thee lui, him; elle, her Pltjr. nous, us vous, you eux m., elles f., them a. Note that in the first and second persons these pronouns have the same form with some of the conjunctives, while in the third person eux is new, and lui, which as conjunctive pronoun (indirect object) is of either gender, as disjunctive is masculine only. 3. The ordinary constructions of the disjunctive pro- noun are these : a. With a preposition. Thus, à moi to me, de toi of thee, avec lui with him, sans elle without her, pour eux for them (m.), entre elles between them (f.). h. Used absolutely — that is, without any verb expressed with which they should be immediately connected : thus, qui a dit cela, who has said that moi, /(for je l'ai dit) qui avez-vous vu, whom ham you lui, him (for je l'ai vu) seen ? elle est plus grande que toi, she is taller than thou {art) faites comme moi, do as I {do) 108 LESSON XXIII. g. In combination with même self, to form emphatic pronouns corresponding to our myself thyself etc. : thus, moi-même, myself nous-mêmes, ourselves toi-même, thyself vous-mêmes, yourselves lui-même, himself eux-mêmes, themselves (m.) elle-même, herself elles-mêmes, themselves (f.) But nous-même ourself and vous-même yourself, when used of a single person (VII. lb). These pronouns admit of being used as subject : thus, lui- même me l'a dit himself has said it to me. d. As predicates after the impersonal c'est, ce sont, it is : thus, c'est moi it is I, c'est vous it is you, est-ce lui, is it he ? but (XI. 26) ce sont eux, ce sont elles, it is they. e. But after personal forms of être be, the conjunctive pronoun of the direct object is used as predicate, especially in the sense of it or so, standing for an adjective or noun already expressed : thus, êtes- vous heureux ? nous le sommes, are you happy ? we are so ; la reine ? je la suis, the queen f I am she (see Second Part, § 81). f. When more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and noun, are subjects of the same verb, the pronoun has the disjunctive form ; and if the two are not of the same person, the compound subject is usually represented by a suitable pronoun before the verb : thus, vous et moi (nous) sommes amis, you and T are friends lui et son oncle sont partis, he and his uncle are gone The same is necessary in the case of a compound object : thus, je vous écoute toi et lui et elle, I listen to thee and him and her. g. If a subject-pronoun is separated from the verb by anything but the negative ne and object-pronouns, it has to take the dis- junctive form : thus, lui, saisissant un crayon, écrivit he, seizing a pencil, wrote; eux seuls sont venus they alone have come. 4. Besides the personal pronouns already given, there is another, a reflexive pronoun of the 3d person, having the conjunctive form se and the disjunctive soi (like me moi, te toi). Se is used in the inflection of reflexive verbs (XXIX.), both as direct and as indirect object, both as singular and as plural ; soi is only singular, and usually relates to an indefinite subject : thus, chacun pense à soi, every one thinks of himself n'aimer que soi, to love only one's self . DISJUNCTIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE PKONOUNS. 109 5. There are also two words, en and y, which have the value of genitive and dative cases, respectively, of per- sonal pronouns of the third person. They are used chief- ly of things, not of persons (except of unspecified persons in the plural). a. En means of it, of them, and so on ; it is the equiva- lent of a pronoun with the preposition de (de lui, d'elle, d'eux, d'elles). o. Y means to it, to them, and so on ; it is the equiva- lent of a pronoun with the preposition à (à lui, à elle, à eux, à elles). g. Hence they are often used with verbs to represent nouns which, if expressed, would have to be connected with the verbs by de and à respectively : thus, s'en approcher to approach it (because one says s'approcher de quelque chose to approach something) ; je vous en remercie I thank you for it (because re- mercier de quelque chose) ; j'en ris I laugh at it (because rire de quelque chose) ; y arracher to wrest from them (because ar- racher à quelqu'un wrest from any one), j'y pense I think of it (because penser à quelque chose think of something) — and so on. 6. En and y are treated as conjunctive pronouns, be- ing always joined with the verb in the sentence, whatever their logical connection, and being put before or after the verb according to the same rules as other object-pro- nouns (XXII. 7) : thus, j'en suis certain, I am certain of it il en connaît les lois, he knows the laws of it (its laws) vous y êtes obéissant, you are obedient to it a. When used along with other object-pronouns, they stand last, whether before or after the governing verb : thus, je l'y conduirai, I will conduct him to it conduisez-l'y, conduct him to it donnez-lui-en, give him of it (some) je ne vous en donnerai pas, Iwill not give you of it (any) b. After the verb as well as before it, me and te are used instead of moi and toi before en, and usually before y: thus, donnez-m'en give me of it (or some), rends-t'y betake thyself to it (but sometimes rends-y-toi). 110 LESSOÎT XXIII. c. When y and en are used together, en follows y : thus, il y en a there are some. 7. En is often used partitively, standing for a noun with the partitive preposition de. Thus, avez-vous du pain ? have you bread ? j'en ai ; je vous en donnerai, I have some ; I will give you some. a. Where the noun would have an adjective qualifying it, the adjective takes the partitive preposition : thus, j'en ai de bon I have some (that is) good (equivalent to j'ai de bon pain) ; voulez- vous des fleurs ? je vous en donnerai de belles do you want floivers ? I will give you some handsome ones. 8. En and y are originally adverbs, and are, especially y there, not seldom used with that value. They have many idiomatic uses, for which see the Second Part, § 85. VOCABULARY. le bal, the hall, dance le théâtre, the theatre le plaisir, the pleasure seul, alone penser (à) think (of) parler, speak Exercise 23. 1 Es-tu plus grand que ton frère, ou est-il plus grand que toi ? 2 II est plus beau que moi, mais je suis plus grand que lui. 3 Le plus grand, c'est moi ; et le plus beau, c'est lui. 4 As-tu ton livre avec toi ? 5 Non, je l'ai perdu. 6 Toi et moi, nous le chercherons. 7 Moi-même l'ai trouvé, sans vous. 8 Le boulanger donne-t-il des gâteaux à ces enfants ? 9 II en a, mais il ne leur en donne pas. 10 Moi, j'en achèterai pour eux ; il en a de bons. " Toi et lui, avez-vous été au bal hier ? 12 Moi seul y ai été ; il était au théâtre avec eux. 13 Ce tableau n'est-il pas très beau ? 14 II l'est ; mais j'en ai de plus beaux. 15 Cet homme parle beaucoup de ses amis ; mais il n'y pense pas ; il ne pense jamais qu'à soi-même. 16 Les garçons sont-ils au théâtre ? 17 Ils y ont été avec moi, mais ils n'y sont plus. 18 Ils y ont eu beaucoup de plaisir, mais ils n'en auront plus ; ils sont à l'école à présent. 19 Menez-m'y, je cherche leur maître. 20 C'est moi, monsieur ; je le suis moi-même. 21 Aviez-vous DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Ill parlé de ce livre ? 22 Nous y avions pensé, mais nous n'en avions pas parlé. 23 Lui et elle en parleront. Theme 23. 1 These children are hungry ; give me bread for them. 2 1 haven't any ; but I will buy some. 3 No, I will buy some myself. 4 They are poorer than I, but I am smaller than they. 5 They alone are unhappy ; we are not so. 6 The most unhappy of men — it is I. 7 1 have lost my friend, and I am unhappy without him. 8 I do not speak of him, but I think always of him. 9 1 was happy, but I never shall be so again. 10 This good man never thinks of himself. " He has much money, and he gives some to these poor people. 12 Are these men the peasants of the village ? 13 It is they. 14 If you have money, give me some for them. 15 Have you been at the ball ? 16 No, I have not been at it. 17 1 shall be at the theatre with her to-morrow. 18 My friend and I were at the ball. 19 These books are very handsome, but I have handsomer ones in my library. 20 1 will give you some for yourself. 21 What book have you ? 22 1 have forgotten the name of it. 23 1 shall be at the house ; wait for me at it. 24 1 shall not be there (at it) ; I shall be at my uncle's. LESSON XXIV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. The demonstrative pronouns are : ce, this, that, it (indefinite and neuter) ; celui m., celle f., this or thai one; ceux m., celles 1, these, those a. To all of them may be added the demonstrative ad- verbs -ci and -là (as to the noun following a demonstra- tive adjective : XIII. 3). 112 LESSON XXIV. 2. Ce has the value of a pronoun as subject of être be in its various tenses, and as antecedent of the relative pronouns qui, que, etc. a. In the former case, it is generally to be rendered by it in English : thus, c'est moi it is 7, ce fut son devoir it was This duty, c'a été lui it was {has been) he, c'aurait été dommage it would have been a pity. b. Ce is much more often used than il with the 3d persons of être in the sense of it is, it was, etc. This is especially the case when something already described or intimated is referred to, so that the ce would admit of being rendered by that ; but it is not limited to such cases. In fact, il is hardly used except in ex- pressions of time (XI. 2a), before an adjective followed by a logi- cally subject-clause (infinitive or relative) which the il anticipates, and in the parenthetic il est vrai, meaning to be sure. Thus, il est temps de partir it is time to leave, il est tard it is late, il est six heures it is 6 o'clock, il est difficile de vous plaire it is hard to please you (i.e. to please you is hard), il est évident que vous avez tort it is plain that you are wrong, chèrement, il est vrai, mais fort loin at a dear rate, to be sure, but very far off; — but vous avez tort, c'est évident you are wrong, it {that) is plain ; faites cela, ce n'est pas difficile do that, it is not hard, ce fut ma faute it was my faidt, c'est votre ami qui est parti it is your friend that has left. c. Ce is also sometimes used with pouvoir and devoir as aux- iliaries" of être, and in a few phrases with sembler seem : thus, ce pouvait être lui it might be he, ce doit être it must be, ce me semble it seems to me. d. For ce as antecedent of a relative, see XXVI. 10. 3. The compounds of ce with the demonstrative ad- verbs are written ceci and cela (without grave accent ; it is often contracted colloquially to ça) ; they mean this and that in an indefinite way, without reference to any particular object expressed. They are used in all con- structions. Thus : cela ne me plaît pas, that does not please me je ne veux pas ceci ; donnez-moi cela, I don't want this; give me that que dites- vous de cela, what do you say about that? a. In a question, ceci (rarely used) and cela are divided into ce ci and ce là : thus, est-ce là votre livre is that your book 7 sont-ce ci vos gants are these your gloves f DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 113 4. The other demonstratives, celui etc., distinguish gender and number, and are used of persons and of things, with more direct reference to something already expressed or distinctly understood. They are used either alone or with ci and là added to them by a hyphen : thus, celui this or that one, celui-ci this one, celui-là that one. a. The simple celui celle ceux celles are used only as antecedents of a following relative, and before the prepo- sition de in possessive phrases : thus, celui qui est mon ami, he who is my friend mes amis et ceux de mon frère, my friends and my brother's (literally, and those of my brother) ma robe et celle de ma sœur, my dress and my sister's o. In all other constructions, the compounds celui-ci, celui-là, etc., are used — as subject, as object, after prepo- sitions, and so on : thus, voici deux fleurs ; voulez vous celle-ci ou celle-là, here are two flowers ; will you have this one or that one? ce livre-ci est à moi ; je ne sais rien de celui-là, this book belongs to me ; I know nothing of that one c. As the last example shows, the demonstrative adjective is to be used when there is a noun with it for it to qualify, but the demonstrative pronoun to represent the noun, when the latter is omitted. d. Celui-ci etc. often mean the latter, and celui-là etc. the former. VERB-LESSON. Irregular Verbs— Vouloir. 5. a. Those verbs in French which are inflected throughout like one or other of the three — donner, finir, vendre — already given, are called regular verbs. But there are also many others in the language deviating more or less from these models, and they are called ir- regular verbs. 8 114 LESSOK XXIV. h. The irregular verbs are one of the principal difficulties of French Grammar. They are of various degrees of irregularity: some are irregular only in their principal parts, all the derived parts coming from them precisely as in the verbs of the three regular conjugations; others are irregular also in the formation of the derived parts (only the impf. subj. coming without any exception regularly from the prêt, indie). But, in all of them", irregularities of tense-inflection are confined to the three present tenses — the present indicative, the imperative, and the present subjunctive. Of the other tenses, when the first person is known, the rest follow from it with certainty. c. The only rules for the formation of the derived parts are those already given for regular verbs (XVIII. 1-7). Of more special importance among the irregular verbs is the rule for finding the plural persons of the present from the present participle (XVIII. 4«). d. In learning an irregular verb, the principal parts should first be mastered and made familiar, then the synopsis, then the inflection of the present tenses when this is in any way irregular. The synopsis of principal and derived parts will be given in this grammar for every irregular verb, and the inflection of the present tenses when called for. In the synopsis, those derived parts which do not come regularly from the principal parts will have attention called to them by being printed with spaced or open letters. 6. The very common verb vouloir wish, desire, will (Lat. veiie), is also a specially irregular and difficult one. a. Its synopsis is as follows : veux voulus voulusse vouloir voulant voulu voudrai voudrais voulais veuille avoir voulu etc. etc. 6. Its près, indie, and subj. are thus inflected : Present Indicative. Present Subjunctive. veux voulons veuille voulions veux voulez veuilles vouliez veut veulent veuille veuillent c. The regular imperative veux voulons voulez is very rarely used ; instead of it, the 2d pers. sing, and plur. veuille veuillez are used, but only with a following infinitive, and in the sense of DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 115 please to, be good enougli to : thus, veuillez vous asseoir please sit down. d. In vouloir, as in a number of other verbs, the vowel of the root is changed (here, from ou to eu) wherever the radical syllable is accented, not being fol- lowed by another of full tone. These forms with changed vowel are sometimes called the strong forms (veux, veulent, veuillent, etc.). e. Vouloir is used with the infinitive of another verb almost as an auxiliary, and must stand for our will whenever a wish or request is implied : thus, voulez-vous dîner chez nous will you dine with us f It also signifies wish to have, want : as, voulez- vous du lait will you have some milk ? f. En vouloir, followed by à, means have a grudge at, be vexed or angry at, be hostile to, etc. : thus, il en voulait à ce pauvre homme he bore a grudge against this poor man. VOCABULARY. le portrait, the portrait la peinture, the painting le peintre, the painter l'atelier m., the studio vrai, true mieux adv., better Exercise 24. 1 Est-ce là votre père ? 2 Non, monsieur, c'est mon oncle. 3 II est vrai que nous ne l'aimons pas, mais c'est parce qu'il est mauvais homme. 4 Ce sont les trois frères de notre ami ; celui-ci travaille toujours, maix ceux-là sont paresseux et ne travaillent jamais. 5 Cherchez- vous ceci ? 6 Je ne cherche point cela ; je cherche mes livres et ceux de mon frère. 7 Voilà les portraits de ma famille ; celui-ci est très bon, mais ceux-là sont mauvais. ti Ce peintre a beaucoup de beaux tableaux dans son atelier. 9 Achèterez- vous cette peinture-ci ou celle-là? 10 Celle-ci est le portrait de Louis XIV., et celle-là de Louis XV. :1 C'étaient deux rois de France ; celui-là était un très grand roi ; celui-ci était un très mauvais homme. îa Ne me donnez pas cela ; je ne l'aime pas ; j'aime mieux ceci. 13 Ceci est trop cher ; je ne vous l'achèterai pas. 14 C'est cher, il est vrai ; mais c'est très beau. 15 Si j'avais assez d'argent, j'achèterais tout ceci. 16 Sont-ce là vos livres ou ceux du maître ? 17 Ce sont mes livres % ceux de mon maître sont à l'école. 18 Quoique nous fussions très riches, nous n'achèterions pas 116 LESSÔK XXIV. ces tableaux-ci ; ceux-là sont beaucoup plus beaux. 19 Cet homme n'est pas très riche, mais celui-là est très pauvre. 20 J'ai beaucoup de robes, et je vous donnerai celle-ci. 21 Je lui donnerai aussi celle de ma sœur. 22 Donnez-moi celle- là ; je l'aime mieux. Theme 24. 1 Is that your house ? 2 Yes, it is my house, and it is a very good house. 3 We have prettier ones in our village ; but this one is larger than my father's. 4 This picture is handsome ; I do not like that one. 5 Are you the painter of it ? c I am the painter of this one, and I have many pictures in my studio. 7 Do you like this one better, or that one ? 8 1 like this one, but those are also very pretty. 9 Which portrait have you bought ? 10 1 have bought that of the king of England. " Have you brought me this? 12 Yes ; but if you do not like this, I will give you that. 13 1 have lost your present and your brother's, but I will look for them. H I have found this in the garden, and I will give it to you. 15 It is seven o'clock, and I am hungry ; give me bread. 16 1 have some, but it is not for you. 17 You had some fruit, and you did not give me any ; now I do not give you this. ia These men do not work, but those work always. l9 We have lost our horse, but we have my brother's. 20 If we had not had these flowers, we should have bought the old woman's. 21 These flowers are not handsome ; I like those better. VERB-LESSON. 1 Voulez-vous du pain ? 2 Je n'en veux pas ; je n'ai pas faim. 3 Ne voudriez-vous pas manger ce fruit ? * Veuillez m'en donner. 5 Ils ne veulent pas travailler. 6 II voulait manger. 7 II ne veut pas me le donner. 8 Quoiqu'il voulût manger, il n'avait rien. 9 1 will ; they do not wish ; will you ? we shall have wished ; you will wish ; that I might have wished ; that INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 117 she might wish ; that we may wish ; they wished ; we were wishing ; they would have wished. 10 Will you have some milk ? " IsTo, I do not want any ; I want some water. 12 1 want to give her a present. 13 Give her a new dress ; she wants it. 14 Will you buy a dress for her ? LESSON XXV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. The interrogative pronouns are : qui, who ? whom ? what ? quoi, what ? que, what ? lequel etc. , which 2. Qui is hardly used except of persons. It stands for all genders and numbers, and in all constructions — as subject, object, predicate, after a preposition, etc. Thus : qui est là, ioho is there? qui cherchent-ils, whom do they seek ? qui êtes- vous, who are you? pour qui ce crayon est-il,jfar whom is this pencil? à qui est ce livre-là, to whom does that book belong ? 3. Qui is sometimes, but only rarely, used as subject in the sense of what ? Generally, the phrase qu'est-ce qui what is that which or what is it that is employed instead. Thus : qui vous amène, what brings you here ? qu'est-ce qui vous trouble, what troubles you? (literally, what is it that troubles you ?) 4. Q,ue and quoi what f are also without distinction of gender or number, but are used only of things ; que is conjunctive (XXII. 2), and quoi is disjunctive (like me moi, etc.). 118 LESSOK XXV. a. Que is only object of a verb, or predicate with an intransitive verb : thus, que voulez-vous, what do you wish? que nous dit cet homme, what does this man say to us ? qu'est-ce (or qu'est-ce que c'est), what is it ? que sert-il, of what use is it ? que deviendra-t-il, what will he become? (i.e. what will become of him?) b. Quoi is used absolutely, and with a preposition: thus, elle vous a donné— quoi, she has given you — what ? de quoi parle-t-il, of what is he speaking? c. Both que and quoi are frequent in exclamation : thus, que de services il m'a rendus, what services he lias rendered me! quoi de plus heureux, what more fortunate ! quoi ! vous y êtes encore, what ! you are here still ? d. Que is often also an adverb, meaning how ? why ? : thus, que vous êtes belle, how handsome you are ! que parlez- vous si haut, why do you speak so loud? 5. Lequel is made up of the interrogative adjective quel (XIII. 4) and the definite article ; it is written as if one word, but both its parts are inflected for gender and number : thus, Sing, lequel m., laquelle f. Plur. lesquels m., lesquelles f. They are used in ail constructions, in the sense of which f which one f what one f Thus : voici deux livres: lequel choisissez vous, here are two books: which do you choose ? **■ laquelle de ses sœurs est mariée, which of his sisters is married ? par lequel de ces chemins, by which one of these roads ? a. The article in lequel etc. also combines with the prepositions de and à just as when it stands alone, making duquel, desquels, desquelles; auquel, auxquels, auxquelles: thus, duquel de vos amis parlez- vous of which of your friends do you speak ? auxquelles de ces écolières les a-t-il donnés to which of these scholars has he given them ? 6. After some interrogative words — the pronouns qui and que, the adjective quel, and the adverbs où where ? quand when ? com- IKTEKEOGATIYE PKONOUKS. 119 ment how? combien how much, how many?— a. subject-noun is allowed to be itself put after the verb in asking a question (com- pare I. 11) : thus, que veut cette femme what does this woman tcant? où est notre ami where is our friend? quel livre a l'écolier what book has the scholar ? 7. It is common in French to use paraphrases in asking ques- tions: thus, qu'est-ce que vous avez what is it that you have ? for qu'avez- vous what have you ? qui est-ce qui vend who is it that sells ? for qui vend who sells ? and the like; also est-ce que vous avez is it [the case] that you have ? for avez- vous have you ? and especially est-ce que j'aime instead of aimé-je, and the like. VERB-LESSON. 8. The verb pouvoir he able, can, is, like vouloir (XXIY. 6), a very common and very irregular verb, used somewhat in the manner of an auxiliary of mode. a. Its synopsis of principal and derived forms is : pouvoir pouvant pu peux or puis pus pourrai pouvais avoir pu pusse • • GtC CtC pourrais puisse b. This verb has no imperative. Its près. subj. is entirely regu : lar in inflection. The près, indie, is as follows : peux, puis pouvons peux pouvez peut peuvent c. In this tense is seen the same exchange of ou and eu as in vouloir. The impf . indie, comes regularly from another form of the près, pple, puissant, now used only as ordinary adjective, meaning powerful, puissant. d. Puis and peux are equally common as 1st sing. In ques- tions, however, only puis-je is used. e. When this verb is made negative before an infinitive, the pas is often omitted : thus, cela ne peut tarder that cannot delay. The omission is more usual with puis than with peux in 1st sing, present. /. Pouvoir sometimes expresses general possibility, and is to be rendered by may, might, etc. : thus, cela peut être that may be, il pouvait avoir vingt ans he might {perhaps) be 20 years old. It is sometimes used reflexively, in the sense of be possible : thus, cela se peut that is possible. g. Pouvoir often takes an object directly where in English we have to use another verb : thus, peut-il attendre can he wait, il le peut he can (do) it. 120 LESSON XXV. VOCABULARY. la serviette, the napkin la nappe, the table-cloth l'assiette, the plate la *cailler, the spoon le couteau, the knife la fourchette, the fork dîner, dine déjeuner, breakfast maintenant, now alors, then Exercise 25. 1 Qui est ce jeune homme ? 2 C'est Monsieur B., mon ami. 3 Lequel de vos amis aimez-vous. 4 Je les aime tous. 5 Qui veut dîner avec moi ? 6 Moi, je le veux ; je n'ai pas encore dîné, et j'ai faim. 7 Laquelle des deux nappes voulez-vous employer ? 8 Nous emploierons la rouge ; nous voulons nettoyer la blanche. 9 A qui est cette assi- ette-ci ? 10 C'est à mon fils, mais il n'est pas encore ici. 11 Qu'avez-vous à manger ? 12 Veuillez manger de la viande et des légumes. 13 Voilà une cuiller et une fourchette ; laquelle voulez- vous ? 14 Donnez-moi la fourchette, et un couteau aussi. 15 Que veut-il ? I6 II veut du sel et du poivre. 17 Que lui donnez-vous maintenant ? 18 Je lui donne une assiette. 19 Lequel de vos frères est ici, et que veut-il? 20 II veut déjeuner avec moi. 21 De quoi vous a- t-il parlé ? 22 II m'a parlé du concert ; qu'en pensez-vous ? 23 À quoi pensiez-vous alors ? 24 Je pensais à ma tâche. 25 Auxquelles des jeunes filles pensez-vous maintenant ? 26 Je pense à ma nièce. Theme 25. 1 Who has been in my room ? 2 It was I, madam. 3 What did you want ? 4 I wanted to find the table-cloth and napkins. 5 Which did you find ? 6 1 found the white ones. 7 At what hour do you wish to dine ? * I will dine now, because I have not breakfasted to-day. 9 What have you on the table ? 10 We have butter and cheese ; which do you wish ? "I wish cheese with my bread ; give me a knife and a plate. 12 Here is a blue and a white plate ; EELATIYE PRONOUNS. 121 which do you want ? 13 Please to give me that large knife. 14 Which of the knives is the largest ? 15 This knife is larger than that. 16 Of what are you thinking ? 17 Why do you not bring me the meat and the vegetables ? 18 Who is this woman, and what has she in her basket ? 19 She has potatoes ; and I will buy you some. 20 To which of the children did he give the cake ? 21 He gave it to nobody then ; he will give it now to this good child. 22 Of whom have you bought this picture ? 23 1 bought it of the painter for my sister. 24 Of what were you speaking ? 25 We were speaking of this portrait. VERB-LESSON. 1 II peut travailler. 2 II ne pouvait pas travailler. 3 II ne pourra pas travailler, s'il est malade. 4 II pourrait tra- vailler, s'il n'était pas malade. 5 II veut travailler, mais il ne le peut pas. 6 Nous le pouvons, mais nous ne le voulons pas. 7 A-t-il attendu ? 8 II ne l'a pas pu. 9 Can I ? you can ; we were able ; they will be able ; she has been able ; though he cannot ; if thou couldst ; that he might be able. ao We can if we will ; he could if he would ; he will be able if you shall be able. " This one would work if he could ; those can (it) and will not (it). 12 1 should have been able to love you, if you had been willing to love me. 13 1 cannot love you, but I have not been able to hate you. LESSON XXYI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. All the interrogative pronouns are used also as relatives, but with some notable differences from their use as interrogatives. 122 LESSOR XXVI. 2. By far the commonest relatives are qui and que — qui standing as subject, and que as direct object of a verb. Both of them signify either persons or things, of any gender or number. Thus, l'enfant qui pleure, the child that cries des oiseaux qui volent, birds that fly le livre que vous avez, the book which you have les amis que nous aimons, the friends whom we love a. Que is also sometimes predicate with an intransitive, espec- ially être : thus, imbécile que vous êtes fool that you are, ce que c'est that wTiich it is, ce que vous devenez that which you become, ce qu'il nous faut what we lack. b. The participle of a compound tense following que agrees in gender and number (X. 56) with the word to which que relates: thus, les gants qu'il a achetés the gloves that he has bought, les fleurs que nous avions vues the flowers which we had seen. c. A verb having qui as subject is of the person of its ante- cedent : thus, moi qui suis / who am, toi qui as thou that hast, etc. 3. Qui is also used with prepositions, but generally only of persons : thus, l'homme à qui je l'ai donné, the man to whom I have given it les amis chez qui vous demeurez, the friends with whom you live 4. Lequel etc. is used with prepositions of objects other than persons : thus, le chien auquel j'ai donné à manger, the dog to which I have given {something) to eat les maisons dans lesquelles vous demeurez, the houses in which you dwell a. After parmi among, lesquels (or lesquelles) is always used, and not qui. 5. But lequel etc. is also used as subject or direct object of a verb, in place of qui or que — generally, how- ever, only when there is special reason for distinguishing the gender and number of the person or thing referred to : thus, voilà l'ami de ma mère, lequel vient me voir, here is my mother's friend, who comes to see me (where qui, if used, might seem to refer to mère mother) KELATIVE PRONOUNS. 123 6. Quoi, when used as relative, is more often a com- pound relative (or relative implying also its antecedent), and taken in a general or indefinite sense : thus, des choses à quoi on fait attention, things to which one pays attention après quoi, il s'en alla, after which, he went off je ne sais quoi, I don't know what vous me direz à quoi me fier, you will tell me on what to rely a. De quoi, before an infinitive, means wherewith : thus, j'ai de quoi vous amuser Ihave wherewith to amuse you {the means of amusing you). 7. Instead of qui or lequel with preceding de is often used dont, meaning of whom, of which, whose : thus, l'homme dont vous parlez, the man of whom you speak notre ami, dont le fils est ici, our friend, whose son ù here a. If the word on which dont is dependent is object of a verb, it takes its regular place after the verb, however far separated from the relative : thus, la femme dont vous avez reçu la lettre the woman whose letter you have received, le livre dont je ne connais pas le titre the book of which I do not know the title. b. Dont is originally an adverb (=Lat. de unde), meaning whence, from whence, and it is often best so rendered : thus, l'esprit retourne au ciel, dont il est descendu the spirit returns to heaven, whence it descended. 8. The adverb où where is also often used almost as a relative pronoun, meaning to or at or in which, and the like : thus, les honneurs où vous aspirez the honors to which you aspire, la douleur où je suis plongé the grief into which lam plunged. And d'où means from which or whence, and par où by which, by which route, etc. 9. Quiconque whoever, anyone who, is an indefinite relative, generally without antecedent expressed : thus, quiconque ment, sera puni whoever lies shall be punished. 10. The pronoun used as antecedent of a relative (as already pointed out, XXI Y. 2, 4a) is not the personal, as in English he who, they who, and so on, but the de- monstrative, ce or celui etc. a. Ce qui and ce que answer to English what or that which, the one as subject, the other as object (or some- times predicate) of a verb : thus, 124 LESSON XXVI. dites moi ce qui vous trouble, tell me what troubles you dites-moi ce que vous voulez, tell me what you wish dites moi ce que vous êtes, tell me what you are faites tout ce que je vous dis, do all that I tell you b. Ce dont means of what or that of which : thus, dites-moi ce dont vous avez à vous plaindre tell me of what you have to complain. c. Celui qui or que etc. means in like manner he who, the one which, and so on : thus, celui qui est dans les cieux, he who is in the heavens celle que vous aimez, she whom you love 11. Note that the relative, often omitted in English, must always be expressed in French : thus, the friends Hove, les amis que j'aime the books he has bought, les livres qu'il a achetés VERB-LESSON. 12. The irregular verb devoir owe, ought etc. is con- jugated as follows : a. Synopsis of principal and derived parts : devoir devant dû dois dus devrai devais avoir dû dois dusse i • s etc. etc. devrais doive 6. Inflection of the present tenses : Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. dois devons devons doive devions dois devez dois devez doives deviez doit doivent doive doivent c. Note that in the accented or strong forms the root- vowel changes from e to oi. d. Several other verbs (recevoir etc.) are conjugated like devoir, and in some grammars form with it the third regular conjugation (XVHI. 1er.) e. The past participle has the circumflex only in the masc. sing. (to distinguish it from du = de le) ; the other forms are due, dus, dues. /. Doit etc. very often signifies is to, is planned or destined to : thus, il doit venir chez nous demain he is to come to us to- morrow, je savais ce que je devais faire I knew what I was to do. In many cases it has the sense of must, have to, etc. : thus, elle a dû être belle dans sa jeunesse she must have been beauti- ful in her youth. The meaning ought belongs especially to the conditional : thus, quand devrais-je revenir when ought I to come back ? il aurait dû le faire he ought to have done it. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 125 VOCABULARY. la cuisine, the kitchen la cuisinière, the cook l'œuf m., the egg les pois m., the peas la rue, the street demander, ask préparer, prepare demeurer, live, dwell Exercise 26. 1 Qui est-ce qui vous cherche ? 2 C'est ma cuisinière qui me cherche. 3 Qu'est-ce qu'elle veut ? 4 Elle demande à quelle heure je veux déjeuner. 5 Elle préparera tout ce que vous voudrez. 6 Voulez-vous de la viande qu'elle a préparée, ou des *œuf s qui sont dans la cuisine ? 7 Je man- gerai les pois que j'ai sur mon assiette. 8 La femme dont je vous ai parlé est dans la cuisine. 9 C'est la femme à qui j'ai donné de l'argent. 10 Que veut-elle ? " Elle veut vous vendre ce qu'elle a dans son panier. 12 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? 13 Ce sont des œufs qu'elle a apportés de la campagne. 14 Où cherchez-vous les brebis ? 15 Je les chercherai dans les champs oii je les ai perdues. 16 Où demeurent ces pauvres gens ? 17 Ils demeurent dans la vieille maison où je vous ai mené hier. 18 Quiconque donne aux pauvres sera béni. 1Q Celle qui vous aime vous donnera ce que vous voulez. 20 Donnez à celle que vous aimez ce qu'elle veut. 81 Voilà la maison où nous demeurons. Theme 26. 1 Whom do you love ? 2 1 love those who love me ; but I do not hate him who hates me. 3 Speak to me of her of whom I was thinking. 4 1 looked for the house in which he lived, but I had forgotten in which of the two streets it was. 5 The house is in the street in which my brother lives. 6 If I had found him whom I sought, I should have given him all that I had. 7 My cook bought all the eggs which he had brought in his basket. 8 Does she not want also the peas which are in the basket ? 9 No, we have pota- 126 LESSON XXVII. toes still. 10 The friend at whose house I wish to dine is he of whom you spoke to me. " He is a handsome man whom I love, and whose mother was my friend, 12 The oooks of which you spoke to me are in the library. 13 These houses are those to which we bring milk and eggs. 14 The man to whom we sold the eggs lives in that house. 15 Who- ever wishes to be good can be so. 16 1 will love him who finds me what I have lost. 17 Give me what is in your pocket, and I will give you what I have in my hand. 18 What is that which you are eating ? 19 There is the man to whom I sold my book. 20 Where is the little boy whose father lives in our street ? VERB-LESSON. 1 Je ne vous dois rien. 2 II me doit beaucoup d'argent. 3 II me donna ce qu'il me devait. 4 Ces enfants devraient être punis. 6 Nous devions l'apporter hier, mais nous ne le pouvions pas. 6 J'ai dû être ici à cinq heures. 7 He owes; they were owing; we owed (prêt.); they will owe ; she would owe ; that you may owe ; that he might owe. 8 We are to dine at four o'clock. 9 He was to be here at noon. 10 You must be hungry. " You ought (cond.) not to forget what I have told you. 12 They must have forgotten it. LESSON XXVII. POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1. When used substantively, or without an accom- panying noun expressed, the possessives have a special form (different from that of the possessive adjectives : XIV.), and are always preceded by the definite article : thus, POSSESSIVE AKD IHDEFIîaTE PRONÔUKS. 127 Singular. Plural. le mien la mienne les miens les miennes, mine le tien la tienne les tiens les tiennes, thine le sien la sienne les siens les siennes, his, Tiers, its le nôtre la nôtre les nôtres, ours le vôtre la vôtre les vôtres, yours le leur la leur les leurs, theirs a. The féminines and plurals are made regularly, according to the rules for adjectives (VIL, VIII. ), except that leur has the same form for masculine and feminine. 2. These possessive pronouns (as they may be called) take the gender and number of the object possessed, and must be used whenever the noun expressing that object does not immediately follow them : thus, mon chapeau et le sien, my hat and his (or hers) son chapeau et le mien, his (or her) hat and mine nous avons nos chapeaux et ils ont les leurs, we have our hats and they have theirs 3. A few other words, more or less akin with pro- nouns in value, call for mention and explanation. 4. As an indefinite subject, on is used in the sense of one, they, people, and the like : thus, on dit, one says, they say, people say, etc. a. Instead of on simply, l'on (with the article prefixed) is often used after a vowel sound, especially after et, ou, où, que, si : thus, si l'on voit if one sees. b. This is the inclusive article (IV. 5), saved in order to prevent hiatus ; since on is by origin an abbreviation of homme. c. It is very often convenient to substitute in English a passive expression for an active with on : thus, it is said for on dit. 5. Compounds of un with the pronominal adjectives (XIV. 6) chaque each and quelque some are chacun m., chacune f., each, each one, every one quelqu'un m., quelqu'une f., some one, somebody quelques uns m., quelques unes f., some, some people a. Something, anything is expressed by quelque chose, 128 LESSOH XXVII. and everything by tout or by toute chose (not chaque chose). 6. Some words used as pronominal adjectives (XIY. 6) may stand also substantively, or as pronouns : such are aucun m., aucune f. (with ne before the verb), not one, no one, none ; un autre another, l'autre the other, d'autres others, etc.; plusieurs several; tout all, everything; le même the same. a. From autre comes the pronoun autrui another, other people, others than one's self; it is never used as subject. 7. Un one and autre other are combined into certain phrases : thus, l'un et l'autre the one and the other, i.e. both ; l'un ou l'autre the one or the other, i.e. either ; ni l'un ni l'autre (with ne before the verb) neither the one nor the other, i.e. neither ; l'un l'autre the one the other, i.e. one another, each other. a. Both is also expressed by tous deux or tous les deux (literally, all the two). b. Tout le monde (literally, all the world) is a very com- mon expression for everybody : thus, tout le monde l'aime everybody loves him. VERB-LESSON. 8. The verb aller go is extremely irregular, being made up in its conjugation of parts derived from three different verbs. It takes être as auxiliary (XXVIII. 6&). a. Its synopsis of principal and derived parts is : aller allant allé vais allai irai allais être allé va allasse . •ii etc. etc. irais aille b. Its three present tenses are inflected thus : Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive. vais allons allons aille allions vas allez va allez ailles alliez va vont aille aillent POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 129 9. a. Va 2d sing. impv. becomes vas before en and y (com- pare XVIII. 10a). 6. Vais etc. come from Lat. vadere walk; irai etc., from Lat. ire go ; the Lat. original of aller etc. is obscure and disputed. c. The present and imperfect indie, of aller are used before an infinitive (without infinitive-sign), precisely like I am going, I was going in English, as a sort of im- med'rte future tense, or to denote something just about to tai 3 place: thus, il va partir he is going to leave, j'allaiL lui répondre I was going to answer him. d. Allons let us go is used in the sense of come, come on. Aller voir, aller chercher correspond to our visit, and look for or fetch. For the reflexive s'en aller go off, see XXIX. 7c. VOCABULARY. le saloii, the saloon, dining-room le ragoût, the stew, ragout le couvert, the cover (place at table) le plat, the dish la soupe, the soup la soupière, the tureen le poisson, the fish la confiture, the sweetmeat r, break ôter, remove, take off or away Exercise 27. 1 Est-ce que votre oncle et le mien sont ici ? 2 Oui, ma- dame, ils sont tous les deux ici. 3 Si tout le monde est ici, nous pouvons dîner. 4 Yotre salon est plus grand que le mien. 5 Oui, monsieur, le mien est plus grand, mais le vôtre est plus joli. 6 Ce sont toutes les deux de très belles chambres. 7 Voici votre couvert, et voilà les leurs. 8 Marie, apporte de la soupe à monsieur. 9 Voulez-vous de ce plat- ci ou de l'autre ? 10 Je ne veux ni de l'un ni de l'autre ; don- nez-moi le ragoût et quelques légumes. " Ne voulez- vous pas de pommes, de terre ? 12 J'en ai déjà mangé plusieurs ; mais j'en mangerai encore quelques unes. 13 Dois-je don- ner des confitures aux enfants ? 14 Non, aucun des enfants ne doit manger de confitures. 15 On a donné aux enfants du poisson et de la viande, et ils ont mangé de l'un et de l'autre. 16 Où est la soupière ? 17 On l'a cassée. 1H On ne doit jamais casser les choses d'autrui. 19 Si l'on casse une 9 130 LESSOR XXVJI. chose, on devrait en acheter une autre. 20 Ces messieurs ont ôté leurs chapeaux ; ôte aussi le tien. 21 On ôte tou- jours son chapeau dans la maison. 22 J'aime toutes les choses que vous aimez. Theme 27. 1 Are you looking for my brother or hers ? 2 1 have looked for both, but I have found neither ; they have dined already. 3 Several of my friends are here ; let us dine without the others. 4 Each one ought to have a cover. 6 We have eight places, and we can have others. 6 You have not plates enough ; some one has broken several. 7 If one looks in the kitchen, one will find some. 8 We have several dishes ; which will you (have) ? Inflection of the three present tenses : PRES. INDIC. IMPV. PRES. SUBJ. crois croyons croyons croie croyions crois croyez crois croyez croies croyiez croit croient croie croient b. A compound of croire (Lat. credere), accroire (in faire accroire deceive into believing), is used only in the infinitive; another, décroire disbelieve, only in the 1st sing, present. c. Croire in French is followed by an infinitive without infinitive-sign, where in English we use instead a dependent clause, or insert a reflexive pronoun : thus, je crois l'avoir dit / think (myself) to have said it, or I think that I have said it. FURTHER IRREGULAR VERBS IK re. 173 d. 27, boire buvant bu bois bus boirai buvais avoir bu bois busse , . , etc. etc. boirais boive Inflection of the three present tenses : Prks. Indic. Impv. Pees. Subj. bois buvons buvons boive buvions bois buvez bois buvez boives buviez boit boivent boive boivent e. Like boire (Lat. Mbere) are conjugated its compounds : emboire, imbibe imboire, imbibe, imbue reboire, drink again 6. There is one verb in ore, namely clore close, with its compound éclore open, hatch (taking être as auxiliary : XXVIII. 6a). Their conjugation is as follows (only a few of the forms being in actual use) : a. 28, clore [closant] clos clos clorai avoir clos clorais close (être éclos) b. The 3d sing. près, indic. is clôt (and éclôt) ; of the plural only the 3d pers. éclosent is in use. The fut. and cond. of éclore are more usually written with the circumflex : éclôra etc. (only the 3d persons are in use). c. Of clore (Lat. claudere) there are other compounds : déclore, unclose enclore, enclose forclore, foi*eclose but they are rarely used, and only in a few forms. 7. There is also a single verb ending in ure, namely -dure in conclure conclude etc. The conjugation is as follows : a. 29, conclure concluant conclu conclus conclus conclurai concluais avoir conclu conclus conclusse conclurais conclue etc ' etc- b. Inflection of the present tenses : PRES. INDIC. IMPV. PRES. SUBJ. conclus concluons concluons conclue concluions conclus concluez conclus concluez conclues concluiez conclut concluent conclue concluent c. Like conclure are conjugated also the other compounds of -dure (Lat. -cludere) : namely. 174 LESSOR XXXVII. exclure, exclude reclure, shut up but of reclure only a few forms are in use. VOCABULARY. {Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.) la ferme, the farm la fermière, the farmer' s wife le lis, the lily la violette, the violet le matin, the morning le soir, the evening Exercise 37. 1 Que buvez-vous r 2 Je bois du lait frais ; voulez-vous en boire ? 3 Où l'avez-vous trouvé ? 4 La fermière trayait ses vaches, et elle m'en a donné. 6 Croyez-vous que je puisse en avoir aussi ? 6 Elle les a déjà traites, mais elle les traira encore ce soir. 7 Alors j'en boirai ce soir. 8 Voilà de jolies rieurs ; elles sont écloses ce matin. 9 Les roses éclôront demain, je crois. 10 J'en veux quelques unes. u Je crois vous avoir dit que j'aime extrêmement toutes les fleurs. 12 Est-ce que ces petites filles ne vous plaisent pas? 13 Elles m'ont beaucoup déplu, parce qu'elles ne se taisent jamais. 14 II faut qu'un enfant se taise lorsque les autres veulent parler. 15 Avant de m'en aller, il faut que je boive un peu de vin. 16 Vous en avez déjà bu, et nous ne croyons point qu'il vous en faille encore. 17 Mais le lait ne me plaît pas. 18 Taisez- vous, et buvez ce qu'on vous donne. 19 Je me tai- rai, mais je ne boirai pas ce qui me déplaît. 20 Ne croient- ils pas ce que je leur ai dit? 21 Ils n'en ont rien cru. Theme 37. 1 He believes ; does she not believe ? they will believe ; believe what I say ; I have believed what she has said to me. 2 Will he drink ? do you drink ? they would have drunk ; drink, and go away ; let us drink water ; he would drink wine, if he had some. 3 Does she please you ? that would never please me ; they have pleased me. 4 She spoke THE REMAINING VERBS IK re. 175 and I was silent ; be silent while your mother speaks ; if you do not keep silence, I shall say nothing. 5 1 want to go to the farm this morning, if you please. 6 1 will con- duct you there ; but you must be silent while I speak to the farmer's wife. 7 Do you believe that she will milk the cows while we are there ? 8 If she milks them, she will give you some milk. 9 1 drank some fresh milk formerly, and I shall drink some to-day. 10 We drink milk often, but we have never drunk wine. ai Do you think that the lilies have opened? 12 They have not yet opened, but they will open this evening. 13 These violets please me much ; give me some, if you please. 14 Be silent, my child ; you have displeased me. 15 We thought that we had pleased you. 16 Since you are silent, we conclude that we displease you. 17 Although we drink much milk, we are always thirsty. LESSON XXXVIII. THE REMAINING VERBS IN TC 1. The remaining verbs ending in the infinitive in re have a consonant next before the r. They are quite dis- cordant, and in part very irregular, in their conjugation, and must be taken up one by one. a. We will begin with two that are extremely common in use. 2. The verb prendre take is thus conjugated : 30. prendre prenant pris prends pris preadrai prenais avoir pris prends prisse prendrais prenne etc. etc. Inflection of the present tenses : Près. Indic. Impv Pees. SUBJ. prends prenons prenons prenne prenions prends prenez prends prenez prennes preniez prend prennent prenne prennent a. For the doubling of the n in prenne etc. , see 21 176 LESSOR XXXVIII. b. Like prendre (Lat. prehendere) are conjugated its numerous compounds (some of them very much used) : apprendre, learn rapprendre, relearn méprendre, mistake désapprendre, unlearn comprendre, understand reprendre, resume éprendre, seize entreprendre, undertake surprendre, surprise 3. The verb mettre put is thus conjugated : 31. mettre mettant mis mettrai mettais avoir mis mettrais mette etc - ete ' mets mets Inflection of the près, indie, and impv. : PRES. INDIC. mets mettons mets mettez meta met mettent Impv. m m mettons mettez a. Like mettre (Lat. mittere) are conjugated its numerous and much-used compounds : admettre, admit omettre, omit remettre, remit commettre, commit permettre, permit soumettre, submit démettre, put out promettre, promise transmettre, transmit émettre, emit compromettre, compromise b. For the phrase se mettre à begin (literally, set one's self at), see above, XXIX. 76. 4. The verb vivre live is very irregular in its preterit and past participle : thus, 32. vivre vivant vécu vis vécus vivrai vivais vivrais vive avoir vécu etc. etc. vis vécusse Inflection of the près, indie. and impv. : PRES. INDIC. Impv. vis vivons vivons vis vivez vis vivez vit vivent a. Like vivre (Lat. vivere) are conjugated its compounds : revivre, revive survivre, survive b. The près. subj. is used in good wishes for English long live : thus, vive le roi long live the king. In the expression qui vive who goes there f (literally, who is alive or stirring) it is treated as an indicative. THE BEMAIHITO VERBS IK re. 177 5. The verb suivre follow is quite nearly regular, is conjugated as follows : It 33. suivre suivrai suivrais suivi avoir suivi etc. etc. SUIS suis SUIVIS suivisse IMPT. suivons suivez suivant suivais suive Inflection of the près, indie, and impv. : PRES. INDIC. suis suivons suis suivez suis suit suivent a. Notice tîie identity of je suis I follow with je suis 7" am. b. Like suivre (Lat. sequi) are conjugated its compounds : ensuivre, ensue poursuivre, pursue 6. The verb coudre sew is thus conjugated : 3é. coudre cousant coudrai cousais coudrais couse Inflection of the près, indie, and impv. : Près. Indic. couds cousons couds cousez couds coud cousent a. Notice the unusual difference in the final vowel-sound of the pple cousu and prêt, cousis. Such difference is found only in coudre, vêtir (XXXIX. 11), and voir (XLI. 4). b. Like coudre (Lat. consuere) are conjugated its compounds : découdre, unsew, rip recoudre, sew over again 7. The verb moudre grind is thus conjugated : cousu couds cousis avoir cousu etc. etc. couds cousisse Impv. cousons moulu avoir moulu etc. etc. mouds mouds moulus moulusse 35. moudre moulant moudrai moulais moudrais moule Inflection of the près, indic. and impv. : Près. Indic. mouds moulons mouds moulez mouds moud moulent Like moudre (Lat. molere) are conjugated its compounds : émoudre, whet remoudre, grind oner The very irregular verb résoudre resolve is thus conjugated : 12 moulons moulez a. 8. 178 LESSON XXXVIII. 36. résoudre résolvant résolu résouds résolus résoudrai résolvais avoir résolu résouds résolusse résoudrais résolve etc " etc " Inflection of the près, indie, and impv. : Près. Indic. Impv. résouds résolvons résolvons résouds résolvez résouds résolvez résoud résolvent a. Nearly like résoudre are conjugated the other compounds of -soudre (Lat, solvere) : namely, absoudre, absolve dissoudre, dissolve except that their past participles are absous and dissous (fern, -soute). And résous (only masc.) is also a rarely used participle of résoudre, in the sense of dissolved. 9. Of sourdre (Lat. surgere) rise forth are used only the in- finitive and the 3d persons près, indicative : thus, 37» sourdre sourd, sourdent. VOCABULARY. (Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.) la malle, the trunk le mouchoir, the handkerchief le col, the collar la manchette, the cuff la leçon, the lesson le thème, the exercise, tlieme anglais, English allemand, German Exercise 38. 1 Qu'avez-vous appris de votre frère ? 3 J'apprends qu'il va entreprendre un long voyage. 3 Permettez-vous qu'il s'en aille ? 4 II l'a résolu, et il faut que je le lui permette. 6 Est-ce qu'il prendra toutes ces malles avec lui ? 6 II ne prend jamais qu'une malle. 7 Voilà la malle qu'il a prise l'année dernière. 8 Prenez ces mouchoirs et mettez-les dans la malle. 9 Est-ce que vous y avez mis les manchettes et les cols ? 10 II faut que je les couse avant de les y mettre. 11 Ne les cousez pas, il en achètera d'autres. 12 Si votre frère va en Angleterre, il lui faudra apprendre l'Anglais. 13 II a résolu de l'apprendre, et il prend des leçons d'An- glais depuis un an. 14 Maintenant il l'aura appris très bien, je crois. 15 Comprenez-vous l'Allemand, mademoi- THE REMAINING VERBS IK re. 179 selle ? 16 Non, monsieur; mais je me suis mise à l'apprendre. 17 Ce qu'on a résolu d'apprendre, on l'apprend toujours. 18 Est-ce que votre chien vous suit ? 19 II m'a toujours suivi ; mais il devient vieux, et je ne crois pas qu'il me suivra plus longtemps. 20 Les chiens ne vivent pas aussi longtemps que les hommes. 21 Bien que celui-ci n'ait vécu que dix ans, il est déjà vieux, et il faut que je me résolve à en acheter un autre. 22 Nous vivrons désormais dans la ville. Theme 38. 1 You will take ; they have taken ; take it ; we took it ; will she not take it ? I wish that you may take it ; thou wast taking ; I have taken nothing. 2 We would put ; that they may put ; let us put it there ; he put it in his pocket; will he not put it there ? I shall put it where I wish ; he will have put it on the table ; I never put them there. 3 They were living ; he lived ; do we not live ? live ! I wish that the king may live long ; you would have lived. 4 She sews ; they were sewing ; I did not sew ; if you sew, we shall sew also ; that he might sew ; let us sew. 5 That he may re- solve ; I have resolved ; we shall resolve ; would he not resolve ? they were resolving ; let us resolve ; she would not have resolved. 6 What have you done with (de) the handkerchiefs which I was sewing ? 7 1 put them in your trunk. 8 1 did not permit you to (de) put them there. 9 If I had not put them there, my brother would not have been able to go away. 10 Which trunk has he taken ? " He has taken the old black trunk which he took last year. 12 Have you learned why he leaves ? 13 My father permits him to leave, in order that he may learn English 14 Does he not understand English ? 15 He does not understand it yet, but he is beginning to learn it, and he will understand it soon. 16 You take English lessons also, I believe. " No, sir ; but I take German lessons. 18 This child must under- stand German, if he is going to Germany. 19 Where have 180 LESSON XXXIX. you put your little dog ? 20 It is dead ; it lived only three months. 2X I took your pencil, and put it on the table ; but it is no longer there. " Put your book where you will be able to find it again. LESSOJST XXXIX. IRREGULAR VERBS IN ir. 1. A number of verbs ending in the infinitive in ir are conjugated alike, and quite regularly. Such are partir set out, leave, depart, sortir go out, sentir feel, mentir lie, tell a lie, repentir (reflexive) repent, dormir sleep, servir serve. a. These verbs are more properly regular than the so-called regular verbs of the second conjugation (like finir), since they do not, like the latter, mix togeth- er simple and inceptive forms. But the verbs like finir are much the more nu- merous. 2. The verb partir is thus conjugated : 38. partir partant partirai partais partirais parte Inflection of the près, indie, and impv. Près. Indic. pars partons pars partez part partent 3. Of the others in tir, it will be enough to give the principal parts : 39. sortir sortant sorti sors sortis 40. sentir sentant senti sens sentis 41. mentir mentant menti mens mentis 42. repentir repentant repenti repens repentis a. Like these verbs (Lat. partiri, sortiri, sentire, mentiri, -pœnitere) are conjugated their compounds : départir, distribute repartir, set out again ressortir, go out again consentir, consent pressentir, foresee ressentir, jfeeJ, resent démentir, give the lie to parti pars partis être parti etc. etc. pars partisse id impv. : Impv. partons pars partez IKEEGULAE VEEBS IK ir. 181 b. But répartir distribute is like finir ; and so also ressortir when it means resort; and assortir assort is not a compound of sortir, and is regular. c. As to tlie auxiliary with partir and sortir, see XXVIII. 7. 4. Of the two verbs in mir and vir, the principal parts are as follows : 43. dormir dormant dormi dors dormis 44. servir servant servi sers servis Their près, indie, (with which the imperative persons, as usual, agree) are these : PRES. INDIC. PRES. INDIC. dors dormons sers servons dors dormez sers servez dort dorment sert servent a. Like these verbs (Lat. dormire, servire) are conjugated their compounds : endormir, put to sleep redormir, sleep again rendormir, put to desservir, clear (a table) sleep again But asservir subjugate is regular (like finir). b. The phrase se servir de use, make use of, was given at XXIX. 76. 5. Somewhat less regular is assaillir assail, which has a present indicative like a verb of the first conjugation. a. The principal parts are : 4â. assaillir assaillant assailli assaille assaillis The près, indie, and impv. are : Près. Indic. Impv. assaille assaillons assaillons assailles assaillez assaille assaillez assaille assaillent b. Like assaillir is conjugated another compound of saillir, tressaillir, be startled but the simple saillir (Lat. salire) gusli forth is like finir ; in the sense of jut out, project, it has the 3d persons près, indic. like assaillir. 6. The verb cueillir gather is still further irregular, in having also the future and conditional made after the manner of the first conjugation : thus, 182 LESSOR XXXIX. 46, cueillir cueillant cueilli cueille cueillis cueillerai cueillais avoir cueilli cueille cueillisse cueillerais cueille etc ' etc ' The present tenses are like those of assaillir. a. Like cueillir (Lat. colligere) are conjugated its compounds : accueillir, receive recueillir, collect 7. The verb fuir flee, shun has a very regular conju- gation : thus, 47, fuir fuyant fui fuis fuis fuirai fuyais avoir fui fuis fuisse fuirais fuie etcetc - The près, indie, and impv. are : Près. Indic. Impv. fuis fuyons fuyons fuis fuyez fuis fuyez fuit fuient a. Like fuir (Lat. fugere) is conjugated its compound : s'enfuir, run away, fly 8. Of the verb bruire (probably Lat. rugire) roar, be noisy, the few forms that occur may best be put here, on account of their analogy with those of fuir. They are only 48, bruire bruyant il bruit il bruyait ils bruyaient 9. The verb ouïr hear (Lat. audire) is now hardly used except in the infinitive and past participle, with the compound tenses. Its full conjugation is as follows : 49, ouïr oyant ouï ois ouïs o i r a i oyais avoir ouï ois ouïsse etc. etc. o i r a i s oie 10. The verb faillir miss, fall short is also very defective, being used at present only in the infinitive, future, and conditional, and in the compound tenses : thus, 50, faillir [faillant] failli [faux] [faillis] faillirai [faillais] avoir failli faillirais [faille] etc * etc ' a. Other forms of this verb are met with in older use, and sometimes agreeing in form with those of falloir (originally the same word : Lat. fallere). As meaning fail {in business), it is sometimes conjugated like finir. b. The perfect j'ai failli etc. is used with a following infinitive in the sense come near, just escape : thus, j'ai failli tomber 1 came within an ace of falling. IRKEGULAE VERBS IK ir. 183 e. The compound défaillir fail is also used only in a part of its forms, and with somewhat varying conjugation. 11. The verb vêtir clothe differs from the preceding in having u as ending of its past participle. It is thus conjugated : 51. vêtir vêtant vêtu vêts vêtis vêtirai vêtais avoir vêtu vêts vêtisse *, . ~. etc. etc. vêtirais vête Inflection of près, indic. and impv. : Près. Indic. Impv. vêts vêtons vêtons vêts vêtez vêts vêtez vêt vêtent a. But this verb is also sometimes conjugated like finir. b. Like vêtir (Lat. vestire) are also conjugated its compounds : dévêtir, unclothe revêtir, reclothe, dress VOCABULARY. (Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.) le cœur, the heart l'amitié f., the friendship la voiture, the carriage adieu, farewell, adieu le mari, the husband le beau-frère, the brother-in-law Exercise 39. 1 Pourquoi sortiez-vous de bonne heure aujourd'hui ? 2 Je suis sorti avec mon ami, qui partait pour l'Angleterre. 8 On m'avait dit qu'il ne partirait pas avant ce soir. 4 On a menti, monsieur; il est parti ce matin. 5 S'il n'était pas parti de si bonne heure, nous nous serions levés pour lui dire adieu ; mais nous dormions encore. 6 Moi, je n'ai point dormi ; je me sentais trop malheureux. 7 Ressentez-vous tant d'amitié pour lui ? 8 Je ne mens pas; je l'aime de tout mon cœur. 9 Est-ce que les enfants sont partis ? 10 Ils sor- tirent il y a deux heures. Qu'est-ce qu'ils font ? " Ils vont donner aux pauvres soldats malades les fleurs qu'ils ont cueillies. 13 Ils sont sortis ce matin, et ils ont cueilli les fleurs dans les champs. 14 De quoi se sont-ils servis pour aller aux champs ? 15 Ils se sont servis de notre grande voi- 184 LESSON XXXIX. ture. 16 Qui est cette femme, qui est vêtue de noir ? " C'est ma tante ; depuis la mort de son enfant elle se vêt tou- jours ainsi. 18 Elle a failli perdre aussi son mari. 19 J'ai ouï dire que les soldats avaient fui devant l'ennemi. 20 On a menti ; les soldats français ne fuient jamais. 21 Celui qui ment doit être puni. " Ne sortez pas, mon ami ; il fait trop froid. Theme 39. 1 Let us set out ; they were setting out ; she would de- part ; shall you not set out? that he might depart; she has departed ; you would have departed. 2 Is he not sleep- ing ? she slept ; if he had slept ; sleep ! that you may sleep ; if we had not slept. 3 You clothe ; they had not clothed ; do I not clothe ? that you might clothe ; let us clothe. 4 She gathers flowers ; we will gather flowers for her ; she has gathered them for us ; why have you not gathered any flowers ? 5 Go out of this room ; he will not go out of it ; we have gone out of the town ; he went out by the door ; you will go out by the window. 