^v v\^ ^/- A Z ' ri- ^ a >J o -i o 0^^^. o 0^ '7'. / :■• O ^ "> X\ ' '^ ' ^ ,■0- A >^^ X;*:^i2^^.o \ oo .-.s z %c,^ \' N 0^ '^^ V \ o 0^ 0> 'V' :' ^ - \^^^ ■% .^ .^^. vV- s *> ' ' ' "O -v ■•?*v ■\- 0'' •>>. ^\ :^ -n^ V .0 0^ * , ■-^v % <^^' '^/, * .0 H ^ \\^^ cT' aV */ ^....^^7>. "^ o " --I < ■x^- \^^-<. * N ^ A^^ , , „ '"» a A ,x\' *-;• S: ■r^ V a- it - , \ f//^. ^ o 0^ ''/ c ^^ -^ # ^ . \ * o V^ ^ ^ * ^ > 0- ■<-^ „0 r \' ^J> -A .-n\ ^^ '^' x) '-• / "^^ ^^ * ■. X o ^ s^ ^V'/. ^^ " v^ ^^ "" \^ , ^ .^ '^■^V ■«^ L^ THE AMERICAN MUCK BOOK ; TREATING OF THE NATURE, PROPERTIES, SOURCES, HISTORY, AND OPERATIONS OF ALL THE PRINCIPAL FERTILISERS AND MANURES IN COMMON USE, WITH SPECIFIC DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR PREPARATION, PRESERVATION, AND AP- PLICATION TO THE SOIL AND TO CROPS ; AS COMBINED WITH THE E,EAI])ING PES-INCIPIiES OF PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE; DRAWN FROM AUTHENTIC SOURCES, ACTUAL EXPERIENCE, AND PERSONAL OBSERVATION. Illustrated "with Engravings. BY D: jJbROWNE, AUTHOR OF THE SYLVA AMERICANA, A TREATISE ON FOREST TREES, THE AMERICAN POULTY YARD, ETC., ETC. " Muck is the mother of the meal chest." Old Scottish Saying. 5feu) gork: 0. M. SAXTON, AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER M.DCCC.LII. COMMENDATORY LETTER. Boston, J\rov. 6fA, 1851. Dear Sir : I have the pleasure of acknowledging the receipt of a copy of the *' American Muck Book," recently published by you, and edited by Mr. D. J. Browne. From an attentive examination of the pages of this book, I have come to the con- clusion that it Is one of the best works extant, on the principles of scientific agricul- ture, and the best compendium of our most recent knowledge of the nature of ma- nures and their adaptation to paiticular soils and crops. It cannot be expected that a single volume could possibly contain the whole sum of chemical knowledge, appli- cable to the science of agriculture ; but on looking over the closely-printed and com- pact tables of analyses, and the abundant formulas, which this publication contain* I could not fail to be surprised at the industry manifested in preparing it. I waa also gratified to find it so well adapted to the American system of husbandry, and so ' practical in its chai'acter. Its copious and acciu'ate index adds not a little to its value. I shall certainly recommend it to my agricultu'-al friends ae a very useful book, and one necessaiy to every scientific farmer. I am Respectfully your ob't. serv't. CII.UILES T. JACKSO!f, State Assayer, &c. To C. M. Sax TON, Esq., N. Y. Entered according to Act of Ctongress, in the yem* 1351, by R. L. ALLEN, In the Clerk'a Office of the District C!ourt of the United States fur the Southern District of New York. . o So Ujs w ^ JS 2 s ■:st o o ^s •«S ^s ^E caca B50 Pica Potash, Soda, Chlorine, Chloride of sodium,. . Sulphuric acid, Carbonic acid, Lime, Magnesia, . Phosphate of oxide of iron, Phosphate of lime, . . . Phosphate of magnesia,. . . Organic matter, Silica, Insoluble silica, Soluble silica, Coal, Moistm-e, 19.23 4.56 15.85 20.19 7.34 4.93 8.46 1.41 7.64 0.74 0.09 0.09 12.93 14.39 0.10 0.10 0.12 3.03 0.50 0.12 4,04 2.61 19.251 7.81 23.84 29.51 21.40 24.06 6.75 10.11 40.76 20.08 27.70 31.14 21.67 2.48 5 77 4.72 8.60 8.00 2.24 2.72 1.30 1.82 ) 1.40 1.61 16.66 17.44 (14.53 S- 11.45 16.40 12.70 9.89 s 0.60 2.44 1.71 1.74 1.45 3.20 3.60 1.43 2.00 6.15 5.28 0.01 1.60 5.80 1.24 0.91 1.70 * 3.40 88.72 99.66 98.46 100.33 109.68 100.60! 12.13 1.5.58 0.05 0.47 24.39 31.56 5.44 0.85 17.23 0.93 1.86 1,45 Ashes of Wood— These always consist of a mixture in varia- ble proportions of carbonates, silicates, sulphates, and phos- phates of potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, with certain other substances present in smaller quantity, yet more or less neces- sary, it may be presumed, to vegetable growth. Thus, accord- ing 'tO Professor Emmons, the ash of the outside wood of the forest trees above named consisted of the ingredients as indi- cated in the table. MINENAL MANURES. 49 Wood ashes render clayey soils mellow and give consistency to those that are light; they rather suit moist than dry soils, but it is necessary that the former should be well drained. The dose should increase with the humidity of the soil. They require to be spread, when dry, in weather that is not rainy, and upon land that is not wet. They are used with ad- vantage to almost every class of crops, but especially as a. dressing for grass, grain, millet, and Indian corn; but they are the most perceptible upon leguminous plants, such as lucern, clover, peas, beans, &.c. As a top-dressing to grass lands, they root out the moss and promote the growth of white clover. Upon red clover, their effects will be more certain if previ- ously mixed with one fourth of their weight of gypsum. In small doses of 4 to 6 bushels to an acre, they may be applied even to poor and thin soils, but in large and repeated doses, their effects will be too exhausting, unless the soil be either naturally rich in vegetable matter, or mixed from year to year, with a sufficient quantity of animal or vegetable manure. In so far as the immediate benefit of wood ashes is dependent upon the .soluble saline matter they contain, their effect may be imitated by a mixture of crude potash with carbonate and sulphate of soda, and a little common salt. If the ash con- tain only about r5th of its weight of soluble matter, the fol- lowing quantity of such a mixture would be nearly equal in efficacy to the saline matter of a ion of wood ashes : — Crude carbonate of potash, 60 lbs. Crystallised carbonate of soda, 60 " Sulphate of soda, 20 " Common salt, 20 " 160 The composhion of the different kinds of ash is very dis- similar ; that of the hemlock spruce, (Abies canadensis,) for in- stance, contains more potash and phosphate of magnesia than that of the black birch (Beiula lenla) ; while the sugar maple, {Acer saccharimun,) is richer in carbonic acid and lime. The 60 FOSSIL, SALINE AND several effects of different kinds of wood ash, when applied to land, will therefore, vary. The different parts of the same tree also vary in their composition, as will be seen in the following analysis of t^e American white oak (Quercus alba,) made by the same authority last referred to : — Potash, Soda, Sodium, Chlorine, Sulphuric acid, Pliosphate of peroxide of iron, Phosphate of lime, Phosphate of magnesia, Carbonic acid, Lime, Magnesia, Silica,. .' Soluble silica, Organic matter, a c m fco T3 O 3 ■«S ftO S? ■=> oH S^ S^ ►J- r* ^=o ca o W o 13.41 9.68 9.74 0.25 1.27 0.5'i 5.03 6.89 2.57 4.05 2.78 0.39 0.16 0.08 0.08 4.24 0.47 0.25 0.12 0.13 0.12 0.26 0.08 0.03 trace. 1 32.25 8.95 '"■ 0.60 13.30 23.60 10.10 14.15 19.29 17.55 29.80 30.33 30.85 43.21 34.10 54.89 47,72 0.36 0.25 0.50 0.20 0.20 0.21 0.88 0.55 0.25 0.65 0.80 0.30 0.60 0.25 0.65 5.70 7.10 100.06 5.90 1.16 99.99 100.05 1.52 100.18 100.00 I It has been confirmed by experience, that, as wood ashes at- tract acids with greater violence and sooner lose their virtue, their operation will be more violent and sooner over. Hence, the first crop after the land is manured with ashes is commonly very luxuriant, and the second one after exhausts almost the whole of their active properties. Therefore, they should be applied in moderate quantities, say 15 to 20 bushels to an acre, as a dressing for an annual crop of grain, barley, Indian corn, &c., and as they operate in a similar manner as lime, they should not be applied to land that has been exhausted by lime nor marl ; neither should they be applied to the same land, year after year, nor should they immediately follow lime or marl. On clayey soils, ashes generally produce more rapid effects than on the lighter kinds. The action of all ashes, then, is twofold, partly due to the soluble portions, and partly to the insoluble. The chloride of sodium, or common salt, the car^ MINERAL MANURES. 61 bonate and sulphate of potash, are soluble, and produce im- mediate effects on the crop ; but the phosphates and silicates, as well as carbonate of lime, require considerable time to dis- solve. Hence, it has been observed that sonie 'ands are per- manently improved by ashes, and some crops immediately benefitted, as the leguminous plants. In those soils which already "^ntain much alkali, as the detritus of primitive and transition countries, sea shores, lands near salt springs, &c., the soluble parts of ashes will be of little moment ; and the leached remains may be altogether superior ; for few soils contain so much phosphoric acid as not to be improved by an addition as manure. Ashes of Wood, Lixiviated, Leached, or Washed.— Where wood ashes are washed for the manufacture of the pot and pearl ashes of commerce, this insoluble portion collects in large quantities. It is also present in the refuse of the soapmakers, where wood ashes are employed for the manufacture of soft soap. The com- position of this insoluble matter varies very much, not only with the kind of wood from which the ash is made, but also with the temperature it is allowed to attain in burning. The former fact is illustrated by the following analysis, made by Berthier, of the insoluble matter left by the ash of five differ- ent species of wood carefully burned by himself: — Silica, 3-8 Lime, I 54.8 Magnesia, \ 0.6 Oxide of iron, ! Oxide of manganese,' Phosphoric acid, i 0.8 Carbonic acid, j 39.6 Carbon, 2.0 51.8 2.2 O.T 0.6 2.8 30.8 ca 5.5 52.2 3.0 0.5 3.5 4.3 31.0 O^Ph 13.0 27.2 8.7 22.3 5.5 1.8 21.5 m 4.6 42.3 10.5 0.1 0.4 1.0 36.0 4.8 w 5.8 42.6 7.0 1.5 4.5 5.7 32.9 The numbers in these several columns differ very much from each other ; but the constitution of the insoluble part of the 62 FOSSIL, SALINE AND ash he obtained, probably differed in every case from that which would have been left by the ash of the same wood burned on the large scale, and in the open air. This is to be ifaferred from the total absence of potash and soda in the leached ashes, while it is well known that common lixiviated wood ash contains a notable quantity of both. This arises from the high temperature at which wood is commonly burned, causing a greater or less portion of the potash and soda to combine with the silica, and form insoluble silicates, which remain behind along with the lime and other earthy matter when the ash is washed with water. It is to these silicates, as well as to the large quantity of lime, magnesia, and phosphoric acid it contains, that common wood ash owes the more perma- nent effects upon the land, which it is known to have produced. When the rains have washed out, or the crops carried off, the more soluble part of the soil, these insoluble compounds still remain to exercise a more slow and enduring influence upon the after-produce. Still, from the absence of much or all this soluble portion, the action of leached ashes is not so apparent and energetic, and they may therefore be applied to the land in much larger quantity, say, at the rate of 50 to 80 bushels to the acre. Ap- plied in this quantity, their effects have been observed to con- tinue for fifteen years. Leached wood ashes are regarded as the most beneficial to clayey soils, and it is stated that they es- pecially promote the growth of oats. On Long Island, how- ever, where the soil is light and sandy, they are employed in the cultivation of Indian corn, spread around each hill at the first hoeing, at the rate of 56 bushels to the acre, where about 14 cubic yards of horse dung has been applied in the hill at the time of planting, and where one mossbunker, (a fish,) is buried midway between each hill, in June or July. By this course of manuring, an acre will yield from 60 to 80 bushels of shelled corn, and the next season will be in tolerable condi- tion for a crop of rye, buckwheat, or oats, without other manure. MINERAL MANURES. 63 Ashes of Wood from Soapers Wa.s/e.— Formerly, in this coun- try, all waste of soapboilers consisted of lixiviated wood ashes and lime, the latter either caustic or combined with carbonic acid. Therefore, they formed a superior manure, as they im- proved vegetation by the phosphate of lime, magnesia, and gypsum, as well as by the lime with which they were mixed. Since, however, many soapmakers have used soda, barilla, or common salt, instead of wood ashes, and the waste contains a large proportion of caustic lime or its carbonate, which have not so much value as mere burnt lime. It is the opinion of many, that the ashes of soapboilers es- pecially act by the potash they contain ; but this is an error ; for, in subjecting them to chemical analysis, they were found by Sprengel to consist of the following ingredients in 100,000 parts : — Silica, 35,000 liirae, mostly in a caustic state, 35,010 Manganese, 2,330 Alumina? ^'^^ Oxide of iron, 1''^^ Oxide of manganese, 1,840 Potash, combined with silica into a silicate, 500 Soda, do. do. do. do 180 Sulphuric acid, combined with lime into gypsum, 190 Phosphoric acid, combined with lime, 3,500 Common salt, ^" Carbonic ucid, combined with lime and magnesia,. . .18,160 100,000 Of soapboiler's ashes, in a dry state, from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs., (40 to 60 bushels,) may ordinarily be used on an acre of land. From 3,000 lbs., the soil would obtain about 920 lbs. of lime ; 70 lbs. of magnesia ; 15 lbs. of potash ; 5 lbs. of soda ; 12 lbs. of gypsum; 230 Ib.s. of phosphate of lime ; and 3 lbs. of com- mon salt, by which it will be seen that they owe their fertil- ising properties mostly to the caustic and carbonate of lime, and" the magnesia and phosphate of lime as their 15 lbs. of potash, 12 lbs. of gypsum, &c., may produce a very inconsid- 64 FOSSIL, SALINE AND erable effect, particularly as the potash is also combined with the silica into a substance not soluble in water. After manuring with soaper's ashes, plants of the clover tribe will grow best; but all other crops will be benefitted; and the fresher the ashes are, the more cilective they will be. as they then contain much caustic lime, by which, especiall)'- the carbonic humus, or the organic matter in the soil, is effected and changed into humic acid. Soils which contain very little lime will always be best improved by them ; and in this case, they will be very useful, whether employed as a top-dressing on meadows, or applied to hoed crops or grain. The effect will be visible for six to nine years, according to the quantity used ; which, however, v/ill only be the case when the soil is defi- cient in vegetable or organic matter, and such other substances of which the ashes contain but a small quantity. Soaper's ashes may be strewn either over the crops already growing, such as clovers, lucern, grasses, &c., or they may be harrowed in with the seed of winter or summer crops, on which they act partly as leached ashes, and partly as caustic lime ; they can also be used with some advantage on boggy lands newly cleared, or on any moist land abounding in vegetable loam. ASPHALTUM. AsPHALTUM is a smooth, hard, brittle, black or brown bitu- minous substance which easily melts when heated, and if pure, burns without residuum. It is both in a soft and liquid state, on the surface of Lake Asphaltites, or the Dead Sea, and hence is sometimes called " bitumen of Judea," It occurs, also, as a mineral production in other parts of x\sia, in Europe, Cuba, and the island of Trinidad, and some other parts of America By chemical analysis, it contains about 32 per cent, of bitu- minous oil; 30 of carbon, and 7 per cent, of silicates; the re- mainder, consisting of alumina, lime, oxides of iron, and man- MINERAL MANURES. 66 ganese, with a large per-centage of water slightly impregnated with ammonia. The Egyptians used asphaltum in embalming, under the name ofmwmia. It was used by the Babylonians instead of mortar, for cementing bricks. At present, it is employed with lime, shells, or gravel, in making pavements and walks ; mixed with hair, it forms an impervious covering for roofs. From the chemical ingredients as given above, we have rea- son to suppose that asphaltum would prove to be a valuable manure. The council of the Royal Agricultural Society of England were lately favored with a statement of the satisfac- tory result tried in the government gardens at Bermuda, ob- tained by Vice Admiral, the Earl of Dundonald, on the West-Indian Station, from manure prepared from the asphal- tum of the great Pitch Lake, in the island of Trinidad. A sample was placed in the hands of Professor Way, the chem- ist of the society, with a request that he would make a chem- ical examination of this new manure, in order that he might determine its agricultural value. BITTERNS, OR PAN SCALE. The term bitterns is used by salt manufacturers, at the sa- lines at Onondaga, and other places, to designate the highly deliquescent chlorides of magnesia and lime. From their very soluble nature, they are thrown down immediately after the commencement of the boiling of the brine, and are scooped out in considerable quantities, by ladles, and thrown away. That portion which adheres to the bottom and sides of the kettles, forming a solid crust, is usually known under the name of pan scale, the chemical ingredients of which, according to Pro- fessor Emmons, are as follows : — Chloride of sodium, 73.92 Chloride of lime, , 7.47 Chloride of magnesia, 1,68 Sulphate of lime, 12.37 Silica, 0.20 Organic matter, 1.50 97.14 56 FOSSIL, SALINE AND From the above analysis, it is obvious that the waste of our salt works is a valuable fertiliser for certain soils, and ought to be saved. Of this material, hundreds of thousands of bushels are heap- ed up in the vicinity of the salt works in the state of Nev/ York, and even in the city of Syracuse, it is used for grading the lots and streets. As a fertiliser, it has been used with ad- vantage in the form of a top-dressing on fields of grass and grain. On sandy soils, where gypsum and common salt are needed, the application of this ' refuse would doubtless be at- tended with beneficial results. BRICK DUST AND BURNT CLAY. Brick dust, whether obtained from the rubbish of new build- ings or old, or from th^ kilns or yards where bricks are manu- factured or stored, or made by pounding up soft bricks, may be used with advantage to strong clayey land, and thereby ren- der it more open and less tenacious; in which case, the benefit arising from tha mechanical arrangement of the soil, alone, would probably more than compensate for the trouble of spreading it on the ground, and afterwards plowing or har- rowing it in. Besides this, brick dust, long exposed to the atmosphere, particularly that from old buildings, absorbs con- siderable quantities of nitrogen or ammonia, in consequence of which, it is possessed of additional fertilising properties, and may be applied as a top-dressing to grass lands, at the rate of 60 or 70 bushels to the acre. Brick dust has also been used with great success in propagating the more tender green- house plants, as Daphnes, Cape jasmines, heaths, &c. ; and it has been remarked how much more certain and quickly cut- tings of all sorts take root in it, than in sand, or in loamy soil, treated in the usual way. For plants that root more easily, it may be mixed half and half Vv'ith sandy loam. The effect of burnt clay, as an amendment to soils, has been higly extolled, and not without some reason, in certain local- ities. By burning, clay is altered in its nature, in which state it becomes insoluble in water, loses its attraction for it, and resembles siiicious sand. MINERAL MANURES. 67 Burnt clay has long been used as a manure on heavy lands in some parts of England, and with considerable advantage. It serves to lighten and mellow the soil for six or seven years afterwards. The work of burning usually begins in May, and continues through the summer, in heaps of from 50 to 100 cubic yards each. Brush wood and faggots are mostly used for fuel, and sometimes coal, where it is cheap. The quantity required of either, however, is not great, if the work is properly done. In forming a kiln for burning clay, let the sods be cut of a convenient size to handle, say a foot wide and 18 inches in length ; with these, form a parallelogram, or oblong square ; let the walls be 2 feet thick, and trampled or beaten firmly together, and raised at least 3 feet high. The kiln should be so situated that the wind may blow against one of its sides ; it may be from 4 to 6 yards long, by 3 yards wide, with aper- tures within one yard of each end, and others at a distance of about 6 feet from these should be left in the side walls, when building, for the purpose of forming drain-like openings across the kiln ; let one of these drain-like openings be made from end to end, lengthwise the kiln. These funnels are to be built, also, with sods; some dry turf, or peat, such as is some- time used for fuel, is to be put into these funnels, and ofer it, and between the funnels, well-dried sods, or any other combus- tible materials are to be laid on at the depth of 2 feet over these sods, partially dried, to the level of the walls of the kiln. In setting these materials on fire, a powerful heat will be pro- duced, quite capable of burning clay, without previously dry- ing it ; care, however, will be necessary to avoid throwing it on in too great a quantity at once, before the fire is well up, when a large parcel may be thrown on. If piled up too loosely, the draught will be strong, and the burning too rapid ; if too closely, there will not be draught sufficient. The sod walls are to be raised as the heat rises ; and as soon as it is perceived by the strength of the smoke, and the glow of the heat, that the mass is ignited in all its parts, the apertures may be closed, and the kiln left to become charred. For the slower the burning proceeds, the better, provided the clay is effectually burnt and pulverised. Should appearances indicate a likelihood of the fire 3* 68 FOSSIL, SALINE AND being smothered, it will only be necessary to open one or more of the funnels, to renew the burning. If the land on which the charred clay is to be applied be deficient in calcareous matter, earth containing it, if burned, would improve it much. The clay to be burned is not the upper and better portion of the soil, but the colder and closor kinds, dug out of any pit, at any depth below the surface, together with the scouring of ditches, and vegetable rubbish of every description. The heaps, or kilns, must be attended to night and day while burn- ing, to prevent the fires going out, or burning too fiercely, in which case, the clay becomes burnt to a kind of brick, and is then nearly useless. Therefore, the heat should always be slow and steady, and never, if possible, burn the clay red, but black. When the burning is rightly managed, the clay is converted into a blackish kind of ashes, which is the thing to be aimed at. Excellent crops of turnips may be produced on indifferent land by the use of burnt clay; and there can scarcely be a better preparation for rape. The ashes, in England, are usually carted on the land after harvest upon clover leas, stubble, or fallows. Upon grass lands, they may be laid on at any time most convenient. The quantity to be applied to arable lands is from 40 to 50 cubic yards to the acre, and on grass lands, from 25 to 30 yards. Burnt clay may also be used to form a compost with earth, sand, marl, or other manures ; and in this way, it will be found highly beneficial as a top-dressing, and in lightening the tex- ture and improving the condition of stiff and heavy lands. BUILDING- RUBBISH. The rubbish of demolished buildings has a very durable and marked effect upon vegetation ; and it is believed to be more advantageous than pure lime. It contains, besides car- bonate of lime, and a little lime that is still in a caustic state, some soluble salts that have lime for their bases, as the nitrates and muriates of lime, and also the muriates of potash and soda, which add to the effect of the calcareous principle. The fer- tilising effects are the most active on soils that contain but MINERAL MANURES. 69 little or no lime ; elsewhere, this material is thought to be more injurious than useful, and renders the land more sensible to drought. Therefore, this rubbish is very us.^M to be applied in the form of a top-dressing on moist meadows or pastures that are not cal- careous, but not on lands that are wet or inundated. It may be employed with advantage, if applied either in autumn or spring, upon winter as well as spring crops, as it pronnotes the forma- tion of grain rather than straw. It may be used with or with- out the medium of a compost, at the rate of 60 or 70 bushels to the acre, and like other calcareous amendments, requires to be spread in fair weather, when the ground is not wet. CLAY, UNBURNT. Clay, in an agricultural sense, according to the best writers is " a finely-divided chemical compound, consisting very nearly of 60 per cent, of silica, and 40 of alumina, with a little oxide of iron, and from which no silicious or sandy matter can be separated mechanically nor by decantation." Of this clay, the earthy part, (sand and lime,) of all known soils, is made up by mere mechanical admixture. COMPOSITION OF THE CLAYS OF NEW YORK BY PROFESSOR EMMONS. Places and kinds of clay. Tertiaiy or Albany clay, Niagai'a clay, Cayuga clay, , Adirondack clay, , Brick clay, near Caldwell, m c3 A .So < 3 8.00 52.44132-28 58.24l20.7() 44.20! 28.72 j 16.48 84.63 1 0.94 6.5.60117.52 8.92 Reddish clay of Chiistian HoUow, i 44.84 1 27.40 1 8.29 1 1.361 trace. 'trace, trace. 2.42 i 0.44; O.ietrace. trace. 0.60 trace. I O.ll 0.39! 5.28 3.24 8.44 6.52 6.68 2.60 16.36 Clays are highly important materials in the constitution of soils. They are also important fertilisers, especially when they contain magnesia, potash, and lime. The expense, however, 60 FOSSIL, SALINE AND of carting clay may be considered as the great bar for its use as a fertiliser, and yet its effects are most decided upon all lands which are denominated " light." From the investigations of Mr, Thompson and Professor Way, " On the Absorbent Power of Soils," it has been ascertained that a subsoil, abounding in clay, loam, or mould, has not only the power of arresting ammonia, but of absorbing and retain- ing " everything which can serve as a manure for plants." Pu- trid urine, sewer water, &c., passing through these substances become pure as well as clear. The subsoil must be clay or loam, for sand and gravel have no such power, but allow all solutions freely to pass through them. COAL DUST. Fossil coal is a well-known inflammable substance, formed of the remains of antediluvian vegetables, animal juices, and mineral or metallic matter, combined, or mechanically mixed more or less with different kinds of earth. When reduced to a powder, it loses its inflammability by exposure to the air, and becomes oxygenated,. as is the case with peat. Saline compounds are thence formed, which consist principally of sulphate of iron, sulphate of magnesia, phosphate of lime, phosphate of iron, oxide of iron, silica, alumina, and a propor- tion of uncombined simple earths. There are numerous varieties of coal, consumed in the United States, the dust of which could be obtained in consid- erable quantity from the yards where they are stored, or from the mines whence they were brought, and doubtless could be profitably employed as a manure. That of Pennsylvania and Wales is anthracite, which is somewhat difficult of combus- tion, producing little or no flame, but an intense heat, and con- sists almost entirely of pure carbon. Other varieties, found in Virginia, Ohio, and other parts of the world, are bitumi- nous in their character, and contain hydrogen, as well as carbon, and burn v»'ith a flame, and give out gas. The value, however, in an agricultural point of view, will of course depend upon the facility of decomposing the coal, and the chemical in- MINERAL MANUIIES. 61 gredients of which it is formed. The following table shows the analyses of coal from various parts of the United States, with the character or color of their ash : — w ■— - ■ — ■ ^' o P ;0 S r* 3 -^ 2. £.1-^2.'^ i? =5 S J» Q 02 §- -75 =.-' =: *^ S'S 5"2 S'S 2p i X r^ ^ n p r; 100.000 MINERAL MANURES. 113 A sample of calciferous sandstone from the state of New York, as analysed by Professor Emmons, gave the following results : — Soluble matter, silica, &c., 6.20 Alumina and per-oxide of iron, 4,50 Carbonate of lime, 58.86 Magnesia, 27.20 Water and loss, 3.24 100.00 Another sample from Onondaga, New York, as analysed by the same chemist, consisted of the following : — Soluble matter, silica, &c., 3.74 Alumina and per-oxide of iron, 0.18 Carbonate of lime, 89.00 Magnesia, 4.00 Phosphate of lime, 0.03 "Water and loss, 3,02 100.00 The Onondaga limestone, however, may be regarded as a pure calcareous rock, or as pure as ordinary chalk and most limestones which are employed for agricultural purposes. When the carbonate of magnesia, contained in common lime- stone, is heated to a high temperature in the open air, the car- bonic acid it contains is driven oif by the heat, and the lime and magnesia remain behind in a caustic state. When heated in this way, the carbonate of magnesia parts with its carbonic acid more readily, and at a lower temperature than the carbon- ate of lime. The caustic or calcined magnesia co,ntained in lime shells, like quicklime, slakes and falls to powder when water is poured upon it, and forms a hydrate of magnesia. It likwise swells and becomes hot, but not in an equal degree with pure lime. Pure hydrate of magnesia consists of Magnesia, G9.7 ; Water, 30.3 100.0 114 FOSSIL, SALINE AND Thus Jt will be seen that it increases in weight in slaking more than lime does — one ton of caustic magnesia augmenting to nearly 3,200 lbs. of hydrate. When limestone containing magnesia is burned and after- wards slaked, the fallen mass consists of a mixture of two hydrates in proportions which depend upon the chemical com- position of the limestone employed. An important difference in these two hydrates, is, that the hydrate of magnesia will harden under water or in a wet soil, in about eight days — forming a hydraulic cement. The hydrate of lime will not so harden ; but a mixture of the two will harden under water, and form a solid mass. In the minute state of division in which lime is applied to the soil, the particles, if it be a magnesian lime, will, in wet soils, or in the event of rainy weather en- suing immediately after its application, become granular and gritty, and cohere occasionally into lumps, on which the air will have little effect. This property is of considerable impor- portance in connection with the further chemical changes which slaked lime undergoes when exposed to the air, or when buried in the soil. Although magnesia is essential to the perfect growth of plants, if introduced in a caustic state in a large quantity into the soil, it appears to produce a very bad effect, and lime that contains it in excess should therefore be avoided. Caustic or calcined magnesia is much more injurious to vegetation than lime, from its retaining the caustic quality longer, and not uniting with carbonic acid so readily. It also forms a harder mortar with water, and is more apt to cake about the stems and roots of herbage ; but mild magnesia, provided there is a deficiency of calcareous matter in the soil, is of service to vegetation, being found in the ash of most plants, in all proba- bility replacing lime. It seems to be the result of experience, however, that mag- nesia, in the state of carbonate, is but slighly injurious to the land ; some deny that in this stdte it has any injurious effect at all. This it is feared is doubtful ; we may infer, however, with MINERAL MANURES. 116 some degree of probability, that it is from some property pos- sessed by magnesia in the caustic state, and not possessed, or at least in an equal degree, either by quicklime or by carbon- ate of magnesia, that its evil influence is chiefly to be ascribed. Now, there exist in the soil, and probably are exuded from the living roots, various acid substances, both of organic and inorganic origin, which it is one of the functions of lime, when applied to the land, to combine with and render innoxious. But these acid compounds unite rather with the caustic mag- nesia, than with the lime which is already in combination with carbonic acid— and form salts, which generally are much more soluble in water than the compounds of lime with the same acids. Hence the water that goes to the roots reaches them more or less loaded with magnesian salts, and carries into the vegetable circulation more magnesia than is consistent with the healthy growth of the plant. Caustic magnesia, applied to lands charged highly with rich manure, in a proportion not exceeding |th part of the animal or vegetable remains, is speedily rendered mild by the car- bonic acid with which it is supplied, as the manure decompo- ses ; but it should never be thrown upon land where a portion of quicklime already occupies the surface ; because, while the quicklime is becoming mild by its more ready attraction for carbonic acid, the magnesia retains its caustic property, and acts as a poison to most plants. Caustic magnesia will destroy woody fibre the same as quicklime ; and in combination with strong peat, assists in forming a manure. If the peat equal ith part of the weight of the soil, and the magnesia do not exceed oV^h, the propor- tion may be considered as safe. . Where lands have been injured by too large a quantity of magnesian lime, peat will be an eflicient remedy. Chloride of Magnesium.*— When calcined or carbonated mag- nesia is dissolved in muriatic acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness, a white mass is obtained, which is a chloride of magnesium and chlorine only. This compound occurs not un- 116 FOSSIL, SALINE AND frequently in the soil, associated with chloride of calcium. It is met with also in the ash of plants, while in sea water, and in that of some salt lakes, it exists in very considerable quan- tity. Thus, 100 parts of the water of the Atlantic have been found to contain 3^ of chloride of magnesium, while that of the Dead Sea yields about 24 parts of this compound. Hence, it is present in great abundance in the mother liquor of the salt pans, and it is from the refuse chloride in this liquor that the magnesia of the shops, as above stated, is frequently prepared. Chloride of magnesium, when pure, contains of Chlorine, 73.65 Magnesium, 26.35 lOO.OO The chloride of magnesium has not hitherto been made the subject of direct experiment as a fertiliser of the land. From the fact, however, that plants require much magnesia and some chlorine, there is reason to believe that, if cautiously applied, it might prove beneficial in some soils, and especially to grain crops. Its extreme solubility in water, however, suggests the use of caution in its application. The safest method is to dissolve it in a large proportion of water, and apply it to the young plant by means of a water cart. In this way, the refuse of the salt works might, in some localities, be made available to useful purposes. The chloride of magnesium is decomposed both by quicklime and by carbonate of lime; hence, when applied to a soil containing lime in either of these states, chloride of calcium and caustic or carbonated magnesia will be produced. Nitrate of Magnesia. — Nitrate of magnesia is formed by dis- solving carbonate of magnesia in nitric acid, and evaporating the solution. It attracts moisture froqp the air with great rapid- ity, and runs into a liquid. It is probably formed naturally in soils containing magnesia, in the same way as nitrate of lime is known to be produced in soils containing lime. No direct experiments have yet been made as to its effects upon vegeta- MINERAL MANURES. Ill tion ; but there can be no doubt that it would prove highly ben- eficial, could it be procured at a sufficiently cheap rate to ad- mit of its economical application to the land. The nitrate of magnesia, when pure, contains of Nitric acid, 72.38 Magnesia, 27.62 100.00 Phosphate of Magnesia. — Magnesia exists in combination with phosphoric acid, in the solids and fluids of all animals, though not so abundantly as the phosphates of lime. In most soils, phosphate of magnesia is probably present in minute quantity, since in the ashes of some varieties of grain it is found in very considerable proportion. Its action upon vegetation has never been tried directly, but as it exists in urine, and in most animal manures, a portion of their efficacy may be due to its presence. In turf ashes, which often prove" a valuable manure, it is sometimes met with in appreciable quantity, and their beneficial operation in such cases has been attributed in part to the agency of this phosphate. Phosphate of magnesia, when pure, contains of Phosphoric acid, 63.33 Magnesia, 36.67 100.00 Silicates of Magnesia. — In combination with magnesia in dif- ferent proportions, silica forms nearly the entire mass of those common minerals known by the names of serpentine and talc. In hornblende, also, and augite, silicates of magnesia exist in con- siderable quantity. They must, therefore, be present in great- er or less abundance in soils which are directly formed from the decomposition of such rocks. Like the silicates of lime, however, though more slowly than these, they will undergo gradual decomposition by the action of the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and of the acids produced in the soil by veg- etation, and by the decay of organic matter. The magnesia, 118 FOSSIL, SALINE AND like the lime, will then be gradually brought down, in a state of solution, from the higher grounds, or washed out of the soil, till at length it may wholly disappear from any given spot. Silicate of magnesia, when pure, contains of Silicic acid, 69.08 Magnesia, 30.92 100.00 Sulphate of Magnesia. — Sulphate of magnesia, the common Epsom salts of the shops, is formed by dissolving carbonate of magnesia in diluted sulphuric acid. It exists in nearly all soils which are formed from, or are situated in the neighbor- hood of rocks containing magnesia. In some, soils it is so abundant that in dry weather it forms a white efflorescence on the surface. Sulphate of magnesia, when pure, contains of Sulphuric acid, 32.40 ~ Magnesia, 16.70 Water, 50.90 100.00 This salt has been found by Sprengel to act upon vegetation precisely in the same way as gypsum does, and on the same kind of plants. It must be used, however, in smaller quantity, owing to its great solubility. Its higher price will prevent its ever being substituted for gypsum as a top-dressing for clover, &c., but it is worth the trial, whether barley plants, the grain of which contains much magnesia, might not be benefit- ted by the application of a small quantity of this sulphate — along with such other substances as are capable of yielding the remaining constituents which compose the inorganic mat- ter of the grain. — Johnston, MANG-ANESE. Manganese is a metal, which, in nature, is very frequently associated with iron in its various ores. It also resenibles this metal in many of its properties. Its compounds exist in plantsi MINERAL MANURES. 119 however, in much less quantity than those of iron ; but as its oxides, like those of iron, are insoluble in pure water, this me- tal, most likely, accidentally finds its way into the roots in a state of a carbonate, chloride, silicate, or of a sulphate, all of which are soluble to a greater or less degree. Manganese combines with oxygen in at least three propor- tions, and consequently forms as many degrees of oxygenation. The first, or prot-oxide, is of a light-green color, but is not known to occur in nature in an uncombined state. The second, or deut-oxide, exists naturally in a mineral state, when it is black, but when finely pulverised, is of a dark-brown. The third, or per-oxide, which is of a dark-brown or brownish- black, also occurs abundantly in the common ores of manga- nese, and is extensively diffused in small quantities through nearly all soils. These oxides are all insoluble in water, but the two former dissolve in acids, and form salts. Traces of these two oxides are also to be detected in the ash of nearly all plants, probably as a substitute for iron. They do not ap- pear to be important, however, and have but little interest to the farmer. Should they ever prove of any agricultural value, millions of tons may be obtained in the states of Maine and New Hampshire at a cheap rate. MARL. By the term marl is generally understood an earthy mixture, generally containing not less than ^th part of its weight, or 20 per cent, of carbonate of lime. If the proportion of lime be less than this, the compound is a marly clay or soil, rather than a true or calcareous marl. When a piece of stiff or tena- cious marl is put into water, it usually loses its coherence, and gradually falls to powder. This is a very simple method of distinguishing between a true marl and a stiff clay. The application of marl to land, as a fertiliser, is of great an- tiquity ; and no one can read the accounts given of it by Theo- phratus, Pliny, and Columella without being struck with the 120 FOSSIL, SALINE AND minute discrimination with which it was applied to particular soils, and the advantages resulting from uniting the light with the heavy, the fat with the lean, or, in other words, mixing soils of an opposite nature. It is thus spoken of by Columella ; " If, nevertheless, you are provided with no kind of dung, it will be of great advantage to do with it what I remember Mar- cus Columella, my uncle, a most learned and diligent husband- man, was frequently wont to do, namely, to throw chalk or marl upon such places as abound in gravel, and to lay gravel upon such as are chalky and too dense and stiff; and thus he not only raised great plently of excellent grain, but made most beautiful vineyards." There are a great variety of substances, popularly known under the name of marl, however, which are commonly reduced to four kinds, namely, the clay, the stone, the shell and the jpot- ash or green-sand marls. The first of these takes its name from its similitude in appearance to clay ; the second, from its hard- ness, and resemblance to stone ; the third, from the shells with which it is mixed, or rather of which it is composed ; and the fourth from its color, and the quantity of potash it contains. Marls, again, are of various colors, white, grey, yellow, blue, and of various degrees of coherence, some occurring in the form of a more or less fine, loose, sandy powder. These dif- ferences arise in part from the kind and proportion of the earthy matters they contain, and in part, also, from the nature of the locality, moist or dry, in which Ihey are found. They vary also in their composition. Some rich marls consist in part or in whole of broken and comminuted shells, which clearly indicate the source of the calcareous matter they con- tain. The clay and stone marls are very similar in their com- position ; but the shell and green-sand marls are very different from the other two, which renders it necessary to treat of them under separate heads. Clay Marls. — These have the appearance of a more or less tenacious clay. "When long exposed to the air, or are put into water, they fall down into a powder. They seem to have much MINERAL MANURES. 121 the same qualities of lime ; and therefore must operate in a similar manner when applied to the soil, by enlarging the pas- ture of the plants, and fitting the vegetable food for entering their roots. These marls also communicate to the soil a power of attracting vegetable food from the atmosphere. Clay marls usually contain from 68 to 80 per cent, of clay, and from 20 to 32 per cent, of calcareous m.atter, silicious sand, &c. SLony Marls.— ^hQSQ are often richer in lime than those which are clayey. The chief difference between them is this : The clay marls are sooner dissolved than the stone marls, and com- monly have a stronger power of neutralising acids and pro- ducing salts. As they are longer in dissolving, large pieces of stone marl are sometimes seen in lumps or clods six or seven years after they have been laid upon the land. This makes it necessary to apply a very large quantity. Clay and stony marls are well suited to light sandy soils, which they improve and render more solid. On the contrary, sandy marl is good for stiff" soils, rendering them friable, and more easy to work. SiJiell Marl. — This marl is very different in its nature from the two just described, being highly fertilising upon soils of every description. It does not dissolve like them with water, but sucks it up, and swells with it like a sponge. It is stated that it is a much stronger attractor of acids, and requires six times the quantity to become saturated. From this circumstance, if it be applied in large quantity, and frequently repeated, it is possible that it might communicate such an attractive power to the soil as to enrich it in a very high degree. As this kind of marl does not deprive land of its vegetable matter like lime nor the other varieties of marl, it may be ap- plied to soils exhausted by them ; or it may be repeated. It dissolves sooner than the other kinds, and consequently its ef- fects are more sudden ; and as it does not dissolve so soon as dung, its effects will be sooner over. Its effects, however, are not so quick as lime, but more lasting. As calcareous marl operates in a similar manner as lime, 6 122 FOSSIL, SALINE AND it follows, likewise, that limed land, exhausted by crops, can re- ceive but little benefit from its application ; and that marled land, exhausted by cultivation, can receive but little benefit from the application of lime. As it exhausts the vegetable food, the proper manure after it, is a muck compost with dung, which contains this food in the greatest abundance. What is said of lime, also, with respect to its application in smaller and larger doses, may likewise be said of marl. When light barren land is to be improved, the marl should be laid on in large quantities, say from 1,000 to 2,000 bushels to an acre ; but when the soil is in good condition, ^th or |th part of the quan- tity, if applied once in six or seven years, will be attended with good results. The following table shows the composition of various marls found in the United States, with the authority from which the information was derived : — COMPOSITION OF THE KEW-YORK MARLS, BY PROFESSOR EMMONS. I..ocalities.. Saratoga county, Fairmount, near Geddes, Salem, Mr. Crary's Farm, Christian Hollow, 1 75.45 0.62 Cayuga Bridge, (plaster shales,) ,2-2.20 8.88 3.40 2.32 3.80 0.51 2.42 7.25 trace. 0.52 1 0.56 22.24 0.62 3.00 41.75 4.881 19.30 A sample of very excellent marl, from Peterborough, New York, analysed by Professor J. P. Norton, was composed of the following ingredients: — Carbonic acid, 35.00 Lime, 45.02 Magnesia, 0.66 Iron and alumina, with a little phosphoric acid, 2.69 Sand, 9.57 Organic matter, 7.06 100.00 MINERAL MANURES. 123 In this sample, it will be seen that the carbonate of lime amounts to nearly 80 per cent., while the small quantities of magnesia, iron, alumina, and especially of phosphoric acid, add materially to the value of this marl. Green-Sand Marl — This mineral fertiliser, which, in some portions of the United States, has been of such immense ser- vice as a manure, and especially in restoring worn-out soils to productiveness, is found in great abundance along the Atlantic coast. The stratum in which this substance abounds, as the principle ingredient, commences, as far as known, in New Jer- sey, at the base of the Highlands of Nevesink, near Sandy Hook, and along the sea shore from a little north of Long Branch to Shark Inlet; thence ranging south-westward, in a wide belt, through Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Squankum, and other towns in Monmouth county, gradually contracting as it runs parallel with the Delaware River, at a distance of a few miles, to Salem. It is then prolonged across the state of Del- aware, in a narrow strip, into the easterly part of Maryland, where it disappears under the overiaping formations. It again shows itself on the Potomac and throughout the tide-water re- gion of Virginia, where the proportion of the so-called " green marl," of New Jersey, is materially diminished. In New Jersey, between Long Branch and Deal, the bed of marl has been penetrated to the depth of 30 feet. The upper two feet consist of a green clay, seemingly derived from the disintegration of a green granular mineral, intermixed with a large proportion of yellowish-white clay. The main bed, which has a thickness of about 26 feet, comprises several sub- ordinate layers ; but all contain a large share of the green grains. Beneath the whole, there is a greenish-yellow clay, in which the grains abound, of remarkably large size, and are associated with numerous casts of shells. In one or two other instances, wells have also been sunk through the bed of marl, and the depth of the green sand ascertained to be about 30 feet. Various fossil shells and other marine productions, amounting, according to Professor Rogers' Geological Report, 124 FOSSIL, SALINE AND to considerably more than 100 species, are found imbedded in this marl. The value of this marl, as an active fertiliser, when spread on the surface of light sandy lands, in New Jersey, has been amply tested for more than 90 years. Various have been the views maintained in regard to its fertilising principles, and much speculation has been offered, in reference to them, as is usual on similar subjects. It is stated, however, that the prob- lem was first solved by Mr. Henry Seybert, of Philadelphia, who demonstrated that the green sand of New Jersey contained a considerable amount of potash, which seems to afford a sat- isfactory clue to its mysterious effects. In comparing the details of the several analyses, given by professor Rogers, in his Geological Report of New Jersey, it will be seen that the green-sand marl, even when of the great- est purity, is not absolutely constant, either in the nature of the ingredients which enter into its composition, or in their relative proportions. The per-centage of the silica varies from 43 to 62.32; that of the alumina, from 6.4 to 8.94; that of the prot- oxide of iron, from 21.6 to 27.56 ; that of the potash, from 5.5 to 14.48; and that of the water, from 4.4 to 8.12. It will be found, moreover, that in some instances, besides^ the above-named el- ements, that lime enters into the constitution of the green sand, in other cases magnesia.; while, occasionally, both occur. The amount of these however, is generally in small proportions. ' The following tables will serve to show the prevailing con- stituents of this green sand, as given by Professor Rogers: — GREEN SAND MARL OF POKE HILL, PLATTSBURGU, BURLINGTON COUNTY. Color of the granules, a rich, dark olive green ; their size, rather above the medium; composes 98 per cent, of the marl. 100 parts gave of Silica, 50.75 Alumina, 6.50 Prot-oxide of iron, 22.14 Potash, 12.96 Water, 7.50 90.85 MINERAL MANURES, 125 GREEN SAND OF SQUANKUM. Color, a dark olive green ; granules of a medium size ; composes 58.36 per cent, of the upper part of the bed, and 72.36 per cent, of the lower. 100 parts, gave of Silica, 51.00 Alumina, 6.50 Prot-oxide of iron, 21.55 Potash, 10.50 Lime, trace. Ma^esia, 1.08 Water, 9.00 99.63 GREEN SAND OF FREEHOLD, MONMOUTH COUNTY. Color of the granules, rich green ; size, small ; composes 70 per cent, of the upper part of the bed, and 50 per cent, of the lower. 100 parts gave of Silica, 50.00 Alumina, 7.00 Prot-oxide of iron, 22.00 Potash, 11.00 Lime, 1.00 Magnesia, trace. Water, 9.00 100.00 The effects of green sand, applied as a manure, are strongly set forth in the following extracts from Professor Rogers' Re- port : — "Mr. Woolley manured a piece of land in the proportion of 200 loads of good stable manure to the acre, applying upon an adjacent tract of the same soil, his marl, in the ratio of about 20 loads per acre. The crops, which were Timothy and clover, were much heavier upon the section which had re- ceived the marl; and there was this additional fact greatly in favor of the fossil manure over the putrescent one, that the soil was also entirely free from weeds, while the stable ma- nure had rendered its own crop very foul. 126 FOSSIL, SALINE AND "This green-sand stratum, at Poplar Swamp, seems to be almost entirely free from any sulphate of iron or other astrin- gent material, and, as a consequence, the crops seem not to be scorched by any extra dose, however lavishly applied. " There can be no doubt that 20 loads of marl per acre must be regarded as an unnecessarily bountiful dressing ; but com- puting the relative cost of the two manures, when employed in the ratio above stated, we find a considerable disparity in fa- vor of the green sand. Placing the home value of farmyard manure at ^1 for each two-horse load, and that of the marl at 25 cents per load, we have the expense of manuring one acre, $200 ; of marling the same, $5. " This being an experiment, an extravagantly large dressing of manure was employed, but not exceeding the usual average application more than the 20 loads of marl surpassed what was necessary "Experience has already shown that land once amply marled retains its fertility with little diminution for at least 10 or 12 years, if care be had not to crop it too severely ; while, with all practicable precaution, the stable manure must be re- newed at least three times in that interval, to maintain in the soil a corresponding degree of vigor. "At the Squankum pits, which are very extensive, the marl is sold at the rate of 37^ cents the load, the purchasers having to dig it. It is transported by wagons to a distance, in some directions, of 20 miles, and retailed, when hauled that far, at the rate of 10, or even 124- cents per bushel, being very profi- tably spread upon the soil in the small proportion of 25 or even 20 bushels to the acre." Professor Booth, in the Report of his Geological Survey of the State of Delaware, has given much highly interesting infor- mation in regard to green sand. In all essential particulars, the marl beds found in Newcastle county resembles those of New Jersey, described by Professor Rogers. " Practically speaking," says Professor Booth, " there are two principal kinds of green sand, that containing lime as an essen- MINERAL MANURES. 127 tial ingredient, and that consisting chiefly of green particles. The former contains variable quantities of carbonate of lime, the highest limit yet observed being 25 percent. The average composition of the latter, in its natural state and selected, may be thus expressed: — Unselecied, Selected. Silica, 53 50 Potassa, 7 10 Prot-oxide of iron, 22 22^ Alumina, 5 7 Water, 8 lOJ 100 100 " The first is either cretaceous, containing finely-divided car- bonate of lime not formed by comminuted shells, and occuring on the canal ; or decomposed calcareous, on the western limit of the state, from which the calcareous matter has been wholly or partially removed, although abounding in casts of shells; or shelly green sand, on the southern line of St. George's Hundred, in which there is no fine calcareous matter but that of commi- nuted shells. The second contains mere traces of lime, and consists of green-sand particles, with variable quantities of clay and common sand, and is either bluish green, and of the finest quality, as found on Drawyer's and Silver Run; or yellowish green, containing white silicious sand, as on Drawyer's and the Appoquinimink ; or black colored, decomposed externally, rarely internally, and containing both white sand and argil- laceous matter, from Silver Run to Scott's Run ; or dark colored, and containing pyrites, as from the south-west corner of St. George's Hundred, and along the ridge to the Deep Cut ; or, lastly, the blue micaceous sand of the Deep Cut, rarely contain- ing particles of green sand, although abounding with casts and impressions of shells characteristic of the green-sand forma- tion. We have seen that the yellow sand is the principal mem- ber of the series, both over and underlying the green sand ; that it is characterised by its uniformity of grain and color, and rising to the surface, constitutes the chief and most valuable 128 FOSSIL, SALINE AND soils of the region. We further observe that the green-sand stratum is undulating, and varies in its depth, the average thick- ness being about 21 feet, from which we may form a rough es- timate of the amount contained in the whole district." Upon the subject of the fertilising properties of green sand, Professor Booth makes the following highly interesting obser- vations : — "When it is decomposed by the ordinary processes of the labratory, only a small quantity of silica and all the other con- stituents being dissolved, we may regard the oxide of iron, pot- assa, and alumina as performing the principal functions, assisted by the presence of water. The useful action of potash or of ashes in the soil has been long acknowledged, and hence, as soon as it was known that the green sand contained potassa, its utility was immediately referred to that alkali ; latterly, how- ever, the opinion has gained ground that the prot-oxide of iron plays an important part b)'' acting with the organic matter in the soil, in a manner resembling the saponification of oil by potash. " The addition of much unleached ashes to a soil determines the formation of salts of potassa, which, being very soluble, are taken up in excess by growing plants, and produce such luxuriant vegetation. as to cause it, technically speaking, to hitrn up. 1'bcsame operation would probably occur with prot- oxide of iron, were its salts not soon converted into more insol- uble humate and crenale of the per-oxide. " It might be objected by many that green sand being de- composed with difficulty by the powerful acids of the labora- tory, there is little probability that it can be resolved into its constituents by the feeble action of humic or atmospheric agents. Independently, however, of the proof of its decompo- sition by its inducing increased fertility, and of the mode by which nature, operating with feeble agents during a lengthened period of time, produces great results, it may be shown that it it is more readily decomposed than is generally admitted. *' The most economical method of applying the marl will be I MINERAL MANURES. 129 to cart it from the pits immediately into the fields to which it is to be applied; to throw it into heaps at convenient distances for spreading, and then to put a small quantity of lime on each heap, which should remain exposed to the air for a longer time. In regard to the quantity to be applied, a variety of opinions exists; and hence, from 60 to 1,000 bushels per acre have been tried with and without success. A little attention to the theory of its operation will enable us to approximate to the true proportion. Its strong bases appear to act on the organic matter in the soil, and to combine with it ; hence, it would be useless to apply a large quantity to a poor and light soil, for which 60 to 100 bush- els would suffice ; but a clayey soil would be rendered looser by it ; and as there is usually more organic matter present in such a case, from 100 to 200 may be employed with advantage. Where the land is already of good quality, from 200 to 500 may be used, according to its richness and tenacity. Many persons believe that because one kind of marl is inferior to another, a much larger quantity will be required ; but the truth is, that the diiferences, although important, are less so than is generally be- lieved, and should not lead to the employment of quantities greater than have just been enumerated. Notwithstanding the effects of marl will be shown to be striking on ordinary, and even on very poor land, yet it is essential that the soil should contain a fair proportion of organic matter, in order to reap the highest benefit from it. Hence the failure of some experi- ments made with the green sand ; for, although it stands supe- rior to lime in requiring the presence or addition of less organic manure, still the views offered to explain its mode of action show the necessity of some organic materials on which to operate, and this conclusion is strengthened by experience." The chief value of the New-Jersey marl, when applied to light sandy soils, is known to consist in the potash and oxide of iron it contains. As compared with common unleached wood ashes, it is thought to be equal in value, measure for measure. Visible effects are said still to be seen on farms which were marled 30 years ago. When used as a compost, at the 6* 130 FOSSIL, SALINE AND rate of 30 to 40 bushels of slacked lime to 300 or 400 bushels of marl to an acre, its action is more prompt, and consequently larger crops obtained ; but its fertilising effects, when thus ap- plied, are believed not to be felt generally beyond a period of 15 years. Mixed with 300 lbs. of Peruvian guano and a ton and a half of the marl, it forms an excellent top-dressiflg for an acre of grass or grain. PHOSPHORITE, OR NATIVE PHOSPHATE OF LIME. This substance, commonly called apatite by mineralogists, occurs somewhat abundantly in various parts of the world, and is composed chiefly of phosphate of lime, which differs but slightly in its chemical constituents from the earth of bones. When pure, it consists of Lime, 54.5 Phosphoric acid, 45.5 100.0 From the composition of this mineral, one would be led to expect that it would exert a favorable' action on vegetation, which has been amply verified by experiments made by Spren- gel, of Germany, and particularly by Dr. Daubeny, professor of chemistry at Oxford, in England. From the reputed exist- ence of an extensive bed of phosphorite near Logrosan, in the province of Estramadura, in Spain, the latter-named gentleman was commissioned to examine the mine, in 1843, by the Royal Agricultural Society of England, to ascertain whether the min- eral could not be profitably imported into that country as a substitute for bones as a manure. The result was, that the expense of freight, inland transportation, and other charges would be too great to warrant the undertaking. He found that it existed in a bed or vein six or seven feet thick, of unknown depth, and occurred in one entire white, radiating, silky mass. He was allowed to dig, and carry away any quantity he liked, and accordingly obtained four mule loads of about 200 lbs. each, which he took to England, and made carefully-conducted MINERAL MAXURES. 131 experiments with it in comparison with twelve other fertilisers or manures. The result uf these experiments may be found in the London Agricultural Gazette of April 4th, 1846, in which it will be seen that a given quantity of the phosphorite grew near- ly as large crops of turnips and grass as the same amount of bone manure ; and Dr. D. now says, as the Spanish phosphorite, which appears to act so beneficially, is wholly destitute of or- ganic matter, it seems to follow that the more valuable portion and at least of what is applied to the land, when bones are scattered over it, is the phosphate of lime, and not, as some have supposed, the oil or gelatine. He found 81 per cent, of this phosphate in the substance, which he estimates to be equiv- alent to almost 76 per cent, of the earth of bones. From recent discoveries, it has been ascertained that this mineral exists in great abundance in some parts of the United States, and bids fair to supersede the use of bones, both on ac- count of its cheapness, and the facility with which it can be made applicable for the purposes of manure. At Crown Point, Lake Champlain, Essex county, New York, a mine was opened by Professor E. Emmons, of Albany, in 1850, which turned out to be a solid vein of phosphorite, eight feet thick, containing 92 per cent, of phosphate of lime, associated with fluorine, chlo- rine, and the sulph-urets of copper and iron. In the summer of the same year as above. Dr. Charles T. Jackson and Mr. Francis Alger, of Boston, discovered a valua- ble and extensive deposit of massive phosphorite near or at Hurdstown, Morris county. New Jersey, and but a few miles from the Morris Canal. The mineral is reputed to be perfectly pure, parcels of which have been distributed in various parts of this country as well as in England, for the purpose of expe- riment. In the neighborhood of the same locality, just within the confines of ISussex county, the New- Jersey Mining and Ex- ploring Company have opened the same or another vein of this substance, having, it is stated, a thickness of eight feet, extending more than two miles in length, from which it is be- lieved an unlimited quantity of this phosphate can be supplied. 132 FOSSIL, SALINE AND A sample of the mineral from the last-named locality, as analysed by Dr. Thomas Antisell, chemist to the American Agricultural Association, in the city of New York, yielded the following constituents in 100 parts:— Phosphate of lime, 93.6 Lime, 3.6 Magnesia, ; 0.2 Chlorine, 2.5 fluorine, trace. Alumina and per-oxide of iron, trace. Loss, 0.1 100.0 It may be ground to a powder and spread upon old grass lands, or dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid and applied to grain and turnip crops, at the rate of 1,000 to 1,200 pounds per acre; but, owing to its admixture with the rocks in which it occurs, it is necessary to analyse each parcel of the ground mineral, to ascertain the proportion of acid that is required for its decomposition. POTASH. Potash, or potassa, the hydrated prot-oxide of potassium, is so called from being prepared for commercial purposes by evaporating to dryness in iron pots or kettles the lixivium, or ley, of ivood ashes. When pure, the hydrate or fused potash is highly caustic, of a white color, melting at any temperature above redness, assuming a crystalline appearance on cooling, but bearing the most intense heat without volatilising.* It has * A phenomenon or diffiulty occurs in this respect, which chemical authors have in vain tried to solve. Potash and soda, it is well known, abound in the young and herbaceous textures of trees and plants ; and yet they thrive, and sometimes grow to gigantic dimensions in soils which contain a very small proportion of potash, and even in the crevices of calcareous rocks where there is not the smallest trace of it. Wtience, then, do these plants and trees derive the alkali they contain ? May not potash be a product of vegetation? May it not become volatile by some inexplica- ble process of nature '? Is it not posssible that gaseous principles may be uiiited ia such a manner that the result of their combination shall be unalterable by the pro- cesses of chemists ? These are points which science, in its present state, is not in a condition either to ascertain or disprove. MLNERAL MANUAES. 133 a great affinity for water, uniting with that fluid, forming a solid hydrate, which no h^at hitherto employed is capable of dis- uniting. It is highly deliquescent, rapidly attracting humidity from the air, and requiring half its weight of water for its solu- tion, evolving during the operation a considerable heat. It is also soluble in alcohol, decomposing all animal substances, whether living or dead, and rapidly attracts carbonic acid from the air. The solution is highly alkaline, neutralising the strong- est acids, and changes vegetable blues to green. It also rapidly corrodes glass, containing much alkali .or lead, and dissolves silica by the agency of heat, forming therewith the silicate of potash. In taste, it is intensely acrid, and when touched by the fingers, has a peculiar soapy feel, owing to its dissolving the cuticle, with which it forms a kind of soap. Potash does not occur in nature in this caustic or uncombined state, and as such is not known to exercise any direct influence upon natural vegetation. Potash is extensively distributed throughout the earth and its inhabitants, combined principally with carbonic, crenic, apo- crenic, citric, humic, nitric, oxalic, phosphoric silicic, sulphuric and tartaric acids. In the mineral kingdom, it occurs abun- dantly in mica, feldspar, lava, green sand, and in most, if not all aluminous clays. In plants and trees, it is also abundant, especially in the grasses and all kinds of grain. Hence, the reason why potash is regarded as a necessary food of plants, and why its beneficial influence is felt in general agricultural practice. It also forms one of the constituents of the urine, excrement, and numerous other parts of animals, as well as of the waters of the ocean and saline springs. But the chief source from which commercial potash is supplied, is the washed or lixiviated ashes of trees, especially of hemlock spruce, oaks, maples, hickories, birches, beeches, and elms, the potato haulm, and of other trees and plants. The quantity of potash contained in the crops of an acre, as given in their ash, is as follows, which shows their impover* ishing power, and the importance of supplying a comparatively 134 FOSSIL, SALINE AND large quantity of this substance, in some form or other, to en- ter the roots of the plants : — . Vovinds. Wheat, 32.58 Rye, 21.39 Barley, 68,93 Oats, 21.75 Red clover, 144.00 Potatoes, 102.70 White tuiiiip, 133,34 The use of potash, as a fertiliser, in the form of the ash of vegetables and trees, may be traced back to a very early pe- riod. The old Roman farmers were well acquainted with pair- ing and burning, and burnt the stubble of their grain fields in order to enrich the succeeding crops, a practice also prevalent among the ancient Jews. Cato recommends the burning of the twigs and branches of trees, and spreading the ash on the land. The ancient Britons, according to Pliny, used to burn their wheat straw, and stubble, and spread the ashes over their fields. Similar practices in all civilised countries have ever since prevailed. The prot-oxide of potassium forms with acids the bases of a great number of salts, the principal of which that are ap- plied to the soil, as fertilisers, are as follows : — Carhonaie of Potash. — Impure or commercial carbonate of potassa commonly known by the names of " potash " and " pearlash," is chiefly obtained in Russia and North America by lixiviating or washing the ashes of trees, especially of oaks, hickories, maples, and elms, in the last-named country, and evaporating the solution to dryness. The ash, first mixed with quicklime, is leached in barrels or conical tubs, and the clear solution being drawn off, is evaporated by boiling in large iron pots or kettles set in a furnace. When the fluid be- comes black, and of the consistence of thick molasses, it is subjected to the highest heat of a wood fire for some hours. By this means, much of the combustible matter is burned out. As soon as the fused matter becomes quiescent, it is dipped out MINERAL MANURES. 135 wiih iron ladles into iron pots, where it is left to congeal ; it is then broken into pieces, and packed up in air-tight casks, in which state it constitutes the potash of commerce. Another method is, to transfer the black salts, or product of the first evaporation, from the kettles to a large oven or fur- nace, so constructed that the flame is made to play over the alkaline mass, which is continually stirred by means of an iron rod. The ignition is continued until the impurities are burned out, and the mass changes from black to a dirty or bluish white. The whole is then cooled, broken up, and packed in casks as above. This constitutes the pearlasli of commerce, which is also an impure form of the carbonate of potash. When pot- ash or pearlash is dissolved in water, purified, and crystallised or evaporated to dryness, it becomes refined, and is a carbonate of potash sufficiently pure for most purposes in the art. When pure, it consists of Potassa, 68.09 Cai'bonic acid, 31.91 100.00 The American potash of commerce, when of a good quality, consists of the following ingredients : — V^'BUstic potassa, 85.7 Sulphate of potassa, 15.4 Chloride of sodium, 2.0 Carbonic acid and water, 11.9 Insoluble matter, 0.2 115.2 American pearlash, in the state it is usually brought to mar- ket, in 115 parts, consists of Caustic potassa, 75.4 Sulphate of potassa, 8.0 Chloride of sodium, 0.4 Carbonic acid and water, 30.8 Insoluble matter, f 0.6 1155 136 FOSSIL, SALINE AND The carbonate of potash has long been known to exercise a powerful influence on the growth of plants; and what has been said on the subject of "wood ashes" and "soaper's waste," which also contain other fertilising substances, it is to bo under- stood that much of their immediate effects are due to the quan- tity of this salt they contain. When wood ashes and quick- lime are mixed together in artificial composts, it is not unlikely that a portion of the carbonate of potash may be rendered caustic, and, therefore, be more fit to act upon the vegetable matter in contact with it, by rendering it soluble in water, and thus capable of entering the roots of plants. In the mean time, it is proper to remark, that if pearlash be mixed, as above prescribed, with half its weight of quicklime, and then boiled with less than 10 or 12 times its weight of water, a part of the potash only is rendered caustic, the lime being unable to de- prive the pearlash of its carbonic acid, unless it be largely di- luted. Hence, in dry composts, or mixtures of this substance with quicklime, it is unlikely that any. large portion of the pot- ash can be at once brought to the caustic state. This fact is really of importance in reference to the theory of the conjoined action of quicklime and wood or pearlashes, when mixed to- gether in artificial manures, and applied to the land. Chloride of Poiassiiim. — This is a compound of chlorine with potassium, which, in taste, properties, and general appearance, has much resemblance to common suit. It may be formed by dissolving pearlash in dilute muriatic acid, (spirit of salt,) as long as any effervescence appears, and afterwards evaporating to dryness. It exists in small quantity in sea water, in the ash of most plants, and frequently in the soil. It is not an article of manufacture, but is occasionally extracted from kelp, and sold to alum makers. Could it be easily and cheaply ob- tained, there is no doubt that it might be employed with advan- tage as a manure, and especially in those circumstances in which common salt has been found to promote vegetation. The refuse of soap boilers, where soap is made from kelp, contains a considerable quantity of this compound. This re- I MINERAL MANURES, 137 fuse might be obtained at a cheap rate, and, therefore, might be usufully collected and applied to the land where such works are established. — Johnston. Citrates and Tartrates of Potash. — These salts exist in many fruits. The citrates abound in the orange, the lemon, and the lime. The tartrates, in the grape. When heated over a lamp, they are decomposed, and like the oxalates, leave the potash in the state of carbonate. In the interior of plants, both pot- ash and soda are most frequently combined with organic acids, (oxalic, citric, tartaric, &c.,) and the compounds thus formed are generally what chemists call acid salts ; that is to say, they generally have a distinctly sour taste, redden vegetable blues, and contain much more acid than is found to exist in certain other well-known compounds of the same acids with potash. The citrates and tartrates are not known to be formed in nature, except in the living plant, and as they are too expensive to be ever employed as manures, it is the less to be regretted that few experiments have yet been tried with the view of as- certaining their effect upon vegetation. — Johnston. Crenate and Apoci'enatB of Potash. — See crenic and apocrenic ACIDS, under the head of " Liquid Manures." Nitrate of Potash. — This substance, which is commonly known under the names of "nitre" and "saltpetre," is spon- taneously generated in the soil and on the walls of certain caves, owing to the action of the atmosphere, and crystallises, on the surface in various parts of the world. It is also pro- duced artificially by exposing a mixture of calcareous soil and animal matter to the atmosphere, when nitrate of lime is slowly formed, and is extracted by lixiviation. The liquid is then de- composed by adding carbonate of potash, by which carbonate of lime is precipitated, and nitrate of potash remains in solu- tion. This salt is also contained in several plants, particularly in tobacco, the sunflower, beet root, and in the stalks of Indian corn ; but it has not hitherto been found in any animal sub- stances. 138 FOSSIL, SALINE AND When pure, saltpetre consists only of potash and nitric acid, combined in the following proportions : — Nitric acid, ^ 53.44 Potassa, 46.56 100.00 In this state, it does not become moist on exposure to the air. The nitrate of potash of commerce, however, more frequently contains muriates, sulphates, or calcareous salts. In combination with soda, saltpetre is found in deposits of considerable thickness in the district of Arica, in Northern Peru, from whence it is imported into this country, chiefly for the manufacture of nitric and sulphuric acids. More recently, its lower price has caused it to be extensively employed in British husbandry, especially as a top-dressing for grass lands. Like the acid itself, these nitrates of potash and soda, when present in large quantities, are injurious to vegetation. This is probably one cause of the barrenness of the district of Arica, in Peru, and of other countries, where, in consequence of the little rain that falls, the nitrous incrustations are accumulated upon the soil. In small quantity, they appear to exercise an important and salutary influence on the rapidity of growth, and on the amount of produce of many of the cultivated grasses. This salutary influence is to be ascribed, either in whole or in part, to the constitution and nature of the nitric acid which these salts contain. Saltpetre, however, is very soluble, and is a transient manure, especially when applied on very open soils. It is very service- able in retaining moisture, and a damp spot may be observed wherever a crystal of this salt has been laid. It has been used at the rate of 50 to 100 lbs. to the acre as a top-dressing to grass, wheat, and other crops, for which it is regarded as more beneficial than either the phosphates or guano, fts effects are most marked on poor sandy soils, but they are not so apparent on lands that are very rich. Oxalates of Potash. — These salts exist in the common and MINERAL MANURES. 139 wood sorrels, and in most of the other more perfect plants in which oxalic acid is known to exist. The salt of sorrel is the best known of these oxalates. This salt has an agreeable acid taste, and is not so poisonous as the uncombined oxalic acid. When this soil is heated over a lamp, the oxalic acid it con- tains is decomposed, and carbonate of potash is obtained. It is supposed that a great part of the potash extracted from the ashes of wood and of the stems of plants in general, in the state of a carbonate, existed as an oxalate in the living tree, and was converted into carbonate during the combustion of the woody fibre and other organic matter. This compound, there- fore, in all probability, performs an important part in the changes which take place in the interior of plants, though its direct agency in effecting their growth, when applied externally to their roots, has not hitherto been distinctly recognised. It is probably formed occasionally in farmyard manure, and in decaying urine and night soil, but nothing very precise is yet known on this subject. — Johnston. Phosphates of Potash. — If, to a known weight of phosphoric acid, pearlash, (carbonate of potash,) be added as long as any effervescence appears, and the solution be then evaporated, phosphate of potash is obtained. If to the solution, before evaporation, a second portion of phosphoric acid be added, equal to the first, and the water be then expelled by heat, bi- phosphate of potash will remain. One or other of these two salts is found in the ash of nearly all plants. It may be stated as certain that they are of the most vital importance not only in reference to the growth of plants themselves, but also to their nutritive qualities when eaten by animals for food. These phosphates are occasionally, perhaps very generally, present in the soil in minute quantities, and there is every rea- son to believe that, could they be applied in a sufficiently eco- nomical form, they would in many cases act in a most favor- able manner upon vegetation. They are contained in urine and other animal manures, and to their presence, a portion of the efficacy of these manures is to be ascribed. — Johnston. 140 FOSSIL, SALINE AND Silicate of Potash — When finely-powdered quartz, flint, or sand is mixed with from one half to three times its weight of dry carbonate of potash or soda, and exposed to a strong heat in a crucible, it readily unites with the potash or soda, and forms a glass. This glass is a silicate or a mixture of two or more silicates of potash or soda. When pure, the silicate of potash contains of Silicic acid, 49.46 Potassa, 50.54 100.00 Silica combines with these alkalies in various proportions. If it be melted with much potash, the glass obtained will be readily soluble in water; if with little, the silicate, which is formed, will resist the action of water for any length of time. Window and plate glass contain much silicate of potash or soda. A large quantity of alkali renders these varieties of glass more fusible and more easily worked, but at the same time makes them more susceptible of corrosion or tarnish by the action of the air. The insoluble silicates of potash and soda exist also in many mineral substances. In feldspar and mica, they are present in considerable quantity. The former, (feldspar,) contains one third of its weight of an insoluble silicate of potash, consisting of nearly equal weights of potash and silica. Trap rocks, or green stone, abundant also in many parts of the world, often consist almost entirely of silicates. Among these, however, the silicates of potash and soda rarely exceed 5 or 6 per cent, of the whole rock, and sometimes they are entirely absent. In the green-sand marl of New Jersey, potash is combined with silica and iron, but their union is readily destroyed by the car- bonic acid of the soil and air, which rapidly forms the potash into a carbonate. These insoluble silicates of potash and soda also exist in the stems and leaves of nearly all plants. They are abundant in the stems of the grasses, especially in the straw of the culti- MINERAL MANURES. 141 vated grains, and form a large proportion of the ash which is left when these stems are burned. It is important to the agricultm'ist to understand the relation which the carbonic acid of the atmosphere bears to these alkaline silicates which occur in the mineral and vegetable kingdoms. Insoluble as they are in water, they are slowly de- composed by the united action of the moisture and carbonic acid of the air, the latter taking the potash or soda from the silica, and forming carbonates of these bases. In consequence of this decomposition, the rock disintegrates and crumbles down, whilst the soluble carbonate is washed down by the rains or mists, and is borne to the lower grounds to enrich the allu- vial and other soils, or is carried by the rivers to the sea. In some cases, as in the softer kinds of feldspar, this decom- position is comparatively rapid, while in others, it is exceed- ingly slow ; but in all cases, the rock crumbles to powder long before the whole of the silicates are decomposed, so that the potash and soda are always present in greater or less quantity in granitic soils, and will thus continue to be separated from the decaying fragments of rock for an indefinite period of time. But the silica of the feldspar or mica, when thus deprived of the potash with which it is combined, is capable of being dis- solved in a small quantity _by pure ^mto-, and more largely by a solution of carbonate of potash or soda. Hence, the same rains or mists which dissolve the alkaline carbonates so slowly formed, take up a portion of the silica, and convey it in a state of solution to the soils or to ihe rivers. Thus, with the excep- tion of the dews and rains, which fall directly from the heavens, few of the supplies of water by which plants are refreshed and fed, ever reach their roots entirely free from silica, in a form in which it can readily enter into their roots, and be appropriated to their nourishment. In the farm yard and the compost heap, where vegetable matters are undergoing decomposition, the silicates they con- tain undergo similar decompositions, and, by similar chemical changes, their silica is rendered soluble, and thus fitted, when 142 FOSSIL, SALINE AND mixed with the soil, again to minister to the wants, and aid the growth of new races of living vegetables. — Johnston. Sulphate of Potash. — This compound is formed by adding pearlash to dilute sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) as long as effer- vescence appears, and then evaporating the solution. It is a , white saline substance, sparingly soluble in water, and has a disagreeable bitterish taste. It exists in considerable quantity in wood ashes and in the ash of nearly all plants, and is one of the \Y)OBi abundant impurities in the common potash and pearl- ash of the shops. This sulphate itself is not an article of exten- sive manufacture, but exists in common alum to the amount of upwards of 18 per cent, of its weight. When pure, it contains of Sulphuric acid, 45,93 Potassa, 54.07 I 100.00 Dissolved in 100 times its weight of water, the sulphate of potash has been found to act favorably on red clover, vetches, beans, peas, &c., and part of the effect of wood ashes on plants of this kind is to be attributed to the sulphate of potash they contain. Turf ashes are also said to contain this salt in variable quantity, and to this is ascribed a portion of their efficacy, also, when applied to the land. The black salts which remain in potash kettles during the manufacture of pot and pearl ashes, consist of impure sulphates of potash, which, when applied to bones, decompose them very rapidly. The bones may be broken up coarsely, and then boiled in the saturated solution of these black salts until they fall to powder, after whifih, the whole mass may be composted with swamp or pond muck or mould. COMMON SALT. This useful substance, known also by the names of chloride of sodium and muriate of soda, occurs abundantly in nature, and when pure, is composed of chlorine and sodium, combined in the following proportions : — Chlorine, 60.34 Sodium, 39.66 loaoo MINERAL MANURES. 149 Massive rock salt has a vitreous lustre ; but is not so brittle as nitre. It is nearly as hard as alum, a little harder than gyp- sum, and softer than calcareous spar. When pure, it is usually colorless, translucent, and even transparent. On exposure to heat, it commonly decrepitates, or crackles with a noise. Ac- cording to M. Guy Lussac, 100 parts of water at 57° F. dissolve 35yVo parts of salt ; at 62^°, 35|f parts; at 140°, 37/o parts ; and at 229i°, 40i| parts of salt. It is well known that common salt has been employed in all ages and in all countries for the purposes of promoting vege- tation ; and yet, perhaps, it would be difficult to name any other substance in the catalogue of modern fertilisers that the powers of which have been subject to so much controversy, and even doubted and denied as exercising any beneficial ef- fects to the crops to which it has been applied. Notwithstand- ing this, there is abundance of evidence in the writings of old authors that it destroyed weeds and worms, and rendered grass and herbage sweeter and more palatable to stock. Allusion is also made to its fitness or unfitness, as a fertiliser, in Luke, xiv. 34, 35 ; and Virgil reprobates a salt soil. In 1653, Sir Hugh Pratt, of England, speaks of salt as afertiliser, and details the result of a very successful experiment on a " patch of ground," at Clapham. The old English gardeners were well aware that the brine of pickling tubs, when poured over heaps of weeds, not only killed them, even every seed and every grub, but that these heaps were then converted into so many parcels of most excellent mauure, the good effects of which, especially upon potatoes and carrots, were very apparent and marked. It was well known, too, that a single grain of salt placed upon an earth worm speedily destroyed it ; that if brine were poured upon grass land, all the earth worms were immediately ejected from the spot ; and that if it were sprinkled over a part of the grass, to this salted portion all the deer, sheep, and horses which fed upon it, constantly preferred that spot to any other part of the field. Native chloride of sodium, whether obtained from the waters 144 FOSSIL, SALINE AND of the ocean, from saline lakes, from salt springs, or mineral masses, is never perfectly pure. The foreign substances pres- ent in it vary according to its origin and qualities. These are principally the sulphates of lime, magnesia, soda, muriates of magnesia and potash, bitumen, oxide of iron, clay in a state of diffusion, &c. Common salt may also be detected in nearly all soils, and is found in the ash of most, if not all plants, but more especially, and .in large quantity, in the ashes of marine plants (kelp). The following table shows the composition of various sam- ples of Onondaga and foreign salt in 1,000 parts, as given in the Natural History of the State of New York : — Localities . Syracuse, (solar evap.,) 991.00 Geddes, i;solar,) 99'i,50 Saline, (table salt,) 991.73 Ditto, (extra good,)... 990.34 Ditto, (by boiling,)- •• 976.2.5 Ditto, (condemned,).. 974.44 Turk's Island 984.04 ■ Liverpool, (fine,) 988.99 Bay salt, (St. Ubes,) . . . 960.00 Ditto. (St. Martins,). 959.r)0 Ditto. (Oleron.) 964.25 Sea salt, Scotch, (com.,) 935.50 Ditto. (Smiday,) 971.00 Cheshire, Eng., (rock,). 983.25 Ditto. (fish%,) 986.75 Ditto, (common,) 983.50 S s 3 . «5 o M?. s "§ n S.2 ::.2 03 'Si o 'o^ o ^ 03 S Cm O O II — c « 2 as to = s S S "3 O be o o_" ^_ a, o. OS .G -^ c rt S 3 3 O O rt O cS 02 CO 2.00 7.00 trace. 1.00 6.50 1.46 0.2O 6.61 3,50 0.38 5.78 2.50 9.00 3.26 0.40 2o.on . 2.80 13 16 0.23 3.77 2,01 3.00 trace. 23.50 3..50 trace. 19.00 2.00 trace. 19.50 28.00 15.00 11.50 12.00 0.07 0.06 6.50 75 0.25 11.2.5 0.75 0.25 14.50 1 «.2 cc S 4.50 6.00 4.50 17.50 4.50 9.00 12.00 10.00 4.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 The fertilising and injurious properties of salt, when applied to land, and its action on various substances may be compre- hended under the following heads : — 1. Administered in small proportions, it promotes the decom- position both of animal and vegetable matter, a fact first made known by Sir John Pringle and Dr. McBride. Salt, therefore, MINERAL MANURES. 