6 Why does this woman always dress herself in black ? 7 She dresses herself in black because she has lost her husband. 8 Let us gather some violets in order to give to her. 9 Where have you gathered these beautiful flowers ? 10 We went out of the house and gathered them in the garden. " Did your cousins go away in the large carriage ? 12 No, they made use of the small carriage. 13 Where have they gone ? 14 They did not sleep at all here. 15 1 go to sleep very early, when I am in (à) the country. 16 We shall sleep before going out. 17 Has the teacher gone away without saying farewell to us ? 18 Although he has lied to us, we still feel friendship for him. 19 Why do these women dress them- selves so badly ? 20 They are very poor, and they use old dresses, which some one has given them. 21 Let us flee, while our enemies sleep. IEEEGULAE VEEBS IN ir. 185 LESSON XL. OTHEE IEEEGULAE VEEBS IN ir. 1. In this Lesson will be given the rest of the irregu- lar verbs having the infinitive ending in ir. 2. The verb courir run is thus conjugated : 52, courir courant couru cours courus courrai courais avoir couru cours courusse etc. etc. courrais coure The près, indie, and impv. are : Pees. Indic. Impv. cours courons courons cours courez cours courez court courent a. Note the double pronunciation of the rr in the (abbreviated) fut. and cond. of this verb (73d). b. Like courir (Lat. currere) are conjugated its compounds : accourir, run up encourir, incur recourir, recur concourir, concur parcourir, traverse secourir, succor discourir, discourse c. An old form of the infinitive, courre, is sometimes used as a hunting term. 3. Four verbs — namely, offrir offer, souffrir suffer, ouvrir open, and couvrir cover — have ert as ending of the past participle, and e of the present indicative : thus, a. 53, offrir offrant offert offre offris offrirai offrais avoir offert offre offrisse offrirais offre etc> etc " The près, indic. and impv. are : Pees. Indic. Impv. offre offrons offrons offres offrez offre offrez offre offrent 186 LESSON XL. b. Of the others, it will be enough to give the principal parts : 54, souffrir souffrant souffert souffre souffris 55, ouvrir ouvrant ouvert ouvre ouvris 56, couvrir couvrant couvert couvre couvris c. Of offrir (Lat. offerre) and souffrir (Lat. sufferre), there are no compounds ; like ouvrir (Lat. aperire) and couvrir (Lat. cooperire) are conjugated their compounds : rouvrir, reopen entr'ouvrir, half open découvrir, discover recouvrir, cover again 4. Certain verbs in ir are used in only a few forms : a. 57, Férir strike (Lat. ferire) occurs only in the infinitive (and, very rarely, the past participle féru). b. 58, Issir issue (Lat. exire) has only the past participle issu (and, according to some, also the present participle issant). c. Gésir lie (Lat. jacere) has only the following parts : 59, gésir gisant gis gisais And of the près, indie. , only the 3d. sing, and the plural per- sons are in use : thus, gisons gisez gît gisent especially in the phrase ci gît here lies, on a tombstone. As to the pronunciation of s in this verb, see 74c. 5. The remaining verbs in ir change the root-vowel in a part of their forms — namely, in those persons of the three present tenses which are accented on the root, being either monosyllables or followed only by a mute syllable. 6. The verbs venir come and tenir hold are conjugated precisely alike. They change their e to ie in the accented persons ; and also in the future and conditional, which are irregularly formed. a. Of venir the whole conjugation has been already given (XXXI. 10); it takes (XXVIII. 6) être as auxili- ary. Only its principal parts will be repeated here : 60, venir venant venu viens vins o. The verb tenir is thus conjugated : IKKEGULAK VEKBS IK ir. 187 61* tenir tenant tenu tiens tins tiendrai tenais avoir tenu tiens tinsse tiendrais tienne The inflection of the present tenses is as follows : Pkes. Indic. Impv. Pkes. Subj. tiens tenons tenons tienne tenions tiens tenez tiens tenez tiennes teniez tient tiennent tienne tiennent c. Like venir (Lat. venire) and tenir (Lat. tenere) are conju- gated their numerous and much-used compounds : advenir, happen parvenir, arrive ressouvenir, remind again avenir, happen intervenir, intervene circonvenir, eircum- prévenir, anticipate vent contrevenir, contra- provenir, proceed vene convenir, agree redevenir, become again se souvenir, remember devenir, become revenir, return, come subvenir, assist back disconvenir, disagree survenir, come in addi- tion abstenir, abstain détenir, detain obtenir, obtain appartenir, belong entretenir, entertain retenir, retain contenir, contain maintenir, maintain soutenir, sustain d. For the auxiliary used with venir and most of its com- pounds, see XXVIII. 6a. 7, The verb mourir die changes its ou to eu in the ac- cented forms, and is also irregular in the future and con- ditional. It is conjugated thus : 62. mourir mourant mort meurs mourus mourrai mourais être mort meurs mourusse mourrais meure etc. etc. The inflection of the three present tenses is : Près. Indic. Impv. Pees. Stbj. meurs mourons mourons meure mourions meurs mourez meurs mourez meures mouriez meurt meurent meure meurent 188 LESSON XL. "With mourir (Lat. mori) are formed no compounds. a. For the pronunciation of rr in the fut. and cond. , see 73d. 8. Of the simple verb quérir seek, only the infinitive is in use ; but its compounds are fully conjugated. As example may be taken acquérir acquire. The change of the root- vowel e is to ie (as in venir; ; the future is made as in mourir and courir. 03. acquérir acquérant acquis acquiers acquis acquerrai acquérais avoir acquis acquiers acquisse . - etc. etc. acquerrais acquière The inflection of the three present tenses is : Près. Indic. Impv. t'res. Subj. acquiers acquérons acquérons acquière acquérions acquiers acquérez acquiers acquérez acquières acquériez acquiert acquièrent acquière acquièrent a. In the same manner are conjugated the other compounds of -quérir (Lat. quacrcre) : conquérir, conquer s'enquérir, inquire reconquérir, reconquer requérir, require 9. The verb bouillir boil is conjugated nearly like partir (XXXIX. 2), being irregular only in the singular of the present indicative and imperative. Thus : Od. bouillir bouillant bouilli bous bouillis bouillirai bouillais avoir bouilli bous bouillisse bouillirais bouille etc - etc ' Inflection of the près, indic. and impv. : Près. Indic. Impv. bous bouillons bouillons bous bouillez bous bouillez bout bouillent a. Like bouillir (Lat. bullire) are conjugated its compounds : ébouillir, boil away rebouillir, boil again VOCABULARY. (Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.) l'air m., the air le pied, the foot le bas, the stocking le soulier, the shoe la poule, the fowl, hen la basse-cour, the poultry yard iroid, cold chaud, warm IRREGULAR VERBS IK ir. 189 Exercise 40. 1 Est-ce que vous ne vous sentez pas bien, mon enfant ? 2 J'ai mal à la tête, et je souffre beaucoup. 3 II vous faut de l'air frais ; j'ouvrirai la fenêtre. 4 Si vous ouvrez la fenêtre, j'aurai froid. 5 Alors sortez, et courez dans le jar- din. 6 Nous avons beaucoup couru ce matin, et nous avons mal aux pieds. 7 Nous courrons ce soir, si vous voulez. 8 Que faites-vous là ? 9 Je fais bouillir de l'eau ; nous allons avoir du thé. 10 II faut que l'eau bouille, pour faire de bon thé. " Lorsque j'aurai fait le thé, je vous en offrirai. 12 Pourquoi ne m'avez-vous pas offert aussi des œufs ? 13 Les œufs ne m'appartiennent pas ; aussi je ne vous les offre pas. 14 Qu'est-ce que vous tenez dans la main ? 15 Un livre qui appartient à mon frère ; il a appartenu autrefois a Mon- sieur B. 16 Mon ami mourut l'année dernière. l7 II était de- venu très pauvre, et depuis qu'il est mort, on a dû vendre tout ce qui lui appartenait. 18 Mon père a acquis beaucoup de biens en travaillant ; si vous travaillez, vous en acquer- rez aussi. 19 Je n'ai pas ouvert ce livre-là. 20 Que quelqu'un ouvre la porte, ou je mourrai. 21 On vient d'ouvrir la porte de la basse-cour, et toutes les poules courent dans le jardin. 22 Si nous avions des bas et des souliers, nous ne souffririons pas du froid aux pieds. Theme 40. 1 They run ; we were running ; you ran ; he will run ; she would run ; let us run ; that I may run ; that thou mightest run. 2 Offer ! we shall offer it to him ; they would have offered them to me ; I offered her nothing ; thou never offerest anything to anybody. 3 He holds ; will you not hold ? hold ! they were holding ; that she might hold ; we should have held ; do not hold it ; that he may hold them. 4 Why do not these children run ? 5 Their feet have become cold, and they cannot run any more. 6 If you run 190 LESSON XLI. very fast, your feet will become warm. 7 These poor chil- dren have been able to obtain neither shoes nor stockings. 8 Their father has died, and they have become very poor. 9 He died six months ago ; and now their mother is dying. 10 We have offered her a fowl, but she suffers so much that she cannot eat. " They are suffering from headache. 12 If they opened the window, they would have more air, and they would suffer less. 13 Where does he acquire all his money ? " He has sold all that which belonged to him, but he has not acquired much. 15 If he works well, he will acquire more. 16 This dress belongs to me, and I will offer it to her. " Let us offer to the children the old shoes which have belonged to us. l8 The water boils; make the tea. 10 Give me some boiling water, and I will make it. 20 If my uncle does not come back to-day, he will come back cer- tainly to-morrow. LESSON XLI. IEEEGULAE VEEBS IN Oir. 1. The verbs ending in oir are much less numerous than the irregular ones in ir and in re, but some of them are very common and important. We may take up first among them a little group ending in the infinitive in evoir, which in many grammars are treated as a separate regular conjugation — called the third, the verbs in re being reckoned as the fourth. 2. The verb recevoir receive is thus conjugated : 65, recevoir recevant reçu reçois reçus recevrai recevais avoir reçu reçois reçusse etc. etc. recevrais reçoive The inflection of the present tenses is : IRREGULAR VERBS Itf oir. 191 Pess. Indic. Impv. Pkes. Subj. reçois recevons recevons reçoive recevions reçois recevez reçois recevea reçoives receviez reçoit reçoivent reçoive reçoivent a. Like recevoir are conjugated the other compounds of -cevoir (Lat. -cipere) ; namely, concevoir, conceive décevoir, deceive percevoir, receive ' apercevoir, perceive 3. In the same manner is conjugated also the verb devoir owe, which has been given in full above (XXVI. 12 etc.) ; its principal parts are : 66, devoir devant dû dois dus a. Like devoir (Lat. debere) is conjugated its compound : redevoir, owe again 4. The verb voir see is thus conjugated i 67» voir voyant vu vois vis verrai voyais avoir vu vois visse • . etc. etc. verrais voie The present tenses are thus inflected : Pkes. Indic. Impv. Près. Subj. vois voyons voyons voie voyions vois voyez vois voyez voies voyiez voit voient voie voient a. Like voir (Lat. vider e) are conjugated two of its com- pounds : revoir, see again entrevoir, see partly b. But two other compounds, prévoir foresee and pourvoir provide, make regular futures and conditionals, and the latter also has the preterit in us instead of is : thus, 68, prévoir prévoyant prévu prévois prévis prévoirai prévoyais avoir prévu prévois prévisse ■» >» etc. etc. prévoirais prévoie c. Of pourvoir it will be enough to give the principal parts : 69, pourvoir pourvoyant pourvu pourvois pourvus d. Like pourvoir is conjugated its compound dépourvoir, deprive 5. Of the verb choir fall, only the infinitive and trie past participle chu are now in use. 192 LESSON XLI. But its compound déchoir fall, decay is still conju- gated in full. 70. déchoir [déchoyant] déchu déchois déchus décherrai déchoyais avoir déchu déchois déchusse décherrais déchoie etc ' etc ' The près, indie, and impv. are thus inflected : Près. Indic. Impv. déchois déchoyons déchoyons déchois déchoyez déchois déchoyez déchoit déchoient a. The près, pple is not in use, and in its value as gerund after en (X. 3c, d) is found déchéant. 6. The other compound of choir (Lat cadere), namely échoir, fall in is conjugated in the same way, but is used in only a few of its forms, chiefly the 3d persons singular : thus, près, échoit (some- times échet), prêt, échut, gerund échéant, etc. 6. The verb pleuvoir rain is impersonal, or used only in the third persons singular (XXX. 1) ; it is thus con- jugated : 71» pleuvoir pleuvant plu pleut plut pleuvra pleuvait avoir plu plût pleuvrait pleuve a. Of pleuvoir (Lat. plu ere) there are no compounds. 7. For apparoir and comparoir, see XXXVI. 5d. VOCABULARY. (Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.) le projet, the plan, project le paquet, the package le besoin, the need, requirement la difficulté, the difficulty le pouvoir, the power peut-être, perhaps, maybe Exercise 41. 1 J'ai reçu une lettre de mon ami. 2 Qu'est-ce qu'il vous écrit ? 3 II me dit qu'il me verra demain, s'il ne pleut pas. 4 II pleuvra certainement, et je ne le reverrai jamais. 5 I1 faut que vous le voyiez avant de partir. 6 Je ne conçois point pourquoi vous voulez partir. 7 II a conçu un projet, iBEEÔtJLÀB VÈEBS IK oir. 193 dont il n'aperçoit pas encore toutes les difficultés. 8 N'a- vez- vous pas reçu le petit paquet dont je vous ai parlé ? 9 Nous ne l'avions pas trouvé, mais nous le voyons mainte- nant. 10 Est-ce que vous êtes pourvu d'argent pour tous vos besoins ? " Oui, et nous en recevrons encore le mois prochain. 12 Avez-vous vu le roi depuis qu'il est déchu du pouvoir? 13 I1 partit pour l'Angleterre, et il n'a jamais revu la France. i4 Avez-vous vu les soldats qui partaient pour la guerre? 15 Je ne les ai pas vus ; il pleuvait, et je n'ai pas pu sortir. 16 Nous les reverrons dans quelques jours. 17 Avez-vous reçu des lettres du général B. ? 18 Les lettres ne sont pas encore venues ; il faut qu'il les reçoive demain. 19 Pourquoi n'êtes vous pas venu me voir hier ? 20 Parce qu'il a tant plu. 21 Dès que je vous verrai chez nous, je vous montrerai le cadeau que je viens de recevoir de lui. Theme 41. 1 They will receive ; let us receive ; he received ; she was receiving ; you receive ; that she might receive ; we have received them ; they had received it ; that I may have re- ceived her. 2 Do you see ? I have seen nothing ; he will see what I saw ; let us see ; did you not see him ? they will have seen us ; though he had not seen them, they saw him. 3 It rained ; it would have rained if it had not been too cold ; it has not rained to-day, but it will rain to-mor- row ; if it rains to-day, it will not snow. 4 Have you seen the general to-day ? 5 No, but I saw him yesterday, and I shall perhaps see him to-morrow. 6 You will not see him again ; he has gone off to the war. 7 You have received a letter ; is it not so ? 8 Here is the letter which we have received this morning ; we shall receive a package this evening. 9 1 shall receive money from my father next week. 10 He must receive many letters from us. " Do you not perceive the difficulties of the plan which you have con- 194 LESSON XLII. ceived ? ia I perceive all the difficulties, but I must provide for (à) the needs of my family. 13 Although I have seen my father, I have received no money from him. M Whom did you see in Paris ? 15 1 saw no one of my friends. 16 It rained so much that nobody came to see me. 17 Although it rained a good deal, I went to the shops, but I saw noth- ing there. 18 If it had not rained, I should have seen you there. ia Does it not rain ? 20 1 do not think that it rains now ; but it will perhaps rain this evening. 21 We could see nothing, for it was night. LESSON XLII. THE REMAINING IRREGULAR VERBS (iN OÎr AND er). 1. The remaining verbs in oir are more irregular in their conjugation, and for the most part show changes of radical vowel in the inflection of their present tenses. 2. Of the extremely common verb vouloir wish, be willing, will, the conjugation has already (XXIV. 6 etc.) been given in full. The principal parts are here re- peated : 72, vouloir voulant voulu veux voulus a. Of vouloir (Lat. velle) there are no compounds. 3. The verb valoir be worth, have the value of is con- jugated nearly like vouloir. Thus : 73, valoir valant valu vaux valus vaudrai valais avoir valu vaux valusse i . ! * etc. etc. vaudrais vaille The inflection of the present tenses is : PRES. INDIC. IMPV. PRES. SUBJ. vaux valons valons vaille valions vaux valez vaux valez vailles valiez vaut valent vaille vaillent ibbegtjlab veebs m oir akd er. 195 a. Like valoir (Lat. valere) are conjugated its compounds : équivaloir, be equivalent prévaloir, prevail revaloir, pay back except that prévaloir makes the près. subj. prévale etc. 6. Be worth more is valoir mieux ; be worth the trouble or be worth while is valoir la peine. 4. The impersonal verb falloir be necessary, must has been conjugated in full above (XXX. 6 etc.). Its forms closely correspond with those of valoir. The principal parts may be repeated here : 7é. falloir fallant fallu faut fallut a. This verb and faillir (XXXIX. 9) are by origin one (Lat. fallere). 5. The extremely common verb pouvoir be able, can has been given in full above (XX Y. 8 etc.). Its princi- pal parts may be repeated here : 75. pouvoir pouvant pu peux, puis pus 6. The verb mouvoir move is thus conjugated : tO, mouvoir mouvant mû meus mus mouvrai mouvais avoir mû meus musse etc. etc. mouvrais meuve The circumflex is taken only by the singular masculine of the participle. The inflection of the present tenses is : Pees. Indic. Impv. Près. Sxjbj. meus mouvons mouvons meuve mouvions meus mouvez meus mouvez meuves mouviez meut meuvent meuve meuvent a. Like mouvoir (Lat. movere) are conjugated its compounds : émouvoir, agitate, move promouvoir, promote but they take no circumflex in the participle : thus, ému, promu. 7. Of the common verb savoir know, know how the full conjugation has been already given (XXXIV. 6 etc.). The principal parts only are here repeated : 77. savoir sachant su sais sus a. Savoir (Lat. sapere) has no compounds. 8. The verb seoir sit is defective as a simple verb. But its compound asseoir — chiefly used reflexively, s' as- asseyant assis assieds assis asseyais avoir assis etc. etc. assieds assisse 196 LESSON XLII. seoir seat one's self, sit down — is conjugated in full. Thus: 78. asseoir assiérai assiérais asseye The usual inflection of the present tenses is this : Près. Indic. Impv. Près. Subj. assieds asseyons asseyons asseye asseyons assieds asseyez assieds asseyez asseyes asseyez assied asseyent asseye asseyent a. The above are the more usual and accepted forms. But a variety of others are occasionally met with : thus, près, indic. and impv. assois, assoyons, etc.; impf. assoyais; près. subj. assoie; fut. assoirai, or asseyerai. The compound rasseoir seat again is conjugated like asseoir. b. Of the simple verb seoir (Lat. sedere) in the sense of sit are used almost only the infinitive and the two participles (seyant and sis); but in the sense of sit on, Jit (said of clothes and the like), the 3d persons sied siéent, seyait seyaient, siéra siéront, siée siéent, are also met with. The compound messeoir fit badly, misfit is used in the same forms, except the infinitive. c. Another compound of seoir — namely surseoir supersede — lacks the près, participle and the parts made from it, and has the près, indic. sursois and the fut. surseoirai. 9. 79. Of the old verb souloir be accustomed (Lat. solere) is left in use only the imperfect soulait, itself antiquated and rare. 10. 80. Of the common auxiliary avoir have the com- plete conjugation was given above (X.). a. The sole compound of avoir (Lat. habere), namely ravoir have again, is used only in the infinitive. 11. There are only two irregular verbs having the infinitive ending in er. One of these, envoyer send, is irregular only in the future and conditional (which are like those from voir). It is thus conjugated : 81. envoyer envoyant envoyé envoie envoyai enverrai envoyais avoir envoyé envoie envoyasse • • etc etc enverrais envoie a. Like envoyer is conjugated its compound : renvoyer, send back IBKEGULAR VERBS in oir akd er. 197 12. The other irregular verb in er — namely, aller go — has been conjugated in full above (XXVII. 8 etc.). Its principal parts are repeated here : 82. aller allant allé vais allai 13. 83, The common auxiliary être he is, like aller, made up of the forms of more than one root. Its com- plete conjugation was given above (XL). a. Of être (Lat. esse, stare) there is no compound. VOCABULARY. le tailleur, the tailor la couturière, the dressmaker le cordonnier, the shoemaker la botte, the loot le manteau, the cloak le récit, the tale, story le franc, the franc le feu, the fire près de, near to, near autour de, around, about Exercise 42. 1 Qui vous a envoyé cet habit ? 2 Mon tailleur me l'en- voya il y a deux jours ; mais il ne me sied pas bien. 3 Vous le lui renverrez, n'est-ce pas ? 4 II vaut mieux en acheter un autre. 5 Allons, nous irons chez la couturière acheter un manteau. 6 Celui que vous portiez l'hiver dernier vous seyait trop mal. 7 Je vous en donnerai un qui vous siéra mieux. a Asseyez-vous pendant que je le cherche. 9 Est-ce que celui ci vous plaît ? 10 Combien vaut-il ? u II vaut cent vingt-cinq francs ; mais ce manteau-là vaudra deux cents francs. 12 Mon vieux manteau ne valait que quatre-vingts francs. 13 Pourquoi le cordonnier ne m'a-t-il pas envoyé mes bottes ? 14 Le pauvre homme est malade ; il les en- verra dès qu'il se portera mieux. 15 II m'a fait le récit de ses malheurs ; et j'en suis tout ému. 16 Les malheurs des pauvres émeuvent tous les cœurs. 17 Assieds-toi, mon en- fant. 18 J'ai très froid, madame ; il ne faut pas que je m'asseye. 19 Tu t'assiéras près du feu, n'est-ce pas ? 20 Pen- dant que tu y seras assis, nous enverrons chercher des gâ- teaux pour toi et ta petite sœur. 21 Cela ne vaut pas la peine, madame ; nous n'avons pas faim. 198 LESSON XLII. Theme 42. 1 They have sat down ; sit down ; do not sit down there; I will sit down ; we sat down ; that she may sit down ; he sits* down. 2 What is that worth ? it is worth nothing ; they were worth ten francs last month ; they will be worth twelve francs to-morrow. 3 That is not worth the trouble. 4 Those books are worth more than these. 6 Will the dress- maker send you anything to-day ? 6 She has already sent me a cloak. 7 Does it fit you ? 8 No, the things that she sends me never fit me ; I shall send it back to her to-mor- row. ° Are you going to take the coat which the tailor has sent you ? 10 That one was worth a hundred francs, and I shall buy one which is worth (fut.) only seventy-five francs. II Who makes your boots ? 12 An English shoemaker makes them, and they fit me always well. 13 1 must send [and] buy some. 14 Plow much are they worth ? 15 They are very dear ; they are worth fifty francs. 10 It is not worth the trouble to (de) show them to me ; I shall not buy them. 17 It will be better to buy our boots from this poor French shoemaker. I8 Why have you seated yourselves about the fire ? and what has moved you so much ? 19 Charles is tell- ing (faire) the tale of the poor king. 20 Sit down also, and hear the tale. 21 This tale does not move me, and I do not wish to sit down. 22 The tale is finished ; let us go away. INDEX OF IRREGULAR VERBS, SIMPLE AND COMPOUND. The references are to the number in the series of verbs, and to the page where the conjugation is explained. No. p. No. p. No. p. absoudre 36 178 comparoir 18 168 décrire 12 164 abstenir 61 187 complaire 24 172 décroire 26 172 abstraire 21 171 comprendre 30 176 décroître 19 168 accourir 52 185 compromettre 31 176 dédire 9 163 accroire 26 172 concevoir 65 191 déduire 1 162 accroître 19 16S conclure 29 173 défaillir 50 183 accueillir 46 182 concourir 52 185 défaire 23 171 acquérir 63 188 conduire 1 162 déjoindre 17 167 admettre 31 176 confire 7 163 démencir 41 180 advenir 60 187 conj oindre 17 167 démettre 31 176 aller 82 128 connaître 18 168 départir 38 180 apercevoir 65 191 conquérir 63 188 dépeindre 16 167 apparaître 18 168 consentir 40 180 déplaire 24 172 apparoir 18 168 construire 2 163 dépourvoir 69 191 appartenir 61 187 contenir 61 187 désapprendre 30 176 apprendre 30 176 contraindre 15 167 desservir 44 181 assaillir 45 181 contredire 9 163 déteindre 16 167 asseoir 78 196 contrefaire 23 171 détenir 61 187 astreindre 16 167 contrevenir 60 187 détruire 2 163 atteindre 16 167 convaincre 96 devenir 60 187 attraire 21 171 convenir 60 187 dévêtir 51 183 avenir 60 187 coudre 34 177 devoir 66 124 avoir 80 58 courir 52 185 dire 9 155 bénir 92 courre 52 185 disconvenir 60 187 boire 27 173 couvrir 56 186 discourir 52 185 bouillir 64 188 craindre 15 167 disjoindre 17 167 braire 22 171 croire 26 172 disparaître 18 168 bruire 48 182 croître 19 168 dissoudre 36 178 ceindre 16 167 cueillir 46 182 dormir 43 181 choir 70 191 cuire 3 163 distraire 21 171 circoncire 8 163 décevoir 65 191 duire 1 162 circonscrire 12 164 déchoir 70 192 ébouillir 64 188 circonvenir 60 187 déclore 28 173 échoir 70 193 clore 28 173 déconfire 7 163 éclore 28 173 commettre 31 176 découdre 34 177 éconduire 1 162 comparaître 18 168 découvrir 56 186 écrire 12 164 200 ItfDEX OF IRREGULAR VERBS. No. élire 11 emboire 27 émettre 31 émoudre 35 émouvoir 76 empreindre 16 enceindre 16 enclore 28 encourir 52 endormir 43 enduire 1 enfreindre 16 enfuir 47 enjoindre 17 enquérir 63 ensuivre 33 entreprendre 30 entretenir 61 entrevoir 67 entr'ouvrir 55 envoyer 81 épreindre 16 éprendre 30 équivaloir 73 éteindre 16 être 83 étreindre 16 exclure 29 extraire 21 faillir 50 faire 23 falloir 74 feindre 16 férir 57 fleurir, florir forclore 28 forfaire 23 frire 14 fuir 47 geindre 16 gésir 59 haïr imboire 27 induire • 1 inscrire 12 instruire 2 interdire 9 intervenir 60 introduire 1 issir 58 joindre 17 p. 164 173 176 177 195 167 167 173 185 181 162 167 182 167 188 177 176 187 191 186 196 167 176 195 167 62 167 174 I 171 182 150 141 167 186 92 173 171 165 182 167 186 92 173 162 164 162 163 187 162 186 167 lire luire maintenir malfaire maudire méconnaître médire méfaire mentir méprendre messeoir mettre moudre mourir mouvoir naître nuire obtenir offrir oindre omettre ouïr ouvrir paître paraître parcourir parfaire partir parvenir peindre percevoir permettre plaindre plaire pleuvoir poindre poursuivre pourvoir pouvoir prédire prendre prescrire pressentir prévaloir prévenir prévoir produire promettre promouvoir proscrire provenir No. 11 5 164 163 61 187 23 171 10 164 18 168 9 163 23 171 41 180 30 176 78 196 31 176 35 177 62 187 76 195 20 169 4 163 61 187 53 185 17 167 31 176 49 182 55 186 18 168 18 168 52 185 23 171 38 180 60 187 16 167 65 191 31 176 15 167 24 172 71 192 17 167 33 177 69 191 75 119 9 163 30 175 12 164 40 180 73 195 60 187 68 191 1 162 31 176 76 195 12 164 60 187 No. p. quérir 63 188 rapprendre 30 176 rasseoir 78 196 ratteindre 16 167 ravoir 80 196 reboire 27 173 rebouillir 64 188 recevoir 65 190 reclure 29 174 reconduire 1 162 reconnaître 18 168 reconquérir 63 188 reconstruire 2 163 recoudre 34 177 recourir 52 185 recouvrir 56. 186 récrire 12 164 recroître 19 168 recueillir 46 182 recuire 3 163 redevenir 60 187 redevoir 66 191 redire 9 163 redormir 43 181 réduire 1 162 réélire 11 164 refaire 23 171 rejoindre 17 167 relire 11 164 remettre 31 176 reluire 5 163 remoudre 35 177 rendormir 43 181 renaître 20 169 rentraire 21 171 renvoyer 81 196 repaître 18 168 repartir 38 180 repeindre 16 167 repentir 42 180 reprendre 30 176 requérir 63 188 résoudre 36 178 ressentir 40 180 ressortir 39 180 ressouvenir 60 187 restreindre 16 167 reteindre 16 167 retenir 61 187 retraire 21 171 revaloir 73 190 IOTEX OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 201 No. p. No. p. No. p. revenir 60 187 souloir 79 196 survivre 32 176 revêtir 51 183 soumettre 31 176 taire 25 172 revivre 32 176 sourdre 37 178 teindre 16 167 revoir 67 191 sourire 13 165 tenir 61 187 rire 13 164 souscrire 12 164 traduire 1 162 rouvrir 55 186 soustraire 21 171 traire 21 171 saillir 45 181 soutenir 61 187 transcrire 12 164 satisfaire 23 171 souvenir 60 187 transmettre 31 176 savoir 77 159 subvenir 60 187 tressaillir 45 181 secourir 52 185 suffire 6 163 vaincre 96 séduire 1 162 suivre 33 177 valoir 73 194 sentir 40 180 surcroître 19 168 venir 60 145 seoir 78 196 surfaire 23 171 vêtir 51 183 servir 44 181 surprendre 30 176 vivre 32 176 sortir 39 180 surseoir 78 196 voir 67 191 souffrir 54 186 survenir 60 187 vouloir 72 114 ABBREVIATIONS OF AUTHORS' NAMES, OFTEN USED IN THE ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES. Bal. Balzac. de Mais. de Maistre. Barth. Barthélémy. de Maint. de Maintenon. Beaum. Beaumarchais. Mar. Marivaux. Bon. Bonnechose. Mig. Mignet. Bour. Bourricnne. Mol. Molière. Chat. Chateaubriand. Mont. Montesquieu. Chcrb. Cherbuliez. de Mu. de Musset. Corn. Corneille. Pose. Pascal. Dau. Daudet. Bon. Ponsard. Bum. Dumas. Bac. Racine. Fén. Fénclon. Bouss. Rousseau. Lab. Laboulaye. de Sév. de Se vigne. La Br. La Bruyère. Ste.-B. Sainte-Beuve. LaF. La Fontaine. de Vi. de Vigny. Lam. Lamartine. Vol. Voltaire. LaB. La Rochefoucauld. Voln Volney. REFERENCES. References to the Second Part are always preceded by the paragraph- sign : thus, § 176a, etc. Arabic numbers without paragraph-sign refer to the rules of pronunciation : thus, 18a, etc. References to the Lessons of the First Part are made by Roman numerals : thus, XXIV. 2b, etc. SECOND PART. L— THE RELATION OF FRENCH TO LATIN. 1. The French is a language descended or derived from Latin. a. By this is meant, that the old Latin has gradually changed into French, by processes of alteration similar to those which every living language (English as well as the rest) is undergoing at the present day. These processes consist in the loss of old words and forms, the acquisition of new words (in considerable part, by borrowing out of other languages) and new forms (this, however, on only a very small scale), and the alteration in respect to meaning and construction of what has been preserved from former times : and all this, accompanied by a great change in the pronounced form of the words preserved, partly by abbreviation, partly by turning certain sounds into certain other sounds. To explain all this in detail would be the duty of a comparative or historical grammar of French ; only the principal points can be touched upon here. b. What we call French is only one among many dialects found in France. But it is the principal dialect, the one taught in the schools, and universally used by educated people and in literature. In a similar way, what we call Latin was the cultivated or literary dialect of Eome and its provinces, and some of the peculiarities of the other dialects, imperfectly known to us, may be traced in French. c. By race, the French people is mainly Celtic, related with the Welsh, the Bretons, the Irish, and the Scotch Highlanders. Their Latin language was a consequence of the conquest and gov- ernment of the country by Eome, and the introduction of Boman institutions. Extremely little of Celtic language is left in French. The country was later conquered by Germanic tribes, especially the Franks, from whose name come the words France, French, etc. ; and the French vocabulary contains a considerable number of words of German origin. But also, in later times, a great 204 THE RELATION OF FRENCH TO LATIN. [1— many words have been borrowed into French, just as into Eng- lish, out of the classical languages, especially the Latin. The words thus obtained from Latin are in general much less altered than those that form a part of the language by regular descent. d. Other languages besides French are descended from Latin, in the same way as French, and are therefore related (as it is called) with the latter. The chief among them are the Italian, the Spanish and Portuguese, and the Wallachian. They form to- gether the group of so-called Romanic languages. e. The oldest specimens preserved to us of what has the right to be called French, as distinguished from Latin, date from the tenth century ; a considerable French literature begins in the twelfth century. But the Old French of that period is very different from the present French, so different that a Frenchman has to study it hard in order to understand it (much as we have to study the Anglo-Saxon). Its condition is in many respects intermediate between those of Latin and of modern French, and it illustrates in a very instructive way the transition from the one to the other of these. 2. Of the changes of pronounced form by which Latin words have become French words, a very brief statement, touching only upon the most important points, is here given. a. The accented syllable of the Latin word is the last fully pro- nounced syllable of the French word, being either actually the final syllable, or virtually so, as having after it only a syllable containing a mute e. Examples are : F. aimer, L. ama're ; aimèrent, amave'runt ; fûtes, fuis'tis ; cruel, crude'lem ; faire, facere ; frêle, frag'i- leni ; siècle, sec'ulum ; fable, fab'ulam. b. If the accented syllable is preceded in Latin by two others, the latter of these, when a short vowel, is lost ; when a long, is changed to e : thus, bonté, bonitatem ; blâmer, Masphema're ; poitrail, pectora'le ; cercler, cïrcula're ; but ornement, orna- men'tum ; vêtement, vestimen'tum. c. Of vowels not lost, those that in Latin were followed by more than one consonant oftenest remain unchanged in French : thus, arbre, arborem ; sept, septem ; fort, fortem ; juste, justum : yet i in such a position becomes e, and u more usually ou : thus, ferme, firmum; sourd, surdum. In other situations, a vowel long in quantity is treated otherwise than a short : short a, e, i, u becoming respectively ai, ie, oi, ou, as maigre, macerum; fier, ferum; poire, pirum; loup, lupum; while long a and e become e and oi, as nez, nasum; avoine, avenam \ and long i and u re- 4] CHANGES OP LATIK SOUNDS TO FEEKCH. 205 tain the same form, as ami, amicum ; pur, purum. But long and short o both become eu, as neuf, nov'em ; heure, ho'ram. The diphthong au becomes o, as or, aurum ; and se and oe be- come e or ie, as ciel, caelum. d. Of the Latin consonants, the liquids m, n, 1, r have on the whole suffered least alteration : thus, venir, venire ; nous, nos ; mer, mare ; nom, nonieii ; lettre, literam ; sel, sal ; rare, rarum; ver, vermem; their exchaDges with one another are only ex- ceptional. The mutes, c and g, and t and d, are often lost be- tween vowels : thus, faire, facere ; froid, frigidum ; chaine, catenam ; cruel, crudelem ; and sometimes b : thus, ayant, habeutem. In other situations (as sometimes in this), they re- main ; or the surd mute (c, t, p) is changed to the sonant (g, d, b) ; and c and t not seldom become sibilants ; thus, cher, carum ; raison, rationem. The vowels brought together by the loss of an intervening consonant then show another series of combina- tions and changes. e. Groups of two or more consonants, either coming from the Latin, or arising by the loss of an intermediate vowel, are to a great extent simplified, by the loss or assimilation of a consonant : thus, fait, factum ; route, ruptam ; dette, debitum ; dame, dominam. Those groups of which r or 1 is a member undergo least alteration. But before 1 or r is not seldom inserted a mute after a nasal : thus, épingle, spinulam ; humble, humilem ; cendre, cinerem ; chambre, cameram. Very frequent, even in inflection, is the change of 1 before another consonant into u: thus, autre, alteram ; coupable, culpabilem ; vaut, valet ; che- vaux from chevals, travaux from travails, and so on. To ini- tial sc, st, sp was prefixed an e : thus, escalier, scalarium ; es- tomac, stomachum ; esprit, spiritum ; and then, in many such words, the s was later dropped, and the e marked with the acute accent : thus, école (earlier escole)-; scholam; étude, studium; époux, sponsum, and many others. 3. The differences in inflection between Latin and French, consist chiefly in losses by the latter of forms possessed by the former. They may be summarily stated as follows : 4. In declension, or inflection for case and number and gender, in nouns and adjectives and pronouns : a. The distinctions of case have been entirely lost in modern French, except to a certain extent among pronouns. For the distinction in pronouns of subject and object, or nomi- native and accusative, and, in the 3d personal pronoun, of direct 20G THE RELATION OF FREKCH TO LATINS [4— and indirect object, or accusative and dative, see the Lessons on the Pronouns (XXII.-XXVL). ( b. In Old French, there still remained a distinction of subject and object form, or nominative and accusative, in nouns. Thus, murs wall (L. muras) nom., mur (murum) accus, sing.; mur (mûri) nom., murs (muros) accus, plur. ; and so pâtre shepherd (L. pas'tor) nom., pasteur (pasto'rem) accus.; sire sir (L. se'nior) nom., sieur (senio'rem) accus. But this also died gradually out ; and it was generally the accusative or objective form that remained in use, in either number : thus, mur sing. , murs plur. That is to say, the French noun is, as a rule, the representative of the Latin accusative, and has its pronounced form determined by that of this case, and not by that of the Latin nominative. c. In a few cases, however, the nominative form has been re- tained instead ; examples are fils, sœur, peintre, ancêtre, traître. And sometimes (as in pâtre pasteur, sire sieur, mentioned above) both forms are left in French, as apparently independent words. d. There remains in most French nouns and adjectives a dis- tinction of the plural from the singular. And the s that marks the plural is, as seen above, that of the Latin accusative plural (that is, as found in words having a difference of nominative and accusative plural, as rosse rosas, muri muros ; past ores having both values). e. The Latin triple distinction of gender, as masculine, femi- nine, and neuter, is represented in French by a double one only, since the differences of masculine and neuter forms have been effaced, and these two genders have been merged into one, which we call masculine. There are a number of exceptions to the iden- tity of gender between a Latin noun and its French descendant ; they are pointed out below (§ 12). Those adjectives which in Latin had the same form in masculine and feminine, as grandis, have mostly come to have a distinction of gender — as grand, grande — made in them in modern French, by analogy with the others ; in Old French this was wanting, and such combinations as grand'mère, grand'messe, grand'route (instead of grande mère etc.) are relics of the former state of things. Traces of old neuter forms (used adverbially) are to be seen in the adverbs mieux (melius), pis (pejus), moins (minus), as distinguished from the adjectives meilleur (meliorem), pire (pejorem), moin- dre (minorem). /. The Latin comparison of adjectives is almost lost ; the su- perlative being entirely gone, and of the comparative only a few examples being left, in adjectives (IX. 3) and adverbs (XXXI. 8). 5. The changes in the inflection of verbs, or in con- jugation, are as follows : 5] VERB-IKFLECTIOÎT. 207 a. The Latin passive is entirely lost, its place being filled with, compound forms, or verb-phrases. b. Of the tenses of the active, there are saved in French the present, imperfect, and perfect indicative, and the present and pluperfect subjunctive — the- last, with the value of a past simply. Then there are supplied a new future and conditional, made by combining the infinitive with an auxiliary (see V. 5c, VI. 66). And a whole series of compound tenses, or verb-phrases, made with an auxiliary, are added. c. The endings of tense-inflection are much changed, although the distinctions of person and number are well preserved. Of the 1st singular, all signs of a final m are lost ; but an s has in recent time (since the 14th century) got itself generally added, though even now sometimes omitted in poetry. The final s of the 2d singular is everywhere retained. The final t of the 3d singu- lar is to a considerable extent lost, except in case certain subject- pronouns follow, when it reappears, but is treated as if a euphonic insertion (I. 10c). The mus of the 1st plural is retained as mes in all preterits, and in the present sommes (sumus) ; elsewhere it is contracted to ns (for ms), and a constant o has come to be prefixed. The tis of the 2d plural is retained as tes in all pret- erits, and in the presents êtes, faites, dites ; elsewhere the t is lost, and ez written, instead of es. The unt of the 3d plural has become in general ent (of which, however, the n is wholly lost in pronunciation) ; but it is ont instead in four present tenses, namely sont, font, vont, ont (and hence also in the futures, which contain ont as auxiliary : Y. 5c) . d. The Latin infinitive active is saved as French infinitive ; also one case of the gerund, in the so-called present participle as used with en (more properly called gerund : see X. 3c, d). The su- pines and the gerundives, or future passive participles, are gone. The present active and the past (passive) participles are retained ; and the latter, with auxiliaries, makes a double series of verb- phrases, active and passive. e. The four Latin conjugations are much made over. The French 1st conjugation, indeed, corresponds in the main to the Latin 1st, and has become still more the predominant one, in- cluding perhaps five sixths of all French verbs ; it has drawn in many verbs from the Latin 2d and 3d conjugations, and contains the majority of borrowed verbs, and of new verbs, made from nouns and adjectives. The French 2d conjugation corresponds in a general way with the Latin 4th (ir = ire) ; but in its inflection it has become mixed with the Latin inceptive conjugation (see XIX. la) ; it too has drawn in verbs from the Latin 2d and 3d conjugations, and it contains a- considerable number of borrowed and new verbs. The French 3d conjugation is made up of a few verbs from the Latin 3d, which agree in their inflection well 208 THE RELATION OF FRENCH TO LATIN. [5— enough to be classed together. The rest are so discordant as to have to be left as irregular verbs. 6. Of new synthetic formations (that is, such as result in the combination into one word of two independent words, one of which acquires the value of a formative element), the French has not many to show. The principal ones among them are the new future and conditional, spoken of above, and a large class of ad- verbs from adjectives with ment (L. mente) added (see XXXI. 2a). a. Many French words, however, exhibit a fusion of two or more Latin words into one ; and some of the cases are very curi- ous : e.g. encore, liane horam; devant, de ab ante; désormais, de ipsa hora magis ; même, semet ipsissimum : see the Vocabu- lary. 7. The changes in the value and construction of French words as compared with Latin are innumerable and infinitely various. The lost inflection is in part replaced by fixed rules of position, in part by auxiliary words : thus, prepositions stand instead of cases, auxiliary verbs instead of tenses and modes, and adverbs instead of endings of comparison. Of parts of speech, or what are analogous with such, the French has added only the articles : the definite article altered from a demonstrative (le, la, les from ilium, illam, illos and illas), and the indefinite from the nu- meral one — both as in other languages. Numerous additions, in part quite peculiar, have been made especially to the classes of prepositions and conjunctions. 8. The power of making compound words, possessed in a high degree by the Latin, has been almost entirely lost in French. 9. It was pointed out above (§ la) that many new words have been borrowed into French out of other lan- guages : especially, in former times, from German ; re- cently, from Latin and Greek; but also more or less from a great variety of different tongues. In this way, there are in modern French many pairs of words coming from the same Latin word, one by ancient descent, and the other, much less altered, by recent borrowing : examples are frêle and fragile from fragilem ; blâmer and blasphemer from blasphemare ; essaim and examen from examen; conter and computer from computare, and so on. Many new derivatives, also, have been made from primitives of every kind and source. 12] GENDEB OF NOUNS. 209 10. Many of the items of correspondence and of dif- ference here grouped together have been pointed out in detail in the Lessons of the First Part, and others will be pointed out in their order in the Second Part. And the general Vocabulary at the end of the volume gives the Latin and other sources from which the French words it contains are derived. a. It must depend upon the class and the teacher what use is made of this chapter in the class-room. It does little good to call a class's attention to the details of comparison between French and Latin unless its members have already a fair knowledge of Latin ; but the general facts of the relation between the two lan- guages may in any case profitably be set before his pupils by the teacher. And a teacher well versed in the subject, with a class prepared for it, may well follow the comparison into much greater detail than is indicated here. The most convenient and accessi- ble guide for the teacher in such a case is Brachet's little Histori- cal Grammar and Etymological Dictionary of French. n.— nouns. A. — Gendee of N'ouïs. 11. All nouns in French have a distinction of gender, a part of them being masculine and the rest feminine. a. For the reduction of the three genders in Latin to the two in French, see above, § 4e. . 12. For the most part, French gender corresponds with Latin : that is to say, a noun is feminine in French if its original in Latin was feminine; otherwise, it is masculine. Hence, a rule of general use (if one knows Latin) is to call to mind the Latin gender, which is in many cases plainly shown by the ending of the word, in order to determine the French. But there are a considerable number of exceptions: thus, 14 210 NOUNS. [12— a. Abstract nouns in eur (Latin -or masc.) are feminine in French : thus, la douleur, une erreur, etc. Exceptions are un honneur, le labeur, les pleurs. b. A number of nouns corresponding to Latin neuter plurals in a or ia are feminine in French : e.g. la muraille (L. mur alia), la merveille (L. mirabilia), une arme (L. arma). Other cases are more irregular, and must be learned from the dictionary : examples are la lèvre (labium), la joie (gaudium), la réponse (responsum), and other words from neuters in um ; la mer (mare n.), etc. c. Not a few words are masculine in French that were feminine in Latin : examples are un épi (spicam), un ongle (ungulam), un art (artem f.), un arbre (arborem f.), le sort (but also la sorte : sorte m f.), la dent (dentem m.). 13. The gender of many nouns may be inferred from their endings. a. It is not worth while to attempt to give rules for all endings, because of the small number of words belonging to some, and the numerous exceptions to others ; only a few of the principal classes will be noted. b. Masculine are most nouns ending in age, ège for ége : 20c), asme, isme, ime, iste, eu, au, oir : examples are le voyage, le privilège, l'enthousiasme, le paganisme, le crime, un artiste, le feu, le chapeau, le miroir ; also the great majority of those ending in a consonant (except eur). c. Feminine are most nouns ending in té and tié (L. -ta tern), in tion and sion (L. -tionem etc.), and in ence, ense, ance (L. -ntiam): examples are la bonté, la pitié, une action, la passion, la pru- dence, la défense, la connaissance ; also, nearly all those ending in mute e preceded by another vowel or by a double consonant : e.g. une epée, la vie, la vue, la plaie, la lieue, la chatte, la noisette, la faiblesse, la lionne, la feuille. 14. The gender of many nouns may be inferred from their meaning : thus, a. Masculine are the names of all male persons, and also of animals conspicuously male : e.g. un homme, le roi, le maître, le bœuf. But a few abstracts, used concretely, are feminine even when they designate males : thus, la caution bail, une connaissance acquaintance (also dupe, pratique, recrue, sentinelle, victime) ; and the feminine name of a musical instrument sometimes desig- nates its player, as une clarinette a clarinettist. b. Masculine are the names of seasons, months, days, most 15] GEKDER. 211 divisions of the day (not hours), and cardinal points : e.g. un hiver, le février, le dimanche, le matin, le sud. e. Masculine are the names of trees and metals : e.g. le pom- mier, le chêne, le fer, le plomb. d. Masculine are infinitives used as nouns, as le rire, laughter ; also other parts of speech and phrases used as nouns, as le non the no, un si an if, le qu'en dira-t-on the ' ' what will people say about it " ? most names of letters (not of f, h, 1, m, n, r, s) ; and adjectives taken as abstract nouns, as le bon et le vrai the good and the true. e. Feminine are the names of female persons and of animals conspicuously female : e.g. la femme, la jument, la vache. /. Feminine are most names of countries, islands, towns, and rivers, if they end in e mute : e.g. la France, la Sardaigne, la vieille Rome, la Seine : exceptions are le Hanovre, le Mexique, le Bengale, le Havre, le Danube, le Rhône, and a few others. g. Feminine are most names of fruits and flowers : e.g. la pomme, la cerise, la rose. 15. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine, ac- cording to their different meanings. a. The most important of these are as follows : m. f. aide, helper aide, help aigle, eagle aigle, standard couple, united pair couple, pair or brace in general enseigne, ensign (officer) enseigne, sign, mark garde, keeper, guard garde, watch, guard guide, guide guide, leading-rein manœuvre, manœuvre manche, handle manche, mémoire, memorial mémoire, memory paillasse, clown paillasse, straw-bed pendule, pendulum pendule, hanging-clock poste, post (military etc.) poste, post-office vapeur, steamer vapeur, steam voile, veil voile, sail b. In this list are not included words that have accidentally the same form, though coming from different originals. Such are livre m. booh (L. liber), livre f. pound (L. libra) ; page m. page (in waiting) (It. paggio), page f. page (of a book) (L. pagina) ; other examples are aune, moule, mousse, poêle, somme, tour, vase. 212 NOUNS. [15— c. Amour, délice, orgue are masculine in the singular, and feminine in the plural (amour, in poetry, sometimes in sing, also); also Pâques Easter (Pâque passover is fern, also in sing.). d. Gens pi. people, folks (almost never used in sing.) is in gen- eral treated as a masculine ; but an adjective preceding it has the feminine form; and also tout before such an adjective, provided the latter is distinctively feminine in form : thus, les gens sensés, but les bonnes gens ; and toutes les bonnes gens, but tous les braves gens, like tous les gens sensés. e. Enfant child is feminine in the singular if it means a girl : thus," cette pauvre enfant ; and the same is true of esclave slave. 16. Some nouns, names of living creatures, have a special derivative form for the feminine : thus, a. Many nouns in eur, coming directly from French verbs, have a feminine in euse : e.g. danseur danseuse dancer, chas- seur chasseuse hunter, huntress. A few in teur have a feminine in trice: e.g. acteur actrice, bienfaiteur bienfaitrice; impéra- trice is feminine to empereur. But many — as auteur, orateur, sculpteur — are used in their masculine form for persons of both sexes. 6. Some nouns ending in e have a feminine in esse: e.g. comte comtesse, maître maîtresse, âne ânesse. More irregular cases are abbé abbesse, dieu déesse, duc duchesse, pécheur péche- resse. e. Many nouns form a corresponding feminine in the manner of adjectives (VII.), by adding e, often along with various modification of a final consonant : e.g. ami amie, cousin cousine, ours ourse, marquis marquise, lion lionne, chien chienne, chat chatte, époux épouse, veuf veuve, citoyen citoyenne, paysan paysanne. d. More irregular cases are roi reine, héros héroïne, loup louve, mulet mule, and a few others. 17. Many names of animals are masculine or feminine only, without regard to the natural sex of the animals : e.g. un élé- phant, le léopard, le cygne ; la panthère, la souris, la mouche. A few, ending in e, take either the masculine or feminine article, according as a male or female is intended : e.g. un buffle une buffle. 18. a. The gender of a compound noun is in general deter- mined by that of the noun or the principal noun in the compound, to which the other element serves as modifier : e.g. le chef-lieu, la fête-dieu, une mappe-monde, le beau-père, le chat-huant, une eau-forte, un arc-en-ciel, un avant-bras. 6. Compound nouns made up of a verb and governed noun are 23] NUMBER. 213 masculine : e.g. un casse-cou, un essuie-mains, le prie-Dieu, le portefeuille. B. — Number of Nouns. 19. The general rules for forming the plural of a noun, and their principal exceptions, were given in the First Part (Lesson IL). Further matters requiring notice are the following : 20. Nouns ending in ant and ent usually dropped their final t in former times before the plural ending s, and this spelling is still met with in some authors : e.g. "enfans, conquérans, momens, sentimens. Gens (sing, gent no longer in use) is always so spelt. 21. Nouns in al and ail that add s in the plural (instead of changing those endings to aux) are : bal ball, cal callus, carna- val carnival, chacal jacket 7, pal stake, régal treat, détail detail, épouvantail scarecrow, éventail fan, gouvernail rudder, poi- trail poitrel, portail portal, serail seraglio. a. Travail forms travails when it means reports or certain machines ; ail garlic forms ails or (less often) aulx. The col- lective bétail cattle has also the equivalent plural bestiaux. 22. Other cases df a double form of plural are : a. Ciel has as plural ciels (instead of cieux, II. 5) when it means awnings, or climates, or the skies of pictures. b. Œil has ceils (instead of yeux, II. 5) in the compound oeils- de-boeuf bulls' eyes. c. Aïeul has aïeuls meaning grandparents, but aïeux meaning ancestors in general. 23. Some nouns — besides those ending in the singular in s or x or z (II. 2) — form no plural different from the singular: thus, a. Some foreign words not wholly naturalized remain un- changed when used with a plural meaning : examples are ave, credo, specimen, fac-simile, andante, crescendo; while others of the same class make regular plurals, as opéras, pensums, zéros ; and with regard to many there is a difference of usage. 6. Proper names are often used unchanged with plural mean- ing : as, les deux Caton the two Catos. They are always singu- lar when, though preceded by the plurals les or ces, theV signify but a single person (§ 42e) : thus les Molière et les Racine. On 214 NOUtfS. [23— the other hand, they take the plural-sign when used in the sense of people like so-and-so, or the works of so-and-so: thus, ils étaient les Cicérons de leur pays they were the Ciceros of their country, j'ai vu plusieurs Raphaels au musée i" saw several Raphaels at the picture-gallery. c. Other parts of speech used as nouns, and the names of let- ters and figures, take no plural-sign : thus, les mais et les si ifs (nul buts, écrivez trois a write three a 1 s, ôtez les deux un can- cel the two Vs. d. Some words are naturally without a plural, as certain proper names and abstract words : thus, Europe, modestie. But many abstract nouns are used concretely, and form plurals : thus, les vertus the virtues, ses bontés his kindnesses. 24. Some nouns are used only in the plural. The commonest of them are : annales annals, ancêtres ances- tors, débris ruins, environs and alentours environs, entrailles entrails, frais and dépens expense, funérailles and obsèques funeral, hardes clothes, mânes manes, mœurs manners, morals, mouchettes snuffers, pleurs tears, vivres victuals. 25. Some nouns have a special meaning in the plural — usually, in addition to their regular plural meaning. The commonest of these are : ciseau chisel, ciseaux chisels, and also scissors ; fer iron, fers irons, fetters, gage pledge, gages pledges, and also wages ; and in like manner lettres lit- erature, lunettes pair of spectacles, lumières enlightenment, épingles pin-money, armes coat of arms, and a few others. 26. In compound nouns, the principal word, if a noun or adjective, takes its plural form for the plural. Thus : a. If the compound is made up of a noun and an adjective qualifying it, or another noun in apposition with it, both parts take the plural form : e.g. beau-frère, beaux-frères brothers-in- law ; chou-fleur, choux-fleurs cauliflowers; chef-lieu, chefs- lieux chief towns. b. If the compound is made up of a noun and a qualifier of any other kind, the noun alone takes the plural form : e.g. pots- au-feu broth-kettles, arcs-en-ciel rainbows, chefs-d'oeuvre mas- terpieces, timbres-poste postage stamps, vice-rois viceroys. c. If the compound is made up of a verb and a following ob- ject-noun, the plural is regularly like the singular: e.g. les coupe- gorge the cutthroats, les porte-drapeau the standard-bearers. But those more familiarly used not seldom take the plural sign : 28] CASE-KELATIOKS. 215 thus, porte-manteaux valises, porte-crayons pencil-cases, gar- derobes wardrobes. Some of the compounds of this kind have the object-noun in the plural: e.g. un tire-bottes a boot-jack, l'essuie-mains the towel, le cure-dents the toothpick; these are of course without change in the plural. d. A compound not containing a noun as principal word is not changed for the plural : thus, les passe-partout the master keys, les forte-piano the pianofortes ; and so also such as les tête-à- tête the private interviews, les pied-à-terre lodgings on the road. But a word that has lost by frequent and familiar use the sense of its character as a compound is liable to take the plural-sign irregularly. C. — Case-relations of Nouns. 27. No French noun has any variation of form to express the varying relations of case ; the simple noun stands as subject and as object, or as nominative and ac- cusative or objective ; the other case-relations are in gen- eral expressed by prepositions. a. For the gradual loss in French of the Latin cases, see above, § ia, b. b. Of the prepositions, de of and à to are especially frequent, and form with a following noun combinations closely analogous with the cases of Latin, and of various other languages ; so that, in some grammars, de l'homme of the man, for example, is called the "genitive case" of homme, and à l'homme to the man its " dative case" — this, however, is artificial and false. The uses of a noun with de and à, as with other prepositions, will be ex- plained in this work under the various constructions. 28. But the simple noun has a number of independ- ent constructions (analogous with those of the accusative in Latin). Thus : a. It expresses place where or whither, but only rarely, in the adverbial expressions quelque part etc.: thus, il est quelque part he is somewhere, je n'irai nulle part I shall go nowhere, vous le trouverez autre part you will find him elseivhere. b. It often expresses time when : thus, il est venu ce matin he came this morning, il viendra le onze he will come {on) the eleventh, nous le voyons tous les jours we see him every day. 216 NOUNS. [28— But a preposition (à, de, en, sur, etc.) is often used with a noun in expressions of time. c. It expresses very often duration of time, extent of space, measure of dimension, of weight, of price, and so on : thus, il restera deux jours he will stay two days, ils travaillèrent toute la nuit they worked the whole night, allez trois milles go three miles, cela vaut dix francs that is worth ten francs. But dimension with an adjective is usually expressed by de: see § 61c. d. A noun is not seldom used absolutely in French, along with an accompanying adjunct, which is oftcnest a participle (compare § 195) : thus, le dîner fini, il sortit the dinner done, he went out, parleriez- vous ainsi, le maître présent (or étant présent) would you speak thus, the master being present ? il court, les mains dans les poches he runs along, his hands in his pockets, elle me répondit les larmes aux yeux she answered me with tears in her ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-I. Noun used absolutely. (§28.) ' Et, s'il va quelque part, on le met à la porte. (Pon.) 2 Nulle part il n'y a plus de paroles et moins de faits. (G. Sand.) 3 Le 5 mai 1789 était le jour fixé pour l'ouverture des Etats Généraux. La veille, une cérémonie religieuse précéda leur installation. Le lendemain, la séance royale eut lieu dans la salle des menus. (Mig.) 4 Où courez-vous la nuit ? (Bac.) 5 Je ne veux de trois mois rentrer dans la maison. (Bac.) ° Il gagnait en un jour plus qu'un autre en six mois. (Bac.) 7 Ils attendirent encore quelque temps, les yeux a toujours cloués sur cette poterne. (Dau.) 8 Je continuai ma route l'espace de six milles. ( Voln.) 9 Paris était resté vingt-et-un jours sans nouvelles de l'empereur et de la grande armée. (Bon.) 10 Elle vend ce secret mille louis à Fouché. (Bour.) " Le mérite vaut bien la naissance. (Mar.) I2 On résolut de périr les armes à la main. ( Vol.) 13 Le coude appuyé sur la ba- lustrade, le menton dans la main, le regard distrait, elle avait l'air d'une statue de Vénus, déguisée en b marquise. (de Mais.) 14 Je pouvais, suivant une douce habitude, rêver les yeux ouverts, en attendant le déjeuner. (Lab.) 15 Paris tombé, l'expérience a prouvé que la France tombe. (Chat.) a § 28d. b § 307e. 32] CASE-RELATIOKS. 217 29. A noun preceded by de of is used (much as in English) to limit another noun, in all the ordinary senses of a genitive or possessive case. The more noteworthy of these uses are given in the following paragraphs. 