146 when applied in moderate quantity, promotes the rapid disso- lution of the animal and vegetable remains, existing in all cul- tivated soils, and when employed as a manure, it is exposed to the action of a very dilute solution of rain water and dews, and very probably is absorbed as food by the roots of plants, and decomposition afterwards takes place in their organs. One thing is certain, chemical facts are at variance with the decom- position of minute quantities of common salt by the carbonate of ammonia, contained in rain water and dews, and its entire fixation by this carbonate at all ; yet, this in no way diminishes the value of salt applied as a manure. 2. Applied in large quantity, it is well known that cornmon salt is destructive to vegetation, and in producing complete sterility in the soil. For, among Eastern nations, from time immemorial, when a conquered city was condemned to desola- tion, it was sown in large quantities about the ruins and their vicinity, proclaiming the will of the destroyer, and announcing that the country should remain uninhabitable, without cultiva- •tion, and devoted to eternal sterility. When applied in excess to the apple, the cherry, the plum, apricot, poplars, beeches, willows, and elms, their, leaves usually speedily perish after they put out, and the trees soon die. On the contrary, some species of the oak, the mulberry, the pear, the peach, and other trees with deep roots, do not suffer from its application ; neither do asparagus, onions, celery, .a ■3 Cl rtO X a S cs cS ?^ ^S Ot3 ^.2 ■^ p^ i 3.79 70..55 20.35 2m 84.6.5 11.53 3.4'2l 2.70; 2.64 3.03 6.00, 4.25! 6.48 5.5G 71. 62 23, 72 12. 76116. 50 12. ,54 7, ,12 10, 86il4, .56,13 0.99 0.60 0.10 1.76 0.36 0.61 1.76 36.60 9.89 43.06 m O § ^ O. 4 5P o s ^ o r^ CL, Oh 0.40 trace. 3.32 0.60 trace. 0.05 0.90 1.52 0.40 0.52 0.30 trace. trace. _ — 1.00 < . 0.40 0.14 2.17 1.06 7* 164 FOSSIL, SALINE AND SODA. Soda, hydrate of soda, or the prot-oxide of sodium, when pure, resembles potassa, and like that salt, possesses alkaline and other properties, but less powerful. It consists of a white brittle mass, of fibrous texture, melting at any heat above red- ness, having a most corrosive taste and action upon animal matter, dissolving readily both in water and alcohol, attracting carbonic acid when exposed to the atmosphere, but scarcely any water, and falling thereby into an efflorescent carbonate. With tallow, oils, wax, and rosin, it forms soap. It also dis- solves hair, wool, silk, horn, alumina, silica, sulphur, and some of the metallic sulphurets. It contains of Water, 22.34 Sodium, 77.66 100.00 Soda is constantly found as one of the essential ingredients in the ash of plants, performing, in the economy of vegetation, the same functions as potash. In the animal kingdom, it occurs abundantly as a silicate, but especially in the form of a chlo- ride of sodium (common salt). The nitrate, (cubic nitre,) which is an important manure, is obtained in abundance, par- ticularly in Atacama and Taracapa, in Peru, where it is found in immense deposits. Soda is also extracted from the ashes of salsola and salicornia on the south coasts of France and Spain, in Portugal and the Canary Islands, as well as from those of the fuci of Holland and the northern coast of France. The crude soda obtained from the former is called "barilla," tand that resulting from the latter is known by the name of " varac" (kelp). Soda, like lime and potash, is applied to the land, as a fertil- iser, in several combinations, and in a variety of forms, some of them natural and others artificially prepared, the nature, composition, and application of which are as follows : — Carbonate of Soda. — The carbonate c ':* soda of commerce oc- MINERAL MANURES. ' 165 curs in various stales, in crystals, lumps, or in crude powder called " soda ash." lUexists in small quantities in certain min- eral waters, and frequently occurs in slender needles upon damp walls, produced by the action of lime upon the comnnon salt present in the mortar. In the province of Sukena, in Africa, is a mineral stratum of sesqui-cixYbon:xte of soda, of such thick- ness as to allow it to be employed as a building stone. It con- tains 37 per cent, of soda,- 38 per cent, of carbonic acid, and 2i per cent, of sulphate of soda, the remainder being water. In Mexico and South America, mineral carbonate of soda is also extracted from the earth in great abundance, sometimes known under the name of wao. But the carbonate of soda is more frequently obtained by lixiviating the ashes of marine plants, or by exposing the sulphate of soda in combination with lime and sawdust to the action of strong heat. It may also be ob- tained by dissolving common salt in water, with litharge and chalk._ Carbonate of soda, when pure, dissolves in 2 parts of cold water, and in less than its own weight in that which is hot. When dry, it contains of Carbonic acid, 41.42 Soda,. 58.58 100.00 In a crystallised state, 100 parts are constituted as follows: — Carbonic acid, 15.43 Soda, 21.81 Water, 62.76 100,00 The dry soda ash, or crude carbonate of soda, produced from the decomposition of common salt, such as is commonly em- ployed for agricultural purposes, contains of Chloride of sodium, 13.94 Carbonate of soda, 38.59 Sulpliate of soda, 14.31 Caustic soda, 16.60 Carbonate of lime, (chalk,) 10.28 Per-oxide of iron, 2.74 Soluble silica, 1.5i. Lo33 and impurities, 2.04 JOO.CJ. 156 FOSSIL, SALINE AND Soda ash, applied at the rate of 100 lbs. per acre, will be found beneficial to barley, oats, beans, carrots, and celery, as well as for the destruction of insects, and the restoration of the plants by means of its application, after suffering from their ravages. Its effects also continue to the subsequent crops. Bi- Carbonate of Soda. — This salt is contained in solution in the waters of many lakes, streams, and springs, in various parts of the Horid. When pure, it consists of Carbonic acid, 58.58 Soda, 41.42 100.00 There can be no doubt that the waters of such springs are fitted to promote the fertility of pasture lands, to which they may be applied either by artificial irrigation, or by the spon- taneous flow from their natural outlets. In such cases, the springs may be expected to contain some alkaline or other natural ingredients, which the soil is unable to supply to the plants that grow upon it, either in sufficient abundance, or with sufficient rapidity. — Johnston. Caustic Soda. — When a solution of the common carbonate of soda of the shops is boiled with quicklime, it is deprived of its carbonic acid, and like the carbonate of potash, is brought into the caustic state, in which it destroys animal and vegetable substances, and, unless very dilute, is injurious to animal and vegetable life. When common salt is mixed with quicklime in compost heaps, it is deprived by the lime of a portion of its chlorine, and is partially converted into this caustic soda. The action of the soda, in this state, is similar to that of caustic pot- ash. Not only does it readily supply soda to the growing plant, lo which soda is necessary, but it also acts upon certain other substances that the plants require, so as to render them sol- uble, and to facilitate their entrance into the roots. To the presence of soda, in this caustic state, the efficacy of such com- posts of common salt and lime in promoting vegetation, is in part to be ascribed. MINERAL MANURES. 157 Chloride of Sodium. — This substance is described under the head of common salt, which see. Crenate and Ajpocrenate of Soda. — See crenic and apocrenic Acros, under the head of " Liquid Manures." Nitrate of Soda. — Nitrate of soda, which is also known by the names of " cubic nitre," and " cubic petre," is chiefl)^ obtained from Peru, where immmense deposits of it occur in thick strati) in Atacama and Taracapa. It consists of Nitric acid, 63.40 Soda, 36.60 100.00 and is very soluble and deliquescent, requiring but 3 parts of water, at 60° F., for solution. It may be applied to land pre- cisely in the same manner as saltpetre, and with similar eifects. As there is but little evidence of this salt entering into the composition of our common cultivated crops, there is but a slight probability of its being a direct food of the plants to which it is usually applied. The only common exception is that of barley, in which a minute portion of this nitrate is found to exist. Its application, as well as that of saltpetre, to grass, renders it much more attractive to live stock, which, if turned into the field only partially manured with either, will almost invariably resort to those parts of the land dressed with these salts. This is one argument in favor of the conclusion that they are absorbed in minute quantities by the crops to which they are applied. The effect of cubic nitre, as a fertiliser for heavy soils, ap- pears to be rather more favorable than that of saltpetre. Yet, it is stated that, in a majority of cases, both of these salts have been found much more valuable as top-dressings for light lands than for stiff, heavy soils. It is also a very valuable manure for light lands, exhausted by repeated croppings, particularly on soils that have been over manured with lime. As nitrogen is of great advantage to the cereal grains ap- plied in the form of, or rather in coujunction with, saline matter, 168 FOSSIL, SALINIi AND those substances richest in this element have the nnost ben- eficial action on the crop. Hence, nitrate of soda and sulphate and muriate of ammonia are superior in their effects to nitrate of potash. They give a deeper green to the plants, and, year after year, are more to be depended upon in the production of luxuriant and healthy growth. Applied to barley or oats, broadcast, at the rate of 140 lbs. per acre, finely divided as possible, soon after the young plants begin to show themselves above ground, the nitrate of soda is attended with most excellent effects. The clover, also, which, in many instances, is sown with barley, is benefitted by the ap- plication of this salt in a marked degree. It has been observed, too, that the effect of cubic nitre upon young wheat plants, when applied on clayey soils, at the rate of 140 lbs. per acre, as well as those which are sandy, has been excellent, not only in producing a very deep-green color, but in showing a considerable rankness of growth. Applied to Swedish turnips and potatoes, at the rate of 168 lbs. per acre, this salt causes the roots or tubers to be much finer, richer, and more productive than those growing near them not thus dressed. But from trials made with the same propor- tions, on mangold wurzel, carrots, spinach, cauliflowers, aspa- ragus, and onions, but very little, if any difference will be ob- served between those thus manured, and those which are not. Phosphates of Soda. — When the common soda of the shops is added to a solution of phosphoric acid in water, till efferves- cence ceases, and the solution is evaporated to dryness, phos- phate of soda is formed, and by the subsequent addition of as much more phosphoric acid — 6t-phosphate. When pure, the phosphate of soda contains of Phosphoric acid, 53.30 Soda, 46.70 100.00 The 5i-phosphate, according to Professor Johnston, consists of Phosphoric acid, 69.54 Sodar 30.48 1 110,00 MINERAL MANURES. 169 These salts occur more or less abundantly in the ash of nearly- all plants ; they are occasionally also detected in the soil, and one or other of them is almost always present in urine and other animal manures. As we know from theory that these compounds must be grateful to plants, we are justified in ascrib- ing a portion of the efficacy of animal manures, in promoting the growth of vegetables, to the presence of these phosphates, as well as to that of the phosphates of potash. They are not known to occur ia the mineral kingdom in any large quantity, neither are they articles of manufacture. Hence, their direct action upon vegetation has not hitherto been made the subject of separate experiment. Silicate of Soda. — See silicates of potash and soda, under the head of "Potash." Sulphate of Soda. — Sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt, is usually manufactured from common salt by pouring upon it diluted sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) and applying heat. Mu- riatic acid, (spirit of salt,) is given off in the form of vapor, and sulphate of soda remains behind. It may also be prepared, though less economically, by adding the common soda of the shops to diluted sulphuric acid as long as any effervescence ap- pears. When pure, in a dry state, it contains of Sulphui-ic acid, 56.18 Soda, 43.82 100.00 This well-known salt is met with in variable quantity in the ashes of nearly all plants, and is diffused in minute proportion through most soils. The beneficial effect which it has been observed to exercise on the growth, especially of such plants as are known to contain a considerable portion of sulphuric acid, is very apparent in red clover, vetches, peas, &c. And as this salt can be obtained at a low price, in the dry state, it has been recommended to the practical farmer as likely to be exteasively useful as a manure fo/ certain crops and on certain 160 FOSSIL, SALINE AND soils. The kind of crops and soils have as yet, ih great meas- ure, to be determined by practical trials. Sulphuret of Sodium. — When sulphate of soda is mixed with sawdust, and heated in a furnace, the oxygen of the salt is sepa- rated, and sulphuret of sodium is produced. By a similar treatment, sulphate of potash is converted into sulphuret of po- tassium. These compounds consist of sulphur and metallic sodium or potassium only. They do not occur extensively in nature, and are not manufactured for sale ; but there is reason to believe that they would materially promote the vegetation of such plants as contain much sulphur in combination with pot- ash or soda. The sulphuret of sodium is present in variable quantity in the refuse lime of the alkali works, and might be expected to aid the other substances of which it chiefly con- sists, in contributing to the more rapid growth of pulse and clover crops. SOOT. Tms is a complicated and variably-mixed substance, usually produced by the combustion of wood and of mineral coal. Its composition, and consequently its effects, as a fertiliser, must vary with the nature and quality of the fuel, and the manner in which it is burned, as well as with the height and structure of the chimney or apparatus in which it is collected. The following is an analysis made in 1826, by Braconnot, which obviously relates to the soot of a wood fire, and is, besides, be- hind the present state of chemical knowledge. It was found to consist, in 1,000 parts, of Ulmic acid? 302,0 A reddish-brown soluble substancs, containing nitro- ) q/iq q • gen, and yielding ammonia when heated, S Asboline, 5.0 Carbonate of lime, with a trace of magnesia, (proba- ) , .g g bly derived in part from the sides of the chimney,). S Acetate of lime, 56.5 Sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) 50.0 Acetate of raagneeia, , 5.3 MINERAL MANURES. 161 Phosphate of lime, with a trace of iron, 15.0 Chloride of potassium, 3.6 Acetate of potash, 41.0 Acetate of ammonia, 2.0 Silica, (sand,) , 9.5 Charcoal powder, 38.5 Water, 125.0 1000.0 As the soot of fire wood is somewhat limited in its supply, 1 shall confine the remainder of my remarks on this subject to that produced from mineral coal, which, with little exertion on the part of chimney sweeps, cooks, &c., in cities and large towns, could be obtained in considerable quantities, and sold to farm- ers for manure. The composition of the soot of mineral coal will vary, of course, with the kind of coal used for fuel, and with the cir- cumstances under which it is burned. From whatever variety it is derived, it will contain a number of organic as well as in- organic bodies, including a considerable proportion of the coal ashes, which have been carried up and lodged in the chimney by the draught. One of its most prominent ingredients is the large amount of ammonia it contains. Besides this, it yields the phosphates, sulphates, carbonates, and chlorides of lime, potash, soda, iron, and of magnesia, which are the principal inorganic ingredients, and show that soot is quite a powerful manure. The source of the "ammonia, unquestionably is to be sought for chiefly in the nitrogen present in the coal, if bituminous in its character. The proportions of this ingredient vary, ac- cording to Professor Johnston, from jth of 1 per cent, to 2 per cent, of the whcle weight of the coal. Ammonia, however, may also be formed from the nitrogen of the air as it passes through the red-hot cinders of the fire. Some kinds of mineral coal contain from ^ of 1 per cent, to 3 per cent, and even more of sulphur. As this consumes and ascends the flue, part of it, at least is expected to be found in some form or other in the soot. From this circumstance, the 162 FOSSIL, SALINE AND economical value of ;his fertiliser to the farmer depends in a great degree upon the sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) as well as upon the sulphate of ammonia it contains. The properties of these salts, however, vary; but the latter often amounts to as much as 10 per cent, of the whole weight of the soot, and may even rise' to as high as 30 per cent, of crystallised sulphate of ammonia. The peculiar action of soot, therefore, in promoting growth and verdure is explained chiefly by the presence of this ingredient; while its varying value in diiferent localities is most probably due to the unequal proportions in which this sulphate occurs. In very dry seasons, this ammonia causes injury, and often diminishes the crop. Like rape dust, and sa- line substances in general, soot seems to require moist weather, or a soil naturally moist, to bring all its virtues out. Soot is commonly applied, as a top-dressing, either alone, or is compounded with some other substance, when it gives a beautiful dark-green color to grass and grain, and on many soils, very materially increases the yield. When employed alone, from 12 to 100 bushels per acre are regarded as a suf- ficient dose, according to the quality of the soot, the nature of the crop, and the state of fertility of the land. Mixed with chloride of sodium, soot has remarkable effects on certain crops, as is noted under the head of " Common Salt." It may also be composted with African or Patagonian guano with excellent effects, but should never be mixed with wood ashes, caustic potash, soda, nor lime. SULPHUR. Sulphur is a substance too well known to require any de- tailed description. In an uncombined state, it occurs chiefly in volcanic countries, particularly in Sicily, Italy, and Iceland, where it is found native, but it may sometimes be observed in the form of thin pellicles on the surface of stagnant waters, or of mineral springs, which are naturally charged with sulphur- ous vapors. In this state, it is not known materially to influ- MINERAL MANURES. 163 ence the natural vegetation of any part of the globe. It has been employed, however, with some advantage in Germany, as a top-dressing, for clover and other crops, to which gypsum is generally applied. Sulphur is present in combination with numerous metals throughout the mineral kingdom, and is found in all vegetables containing albumen, casein, and other analogous bodies. It is insoluble in water, and at 300° F., it lakes fire in the open air, and burns with a pale-blue flame. At 600° F., it is con- verted into vapor, which may be condensed in close vessels, unchanged, forming the flowers of sulphur of commerce TRAP ROCKS. Of trap rocks, there are several varieties, the most important of which are distinguished by the names of "greenstone," " serpentine," and " basalt." Greenstones consist of a mixture more or less intimate of feldspar and hornblende, or feldspar and augite. They are dis- tinguished from the granites by the absence of mica and quartz, and by the presence of the hornblende or augite, often in equal, and not unfrequently in greater quantity than the feldspar. According to the analysis of a sample as given in the " Natu- ral History of the State of New York," it contains of Silica, 57.25 Alumina, 25.50 Lime, 2.75 Magnesia, ? Soda, .- 8.10 Iron and manganese, 3.50 Water, 3.00 100.00 The composition, however, of greenstones is extremely va- riable ; but all of them are known to contain alkalies and al- kaline earths ; and it is owing to this circumstance that green- 164 FOSSIL, SALINE AND stone soils are remarkably fertile, so much so that they may often be employed to increase the fertility of those less fav- ored, in the vicinity of Crown Point, Lake Champlain, New York, according to Professor Emmons, there is a trap dyke which contains 40 to 50 per cent, of the phosphates, which, if abundant, would well pay for crushing and employing it as a manure. Augite is a mineral having much resemblance to hornblende, and, like it, occurring of various colors. In the trap rocks, it is usually of a dark green, approaching to black. It generally contains much lime and oxide of iron in the state of silicates. The composition of two varieties compared with that of basal- tic hornblende is as follows : — Black augite from Sweden. Augite from the lava of Vesuvius. Basaltic hornblende. Silica, Lime, 53.36 22.19 4.99 17.38 0.09 50.90 22.96 14.43 6.25 5.37 42.24 12.24 13.74 14.59 0.33 13.92 97.06 Prot-oxide of iron, Prot-oxide of manganese, 98.01 99.91 The predominance of this mineral, (augite,) or of hornblende, in the greenstone rocks, must necessarily cause a very material difference in the nature of the soils produced from their decay, compared with those which are formed from the granitic rocks in which feldspar is the predominating mineral ingredient. Basalt consists of a mixture, in variable proportions, of aug- ite, magnetic oxide of iron, and zeolite, with or without feldspar. In addition to augite, magnetic iron, and zeolite, many basalts contain also a, considerable portion of certain varieties of feld- spar, especially of one to which the name of " nepheiine " has been given. Basalt difiers in appearance from greenstone, chiefly by the darkness of its color, and by the minuteness of the particles of which it is composed, which, in general, cannot be distin- MINERAL MANURES. 165 guished by the naked eye. The analysis of a specimen given in the " Natural History of the State of New York," yielded of SUica, 46.50 Alumina, 16.75 Lime, < 9.50 Magnesia, 2.25 Soda, 2.60 Ii'on and manganese, 20.12 Water, 2.00 97.72 Serpentine is a greenish-yellow mineral, consisting of silica in combination with magnesia and a little iron, and occasionally a few pounds in the hundred of lime or alumina. The distin- guishing ingredient is the magnesia, which generally approaches to 40 per cent, of the whole weight of the mineral. Rocks of serpentine are generally mixed with magnetic iron ore, and with portions of other minerals in greater or less abundance. According to Professor Shepard, it consists of Silica, 40.08 Magnesia, 41.40 Water, 15.67 Prot-oxide of ii'on, 2.70 99.85 In New York and a part of New England, however, it would appear that the serpentine exists under different conditions. Thus, in St. Lawrence, Jefferson, Essex, and Warren counties, New York, it is intermixed with lime, which disintegrates more rapidly than the serpentine. The soil, therefore, must contain a sufficient quantity of lime. However this may be, there is always a luxuriant growth of vegetation about the beds of this mineral. The serpentine hills of New England are not so pro- ductive, however, as those of New York. From what has been stated in the forgoing remarks, it will be perceived how exactly the study of the composition of the different varieties of the trap rocks explains the observed dif- 166 FOSSIL, SALINE AND MINERAL MANURES. ferences in the quality of the soils derived from them. When the minerals they contain abound in lime, the soils they yield are fertile ; when they predominate and lime is wanting, the soils are inferior, sometimes scarcely capable of cultivation. The granites, it has been shown, abound in potash ; and, with the exception of the Syenites, they rarely contain lime, and their soils are generally poor. Let them be mixed with the trap soils, and they are enriched. This would seem fairly and clearly to imply that the fertility of the one is mainly due to the presence of lime, and the barrenness of the other to the absence of this earth. Zeolite is a term applied to a great number of minerals which occur in the basalts, and oflen intermixed with the greenstone rocks. They differ from feldspar in their greater solubility in acids, and by generally containing lime, where the latter con- tains potash or soda. It may be stated, indeed, as the most important agricultural distinction, between the granitic and the true trap rocks, that the latter abound in lime, while in the former, it is often entirely absent. If, in a greenstone, only one fourth of its weight con- sist of augite, every 20 tons of the rock may contain one ton of lime. If in a basalt, the augite and zeolite amount to only two thirds of its weight, every nine tons may contain a ton of lime. The practical farmer cannot fail to conclude that a soil formed from such rocks must possess very different agricul- tural capabilities from the soils already described as being formed from the decomposition of the granites. VEGETABLE MANURES. BARK OF TREES AND SHRUBS. nPHE rind, or covering, of the woody parts of a tree, common- ly called the " bark," is composed of three distinct layers. The epidermis, or outermost layer, in some trees, like the plum, cher- ry, birch, &c., is a thin, tough, membrane, when young, but gradually becomes thicker and rougher as t^e tree advances in age. That of the oak or hemlock spruce is coarser in its tex- ture, and cracks as the tree grows older, while a new epidermis is forming, giving it a rough or ragged surface, and is finally pushed off to decay. The middle layer is called the paren- chyma, and is usually comparatively tender, succulent, and of a dark-green color. The inner or cortical layer, sometimes called the Zt^er, consists of thin membranes encircling each other, which seem to increase with the age of the tree. It is generally known by its light color, great flexibility, toughness, and durability. In its structure, it consists of long, minute tubes, through which the juices, or generative sap, descend, from whence all the woody parts of the tree originate as they are received from the leaves. The middle layer of the bark, in its interstices, contains nu- merous cells, which are filled with juices or other matter, vary- ing in their qualities, some, as in the oak, remarkable for their astringency, while others abound in tannin, resin, mucilage, 168 VEGETABLE MANURES. ■ essential oils, and alkaline or other earthy salts. Hence, the difference in the chemical constituents of the bark of different species of trees, which not only vary with the season of the year and their age, but in the different parts of the same tree. As the chief source of bark, to be applied as manure, is the refuse of our tanneries, I give below an analysis of the ash of hemlock spruce, (Abies canadensis,) the kind most in use in this country, as published in the "Natural History of the State of New York," which will very nearly show the composition of those of the bark of other trees employed for the purpose : — Bark of trunk. Bark of twigs. Potash, 2.86 1.58 Soda, 3.47 1.33 Chloride of sodium, 0.03 0.99 Sulphuric acid, 3.48 4.47 Caibonic acid, 24.33 24.00 Lime, 31.48 31.05 Magnesia, 0.01 0.30 Phosphate of pei-oxide of iron, 1.49 1.55 Phosphate Cjf lime, 16.45 18.87 Phosphate of magnesia, 5.17 1.28 Organic matter, 3.48 4.10 Insoluble silica, 13.40 0.40 C!oal, 1.22 0.48 106.87 90.40 It is obvious from the above analysis that a large supply of inorganic matter, essential to the growth of plants, may be sup- plied fr.om refuse tan hark. Although it requires a long time to undergo decomposition or putrefaction, it certainly might be mixed with farmyard manure, at the rate of 1 bushel of tan to 4 of dung, with considerable advantage. Mr. Robert Bryson, of Virginia, has been experimenting for several years upon this substance with the view of rendering it available as a manure. The plan which he adopts is, to cover a flat surface of ground with the exhausted bark to a depth of 1 or 2 feet. Over this, he spreads a layer 2 or 3 inches thick of quicklime, and over this again a stratum of tan, and so on, alternately, VEGETABLE MANURES. 169 layers of lime and bark, until the pile is completed. He then lets the compost, thus prepared, remain for two years, at the end of which time, he finds himself in possession of a bed of most valuable manure. Its effects upon the land, it is stated. can hardly be surpassed, either for the richness of its product or the durability of its fertility. If a layer of powdered char- coal or plaster, (gypsum,) M^ere spread over the top of the pile, 1 or 2 inches thick, it would doubtless retain a large share of the ammonia and other fertilising gases as they escape from the decomposing mass, and increase thereby the value of the manure. Spent tan bark, in a half-putrefied or even fresh state, when applied as a top-dressing to grass lands, is attended with excel- lent results; and in cases where transportation is an objection, even its ashes or charcoal, would be valuable to the farmer from the quantity of earthy carbonates and phosphates they contain. When spread on a light soil, between the rows of strawberry plants, about an inch thick, it not only keeps the ground moist and the fruit clean, but checks the growth of weeds, and appears to be the material, above all others, in which this plant most delights. Doubtless from this hint, it might be applied to other plants with favorable results. CHARCOAL OF WOOD AND OTHER VEaETABLE MATTER. Wood charcoal is a well-known black, brittle substance, ob- tained by the calcination of the trunks, roots, or branches of trees in a place excluded from the free access of atmospheric air, which otherwise would cause it entirely to consume. When heated in the air, it burns with but little flame, and, with the exception of the ash which is left, it entirely disap- pears. By this process of burning, it is converted into a kind of air, known among chemists by the name of carbonic acidy which ascends as it is formed, and mingles with the atmos- phere; but when burned in a close apartment, accumulates on the floor, bv its greater weight, forming a dense stratum, of a 3 170 VEGETABLE MANURES. depth in proportion to the quantity produced. Charcoal is in- soluble in water, destroys the oder, color, and taste of many substances; and hence, its use in the arts in the purification of tainted meats and putrid waters. It also separatesfrom water any decayed animal matters or coloring substances which it may hold in solution. Hence, its use in filters for purifying and sweetening impure river or spring waters, or for clarifying syrups and oils. In or upon the soil, charcoal, for a time, will act in the same manner, will absorb from the air moisture and gaseous substances, and from the rain and flowing waters, organised matters of various kinds, any of which it will be in a condition to yield to the plants that grow around it, when they are such as are likely to contribute to their growth. The following exhibits the number of volumes of the difier- ent gases which were absorbed in the course of 24 hours, by one volume of charcoal, in the experiments of M. de Saus- sure : — Ammoniacal gas, 90.00 Muriatic acid gas, 85.00 Sulphurous acid, 65.00 Sulphureted hydrogen, 55.00 Nitrous oxide, 40.00 Cai'bonic acid gas, 35.00 Bi-carbureted hydrogen, 35.00 Carbonic oxide, 9.42 Oxygen gas, 9.25 Nitrogen, 7.50 Caj'bureted hydrogen, 5.00 Hydrogen gas, 1.75 Charcoal has the property also of absorbing disagreeable odors in a very remarkable manner. Hence, animal food keeps longer sweet when placed in contact with it; hence, also, veg- etable substances, containing much water, such as potatoes, are more completely preserved by the aid of a quantity of char- coal. It exhibits, also, the still more singular property of ex- tracting from water a portion of the saline substances it may happen to hold in solution, and thus allowing it to escape in a VEGETABLE MANURES. 171 less impure form. The decayed, (half-carbonised,) roots of grass, which have been long subjected to irrigation, may act in one or all of these ways on the more or less impure water by which they are irrigated ; and thus gradually arrest and col- lect the materals which are fitted to promote the growth of the coming crop. In or near large cities, charcoal is made of green wood, by distilling it in close iron vessels for the purpose of collecting a strong vinegar, (pyroligneous acid,) which is thrown off by the calcination. A fine charcoal remains in the vessels, and is thus obtained for commercial use. On the farm and in the forest, the production of charcoal must be done on a cheaper and more extensive scale. It is usually prepared by cutting pieces of wood, from 1 inch to 6 inches in diameter, in lengths varying from 2 to 4 feet, forming them into a conical pile, and covering them with turf, clay, or loam, to exclude the air, leaving only two or three small holes at the bottom of the pile for light- ing the wood, and a few others still smaller at the top, to admit the escape of the smoke. The wood is now kindled, and the combustion slowly allowed to proceed for eight or ten days, more or less, until the volatile matter of the wood is driven off, when the air holes are stopped up with earth or clay, in order to arrest the further combustion of the pile. The whole is then allowed to remain until the fire goes out, after which, the heap is broken up, and the charcoal raked out and assorted for sale or use. In cases of very high winds occurring during the carbonisation of the wood, the air holes at the windward ave closed with earth or clay, to prevent the too rapid burning of the mass; but in the process of carbonisation, however, care should be taken to let the vapors freely escape, especially to- wards the end of the operation; for when the carbonic acid gas is re-absorbed, it greatly impairs the combustibilit)'' of the coal, and also renders it less fit for agricultural purposes. Charcoal varies in its qualities, according to the nature of the substances from which it is prepared. That made from the dry wood of the trees of this country most commonly employed 172 VEGETABLE MANURES. for the purpose, yields the following per-centage, by weight, and the number of pounds of dry coals in a heaped Winchester bushel, respectively : — Per cent. Pitch pine, (Pinus rigida,) 26.76. . SheU-bark hickory, (Carya alba,) 26.22. . White ash, (Fraxinus americana,) 25.74. . American chestnut, (Castanea americana,) .25.29 . . Pignut hickory, {Carya porcina,) 25.22. . Jersey pine, (Pinus mops,) 24.88 . . VV^hite elm, ( Ulmus americana,) 24.85. . White pine, {Pinus strobus,) 24,35. . Short-leaved j'ellow pine, (Pinus mitis,). ..23.75. . Thick shell-bark hickory, (Carya sulcata,). 22.90. . Sassafras, {Laurtis sassafras,) 22.58. . Black walnut, (Juglans nigra,) 22.56. . Red oak, (Q;uercus rubra,) 22 43. . Pin oak, (Quercus palustris,) 22.22. . Tulip tree, {Liriodendron tulipifera,) 21.81. . Wild cherry, (Cerasus virginensis,) White oak, (Querciis alba,) Big laurel, (Magnolia grandiflora,) . Sugar maple, {.jlcer saccharinum,) . . Dog wood, (Cornus fiorida,) Red-flowered maple, (Acer rubrum,). . , Sweet gum, (Liquidambar styraciflua,) White beech, (Fagus sylvestris,) Black birch, (Betula lenta,) White birch, (Betula populifolia,) L'OQ wood, (Carpinus americana,) 21.70.. ....21.62.. ....21.59.. ....21.43.. ....21.00.. ....20.64.., .19.69.. .19.62.. .19.40.., .19.00.. .19.00... Pounds per bushel' ....15.68 ....32.89 ....28.78 ....19.94 ....33.52 ....20.26 .... 18.79 ....15.42 ....17.52 ....26.78 ....22.47 ....22.00 ....21.05 ....22.94 . . . .20.15 ....21.63 ....21.10 . . . .21,36 ....22.68 ....28,94 ....19.47 ....21.73 ....27.26 .... 22.52 ....19.15 ....23.94 As charcoal is one of the most undecomposable substances in organic nature, it may be kept for centuries without change, and, therefore, is not very subject to decay. The only materials that it will yield to plants are certain salts it contains, amongst which is the silicate of potash. It is known, however, to pos- sess the power of absorbing gases within its pores, particularly ammonia and carbonic acid. And it is in virtue of this power, in a degree, that the rootlets of plants are supplied by charcoal, precisely as in the case of humus, with an atmosphere about them of carbonic acid, which is renewed again as quickly as it is abstracted. VEGETABLE MANUKES. 173 Charcoal may be applied with advantage, in the pow^dered state, in the form of a top-dressing. About 40 bushels to the acre, sown over grass lands, or among young plants, as turnips, it has been found, will produce an increased yield. The suc- cess, however, will depend upon the state of fertility of the soil and its wants. Wherever an increased supply of ammo- nia, escaping from the air, the earth, or from any putrescent matter, is desirable to be caught and retained, charcoal will always do good. The fresh-burnt article, also, contains much saline matter, as stated above, that will be dissolved by rains, dews, or melted snows, and contribute to the enrichment of the soil. The best, and perhaps the only advisable mode of using char- coal is, to compost the powder with night soil, urine, blood, and other putrescent bodies, either liquid or solid. By this method, it tends to absorb or dry up these fluids, and retain the ammo- nia formed during their decomposition or decay. Such com- posts, when added to the soil, retain the virtue of these bodies much longer than when they are used alone. Besides its ab- sorbent action, this fertiliser will loosen tough soils, and in- crease their warmth by its black color, in consequence of an augmented reverberation of the rays of the sun. It also adds to the tilth of stiff", clayey soils, by rendering them warmer, more open, and dry. It has further been shown by numerous gardeners, that char- coal powder, kept moist with rain water, furnishes a good me- dium, or soil, for growing many flowers, and is capable of sus- taining vigorous vegetation, and that slips, when planted in it, readily take root. The question is often asked by the farmer, " Where am I to get so much charcoal without a greater expense than will prove profitable to my land and crops?" In most parts of the United States, perhaps with the exception of the prairies, it can be economically obtained from one or other of the following sources, namely, by burning in ordinary " coal pits ;" from old " coal hearths ;" from coal yards, or where charcoal has been 174 VEGETABLE MANURES. stored ; from the refuse of various manufactories ; or from rail- roads, where the locomotives discharge the cinders of their furnaces. Again, there has been some difficulty heretofore in reducing coarse charcoal to a powdered state. This can easily be done by means of a cast-iron bark mill, such as is used by tanners in almost every neighborhood throughout the land ; if one of these mills cannot be obtained, the coal may be pulverised in the old-fashioned bark mill, which can readily be fixed up with an old mill stone, turning around a post on a platform made of planks or flat stones, and crushed to a powder with the aid of a horse. Charred Peat. — ^It must be obvious from the preceding re- marks, that peat, which is little else than an accumulation of woody fibre, if reduced to charcoal, would be of eminent service as an absorbent of blood, urine, night soil, and other feculent matter, and consequently would form a valuable manure. Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland Agricultural Society of Scot- land, has lately tried several experiments with peat, both raw and reduced to charcoal. He finds that the charcoal is a pow- erful deodoriser, (having the power of removing fetid smells from water, meats, and manures,) but not an absorber of am- monia. The greatest amount of ammonia he found to have been taken up by filtering putrid urine through it, was yVth of 1 per cent. The peat, itself, when dried at 212° F., was found to ab- sorb 2 per cent, of ammonia, while still dry to the touch. After exposure to the air in a thin layer, for 15 days, it retained li per cent. This shows the invaluable properties of the article un- charred ; and if the results of that chemist are correct, we must give up the use of peat charcoal, as an absorbent of ammonia, and employ it only as a deodoriser. In the preparation of this material, however, I shall limit my remarks to that "rough- and-read)'- " mode of management, which is most likely to suit the individual farmer ; but where any one may possess a peat meadow from which he might derive an annual income from the sale of the article after it is charred, and where extreme VEGETABLE MANURES. 176 economy in the cost of its prod action is of moment, other and very superior methods of burning it might be pointed out, as practised in Great Britain, Ireland, and France by means of kilns. The method, therefore, to which I shall confine my re- marks, is as follows: — After having collected a sufficient supply of dried peat, a quantity is first thrown over a small heap of brush or other dry fuel, with an aperture left on the windward side for lighting the fire. As soon as the heap is ignited, and the fire gets good hold, more peat is laid on, and is continued to be supplied at regular intervals. In tending the heaps, the fire must never be allowed to make its appearance on the outside, but must be sufficiently covered to prevent the free access of the air to the combustion which is gradually going on. However, if too large a quantity be laid on at once, there will be some danger of putting out the fire ; more particularly when the peat is moist or wet, or the fire but recently lighted. The fire should not continue burning many days ; for if it does, the heat will accu- mulate from the peat with which it is supplied, so that there will be great difficulty in extinguishing the fire in proper time. Before putting out the fire, a quantity of the dust, or fine peat, from which the large pieces have been sifted, or screened, may be laid over the heap, by means of which, all the peat that has been put on previously becomes charred, the fire being prevented by the dust from breaking out at the surface. The heap is next pulled down by means of large iron rakes or hooks, and a sufficient quantity of water thrown on the fire to extinguish it altogether. If there be much difficulty in put- ting out the fire, the heap may be turned over, and water ap- plied, as the process of turning proceeds. There is no use in throwing a few buckets of water over the heap, and then allow- ing the fire to smoulder underneath; tor though the outside may have the appearance of being charred, the fire will con- tinue to burn in the interior, without giving oft' much smoke till it breaks out on the surface, and converts the whole of the centre of the heap into ashes. Let it be remembered that peat 176 VEGETABLE MANURES. charcoal is quite as combustible, and rather more so than peat itself; so that, when the fire is nearly extinguished on the out- side, that which remains within will soon break out again. When the fire is completely extinguished, the ashes will have a black or charred appearance, quite different from the reddish color of the heaps that are allowed to burn out of themselves. It is preferable to have two heaps burning at the same time, one on each side of the drying ground ; for, by adopting this plan, the distance for removing the peat will not be so great as it would otherwise be by having only one fire. At the end of the burning season, all the charred peat may be conveyed to a dry, level spot of ground, to be stored away till wanted for use. It may be piled up in a triangular form, resembling the roof a house, and then thatched with straw to keep out the wet. Should the heap be placed on a wet spot, a trench should be dug around it to carry off the water, which would otherwise soak into the bottom of the pile. Charred peat, as a fertiliser, may be applied to the same pur- poses as powdered charcoal, or other charred vegetable mat- ter. Mixed with mould during winter, and planted the spring following with cucumbers or melons, they grow famously, pro- ducing a heavy crop. The vines or tops strike root freely in pure charred peat. Strawberries grow remarkably well in charred peat mixed with the soil. Fruit trees and grape vines, manured with this material, are much improved by it, as it not only serves as a fertiliser, but is also the means of keeping the ground more open or porous ; and finer-flavored fruit may be expected. Potatoes manured with charred peat are generally dryer and more mealy than those grown by farmyard manure. The foli- age and tops are more compact and firm, the tubers cleaner- skinned, and freer from the rot. In flower gardens, peat charcoal will be found invaluable, inducing, as it does, quick growth, but not overluxuriant, and consequently plenty of blossoms. VEGETABLE MANURES. 177 For sweetening cesspools, charred peat, finely powdered, will be found an excellent deodoriser. One pound of this material will require 1^ lbs. of water to saturate it; and hence, its great value as an absorber of blood, night soil, and other feculent matter. Charred Saw Dust, Tan Bank, and Apple Pomace. — These three substances being similar in the size and texture of their frag- ments, may be treated under the same head. Before attempting to char them, they should be made thoroughly dry by spreading them in thin layers on the ground, and exposing them several days to a hot summer sun. They may then be formed into conical heaps of any convenient size, and covered with sods, loam, or clay, with one or more holes left at the bottom of the windward side for lighting the fire, and a few others still small- er at the top, to admit the escape of the smoke. The interior of the heap is now kindled by means of a little brush, or other dry fuel, and the combustion allowed to proceed slowly until the volatile matter is driven off, when the air holes should be stopped with earth or clay, in order to arrest the further burn, ing of the piles. They may then be allowed to remain until cold ; or the heaps may be opened with a large iron rake, the fire extinguished with water, and the whole treated and applied in the same manner as the charred peat before described. Charred Bagasse. — In sugar-growing countries, where the planter cannot immediately obtain carbonaceous matter from other sources to manure his cane fields, he can procure a sup- ply by charring a portion of his bagasse. It should first be made thoroughly dry by spreading it in thin layers on the ground, exposed several days to a hot sun ; then formed into compact, conical heaps, of a convenient size, covered with sods, loam, or clay, and afterwards treated in a similar manner as the tan bark and saw dust, described above. This will prove far more economical than the wasteful practice of burning the trash and dissipating all its carbonaceous parts to the air by combustion, merely for the sake of the small proportion of al- kaline salts contained in the ash. 8* 173 VEGETABLE MANURES. Charred Weeds. — As regards the charring of farm weeds, it may not always be convenient to remove them from the field where they grow. Therefore, in cases where this process is desirable, and will prove beneficial, the most economical meth- od of disposing of the weeds is to char them on the spot. They should first be thoroughly dried, and then formed into large, compact conical heaps, covered with sods, loam, or clay, and treated in every other respect like the charring of tan bark, saw dust, or apple pomace, as described in the preceding para- graphs. Paring and Burning. — It is obvious, that, in all cases, the process of burning must waste a certain quantity of vegetable matter, and can only be profitable where an excess of this matter renders the soil too rank. It must be of eminent service, also, in reducing to charcoal, or wood ashes, a great accumla- tion of woody fibre already overrunning the land ; for woody matter, in general, is very slowly reduced to a state of humus, or vegetable mould, if left to the process of natural decay ; nor is it very rapidly decomposed by caustic lime or other solvents artificially applied. Although paring and burning has been much recommended by many persons, still it requires great limitations and restric- tions. In some cases, it may be proper, while in the hands of the unskilful, it may be attended with the most pernicious con sequences. Mossy and peaty soils, or those covered with rushes or a sward of coarse, unprofitable herbage, and contain- ing a superabundance of vegetable matter, with due precaution, may be subjected to this process with beneficial effects. It may likewise be attended with advantage to strong clayey soils, from the effect that burned or half-burned clay has in rendering such soils more open and less tenacious ; in which cases, the benefit arising from the change in the mechanical ar- rangement of the tilth would probably more than compensate for the dissipation of the volatile matter of the sward. It would prove more economical, however, when the soil requires to be rendered more open, to calcine the clay in kilns, and VEGETABLE MANURES. 179 afterwards si)read it on the ground either by itself or mixed with lime. The cases in which burning proves positively injurious are those of sandy, dry, flinty soils, containing little animal or veg- etable remains ; for it decomposes those constituents which are already below the minimum proportion, and on the presence of which, in a limited degree, the productiveness of a soil depends. The most speedy way of bringing under tillage a pasture or meadow, overrun with rushes, is, first to drain it, and then pare off the grassy and fibrous parts of the thick turf with a hoe or some other appropriate implement, dry it by means of the sun, and char it precisely after the manner recommended for peat, on a preceding page. When burned, the heaps may be spread, as a top-dressing on the same ground from which the material was pared ; the field may then be sown with grass seed or some other suitable crop, and treated the usual way. Burning without fire is a method by which quicklime is sub- stituted in its stead. The lime, which must be in its most caustic state, fresh from the kiln, and obtained from the best limestone, is laid upon the vegetable surface to be consumed ; and, before it is weakened by exposure to the air, water is sprinkled over it, just in sufficient quantity to put it powerfully into action. This fierce compound will not only consume the vegetable covering, but will also affect the clay, or other upper stratum, in a similar manner as if it had been in contact with fire. This supersedes the trouble which attends burning ; and in respect to poor soils that would be improved by the two dis- tinct operations of "burning" and " liming" by the common mode, it would doubtless bring them on a par with those of superior quality. COTTON REFUSE. Farmers residing in the vicinity of cotton manufactories can obtain, without much cost, considerable quantities of rejected cotton, and the waste from the milh. which, from the following 180 VEGETABLE MANURES. analysis of the ash of the fibre, or staple, by Professor Shep- ard, we are led to suppose would be valuable in forming com- posts, or might be applied directly to the soil as a manure: — Lime and magnesia, 30.31 Potash and (soda?) 21.09 Phosphoric acid, 12.30 Sr.lphuric acid, 1.22 64.92 The fibre yielded but about 1 per cent, of ash ; consequently, the principal part of the remainder consisted of about equal weights of water and carbon, the latter being one of the chief ingredients of all plants. COTTON SEED. The seeds of cotton abound in a mild oil, and are accounted vexy nutritious after the oil is expressed. A bushel of seed.s weighs 30 lbs., and yields 2| quarts of oil and 12^- lbs. of fine meal. The oil cake is very brittle, and breaks down much more readily than linseed oil cake. Moistened with water, it appears to be much less mucilaginous than that substance. Its taste is not unpleasant, and it is stated that it can be employed with success in fattening stock. According to an anlysis of cotton seed made by the authority last quoted above, 100 parts of the ash contained of Lime and magnesia, 29.79 Potash and (soda ?) 19.40 Phosphoric acid, 45.35 Sulphmic acid, 1.16 95.70 Dr. Anderson, of Scotland, in the following analysis of cotton- seed oil cake, pursued the method usually employed for linseed cake, simply determining those constituents upon which its feeding value is believed to depend, which were as follows :— Water, IL19 Oil, 9.08 Sugar, 10.70 Albuminous compoimds, (nitrogen,) 24.69 VEGETABLE MANURES. 181 The cake yielded S^'V^ths per cent, of ash. which contained of Silica, 1-32 Phosphates, 2.19 Excess of phosphoric acid, 0.15 It would appear from the above imfornmation, that the pro- duction of this cake is of considerable importance to the south- ern planter, not only on account of its feeding properties, but its value as a manure. In cases where the seed is not em- ployed for expressing the oil, it should be carefully saved and applied broadcast to the land, at the rate of 60 to 100 bushels to the acre ; or it may be plowed under in the course of the winter, where it will rot before spring ; or it may be thrown into heaps, and allowed to heat; and after the vitality is de- stroyed, it may be plowed or drilled in, or thrown between the hills of cotton or corn, and covered with the plow or hoe. FLAX SHIVES AND LEAVES. As in all other crops, in the ordinary course of practice, one or more portions of flax is returned to the soil in manure, whilst others go off permanently to market or are disposed of some other way. While the flax plants are approaching maturity, the greater part of the leaves fall off", and are left on the field to manure the land. At a convenient time, the grower sepa- rates the seed from the straw by " rippling," or beating it. From the seed, the capsule, or husk, is separated by winnow- ing, and is principally used for feeding cattle and making oil; the husks are employed for feeding stock in a similar manner as hay. But the straw of flax is destined to a more important purpose. After the separation of the seeds, the stalks are usually steeped, or soaked, for a certain length of time in water, a species of fermentation takes place, and the woody matter of the straw becomes rotten, and is easily detached from the fibre. At this stage of the process, the stalks are re- moved from the water, and spread upon the grass to bleach. Subsequently, by tl^^ operation of "breaking," " scutching," or 182 VEGETABLE MANURES. " swingling," the woody matter is separated from the fibre, the all-important part of the plant, and is converted into small fragments called " boon," or " shives." In the process of steeping, a large proportion of the nitro- genous and saline compounds are dissolved, the prepared flax, consisting of only about 20 per cent, of ligneous matter ; the fluid, therefore, in which the flax is steeped, as well as the shives, should be preserved and used as manure. From care- ful analysis in England, 100 parts of fine flax stalks before steeping, contained Syyo-ths parts of ash. Mobile 100 parts of the same flax, after steeping, contained only yVV^hs of 1 per cent, of ash. The following table exhibits the composition of these ashes — the third column indicating the amount of mineral matter separated in the water employed for steeping : — Composition In 4,480 lbs., unsteeped. In 3,020 lbs., steeped. Dissolved in the water. Silica, 11.60 11.04 4.27 23.00 31.01 G.15 8.U 31.55 5.39 13.50 4.67 1.11 0.55 5.29 13.77 0.76 1.66 0.50 0.98 6 93 Phosphoric acid, . . . Sulphuric acid, Carbonic acid, Lime, 9.93 4.42 17.71 17 24 Magnesia, 5 39 Per-oxide of iron,. . Potash, 6.4.5 31 05 Soda 4 41 Chloride of sodium. 13.50 Total, 146.32 29.29 117.03 By an examination of the ingredients of the flax straw, be- fore steeping, according to the above analysis, and the constit- uents of a portion of the same after undergoing that process, a difference, or loss, will be discovered of about fths of the whole mineral ingredients, a loss consisting principally, as it naturally would, of the soluble and most important constitu- ents. Nearly all the potash, magnesia, and phosphoric acid have disappeared, whilst what is left, is little else than carbon- Gte of lime, with a small proportion of silica and oxide of iron. VEGETABLE MANURES. 183 From recent, discoveries in the preparation of flax by M. Chevalier Claussen, it has been ascertained that, not only are the present modes of steeping inconvenient and unnecessary, but they are highly injurious, as they impart dark colors to the fibre, and give it an inequality of strength, which, in the subse- quent stages of manufacture and bleaching, are difficult to overcome. Therefore, every possible eifort should be made for the introduction of such modifications of the process as will allow something to be returned to the soil, in some form or other, as a manure. GREEN MANURES. Green manuring, or the plowing under of green crops in their living state, attracted the early attention of civilised man, and has been practised more or less from the time of Xenophon, who wrote about 400 years before the commencement of our era. He recommended green plants to be plowed into the soil, and even that crops should be cultivated for that purpose ; for these, he says, "enrich the earth as much as dung." The lupin is named as an excellent manure by most of the early writers on agriculture, and is cultivated at the present day in Spain, Italy, Tuscany, and the south of France for the purpose of being plowed into the soil. The plowing under of green crops is directly opposed to burning peat, or turf, in regard to intention and effect, and is particularly serviceable vi^here the basis of vegetable mould is to be increased. The soil, manured by them, receives all the vegetable food contained in the seed sown, the quantity of which, in peas and buckwheat is not very inconsiderable. Some plants employed for this purpose, as peas, turnips, clover, &c., push down their roots into the soil far below the reach of the ordinary plow, and whatever nutriment they find there, they suck up and bring to the surface, in the form of green manure, and administer it to the growth of other plants, as wheat, barley, oats, and rye; the principle being to enrich the soil by 184 VEGETABLE MANURES. setting a quick-growing plant to draw organic matter from the air, and inorganic from the subsoil, and then plowing it in. When the green crops are turned into the soil, besides enrich- ing its staple with fertilising matter, they promote the fermen- tation and decomposition of woody fibre buried near the sur- face, which is a useless incumbrance in an undecayed state, so far as any immediate effect is concerned. In general, they should be plowed under, if possible, when in flower, or at the time when the flower is opening; for, in this stage of growth, they contain the largest quantity of soluble matter. For poor, light and sandy soils, these green manures do well ; and also for poor clays, which, however, are much improved by having the subsoil burnt, or rather charred, with peat, spent tan bark, saw dust, apple pomace, or any other cheap fuel. And as green vegetable matters ferment, or sour, when under- going decomposition, the land should be limed just before or soon after plowing under the plants. The vegetables grown for this purpose should possess the fol- lowing properties in order to be cultivated with economy, and attain the desired end : — 1st, They should flourish on poor soils ; 2d, should require but little labor of cultivation ; 3d, have cheap seed ; 4th, be of quick and sure growth ; 5th, stand all weath- ers. and vermin; 6th, run their roots deep; 7th, bring up such inorganic matter from the subsoil as the succeeding crops re- quire ; 8th, should smother weeds ; and 9th, they should pro- duce a large quantity of herbage, that will readily decay in the soil. The plants best known for the above purposes, may be de- scribed and compared as follov»'s : — Jerusalem Arlicholce. — The Jerusalem artichoke, (Helianthus iuberosus,) is one of the plants found by Boussingault to draw its nitrogen almost entirely from the air. Hence, it is recom- mended as an ameliorating crop, when plowed under before the tubers are formed. This plant may be propagated in most parts of the United States by sots from the roots, and will grow in any soil moder- VEGETABLE MANURES. 185 ately moist, especially such as are sandy and light. The sets should be planted in early spring, and may be cultivated in a similar manner as the common potato. As it rather prefers shade to open culture, it thrives well in orchards ; and instead of exhausting the land, it is stated that it will produce abun- dantly for 10 or more years in succession, without manure, even upon poor soils. It has further been stated, that it does not re- quire much tilling after it has once been planted ; for it is only necessary to draw the tops out of the ground, when ripe, the remaining roots being sufficient to produce the next year's crop, without resetting ; and thus they continue from year to year, until they die of old age. All these properties seem to render this plant suitable for orchards ; the pulling up of the tops opens the ground, while the avoidance of digging, after once set, will spare the roots of the trees many a wound from the plow or hoe. Bokhara Clover. — The celebrated Bokhara or tree clover, (Meliloius leucaniha major,) is a biennial herbaceous plant of very striking appearance, 6 to 12 feet high, covered with spikes of white pea-like blossoms, resembling those of some kinds of clover, which also shed a sweet perfume. Nature increases the woody fibre of this plant for support as it elongates its gigan- tic stem. If, however, it is cut at a height of 2 or 3 feet, it will be found nearly as succulent as the common red clover. Mr. Robert Arthur, of Edinburgh, states that no plant what- ever, within his knowledge, will produce so much weight of vegetable matter in an equal space and time ; and were it only for its production, as a fertiliser, it is a boon to the agricultural world. In the economical formation of manure, he suggests that it might be liberally supplied with other food during the summer, to young cattle and pigs, in an open yard, profusely bedded over with layers of turf, peat, earth, ferns, straw, weeds, &-C., and thereby save much outlay in the purchase of other manures. The seed of this clover may be sown in early spring, in drills, 18 inches asunder, in any part of the United States south J86 VEGETABLE MANURES. of Pennsylvania. The plants should be kept free from weeds, when young, by scraping them out with a hoe. The crops may be cut four or five times in the course of a season, as fodder for soiling, or for the purpose of being converted into manure. Borage (Borago officinalis). — This is a well-known plant in gardens, growing to a height of about 2 feet, with round, thick, juicy stalks, prickly to the touch, large, broad, wrinkled, hairy leaves, and bright-blue flowers, which open from June till late in autumn. It is much used as a fallow crop in Germany, and, according to Lampadius, it draws from the air ten times as much nitrogen and other organic matter as it does from the soil ; and hence is admirably adapted for enriching the land on which it grows. Buckwheat (Polygonum fagopyrum). — This well-known plant stands high in the scale of green manures, as two crops may be raised on the same ground in a year, with little labor in its culture, and but a small outlay for seed. Its roots, however, do not run very deep into the soil. Its ash sometimes abounds in salts of potash and of lime, nitrogen and phosphoric acid be- ing the most valuable ingredients with which they are com- bined. Buckwheat is usually sown on light, silicious and calcareous soils, but it will grow well on lands that are either stony or poor. The yield commonly ranges from 2 to 4 tons of stalks and leaves to an acre, and from 20 to 40 bushels of seed. It may be sown in the spring soon after the disappearance of frost, for a summer crop ; or immediately after the harvesting of wheat, oats, or rye, or still later, for a crop in the fall. The period of growth is usually about two months. For a fallow crop, from H to 2 bushels of seed may be sown to an acre, which should be lightly harrowed in. The plant is very lux- uriant, and predominates over most weeds. As soon as the blossoms begin to appear, it is ready to bury in the soil. This is done first by passing a roller over the field, and following immediately after with the plow ; or it may be mown half way up the stalks, and then plowed under with the stubble. VEGETABLE MANURES. 187 If the land is intended for turnips, and the buckwheat is plow- ed under in the fidlness of its sap, it will become rotten, or de- composed, in about 10 days. The ground may then be plowed again, followed by the harrow, with a light dressing of guano, and then sown with the turnip seed, and afterwards rolled. But if the land be intended for wheat, the ground may lie two or three weeks after the buckwheat is plowed in, or until the grass or weeds begin to start; then plow the ground a second time, and sow the wheat the usual way ; or, if the weather is favorable, and the season far advanced, the wheat may be sown directly after tunring under the green crop. Red Clover. — The common broad-leaved clover, (Trifolium praiense,) from its hardihood and adaptation to nearly all kinds of soil ; its certain and rapid growth ; abundant yield ; cheap- ness of seed, quick decay, when incorparated with the soil ; aiid the great depth to which its roots penetrate the earth, is re- garded, in the United States, as one of the best of fallow crops. Under favorable circumstances, it will yield from 4 to 8 tons of green herbage per acre, in the coarse of a season ; and its roots, which sometimes run into the soil to a depth of 2 or 3 feet, are nearly equal in bulk to half the stalks and leaves. Per cent. Stalk, 58.12 Leaves, 22.12 Blossoms, 19.76 100.00 Water, Dry matter, Ash, Ash calculated djy, .... Inorganic matter, (ton,) In the In the In the stalk. leaves. blossoms. 80.88 73.56 79.06 18.06 23.56 19.57 1.00 2.88 1.37 5.87 12.22 7.00 131.04 lbs. 273.72 lbs. In the whole plant. A specimen of clover, 2 feet high, gathered when in blossom, at Albany, by Professor Emmons, on the 10th of June, yielded in 100 parts, as indicated in the above table. 188 VEGETABLE MANURES. The following analyses of the ash of red-clover hay, by Professor Way, are given in the Journal of the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, one specimen grown on silicious sand, and the other on clay : — Grown on Grown on silicious sand. clay. Silica, 4.03 2.66 Phosphoric acid, 5.82 6.88 Sulphuric acid, 3.91 4.46 Cai-bonic acid, 12.92 20.94 Lime, 35.02 35.76 Magnesia, 11.91 10.53 Per-oxide of iron, 0.98 0.95 Potash, 18.44 11.30 Soda, 2.79 , Chloride of sodium, 4.13 0.58 Chloride of potassium, 5.92 99.95 99.88 From the above analyses, it will be seen that the ingredi- ents of this plant, when' grown on sand and clay, are, in most respects, singularly alike. The greatest discrepancies occur in the amount of potash and carbonic acid. The proportion of sulphuric acid, however, does not truly represent the total amount of sulphur in the plant. For, 100 lbs. of the ash of dry clover, grown on sand, yielded ly^gths lbs. of sulphur ; and 100 lbs. of that grown on clay, yielded l^^^ths lbs. Hence, fully two thirds of the whole sulphur was dissipated in the combus- tion, and it is fair to conclude that at least this proportion must have existed in the form of sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) or in some other condition than sulphuric acid. Red clover is extensively cultivated in various parts of the United States, not only as a superior forage or ha}^ but is fre- quently turned under in the summer or fall, to enrich the ground preparatory to a crop of wheat, or in the ensuing spring for the benefit of one of Indian corn. It is thought by some persons that the best time for plowing it in, is the rankest and most succulent stage of its growth ; while others maintain, from facts founded upon the results of actual experiments, VEGETABLE MANURES. 189 that it is best to leave it to the period just preceding the de- cline of the flower, when its extractive matter is most abundant. Clover is usually sown in this country in early spring with wheat or other grain, or with winter wheat in the fall. If in- tended for a fallow crop, it may be sown in February or March, while the ground is still subject to freezing and thawing, in order that the seed may gain admission into the soil without har- rowing in. The quantity to be sown to an acre may vary from 10 to 15 lbs. When sown with wheat, if the first season's growth be luxuriant after harvesting the grain, the "clover may be pastured in the autumn, or suffered to fall and waste on the ground, the former being the most economical. The follow- ing year, the early crops may be taken off for hay, and the se- cond, after partially ripening its seeds, may be plowed in ; and thus it carries with it, a full crop of seed for future growth. It is usual when wheat is cultivated, to turn in the clover when in full flower in July, and allow the ground to remain undisturbed till the proper time for sowing the grain ; when it may be cross plowed if necessary, or the wheat may sown directly on the ground and harrowed in. This system gives alternate crops of grain and clover, and with the use of such saline manures, as ma)'^ be necessary to replace those abstracted from the soil, it will sustain the greatest fertility. With a slight dressing of these, when the land is in good condition, the first crop of clover may be taken off, and yet allow a sufficient growth for turning in. " It is a common observation of intelligent farmers, that they are never at a loss to renovate such lands as will produce even a moderate crop of clover. Poor clayey lands have been brought to a clover-bearing state, by sowing an early and late crop of oats in the same season, and feeding them off on the ground. Poor sandy soils may be made to sustain clover, with the aid of manure, ashes, and gypsum, combined with the free use of the roller. This object is much facilitated by scattering dry straw over the surface, which affords shade, increases the de- posit of dew, and prolongs its effects. Whenever the period of clover-producing is attained, the improvement of the soil 190 VEGETABLE MANURES. may be pushed with a rapidity commensuate with the inclina- tion and means of the owner." — American Farm Book. Old Grass. — One of the most common forms of green manur- ing, practised in this country, is that of breaking up grass lands of various ages. The large amount of vegetable matter in the sod serves to fertilise the succeeding crop, and render the soil capable of yielding a richer return at a smaller expense of ar- tificial manure. Indian Corn (Zea mays). — From its rapid and luxuriant growth, its facility of decomposition when mixed with lime, and the large amount of fertilsing salts contained in its ash, this plant is highly valued for plowing in where the soil is deficient in humus that cannot be more economically obtained from some other source ; but, from the trailing nature of its roots, which run not far below the surface of the ground, little or no benefit can be expected to be derived from its drawing up salts from any great depth in sour compact subsoils. The ash of a sample of early white-flint corn plant, about 43 inches high, with the stalk just beginning to form, taken from a field near Albany, New York, on the 19th of July, according to Professor Emmons, yielded, in 100 parts, the following con- stituents : — Composition, Carbonic acid, Silicic acid, Sulphuiic acid, Phosphates, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Soda, Chlorine, Organic matter, Leaves. 5.40 ]3,50 2.16 21.60 0.68 0.27 9.98 34.39 4.55 5.50 Sheaths. 4.00 15.60 9.84 7.60 5.06 1.64 9.96 32.12 8.04 5.40 ,03 99.26 Roots. ? 36.60 4.66 1.56 0.34 17.48 15.82 ? ? 76.46 When used as a green manure, Indian corn may be sown broadcast, in June or July, at the rate of 3 or 4 bushels to an VEGETABLE MANURES. 191 acre, and may be mown close to the ground, just as the stalks are beginning to form. Then, in the operation of plowing, as soon as a furrow is opened, it may be partially filled by one or more persons with the newly-mown plants by means of a rake or the hands, and followed directly by others with a lib- eral scattering of caustic lime. As soon as a furrow is thus prepared, the next furrow slice will bury the green plant with the lime, decomposition will immediately take place, and the land will be brought into a fit condition for a crop of turnips, winter wheat, Timothy, or rye ; or, in the spring following, the ground may be sown with wheat, oats, barley, grass seed, pumpkins, potatoes, or another crop of Indian corn. White Lupin (Lupinus albus). — This plant, which is at pres- ent cultivated in the south of Europe to a limited extent for forage and soiling, was employed as food by the ancient Ro- mans, and, as with the inhabitants of the present day, was plowed into the soil as a manure. In Germany, also, it has been found to be one of those plants by which unfruitful, sandy soils may be most speedily brought into a productive state. The superiority of this plant for the purpose of enriching the soil depends upon its deep roots, which descend more than 2 feet beneath the surface ; upon its being little injured by drought, and* not liable to be attacked by insects; upon its rapid growth ; and upon its large produce in leaves and stems. Even in the north of Germany, it is said to yield, in 3i to 4 months, 10 to 12 tons of green herbage. It grows in all soils except such as are marly and calcareous, is especially partial to such as have a ferruginous subsoil ; and besides enriching, also opens stiff clays by its strong stems and roots. It abounds in potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid, and is considered the best of green manures, being almost equal to farmyard dung. The seeds are somewhat expensive, and about the size of peas. They should be sown as early in the spring as the season will admit, without injury from frost, and the plants will blossom in 3 or 4 months, soon after which, they may be turned into the soil, and succeeded by most of our field or garden crops. 192 VEGETABLE MANURES. Although rather slow to decay, its decomposition may be has- tened, if desirable, by the addition of caustic lime. White Mustard (Sinapis alba). — This plant, from its rapid and sure growth, abundant yield, and richness in fertilising salts, is highly valued when cultivated as a fallow crop. It may be sown broadcast, in the northern and middle states, at the rate of 2 to 3 pecks of seed to an acre, from early spring till August, and still later at the south. It should be plowed under just after the plant puts out flowers, and may be treated in a similar manner as clover or buckwheat. Oats (A vena sativa). — Of all the plants commonly cultivated in our fields, the oat seems to have the greatest power of draw- ing nourishment from the soil, and has been justly considered as an exhausting crop. The roots have a very strong vegeta- tive power, and strike quite deep into the earth, even in a soil that is indifferently poor; and hence this plant may be cultiva- ted with advantage to plow under to enrich the soil, but is in- ferior to clover, lupins, or buckwheat. The composition of the ash of the whole plant, on the 9th of July, when the oat had attained nearly its full height, but yet quite green, and the grain had scarcely begun to form in the interior of the husk, according to an analysis by Professor John P. Norton, while residing in Scotland, was as follows :— Potash and soda, 31.31 Chloride of sodium, 8.10 Lime, 5.40 Magnesia, 4.52 Oxide of iron, 0.21 Sulphuric acid, 12.78 Phosphoric acid, 20.09 SiUca, 17.05 99.46 At this period of growth, the per-centage of water contained in the plant was 76yyo per cent., and that of the ash, calculated dry, 12j per cent. It was remarked by Professor Norton, that the large quantity of sulphuric acid present at this sUige of TEGETABLE MANURES. 193 growth would have diminished as the plant matured, as he had seldom found so much in the ash of the oat when ripe. As the general composition of the oat is similar to that of the other cereals, it would be rational to infer that the green p!ant» buried in the soil, would serve as an excellent fertiliser for all our cereal crops. The mode of plowing under may be similar to that recommended in Indian corn, either with, or without the admixture of caustic lime. Cow Pea (Phaseolus vel multiflorus?). — The cow pea, or Yeat- man pea, as it is sometimes called, like the pole bean and other runners of the same kindred, grows with a long vine, and produces an abundance of broad succulent leaves, which draw nitrogen and carbonic acid from the air; but its slight spindle-shaped roots do not penetrate so deeply into the soil as the long tap roots of clover, and consequently do not bring to the surface so great an amount of fertilising salts from the sub- soil below. Still, it is regarded as the most valuable, and cer- tainly the cheapest fertiliser that can be employed at the south. This plant will grow on poor, sandy land, and if sown early in March, it will mature two good crops in the season, from two successive plantings. It may be sown broadcast, or in drills, at the rate of 2 or 3 bushels to the acre, or sufficiently close to give a good and early covering to the ground, after which, it requires little or no culture. As soon as it is in full flower, or the pods begin to form, the vines may be cut off near the ground, or passed over with a field roller, and plowed under in a similar manner as clover, and suffered to decay, preparatory to planting a crop of sweet potatoes, beans, peas, or Indian corn. Rape (Brassica napis). — As this plant can only be grown on soils, which, in a measure, are already rich, it cannot be profit- ably cultivated as a green manure, although it has the advan- tage of growing very late in autumn as well as in the begin- ning of spring. It also sends down deep roots, which loosen clayey soils by their hard thick stems. In the light soils of Belgium, rape is sown after early po- 194 VEGETABLE MANURES. tatoes and peas, and plowed under preparatory to a succeeding crop of wheat or rye. The period of growth is about 5 months, and a good crop, when in full flower, weighs 10 or 12 tons of green herbage to an acre. The plant abounds in potash, phos- phoric acid, and nitrogen. Rye (Secale cereale). — Unlike the lupin and rape, rye may be cultivated on poor light soils, although unfit for wheat, and with some degree of profit, where it is desirable to enrich the land for other crops; but from the small amount of nitrogen and fertilising salts contained in the ash, and the trailing char- acter of its roots, it is much less valuable to plow in as a green manure. Rye is often sown as a green crop, and when fed off early in spring by sheep, the land is invigorated, and will bear excel- lent potatoes, or other roots, the same year. But as this prac- tice cannot be strongly recommended, it would be preferable to sow the rye late in the summer or early in autumn, and feed it off in the October and November following, when sheep pas- tures begin to fail, which can be done without any detriment to the succeeding crop the next year. By this means, the sheep will drop their manure upon the field, and not only benefit the crop of rye the spx'ing following, but enrich the land for other crops. Sorrel (Rumex acetosella). — It does not appear that any far- mer has cultivated, nor that any writer, except the Earl of Dundonald, has recommended the growth of those plants to be promoted, which seem indigenous to any particular soil, with intention of rendering such plants of use in the future produc- tion of grain, or the rich herbage upon which cattle feed. " Soils not calcareous," says Dundonald, " containing much inert vegetable matter or peat, have a tendency to produce wild sorrel, a plant considered in general as an indication of the want of fertility in the soil. This is certainly correct, if the fertility of the soil is only to be estimated by the use or value at market of the crop, but not as it respects vegetation itself; for a soil of the above description often produces a most plen- VEGETABLE MANURES. 196 tiful crop of sorrel. In this case, as it applies to the further improvement of the land, the growth of sorrel should as much as possible be encouraged, even by sowing the seed for this especial purpose. The vegetation of this plant is no doubt pro- moted in the soil by the oxalic or soreline acid, formed by the combination of oxygen, or pure air, with the basis of the soreline acid contained in the vegetable matter of the soil; and so long as the vegetable matter remains in a state fit to become oxygen- ated, it will have a tendency to promote the growth of sorrel. It has been stated that the juice, or salt of sorrel, is a superacid- ulated neutral salt, consisting of the vegetable alkali and the oxalic acid. This superabundant acid is inimical to the growth of grain, or of such vegetables or grasses as constitute the food of most animals; but which tendency in the soil, and injurious consequences, are to be corrected by the application of differ- ent substances, namely, by lime, by chalk, by magnesia, by alkaline salts, and by paring and burning. " Lime will combine with the acid of the sorrel, and form an oxalite of lime, which is insoluble. As such, it should only be applied in such small quantities as will neutralise the acid in the soil, or the superabundant proportion of acid contained in the sorrel ; so that the other component part of sorrel, namely, the oxalate of potash, may not be decomposed by the superior affinity which the oxalic acid has to lime ; in which case, the alkali would be disengaged. No injury will arise from the ap- plication of a superabundance of lime, provided that the soil contain a still greater proportion of vegetable matter; in which case, the alkali disengaged by the lime, would act upon the vegetable matter, and form a saline substance, similar to that which the superabundant use of lime had decomposed. "Ground of this description, to which lime has been applied, will no longer have a tendency to promote the growth of sor- rel in preference to other plants ; its next spontaneous growth will probably be chickweed, which is a certain indication of its being in a state fit to produce grain or other crops. "Magnesia has a greater affinit}' with the oxalic acid than 196 VEGETABLE MANURES. alkalies have, so that by the addition of earths, containing mag- nesia, to ground producing a crop of sorrel, the acid will not only be neutralised, but the oxalate of potash, the other com- ponent part of sorrel, will likewise be decomposed. By this means, the alkali will be disengaged, and put into a situation to act upon, and dissolve the inert vegetable matter contained in the soil. The salt formed by the combination of the magnesian earth with the oxalic acid, will, as well as the vegetable matter dissolved by the alkali, be found to promote vegetation in a very great degree ; hence, magnesia, by forming with the ox- alic acid a soluble salt, has an advantage over lime, which forms with the same acid a salt that is nearly insoluble, but capable of being brought into action by methods previously stated. " By the application of alkaline salts to sorrel, there results a salt fully nutralised, which highly promotes the vegetation, or growth, of more valuable plants and grain." Spurry. — (Spurgula arvensis). — It is to poor dry sandy soils that green manuring has been found most signally beneficial ; and for such soils, no plant has been more lauded than spurry. It may either be sown in autumn, on the wheat stubble, or after early potatoes, and plowed under in spring, preparatory to the annual crop ; or it may be used to replace the naked fallow, which is often hurtful to lands of so light a character. In the latter case, the first sowing may take place in March, the second in May, and the third in July, each crop being plowed in to the depth of 3 or 4 inches, and the new seed then sown and harrowed. When the third crop is plowed in, the land is ready for a crop of winter grain. Von Voght. of Germany, states that, by such treatment, the worst shifting sands may be made to yield remunerative crops of rye ; that the most worthless sands are more improved by it than those of a better natural quality ; that the green manur- ing every other year not only nourishes sufficiently the alter- nate crops of rye, but gradually enriches the soil; and that it increases the effect of any other manure that may subsequent- VEGETABLE MANURES. 197 ly be put on. He adds, also, that spurry produces often as much improvement, if eaten off by cattle, as if plowed in, and that when fed upon this plant, either green or in the state of hay, cows not only give more milic, but of a richer quality. The roots of spurry run into the soil to a depth of 15 or 18 inches ; the stalks and leaves rapidly decay ; and the ash of the whole plant abounds in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. Turnip (Brassica rapa). — In some parts of England, turnip tops are plowed under, when green, as soon as the bulbs are taken off the land ; and it is stated that there is no better way for manuring for wheat. The portion of the turnip bulbs which are left in the ground, when they are fed off by sheep, when plowed under, contributes to enrich the land for a crop of barley that is to follow. According to Professor Way, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, the mean analyses of the ash of six specimens of turnips were as follows : — Bulbs. Tops. Silica, 1.81 3.99 Phosphoric acid, 9-85 6.17 Sulphuric acid, 13.12 8.43 Carbonic acid, 11.96 9.98 Lime, 9.93 28.49 Magnesia, 2.61 2.81 Per-oxide of iron, 0.46 1.68 Potash, 34 10 15.21 , Soda, 7.96 2.84 Chloride of sodium, 8.13 15.30 Chloride of potassium, 5.04 99.93 99.94 From the above analyses, it will be seen that the ash of the top differs from that of the bulb chiefly in containing less phos- phoric and sulphuric acids, less potash, but a great deal more lime. Neither in the top nor in the bulb is there much silica, but the ash of both contains much carbonic acid, and a con- siderable quantity of chloride of sodium (common salt). This 198 VEGETABLE MANURES. circumstance may, in part, explain the action of turnip tops in causing purging in sheep when they are first turned upon them to feed. Other alkaline salts, such as the phosphates of soda and potash, and other organic salts of these bases, oxalate, tar- trate, &c., and which are known as purgatives, exist largely in the leaves of the turnip. The turnip, like most root crops, from the great development of its gas-collecting leaves, is believed to be comparatively in- dependent of the soil for nourishment. It is stated that it may in reality have the property of adding to, rather than taking from, the quantity of vegetable matter in the soil, even when entirely removed — for land has been found after several years cropping with turnips, all the produce being carried off, abso- lutely richer in organic matter than at first, the plant having returned to the soil more than it had taken from it. This prin- ciple is founded upon the belief that, in the circulation of veg- etable juices of the plants, there is a continual ejection into the soil of matters not required in the economy of their growth; but whether the amount thus voided much exceeds that which is taken in by the roots, it is difficult to decide. It is extremely likely, however, that in broad-leaved plants of rapid growth this result may sometimes occur. Veich,or Tare (Vicia sativa). — This plant is inferior in many of its qualities to the white lupin; yet, in Southern Germany, it is often sown on the stuble, and plowed in after it has been touched with frost, and has begun to decay. Its period of growth is about 3 months, but will be hastened by gypsum ; its produce 6 or more tons per acre ; its roots do not run deep ; its decay is rapid ; and the whole plant abounds in potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid. REFUSE HAY. Besides the litter from the cribs or stalls of stables, the far- mer often has left in the spring considerable quantities of re- fuse or damaged hay at the bottom of his stacks or mows, which can readily be converted into excellent manure by spreading VEGETABLE MANURES. 199 it over his barn yard, and there let it remain to rot and become incorporated with the urine and dung of the animals. But the fertilising properties of hay varies according to the species of grass from which it is made. Thus, in the ash of three of our most prominent artificial grasses, Timothy, (Phleum praiense,) Kentucky blue grass, (Poa pratensis,) and the American orchard or cock's-foot grass, {Daciylis glomerata,) we find, according to the analyses of Professor Way, the following constituents :— Composition. Silica, Phosphoric acid, . . Sulphui-ic acid,. . . Carbouic acid, Lime, Magnesia, Per-oxide of iron, Potash, Chloride of potassium, Chloride of sodium,. Kentucky Timothy. 31.09 blue grass. 32.93 11.29 10.02 4.86 4.26 4.02 0.40 14.94 5.63 5.30 2.71 0.27 0.28 24.25 31.17 0.70 11.25 5.24 1.31 99.96 99.96 Orchard grass. 