30. A noun with de is used to express possession, ap- purtenance, connection, in the most general and varied way. Thus, la tête du lion the lion's head, la porte de la maison the door of the house, le fils du père the father's son, le père du fils the son's father, les œuvres de Racine Racine's works. a. De is sometimes used in French where the English prefers another preposition : e.g. le chemin de Paris the road to Paris {Paris road), le voyage du Rhin the journey on the Rhine {Rhine journey). b. Sometimes, as in other languages, this expression assumes the value of a subjective or objective genitive : thus, les conquêtes de Napoléon Napoleon's conquests, la conquête de ce royaume the conquest of this kingdom, la haine du tyran the tyrant's hatred {of some one), la haine de la tyrannie the hatred of tyranny (by some one). c. A noun with preceding de not seldom follows another noun in French as an adjectival adjunct to it where in English an ad- jective would be used or a compound formed : thus, une ville de province a provincial city, le maître de chant the singing-mas- ter, son bras de héros his heroic arm (i.e. arm like that of a hero). 31. A noun with de is used as a genitive of apposition or equivalence. Thus : le titre de président the title of president, le nom de Henri the name of Henry, le pays de France the country of France, la ville de Rouen the city of Rouen, le mot de gueux the word a. In familiar and low language are used (as also in English) inverted appositional genitive phrases like un diable d'homme a demon of a man, ces fripons d'enfants these rogues of children, la drôle d'idée the oddity of an idea (i.e. the odd idea). 32. A noun with de is used as a genitive of character- istic quality, or as the equivalent of a descriptive adjec- tive. 218 NOUNS. [32— Thus, un homme de sagesse a man of wisdom (i.e. wise man), une femme d'une grande beauté a woman of great beauty, un temps de désordre et de trouble a time of disorder and trouble, il est d'un caractère très généreux he is of a very generous character. 33. A noun with de is used to signify material. Thus, la table de bois the table of wood (i.e. wooden table), une cuiller d'argent a silver spoon. Owing to the deficiency of adjectives of material in French, this use is a common one. See Part First, V. 1. 34. A noun with de is used partitively, or as a parti- tive genitive, signifying something of which a certain part or quantity is taken. Thus, un peu d'argent a little money, un morceau de pain a bit of bread, trois livres de thé three pounds of tea. a. Such a partitive genitive is used after adverbs as well as nouns of quantity : thus, assez de pain enough bread, infiniment de courage an infinite amount of courage. See Part First, V. 2-4. b. It is much used after superlatives, numerals, and other words implying selection : thus, le meilleur des amis the best of friends, trois de ces messieurs three of these gentlemen, lequel de nous tous which of us all ? c. By a grammatical confusion, we meet sometimes with ex- pressions like qui des deux est le plus grand, ou de César ou de Pompée, or even qui est le plus grand, de César ou de Pompée which is the greater, Cœsar or Pompey ? the alternatives, when specified, being treated as if in apposition not with the interroga- tive but with the added genitive phrase (whether expressed or understood). d. A partitive genitive is sometimes used in French where the English has an appositive noun or adjective : thus, cent soldats de prisonniers, cent de tués a hundred soldiers prisoners, a hundred slain, y a-t-il personne d'assez hardi is there any one bold enough ? donnez-nous quelque chose de bon give us some- thing good, rien d'étonnant nothing astonishing : such instances as the last two are especially frequent. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.- II. Noun with de, qualifying a noun. (§ 30.) 1 Une demi-heure après, il traversait le jardin maraîcher du No. 12 de la rue de la Santé, et il sonnait à la porte de Madame Blouet. (Theuriet.) 2 II nous racontait pour la centième fois cette sinistre retraite de Russie. 34] CASE-KELATIOSTS. 219 (Dau.) * Le bon abbé est étonné que les voyages d'Aix et de Marseille vous aient a jetés dans une si excessive dépense, (de Sév.) 4 Les vents, depuis b trois mois en- chaînés sur nos têtes, d'Ilion trop longtemps vous ferment le chemin. (Rac.) 5 Lisez la vie de St. Louis ; vous verrez combien les grandeurs de ce monde sont au-dessous du désir du cœur humain, (de Maint.) 6 Les hommes, pressés par les besoins de la vie, et quelquefois par le désir du gain ou de la gloire, cultivent des talents profanes, ou s'en- gagent dans des professions équivoques. (La Br.) 7 II sent peu à peu c s'amollir son cœur de fonctionnaire. (Theuriet.) (§31.) x Je ne sais qui prononça d'abord le mot de ma- riage ; mais qu'importe* 1 ? (About.) 2 Votre coquine de Toinette est devenue plus insolente que jamais. (Mol.) 3 C'était un grand diable de garçon, d'une quarantaine d'années. (Coppêe.) 4 Votre belle âme de comtesse s'en scandalise ; mais tout le monde n'est pas comtesse. e (Mar.) (§ 32.) , Il est permis aux gens de mauvaise humeur de f la trouver comme ils voudront. g (Mar.) 2 La femme était d'une jolie figure, mais d'une mauvaise santé. (Berquin.) (§ 33.) 1 Le pot de fer proposa au pot de terre un voyage. (La F.) 2 Quelques chaises de paille, un bureau de noyer, formaient tout l'ameublement. (Dum.) (§ 34.) 1 II y a gagné beaucoup d'idées, et perdu consi- dérablement de vigueur. (About.) 2 L'amour propre est le plus grand de tous les flatteurs. (La R.) 3 Les dieux et les déesses d'Olympe avaient les yeux attachés sur l'île de Calypso, pour voir qui serait victorieux, ou de Minerve ou de l'Amour. (Fén.) i De ton cœur ou de toi, lequel est le poète ? C'est ton cœur, (de Mu.) 5 Qu'il achève, et dégage sa foi, et qu'il choisisse après de la mort ou de moi. (Corn.) 6 II n'y a pas une seule plante de perdue de celles qui étaient connues de Circé. (Fén.) 7 La vie est trop courte ; je voudrais qu'on eût h cent ans d'assurés, et le reste dans l'incertitude, (de Sév.) 8 La perte des ennemis a été grande ; ils ont eu, de leur aveu, quatre mille hommes de tués, (de Sév.) 9 II n'y a rien d'étroit, rien d'asservi, rien de limité, dans la religion, (de Sév.) 10 S'il y a quelque chose de bon et d'utile dans ce récit, profitez-en, jeunes gens, (de Staël.) «§1346. b §211. c §37c. d §1486. e §506. f §1736. e§i33a. h § 134a. 220 HOUNS. [35— 35. A noun preceded by de (with or without the defi- nite article), having the value of a partitive genitive, is much used in French where it is desired to express a cer- tain part or number or quantity of what the noun signi- fies, or where in English we put or might put some or any before the noun. This is called the partitive noun, or the noun used partitively. It may stand in any noun-construction — as subject, as object, as predicate, as governed by a prepo- sition (except de), and so on. Thus, des soldats l'arrêtèrent some soldiers arrested him, il est des gens qui mentent there are people who lie, ils boivent du vin they drink wine, avec du secret et de l'adresse with secrecy and address, pour des raisons suffisantes for sufficient reasons, sujet à de graves erreurs liable to grave errors. a. The principal rules for this frequent and important usage were given in Part First, IV. 1-4. For further rules as to the use or omission of the article, see § 39. b. After a negative verb, a noun not properly admitting par- tition is often put in the partitive form : thus, il n'a pas de mère he has no mother, elle n'a d'autre désir que celui-ci she has no other wish than this. c. Nouns are often also used in a sense really partitive without de: thus, after ni . . . ni, and in an enumeration, the usual par- titive expression is omitted (see Part First, IV. 4) ; also after certain prepositions, especially sans: thus, sans faute without fault ; also a plural noun in the predicate expressing condition, profession, and the like (compare § 506) : thus, soyons amis let us be friends ; also as objects of verbs in many familiar phrases, as avoir peur be afraid, chercher fortune seek one's fortune, donner courage give courage, entendre raison listen to reason, faire grand bruit make a great noise, perdre haleine lose breath, prendre conseil take counsel, rendre justice do justice, tenir compagnie keep company, and so on. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— III. Partitive noun. (§ 35.) * De puissants défenseurs prendront notre querelle. (Bac.) 2 Ce sont des héros qui fondent les empires, et des lâches qui les perdent. (V. Hugo.) 3 Polyeucte a du nom, et sort du sang des rois. (Bac.) 4 Ils disaient que ce 37] CASE-RELATIONS. 221 n'était point avec des garnisons que l'on prend des Etats, mais avec des armées. ( Vol.) 5 II la fit asseoir près de lui, la consolant par de douces paroles. (Blanc.) 6 I1 n'est point de noblesse où manque la vertu. ( Crêbillon.) 7 Un homme libre, et qui n'a point de femme, peut s'élever au- dessus de sa fortune. (La Br.) 8 L'homme n'a point de port ; le temps n'a point de rive ; il coule, et nous passons. (Lam.) 9 Nous n'avons point de banqueroutiers, parce qu'il n'y a chez nous ni or ni argent. ( Vol.) 10 II tombe sur son lit sans chaleur et sans vie. (Rac.) ll Je fais grâce à l'esprit en faveur des sentiments, (de Sév.) 12 II faut tenir tête à trois feux, (de Vi.) 13 Je vous aimais trop pour vous rendre justice. (Mar.) 36. A noun preceded by à is often used to express that by which something is characterized, as a distinguish- ing feature or quality, a purpose, means, ingredient, and the like. Thus, l'homme au long nez the man with the long nose, Lydie au doux sourire Lydia of the sweet smile, des arbres à fruit fruit-trees, la boîte aux lettres the letter-box, la poudre au canon gunpowder, un bateau à vapeur a steamboat, du café au lait coffee with milk. As the examples show, such phrases often correspond to com- pound words in English. 37. Other special uses of à with nouns are : a. After mal ache etc. , with the part affected : thus, mal à la tête headache, mal. aux dents toothache. b. Between two numerals, to express approximate number: thus, dix à douze ten or a dozen. c. Between two repetitions of the same noun, to signify suc- cession : thus, un à un one by one, goutte à goutte drop by drop. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES. -IV. Noun with 3, qualifying a noun. (§ 36.) 2 Le poudre à canon change le système de la guerre; la peinture à l'huile se développe, et couvre l'Europe des a chefs-d'œuvre de l'art. ( Guizot.) 2 On parlait de Thèbes aux cent portes. ( Vol.) 3 Cette ressemblance continuait B §163c. 222 NOUNS. [37— encore, autant qu'un homme aux yeux noirs, à la chevelure épaisse et brune, peut ressembler à ce souverain aux yeux bleus, aux cheveux châtains. (Bal.) 4 Combien d'hommes à talent à qui il ne manque qu'un grand malheur pour deve- nir hommes a de génie ! (Bum.) (§ 37.) ' II apj^rocha une chaise de b la cheminée et s'assit. J'ai froid aux pieds, dit-il. (V. Hugo.) 2 Son pure avait assez loyalement gagné six à huit mille livres de rente. (Bal.) 3 Vous voyez un homme de quarante-cinq à cin- quante ans, endurci au travail manuel. (About.) 4 L'eau était bien bouillante, et je l'ai versée goutte à goutte. (Coppée.) Theme 1. case-relations of nouns. 1 Did you go nowhere yesterday ? 2 1 went to Paris last week, and stayed there three days, but I did not find my friend ; he was elsewhere. 3 1 shall go there Monday, May 15th ; the ceremony will take place Tuesday, and we will return together the next day (morrow). 4 They had been several days without news of their son. 6 He will remain some time at Bordeaux ; one cannot gain much in a few days. 6 These beautiful pictures are well worth a look. 7 1 have just bought them for 10,000 francs. 8 Why do you look at this house with tears in your eyes ? 9 Because it was my parents' house. 10 The winds and the rain have closed to us the road to Paris, and we shall lose the jour- ney to Italy. " Have you read the history of the con- quests of Napoleon? 12 He wanted to make also the con- quest of England. 13 He was born in Corsica, and gained later the title of Emperor of France. 14 His name is ad- mired and loved in all the country of France. 15 He was a man of much talent, but of little virtue. 16 The silver spoons are in an iron box on the wooden table. 17 If I had money enough, I should buy a little bread. 18 If I had an a § 35c. b § 163/. 39] AETICLES. 223 infinite amount of money, I should give him none of it. 19 Which poet is the greater, Victor Hugo or Lamartine ? 20 Victor Hugo is the best of all the modern French poets. 21 Read me something beautiful. 22 There is nothing inter- esting in this book. 23 Good books are rare ; but there are books that we love very much. 24 One does not make con- quests by soft words, but by brave deeds. 25 Kings are not always heroes. 26 The child that has no mother is very unhappy. 27 This man has neither money, nor friends, nor talent. 28 He is without hope and without happiness. 29 If he will listen to reason, he will go to seek his fortune in America. 30 Who is this woman with blue eyes and brown hair ? 31 1 have seen her on the steamboat, but I do not know her. 32 There are six or eight steamboats on the river, but I see no sailboat there. 33 1 have a pain in the eyes ; I can see nothing. 34 1 hope that you will be better little by little. 3i They walk two by two. ni.— ARTICLES. 38. The forms of the definite and indefinite articles, and the general rules as to their use, were given in Part First. Certain points require further or more detailed notice here. A. — Definite Article. 39. The partitive noun, or noun used parti tively with de (§ 35), is usually accompanied by the definite article. Thus, du pain et de la viande bread and meat, des soldats soldiers. a. The common exceptions — that the article is omitted after a negative, also before an adjective, and both article and preposi- tion after ni ... ni and in a long enumeration — were given in Part First, IV. 3, 4. 6. The article is also omitted after an infinitive governed by sans without, as implying a sort of negation : thus, sans avoir d'amis without having any friends : compare § 210. c. After que of ne . . . que, meaning only, the article is re- 224 ARTICLES. [39— tained : thus, il n'a pas de paiD, il n'a que de la viande he has no bread, he has only meat. d. The article is also sometimes retained after a negative verb, when a certain affirmative sense is intended to be implied : thus, n'avez- vous pas des amis have you not friends? (i.e. is it not true that you have friends ?), je ne vous ferai pas des reproches frivoles it is not frivolous reproaches that I am going to make to you. e. The article is retained before an adjective, if this and the following noun form a sort of compound noun, or current phrase of simple meaning : thus, des grands-pères grandfathers, du bon sens good sense, des jeunes gens young folks, des petits pains rolls. f. The article is used also with the partitive genitive after bien and la plupart: (see Part First, V. 46). 40. The article is used in French, much more gener- ally than in English, before a noun taken inclusively, or expressing the whole kind or class. See Part First, IV. 5. Further examples are: le chien est l'ennemi du chat, et le chat de la souris the dog is the caVs foe, and the oat the mouse's (here the usage is the same in both lan- guages : but), le vinaigre est acide vinegar is sour, le bois léger a moins de valeur light wood is worth less, j'aime la salade / like salad, nous apprenons l'histoire we learn history. The ar- ticle thus used we have called the inclusive article (see Part First, IV. 5a). a. By a like usage, the article generally stands before an ab- stract noun : thus, la foi, la charité, et l'espérance faith, love, and hope, la modestie est une belle vertu modesty is a beauti- ful virtue, le temps du péril est aussi celui du courage the time of danger is also that of courage. So also with an adjective used as an abstract noun : thus, le culte du beau the worship of the beautifid, elle aime le vert she likes green. b. But the article is often omitted in proverbial and old-style expressions, as well as in various phrases. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— V. Partitive and Inclusive Article. (§39.) 1 On a des bras, pas de travail; on a du cœur, pas d'ouvrage. ( V. Hugo.) 2 II y avait sur cette table, et à pro- fusion, brosses, éponges, savons, vinaigres, pommades, etc., mais pas une goutte d'eau. {Lab.) 3 Je n'ai vraiment que des obligations au baron Taylor. (Bum.) 4 Madame, je n'ai point des sentiments si bas. (Bac.) 6 Vous savez bien 41] DEFINITE AKTICLE. 225 que nous ne sommes pas des hypocrites. (G. Sand.) Vou- lez-vous des petits pains ? restez ; j'en a ai d'excellents. (Dum.) 7 I1 s'agit d'avoir b du bon sens, mais de l'avoir sans fadeur. (Constitutionnel.) (§ 40.) 1 On éprouva tout-à-coup les horreurs delà famine. (de Genlis.) ~ C'est vrai ; mais quand la colère me prend, ordinairement la mémoire me quitte. (Mar.) 3 Si on avait pu, on aurait mis la force entre les mains de la justice. (Pas.) 4 Jeune fillette a toujours soin de c plaire. ( Vol.) B Ce que femme veut, Dieu le veut. ( Vol.) 41. The article is generally used before the name of a country. That is, when the name is subject or object of a verb, or gov- erned by any other preposition than en and sometimes de. See Part First, VI. 2-4. Further special rules are as follows : a. If the name of a country is the same with that of a city contained in it, it is generally used without article ; likewise an island of little extent : thus, Naples, Bade (there are a few ex- ceptions, as le Hanovre) ; Malte, Elbe (but la Sardaigne, la Sicile). h. The article is generally omitted after venir de, partir de, and the like : thus, il vient d'Amérique he comes from America, sortir de France go out of France. c. The article is generally omitted after de when it makes a genitive of equivalence (§ 31), also when it follows the name of a product, of a ruler or other official, the words history, map, war, etc. , and in various other cases where the name of the country is used with the value of an adjective. Thus, le royaume de France the kingdom of France, du vin de Hongrie Hungarian wine, la reine d'Angleterre the queen of England, l'ambassadeur d'Autriche the Austrian ambassa- dor, l'histoire de Russie the history of Russia, les villes d'Alle- magne the German cities, la frontière d'Espagne the Spanish frontier. d. But, in both these classes of cases (h and c), the article is generally retained if the name of the country is masculine, or plural, or contains an adjective ; also if it designates a remote and unfamiliar country : and there are special cases besides. Thus, venir du Mexique come from Mexico, l'empire des In- des the empire of the Indies, l'empereur de la Chine the em- peror of China, en toile du Bengale in Bengal cloth, l'histoire de la Grande Bretagne the history of Great Britain. a XXIIL Ta. b §178c. c §185a. 15 226 ARTICLES. L 41 — e. The article is always omitted after en, meaning both in and to or into : see Part First, VI. 3a. But dans, with the article, is used instead of en, if the name of the country is qualified by an adjective : thus, dans la Suisse française in French Switzerland. 42. With other proper names, French usage in regard to adding the article is in general the same as English. But the following differences are to be noted : a. The article is used before the name of a single mountain : thus, le Vésuve Vesuvius, le Mont-Blanc Mont-Blanc. b. Proper names, whether of persons or places, take the article when qualified by an adjective : thus, le pauvre Jean poor John, l'antique Rome ancient Rome. c. Some proper names are always joined with the article as an inseparable prefix to them ; the most common are le Havre, au Caire at Cairo, le Dante, le Titien, du Corrège of Correggio, le Poussin, le Camoëns. d. In familiar language, the article is often added to the names of noted persons, especially women : thus, la Rachel, la Grisi ; in a still more colloquial and lower style, it is used yet more widely : thus, sans attendre la Barbette witliout waiting for Barbette. e. The plural article is, in a higher narrative style, often put before the name of an individual, to mark him as a person of note and importance : thus, les Bossuet et les Racine ont été la gloire de leur siècle Bossuet and Racine were the glory of their century. f Before the name of a saint's day, la stands by abbreviation for la fête de the festival of: thus, la Saint-Jean St. John 1 s day, la Saint-Martin Martinmas. La is used also before a word for the middle of a month : thus, la mi-mai. g. A la is familiarly used by abbreviation for à la mode de in the manner or after the fashion of : thus, une barbe à la Fran- çois I. a beard in the style of Francis I. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES. -VI. Article with Proper Names. (§41.) 1 Héritier, comme archiduc, de l'Allemagne orien- tale, souverain des Pays-Bas, de l'Espagne, de Naples, de la Sicile, comme successeur des ducs de Bourgogne, des rois de Castille et d'Aragon, ce possesseur de tant de territoires, qui régnait sur les principales îles de la Méditerranée, qui occupait par plusieurs points le littoral de l'Afrique, n'avait alors que dix-neuf ans. (Mignet.) 2 Vous arrivez de France ? — Ce matin même. (Scribe.) 3 La loi des Visigoths inté- 46] DEFINITE AETICLE. 227 resse plus l'histoire d'Espagne que l'histoire de France. (Guizot.) 4 Le roi des Indes lui offrait cent éléphants. ( Vol.) b Portez ces porcelaines du Japon chez la maréchale. (Scribe.) 6 En Espagne, au milieu du règne de Philippe IL, éclate la révolution des Provinces Unies. (Guizot.) (§ 42.) l Le joyeux écolier n'avait jamais songé à ce qu'il y a de lave bouillante furieuse et profonde sous le front de neige de l'Etna. ( V. Hugo.) 2 C'était un des rois qui ont, après un siège de dix ans, renversé la fameuse Troie. (F en.) 3 À ton tour, reçois-moi comme le grand Byron. (de Mu.) 4 À sa suite parut le jeune Mazarin. (de Vi.) 5 Si l'âme de la Pompadour était revenue visiter son château, elle aurait trouvé peut-être que la vie qu'on y menait manquait de gaieté. (Cherb.) 6 Je ne viens pas pour te parler de la Ma- delon. (G. Sand.) 7 Les scrupules de justice ne sont pas, en général, ce qui arrête les hommes de la portée des Fré- déric et des Napoléon. (Ste.-B.) 8 Tous les arts, à la vérité, n'ont point été poussés plus loin que sous les Médicis, sous les Auguste et les Alexandre. ( Vol.) 9 Monsieur ne sait pas ce que c'est que a la Saint-Nicholas ... à Paris on ne fête pas ce saint-là. (Theuriet.) 43. The article is used before a title. Thus, le docteur Akakia Dr. Akakia, le professeur B. Prof. B. , le général Bonaparte Gen. Bonaparte. The titles of polite- ness, monsieur etc. (XIV. 4), stand before this article : thus, monsieur le docteur A. 44. In describing the parts of a person or thing, the French ordinarily uses, after avoir, the article before the name of the part, and the descriptive adjective after the latter (really as ob- jective predicate) : thus, elle a les yeux bleus she has blue eyes (literally, has her eyes blue), il a l'esprit cultivé he has a culti- vated mind, le chêne a l'écorce rude the oak has rough bark. 45. The article is often used in French where the English uses a possessive, when the connection points out the possessor with sufficient clearness. Thus, je tournai la tête I turned my head, fermez les yeux shut your eyes. 46. The definite article is often used distributively, or where in English each or every might stand. a § 98a. 228 ARTICLES, [46— Thus, deux fois la semaine twice each week, trois francs la livre three francs a pound, le bateau part le lundi, et revient le jeudi the boat goes every Monday, and returns every Thurs- day. As the examples show, English often has the indefinite article in such a case. 47. There are many phrases where the article, omitted by abbreviation in English, is retained in French ; as also where, retained in English, it is omitted by abbreviation in French. Examples are : à l'école at school, à l'église at church, l'an passé last year, avez-vous le temps de le faire have you time to do it ? vers le soir toward evening ; and à genoux on the knees, sous prétexte under the pretense, courir risque run the risk, mettre pied à terre set foot on the ground, monter à cheval get on a horse. a. In many other phrases, French and English agree in the omission of the article : for example, après dîner after dinner, à table at table, perdre de vue lose from sight. b. Before a numeral following the noun it qualifies, the article is omitted more uniformly than in English : thus, Charles First or Charles the First, Charles premier. c. For the more etc. the French says simply plus etc. : see XXXIV. 3. 48. a. For l'on instead of on one see XXVII. 4«. 6. In like manner, l'un is sometimes used for un : thus, le bec-croisé est l'un des oiseaux the crossbeak is one of the birds. In the combinations of un and autre, the article is always used : see Part First, XXVII. 7. For the article in expressions of time, see § 706. c. In intimate and familiar address, the article is sometimes put before a noun used vocatively : thus, l'ami, crois-moi, rentre chez toi friend, take my advice and go home. d. Either tous deux or tous les deux both is said ; so with tous les trois all three. Higher numbers generally take the ar- ticle. 49. Though the article is generally required to be repeated be- fore each separate word (Part First, I. 7), it is occasionally under- stood, especially when a word is added by way of explanation : thus, les députés ou représentants du peuple the deputies or popular representatives, les ministres et grands officiers the ministers and high officers, 50] INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 229 ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— VII. Various Uses of the Article. (§ 43.) l Monsieur l'abbé ! voulez-vous m'ouvrir ? je vais quérir madame la baronne, (de Mit.) 2 Dans a une heure, à cheval, et l'attaque des lignes ! Messieurs les maréchaux, suivez-moi. (de Vi.) (§ 44.) ' Les habitants de la Nouvelle-Hollande ont le nez gros, les lèvres grosses, et la bouche grande. (Buff on.) 2 Pauline a l'âme noble, et parle à b cœur ouvert. (Corn.) 3 Ce n'est rien, dit-il ; j'ai senti que j'avais encore la jambe sûre et la tête froide. (G. Sand.) (§ 45.) 1 Mais je veux t'épouser demain ; viens, Jeanne, donne-moi la main, (de Vi.) 2 Elle était vêtue de blanc, et avait un voile blanc sur la tête. ( Vol.) (§47.) 1 Tu te tais maintenant, et gardes le silence. ( Com.) 2 L'enfant met pied à terre, et puis le vieillard monte. (La F.) 3 Monsieur mon neveu, je vous souhaite le bonjour, (de Mu.) 4 Les loups firent la paix avec les brebis. (La F.) 5 Sachez que plus mes bontés sont grandes, plus vous serez puni si vous en c abusez. (Mont.) 6 Dieu ! que d plus on est grand, plus vos coups sont à craindre e ! ( Vol.) (§ 48.) 1 Après cela, l'un de ces messieurs de la Comédie française et l'une de ces dames récitaient une saynète. (Cherb.) 2 Adieu, donc, la fille; bonjour, l'ami. (Mar.) 3 Vous pourriez encore danser, la belle ! ( V. Hugo.) 4 Faites comme moi, l'ami, et vous deviendrez riche comme moi. (Arnault.) 5 Du moins devait-elle attendre, et les voir tous deux. (Mar.) 6 Ne les grondez point ou ne les cor- rigez point tous les deux en même tenrps. (G. Sand.) (§ 49.) * Les voies ferrées ou chemins de fer établissent la communication la plus rapide entre les grandes villes. (Ploetz.) B. — Indefinite Article. 50. In certain cases, where the English "usually has the indefinite article, it is omitted in French. Thus : a. The article is often omitted before a word standing in appo- sition with another : thus, Dieppe, ville de Normandie Dieppe, a city of Normandy, Charles, fils de M. Pierre Charles, a son (or the son) of Mr, Pierre, Zaïre, tragédie de Voltaire Zaire, a tragedy of Voltaire. §307c. b §161d. c §163/, d §199a. «§1740. 230 ARTICLES. [50— b. It is usually omitted before a predicate noun designating, in a general way, nationality or condition in life or profession. Thus, je suis Américain I am an American, son frère est soldat his brother is a soldier. But there are frequent exceptions, es- pecially when the predicate noun is qualified by an adjective etc., also after c'est etc. : thus, il est un bon peintre he is a good painter, c'est un peintre it is a painter. c. It is omitted, by abbreviation, in titles of books, superscrip- tions, etc. : thus, Grammaire anglaise an English Grammar. d. It is often omitted, especially in familiar speech, before nombre, quantité, and the like : thus, je l'ai vue nombre de fois I have seen her plenty of times. e. It is omitted before cent and mille (see XV. 6) : thus, mille jours, cent ans a thousand days, a hundred years ; also after quel used interjectionally (see XIII. 5c) : thus, quelle vue affreuse what a horrible sight ! f It is omitted after jamais before a subject-noun : thus, ja- mais homme n'a été plus exalté never has a man been more ex- tolled. g. It is omitted by abbreviation in certain phrases, where the English retains it : thus, mettre fin put an end, faire présent make a present, prendre femme take a wife. There are other phrases where the contrary is the case, or where the two lan- guages agree. h. As to English a used distributively, see above, § 46. i. Both articles are omitted in those combinations in which a noun after de is added to another noun with adjectival value : see § 30c. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— VIII. Indefinite Article. (§ 50.) 1 Sylla, homme emporté, mène violemment les Ro- mains à la liberté ; Auguste, rusé tyran, les conduit douce- ment à la servitude. (Mont.) 2 Anne, belle-sœur de Guillaume III., et fille de Jacques IL, mariée à George, prince de Dane- mark, était l'héritière constitutionelle de la couronne. (Rémusat.) 3 Un jeune homme nommé Croisillep, fils d'un orfèvre, revenait de Paris au a Havre, (de Mu.) 4 Ma fille est veuve d'un homme qui était fort considéré dans le monde. (Mar.) 5 Monsieur est Persan ? c'est une chose extraordinaire ! Comment peut-on être Persan ? (Mont.) 6 Dans le langage des partis, on est courtisan quand on appuie la royauté, républicain quand on défend la liberté, a § 42c. 50] IHDEFItflTE ARTICLE. 231 traître ou déserteur quand, de l'opposition montant au pouvoir, ou soutient le gouvernement qu'on a voulu. (Ré- musat.) 7 Danton était un révolutionnaire gigantesque. (Mignet.) 6 Un vieux domestique, nommé Jean, qui servait sa famille depuis a nombre d'années, s'approcha de lui. (de Mu.) 9 Quel joli métier vous lui apprenez ! (Cherb.) 10 Quelles belles épaules blanches ! quel sourire d'éternelle jeunesse dans cette toile merveilleuse ! (Gautier.) " Jamais personne ne recouvra la santé avec moins de plaisir que moi. (G. Sand.) "Jamais homme n'a eu tant d'éclat ; ja- mais homme n'a eu plus d'ignominie. (Pasc.) 13 Saint- Nicholas est descendu dans ma cheminée ... et il m'a fait cadeau d'une femme. (Theuriet.) Theme 2: AETICLES. 1 Have you neither brush nor comb ? 2 Brushes, combs, sponges, we have them all ; and we have soap also ; but we have no water. 3 Has not the servant brought you water ? 4 He has not brought me any hot b ; he has only brought me cold water. 5 1 will not return without bring- ing you news of your friends. 6 Do not be anxious ; have you not health, fortune, and friends ? 7 Young folks have not always good sense. 8 1 do not like history ; most c histories speak only of war and of famines. 9 Force is sometimes the friend of justice. 10 The love of the true and the beautiful is one of man's finest qualities. X1 This history of Germany is very tedious, but I will give you a history of the United Provinces, which will interest you very much. 12 1 have travelled in Italy and in Italian Switzerland ; I come now from Germany, and I shall go next winter to China or Japan. 13 The queen of England is also the d queen of Great Britain and the d empress of India. " We sell French and Spanish wines, Italian silk, and English wool. 15 Which is the higher mountain, Ve- a § 311. b XXTTT. 7a. c V. 4&. «« § 506. 232 ARTICLES. [50— suvius or Etna? 10 Parnassus is the favorite mountain of the poets. 17 Little John is better ; but his grandmother, poor old Mary, died this morning. 18 Great Demosthenes was the most eloquent orator of ancient Greece. 19 Rachel was the glory of the French theatre. 20 Shakspeare and Racine are in literature what Napoleon and Wellington are in war. 21 The English hardly know what St. Martin's day is. " He dresses in the style of Louis XV. 23 Gen. Thomas and Prof. St. Pierre are going to dine to-day with Dr. Lucas. a4 Madame Tellier has blue eyes and auburn hair. 2& His heart is young, though his hands are weak. 20 If you are afraid, shut your eyes and give me your hand ; I will guide you. 27 She is cold, because she has nothing on her head. 28 He has lost his right arm. 20 1 go to Paris three times a month ; I start from here Tuesdays, and ar- rive there Fridays. 30 This cloth costs ten francs a yard. 31 1 wish you good morning, sir ; I am going to church. 32 1 have not time to go there at present ; I shall perhaps go toward evening. 33 The more he goes to school, the less he likes to study. 34 The greater one is, the more one runs the risk of falling. 35 1 admire one of these ladies and love the other. 3C As for me, I admire them both ; but I love neither. 37 Marcus Aurelius, an emperor of Rome, was a good philosopher also. 38 James II. of England, the son of Charles I. and the brother of Charles IL, and the constitutional heir of the crown, was, during many years, a guest of Louis XIV., the king of France. 39 William, a grandson of our friend Mr. Morton, is a soldier, and he hopes to become a general. 40 His brother is a painter, I think. 41 How can he be a painter? he has made quanti- ties of pictures, indeed, but they are all very bad. 42 What an ugly woman ! 43 Never has an author been more ad- mired than she. 54] IKFLECTIOK OF ADJECTIVES. 233 IV.— ADJECTIVES. 51. The French adjective corresponds in general to the Latin. Kespecting its loss of the neuter gender, of the distinctions of case, and of formal comparison, see above, § 4e, /. 52. The adjective is in general varied for gender and number. For the rules for forming the feminine and the plural of an adjective from its masculine singular (as being the simplest form), see Part First, VII. -IX. A few particulars remain to be added here. 53. Further specialties of formation of the feminine are as follows : a. The following adjectives in ot add e without doubling the t (see VII. 4) : bigot, dévot, idiot, manchot, cagot, ragot. b. Bel is used instead of beau in a few titles : thus, Philippe le Bel ; vieux is sometimes allowed to stand before a vowel : thus, un vieux homme (see VII. 7). c. A few more adjectives that form their feminine irregularly (VII. 8) are : tiers tierce third, roux rousse red, bénin bénigne benign, malin maligne malignant, coi coite quiet, hébreu hé- braïque Hebrew. d. Masculines without corresponding feminine are châtain chestnut-colored, fat foppish, dispos in lusty health. Féminines without corresponding masculine are crasse crass, océane oceanic. Certain other words of color, properly nouns, are sometimes used in the manner of adjectives, but without variation of form : such are aurore, soufre, orange, etc. e. Certain classes of nouns make a feminine, after the manner of adjectives : see above, § 16. Of these, the nouns in -eur -euse are often used as adjectives : thus, une langue trop flatteuse a too flattering tongue. 54. As regards the formation of the plural : a. Feu late (i.e. deceased), according to some authorities, has no plural ; others allow one to say les feus rois de Prusse et d'Angleterre the late kings of Prussia and England, and the like : compare below, § 56a. 6. Plurals in als from adjectives in al (VIII. 15, c) are little used ; for some adjectives such plurals are altogether wanting, being avoided by using some other form of expression. 234 ADJECTIVES. [54— c. Adjectively used nouns of color form no plural (as no femi- nine : above, § 53d) : thus, des cheveux châtain-clair bright brown hair. 55. As regards comparison : a. Certain French adjectives represent Latin comparatives and superlatives, without having (any more than the corresponding words in English) a value as such. Examples are : majeur ma- jor, antérieur anterior, extrême extreme, suprême supreme. They are not themselves compared. 6. Absolute superlatives in issime, as illustrissime most illus- trious and révérendissime most reverend, are late and learned fabrications. 56. As regards the agreement of an adjective with the noun which it qualifies : a. Some adjectives are differently treated according to their position. Demi half before a noun is taken as forming a com- pound with it, and is invariable : thus, une demi-livre a half- pound, une livre et demie a pound and a half Nu bare is similarly treated : thus, marcher nu-tête, or marcher tête nue walk bare-headed ; but only la nue vérité the naked truth. The participles excepté, supposé, y compris are invariable, as if used prepositionally, before the noun : thus, excepté les dames except the ladies, but les dames exceptées the ladies excepted. In like manner franc de port prejmid (as letters etc.) : thus, je reçois franc de port les lettres que . . . I receive prepaid the letters which . . . , but envoyez-moi vos lettres franches de port send me your letters prepaid. Ci-inclus and ci-joint enclosed, annexed, herewith are invariable at the beginning of a phrase, and also with a noun not accompanied by the article : thus, ci-inclus vous recevez la copie you receive enclosed the copy, but vous trouverez ci-jointe la copie you will find annexed the copy. Feu late (deceased) is variable only after an article or possessive : thus, feu la reine, but la feue reine, the late queen ; feu ma tante, but ma feue tante, my late aunt. b. An adjective following avoir l'air have the aspect or look is sometimes made to agree with air and sometimes with the sub- ject of the verb : thus, elle a l'air content or elle a l'air con- tente she looks satisfied (the one meaning rather she has a satis- fied look, the other the look of being satisfied). c. Soi-disant pretended stands always before its noun, and is invariable : compare § 189c. d. An adjective used as adverb (XXXI. 9) is of course invari- able. But in frais cueilli fresh-picked and tout-puissant all- powerful, the adverbial adjective is treated as an adjective if the qualified noun is feminine : thus, des fleurs fraîches cueillies 59] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 235 fresh-picked flowers, une reine toute-puissante an all-powerful queen. There are also combinations in which nouveau, premier, etc. , are treated as adjectives while logically rather adverbs : thus, les nouveaux mariés the newly -married couple {or couples). For the treatment of tout, see § 116c. 57. As regards the form of an adjective qualifying more than one noun, the general rule is that it is made plural, and masculine if any one of the qualified nouns is masculine. Thus, le frère et la sœur furent contents the toother and sis- ter were happy, une veste et un pantalon bleus a blue vest and trousers, du pain et du beurre excellents excellent bread and butter, la langue et la littérature latines the Latin language and literature, vos nom et prénoms your surname and given names. a. But the adjective is not seldom made to agree with the nearest noun alone, and especially if this is added rather as an equivalent or explanation of another noun, or if a gradation is implied. Thus, avec une vitesse, une rapidité inconcevable with a swiftness, a rapidity inconceivable, l'estime et la confi- ance publique the public esteem and confidence, point de roman, point de comédie espagnole sans combats no Spanisïi romance or comedy without fights. b. If two nouns are connected by the disjunctive ou or, the adjective regularly and properly agrees only with the nearer one : thus, l'estime ou la confiance publique the public esteem or con- fidence. But it is not always so : for example, voir son fils ou sa fille perdus pour la société to see one's so?i or daughter lost to society (Vol.). 58. Two or more singular adjectives sometimes qualify a plu- ral noun, as including a singular belonging to each of them : thus, les langues française et anglaise the French and English languages, les dix-huitième et dix-neuvième siècles the 18th and 19th centuries. But the same thing may be expressed by la langue française et la langue anglaise or la langue fran- çaise et l'anglaise ; and, in like manner, le dix-huitième et le dix-neuvième siècle, or le dix-huitième siècle et le dix-neu- vième. 59. An adjective, of either gender or number, is of- ten used as a noun. Thus, un riche a rich man, cette belle this beauty, le bon et le vrai the good and the true, les pauvres the poor. a. An adjective so used may be qualified by another adjective 236 ADJECTIVES. [59— or an adverb : thus, le vrai beau the true beautiful, de pauvres aveugles poor blind men, les infiniment petits the infinitely small. 60. The adjective in French, when used attributively, stands often before the noun that it qualifies, but still more often after it. The principal rules respecting the place of the adjective were given in Part First (VIII. 2-5) ; a few more particulars are added here. a. The adjectives that most regularly and usually pre- cede the noun (compare VIII. 3a) are : bon, good grand, large beau, handsome mauvais, bad gros, big joli, pretty méchant, wicked petit, small vilain, ugly meilleur, better moindre, less jeune, young pire, worse vaste, vast vieux, old Even these are sometimes made to follow the noun ; and there are others which nearly as regularly precede. b. Since (VIII. 4, 5) a physical meaning rather than an ideal or moral one, and a literal rather than a figurative one, tend to belong to an adjective following its noun, some adjectives have a well-marked difference of mean- ing, according as they precede or follow. The most important of these are instanced as follows : certain homme, a certain man une chose certaine, a sure thing un pauvre homme, a poor fellow un homme pauvre, a poor man un brave homme, a fine fellow un homme brave, a brave man un galant homme, a gentleman un homme galant, a man of gallantry diverses ) choses, sundry . (diverses, . , . différentes ) things ( différentes, '•" ' nng mon cher ami, my dear friend un livre cher, a dear book sa propre main, his oicn hand sa main propre, his clean hand une sage femme, a midwife une femme sage, a wise woman Dernier following the noun means last in the sense of next preceding the present time : thus, l'année dernière last year, but la dernière année de sa vie the last year of his life. c. With a proper name, the adjective usually precedes : thus, le vertueux Aristide the virtuous Aristides, le vénérable Socrate the venerable Socrates. 60] PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 237 d. If two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, and are not coordinate, but each added one further qualifies the noun as already limited, each is put before or after the noun as it would be if used alone. Thus : un cheval noir a black horse, un petit cheval noir a little black horse, un pauvre petit cheval noir a poor little black horse; and so une grande tasse bleue cassée a large white cup broken. e. Two or more adjectives joined by conjunctions (expressed or understood) stand together either before or after the noun — usu- ally after, if one of them is such as does not ordinarily precede the noun. Thus, un grand et beau jardin a large and fine garden, une dame riche, jeune, et aimable a young, rich, and amiable lady, une femme petite, mais bien faite a short but well-formed woman. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-IX. Agreement and Place of Adjectives. (§ 56.) ' J'étais, depuis une demi-heure environ, plongé dans une sorte de torpeur. (Feuillet.} 2 Hier, à dix heures et demie, le roi déclara qu'il épousait la princesse de Pologne. ( Vol.) 3 Les demi-savants s'en moquent a , et triomphent à b montrer là-dessus sa folie. (Pasc.) 4 C'est l'abbà de Sainte-Geneviève, nu-pieds, précédé de cent cinquante religieux, nu-pieds aussi, (de Sév.) 5 Louis suivait, pieds nus, l'étendard de la sainte croix. (Fléchier.) 6 J'ai ouï dire à c feu ma sœur que sa fille et moi naquîmes 4 la même année. (Mont.) 7 Ah, monsieur ! si feu mon pauvre père était encore vivant, c'était bien votre affaire. (Bac.) 8 La feue reine y allait souvent de Fontainebleau, et prenait grand soin du bien-être du couvent. (St. Simon.) 9 Alors ce sont les premiers arrivés qui font la loi dans votre au- berge ? (Lucking.) 10 Celui-ci avait déjà jeté un coup d'œil pénétrant sur le nouveau venu, (de Vi.) (§ 57.) * Les arrivées et les départs principaux n'ont lieu que pendant la nuit. (Constitutionnel.) 2 La paix et le con- tentement étaient donc revenus à la Bessonière. (67. Sand.) 3 C'est d'eux e que nous sont venus cette tendresse, cette déli- catesse de sentiment, cette religion, ce culte des femmes, qui 3 XXIX. 76. b § 182a. c § 1586. d § 146, e i.e. des conteurs arabes. 238 ADJECTIVES. [60— ont eu une si grande influence sur notre chevalerie, (de Sis- mondi.) 4 Lisez les Commentaires de César ; c'est un style d'une netteté et d'une fermeté singulières. (Amj)ère.) 6 Sa vie n'a été qu'un travail et une occupation perpétuelle. (Massillon.) 6 II semble avoir complètement oublié qu'il est fils a , et qu'il s'agit de ses père et mère. (Ste.-B.) (§58.) * Les armées française et italienne traversent le Tanaro. ( Vol.) 3 La ville de Nuremberg, beaucoup plus populeuse aux douzième et treizième siècles qu'elle ne b l'est aujourd'hui, était le centre d'une grande industrie. (B. d. deux Mondes.) (§ 59.) 'L'aveugle ne répondit rien. (G. Sand.) 2 Dès qu'un grand est mort, on s'assemble dans une mosquée, et l'on fait son oraison funèbre. (Mont.) 3 Quelques habiles prononcent en faveur des anciens contre les modernes. (La Br.) * Ils sortent de l'art pour l'ennoblir, s'écartent des règles, si elles ne les conduisent pas au grand et au sublime. (La Br.) 5 Va trouver de ma part ce jeune ambitieux. (Bac.) (§ 60.) ' Penseur profond sous le règne du pédantisme, auteur brillant et ingénieux dans une langue informe et grossière, Montaigne écrit avec le secours de sa raison et des anciens. Son ouvrage, longtemps unique, demeure toujours original; et la France, enrichie tout à coup de brillantes mer- veilles, ne sent pas refroidir son admiration pour ces antiques et naïves beautés. ( Villemain.) 2 Au mois de mai dernier a disparu une figure unique d entre les femmes qui ont régné par leur beauté et par leur grâce. (Ste.-B.) fl M. de Chateau- briand, dans les vingt dernières années, fut le grand centre de son monde. (Ste.-B.) 4 A quoi le bon oncle répond, en découpant son propre melon de sa propre main : Ce neveu- là aura l'héritage. (Soulié.) 5 Et ne craignez- vous point l'im- patient Achille ? (Bac.) 6 Le vénérable Malesherbes s'offrit à la Convention pour défendre Louis XVI. (Mignet.) 7 Lau- rence vit la vieille femme aveugle étendue sur son lit. (G. Sand.) 8 Ah, madame ! excusez mon aveugle douleur. ( Corn.) 9 Je m'étais assis devant cette vieille petite table noire que vous connaissez. (Sue.) 10 Un long et sourd gémissement s'éleva autour de Whitehall. (Guizot.) §50&. b §170c. § 50a. d i.e. Mme. Récamier, 61] ADJUNCTS OF ADJECTIVES. 239 61. Adjectives are often, as in English, modified or limited by nouns, joined to them by a preposition, es- pecially de or à. In the majority of cases, the French preposition corresponds to the one that is used in English : thus, capable de trahison capa- ble of treason, cher à ses amis dear to Ms friends, exempt d'or- gueil exempt from pride, célèbre par (or pour) ses victoires celebrated by (or for) his victories, constant dans l'adversité constant in adversity. But there are certain cases that require notice. a. De is often used before a noun expressing source or cause or motive, after an adjective which in English requires a different preposition : thus, content de lui satisfied with him, fâché de ma faute sorry for my fault, surpris de cette nouvelle sur- prised at this news. The commonest adjectives having this construction are aise, amoureux, avide, confus, content and mécontent, désolé, épris, fâché sorry, fou, furieux, gros, inconsolable, indigné, inquiet, ivre, justiciable, offensé, ravi, rassasié, rempli, surpris, tribu- taire. b. De is sometimes used in the sense of in respect of, in regard to, where the English uses a different preposition : thus, riche d'attraits rich in attractions, curieux de l'avenir curious about the future. The commonest adjectives thus used are complice, curieux, dédaigneux, faible, reconnaissant, redevable, responsable, riche, soigneux, triste, victorieux. c. De is used before a numeral after an adjective signifying quantity or dimension ; also after a comparative adjective, to signify measure of difference. Thus, grand de six pieds six feet tall, large de deux pouces tivo inches wide, âgé de douze ans twelve years old ; plus haut d'un pied higher by a foot, moins âgé de cinq ans less aged by five years, inférieur de vingt pieds twenty feet lower. d. More peculiar is the use of de after words of nearness : thus, proche d'elle near to her, voisin du grand chemin bordering on the highway (also près de near to : compare § 162/', end). e. The preposition à to, toward, at, is sometimes used in the sense of in respect to where English prefers a different expres- sion : thus, adroit au jeu skilled in play, âpre au gain greedy for gain, il n'est bon à rien he is good for nothing. f. Some adjectives are followed by different prepositions, either without or with noticeable differences of meaning : thus, cruel à or envers cruel to or toward, indulgent à or pour or envers in- 240 ADJECTIVES. [61— dulgent to etc., habile à or dans or en skilled in: but fâché contre means angry at, and fâché de means angry on account of or sorry for. g. Participles in general take the same prepositions after them as the verbs to which they belong. h. For the use of de or à before an infinitive after an adjective, see § 184. For the use of de or par with a passive verb-phrase, see XXVIII. 3. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— X. Noun- Adjuncts of Adjectives. (§ 61.) ' Savez-vous, après tout, de quoi je suis capable^? (Mol.) 2 Oswald était mécontent de lui-même, (de Staël.) 3 À tort ou à raison, le monde s'imagina que Marchai était plus amoureux du cadre que du tableau. (About.) * Je n'en suis pas surprise ; son caractère était si différent du vôtre. (Mar.) 5 II est très adroit à tous les exercices ; nul ne tire mieux l'arc que lui, (Gautier.) c II y en a qui sont braves à coups d'épée, et qui craignent les coups de mousquet. (La fi.) 7 Elle fut sublime de soins et d'attentions pour son vieux père, dont les facultés commençaient à baisser. (Bal.) 8 Fa- tigué d'écrire, ennuyé de moi, dégoûté des autres, abîmé de dettes, et léger d'argent, . . . j'ai quitté Madrid. (Beaum.) 9 En 1783 vivait dans le Calvados une jeune fille, âgée de vingt-cinq ans, réunissant à une grande beauté un caractère ferme et indépendant. (Thiers.) 10 Quoique voisin d'une ville populeuse, ce lieu présente un aspect mélancolique. (Tôpfer.) " Un peuple si juste devait être chéri des dieux. (Mont.) Theme 3. adjectives. 1 We went there at half past four, and we were there about half an hour. 2 A hundred monks, bare-footed, pre- ceded the coffin of the late princess, and all the court, ex- cept the ladies, followed it, with bare heads. 3 Do you re- ceive your newspapers prepaid ? 4 1 receive them every day, and I send you one of them herewith. 5 This lady looks very happy. 6 It is because the count marries her to-day at half past ten. 7 To-morrow all their friends will come to see the newly-married [couple] ; there will be no place for the last comers. 8 She is very well acquainted 63] NUMERALS. 241 with the French language and literature. 9 The first and second emperors of France were the two Napoleons. 10 He passed the first and last years of his life in London. J1 They found the door and window shut. 12 Montaigne, the great- est thinker of his time, enriched the young and unformed literature of France with his profound and brilliant essays. 13 The illustrious Chateaubriand was a much-esteemed au- thor, but during the past a twenty years France has felt b her admiration for his works grow cold. 14 This old black table is not very neat, and I will hold the melon in my own hands. 15 The poor sick child was stretched upon her little old hard bed. 16 If I thought you capable of that, I should be much dissatisfied with you. 17 Were you angry at the news which I brought ? 18 No, but I was surprised at it. 19 1 imagined that our friend was inconsolable for the loss of his wife, but they say that he is already in love with this young and handsome girl. 20 They say also that she is rich in charms and attractions. 21 This young man, seventeen years old, is six feet and two inches tall ; he is taller by seven inches than his brother, who is three years older. 22 He is skilled in all games. V.— NUMERALS. 62. The numerals, both cardinal and ordinal, along with the principal rules for their use, were given in the First Part (Les- sons XV. -XVII.). A few further particulars are added here. 63. Mille is used instead of mil even in dates, when not followed by another number, and also usually when the date is before Christ. Thus, en mille in {the year) a thousand, en l'an deux mille in the year two thousand. a. In giving the year, one uses oftenest en simply, but also en l'an r or l'an alone (for numbers under 100). a §311. b §H8d. 16 242 NUMEKALS. [64— 64. Cent and quatre-vingt are used without s in dat- ing, and also when following the noun in an ordinal sense. Thus, en mil huit cent in {the year) 1800, tome quatre-vingt, page deux cent volume 80, page 200. 65. The indefinite article un is the numeral un with weakened meaning; and sometimes it may admit of question whether the word is to be called numeral or article. 66. Old ordinals, now hardly in use as such, or used only in special phrases, are prime first, tiers (tierce f.) third, quart (quarte f.) fourth, quint fifth. The last three are used also as fractionals (see XVI. 46, e). Quint still appears in one or two names of sovereigns : Charles-Quint, Sixte-Quint. 67. Collectives are formed from cardinal numerals by the ending aine ; they mean about the number of. Thus, une douzaine a dozen, about 12, une vingtaine a score or so, une soixantaine some threescore. a. The only ones in ordinary use are huitaine, dizaine, dou- zaine, quinzaine, vingtaine, trentaine, quarantaine, cinquan- taine, soixantaine, centaine. Instead of une centaine is said un cent, especially of articles sold by the hundred : thus, un cent de clous a hundred nails. b. Un millier a thousand or so is a like collective from mille. 68. Of sjuecial multiplicatives are in use only the fol- lowing : simple, simple quadruple, quadruple septuple, sevenfold double, double quintuple, five-fold octuple, eightfold triple, triple sextuple, six-fold décuple, ten-fold centuple, hundredfold a. For the other numbers, one says neuf fois nine times, or neuf fois autant nine times as much, or neuf fois plus nine times more ; and so onze fois eleven times, and so on. 69. a. For the numeral adverbs once, twice, thrice, and so on, the French uses fois f. with the numeral pre- fixed. Thus, une fois, deux fois, trois fois, quatre fois (four times'), and so on. But bis is also used in certain special connections for twice. 70] NUMERALS. 243 6. Numeral adverbs are also made, as in English, from the ordinals, in the same manner as from other adjectives (XXXI.) : thus, premièrement firstly, secondement or deuxièmement sec- ondly, troisièmement thirdly, and so on. 70. The following special uses are to be noted : a. After plus more or moins less, the English than before a numeral is expressed by de : thus, plus de dix minutes more than ten minutes, moins de cent ans less than a hundred years. b. The article is not seldom used after vers toward and sur about in expressions of time : thus, vers or sur les six heures about 6 o'clock ; and then, by analogy, even in vers les une heure about 1 o'clock. c. Such expressions as lui cinquième, literally himself the fifth, are sometimes used for he and four others, and the like. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XI. Numerals. (§ 66.) ' Charles-Quint ! dans ces temps d'opprobre et de terreur, que fais-tu dans ta tombe ? ( V. Hugo.) (§67.) ' II vit devant lui une jeune fille d'une vingtaine d'années, qui se tenait sur le seuil. (Theuriet.) 2 L'album contenait des portraits, parmi lesquels se trouvaient une trentaine d'amis intimes. (Bal.) 3 II se retirait toujours le visage droit aux ennemis, et l'épée au poing, leur don- nant plus de crainte qu'un cent d'autres. (Michelet.) (§69.) 1 Le timbre sonore lentement frémit douze fois ... et l'année expire à sa voix. (Tastu.) 2 J'ai vu deux ou trois fois ici M. d'Autun. (de Sèv.) (§ 70.) ' Votre majesté aura encore plus d'une heure pour s'y reposer. (Guizot.) 2 Les scélérats ! ils m'ont attaché les mains, comme vous voyez ; ils étaient plus de vingt, (de Vi) 3 C'était sur les cinq heures de l'après-midi, par le plus beau temps du monde. ( G. Sand.) 4 Tu partiras vers les deux heures après dîner ; tu seras là-bas à la nuit. (G. Sand.) 5 II est parti lui douzième ; tout le reste courra après. (de Sév.) Theme 4. numerals. 1 Charles the Fifth died in the year 1558. 2 He had ab- dicated sovereign power in 1555, but he lived, in the clois- ter to which he had retired, more than three years longer. 3 Have you begun the second volume of the novel you were 244 PRONOUN'S AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [70 — reading yesterday ? 4 It has three volumes, sir ; I have just finished the second, and I am going to begin the third this evening. 5 1 left at Paris some hundred friends, among whom there were not more than ten or so intimate ones. c He would not have retired before a hundred ene- mies. 7 He was in the army more than twenty years ; he has made a dozen campaigns, and has been wounded five or six times. 8 1 have seen him only once ; it was toward eleven o'clock in the evening. 9 He came in, he and nine others, but he stayed less than an hour. VI.— PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 71. In the First Part, the substantive forms and the adjective forms of the various classes of pronouns, with their uses, were explained separately ; here the two kinds will be treated together in each class. A. — Personal Pronouns. 72. The forms of the personal pronouns, and their principal uses, were explained in the First Part (Lessons XXII. and XXIII. ). Further rules are added here. 73. Both the subject-pronoun and the object-pronoun are ordinarily repeated with each verb to which they be- long in sense. Thus, nous allons et nous venons we go and come, je le vois et je l'entends i" see and hear it. a. But exceptions are not infrequent : the rule applies more strictly to object- than to subject-pronouns, to pronouns of the first and second than to those of the third person, and with sim- ple than with compound tenses of the verb. The repetition is necessary if the object-pronouns are in different constructions : thus, je l'ai vu et je lui ai parlé Ihave seen and spoken to him. 74. If a subject-pronoun is to be made emphatic, it is usually repeated, in its disjunctive form, either before the verb or, sometimes, after it. Ï9] PERSONAL PROKOUKS. 245 Thus, moi, je l'ai dit or je l'ai dit, moi I {myself) have said it. a, Then the proper subject is sometimes omitted, and the em- phatic disjunctive is left alone as subject : thus, lui n'a eu qu'un ami lie (emphatic) had only one friend. 75. In like manner, an object-pronoun is repeated, in combination with même, for emphasis or distinctness, and with à if it is indirect object. Thus, il se l'est fait à lui-même he has done it to himself, je t'ai vu toi-même / have seen thee thyself. 76. A subject-pronoun separated from the verb, by a clause or even a single word, like seul or aussi, has to take the disjunctive form (see XXIII. 3^). Thus, eux aussi nous ont vus they too have seen us, lui seul a raison he alone is right. a. But in old-style and official speech this rule is sometimes violated : thus, je soussigné déclare I the undersigned declare. 77. The use of two conjunctive pronouns with one verb, as its direct and indirect objects respectively, is limited to cases in which the direct object is of the 3d person, and not reflexive (se) ; otherwise, the direct ob- ject alone is made conjunctive, and the indirect follows the verb as disjunctive, with à. Thus, je me présente à toi or à lui I present myself to thee or to him, il se montra à moi he showed himself to me. 78. While a noun-object with à to is ordinarily represented in pronoun-form by the simple conjunctive pronoun of the indirect object, there are certain verbs which require instead the disjunc- tive pronoun with à. Such verbs are especially penser à or songer à think of, venir à come to, courir à run to, être à belong to ; also appeler à call to, renoncer à renounce, accoutumer à accustom to: thus, je pense à toi / think of thee, il vint à nous he came to us, cette maison est à moi this house belongs to me. 79. a. Certain verbs that govern an infinitive directly (without de or à) are treated like auxiliaries in taking be- fore them an object-pronoun logically belonging to the infinitive. Such verbs are faire or laisser cause, sentir feel, entendre 246 PKONOUNS AND PRÔHOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [79— hear, voir see : thus, je l'ai fait faire / have caused to make it (or caused it to be made), nous l'avons entendu dire we have heard it said (literally, have heard say it). For the case of two object-pronouns in such a combination, see below, § 158. b. The same is not seldom the case with vouloir wish, pouvoir can, devoir ought : thus, il me le veut persuader or il veut me le persuader he ivants to persuade me of it, on le peut gagner or on peut le gagner one can win him, qui le doit emporter who ought to get the better? Other cases sometimes occur : e.g. nous Talions montrer we are going to show it. 80. If an imperative affirmative is followed by an- other, connected with it by et and or ou or, the pronoun- objects of the latter may be placed before it instead of after. Thus, console-toi et m'écoute (or et écoute-moi) comfort thy- self and listen to me, montrez-les-moi ou me les peignez show or describe them to me. 81. a. The direct object-prononn of the third person, le, is used predicatively without variation of gender or number to represent a preceding adjective, or noun of condition or quality, where so may be used in English. Thus, êtes-vous heureux ? je le suis are you happy ? I am so, fut-elle servante ? elle le fut was she a servant ? she was so. b. But where the question is one of identity, the predicate pro- noun is varied to agree with the noun to which it relates : thus, êtes-vous la Marie ? je la suis are you Mary ? I am she. 82. a. The French often uses le to repeat or to an- ticipate something stated in a preceding or following clause, while the English omits it. Thus, ils ne sont pas ici, je le vois they are not here, I see, vous le savez, c'est un caractère faible you know, he is a weak character. The repetition, in fact, of either subject or object in the form of a conjunctive pronoun (also en and y) with the verb is a fre- quent and familiar peculiarity of French. b. With a few verbs, the French uses le as a sort of indefinite constant object : thus, l'emporter get the better (literally, carry it off), le céder give way, le disputer contest, vie, and so on. 83. The disjunctive pronouns of the third person — 85] . PEESOKAL PEONOUKS. 24? lui, elle, eux, elles — are chiefly, though not exclusively, used of persons, other modes of expression being substi- tuted when things are referred to. 84. Soi (XXIII. 4) is used of persons only in an in- definite way, when no reference is had to a particular person. As relating to things, its employment is less restricted ; but modern usage tends to substitute for it the ordinary disjunctives of the third person, especially in the feminine, and where definite objects are intended. Thus, un bienfait porte sa récompense en soi a kindness brings its own reward with it, but les choses ne sont en elles- mêmes ni pures ni impures things are neither pure nor impure in themselves. 85. En and y (XXIII. 5-8) are adverbs that have ac- quired the value and construction of pronouns, being used instead of personal pronouns (rarely, of demonstra- tives) in the genitive and dative cases respectively, or as governed by the prepositions de and à. They refer usu- ally to things ; but also to persons, if plural or under- stood in an indefinite sense ; to a definite person in the singular, only rarely. a. Quite frequently, they refer to a whole (preceding) clause, or to something still more indefinitely suggested : thus, il n'est pas ici, j'en suis sûr he is not here, I am sure of it, il est sorti, fiez-vous y he has gone out, depend upon it. b. Hence also, in many special combinations, they have a yet more indefinite reference, to nothing specified or distinctly sug- gested, but to things in general ; and they form idiomatic phrases, where they are hardly, if at all, translatable : en meaning in re- spect of it, because of it, from it, away ; and y meaning there, unto it, etc. Some of the commonest of these combinations are : s'en aller (XXIX. Tc), go off s'en prendre à, make responsible, accuse s'en retourner, come back en user avec, treat, handle en avoir à, have to deal iciih en être, be at a point or situation en vouloir à, have a grudge against en venir à, come to tlie point of en être fait, be all over en finir, make an end 248 PKONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [85— y avoir (XXX. 4), there is, etc. y être, comprehend y aller de, concern y voir, see things, liave eyes En in the sense of away (as in s'en aller) is in many cases compounded with a verb : thus, s'enfuir run away, s'envoler fly °lf\ s'emporter lose one's self-control, emmener carry off. e. En is sometimes used pleonastically to repeat a genitive (usually plural) depending on the same verb : thus, de ces trois unités il n'y en a qu'une d'importante of these three unities there is only one [that is\ important. cl. For en having the value of a possessive, see below, § 886. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XII. Personal Pronouns. (§ 73.) ' Oui, j'étais et je suis encore dans une grande perplexité. (About.) a Votre lettre, madame, rae plaît, me touche, et m'alarme. (Rouss.) ' J En attendant le jour du départ j'allais, je venais, je ne pouvais me rassasier de voir la citadelle, l'arsenal, le port. (Bar th.) 4 Je la vis la veille, je lui parlai, je me désespérai. (Mar.) (§ 74.) l Moi, sans me vanter, j'ai la mine qu'il faut a pour les contes à faire b peur. (Courier.) 2 Moi, j'ai passa- blement couru pour trouver une femme. (About.) 3 En at- tendant, lui ne bouge pas de sa fenêtre. (Tœpfer.) 4 S'il n'en dit rien à Claire, ce n'était pas qu'il craignît de la rendre jalouse, ou que lui-même gardât au fond du cœur un reste de dépit. (About.) 5 On ne loue point une femme ni un auteur comme eux-mêmes se louent. (La R.) (§ 75.) ' Si vous avez fait de votre mieux, ne vous en veuillez" pas à vous-mêmes. (Joufroy.) 2 Je ne puis e sans horreur me regarder moi-même. (Delavigne.) (§ 76.) 1 Elle les nomme ; et lui, saisissant un crayon, se met à les écrire. (Thiers.) 2 Mais lui, voyant en moi la fille de son frère, me tint lieu, chère Elise, et de père et de mère. (Rac.) 3 Eux seuls savent juger, savent penser, sa- vent écrire, doivent écrire. (La Br.) 4 Lui, bravant tous les dangers, semblait seul tenir la campagne. (Béranger.) (§ 77.) l C'est moi qui me fie à vous. (Mignet.) 2 C'est l'art et non pas la nature simple qui se montre à nous. (Fén.) 3 J'ai mérité ce qui m'arrive, puisque j'ai pu m'adresser à lui. (Scribe.) 4 On trouve à qui parler quand on s'adresse à moi. (Delavigne.) (§ 78.) ' J'ai pensé à elle d'abord, c'était mon devoir ; » XXX. 8. b § 1856. c § 133. d XXIV. 6/. « § 166a. 85] PEESÔKAL PEÔKÔUKS. 249 à moi ensuite, c'était mon droit. (Augier.) 2 Mon moulin est à moi, tout aussi bien, au moins, que la Prusse est au roi. (Andrieux.) 3 Un soir, comme j'arrivais, l'enfant vint à moi toute troublée. (Dau.) (§ 79.) 1 Monsieur lui voulut faire voir St. Cloud lui- même. (St. Simon.) 2 Aimez-moi toujours ; c'est la seule chose qui me peut donner de la consolation, (de Sév.) 3 Tu trahis mes bienfaits; je les veux redoubler. (Corn.) 4 Ainsi toujours les dieux vous daignent inspirer! (Corn.) 5 N'ayant pu vous venger, je vous irai rejoindre. (Corn.) (§ 80.) ' Monsieur Lysidas, prenez un siège vous-même, et vous mettez là. (Mol.) 2 Tenez, monsieur ; battez-moi plutôt et me laissez rire. (Mol.) (§ 81.) 1 Sois gentille. — Je ne le suis donc pas toujours ? — Oh ! si. (About.) 2 Vous n'étiez pas coupable envers moi ; c'est moi qui le fus envers moi-même. (G. Sand.) 3 Vous êtes Ardasire ? lui dis- je. — Oui, perfide, répondit- elle ; je la suis. (Mont.) (§ 82.) l C'est dans cette chambre bien simple, vous le voyez, que j'ai passé les plus douces heures que j'ai vécu a . (Dum.) 2 II s'en va ; je n'ai pas tant de pouvoir sur lui que je le croyais. (Mar.) 3 Lui seul, madame, vous aura aimée comme vous devriez l'être. (Bal.) 4 Cette alterna- tive prouve en effet qu'il leur manque quelque chose à chacun. (Cuvier.) 5 Les richesses et le luxe des arts le disputent en éclat aux dons splendides des fées, (de Sis- mondi.) (§ 84.) *I1 est beau de triompher de soi. (Corn.) 2 II est plus aisé d'être sage pour les autres que de l'être pour soi-même. (La JR.) 3 Etre trop mécontent de soi est une faiblesse ; être trop content de soi est une sottise, (de Sablé.) 4 La poésie porte son excuse avec soi. (Boileau.) 6 Les victoires traînent toujours après elles autant de ca- lamités pour un Etat que les plus sanglantes défaites. (Massillon.) (§ 85.) 1 En 1814, la Restauration, trouvant le général Dupont en prison, en eut fait un ministre de la guerre. (Ste.-B.) a En sortant de l'état de nature, nous forçons nos semblables d'en sortir aussi ; nul n'y peut demeurer malgré les autres. (Bouss.) 3 J'étais indigne de vous, et j'en rougis. «§ 1946. 250 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [85— (G. Sand.) 4 C'était elle, j'en étais sûr, qui avait si douillette- ment installé là sa bonne mère. (Coppée.) 5 On m'a dit tant de mal de cet homme, et j'y en vois a si peu ! (La Br.) 6 Comment s'y prend-on, à la guerre, pour éviter les mau- vais coups ? (About.) 7 J'en étais là de mes réflexions, quand j'entendis appel er b mon nom. (Dau.). 8 Pourquoi s'en prendre aux hommes de ce que les femmes ne sont pas savantes ? (La Br.) B C'en est fait, mes amis ; il n'est plus de patrie. ( Vol.) 10 La dispute s'échauffant, on en vint bientôt aux armes. ( Vertot.) " Il y va de ma gloire ; il faut que je me venge. (Corn.) 12 De deux personnes qui s'aiment, soit d'amour, soit d'amitié, il y en a toujours une qui doit donner de son cœur plus que l'autre. (G. Sand.) Theme 5. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 1 We are and always shall be charmed with this book ; it pleases and instructs us. 2 Do you know who is its c au- thor? 3 I d know and have spoken with him; he came himself to see me, the eve of his departure. 4 He alone knows how 6 to write really interesting stories. 5 1 will give this book to yourself, but you will not permit her to f read it. 6 They also will read it, but he alone will understand it. 7 If he wants to present himself to us, we shall not show ourselves to him. 8 We were thinking of her when she came to us. 9 This house — I cannot accustom myself to it, although it is mine. 10 1 saw them arrive this morn- ing. " I have caused to say to her that I cannot see her to-day. 12 She sends you this letter ; take it and read it. 13 Is she not your sister ? 14 She is (so) ; I was always kind to her, but she has not been so toward me. 15 You know, I have passed here many happy years. 16 1 love this room more than you would believe g . 1T Some men are happier than they ought g to be. 18 One ought not to be too well- » § 161e. "§1 76d. c § 886. «» emphatic. • XXXIV. It a. < § 1 796. e § 1 70c. 89] POSSESSIVES. 251 satisfied with one's self. 19 Every weakness carries its own punishment in itself. M He who triumphs over a himself triumphs over a all misfortunes. 21 It was she who said so much evil of them, depend upon it. 22 It is all over ; let us make an end, and go away. 23 Of all these people, there is not one that I love. B. — Possessives. 86. The possessives are the adjective forms corresponding to the personal pronouns as substantives. The forms and principal uses of them have been already given (XIV. 1-5, XXVII. 1, 2). a. The so-called possessive pronouns (Lesson XXVII.) are only a different form of the possessive adjectives, made of substantive value by prefixing the definite article. 87. The possessive pronoun is occasionally used predicatively without article, and attributively after the indefinite article in- stead of the definite : thus, cette maison est mienne this house is mine j un mien parent a relation of mine. 88. The possessive adjective is often omitted in French where English usage requires it, or its meaning is expressed by the French in another manner than in Eng- lish. a. It is omitted especially in speaking of parts of the body or dress, where the connection makes clear what is meant : thus, il me donna la main he gave me his hand. b. Its meaning is often expressed by an indirect object-pronoun with the verb, or by en : thus, il s'est cassé le bras he has bro- ken his arm. le sol en est fertile its soil is fertile. c. On the other hand, the possessive is used in address before the name of a relative, the title of a superior officer, and in other like cases : thus, bonjour, mon père good day, father, oui, mon general yes, General. 89. The possessive is made emphatic, as in English, by adding propre own ; but also by adding the corresponding disjunctive pronoun with à: thus, de mes propres yeux with my own eyes, la maison de mon père et la mienne propre m y father's house and my own. votre opinion à vous your very own opinion. a de. 252 PRONOUNS AND PROtfOMTtfAL ADJECTIVES. [89— ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XIII. Possessives. (§ 87.) ! Elle peut a nous plaire plus ou moins, mais elle est sienne. (Ste.-B.) 2 Un mien cousin, César, Comte de Garofa, près de Velalcazar. ( V. Hugo.) (§ 88.) ' Je me suis blessé à la main. (Duvivier.) 2 Jeunes femmes, ne jetez jamais les yeux sur les maîtres chanteurs de Bohême. (Gautier.) 3 Plus nombreux, ils le- vaient le front plus haut que lui. (Delavigne.) 4 Je m'at- tachai à me perfectionner le goût. (Le Sage.) B Au second coup seulement, le bourreau lui abattit la tête. (Miguet.) 8 Pour chasser ce cauchemar, je fermai les yeux ; le cœur me battait à 1 ' me rompre la poitrine. (Lab.) 7 La main me tremblait, mon regard se troublait, le cœur me manqua. (Lam.) b En passant en Pologne, il en vit le roi. (St. Si- mon.) ' Cette vie, je l'ai en grande partie parcourue ; j'en connais les promesses, les réalités, les déceptions. (Jouffroy.) 10 Ma mère, ma mère !■ pourquoi es-tu si longtemps couchée ? (Berquin.) " Pauvre cher homme ! j'ai dîné hier avec lui ; je lui disais : Vous mangez trop, mon oncle. (Augier.) 12 J'en ferai confidence à tout le régiment ; merci, mon vieux ! (About.) (§ 89.) ' Aimable enfant, ajoutait-il, votre présence et vos doux sourires, voilà mes fêtes à moi. (Sandeau.) 2 Ainsi, toute ma famille à moi, c'est ma pauvre nourrice, la mère Joseph. (Scribe.) Theme 6. possessives. 1 Here is a cousin of thine ; give him thy hand. 2 1 can- not give him my hand ; I have broken my arm. 3 If you perfect your taste, you will like books better ; you will un- derstand their beauties and know their authors. 4 France is the most beautiful country in Europe, and Paris is its capital and largest city. 5 Cousin, you do not know the world. e You are afraid, friend ; your hand trembles, and your courage fails. 7 Come with me, captain ; you shall see the whole company. 8 1 did it with my own hands. 9 1 am not going to dine with you at the restaurant ; it is a XXV. 8/. b § 183/t. 94] demonstratives. 253 my a happiness to b dine with my own family, in my own house. C. — Demonstratives. 90. The forms and principal uses of the demonstrative adjec- tives and pronouns are given in the First Part (XIII. 1-3, XXIV. 1-4). 91. The demonstratives containing ci and là are often used respectively in the sense of latter (i.e. nearer) and former (i.e. farther off). Thus, Corneille et Racine sont deux grands poètes ; celui-là [i.e. Corneille] est plus sublime, celui-ci [i.e. Kacine] est plus vrai Corneille and Racine are two great p>oets ; the former lias more sublimity, the latter more truth. And in the same manner ce . . . -ci and ce . . . -là, and ceci and cela. 92. a. Instead of the simple demonstratives celui etc. (XXIV. 4a) as antecedent of a relative, the compounds celui-là etc. are used, if something intervenes before the relative, or if the rela- tive clause is additive or parenthetic in value : thus, celui-là est bon qui fait du bien aux autres he is good who does good to others, celui-ci, qui coûte deux francs, est meilleur que celui-là, qui en coûte cinq this one, which costs two francs, is better than that one, which costs five. b. On the other hand, the simple celui etc. are in rare cases used otherwise than before a relative or de : thus, cette remarque, ainsi que celles purement grammaticales (Volt.) this remark, as well as those purely grammatical. 93. Ça is a familiar substitute for cela (XXIV. 3) ; it is some- times used in a derogatory or contemptuous way of persons : thus, lui, qu'est-ce que ça he ? what is he ? 94. a. For the repetition by ce of a subject already expressed, see § 147c. b. The adjective ce is often used of persons present or near one, where the English uses instead the article : thus, ces dames the ladles {of the house), and so on. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XIV. Demonstratives. (§91.) ' Livie a quelques traits de Madame de Mainte- non ; si celle-ci fonda Saint-Cyr, celle-là s'occupait des jeunes filles en les mariant. (Ampère.) (§ 92.) * Ceux-là seuls qui ont la conscience de n'être "emphatic. b §173b. 254 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [94— rien par eux-mêmes, manifestent des regrets en tombant du pouvoir. [Bal.) (§ 93.) l Ça marche ! ça marche ! dans huit jours nous entrerons à Berlin. (Dau.) 2 Aie bien soin de tout ; tu me rendras compte de ça là-bas ! dit-il. (Bal.) 3 Davoust ? Qu'est-ce que c'est que a ça? — Ça, monsieur le marquis, c'est le héros qui prépara Wagram. (Sandeau.) (§ 94.) ' Ce que je désire, c'est de b vous voir réussir. (Bac.) a II a peur de c perdre une minute, parce que le temps, c'est de l'argent. (Lab.) 3 Faites approcher ce mon- sieur, que ces messieurs avaient attaché. ( V. Hugo.) Theme 7. demonstratives. 1 1 have read the life of Wellington and that of Napo- leon ; the latter was the greater man, the former the bet- ter citizen. 2 He alone is happy who triumphs over d him- self. 3 Those who love others are themselves beloved. 4 This man, who has never had anything, is happier than that one, who has lost his great wealth. 5 Wagram ? what is that ? 6 Wagram was one of the great battles of Na- poleon's wars. . D. — Interrogatives. 95. The interrogative adjective and pronouns were given, and their principal uses explained, in the First Part (XIII. 4, 5, XXV.). 96. De qui is not used in the sense of whose ? with the govern- ing noun immediately following : thus, de qui est-ce le livre whose book is this ? 97. The predicative que (XXV. 4a) is used almost as subject in certain impersonal expressions, where the impersonal subject is omitted : thus, que vous en semble what do you think of them ? (literally, what seems to you of them f) qu'arrive-t-il what is happening ? 98. After qu'est-ce meaning what is ? a que is added before the predicate noun : thus, qu'est-ce que la vie ivhat is life ? a. The same is the case after the doubled interrogative qu'est-ce que c'est (XXV. 7) : thus, qu'est-ce que c'est que la vie what is life ? a §98. b §1736. «§185a. d de. 103] EELATIVES. 255 99. For the repetition of de after an interrogative before two alternatives, see above, § 34c. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XV. Interrogatives. (§ 95.) * Qui voulez-vous que mon cœur mette à votre place? (Mar.) 2 'Qui vous rend si hardi de troubler mon breuvage ? (La F.) 3 Qui vous a fait poète ? — Le malheur. (Dum.) 4 Qui vous a engagé à commettre cet assassinat ? — Ses crimes. (Thiers.) & Sais-tu que c'est son sang? le sais-tu? — Que m'importe? (Com.) 6 Qu'êtes-vous mainte- nant, soldats anglais? (Guizot.) 7 Voulez- vous que je vous apprenne la logique ? — Qu'est-ce que c'est que cette lo- gique? (Mol.) E. — Relatives. 100. The forms and principal uses of the relative pronouns and adjective were given and explained in the First Part (XIII. 56, XXVI.). a. For the use of a relative clause where in English a present participle stands, see below, § 189#. 101. a. Lequel is occasionally used as adjective, when intro- ducing a clause that has additive value : thus, lequel chevalier devait épouser Mademoiselle B. which gentleman was to marry Miss B. b. In antiquated and official phraseology, lequel stands some- times where ordinary usage requires qui or que : thus, un témoin, lequel a dit . . . a witness, tvho has said . . . 102. Dont and de qui are not used as dependent upon an an- tecedent that is governed by a preposition : thus, le roi aux bien- faits duquel . . . the king to whose benefits . . . 103. Qui, que, and quoi are all often used as compound rela- tives, or relatives implying also their antecedent, and having a general or indefinite sense. a. Qui referring to persons thus signifies any one who, whoever, and is used also as object : thus, qui s'excuse s'accuse whoever excuses himself accuses himself, qu'importe la vie à qui perd le bonheur of what use is life to any one who loses happiness f je ne sais qui chercher I don't know whom to look for. b. Qui is also used instead of ce qui as referring to things after voici and voilà, and in parenthetic phrases like qui plus est what is more : thus, voilà qui serait merveilleux that would be ad- mirable (lit'ly, behold what woidd be admirable). _ c. Que hardly occurs in this sense except as object of an infini- tive immediately following it : thus, il ne sait que faire he knows not what to do. 256 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [103— d. Quoi stands with this value especially after a preposition (see XXVI. 6) : thus, voilà de quoi il parle that is what he is talking about, dites-moi en quoi je puis vous servir tell me in what I can be of service to you. And de quoi has become an idi- omatic phrase, meaning the wherewith, the means of anything. 104. Qui, quoi, and quel, when followed by que before a sub- junctive, correspond to whoever and whatever with the subjunc- tive in English ; qui being used relating to persons, quoi as ob- ject relating to things, and quel as predicate adjective : thus, qui que vous soyez, quoi que vous fassiez, quels que soient vos ta- lents whoever you may be, whatever you may do, whatever be your talents, quoi qu'il en soit whatever the case may be. a. The same phrases are used sometimes in the sense of any one soever, anything whatever, and the like : thus, il ne con- naît qui que ce soit he knows nobody at all. b. Very rarely, qui is used instead of que, with a verb follow- ing of which it is the subject : thus, quoi qui suive whatever may ensue. c. For the use of quelque que in a similar sense, see below, § 107c ; for that of relative adverbs, see § 137c. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XVI. Kelatives. (§ 100.) 'Moi qui suis royaliste, je le dis franchement. (de Vi.) 2 Dis-moi, qui es-tu, toi qui me parles ainsi? (Mar.) 3 Ce fut moi qui m'inclinai à mon tour. (Dum.) 4 Soleil qui vois, entends, connais tout ! (Chénier.) (§ 102.) 'Monsieur, c'est un homme sur la vie duquel reposent d'énormes capitaux. (Bal.) 2 Celui-là seul avait le droit de triompher, sous les auspices duquel la guerre était faite. (Mont.) (§ 103.) ' Qui dit le peuple, dit^plus d'une chose ; c'est une vaste expression. (La Br.) 2 A qui venge son père, il n'est rien d'impossible. (Corn.) 3 Qui sert bien son pays n'a pas besoin d'aïeux. ( Vol.) 4 Je n'aurai qui tromper, non plus que qui me trompe. (Corn.) 5 J'ai de quoi me défendre, et de quoi vous répondre. (Rotrou.) 6 Voilà qui m'étonne, que nous ayons été seules, l'une et l'autre, tout aujourd'hui. (Mol.) 7 Edouard III. ne se crut pas assez fort tout seul ; il chercha qui embaucher dans sa cause. ( Vacquerie.) 8 C'est la pensée qui fait l'être de l'homme, et sans quoi on ne le peut concevoir. (Pasc.) 9 S'il faut agir, je ne sais que faire ; s'il faut parler, je ne sais que dire. (Rouss.) 104] RELATIVES. 257 (§ 104.) J Qui que ce soit, parlez, et ne le craignez pas. (Rac.) 2 Quoi que vous fassiez, votre image m'est restée. (de Mu.) 3 Le grand mystère de la mort, quel qu'il soit, doit donner du calme, (de Staël.) 4 Madame, j'aime mieux vos intérêts que les siens, et que ceux de qui que ce soit au monde. (Mar.) 5 Mais n'importe, ma chère nièce ; quoi qu'il arrive, quelle que soit notre famille, cela ne change rien à mes projets. (Scribe.) 6 Désormais je ne douterai de quoi que ce soit, (de Mu.) Theme 8. interrogatives and relatives. 1 Whose pretty picture is this ? 2 What matters it to you who is its owner ? 3 What is man's happiness ? 4 Who told you that ? 5 What do you want ? 6 He alone has the right to be happy, on whose life rests the happiness of others. 7 One who wants to be rich ought to work. 8 1 do not know what to do, to whom to address myself, with what to defend myself. 9 Here is something to defend yourself with. 10 We have worked a great deal, and we have gained the means of living. " Nobody can tell what she is thinking of at present. 12 That is the man who has deceived me. 13 Speak to him, and you will find that he has nothing to answer you with. 14 Whatever they do, they are always wrong. 15 Whatever I said to her, she would not listen to me. 16 Whatever may be your talents, you will never succeed without application. 17 Do your duty, whatever it may be, and you cannot 3, be really un- happy. 1B We have not seen any one whomsoever. ^What- ever may happen to you, be firm. 20 They do not succeed in anything whatever. § 133a. 17 258 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [105- F. — Indefinite Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives. 105. Some of the forms and uses of the pronominal words falling under this head were given in the First Part (XIV. 6, XXVII. 3-7) ; further particulars are added here. 106. On (XXVII. 4). A predicate noun or adjective relating to on as subject usually takes the number and gender corre- sponding to the implied meaning : thus, on n'est point des es- claves people are not slaves, qu'on est folle d'agir ainsi how foolish one (i.e. a woman) is to act thus. a. If a corresponding object-form to on is required, vous lias to be used. And vous is also sometimes used as subject in an in- definite way, as in English, instead of on. b. On is sometimes used to soften the force of a command : thus, qu'on se taise, instead of taisez-vous be silent. 1Q7. Quelque, quelqu'un, quelque chose (XIV. 6, XXVII. 5). a. Quelque chose something is treated as masculine (although chose is feminine) : thus, queique chose de bon something good, ce quelque chose this something. b. The negative correlatives to quelqu'un and quelque chose are personne and rien. These are used not only where the nega- tion is distinct or distinctly expressed, but also often where a de- gree of negative sense is implied : thus, sans voir personne with- out seeing any one, je le défie de rien dire de moi I defy him to say anything of me. c. In the sense of English whatever with subjunctive, quelque . . . que stands in French in an attributive sense, or directly qualifying a noun expressed : thus, quelques talents que vous ayez whatever talents you may have, de quelque côté qu'on se tourne in whatever direction one may turn. Compare the corresponding use of qui, quoi, quel, with follow- ing que, above, § 104. Here, also, the que is in rare cases replaced by qui as subject : thus, quelques nouveaux malheurs qui nous doivent attendre whatever new misfortunes may await us. d. Quelque is also used in the same way adverbially, qualify- ing an adjective or adverb, in the sense of however, and is then, of course, invariable : thus, quelque grands que soient vos ta- lents however great your talents may be, quelque fort qu'on se défende however stoutly one may resist. Compare the conjunc- tion quoique although. e. Quelque is also invariable when used in the sense of about, nearly, with a word of quantity, generally a numeral : thus, quelque vingt ans some twenty years, quelque peu some little. 108. Quelconque, This is a pronominal adjective of infre- 114] IKDEFINITES. 259 quent use, meaning whatever, and always following the noun it qualifies: thus, donnez-moi un point quelconque, des points quelconques give me any point whatever, any points whatever. 109. Chaque, chacun (XIV. 6, XXVII. 5). Of the two words meaning every, chaque is distributive and individualizing, tout is inclusive and generalizing : thus, tout homme est mortel ; chaque homme a son caractère à lui every man is mortal ; every (or each) man has his own character. In many cases, however, the two may be used indifferently. 110. Tel such. Tel is varied for gender and number like any other adjective in el : thus, tel, tels ; telle, telles. It is used in all adjective constructions, and also substantively. It takes the indefinite article before it, instead of after, as in English : thus, un tel homme such a man, sa conduite était telle que . . . his conduct was such as . . . a. Tel has various idiomatic uses. It means so-and-so, or such-and-such, standing in place of a word which it is desired not to express distinctly : thus, à telle époque at such-and-such an epoch, monsieur un tel Mr. such a one. It may often be ren- dered by one and another or many a one, or the like : thus, tel parle de choses qu'il n'entend pas some people talk of things they don't understand. Tel . . . tel stand for one . . . another : thus, tel rit, tel pleure one laughs, another cries ; or for as . . . so : thus, tel père, tel fils as the father, so the son. Tel quel means elliptically such as it is, of whatever sort or quality. 111. Aucun, nul (XIV. 6, XXVII. 6). These words are used both adjectively and substantively, and both alike require ne be- fore the verb. They but rarely occur in the plural. a. They are used not only as distinct negatives, but also where a negative sense is implied or suggested, as after sans without and verbs of denial or doubt : thus, sans nul égard without any consideration, je doute qu'aucun de vous le fasse I question whether any of you would do it. Aucun is occasionally found in old-style French with a fully positive meaning : thus, aucuns croient que . . . some believe that . . . 112. Plusieurs several etc. Plusieurs (XIV. 6, XXVII. 6) is only plural, and used both adjectively and substantively. a. Other adjectives used nearly in the same sense are (much as in English) certain, différent, divers, certain, sundry, divers, and the like. 113. Maint many a, many. This is an attributive adjective only, having the usual adjective inflection : thus, maint homme many a man, maintes fois many times or many a time. 114. a. Même self, same, etc. This word, a pronoun by ori- gin, has acquired a variety of values. For its combinations with the disjunctive pronouns, moi-même myself etc., see the First 260 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [114— Part (XXIII. 3c). After a noun, it has a similar meaning, itself etc. : thus, la vertu même virtue itself, les Français mêmes the French themselves; and it is sometimes best translated very : thus, ce matin même that very morning. b. Before the qualified noun, it means same: thus, ce même matin that same morning, les mêmes Français the same French- men. c. It is also often used as adverb, meaning even : thus, même ce matin even this morning, ses ennemis même even his enemies. With this value it is, of course, invariable in form. 115. Autre other (XXVII. 6). This word is for the most part an ordinary adjective, capable of being used also substantively. For its combination with un into phrases, see the First Part (XXVII. 7). a. It is sometimes added to nous or vous expletively, or simply to emphasize the distinction of lis or you from others : thus, nous autres Français we Frenchmen, vous autres Anglais you Eng- lish. b. Autre chose anything else is common with a negative verb in the sense of nothing else. 116. Tout all, every (XIV. 6, XXVII. 5-7, § 109). This is also in the main an ordinary adjective, but having some values analo- gous with pronominal words. a. In certain phrases, tout signifies all, whole without accom- panying article etc. : thus, à toute force with all one's might ; this is especially the case in the plural : thus, en toutes choses in all things, de toutes sortes of all sorts. b. Tout everything is sometimes used in the sense of everybody. Le tout is the whole. c. Tout is very often used adverbially, meaning wholly, en- tirely, quite, altogether, all, and the like. In these senses, it re- mains invariable before a noun, an adverb, a preposition, a mas- culine adjective, and a feminine adjective beginning with a vowel ; but, before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant, it is itself treated as an adjective, and made to 'agree with the follow- ing noun : thus, elles sont tout admirées they are altogether ad- mired, but elles sont toutes malades they are quite ill, elle était tout aimable, toute gracieuse she was altogether amiable and gracious. d. Tout before an adjective, or noun used adjectively, with que after it, adds the meaning of however : tout bon qu'il est how- ever good he is, tout gentilshommes qu'ils pouvaient être how- ever much the gentleman they might be. Here, too, the tout is treated as adjective before a feminine beginning with a conso- nant : thus, toutes bonnes qu'elles sont good though they are, 116] INDEFINITES. 261 ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XVII. Indefinites. (§ 106.) 1 Quand on est jeunes, riches, et jolies, mes- dames, on n'est pas réduites à l'artifice. {Diderot.) ' Qu'on redouble demain les heureux sacrifices. (Corn.) (§ 107.) 1 Un gentilhomme croit sincèrement qu'il y a quelque chose de grand et de noble à la chasse. (Pasc.) 2 Quelques lumières, quelques traits d'esprit que l'on ait, rien n'est si aisé que de se tromper. ^(Pasc.) 3 Enfin, de quelque manière que les finances de l'Etat soient adminis- trées, la France possède dans le travail d'environ vingt millions d'habitants un trésor inestimable. ( Vol.) 4 Quel- que corrompues que soient nos mœurs, le vice n'a pas en- core perdu toute sa honte. (Massillon.) 5 Et quel age avez- vous ? — Hé ! quelque soixante ans. (Pac.) (§ 108.) ' Toutes les jouissances sont toujours précédées d'un travail quelconque. ( Campan.) (§ 109.) 1 Chaque condition a ses dégoûts, et à chaque état sont attachées ses amertumes. (Massillon.) ' 2 Toute confiance est dangereuse, si elle n'est entière. (La Br.) 3 Chacun se croit capable de tout. (Nicole.) 4 Comme si les travers de la famille humaine ne rajeunissaient pas chaque an, chaque semaine ! (de Mu.) (§ 110.) 1 Mais où Madame de Lafayette retrouvera-t- elle un tel ami, une telle société? (de Sév.) 2 Tel qu'est le juge du peuple, tels sont ses ministres. (Saci.) 3 Tels doivent être loués de ce qu'ils ont fait, et tels de ce qu'ils auraient fait. (La Br.) 4 La sculpture, au contraire, ne fait guère rêver ; car elle représente nettement telle chose, et non pas telle autre. ( Cousin.) 5 Mais l'enfant retrouvée telle quelle, on s'est calmé bien vite. (G. Sand.) (§111.) 1 Notre vie ne suffit pour aucun exercice, pour aucun art, pour aucune profession. (Nicole.) a Hélas ! au- cun son ne frappait notre oreille. (Chat.) 3 Partout la force éclate, mais sans grace aucune. (Le Bury.) 4 Je me suis retourné ; je l'ai regardé : lui, sans nul égard, sans nulle attention, a répété le même discours. (Ledaïne.) 5 A- t-il lu un livre qui lui a plu ? C'est la plus belle chose qu'il y ait en aucune langue, (de Mu.) (§ 112.) 1 Ah, monsieur ! il y a certains petits adoucisse- ments à cause de la faiblesse du sexe, (de Sév.) (§ 113.) ' Car, si les loups mangeaient mainte bête éga- rée, les bergers de leur peau se faisaient maints habits. 262 PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [116— (La F.) 2 Avec quelques vertus, j'ai maint et maint défaut. (Chaulieu.) (§114.) ' C'est la voix même de la patrie, gonflée de souvenirs et de larmes. (Dau.) *A la cour, à la ville, mêmes passions, mêmes faiblesses, mêmes petitesses. (La Br.) 3 Ce sont encore les Français, mais non les mêmes. (Pasc.) 4 II est probable même qu'un seul été [de flânerie] ne suffirait point à faire un grand homme. (Tœpfer.) (§ 115.) ' Nous autres diplomates profitons volontiers des fautes de nos collègues. (Scribe.) 2 Vous avez fini, vous autres écrivains, par rendre bien ridicules les femmes qui se prétendent méconnues. (Bal.) 3 Avez-vous de l'or et de l'argent ? me disent-ils ; nous ne souhaitons pas autre chose. (G. Sand.) 4 Toutes les passions ne sont autre chose que les divers degrés de la chaleur et de la froideur du sang. (La R.) (§116.) a Tout petit prince a des ambassadeurs ; tout marquis veut avoir des pages. (La F.) 2 Autour d'elle tout s'était écroulé ; tout en elle souffrait et gémissait. (San- deau.) " Quand mon père venait au parloir, j'étais toujours accompagné de Césarine, qui était pour lui tout aimable, toute gracieuse. (Scribe.) 4 Pour voir donc les passions dans leur difformité naturelle, il faut les considérer toutes nues. (Nicole.) 5 Elle tressaillit, puis devint toute rouge. (Theu- riet.) 6 II est de ce héros, de Frédéric IL, qui, tout roi qu'il était, fut un penseur profond. (Andrieux.) 7 La valeur, tout héroïque qu'elle est, ne suffit pas pour faire des héros. (Mas- sillon.) 8 L'espérance, toute trompeuse qu'elle est, sert au moins à nous mener à la fin de la vie par un chemin agré- able. (La R.) 9 Vous semblez tout effrayée ! — Effrayée ? répondit-elle ingénument, non, mais troublée et contente. (Theuriet.) Theme 9. indefinites. 1 Do not be deceived. 2 How foolish people are to talk thus ! 3 Whatever riches we may have, we can lose them in a day. 4 However dull a man may be, he has always something good or noble in his character. 5 Whatever gifts may be offered us, we shall not accept them. 6 1 have been at his house already some ten times without 11 1 ?] INDEFINITES. 263 finding him. 7 Although he is already some eighty years old, he has not yet lost all his wit. 8 1 wanted to give you something beautiful and interesting, but nothing is more difficult than to find such an article. 9 Give me any book whatever, and I will be satisfied ; there is nothing easier than to choose one. 10 Every book pleases me ; I read every volume that is given me. ll Every man is more or less unhappy, but each man has his own troubles. 12 Where have you seen such a judge and such ministers ? 13 Some love sculpture and some painting. 14 Such as are the peo- ple, such is the government. 15 One ought not to admire every painting, whatever its quality; praise only those that are excellent. 16 No life is sufficient for more than one art or for more than one profession. 17 ISTo one has more grace, but she is without any force. 18 1 doubt if there is any language that she does not speak. 19 Man has many a weakness, many a defect ; but in many things he is strong. 20 1 saw my friend last week, and I have seen him again this very morning. 21 We saw him at the same time as you. 22 Even our weaknesses and our passions are not the same. 23 You women, you are always asking gold and sil- ver ; you want nothing else, it seems to me. 24 You men never see in us anything else than faults. 25 During the last century, everything has changed. 26 France has changed in everything. 27 These little girls are quite young still. 28 Life, however rich in attractions it may be, is not always happy. 29 The hopes of men are altogether vain and deceptive. VI.— VERBS. 117. The inflection of all the verbs in the language, regular and irregular, was given in the First Part, together with the more important rules respecting the uses of the forms ; such further particulars as most need to be given follow here. 264 VEKBS. ■ [118- A. — Tenses of the Verb. 118. The present tense in French has no variety of expression corresponding to the English I give, I do give, I am giving, etc. ; all alike are rendered by the simple present je donne. a. The present stands for the usual varieties of pres- ent action, as purely present, habitual present, expression of general truths, and the like. b. As in English, the present is often used instead of the past in lively narration. Thus, la nuit approche, l'instant arrive ; César se présente night draws nigh, the moment comes ; Ccesar presents himself. And in French, much more often than would be regarded as good style in English, present and past are mixed and interchange in the same sentence. c. Tbe present not infrequently stands where the fu- ture would be more logically correct. Thus, dès que je pourrai, je reviens as soon as I shall be able, I [shall] come back, je pars demain / set out to-morrow. But the French makes this substitution of present for future less often than the English : see below, § 123a. d. The present is regularly used (instead of the per- fect, as in English) for past action continued into the present, or for what has been and still is. Thus, il est ici depuis une semaine he has been here for a week, je l'ai déjà deux ans i" have had it two years already. Compare the similar use of imperfect for English pluperfect, below, § 119c. 119. As between the two simple past tenses, imper- fect and preterit, the preterit expresses simply past action, without further implication; the imperfect ex- presses past action viewed as continuous, as a lasting con- dition or quality, as habitual, repeated, or the like. a. This distinction is in part quite clear and easy to make, as in cases where our language says or might say I was giving, or I kept giving, or I gave repeatedly, or i" used to give, or the like, 121] USES OF THE TEKSES. 265 the imperfect being required in such cases ; but often also it is much more difficult, being determined by the way in which things are looked at, or even by idiomatic usage that is not readily to be accounted for. It depends in great part, not on the character of the action itself, but on the relation of that action to some other : especially, when one action is represented as going on at the time another occurs, the former is imperfect and the latter preterit : thus, in English, he was (impf . était) there as I entered (prêt. entrai) ; he spolie (prêt, parla) to me as I entered (impf. entrais) ; I turned (prêt, tournai) while he spoke (impf. parlait) ; as 1 turned (impf. tournais) I saw (prêt, vis) something — and so on. The student should never pass an imperfect in reading without stopping to ask himself why that tense is used instead of the preterit. b. Certain special cases are : the imperfect sometimes in verbs of speaking, when the words of the speaker are quoted (as if tuent on to say or the like) : thus, elle vous trahira, lui répond- il .. . Avouez, reprenait son ami . . . Jamais, jamais, répétait l'autre she ivill betray you, replies he . ... Confess, his friend went on . . . Never, never, repeated the other ; sometimes a series of successive events are combined, as it were, into a whole by the use of the imperfect ; the imperfect is used in an emphatic way for the conditional : thus, s'il ne l'avait pas fait, l'autre était mort if he had not done so, the other was (i.e. woidd have been) a dead man, For the imperfect instead of conditional or subjunc- tive after si, see below, § 138a. c. The imperfect is regularly used (instead of the plu- perfect, as in English) for previous action continued to or into a past time, or for what had been and still was. Thus, il y était depuis longtemps he had been there for a long time ; ils avaient des défenseurs ; ils n'en eurent plus they had been having defenders ; they no longer had any. Compare the similar use of present for our perfect, above, § 118<2. 120. The preterit needs no other definition than that given above ; it is the tense for simple past action in a general way, when special reasons do not require the im- perfect or perfect. 121. The perfect answers in the main to the English perfect, being the expression for past action with some reference to the present involved. But there are also considerable differences between the two, es- 2G6 VERBS. Es- pecially as the French often uses the perfect where we set the simple preterit : thus, a. To express general facts of the past, not in connection with their surroundings : thus, Alexandre a détruit l'empire des Perses the Persian empire was destroyed by Alexander, Dieu a créé le monde God created the world. b. Especially, the perfect is very often used to express recent events, connected with the present, as having taken place within a division of time now current. Thus, je me suis levé à six heures ce matin i" got up at 6 o'clock this morning ; lui avez-vous parlé did you speak to him ? c. Not seldom in other cases, not easy to define, the perfect is employed where general analogy would lead us to expect the preterit. d. Occasionally, it stands instead of the future perfect : thus, attendez, j'ai fini dans un moment wait; 1 [shall] have finished in a moment. 122. The pluperfect and the past anterior both an- swer to the English pluperfect, but the French pluper- fect is its ordinary equivalent, and much the commoner of the two tense-forms. a. In general, the past anterior is used only after certain par- ticles, which give a special definiteness to the action expressed, in its relation to another past action. These particles are quand and lorsque when, après que after, dès que and aussitôt que as soon as, à peine hardly, and the like : thus, lorsqu'il eut fini, je sortis when lie had finished, I went out. b. Only the pluperfect can be used after si if. 123. The future corresponds to the English future. a. The French, however, often uses the future in compound sentences where it is logically more correct, but where the English has the present instead : thus, vous direz ce qu'il vous plaira you will say what you [shall] please, tant qu'il vivra as long as he lives (or shall live). b. The future is used after si only in the sense of whether : thus, je ne sais s'il viendra i" know not whether he will come. c. As in English, the future is sometimes used in an imperative sense : thus, tu ne tueras pas thou shalt not kill; or to express a probability : thus, ce sera quelque grand homme he is doubt- less some great man.' 127] USES OF THE TENSES. 267 124. The future perfect is used like the correspond- ing tense in English. a. Its peculiarities of use are closely analogous to those of the simple future : thus, tu recueilleras ce que tu auras semé tlion wilt reap what thou hast (shalt have) sown, je déciderai quand je l'aurai vu I will decide when I have seen it, il aura rendu quelques services he has doubtless rendered some service. 125. The conditional agrees in general in use with the English conditional, or verb-phrase made with the auxiliaries would and should. a. The future has in some degree a modal character, as having a contingent or hypothetical meaning ; and the conditional, which is properly a past tense to the future, like the corresponding Eng- lish {would and should being past tenses of will and shall), is still more modal, and is often so classed and described, as the 11 conditional mode." 6. The conditional answers to a past tense as a future to a pres- ent : thus, j'espère qu'il viendra, j'espérais qu'il viendrait I hope he will come, I hoped he would come; qui l'aura, sera mort, qui l'aurait, serait mort whoever has it will be a dead man, whoever had it would be a dead man ; je ne sais s'il viendra, je ne savais s'il viendrait I do n Y know whether he will come, I did not knoiv whether he would come ; and so on. c. In a hypothetical sentence, the conditional is used in the conclusion : thus, si je l'avais, je serais content if I had it, I should be satisfied. But instead of it, the past subjunctive may be used : see below, § 121d. If quand is used instead of si, the conditional may stand also in the other clause : thus, quand je l'aurais if I had it; also after que, in an idiomatically inverted sentence : thus, je l'aurais, que je n'en serais pas content I might have it, and yet not be satisfied. d. As in English, the conditional is used to soften a request or statement : thus, auriez- vous la bonté . . . would you have the kindness . . ., je voudrais que ... J should like to have . . . Saurais (XXXIV. 76) is idiomatically used in the sense of the present can. 126. The conditional perfect corresponds to the same tense in English, and is related to the simple con- ditional precisely as the future perfect to the future. 127. For the giwm-tenses of immediate past and immediate future, formed with the present and imperfect of aller, and of venir with de, see the First Part (XXVII. 9e, XXXI. 116). Cer- 268 VERBS. [127— tain other phrases have an analogy with tense-forms : thus, j'ai à faire / have to do, c'est à espérer it is to be hoped, and so on. 128. Phrases with a redundant auxiliary participle are some- times made in colloquial French, and occasionally appear even in the literature : thus, dès qu'il aura eu fini as soon as he shall have (got) finished. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XVIII. Tenses of the Verb. (§ 118.) l Au quinzième siècle tout change; la pensée humaine découvre un moyen de se perpétuer 11 . (V. Hugo.) 2 Alors elle tire un couteau de son sein, frappe Marat au flanc gauche, et enfonce le fer jusqu'au cœur. À moi b , s'écria-t-il. ( Thiers.) 3 Comme j'achevais la quatrième ligne, je lève vaguement les yeux, et j'aperçois de c l'autre côté du fossé ... un ours qui me regardait fixement. ( V Hugo.) 4 Je pars dans l'instant, répondit Charles ; laissez-moi. (Guizot.) 5 Je vous ramène chez moi en sortant du Louvre; là je vous écoute, et je pars pour continuer mon ouvrage; car rien ne m'ébranlera, je vous en avertis, (de Vi.) ° Je songe, depuis quelques jours, que les intérêts humains m'ont trop détourné de cette unique pensée, (de Vi.) 7 II y a longtemps que ie rêve d'un officier qui me sauve la vie. (V^Hur/o.) (§119.) ' Quand je revins à moi, il faisait jour . . . Pour chasser ce cauchemar, je fermai les yeux; le cœur me bat- tait à me rompre d la poitrine; quand j'osai regarder, j'étais seul ... Je n'avais qu'à me taire; je laissai Zambo ex- haler sa furie, et ne voulus pas voir qu'il me tirait la langue. (Lab.) 2 Pendant que j'écrivais, une grosse mouche vint se poser sur l'oreille ensanglantée de mon spectateur . . . Je commençais à me faire à ce tête-à-tête lorsque survint un incident. ( V. Hugo.) 3 Nous cherchâmes, tant qu'il fit jour, notre chemin à travers ces bois; mais, plus nous cher- chions, plus nous nous perdions, et il était nuit noire quand nous arrivâmes près d'une maison fort noire . . . On crut que nous portions les diamants de la couronne . . . Par les fentes de la porte je vis le père, sa lampe dans une main, dans l'autre un de ses grands couteaux. Il montait, sa femme après lui ; moi derrière la porte ; il ouvrit. (Courier.) 4 Yous vous occupez toujours de police ? lui disait Bona- parte avec une sorte d'admiration. — Oh ! répondait mo- »§185a. b §333&. c § 304a. a § 182h. 128] USES OF THE TEKSES. 269 destement Fouché, j'ai conservé quelques amis qui me tiennent au courant. (Lanfrey.) 5 A Eylau, l'infanterie russe paraissait inébranlable ; Napoléon lançait sur elle soixante escadrons de dragons et de cuirassiers, et y ouvrait ainsi une brèche qui ne se refermait plus. [Thiers.) 6 Si le czar avait eu toujours cette humanité, c'était le premier des hommes. ( Vol.) 7 Pensez ! depuis quarante ans il était là à la même place, avec sa cour en face de lui. (Dau.) 8 Elles duraient depuis plus de dix ans, sans qu'il eût pu les chan- ger. (St. Simon.) (§ 121.) * Quand vous m'aviez connue, je n'étais pas ce que je suis aujourd'hui. (G. Sand.) 2 Ma chère, m'a-t-il dit, j'ai failli être tué sur les quatre heures. (Bal.) 3 J'ai su que vous étiez l'un des meilleurs amis de ce pauvre gar- çon. (Bal.) 4 Achille Deveria a tracé d'elle, le jour de sa mort, une esquisse fidèle, qui exprime la souffrance et le repos. (Ste.-B.) 5 Enfin, je me suis levé brusquement. " Qu'est-ce que c'est? ai-je dit ; qu'est-ce que vous faites ?" Madame de Y. a feint une vive surprise. Est-ce que mon- sieur n'a pas demandé à dîner? — Pas du tout. — Edouard m'a dit que monsieur. . . Edouard s'est trompé.". . . La pauvre femme s'est mise alors à plier tristement sa nappe, en me jetant les yeux éplorés d'un chien qu'on a battu. " Monsieur a probablement dîné, a-t-elle repris d'une voix timide. — Probablement." (Feuillet.) (§ 122.) l Après que les deux comtes furent sortis, Marie consola ses serviteurs, qui fondaient en larmes . . . Quand elle eut fini d'écrire, il était près de deux heures du matin . . . Lorsqu'on les eut éloignés, elle se remit en marche. (Mignet.) 2 A peine sa jambe eut-elle touché le gazon, qu'il tomba à genoux, (de Vi.) (§123.) * Fais comme tu voudras, Bourguignon. (Mar.) 2 Mon père me pardonnera, dès qu'il vous aura vue. (Mar.) 3 Nous serons dispersés sur la surface de la terre, parce que nous serons de ta famille, et maudits, parce que nous porte- rons ton nom. (Dum.) 4 Si mon fils le rencontre, il lui fera tout le bien qu'il pourra. ( V. Hugo.) 5 Quand vous jugerez la chose à point, et qu'il sera temps de l'arrêter, vous tire- rez un coup de pistolet. ( V. Hugo.) 6 Enfin, ce sera, je le suppose, un trait lancé contre la jurisdiction expéditive. (Lupin.) (§ 124.) l Quand vous aurez fini votre prière, vous m'ap- 270 VERBS. [128— prendrez si vous voulez m'aider. (de Vi.) * C'est là que, lorsqu'il sera mort, elle vivra obscure et paisible. (Coppée.) 3 Quand vous en aurez goûté, vous ne voudrez plus manger d'autre chose. (Bum.) 4 Jamais, à coup sûr, il n'aura fait autant de bruit de son vivant. (Scribe.) (§ 125.) x Je voulus voir si les races vivantes m'offriraient plus de vertus, ou moins de malheurs que les races éva- nouies. (Chat.) * Si tu avais fait la guerre dans la Valte- line, tu ne parlerais pas comme ça. (de Vi.) 3 Si nous de- vions, dès ce monde, recevoir le prix dû à nos vertus ou à nos forfaits, toutes les prospérités seraient honorables, et un coup de foudre serait une mort infamante. (Saintine.) 4 Quand vous me donneriez cent mille francs, ça ne me ferait pas autant de plaisir que de vous voir manger mon pauvre dîner. (Feuillet.) 5 Cet exemple, je l'espère, ne sera pas perdu ; je voudrais qu'il servît à combattre l'espèce d'affaissement moral qui est la maladie de la génération nouvelle. (Thierry.) G Je saurais être pauvre, et je m'en ferais gloire. (Ponsard.) (§ 126.) ' Cependant que m'auraient servi des conseils? Je ne les aurais pas suivi, (de Vi.) 2 Madame Récamier les connaissait tous, et en parlait très bien ; celui qui aurait voulu en écrire avec goût aurait dû en causer auparavant avec elle. (Ste.-B.) 3 Vous ne me répondez pas ; me serais- je trompé ? (de Vi.) (§ 127.) 1 Le dîner était tout prêt ; il va être perdu, et le petit va être grondé par son père. (Feuillet.) 2 Je vais m'enf ermer et m'abandonner à ma douleur, (de Mu.) 3 Vous cherchez une explication à ce que je viens de vous dire, n'est-ce pas ? — Et je ne la trouve point, je l'avoue. (Bum.) 4 Le parlement de Paris venait d'être relégué dans une petite ville. (Mont.) (§ 128.) ' Quand M. Fouquet a eu cessé de parler, M. Pussort s'est levé impétueusement, (de Sév.) * Il sera sorti dès qu'il aura eu achevé la lettre. (Buvivier.) Theme 10. tenses of the verb. 1 1 find Charles and speak to him ; but he replies nothing, and I leave him again. 2 1 am going to-morrow, said he, and I shall take you back with me, 3 1 shall come back in 128J USES OF THE TEASES. 271 half an hour ; wait for me here. 4 1 have been here some time ; I am waiting for the young officer. 5 He has been talking for two weeks of his friend who was to come from Paris. 6 Now I shall leave you ; I have listened to you already two hours. 7 As I raised my eyes, I saw him in front of me. 8 He was looking at me. 9 1 drew near to him, and said a few words. 10 He listened to me, but said nothing. " He departed, and I found myself alone. 12 When she first came to our city, I kept seeking her every- where. 13 1 thought that she had arrived, but I could not find her. I4 As we were going to the theatre yesterday, we discovered them. 1S If they had given me the letter earlier, you would already have the answer. 16 He had been speaking several hours, and we were all very tired. 17 During many years, Napoleon had appeared invincible, but then he fell. 18 We had already been there a week when our friends arrived. 19 Louis XIY. was the greatest monarch of his time. 20 Where did your friends travel last winter? "They visited England and Scotland. 22 We told the poor boy that we were his best friends, but he did not believe us. 2S I saw yesterday the picture which he had made of her, and admired it greatly. 2i My friend, said I to him, you never painted anything so beautiful. 25 As soon as I had dined, I folded my napkin and went out. 26 When I had arrived at home, I began to write. 27 After I had finished the letter, I sent it at once to the post. 2& I cannot tell whether they will come ; butas long as they are here, I shall be happy. 29 When you begin the picture you will tell me so. 30 They will get up as soon as the dinner is ready. 31 1 shall recognize them as soon as I have seen them. 32 If this world were perfect, we should receive the reward due to our virtues. 33 If you ate my poor dinner, I should be satisfied. 34 He would like to give us a thousand francs, but he has not so much money. 35 1 cannot tell you what time it is ; I have no watch. 30 Would 272 VEEBS. [128— you have received me, if I had come to see you ? 37 If I had known that you were coming, I should have stayed at home in order to receive you. 38 1 have just visited one of our friends ; I am going to come to your house again to-morrow ; at present I have other things to do. B. — Modes of the Verb. INDICATIVE. 129. The indicative is used both in independent and in dependent clauses, except in the cases to be stated below. a. The indicative appears in object-clauses after an affirmative verb : thus, savez- vous qui je suis do you know who I am ? je vous ai dit que j'y étais I told you that I was there. The sub- junctive of indirect statement is not a French construction. b. After si if only the indicative is used except in the pluper- fect tense : see § 138a. c. The conditional has been treated under the head of Tenses (above, § 125-6) ; there remain, then, only the subjunctive and imperative to be considered. SUBJUNCTIVE. 130. The subjunctive is the mode of contingency, an- ticipation, expectation, requirement. It belongs for the most part to dependent clauses, and is usually introduced by the conjunction que that. a. Hence, in giving the forms of the verb, it is customary to prefix que to the subjunctive through its whole inflection : see VIII. 76. 131. The subjunctive is used in independent clauses, or without que that, in the following cases : a. In sache know, used negatively in the 1st sing. : thus, je ne sache pas / hardly know; also after que meaning so far as: thus, que je sache so far as I know (but que je crois etc.). Some regard this as an old or irregular indicative form. Of that character also is vive, in qui vive who is there ? (XXXVIII. 46). 6. Sometimes,, in wishes or requirements — that is, in an opta- tive or imperative sense : thus, ainsi soit-il so be it, puissiez- 131] SUBJUNCTIVE. 273 vous réussir may you (be able to) succeed, plût à Dieu que . . . might it please God that . . . This is rare, except with the present subjunctives sois, puisse, veuille, garde, vive, périsse, and plaise, and with the imper- fects plût and dût. Hence the use of soit . . . soit as conjunc- tions (XXXIV. 3). c. Hence also sometimes in a concessive or a conditional sense (giving the meaning of if) : thus, vienne qui voudra, je resterai come ivlio will, T shall stay, eût-il été plus fort had he been (or if he had been) stronger. Note in these uses the inverted order of verb and subject. In the same senses, que is also often used before the subjunctive : see § 142. d. The pluperfect subjunctive may stand (instead of the condi- tional : § 125c) in a hypothetical sentence, in the clause express- ing conclusion or result, and even when the other clause is im- plied only : thus, sa main l'eût sauvée (for l'aurait sauvée), si elle eût pu être sauvée his hand had saved her, if it had been possible to save her, il eût été embarrassé dans une telle con- versation he would have been embarrassed in such a conversa- tion. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XIX. Subjunctive in Independent Clauses. (§131.) 1 Je ne sache pas qu'on ait a jamais appelé duel ce qui se passait entre Louis XVI. et le bourreau. (Chat.) 2 II s'agit de Dorante; avez- vous sujet de vous plaindre^ de lui ? — Non, que je sache. (Mar.) 3 On dit que celui qui le gardera à Pignerol est un fort honnête homme; Dieu le veuille ! ou, pour mieux dire, Dieu le garde ! (de Sév.) 4 Dieu soit béni ! vous voilà vivant, (de Mu.) 5 Dieu sauve la reine Elisabeth ! Ainsi périssent tous ses ennemis ! ajouta le docteur Fletcher. (Mignet.) 6 Loué soit Dieu, dit-elle, de c la nouvelle que vous m'apportez. (Mignet.) 7 Hélas ! fasse le ciel qu'elle ne vous brûle pas ! (de Vi.) 8 Plût aux dieux que ce fût le dernier de ses crimes. (Rac.) 9 Dût cela vous fâcher encore, il faut que j'en convienne. (Mail- hac.) 10 Le grand Condé n'en tira aucun succès, soit que les circonstances des lieux lui fussent d moins favorables, soit qu'il eût d pris des mesures moins justes. ( Vol.) " Vienne un déluge, la montagne aura disparu depuis longtemps sous les flots, que e les oiseaux voleront encore. ( V. Hugo.) 12 Et quel âge as-tu ? — • Neuf ans, monsieur, vienne la Toussaint. *134c. b §185a. c § 163c. d §137&. e §321c. 274 VERBS. [131- (Coppée.) 13 II n'est pas de démon, en effet, fût-ce même celui de la tristesse, qui ose affronter le voisinage des petits enfants. (Ste.-B.) 14 Oui, monsieur, mais en eût-elle vingt fois davantage, je ne l'épouserais pas. (Mar.) 15 S'il eût osé, il se fût mis en colère. (La F.) 1{i La Hollande n'eût pas subsisté longtemps, si elle se fût bornée à enlever la flotte d'argent des Espagnols. ( Vol.) 17 À me voir f , vous n'eus- siez su si j'étais mort ou vivant. (Courier.) 18 La princesse aurait en ce moment porté le diadème de la France, son front n'eût pas été plus imposant qu'il l'était sous le beau diadème de ses cheveux. (Bal.) 132. Subjunctives in dependent clauses (usually after que that) may be best classified under the heads of 1. Subjunctives in substantive clauses, or those used as subject or object of a verb ; 2. Subjunctives in adjective clauses, or those used to qualify a noun ; 3. Subjunctives in adverbial clauses, or those used to qualify a verb. 133. The subjunctive occurs in a clause used as logi- cal subject of an impersonal verb — that is, of one having the grammatical subject il or ce (XL 2) — whenever an- ticipation, expectation, requirement, or the like, is im- plied. The commonest of such impersonal verbs are il faut it is ne- cessary (XXX. 6), il convient it is suitable, il suffit it is enough, il vaut mieux it is better, il importe it matters, il se peut it is possible, il semble it seems, il est facile or difficile or nécessaire or possible or rare or faux or singulier it is easy or hard or necessary or possible or rare or false or singular, and the like : thus, il faut qu'il soit ici he must be here, il suffit qu'elle ait avoué sa faute ibis enough that she has confessed her fault, il est possible que nous revenions it is possible that we come back, c'est dommage que je l'aie perdu it is a pity that Host it. a. But the indicative is used if the clause is the distinct state- ment of a fact ; so especially with il est vrai or sûr or clair it is true or sure or clear, il paraît it appears, il arrive it happens, il résulte it follows, and the like : thus, il est vrai qu'il n'est pas encore arrivé it is true that he has not yet arrived, il paraît que vous avez raison it appears that you are right. * | 182h, 134] SUBJUNCTIVE. 