26.05 8.60 3.52 2.09 5.82 2.22 0.59 29.52 17.86 3.09 99.96 L From the above analyses, it will be observed that each of these grasses contains a remarkably high per-centage of silica as well as of potash ; and what is still more remarkable, not one of them contains any soda, as such, although they contain variable proportions of chloride of sodium (common salt). Bog-meadow hay and that made from water grasses, gen- erally, are not so rich in fertilising salts as that made from our sweet artificial grasses that are grown upon a dry soil ; and consequently bog-meadow hay is of less value to convert into manure. HUMUS, OR VEGETABLE MOULD— HUMIO ACID— ULMIO ACID The general name of "humus" is given to the fine, dark- brown or blackish particles of decayed vegetation, which im- part their richness to all fertile soils. It is commonly called 200 VEGETABLE MANURES. by gardeners "vegetable mould," and has also received the names of "humin," "humic acid," humic extract," "coal of humus," and has been improperly called " ulmin," " ulmic acid," " geine," " geic a(?id," " apotheme,"&c., (Stc. It is formed by the gradual decomposition of vegetable matter ; exists more or less in all soils ; forms the chief substance of peat ; and generally consists of a n:)ixture of several different compounds, which are naturally produced during the decay of the several parts of trees and plants. It is distinguished into the " mild," " sour," and " coaly humus." The mild imparts a brown color to water, but does not render it sour ; gives a dark-brown solution when boiled with carbonate of soda ; evolves ammonia when heated with caustic potash or soda, or with slacked lime, and leaves an ash, when burned, which contains lime and magnesia. The sour gives, with water, a brown solution of a more or less sour taste. This variety is less favorable to vegetation than the former, and in- dicates a want of lime in the soil. The coaly humus gives little color to water, or to a hot solution of carbonate of soda; leaves an ash which contains little lime; occurs generally on the surfoce of very sandy soils, and is very unproductive. It is greatly ameliorated by the addition of wood ashes or lime. When a fertile soil, or a piece of dry peat, is boiled with a solution of the common carbonate of soda of the shops, a brown solution, more or less dark, is obtained, from which, when diluted muriatic acid, (spirits of salt,) is added till the liquid has a distinctly sour taste, brown flocks begin to fall. This brown flocky matter is humic acid. If, instead of a solution of carbonate of soda, one of caustic ammonia, (the hartshorn of the shops,) be digested upon the soil or peat by a gentle heat, a more or less dark-brown solu- tion is obtained, which, on the addition of muriatic acid, gives brown flocks as before, but which now consists of ulmic acid. These two acids combine with lime, magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron, forming compounds, (salts,) which are respect- tively distinguished by the names of " humates " and " ul mates." VEGETABLE MANURES. 201 They probably both exist, ready formed, in the soil in variable proportions, and in combination with one or more of the earthy substances above mentioned — lime, alumina, &c. They are produced by the decay of vegetable matter in the soil, which decay is materially facilitated by the presence of one or other of these substances, and by lime especially — on the principle that the formation of acid compounds is in all such cases much promoted by the presence of a substance with which that acid may combine. They predispose organic substances to the for- mation of such acids, and consequently to the decomposition by which they are to be produced. These two acids consist respectively of Humic acid. Vlmic acid. Carbon, 63 57.00 Hydrogen, 6. 4.75 Oxygen, 31 38.25 100 100.00 When exposed to the air, the humates and ulmates, contained in the soil, undergo decomposition ; give olf carbonic acid, and are changed into carbonates. The admission of air into the soil facilitates this decomposition, which is supposed to be continually going forward— and it is in the form of this gas that plants are considered by some to imbibe the largest por- tion of that carbon for which they are indebted to the soil. — Johnston. The real utility of humus, irrespective of the ashes which mould contains, arises from the following effects: — 1st. It is constantly decaying, and thus producing carbonic acid and water, which feed the plant and moisten the soil. 2d. During decay, it constantly absorbs nitrogen from the air, which be- comes converted into ammonia and nitric acid, and is thus ad- mirably fitted to sustain vegetation. 3d. It not only imparts valuable mechanical qualities to the soil by increasing its warmth, porosity, and friability, but the carbonic acid produced, as well as the nitric acid, by acting on the insoluble minerals 202 VEGETABLE MANURES. of the soil, as the silicates of potash, soda, lime, and its bone earth and other phosphates, dissolves or decomposes them, rendering them food for plants. In this manifold way, humus becomes of great utility to culture, but is neither the only manure, nor competent of itself to produce fertility ; for, accu- mulations of humus are by no means desirable ; 10 per cent, in the soil is an abundance, and 2 to 3 per cent, is quite enough for most plants. Potatoes, roots, corn, cotton, tobacco, cru- ciferous plants, and wheat are most partial to this body ; they are all plants developed by culture, and require a supply of food by the roots as well as leaves. Grasses, clovers, and many beans increase instead of exhaust the soil of humus ; hence, their utility in rotations. The amount of humus in the soil is readily increased by green fallows, by plowing in straw, prepared peat, and all veg- etable rubbish. The greater part of the solid matter of all putrescent manures is humus, decayed wood, the rotten interior of the trunk and branches, &c. — Gardner. LEAVES OF TREES AND PLANTS— LEAF MOULD. The leaves of trees and plants, where they can be collected in- large quantities, may be highly useful in augmenting the manure heaps of the farm. It has been recommended that, in wooded countries, all the leaves which can be had at little ex- pense, should be raked together in October or November, and carted to the barn yard, pig sties, and sheep folds for littering or bedding them during the winter. In due time, they become incorporated with the dung of the animals, and also serve as an excellent absorbent of their urine, which might otherwise be lost. The fertilising properties of leaves vary with the species of trees and plants upon which they grow. Thus, the ashes of the leaves of iron wood, or hop hornbeam, {Ostrya vh-ginica,) dog wood, (Cornus Jlorida,) and of the harvest apple tree, (Pyrus malus^) according to the analyses given in the " Natural History VEGETABLE MANURES. 203 of the State of New York," consisted of the following ingre- dients : — Silica,. . .- Carbonic acid, Silicic acid, Sulpuhric acid, Phosphates, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Soda, Chlorine, Chloride of soaiiim,. Organic matter, 10.50 10.40 0.22 25.33 37.48 0.08 7.37 5.90 1.90 2.83 Dog wood. Apple tree 5.78 17.25 15.20 4.85 3.05 0.14 24.85 16.78 33.49 36.40 1.24 0.03 5.53 13.18 6.82 11.62 0.63 0.06 2.15 2.85 99.89 102.09 From these three analyses, it will be seen that they somewhat resemble each other, as regards the proportions of lime, the phosphates, and the organic matter, as well as the carbonic acid they contain ; but in the other constituents, the amounts differ, as will be found the case with many other trees and plants. Leaf mouldy or rotten leaves, is a manure so nearly adapted for universal application, that no other exception need be made to it than the case of a soil already too rich. It is too valu- able to be used on common occasions, alone ; but may be mixed with sand, perfectly-rotten dung, exhausted tan bark, or other ingredients, according to the wants of the soil. MALT DUST. When barley is caused to sprout by the maltster, and is after- wards dried, the small shoots and rootlets drop off, and form the substance known by the names of " malt dust " and " malt combs." One hundred bushels of barley yield 4 or 5 bushels of this dust, which, when applied to the land, serves as a manure of great power and vivacity. It excels in stimulating a cold soil, and answers best as a top-dressing in the spring. 204 VEGETABLE MANUKES. For wheat, from 40 to 80 bushels of this substance may be employed to an acre ; for barley or turnips, from 30 to 60 bush- els; and for grass lands, from 16 to 32 bushels to an acre. Like guano and rape dust, its portability renders this manure of great convenience and value to the farmer, wherever it can be obtained. MOSS, OS LICHENS, FROM ROOKS AND TREES. In the cold and temperate parts of the globe, plants of a very low organisation grow upon the rocks and the bark of trees, where they form a kind of incrustati(5n, and are commonly known by the name of " moss." They often abound in oxa- late of lime, which, in some cases, is equivalent to 15 or 20 per cent, of pure oxalic acid. Although these substances have never been employed within my knowiege as a manure, it is possible, that, where they oc- cur in abundance, they might be collected, and decomposed with sulphuric acid, as suggesled under the head of oxalate OF LIME. OIL CAKE. The residue of oleaginous seeds, after expression for oil, such as those of flax, hemp, cotton, poppy, coconut, &c., is usually known by the name of "oil cake," and in almost every case is useful as a manure, particularly for a succeeding crop of the same kind. In Great Britain, the cake of linseed has hitherto been used for this purpose in considerable quantity ; but, for some years past, as it is relished so well, and has proved so fattening to cattle, that have been fed upon it, this substance is seldom applied directly to the land as a manure. The coconut cake is also employed in Southern India, not only for feeding cattle, but as a manure to the coconut tree itself. In France, and some parts of Belgium, where the poppy k VEGETABLE MANURES. 205 extensively cultivated for the oil yielded by its seeds, the resi- due, or cake, is highly prized as a manure. When flax seed is ground into a coarse powder, and digested with a small quantity of water, with the aid of heat, and is subjected to strong pressure, two products are obtained — the one, linseed oil, and the other, the oil cake, which remains in the press. By this operation, no other substance but oil, if we except a small quantity of water, is separated from the cake ; and the two products, therefore, correctly represent the com- position of the seed i'rom which they are derived. Linseed is known to consist principally of mucilage, or gum, sugar, oil, and albuminous matter — the former three of which being sub- stances devoid of nitrogen, the latter having the same constit- uents as the flesh of animals, or the gluten of wheat. Now, as linseed oil contains no nitrogen, it is obvious that the cake must be richer in albuminous principles than the seed. The mean composition of linseed cake from different countries, as given by Professor Way, is as follows : — uoauBiuBai 1 Coimtries. Nitrogen. Oil. Water. Ash. 4.72 4.74 4.57 4.65 4.65 5.14 5.03 4.72 9.06 11.41 13.52 9.84 9.84 11.88 11.84 6.80 7.60 7.60 8.60 7.98 7.98 8.88 9.03 4f; 7.89 6.35 7.27 9.56 9.56 8.39 7.55 United States, England, Germany, Holland, Russia, Italy, Sicily, L maeaamanmK From the above analyses, it would appear that the oil cake of each of the above-named countries, with the exception of Russia and Italy, are on an average practically alike, in regard to the amount of nitrogen they contain. From the same authority last quoted, I insert below the mean analyses of the ash of two samples of linseed, the composition of which should exhibit no other difference from linseed cake, than that produced by the accidental introduction into the kit- 206 VEGETABLE MANURES. 'ler of a little grit, or sand, derived from the stones employed in grinding the seed : — % Silica, 1.45 Phosphoric acid, 38*54 Sulphuric acid, 1.56 Carbonic acid, 052 Lime, 8.40 , Magnesia, 13.11 Per-oxide of kon, ^ 0.50 Potash, 35.17 Soda, 1.69 Chloride of sodium, 0.36 m 100.00 From an inspection of the above, it will be seen that the ash of linseed abounds in potash and phosphoric acid, two very im- portant items in the composition of fertilisers; and hence, to- gether with the nitrogen, consists the value of oil cake as a manure. OXALIC ACID. Oxalic acid, when pure, consists of colorless, odorless, trans- parent crystals, having an intensely-acid taste, and effervesces with the carbonates of potash and soda; but on account of its poisonous qualities, it is unsafe to administer it as a medicine, as half of an ounce is sufficient to destroy life in a very short time, and a quarter of an ounce in a fevv days. Tt effloresces in warm dry air; fuses and sublimes at 350° F. ; dissolves readily in 8 parts of water, mixed with 4 parts of alcohol at 60°, and in its own weight of water at 212°, or twice its weight in water that is cold. In an uncombined state, this acid exists in the hairs of the chick pea. In combination with potash, it is found in the wood sorrel, (Oocalis aceloseUa,) as well as in the common sorrel and other species of rume.x, in which consists the acidity of these plants. It also occurs in the leaves and roots of rhubarb, and in the roots of tormentilb, bistort, gentian, saponaria, and in VEGETABLE MANURES. 207 many others. Combined with lime, it forms the solid parts of many lichens, which incrust the sides of rocks and trees, and not unfrequently contain more than half their weight of oxalate of lime. It can be formed artificially by the action of nitric acid on starch, sugar, gum, and many other organic substances. When perfectly free from water, oxalic acid contains no hydrogen, but consists of Carbon, 33.75 Oxygen, 66.25 100.00 When heated with strong sulphuric acid, it is decomposed and resolved into equal volumes of gaseous carbonic acid and car- bonic oxide. Although this substance, according to Professor Johnston, is not known to exist in the soil, nor in the waters which reach the roots of vegetation, and consequently is not thought to min- ister either to their growth or nourishment, still it is found largely in the interior of many species of plants, as stated above. Yet, if we can rely upon the remark quoted from Dun- donald, under the head of " sourel," which we have no reason to doubt, by the application of alkaline salts to the green plants containing this acid, there results another salt, fully neutralised, which highly promotes the vegetation, or growth, of more valuable plants and grain. PEAT AND SWAMP MUOK. Peat, or inert vegetable matter, for the most part, is formed by the growth of sphagnous mosses, and of the remains of aquatic plants, or of those vegetables which generally grow in humid or moist situations. Their nourishment and growth are promoted by atmospheric air, by the decomposition of water, and by the calcareous and alkaline matters held in so- lution, and contained in most kinds of water. These substan- ces, alone, are sufficient to account for the growth of such 208 VEGETABLE MANURES. aquatic vegetables, and the accumulation on the surface of the earth of that tough, spongy matter forming peat mosses, peat swamps, or bogs. Dead leaves, rotten trunks, branches, and seeds of trees also often enter into the composition of a peat swamps ; but they form only a small proportion of the whole mass, though they generally attract more attention on account of the perfect pre- servation of their forms, by which the nature of the tree may be recognised, even when its substance is perfectly rotten, brown, and black. Trees of a considerable size have been frequently found at the bottom of peat mosses, with the appearance of having been cut down, or in part acted on by fire. Hence, it may be infer- red, that the peat moss itself did not give birth to, nor support the growth of, such trees; but on the contrary, that, by the de- struction of forests, in consequence of natural causes, fire, or war, the trees had been thrown down, and causing a stoppage of the waters in their passage to the sea, the growth and decay of the aquatic vegetables, already noticed, had formed those extensive peat mosses and fens, which, in their natural state, are of all soils the most unproductive, but which are the most fertile when improved. According to Dr. Jackson, peat contains crenic acid, mostly combined with lime, magnesia, alumina, and oxide of iron; apocrenic acid ; humic acid; humin and ulmhi, the latter be- ing found in brown peat ; extract of humus, consisting of two distinct substances ; vegetable fibre, disorganised in part ; phosphoric acid, combined with earthy bases; sulphuric acid, combined with alumina, and with oxide of iron ; oxide of man- ganese ; also a little potash and soda, sea salt, and silica. It also contains a small proportion of phosphate of lime, a saline ingredient which enters largely into the composition of all cereal grains ; and phosphate of magnesia, an important salt required for the perfect growth of all our cultivated plants. The sulphates of iron and of alumina, also, are not unfrequent- ly present in excess, and exert a baneful action on plants. I 'vegetable manures. 209 There are, probably, other organic acids than those mentioned above, in some kinds of peat, but such are the ones most gen- erally present. Peat always contains nitrogen, and will give out ammonia by the action of hydrate of potash. This is stated by Jacicson to be owing to the presence of the highly-nitrogenised crenic and apocrenic acids, which he found present in all the peats he had analysed. When peat is exposed to the air, it blackens, and evidently undergoes a change in its composition, a large proportion of apocrenic acid being produced by the action of the atmos- phere — a change analogous to that which takes place when a yellow subsoil is exposed to the action of the air, and becomes a black mould. Again, the products of vegetable decomposition under water differ essentially from those arising from exposure to the air ; and the changes which take place in a bog, by draining, and afterwards plowing it, are probably more complicated than is generally imagined. For, it is well known that when such a bog, or swamp, has been thus improved, or when recently-dug peat has been freely spread on a soil, it generally acts unfav- orably on vegetation, and the farmer justly says it is "sour" and worthless in that state. This acidity will be recognised by those who have observed the stones taken from boggy land, from which every trace of matter that the acid would attack has been dissolved ; in a piece of granite, for instance, from which the mica and feldspar have disappeared, there will only be left a silicious skeleton of the stone. All the oxide of iron is also generally taken up, unless, as is sometimes the case, the bog is already saturated with it. A soft spongy soil, covered with moss or coarse grass, shak- ing as it is trodden upon, with a good black mud, or mould, un- der the surface, are indications that peat is underneath. It is not always found, however, in such situations, but is frequently the case. By digging from 1 to 10 feet below the surface, if peat exists, it will usually be found within that depth. It often 210 VEGETABLE MANURES. occurs in low, miry, and boggy places, that lie between hills. It is sometimes found, also, in "interval" or "bottom" lands, near the banks of rivers. Good peat earth, as it lies in the ground, cuts soft and easy, so that it may be formed into shape as it is dug. When dried, vit is tough and lirm, and is not easily broken. The blacker it is, the better the quality. When it is reddish, or pale brown, and soft, it is less valuable. « The application of peat was recommended as a proper ma- nure for a light, sandy soil by Dr. Francis Home, as early as the year 1756, previous to which, an experiment was made on such a soil, where the beneficial effects were not only visible on a crop of oats, but on a crop of clover the year following. And Mr. Nicholas Turner, in his " Essay on Draining and Im- proving Peat Bogs," published in London in 1784, describes the properties of peat at length, and details the modes of employ- ing it in burning lime for the purpose of agriculture, as well as of converting it into ashes, and applying them to the land as a manure. The subject also has since been ably treated by the Earl of Dundonald, Lord Meadowbank, and others. The latter gentleman recommends a mixture of peat with farmyard dung, for the purpose of bringing it into a state of fermentation. For this object, dung is well adapted ; but any putrescent sub- stance, as blood, urine, soap suds, fish, the refuse of slaughter- houses, night soil, &c., will be absorbed, and serve equally well ; and the more readily the mixture heats, the better it will answer the purpose. In ordinary cases, 1 part of dung is suffi- cient to decompose from 3 to 6 parts of peat. In the heat of summer, it will require from 2 to 3 months to reduce fermented peat to a state of humus, or vegetable mould. Green vegeta- bles, also, mixed with peat, will accelerate the fermentation. The directions for the con\ersion of peat into a rich com- post, as given by Lord Meadowbank, are very simple, and de- scribed as follows : — " Let the peat moss," says he, " be thrown out of the pit for some weeks or months, in order to lose its redundant moisture. By this means, it is rendered the lighter VEGETABLE MANURES. 211 to carry, and less compact and heavy when made up with fresh dung for fermentation ; and, accordingly less dung is re- quired for this purpose than if the preparation were made with peat taken recently from the pit; the peat taken from near the surface, or at a considerable depth, answers equally well. Take the peat moss to a dry spot convenient for constructing a dunghill, to serve the field to be manured ; lay the cart loads of it in two rows, and of the dung in a row between them. The dung thus lies nearly on an area of the future compost dung hill, and the rows of peat should be near enough each other that workmen, in making up the compost, may be able to throw them together by the spade. In making up, let the workmen begin at one end, and at the extremity of the row of dung, (which should not extend quite so far at that end as the rows of peat on each side of it do), let them lay a bottom of peat 6 inches deep and 15 feet wide, if the ground admits of it; then throw forward and lay on about 10 inches of dung above the bottom of peat, then add from the side rows about 6 inches of peat, then 4 or 5 of dung, and then 6 more of peat; then another thin layer of dung, and then cover it over with peat at the end where it was begun, and at the two sides. The compost should not be raised above 4 or 4i feet high; otherwise it is apt to press too heavily on the under parts, and check the fermentation. "When a beginning is thus made, the laborers will pro- ceed working backwards, and adding to the column of com- post, as they are furnished with the three rows of materials directed to be laid down for them. They must take care not to tread on the compost, nor render it too compact ; and, of con- sequence, in proportion as the peat is wet, it should be made yp in lumps, and not much broken. In mild weather, 7 cart loa-ds of common farm dung, tolerably fresh made, is sufficient for 21 cart loads of peat moss ; but in cold weather, a larger proportion of dung is desirable. To every 28 cart loads of the compost, when made up, it is of use to throw on above it a cart load of ashes, either made from coal, peat, or wood ; or, if these 212 VEGETABLE MANURES. cannot be had, half the quantity of slacked lime may be used, the more finely powdered the better ; but these additions are nowise essential to the general success of the compost. " The dung to be used should either have been recently made or kept fresh by compression, as by the treading of cattle or swine, or by carts passing over it ; and if there is little or no litter in it, a smaller quantity will serve, provided any spongy vegetable matter is added at making up the compost, as fresh weeds, the rubbish of a stack yard, potato shaves, (parings,) saw- ings of timber, &c. ; and as some sorts of dung, even when fresh, are much more advanced in decomposition than others, it is ma- terial to attend to this ; for a much less proportion of such dung as is less advanced will serve for the compost, provided care is taken to keep the mass sufficiently open, either by a mixture of the above-mentioned substances, or, if these are wanting, by ad- ding the peat piece meal ; that is, first making it up in the usual proportion of 3 to 1 of dung, and then adding, after a time, an equal quantity more or less of moss. The dung of this quality of greatest quantity is shamble dung, with which, under the above precautions, 6 times the quantity of peat, or more, may be prepared. The same holds as to pigeons' dung, and other fowl dung, and, to a certain extent, also, as to that which is collected from towns, and made by animals that feed on grains, refuse of distilleries, &c. "The compost, after it is made up, gets into a general heat sooner or later, according to the weather and the condition of the dung ; in summer, in 10 days or sooner; in winter, not per- haps for many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, how- ever, has been found to come on at last ; and in summer, it some- times rises so high as to be mischievous, by consuming the materials (fire-fanging). In that season, a stick should l^p kept in it in different parts, to pull out and felt of, now and then ; for, if it approaches to blood heat, it should either be watered or turned over, and, on such an occasion, advantage may be taken to mix it with a little fresh moss. The heat sub- sides after a time, and with great variety, according to the VEGETABLE MANURES. 213 weather, the dung, and the perfection of the making up of the compost, which then should be allowed to remain untouched till within 3 weeks of using, when it should be turned over upside down, and outside in, and all lumps broken; then it comes into a second heat, but soon cools, and should be taken out for use. In this state, the whole, except bits of the old de- cayed wood, appears a black, free mass, and spreads like gar- den mould. Use it weight for weight, as farmyard dung, and it will be found in a course of cropping fully equal to stand the comparison." This compost may then be put on the land in the same quan- tity that farmyard manure would have been, and, consequent- ly, by a little labor, 4 times the quantity of manure is produced by the mixture of the peat with the dung. It is found that lime is not essential to the formation of this compost. The fermen- tation excited, is sufficient to decompose the tannin and con- vert it into soluble extract. The fibres^ partially decomposed, are reduced into vegetable mould, and the whole assumes a uniform and rich appearance. A complete chemical change has taken place, and the peat, from being very inflammable, is now scarcely capable of combustion, and that only in a very great heat. There is no better nor more economical mode of converting peat into a rich manure. Dr. Jackson earnestly protests against the employment of acid peat in soils, and advises farmers to convert it into a neutral compost by means of animal manures, capable of gen- erating ammonia. He also recommends the mixing of lime and wood ashes with peat after it is fermentated sufficiently to give out ammoniacal gas by the action of alkaline matter, as lime and potash will disengage a portion of ammonia from some kinds of peat, saturating the noxious acids, and convert- ing them into fertilising salts by combining with them. Hence, lime is generally a valuable top-dressing for reclaimed peat bogs, and will render them fertile. On the subject of composting peat with lime and alkaline salts, Dundonald remarks : " When hot or newly-calcined lime 214 VEGETABLE MANURES. is broken into pieces of a small size, and mixed with peat, moderately humid, heat is disengaged, and that heat, by the slaking of the lime when it is applied in too great a proportion, is so increased, as completely to reduce the peat to charcoal, and to dissipate, in a gaseous state, all its component parts, excepting the ashes, part of the carbonaceous matter, and such a portion of fixable air, (carbonic acid,) generated in the pro- cess, as is absorbed by the lime, by which that substance is made to return to the state of chalk. No benefit can, therefore, arise by this method of preparing peat with lime, the object not being to destroy and dissipate in a gaseous state, the com- ponent parts of the peat, but to make such a combination with the lime, and the gas generated in the process, as will, on the application of the mixture to the ground, promote the growth of plants. " This object is best attained by mixing newly-made and completely-slaked lime, with about 5 or 6 times its weight of peat, which should be moderatel}'' humid, and not in too dry a state. In this case, the heat generated will be moderate, and never sufficient to convert the peat into carbonaceous matter, nor to throw oflj in the state of fixable air, the acids therein contained. The gases thus generated will be imflammable, and phlogisticated air, (nitrogen,) forming volatile alkali, which will combine, as it is formed, with the oxygenated part of the peat that remains unacted upon by the lime applied for this especial purpose, in a small proportion. By this mode of conducting the process, a soluble saline matter will be produced consisting of phosphate and oxalate of ammonia, whose ben- eficial effects on vegetation have already been described. " Inattention or ignorance of these important facts, has, prob- ably, in many cases, defeated the wishes of the farmer in the application of this preparation, which is particularly recom- mended as a top-dressing to grounds under pasture. The pro- portion of the lime to the peat here given, should be carefully attended to, and the mixing of the two substances together should be performed under cover, in a shed or outhouse, con- VEGETABLE MANURES. 215 structed for that purpose, as too much rain, or a too great ex- posure to the air, will prevent a due action of the lime upoir the peat. The success of most operations, but more especially of those of a chemical nature, greatly depends upon a regular and due observance of circumstances apparently trivial. "This preparation of lime and peat is in a peculiar manner conducive to the growth of clover, and of the short, as they are called, sweet kinds of pasture grasses. The soil also, by the application of it, acquires such a predisposing tendency to promote the growth of such grasses, as to prevent4heir growing afterwards rank, coarse, or sour herbage, " Notwithstanding that this preparation of lime and peat is certainly, when properly made, a valuable manure, yet the ad- vantages that may be derived, by using alkaline salts instead of lime, are of much greater importance and general utility ; in as much as the peat, by alkaline salts, is rendered complete- ly soluble ; whilst, by the application of lime, no greater pro- portion of it is made capable of solution than what is equiva- lent to the quantity of volatile alkali, which may be generated in the process ; besides which, a large proportion of the acids contained in the vegetable matter, combines with that which is calcareous, and forms insoluble compounds. " From experiments made with alkaline salts and peat, it can be asserted, that the effects of such a mixture, weight for weight, are equal, if not superior, to those of dung." Frost has hardly any effect at all upon good peat ; for, on being exposed through the winter, it moulders, or crumbles, but slightly, and consequently it is useless to attempt to improve its quality by this means. Where peat is abundant, and charcoal cannot be econom- ically obtained, the farmer can find a good deodoriser by char- ring it for manure. Full directions for performing this opera- tion may be found under the head of charred peat, in the article " charcoal." Swamp or hog muck differs from peat chiefly in being com- posed of fine humus, or vegetable mould, produced by decayed 216 VEGETABLE MANURES. vegetables, and therefore contains more or less of the natural ft)od of plants. Its value, however, as a fertiliser, will depend much upon whether the swamp or bog, from which it is pro- cured, has a running stream of water passing through or from it, as in all such cases, the soluble portions of the mud are separated from the vegetable remains, and washed away; whereas, the muck taken from those swamps or bog holes, having no mode of discharging their water, except by evapo- ration, retain most of the soluble portions of their animal and other organic remains, and consequently is richer in nitrogen and fertilising salts. When a dry season occurs, the prudent farmer will be indus- trious in removing or carting muck from evaporated swamps or other sunken places on or near his farm, and composting it with the dung or urine of animals, night soil, soap suds, or other putrescent matter; or, what would be better, to lay it in his barn yard, pig st3^ or sheep fold, and let it become thoroughly mixed with the dung and urine of his stock. When thus man- aged, the compost is excellent, and suitable for almost any va- riety of soil, though best for those that are sandy and light. It is not recommended to plow under mud of any kind that is recently dug, as it should either be composted with lime or putrescent manures, or lie exposed to a winter's frost, which will destroy its tenacity, and reduce it to a fine pov/der that will serve as a valuable absorbent of feculent matter and urine ; or it may be spread upon the field like ashes. But if it be plowed into the soil, before it has undergone fermentation by the action of salts, or has been mellowed by frost, it will remain in lumps in the earth for years without much avail. POMACE, OR APPLE MURK— GRAPE SKINS AJID SEEDS. Pomace, apple murk, or the refuse of ground apples after the cider is expressed, is believed to be very rich in mineral mat- ter, and when left in abundance after it has been fed to cows and swine, it might doubtless be converted into a valuable VEGETABLE MANURES. Sit fertiliser. As it is difficult of decomposition, it rots very slow- ly, and consequently has not hitherto been much employed as a manure. Its decay might be hastened by using it in a com- post with some rapidly-decaying substance, as fresh horse dung or urine, or it may be charred after the manner recommended under the head of charred sawdust, &c. It may also be con- verted into ashes, and applied to the soil with good effects. From the laws which govern special manures, it is to be infer- red that pomace would be beneficial to apple trees. The skins and seeds of grapes, in wine-growing countries, may also be treated in a similar manner as pomace, and applied to the roots of vines. PINE STRAW. In those parts of the country where pine forests abound, the straw, or leaves, may be raked together, and carted to the yards, or folds, were animals are confined at night, or it may be used for bedding in their stalls. Employed in this way, it absorbs the urine, and becomes incorporated with the dung, forming in a few weeks, an excellent manure for almost any kind of crop that iiH^equired to be grown on light sandy soils. In regions where marl is abundant, pine straw may be collected, and formed into a compost heap, consisting of a layar of leaves 1 foot thick, and then one of marl 3 inches thick, and so on alternately, until the pile is completed. In the course of 6 months, the straw will be sufficiently decomposed to be applied to the land, and will serve as an excellent manure on sandy soils. RAPE DUST. When the seed of rape, (Brassica napis,) is deprived of its oil, it comes from the press in the form of hard cakes, which, when crushed to powder, forms the rape dust so extensively employed in Europe of late years, as a manure. 10 218 VEGETABLE MANTTRES. According to an analysis by Professor Way, 100 parts of the ash of rape cake gave of Silica and sand, 13.07 Phosphoric acid, 32.70 Cai-bonic acid, 2.15 SiiJphuric acid, 1.62 Lime 8.62 Magnesia, 14.75 Oxide of iron, ^ 4.50 Potash, 21.90 Chloride of potassium, 0.17 Chloride of sodium, 0.46 100.00 The entire seed of the rape, as analysed by the same author- ity as above, contained 4j^Vths per cent, of nitrogen ; 37j^\ths of oil ; 6yWths of water ; and Sy^^ths per cent, of ash. There- fore, a ton of rape cake will contain about 94 lbs. of nitrogen ; 128 lbs. of mineral matter. Id of which is phosphoric acid, ^th potash, and |th magnesia. Rape dust is occasionally mixed with farmyard dung, and applied to turnip crops; but its principal use in Europe has hitherto been as a top-dressing for wheat, either Jiarrowed in with the seed in the fall, or applied to the young plants in the spring, when it greatly accelerates their growth ; but if added in too large a quantity, in immediate contact with the seed or the young plants, on heavy, impervious soils, it often undergoes the putrid fermentation, and proves fatal or injurious to both. According to Professor Johnston, rape dust requires moisture to bring out its full fertilising virtues ; hence, he recommends its application chiefly to clayey soils, or to such as rest upon a stiff subsoil. It is seldom applied in England, therefore, to the barley crop, and even upon wheat, oats, and turnips, it will fail to produce any decidedly good effects in a very dry season. The quantity to be applied to an acre may vary from 700 to 1,000 lbs. It may be noticed as a curious fact, that the action of rape dust is dependent upon the presence or absence of certain other VEGETABLE MANURES. 219 substances in the soil. Common salt and sulphate of soda, when mixed with it under certain circumstances, lessen the effect which it would produce alone, and the same will prob- ably happen when it is applied, without admixture, to soils in which these saline compounds happen to be already present. Dissolved in water, and mixed with urine, rape dust forms one of the most efficacious of artificial liquid manures. Hence, it is probable that the most advantageous mode of using it on the land, after it has been dissolved in the urine tank, is, to ap- ply it by means of a water cart to the rows where the seed has been already drilled, or some time before it is put in. Where flax is to be sown, this mixture, applied a few days before the seed i^ put in, so as to allow it to sink into the soil, is considered, in Flanders, as next in value to the emptyings of privies, which, with them, hold the first rank for producing fine crops of flax. When a crop appears sickly, and not growing as it should do, owing to poverty in the soil, a top-dressing of rape cake dis- solved in water, if no urine is at hand, will generally excite the powers of vegetation ; and it is highly probable that it may greatly assist the effects of saltpetre or of nitrate of soda, where these salts are applied. — Rham. SEAWEED. All plants which grow within reach of the sea are good manures. Those thriving upon rocks, or are attached to the bottom, on shoals, are regarded as the richest in fertilising salts, but they cannot always be reached on account of being covered with water. A considerable quantity of them, how- ever, is usually driven on shore in the vicinity of the rocks where they grow, particularly when the spring tides are high, accompanied by heavy rains, and a high-swelling sea occurs at the same time. At low water, the roots of the plants are ex- posed to the falling rain arid the air, become loose, and detach- ed from their beds by the power of the waves, and are convey- ed far on shore by the rising tide. 220 VEGETABLE MANURES. Some kinds of seaweed are burnt for their ashes, and ap- plied as a manure, as has already been noticed, with an analy- sis, under the head of barilla, or kelp. Marine plants are generally of a soft consistency, and soon putrefy when buried in the soil. They are transient in their nature, and are not very marked in their effects beyond the first year ; but for a single crop, the yield is very productive. They are sometimes suffered to dry before they are used ; but this is a wasteful practice, as they contain nearly 90 per cent, of water, which, in a great measure, is evaporated, if allowed to ferment ; for there is no fibrous matter rendered soluble by the process, while a part of the manure is lost. The best farmers use seaweed as fresh as it can be procured. But where it cannot be immediately applied, a good method to save the juices, is, to compost it in a flattened heap with dry earth or loam, and allow it to remain until read}"" for use. It is more common, however, and a better method, to haul it to the barn yard, or pig sty, and incorporate it with the dung. Seaweed may be applied to soil in almost any situation, and is proper for land that has been exhausted by wood ashes or lime. When its effects are over, the soil is in no worse condition than before it was applied, and any other manure can follow with- out injury therefrom. The oftener it is applied, the richer be- comes the land, as has been confirmed by experience in several of the maritime districts of New England, which have be»n kept almost constantly under tillage, where it occurs in great abundance, and has long been used as a manure. ^Seaweed, as a fertiliser, it is stated, improves both the growth and the flavor of most of our esculent herbs. REFUSE OF STARCH MANUFACTORIES. When the flour of wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, &c. is mixed up into a dough with water, and this dough washed on a linen cloth with pure water, a milky liquid passes through, from which, when set aside, a white powder gradually falls. VEGETABLE MANURES. .^1 This white powder is the "starch" of wheaten or other flour. When the raw potato is peeled and grated on a fine grater, and the pulp thus produced, well washed with water, " potato starch " is obtained in the form of a fine white powder, consisting of rounded, glossy and shining particles. Although starch constitutes a large proportion of the weight of the grains and roots usually employed for its manufacture, it is obvious, from the following table, that a large share of their bulk is rejected, and where it can be cheaply procured in abundance, it will serve as an excellent manure, when applied to similar crops as those from which it is obtained : — Starch per cent. Wheat, 39 to 77 Rye, r 50 « 61 Barley, 67 " 70 Oats, 70 " 80 Indian corn, 77 " 80 Potatoes, 13 " 15 SAW DUST— SHAVINGS— TAN BARK— WOODY FIBRE, ETC. Mere woody fibre, in all cases, seems to require fermentation or charring to render it nutritious to plants. Shavings of wood, fine chips, saw dust, the young shoots of trees and shrubs, usually require as much dung, or vegetable refuse, to bring them into a state of fermentation, as the most obstinate kinds of peat. They can much sooner be decomposed by the action of caustic lime than by the process of fermentation, as they may be speedily converted into a manure by being laid in a pit with alternate layers of newly-burnt stone lime. But the most profitable mode of disposing of these substances to the farmer, is, to char them, as directed under their respective heads in the article charcoal. STRAW AND CHAFF OF GRAIN. The straw of wheat, barley, oats, and rape contains a mix- ture of saline substances, as is shown in the article ashes, un- 223 VEGETABLE MANURES. der their respective heads, which is exceedingly valuable as a manure to almost every kind of crop. The same may also be said of their chaff. But, as it is thought to be a wasteful prac- tice to burn so large a bulk of vegetable matter, merely for its small amount of ash, it is believed to be more economical, as a general thing, to rot the straw and chaff in the dung pits or barn yard, instead of dissipating all its volatile matter into the air. Furthermore, as vegetable matter, or humus, appears to be really essential to a fertile soil, it would seem rational to supply that matter from this source. It is in the form of straw that dry vegetable matter is most abundantly employed as a manure. It is only, however, when already in the ground in the state of stubble, that it is usually plowed in without some previous preparation. When buried in the soil in the dry state, it decomposes slowly, and produces a less sensible effect upon the succeeding crop; it is usually fermented, therefore, more or less completely, by an admixture of animal manure in the farm yard before it is laid upon the land. During this fermentation, a certain unavoidable loss of organic and generally a large loss of saline matter takes place* It is, therefore, generally theoretically true of dry, as it is of green, vegetable matter, that it will add most to the soil, if it be plowed in without any previous preparation. Yet this is not the only consideration by which the practical man must be guided. Instead of a slow and prolonged action upon his crops, he may require an immediate and powerful action for a shorter time; and to obtain this, he may be justified in fermenting his straw with the certainty even of an unavoidable loss. Thus the dis- puted use of short and long dung becomes altogether a question of expediency or of practical economy. Chaff partakes of the nature of straw, but it decomposes more slowly when buried in the soil in a dried state. It is also difficult to bring it into a state of fermentation, even when mixed with the liquid manure of the farm yard. The main general difference between vegetable matter of tho same kind, and cut at the same age, when applied as a manu^-e VEGETABLE MANURES. 