275 b. In some cases, either mode is admissible, according to the degree of actuality implied or of the subject's responsibility for it. And the use of the subjunctive is more decidedly suggested if the principal clause is negative or interrogative : thus, est-il vrai qu'il soit arrivé is it true that he lias arrived ? il ne paraît pas qu'il ait tort it does not appear that he is wrong. The subjunc- tive is also required if its clause precedes : thus, qu'il soit arrivé, et qu'il ait été reçu avec joie, tout cela est vrai that he has come, and has been received with joy, is all true. c. Sometimes the grammatical subject is omitted, or the prin- cipal clause is otherwise incomplete : thus, mieux vaudrait qu'il fut ailleurs it would be better that he were elsewhere, quelle honte qu'il se soit sauvé what a shame that he has run away I non que j'éprouvasse du plaisir not that I felt any pleasure. 134. The subjunctive stands in a clause which is used as the object of certain verbs : namely — a. Of verbs that signify wishing, requiring, approv- ing, permitting, forbidding, expecting, deserving, and the like. Thus, il veut que nous disions la vérité he wishes that we tell the truth, je défends qu'on sorte d'ici I forbid any one to go out from here. Verbs of preventing take further a ne before the subjunctive : see § 170um.) 10 Que sert de se flatter ? (Rac.) " Je n'ai fait qu'une faute : c'est de n'être pas parti dès que je t'ai vue. (Mar.) 12 C'est à Mon- seigneur ... à lui faire oublier le pays qu'elle quitte avec tant de joie, (de Sév.) 13 De vous dire pourquoi, cela serait long. (Courier.) 14 Cela donne de la tristesse, de voir tant de morts autour de soi. (de Sév.) 15 Rien ne rafraîchit les idées comme de se faire la barbe. (Lab.) 16 Quand on ne trouve pas son repos en soi-même, il est inutile de le cher- cher ailleurs. (La R.) ll Eh ! monsieur, de quelle consé- quence est-il de vous justifier auprès de moi ? (Mar.) 16 C'est en quelque sorte se donner part aux belles actions, que de les louer de bon cœur. (La R.) 19 Ce n'est point outrager le marqms que de chercher sous ces ombrages les souvenirs qu'il^y a laissés. (Sandeau.) (§ 174.) l Epargner l'ennemi qui cède ou qui supplie, c'est user du pouvoir, c'est agir en vainqueur. (Arnault.) 2 Le plus grand bienfait qu'il retira de ces relations fut de recouvrer l'estime de lui-même. (Sandeau.) 3 Ah! jeunesse! jeunesse ! que votre âge est à plaindre ! (Courier.) 4 II n'y 316 VERBS. [174— a plus qu'un pas à franchir. ( Guizot.) 5 II n'y a pour l'homme que trois événements : naître, vivre, et mourir. {La Br.) Theme 17. subject and predicate infinitive. 1 To live is hard ; to die is yet harder. 2 But to die is better than to live in disgrace. 3 For her to show herself was to please ; for me to see her was to love her. 4 To hear you praised makes me happy. 5 It makes him proud to hear himself praised. 6 It is hard to live with a bad conscience. 7 There are many occasions when it is as well to be silent as to speak. 8 It ought to suffice you to know that I shall return next week. ° It is a fine thing to keep a secret. 10 It seems to me that I saw you yesterday. ll If he appears to hesitate, he will be thought to be afraid. 12 To speak is to express one's thoughts by words. 13 He finds himself to be the last of all the company to arrive. 14 He is to be pitied who has no friends. lb It is to be hoped that he will soon go where enemies will no longer be to be feared. 16 This is what one calls being happy. 17 1 have two things to do : go to school and go to walk with my friend. 175. The infinitive is especially used as object of, or dependent on, a verb. In this construction, it appears either without a sign, or with de or with à. Sometimes more than one of these constructions is permissible with the same verb ; but in general, the governing verb deter- mines the matter : compare § 183. 176. The simple infinitive, or infinitive without pre- ceding sign, appears in the following cases : a. After the quasi-auxiliaries vouloir, pouvoir, devoir, faire, laisser : thus, voulez-vous venir will you come ? pouvez-vous le faire can you do it ? je dois partir à cinq heures i~ am to set out at five o'clock, je le ferai appeler I will have him called (lit'ly, / will cause to call him), vous l'avez laissé tomber you have let it fall. But devoir in the sense of owe, having an indirect object, re- 1?6] INFINITIVE. 317 quires de (§ T79d) ; also faire plus que do more than : thus, on lui doit de l'aimer it is one's duty to love Mm. b. After oser dare, daigner deign, savoir know how, and cer- tain verbs of desiring, hoping, intending, and the like, as désirer, souhaiter, préférer, aimer autant or mieux, espérer, prétendre, compter, penser : thus, nous n'osons rien dire we dare not say anything, elle ne sait pas nager she does not know how to swim, désire-t-il nous parler does he want to speak to us ? nous espé- rons vous voir demain we hope to see you to-morrow, je compte y être à l'heure dite I count on being there at the appointed hour; also after aimer in the conditional: thus, aimeriez- vous le voir would you like to see him ? But after désirer, souhaiter, préférer, espérer, and compter, de is sometimes taken ; and after aimer autant and penser, some- times à. A second infinitive following que than, as regularly re- quires de : thus, j'aime mieux partir que de rester I woidd rather go than stay. c. After certain verbs of believing, declaring, and the like, if their subject is also the subject of the action expressed by the in- finitive. Such verbs are croire, s'imaginer, penser, affirmer, as- surer, avouer, déclarer, jurer, nier : thus, ils croient avoir raison they think they are right (literally, believe [themselves] to be right), il assure ne l'avoir jamais vue he declares that he never saw her, il nie être malade he denies that he is ill. As the examples show, the English usually expresses the subject of the second verb. Some of these verbs in special constructions take de or à before the infinitive : thus, je jure d'y être I swear to be there. d. After verbs of perceiving, and sometimes (in relative clauses) of declaring, having a direct object which is the subject of the action expressed by the infinitive : thus, je le vois venir I see him come, il l'a entendue parler he has heard her speak, je le trouve peser trois livres I find it to weigh three pounds, un pays qu'on m'avait dit être très agréable a country which they had declared to me to be very pleasant. But the participle is often used instead of the infinitive after such a verb : thus, on l'a vu cou- rant he was seen running ; or a relative clause (§ 189#) : thus, le voici qui vient here he comes. Such a construction (with these verbs and with laisser, faire, envoyer, mener) is the nearest approach made in French to the Latin construction of an accusative as subject of an infinitive. If the infinitive itself has a direct object, the object of the gov- erning verb is regularly changed to indirect : see above, § 158. The object of the governing verb is often omitted when indefi- nite : thus, j'entends sonner I hear [some one] ring (i.e. I hear a ringing). 318 VERBS. [176— e. After certain verbs of motion and of causation of motion, especially aller go, envoyer send, also mener conduct, mettre set, venir come, revenir and retourner return, rentrer come lack in, courir and accourir run, être (in past tenses) in the sense of go, etc. : thus, ils sont allés demeurer à Paris, they have gone to live at Paris, envoyez le trouver send to find him, elle viendra me visiter demain she will come to visit me to-morrow, il a été trouver le roi he has been to find the king. The English often coordinates the two verbs, with and : thus, go and see hiyi, send and find him, and the like. Hence certain common combinations, which are used almost as if simple verbs : thus, aller or venir chercher fetch (lit'ly, go or come to look for), envoyer chercher send for, aller voir visit. Also, the present and imperfect of aller are used with an infini- tive to form a sort of tense of the immediate future (see XXVII. 8c) : thus, je vais le faire / am going to do it, il allait partir he was going to leave. Venir is followed by à before the infinitive when it means hap- pen : thus s'il venait à tomber if he happened to fall. It also takes de before an infinitive to form a sort of tense of the imme- diate past (see XXXI. 116): thus, je viens de le faire I have just done it. f. Special cases are : often after faillir and manquer in the sense of just miss, and always after avoir beau in the sense of try in vain : thus, vous avez failli tomber you came within an ace of falling, vous avez beau résister it is of no use for you to resist (or resist as you will). g. The infinitive without sign is often found in incomplete and exclamatory expression, where the verb on which it would depend is omitted : thus, que faire what [is one] to do ? moi, vous aban- donner I, abandon you ? plutôt mille fois mourir rather die a thousand times, on ne sait que faire ou à qui s'adresser one does not know what to do or to whom to address one's self, donnez- moi de quoi écrire give me wherewith to write. An infinitive standing occasionally in the sense of an impera- tive is of this character : thus, voir les affiches [one may] see the advertisements. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XXX. Object-Infinitive without Sign. (§ 176.) 1 Non seulement je ne le ferai pas jeter à la porte par mes laquais, mais encore je devrai l'héberger ! (Sandeau.) 2 J'ai fait parler le loup et répondre l'agneau. (La F.) 3 Sait-elle coudre, savonner, faire de la soupe ? de- manda-t-il brusquement. ( Coppée.) 4 Elles ont daigné me seconder. (Scribe.) 5 II aimait mieux ne rien faire que de 176] INFINITIVE. 319 travailler. (Gautier.) 6 Dans ce récit je prétends faire voir d'un certain sot la remontrance vaine. (La F.) 7 Mais croyez-vous avoir tué tous les Marats ? ( Thiers.) 8 Chacun dans ce miroir pense voir son image. (Boileau.) 9 II disait venir du fond de la Bohême. (Gautier.) 10 Viens voir mou- rir ta sœur dans les bras de ton père. (Corn.) J1 Je fris- sonne encore de ce que je lui ai entendu dire. (Mar.) 12 J'entends frapper à la porte. J'ouvre ; bon Dieu ! c'é- tait lui. (Bêranger.) 13 On m'a voulu mener voir Mme. la Dauphine. (de Sév.) H Je ne peux pas vous donner cent mille francs, mais je m'en vais manger votre dîner. (Feuil- let.) 15 Allons donc l'affranchir de ces frivoles craintes. (Corn.) 16 La nouvelle que je viens t'annoncer te fera-t-elle plaisir ? (Mar.) 17 Vous aurez beau vous mutiner, vous ne changerez rien aux faits accomplis. (Sandeau.) 18 Madame d'Etampes, qui a failli perdre la France. (Dum.) 19 Quoi ! condamner la victime, et épargner l'assassin? (V. Hugo.) 20 Quel parti prendre ? Votre situation est neuve, assuré- ment. (Mar.) 21 Ne pas comprendre mon enthousiasme pour cet homme? (Soulié.) 22 Défendez-vous, Horace. — A quoi bon me défendre ? ( Corn.) Theme 18. OBJECT-INFINITIVE WITHOUT SIGN. 1 Can you come to our house to-day ? 2 1 should like to come ; but I am to go elsewhere with my father. 3 Then I shall hope to see you to-morrow. 4 You owe it to me to visit me at least three times a week. 5 He knows how to read and to profit by what he reads. 6 He likes better to read than to play. 7 He declares he was not at the theatre yesterday, but I think I saw him there with my own eyes. 8 He does not deny having been out of the house all the evening. 9 He imagines himself to be very cunning ; but if he thinks to deceive me, he is much mistaken. 10 Have you not heard it said that we are going to have a great war in Europe ? "I had not reckoned to see it come in our time. 12 Go find my servant, and send him to look for my book. 13 1 will run and find him at once. M We have 320 VEEBS. [Ill— been to visit our friends, but we did not see them ; they had gone to take a walk. 15 Where can my shoes be ? some one has perhaps set them to dry at the fire. i6 Look for them as you will, you will not find them. 177. Many verbs are followed by a dependent infini- tive preceded by the preposition de. a. The number of such verbs is very large, de being in French more common than à before the infinitive. In a majority of cases, the de has more or less clearly its proper prepositional value, as meaning from, of, on account of, in respect to, and the construction of the infinitive is quite analogous with that of a noun following the same verb and requiring de before it ; but in nearly as many cases it is not so, but the de is mere "sign" of the infinitive. 178. Yerbs requiring de before an infinitive-object in the same manner as before a noun-object may be classified as follows : a. Verbs after which de has nearly the sense of from: thus, s'abstenir abstain, se garder keep one's self, beware, (le or se) désaccoutumer or déshabituer disaccustom, wean, (le or se) dispenser or excuser let off, excuse, (le) dissuader dissuade, (le or se) empêcher prevent, hinder, venir be coming (§ 176c), etc. b. Verbs after which de has the meaning of, or, much more often, on account of, in respect to, and the like. Thus, of in- transitives, convenir agree, désespérer despair, douter doubt, éclater etc. (de rire) burst etc. {with laughing), enrager be in a fury to or at, frémir shudder, gémir groan, mourir in the sense of long, parler talk, rire laugh, rougir blush, souffrir suf- fer, and brûler in the sense of burn, with desire. Further, of transitives taking a reflexive or other object, or both : (le) accu- ser accuse, (le) avertir notify, (se) repentir repent, (le) soupçon- ner suspect ; (le) blâmer blame, (se) vanter boast, (le or se) plaindre pity, (se) réjouir rejoice, (le) remercier thank, s'étonner be astonished, and so on (the verbs are too numerous to give in full). c. More obscure cases are : (le or se) charger charge, (se) dé- pêcher or hâter hasten, (se) ingérer or mêler meddle, (se) pres- ser be eager, se passer do without, and the impersonal il s'agit the question or matter in hand is. 179. Yerbs requiring de as sign before an infinitive object may be classified as follows : 179] IKFIKITIVE. 321 a. Verbs taking a direct object which is subject of the action of the infinitive : such are (le) conjurer conjure, persuader per- suade, prier pray, sommer summon, supplier beg, and défier defy, challenge. b. Verbs taking the infinitive with de as direct object, along with an indirect object (sometimes reflexive) which is subject of the action of the infinitive : thus, (lui) commander command, conseiller advise, crier cry, défendre forbid, demander ask (of any one), dire fell, écrire write, enjoindre enjoin, imputer im- pute, inspirer put into the mind, mander order, ordonner order, pardonner pardon, permettre permit, persuader persuade, pres- crire prescribe, proposer propose, recommander recommend, reprocher reproach for, souffrir suffer, suggérer suggest. c. Verbs taking the infinitive with de as direct object, the sub- ject of the action of verb and infinitive being the same : thus, achever complete, affecter affect, ambitionner be ambitious or eager, appréhender apprehend, cesser cease (or this belongs under 178a), choisir choose, continuer continue (also with à), craindre fear, dédaigner disdain, différer defer, discontinuer cease, entreprendre undertake, éviter shun, feindre feign, finir finish, garder keep, hasarder risk, méditer meditate, mériter deserve, négliger neglect, obtenir get permission, omettre omit, oublier forget, présumer presume, regretter regret, risquer risk, tenter try, and some others. d. A few such verbs take or may take in addition an indirect object : thus, devoir owe (which without indirect object takes the simple infinitive : § 176a), jurer swear, menacer threaten, pro- mettre promise, proposer propose, rappeler (especially reflex- ive) recall. e. In certain phrases, the infinitive with de is taken by a verb as direct object, along with an adjective as objective predicate : such are trouver bon think [it] well, juger nécessaire or conve- nable regard as necessary or suitable, faire bien or mieux do well or better, and some others. /. It was pointed out above (§ 1766) that after a few verbs de may be either taken or omitted : such are désirer desire, souhai- ter wish, espérer hope, détester detest, nier deny. For the verbs that are followed by either de or à, see below, § 183. g. The infinitive with de is used elliptically, without governing verb expressed, in the sense of begin to or the like : thus, ainsi dit le renard, et flatteurs d'applaudir thus spoke the fox ; and his flatterers took to applauding (La F.). Also, at the head of a sentence, to emphasize or put in due connection a following state- ment : thus, de recourir à Louise, je ne l'aime plus to recur to Louisa, I no longer love her (compare § lS2h). 31 322 VERBS. [179— ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES— XXXI. Object-infinitive with de. (§ 178.) ' Le souvenir du dernier de ses crimes auquel j'assistai m'a empêché de lui parler, (de Vi.) a Je viens de l'apprendre tout à l'heure. (Mar.) disconvinrent de s'en rapporter au jugement du peuple romain. (Bossuet.) * Ne me fais plus rougir d'entendre tes soupirs. (Corn.) b Votre père souffre de vous voir en proie à un si violent désespoir. (Girardin.) 6 Je te plains de tomber dans ses mains redou- tables. (Éac.) 7 On ne devrait s'étonner que de pouvoir encore s'étonner. (La R.) n L'enfant éclata de rire à cette ridicule menace. (Mérimée.) 9 C'est parmi eux qu'il s'agit pour nous de se créer des amis fidèles, sincères. (Ste.-B.) 10 Le roi se mêle, depuis quelque temps, de faire des vers. (de Sév.) (§ 179.) ] Je vous prie de monter à cheval et de sortir de la ville, (de Vi.) 2 II commande au soleil d'animer la nature. (Bac.) 3 II n'eût point pardonné à son frère d'être venu voir la Fadette et non pas lui. (G. Sand.) 4 Je vous défends, mademoiselle, de danser avec lui. (Scribe.) ft Ré- pondez donc ; je ne demande pas mieux que de me trom- per. (Mar.) 6 Grand roi, cesse de vaincre, ou je cesse d'é- crire. (Boileau.) 7 Vous avez omis de me demander ce que je viens faire à Paris. (Augier.) 8 Sur les pas d'un banni craignez-vous de marcher? (Éac.) * Je vous promets de ne pas oublier votre numéro aujourd'hui. (Scribe.) u ' Au lieu de les interrompre, nous ferons mieux d'observer et d'écouter. (Scribe.) "Le voilà donc de courir jusqu'à la demeurance de la mère Fadet, et de lui conter sa peine. (G. Sand.) 12 Un étranger m'a jeté ce secret à la face, et chaque électeur alors de dire : c'est vrai. (Bum.) 13 De recourir à Blanche ; elle avait trop d'intérêt à déguiser la vérité. (Le Sage.) Theme 19. OBJECT-INFINITIVE WITH de. ' Beware of falling into the water, if you cannot swim. 2 He has just fallen into the water, and that prevents him from coming to school. 3 He ought to blush at being absent for such a cause. 4 We agreed to meet here, and I was aston- 181] INFINITIVE. 323 ished not to find him already arrived ; but now I despair of seeing him to-day. 5 1 rejoice to hear you say that you love me still. 6 1 beg you to remain an hour with me. 7 He advised me to go home and to busy myself with my own affairs. 8 Allow me to tell you that your conduct does not please me. 9 1 forbid you to behave thus any longer. 10 She continued to write him, and to reproach him for his bad conduct ; but he refused to answer her. " If you put off starting, you will deserve to be abandoned by the others. 18 1 regret to make them wait ; but it is impossible for me to do otherwise. 13 1 must risk offending them, for I have promised my father to stay here till he comes. 14 1 judged proper to let him see that he had offended me. 15 He finds it better to conceal his evil designs in my presence. 180. Many verbs are followed by a dependent infini- tive having before it the preposition à. a. Here also (as with de: § 177a), in a majority of cases, the preposition has more or less its own value, as meaning to, unto, at, or the like, and the construction of the infinitive is analogous with that of a noun following the same verb, and requiring à be- fore it ; but in part the à is a more arbitrary " sign" of the infini- tive. 181. Verbs requiring à before an infinitive-object in the same manner as before a noun-object may be classi- fied as follows : a. Intransitive verbs are : aboutir come (to, as result), aspirer aspire, attendre wait, defer, concourir concur, condescendre condescend, consenter consent, conspirer conspire, contribuer con- tribute, incliner, incline, parvenir attain, pencher incline, pen- ser think, renoncer 'renounce, répugner feel repugnance, réussir succeed, servir serve, songer think, suffire suffice, tendre tend, tenir in the sense of hold on, insist, be eager, viser aim. 6. Transitive verbs, with reflexive or other object, or with both : abaisser lower, accorder cause to agree, accoutumer accustom, admettre admit, aguerrir harden, aider aid, amener bring, animer animate, appeler call, appliquerai^, apprêter pre- pare, assigner assign, assujettir subject, attacher attach, atten- dre keep waiting, avilir debase, borner limit, complaire acqui- esce, condamner condemn, disposer dispose, encourager encour- 324 VERBS. [181— age, exciter excite, exercer exercise, exhorter exhort, exposer expose, habituer habituate, induire induce, intéresser interest, inviter invite, mettre set (se mettre is frequent in the sense of begin), plaire please, porter lead, pousser urge, préparer pre- pare, provoquer provoke, réduire reduce, résigner resign, vouer devote. 182. Yerbs requiring as sign à before a dependent infinitive may be classified as follows : a. Many verbs take an infinitive preceded by à in the sense of at, about, in reference to : such are the intransitives balancer waver, exceller excel, persévérer persevere, persister persist, tarder be slow, delay, travailler labor, triompher triumph; the reflexives s'acharner be eager, s'amuser amuse one's self, se consumer wear one's self out, se divertir be diverted, s'en- tendre have sconce, s'épuiser exhaust one's self, s'essayer try one's hand, s'étudier apply one's self, s'obstiner and s'opiniâtrer be obstinate, se plaire take pleasure; and the transitives em- ployer employ, passer pass {one's time etc.), surprendre catch. With them may be mentioned the phrases prendre soin take care, prendre plaisir or avoir du plaisir take pleasure, il y a plaisir one has pleasure. Other verbs than these are found taking the same construction, it being a current and extensible one. b. More peculiar cases are consister consist, and gagner gain (where we should expect rather de). c. After certain verbs, à is used before an infinitive (much as to after the same verbs in English) in a sort of future sense, point- ing forward to the action expressed by the infinitive as something anticipated or obligatory : thus, after avoir, j'ai cela à faire or j'ai à faire cela Ihave this to do or I have to do this; and in like manner after donner give, chercher seek, laisser in the sense of leave, trouver find. Hence also in the same sense predicatively after être (see above, § 174c) : thus, cela est à faire this is [a thing] to do or to be done (and then also attributively une chose à faire a thing to do or to be done) ; and after rester remain, be left, and the like : thus, il me reste à faire it is left me to do, combien coûte un cheval à nourrir how much does a horse cost to keep f d. The infinitive with à is used as direct object after certain verbs, the subject of the action of the infinitive being the same with that of the verb : thus, aimer love, like (except in condi- tional : § 1766), apprendre learn, chercher seek, désapprendre unlearn. e. The infinitive with à is used as direct object after a few verbs that take an indirect object which is subject of the action ex- pressed by the infinitive : thus, (lui) aider help, (lui) enseigner or apprendre teach, (lui) montrer show. 183] INFINITIVE. 325 /. The infinitive with à follows a few verbs taking a direct ob- ject which is subject of the action expressed by the infinitive : thus, (le) instruire or apprendre teach, (le) autoriser authorize. g. After a few verbs, à may either be taken or omitted : such are prétendre intend, claim, (lui) plaire please. For verbs fol- lowed by either de or à, see below, § 183. h. The infinitive with à is often used elliptically, or without governing verb expressed, usually at the head of a sentence, to signify (as in English) a condition of what follows : thus, à vous entendre, on croirait . . . to hear you, one would think . . . (i.e. if one heard you). Also sometimes to express result, and hence degree : thus, il sent le vin à faire horreur he smells of wine [enough] to frighten one. 183. Some verbs admit either de or à before a follow- ing dependent infinitive. Sometimes the choice depends on a difference in the meaning of the verb, or in its construction ; sometimes it is a matter of indif- ference, or nearly so, being governed by no rule that is distinctly statable and consistently followed. a. The verbs accoutumer accustom (in compound tenses), de- cider decide, determiner determine, hasarder venture, ofirir of- fer, refuser refuse, résoudre resolve, regularly and usually take de when the infinitive is their direct object, but à when they have another direct object, reflexive or otherwise : thus, j'ai résolu de partir I have resolved to leave, but je me suis résolu à partir ; and je l'ai décidé à partir 1 have decided him (i.e. made him decide) to leave. Some other verbs take à after their reflexive forms, but de in other constructions. 6. More special cases are : haïr hate takes à when affirmative, but de when negative ; prendre garde beware takes de before an affirmative infinitive, but à before a negative ; demander takes de when it has an indirect object, the subject of the infinitive ac- tion : thus, je lui demande de se taire / ask him to hold his peace ; laisser, which in the sense of let or cause is followed by the simple infinitive (§ 176a), takes à in the sense of leave to, and de in that of leave off from, fail : thus, je vous laisse à penser / leave to you to imagine, elle ne laisse pas de plaire she does not cease to please. c. Verbs that take either de or à in senses but little or not at all distinguished from one another are : the verbs of endeavor essayer and tâcher try, s'efforcer and s'empresser endeavor, s'occuper be busy ; the verbs of constraint (with direct object, as subject of the infinitive action) contraindre, forcer, obliger; and a number of others : commencer begin, continuer continue, con- 326 VERBS. [183— sentir consent, manquer fail, oublier forget, hésiter and trem- bler hesitate; and, with direct objects (subjects of the infinitive action) convier invite, engager engage, enhardir inure. d. There are many other verbs which in antiquated or in loose style, or in occasional cases, take another preposition before a following infinitive than the one usually met with. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XXXII. Object-infinitive with à. (§181.) ' Après une vigoureuse défense, il était parvenu à faire sa retraite. (Mérimée.) 2 Tout m'afflige et me nuit et conspire à me nuire. (Rac.) 3 L'erreur ne réussit qu'à établir avec plus d'éclat la vérité. (Massillon.) 4 C'était la première fois, depuis son retour, qu'elle se décidait à toucher cette rive. (Sandeau.) 6 Elle l'amena doucement à parler de son fils, et parut s'intéresser à tous ses discours. (Sandeau.) 6 II voulait accoutumer aussi ses Moscovites à ne pas connaître de saison. ( Vol.) 7 Qui pardonne aisé- ment, invite à l'offenser. (Corn.) 8 Elle les exhorta à de- meurer fermes dans la religion catholique. (Mignet.) (§ 182.) *I1 excelle à conduire un char dans la carrière. (Rac.) 2 Le public révolté s'obstine à l'admirer. (Boileau.) 3 Tu passes la nuit à rêver ou à écrire ; mais, je t'en avertis, tu ne réussiras à rien, si ce n'est à maigrir, à être moins belle, et à n'être pas reine, (de Vi.) 4 La poésie ne consiste pas à tout dire, mais à tout faire rêver. (Ste.-B.) 5 Deux hommes si adroits n'ont rien à gagner à se tromper l'un l'autre. ( V. Hugo.) ° Après cela, je n'ai plus rien à vous dire. (Mar.) 7 J'ai une famille et le nom français à soute- nir. (Lab.) 8 Mais, à propos de tes adieux, il me reste en- core une chose à savoir. (Mar.) v Arrête donc, Lisette ; j'ai à te parler pour la dernière fois. (Mar.) 10 On apporte à manger; on sert un déjeûner fort propre. (Courier.) 11 Elle apprend à chanter, à danser ; elle lit, elle travaille. (de Sév.) 12 Je ferai justice ; j'aime à la rendre à tous, à toute heure, en tout lieu. (Corn.) 13 Aide-moi à oublier que je suis roi. (Bum.) 14 A vous entendre, on croit que vous avez raison, (d'' ' Harleville.) 15 À vouloir le contraire, Dieu lui-même perdrait sa puissance. (Sandeau.) 16 Àme voir, vous n'eussiez su si j'étais mort ou vivant. (Courier.) 17 Mais elle va à ravir, continua-t-il ; on la croirait faite pour madame la princesse, (de Vi.) (§ 183.) 1 Franchement, je ne haïrais pas de lui plaire 184] INFINITIVE. 327 sous le personnage que je joue. (Mar.) 2 Le public français ne laisse pas d'être singulier quelquefois dans ses jugements sur la poésie. (Ste.-B.) s Mais Paul et Virginie ! à peine a-t-il commencé à le leur traduire, qu'à l'instant la scène change. (Ste.-B.) 4 J'avais commencé d'écrire, et je m'ar- rêtai. (Mont.) Theme 20. object-infinitive with à. 1 Do you consent to see her ? 2 He aspires to win my approbation. 3 Everything conspires to aid him, and he will perhaps succeed in attaining his end. 4 1 have led him to confess his crime, and have condemned him to suffer its punishment. 6 This girl excels at playing the piano. 6 They are slow to come when one calls them. 7 They were pleased to say that they had amused themselves with taking a walk, and that they had not heard [any one] call. 8 Let us get ready to depart, for the light is beginning to appear, and we have a long journey to make. 9 1 like to see the sun rise. 10 If you employ your mornings at study- ing French, you will soon learn to read it, and you will even come at last to speak it well. " I always do well what I have learned to do. 12 Help me, I beg you, to read this difficult passage. 13 1 will teach you to understand it. 14 To see you study, one would think that you like better to play. 15 He has tried to injure me, and I am trying to restrain my indignation. 16 He does not hate to do me an injustice, but he hates to see me afterward. " The law will constrain him to do what he had consented to do. 16 Take care not to approach too near, and beware of falling. 19 Do you ask to drink ? then ask some one to give you a glass of water. 20 One must resolve to drink only water here. 184. Many adjectives are followed by a dependent infinitive having de or à as its sign. 328 VERBS. [184— Usually, the proper value of the preposition is to be seen in such constructions. a. An infinitive preceded by de is used especially after adjec- tives expressing a condition or movement of the mind. The de here means of or by reason of (though sometimes other preposi- tions, or to as infinitive-sign, are preferred in English), and the construction of the infinitive is the same with that of a noun following the adjective. Such adjectives are : bien aise very glad, digne worthy, capable capable, charmé charmed, content pleased, curieux curious, désireux desirous, enchanté enchanted, étonné astonished, fâché sorry, angry, fier proud, heureux happy, honteux ashamed, inconsolable inconsolable, jaloux jeal- ous, las iveary, mécontent dissatisfied, satisfait satisfied, sûr sure, surpris surprised, and many others of kindred meaning. Examples are heureux de le voir happy to see him (i. e. on ac- count of seeing him), curieux d'apprendre curious to learn, las de la chercher weary of looking for her. Also after être followed by an adjective, especially bon, in such phrases as vous êtes bien bon de venir si tôt you are very good to come so soon, qu'il est hardi de le risquer how daring he is to risk it ! Also in the sec- ond term of a comparison : thus, si injuste que de nous punir so unjust as to punish us. A few adverbs, having the value of predi- cate adjectives, are followed in like manner by an infinitive with de : thus, loin de vous aimer far from loving you. b. An infinitive with à is used in general after adjectives which would admit a noun with the same construction, the preposition having its proper value of to, at, in regard to, for. Such adjec- tives are especially adroit skilfid, aisé easy, beauté, bon good, curieux remarkable, difficile hard, disposé disposed, enclin in- clined, facile easy, habile skilled, impossible impossible, lent slow, prêt ready, prompt prompt, propre suited, triste sad, utile useful. Examples are bon à manger good to eat, difficile à faire hard to do, prêt à partir ready to leave. An infinitive with à is also common after an ordinal used substantively, espe- cially le premier and le dernier, and after le seul : thus, le pre- mier à venir, le seul à rester the first to come, the only one to stay. The cases must be carefully noted where the infinitive is logical subject (§ 1736), since it then takes de : thus, cela est difficile à faire that is hard to do, but il est difficile de faire cela it is hard to do that. 185. A noun often takes a dependent infinitive pre- ceded by de or à. a. The infinitive with de after a noun corresponds in general to the English infinitive in -ing preceded by of (though often ca- pable also of being rendered otherwise) : thus, l'art d'écrire the art of writing, l'occasion de parler the occasion of speaking. 185] INFINITIVE. 329 Often, a verb and noun together form a sort of verb-phrase, much used with a following infinitive : thus, avoir peur or crainte be afraid, avoir envie desire, avoir soin take care, pren- dre garde beware, faire semblant pretend, rendre grâce re- turn thanks : for example, j'ai peur d'y aller I am afraid to go there {have fear of going). 6. An infinitive with à after a noun is used attributively in the same sense as predicatively after être (§ 174c) : thus, un apparte- ment à louer an apartment to rent ; or also, where à might be rendered by calculated to, of a sort to : thus, un spectacle à ravir a spectacle to delight one, un conte à faire peur a story [of a kind] to frighten one. Not seldom, such an infinitive with à is used elliptically, and forms a sort of compound noun, the infinitive being used like an ordinary noun of characteristic (§ 36) with à : thus, une chambre à coucher a bedroom (i.e. chamber to sleep [in]), la salle à man- ger the dining-room. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XXXIII. Infinitive dependent on an Adjective or a Noun. (§ 184.) * Regardez-moi donc comme incapable de pro- noncer un discours de réception, en supposant que je sois capable de le faire. (Béranger.) 2 Je ne serais pas fâché de subjuguer sa raison, de l'étourdir un peu. [Mar.) 3 Je serai charmé de triompher, mais il faut que j'arrache ma victoire. (Mar.) 4 II était habitué à nous sermonner, et il sent qu'il ne trouverait plus d'élève si docile à l'écouter et à l'applaudir, (de Vi.) 5 Elle est bien hardie d'oser avoir une femme de chambre comme toi. (Mar.) 6 Lisette s'ha- bille, et, devant son miroir, nous trouve très imprudents de lui livrer Dorante. (Mar.) 7 Dieu n'est pas si injuste que de nous marquer pour un mauvais sort avant notre nais- sance. (G. Sand.) (§ 185.) 1 Tu n'a pas besoin d'ordonner pour être ser- vie. (Mar.) 2 Eh bien ! l'honneur de lui plaire ne me sera pas inutile. (Mar.) 3 Vous avez raison de plaindre M. de Pomponne quand il va dans ce pays-là. (de Sév.) 4 II est homme à profiter de cette faveur ; il a de l'esprit. (Scribe.) 6 Au milieu était un beefsteak d'une mine à faire honte à un beefsteak anglais. (Bum.) 6 La scène ... est d'une magnificence à faire envie à Jean-Jacques et à Buffon, (Ste.-B.) 330 VERBS. [186- Theme 21. INFINITIVE DEPENDENT ON AN ADJECTIVE OR A NOUN. 1 1 am very glad to see you, but sorry to learn that you have been so ill. 2 They were curious to know whether she was there still. 3 If he were capable of committing such a crime, he would be unworthy to continue in our society. 4 1 am more ambitious to serve you than to please you. 6 We are sure to start at five o'clock, but we are by no means certain of coming back before to-morrow. ' Far from believing his story, they were on the point of having him cast into prison as a cheat. ~ All that is born is liable to die. 8 He is equally inclined to acquire and to keep. 9 That is a man very skilful in handling the pencil. 10 A thing easy enough to say, but very hard to do. X1 He would be the last to deny what he was the first to say. 12 If I found an opportunity to serve you, I should be ashamed not to avail myself of it. 13 Take care to walk straight, and beware of falling. M The problem to solve was very simple. 1& All men, born and to be born, count upon a life to come. lfi He came down from his bedroom to the dining-room. 186. Certain adverbs and adverbial phrases are followed before an infinitive by de or à, forming a sort of preposition-phrase gov- erning the infinitive. a. Those formed with de are especially avant de before, près de near, plutôt que de leather than, hors de apart from, loin de far from, afin de for the purpose of, in order to, à force de by dint of, à moins de short of, à condition de on condition of, faute de for lack of (nee XXXIII. 5): thus, avant de partir before setting out, à moins d'être attentif short of being attentive (i.e. unless one is attentive), plutôt que d'étudier, il s'amuse rather than study, he amuses himself b. Those formed with à are especially de manière or façon à in a way to, jusqu'à so far as to : thus, il est allé jusqu'à la frapper Tie went so far as to strike her. Less common are phrases with the adjectives sauf safe and quitte quits, used elliptically : thus, sauf à changer reserving the right to change, quitte à être grondé getting off with a scolding. 187] IKFIÎHTIYE. 331 187. A few other prepositions, besides de and à, gov- ern the infinitive directly, having before it their own proper value, as before a nonn. a. Pour is very common before an infinitive, with the sense of for, in order to : thus, il est ici pour jouer he is here in order to play (or for playing, or simply to play) ; and in this sense it is especially frequent after assez, trop, and the like : thus, trop jeune pour marier too young to marry. Also sometimes in the sense of for, on account of : thus, il est puni pour avoir volé he is punished for having stolen. Verbs admitting de or à before an infinitive sometimes take pour instead, when the sense is made plainer by it. b. Par by now governs the infinitive directly only after verbs of beginning and ending : thus, il commence par écrire he begins with writing. e, Après after is properly used only before the compound in- finitive : thus, après avoir parlé after having spoken. d. Sans without: thus, sans parler mot without saying a word. e. Entre between : thus, il balance entre aller et rester he wavers between going and staying. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXIV. Infinitive after other Prepositions. (§ 186.) 1 II n'osait tirer, de peur de tuer Guillaume, s'il n'était pas mort. (Bum.) 2 Avant de se mettre à table, il pria Mlle, le Couvreur de réciter quelque morceau. (Ste.-B.) 3 Je vais jusqu'à former des vœux contre moi-même. (Dela- vigne.) 4 Avant deux jours, je le confondrai de manière à ne lui laisser rien à répondre. (Picard.) (§ 187.) l Je viens pour épouser, et ils m'attendent pour être mariés ; cela est convenu. (Mar.) 2 Je ne suis plus gourmand, pour trop l'avoir été ; et, pour avoir trop ri, je n'ai plus de gaîté. (Augier.) 3 Vous m'avez prédit, milord, qu'un jour nous finirons par nous aimer. (Scribe.) 4 Après m'être rasé, je me trouvai un tout autre homme. (Lab.) 5 Je m'éloigne sans me plaindre et sans murmurer. (San- deau.) Theme 22. infinitive after other prepositions. 1 Before finding us, he was near despairing of his life. 3 For lack of having been notified, he did not know where 332 VEKBS. [188- to seek us. 3 Instead of running and seeking, she stands still and weeps. 4 It is not possible to reason thus, short of being crazy. 5 Conduct yourself in a manner to be loved. 6 No one is ever too old to learn. 7 1 want a pen and some paper, to write a letter to my mother. 8 He is sick now, for having eaten too much yesterday. 9 This man be- gan by being simple soldier ; I think he will end by becom- ing general. 10 We have returned, after having been three years absent. " He had to depart without seeing her. 12 There is a great difference between promising and keep- ing word. E. — The Participles and Gerund. 188. The present participle has both a participial and an ordinary adjective use ; the gerund agrees with it in form (not in origin or construction : see X. 3c, d). 189. a. The present participle, in its participial use, is not varied for gender and number to agree with the noun to which it relates. 1). The present participle used adjectively is varied like any other adjective to agree with its noun. c. The participle is left unvaried when it takes an object, re- flexive or other ; and, in general, when it has the adjuncts that are distinctive of a verb : thus, deux hommes parlant ensemble two men talking together, des preuves convainquant tout le monde 'proofs convincing everybody, une mère consolant sa fille a mother consoling her daughter. Hence soi-disant is invaria- ble : thus, des soi-disant amis self-styled friends. Ayant and étant are never varied. d. The participle is varied when it has only the ordinary ad- juncts of an adjective, and the construction of one : thus, l'homme est une créature parlante man is a speaking creature, ces preuves sont bien convaincantes these proofs are very con- vincing, des paroles consolantes consoling words. e. Many common adjectives are by origin present participles : thus, charmant charming, intéressant interesting. Some are such participles with a somewhat changed spelling : thus, fati- guant fatiguing, fatigant tiresome; excellant excelling, excel- 190] PRESENT PÀETICIPLE. 333 lent excellent; violant violating, violent violent ; convainquant, convaincant convincing. f. The distinctions between the participial and adjectival uses of the participle are not always strictly maintained, and they are less regarded in older style. g. Often, where we should use in English a present participle, the French has a relative clause : thus, je le vois qui vient I see him coming. 190. The gerund, having always the same form as the present participle, is used only after the preposition en, and signifies accompanying action, or means. Thus, en lisant" in [the act of] reading, while reading, on read- ing, or simply reading. a. The simultaneousness of the action is often made more emphatic by prefixing the adverb tout altogether : thus, tout en lisant in the very act of reading, even while reading. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXV. Present Participle and Gerund. (§ 189.) 1 Se sentant un peu fatiguée, et voulant con- server ou reprendre ses forces pour le dernier moment, elle se mit au lit. (Mignet.) a Nous voilà mangeant et buvant. (Courier.) 3 Tous deux partent, Germain rêvant à sa dé- funte plus qu'à sa future, et Marie pleurant de quitter sa mère et le pays. (Ste.-B.) 4 Les bœufs mugissants et les brebis bêlantes venaient en foule, quittant les gras pâtu- rages. (Fén.) 5 Maman, toujours projetante et toujours agissante, ne nous laissait guère oisifs ni l'un ni l'autre. (Rouss.) 6 II ne bouge non plus qu'une pauvre pierre, et voilà l'orage qui vient. (G. Sand.) T Mais voici un char qui passe, un chien qui aboie, ou rien du tout : il faut voir ce que c'est. (Tœpfer.) (§ 190.) 1 C'est ton fils, lui dit-elle d'une voix trem- blante, en attachant ses yeux noirs sur ceux de son mari. (Mérimée.) 2 Ne lisez pas cela en vous couchant ; vous en rêveriez. (Courier.) 3 C'est en méconnaissant ce but qu'on blasphème et qu'on est malheureux ; c'est en le comprenant ou en l'acceptant qu'on est homme. (Jouffroy.) 4 Louis XVI., tout en condamnant la conduite des émigrés, ne vou- lut pas donner son adhésion aux mesures prises contre eux. (Mignet.) 5 Tout en écrivant cela, elle s'acheminait vers Paris. (Thiers.) 334 VERBS. [191— Theme 23. present participle and gerund. ' Our friendship, triumphing over jealousy, will endure eternally. 2 Thus he spoke, with a triumphant voice. 3 They (f.) took my book, knowing that it was mine ? 4 His words, striking my ear, attracted all my attention. 5 He addressed to them a few striking words of consolation and encouragement. 6 He is a very tiresome man. 7 This woman suffering all that a woman can suffer, appeals to our com- passion. 8 Help her ; she appears [to be] suffering, ' I saw her playing at cards an hour ago. I0 We walked slow- ly, stopping often to listen. n Night came to part the com- batants. 12 He grew pale while reading the letter which I handed him. 13 Saying these words, the tears came to his eyes. 14 Even while speaking to us, she trembled and fainted. 191. The past participle is more distinctly and exclu- sively an adjective than the present participle ; and its constructions are in the main those of an ordinary adjec- tive, agreeing in gender and number with the noun to which it relates. a. It has a peculiar treatment, calling for special rules, only when combined with the auxiliaries avoir and être to make the compound forms of a verb : see XXVIII. 5-8. b. The past participle, being passive in its character, does not take an object ; but it admits the other various modifiers of a verb. c. For certain participles which are unvaried before the nouns which they qualify, see § 56a. 192. As regards the use of the participle with aux- iliaries to make the compound forms of a verb, the fol- lowing principles are to be noted : a. "When used with être in intransitive and passive verbs (but not in reflexives), the participle has the value of a predicate ad- jective qualifying the subject of the verb, and with this it ac- cordingly always agrees in gender and number. Thus, elle est allée she is gone, ils sont aimés they are loved, les lettres furent 193] PAST PARTICIPLE. 335 écrites the letters were written, nous serons partis we shall be (or have) gone. b. When used with avoir in transitive verbs, the participle has originally and really the value of an objective predicate qualify- ing the direct object. Thus, in il a retrouvé ses livres perdus he has found again his lost books, it is the books that are found again, and not the finder. Hence it is not with the subject, but with the direct object, that the participle ought to agree. In the present condition of the language, however, it is made so to agree when the object stands before the verb, and not otherwise : thus, quels livres avez-vous trouvés what books have you found ? je les ai trouvés I have found them, les livres que j'ai trouvés the books which I ham found; but j'ai trouvé les livres I have found the books. c. In every verb used reflexively, the auxiliary être (by a very strange and anomalous substitution) is taken instead of avoir. In the compound forms of such verbs, the participle has the same form as if avoir were used : that is, it agrees with the preceding reflexive object if that object is a direct one, but not otherwise. Thus, elle s'est trouvée she has found herself (like elle l'a trou- vée she has found her), ils se sont trouvés they have found one another (like ils les ont trouvés they have found them) ; but, on the contrary, elle s'est trouvé des livres she has found for her- self some books ; and again, quels livres s'est-elle trouvés what books has she found for herself '?—- where the participle agrees with the direct object livres, and not with either the indirect se or the subject elle. d. Many intransitive verbs now take, or take sometimes, the auxiliary avoir instead of être. In these, the participle (though it may logically qualify the subject as much as in the verbs taking être) is never made to agree with the subject, but remains un- varied. Thus, elle a sorti she has gone out (but elle est sortie), ils avaient descendu they had descended (but ils étaient descen- dus), ils ont été they have been. 193. Hence we have the following practical rules : a. When used with être, the participle, except in re- flexive verbs, agrees in gender and number with the sub- ject of the verb. b. "When used with avoir, and also with être in reflexive verbs, the participle never agrees with the subject ; but it agrees with the direct object, in case that object pre- cedes the verb. c. The three cases in which a direct object may precede the 336 VERBS. [193— verb, and so may have the participle agree with it. are those illustrated above | ? 192^ | : namely, when it is interrogative (or exclamatory i. when it is a personal pronoun i hence alw. retiexive verbs», and when it is the relative que (when the parti- ciple agrees with the word which que represents'. 194. Certain exceptional or apparently exceptional a - require to be noticed, as follows : a. The participle of an impersonal verb, or of a verb used im- illy. is unvaried : thus, les pluies qu'il y a eu the rains that t/< quelle chaleur excessive a-t-il fait what at there has b b. The participle does not agree with an adverbial object, a specification of measure or the like i?28oj: thus, les années qu'elle a duré the yean that it has taste'/, les trois lieues que j'ai marché the three league» th.at I have walked. But of coûter cost, courir run, and valoir be worth, the participle is sometimes made to agree with such an object : and. in certain pL that of vivre '-. With en mme, etc. < XXIII. 5-7), as an indirect object, the participle of course does not agree : but after an indefinite word of quantity, like combien, it is sometimes made t< with the noun that is logically implied : thus combien en avez- vous vus how many of them have you seen .' que de choses j'ai vues what things ïhave » d. An apparent object of a verb is sometimes really governed by a following dependent verb or infinitive, and the participle of the former has no occasion to agree with it : thus, les livres que j'ai cru qu'elle me donnerait th.t books which It/ would \ ces tableaux, je les ai vu peindre 1 tures painted QWly, - l ' ; <- m . je les ai laissé porter autre part / have h. ad them carried elsewh these phrases, the les is really object of donnerait, peindre, and porter respectively). But if the object is logically subject instead of object of the following infinitive, the participle of the former is made to agree with it : thus, je l'ai vue peindre (or peindre les tableaux II paint {or paint the pictures >. je les ai laissés manger quelque chose Ihave let them eat something, les larmes qu'il nous a vus verser the tears which he has> shed. e. But the participle of faire make, cause, when used with a dependent infinitive, never agrees with the obje-r faire being viewed as forming with the infinitive a sort of compound verb- form, of causative meaning, and its object, if the infinitive also has an object, taking the indirect form : ? 158'- : thus, je les ai fait manger I made them eat, il nous avait fait sortir : made us go out. WS] PAÎT PAETICTPLI. 33 T f. A goreniiDg infinitiT- m :_e:iines understood rather than e:r;re~e:l :~_v.« :'e lii a: renii t:i= les services oie j'ai dû (or pu, or voulu J fame cfo/ï« him oM the sereines Oust I ought (or coulât or efc#se; — thai ft» cfo am. <7. After avoir etc. \ 13 Z: . followed by an infinitive with à, usage is Tarring, according is the : fe viewed as belonging more to the verb or to the infinitif- la peine qu'il a en (or eue) à souflxir - r has had to suffer. 195. The participles, both, present and past, are (as in Z ng ish) often used absolutely, along with a noun or ::■:-: r. v::l. Thns, cela fait (or eels, étant fiût , il partit that done {or that being d '-_ : ted ltd mort, tu mourras aussi he dead, a. The noun or pronoun is sometimes expressed afterward : thus, étant rentré, il me dit having come in again, hie said to me. .ertam participle: used in -':^ :"_-;.. e : hi sti net ion in an idiomatic manner, with a value like thai rf pre posi :: ma r conjunctions : thus, ezeepté cette femme except this- u-oman. eu égard à sa jeunesse :^;. litTy, égard being had to) hû youth, attendu son âge yf his age. HfiUBXKâXITZ SZZnrZ:- 11 = —XXXVI. Past Participle. 191.) * Que de palais détruits, de trônes renversés iit , -7.M : L::r::~:Ti::--:.!:-':;::::» -::--z::: ; . 3 Et quel temps fut jamais si fertile en miracles r L'impie Aehab détruit, et de son sang trempé le champ que par le meurtre il avait usurpé ; près de ce fatal champ Jézabel immolée, sous les pie ls les chevaux cette reine foulée, le son sang inhumain les chien- lésaltérés, et de son corps hideux les membres déchirés ; des prophètes menteurs la troupe confondue, et la flamme du ciel sur l'autel descendue. (Bac.) s .Je voix aux flammes éternelles nos rois précipités fi 1 - anger ^ i -2-3.) 2 Ceux de ces amis qui sont montés trop haut pour moi, je m'en tiens éloigcé. {Bérangt Quelle triste économie que celle de Fame ! elle noua a été lonnéc pour éveloppée. perfectionnée, prodiguée même dans un noble but. (de Staël Que mut le va ras ces personnages qui firent tant de bruit : Le temps a fait un pas, et la face de la terre nouvelée. (Chat.) ■ Tu me demaii cela la raison d'une chose qui n'existe as, et que je 338 VERBS. [195— jamais dite : les femmes ne sont nullement condamnées à la médiocrité, (de Maistre.) 6 Je cesserai pour eux de pa- raître affligée, et j'oublierai leur mort, que vous avez ven- gée. (Com.) 6 Je ne sais s'il nous a reconnues. (Dau.) ' Si le temps ne sillonnait pas leurs traits, quelles traces auraient- ils gardées de son passage ? (de Staël.) 8 Leurs vêtements et leurs armes, qu'on n'avait jamais vus, excitaient la curio- sité et la surprise. (Michaud.) 9 Elles avaient un air si étrange que Prascovie éprouvait une certaine crainte, et se repentait de s'être arrêtée chez elles, (de Maistre.) 10 Dans la dernière moitié du XVIII e siècle, deux puissances s'é- taient élevées dans le Nord, la Prusse et la Russie. (Mignet.) 11 Les cavaliers qui sont tombés sous vos coups se sont attiré eux-mêmes ce malheur. (Le Sage.) 12 Vous savez la piètre idée que je me suis faite de mon mérite littéraire. (Béran- ger.) )3 Nos regards parcouraient avec plaisir les nom- breuses demeures que les habitants de la campagne se sont construites sur ces hauteurs. (Barthélémy.) (§ 194.) ' Que de maux il en est déjà résulté ! (Bescher.) 2 C'est une des idées les plus utiles qu'il y ait jamais eu. (Thomas.) 3 Je regrette les nombreuses années que j'ai vécu sans pouvoir m'instruire. (Bouss.) 4 Le premier volume . . . est assurément fort intéressant ; la préface nous donne une idée des recherches qu'il a coûtées. (Bémusat.) Mes ma- nuscrits raturés, barbouillés, et presque indéchiffrables, at- testent la peine qu'ils m'ont coûtée. (Bouss.) ' On peut juger des embarras sans nombre que lui avait valus cette double parenté. ( V. Hugo.) 7 Mais je ne les ai pas vécues, ces années de ma vie. (Sardou.) 8 Tout le monde m'a offert des services, et personne ne m'en a rendu, (de Maint.) 9 Pen- dant ces derniers temps, combien en a-t-on vus qui du soir au matin sont pauvres devenus! (La F.) 10 Tous les sol- dats s'étaient laissé prendre. ( Vol.) " À peine l'avons nous entendue parler. ( Vol.) 12 O Julie î si le destin t'eût laissée vivre ! (Bouss.) 13 Voilà le sujet des larmes que tu m'as vue verser ! (Florian.) 14 Elle s'est fait aimer ; elle m'a fait haïr. (Corn.) I5 II a été libre de mettre à cet abandon la condition qu'il a voulu. (Serey.) (§195.) 1 Mais le combat fini, c'est alors qu'il se montre. (Ponsard.) 2 Eux punis, nous pourrons faire admirer au monde ... la liberté. (Ponsard.) 3 II ne sera pas dit que, moi parti, vous rirez. (I)um.) 4 Nous avons plus d'une pièce 195] PAST PAETICIPLE. 339 qui, étant corrigées, pourraient aller à la postérité. ( Vol.) 5 Le cas échéant, je suis homme à retarder mon départ. (Bum.) 6 Ces généralités étant adoptées, l'assemblée s'oc- cupa de l'organisation du pouvoir législatif. (Mignet.) 7 Peu de gens de nos jours se sont tués, eu égard à tous ceux qui ont songé à le faire. (Ste.-B.) Theme 24. tast participle. 1 If we do not hurry, they will have gone before we have arrived. 2 Virtue is loved by all the good, and only hated by those who have addicted themselves to evil habits. 3 Too many tears have been shed over her sorrows. 4 1 have not yet received the letter that my father has sent me. 5 What books have you already read ? 6 1 have read only those which you had recommended to me. 7 You are mistaken ; I have not recommended them to you. 8 The few inhabitants whom war has left in this town are too poor and weak to be feared. 9 How many misfortunes have we not seen in our time ! 10 1 thank you for the trouble which you have given yourself in order to come. " My sister has bought herself some beautiful dresses. 12 The dresses which she had bought for herself are not yet brought to the house. l3 What a beautiful evening it was yesterday ! M That was perhaps the prettiest festival that there has ever been. 15 Where has he borrowed the 10,000 francs that this house has cost him ? 16 All the days that this chimney has smoked have been rainy. 17 1 have found beautiful flowers in the meadow, and I have gathered some; but I have given them all to my mother. 18 Have you not given any to your sisters ? l9 No, they have gathered some for themselves. 20 Those are actions which I have thought that you would approve. 21 The story which I have begun to read is very interesting. 22 The letter which I have promised to write for her is not yet begun. 23 1 heard her 340 ADVERBS. [196— speak of the news which had just arrived, and I let her finish without interrupting her. ai I saw her buy the pic- ture which we had seen painted last year. 25 They have made all the excuses which their conscience has permitted them. 2ti I pity him for all the trouble which he has had to take. a7 The dinner finished, he went away without say- ing farewell. VII.— ADVERBS. 196. The rules respecting adverbs and their use have for the most part been already given. Thus, as to the formation of adverbs from adjectives, XXXI. 1-6, 9 ; as to the comparison of adverbs, XXXI. 7, 8 ; as to nega- tive adverbs and adverbial expressions, especially § 164 etc. ; as to words construed now as adjectives and now as adverbs, §§ 56, 116c, d ; as to adverbs used in the manner of pronouns, § 85 ; as to adverbs of quantity with following nouns, V. 3, 4 ; as to various adverbs, XXXII. 1-6 ; as to the usual place of adverbs, XXXII. 7. 197. Adverbs are sometimes used in the manner of ad- jectives or nouns. Thus : a. As predicative adjectives : thus, il est bien maintenant he is vjell now, cela n'est pas ainsi that is not so. b. Karely, as attributive adjectives : thus, le temps jadis the time of old, la page ci-contre the page opposite, la presque éter- nité almost eternity. c. Governed by a preposition, like nouns : thus, d'où from where, whence, les jambes de devant the fore-legs (lit'ly, legs of in front), la pluie d'hier the rain of yesterday, de trop in excess, superfluous, par trop too much, quite too, jusqu'à demain until to-morrow, dès longtemps since long ago. d. Quite rarely, in other noun constructions. 198. Sometimes an adverb in English is represented in French by an adjective : thus, il est arrivé le premier he arrived first. Compare the cases in which the same expression is treated now as an adverb and now as an adjective, § 56. 199. An adverb of degree is often separated from the adjective which it qualifies. Thus ; BESPOKSIYES. 341 a. Comme (with combien) and que, always, in exclamatory ex- pressions : thus, comme il est heureux how happy he is ! que vous êtes gentille how pretty you are ! b. Plus and moins in the sense of the more, the less ; thus, plus vous êtes vertueux, plus vous serez heureux, the more virtuous you are, the happier you will be. c. Sometimes other adverbs : thus, tant il est vrai so true is it. 200. The responsives oui yes and non no are a sort of elliptical adverb, used to represent a sentence. a. They are sometimes preceded by que when used as repre- senting a sentence which is the object of a verb : thus, je crois que oui I believe yes (or I believe so), je te dis que non I tell you no (or that it is not so). b. In answer to a negative question implying a negative state- ment, si is used instead of oui : thus, vous n'y étiez pas you were not there, were you ? si yes, I was. 201. Voici and voilà are also abbreviated sentences (from vois ici and vois là), and they retain some of the constructions be- longing to the verb which really forms a part of them. a. Thus, they often take a pronoun-object, which (contrary to the rule for an imperative affirmative : XXII. 7) is placed before them : thus, les voilà there they are, m'y voici here I am, vous voulez de l'argent ? en voilà you want money f. there is some ; more rarely, they are preceded by the relative object que : thus, ce monsieur que voici this gentleman here (lit'ly, whom behold here). VIIL— PREPOSITIONS. 202. Most of what relates to the prepositions and their uses has been already stated ; what needs further to be added will be given here. 203. The two prepositions de of, from, and à to, at are those of which the uses are most various, depart most widely from the simple original meaning of the words, and are most analogous with inflectional endings, of genitive and dative respectively ; they have been, therefore, most fully treated above. a. Thus, the uses of de as connecting one noun with another in the manner of a genitive are stated in §§ 29-34 ; as making a partitive noun, § 35 ; as connecting a noun with an adjective, § 61 ; as denoting material and measure, V. 1-4; after a verb, § 162; as preceding an infinitive, §§ 177-9, 183-5 ; and so on. 342 PKEPOSITICWS. [203— b. In like manner, the uses of à between two nouns, at B 36-7 ; between an adjective and noun, § 61 ; between a verb and noun, § 161 ; before an infinitive, § 180 etc. ; and so on. 204. Further uses of de may be noted, as follows : a. With the noun côté side (and sometimes with part part), de loses altogether its sense of removal, and signifies on or at : thus, de ce côté on this side, ils se rangent des deux côtés de la salle they draw up on both sides of the hall, de toutes parts on every side, de côté (or part) et d'autre on the one side and the other. b. In like manner, de means at or the like in a few expressions of time : thus, du matin at morning, in the morning {—of a morning), de bonne heure in good time or early, de nos jours in our day, de ma vie in my life, du vivant de ce roi in the life- time of this king. c. After plus more or moins less, de is used in the sense of than before a numeral, when the meaning is a greater or less quantity than what is expressed by that numeral : thus, plus de deux ans more than two years (i.e. a number of years greater than two), en moins de vingt minutes in less than twenty minutes : but, quatre yeux voient plus que deux four eyes see more than two [can see], and so on. The words midi midday and minuit midnight (as being equivalent to douze heures twelve o'clock), also demi half, quart a quarter, and à demi or à moitié by half, are treated as numerals in respect to this construction : thus, plus de minuit after midnight, plus d'à demi ruiné more than half ruined. 205. Further uses of à may be noted, as follows : a. The preposition à is used elliptically in the sense of at the distance of, at the age of, at the rate of, in connections that point out sufficiently what is intended : thus, à trente lieues de Paris at thirty leagues from Paris, il est mort à vingt ans he died at twenty, vendre à la livre sell by the pound. b. While en is in general used with the name of a country to mean either to or in (VI. 4), à, with the article, stands instead before a plural name, and also before certain names of distant countries, and of ancient provinces of France : thus, aux États- Unis to (or in) the United States, au Japon in Japan, au Mexique in Mexico, au Poitou to Poitou. With partir set out, start, and in one or two similar phrases, is used pour : thus, partant pour la Syrie leaving for Syria. c. À is used in such phrases as c'est bien à vous that is good of you (or in you), c'était folie à lui that was folly in him (or foolish of Mm). d. It occurs in many elliptical phrases : as, à moi or au secours PEEPOsiïiôtfs. 843 help! (i.e. come to me, come for help), au revoir [good-bye] till we meet again, à nous deux between ourselves. 206. The other prepositions have in a much higher degree each its own meaning or range of nearly related meanings, correspond- ing in a general way (though with not infrequent exceptions) to certain prepositions in English ; and hence they call for only brief treatment here. 207. Dans and en in, into, etc. Of these two prepositions, having nearly the same sense, dans is more definite, en more gen- eral and vague, in the relation designated. a. Dans (except with proper names) is almost always followed by a limiting word, an article or possessive or demonstrative, before the noun it governs ; en, on the other hand, rarely stands before such a limiting word, especially the definite article (never before le or les, rarely before 1'). b. Instead of en (VI. 4), dans is used before the name of a country when accompanied by an adjective : thus, dans la France méridionale in southern France, dans toute l'Angleterre in all England. Also, both with the name of a country and of a town, when the meaning is within, inside of. c. In expressions of time, en is used to mean in the year, in the month, in the season : thus, en mil huit cent trente, en été, en juillet in 1830, in summer, in July (but, by exception, au printemps in spring) ; but dans la même année in the same year, and the like. In expressions for a certain length of time, en means rather in the course of, but dans at or by the end of: thus, je finirai ce travail en une semaine I shall finish this work in a week, but je l'aurai fini dans une semaine I shall have it finished in a week. d. En is used in many adverbial phrases of manner, means, material, form, and the like : thus, en secret in secret, en an- glais in English, en or in gold, en blanc in white. e. En is used elliptically to signify in the character of, also translatable as like or as : thus, agir en honnête homme act like an honest man, parler en maître speak as master. f. En and les are contracted to es in certain learned titles : thus, docteur es sciences doctor of science. 208. Avec with. This preposition usually signifies simply ac- companiment. But it also, like with in English, not infrequently designates instrument and manner, exchanging in these senses with de (§ 162), often with a hardly definable variation of mean- ing : thus, tuer avec une épée slay with a sword, écrire avec une plume write with a pen, couvrir avec (or d') un manteau cover with a cloak, and the like. 209. Par by. This preposition also often designates manner 344 PKEPOSITIONS. [209- or motive, exchangeably with de (§ 162) : thus, par or de crainte for fear. Alternately with de (XXVIII. 3), it is used along with a passive verb to signify the performer of the action, especially if the action is an external or physical one : thus, il est frappé par quelqu'un he is struck by somebody. But- de and par can to a great extent be used after the same verb : de then expressing a more general or habitual action ; par, one that is more special or exceptional. 210. Sans without. This preposition is peculiar in being treated in some respects as a negative word (since it so distinctly implies a negation of accompaniment) : thus, sans rien dire with- out saying anything, sans or ni argent without gold or silver, sans nul doute without any doubt. After it, the partitive sense of a noun is regularly left unexpressed : thus, avec de l'or mais sans argent ivith gold but without silver. 211. Depuis, from, since. Depuis marks a starting-point, in space or in time, especially the latter : thus, depuis les Alpes jusqu'à l'océan from the Alps to the ocean, depuis cinq heures jusqu'à six from five to six o'clock. But with a perfect or pluper- fact, or a present or imperfect (§§ 118cZ, 119c) in the sense of such, it means since, ever since, during . . . past or for, ago, and the like. Thus, je ne l'ai pas vu depuis son retour / have not seen him since his return, il y rêve depuis trois jours he has been dreaming of it during three days past (or for three days), elle est arrivée depuis peu de temps she arrived a little while ago. 212. a. A large number of preposition-phrases or compound prepositions are made by adding de to an adjective or adverb. The commonest of these were given at XXXIII. 3. They call for no further remark or explanation here. b. The prepositions that govern the infinitive were given above, at § 187. The preposition en, governing the gerund, was treated above, at § 190. 213. The required repetition of de and à before each noun governed by them was pointed out at III. 5. Excepted are espe- cially a word added to another in apposition or as equivalent to it, and a numeral added to another with ou or : thus, évêque à Londres, capitale des Saxons bishop at London, the Saxon capi- tal, de deux ou trois of two or three. a. The repetition also of en is nearly as strictly required. As to the other prepositions, they may be repeated or omitted before successive nouns, much as in English : thus, malgré les erreurs et les fautes in spite of errors and faults, dans la paix et dans la guerre in peace and in war. 217] COHJUKCTIOKS. 345 IX.— CONJUNCTIONS. 214. The conjunctions in French, as in other lan- guages, may be divided into coordinating and subordi- nating. a. This distinction is much less important in French than in German, because nothing in the arrangement of the sentence depends upon it ; it is only a part of general logical grammar, of the analysis of the sentence or period into its constituent parts, which may be carried on in much the same way in French as in English. 215. The commonest coordinating conjunctions are et and, mais but, ou or, ni nor, aussi also, car for, done then, or now, ainsi thus. a. Both . . . and is expressed by et ... et ; and of nearly the same value are the correlative pairs tant . . . que, non-seulement . . . mais encore. Either . . . or is ou . . . ou, also soit ... ou, and soit . . . soit. Compare XXXIV. 3. 216. Subordinating conjunctions are such as give to the clause introduced by them a subordinate character, as entering into the structure of another clause with the value of a single part of speech — namely, of a noun or substantive, of an adjective, or of an adverb. 217. Substantive clauses are introduced almost only by the conjunction que that Thus, as subject, qu'elle soit belle n'est pas à nier that she is beautifitl is not to be denied; as object, on ne peut pas nier qu'elle soit belle one cannot deny that she is beautiful ; as gov- erned by a preposition, malgré qu'elle soit belle, je ne l'admire pas in spite of her being beautiful, I do not admire her. a. But in such cases as the last, it is usual (see § 136a) to regard malgré que as a compound conjunct "u or conjunction-phrase, introducing an adverb-clause. b. A subject-clause is much more usu. 1 y, as in English, an- ticipated or followed by a pronoun as grammatical subject, with which then the clause is to be regarded as standing in apposition : thus, ce n'est pas à nier qu'elle soit belle it is not to be denied that she is beautiful,, 346 CONJUNCTIONS. [217— c. Substantive clauses are also introduced by compound relative pronouns and adverbs (that is, such as are used with the value of antecedent and relative at once) ; also by si in the sense of whether : thus, qui veut être aimé doit être aimable whoever (or he who) wants to be loved should be lovable, aimez qui vous aime love (him) who loves you, je ne sais s'il vient / dortt know whether he is coming. 218. Adjective clauses are for the most part intro- duced by relative pronouns, but also by relative adverbs, which may then be regarded as conjunctions. Thus, la table où je l'ai mis the table where (or on which) I laid it, le livre qui est sur la table the book which is on the table, and so on. 219. Most conjunctions and conjunction-phrases in- troduce adverbial clauses, or such as qualify verbs, ad- jectives, and adverbs, by adding limitations of time, manner, degree, condition, supposition, cause, purpose, and the like. Thus, je partais lorsqu'il entra I was going away when he came in, elle est si aimable qu'on ne peut que l'aimer she is so lovable that one cannot but love her, si vous y restez, j'y reste- rai aussi if you stay here, I shall stay also, quoiqu'il soit pauvre, il est content though he is poor, he is happy, venez que je vous voie come, that I may see you. 220. It is explained above, under the head of Subjunctive (§ 132 etc.), in what cases the verb of the dependent clause is made subjunctive. 221. The conjunction having the greatest frequency and variety of uses is que that, and its employment as conjunction shades off into that as relative pronoun, meaning that or which, so that in some cases they are not easy to distinguish from one another. The Index will give references to the passages where the various uses are explained. a. While that, both as pronoun and as conjunction, is often omitted in English, it must always be expressed in French : thus, the friends I have is les amis que j'ai, I know he is here is je sais qu'il est ici ; and so in all other cases. b. When the conjunctions and conjunction-phrases containing que — as lorsque, puisque, quoique, pendant que, tandis que, parce que, tant que, dès que — are to be repeated, they are gen- erally repeated by que alone ; and que is likewise used in repeti- tion instead of quand, comme, and si : thus, lorsque l'empereur 222] COSTJUNCTIÔHS. 347 fut revenu et qu'il eut visité le camp when the emperor had re- turned and when he had visited the camp, s'il n'a que peu d'ar- gent et qu'il veuille en avoir plus if he has only a little money and wants more. c. Especially in familiar language, que is sometimes used in- stead of lorsque, avant que, depuis que, jusqu'à ce que, and que ... ne instead of sans que : thus, à peine était-il sorti que la maison s'écroula he had hardly gone out, when the house fell in, je n'y irai point que tout ne soit prêt I shall not go there unless (or till or before) everything is r< X.— INTERJECTIONS. 222. The simple or pure interjections in French are in part the same as in English. a. Those most used are ah all (in various senses) , ô or oh oh, eh eh, hélas alas, aïe oh (pain), %.fie, bahpooh, holà hello, chut s7i, hein hey, parbleu zounds, and so on. 6. Many words and brief phrases are used elliptically in the manner of interjections. Examples are : bon good, silence be still, peste plague take it, allons come, tiens or tenez hold, see here, gare look out, par exemple indeed, à la bonne heure very well, en avant forward, go ahead, à moi help — and so on. c. The interrogative pronouns and adverbs are often employed in an interjectional or exclamatory way. The usage in regard to them is very much as it is in English. The same is true of the abbreviation of sentences brought about by their use in exclama- tion. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES. -XXX VII. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions. (§197.) ' Elle a quitté sa belle robe ; eh bien ! elle n'est pas plus mal pour cela ; au contraire. (Scribe.) 2 Le grand- vizir ne s'avise pas de s'informer s'il est bien ou mal dans ses affaires. (Le Sage.) 3 Par des récits d'autrefois, mère, aorégez notre veille. (Béranger.) * J'étudiais de loin, en silence, ce talent précoce et grandissant. (Ste.-B.) 5 Et depuis quand as-tu cette idée ? (Dum.) 6 Ce moment pour jamais a fixé mon destin. (Girardin.) 7 D'ici à un an, je promets de revêtir la robe blanche du baptême. (Souvestre.) 8 Puis il saisit ses deux pattes de derrière avec ses deux pattes de devant, et, comme satisfait de cette attitude 348 ADVERBS, PRÉPOSITIONS, ETC. [222— classique, il se remit à me contempler. ( V. Hugo.) 9 J'abuse, cher ami, de ton trop d'amitié. (Bac.) 10 Ce n'est qu'un effet de leur peu de lumières, qui les empêche de connaître la grandeur de leur mal. (La R.) (§ 198.) ' Tranquille je m'endors, et tranquille je veille. (Chénier.) 2 Les rares moments passent si rapides ! (Bum.) (§ 199.) ' Ah ! mon Dieu ! que je suis malheureuse ! (Scribe.) a Plus leur cause m'est chère et plus l'effet m'en blesse. (Corn.) 3 Plus j'y réfléchis, et moins je trouve cette scène naturelle. ( Vol.) (§200.) ' Mais non, maman! y pensez-vous ? — Mais si, mademoiselle, je le veux. (Scribe.) (§ 201.) l II s'assied où me voilà, s'écriant: Ah ! quelle guerre ! (Béranger.) 2 Mon jeune homme ne se fit pas prier ; nous voilà mangeant et buvant, lui du moins. (Courier.) 3 Tremblez, tremblez, méchants ; voici venir la foudre. (Corn.) "Pourquoi m'en donneriez-vous la peine puisque vous voilà ? (Mar.) & Me voilà bien avancé. — Ne le voilà-t-il pas bien reculé ? (Mar.) (§ 204.) ' J'avais de mon côté quelque chose à te dire ; mais tu m'as fait perdre mes idées. (Mar.) 2 Voyez-vous Londres de l'autre côté de l'eau ? ( V. Hugo.) 3 De toutes parts l'on ne voyait que champs cultivés. ( Volney.) 4 Le roi arriva, la tête haute, promenant de tous côtés ses re- gards, et cherchant le peuple pour lui parler. (Guizot.) 5 II me semble que de mon temps on n'était pas comme cela. (Scribe.) 6 Du temps de l'architecture, elle se faisait mon- tagne, et s'emparait puissamment d'un siècle et d'un lieu. ( V. Hugo.) 7 II se jeta d'abord sur l'omelette avec tant d'avidité qu'il semblait n'avoir mangé de trois jours. (Le Sage.) 8 En moins de deux ans Gustave Yasa rendit la Suède luthérienne. ( Vol.) 9 II était alors plus de minuit. (de Vi.) (§ 205.) 1 C'est une veuve assez riche, qui demeure à quelques lieues de là. (Ste.-B.) 2 A quelques jours de là, ella gagna la rive droite du Clain. (Sandeau.) 3 Mon plus long séjour fut au Pérou. (Feuillet.) i N'importe, madame; c'est bien mal à vous. (Scribe.) 5 Elle frappe Marat au flanc gauche, et enfonce le fer jusqu'au cœur. A moi ! s'écria-t-il. (Thiers.) (§ 207.) ] Le bœuf était absolument inconnu dans l'Amé- rique méridionale. (Buffon.) 2 Je suis donc enfin dans 222] ADVEKBS, PEEPOSITIONS, ETC. 349 Moscou, dans l'antique pays des czars, dans le Kremlin ! (Ségur.) 3 Dans quelques jours nous pourrons à loisir poursuivre ce discours. (Delavigne.) 4 Enfin, qu'as-tu fait en trente ans de dévouement pour tes chers semblables ? Rien du tout. {Feuillet.) 5 Quand mon mari combat en bon soldat de Rome, je dois agir en femme ainsi qu'il fait en homme. (Ponsard.) 6 II ressemble à une statue de jardin habillée en monsieur. (Méry.) (§ 210.) 1 Sans songer qu'à me plaire, exécutez mes lois. (Corn.) 2 Sans jeter d'alarmes, à tous mes Tyriens faites prendre lès armes. (Bac.) 3 Ils se condamnent à cette froideur de sentiments qui laisse passer les jours sans en tirer ni fruits, ni progrès, ni souvenirs, (de Staël.) (§211.) 1 Comment, cousine ! depuis trois ans, voilà deux fois que vous m'écrivez! (Courier.) 2 En orient, en occident, depuis plus de deux mille ans on ne parle que d'Alexandre. (Bossuet.) 3 Les pluies qu'il fait depuis trois jours me mettent au désespoir, (de Sév.) 4 II était absent depuis plusieurs heures, et le petit Fortunato était tranquil- lement étendu au soleil. (Mérimée.) 5 Je comprends l'étonne- ment où vous avez été de tout ce qui s'est passé depuis le 15 jusqu'au 20 de ce mois, (de Sév.) (§ 221.) lorsqu'on est sans fortune, et qu'on épouse quelqu'un qui en a beaucoup, songez que de qualités il faut lui apporter en dot ! (Scribe.) 2 C'est la division Legrand qui se trouvait le plus en danger, parce qu'elle était placée près du Danube, et que, pour ce motif, l'ennemi voulait l'accabler. (Thiers.) 3 En tout cas, si je l'épouse, et qu'il veuille en mettre un autre ici à votre place, vous n'y perdrez point. (Mar.) 4 A peine, en effet, est-il expiré qu'on voit éclater tous les désordres qui fermentaient depuis quelques années. (Barante.) 5 Vous le feriez officier de la Légion d'honneur qu'il ne serait pas plus superbe. (Janin.) 6 La vie s'achève que l'on a à peine ébauché son ouvrage. (La B.) Theme 25. prepositions. 1 Do you wish that I pass on the other side ? 2 1 found these flowers on both sides of the river. 3 You got up quite early this morning. 4 1 shall not see him again in eight 350 ARRANGEMENT. [222— days. 6 It was a little more than midnight. 6 He will come in less than half an hour. 7 1 gave him more than half of what he asked. 8 He sells beer by the pot, butter by the pound, cloth by the yard, and eggs by the dozen. 9 It was wise of him to go to the United States, rather than to Mexico. 10 He will stay a year in South America before returning. " I shall go to find him in three days, and we shall finish our journey together within a month. " He lives like a man of property. I3 1 can speak of it only with pain and regret. 14 One must bear her loss with fortitude. 15 You came in by the door; you will go out by the window. 10 Without money, without friends, what can one do? "I had to leave without seeing any one. 18 She speaks with- out committing faults. 19 For the last fifty years they have talked only of Napoleon. 20 He had not seen them for five days. XL— ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE. 223. The arrangement of the sentence in French cor- responds in a general way to that in English. a. That is to say, especially, those very frequent and necessary changes of order, consisting in inversion or putting the verb be- fore its subject, and transposition or removing the verb to the end of the sentence, which are characteristic of German, are mainly wanting in French, as they are in English. b. Minor matters regarding the position of words— such as put- ting the adjective more usually after the noun, putting an object- pronoun before the verb that governs it, and the like — have been already disposed of above, under the different classes of words. c. It remains here only to give a few rules respecting cases of inversion, or putting the subject after the verb, which also in general are like English cases, yet with some differences. 224. In questions, the rule for inversion is in general the same as in English : that is, the subject is put after the verb, except when the subject is itself the interroga- 227] IKVEESIOK. 351 tive element (either an interrogative pronoun, or contain- ing an interrogative word). Thus, et es- vous ici are you here ? but qui est ici who is here ? quel homme était ici what man was here f combien d'hommes seront ici demain how many men will be here to-morrow ? a. But it is only the> conjunctive subject-pronouns, and also on and ce, that may without restriction follow the verb in questions. If, on the other hand, the subject is any other pronoun than these, or a noun, the subject is usually required to be stated first, and then the question asked about it by means of a conjunctive pronoun (see I. 11). 6. When, however, the sentence begins with certain interroga- tive words (XXV. 6), even a noun is allowed to be put after the verb, unless the verb has a direct object. Thus, qu'a cet homme (or cet homme qu'a-t-il) what is the matter with this man f où est votre frère (or où votre frère est-il) where is your brother ? combien vaut cela (or combien cela vaut-il) how much is that worth ? but only comment votre frère supporte-t-il son malheur how does your brother bear his misfortune ? c. Interrogative inversion with a noun as subject is very often avoided by using the paraphrase est-ce que is it true that, or is it the case that: thus, est-ce que votre frère est ici is your brother here ? And the same paraphrase is also common even with a pronoun- subject : thus, est-ce qu'il est venu has he come ? — especially in the 1st sing., with a verb-form ending in e : thus, est-ce que j'aime (only rarely aimé-je) do I love f 225. Interjected phrases, marking a quotation as made in the words of the one who uttered them, are inverted in French, just as in English. Thus, venez, m'a-t-il dit come, said he to me, quoi ! m'écriai-je what ! cried I. 226. In optative phrases, or those expressing a wish (sometimes having also an imperative or exclamatory sense), the inverted arrangement is sometimes nsed, with a subjunctive (see § 1315). This is not common, a que, in the sense of would that, being generally used instead. Examples are : vive la reine long live the queen ! puisse-t-il (or qu'il puisse) revenir bientôt may he soon return ! plût à Dieu might it please God ! 227. Quite rarely, inversion is used with a subjunctive 352 ARKANGEMENT. [227— (usually past) to give a conditional sense — that is, one that would be fully expressed with if or though (see § 131c). Thus, dût-il m'en coûter la vie should it (i.e. though it should) cost me my life, fussiez- vous homme ou démon were you (i.e. whether you were) man or demon, ils auraient résisté, n'eût été le canon they would have resisted, but for the cannon (lit'ly, had the cannon not been). • 228. Not seldom, the sentence is inverted when some other member of it than the subject is placed at its head. Such another member may be a predicate adjective, an object, an adverb or adverbial phrase of place or time or other accom- panying circumstance, and so on. The inversion is nowhere re- quired, but only more or less common. Some of the cases may be more specially described as follows : a. After certain adverbs and adverbial phrases — especially à peine scarcely, en vain in vain, aussi accordingly, toujours ever, encore besides, au moins or du moins at least, peut-être perhaps, tout au plus at the utmost — a pronoun-subject is commonly made to follow the verb : thus, à peine étais-je entré hardly had I come in, en vain (or vainement) Ta-t-il essayé in vain did he attempt it, ce sont de belles étoffes, aussi coûtent-elles cher they are handsome stuffs, and correspondingly dear, peut-être vous attend-elle perhaps she is waiting for you. In corresponding cases, a noun-subject also is sometimes treated as in asking a question : thus, à peine cet homme était-il entré hardly had this man entered. b. After a predicate adjective, with être, a noun-subject some- times follows the verb. This is especially common with tel : thus, telle était sa condition such was his condition ; other examples are : humbles furent d'abord les pouvoirs humble were at first the powers, autres sont les temps de Moïse different are the times of Moses. c. Likewise, after various specifications of time, place, and cir- cumstance : thus, ainsi dit le renard thus said the fox, ici était jadis une ville here was formerly a city, alors commença une lutte terrible then began a terrible struggle, à côté de notre ami était sa femme beside our friend was his wife, au milieu de la foule se trouvait un petit garçon in the midst of the crowd was found a little boy, à cette condition fut ajoutée une autre to this condition was added another. d. Likewise, in a relative clause, after quel, que, où, and the like : thus, on vit quelle était sa situation one saw what his situa- tion was, le plaisir que lui donne la vue d'un ami the pleasure which the sight of a friend gives him, c'est là qu'est né ce grand I^VEKSION. 353 homme it is there that this great man was born, la place où était dressé l'échafaud the place where was erected the scaffold. e. These inversions with a noun-subject take place especially where the subject is a complex one, or accompanied by adjuncts which connect with following clauses. They can also hardly occur if the verb has additional adjuncts, especially objects that follow it. 229. In rare cases, the verb itself stands at the begin- ning of an affirmative sentence. Thus, vient un autre (along) comes another. 230, In poetry, many of the ordinary rules for the arrangement of the members of a sentence are liable to be violated. Illustrations of all the various cases of inversion are to be seen among the sentences already given above. A few more are added here. ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXVIII. Inverted Arrangement. (§ 224.) ! Où sont, Dieu de Jacob, tes antiques bontés? (Bac.) 2 D'où vient donc la cérémonie que vous faites ? (Mar.) 3 Quel est ce principe ? quels en sont les éléments ? (Guizot.) 4 Et que dira mon père, si je te cache sans sa permission? (Mérimée.) 6 A quoi prétend une religion, messieurs, quelle qu'elle soit? (Guizot.) 6 A qui va cette lettre? (Begnard.) (§226.) 1 Puisse- je raffermir ta haine qui chancelle; puisse une juste horreur te saisir comme moi ! (Belavigne.) 2 Sois-je du ciel écrasé si je mens ! (Mol.) 3 Plût à Dieu que le sacrifice de ma vie pût sauver la sienne ! (Guizot.) (§ 227.) 1 Eût-il été bien plus fort et bien plus habile, eût-il été Richelieu ou Sully, il fût tombé de même. (Mignet.) 2 Coûtât-il tout le sang qu'Hélène a fait répandre, dussé-je après dix ans voir mon palais en cendre, je ne ba- lance point. (Bac.) (§ 228.) * Comme la mode fait l'agrément, aussi fait-elle la justice. (Base.) 2 Si cela pouvait lui donner les senti- ments d'un homme qui va paraître devant Dieu, encore serait-ce quelque chose, (de Sév.) 3 Du moins, en tout cas, ne la connaît-on point comme on connaît le chevalier. (Mar.) 4 Peut-être traverse-t-il encore quelques rues solitaires. (Girardin.) 5 Combien les lunettes nous ont-elles découvert 23 354 VERSIFICATION. [230— d'êtres qui n'étaient point pour nos philosophes d'aupara- vant ! (Pasc.) 6 Aussi la mort de cet homme ne contrasta- t-elle point avec sa vie. (Bal.) 7 En Espagne, au milieu du règne de Philippe IL, éclate la révolution des Provinces- Unies. (Guizot.) 8 Maintenant est fait le plaisir de Dieu. (Michelet.) 9 Ainsi s'est écoulé le dix-huitième siècle. (Ba- vante.) 10 Aux lettres de pierre d'Orphée vont succéder les lettres de plomb de Guttemberg. ( V. Hugo.) "Au-dessous du gros poirier qui touche au mur de la grange était assis, sur le banc de pierre, mon père adoptif. (Sue.) 12 Enfin arrivèrent les jours d'agonie. (Bal.) 13 Voici la maison où demeure Reboul. (Dum.) 14 Tout homme peut faire ce qu'a fait Mahomet. (Pasc.) ,5 C'est là que se ravive l'âme des- séchée sur les bouquins. (Tœpfer.) 10 J'essaierai d'arriver ainsi à comprendre quel a été dans son ensemble, et d'une manière complète, le développement de notre glorieuse patrie. (Guizot.) n Je commençais à me faire à ce téte-à- tête lorsque survint un incident. ( V. Hugo). (§ 229.) ' Viennent ensuite les députés de la Grèce. (Le Bas.) Xm.— FRENCH VERSIFICATION. 231. Since any one who reads French poetry ought to know, at least in a general way, how it is constructed, the following brief statements are added here. 232. Since in French there is (12) no marked distinc- tion of long and short vowels, and also (11) only a weak accent, resting on the final syllable of each word, and un- accompanied by a secondary accent on any of the pre- ceding syllables, there can be in French verse no proper metrical movement, either of quantity or of accent : a French line of verse is only a certain number of successive syllables, with a rhyme at the end. There is and can be no French verse without rhyme. 233. a. In making out the proper number of syllables for a line, the silent syllables, or those containing a mute 234] VERSIFICATION. 355 e (18), count in general, as much as those which have a full pronunciation in prose. Thus, there are six syllables in II re- J garde | toujours ; and seven in Une j perle | qu'il don- | na ; and eight in Pauvre | mère, | ton fils | est mort ; and twelve in Ouvrent | des im- | mortels | les bien- | faisan- | tes mains ; and thirteen in Tu la | troubles ! | reprit | cette | bête | cruel- | le. b. But if a final e mute comes to stand before an initial vowel of a following word, it is lost, the two vowels forming together only one syllable. Thus, there are six syllables in Le ri- j chenet le i puissant ; and seven in II Ian- | ce w un fou- | dre^à Tin- | stant ; and eight in Et l'an- I née w ex- | pire^à | sa voix ; and nine in Un pas | en-co- | re^en-co- | re_une_heu- | re ; and twelve in Oh! l'es- j time | publi- | que,_elle w est [ vers les | ecus! and thirteen in II est | pauvre^i- | nuti- | le^et cha- | cun le | délais- | se. c. Certain special rules will be given farther on. 234. Rhyme is of two kinds, called respectively mas- culine and feminine. a. Feminine rhyme is that between words having a mute syllable after those whose accordance makes the rhyme. Thus, feminine rhyme is that between mûre and pure, contente and récente, dis-je and fis-je, est-ce and messe, glorifie and fortifie, due and vue, chimères and amères, journées and années, irritent and habitent, prient and fient, and the like. h. Masculine rhyme is that between words which end with a fully pronounced syllable. 356 VERSIFICATION. [234— Thus, mûr and pur, content and récent, dis and fis, dû and vu, berceaux and tombeaux, passé and versé, lui and nui. c. The names masculine and feminine are evidently given be- cause the two kinds of rhyme are such as subsist between the masculine and the feminine forms of adjectives respectively : thus pur mûr and pure mure ; contents récents and contentes récentes. 235. In French verse, masculine and feminine rhymes are required always to alternate. This may be line by line, or couplet by couplet, or one couplet within another — or yet otherwise, if more than two lines are made to rhyme together. Examples are : Rien ne pèse tant qu'un secret ; Le porter loin est difficile aux femmes ; Et je sais même sur ce fait Bon nombre d'hommes qui sont femmes. (La F.) Oui, je viens dans son temple adorer l'Éternel ; Je viens, selon l'usage antique et solennel, Célébrer avec vous la fameuse journée Ou sur le mont Sina la loi nous fut donnée. (Bac.) On parlera de sa gloire Sous le chaume bien longtemps ; L'humble toit, dans cinquante ans, Ne connaîtra plus d'autre histoire. (Béranger.) 236. Rhymes, to be allowed, must have more than the mere sound in common ; there must also be a certain correspondence of written form — so far, especially, that the finals would carry on or link (84 etc.) alike. a. Thus, mûr and purs are never allowed to rhyme, nor con- tent and récents, nor bleu and peux, nor ai and nez, and so on ; nor would banc and quand or camp rhyme ; nor plier and fié or fiez. But words ending in the different sibilants, as eux and bleus, or fais and paix and nez, or crevés and devez, may rhyme ; also d and t, as attend and autant ; or c and g, as banc and rang ; also cases like passe and grâce, honte and prompte, même and thème and aime, gants and temps, and so on. b. The first singular of a verb is sometimes used in rhyme with- 238] VEESIFICATIOK. 357 out its final s : thus, j'averti with votre parti, je vien with bien, je croi with emploi, and so on. This is because the final s of this person is only a recent addition to it : see § be. c. Some words have in verse two different forms, either of which may be used : thus, encor beside encore, avecque beside avec, jusques beside jusque, and so on. d. Karely, the liberty is taken of rhyming words generally for- bidden to rhyme ; and then the spelling is sometimes changed to correspond : thus, circonspec (for -spect) and coups de bec (La F.). 237. Words in which a mute syllable (-e or -es or -ent) follows a vowel — thus, crée crées créent, fie fies fient, and the like — are of very restricted use in verse, the combinations being never allowed to count as two syllables in the middle of a line. Those in final e may be used there before an initial vowel, where their e is lost (§2336): thus, Mais bientôt à ma vue^on l'a fait disparaître. Son maître le rappelle, et crie,_et se tourmente. Que ne suis-je restée w aux bords ou j'ai fleuri ? But those in es and ent are only allowed at the end of a line, where they make a feminine rhyme. a. But the ending aient of imperfect and conditional (also soient, aies, aient) is arbitrarily reckoned as a single syllable : thus, Erraient au gré du vent, de leur sort incertains. . . . que les rois Le soient aussi ; c'est l'indulgence. 238. An i and another following vowel often form together only one syllable, while in other cases they make two syllables : thus, rien, but li-en ; fier adj. , but fi-er v. ; lieux, but glo-ri-eux ; and so on. a. For the most part, such combinations have in the same word always the same value, as one syllable or as two ; but there are a few words in which they are allowed to be treated either way : thus, an-cien or an-ci-en, hier or hi-er. The endings ions and iez (of impf. indie, conditional, and près, and impf. subj.) are in general one syllable ; but they are two in the conditional if a mute precedes the r : thus, é-tions é-tiez, se-rions se-riez, don- nions don-niez, fus-sions fus-siez ; but vou-dri-ons vou-dri-ez. b. The distinction between these two classes of cases has to be learned principally by practice. But it may be pointed out that where the combination corresponds to a single vowel in Latin, it is one syllable in French : thus, rien rem, fiel fel, bien lben-e, 358 VERSIFICATION. [238 pied ped-em, fier fer-um, lieu loc-um. On the other hand, the i makes a separate syllable in the forms and derivatives of verbs in ier ■ thus, li-er, li-ons, li-ez, li-ant, li-eur, li-en. 239. The same difference of value is found, much less often, in combinations of u with a following vowel ; and, quite rarely, in those of ou. Thus, ru-i-ne, but plui-e ; nu-a-ge, but i-gua-ne ; ouais, but jou-ais ; and so on. a. A u after q or g is in general only an orthographic sign, and has no separate value in making syllables. But in ar-gu-er it is pronounced, and makes a syllable throughout, as in other verbs in uer, like re-mu-er, flu-er. b. Many otherwise doubtful cases are settled by the use of the diaeresis or of an accent. 240. Those pupils who are to learn to scan the lines of French verse may best be practised in dividing off the syllables two by two — in writing, in some such manner as is done above, in § 233 ; and also in reading them with the same division. In ordinary reading of French poetry, of course, no such artificial division should be made. VOCABULARIES. I.— FRENCH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY. ABBREVIATIONS. adj. adjective. irr. irregular (the list -no. added) adv. adverb. It. Italian. art. article. L. Latin. conj. conjunction, LL. Low or late Latin. i. feminine noun. num. numeral. French. m. masculine noun. fr. from, derived from. OF. Old French. G. German, Germanic. pple. participle. Gr. Greek. prep. preposition. impers inf. . impersonal, infinitive. pron. pronoun. reft. reflexive. interj. interjection. v. verb. Words irregularly pronounced have * prefixed, and reference to the Rules of Pronunciation added immediately after them. A ' before initial h. shows it to be aspirate (64a-d). References are made in the same manner as above in the text (see p. 202). Phrases are given and explained under their principal words. à prep. (§ 2035, 205) to, toward, unto ; at, in ; of, for, with, etc. (characterized by) ; about, in respect or reference to ; on, by ; from (§ 161c) ; belonging to (§ 161é). [L. ad.] abandonment, renun- ja and bandon, fr. G. give up. abandon m. ciation. ban]. abandonner v. abandon, [fr. abandon.] abattre v. (XX. 3c) beat or knock down, strike off. [a for L. ab, and battre.] abbé m. abbé (name and title of a clerical person of a certain grade). [L. abbatem.] abeille/, bee. [L. apiculam.] abîmer v. sink, overwhelm, swal- low up. [abîme, abyss ; fr. Gr.] abord m. access, arrival, attack : d'abord, from the start, at first, first, [à and bord, side, edge.] aborder v. arrive, land. [fr. abord.] aboyer v. bark. [L. ad-baubari.] abréger v. abridge, shorten {hence, cause to seem shorter, make to pass pleasantly). [L. abbreviate, fr. brevis, short.] absent adj. absent. [L.] absolument adv. absolutely, [fr. absolu, L. absolutus.] abuser v. make wrong use of (de : § 162/), abuse, [fr. abus, L. abusus.] académie /. academy, institution of learning (hence, learning and its interests). [L. , fr. Gr.] accabler v. overwhelm, crush, [fr. OF. caable, engine of war.] accepter v. accept, submit or re- sign one's self to. [L. accep- tare.~\ 360 FRENCH-ENGLISH accompagner v. accompany, [fr. compagne, companion.] accomplir v. accomplish, complete: fait accompli, thing done and finished. [L. ad-complere, fill.] accorder v. accord, grant. [LL. accordare, fr. w, heart.] accoutumer v. accustom, inure, [fr. coutume, custom.] *accroc (bSg) m. hook, hitch, tear, [fr. croc, fr. G., = crook etc.] accueillir v. (irr. 46) receive, wel- come. [L. ad-colligere.] acheminer v. despatch : s' . . ., set out, proceed, [à and chemin, on the road.] acheter v. buy, purchase. [LL. adcaptare.] achever v. achieve, bring to com- pletion, finish, [à chef, to a head.] acquérir v. (irr. 63) acquire, gain. [L. acquirer e.~\ actif adj. active, brisk. [L. ac tivum.] action /. action, movement, play, deed. [L. actionem.'] adhésion/, adhesion, concurrence. [L. adhœsionem.] adieu m. adieu, farewell, good by. [à Dieu, (I commend you) to God.] administrer v. administer, man- age. [L. administrare.] admirable adj. admirable, won- derful, amazing. [L. admira- bilem.] admiration /. admiration. [L. admirationem.] admirers, admire. [L. admirare.] adopter v. adopt. [L. adoptare.] adoptif adj. adoptive, by adoption. [L. adoptivum.] adoucissement m. softening, miti- gation, alleviation, [fr. adoucir, fr. doux, soft.] adresser v. address : s' . . ., address one's self, apply, appeal, [fr. L. ad-dirigere, direct.] adroit adj. adroit, dexterous, skil- ful, clever, [fr. L. ad-directum.] affaire/, affair, concern, business: votre affaire, the thing for you, what you want ; avoir affaire à, have to deal with, [à faire (a thing) to do.] affairé adj. (as if pple of affairer) busy, occupied, [fr. affaire.] affaissement m. being weighed down, depression, giving way. [fr. affaisser, fr. faix, burden, L. fascem.] affliger v. afflict, grieve, vex. [L. affligere.] affranchir v. free, liberate, enfran- chise, [fr. franc, G., free.] affronter v. stand in front of, face, meet, brave, [fr. front, L.frontem, front.] afin adv. to end : afin de, for the purpose of, in order to, to; afin que (§ 137 d), in order that, that, [à fin.] âge m. age. [L. œtaticum.] âgé adj. (as if pple of âger) aged, old, on in years, [fr. âge.] agir v. act, behave, proceed, ex- ert one's self : s'agir de impers. concern, be question of, be the matter in hand. [L. agere.] agneau m. lamb. [L. agnellum.] agonie /. agony, death-struggle. [L. agoniam, fr. Gr.] agoniser v. be at the point of death. [L.,fr. Gr.] agréable adj. agreeable, pleasant. [fr. agréer, f r. à gré, L. ad gra- tum.] agrément m. agreeableness, pleas- ingness, gratification, charm. [fr. agréer, fr. à gré.] agriculture f. agriculture (crops and their interests). [L. agri- culturam.] aide m.f. (§ 15a) aid, help, helper. [fr. aider.] aider v. aid, help : aider à (§ 1612»), give help to or about, assist. [L. adjutare.] aïeul m. (§ 22c) grand-parent, an- cestor. [LL. aviolum, fr. L. avus.] aigle m.f. (% 15a) eagle, standard. [L. aquilam.] VOCABULARY. 361 needle, spire. [fr. *aiguill8 (62/) /. [L. acuculam.] *aiguiser (62/) v. sharpen, aigu, L. acutum, sharp.] ail m. (§ 21a) garlic. [L. allium.] ailleurs adv.* elsewhere, some 6»?* anywhere else : d'ailleurs, oth- erwise, besides, moreover. [L. aliorsum.~\ aimable adj. amiable, lovable, lovely, [fr. aimer.] aimer v. love, like, be fond of or attached to : aimer mieux, like better, prefer. [L. amare.] ainsi adv. thus, so, in this or that way, likewise : ainsi que, as, so ' as, as well as, as also. [L. œque sic or in sic] air m. air (atmosphere) ; air, look, mien, aspect : avoir l'air, have the look or aspect; (with adj.: § 56Ô) appear, seem to be. [L. aerem.] aise adj. pleased, glad, happy. [?] aisé adj. easy, not difficult, [fr. aise.] aisément adv. easily, readily, [fr. aisé.] ajourner v. adjourn, defer, put off. [à and jour, day.] ajouter v. add; rejoin. [L., fr. ad and juxta, near.] alarme /. alarm, fright, [fr. à l'arme, to arms !] alarmer v. alarm, frighten, terrify, [fr. alarme.] *album (516) m. album. [L., white.] alentour adv. around, roundabout, [à l'entour, in the neighbor- hood.] allemand adj. German. [OG. ale- man, Allemanni.] aller v. (irr. 82 ; p. 128) go, be go- ing : allons, come, come on ; s'en aller (XXIX. 7c), go off or away, be going ; y aller de impers, concern. [?] allier v. ally, join. [L. alligare.] *almanach (59ô) m. almanac. [Arabic] *aloès (74d) m. aloes. [Arabic] alors adv. then, at that time ; in that case : alors que, at the time that, when. [L. ad illam horam, at that hour.] alternative /. alternative, [fr. L. * alternare.] ambassadeur m. ambassador, [fr. ambitieux adj. ambitious : as noun ambitious person. [L. ambi- tiosum.] âme/, soul, spirit. [L. animam.] *amen (54d), amen. [Gr.] amener v. bring, lead ; draw on, induce, [fr. mener.] *amer (73Ô) adj. bitter, sharp. [L. amarum.] amertume /. bitterness, vexation. [fr. amer.] ameublement m. furniture, [fr. meubles, movables, fr. L. mobi- lia.] ami m. , amie /. (§ 16) friend. [L. amicum, amicam.] amitié /. friendship. [L. amici- tiam.] amollir v. soften : s' . . ., be molli- fied or softened, grow soft. [fr. mol, soft.] amour m. f. (§ 15c) love : amour propre, self-love. [L. amorem.] amoureux adj. amorous, enam- oured, in love (with, de), [fr. amour.] amuser v. amuse, divert, entertain. [à and muser, stare.] an m. year (esp'ly in definitions of length of time). [L. annum.] ancêtre m. ancestor. [L. antecessor, précéder.] ancien adj. ancient, old, former. [LL. antianum.] anciennement adv. anciently, of old. [fr. ancien.] anéantir v. reduce to nonentity, an- nihilate, [à and néant (L. ne- ens), nothingness.] ange m. angel. [L. angelum, fr. Gr.] anglais adj. English, [fr. angli, Angles.] 362 FRENCH-ENGLISH animal m. animal, living being. [L. animal.'] animer v. animate, enliven, excite. [L. animare.] année/, year (esp'ly as a continu- ous space of time), [fr. an.] annoncer v. announce, make known. [L. annunliare.] *antichrist (76«) m. antichrist. [Gr.] antique adj. antique, ancient, of former times. [L. antiquum.] *aout (14) m. August. [L. augus- tum.] *aoûteron (14) m. harvestman, reaper, [fr. août.] apercevoir v. (irr. 65) perceive, no- tice, observe. [L. ad-percipere.] aplanir v. make plane or even, smooth, [fr. plan, L. planum.] appartenir v. (irr. 61) appertain, belong. [L. adpertinere.] appeler v. (XXI. 3c) call, summon, appeal to. [L. appellare.] *appendiee (50c) m. appendix. [L.] applaudir v. applaud, cheer: ... à, give applause to, applaud. [L. applaudere. ] apporter v. bring, convey, procure. [L. apportare.] apprendre v. (irr. 30) apprehend, learn ; teach, make known, in- form. [L. appréhender e.] approcher v. bring near (to, de : § 162/) ; draw near, approach (to, de); s' . . ., approach, draw near (to, de), [fr. proche, near.] approuver v. pprove, approve of. [L. approbare.] appuyer v. support ; lean, rest, [fr. appui, à and OF. pui, height.] après prep, after, next following. adv. afterward, later ; further, proceed : d'après, according to ; après que, after that, after (conj.). [L. ad-pressum.] après-demain adv. day after to- morrow. après-midi m. afternoon. arbre m. (§ 12c) tree. [L. arbo- rera.] arc m. bow. [L. arcum.] archiduc m. arch-duke, [archi-, fr. Gr., and duc, L. ducem, leader.] architecture /. architecture. [L.] argent m. silver ; money, treasure. [L. argentum.] -arguer (62/) v. argue. [L. ar- guere. ] arme/. (§ 12b) arm, weapon. [L. arma.] armée/, army. [L. armai am.] arracher v. take away or obtain by force, wrest, extort, snatch, force (from, à : § 16L). [L. ab- radicari.] arranger v. arrange : s' . . ., ar- range itself, come out all right. [fr. rang, rank.] arrêter r. arrest, bring to rest, stop, check ; stay, (of a dog) point, set : s' . . ., arrest one's self, stop, stay. [fr. rester, stay.] arrière adv. in the rear, backward, behind : en arrière, backward, back, into the background. [L. ad retro.] arriver v. arrive : arrivé, person arrived, arrival. [L. ad-ripare, fr. ad ripam, to the shore.] arrivée/, arrival, [fr. arriver.] arsenal m. arsenal, [fr. Arabic] art m. (§ 12c) art. [L. artem.] artifice m. artifice, deceit, trick. [L. arlificium.] artisan m. artisan, workman, [fr. art.] *as (74cZ) m. ace. [L. as.] asile m. asylum, refuge. [L., fr. ^aspect (76a) m. aspect, appear- ance. [L. axpectum.] assassin m. assassin, [fr. Arabic.] assassinat m. assassination, [fr. assassin.] assemblée/ assembly, [fr. assem- bler.] assembler v. assemble : s' . . . , gather, come together, assemble, [fr. L. simul, together.] asseoir v. (irr. 78) "sit down, take a seat: s' . . ., sit down. [L. ad- sidere.] VOCABULARY. 363 asservir v. reduce to servitude, sub- jugate, enslave : asservi, slavish, [fr. serf, serf, slave.] assez adv. (V. 4a) enough, suffi- ciently; tolerably, fairly, rather. [L. ad satis.] assiette /. plate, [fr. L. ad and situs, site.] assister v. assist, aid, succor ; be present (at, à : § 1615), be a wit- ness (of, à) : assistant, one pres- ent, bystander, spectator. [L. ad-sistere.] assurer v. assure, make certain : assuré, sure, secure, certain, steady. [L. assecurare.] assurément adv. assuredly, certain- ly, [fr. assuré.] atelier m. workshop, studio. [LL. hastella Hum ( ?). ] attacher v. attach, fasten, bind, tie, join, fix : s' . . ., attach one's self, be attached or fastened or fixed; apply one's self. [fr. tache, tack, nail ; prob. Celtic] attaque /. attack. . [fr. attaquer.] attaquer v. attack : s' . . . à, fall upon, pick a quarrel with, [same as attacher.] atteindre v. (irr. 16) attain : ... à, attain to, attain. [L. attingere.] attendre v. wait for, await ; wait, stay : s' . . . à, await, expect, be prepared for; en attendant, while waiting, meanwhile, in the mean time. [L. attendere.] attenter v. attempt : ... à, make an attempt upon, assail, plot against. [L. attentare.] attention /. attention ; mark of attention or regard or considera- tion, considerate notice. [L.] attester v. attest, bear witness to. [L. attestari.] attirer v. draw down, attraot : s' . . ., bring upon one's self, in- cur, [à and tirer, draw.] attitude/, attitude. [L. aptitudi- nem.] auberge m. inn, tavern, [fr. G. lierberge, camp.] aucun pron. {with ne : § 111, 167) not any, none, no. [L. aliquem it num.] au-delà adv. beyond : ... de, be- yond {prep.), [au (à le), de, and là.] au-dessous adv. below : ... de, be- low, beneath (prep.). [au (à le), de, and sous.] au-dessus adv. above : ... de, above (prep.) [au (à le), de, and sus, sur.] aujourd'hui adv. to-day, nowadays. [au (à le) jour, de, and hui, L. hodie. to-day.] *aulx (67a) pi. of ail (§ 21a). auparavant adv. before, formerly, previously, beforehand, [au (à le), par, and avant.] auprès adv. near, at hand : ... de, near to, in presence of, in the eyes of, before, [au (à le) and près, near.] aurore/, dawn, aurora ; gold color, of gold color (§ bZd). [L. auro- ra m.] auspice m. auspice. [L. auspi- cium.] aussi adv. also, too ; as ; as much, equally; accordingly. [L. aliud sic, else so.] aussitôt adv. as soon : . . . que, as soon as (conj.). [aussi and tôt, soon.] autant adv. as much or many: . . . que, as much as (conj . ). [L. aliud tantum.] autel m. altar. [L. altare.] auteur m. author. [L. autorem.] *automne (69a) m. autumn. [L.] autorité/ authority. [L.] autour adv. around, roundabout : ... de, around, about (prep.). [au (à le) and tour, turn.] autre pron. other (XXVII. 6, 7 ; § 115). [L. alteram.'] autrefois adv. formerly, of old. [autre and fois, time.] autrement adv. otherwise, differ- ently, [fr. autre.] autrui pron. others than one's self, other people, [fr. autre.] avance /. advance, advantage : 364 FEEKCH-ENGLISn d'avance, in advance, before- hand. [/. avancer.] avancer v. advance, put forward, push on, prefer, benefit, [fr. avant.] avant prep, before, previous to : ... de (with inf.), before ; . . . que, before that, before (conj.: % 137a). [L. ab ante.] avantage m. advantage, odds on one's side, superiority. [fr. avant.] avant-hier adv. day before yester- day. avec prep, with, along with, by : d'avec, from with, from. [L. apud hoc] j avenir m. time to come, future, [à venir, to come.] avertir v. advertise, give notice, inform, warn. [L. advertere.] aveu m. avowal, confession, ac- knowledgment, [fr. avouer.] aveugle adj. blind. [LL. ab- oculum.] aveuglément adv. blindly. [fr. aveugle.] avidité/, avidity, greediness. [L. aviditatem.] avis m. advice, opinion, way of thinking. |L. advisum.] aviser v. advise, inform : s' . . ., bethink one's self, be thought- ful, take notice, have come into one's head. [fr. avis.] avoir v. (irr. 80 ; p. 58) have : y avoir (XXX. 4), there is, etc.; en avoir à, have to deal with; as auxil, see XXVIII. 5-7; for phrases, see the nouns used: cf. XIII. 6. [L. habere.] avoir in. what one has or possesses, property, [inf. of avoir.] avouer v. avow, acknowledge, con- fess. [LL. advotare, ad and votum, vow.] *avril (QM) m. April. [L. aprilem.] bagatelle /. bagatelle, trifle, [fr. It.] baigner v. bathe, steep, drench. [fr. bain, bath, L. balneum.] baisser v. lower, drop, decline, fall off, ebb. [fr. bas.] bal m. ball, dance, [fr. L. ballare, dance.] balancer v. balance, waver, hesi- tate, [fr. L. bilancem, bal- ance.] ^balsamique (746) adj. balsamic, balmy, [fr. Gr.] balustrade /. balustrade, railing, [fr. balustre, baluster, fr. Gr.] banc m. bench, seat. [fr. G.] bannir v. banish, [fr. ban, fr. G ] banqueroutier m. bankrupt, [fr. It. banco roito, bench broken.] ."fr Gr.] *baptême (71a) m. baptism, [fr. *baptiser (71a) v. baptize, [fr. Gr.] barbe /. beard : faire la . . ., put one's beard in order, shave. [L. barbam. ] barbouiller v. smear, blot. [?] barde m. bard. [L., fr. Celtic.] *baril (68c) m. barrel. [LL. baril- lum.] baron m. baron. [LL. baronem.] baronne/, baroness, [fr. baron.] bas adj. low, base, mean : à bas, downward, down ; en bas, be- low, down-stairs. [LL. bassum ] bas adv. (XXXI. 9) low, in a low tone. bas m. stocking, hose. [fr. bas adj.] basse-cour /. poultry yard, [lit'ly lower yard.] bateau m. boat: . . . à vapeur, steam- boat, steamer ; ... à voiles, sail- boat, sailing vessel. [LL.batum, fr. G.] bâtiment m. building, [fr. bâtir.] bâtir v. build. [fr. bât, LL. bastum.] battre v. (XX. 3c) beat, strike : se . . ., fight, fence. [L. batuere.] beau, bel (VII. 7) adj. beautiful, handsome, fine : avoir beau (% 176/), do or try in vain, make useless effort to. [L. bellum.] beaucoup adv. (V. 4) much, a good deal, many ; very much, very, [beau and coup, stroke.] YOCABULAEY. 365 beau-frère m. brotlier-in-law. [beau and frère.] beauté/, beauty, [fr. beau.] beau-père m. father-in-law. beefsteak m. beefsteak. [English word.] bel, see beau. bêler v. bleat. [L. balare.] belle-sœur /. sister-in-law. bénin adj. (§ 53c) benignant, be- nign. [L. benignum.] bénir v. bless. [L. benedicere.] berger m. shepherd. [LL. berbi- carium, fr. berbex, ram.] besoin m need, necessity, require- ment : avoir besoin, have need, be in need or want, need. [?] bétail, bestiaux m. (§ 21a) cattle. [L. bestiale.'] bête /. beast, animal, brute, crea- ture: bête noire, special aversion. [L. bestiam.~\ beurre m. butter. [L. butyrum, fr. Gr.] bibliothèque/, library. [Gr.] bien adv. well, rightly ; all right, very well ; quite, indeed, truly, surely ; very ; much, many (V. 46) : bien que, though, although (§ 1376). [L. bene,] bien m. what is well or good, good thing, good ; wealth, fortune : homme (or femme or gens) de bien, honest or excellent person. [= bien adv.] bien-être m. well-being, welfare, [bien and être.] bienfait m. benefit, good office, kindness, [bien and fait, deed.] bientôt adv. very soon, soon, [bien and tôt, soon.] billot m. block, [fr. Celtic] *bis (74c?) adv. twice. [L. bis.] blâmer v. blame. [L. blasphemare, fr. Gr.:§9.] blanc adj. (VII. 66) white, [fr. G.] blasphémer v. blaspheme. [L. blasphemare, fr. Gr.: § 9.] blesser v. wound. [?] bleu adj. blue. [fr. G.] bocage m. woods, grove, boskage. [LL. boscuni, fr. G.] boeuf m. (*bœufs pi. 61a) ox. [L. bovem.] boire v. (irr. 27) drink. [L. bibere.] bois m. wood, timber; wood, forest. [LL. boscum, fr. G.] bon adj. good (for, à), excellent ; right ; kind : à quoi bon, good for what ? of what use ? what avails it ? de bonne heure, in good time, early ; à bon marché, bon marché, cheap. [L. bonum.] bonheur m. happiness, good for- tune, felicity, blessing. [L. bo- num augurium.] bonjour m. good day, good morn- ing, one's greeting or compli- ments, [bon and jour, day.] bonté/ kindness, goodness; act of kindness, favor. [L. bonitatem.] borner v. bound, limit, confine, narrow, stint. [?] botte/, boot. [fr. G.] bouche/ mouth. [L. buccam.] bouger v. budge, stir, move. [fr. G.] bouillir v. (irr. 64) boil. [L. bul- lire.] boulanger m. baker, [fr. boule, ball, loaf.] bouquin m. old book, musty old volume. [Dutch boeken, books.] bourreau m. executioner. [?] bout m. end, tip, bit, small piece, [fr. bouter, push, fr. G.] bouteille / bottle. [L. buticulam.] boutonnière / button-hole. [fr. bouton, button, fr. bout.] bras m. arm. [L. brachium.] brave adj. brave, gallant, excellent, worthy (§ 606). [?] braver v. brave, face bravely, defy, [fr. brave.] brebis/ sheep. [L. berh'cem.] brèche/ breach, gap. [fr. G.] breuvage m. drink, beverage, [fr. L. bibere, drink.] brillant adj. brilliant, shining, [pple of briller.] briller v. shine, be brilliant. [LL. beryllare, fr. beryllus, beryl.] brin m. blade, bit, jot, mote. [?] *broc (58#) m. jug. [?] 366 FEENCH-ENGLISII brosse/, brush, [fr. G.] bruit m. noise, bustle, ado ; ru- mor, report. [fr. bruire, L. rugire (?).] brûler v. burn, scorch, consume, set on fire. [fr. L. per-ustum, burnt up.] brun adj. brown, [fr. G.] brusquement adv. bluntly, abrupt- ly, roughly, [fr. brusque adj., fr. Italian] *brut (76^) adj. crude, raw. [L. brutum.] bûcher m. pile, funeral pile. [fr. LL. buaca, fr. G.] bulle /. bull, papal edict. [L. buttam, boss, seal.] bureau m. bureau, desk. [fr. bure, woolen stuff.] but (76a) m. butt, mark ; end ; aim, purpose, [same as bout.] ça pron. (XXIV. 3 ; § 93) that, that thing (or person), [fr. cela.] cacher v. conceal, hide. [fr. L. coactum, crowded together.] cadeau m. gift, present. [L. ca- tellum, chainlet.] cadre m. frame, framework, bor- der. [L. quadrum.] café m. coffee, [fr. Arabic] calamité /. calamity. [L. calami- fa fern. ] calme adj. calm: as noun, calm- ness, tranquillity, serenity, [fr. LL. cauma (?).] calmer v. calm, quiet, tranquil- lize, [fr. calme.] calomnier v. calumniate, slander, libel. [L. calumniari.] campagne /. field ; fields, country (as distinguished from city). [LL. ca.mpaniam, fr. campus.] ^cancer (73&) m. cancer. [L., crab.] canon m. cannon : poudre à . . ., gunpowder, [fr. canne, cane.] cantonnier m. roadsman, gate- keeper, [fr. canton, canton.] *caoutchouc (5Sg) on. caoutchouc, india-rubber. [West I ndian word.] *cap [71a] m. cape, headland. [L. caput.] capable adj. capable ; just the one or the thing to (de), [fr. L. capax.] capitaine m. captain. [LL. cavi- tanus.] capital m. capital, invested funds. [L. capitale.] capucin on, capuchin (monk), [fr. capuce, cape.] car conj. for. [L. quare.] caractère m. character. [L.,fr.Gr.] cardinal m. cardinal. [L.] carrière/, career, race-course, [fr. L. carrum, chariot.] carrosse m. carriage, [fr. It., fr. carrum. ] cas m. case, hap, event : en tout cas, in any case, at any rate; en or au cas que (conj.: § 137A), in case that, supposing. [L. casum. ] casser v. break ; quash, [fr. L. cassus.] catholique adj. catholic. [Gr.] cauchemar m. nightmare. [OF. caucher (L. calcare, tread) and G. mar.] cause/ cause, reason, matter, case: à cause de, by reason of. [L.] causer v. talk, converse, discuss matters. [L. causari.] cavalier in. horseman, cavalier, knight, [fr. L. caballus. horse.] ce, cet pron. (XL 2 ; XIII. 2, 3 ; XXIV. : § 147//) this, that ; it (they, these, those) : ce qui or que, that which, w T hat ; jusqu'à ce que, until, till. [fr. L. ccce hoc, ecce istum.] ceci pron. this, [ce and ci.] céder v. yield, cede, give up : le céder (§ 82£), give way. [L. cedere.] cela pron. that, [ce and là : XXIV. 3-] celui, celle, etc. (XXIV. 4 ; § 92) this or that one. [L. ecce ilium, etc.] cendre /Mk cinder. [L. cine- VOCABULAKT. 367 *cens (74ô*) m. franchise ; census. [L. censum.] cent num. hundred (XV.; §64). [L. centum.'] centaine /. century, five score, a hundred or so. [fr. cent.] centième num. hundredth, hun- dredth part, [fr. cent.] centre m. centre. [L. centrum.'] cependant adv. pending or during this, meanwhile ; however, nev- ertheless, [ce and pendant.] cérémonie/, ceremony ; ceremoni- ousness. [L. cœrimoniam.] *cerf (61a) m. stag. [L. cervum.] certain adj. certain, sure ; certain, some, sundry (VIII. 5c ; § 606). [fr. L. certus.] certainement adv. certainly, surely. [fr. certain ] certes adv. certainly, assuredly. [L. certe.] cesser v. cease, refrain from, stop. [L. cessare.] cet, see ce. chacun pron. (§ 109) each one, each, every one. [L. quemque unum.] chaise /. chair, seat. [L. cathe- dram, fr. Gr.] chaleur/, warmth, heat. [L.calo- rem.] chambre/, chamber, room : femme de chambre, lady's maid. [L. earner am (§ 2e).] champ m. field : sur le champ, on the spot, at once, directly. [L. cempum.~\ chanceler v. (XXI. 3c) stagger, waver, falter. [L. cancellare.] changer v. change, alter : changer de (§ 162/), make a change in regard to, shift, change. [L. ccunbiare.] chanson m. song, ditty. [L. can- tionem.] chanter v. sing. [L. cantare.] chanteur m. singer, [fr. chanter.] chapeau m. hat. [fr. OF. chape, cape, cape.] chapitre m. chapter. [L. capitu- lum.] & chaque pron. (XIV. 6 ; § 109|bach, every, [abbrvn. of chaqjpi,] char m. car, chariot, call. [L. carrum.] charmer v. charm, delight, [fr. charme, L. carmen.] chasse / chase, hunt, sport, [fr. chasser.] chase^ hunt ; chase expel ; dismiss L. captare.] turn.] chestnut- color- castaneum.] châtefîîO| W&, chateau. [L. CO, chaud ^^"^p&m. : avoir chaud (XIII. 6),he warm, feel warm (of persons); mire chaud (XXXII. 9a), be warm (of weather). [L. calidum.] chef m. head, chief : *chef-d'oeuvre (61a), masterpiece. [L. caput.] chemin m. road, way : chemin de fer, railroad, railway. [LL. caminum, fr. Celtic?] cheminée / chimney ; fireplace ; chimney-piece, [fr. chemin.] *chenil (68c) m. kennel, [fr. chien.] cher adj. (VIII. 5c ; § 606) dear, costly, precious, loved, valued. [L. carum.] chercher v. seek, look for, try to find : aller chercher, go for, fetch. [L. circare, run about.] chèrement adv. dearly, at much cost, at a high price. [fr. cher.] chérir v. cherish, treat with affec- tion, hold dear. [fr. cher. ] cheval m. horse : à cheval, on horseback. [L. caballum.] chevalerie/, chivalry, [fr. cheval.] chevalier m. chevalier, knight. [fr. cheval.] chevelure /. head of hair, hair. [fr. cheveu.] chevet m. head of a bed, bolster, pillow, [fr. chef.] cheveu m. (gen'ly pi.) hair. [L. capillum.] chez ,prep, at or to the house of, 368 FREXCH-EtfGLISH where (one) lives, with, among. [L. casa, in the house.] chien m. dog. [L. canem.