223 in the gtteen and in the dry state, consists in this : That in the former, it decomposes more rapidly, and, therefore, acts more speedily. The total effect upon vegetation will probably in cither case be very nearly the same. But if the dry vegetable matter has been cut at a more advanced age of the plant, or has been exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather while drying, it will no longer exhibit an equal efficacy. A ton of dry straw, when unripe, will manure more richly than a ton of the same straw in its ripe state — not only because the sap of the green plant contains the materials from which the sub- stance of the grain is afterwards formed, but, because, as the plant ripens, the stem restores to the soil a portion of the sa- line, especially of the alkaline, matter it previously contained. After it is cut, also, every shower of rain that falls upon the sheaves of grain, or upon the new hay, washes out some of the saline substances which are lodged in its pores, and thus diminishes its value as a fertiliser of the land. These facts place in a still stronger light the advantages which necessarily fol- low from the use of vegetable matter in the recen^ state, for manuring the soil. — Jolinslon. The straw and husk of rice, according to the following analy- ses of their ash by Professor Shephard, are by no means des- titute of fertilising matter, and where they can cheaply be ob- tained in abundance, in the vicinity of rice plantations, they may be used for the bedding of animals in stables, or compost- ed in the yards, or folds, with urine and dung : — Chaff. Straw. Phosphate of lime, 1.02 2.00 Phosphate of potash, (nearly,) trace trace. Silica, (nearly,) 97.55 84.75 Sulphate of potash, trace Chlorid3 of potassium and loss, 1.13 2.56 Carbonate of lime, 0.29 20.00 Potash from the silicate, 8.69 The chaff, or husk, contained 13/yths per cent, of ash, and the straw 12fths per cent. 224 VEGETABLE MANURESk WEEDS AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS. All weeds and herbaceous plants, whether cultivated or wild, such as potato haulms, the vines of beans, peanuts, (pindars,) squashes, or melons, and all the well-known troublesome weeds which spring up about our cultivated fields and cleared land, as well as the ferns, (brakes,) of the woods, may be collected and laid in the pig sties and barn yards to putrefy and decom- pose with the urine and dung. Or they may be collected into compact heaps, and charred after the manner of bagasse, in the article charcoal, on a preceding page. They are all rich in fertilising salts, and hence, are valuable as a manure, how- ever they may be applied. It is stated that ferns, cut while the sap is in its height, and left to rot on the ground, are a great improver of the land ; for, if burned, when so cut, their ashes will yield nearly double the quantity of salts that any other vegetable can do. In sev- eral parts of the north of Europe, they are mown when green, burnt to ashes, which are made up into balls with water, dried in the sun, and employed in washing linen instead of soap. From this circumstance, we may be led to conclude that these plants would serve as an excellent manure. ii ANIMAL MANURES. BLOOD. "MLOOD is an alkaline liquid, of a red color in the vertef)H»is;i and generally white in the invertebral animals, which circu- lates throughout the whole body, and carries life to every part of it by means of innumerable vessels,* ramifying from the ar- teries and veins. Its temperature is the same as that of the animal in which it is contained ; that is to say, in man it varies from 96|°F. to 98f°; in fishes, 61f°; in dogs and cats, 102^°; in the hog, 105°; and in birds, from 102|° to 105|°. It coagu- lates by the heat of boiling water, the strong acids, and by alcohol, as well as spontaneously in the open air, or in close vessels. This fluid, by its coagulation, is divided into two parts, one of which is liquid, transparent and yellowish, called the serwm, while the other is opaque, soft, denser, of a reddish color, and is named the crassamentum, cruo7% or clot. The blood which circulates through the arteries, is of a bright red, but that which returns to the heart by the veins is of a brownish red, which, seen through the pellucid sides of these vessels, appears bluish or black. The crassamentum of the blood of a bullock, according to Berzelius. is composed of 36 per cent, of fibrin, and 64 of red coloring matter; while the fibrin in man scarcely amounts to 17i per cent. And from the analyses of the same chemist and 226 ANIMAL MANURES. Marcet, 1,000 parts of the blood of man and of a bullock gave the following results : — Composition. Vv'^afer, Albumen, Impure lactate and phosphate of soda, Extractive matter, Chloride of sodium and potassium,. . . Impure soc^a, Sulphate of potash, Earthy phosphates, Loss, Berzelius. 1 1 BuUock. Man. - 905.000 79.990 6.175 905 80 4 2.565 1.520 6 4 4.750 1 1,000.000 1,000 1 Marcet. JVlan. 900.00 86.80 4.00 6.60 1.65 0.35 0.60 1,000 According to the researches of Proust, blood contains, be- sides the above-named substances, a portion of ammonia, a hydro-sulphuret, benzoate of soda, traces of acetic acid, slightly modified, and of bile. Brand and Vogel have proved, that, in vacciio, blood gives out its own weight of carbonic acid gas, Vauquelin found in it a yellow fatty matter, which Chevreul considered as being of the same nature as that of the brain. Barruel did not find the slightest trace of urea in 10 lbs. of bullocks' blood, while Provost and Dumas alleged that they found urea in the blood of a dog. Blood, therefore, contains certain quantities of most, if not all the principles found in animal substances, and constitutes a manure of the most active properties. In the vicinity of large cities or towns, it is carried off to some extent from the slaughterhouses, and converted into a rich and fertilising com- post. In some parts of Europe, it is dried, and in the ^tate of a powder, is applied with much effect as a top-dressing to many crops. Blood is always highly valued to compost with dried peat, charcoal, vegetable matter, fine earth, or loam. It has been somewhat extensively applied to fruit trees; but the 'compara- tively limited quantity that can be obtained, precbides it from ANIMAL MAKIJRES. 227 universal use. It is most generally mixed with the offal of slaughterhouses, and with the animal dung in the pits of butch- er shops, where a substance of great value is found for adding to the compost heaps, or for mixing with farmyard manure. If butchers would keep on hand a large stock of dried pulverised peat, or swamp muck, to absorb the blood and offal of their slaughtered animals, it would richly pay the trouble and cost, as it would form a manure that would readily sell at a very high price. BLUBBER REFUSE— TRAIN OIL. When the oil is expressed from the « blubbler," or the cellu- lar or muscular parts of the whale, a skinny or membraneous refuse remains, which has hitherto been employed with great advantage, both in Europe and in this country, as a manure. Whale blubber is composed principally of train oil and other animal matters ; but the oil constitutes by far the largest por- tion of the blubber; and to the presence of this oil, which does not appear to differ materially in composition fi'om what- ever fish it is obtained, must be attributed the chief fertilising value of all fish. According to Thompson, 100 parts of train oil contained of Parts. - , 68.78 Carbon, ••••• ' ^ • * ' y'"-'''^ ['[['^ Oxygen, ' 100.00 Spermaceti oil, according to Dr. Ure, consists, in 100 parts, of Carbon, Hydrogen, ^ 10.2 Oxygen, 100.0 Fish oils, therefore, are composed of exactly the same mate rials that constitute most if not all vegetable substances, differ- 10* Parts, , .78.0 .11.8 228 ANIMAL MANURES, ing only in the proportions. Hence blubber, as well as train oil and other animal oils, which contain impurities, rich in nitrogen, may be classed among the most condensed manures that it is possible to apply to the soil. All practical writers on the application of blubber and train oil, and similar refuse, agree that to modify them, they must be made into a compost with a large proportion of peat, swamp muck, earth, coal or wood ashes, or loam, though the propor- tions may differ under the diversified circumstances on which individual experience is founded. Animal or vegetable alkalies increase their fertilising power by converting them into soap. But quicklime diminishes their efficacy by liberating their am- monia, and also tends to render them insoluble. Hence, the mixing of lime is detrimental, as it deprives the blubber of its ammonia, and prevents fermentation. A correspondent in the London Farmer's Magazine found that blubber, in a crude state, as he applied it, destroyed, instead of assisting vegetation. Twelve years' experience, however, led him to a most successful method of using it, by mixing 9 loads of earth with 1 load of blubber. He first made a layer of earth 2 feet thick, building it a foot higher at the sides, 3 feet inward, like a stone wall, to form a cavity for the blubber. Af- ter the blubber had been laid on a foot in depth, similar layers were repeated, one above the other, until the blubber was ex- pended. The entire heap was then beaten down close at the top and sides, in oi'der to exclude the air. In this state, it fer- mented, and the earth became impregnated with the ammonia and other gases escaping from the blubber. When this fer* mentation had abated, which required about 2 months, the heap was turned over from top to bottom. The lowermost layer of earth, v/hich then became the uppermost, required an addition- al covering of fresh earth, in order to prevent the escape of ammonia by the second fermentation. After this fermentation had abated, the heap was again turned, fresh earth added as before, and at the completion of the third fermentation, the compost was ready for u.se. It was not put on the soil before AMMAL MANUKES. 229 it was from 9 to 12 months old, when it was applied both to grass and tillage lands, at the rate of 20 to 30 tons to an acre. It was also used for tillage crops of wheat, beans, and potatoeSj on Strong clayey soil, with remarkably good effects. An excellent compost for almost all kinds of crops may be made by dissolving 12 lbs. of American potash in 4 gallons of water, and mixing the solution with a gallon of train oil and 20 bushels of dry mould. A mixture of a few gallons, also, of im- pure train oil with the usual quantity of bone dust, increases the turnip crop to a considerable degree wherever it is applied. BONE BLACK, OR ANIMAL CHARCOAL— REFUSE OF SUGAR RE* FINERIES— ANIMALISED CARBON. When bones are charred or distilled at a red heat, in close vesssels, they leave behind a coaly residuum, to which the names " bone black " and " ivory black," have been applied. By this calcination, the animal matter Is almost entirely decomposed. It still retains a little nitrogen, however, though seldom em- employed in a pure state as a manure, yet it is not wholly without effect in promoting the gro^Vth of cultivated crops. A good article of animal charcoal contains from 80 to 86 per cent of phosphate of lime, besides other mineral matter. Bone black is chiefly employed in refineries for the purpose of removing the color from the solutions of raw sugar. Blood is also used for clarifying the same solutions, with quicklime, for neutralising the acid matter they contain ; thus render'ng the sirups more capable of easy crystallisation. Consequently, the animal charcoal, blood, lime, and the coloring and other matters, separated from the sugar, become mixed together, and form the refuse of sugar refineries. This refuse often contains from |th to ith of its weight of blood ; and hence, where it is employed as a manure, it is considered from 4 to 6 times more powerful than the pure animal charcoal, alone. The value of this substance depends very much upon the proportion of blood which it contains, and as this is in som© 230 ANIMAL MANURES. measure variable, its fertilising qualities must be variable also.. In Europe, as well as in this country, blood is used much more sparingly than formerly, and several of the larger re- fineries do not use it at all ; and hence, the refuse of many of our northern establishments is doubtless less valuable at pres- ent than it was in former years. Still, this refuse is suffi- ciently rich in fertilising matter to be employed where more economical manures cannot readily be obtained, provided it is treated with sulphuric acid, after the manner of dissolving bones and phosphate of lime, described in another part of this work. It is then of great service in producing vigorous growth, strong plants, and fine seeds. The quantity to be applied in a compost, to one acre of land, in tolerable good tilth, may vary from 150 to 200 pounds. This refuse does not appear always to have a constant com- position, but varies somewhat when obtained from different es- tablishments, which is due to the adoption of different modes of manufacture. In most refineries in the United States, blood is dispensed with, and the animal charcoal, in some cases, is only used in one operation of refining; while in others, it is burnt, or revivified, a second and even a third time, carrying on two or three refinings before it is rejected as refuse. This, of course, alters the composition to a considerable extent. From the analyses of two samples of sugar refuse, taken from a refinery at New York, by Dr. Antisell, chemist to the American Agricultural Association, the following was the re- sult : — ''jTo. 1. JSTo. 2. Charcoal, 34.00, 12 Phosphate and carbonate of lime and magnesia, 62,25 65 Sugar and organic coloring matter, with isinglass, ... 2.35 10 Water, 1.40 13 loo.oa 100 No. 1 would appear to have been used frequently by the large amount of charcoal in it, the quantity of carbon wliiph burnt bones alone would possess being not above that in No. 2. Hence, it is likely it was obtained by the .burning of the sugar and I ANIMAL MANURES. 231 coloring matters obtained by a previous refining. From this abundance of charcoal, it would form a more valuable com- post than No. 2, but it has less of the sugar and coloring mat- ters, which, by their ready decomposition, warm the ground. In this respect, No. 2 excels. The quantity of bone earth in both are almost alil^e, and exceed the quantity in the same weight of bone dust or guano ; so that, when these manures are used for the sake of phosphate of lime, the charcoal is preferable as containing them more abundantly. No. 2 also contains an unusually large quantity of water. Taken as a whole, I believe it more nearly represents the average consti- tution of refuse animal charcoal. I think it would make a valuable manure for pear trees and orchards generally. The estimation in which the refuse charcoal of the sugar works was held, has led to the manufacture of very useful imi- tations of it under the name of animalised carhun. A calcare- ous soil, rich in vegetable matter, (an intimate mixture of peat and marl or shell sand, would answer well,) is charred in close vessels, and is then mixed at intervals with repeated portions of night soil as long as it disinfects it or removes its smell ; and to this mixture is added 4 or 5 per cent, of clotted and partially- dried blood. This animalised carbon is said to be of much value as a manure. The main objections to it are its liability to adulteration, and the uncertainty to which, even when skil- fully and conscientiously prepared, its composition must be in some measure liable. A ton of animalised carbon is sufficient to manure an acre of turnips. BONES AND BONE EARTH. A BONE is a hard substance, unalterable in dry air, insoluble in cold water, yielding a jelly by the action of highly-condensed steam, and leading, on calcination at a red heat, half of its weight or more of inorganic matter called " bone earth," or ash. The quantity of inorganic matter, however, contained in bones, is not constant, being less in the young than in the adult 232 ANIMAL MANURES. animal, also less in the cellular than in the compact or more solid bones, and less in those of some species of animals than in those of others. Thus, when deprived of their fat, and ren- dered perfectly dry, the per-centage of inorganic matter con- tained in several kinds of bones is as follows : — Per cent. The lower jaw bone of an adult, 68.00 Ditto. of a child of 3 years, 62.80 A compact human bone, 58.70 A spongy human bone, 50.20 The tibia of a sheep, 48.03 The vertebrae of a haddock, 60.51 Berzelius, who examined the bones of the human subject, found that 100 parts contained of Per cent. Animal matters, 33.30 Phosphate of lime, 51.04 Carbonate of lime, 11.30 Fluate of lime, 2.00 Phosphate of magnesia, 1.16 Soda, muriate of soda, and water, 1.20 100.00 According to Dr. Thompson, the constitution of certain bones of the sheep, ox, and of the haddock is as follows : — Organic or combustible matter. Phosphate of lime, Carbonate of lime, Magnesia, Soda, Potash Ileum of a sheep. 43 3 50.6 4.5 0.9 0.3 0.2 99.8 Ileum of an ox. 48.5 45.2 6.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 100.3 I Vertebra of a haddock. 39.5 I 56.1 3.6 0.8 0.8 100.8 The soda exists in bones probably in the slate of common salt, and the magnesia in that of a phosphate. An appreciable quantity of fluoride of calcium, with traces of iron and mag- ANIMAL MANURES. 233 nesia, are also generally found in bones, in addition to the sub- stances indicated in the preceding analyses. From the above, it will be seen that the inorganic matter, or ash, of human bones, consists in a large proportion of the phos- phate of lime ; and it contains also a considerable amount of the carbonate of lime, with smaller quantities of several other ingredients. It would seem, however, from the following table, that the proportion of carbonate of lime exists in less quantity in the bones of carnivorous animals. Thus, for every 100 parts of phosphate of lime there occurs in Carbonate of limem Human bones about, 20.7 Bones of the sheep, 24.1 Ditto. ox, 13.5 Ditto. fowl, t 11.7 Ditto. haddock, G.2 Ditto. frog, 5.8 Ditto. Hon, 2.6 Again, recent bones contain a variable quantity of water and fat. That of the latter depends upon the position of the bone in the body, and upon the condition of the animal. The pro- portion of water depends partly upon the solidity of the bone and partly upon its age. According to Denis, the radius of a female, Aged 3 years, contained 33.3 per cent, of water, with a little fat. » Aged 20 years, » 13.0 " " Aged 78 yeai-s. " 15.4 " « The quantity of water thus present in bones performs an im- portant part in determining the action which bone dust is known to exercise upon the land. The oil is sometimes ex- tracted by boiling the bones. During this boiling, they absorb more water, and thus, when laid upon the land, undergo a more rapid decomposition, and exercise, in consequence, a more immediate and apparent, and therefore, as some may think, a more powerful and fertilising effect. From the preceding analyses, it will be perceived that the 234 ANIMAL MANURES. proportions are not to be considered as constant, because it varies not only in the different bones of the same animal, but, also in bones from the same part of the body of different ani- mals of the same species. But the existence of such differences must render unlike the fertilising action of the bones of differ- ent animals, especially, if, as many think, this action depends in any great degree upon the quantity of phosphate of lime which they respectively contain. The use of bones as a manure is of great antiquity. There is found recorded a remarkable passage of their fertilising powers in a collection of Welsh manuscripts, recently pub- lished, with an English translation, by the Welsh M. S. S. So- ciety, under the title of " The lolo M. S. S." The passage to which direct allusion is made is a very short one, but is the more significant of truth from the fact of its being incidentally introduced at the close of the account of "The Prison of Oeth and Annoeth." The narrative refers to a period in history as far back as about the middle of the first century, when Caradog, (Caractacus, king of the Silures, inhabiting South Wales,) was warring against the Romans, and slaughtering them most ter- ribly. After those wars, in which so man}^ of the Ceesarians had been killed, their bones, which had been left by the wolves, ravens, and dogs, like a white sheet of snow in many places, covered the face of the earth. Manawyddan, the son of Llyr, caused these bones to be collected together into one huge pile from one of the battle fields, with other bones found through- out his dominions, so that the heap became of marvellous mag- nitude. It then came to his mind to form a prison of these bones, in which to confine such enemies and foreigners as n:)ight be taken in war; and he set himself to work and con- structed a large edifice with exceedingly strong walls of the bones, cemented together with lime. It was of a circular form, and of wonderful magnitude, the larger bones being placed on the outer face of the walls, and within the inclosure were many smaller prisons, or cells, formed of the lesser bones. This was called the " Prison of Oeth and Annoeth," which was ANIMAL xHAKURES. 236 demolished several times by the Csesarians, and rebuilt by the Cymry stronger than before. " And in the course of a long time," reads the remarkable passage before referred to, "the bones became decayed, so that there was no strength in them, and they were reduced to dust ; then they carried the remains and put it on the surface of the plowed land ; and from that time ihey had astonishing crops of wheat and barley, and of every other grain for many years.''^ In modern times, bones were not employed for manuring land, unless we except occasional instances of the application of an- ent tumuli for fertilising crops, before the year 1775, when Colo- nel St. Leger, then residing at Warmsworth, in England, who was the first person known to use them. The early progress does not seem to have been very rapid, from the practice of lay- ing them on almost unbroken, and as Professor Low informs us, they were used in immense quantities, frequently at the rate of 60, 70, and even 100 bushels to an acre. Experience, however, has shown that the application of so large a quantity is not fol- lowed by a corresponding increase of crop, and a dose of 10 or 16 bushels of bone dust is held, now, by many farmers, as quite sufficient for many soils. At the same time, the high price now paid for them renders such an extravagant use inadmissible, and has directed public attention to the most economical modes of applying them to the land. Much difference of opinion exists with regard to tliis point amongst practical men. Some prefer fresh bones to dry; others burned to unburnt; rotten or fer- mented bones to those that are fresh, and vice versa. Jn short, we meet with such conflicting assertions in regard to these points, that it would seem almost impossible to form any de- cided opinion as to the most economical method of applying them to the land. Again, bones contain, as has been shown, a large proportion both of organic and of inorganic matter. On which of these two constituents does their fertilising action most depend? Some regard the phosphate of lime, or bone earth, as the only source of the benefits so extensively derived from them ; and 236 ANIMAL MANURES. it is by supposing the soil to be already sufficiently impregna- ted with this phosphate, that Sprengel accounts for the little success which has attended the use of bones in Mecklenburg and Northern Germany. Others, again, attribute the whole of their influence to the organic part, the gelatine, which they contain. Neither of these views is strictly correct. Plants require a certain quantity of phosphoric acid, lime, and mag- nesia, which are present in the inorganic part of bones, and so far, therefore, are capable of deriving inorganic food from bone dust. But the organic part of bones will decompose, and therefore will act nearly in the same way as skin, wool, hair and horn, which substances it resembles in ultimate compo- sition. It cannot be doubted, therefore, that a considerable part of the effect of bones upon all crops must be due to the gelatine which they contain. The organic matter of bones acts like that of skin, woollen rags, horn shavings, &c., but as bone dust contains only about ■J-d of the organic matter which is present in an equal weight of either of the above substances, its total effect, in so far as it depends upon the organic matter, will be less in an equal pro- portion. But as this matter contains more water than horn or wool, it will decay more rapidly than these substances when mixed with the soil, and will therefore be more immediate in its action. Hence, the reason why woollen rags and horn shav- ings must be plowed in the preceding winter, if they are to berjefit the subsequent wheat or turnip crops, while bone dust can be Ijeneficially applied at the sowing of the seed. When bones are boiled, the "oil will be separated, and a por- tion of the gelatine will, at the same time, be dissolved out. Therefore, they will be in reality rendered much less rich as a manure. But as they at the same time take up a considerable quantity of water, boiled bones will decompose more rapidly when mixed with the soil, and thus will appear to act as ben- eficially as those unboiled. The immediate effect may indeed be equal, or even greater, than that of unboiled bones, but the total effect must be less in proportion to the quantity of organic ANIMAL MANURES. 237 matter which has been removed by boiling. Cases, however, may occur in which the skilful man will prefer to use boiled bones, because they are fitted to produce more immediate effect where, as in the pushing forward of the young turnip plant, such an effect is particularly required. In so far as the efficacy of bones really depends upon their earthy constituents, the use of phosphorite or of marl, contain- ing phosphate of lime will, no doubt, greatly supercede them ; but in so far as it depends upon the animal matter they contain, bones exhibit their natural fertilising action, however rich the soil may already be in those compounds of which their earthy or incombustible part consists. Yet there is reason to believe, nay, it may be assumed as certain, that the phosphate and carbonate of lime, which bones contain so largely, are not without effect in promoting vegeta- tion. All our cultivated plants require and contain both phos- phoric acid and lime, and from the vegetables on which they feed, all animals derive the entire substance of their bones. This same phosphoric acid and lime, therefore, must exist in the soil on which the plants grow, or they will neither thrive them- selves nor be able properly to nourish the animals they are destined to feed. If a soil, then, be deficient in phosphate of lime or its constituents, it is clear that the addition of bones will benefit the after crops not only by the animal, but by the earthy matter, also, which they contain. And that such is the case, in many instances, there is good reason for believing. But that this can by no means account for the whole effect of bones, even supposing the soil to which they are applied to be, in every instance, deficient in phosphates, is clear from the fact that 260 lbs., (less than 6 bushels,) of bone dust per acre are sufficient to supply all the phosphates contained in the crops which are reaped during an entire four-shift rotation of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat. Yet the quantity of bones actually applied to the land is from 3 to 5 times the above weight, re- peated every time the turnip crop comes round. Still, granting that the chief effect of bones upon the imme- 238 ANIMAL MANURES. diately succeeding crops is due to their organic part, upon what does their prolonged good eifect depend ? Some lands show the effects of a single dressing of bones for 15 or 20 years, while others, after the application of 2 or 2^ tons of bones have yielded 10 to 15 successive crops of oats, and have been sen-, sibly benefitted for as many as 60 years after the bones were applied. This prolonged effect is also due, in part, to both constituents. When not crushed to powder, the organic matter of bones is always slow in disappearing, and slower the deeper they are buried. In some soils, also, the process is more slow than in other. The long-buried bones of the bear and of the stag, which had lain in the soil for an unknown period, still contained a sensible proportion of animal matter. So it is with the bones used for manure, when they are not crushed too line. They long retain a portion of their organic matter, which they give out more slowly, and in smaller quantity every year that passes, yet still, in such abundance, as to contribute sensi- bly to the nourishment, and in some degree to promote the growth of the crops which the land is made to bear. So it would be with the horns and hoofs of cattle, if laid on in equal quantity, for they also decay with exceeding slowness. Still, the inorganic part is not without its use. If the soil be deficient in phosphates or in lime, the earthy matter of the bones will supply these substances. I only wish to guard the farmer against the conclusion, that, because bones often act for so long a period, therefore the organic matter can have no share in the influence they exercise after a limited period of years. — Johnston. There is great economy in reducing bones to as fine a con- dition as possible before applying them to the field. If added in their unprepared state, they will yield a portion of their sub- stance to the crops; but 100 bushels will produce no more ef- fect for a single season, when thus applied, than perhaps 5 or 6 bushels, when finely divided. If the 100 bushels, then, be ground or decomposed, and applied to 20 acres, there will be an equal amount of benefit accruing to each in a single season, AKIMAL MANURES. 239[; that would be otherwise derived to the land for 20 successive years, if applied unground on a single acre. The forms in which bones are now applied to the land are five in number, namely, by grinding, by burning, by steaming, by dissolving in sulphuric acid, and by fermentation. Grinding bones to a dust or powder is an expensive operation. Large and fresh bones are so hard and tough, that immense power is required for breaking and reducing them sufficiently for agricultural purposes. Costly mills of great strength, and requiring considerable motive power, are necessary. Such an outlay can only .be justified where a large quantity of bones is to be prepared. There are no cheap machines within my knowlege, adequate to the objects, and adapted to the use of the small farmer. Unless a mill is erected by some individual or company to grind for a neighborhood, or for a more distant market, it would be advisable to adopt one or other of the modes described below of preparing them. Bone dust is usually sold by the bushel, the weight of which varies with the degree of dryness, and the fineness to which the bones have been reduced, say from 40 to 50 lbs. to a bushel. The burning of bones, at a red heat, in an open fire until every- thing in them combustible has disappeared, is a summary mode of preparation, but is attended with a certain loss of much of their valuable properties, leaving, in the dried bones of the ox, nearly half of their weight in " bone earth," or " bone ash," which is composed of about 80 per cent, of phosphate of lime and 16 per cent, of the carbonate of lime, and 2 or 3 per cent, of phosphate of magnesia, soda, and potash. All of these sub- stances are indispensable to vegetable growth ; and, unless the soil is previously supplied with them, bone ash cannot fail to add greatly to the augmentation of the crops. When burned bones are reduced to a powder, as has already been shown un- der the head of bi-phosphate of lime, and digested in sulphuric acid, diluted with once or twice its weight of water, the acid combines with a portion of the lime, and forms sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) u^hile the remainder of the lime, and the whole of 240 ANIMAL MANURES. the phosphoric acid are dissolved. The solution, therefore, contains an acid phosphate of lime, or one in which the phos- phoric acid exists in much larger quantity than in the bone ash. By the above process, the bones are reduced to their finest con- dition, and most readily yield their substance to the roots of plants. The steaming of bones, reducing them by a new process, has attracted a considerable attention for a year or two past in Scotland, as suggested by Mr. Robert Blackall, of Edinburgh, who recommends exposing them to the action of high-pressure steam, in an apparatus especially constructed for the purpose, a description of which, together with a detailed process of steaming the bones are given in the London " Farmer's Herald" for November, 1850, as follows: — " The boiler is circular, 6 feet long, and measures 3 feet, 4 inches in diameter. It is constructed of the ordinary boiler plate, of id of an inch thick. In the front, the man hole, or door, is placed, 9 inches from the bottom, 13^ from the top, and 12^ inches from each side. The man hole is closed by a plate door, secured by wedges and screw bolts in the usual manner, upon a jointing of hempen gasket. Inside the boiler, a straight false bottom of sheet iron, on which the bones are placed, is fixed immediately below the man hole. Close upon the bottom of the boiler a stop cock is placed, for the purpose of drawing off the liquid at the conclusion of the process, if necessary. On a level with the false bottom, is placed a gauge cock, to show whether the water has risen or fallen to that level ; about 10 inches above, a second or a steam cock is fixed. A safety valve on the top of the boiler indicates the pressure of steam, and secures the boiler from explosion. The water for steaming the bones is filled in by a water cock at the top of the boiler. An extra steam cock is likewise placed at the top of the boiler, for the purpose of supplying steam for any other operation, as for steaming food, &c., when required. The boiler is set in mason work, and lined with fire bricks, the length of the mason work being 7 feet, 2 inches, and 5 feet, 5 inches in height, the ANIMAL MANURES. 241 sides speading out 13 inches from the boiler. The smoke of the fire passes off directly through the chimney, which is more than 15 feet in height. " Early in the morning, the boiler is filled with bones, through the man hole, and the door of the same is then fastened steam tight. To secure this, the gasket of hemp, which lies between the two metal surfaces of the boiler and the door, is smeared with a luting, made by moistening oatmeal with boiling water, and working it by the hand into a stiff paste ; the door is then replaced, and screwed tight. This luting, which perhaps may just as well be made of common flour, answers perfectly the purpose, and is much better than white or red lead, made into a paste with boiled linseed oil. « When the boiler was first put into operation, only 7^ cwt. of bones could be packed in it, but in a short time, the "man who had charge of the boiler, becoming better accustomed to the work, succeeded in packing 91 cwt. of bones instead of 7^ cwt. The water for generating steam is filled in the boiler to the depth of 12 inches from the bottom, and as the space between the true bottom of the boiler and the slip bottom, on which the bones rest, is 9 inches, the water rises about 3 inches amongst the bones. From the time of kindling the fire, it takes about one hour to get up the steam. During 24 hours, the steam is kept as uniformly as possible at a pressure of 25 lbs. to a square inch, a boiling during 22 hours having previously been tried, but found insufficient for reducing afterwards the bones to powder with ease. As no water can escape in the form of steam during the boiling, one filling is sufficient. Be- fore the withdrawing of the charge, the fire is removed, the steam let off through the safety valve, and about 3 bucketsful of the watery liquid, equivalent to about 7i gallons, drawn off, in order to reduce the water to a little below the false bottom, on which the bones rest. The man hole is then unscrewed and the whole allowed to cool down for a short time. While still warm, the contents of the boiler are shovelled out succes- sively by one man, who is assisted by another, in crushing the 11 242 ANIMAL MANiniES. bones, by means of a wooden mallet. The reducing to powder is rendered so easy by this process, that it requires no longer time for crushing the bones than for taking them out of the boiler; as fast as they are shovelled out, by one, they are broken into a rough powder by the second man. It is neces- sary to bring the bones under the action of the wooden mallet, in successive portions when still warm; for when allowed to become cool, they require a greater effort .:> bring them to a powder. The steamed bones treated in this manner contain much water, absorbed in the boiler ; thrown into a heap whilst yet warm, they not only retain their original heat, but in a very short time, the temperature of the heap increases very consid- erably, and at the same time, a most disagreeable smell of pu- trefying animal matter is given off. The fermentation of the bonesj however, which is the cause of this, and consequently the loss of ammonia, may be prevented entirely by adding a small dose of common salt to the steamed bones. "Nothing can be more simple and expedient than this new process. So soft are the bones rendered by it, that the above charge of 9i cwt. takes less than an hour for crushing them to powder. The only assistance required by the man in attend- ance is an extra man for about 1^ hours, to break the bones with the wooden mallet, as they are shovelled out of the boiler, and to give him the bones, whilst he is in the boiler engaged in packing the same. As the time necessary for allowing the boiler to cool at the end of the operation, emptying its con- tents, crushing the bones to powder, packing the boiler with a new charge, and getting up the steam, does not exceed 2i or 3 hours. Five batches of steamed bones may be readily obtained in a week. "The changes bones have undergone, after having been sub- mitted to the operation of steaming, are very simple, but in order to understand them properly, let us look for a moment lo their composition. Those of animals consist of an or- ganic and inorganic portion. On exposure to a strong heat, in an open vessel, they first turn black, on account of the or- ANIMAL MANURES. 243 ganic matter becoming charred, and burnt perfectly white, after all the organic matter has been dissipated by the heat. Bones thus treated, and subsequently washed with water, ap- pear soft and pliable; boiled with water, they become com- pletely dissolved, forming with the same a thickish, sticky liquid, which on cooling gelatinises. On account of this prop- erty, the organic matter of bones is called ' gelatine,' and is essentially the same substance as glue. Some of the gelatine may be extracted by boiling the fresh bones, without treating them first with muriatic acid, and this is the case in the above steaming process. " Steamed bones decompose more readily in the soil than bones in their natural state ; and for that reason they are likely to be quicker and more powerful in their action as a manure than the latter. They differ in their composition but slightlj' from fresh bones, with the exception, that the organic matter has undergone some change, whereby the bones are rendered more easily available as food for plants. Long experience, indeed, has taught some farmers to prefer bones, previously boiled by the glue makers to those in a natural state, particu- larly for old pastures, and it is therefore more than probable, that crushed and salted bones, prepared by Mr. Blackall's pro- cess, will be found more valuable still." The following are the results of two analyses of bones pre- pared by the new process by Dr. Anderson, chemist to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland : — jYo. 1. JVo. 2. Water, 12.66 13.86 Animal matter, 27.37 19.90 Bone earth, 59.97 66.24 100.00 100.00 In order to form a correct estimate of the advantage of Mr. Blackall's method, it i.'=! necessary to compare the composition of these bones with that of those prepared by the ordinary proce.ss; as it is very evident tluit a certain proportion of the 844 ANIMAL MANURES. gelatine, or glue, which is very soluble in boiling water, must have been extracted by the steaming. In looking into the sub- ject, however. Dr. Anderson was unable to find any anlysis of bones in the state in which they are Used as a manure, and he found it necessary to analyse several specimens of agricultural bones, of which the following are the results : — No. 1 were drill bones, in pieces about an inch in length. No. 2, ordinary finely- crushed bones ; and No. 3, the entire bones in the state in which they are sold to the bone crushers by the persons who collect them : — JVo. 1. JVo. 2. JVo. 3. Water, 10.00 1 0.39 14.79 Animal matter, 41.88 42.60 37.02 Bone earth, 48.12 47.01 48.19 I • 100.00 100.00 100.00 From a comparison of these analyses with the former, it is manifest that they contain much more animal matter than the steamed bones, the amount averaging 40 per cent.; v/hile in the latter, in one case, we we have only half that quantity, and in the other about 27 per cent. Now, it must be very clear that, in the production of a ton of steamed bones, it is not sufficient to reckon the mere cost of steaming in addition to that of the crude bones, but that the loss of animal matter must be taken into ac- count. Supposing the crude bones to contain exactly 40 per cent, of animal matter, a very simple calculation shows that they must lose 25 per cent, in order to yield a substance which shall con- tain 20 per cent, of animal matter. Supposing then, that the crude bones cost £4 per ton, the same quantity, as prepared by Mr. Blackall's process, would cost £5 6s. 8d, independently of the cost of steaming. It is true that the whole quantity of the phosphate of lime will remain in the bones, but it must be re- collected that the gelatine which is extracted is a very valuable manure, and extremely rich in nitrogen, so much so that Bous- singault, who has given a comparative table of the value of manures, founded upon the amount of nitrogen they contain, ANIMAL MANURES. 246 estimates, (irrespective of the phosphate of lime,) 6 parts of bones as equiviilent to 100 of farmyard manure. Now, by Mr. Blackall's method, the animal matter extracted must be en- tirely lost, or it must be recovered by evaporating the conden- sed steam, or, in the event of the quantity of water being suf- ficiently small, by converting it into a compost. Any such operations, however, must, to a greater or less extent, add to the original cost of the bones. It is quite possible that, by the use of a proper steaming vessel, the quantity of gelatine extracted may be reduced con- siderably under what it was in either of the specimens analy- sed, but it admits of question whether this very extraction may not be connected with the softening process. It is well known, at least, that bones, from which all or nearly all the animal matter has been extracted by boiling in water under pressure, are so soft that they may be reduced to fine povvder by rub- bing them between the fingers. These are disadvantages which are likely to limit considerably the value of Mr. Blackall's process ; but it may, notwithstand- ing, prove valuable in remote districts, where small quantities of bones may be collected at such a distance from a bone mill as to render it unprofitable to transport them to it. The superi- ority of steamed bones as a' manure is a question which can be properly determined only by experiment in the field, and it is not impossible that good results may be obtained from them, though they can never form a substitute for bones dissolved by an acid. The dissolving of bones by sulphuric acid has been practised for some years past by several emiment agriculturists both in Europe and in this country, and when applied to the soil, was attended with beneficial results. Various proportions of acid have been tried as the proper quantity ; but, in cases where the bones were to be completely decomposed, half of their weight was thought to be sufficient ; while others recommend that a complete solution should not take place at once, in order that a portion of the bones might be left for the benefit of the 246 AXIMAL MANURES. succeeding crops ; and that at the same time, a sutRcient quan- tity might be rendered soluble for the wants of J;he first year. The following method of dissolving bones in sulphuric acid is given by Mr. Alex. J. Main, a practical farmer, of Whitehill, in the " Journal of Agriculture " and the " Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland," for January, 1851: — "Get a joiner to put together a rough box — something like a cooler for steamed food, but higher in the sides — say 8 feet long by 3 feet or 2 feet, 6 inches high, and 3 feet wide, dove- tailed and jointed with white lead. The box prepared, put in the water of the preparation first; then the sulphuric acid, al- lowing one half more hulk of water than acid, and one half less weight of acid than bones; that is, to a gallon of acid, allow a gallon and a half of water ; and to 100 lbs. of bones, allow 50 lbs. of acid. To the water and acid, the bones must now be added, (finely broken up into half-inch fragments, or less,) mixing the whole intimately and equally. This done, cover up the box, or tank with straw or old sacks, laid on pieces of wood ; or have a rough wooden lid to the box ; and then allow the whole to stand, untouched, for 48 hours. The process of manufacture will then be complete. In anticipation of its necessity, I would recommend a careful accumulation of the house ashes during the year, kept in some dry place. When the operation above de- tailed is compleled, put the ashes in a heap in a convenient position for the tank; make then a basin at the top of the heap, and lift the dissolved bones out of the tank, placing them in the basin. Turn over the entire heap with shovels, two or three times, till the whole is well mixed, and the preparation will then be perfectly fit to be handled, or at least be spread, out of a cart with shovels, and put on the soil. This process may be attended with a little trouble at first ; but once or twice done, tlie ditiiculty is past, and no one giving his attention to the matter will afterwards regret his perseverance." The following is another good method of mixing bone dust with sulphuric acid, as given in the " London Agricultural Ga- zette :" — " Lay 80 bushels of bone dust in a conical heap ; pour ANIMAL MANURES. 