~\ choir v. (irr. 70) fall. [L. cadere.] choisir v. choose, select, cull : choisi, select, [fr. G. ) chose /. thing, object, matter, af- fair : quelque chose, something ; toute chose, everything ; autre chose, some or any thing else. [L. causa?n.] *Christ (76a) m. Christ. [Gr.] *chut (76a) mterj. hush, [imita- tive.] ci adv. (XIII. 3, XXIV.; § 91) here. [L. ecce hie,"] ciel m. (II. 5 ; § 22a) heaven, sky, clime ; canopy, awning ; Heav- en. [L. caelum. ~\ ci-inclus, ci-joint, § 56a. *cinq (72c) num. five. [L. quin- que.] cinquante num. fifty. [L. quin- quaginta.] cinquième num. fifth, [fr. cinq.] circonstance/, circumstance. [L.] citadelle/, citadel, [fr. It.] citoyen m. citizen, [fr. cité, city.] *civil (68cZ) adj. civil. [L. civilem.] classique adj. classic, classical. [L. classic urn.] *clef (61a) / key. [L. clavem.] clouer v. nail, rivet, fix. [fr. clou, nail, L. clavum.] -club (57a) m. club. [English ] cœur m. heart ; courage, resolu- tion : à cœur ouvert, with open heart, openly, frankly ; de bon cœur, with all one's heart, heart- ily, sincerely. [L. cor.'] col m. collar. [L. collum, neck.] colère/ choler, anger, rage, wrath. [L. choleram, fr. Gr.] collègue m. colleague. [L. colle- gam.] colonie/, colony. [L.] combat m. combat, struggle, fight. [fr. combattre.] combattre v. (XX. 3c) combat, fight ; fight or struggle against, contend with, [con and battre. ] combien ado. how much or many ? how much or many (relative), how, in what measure or degree: combien que, however much, [comme and bien.] combiner v. combine, contrive. [L. combinare.] comédie /. comedy ; Comédie fran- çaise, name of a certain company of actors at Paris. [L., fr. Gr.] comique adj. comic, comical. [L.] commander v. command, order ; ... à, give in charge to, give command or order to, direct. [L. commendare.'] comme adv. conj. as, just as, like ; in character of, as being. [L. quomodo.] commencer v. commence, begin. [L. cum-initiare.'] comment adv how ? how ! how (relative), [fr. comme (-ment, XXXI. 2).] commentaire m. commentary. [L.] commettre v. (irr. 31) commit. [L. committere.\ commissionnaire m. messenger, er- rand-man, porter, [fr. commis- sion, errand.] communication / communication. [L] ' compagnie /. company, society, fellowship ; troop, band. [fr. compagne, companion.] comparable adj. comparable, ad- mitting comparison, commen- surable. [L. comparabilem.] complet adj. complete, entire. [L. completum.'] complètement adv. completely, en- tirely, [fr. complet.] comprendre v. (irr. 30) comprehend, include ; understand : y compris, being included, with inclusion of (§ 56a). [L. comprehejidere.] *compte (71a) m. account, com- putation, reckoning, [fr. comp- ter.] ^compter (71a) v. compute, count, reckon. [L. computare.] computer v. compute. [L. ; § 9.] comte m. count, earl. [L. comitem.] comtesse /. countess, [fr. comte.] VOCABULARY. 369 concevoir v. (irr. 65) conceive, form a conception or idea of. [L. concipere.] conclure v. (irr. 29) conclude ; in- fer. [L. concludere.] ^condamner (69a) v. condemn. [L. condemnare.] condition /. condition, state, rank in life. [L. condilionem.] conduire v. (irr. 1) conduct, lead, guide, manage, drive. [L. con- duccre.] conduite /. conduct, [f r. conduire.] confiance/, confidence, trust. [L. confide ntiam.] confidence / confidence, trustful communication : faire confidence de, confide, disclose. [L. con- fidentiam.] confiture /. sweetmeat, preserve, jam. [fr. confire, L. conficere, put together. ] confondre v. confound, confuse, perplex, baffle. [L. confundere.] connaître v. (irr. 18) know, have knowledge of, be acquainted with, be informed of, have cog- nizance of. [L. cog noses re.] conquérir v. (irr. 63) conquer. [L. conquirere.] conquête/, conquest. [L. conqui- sitam.] conscience/ conscience ; conscious- ness, inner sense. [L.] conseil m. counsel, advice. [L. consilium.] conseiller v. counsel, advise (some- thing); ... à, advise (some one). [L. consiliari.] consentement m. consent, [fr. con- sentir, L. consentire, consent.] conséquence /. consequence, im- portance. [L. consequential.] conserver v. preserve, keep, retain. [L. conservare.] considérablement adv. considerably, [fr. considérable, fr. considérer.] considérer v. consider, regard, es- teem. [L. c-onsiderare.] consister v. consist, be composed or made up (§ 1826). [L. con- sisterez 24 consoler v. console, comfort, soothe. [L. consolari.] consolation/ consolation. [L.] conspirer v. conspire, combine. [L. conspirare.] constitutionnel adj. constitutional. [fr. constitution, L.] constamment adv. constantly, [fr. constant, L. (XXXI. 4a).] construire v. (irr. 2) construct, build. [L. construere.] consumer v. consume, waste. [L. consumere.] conte m. story, tale. [fr. conter.] contempler v. contemplate, regard, gaze at. [L. contemplari.] contenir v. (irr. 61) contain, hold, include. [L. continere.] content adj. content, satisfied, glad, happy. [L. contentum.] contentement m. contentment, sat- isfaction, happiness, [fr. con- tenter, fr. content.] center v. tell, relate, [same as compter, computer: § 9 ] J continuellement adv. continually. [fr. continuel, fr. continuer.] continuer v. continue, keep on with ; keep on, last; go on. [L. continuare.] contracter v. contract, draw to- gether. [L. contractare.] contraire adj. contrary, opposite : au contraire, on the contrary ; quite otherwise. [L. contra- rium.] contraster v. contrast, be opposed. [fr. Italian, fr. L. contra, against.] contre prep, against, in opposition to ; in exchange for. [L. contra.] contrôle m. control, restraint, [fr. contre-rôle, counter-roll. ] convenir v. (irr. 60) come together, accord, agree ; suit, be suitable or proper : convenir de, agree upon, assent to, acknowledge, own. [L. convenire.] convention / convention, assem- bly. [L.] convier v. invite, incite, quicken. [LL. convitare.] 370 FRENCH-ENGLISH coq (72c) m. cock, [imitative.] coquin m. coquine/. (§ 16c) rogue, knave, scamp. [?] cordonnier m. shoemaker. [lit'ly, worker in Cordovan leather.] corps m. body ; corpse [L. cor- pus.] corriger t>. correct, amend ; chas- tise. [L. corrir/ere.] corrompre v. (XX. 3b) corrupt, vi- tiate, spoil. [L. corrumpere.] côté /. side, part (de, on : § 204a). [fr. L. costa, rib.] coucher v. lay down, put to rest or to bed : se ... , retire to rest, go to bed. [L. collocare.] coude m. elbow. [L. cubitum.] coudre v. (irr. 34) sew. [L. con- suere.] couler v. flow on, glide by, pass away. [L. colare, filter.] coup m. blow, stroke, hit ; dis- charge, shot : tout-à-coup, sud- denly, all at once ; à coup sûr, assuredly, to a certainty, with- out fail ; coup d'oeil, glance, sud- den look ; and compare beau- coup. [L. colaphus, fr. Gr.] coupable adj. culpable, guilty. [L. culpabilem.] couple m. f. (§ 15a) couple, pair, brace. [L. copulam.] cour /. court ; courtyard, yard. [L. chortem.] courage m. courage, [fr. cœur.] courant m. current, stream : au courant, abreast of the stream, not behindhand, up with the times, well posted, [pple of courir.] courir v. {irr. 52) run ; be current, circulate ; run after, hunt (§ 157Ô). [L. currere.] couronne/, crown. [L. coronam.] cours m. course, run, vent : donner cours à, give free course or vent to, allow to go on unchecked. [L. cur sum.] court adj. short, brief, curt. [L. curtum.] courtisan m. courtier, courtling. [fr. It., fr. cor te = cour.] cousin m. cousine/. (§ 16c) cousin. [L. consobrinum.] ceuteau m. knife. [L. cultelium.] coûter v. cost. [L. constare, stand in.] *coutil (68c; m. ticking. [L. cul- citam.] couturière /. seamstress, dressmak- er, [fr. couture, L. consuturam, sewing.] couvent m. convent, monastery. [L. conventum.] couvert m. cover, plate etc. for eating, seat at table, [pple of couvrir.] couvrir v. (irr. 56) cover, envelop; fill. [L. cooperire.] craindre v. (irr. 15) fear, be afraid ; be afraid of, dread. [L. Ire- mere, tremble.] crainte / fear, terror, dread : de crainte que, for fear that or lest (XXXIV. 5c ; § 134e). [fr. crain- dre.] crasse adj. f. (§ 53d) crass, gross. [L. crassam.] crayon m. pencil, [fr. L. creta?n t chalk.] créer v. create. [L. creare.] cri m. cry, street-cry. [fr. crier, cry, L. quiritare.] *cric (58>/) m. jack, lifter, [imita- tive.] crime m. crime. [L. crimen.] crise/, crisis. [L.~, fr. Gr.] critique /. criticism, review. [L. cridcam, fr. Gr.] *croc (5$g) m. hook. [fr. G.,= crook.] croire v. (irr. 26) believe, think, be of opinion, suppose ; believe to belong (§ 161) /. drachm, dram. [Gr.] dragon m. dragoon. [L. draconem.] drap m. cloth. [?] droit adj. direct, straight, right : adv. (XXXI. 9) straight, direct- ly. [L. directum.] droit m. right. [L. directum.] duc m. duke. [L. ducem, leader.] duel m. duel. [L. duellum.] durant prep, during, pending. [pple of durer.] durer v. endure, last, continue in being. [L. dur are.] eau/, water. [L. aquam.] ébaucher v. sketch, outline, rough- hew. [?] ébranler v. shake, disturb, unset- tle, [fr. brandir (?), brandish, ^ fr. G.] écarter v. discard, remove : s' . . ., turn away, swerve, deviate, [fr. e (L. ex) and carte, card.] échapper?;, escape (from, à : § 161c). [fr. OF. cape, cape, envelop.] échauffer v. warm, heat : s' . . ., be- come warm or hot, grow excited, [fr. L. calefacere.] échoir v. (irr. 70) fall, befall, oc- cur : le cas échéant, the case occurring, if it so happens. [L. ex-cadere.) éclat m. burst, outburst, flash, splendor, brilliancy, brightness, glory, renown, [fr. éclater.] éclater v. break out, burst forth ; shine out, come to light, ap- pear : ... de rire, burst out laughing, [fr. G. ?] éclore v. (irr. 28) unclose, open,bud, hatch. [L. ex and claudere.] école f. school. [L. sclwlam, fr. Gr.] écolier m. écolière/. (§ 16) scholar, pupil. [L. scholarem.] économie /. economy, saving ; stint- ing, stinginess. [L. œconomiam, ^ fr. Gr.] écouler v. s' . . ., flow or pass away, run by, elapse, [e- (L. ex) and couler.J VOCABULARY. 375 écouter v. listen to, hear. [L. aus- cultare.] écraser v. crush, [prob. fr. G.] eerier v. s' . . ., cry out, exclaim. [e- (L. ex) and crier, cry.] écrire v. (irr. 12) write. [L. scri- bere.] écrit on. writing, written work. [pple of écrire.] écrivain m. writer, author, [fr. LL. scribanum.] écrouler v. s' . . ., crumble, fall in pieces, go to ruin. [fr c L. coro- tulare, roll together.] éducation/, education. [L.] effet on. effect, result : en effet, in fact, indeed, really, to be sure. [L. effectum.] effort on. effort, [fr. efforcer, fr. force.] effrayer v. make afraid, frighten, alarm, startle. [L. ex-frigidao-el] effusion /. effusion, outpour of feeling, expression of emotion. [L. effusioneon.] égaler ^.equal. [fr.égal,lt.œqualeon.] égard on. regard, consideration, considerate or respectful atten- tion : eu ... à, regard being had to, considering, [é- (L. ex) and garder, keep.] égarer v. mislead : s' . . ., go astray, get lost, [é- (L. ex) and garer, keep, fr. G.] église /. church. [L. ecclesiam, fr. Gr.] égorger v. cut the throat of, slaughter, [fr. gorge, throat.] eh inteoj. ah : eh bien, well, électeur on. elector, voter. [L.] élément m. element. [L. elemen- turn.~\ éléphant on. elephant. [L.] élève on. one brought up, pupil. [fr. élever.] élever v. raise, elevate ; bring up, educate : s' . . ., rise, arise, go up. [L. elevare.] elle pron. she ; it. [L. illaon.] éloignement on. removal, distance, estrangement, aversion. [fr. éloigner.] éloigner v. put to a distance, re- move, withdraw : s' . . ., go to a distance, retire, withdraw, [fr. loin, far.] embarras on. embarrassment, hin- drance, difficulty, [fr. barre, bar.] embaucher v. involve, engage, en- list, [fr. bauche, workshop.] émigrer v. emigrate : émigré, no- ble emigrated from France dur- ing the Revolution. [L. emi- grao-e.] *emmener (53a) v. lead away, carry off. [en (L. inde: 85Ô) and mener.] *-emment (28a) adv. ending. émousser v. dull, blunt, deaden. [fr. mousse, dull, fr. G.] émouvoir v. (io-r. 76) touch with emotion, move, agitate. [L. eonovere.] emparer v. s* . . ., possess one's self, take possession, seize, mas- ter. [L. in and paowe, pre- pare.] empêcher v. prevent, hinder (170a). [LL. ionpedicao-e, fetter.] empereur m. emperor. [L. ionpe- o-atoo-em.] empire on. empire. [L. imperium.] employer v. employ. [L. ionpli- care.»] emporter v. carry off or away: s' . . ., be carried away with passion ; emporté, passionate, violent ; l'emporter carry it off, get the better, [en (L. inde) and porter, carry.] emprisonnement on. imprisonment, [f r. emprisonoier, fr. en prison, in prison.] emprunter v. borrow (from, à : § 161c.) [fr. L. in proonutuuon.] en adv. pvon. (XXIII. 5-8 ; § 85) thence, away ; of it, of them, of him or her ; its, their (§ 886) ; in respect to or about it or them ; some or any (XXIII. 7) ; one or ones. [L. inde.'] en po*ep. (VI. la ; § 207) in, at, on; to, into ; in the act or course of, 376 FRENCH-ENGLISH while (X. 3c ; § 190) ; in char- acter of, as, like (% 207c). [L. in. ] enchaîner v. enchain, chain up, fetter, restrain, [en chaîne (L. catenam), in chains.] encore (or encor : § 236c) adv. to this time, yet, still ; further, in addition, besides, more, again : encore que (§ 137&), although, even though. [L. ha tic horam.] encre /. ink. [L. encaustum, en- caustic, fr. Gr.] endormir v. (irr. 43) put to sleep : s' . . ., fall asleep, go to sleep. [L. indormire.] endurcir v. harden, inure, [en and durcir, fr. dur, hard.] enfant m. (andf. : § 15e) child. [L. infantem, infant.] *enfer (736) m. hell. [L. infernnm.] enfermer v. shut up, lock up. con- fine, [en and fermer, shut, L. firmare.] enfin adv. in fine, at the end, at last, finally, [en and fin.] enfoncer v. sink, plunge, bury, drive in. [fr. en and fond (L. fundum), bottom.] enfuir v. (irr. 47) s' . . ., flee, run away, take flight, [en adv. and fuir, flee.] engager v. engage, induce, lead: s' . . ., become engaged or occu- pied, [en prep, and gage, pledge, j *enivrer (52a) v. intoxicate, inebri- ate, [fr. en prep, and ivre (L. ebrium), drunk.] enlever v. carry off, take away, re- move (from, à : § 161c). [en and lever.] ennemi m. ennemie/. (§ 16) enemy. [L. inimicum.] *ennoblir (53a) v. ennoble, raise to high rank. [fr. en prep, and noble, L. nobilem, noble.] *ennui (53a) m. ennui, weariness. [fr. L. in odio, in odium.] *ennuyer (53a) v. weary, bore : s' . . ., be wearied or bored or tired, [fr. ennui.] *ennuyeux (53a) adj. wearisome, tedious, [fr. ennui.] ^enorgueillir (53a) v. make proud, [en prep, and orgueil, pride.] énorme adj. enormous, immense. [L. enormem.] enrichir v. enrich, make wealthy. [fr. en prep, and riche, rich.] ensanglanter v. bloody, cover with blood, [fr. en prep, and san- glant, fr. sang, L. sanguinem, blood.] enseigne m. f. (% 15a) sign, mark ; ensign. [L. insignia.] ensemble adv. together, at the same time, in company or union. [L. in simul.] ensemble m. entirety, whole taken together, general effect, [same as ensemble adv.] ensuite adv. in the next place, next, afterward, then, [en and suite, succession.] entendre v. hear ; attend to, under- stand : s' . . . à, understand about, be a judge of. [L. in- tendere.] enthousiasme m. enthusiasm. [L., fr. Gr.] entier adj. entire, whole, com- plete. [L. integrum.] entre prep, between, among : d'en- tre, from among. [L. inter.] entreprendre v. (irr. 30) undertake, [entre and prendre, take.] entrer v. enter, go in. [L. intrare.] envers prep, toward, [en and vers, toward.] envie /. envy ; inclination, desire. [L. invidiam .] environ adv. prep, about, some- where nearly, not far from, [en and viron, circuit, fr. virer, turn (?).] envoyer v. (irr. 81) send, despatch. [L. inviare.] épais adj. thick. [L. spissum.] épargner v. spare, save. [?] épaule /. shoulder. [L. spatu- lam.] épéef. sword. [L. spatham.] éploré adj. tearful, red with weep- VOCABULAKY. 377 ing. [as if pple of éplorer, L. plorare, weep.] éponge /. sponge. [L. spongiam, fr. Gr.] époque /. epoch, age, period (of time). [Gr.] époux m., épouse /. (§ 16) spouse, husband or wife. [L. spoil- sum.] épouser v. espouse, marry, [fr. époux.] éprouver v. make proof of, experi- ence, go through. [L. ex-pro- hare.'] *équateur {12b) m. equator. [L.] ^équestre (72ô) adj. equestrian. [L. ] équivoque adj. equivocal, of doubt- t ful or questionable character. [L. œquiwcum.] erreur/, error. [L. errorem.] es, in the. [en and les : § 207/.] escadron m. squadron, [fr. It., fr. L. ex quadrare, form square ] esclave m. /. (§ 15e) slave, [fr. G.] espace m. space, extent. [L, spa- tium.~\ espagnol adj. Spanish : as noun, Spaniard. [L. hispaniolum.] espèce /. species, kind, sort. [L. speciem.] espérance/ hope. [fr. espérer.] espérer v. hope. [L. sperare.] espoir m. hope. [fr. espérer.] esprit m. spirit, soul ; mind, in- tellect ; wit, cleverness, bright- ness. [L. spiritum.] esquisse /. sketch, outline, rough drawing, [fr. It., fr. L. sche- dium, fr. Gr.] essaim m. swarm. [L. examen.] essayer v. try, make trial or essay of, attempt, [fr. essai, L. ex- agium.] *est (76a) m. east. [G.] estime / esteem, good opinion. [fr. estimer.] estimer v. esteem, regard with re- spect, value. [L. cestimare.] *estomac (5%g) m. stomach. [L., fr. Gr.] et (86a) conj. and : St ... et, both . . and. [L. et.] x. \j±- um. 1 [L.] établir v. establish, fix, settle. [L. stabilire.] état m. state, condition, position in life ; State, commonwealth, country; estate : Etats Généraux, States General, assembly of or- ders for legislation. [L. statum. ' etc. (et caetera) and so forth. été m. summer. [ L. œstatem. ] éteindre v. {irr. 16) extinguish. [L. exstinguere.] étendard m. standard, banner. [G.] étendre v. extend, stretch out. [L. extender e.] éternel adj. eternal, everlasting. [L. œternalem.] étonner v. astonish, astound : s' . . ., be astonished or surprised. [L. ex-tonare.] étonnement m. astonishment, [fr. étonner.] étourdir v. stun, daze, bewilder, cause to lose self-possession, [f r. L. torpidvs, torpid (?.)] étrange adj. strange. [L. extra- neum.] étranger m. stranger, [fr. étrange.] être v. (irr., p. 62) be ; as auxil., be, have (XXVIII. 6-8); go (§ 176e): c'est que, the thing or fact or reason is ; être à, belong to (§ 161e); y être, be up to any- thing, understand ; en être, be with respect to things, be at a point. [L. stare, esse.] être m. being, creature ; exist- ence ; essence, characteristic, [inf. of être.] étroit adj. strait, narrow, limited. [L. strictum.] étudier v. study, examine, investi- gate, [fr. étude, study, L. stu- divm.] évanouir n. vanish, fade away. [L. ex-vanescere.] éveiller v. wake up, waken : s' . . ., wake up, be awake. [L. ex- vigilare.] événement m. event, occurrence [fr. L. evenire.] éviter v. shun, avoid, escape. [L. evitare.] . 378 FRENCH-ENGLISH *examen (50c) m. examination, in- quiry. [L.] exceller v. excel. [L. exceller -e.] excellent adj. excellent. [fr. ex_ celler : § 189c] excepté pple. (§ 56a) excepted, ex- cepting, save. [fr. excepter.] excepter v. except, leave out, re- move. [L. ex-ceptare.] excessif adj. excessive, [fr. excès, excess, L. excess um.] exciter ». excite, arouse, stir up. [L. e.rcitare.] excuse/, excuse, apology, [fr. ex- cuser.] excuser v. excuse, pardon. [L. ex- cusare.] exécuter v. execute, carry out. [fr. L. exsecutum.] exemple m. example, instance. [L. exemplum.] *exempter (71a) v. exempt, [fr. L. exemplum.] exercer p. exercise, practise. [L. exercere. ] exercice m. exercise. [L. exerci- tium.] exhaler v. exhale, blow off, give vent to. [L. exhalare.] exhorter v. exhort, admonish. [L. exhortari.] *exil (68cZ) m. exile, banishment. [L. ex ilium.] exiler v. exile, banish, [fr. exil.] existence/, existence, [fr. exister.] exister v. exist, be in life or being, live. [L. existere.] expéditif adj. expeditious, expedit- ing [fr. expédier, L. expedite.] expédition/ expedition. [L.] expérience / experience ; experi- ment, trial. [L. experien- tiam.] expier v. expiate, atone for. [L. expiare.] expirer v. expire, pass away, die. [L. exspirare.] explication /. explication, explana- tion. [L.] expliquer v. explain, make intel- ligible. [L. explicate, unfold.] expression/ expression. [L.] exprimer v. express, render. [L. exprimere. ] extraordinaire adj. extraordinary. [L.] extrême adj. extreme. [L.] extrêmement adv. extremely, [fr. extrême.] fabricant m. manufacturer, maker, [pple of fabriquer (§ 189e), L. fabricari] fabrique/ factory. [L.fabricam, workshop.] face / face, front : jeter à la face, cast in the teeth ; en face de, in front of, before. [L. faciem.] fâcher v. offend, disturb, fash, anger : se . . ., be offended or dis- turbed, be angry, [fr. L.fasti- dium, aversion.] facile adj. easy. [L. facilem,.] facilement adv. easily, [fr. facile.] façon/ fashion, manner, way : . . . d'être, way, habit, habitual man- ner. [L. /actionem, make.] faculté/ faculty, capacity, power. [L.] fadeur/ flatness, insipidity, tame- ness. [fr. fade, flat, L. vapidum.] faible adj. feeble, weak. [L. fle- bilem, pitiful.] faiblesse / weakness, feebleness, [fr. faible.] faillir v. (irr. 50) fail, come short ; come just short, be close upon or near to, just miss of (g 176/). [L. f aller e, deceive.] faim m. hunger, famine : avoir faim, be hungry (XIII. 6). [L. famem.] faire v. (irr. 23, p. 150) make, do, act ; cause, make (XXXII. db ; §1586, 1946) ; be (of weather) (XXXII. 9a); put in order, fix : se ... à, accustom or reconcile one's self to ; en être fait, be all over (§ &5b) ; bien fait, well shaped, shapely, of good figure ; faire grâce, see grâce ; faire voir, show, exhibit. [L. facere.] -faisance (39c) /. extra dues. [fr. faire.] VOCABULARY. 379 *faiseur (39c) m. maker, jobber. [fr. faire.] fait (76a) m. feat, deed, action, ex- ploit, [pple of faire.] falloir y. (m*. 74, p. 141) impers. be obliged, must, bave to ; be lacking, need, want : peu s'en faut, there is little lacking. [L. fallere, deceive.] fameux adj. famous. [L. famo- sum.] famille /. family. [L. familiam ] famine/, famine, [fr. faim.] fantôme m. phantom, ghost, spec- tre. [L. fantasma, fr. Gr.] *faon (31a) m. fawn, whelp, [fr. L. fœtum.] farine/, flour. [L. far mam.] *fat (76a) m. fop, dude ; adj. (§ 53a") foppish. [L. fatuum, foolish. ] fatal adj. fatal. [L. fatalem.] fatigue/, fatigue, weariness, [fr. fatiguer.] fatiguer v. fatigue, tire, weary : se . . ., be tired or weary. [L. fatigare.~\ faute /. lack, deficiency, fault : faute de, for lack of, in default of. [fr. faillir.] faveur / favor : en faveur de, in favor of, on behalf or account of. [h.favorem.] favorable adj. favorable. [L.] fée/, fay, fairy. [L. fata, fate.] feindre v. (irr. 16) feign, make believe. [L. fingere.] *femme (26a) /. woman, wife : . . . de chambre, see chambre. [L. femiiiam. ] fenêtre/ window. [L.fenestram.] fente /. split, crack, [fr. fendre, L. findere, split.] fer m. iron, steel ; weapon. [L. ferritin.] ferme adj. firm, strong. [L. fir- mum.'] ferme/, farm. [fr. fermer.] fermenter v. ferment, work. [L. fermentare] fermer v. make fast, shut up, close. [L. firmare, make firm.] fermeté/, firmness, vigor, strength, [fr. ferme.] fermier m. fermière/. (§ 16) farm- er, [fr. ferme, noun.] ferrer v. furnish or equip with iron : voie ferrée, railway, [fr. fer.] fertile adj. fertile, fruitful. [L. fertilem.] ferveur/ fervor. [L.] fête /. festival, feast, fête. [L. festa. ] fêter v. celebrate ; observe as holi- day ; keep the festival or holi- day of. [fr. fête.] feu m. fire. [L. focum.] feu adj. (§ 54a, 56a) lately de- ceased, late. [L. fuit, he was (?)•] feuille /. leaf, sheet. [L. folia, leaves.] février m. February. [L.] fidèle adj. faithful, true, exact. [L. fidelem.] fier v. confide : se ... à, trust one's self to, trust. [L. fidere.] fièvre/, fever. [L. febrem.] figure/ figure, shape, form ; face. [L. figuram.] *fil (68d) m. thread. [L. filum.] fille/ daughter, girl. [L. filiam.] fillette/ girl, lass. [fr. fille.] *fils (68c, 74Ô-) m. son. [L. filius % 4c).] fin / end, finis : à la fin, in the end, at length ; sans fin, without end, to all eternity ; afin, see the word. [L. finem.] fin adj. fine, delicate, elegant. [L. finitum, finished.] finance /. finance, [fr. fin, end (settlement).] finesse / fineness, subtlety, art, artifice, finesse, [fr. fin, adj.] finir v. finish, bring to an end : en finir, make a finish or close (§ S5b). [L.finire.] fixer v. fix, determine, [fr. fixe, L. fixum, fixed.] fixement adv. fixedly, steadily. [fr. fixe, fixed.] flamme/, flame. [L.] S80 FRENCH-ENGLISH flanc m. flank, side. [L. flaccum, lax(?).] flâner v. lounge, idle. [?] flânerie/, lounging, idleness, [fr. flâner.] flâneur m. lounger, idler. [fr. flâner.] flatter «."flatter. [?] flatteur m. flatterer, [fr. flatter.] flèche/, arrow, [fr. G.] flétrir v. wither ; sully, dishonor, disgrace. [L. flaccere.] fleur/, flower. [L. florem.~\ fleurir v. (XIX. 3b) flourish, [fr. fleur.] fleuve m. river. [L. fluvium.] flot m. wave, flood. [L. fluctum.] flotte f. fleet, navy. [fr. flotter, float, fr. flot.] foi /. faith ; plighted word. [L. fidem.] fois /. time (successive), turn in succession (§§ 68, 69) : à la fois, at the same time, at once. [L. vieem.] fol, see fou. folie /. folly, foolishness. [fr. fou.] fonctionnaire m. functionary, offi- cial, [fr. fonction, L. functio- nem.~\ fond m. bottom, depth, base. [L. funclum.] fonder v. found, base, establish. [L. fundare.] fondre v. melt, dissolve. [L. fun- dere.~\ force /. force, strength, might, power : à force de, by dint or means of . [L.fortia, strong.] forcer v. force, compel, [fr. force.] forfait m. misdeed, [fr. forfaire, ~L. f oris facer e, misdo.] former v. form, shape, make, con- stitute. [L. formare.'] fort adj. strong. — adv. strongly, greatly, much, very much, very. [L. fortem.] fort m. strong place, fort, [fort adj.] fortune/ fortune ; lot in life, fate ; wealth. [L. fortunam.] fossé m. fosse, ditch, trench. [L. fossam, dujrj fou, fol adj. (VII. 7) foolish, mad, insane, crazy. [?] foudre / thunderbolt, lightning. [L.fulgur.] foule / crowd, multitude, great quantity, [fr. fouler.] fouler v. crowd, press, trample, tread : . . . aux pieds, tread un- der foot. [L. fullare, in fullo, fuller.] fourchette/, fork. [fr. Jj.furca.] *fournil (68c) m. bake-house, [fr. h.furnus, oven.] fragile adj. fragile. [L. fragilem frais, fraiche (VII. 8) adj. fresh : frais cueilli (§ 56d), fresh-picked, [fr. G.] frais m. pi. (§ 24) expense. [L. f ractum (?).] franc, franche (VII. 6b) adj. frank, free ; prepaid (§ 56a). [fr. G.] franc m. franc (piece of money), [fr. inscription Francorum rex, king of the French.] français adj. French, [fr. France, France.] franchement adv. frankly. [fr. franc] franchir v. clear, jump or pass over. [fr. franc] frapper v. strike, deal a blow to, hit, knock ; affect strongly, im- press, [prob. fr. G.] frein m. rein, check, curb, con- trol. [L. frenum.] frêle adj. frail, fragile. [L. fra- gilem (§9).] frémir v. shiver, vibrate, thrill. [L. fremere.] frère m. brother ; holy brother, friar. [L. fratrem.'] fripon m. friponne /. ('§ 16) knave, rascal, rogue. [?] frissonner v. quiver, thrill, shiver, [fr. frisson, L. frictionem.] frivole adj. frivolous, trifling, vain, empty. [L. frivolum.] froid adj. cold, cool : avoir froid VOCABULARY. 381 (XIII. 6), be cold (in, à). [L. frigidum. ] froideur /. coldness, coolness, fri- gidity, [fr. froid.] fromage m. cheese. [LL. forma- ticum, shaped.] front m. front, forehead, brow. [L. frontem.] fruit m. fruit ; valuable result, profit. [L. fmcturrtf] fugitif adj. fugitive, fleeting, tran- sient. [L. fugitivum.] fuir v. (irr. 47) flee, fly ; fly from, shun. [L.fugere.'] funèbre adj. funereal, funeral. [L. funebrem.] furie/, fury, rage, wrath, passion. [L. furiam.] furieux adj. furious, raging, an- gry. [L. furiosum.~\ *fusil (68c) m. gun, musket, [fr. L. focus, fire. ] futur adj. future, that is to be, in- tended. [L. futur urn.] gai adj. gay. [fr. G.] gaieté, gaîté /. gayety, liveliness, fun. [fr. gai.] gagner v. gain, win, acquire ; at- tain, reach, arrive at. [fr. G.] gain m. gain, acquisition, [fr. gagner.] gaîté, see gaieté. galant adj. (§ 60b) gallant, [fr. G.] garantir v. warrant, guarantee, [fr. G.] garçon in. boy, lad, fellow, ser- vant, waiter, bachelor. [?] garde /. (§ 15a) guard, watch ; keeping : n'avoir garde de, take care not to. [fr. garder.] garde in. (§ 15a) guard, keeper, soldier of a certain class, [do.] garder v. guard, watch ; keep, keep up, maintain, preserve, [fr. G.] gare /. station, terminus, depot, [fr. G. (Eng. ware).] garnison /. garrison, [fr. garnir, garnish, fr. G.] gâteau m. cake. [fr. G.] gauche adj. awkward, clumsy ; left (hand or side), [fr. G. (Eng. gawk).] *gaz (83a) m. gas. gazon in. turf, sward, [fr. G.] geler v. solidify, stiffen, freeze. [L. gelare.] gémir v. groan, moan, lament. [L. gemere.] gémissement in. groan, [fr. gé- mir.] gendarme in. man-at arms, guards- man, policeman, [gent, de, and arme.] général adj. general : en général, in general, ordinarily. [L.] général m. general officer, general. [= général adj.] généralité /. generality. [fr. général.] génération/, generation. [L.] généreux adj. generous. [L.] génie m. genius. [L. genium.] genou m. knee. [L. geniculum.] gens /. pi. (§ 15tf) folks, people, persons ; servants. [L. gentem.] *gentil (68c) adj. nice, good, well- behaved, pretty. [L. genti- lein.'] gentilhomme (pi. gentilshommes, 68c) in. man of good birth or breeding, gentleman. [gentil and homme.] géomètre m. geometer, mathema- tician. [Gr.j gigantesque adj. gigantic, [fr. L. gigantem.] gîte in. quarters, lodging, deposit, layer, [fr. gésir, Z.jacere, lie.] glacer v. turn to ice, freeze, chill, [fr. glace, L. glaciem, ice.] gloire /. glory: faire gloire de, make one's boast, glory in. [L. gloriam.] glorieux adj. glorious. [L.] gonfler v. swell, inflate, distend. [L. conflare, blow up.] gourmand in. gourmand, epicure. [?] goût m. taste. [L. gusium.] goûter v. taste. [L. gustare.] goutte /. (§ 167c) drop, particle. [L. guttam.'} 382 FRENCH-ENGLISH gouvernante/, housekeeper, [pple of gouverner.] gouvernement m. government, [fr. gouverner.] gouverner v. govern, direct. [L. gubernare.] grâce/, grace, favor; gracefulness, charm : faire grâce à, show favor or be indulgent to, excuse, par- don. [L. gratiam.] gracieux adj. gracious, obliging ; graceful. [L. gratiosum.] grand adj. great, grand, large, tall: grand'chose (§ ±r), something or anything great, matter of im- portance. [L. grandem.~\ grandement adv. greatly, largely, grandly, [fr. grand.] grandeur /. greatness, extent, grandeur, [fr. grand.] grandir v. grow large, increase, [fr. grand.] grand'mère /. (§ 4?) grandmother, [grand and mère.] grand-père m. grandfather, [grand and père.] grand- vizir m. grand -vizier, [grand and vizir.] grange /. grange, barn. [LL. graneam, granary.] gras adj. fat, plump, thick, rich. [L. crassiwi.] ^gratis (74fZ) adv. gratis. [L.] grave adj. grave, serious, impor- tant, weighty. [L. gravem.) graveur m. engraver, [fr. graver, fr. G.] grêler v. impers, hail. [fr. grêle, gravel-stone, fr. ?) griller v. grill, broil, [fr. grille, fr. L. craticula, gridiron.] gronder v. growl, scold, chide, find fault, [fr. L. grunnire.] gros adj. big, stout, large. [L. grossum. ] grossier adj. coarse, rude, uncouth, [fr. gros.] guère adv. (with ne : § 167a) hard- ly, scarcely, but little, [fr. G. weigaro, much.] guérir v. heal, cure. [fr. G. wahren, protect.] guerre/, war. [fr. G., = war.\ guide m.f. (§ 15'/) guide ; leading, rein. [fr. guider, guide, fr. ?] habile adj. able, skilful, compe- tent. [L. habilem,.] habileté /'. ability, skill, cleverness, [fr. habile.] habiller v. dress, clothe: s' . . ., dress one's self. [fr. habile (?)] habit m. coat, dress. [L. habitum.] habitant m. inhabitant, [pple of habiter.] habiter v. live, dwell, inhabit, [L. mibitare.] hsfbitude /. habit, custom. [L. liahitudinem.] habituer v. habituate, accustom, wont. [L. habitvare.] 'haine /. hate, hatred, aversion : avoir en haine, regard with hate, have an aversion for. [fr. haïr. ] 'haïr v. (XIX. 3a) hate, detest, dis- like, [fr. G., =Eng. hate] 'hardi adj. bold, daring, forward, [fr. G., =Eng. hard.] "hâter v. se . . ., hurry one's self, hasten, [fr. hâte, haste, fr. G., =Eng. haste.] 'haut adj. high, tall, lofty, up- lifted : en haut, on high, above, upstairs. [L. altum.\ 'haut adv. (XXXI. 9) in a high or loud tone, aloud. [=haut adj.] 'hautement ado. highly, haugh- tily, boldly, loudly, [fr. haut.] 'hauteur /. height, elevation, lofti- ness, [fr. haut.] 'hasard m. hazard, chance : par- . . . , by chance, perhaps, I won- der, [fr. Arabic] héberger v. shelter, entertain, re- ceive as guest, [fr. G. =Germ. herbergen.] hébreu m. hébrïaque / (§ 53c) He- brew, Hebraic. [L. hebramm, 7iebraicum.] *hélas (74Ô") inter j. alas ! [hé, ah, and L. lassum, miserable.] *'hennir (26a) v. neigh. [L. Mn- nire.] VOCABULARY. 383 héritage m. heritage, inheritance, [fr. hériter.] hériter v. (§ 162/) inherit. [L. hereditare.] héritier m. héritière /. (§ 16) in- heritor, heir. [L. hereditarium.' héroïne/, heroine. [L. heroinam." héroïque adj. heroic. [L.heroicum. 'héros m. hero. [L., fr. Gr.] heure/, hour ; time of day, o'clock (XVII. 4) : de bonne heure, in good time, early ; à la bonne heure, in good time, very well, "well done ; tout à l'heure, at this moment, immediately, just now, presently. [L. hordm.] heureusement adv. happily, luck- ily, [fr. heureux.] heureux adj. happy, fortunate, lucky, [fr. heur, L. augur turn, augury.] 'heurter v. run against, collide with, jostle, knock, rap. [?] 'hideux adj. hideous, horrid. [L. hispidosum, prickly.] hier (73a) adv. yesterday : avant- hier, day before yesterday. [L. heri.] histoire / history ; story. [L. hstorinm.] *hiver (736) m. winter. [L. lilber- num.] 'hollandais adj. Dutch, Nether- landish, of Holland, [fr. Hol- lande.] homme m. man : être homme à, be the right person for, be the" one to. [L. hominem.~] honnête adj. (VIII. 5c) honest ; worthy, excellent ; respectable, creditable. [L. honestum.] honneur m. honor, respect, credit : faire honneur à, give the credit (de, of anything) to. [L. ho- norem.] honorable adj. honorable. [L.] 'honte/ shame : avoir honte (XIII. 6), feel shame, be ashamed, [fr. G., Saxon honda, dishonor.] horizon m. horizon. [L., fr. Gr.] hormis prep, except, [hors and mis, pple of mettre, put.] horreur/ horror. [L.] 'hors adv. prep, out, out of, out- side : hors de, outside of, out of. [L. foras.] hôte m. guest, visitor ; host, enter- tainer. [L. haspitem.'] huile/, oil. [L. oleum.) *'huit (64c, 76a) num. eight. [L. octo.] 'huitième num. eighth, [fr. huit.] humain adj. human ; humane. [L. humanum.~] humanité/ humanity. [L.] humer v. draw in, inhale, imbibe. [?] humeur/ humor. [L. Jiumorem.] *hymen (54(/) m. hymen. [Gr.] hypocrite in. hypocrite. [Gr.] ici adv. here. [L. ecce Mc.~\ idée/ idea. [L., fr. Gr.] ignominie/ ignominy. [L.] ignorant adj. ignorant, unlearned. [L.] il, ils (QSd) pron. he, it, they ; there (§ 147/;) ; as indef. subject (XI. 2, XXIV. 2), it ; as,impers. subject (XXX. 1), it. [L. ilium, illos.] île / isle, island. [L. insulam.] image / image, likeness. [L. imaginem.] imaginer v. imagine : s' . . . , im- agine to one's self, fancy. [L. imaginari. ] imiter v. imitate. [L. imitari.'] immense adj. immense. [L.] immoler v. immolate, sacrifice, slay. [L. immolare.\ impatient adj. impatient. [L.] ^impatiemment (26a) adv. impa- patiently. [fr. impatient.] impérieusement adv. imperiously. [fr. impérieux.] impérieux adj. imperious. [L. imperiosum.] impétueusement adv. impetuously, [fr. impétueux, L. impetuosum.] impie adj. impious. [L. impium.] importer v. be important or of con- sequence, matter, signify, con- cern (§ I486) ; n'importe, it is of 384 FKE^CH-ENGLISII no consequence, no matter, never mind. [L. importare.] imposant adj. imposing, [pple of imposer, fr. L. imponere.] impossible adj. impossible. [L.] imprimer v. impress, impart, give. [L. imprimere.] imprudent adj. imprudent. [L.] impunément adv. with impunity, unpunished. [fr. impuni, fr. punir, punish.] incapable adj. incapable. [L.] incertitude f. uncertainty. [L. in- certiludinem.] incident m. incident, occurrence. [L.] incliner v. incline, bend : s' . . ., bow. [L. inclinare.] inconnu adj. unknown, [in- and connu.] indéchiffrable adj. undecipherable, j [fr. déchiffrer, fr. chiffre, cipher, fr. Arabic] indemnité (26a) f. indemnity. [L.] indépendant adj. independent. [L.] *index (81b) m. index. [L.] indifférent adj. indifferent, imma- terial, [in- and différent.] indigne adj. unworthy. [L. in- dignum.] industrie/, industry. [L.] indiquer v. indicate, point out, ap- point. [L. mdicare.] inébranlable adj. not to be shaken, immovable, [fr. ébranler.] inestimable adj. inestimable. [L.] infamer v. render infamous or dis- graceful, cover with ignominy. [L. infamare.] infanterie/, infantry. [?] influence/ influence, [fr. influer, L. influei'e, flow in.] informe adj. unformed, shapeless, crude, rough. [L. infor?nem.] informer v. inform, apprise : s' . . . , get informed, seek to know, in- quire, ask. [L. irtformare.] ingénieux adj. ingenious, clever. [L. ingeniosum.] ingénument adv. ingenuously, [fr. ingénu, fr. L. ingenuum.] inhumain adj. inhuman. [L.] injure / insult, abuse. [L. inju- riam.] injuste adj. unjust. [L.] inquiet adj. unquiet, disturbed, restless. [L. inquietum.] insolent adj. insolent, impertinent. [L.] inspirer v. inspire. [L. inspirare.] installation / installation. [fr. installer.] installer v. install. [LL., fr. stalle, fr. G., =Eng. stall.] instant m. instant, moment. [L. ] instinct m. instinct. [L.] instituteur m. instructor, teacher. [fr. L. ins/ituere, establish.] instructif ff<7?'. instructive. [L.] instruction/ instruction. [L.] instruire v. (irr. 2) instruct. [L t instruere.'] intéressant adj. interesting, [pple of intéresser.] intéresser v. interest, concern, [fr. L. intéresse.] intérêt m. interest, concern. [L. interest.] interrompre v. (XX 3';) interrupt, break in upon. [L. interrum- pere.] intime adj. intimate, close. [L.1 inutile adj. useless. [L. inutilem.] inventer v. invent, devise. [L. inventare.] inviter v. invite. [L. invitare.] italien adj. Italian. [L.] -jadis (74tf) adv. of old, in old times, formerly. |L. jam diu.] jaloux adj. jealous. [L. zelosum.] jamais adv. (with ne : | 167) never, not ever ; ever (%161b). [L. jam ma gis.] jambe / leg. [LL. gambam.] Janvier m. January. [L. janu- arium.] jardin m. garden, [fr. G-., =Eng. garden.] je pron. I. [L. ego.] jeter v. (XXI. 3c) throw, cast, hurl; spread, [fr. jet, jet, L. jactum.] jeudi m. Thursday. [L. Jovis diem, Jupiter's day.] VOCABULARY. 385 jeune adj. young. [L. juvenem."] jeunesse/, youth, [fr. jeune.] joie /. joy. [L. gaudium.] joindre ». (irr. 17) join, unite. [L. jungere.] joli adj. pretty, nice, pleasing. [fr.G.,=Eng.j<%] joliment adv. prettily, [fr. joli.] jouer v. play. [L. jocari.] jouet m. plaything, toy. [fr. jouer.] *joug (62rf) m. yoke, [h.jugum.] jouir v. take pleasure (in, de : § 162/), enjoy. [L. gaudere.] jouissance /. enjoyment, pleasure. [fr. jouir.] jour m. clay ; daylight, light : faire jour (XXXII. 9a), be daylight. [L. diu r num.] journal in. journal, daily paper, newspaper. [L. diurnalem.] joyeux adj. joyous, merry, glad. [fr. joie.] judicieux adj. judicious. [L. ju- diciosum.] juge m. judge. [L. judicem.] jugement m. judgment, [fr. juger.] juger i\ judge, decide. [L. judi- care.] juillet m. July. [L.juUum.] juin m. June. [L. jnn turn.] jurisdiction/, jurisdiction. [L.] jusque adv. as far as, all the way : jusqu'à, all the way to, as far as, clear to ; jusqu'à ce que (§ 137'/), until ; jusqu'où, how far ? [L. de and usque.'] juste adj. just, correct, suitable ; exact, precise : au juste, precise- ly, exactly. \h. jastum.] juste adv. exactly, correctly, in tune. [= juste adj.: XXXI. 9.] justice/ justice. [L. justitiam.] justifier v. justify. [L. justljicare.] la art. pron. the ; her, it. [L. ilia m.] là, adv. (XIII. 3, XXIV.; §91-2) there: de là, from there, thence; par là, that way, by that route. [L. iliac] là-bas adv. down there, over there, yonder ; in the other world, [là and bas.] labeur m. labor, cultivation. [L. labor cm.] laborieux adj. laborious, industri- ous. [L. laboriosum.] lâche adj. lax, slothful ; cowardly, dastardly, base : as noun, cow- ard, dastard. [L. laxum.] *lacs (5Sg) m. snare, string. [L. laqueum.] là-dessus adv. thereupon, with re- gard to that, in that respect, [là and dessus.] laid adj. ugly, homely, [fr. G., =Eng. loathe.] laine/, wool. [L. lanam.] laisser v. leave, quit, abandon ; let, leave, allow, permit, cause ; leave off (from, de), omit, fail, fall short of . [L. laxare.] lait m. milk. [L. lac] lampe/, lamp. [L. lampadem.] lancer r. dart, hurl, launch, shoot forth, let loose, discharge, [fr. lance, lance, fr. ?] langage m. language, speech, dia- lect, [fr. langua.] langue/ tongue; language, speech: tirer la langue, thrust out the tongue, make faces or grimaces. [L. linguam.] *laps (74rf) m. lapse. [L. lapsum.] laquais in. lackey, footman, ser- vant. [?] large adj. broad, wide, large. [L. largum.] largeur / breadth, width, [fr. large ] larme/ tear, tear-drop. [L. kn- mam.] ^larynx (81i) in. larynx. [L., fr. Gr.] laurier m. laurel, bay. [fr. L. lav rum ] lave/ lava. [fr. It., fr. L. lavare.] le art. pron. the; him, it; so (XXIII. 3e). [L. ilium.] leçon/ lesson. [L. lectionem.] léger adj. light, nimble, lively ; frivolous, empty, [fr. L. levis.] légion/, legion. [L.] 386 FRENCH-ENGLISH législatif adj. legislative, lawgiv- ing. [L.J légume m. vegetable, pot-herb. [L. legumen.] lendemain m. morrow, following day. fie, en, and demain.] lent adj. slow, tardy. [L. lentum. lentement adv. slowly, [fr. lent. lequel pron. (XXV. 5, XXVI. 4-7 ; £ 101) which one, who, that, [le and quel.] lea art. pron. the ; them. [L. illos, illas.~\ lettre/, letter. [L. literam.] leur pron. to them ; their, theirs (XIV. 1, 3, XXVII. 1). [L. Ulo- rum.] lever v. raise, lift : se ... , rise, get up. [L. levare.] lèvre f. lip. [L. labrum.] liberté/, liberty. [L.] libraire m. bookseller. [L. libra- Hum.] libre adj. free, at liberty. [L. liberum.] lieu m. place : avoir lieu, take place, happen ; tenir lieu de, take the place of, serve as ; au lieu de, instead of. [L. lo- cum.] lieue /. league. [L. leucam, fr. Celtic] lièvre/, hare. [L. leporem.] ligne/, line. [L. Uneam.] limiter v. limit, shut in, confine, [fr. limite, L. limitem.] *lingual (62/) adj. lingual. [L.] ^linguiste (62/) m. linguist, [fr. L. lingua, language.] lire v. (irr. 11) read, peruse. [L. légère.] *lis (74d) m. lily. [L. lilium.] lit m. bed, couch. [L. ledum.] littéraire adj. literary. [L.] littoral 7?i. coast, shore. [L. lito- ralem.] livre m. book. [L. librum.] livre /. pound ; livre (piece or amount of money, nearly = franc). [L. libram.] livrer v. deliver, give up, make over, surrender : se . . ., give up or lend one's self ; be applied or devoted. [L. liberare.] logique/ logic. [L., fr. Gr.] loi/ law. [L. legem.] loin adv. far, to or at a distance : loin de, far from ; loin que (§ 137/;), far from its being the case that. [L. longe.] loisir m. leisure. [L. licere, be permitted.] long adj. (VII. 6b) long, a long story, lengthy, tedious : le long de, the length of, along. [L. Ion gum.] longtemps adv. for a long time, for a great while, long, [long and temps.] longuement adv. at length, length- ily, [fr. long.] longueur/ length, [fr. long.] lors adv. then : lors de, at the time of. [L. ilia hora, at that hour.] lorsque conj. at the time that, when, as. [lors and que.] louage m. hire, letting out : de lou- age, on hire. [fr. 1 louer.] 1 louer v. let out, lend, hire. [L. locare.] 2 louer v. praise. [L. laudare.] louis m. louis, louis d'or (piece of money, of 20 or 24 francs), [fr. Louis, name of king.] loup m. wolf. [L. lupum.] loyal adj. loyal. [L. legalem.] loyalement adv. loyally, honestly, fairly, [fr. loyal.] lui pron. him ; to him or her. [L. illi Jmic] luire v. (irr. 5) shine. [L. lucere.] lumière / light ; pi. lights, en- lightenment, intelligence and knowledge. [fr. L. lumen, light.] lundi m, Monday. [L. lunœ diem, moon's day.] lune/ moon. [L. lunam.] lunette / magnifying glass ; spec- tacles, [fr. lune (from the shape).] luthérien adj. Lutheran, Protes- tant, [fr. Luther, proper name.] luxe m. luxury. [L. luxum.] VOCABULAKY. 387 madame sing, mesdames pi. (XIV. 4) /. my lady, the lady, madam, Mrs. [ma and dame.] mademoiselle sing, mesdemoiselles pi. f. my young lady, the young lady, Miss, [ma and demoiselle, damsel.] magasin m. magazine, store, shop. [fr. Arabic.] *magister (736) m. schoolmaster, dominie. [L.] magistrat m. magistrate. [L.] magnificence/, magnificence. [L.] mai m. May. [L. maiurn.] maigre adj. meager, thin, lean. [L. macerum.] maigrir v. grow thin or meager or lean or emaciated, [fr. maigre.] main /. hand : à la main, in the hand ; entre les mains, between or into the hands, into the charge. [L. manum.] maint pron. (§ 11 3) many a, many. [?] maintenant adv. now, at present, [pple of maintenir.] maintenir v. (irr. 61) maintain, keep up. [main and tenir, keep in hand.] mais conj. but. [L. ?nagù, more.] *maïs (74a*) m. maize, Indian corn. [Indian word.] maison /. house, mansion : à la maison, in the house, at home. [L. rnansionem.] maître m. master, owner, ruler, teacher : maître chanteur, mas- ter or chief singer. [L. magis- trum.] maîtresse /. mistress, owner, di- rector, [fern, to maître: § 16ô.] majesté /. majesty. [L.] mal adv. badly, ill. [L male.] mal m. evil, ill, harm, hurt, pain, disease : avoir mal à (XIII. 6a ; § 37a), have pain or ache in. [L. malum.'] malade adj. sick, ill : as noun, sick person, patient. [L. male aptum.] maladie /. malady, illness, dis- ease, [fr. malade.] malgré prep, in spite of, notwith- standing, [fr. L. malum gra- tum. ] malheur m. unhappiness, misfor- tune, [fr. L. malum augurium.] malheureux adj. unfortunate, un- happy, [fr. malheur.] malhonnête adj. dishonest ; un- civil, rude, [mal and honnête.] malin, maligne (§ 53c) adj. malig- nant, malign. [L. malignum/] malle /. trunk, mail. [fr. G.] maman /. mamma. manche m. f. (§ 15a) handle ; sleeve, [fr. L. manus, hand.] manchette/, cuff. [fr. manche.] manger v. eat. [L. manducare, chew.] manière /. manner, way, method : de manière, in such a way, in such wise, so - y de . . . que (§ 137 d), so that. [fr. L. manus, hand.] manifester v. manifest, show. [L.] manœuvre m. f. (§ 15a) workman ; manœuvre, [fr. L. manu ope- rari, work with the hand.] manquer v. be wanting or déficient (in, de), be lacking or absent, lack ; fail, give way, leave in the lurch ; just miss (§ 176/). [fr. L. mancus, defective.] manteau m. mantel, cloak. [L. mantellum.] manuel adj. manual, with the hand. [L. manualem.] manuscrit m. manuscript. [L.] maraîcher adj. for vegetable-rais- ing or market-gardening, vege- table, [fr. marais, marsh, wet land.] marchand m. dealer, retail mer- chant, shopkeeper, [fr. L. mer- cari.] marché m. market : bon marché or à bon marché, in a favorable market, cheaply, cheap. [L. mercatum.] marche /. march, walk : en marche, on the march, in motion, [fr. marcher.] marcher v. march, walk, advance, get on, make progress. [?] 388 FRENCH-ENGLISH mardi on. Tuesday. [L. martis diem, day of Mars.] maréchal m. marshal, [fr. G.] maréchale /. (§ 16) marshal's wife, [fr. maréchal.] mari m. husband. [L. maritum.] manage m. marriage, [fr. marier.] marier o. many, give iu marriage: se . . ., get married, marry. [L. mantare.] marque /. mark, sign, token, [fr. G.] marquer v. mark, mark out, des- ignate, [fr. marque.] marquis on. marquis, [fr. G., fr. mark, frontier.] marquise /. (§ 16c) marchioness, [fr. marquis.] *mars (74d) m. March. [L. mar- tin ut.] martyr m. martyr. [L., fr. Gr.] massa m. massa (negro for master). [American word.] *mat (76a) adj. dull, dead ; check- mated, [fr. G. matt.] matelot m. sailor. [?] matin m. morning : de grand or bon matin, very early. [L. ma- in ti num.] maudire v. {irr. 10) curse, accurse. [L. maledicere.] mauvais adj. had, evil, wicked, naughty, wrong. [?] me pron. me, to me. [L. me.] méchanceté /. wickedness, mis- chief, malicious act. [fr. mé- chant] méchant adj. wicked, bad, evil, malicious, mischievous. [fr. méschoir, L. minus cadere, turn out ill.] méconnaître v. (irr. 18) misunder- stand, misappreciate. [mé-, mis-, and connaître, know.] mécontent adj. ill-content, dissatis- fied, [mé-, mis , and content.] médecine/, medicine. [L.] médiocrité/, mediocrity. [L.] meilleur adj. (IX. 3) better. [L. meliorem.] mélancolique adj. melancholy. [L., fr. Gr.] mêler r. mix, mingle : se ... à, be mixed with, mix one's self up with, meddle with, dabble in. [fr. L. miacere.] melon m. melon. [L., fr. Gr.] membre m. member, limb. [L. niciitbrum.] même adj. (§ 114) self, -self (XXIII. 3c) ; self-same, same, very ; as adv. even : de même, in the same manner, all the same. [fr. L. semel ipsissimum, very own self.] mémoire /. (and m.; S 15a) mem- ory, recollection. [L. memori- am.] menace / menace, threat. [L. minacias.] mener v. lead, conduct, take. [L. minare, drive.] -mental, ending (XXXI. 2) = -]y. [L. mente, with mind.] menteur m. menteuse /.. (§ 16a) liar : as adj. lying, false, deceit- ful, [fr. mentir.] mentir v. (irr. 41) lie, tell a lie, speak falsely. [L. mentir i.] menton m. chin. [L. omentum.] menu adj. minute; — as noun, minor matter, detail : salle des menus, hall of minor pleasures (name of a certain hall). [L. minu- tum.] mépris m. contempt, [fr. mépriser, misprize.] mer /. sea. [L. mare.] merci m. gratitude, thanks. [L. mercedem, recompense.] mercredi m, Wednesday. [L. mer- curii diem, Mercury's day.] mère / mother. [L. matrem.] méridional adj. southern. [L.] mérite m. merit, desert, worth. [L. meritum.] mériter r>. merit, deserve. [L. meritare.] merveille /. miracle, marvel, won- der. [L. mirabilia.] merveilleux adj. marvelous, won- derful, [fr. merveille.] mesdames, see madame. -messieurs, see monsieur. VOCABULAKY. 389 mesure /. measure, means, method of action. [L. mensuram.] métier m. business, handicraft, occupation. [L. minister ïum.] mètre m. meter, (a little more than a) yard. [L. metrum, fr. Gr.] mettre v. (irr. 31) put, place, set : mettre à, put in a state of, re- duce or drive to ; mettre à la porte, turn out of doors ; se . . . à, set one's self at, begin, com- mence. [L. mittere, send.] meurtre m. murder, homicide, [fr. G\, =Eng. murder.'] midi m. midday, noon, twelve o'clock. [L. medium diem.'] mie /. crumb, particle, mite (§ 165tf, 167c). [L. micam.] mien adj. (XXVII. 1 ; § 87) mine, [fr. L. meum.] mieux adv. (XXXI. 8) better ; more : . le mieux, best ; aimer mieux, like better, prefer (§ 1765) ; de son mieux, one's best or utmost, the best one can. [L. melius,] *mil (68(7), see mille. milieu m. middle, midst. [L. medium locum, mid place.] *mille (68/), *mil (XV. 7 ; § 63) num. thousand. [L. mille.) *mille (68/) /. mile. [L. millia, thousand (paces).] million m. million, [fr. mille.] milord, my lord. [English words.] mine /. mien, hearing, aspect, look. [fr. It.; L. minaref] ministre m. minister. [L.] minuit m. midnight, twelve o'clock at night, [fr. L. medium noctem.] minute/, minute, moment, sixtieth of an hour. [L. minutam, small, minute.] miracle m. miracle. [L, miracu- lum.] miroir m. mirror, looking-glass. [fr. mirer, L. mirari, contem- plate.] mode/ mode, style, fashion. [L. modum.] modérer v. moderate, keep within bounds, temper. [L. moderari.] modérément adv. moderately, [fr. modéré, pple of modérer.] moderne adj. modern. [L.] modeste adj. modest. [L.] modestement adv. modestly, [fr. modeste.] *mœurs (74(2)/ pi. (§ 24) manners, morals, habits. [L. mores.] moi pron. me, to me, I. [L. me.] moindre adj. (IX. 3) less : le moin- dre, least. [L. minorem : § 2e.] moins adv. (XXXI. 8) less, the less (XXXIV. 3): le moins, least ; au or du moins, at least, at any rate ; à moins de, short of, with- out ; à moins que (§ 1376), un- less. [L. minus.] mois m. month. [L. mensem.] moitié / moiety, half. [L. medi- etatem.] mol, see mou. moment m. moment, instant. [L.] mon, ma, mes pron. (XIV. 1) my. [L. meum.] monde m. world ; company, so- ciety, set, audience : tout le monde, everybody. [L. mun- dum.] monseigneur m. my lord, his grace, [mon and seigneur.] •^monsieur (18(7, 73c) sing. *mes- sieurs (73c) pi. m. (XIV. 4) the gentleman, sir, Mr., Messrs. [mon and sieur, L. seniorem.] montagne / mountain. [L. mon- taneam.] monter v. mount, ascend, climb, rise ; get on to (a horse, etc.) ; go upstairs. [fr. L. montem, mountain.] montrer v. show, set forth, ex- hibit. [L. monstrare.] moquer v. mock : se ... de, deride, scoff, ridicule, make fun or game of. [?] moral adj. moral. [L.] morceau m. bit, morsel, small piece, extract, [fr. L. morsum, pple of mordere. bite.] mort / death. [L. mortem.] mort adj. dead; as noun, dead person, corpse, [pple of mourir.] 390 FRENCH-ENGLISH mosquée /. mosque, Mohammedan place of worship, [fr. Arabic.] mot m. word, term, expression, utterance (§ 167c) : donner le mot, pass the word. [LL. mut- turn, fr. ?] motif m. motive, cause, reason. [L.] mouche/, fly, insect. [L. muscam.] mouchoir m. handkerchief. [fr. moucher, fr. LL. muccare, fr. mveua, mucus.] mou, mol (VII. 7) adj. soft, lax, weak, effeminate. [L. mollem.] moulin m. mill. [L. moliiium, fr. mola, millstone.] mourir v. (irr. 62) die, decease. [L. mon'.] mousquet m. musket, gun. [LL. muscheta, fr. musca, fly.] mouvoir v. {irr. 76) move. [L. movere.] moyen m. way, means. [L. me- dianum.] moyenner o. mediate, bring about : moyennant, by means of, in con- sideration of. [fr. moyen.] mugir v. low, bellow. [L. mugire.] muraille /. wall. [L. muralia.] murmurer v. murmur. [L.] *museum (515) m. museum. [L., fr. Gr.] musicien m. musicienne /. (§ 16) musician, [fr. musique.] musique /. music. [L., fr. Gr.] mutiner v.: se . . ., mutiny, rebel, be refractory, [fr. mutin, fr. L. motus, moved.] mystère m. mystery, secret, se- crecy. [L., fr. Gr.] naïf adj. simple, unaffected, artless, naïve. [L. nativum.] naissance/, birth. [L. nasceniiam.] naître v. {irr. 20) be born, come into being or existence, spring up, arise. [L. nasci.] nappe/, table-cloth. [L. mappam.] nation/, nation. [L.] national adj. national, [fr. nation.] nature/ nature. [L.] naturel adj. natural. [L.] naturellement adv. naturally, [fr. naturel.] ne adv. (§ 164 etc.) not : expletive, % 170. [L. non.] néanmoins adv. nevertheless, [né- ant, nothing (fr. L. ne ens), and moins.] nécessité/ necessity. [L.] négociateur m. negociator. [L.] neige/ snow. [L. niveam.] neiger v. impers, snow. [fr. neige.] nerf m. [*nerfs (61a) pi.] nerve, sinew ; string. [L. nervum.] *net (76a) adj. neat, clean, fair. [L. nitidum.] nettement adv. neatly, clearly, dis- tinctly, [fr. net.] netteté / neatness, clearness, con- ciseness, [fr. net.] nettoyer v. make neat or clean, clean, put in order, [fr. net.] neuf adj. new, fresh. [L. novum.] neuf (61a, 85c) num. nine. [L. novem.] neuvième num. ninth, [fr. neuf num.] neveu m. nephew. [L. nepotem.] nez m. nose. [L. nasum.] ni adv. (XII. 5 ; § 167/) neither, nor. [L. nee] nièce/ niece. [L. neptiam.] nier v. deny. [L. negare.] no., «bbrevn for numéro, noble adj. noble, exalted, lofty. [L. nobilem.] noblesse/ nobility, [fr. noble.] noir adj. black. [L. nigrum.] nom m. name ; reputation, char- acter, note. [L. nomen] nombre m. number ; great number of, many (§ 50c7) : sans nombre, numberless, innumerable. [L. numerum.] nombreux adj. numerous. [L. nu- merosum. ] *nombril (68c) m. navel, [fr. L. umbilicum.] nommer v. name, call or mention byname. [L. nominare.] non adv. (§ 169, 200) not ; no : non plus, not any more, either (§ 169c). [L. non.] YOCABULAKY. 391 nonante num. (XV. 3a) ninety. [L. nonaginta.] nord m. north, [fr. G.] notre, nos pron. (XIY. 1) our. [L. nostrum.'] nôtre pron. (XXVII. 1) ours. [L. nostrum.'] nourrice/, nurse. [L. nutricem.] nourrir v. nourish, feed. [L. nu- trire.] nous pron. we, us, to us. [L. nos.] nouveau, nouvel adj. (VII. 7) new, recent, novel, new-fashioned. [L. novellum.] nouvelle /. piece of news, news. [fern, of nouveau.] novembre m. November. [L.] noyer m. walnut-tree, walnut- wood, walnut. [fr. noix, L. nucem, nut.] nu adj. (§ 56a) naked, bare, nude. (L. nudum.] nuire v. (irr. 4) injure, harm, do hurt (to, à: §1616). [L. nocere.] nuit/, night. [L. noctem.] nul pron. (§ 111) not any, none, no ; no one ; null, of no value or effect: nulle part (28a), no- where. [L. nullum.] nullement adv. in no wise, not at all. [fr. nul.] numéro m. number (in a numbered series). [L. numéro, abl. case.] nu-pieds (§ 56a) adj. barefoot, [nu and pieds.] obéir v. be obedient (to, à : § 161&), obey. [L. obedire,] objet m. object, matter, article, thing. [L. objectum ] obligation /. obligation : avoir obli- gation, be under obligation. [L-] obliger v. oblige, compel, force ; lay under obligation, do favors to. [L. obligare.] obscur adj. obscure, hidden, dark. [L.] observation/, observation. [L.] observer v. observe. [L. observare.] obstiner v. : s' . . ., be obstinate, per- sist, insist. [L. obstinare.] obtenir v. {irr. 61) obtain. [L, ob- tinere.] occasion /. occasion, opportunity. [L.] occident m. occident, west. [L.] occupation/, occupation. [L.] occuper v. occupy : s' . . ., occupy or employ one's self, be busy (with, de), spend one's time (up- on, de). [L. occupare.] océane adj. f. (§ 5M) oceanic. [L.] octante num. (XV. 3a) eighty. [L. octaginta.] octobre m. October. [L.] œil m. (yeux pi. : § 22b) eye. [L. oculum.] œuf m. (*œufs [61a] pi.) egg. [L. ovum.] œuvre / work. [L. operam.] offenser v. offend. [L. offensare.] officier m. officer. [L. officiarium.] offrir v. (irr. 53) offer, set before, present : s' . . ., make offer of one's self, offer, [fr. L. off erre.] oh inlerj. oh ! ah ! *oignon (43a) m. onion. [L. unionem.] oiseau m. bird. [LL. avicellum y fr. avis, bird.] oisif adj. idle, unoccupied, [fr. L. otium, idleness.] ombrage m. shade, umbrage. [L. umbraticum, fr. umbra, shade.] omelette /. omelet. [?] omettre v. (irr. 31) omit, pass over, let pass. [L. omittere.] *omnibus (74a") m. omnibus. [L., for all.] on pron. (XXVII. 4; § 106) one, people, they. [OF. horn, L. hominem.] one, onques adv. (§ 167c) ever. [L. unquam.] oncle m. uncle. [L. avunculum.] onques, see one. onze (64/) num. eleven. [L. un- decim.] onzième (64/) num. eleventh, [fr. onze.] opinion /. opinion, good opinion. [L.] opposera, oppose, [fr. L. opponere.] 392 FKESrCH-E^GLISH opposition /. opposition. [L.] opprobre m. opprobrium, disgrace, shame. [L. J or adv. conj. now. [L. lioram, hour.] or m. gold. [L. aurum.] orage m. storm, [fr. L. aura, breeze.] oraison/, oration, speech: prayer. [L. orationem,] orange m. orange ; orange color (§53 % quelque or nulle part (§ 28a), elsewhere or somewhere or nowhere ; prendre part, take a part, share ; se donner part, make one's self a sharer, assume a share. [L. partem. ] parti m. division, party, side ; de- termination, resolution. [fr. partir.] partant adv. accordingly, hence, [par and tant.] partie /. part, portion, share, [fr. partir.] partir v. (irr. 38) set out, start, go away, leave, depart. [L. partire, divide. partout adv. everywhere. [par • and tout.] parvenir v. (irr. 60) arrive, attain, reach one's object, succeed. [L. pervenire.'] pas m. step, pace ; footstep, track. [L. passwm.] pas adv. (with ne) not (XII.; § 165-9). [same as pas, noun.] passablement adv. passably, toler- ably, pretty well. [fr. passable, fr. passer.] passage m. passage, passing, [fr. passer.] passer v. pass, go on or by or through ; spend : se ... , take place, occur, happen ; se . . . de, dispense with, do without, forego, [probably fr. pas.] passion /. passion. [L.] pasteur m. pastor, shepherd, par- son. [L. pastorem.'] pâtre m. shepherd, herdsman. [L. pactor (§ 4Z>, c).] patrie /. one's own country, father- land. [L. pati-iam.] patte /. paw, foot. [?] pâturage m. pasturage, pasture land. [fr. pâturer, fr. pâture, L. pasturam.'] pauvre adj. (VIII. 5c ; § 60&)poQr, 394 FRENCH-ENGLISH needy, pitiful, miserable. [L. pauperern.] *pays (37«) m. country, land : Pays-Bas, Low Countries, Neth- erlands. [L. pagensem, fr. pa- gus, village.] *paysage (37 YOCABTTLAEY. 405 on the spot, at once, immedi- ately. [L. super.'] sûr adj. sure, secure, steady, trust- worthy. [L. securum.] surface /. surface. [L. super- jiciem.] surprendre v. {irr. 30) take by sur- prise, surprise, [sur and pren- dre.] surprise /. surprise, astonishment. [fr. surprendre.] surtout adv. above all, especially, [sur and tout.] survenir v. (irr. 60) supervene, come unexpectedly, befall. [L. supervenire.] survivre v. (irr. 32) survive, out- live (with à : §1616). [sur and vivre.] sus adv. above, upon : en *sus (74d), over and above, besides. [L. susum, sursuin.] suspect adj. suspected, suspicious. [L. suspectum.~\ système m. system. [L., fr. Gr.] *tabac (58<7) m. tobacco. [Indian word.] table /. table. [L. tabulam.] tableau m. picture, painting, [fr. table.] tâche /. task. [LL. taxam, fr. L. taxare, tax.] tailleur m. tailor, [fr. tailler, cut, fr. L. taleam, cut branch.] taire v. (irr. 25) keep secret or silent : se . . . , be silent, keep silence, hold one's peace. [L. tacere.] talent m. talent, natural gift, ability, capacity. [L., fr. G.] tandis que conj. whilst, while, whereas. [L. tarn diem quod.] tant adv. so much or many, as much or many : si tant est que, if so be that, supposing that ; tant soit peu, ever so little, slightly, in some measure ; tant que (§ 137a). so long as. [L. tantum.] tante /. aunt, [ta and ante, L. amitam.] tantôt adv. presently, soon : tan- tôt .. . tantôt, now . . . now. [tant and tôt.] *taon (14) m. gadfly. [L. taba- 1111111.] tard adv. late. [L. tardum, slow.] tasse/, cup. [fr. Arabic] te pron. thee, to thee. [L. te.] tel pron. {§ 110) such (such a, un tel) ; such a one, so and so ; one, another, as ... so : tel que, whatever, any soever ; telle quelle, such as it is, in whatever condition. [L. talem.] témoigner v. testify, attest, indi- cate, show. [fr. témoin.] témoin m. witness ; testimony, evi- dence. [L. testimonium.] temps m. time ; weather. [L. tempus.] tendresse /. tenderness, fondness, [fr. tendre, L. tenerum.] tenir v. (irr. 61) hold, keep : tenez (§ 2226), hold, look here, well now ; se . . ., keep one's self, stay, stand; tenir lieu de, see lieu ; tenir tête à, see tête. [L. tenere.] terre /. earth, ground, land : de terre, earthen ; à terre, on the ground. [L. terram.] terreur /. terror, dread, fright ; la Terreur, the Terror, the time of fear and dread during the French revolution. [L.] terrible adj. terrible. [L.] territoire m. territory. [L. terri- torium.] testament m. testament, will. [L ] tête /. head : tenir tête à, make head against, cope with, resist ; perdre la tête, lose one's head or wits or presence of mind. [L. testam, potsherd.] tête-à-tête m. private interview, tête-à-tête, [lit'ly, head to head.] thé m. tea. [fr. Chinese.] théâtre m. theater, stage. [L., fr. Gr.] thème m. theme, exercise. [Gr.] théologien m. théologienne/. (§ 16) theologian. [Gr. ] tien pron. thine. [L. tuum.] 406 FRENCH-ENGLISH tiers, tierce (§ 66) num. third. [L. tertium.] timbre m. bell. [L. tympanum.