247 on water till it begins to run off at the base ; leave it for a couple of days; then spread it abroad somewhat, leaving a raised rim, (which should be trampled firm,) and a basin-shaped cavity ; pour on more water till it will no longer remain in tho heap; and then slowly pour about 1,000 lbs. of sulphuric acid over the heap. Turf ashes, (about 300 bushels,) may, with ad- vantage, have been previously laid around the edge of the heap. When the heap has somewhat subsided, mix the bone dust to- gether again, into a conical heap ; cover it with the ashes; and leave it for a few weeks. The whole may then be mixed with the dry ashes, and will be ready for drilling. It will suffice for 10 to 20 acres." Bones, it is stated, may be dissolved^ also, in strong caustic Zey, such as is used by the soap boiler, and will form a paste of the consistency of butter, which may be reduced to any thinness of fluid required for application as a liquid manure. The decomposition of bones by fermentation, without the aid of sulphuric acid, is another method which has been practised with success both in Europe and this country. The bones, which must be fresh, are first thrown into compact heaps, and then mixed with moist sandy loam, ashes, or earth, when they will be gradually heated and decomposed. The decomposition will be materially hastened by occasionally sprinkling them with urine, and especially by mixing them with fresh horse manure. If they have been deprived of their animal matter however, they will not readily ferment. The presence of nitro- gen appears to be essential to induce and carry forward fer- mentation, and this is found only in the organic matter of the bones. During the fermentation, putrefactive odors are given off, that occasion a loss to the manure, which objection, in a degree, may be remedied by covering the heap with a layer of rich decayed turf, peat, charcoal, gypsum, or any oiher good absorbent. Mr. Miles, of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, has discovered a process for preparing bones for manure without the use of acids ; and, instead of sand, ashes, or earth, he use* 248 ANIMAL MANURES. saw dust as the material for covering up the heaps, double the amount of heat being evolved, and the disintegration being effected much more rapidly and effectually. He piled up the bones into a heap, which he first moistened well with water, and then covered it over to a depth of 2 or 3 inches with saw dust, by means of which, not only were the bones speedily con- verted into a manure, but the saw dust also. By this process, however, the decomposition of much ammonia takes place, and escapes in a volatile state, as it is developed, and is lost. CORAL AND CORAL SAND. Coral is a general name for those marine polypifers, which have stony or horny axes. It is of various colors, and is composed principally of carbonate of lime, assuming some- times the character of trees or shrubs, and at other times a round form. Corals are the solid secretions of zoophytes, pro- duced within the tissues of polypes, and corresponding to the skeleton in the higher order of animals. The surface is usually covered with radiated cells, each of which marks the position of one of the polypes; and when alive, these polypes appear like flowers over every part of the zoophyte. Coral sand, which is similar in its nature to coral itself, has been freely used in France as a manure in the same way and with similar effects as marl. It is preferred by the farmers in a fresh state, probably becaus*^ it contains both more saline as well as more animal matter than after it has been exposed ' for some time to the air. Payen and Boussingault, it will be remembered, ascribe the relative manuring powers of different substances when applied to land, by the quantity of ammonia or nitrogen, which they severally contain, and thus, compared with farmyard manure, attribute to coral sand the following relative values : — • 100 lbs. of fai-myard manxire, contains of nitrogen, . . .0.40 lb. " of coral sand, (merl,) 0.51 " That is to say, so fir as the action of these substances is de- ANIMAL MANURES. 249 pendent upon the nitrogen they contain, fresh coral sand is nearly id more valuable than an equal weight of farmyard manure. A sample of fine infusoi-ial sand, which is highly prized by the local farmers on the coast of Normandy, as analysed by Professor Johnston, consisted of the following ingredients : — Organic matter, 5.06 Chloride of sodium, (common salt,) 1.01 Gypsum, (plaster,) 0.32 Chloride of calcium, 0.73 Magnesia, trace. Cai'bonate of lime, 43.50 Alumina, 0.17 Oxide of iron, 1.20 Oxide of manganese, trace. Insoluble silicious matter, 47.69 99.68 From this analysis, Professor Johnston thinks that the value of this mealy sand does not depend solely upon the lime, (43^ per cent.,) it contains, but is derived in some measure, also, from the 5 per cent, of organic matter, and the 2 per cent, of soluble salts, which are present in it. It is remarkable, also, for containing nearly half its weight, (48 per cent.,) of silicious matter in the state of an exceedingly fine powder. Its value, therefore, over the coarser shell sand, consists in its organic matter and soluble salts, and in the' minute state of division in which its particles are found. This fine powdery state enables it to be mixed more minutely with a clayey soil ; causes an equal weight to go further ; and prevents it from opening and rendering still lighter the more sandy soils, in the manner coarse fragments of shells would be apt to do. In Normandy, it is generally applied in the form of compost and is extensive- ly mixed with farmyard manure, which it is said greatly to improve. It is well known that the reefs and shoals of the Keys of Florida, as well as of the Bahama Islands, in many places, are 11* 250 ANIMAL MANURES. composed entirely of the fragments of broken or comminuted coral, shells, infusoria, &c., the supply of which is inexhausti- ble, and would subserve the purpose of manuring all the culti- vated lands in the Atlantic states, foi; thousands of years. The cost of procuring this sand, and delivering it at any of our seaports, south of Boston or New York, would probably not exceed $3 or $4 the hundred bushels; and if it were brought here, as ballast, from Key West, or Nassau, New Providence, it could be afforded for much less. This is a subject, worthy of investigation, and experiments might be tried, on a limited scale, by our agriculturists, both at the north and at the south. DUNG-, OR THE EXCREMENT OF ANIMALS. Of all fertilisers, the dung, or excrement of animals, is the most universal, as well as the most valuable to the cultivator » and has often well been described as the farmer's "sheet anchor." It is the earliest mentioned of all manures ; although, it is first noticed as being employed in Palestine for fuel (Ezekiel, iv. 12, 15); and even to this day, in the barren des- erts of the East, the dung of camals, after being dried in the sun, is the only kind of fuel the natives possess. The dung of animals is spoken of by all the early Greek and Roman agricultural writers, who describe its application and uses with a fullness and clearness that cannot be misun- derstood. Thus, Theophrastus, who wrote in the fourth century before our era, describes the properties which render dung ben- eficial to vegetation, and dwells upon composts. He also re- commends the stubble to be lei^t long at the time of reaping, if the straw is abundant ; " and this, if burned, will enrich- the soil very much, or it may be cut and mixed with dung." And Cato, who wrote 150 years before Christ, thus expresses his conviction of the importance of this manure ; — " Study to have a large dunghill keep )'our compost carefully ; when you carry it out in autumn scatter and pulverise it. Lay dung around the roots of your olive trees in autumn." Again, he advises the 1 ANIMAL MANURES. 251 use of pigeon dung for gardens, meadows, and grain fields, as well as the dregs of olive oil. Furthermore, he recommends the farmer carefully to preserve the dung of all descriptions of animals. We learn also from Columella and Pliny, that the Romans collected their manure and stored it in covered pits, in order to check the escape of drainage by the rains, and evaporation by the sun. They also scattered pulverised pigeon dung over their crops, and mixed it with the surface soil by means of the hoe (sarcle). The former of these writers ad- vises the cultivator not to carry more dung on the field than the laborers can cover \yith. the soil the same day, as the expo- sure to the sun does it much injury ; and he enumerates as well- known fertilisers, night soil, the excrements of birds, sheep, cattle, the ass, the goat, and of pigs, as well as urine (especi- ally for apple trees and vines). Varro, also, mentions many kinds of animal manure, and is particularly minute in his enu- meration of the dung of birds, and includes even that of black birds and thrushes kept in aviaries. In the year 1570, Conradus Heresbachius, a learned German, published his " Foore Bookes of Husbandrie," translated and en- larged by Barnabe Googe, Esquire, in which he mentions the various kinds of manure in his days. He speaks of the dung of poultry and pigeons in high praise ; but condemns that of ducks and geese. Human fseces, he says, when mixed with rubbish, is good; but by itself, is too hot. Of thejdung of animals, he mentions that of the ass as first in order for fertilising effects ; then that of sheep, goats, oxen, horses, and lastly, that of swine, which he says " is very hurtful to corne, but used in some places for gardens." Again, he says: " The weeds growing about willow trees, and fern, &c., you may gather and lay under your sheep." He speaks of the practice of placing lurfs and heath clods in heaps with dung, much in the sam.e way as Lord Meadowbank has advised with peat. He also advises the placing of the same turf parings in sheep folds. " This is also to be noted," says our author, "that the doung that hath lyen a yeere is best for corne. for it both is of sufficient strength and 252 ANIMAL MANURES. breedeth less weedes ; but, upon meadovve and pasture you must laye the newest, because it brings most grasse, in Febru- arie, the moone increasing, for that is the best time to cause increase of grasse." To enter into the present state of agriculture in all parts of tlie civilised world, the enlightened farmer hardly need be told that the basis upon which good husbandry is founded, is ma- nures; and that, among these, above all others, animal excre- ments are the best adapted to our varied climate, soils, and crops. Observation of the simplest facts must have shown the merest novice that good crops are generally insured by the abundant application of barnyard manure. But if one has not an abundance of this, he must make up the deficiency by some substitute from another source. It is well known that the nature and properties of excremen- titious manures depend upon the species of animal from which they are derived ; upon the food on which they subsist ; upon the amount of labor or exercise to which the animals have been subjected; upon the substances with which they are littered; upon the length of time during which the manures have been kept; and especially upon the care bestowed upon their man- agement after they are voided by the animals. Hence, there are as many kinds of dung as there are of animals producing it, and in some respects, all difier from each other. The dung, for instance, of the cow, is not so rich as that of horses ; nor is that of the horse so rich as that of fowls ; and yet, the excre- ment of horses, cows, sheep, hogs, and geese all differ in their texture and composition, though fed upon the same pasture. Some animals digest their food more quickly than others, ow- ing to a diiierence in the degree of mastication; the organisa- tion of their stomachs; and in the nature of their gastric juice. This makes a difference in the dung produced by the same kind of food. All animals feed on pure vegebles, or vegetable and animal matter mixed, or on other animals that feed on veg- etables alone. Those which feed on the latter are made up of the same elements as the vegetables themselves, only under a ANIMAL MASUKES. 263 different form ; and therefore, the dung of animals that feed upon these may still be considered as vegetables in a putrefied state. As the elementary composition of the dung of the different kinds of animals is a point whioh is not undeserving of consid- eration in a work like the present, I have thought proper fo treat of them under separate heads. This, however, is believed to be needless by some, as it requires more pains and expense to keep these manures by themselves in the barnyard or else- where, and use each of them by itself, than all the advantages arising from this method of treatment above the ordinary way, can possibly amount to. These manures may be arranged and treated of in the following order : — Excrement of the Ass. — The structural difference between the horse, the ass, and the mule is so trifling, that all the essential points of their organisation may be regarded as the same ; and consequently, except in cases where there is a variation in their food, their manure is very similar in character. Heresbachius, as has already been stated, regarded the dung of the ass as first in order among excrementitious manures; and most of the old Ro- man writers on agriculture speak highly of its fertilising ef- fects. Even in Spain, at the present day, it is preserved and collected with great care, and is frequently composted with the urine of the animals, with the leaves or spray of trees and shrubs, employed as litter in the stalls where these animals are kept. In many parts of the United States, also, where mules are abundant, a similar practice prevails in littering their pens or stalls with muck, pine straw, or other leaves of trees, which are speedily converted thereby into an excellent manure. Excrement of the Camel. — The dung of this animal is but little used as a fertiliser, even in the countries where it most abounds, as it is more valuable, when dried in ihe sun, to be employed as fuel. It is similar in its nature to that of the cow, and when applied as a manure, it is attended with about the same effects. From its limited supply, however, it must ever be precluded as a fertiliser from general use. 254 ,..,:, ANIMAL MANURES. Excrement of the Coiv. — Under this head, also is included the dung of the ox and of other animals of the same species. This substance forms by far the largest proportion of the animal manure, which, in modern agriculture, is at the disposal of the practical farmer. It ferments more slowly than night soil, or the dung of the horse and sheep. In fermenting, it does not heat much, and it gives off little unpleasant or ammoniacal odor. Hence, it acts more slowly, though for a longer period, when applied to the soil. The slowness of the fermentation arises chiefly from the smaller quantity of nitrogen, or of substances containing nitrogen, which are present in the dung, but in part, also, from the food swallowed by the cow being less perfectly masticated than that of man or of the horse. It is in conse- quence of this slower fermentation, that the same evolution of ammoniacal vapors is not perceived from the droppings of the cow as from night soil and from horse dung. Yet, by exposure to the air, it undergoes a sensible loss, which, in 40 days has been found to amount to 5 per cent., or nearly jth of the whole solid matter that recent cow dung contains. Although the com- paratively slow fermentation, as well as the softness of cow dung, fits it better for treading among the straw in the open farm yards, the serious loss which it ultimately undergoes will satisfy the economical farmer that the more effectually he can keep it covered up, or the sooner he can gather his mixed dung and straw into heaps, the greater proportion of this valu- able manure will he retain for the future enriching of his fields. According to Boussingault, the excretions of a cow fed on hay and raw potatoes, including the urine, in a dry and in a moist state, contained of Dry. Moist. Carbon, 39.8 5.39 Hydrogen, 4.7 0.64 Oxygen, 35.5 4.8t Nitrogen, 2.6 0.36 Ash, (salts and earth,) 17.4 2.36 Water, 86.44 ♦ . 100.0. lOO.OQ ANIMAL MANURES. 255 The fseces of cattle fed principally on turnips have been an- alysed by M. Einhof, and 100 parts evaporated to dryness yield- ed 28^ parts of solid matter; the 71^ parts lost in drying would consist principally of water and some ammoniacal salts. In half a pound, or 3,840 grains, he found 45 grains of sand, and by diffusing it through water he obtained about 600 grains of a yellow fibrous matter, resembling that of plants, mixed with a very considerable quantity of slimy matter. By evaporating the faeces to dryness, and then burning them, he obtained an ash which contained, besides the sand, the following sub- stances : — Parts Lime, 12.0 Phosphate of lime, 12.5 Magnesia, 2.0 L'on, 5.0 Alumina, with some manganese, 14.0 Silica, 52.0 Muiiate and sulphate of potash, 1.2 The ingredients of which the urine and faeces of cattle are composed, will, of course, differ slightly in different animals of the same kind, and according to the different food upon which they are fed; but this difference will not, in any case, be found very material. Fat cattle yield better manure than those which are lean, or that from cows in milk ; because it contains more phosphate of lime. In lean animals, the phosphates go to nourish and build up the horns and bones, and in cows, it passes off" in their milk. The dung of horned cattle is supposed by many to require a long preparation to fit it for manure. It is the practice of many gardeners, skilled in preparing choice composts, to keep cow dung for .a period of three years before they apply it either alone or as an ingredient in compost mould. In the opinion of the late Judge Peters, however, it begins to deteriorate after it is one year old. " I have put it on," he sa)'^s, " after lying sev- eral years without any perceptible benefit. But the practice of plowing in hot and fresh dung, has often been to me a sub- 266 ANIMAL MANURES. ject of regret. It not only produces smutty crops in parts over- stimulated, but it cannot be equally spread or covered, so that much straw and little grain appear in some spots; and in others, scarcely an}'- advantage is derived." When used in a fresh state, it should never be used alone, except on warm arid soils, but mixed with other substances that will easily pulver- ise, as the dung of the sheep, the hog, the horse, the pigeon, the hen, the duck, or some other animal manure, or with soot, coal ashes, sand, or marl. The question, however, as to the proper mode of applying the dung of horses and cattle more properly belongs to the article on farmyard manures, under the division of " Homestead Manures ;" for it is usually mixed in the farm yard with strav/, offal, chaff, and various kinds of litter, and even it contains a large proportion of fibrous vegetable matter in itself. Excrement of Deer. — This is similar in its character and ef- fects to that of sheep; but from the limited supply in the hab- itable parts of this country, it can never be turned to much account. Excrement of the Dog. — This manure, wherever it could be obtained in sufficient abundance, has been found to be, it is stated, the " most fertile dressing of all quadruped sorts." More than 100 years ago, there lived a gentleman at Dagnal, in Bed- fordshire, England, who kept so large a number of setters and spaniels that they afforded himaconsiderablequantity of dung. In the vicinity of his house, he possessed an acre of gravelly soil, which he manured every year with the dung of his dogs. By this means, he was sure to raise the best crops of wheat, barley, beans, and peas, while many of the neighboring farm- ers failed from excessive drought and cold. The white dung of dogs, called album Grcccum, and that of carnivorous animals in general, have a very powerful corroding effect upon animal substances when the putrid fermentation is established ; that of dogs has not been examined, but it is sup- posed to consist chiefly of the earthy part of the bones that are generally used as food, the organs of that animal having a ANIMAL MANURES. 257 power of digesting hard substances to an extent almost be- yond credibility. Album Grsecum was formerly used for in- flammation in the throat, but is now discontinued, and chiefly employed b}' leather dressers to soften leather, after the appli- cation of lime. A man and a dog fed on the same substances, animal and vegetable, will afford, in the different nature of the excrements, a most notable instance of the various materials into which the food has been transformed in passing through the different organs of digestion. Excrement of the Domestic Fowl. — The dung of cocks and hens, like that of all kinds of birds, abounds in uric acid, which constitutes the whitish and farinaceous-looking part of their excrement. The urine of birds, let it be recollected, is voided in a solid form along with other matter ejected from their bowels. Their dung, therefore, is not dissimilar to urate^ or the dried urine of quadrupeds; and the less vegetable food they consume, the more fertilising their dung. Hence, the ex- crement of sea fowls, which subsist mainly upon fish, produce the richest manure that is known (guano). The composition of the dung of the domestic fowl varies with its food. When fed on grain, meal, or potatoes, it is much richer than when it lives on the husk and green indigestible parts of vegetables, which, being impurities, diminish its value. The more insects the fowl devours, the richer its dung. According to the analysis of M. Girardin, the excrement of the domestic fowl consists of Water, 72.00 Azotised vegetable matter, 16.20 Saline or mineral matter, 5.24 Insoluble matter, sand, &.C., 5.66 99.10 If exposed to moisture, especially if it is recent, this substance undergoes fermentation, and loses a portion of its ammoniacal salts. Thus, in poultry yards, it often accumulates in consider- able quantites, decomposes, and runs to waste. To guard against 258 ANLVIAL MANURES. this loss, it may be composted in equal quantity with moist charcoal dust, coal ashes, gypsum, peat, or mould, and allowed to ferment, when it will form an excellent stimulating top- dressing for grass lands, wheat, and other kinds of grain, just after sowing. By thus mixing it with peat, mould, &c., it di- vides or breaks it so well that it may be more readily scattered over the land. Hen dung is also good for fruit trees, particu- larly for quince bushes. It does the most good on clayey lands, but may be used on almost any soil. From 600 to 800 lbs. are sufficient to be applied to an acre of wheat or grass. Excrement of the Duck. — The dung of ducks differs somewhat from that of the domestic fowl, owing chiefly to the nature of their food, and partly to the difference in the organisation of the bird. According to Sir H. Dav5% it stands next to hen dung in the scale of manures. It may be composted with rather more than a double quantity of peat, powdered charcoal, coal ashes, gypsum, or mould, and applied broadcast on grass lands or grain fields, just after sowing the seed ; or it may be incorpora- ted with the dung of the cow, the horse, the pig, or of the sheep. The quantity to be used on an acre may vary from 600 to 1,000 lbs. Excrement of the Goat. — The dung of goats is a hot, dry ma- nure, resembling that of sheep in its texture, but is less rich as a fertiliser, owing principally to the nature of their food, as there are few plants which they do not relish, and even they will browse on heaths, shrubs, and plants that sheep and other animals will reject. According to Boussingault, 18i parts of the excrement of a goat are equal in fertilising effect to 100 parts of farmyard manure. From its limited supply in this country, this manure can never be turned to much account. Wherever it can be had, however, it may be applied in the same manner as that of sheep, but in somewhat larger quantity. Excrement of the Goose. — The dung of geese, like that of most water fowls, differs in some degree from birds which feed whollv on the land. It is less rich than that of ducks, pig- ANIMAL MANURES. 259 eons, and hens, because they feed less on grain and seeds, and -derive a considerable portion of their livelihood from grass and weeds, when allowed to run at large in pastures or fields. Its known injurious effects upon the grass where it is dropped arise from its being in too concentrated a state. In moist wea- ther, however, or when rain soon after succeeds, it does little or no injury, and even when in dry weather it kills the blades on which it drops, it brings up the succeeding shoots with increased vigor, which are much finer, richer, and sweeter than before. Goose dung is as good for grass lands as it is for gram ; but there is some difficulty in getting it together, and spreading it on the fields. It has been proposed to adopt the same method with geese as is sometimes practised with sheep — keeping them upon the land required to be manured, turning them, for in- stance, upon a wheat field, late in autumn, and suffer them to run over it during the winter, or until they have eaten of!" the young wheat cYhse to the ground, which they will readily do, as they are very fond of the young blade. While thus feeding, they would leave their dung very plentifully, and evenly spread over the surface, and the frosts and rains would suffi- ciently break and wash it into the soil, in consequence of which, it may be conceived that the wheat would rise again, in the spring, not in the least injured by the cropping, and the ground would be greatly enriched by this excellent manure. As it is difficult to spread goose manure thin enough, with- out more or less injury to the crops, it may be mixed, like hen dung, with charcoal dust, peat, gypsum, coal ashes, or rich mould, with which it will ferment, and after it is washed into the earth by the rains, it will gradually mellow the soil like other manure. The quantity of green goose dung that may be applied to an ordinary crop of grass or grain, may vary from 600 to 1,200 lbs. to an acre. Excrement of the Guinea Fowl. — The dung of this bird, as well as that of the peacock, from the nature of its food, and from its internal organisation, greatly resembles that of the domes- 260 ANIiMAL MANURES. ^^| tic fowl ; but owing to the limited supply Of this species of manure, it can be turned to no practical account. Excrement of the Hog. — The dung of swine is characterised by an exceedingly unpleasant odor, which, when applied to the land alone, it imparts to the vegetables, especially to celery and to the root crops with which it is manured. Even tobacco, when manured with pig dung, according to Sprengel, is so much tainted, that the leaves subsequently collected are unfit for smoking. Hog dung, as the excrement of an animal that feeds partly upon animal, but chiefly upon vegetable food, is richer than that of any other creature which feeds upon veg- etables only. It is of a cold saponaceous substance, so much so, that in some countries it is substituted for soap. According to M. Girardin, 100 parts consists of W^ater, ,.75.00 Azotised matter, 20.15 Saline matter, 4.85 «. , 100.00 Boussingault estimates that 63^ parts of the excrement and urine of the pig are equivalent to 100 parts of farmyard manure. Pig dung is an excellent manure for hemp, hops, running beans, Indian corn, pumpkins, and other crops intended for food. It is best to employ it in a state of a compost with other fertilisers. A mixture of it, for instance, with urine, heightens the virtue of farmyard manure exceedingly ; and this is a good way to employ it. For grain fields, no method of applying it is better ; for it does not ferment and mellow so well in the earth, when used alone, as when mixed with the dung of cattle and horses ; and it is so rich and stimulating, that it is difficult to spread it thin enough by itself If employed alone, how- ever, it is excellent for meadow and pasture lands, producing a large, and at the same time, a sweet blade. It is also prefer- able to most other kinds of dung for fruit trees and shrubs. No dung yields its virtue so readily as this; and none loses it so quickly by improper management. The time of applying ANIMAL MANURES. 261 it to the land should carefully be regarded ; for the falling of a gentle rain, just after laying it on, will wash it entirely into the ground in a few hours ; while, on the other hand, a dry windy day will evaporate its efficacy, and the land will be but little better than if it were sprinkled with chaff. Therefore, the careful farmer will not leave it spread upon the surface of his fields in a dry time, nor will he lay on too much at once. Being a strong manure, pig dung serves the best purpose with mixing with it a large proportion of peat, mould, swamp or pond muck, weeds, straw, the leaves of trees, and other veg- etable matter that will easily decompose. It is almost incredi- ble how large a quantity of excellent manure can be obtained by supplying a pig yard with an abundance of the above- named substances, or other rubbish, to be worked over by the swine, and incorporated with their urine and dung. A half dozen of hogs have been known to make 30 or 40 loads of ex- cellent compost in a single year. In some parts of Europe, as well as in this country, land is sown with clover or peas, with the double object of feeding them oft" in a green state in the field, by swine, which are al- lowed to run loose, and of enriching the soil by the dropping of their dung. In the Southern States of the Union, this prac- tice prevails to a considerable extent in the cultivation of the the cow PEA, described in a preceding page, under the division of "Vegetable Manures." Excrement of the Horse. — Although the horse feeds almost ex- clusively upon vegetable food, there is a great deal of differ- ence between the manure produced from his feeding upon the green succulent grass of the pastures, and the dry hay and nutritious grain fed to him in the stable. The dung of the horse, it is well known, consists of the grosser parts of his food, mixed with the peculiar juices of his mouth and stomach. Thus, his gastric juice differs from that of most of our other domestic animals, in containing a larger proportion of bile, which is secreted more rapidly directly from the liver in the absence of a gall bladder — an apendage that the horse, the 262 ANIMAL MANURES. ass, and other animals of the same natural family do not pos- sess. Hence, the admixture of the finely-comminuted, strong, and hearty food he devours, together with these peculiar ani- mal juices, are the causes of the remarkable active properties of this species of manure. Pure horse dung is moderately warm, but hotter in its nature than that of the cow. It heats sooner, and evolves much am- monia, not merely because it contains less water than cow dung, but because it is generally also richer in those organic compounds of which nitrogen forms a constituent part. Even when fed upon the same food, the dung of the horse will be richer than that of the cow, because of the greater proportion of the food of the latter which is discharged in the large quan- tity of urine it is in the habit of voiding. According to Boussingault, the dung with the urine, voided by a horse, fed on hay and oats, contained 76j per cent, of mois- ture, and the composition in a dry and in a wet state was found to be as follows: -• Dry. Wet. Caibon, 38.6 9.19 Hydrogen, -, 5.0 1.20 Oxygen, 36.4 8.66 Nitrogen, 2.7 4.13 Salts and earth, 17.3 4.13 Water, 76.17 100.0 100.00 &y the above analyses, it will be seen that the fresh horse dung, in a dry state, contains 2y\ths per cent, of nitrogen. The same substance, on the authority last quoted above, when al- lowed to ferment, as it does in practice, will contain only 1 per cent, of nitrogen, and loses besides, nearly ^ths of its weight. This gives some idea of the waste that always attends the prac- tice of neglecting the manures on a farm. In comparing this substance with other manures, 73 parts of the solid excrement of the horse are considered as equivalent to 100 parts of farm- yard dung. ANIMAL MANURES. 263 In the short period of 24 hours, horse dung heats and begins to suffer loss by fermentation. Hence, the propriety of early removing it from the stable, and mixing it as soon as possible with some other material by which the volatile substances given off may be absorbed and arrested. The colder and wet- ter dung of the pig and of the 'cow will answer well for this purpose, or soil rich in vegetable matter, as peat, saw dust, or powdered charcoal, or any other absorbing substance which can readily be obtained ; or if a chemical agent be preferred, moistened gypsum may be sprinkled among it, or diluted sul- phuric acid. There is undoubtedly great loss experienced from the general neglect of night soil, but in most cases, the dung of the horse might also be rendered a source of much greater profit than it has hitherto been. The warmth of horse dung fits it admirably for bringing other substances into a state of fermentation. With peat, swamp or pond muck, saw dust, spent tan bark, weeds, the leaves of trees, mould, and almost every kind of rubbish, it forms an excellent compost for most kinds of crops ; and to soils containing much inert vegetable matter, it can be applied with much advantage. From its very hot nature, it is suitable for making hot beds, when it is new, and for nourishing early garden vegetables which require a considerable degree of heat to accelerate their growth. Great care should be observed that horse dung be not spoiled by " fire-fanging," or burnt in the heaps, before it is used. For, when so heated as to give it a white mouldy appearance, most of its virtue is gone. It is difficult to give it age in an unmixed state without tempering it with the dung of the pig, of the cow, or with some of the substances named above, when it will be suitable for land that is neither too light nor too stiff. But, if buried in very cold, moist land, as soon as it comes from the stable, in an unmixed state, it has been remarked that the crop succeeded better than where the ground was dressed with it in a rotten or fermented state. In order to prevent fennentation, or overheating, of horse ma- 264 ANIMAL MANURES. nure, the farmer can pour or sprinkle over the heap, every few days, a moderate quantity of soap suds, old brine, or common salt. Excrement of Man. — Human ordure, or " night soil," in gen- eral, is an exceedingly rich and valuable manure ; but its dis- agreeable odor, has, in most countries, rendered its use unpop- ular among practical men. This unpleasant smell may be in a great measure removed by mixing it with powdered charcoal or with half-charred peat, a method which is adopted in the manufacture of certain artificial manures. Quicklime is in some places employed for the same purpose, but though the smell is thus got rid of, a large portion of the volatile ammonia, produced during the decomposition of the manure, is at the same time driven off into the atmosphere by the lime, and con- sequently is lost. — Johnston. In general, night soil contains about fths of its weight of water, and when exposed to the air, undergoes a very rapid de- composition, and gives off much volatile matter, consisting of ammonia, of carbonic acid, and of sulphureted and phosphu- reted hydrogen gases ; and finely loses its smell. In the neigh- borhood of many large cities, the collected night soil is allowed thus naturally to ferment and lose its smell, and is then dried and sold for manure, under the name of poudrette, described under its appropriate head. Night soil is a mixture of urine and fseces, and must vary in composition, but as such, has never been examined. The fseces and urine separately were analysed by Berzelius, who found the composition of the fseces to be as follows : — Remains of food, 7.0 Bile, 0.9 Albumen, .- 0.9 A peculiai" extractive matter, 2.7 Indeterminate animal matter, viscous matter, resin, and ) ^. ^ an insoluble matter, \ Salts, 1.2 Water, 73.3 100.0 ANIMAL MANITRES. 266 The salts had the following composition : — Cai'bonate of soda, 29.4 Chloride of sodium, 23.5 Sulphate of soda, 11.8 Ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate, 11.8 Phosphate of lime, 23.5 100.0 'Human urine is one of the most poweiful of all manures. Left to itself, it speedily undergoes putrefaction, and evolves an abundance of ammoniacal salts. Its composition consists of Urea, 3.01 Uric acid, 0.10 Indeterminate animal matter, lactic acid, and lactate oi li u ammonia, \ ' Mucus of the bladder, 0.03 Sulphate of potash, 0.37 Sulphate of soda, 0.32 Phosphate of soda, .' 0.29 Chloride of sodium, , 0.45 Phosphate of ammonia, 0.17 Chloro-hydrate of ammonia, 0.15 Phosphate of lime and of magnesia, 0.10 Silica, trace. Water, 93.30 100.00 The phosphates of lime and magnesia, which it contains, are extremely insoluble salts, and have been supposed to be held in solution by phosphoric acid, lactic acid, and hippuric acid, the latter of which is now regarded as a regular constituent of healthy human urine. It is difficult to give an estimate of the comparative value of night soil ; for the urine present is nearly altogether the valuable part, and the amount varies. It is, however, more active, (hot- ter,) and valuable than the best horse dung, being estimated at 14, and horse dung at 10. Arthur Young increased his crop of wheat, on a poor gravel, from 12 to 31 bushels by 160 bushels, upwards of 6 bushels more than he obtained by 60 cubic yards 12 266 ANIMAL MANURES. of farmyard manure. According lo Boussingault, when dried in the air, it is 10 times as fertilising as good farmyard dung. It may be composted with ar vof the ordinary manures, and should be plowed under shallow, and near to seed time. — Gardner. Night soil, in whatever state it is used, whether recent or fer- mented, is capable of supplying abundant food to plants. The Chinese formerly mixed it with id of its weight of a fat marl, made it into cakes, and dried them by exposure to the sun. These cakes, which are represented as having no disagreeable smell, formed an article of commerce, sold in the neighborhood of large cities, under the name of taffo. According to Mr. For- tune, however, the Chinese prefer to use their night soil in its most recent state, diluted with water, and applied directly to their crops in the form of liquid manure. In a fresh state, night soil is applied at the rate of 6 to 12 cart loads to the acre ; but this is an unpleasant and wasteful application. It may be dried, and rendered inodorous by union with charcoal, charred peat, or broken peat, coal ashes or fine mould, and drying by exposure to the air. This forms one kind of poudrette. It is best treated with charcoal powder, gypsum, or very small quantiites of green vitrol, (sulphate of iron,) the sulphuric acid of which fixes the volatile ammonia. Quicklime and unleached ashes are objectionable additions, as they liberate the ammonia, and cause loss. The most econom- ical method, so far as the soil of the farm is concerned, is to keep pounded charcoal and a little gypsum in the privy, to be sprinkled occasionally in the vault, so as to have it ready for use as soon as removed. Drying night soil in the air, without any addition, is wasteful ; for fermentation comes on rapidly, and great loss of ammoniacal matters takes place. Excrement of the Pigeon. — The dung of pigeons has been cel- ebrated by all writers on agriculture for more than 2,000 years; and it has been so highly valued by the husbandmen of the East, that these birds have been kept in vast numbers in cotes, or houses, principally for the sake of their manure. Kinneir, political assistant to Sir John Malcolm, embassador to the ANIMAL MANURES. 267 court of Persia, states in his "Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire," published at London, in 1813, that the ac- knowledged superiority of the flavor of the melons at Ispahan, is alone to be ascribed to this rich manure. The largest of the pigeon towers will sell for $15,000; and many of them yield to the proprietors an annual income of $1,000 to $1,500 each. It is also highly esteemed in Spain, Portugal, France, and Bel- gium, at the present day, wherever it can be obtained in suffi- cient quantity. In the last-named country, it is used as a top- dressing for young flax plants, and the yearly product of 600 pigeons will sell for nearly $20. The effect of pigeon manure on crops is immediate, which depends principally upon the quantity of soluble matter con- tained in it; and this varies according to its age, and the cir- cumstances under which it has been preserved. Thus, Sir H. Davy found, that, in recent pigeon dung, 23 per cent, was sol- uble, while that after fermentation, contained only 8 per cent. The soluble matter consists of uric acid in small quantity, urate, sulphate, and especially carbonate of ammonia, common salt, and the sulphate of potash. The insoluble portion consists chiefly of phosphate of lime, with a little phosphate of mag- nesia, and a variable mixture of sand or earth. According to M. Girardin, the recent dung of pigeons con- tains of water, ''^'^ Azotised vegetable matter, l^-ll Saline or mineral matter, "-"^ Insoluble matter, sand, &c., 0.61 100.00 When exposed to moisture, the dung of pigeons, like guano and the excrement of all kinds of birds, especially if recent, undergoes fermentation, loses a portion of its ammoniacal salts, and thereby becomes less valuable. If intended to be kept, it should be mixed with dry vegetable mould, or made into a com- post with dry earth and saw d'ast, with a portion of charcoal 268 ANIMAL MANURES. dust, pulverised or charred peat, gypsum, or with sugar refuse (animalised carbon). One part of recent pigeon dung, nnixed with 4 parts of dry sand, and 5 parts of pulverised peat, or veg- etable mould, makes an excellent compost for a cold heavy soil. For grain fields, 40 bushels of pigeon dung, mixed as above, will be sufficient to manure an acre, but there is great care to be observed in laying it on. The best way is to scatter it broadcast over the surface, immediately after the grain is sown, harrowing them in at the same operation. Then, the first rains that fall will wash most of the soluble portions into the ground, and the seed, as it softens and swells for sprouting, absorbs its proper quota, and has the advantage of its warmth and stim- ulating effects from the beginning. Pigeon manure is most appropriate for moist as well as stiff soils; but most of its virtue is .spent in one crop. When tem- pered with other dung, it is excellent for fruit trees and vines ; and, even, when used alone, it is superior, perhaps, to all other manures for the hop, to which it imparts an increased size, strength, and spirit. As the value of pigeon dung is so great, it is advisable for the farmer to have a pigeon house wherever it can be done without injury to the neighboring fields of grain. The floor of the cote should be covered 4 inches thick with pulverised peat, or fine black mould, reduced to a powder, which, when taken out with the dung, feathers, and sweepings of the walls, forms a most valuable manure. Excrement of the Rabbit. — In countries where rabbits are ex- tensively kept, their dung has been used with great success as a manure, so much so, that it has been found profitable to propagate them for the sake of their dung, and to have their "hutches" constructed in reference to the object of accumula- ting it without waste. Excrement of Sea Fowls. — One of the most powerful manures in nature, is the dung of such birds as feed on fish or animal flesh. The arid, sterile plains of Peru have been fertilised for ages by guano, a species of manure c^:>llected from the small • ANIMAL MANURES. 