} timide adj. timid, fearful. [L.] tirer v. draw, pull ; derive ; dis- charge, shoot off, shoot : tirer la langue, see langue, [fr. G., =Eng. tear.] toi pron. thee, to thee. [L. te.] toile /. cloth ; canvas, hence pic- ture. [L. telam.] tombe/, tomb, grave. [L., fr. Gr.] tomber v. fall, tumble, [fr. G. (?)] tome m. tome, volume. [L., fr. Gr.] ton m. tone. [L., fr. Gr.] ton, ta, tes pron. thy. [L. tuum.] tonner v. impers, thunder. [L. tonare.] torpeur/, torpor. [L.] torrent m. torrent. [L.] tort m. wrong, harm : avoir tort (XIII. 6a), be in the wrong, be wrong ; à tort, wrongly. [L. tor firm, twisted.] tortueux f. tortuous, involved. [L.] tôt adv. soon. [L. toslum, burnt toucher v. touch, be in contact with, be close upon, approach ; lay the hand upon, handle, med- dle with ; touch with emotion, move : toucher à, be close upon or in contact with, meddle with. [?] toujours adv. always, all the time ; even now, still, yet, all the same, [fr. tous jours, all days.] tour m. turn. [fr. tourner.] tourner v. turn. [L. tornare.] Toussaint /. All Saints' day. [tous saints.] tout (*tous, 74c?) pron. (XIV. 6b ; § 116) all, every, whole ; every- thing, everybody, the whole : as adv. (§ 116c) wholly, entirely, quite, altogether : toute chose, everything ; tous deux or tous les deux (XXVII. 7a), both; tout le monde (XXVII. 7b), everybody ; du tout, at all ; tout . . . que (§ 116(7), however ; tout à coup, all at once, sud- denly ; tout à fait, wholly, en- tirely ; tout à l'heure, just now ; tout de suite, at once, immedi- ately. [L. to'tum.] toutefois adv. yet, however, never- theless, [toute fois, every time.] tout-puissant adj. (§ 56c?) all-power- ful, [tout and puissant.] trace /. trace, [fr. tracer. | tracer v. trace, draw, sketch, out- line, [fr. L. tractus.] traduire v. {irr. 1) translate. [L. traducere,] tragédie / tragedy. [L , fr. Gr.] tragique adj. tragic. [L., fr. Gr.] trahir v. betray, be traitor to, de- ceive, frustrate, abuse. [L. tradere, deliver.] trainer v. drag after one, draw along, trail. [fr. train, train, fr. traire.] traire v. {irr. 21) draw, milk. [L. irai cere.] trait m. trait, feature, lineament ; arrow, shaft, dart. [L. tractum, drawn.] traiter v. treat (as, de : § 162#). [L. tractare.] traître m. traitor. [L. traditor (§ 4c).] ^tranquille (68/) adj. tranquil, calm. [L.] * tranquillement (68/) adv. tran- quilly, calmly, [fr. tranquille.] *trans- (745). ^transit (745, 76a) m. transit. [L.] travail (§ 21a) m. work, labor, toil, travail. [fr. L. trabem, beam (?).] travailler v. work, toil, labor. [fr. travail.] travers m. oddity, whim, caprice, eccentricity : à travers, across, athwart, through. [L. trans- versum, crosswise.] traverser v. traverse, cross, pass over or through, [fr. travers.] treize num. thirteen. [L. tredecim.] treizième num. thirteenth, [fr, treize.] VOCABULAKY. 407 trembler v. tremble. [fr. L. iremulus.] tremper v. steep, soak, wet, dip. [L. temperare.] trentaine /. (§ 67) some thirty. [fr. trente.] trente num. thirty. [L. triginta.] très adv. very, very much. [L. trans.] trésor m. treasure, treasury. [L. thesaurum, fr. Gr.] tressaillir v. (in; 45) start, be startled or agitated. [L. trans- salire. ] tricot m. knitting, knitted work, network, [fr. tricoter, knit, fr. G. stricken.] triomphe m. triumph. [L.] triompher v. triumph, gain the victory (over, de). [fr. tri- omphe.] triste adj. sad, dull, dreary. [L. tristem. ] tristement adv. sadly, [fr. triste.] tristesse /. sadness", melancholy, gloom, [fr. triste.] trois num. three. [L. très.'] troisième num. third, [fr. trois.] tromper v. deceive, mislead, cheat, baffle, disappoint : se . . ., de- ceive one's self, be mistaken, make a mistake. [?] trompeur m. trompeuse/. (§ 16) de- ceiver; as adj. deceitful, mis- leading, treacherous, [fr. trom- per.] trône m. throne. [L., fr. Gr.] trop adv. too, too much, in excess, beyond what is called for : de trop, superfluous, not wanted, better away ; trop peu,too little. [ ?] troubler v. trouble, disturb, agi- tate, stir up: se . . ., become disturbed or agitated or con- fused, falter. [L. turbulare.] troupe /. troop, band. [LL. trop- pum, fr. ?] trouver v. find, discover, come or hit upon ; find to be, regard as, consider, think : se . . ., find one's self, chance to be, be. [L. turbare, disturb (?).] tu pron. thou. [L. tu.] tuer v. kill, slay. [L. tutari, make safe.] tyran m. tyrant. [L., fr. Gr.] tyrien adj. Tyrian, of Tyre. [L.] un num. art. (§ 65, 50) one ; an, a. [L. unum.] unique adj. unique, sole, solitary, without a match or equal. [L. unicum.] univers m. universe. [L.] user v. (with de : § 162/) use, make use of, employ ; use up, wear out : en user avec, deal with, treat, handle, [fr. L. uti.] usurper v. usurp, take unjust pos- session of. [L.] *ut (76a) m. do (name of first note of scale). utile adj. useful, advantageous. [L. utilem.] vache /. cow. [L. vaccam.] *vaciller (68/) v. vacillate. [L.] vague adj. vague. [L. vagum.] vaguement adv. vaguely, uncer- tainly, [fr. vague.] vain adj. vain, useless, idle ; con- ceited. [L. vanum.] vaincre v. (XX. 3a) vanquish, con- quer. [L. vincere.] vainqueur m. conqueror. [fr. vaincre.] valet to. valet, flunky, [fr. LL. vassalis, vassal, fr. Celtic] valeur /. value ; valor, bravery. [L-] valise/, valise, portmanteau, [fr. It.] valoir v. (irr. 73) be worth, have the value of ; have as much value as, be equal to ; be good for, win, procure : valoir mieux, be worth more, be better «9?' pref- erable. [L. valere.] vanité/, vanity. [L.] vanter v. vaunt, extol : se . . ., boast, brag. [L. vanitare.] vapeur/, steam, vapor ; to. (§ 15a) steamer. [L.] vase to. vase, vessel. [L. vas.] 408 FREKCH-ENGLISH vaste adj. vast. [L.] vaudeville m. vaudeville, ballad, [fr. val de Vire, name of a place.] veille/, watch, waking, sitting up ; evening before, eve, verge. [L. vigilias.] veiller v. wake, watch ; wake up. [L. vigilare.] veine/, vein. [L. venam.] velours m. velvet, [fr. L. villo- sus, hairy.] vendre v. sell. [L. vendere.] vendredi m. Friday. [L. veneris diem, Venus's day.] vénérable adj. venerable. [L.] venger v. avenge. [L. vindicare.] venir v. (irr. 60 ; p. 145-6) come, be coming : venu, one arrived, comer ; venir de (with inf., XXXI. 116), have just (done anything) ; en venir à, come to the point of, have recourse to, resort to. [L. venire.'] vent m. wind. [L. ventum.] véritable adj. veritable, true, ac- tual, real. [fr. vérité.] vérité / verity, truth : à la ... , wen. . . , in truth, indeed, veri- ly. [L.] verre m. glass, drinking - glass, tumbler. [L. vitrum.] vers prep, toward ; about. [L. versus.] vers m. verse. [L. versum.] verser v. pour out, shed. [L. versare.] vertu/, virtue. [L. virtutem.] vêtement m. garment, vestment, dress. [L. vestimentum.] vêtir v. (irr. 51) clothe, dress (in, de). [L. vestire.] veuve / widow. [L. viduam.] viande /. meat, flesh ; viand. [L. vivenda.] vice m. vice. [L. vitium.] victime /. victim. [L.] victoire/, victory. [L. vicioriam.] victorieux adj. victorious. [L.] vie /. life ; biography : de sa vie, in his life, ever. [L. viiam.] vieil, see vieux. vieillard m. old man. [fr. vieux.] vieillesse /. old age. [fr. vieux.] vieillir v. grow old, become aged, age. [fr. vieux.] vieux, vieil (VII. 7 ; § 536) adj. old, not young, aged ; as noun, old fellow or friend. [LL. veiulum. ] vif adj. lively, vivacious, brisk, smart. [L. vivura.] vigoureux adj. vigorous. [L.] vigueur / vigor, strength, force. [L.] *vil (68d) adj. Yile, base, mean. [L.] vilenie /. villany, baseness, [fr. vilain, base, fr. L. villanus, of the country.] ^village (68/) m. village, [fr. ville.] *ville (68/) / city : à la ville, in the city. [L. villam.] vin m. wine. [L. vinum.] vinaigre m. vinegar, [vin aigre, sour wine.] vingt (76a) num. twenty. [L. viginti.] vingtaine / a score, some twenty. [fr. vingt.] vingtième num. twentieth, [fr. vingt.] ^violemment (26a) adv. violently, by force or violence, [fr. vio- lent.] violent adj. violent. [L.] violette/, violet, [fr. L. viola.] *viril (68Ô") adj. virile, manly. [L.] *vis (74Ô") /. screw. [L. vitem, vine.] vis m. face : vis-à-vis de, face to face with, opposite to, fronting. [L. visum.] visage m. visage, countenance, face. [fr. vis, m.] visible adj. visible. [L.] visière /. visor, [fr. vis, m.] visite / visit : rendre visite, pay a visit or call. [fr. visiter.] visiter v. visit. [L. visitare.] vite adj. quick ; as adv. (XXXI. 9) quickly, rapidly, fast. [?] vivant m. life-time, life, [pple of vivre.] VOCABULABY. 409 £■'* vivement adj. livelily, vivre v. (irr. 32) live. [L. vivere.] vizir m. vizier, [fr. Arabic.] vœu m. vow ; wish, desire, prayer. [L. votum.] voici interj. (§ 201) see here, here is or are or come, behold, lo. [vois and ci.] voie /. way, road, track. [L. viam.] voilà interj. (§ 201) see there, there is or are or come, behold, lo. [vois and là.] voile m.f. (§ 15a) veil ; sail : bateau à voiles, sailing vessel. [L. ve- lum.] voir v. (irr. 67) see, behold, view, look : voyons, let's see, see here, come now ; y voir, see things, have eyes. [L. vider e.] voisin adj. neighboring, near (to, de) ; as noun, neighbor. [L. vicinum.] voisinage m. neighborhood, vici- nage, [fr. voisin.] voiture /. carriage, vehicle. vecturam.] voix/, voice. [L. vocem.] *volatil (68a") adj. volatile. [L.] voler v. fly. [L. volare.] volonté/, will, intention, desire. [L. voluntatem.] [L. flyim volontiers adv. willingly, gladly, [fr. L. voluntarie.] volume m. volume. [L.] votre pron. (XIV.) your. [L. ves- trum.] vôtre pron. (XXVII. 1, 2) yours. [L. vestrum.] vouloir v. (irr. 72 ; p. 114) wish, desire, want ; be willing or in- clined , 176a) faire (irr. p. 150). cautious, prudent, cease, cesser, century, siècle m. ceremony, cérémonie/, certain, certain, certainly, certainement, chair, chaise/ chamber, chambre/ change v. changer, changer de (§ 162/). chapter, chapitre m. character, caractère m. charm n. charme m. charm v. charmer (with, de), cheap, cheaply, à bon marché, bon marché, cheat n. fourbe m. cheese, fromage m. child, enfant wa./ (§ 15e). chimney, cheminée/ China, Chine/ choose, choisir, church, église / : to or at church, à l'église, citizen, citoyen m. eity, *ville(68/)/ clean v. nettoyer, clear v.: clear out, s'en aller (XXIX. 7c). cloak, manteau m. cloister, cloître m. close v. fermer, cloth, drap m. clothe, vêtir (irr. 51), 27 coat, habit m. coffee, café m. coffin, cercueil m. cold, froid : be cold, feel cold, avoir froid (XIII. 6) ; be cold (weather), faire frcid ; grow cold, se refroidir. collar, col m. comb, peigne m. combatant, combattant m. come, venir (irr. p. 145 ; with être, XXVIII. 6a), (happen) advenir, (arrive, get so far as) arriver, en venir ; come! allons (XXVII. 8d) ; come back or again, reve- nir ; come down, descendre ; come in, entrer. comedy, comédie/ comer, venu m. coming n. arrivée/ command, commander à (§ 1615). commit, commettre (irr. 31), faire (irr. 23) (une faute). companion, compagnon m. company, compagnie / compassion, compassion/. conceal, cacher. conceive, concevoir (irr. 65). conclude, conclure (irr. 29). condemn, *condamner (69a). condition, condition/ conduct n. conduite/ conduct v. conduire (irr. 1) ; con- duct one's self, se conduire. confess, confesser, avouer. confusion, confusion/ conquer, vaincre (XX. Za). conquest, conquête / conscience, conscience / consent v. consentir (irr. 40). consequently, donc, *conséquem- ment (26a). consolation, consolation / conspire, conspirer. constancy, constance/ constantly, constamment. constitutional, constitutionnel. constrain, contraindre (irr. 15). contact : come or be in contact with, toucher à (§ 1616). contented, content. continually, continuellement. 418 ENGLISH-FRENCH continue, continuer, (remain) de- meurer, continuer. cook, cuisinière/. correct v. corriger. correctly (in tune), juste. Corsica, Corse/. cost v. coûter. count <6. compter (upon, sur). count n. comte m. country, pays m., (one's or native) patrie/, (as distinguished from the city) campagne /. : in the country, à la campagne. courage, courage m. courageous, courageux. courier, courrier m. court, cour/. cousin, cousin m., cousine/. cover n. (place at table) couvert m. cover v. couvrir (irr. 56). cow, vache/ cowardly, poltron. crazy, fou (VII. 7). create, créer. credit v.: credit one with, croire (quelque chose) à (§ 161c). crime, crime m. crown n. couronne/. cruel, cruel. cruelly, cruellement. cry v. cry out, s'écrier. cuff n. manchette/. cunning, fin. cup, tasse/. curious, curieux. curse v. maudire {irr. 10). dancer, danseur m., danseuse/. dangerous, dangereux. Danube, Danuhe m. dare, oser. dash n. intrépidité/. daughter, fille/. day, jour m. : day before yester- day, avant-hier m. ; day after to- morrow, après-demain m. dead adj. mort. deal : a great deal, beaucoup. dear, cher (VIII. 5c). dearly, chèrement. decay v. déchoir {irr. 70). decease v. décéder. deceive, tromper, décevoir (irr. 65). December, décembre m. deceptive, trompeux. declare, déclarer. deed, fait in. deep, profond. defect, défaut in. defend, défendre. Demosthenes, Démosthène m. Denmark, Danemark m. deny, nier, renier (21 n ). depart, partir (irr. 38). departure, départ m. depend, se fier (upon, à : 5' n ), dé- pendre (on or upon, de : § 162^ depot, gare/ describe, décrire (irr. 12). deserve, mériter. design n. dessein m. desire v. vouloir (irr. 72), désirer, avoir envie de. despair n. désespoir m. despair v. désespérer. destination, destination/. die, mourir (irr. 62 ; with être, XXVIII. 6a). difference, différence/ difficult, difficile. difficulty, difficulté/ dine, dîner. dining-room, salon m., salle à manger/. (§ 1856). dinner, dîner m. dint : by dint of, à force de. directly, sur le champ. disappear, disparaître (irr. 18). discomfit, déconfire (irr. 7). discover, découvrir (irr. 56). disgrace, honte/. dish, plat m. displease, déplaire (irr. 24). dissatisfied, mécontent (with, de). distrust, se défier de. do, faire (irr. p. 150) : do without, se passer de. doctor, docteur m. dog, chien m. door, porte/ doubt v. douter (if, que ... ne : § 170a). 1 down-stairs, en bas. VOCABULARY. 419 dozen, douzaine/. draw, traire (irr. 21) : draw near, s'approcher (to, de : § 162/). dress v. s'habiller. dress n. robe/. dressmaker, couturière/ drink, boire (irr. 27). drive off or away, chasser. dry adj. sec (VII. 66). dry v. sécher. due, du (XXVI. 12c). dull, (tedious) ennuyeux, (stupid) lourd d'esprit. during, pendant, durant : during the past, during . . . past, de- puis (§ 211). duty, devoir m. dwell, demeurer. each, {adj.) chaque, (n.) chacun : each one, chacun ; each other, lun l'autre (XXVII. 7), se (XXIX. 8). ear, oreille/. earlier, plus tôt, de meilleure heure. early, de bonne heure : so early, de si bonne heure ; quite early, de bien (or très) bonne heure. earth, terre/. easily, facilement. east, *est (76a) m. ; the East, l'Ori- ent m. easy, aisé, facile. eat, manger. editor, rédacteur m. Edward, Edouard. effort, effort m. egg, œuf ( pi. *œufs : 61a) m. eight, *huit (76a). eighteen, *dix-huit (815) eighth, huitième. eighty, quatre-vingts (XV. 2b). either conj. ou ( ... ou, or), (nor . . . either) non plus (§ 169c). either prou, l'un ou l'autre (XXVII. 7). eleven, *onze (64/). Elizabeth, Elisabeth. eloquent, éloquent. else : nothing else, rien d'autre ; nothing else than, ne . . . rien que. elsewhere, ailleurs, autre part (§ 28a). emperor, empereur m. employ, employer. empress, impératrice/ enclosed, ci-inclus (§ 56a). encourage, encourager. encouragement, encouragement. end n. fin / , (object) but (76a) m. : make an end or finish, en finir. end v. finir. endure, durer. enemy, ennemi m. England, Angleterre/ English, anglais, d'Angleterre. enough, assez (V. 4a). enrich, enrichir. enter, entrer (with être : XXVIII. 6a) entire, entier. entirely, tout à fait, entièrement, tout (| 116c). enjoy, jouir de (§ 162/). equally, également; equally . . . and, aussi . . . que. escape v. (intr.) s'échapper, (tr.) échapper à (§ 161c). especially, surtout. essay, essai m. esteem, estimer. eternally, éternellement. Etna, Etna m. Europe, Europe/ eve, veille/. even, même (§ 114c), (not except- ing) jusqu'à (§ 155a), (with ger- und : § 190a) tout. evening, soir, soirée : in the even- ing, du soir. every, chaque, tout (XIV. 6ô; § 109) ; every one, chacun ; every- body, tout le monde ; every- thing, tout, toute chose; every day, tous les jours ; everywhere, partout. evil adj. mauvais. evil n. mal m. example, exemple m. excel, exceller. excellent, excellent. except, hors, excepté (§ 56a). exclaim, s'écrier. 420 ENGLISÏI-FREîïCn excuse n. excuse /. execute, exécuter. exercise n. exercice m., thème m. exhibition, exposition /. expect, attendre. experience, expérience /. express, exprimer ; express one's thoughts, s'exprimer, extraordinary, extraordinaire, extremely, extrêmement, eye, œil m. (pi. yeux 36a). fact : in fact, en effet. factory, fabrique/. fail, faire défaut à (6 ,; ). faint, s'évanouir. fall, tomber (with être : XXVIII. 6a), déchoir (irr. 70) ; fall short, faillir, false, faux (VII. 8). fame, renommée/, family, famille/, famine, famine/. Fanny, Françoise/, far adv. loin : far from, (with inf.) loin de, (with v.) loin que (§ 1376); as far as, see as ; so far as, see so. farewell, adieu m. farm, ferme / farmer, fermier m. ; farmer's wife, fermière / fashion : in that fashion, de cette façon, de la sorte, fast adv. vite, father, père m. fault, faute / , défaut m. , erreur / favor, faveur/, favorite, favori (VII. 8). fear i\ craindre (irr. 15), avoir peur (11 18 ). fear n. peur /. , crainte /. : for fear of, de peur or crainte de ; for fear that, de peur or crainte que ... ne (§ 170a). February, février m. feeble, faible, feel, sentir (irr. 40). festival, fête/, fetch, aller or venir chercher (§ 176e). few, peu (de : V. 4) ; a few, quel- ques (XIV. 6c) ; but few, peu ; too few, trop peu ; the few, les quelques (24 8 ). field, champ m. fifteen, quinze, fifth, cinquième, quint (XVI. 4c ; §66). fifty, cinquante, fight v. combattre (XX. 3c). fight n. combat m. find, trouver : find one's self, se trouver ; find again, retrouver, fine adj. beau (VII. 7) ; fine weath- er, beau, beau temps ; a fine thing, beau, finish, finir, fire, feu m. firm, ferme, first adj. premier : adv. pour la première fois, fish, poisson m. five, *cinq (72c). flee, fuir (irr. 47). flight, fuite/ flourish, fleurir (XIX. 36). flower, fleur/, fold i\ plier, folks, gens pi. (§ 15d). follow, suivre (irr. 33). foolish, sot, insensé (14 n ), fou (VII. 7). foot, pied m. for prep. pour, de, (during) depuis (§ 211) : as for, quant à. for conj. car. forbid, défendre (de : § 179ô) ; God forbid, à Dieu ne plaise (§ 166c). force, force/ forget, oublier, fork, fourchette/ former, celui-là (subst.), ce . . . -là (adj.) (% 91). formerly, autrefois, fortitude, courage m. fortune, fortune / ; good fortune, bonheur m. forty, quarante, four, quatre, fourteen, quatorze, fourth, quatrième : fourth part, quart m. fowl, poule/ franc, franc m, VOCABULARY. 421 France, France/. Frances, Françoise/. Francis, Frank, François m. frank, franc (VII. 66). frankly, franchement. freeze," geler. French, français, de France. Friday, vendredi m.; Fridays, le vendredi (§ 46). friend, ami m. , amie /. friendship, amitié/, from, de, dès, d'avec, depuis (§ 211). front : in front of, en face de ; to the front of, au-devant de. fruit, fruit m. full, plein, fully, pleinement. gain v. gagner. game, jeu m. garden, jardin m. gate, porte/. gather, (trans.) cueillir (irr. 46), (liitr.) se réunir. general n. général m. Geneva, Genève/. gentleman, monsieur (XIV. 4), gentilhomme (pi. *gentils- hommes : 68c). German, allemand. Germany, Allemagne/ get, obtenir (irr. 61) : get up, se lever ; get ready, s'apprêter. gift, cadeau m., présent m., don m. girl, fille/ give, donner : give a present, faire (irr. 23) un cadeau. glad, aise ; very glad, bien aise. glass, verre m. glory, gloire/ go, aller (irr. p. 128), être (§ 176e), (go away) partir (irr. 38) : go away, s'en aller (XXIX. 7c), partir (irr. 38) ; go out, sortir (irr. 39) ; be going to {with inf.), aller (XXVII. 9c). God, Dieu m. ; god, dieu m. gold, or m. good adj. bon (IX. 3) : good for- tune or luck, bonheur m. ; good morning or day, bonjour m. government, gouvernement m. grace, grâce/. grand, grand. grandfather, grand-père m. grandmother, grand'mère /. (§ 4c). grandson, petit-fils m. great, grand : a great deal, beau- coup (V. 4). Great Britain, Grande-Bretagne/ greatly, beaucoup, grandement. Greece, Grèce/ grief, chagrin m. grow, croître (irr. 19) : grow old, vieillir ; grow pale, pâlir ; grow cold, se refroidir. grudge : have a grudge at, en vou- loir à (XXIV. 6/). guest, hôte m. guide, guider, conduire (irr. 1). habit, habitude/ hail v. grêler. hair, cheveux m. pi. half n. moitié. half adj. (XVI. 4a ; § 56a) demi, demi- : half an hour, une demi- heure. hand n. main/ hand v. remettre (irr. 31). handkerchief, mouchoir m. handle n. manier. handsome, beau (VII. 7). Hanover, Hanovre m. happen, arriver (with être : XXVIII. 6a), venir à (with inf. : § 1766). happily, heureusement, happiness, bonheur m. happy, heureux, content, hard, dur, (difficult) difficile, hardly, à peine, ne . . . guère (§ 167a) : I hardly know, je ne sache pas (§ 131a). Harriet, Henriette/ haste : make haste, se hâter, se dépêcher, hasten, se hâter, se dépêcher, hat, chapeau m. hate v. haïr (XIX. 3a). have, avoir (irr. p. 58) ; as auxil. , avoir or être (XXVIII. 5-8, XXIX. 3, XXX. la) ; have to, 422 ENGLISH-FRENCH avoir à (§182c), être obligé de, falloir (XXX. 7). he, il (68<0, lui. head, tête/, health, santé/, hear, entendre, ouïr (irr. 49). heart, cœur m. heaven, ciel (II. 5) m. heir, héritier m. help v. aider ; help ! à moi (£ 205a'). hen, poule/, hence adv. d'ici, henceforth, désormais. Henrietta, Henriette /. Henry, Henri m. her pron. (XXII.) la, lui, elle (XXIII. 2); poss. (XIV. 1-3) son; hers, sien (XXVII. 1, 2). here, ici; -ci (XIII. 3, XXIV. ; § 91-2) ; here is or are, voici (§ 201). herewith, ci-joint, ci-inclus (§ 56a). hero, 'héros m. hesitate, hésiter, hide one's self, se cacher, high, 'haut, highly, 'hautement, him (XXII.), le, lui. his (XIV. 1-3, XXVII. 1, 2), son, sien, history, histoire/, hold, tenir (irr. 61). Holland, 'Hollande/, home : at home, chez moi (etc.), à la maison ; go home, aller à la maison, honest, honnête (VIII. 5c). honor n. honneur m. honor v. honorer, hope v. espérer, (wish) souhaiter, hope n. espoir m., espérance/, horrible, horrible, horse, cheval m. horseback : on horseback, à cheval (§ 161d). hot, chaud, hour, heure / ; half an hour, une demi-heure (XVI. 4a). house, maison /.: at the house of, chez, how, comment (interrog., relat., exclam.), que (XXV. M) ; how many or much, combien, (ex- clam.) que de (24 9 ). however adv. quelque . . . que (§ 107a"), si . . . que, pour . . . que, tout ... que (§ 116a", 137c). however covj., cependant, toutefois. human, humain. hundred, cent (XV. 26, 6 ; § 67a). hunger, faim /. ; be hungry, avoir faim (XIII. 6). hurry v. se hâter. husband, mari m. I, je, moi. idle, paresseux. if, si (296 ; XXXIV. 16 ; § 138a), quand, que (§ 138c, 2216). ignorant, ignorant, ill adj. malade ; adv. mal (XXXI. . 8 >- ill n. mal m. illustrious, illustre. ill-will : bear ill-will to, en vou- loir à. imagine, imaginer, s'imaginer, se figurer. immediately, tout de suite. impatience, impatience /. impious, impie. important, important ; be impor- tant, importer, être nécessaire. impossible, impossible. in, en, dans (VI. la ; § 207), à (VI. 4, XIII. 6a), de (§ 2046). inch, pouce m. inclined, enclin. inconsolable, inconsolable (for, de). indeed, en effet, (—to be sure) il est vrai. India, Indes/, pi. indignation, indignation/. infinite : an infinite amount, in- finiment. influence, influence/. inhabitant, habitant m. injure, nuire (irr. 4) à (§ 1616). injustice, injustice/ ink, encre/. inside adv. dedans. insist, exiger. instead of, au lieu de. VOCABULARY. 423 instruct, instruire {irr. 2). interest v. intéresser ; interesting, intéressant, interrupt, interrompre (XX. Zb). intimate adj. intime, into, en, dans (VI. la, 4 ; § 207). introduce one's self, s'introduire (irr. 1). invincible, invincible, invite, inviter, iron, fer m. ; adj. (= of iron), de fer, en fer. it, il, elle ; le, la ; as indef. subj. (XI. 2, XXIV. 2 ; § 147ô), ce, il. Italy, Italie/. Italian, italien, d'Italie. its, son (XIV.), sien (XXVII. 1, 2), en (§ SZb). James, Jacques m. Jane, Jeanne/. January, janvier m. Japan, Japon m. jealousy, jalousie/. Joan, Joanna, Jeanne/. John, Jean m. join, joindre {irr. 17). journal, journal m. journey, voyage m. H' joie/ - * ■ a * judge n. juge m. ; be a judge of, s'entendre à. judge v. : judge proper, juger bon. Julia, Julie/. Julius, Jules m. July, juillet m. June, juin m. just adj. juste, just adv. : have or had just (done anything), viens or venais de (XXXI. lib). justice, justice/. keep, tenir (irr. 61), garder ; (word or a secret) tenir ; keep silent, taire (irr. 25) ; keep doing any- thing, impf. (III. lb ; § 119a). kill, tuer. kind adj. bon (to, pour). kind n. sorte/., genre m. kindness, bonté/. king, roi m. kingdom, royaume m. kitchen, cuisine/ knife, couteau m. know, savoir (irr. p. 159), (be ac- quainted with) connaître {irr. 18) ; know how (with inf.) savoir (XXXIV. 7a) ; know to be, savoir (XXXIV. 7a). labor v. travailler. laborious, laborieux. lack n. : for lack of, faute de. lady, dame /. ; my lady, the lady, madame (XIV. 4) ; the young lady, mademoiselle (XIV. 4). lament, se plaindre (irr. 15). language, langue/ large, grand, last, dernier (VIII. 5c ; § 605) ; at last, enfin, late, (tardy) tard, (deceased) feu (§ 56a) ; later, plus tard, lately, dernièrement, *récemment (26a). latter, celui-ci (§ 91). laugh v. rire (irr. 13). laugh n. rire m. law, loi/ lazy, paresseux, lead v. mener, conduire, (induce) amener, leaf, feuille/ learn, apprendre (irr. 30). learned adj. savant, least, adv. le moins (XXXI. 8) ; at least, au moins, leave, (trans., abandon) quitter, (leave behind) laisser; (intr., de- part) partir (irr. 38). leg, jambe/ lend, prêter, length, longueur/ lengthily, longuement, less adv. moins (XXXI. 8); the less, moins (XXXIV. 3). lesson, leçon/, lest, que . . . ne (§ 170a). let, laisser ; impv. (VIII. 7c; § 141). letter, lettre/ Lewis, Louis m. liable, sujet (VII. 4a). library, bibliothèque/ 424 ENGLISH-FRENCH lie v. (be false) mentir (for. 41). life, vie /. : in all my life, de ma vie (§ 167c). light n. (daylight) jour m. like v. aimer, vouloir (irr. p. 114) ; like better, aimer mieux, like adj. pareil. like prep. conj. comme, en (§ 207 e). lily, *lis (74d) m. listen, écouter ; listen to, écouter ; listen to reason, entendre raison, literature, littérature/, little adv. peu (de, V. 4, XXXI. 8); a little, un peu, un peu de ; little by little, peu à peu, petit à petit ; too little, trop peu de ; but little (with v.), ne . . . guère (XII. 5). little adj. petit, live, (dwell) demeurer, (be alive) vivre (irr. 32) ; long live ! vive (§ 144a). lively, vif; in a lively manner, vivement. London, Londres ra. long adj. long (VII. 60). long adv. (a long time) longtemps ; longer, encore ; any longer, plus longtemps (19 9 ) ; no longer, ne . . . plus (XII. 5) ; so or as long as, tant que (§ 137a). look n. regard ra. look v. (appear to be) avoir lair (§ 5Qb) ; look at, regarder ; look for, chercher, lose, perdre, manquer, loss, perte/, loud adj. adv. 'haut. Louis, Louis ra. Louisa, Louise/, love v. aimer ; be loved, se faire aimer (22 5 ). love n. amour ra./. (§ 15 c) ; in love with, amoureux de. low, has ; in a low tone, low (adv.), has. Lyons, Lyon ra. mad, fou (VII. 7). madam, madame (XIV. 4). maid, (servant) domestique/, make, faire (irr. p. 150) ; (cause to be) rendre. man, homme m. manner, manière / ; in a manner to, de façon à. manufacturer, fabricant ra. maDy, beaucoup de (V. 4), bien de (with art. : V. 4&), maint (§ 113) ; many a, maint (§118) ; as many, autant de ; how many, combien de, que de (XXV. 4c) ; so many, tant de ; too many, trop de, trop beaucoup de. march v. marcher. March, *mars (74a*). Marcus Aurelius, Marc-Aurèle m. Maria, Marie/ marry, (trans.) épouser, se marier avec ; (intr.) se marier ; be mar- ried, se marier ; newly-married (person), nouveau marié (§ 56a"). Mary, Marie,/. master, maître ra. matter n. affaire /.; what is the matter with him, qu'a-t-il 1 (XIII. 6&). matter v. importer (§ 148&). May, mai ra. may v., sub), près. (IX. 6b), pouvoir (irr. p. 119 ; XXV. 8/). maybe, peut-être. me, me, moi. meadow, pré ra. mean v. vouloir dire (XXXIII. Id). means : the means (of anything), de quoi (§ 103(f), les moyens ; by means of, moyennant, à force de ; by no means, ne . . . nullement, ne . . . point. meanwhile, en attendant, cepen- dant. meat, viande/ meddle with, se mêler à or de. meet v. (trans.) rencontrer, (intr.) se rencontrer ; go to meet, aller à la rencontre or au-devant de. melon, melon ra. memory, mémoire/ mendacious, menteur m., menteuse /•(§16). merchant, négociant ra., (retail) marchand m. merely by, rien qu'à or que de (§ 168a). VOCABULAKY. 425 meter, mètre m. Mexico, Mexique m. midday, midi m. (XVII. 45). midnight, minuit m. (XVII. 45). might v., subj. (IX. 6b), pouvoir (XXV. 8/). milk n. lait m. milk v. traire {îrr. 21). million, million m. mind n. esprit m., intelligence/, mine, mien (XXVII. 1, 2). minister, ministre m. minute n. minute/, misdeed, forfait m. , méfait m. misfortune, malheur m. Miss, Mademoiselle / (XIV. 4), Mlle, miss v. faillir (irr. 50). mistake : be mistaken, se tromper, mock, (trans.) se moquer de. moderately, modérément, modem, moderne, modest, modeste, monarch, monarque m. Monday, lundi m. money, argent m. monk, moine m. month, mois m. more, plus (XXXI. 8), plus de (V. 4) ; the more, plus (XXXIV. 3). moreover, d'ailleurs, de plus, morning, matin m., matinée /. ; good-morniug, bonjour m. morrow, lendemain m. most, le plus (XXXI. 8), le plus de, la plupart de (with art. ; V. 45). mother, mère/ mountain, montagne/, move, mouvoir (irr. 76), (with emotion, the feelings) émouvoir (irr. 76), toucher. Mr., Monsieur m., M. (XIV. 4). Mrs., Madame/., Mme. (XIV. 4). much, (with v.) beaucoup, très, fort ; (with n.) beaucoup de (V. 4) ; as much, autant de ; how much, combien, combien de ; so much, tant, tant de ; too much, trop, trop de ; very much, beaucoup ; not much, ne . . . pas beaucoup, ne . . . guère. music, musique/, musician, musicien m. musicienne/, must, il f*ut etc. (XXX. 6, 7), devoir (irr. p. 124 ; XXVI. 12/). my, mon (XIV.). naked, nu. name, nom m. napkin, serviette/. Napoleon, Napoléon m. near adv. près, auprès ; too near, trop près, near, near to, prep, près, près de ; go or draw near or near to, s'approcher de (§ 162/). nearly, à peu près, près de (14 16 ). neat, *net (76a), (clean) propre, necessary : he necessary, falloir (irr. p. 141). need n. besoin m. neighbor, voisin m., voisine/, neither pron. ni l'un ni l'autre (XXVII. 7). neither conj. ni (XXXIV. 3). nephew, neveu m. never, ne . . . jamais (XII. 4 ; § 167). nevertheless, néanmoins, new, nouveau (VII. 7), neuf, news n. nouvelle/ (s. or pi.). newspaper, journal m. next adj. prochain ; next day, lendemain, jour suivant. next pi-ep., près ; conj. puis, niece, nièce/, night, nuit/ nine, neuf (61a, 85c). nineteen, *dix-neuf (Slb). ninety, *quatre- vingt-dix (Slb). ninth, neuvième, no resp. non (§ 169, 200). no, none, no one adj. n. ne . . . aucun, ne . . . nul (XIV. 6a, d, XXVII. 6 ; § 111), ne . . . pas or point de (| 356) ; no longer, ne . . . plus (XII. 5). noble, noble, nobody, no one, ne . . . personne (XII. 4 ; § 167). noise, bruit m. none, see no, adj. nor, ni (XII. 5). 426 EKGLISH-FREKCH north, nord m. Norway, Norvège/. not, ne ; ne . . . pas, ne . . . point (§ 164-6), non, non pas (§ 169) ; not any, ne . . . aucun, ne . nul, ne . . . pas de (§ Zbb) ; not anything, ne rien ; not ever, ne . . . jamais ; not any one, ne . . . personne, nothing, ne . . . rien (XII. 4; § 167). notify, avertir, novel adj. nouveau (VII. 7). novel n. roman m. November, novembre m. now adv. à présent, maintenant ; conj. or ; now . . . now, tantôt . . . tantôt, nowhere, nulle part (§ 28a). null adj. nul (§ 167/). obey, obéir à (§ IQlb). oblige : be obliged to, falloir (XXX. 7). obtain, obtenir {irr. 61). occasion, occasion/. o'clock, heure/ (XVII. 4). occupy one's self, s'occuper (with, de). October, octobre m. of, de (III. 1-3) ; en, à. off : be off, s'en aller (XXIX. 7c). offend, offenser. offer, offrir (irr. 53). officer, officier m. often, souvent (XXXI. 7). old, vieux (VII. 7), (so many years) âgé de ; too old, trop âgé ; be (so many years) old, avoir . . . ans (XVII. 5) ; grow old, vieillir. on, sur. once, une fois ; at once, (immedi- ately) tout de suite, sur le champ, (at the same time) à la fois. one, un (XV. 2a), (indef.) on (XXVII. 4) ; no one, see no ; some one, see some ; one anoth- er, l'un l'autre (XXVII. 7), se XXIX. 8) ; one who, anyone who, quiconque, qui (§ 103a). onion, *oignon (43a) m. only adj. seul. only adv. ne . . . que (XII. 5 ; § 167a, d), seulement. open v. ouvrir {irr. 55), éclore {irr. 28). opportunity, occasion/ opposite to, vis-à-vis de. or, ou, soit (XXXIV. 3). orator, orateur m. order : in order to, afin de, pour ; in order that, afin que, pour que {% 137(Z). ordinarily, ordinairement. other, autre (XXVII. 6, 7 ; § 115) ; others, other people than one's self, autrui (XXVII. 6a). otherwise, autrement. ought, devoir {irr. p. 124). our, notre (XIV. 1). ours, nôtre (XXVII. 1, 2). out of, hors de, hors. outside, dehors. over, sur, (above) au-dessus de, (be- yond) par-dessus ; triumph over, triompher de ; be all over, e'en être fait. owe, devoir {irr. p. 124 ; § 179a"). own adj. propre (| 89). owner, possesseur m. ox, bœuf m. {pi. *bœufs ; 61a). package, paquet m. page, (of a book etc.) page/ pain, mal (XIII. 6a ; § 37a), (grief) peine/ paint v. peindre {irr. 16). painter, peintre m. painting n. peinture/, pale : grow pale, pâlir, paper, papier m. pardon v. pardonner (to [anyone], à). parent, parent m. Paris, Paris m. Parnassus, Parnasse m. parrot, perroquet m. part v. {trans.) séparer, {intr. se séparer, part n. part/, partie/ pass v. passer. passage, passage m. passion, passion/ VÔCABTJLAKT. 427 past : half past, etc., see XVII. 4 ; during . . . past, depuis (§ 211). peach, pêche/, pear, poire/, peas, pois m. peasant, *paysan (37a) m. pen, plume / pencil, crayon m. pending prep, pendant, people, (nation) peuple, (folks) gens' (§ 15d), (indef.) on (XXVII. 4). pepper, poivre m. perceive, apercevoir {irr. 65), s'apercevoir de. perfect adj. parfait, perfect v. perfectionner, perfectly, parfaitement, perhaps, peut être, probablement, permit, permettre (irr. 31) à. persuade, persuader, philosopher, philosophe m. piano, piano m. picture, tableau m. piece, morceau m. pillage, piller, pitiable, pitoyable, pity v. plaindre (irr. 15). pity n. pitié : it's a pity, c'est dommage, place, lieu m. place /. ; take place, avoir lieu, plan n. projet m. plate n. assiette/, play v. (trans.) jouer de, (intr.) jouer, plaything, jouet m. please, plaire à (irr. 24 ; § 1615) ; if you please, s'il vous plaît ; please to (impv.), veuillez (XXIV. 6c) ; he pleased to, se plaire à. pleasure, plaisir m. pocket, poche/, poet, poète m. poetry, poésie/, point, point m.; on the point of, sur le point de. poor, pauvre (VIII. 5c). portrait, portrait m. possess, posséder, possible, possible. post, post-office, poste/. pot, pot m. potato, pomme de terre/. poultry-yard, basse-cour/. pound, livre/. power, pouvoir m. praise v. louer. precede, précéder. prefer, préférer. prepaid, franc de port (§ 56a). prepare, préparer. presence, présence/. present n. cadeau m., présent m., don m. present adj. : at present, à présent, maintenant ; be present at, assister à (§ 161/;). present v. présenter. presently, présentement. pretended, soi-disant (§ 56c, 189'-). prettily, joliment. pretty, joli. prevent, empêcher (§ 170a). priest, prêtre m. prince, prince m. princess, princesse/. prison, prison/. ; in or into prison, en prison. probably, probablement. problem, problème m. profession, profession/. professor, professeur m. profit, profiter (by, de). profound, profond. project, projet m. promise, promettre (irr. 31: to, à). promptly, *promptement (71a). proper : judge proper, juger bon. property, propriété ; man of prop- erty, propriétaire. protect, protéger. proud, orgueilleux. provide, pourvoir (irr. 69) : pro- vided that, pourvu que (§ 1376). prudently, *prudemment (26a). Prussia, Prusse/ punish, punir. punishment, punition/ pupil, (scholar) élève m. put, mettre (irr. 31) ; put off, dif- férer. Pyrenees, Pyrénées/. 428 ENGLISH-FRENCH quality, qualité /. quantity, quantité/. quarrel, se quereller. quarter, quart m. (XVI. 46). queen, reine/. quickly, vite. quite, tout (§ 116c), bien. ragout, ragoût m. railroad, railway, chemin defer m., voie ferrée/, rain v. pleuvoir (irr. 71). rain n. pluie/, rainy, pluvieux, raise, lever, rare, rare, rash, téméraire, rather, plutôt, read, lire {irr. 11). ready, prêt ; get ready, s'apprêter, really, vraiment, réellement, en effet, realm, royaume m. reason n. raison/ reason v. raisonner, recall, rappeler (XXI. 3c). receive, recevoir {irr. 65). recently, dernièrement, ^récemment (26a). reception, réception/, reckon, ^compter (71a). recognize, reconnaître (irr. 18). recommend, recommander, recover, se relever, red, rouge. redouble, redoubler de (g 162/). refuse, refuser, regard, regarder : as regards, quant à. regret n. regret m. regret v. regretter, rejoice, se réjouir, relative n. parent m. religion, religion/ remain, rester, remainder, reste m. remember, (recall to mind) se rappeler, se souvenir (irr. 60). remove, ôter. render, rendre. renounce, renoncer à (§ 1616). repent, se repentir (irr. 42). reply, répondre. reproach, reprocher (% lGlb). republic, république/. require, exiger. requirement, besoin m. resemble, ressembler à (§ 1616). resist, résister à ($ 1616). resolve, se résoudre (irr. 36), ré- soudre. rest, reposer. restaurant, restaurant m. restrain, contenir (irr. 61). retire, se retirer. return, revenir (irr. 60), retourner, être de retour (17 8 ). reward, récompense/. Rhine, Rhin m. rich, riche (in, de or en). riches, richesse/ ridicule v. se moquer de. right n. droit m. right adj. droit : be right, avoir raison (XIII. 6a). ring, ring for, sonner (§ 157a). rise, se lever. risk v. risquer. risk n.: run the risk, courir le risque, risquer. rival n. rival m. river, rivière/., fleuve m. road, chemin m., route/. romance, roman m. room, chambre/ rose, rose/ roundabout adv. alentour. royal, royal. ruin, ruine/. run, courir (irr. 52) ; run away, se sauver ; run the risk, see risk. Russia, Russie/. safe, sauf. sailboat, bateau à voiles m. sailor, matelot m. salt, sel m. saloon, salon m. salvation, salut m. same, même (§ 114). satisfied, well satisfied, content, satisfait. Saturday, samedi m. save, sauver, say, dire (irr. p. 155). VOCABULARY. 429 scarcely, ne . . . guère (XII. 5), à peine. school, école /. ; to or at school, à l'école. score, vingt, (about twenty) ving- taine (§ 67). science, science/. Scotland, Ecosse/. sculpture, *sculpture (71a)/. sea, mer/. seat one's self, s'asseoir (irr. 78). second adj. *second (58/), "^deuxi- ème (81c). second n. *seconde (58/)/. secret n. secret m. see, voir (irr. 67) ; see again, re- voir. seek, chercher ; seek one's fortune, chercher fortune. seem, sembler. Seine, Seine/. seize, saisir. -self, -même (XXIII. 3c). self-styled, soi-disant (§ 56c, 189c). sell, vendre. send, envoyer (irr. 81) ; send back, renvoyer ; send for, envoyer chercher (§ 176c). sense : good sense, bon *sens (§ 74c?) m. September, septembre m. servant, domestique m./., bonne/ serve, servir (irr. 44) ; serve as, servir de (§ 1620). service, service m.; at the service of, au service de. set, mettre (irr. 31) ; set out, par- tir (irr. 38). seven, *sept (71a, 76a). seventeen, *dix-sept (71a, 81ô). seventh, *septième (71a). seventy, *soixante-dix (815, c). several, plusieurs. sew, coudre (irr. 34). she, elle. shed v. répandre, verser. sheep, brebis/ sheet, (of paper etc.) feuille/ shepherd, berger m. shoe, soulier m. shoemaker, cordonnier m. shop, boutique/., magasin m. shore, côte/. short adj. cour- ; short of (with inf.), à moins de. show v. montrer. shun, fuir (irr. 47), éviter. shut, fermer. sick, malade. side, côté/, (on, de : § 204a). sign, signe m. signify, vouloir dire (XXXIII. 7d). silent : be silent, se taire (irr. 25). silk, soie/ silver, argent m. simple, simple. since prep, depuis (§ 211), dès ; conj. puisque, (since the time that) depuis que, depuis que . . . ne.(§ 1706). sincere, sincère. sincerely, sincèrement. sing, chanter. sir, ^monsieur (546, 73c). sister, sœur/ sit, seoir (irr. 78) ; sit down, s'as- seoir (irr. 78). six, *six (81Ô). sixteen, seize. sixth, *sixième (81c). sixty, *soixante (81c). skilful, skilled, habile, adroit. sleep n. sommeil m. sleep v. dormir (irr. 43). sleepv : be sleepy, avoir sommeil (XIII. 6). slow, lent. slowly, lentement. small, petit. smoke, fumer. snatch, arracher (from, à : § 161c). snow, neiger. so adv. si, ainsi, le (XXIII. 3c ; § 81a) ; so much or many, tant de ; so long as, tant que ; so far as, tant que, que (§ 131a) ; so- and-so, tel, un tel (§ 110a) ; or so, see % 67 ; so that (in such a way that), de or en sorte que. so co?ij. ainsi. soap, savon m. society, société/. soft, doux (VII. 8), mol (VII. 7). softly, doucement, bas (XXXI. 9). 430 ENGLISH-FRENCH soldier, soldat m. solely, seulement. solve, résoudre (irr. 36). some, de with art. (IV.; § 35), en (XXIII. 7), quelque (XIV. 6c ; § 107), quelques uns (XXVII. 5), tel (§ 110a) ; some time, quelque temps ; some one, somebody, quelqu'un (XXVII. 5) ; some men are, il y a des gens qui sont (5 n ). something, quelque chose (XXVII. 5 ; § 107a); something to . . . with, de quoi. sometimes, quelquefois. somewhere, quelque part (§ 28a). son, *fils (68c, 74a") m. soon, tôt, bientôt ; as soon as, aussitôt que, dès que. sooner, plus tôt, (rather) plutôt. sorrow, peine/., douleur/. sorry, fâché. soup, soupe/. south, *sud (60a) m. South America, Amérique du Sud/. sovereign adj. souverain. Spain, Espagne/ Spanish, Espagnol, d'Espagne. speak, parler (with, à). spite : in spite of, malgré. sponge, éponge/ spoon, *cuiller (736)/ stand : stand still, s'arrêter. start, partir (irr. 38). station, gare/ stay, rester. steamboat, bateau à vapeur m., vapeur m. (§ 15a). stew n. ragoût m. still adv. encore; still more, davan- tage ; conj. pourtant. stir v. bouger (§ 166a). St. Martin's day, la Saint-Martin (§ 42/). stocking, bas m. stop, s'arrêter. store, > niagasin m. story, récit m., conte m., histoire/. straight, droit. street, rue/ stretch, étendre. Strike, frapper, strong, fort. studio, atelier m. study v. étudier. stupid, sot. style, manière / , mode /. ; in the style of, à la (§ 42#). succeed, réussir. successful, heureux. successor, successeur m. such, tel (S 110) ; such a, un tel ; such-and-such, tel. suddenly, soudain, soudainement, tout à coup. suffer, souffrir (irr. 54). suffice, be sufficient, suffire (irr. 6). sugar, sucre m. Sunday, dimanche m. suppose, supposer, croire. sure, sûr. surprise, surprendre (irr. 30) ; sur- prised, surpris (at, de). surround, entourer. suspect, se douter de. Sweden, Suède/ sweet, doux (VII. 8). sweetly, doucement. sweetmeat, confiture/ swim, nager. Switzerland, Suisse/. table, table/ table-cloth, nappe/ tailor, tailleur m. take, prendre (irr. 30), (conduct) mener ; take back (along with one), ramener ; take off or away, ôter (from, à : § 161c) ; take place, avoir lieu ; take a walk, se promener ; take care, avoir soin. tale, conte m., récit m. talent, talent m. talk, parler. tall, grand. task, tâche/ taste, goût m. tea, thé m. teach, enseigner. teacher, maître m. tear n. larme/ tedious, ennuyeux, ennuyant. VOCABULARY. 431 tell, dire (irr. p. 155), raconter (14 19 ) ; tell a lie, mentir {irr. 41). ten, *dix (81Ô). tenth, ^dixième (81c). Thames, Tamise/. than, que (IX. 4), de (XV. 9 ; § 204c). thank v. remercier (for, de). that pron. ce, ce ... là (XIII. 2, 3), celui, celui-là, cela (XXIV.) ; {relat.) qui, que, lequel (XXVI.) ; all that, tout ce que ; that which, ce qui or que (XXVI. 10a). that conj. que, pour que, afin que. thaw, dégeler. theatre, théâtre m. thee, te, toi. their, leur (XIV.). theirs, leur (XXVII. 1, 2). them, les, leur (XXII. 5), eux, elles (XXIII.). theme, thème m. then adv. alors ; conj. donc, alors, puis. there, là, -là (XIII. 3, XXIV. la), y (XXIII. 8) ; there (demonstr.) is or are, voilà (§ 201) ; there is etc., il y a etc. (XXX. 4). they, ils m., elles /., {indef.) on (XXVII. 4). thief, voleur m. thine, tien (XXVII. 1, 2). thing, chose /. ; other things, autre chose. think, penser, songer ; think of (turn one's thoughts to), penser à ; think about (have an opinion of), penser de ; (he of opinion) croire {irr. 26) ; (think to be, re- gard as) croire, censer (17 n ). thinker, penseur m. third, troisième, (third part) tiers (§ 66). thirst, soif/. ; be thirsty, avoir soif (XIII. 6). thirteen, treize. thirty, trente. this, ce, ce . . . -ci (XIII. 2, 3), celui, celui-ci, ceci (XXIV.) ; this or that is, voilà (§ 201). thou, tu. though, same as although. thousand, *mille (68/), *mil (68c?j. three, trois. through, par, à travers. throw, jeter (XXI. 3c). thunder v. tonner. Thursday, jeudi m. thus, ainsi, de la sorte. thy, ton (XIV. 1, 2). till conj. jusqu'à ce que, que. time, (period) temps m., (succes- sive) fois /. (XVII. 7; § 69»), (of day) heure /. ; in good time, de bonne heure ; at the time of, lors de ; at the same time, en même temps ; have time, avoir le temps. tire, fatiguer ; be tired, se fatiguer. tiresome, fatigant, ennuyeux. title, titre m. to, à (III. 4-6), en, dans ; de (§ Qld) ; with inf. , à, de, pour. to-day, aujourd'hui. together, ensemble. tomorrow, demain ; day after to- morrow, après-demain. too, trop ; too much or many, trop de, trop beaucoup de ; too little or few, trop peu de. tooth, dent/. touch, toucher. toward, vers, envers ; toward even- ing, vers le soir ; (about, some- where near) vers 6»?- sur les (§ 70b). town, *ville (68/). tragedy, tragédie/ translate, traduire {irr. 1). travel, voyager. treat, traiter (as, de : § 162g). tree, arbre m. tremble, trembler. trial, épreuve/ triumph, triompher (over, de). triumphant, triomphant. trouble, (vexation) ennui m., (ef- fort) peine/ true, vrai. truly, vraiment, véritablement. trunk, malle/ trust v. se fier à. truth, vérité/ try, essayer ; try in vain, avoir beau (§ 176/). 432 ENGLISH-FKEtfCH Tuesday, mardi m. ; Tuesdays, le mardi, tureen, soupière/, twelve, douze; twelve o'clock, midi or minuit (XVII. 46) m. twentieth, vingtième, twenty, vingt (76a). twice, deux fois, *bis (74(7) (§ 69a). two, deux. ugly, laid, vilain. uncle, oncle m. under, sous. understand, comprendre (irr. 30). undertake, entreprendre (irr. 30). unformed, informe. unhappiness, malheur m. unhappy, malheureux. united, uni ; United Provinces, Provinces-Unies ; United States, États-Unis, unless, à moins que . . . ne (§ 1376, 170(7), sans que, hors que (§ 1376). until conj. jusqu'à ce que (§ 137a), en attendant que (§ 137a). unworthy, indigne, upon, sur. up-stairs, en haut, us, nous, use v. user de (§ 162/), se servir (irr. 44) de ; used to, impf. (§ 119a). use n. : make use of, se servir (irr. 44) de. usually, ordinairement. vacillate, *vaciller (68/). vain, vain. value : have the vaine of, valoir (irr. 73). vase, vase m. vegetable n. légume m. velvet, velours m. Venice, Venise /. very adv. très, bien, fort ; very much, beaucoup, very adj. même (§ 114a). Vesuvius, Vésuve m. vie, le disputer (§ 826). Vienna, Vienne /. village, *village (68/) m. violet, violette/. virtue, vertu/. visit v. visiter, aller voir (§ 318e). voice, voix /. ; with louder voice, d'un ton plus haut, volume, volume m., tome m. wait, attendre ; wait for, attendre, wake, (trans.) éveiller, (intr.) s'éveiller, walk, marcher, se promener ; take a walk, se promener ; go to walk, aller se promener, want, (desire) vouloir (irr. p. 114), (lack, he in need of) falloir (irr. p. 141 ; XXX. 8). war, guerre/, warm adj. chaud : feel or be warm, avoir chaud (XIII. 6) ; be warm weather, faire chaud (XXXII. 9a). watch n. (timekeeper) montre/, water, eau /. we, nous, weak, faible, weakness, faiblesse/, wealth, fortune/, weary v. fatiguer, weather, temps m. Wednesday, mercredi in. week, semaine/, weep, weep for, pleurer, well, bien (XXXI. 8) ; wish well, vouloir du bien ; be as well, valoir autant, well-behaved, sage, well-satisfied, content (with, de), west, *ouest (76a). what adj. quel (XIII. 4) ; mbst. qui, que, quoi (XXV.), ce qui or que (XXVI. 10a). whatever, quoi que, quel que (§ 104), quelque . . . que (§ 107c), quelconque (§ 108). when adv. quand, (in or at which) où ; conj. quand, lorsque, dès que, que. whence, d'où, dont (XXVI. 76). where, où (XXVI. 8). whereas, tandis que. wherever, où que (§ 127c), en quelque endroit que. wherewith, de quoi (XXVI. 6a). VOCABULARY. 433 whether, si (XXXIV. lb), que (15 19 ) ; whether . . . or, soit . . . soit, soit que . . . soit que (§ 137*), que ... ou que (13' 23 ). which adj. quel (XIII. 4), subst. lequel (XXV. 5), (relat.) qui, que, lequel (XXVI.) ; of which, dont (XXVI. 7) ; to or at which, ou. while conj. pendant que, tandis que. white, blanc (VII. 6b). who, whom, qui (XXV.), (relat.) qui, que, lequel (XXVI. ; § 103). whoever, qui que, quel que (| 104), qui (§ 103a), quiconque (XXVI. 9). whomsoever, qui que ce soit (£ 104a, 167c). whole, tout entier, tout. whose, de qui, duquel, dont, (to whom belonging) à qui. why, pourquoi, que (XXV. 4d). wicked, mauvais. wife, *femme (26a) f. will, be willing v. vouloir {irr. p. 114 ; XXIV. 6c). will 7i. volonté/. William, Guillaume m. window, fenêtre/. win, gagner. wind n. vent m. wine, vin m. winter, *hiver (tZb) m. wisdom, sagesse /. wise, sage. wish v. vouloir {irr. p. 114), dé- sirer ; (wish good-day etc.) sou- haiter. wit, esprit m. with, avec (§ 208), (by) par, à (§ 36), de (§ 162c), (at the house of) chez. withdraw, se retirer. within adv. dedans ; prep, en (S 207c). 38 without prep, sans (§ 210), à moins de (with inf.) ; go or do without, se passer de ; conj. (XXXIV. bb ; § 137*, 138c), sans que, hors que, que ... ne. without adv. dehors. woman, '"femme (26a) f, wood, bois m. wooden, de bois (V. 16). wool, laine/. word, paroie /., mot (§ 167c) m. ; keep one's word, tenir parole. work n. (labor) travail m., (pro- duction) m. ouvrage. work v. travailler. workman, ouvrier m. workwoman, ouvrière /. world, monde m. worse adj. pire (IX. 3) ; adv. pis (XXXI. 8). worst, le pire (IX. 3)'; adv. le pis (XXXI. 8). worth : be worth, valoir (irr. 73). worthy, digne. would to God, plût à Dieu (§ 131*), Dieu veuille. wound v. blesser. write, écrire (irr. 12). wrong n . tort ; be wrong or in the wrong, avoir tort (XIII. 6). yard n. (measure) mètre m. year, an m., année/. yes, oui (§ 200), si (§ 200V). yesterday, *hier (73a) ; day before yesterday, avant-hier. yet adv. encore ; conj. pourtant, toutefois. yonder adv. là-bas. you, vous (I. 9ô, VII. lb). young, jeune ; young lady, ma- demoiselle (XIV. 4). your, votre (XIV.). yours, vôtre (XXVII. 1, 2). GENERAL INDEX. The references are to pages ; but the numbers of subdivisions occurring on the page are added in parentheses where called for, in order to the ready finding of a reference. All French and English words are to be looked for in the Vocabularies, and not in the Index. a, pronun'n of, 4-5 ; when silent, 5 (14) ; when elided, 5 (15) ; its accent-marks, 5 (16). absolute construction, 216, 337. abstract nouns, inclusive article with, 37 (5b), 224 (40a). accent of a word, 4 ; relation of Latin and French accent, 204 (2a). accent-marks or written accents, 2-3 : — and see acute, circumflex, grave, and the different vowels. accusative, Latin, represented usu- ally by form of French word, 206 (46). accusative, Latin constructions of, represented in French, 215-6 ; a ecus, with infinitive, construc- tions resembling, 317 (d). acute accent, 3-4 : — and see the different voicels. address, vous chiefly used in, 28 (9b) ; titles used, 73. adjectives, gender, 46-9, 233; num- ber, 50-1, 233-4 ; agreement, 46- 7, 234-5, 292-3 ; place, when at- tributive, 51-2,236-7; difference of meaning, depending on dif- ference of place, 52 (5c), 236 ; comparison, 54-5, 234 ; adverbs from, 143-5 ; adj. used as ad- verbs, 145 (9), 234-5, 260 (116c); as nouns, 235-6 ; with de and à before modifying noun, 239-40; before dependent infinitive, 327- 8 ; adj. from present participles, 332-3 (189), 21 (69a). modes of the verb, their uses, 272- 86 ; indicative, 272 ; subjunc- tive, 272-83 ; imperative, 283-4. month, day of, how expressed, 80 (3a) ; names of months, 82. mountain, article used with the name of a, 45 {be), 226 (42a). mute e, 5-6 ; after another vowel, 8 (28a), 10 (35), 12 (45), 357-8. mute h, 18-9. mute syllables, restricted occur- rence of, 6-7 ; their value in verse, 354-8. n, pron'n of, 21 ; makes preceding vowel nasal, 12-5 : — see nasal vowels. nasal vow r els, pron'n of, 12-5 ; an, am, em, en, 13 ; on, om, 13 ; im, in, ym, yn, aim, ain, ein, 13-4 ; oin, 14 (50<2) ; urn, un, eun, 14 ; exceptional cases, 14-5 ; carry- ing-on of their n when final, 26 (86c). negative conjugation, 65-7, 305- 11 ; expletive negation in de- pendent clauses, 310-1. nominative forms, Latin, retained in French, 206 (4c). nouns, gender, 27, 209-13 ; num- ber, 30-1, 213-5 ; case, absence of, 33, 215 ; case-relations as ex- pressed by de and à, 33, 34, 215- 22 ; absolute and adverbial constructions, 215-6 ; partitive noun, 36-7, 220 ; inclusive sense of noun, 37, 224 ; infinitive de- pending on noun, 328-9. noun - clauses, see substantive clauses. number, relation of Latin and French, 206(40"); number- forms, see plural. numerals, 76-84, 241-3; cardinals, 76-7, 241-2; ordinals, 79-80, 242 ; cardinals for English or- dinals, 79-80 ; fractional, 80, 242 ; collectives, 242 ; multi- \ plicatives, 242 ; numeral ad- ' verbs, 242-3 ; de for ' than ' after a numeral, 342 (204c). 0, pron'n of, 9 ; accent, 9 (315). object of verb, 294-8 ; direct and indirect, 295 ; both with same 440 GENERAL INDEX. verb, 295-6 ; two direct objects forbidden with verb or verb- phrase, 296 ; adverbial object, 296. object - pronouns, 103-5; place, 104-5 ; other details of use, 244- 8. objective predicate, 293 (154). oe, diphthong, before il, 11 (41c). ceu, pron'n of, 11 (41a). oi, diphthong, pron'n of, 12 ; oi written for ai, 12 (44//). oin, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 14 (50d). Old French, character of, 204 ; declension in, 206. om, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13 (49). on, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13(49) ; exception, 15 (546). open and close e, 7. optative phrases, inversion in, 351. optative use of subjunctive, 272 (1316). ordinal numerals : — see numerals, ou, diphthong, pron'n of, 12 ; with following vowel, 12 (42a), 358 (239). p, pron'n of, 21. participles, 57-8, 332-40 ; present participle, 332-4 ; past partici- ple, 334-40 ; in absolute con- struction, 337. partitive sense of a noun, 36, 220 ; expressed by de, with or with- out article, 36-7, 220; use or omission of article, 37 (3), 57, 67, 223-4 ; of de, 37 (4), 67 (7a), 220 (c) ; en as partitive pronoun, 110. passive conjugation, 131-2 ; loss of Latin passive, 207 (a) ; Eng- lish passive otherwise expressed in French, 127 (4c), 132 (4) ; ex- pression of ' by ' after passive, 132 (3), 304 (209). past anterior tense, 58 (6) ; its use, 266. past definite tense, so-called, 38 (7c) : — see preterit. past indefinite tense, so-called, 58 (6a) -.—see perfect. past or passive participle, 57-8. 334-40 ; compound tenses and passive made with, 58, 86, 131 ; form of participle in such com- binations, 58 (5b), 122 (2b), 131 (lb), 133 (8), 135 (4), 334-40 ; re- dundant auxiliary pple, 268. past time, use of present for, 264 (1186) ; for past time continuing to present, 264 (118a*). perfect tense, 58 (6) ; its use, 58 (6a), 265-6; English perfect represented by French present, 284 (118a*). personal endings of verb, Latin and French, compared, 207 (c). personal pronouns, 102-10, 244- 51 ; conjunctive and disjunctive, 102; subject, 102-3; object, 103-5 ; reflexive, 108, 247 ; en and y, 109-10, 247-8 ; further details of use, 244-8. ph, digraph, pron'n of, 19 (64#) ; how treated in syllabication, 2 (4c). place where expressed by simple noun, 215 (28a). pluperfect tense, indicative 58 (6) ; its use, 266 ; English plupf. represented by French imper- fect, 265 (e). pluperfect tense, subjunctive, use of, 34 (16), 273 (d). plural of nouns, how formed, 30- 1, 213-5 ; of adjectives, 46, 50-1. poetry, irregular arrangement in, 353 ; rules of metrical construc- tion of, 254-8. possessives, adjective, 72-3 ; sub- stantive, 126-7 ; rules for use, 73 (3, 5), 251 ; replaced by article or personal pronoun, 73 (5a), 281. possessive case, see genitive. predicate noun or adjective, 292- 3 ; prepositional phrase, 293 (153) ; infinitive, 314 ; objective predicate, 293 (154) ; form of personal pronoun in pred., 108 (3d, e); of interrogative, 118 (4a); of relative, 122 (2a); omission of article with pred. noun, 230 (6). GENEKAL INDEX. Ul prepositions, 341-4; commonest, 33-4, 43 ; others, and preposi- tion-phrases, 153-4; prep, fol- lowed by infinitive, 154, 330-1. prepositional phrases with à and de, as adjuncts of noun, 217-8 ; of adjective, 239-40 ; of verb, 298-305. present participle, 57 ; apparent use with en, or gerund, 57 (3c,«£), 333 ; constructions, 332-3, 337 ; certain tenses made from, 86 (4) ; also plural persons of present, 86 (4a), 114 (5c). present tense, indicative, uses. 264 ; in past sense, 264 (1186) ; in future, 264 (118c) ; for Eng- lish perfect, 264 (118rf) ; its plu- ral forms found from present participle, 86 (4a), 114 (5c) ; im- perative found from it, 86 (6). present tense, subjunctive, 52 ; use of its persons as imperative, 52- 3, 272-3 (1316), 284 (141). preterit tense, 38 ; distinction from Œ imperfect, 264-5 ; imperfect subjunctive found from it, 86(7). principal parts of the verb, 85 ; formation of the other parts from them, 85-6. pronouns and pronominal adjec- tives, 69-74, 102-128, 244-63; personal, 102-10, 244-51; re- flexive, 108, 135, 247; possessive, 72-3, 126-7, 251-3 ; demonstra- tive, 69, 111-3, 253-4 ; interrog- ative, 70, 117-9, 254-5; rela- tive, 70 (56), 121-4, 255-7 ; in- definite, 74, 127-8, 258-63:— and see the different classes. pronunciation, 4-26 ; of vowels, 4-10 ; of diphthongs, 11-2 ; of nasal vowels, 12-5 ; of conso- nants, 15-26 : — and see the differ- ent letters. proper names, use of article with, 43-5, 225-6 ; prepositions used with, 44, 342 (2056), 343 (2076) ; plural of, 213-4 ; adjective with, 236 (c) capitals for, 1. q, pron'n of, 21. quantity of French vowels, 4 (12). r, pron'n of, 21-2 ; final, 22 ; double, 22 (73tf). reciprocal use of reflexive forms, 138. reflexive pronoun, 108 (4), 135 (2), 247. reflexive conjugation, 135-8 ; form of participle in compound tenses, 335. regular conjugations of verbs, 85- 97. relative pronouns and pronominal adjective, 70 (56), 121-4, 255-7 ; adverbs, 123, 149 (6a), 158 (2) ; compound relatives, 255 (103) ; relative not omitted, 124 (11). repetition, of article, 28 (7) ; of prepositions de and à, 34 (5) ; of en, 344 (213a) ; of de with alter- natives, 218 (134c) ; of subject or object of a verb by a pronoun, 246 (82a), 288-9 ; of compound subject by a pronoun, 288 (146a). responsive particles, 149 (6c), 341. rhyme, rules of, in French verse, 355-7 ; masculine and feminine rhyme, 355-6. s, pron'n of, 22-3 ; when as s, 22 ; final s, 22-3 ; ss, sc, sch, 22 ; linked or carried on, 26 (856). s, lost, replaced by circumflex on vowel, 3 (6c). s added to 2d sing. impv. before en and y, 88 (10a), 129 (9a) ; s final of 1st sing, omitted in verse, 356-7 (2366). sc, pron'n of, 23 (756). sch, pron'n of, 23 (75c). second regular conjugation of verbs, 85, 90-2. sentence, arrangement of, 350-4. silent e, h, syllables, see mute. soft sound of c, 16 ; of g, 17. ss, pron'n of, 23 (75a). strong forms of irregular verbs, 115 (d). subject, agreement of verb with, 286-92 : after ce, 286-7 ; with collective and compound subj., 287-8 ; subi, repeated by a pro- noun, 278-9 ; omitted, 289. 442 GENERAL INDEX. subject, infinitive as, 313-4. subject-pronoun, its place, 102-3 ; repeated, 244(73) ; for emphasis, 244-5 ; when of disjunctive form, 245 (74a, 76). subjunctive tenses, 52, 55 ; rule of sequence for, 282 ; uses of, 272- 83 ; in independent clauses, 272- 3 ; in dependent clauses, 274-82 ; in substantive subject clauses, 274-5 ; object, 275-6 ; in ad- jective clauses, 278-9 ; in ad- verbial clauses, 280-1 ; tempo- ral, 280 ; concessive and hypo- thetical, 280-1 ; final and con- secutive, 281 ; special cases, 281 (138) ; imperative use of subj. forms, 52-3, 284 ; subj. present found from present participle, 86 (4) ; imperfect, from preterit, 86 (7). subordinating conjunctions, 345- 7. subordinate clauses, see dependent. substantive clauses, 345-6 ; sub- junctive used in, 274-6 ; clauses properly subst. treated as ad- verbial, 280 (136a). superlative, made from compara tive, 54-5, 145. syllables, division of words into, 2. t, pron'n of, 23-4 ; final, 23-4 ; ti of endings before a vowel, 24 ; th, 76 (28). t, added to a 3d sing, before fol- lowing pronoun, 29 (10c), 89 (9ô), 207 (c). tenses, uses of the, 264-72 ; of sub- junctive tenses, 282 ; Latin and French tenses compared, 207 (6) : — and see the various tenses. th, pron'n of . 24 (78); treatment in syllabication, 2 (4c). third regular conjugation of verbs, 85 ; as sometimes reckoned, 85 (la), 190. time when, as expressed by simple noun, 215 (286). time of day, expression of, 64 (a), 83. transitive and intransitive verbs, 295 ; verbs trans, in French and intr. in English, and the contra- ry, 295 (157a), 299, 302. u, pron'n of, 9-10 ; after q and g, 9 (33) ; accent, 10 (34) ; written after g to denote its hard sound, 18 (62/) ; u and a following vowel, 10 (35), 358. ue after c or g, before il, 11-2 (41a'). urn final in Latin words, 10 (33c), 14 (516). urn and un, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 14 (51). v, pron'n of, 24. verbs, conjugation of, see conjuga- tion ; auxiliaries, see auxiliaries ; passive verbs, 131-2 ; reflexive, 135-8 ; impersonal, 139-42 ; uses of the tenses, 264-72 ; of the modes, 272-86 ; adjuncts of the verb : subject, 286-92 ; predi- cate noun and adjective, 292-4 ; object, 294-6 ; prepositional phrase, 298-305 ; adverbs, nega- tion, 305-13 ; infinitive, 313-32 ; participles and gerund, 332-9 : — and see the various tenses, modes, etc. versification, rules of, in French, 354-8. vowels, pron'n of, 4-15 ; simple vowels, 4-10 ; diphthongs, 11-2 ; nasal vowels, 12-5 ; relation of Latin and French vowels, 204-5: — and see the different letters. w, pron'n of, 24 (80). weather, phrases describing, 141 (5), 150 (9a) ; impersonal verb3 of, 140. week, names of its days, 82. x, pron'n of, 24-5 ; when linked, 26 (85J). y, pron'n of, as vowel, 10 ; be- tween vowels, 10 ; as consonant, 25 ; interchange of i and y, 10 (37flj, 100 (6). ym and yn, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13 (506). z, pron'n of, 25. f A.