269 islands near the coast, there accumulated by the droppings, feathers, &c., of the immense number of sea birds that con- stantly frequent those spots. As this substance is treated of at length under its appropriate head, a further description of it is unnecessary here. On the Keys of Florida, immense flocks of pelicans, flamin- goes, and other sea birds congregate in vast numbers, and doubtless, if special pains were taken to collect their dung be- fore it is decomposed by the rains and scorching sun, this guano would prove profitable to the collectors, and would be sought after by the American farmers for manure. At the suggestion of Sir H. Davy, a trial was made with the dung of sea fowls, in Wales, and it produced a powerful, though transient effect on the grass upon which it was applied. That sagacious experimentalist very truly conjectured, how- ever, that the rains of that climate, as well as those of all others, materially injure this species of manure, unless where it happens to be deposited in caverns or the fissures of rocks, out of the reach of moisture and the sun. Excrement of the Sheep. — The dung of sheep is regarded as one of the best manures of this class ; and for many purposes, it is considered better than any other. It has not that violent heat so remarkable in the excrement of the horse, nor is it cold and inactive like that of the cow in a recent state ; but there is a mildness and richness in it that no other manure can ap- proach, unless we except that of the goat. It ferments more readily than that of the cow, but less so than that of the horse. As the food of the sheep is more finely masticated than that of the cow, and its dung contains a little less water, it is richer in nitrogen, and hence, its more rapid fermentation. According to Girardin, the simple excrement of sheep in a recent state, contains of Water, 68.71 Azotised matter, 23.16 SuUne matter, 8.13 100.00 270 ANIMAL MANURES. In comparing this substance with other manures, Boussin- gault considers that 36 parts of the excrement of the sheep to be equivalent in fertilising effects to 100 parts of farmyard dung. Although the dung of animals, in general, suits most kinds of soils, if properly tempered with other matter, cold clays ap- pear to receive the most benefit from that of sheep, yet it is suited to almost every description of land, and most kinds of crops. Those soils in which a considerable quantity of veg- etable matter is already present, are believed to be the most benefitted by this manure, in consequence of the readiness with which they absorb the volatile matters it so soon begins to throw off. In the management of this manure, there are practised by farmers three ways, according to the season, the climate, and other circumstances by which the owner of the flock has to be govered — one by allowing the sheep to run at will, and eat off the crop in the field, dropping their dung evenly over the sur- face, and at the same time treading it into the soil — another by confining them in open folds, or yards, at night, in which they deposit their urine and dung, and range about the pastures and fields by day — and a third, by securing them in a barn or cov- ered fold during most of the colder months of the year, where all" their manure is saved, and husbanded to the best advantage, without loss or injury from wet, from drying winds, or from the sun. By the first two methods, much of the virtue of the ma- nure is lost by evaporation and the washing of rains ; by the latter, pulverised peat, swamp or pond muck, vegetable mould, or almost any kind of earth, may be spread in the bottom of the covered fold, where it will absorb the urine, and become incor- porated with the dung, forming therewith an abundance of val- uable manure. When sheep are fed in pastures, they drop their dung about the surface, which does comparatively but little service to the land ; whereas, if evenly scattered over the fields, and trodden into the soil, as in the case of feeding off a crop of turnips or of green rye, it decomposes more slowly than ANIMAL MANUKES. 27l when it is collected into heaps, and the ammonia and other pro- ducts of the decomposition are absorbed in great part by the soil as they are produced. In folding sheep upon land at night, with the view of pre- paring it for a crop of tobacco, turnips, or wheat, care should be observed that their dung be not left long exposed to the air and sun on the surface of the ground; for that will exhaust its richness with little or no value to the land. It should be plowed in as soon as a sufficient deposit has been made, while the ground is moist with urine, and the manure is fresh ; for, of all dungs, perhaps, it is the most free to lose its virtue, and in this respect, it should not be overlooked, as it is an axiom beyond dispute that " the fertilising power which shows itself with the greatest promptitude, is also that which is soonest ex- hausted." In Belgium, it has long been the practice to house their sheep at night under slight sheds, the ground being spread with dry sand about 4 or 5 inches thick, laying on a little more fresh every day. Once a week, the whole mass, including the urine and dung, is carried to a compost heap, or is applied at once to the soil. This mixture of sand with hot urine and dung serves as an excellent dressing for cold stiff lands. If a light soil is intended to be manured with this compost, instead of sand, layers of clay, swamp or pond muck, peat, &c., may be substituted therefor, after having been previously mellowed by a winter's frost. Excrement of the Turkey. — The dung of turkeys, from the similarity of their food and internal organisation to those of domestic fowls, is also similar in composition and character to that of the latter birds, and may be treated and applied to the same kinds of soil, and to similar crops. Although by no means an abundant manure, considerable quantities may be saved where a large number of turkeys are kept, by causing them to roost under cover, and composting their excrement after the manner recommended for the domes- tic FOWL- 273 ANIMAL MANURES, FEATHERS. In general properties, feathers resemtife nails, cuticle, hair, wool, bristles, &c., consisting principally of inspissated albu- men, with a very minute proportion of gelatin. Although limited in the supply, considerable quantities of im- perfect feathers and quills can be obtained, such as cannot be used for beds, or for writing, pencil tubes, &c., which can be employed for manure. From 20 to 30 bushels of old feathers, which are generally clotted and packed, when they have long been used in beds, may be applied to an acre of grain. It is stated that even 10 bushels per acre of old feathers plowed under on wheat land nearly double the produce. Covering with the seed furrow of a grain crop, is recommended to be the best mode of application in securing unmolested the future disposition of the feathers in order that they may rot or decompose in the earth. FLESH, MUSCLES, CARTILAGES, LIGAMENTS, AND TEN- DONS OF DEAD ANIMALS. The fleshy, muscular, tendinous, and other textures of dead animals, which cannot be fed with advantage to dogs or swine, or. are not in demand for the manufacture of Prussian blue or animal black, can be converted into a most valuable manure by baking or charring them in & close furnace, or by mixing them as intimately as possible with about 6 times their own weight of peat, vegetable mould, or ordinary field earth. This manure, when applied to the roots oC most of our garden and field plants, without coming in immedi»ate contact with the stalks/ stimulates the vegetation in a remarkable degree. It can also be sown broadcast with grain, and produces, when judiciously applied, astonishing results. Mixed with twice its bulk of dry powdered earth, its application becomes exceed- ingly easy, and 1,500 lbs. of the mixture are sufficient to manure an acre. Horses, dogs, sheep, deer, and other quadrupeds, that have ANIMAL MANURES. 273 died accidentally or by disease, are too often suffered to remain exposed to the air, or lie floating or partly immersed in water until they are devoured by birds or beasts of prey, or are entirely decomposed. In the mean time, noxious gases are thrown off to the atmosphere, and the land or water where they lie receive but little or no benefit, and often an injury therefrom. By covering a dead animal with 6 times its bulk of dried pulverised peat, leaf mould, charred saw dust or tan bark, swamp or pond muck, or finely-divided soil, mixed with 1 part of quicklime, and suffer- ing it to remain for a few months, the decomposing carcass will impregnate the surrounding medium in which it is mixed with soluble matters sufficient to render the compound an excellent manure. At the time of removal, if a disagreeable effluvium is exhaled, it may be chiefly or entirely destroyed by incor- porating with the heap a small quantity of ground gypsum or charcoal dust, which will absorb and retain the gases for ma- nure. Any waste carcass may also be decomposed by inclos- ing it ift a heap of vegetable matter in a state of fermentation, particularly in warm weather, when the temperature is high. FISH, CRUSTACEA, ETC. Under this head is included not only the ordinary fish em- ployed as manure, but the offal, or heads, intestines, fins, and scales of those disposed of in the markets, as well as crabs, lobsters, muscles, and other shell fish. They all owe their fer- tilising effects mainly to the animal matter and bone earth they contain. The former is similar in its composition to the flesh or blood of quadrupeds. Indeed, the chemical constituents of sprats, and other similar fish, used for fertilising the land, are found to be nearly identical with the entire animal. Assuming sprats, a well-known fish, employed as manure at certain seasons, on the coasts of Sussex and Kent, in England, to be taken as a type of the animal, the following analyses by Professor Thomas Way, chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, will serve to show, in a degree, the com- 12* 274 ANIMAL MANURES. position of most other species offish, applied to the same pur- pose. In 100 parts of the entire fish, bruised in a mortar, and then dried at a temperature of 212°F., there were found of Parts. Water, 63.65 Oil, 18,60 Diy nitrogenous matter, 17.75 100.00 The amount of pure nitrogen obtained from the above, was lly^o^oths per cent., which would be equivalent to If'^^oths of the entire fish in their natural condition. Out of 1,000 grs. of the fish, when examined directly for sulphur, there were found li grs., or yVo^hs of 1 per cent. The quantity of ash, or mineral matter, obtained by burnmg the fish of two seasons was 23^ths per cent, which had the following composition : — Sprats of 1847. Sprats of 1848. Silica, traces 0.30 Phosphoric acid, 43.5L» 40.49 Sulphm-ic acid, traces 1.40 Carbonic acid, Lime, ! 23.57 27.23 Magnesia, 3.01 3.42 Per-oxide of iron, 0.28 0.65 Potash, 17.23 21.89 Soda, 1.19 Chloride of potassium, 2.31 Chloride of sodium, 11.19 2.31 100.00 100.00 From the analysis of this ash, we find precisely what would have been expected — phosphate of lime, furnished by the bones, and potash by the muscular parts of the fish. As a matter of practical importance to the farmer, his atten- tion may be directed to the similarity in composition between some of our cultivated crops and that of sprats. Wheat, for instance, contains about 2 per cent, of nitrogen ; so does the fish. Wheat contains about Ifths per cent, of ash, of which AMMAL MANURES. 276 about i is phosphoric acid, and id potash. Sprats contain about •2 per cent, of ash, of which about fths are phosphoric acid, and ^th potash. What manure, then, would be more suitable to grow a bushel of wheat than 50 lbs. of sprats ? The use of fish, as a manure, is generally confined to within certain distances of the sei' shore, which is obvious, principal- ly for the following reason: — It requires to be employed in somewhat large dressings, although, weight for weight, they are at least 4 times more powerful than farmyard dung; conse- quently, the expense of transportation, added to the original cost, soon places them beyond the farmer's reach. The fish usually employed in this country for manure may be described and applied as follows: — Alewife, or Spring Herring (Alosa tyrannus). — This species of fish occurs in great abundance along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Virginia. They usually appear in the Chesapeake from March till May. In the waters about New York, they ap- pear with the shad, early in April. In New Hampshire and Mas- sachusetts, they swarm in great profusion, a month or six weeks later, where they are taken in seines in vast quantities, and for- merly were employed with their congeners, the shad, as a ma- nure. But, since the obstructions made in the rivers and streams they were wont to frequent, in consequence of the erec- tion of dams and mills, they are caught in less abundance, and are now generally used for food. Horse-foot or King Crab (Polyphemus occidentalis). — This crab is common during the spring and summer all along the coast from Maine to Florida. It is sometimes called the " sauce pan," from the shape of its shield, which is frequently used for bailing out boats. They usually approach the shore at high water, when they are frequently taken in large numbers, and employed in feeding poultry and swine. If eaten too plenti- fully, they are liable to cause sickness in pigs and hogs, and sometimes are the cause of their death. When thrown promiscuously in the pig yard, broken and composted with swamp or pond muck, these fish add greatly to 276 ANIMAL MANURES. the richness of the manure, and is an important source for the maritime farmers to fertilise their fields. MerJiaden (Alosa menhaden). — This important fish, which also bears the local names of " manhaden," '• bony fish," " hard head," "marsbanker," " mossbonker," " mossbanker," "moss- bunker," or simply "bunker," panhagen, (Indian,) and "skip- pangs," is found during the summer mohths, more or less ab.un- . dantly, from JMaine to the Chesapeake. The sea and shoals often literally swarm with them, where they are taken in seines or nets, and employed as bait for halibut, mackerel, and cod. Sometimes they are cured and packed up, like herrings, and used for human food ; but, from their very oily nature, they are not much resorted to for this purpose, being more extensively and profitably applied as a manure. It is computed that a single menhaden of ordinary size, (12 inches in length,) is equal in richness to a shovelful of farmyard manure. The use of this fish is well known as a manure in the vicin- ity of the coast from Massachusetts Bay to the Chesapeake, par- ticularly on the light lands of Long Island, Cape Cod, as well as those of the eastern counties of New Jersey and Delaware. They are used in various ways for growing wheat, oats, grass, Indian corn, peaches, and other kinds of crops; and their ef- fects in renovating worn-out lands, and enriching those that are naturally sterile, are truly remarkable. But, from the manner in which they are usually applied by scattering them in a crude state broadcast over the surface, or slightly covering them with earth, is not only a wastefnl practice, in consequence of the loss of ammonia and other volatile constituents, but, on medical authority, they sometimes have created pestilence and disease from the intolerable and unhealthy stench with which they contaminate the atmosphere for miles around. The most economical and advantageous mode of applying these fish, as a manure, is to compost them in alternate layers of dry mould, swamp or pond muck, pulverised charcoal or peat, charred saw dust or tan bark, or any other similar absorb- ent matter, in the same manner as recommended for blood, ANIMAL MANURES. 27T "URINE, BLUBBER, and Other putrescent manures, described under their respective heads. When thoroughly decomposed, this compost may be spread broadcast, or disposed of in drills, or in the hill, according to the kind of crops to which it is applied If the fish are buried in the soil, however, in a crude state, re, ference may be had to the nature of the subsoil in regard to its power of absorbing and retaining the ammonia and other soluble parts of the fish, that would be liable to be carried downward by the rains or melted snows, with which they are combined. It will be seen under the head of clay, (unburnt,) that a subsoil, abounding in clay, loam, mould, or decomposed vegetable matter, has the power of absorbing and retaining everything which can serve as a manure for plants. This action, let it be remembered, is not at all the same as in filtration, as a subsoil composed of sand or gravel does not possess this prop- erty, but allows most of the fertilising matter from the fish, contained in solution, to penetrate the earth with the water from the rains or melted snows. Thus, if the soil be deep and loamy, the fish may be plowed under or otherwise buried to a depth of 6 to 10 inches, with at least a foot of clayey or loamy soil below them to secure absorption. The subsoil must be clay or loam, for sand and gravel have no power of absorption, and allow all solutions to pass freely through them. When applied to Indian corn, with no other manure, from 2 to 3 fish are employed to each hill ; but when used in connec- tion with wood ashes and stable dung, one fish is appropriated to a hill ; say 3,630 fish, 14 cubic yards of horse dung, and 66 bushels of unleached ashes to an acre. A dressing like this, on the Long-Island plains, will produce from 60 to 80 bushels of shelled corn to an acre; and after the corn is removed, the land will be suitable for a tolerable crop of buckwheat, oats, or rye, without any additional manure. For a wheat crop, about 10,000 of these fish may be plowed under in a crude state to each acre of land ; or from 5,000 to to 6,000 may be composted as directed above, and plowed or harrowed in with the seed. 278 ANIMAL MANURES. •I When from 2,000 to 3,000 menhaden are decomposed in a compost as described in the preceding page, and spread on an acre of old grass land, the renovating effects are astonishing. For root crops and peach trees, there is no manure that has a better effect for a single year than these fish ; but they do not have that influence after repeating, which they have at first, unless they are used in connection with charcoal, gypsum, bone dust, leached ashes, guano, farmyard manure, or green-sand marl. Mussels (Mytilus borealis). — This species of shell fish, as well as the Mytilus plicatula, is common all along the northern coast of the United States, and are often found in great abun- dance on the banks of the estuaries or creeks, whence they are collected and fed to poultry or swine, and are used to some ex- tent as a manure. From 10 to 20 bushels, in connection with other fertilisers, are regarded as sufficient to manure an acre of land. Clams, cockles, and other kinds of shell fish, as well as crabs and lobsters, all form excellent manures. The crust, or shells, of the latter, is stated to contain 14 per cent, of the phosphate of lime; the remaining portion consisting of carbonate of lime and animal matter. The offal offish, such as the heads, fins, scales, and intestines, are to be obtained more or less abundantly in most of our mar- kets, and from the places where fish are dressed and packed, all form excellent fertilisers, and may be treated and applied in a similar manner as the menhaden, described in the preceding pages. FOLDING, OR YARDING, AS A MODE OF MANURING THE SOIL, Folding, or yarding, is the practice of confining sheep, cows, &c., at night or other times, in a small parcel of ground for the purpose of enriching the soil for turnips, cabbages, tobacco, and sometimes wheat. The benefits arising from this mode of manuring is acknowledged in many cases to be great; yet, ANIMAL MANURES. 279 during the summer months, it cannot be otherwise than waste- ful, as a great part of the urine of the animal is lost by evapo- ration, as well as much of the solid excrement, which becomes volatilised or removed by the washing of the rains. Some farmers turn in their horned cattle with the sheep^ which answers well when the soil contains much gravel or warm sand, and is not bad when it consists mainly of loam But it is regarded to be more judicious to fold the cattle by themselves on a dry gravelly or hungry soil, and the sheep without the cattle on a soil that is stiff, heavy, and cold. Before folding a piece of ground, it should be plowed once or twice, in order to put it in a proper condition to receive the urine and dung of the animals. By repeated observation, it has been determined that, on an average, 200 sheep cannot manure by folding, in one summer, more than 10 acres of land of a medium quality, notwithstanding it has been stated that 100 sheep will enrich 8 acres, so as to need no other manure for eight years. For a crop of turnips, let half of an acre of ground be plow- ed and fenced, in the latitude of New York, about the first of June. Turn in every night a half dozen head of neat cattle, and about 50 sheep. Continue to do so for three or four weeksj harrowing the surface every few days, in order to mix the ex- crement with the soil. About the middle of July, the ground will be sufficiently folded, and the turnips may be sown and harrowed in, and will produce an abundant yield. A yard for cabbages may be begun about a fortnight earlier than for turnips, or soon after the cattle are turned out to grass. In other respects, the time and treatment of the land, are sim- ilar to those for turnips. When a wheat crop is intended, the ground may be plowed and folded in July, with frequent harrowings, up to the time of sowing the seed in August. If the ground is very moist or wet, let the harrowing be done in the middle of the day ; if dry, in the morning, while moist v/ith dew. Meadow lands, which a ;e cold and sour, producing bad hay, 280 ANIMAL MANURES. may be greatly improved by even a moderate folding, which will kill the ferns, (brakes,) and mosses, and destroy the rushes or other watery grasses, without breaking up the sod. This may be done, too, at such seasons as are unsuited for folding plowed lands for turnips or wheat, say from September till May, where the ground is not covered with snow. Sheep are regarded more proper for this purpose than cattle, as their ex- crement is hotter, and will have a more powerful effect in kill- ing the noxious grasses and plants. Where a large field is to be ameliorated in this manner, it is sometimes the custom to confine the sheep at night in one part of the meadow, by means of " hurdles," and as soon as that particular portion of the land has been sufliciently folded, to change their enclosure to another part of the field, and thus continue until the whole is improved. In some places, they fold their fatting cattle in autumn, upon the stubble fields or grass lands, where they are daily fed with turnips, beets, potatoes, «Sz-c., which are spread upon the field. By this means, the cattle are made to go over the entire ground, dropping their urine and manure wherever they go, until the whole is manured. A similar practice sometimes is also adopt- ed in soiling cows, where green food, such as rye, lucern, clover, corn stalks, &c., is scattered over the surface until the land is sufficientl}^ enriched. GUANO. Guano, or huanu, which signifies in the Peruvian or Quichua language "manure," is now well known to be the excrements of various species of sea fowls, such as cranes, flamingoes, mews, divers, &.C., which resort in immense numbers to small uninhab- ited islands or rocky promontories on the coasts of Africa and South America, where they have remained in undisturbed pos- session for ages, and on which their dung and exuvise have gradually accumulated in some instances, on the coast of Peru, according to Humboldt, to a depth of 60 or 60 feet ; but their ANIMAL MANURES. 281 deposits for a period of 300 years bad not formed a bed more than from id to i of an inch thick. As regards the history of this substance, we read in all the works relating to the ancient agriculture of the Peruvians of its value as a fertiliser, and admire the provident use made of it by the Incas, long before that patriarchal race of monarchs had been exterminated by their chivalrous invaders, the Span- iards. For more than a hundred years, the early navigators to the Pacific had noticed the guano islands, and had seen car- goes of this deposit conveyed to the adjacent mainland, where they must have witnessed the greater luxuriance of the her- bage, as well as the increased weight of the crops wherever it was applied. European and American merchants, also, who have had opportunities ever since the declaration of Peruvian independence, of forming establishments of their own on the coast, as well as in the interior, could not have been ignorant of the use made of guano by the natives, and the astonishing effects it produced on their crops. The delay, therefore, of in- troducing it into Europe and elsewhere, could not have occur- red through the want of a knowledge of its value and appli- cability to a foreign soil. It was not until the year 1806, that the true nature of this substance, as a fertiliser, was communicated to the scientific world, when a sample was transmitted by Humboldt on his re- turn from South America, to Messrs. Fourcroy and Vauquelin, of Paris, two eminent chemists, who made a most careful and elaborate analysis of it, the results of which are published in vol. Ivi. of the " Annales de Chimie." They found it to contain ■Jth of its weight of uric acid, partially saturated with am- monia, and small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potash, mixed with portions of quartzose and ferruginous sand. From this circumstance, a knowledge of its value was communicated to most of the enlightened agriculturists of Europe as well as of the United States, but no application was made of it in either country before the year 1824, when the late Mr. Skinner, then editor of the " American Farmer," received two barrels of it 282 ANIMAL MANURES. at Baltimore, and distributed in small parcels for experiment. Governor Lloyd, of Maryland, an intelligent and enterprising farmer, to whom a portion was sent, pronounced it " tiie most powerful manure he had ever seen applied to Indian corn." But no further measures were taken to introduce this manure, with the exception of a few samples sent home by travellers in Peru, with which experiments were made in Europe and in this country, more as a matter of curiosity than from any other ex- pectation, until the year 1840, when 20 barrels arrived in Eng- land to test its qualities upon the soil. At first, it was used with great precaution ; and notwithstanding the astonishing re- sults of the earlier experiments, the fear that the enormous crops which it produced might exhaust the land, deterred the British farmers, generally, from availing themselves of so val- uable a manure. Repeated experiments, however, having con- vinced them that it imparts great vigor to the plants, without injury to the soil, and that it is the cheapest as well as the most nourishing fertiliser known, the increase of its consumption was such, that, from a few tons employed in 1840, the whole amount imported into that country up to the beginning of the year 1850, was about 650,000 tons ! From this great consumption of guano in England, and the success with which it was everywhere attended, its introduc- tion became gradual into the United States; and, for the last year past, the demands for a genuine article have been so great by the farmers along the Atlantic coast, that their wants could not be supplied. Independently of the immense quantities imported from Bo- livia and Peru, guano has been obtained from Ichaboe, a rocky islet on the coast of Africa, from which many thousand tons were shipped, and it has been stripped down to the very rock itself by the emissaries of the greedy agriculturists, and again abandoned in solitude. Considerable quantities have also been brought from Patagonia, Chili, and the islands of the South Sea ; but, as might have been expected from the nature of the climates from which they were obtained, they were either found ANIMAL MANURES. 283 to be worthless, or far inferior in qualitity to those of Bolivia and Peru, From this great and insatiable denriand for guano in England and elsewhere, the most wilful adulterations have been made in that country, confined principally to the Peruvian, by mixing it with gypsum or sand, or, more correctly speaking, with a sort of brownish-yellow loam, not differing much from the color of guano itself; but, as ready means have recently been dis- covered for detecting these frauds, together with severe enact- ments for punishing the perpetrators, the practice, it is hoped, will soon become absolete. Guano, like all kinds of animal excrement, varies materially in its quality according to the nature of the food habitually used. The richer and more nutritious it is, the greater will be the fertilising properties of the manure. Hence, the dung of the highly-fed race horse is more valuable than that of the drudge released from the cart, and kept upon low fare. For the very same reason, the excrementitious deposits of birds feed- ing upon fish or flesh, afford a stronger manure than parrots or pigeons which live on berries and grain. Again, guano is very materially influenced by the age and climate in which it is found. Thus, during the first year of its deposit in Bolivia or Peru, the strata are white, and abounding in uric acid ; but in the lower strata, which have existed, perhaps, for ages, the color is a rusty red, as if tinged with oxide of iron. They be- come progressively more and more solid from the surface downward, a circumstance naturally accounted for by the gradual accumulation of the strata, and the evaporation of the volatile parts. In all climates subject to rains and heavy dews, the guano exposed to their influence undergoes fermentation, loses a portion of its ammoniacal salts by the decomposition, and thereby is diminished in value. The excrement of the birds, when first deposited, is rich in nitrogenous compounds. No am- monia, as such, exists among its constituents ; but the access of air and moisture induce a slow decomposition by which ammonia is generated, and when the circumstances are favor- 284 ANIMAL MANURES. able, it escapes into the atmosphere. WhcDCver moisture is abundant, these changes are most rapidly effected; whereas, on the other hand, a dry climate and a rapid accumulation of the deposit are more likely to insure its preservation in a com- paratively unchanged state. From the preceding remarks, it is obvious that the composi- tion, and consequently the value, of the different kinds of guano will vary according to the age and localities from which they are obtained. From numerous analyses and experiments made with those sorts in most general use, their rank in the scale of this class of manures, together with other circumstances con- nected with their production and application, stand in the fol- lowing order : — Anagamos Guano. — By a subsequent table, it will be seen that this guano contains a larger per-centage of ammonia, with a due share of phosphates, than any other kind in the list. It is a perfectly recent deposit, collected by hand from the rocks, which accounts for its richness. Although it is not distinctly known whether the composition of the dung of birds, recently voided, is perfectly alike, we have reason to suppose, that of sea fowls, all piscivorous and nearly allied in their habits, can- not greatly differ. From this circumstance, it is worthy of in- vestigation to ascertain whether the Florida guano, deposited on the Keys by immense flocks of flamingoes, pelicans, and other aquatic birds, cannot be collected after the manner of that from Anagamos, and turned to profitable account. Peruvian Guano. — From the large amount of ammonia and phosphates contained in this kind of guano, together with the almost inexhaustible supply, and the circumstances attending its origin, collection, and importation, the farmer can more im- plicitly rely upon it for fertilising his fields than on any other. Being the production of a climate where rain seldom or never falls, its composition becomes less altered, and its character less varied, except in color, than those varieties found further north or south. During the first year of deposit, the strata are white, when it J ^ ANIMAL MANURES. 285 is called by the natives guano bianco. In the opinion of the Peruvian cultivators this is the most efficacious kind, as less quantity suffices, and the field must be more speedily and abun- dantly watered after it is applied ; otherwise, the roots of the plants would be destroyed. In the deepest deposits, the uppermost strata are of a greyish brown, which gradually become darker as they are opened downward. In the lower strata, the color is rusty red, as if tinged with the oxide of iron. The beds become progressively more and more solid from the surface downwards, a circum- stance naturally accounted for by the gradual deposit of the strata and the evaporation of the fluid particles, the result, per- haps, from an uninterrupted accumulation during many thous- and years. As before remarked, the wilful adulteration of guano is be- lieved to be confined almost entirely to the Peruvian. Hence, much precaution is necessary on the part of the farmer in making his purchases; otherwise, he is liable to be deceived. It is not enough to know that the " substance is of a brown color, sufficiently dry, with a tolerably strong smell, and ap-. pearing to contain little or no gritty matter when rubbed be- tween the fingers ;" for, if genuine, all guanos have a general character running through them. For instance, they invariably contain feathers and comminuted shells; water, of course; or- ganic matter, always ; crystallised gypsum, never ; carbonate of lime, commonly ; phosphate of lime, always ; super-phos- phate, never ; and nitrogen or ammonia, invariably. Several of these points can only be determined by accurate analysis, which farmers in general are incapable of doing. All the risk and uncertainty, therefore, to which the farming public is now subjected, might be avoided if they would give up seeking for cheap guano, buy from dealers of known character and honesty, and insist that the purchase shall be guaranteed to be of the same composition as a sample analysed by some chemist of well known accuracy and veracity. In selecting samples for analysis, it should always be taken 286 ANIMAL MANURES. from as many bags as possible. A large handful or two should be selected from perhaps a dozen different bags, and the whole laid on a large sheet of paper, and mixed carefully together with the hand. From this, about a pound should be taken, and the remainder returned into the stock. This precaution is de- sirable in all sorts of guano, but is quite indispensable with the inferior kinds, which i-'equently differ very much in differ- ent parts of the same cargo. Bolivian Guano. — Next to the Peruvian in value as a fertiliser, stands the Bolivian, which, from the similarity of the climate in which it is produced, being obtained only a few degrees fur- ther south. It htis been placed in the very first rank of excel- lence. Some cargoes, however, have proved to be of very in- ferior quality, obviously having been adulterated, or had been subject to moisture or long exposure to the wind and sun. Chilian Guano. — Of this fertiliser, two qualities have been imported. The one most commonly met with is of a most in- ferior description, and scarcely deserves the name of guano; but there is another and a very valuable variety, although rare, which is imported from Valparaiso, and is stated to be collected on the rocks. It is quite hard, and comes in large pale-yellow- ish masses; and, in value, it is said to be equal to that of the very best Peruvian. Ichahoe Guano. — This guano, although abundant a few years since, has now almost entirely ceased in its supply. It is de- signated under the names of the "old " and the " new Ichaboe," the former being a deposit probably many centuries of age, which had been exposed to the sun, wind, and rain, and conse- quently had lost a large share of its virtue, and hence inferior in its value. Soon after its discovery, the whole of the deposit with which the island was covered, was entirely removed. So completely, indeed, was this done, that the last cargoes carried away were but little better than sand, and the island was again abandoned to the birds. Since that time, the sea fowls returned, rapidly formed fresh deposits, and other importations have been made, designated under the name of the " new Ichaboe," which ANIMAL MANURES. 187 proved, on analysis, to be much richer than the " old." It ap- pears that the recent Ichaboe guano contains an amount of ammonia not far short of double of that contained in the older deposit, and between 3 and 4 per cent, more than the highest per-centage hitherto observed. It approaches in composition much nearer that of Peru, both in this respect, and in the small amount of phosphates and larger quantity of alkaline salts which it contains. In one other respect, also, it is remarkable — and this is, in the considerable per-centage of carbonate of lime, of which traces only are found in the oldest deposits, and none at all in the Peruvian. Patagonian Guano. — This variety, from the high latitude in which it is produced, and subjected as it is to frequent rains, alternated by intense sunshine and drying winds, has usually been purchased at higher prices than its quality justifies. Its inferiority to Peruvian or Bolivian guanos is very marked, especially in its amount of ammonia ; and from numerous analyses, it has been ascertained that it contains a considerable quantity of sand, in one case, at least 38 per cent. This guano, it is believed, never is willfully adulterated. In fact, its quality is so low that it will not bear it. There is said to occur among this guano considerable quantities of crystals, composed almost entirely of the salt called " ammoniaco-magnesian phosphate," which, when pure, contains no less than 7 per cent, of ammo- nia. These crystals, it has been stated, have been carefully avoided by the captains of vessels, with the impression that they were of no value. Saldanha-Bay Guano. — This variety, like the Patagonian, comes from a latitude and climate subject to heavy rains, al- ternated by an intense sun, and consequently loses the greater part of its ammonia, unless it is collected in a very recent state. Its chief value, as a fertiliser, consists in its phosphates, which range higher than those in any other variety hitherto known. The foregoing includes all the varieties of guano that have ap- peared in any quantity in th3 European and American markets, 288 ANIMAL MANURES. n ca s 05 o O !0 o5 T»< ^ tc-^ s 1 55 S « 05 S» t- lO oo 00 ^ »( ff< (>« t> o S 5 nsi 1 C3 lO 30 ^ a^ai 1 oci do 0 CL,Ja2-vhen only one handful will cause the haulms, or vines, to grow vigorously, and produce large tubers. For cabbages, one handful to each plant is regarded as suf- ficient, which, it is stated, will produce a better head than any other manure. For turnips, if the land be poor, the poudrette must be used liberally to secure success in producing a large bulb ; other- wise, the leaf will be large, and the bottom small. If used in small quantities, it is best to apply it with the seed in drills. For melons, cucumbers, pumpkins, squashes, beans, &c., hills may be made the usual way, and then mix the proudrette freely and thoroughly with the earth in the bottom of the hills before planting. For peas, beets, carrots, onions, and other garden vegetables cultivated in drills, the poudrette may be sown with the seed. 312 ANIMAL MANURES. For grape vines, fruit trees, and flowering shrubs, of medium size, half a peck of poudrette has been employed with suc- cess in scattering it around each tree or vine, and well incor- porating it with the soil about the roots, by means of a spado or fork. The use of poudrette in agriculture, in general, does not pre- sent, in other respects, any difficulty. It powerfully stimulates the early progress of vegetation, and greatly develops the green parts ; but like all very active manures, it becomes too speedily exhausted, and has often been accused of failing at the moment of the flowering and filling out of the seed of most of our grains. Therefore, it would be advisable for the prudent far- mer not to rely wholly upon its virtues for fertilising his crops, but use it in connection with guano, bone dust, or farm- yard dung. RESIDUUM OF PRUSSIAN BLUE. This substance, which consists of the exhausted, greyish powder, left in the crucibles in the manufacture of Prussian blue, contains .not a trace of organic matter, and cannot, there- fore be usefully employed as a manure, otherwise than as an amendment cabable of lightening the soil, and stimulating the vegetative forces by means of the small proportion of carbon and the salts of lime or potash it may retain. In this respect, the use of this residuum may be usefully employed as a fer- tiliser as well as an amendment of soils that are heavy and stiff", provided the transportation is not expensive, and the price merely nominal. SHELLS OF OYSTERS AND OLAMS— SHELL SAND. In many parts of the Atlantic States, particularly in the vi- cinity of the maritime cities and larger class of towns, or those situated near the banks of rivers, or on canals and railroads, leading inland from the coast, wherever they can be obtained ANIMAL MANURES. 313 without much cost, the farmer will find a valuable manure in procuring the shells of oysters, clams, and other shell fish, and reducing them to a powder by burning them in kilns, or grind- ing them in mills. In regard to their chemical composition, shells differ from bones in the predominance of carbonate of lime over the or- ganised matter, which scacely amounts to ^ of 1 per cent., and the phosphate of lime, which does not exceed 2 per cent. Ac- cording to Brand, oyster shells consist of Per cent. Organic matter resembling glue, 0.5 Carbonate of lime, (chalk,) 98.3 Phosphate and sulphate of lime, 1.2 100.0 When ground to a powder, therefore, they form a manure re- sembling chalk, and have been used with good effects on wheat, clover, turnips, and leguminous crops. When used in a powdered state, without having been burned, if possible, they should always be harrowed or drilled in with the seed ; for, by thus coming into close contact with the roots of the plants, all the volatile and earthy constituents of the decomposing shell are absorbed more readily by the rootlets and leaves. In this way^ they have been found to answer an excellent purpose on light sandy soils. They can be crushed with the common bark mill, or they may be ground in the same mill employed for grind- ing bones. But the most usual mode of preparing oyster shells for ma- nure, is, to burn them in open kilns, similar to those employed in making common lime. By this means, all the animal and volatile matters are driven off, and the best description of agri- cultural lime is formed. When thus burned, it is much milder than stone lime, even in its caustic state ; but, on exposure to the air, it slacks in l^or 15 days, and may then be used to a lim- ited extent in composts containing night soil, animal matter, or farmyard dung. It is beneficial to all kinds of soils deficient 14 314 ANIMAL MANURES. in lime, and is applicable to most of our cultivated crops. As it does not deprive land so rapidly of its humus as stone lime, it may be applied to soils exhausted by them ; or it may be re- peated. It effects, however, are not so quick, but more lasting. Lands which are wet stiff and deficient in calcareous mat- ter may receive from 100 to 600 bushels of oyster-shell lime to an acre ; but light, sandy or gravelly soils should receive much less. For hoed crops or grain, it should be incorporated with the soil near the surface by harrowing or otherwise ; but for grass lands or meadows, it may be sown broadcast as a top- dressing. It is of great service to fruit trees, particularly to grape vines, or the apple and pear, and may be added in doses of 4 to 8 quarts to the roots of each tree, either in connection with or without charcoal dust, wood ashes, swamp or pond muck, bone dust, urine, or soap suds. In numerous localities in the United States, beds or banks of marine shells occur in great abundance in a recent, as well as in a fossil state, which may be collected, reduced to a powder, and applied to the land at the rate of 100 to 120 bushels to an acre, with excellent results. Along the seaboard, where the Indians annually held their clam and oyster feasts from time immemorial, there still remain immense accumulations of shells, either entire, or in a partially-decomposed state, which would richly repay the farmers in their vicinity for collecting and appl)ang to their crops as a manure. The drift, also, which lines the shores of many parts of our coast, is found in many instances to be composed entirely, or in large proportion, of the fragments of broken comminuted coral and shells. These form a calcareous sand, mixed occa- sionally with portions of animal matter, and, when freshly gathered, with more or less alkaline salts derived from the sea. On the coast of France, and especially in Brittany, shell sand is obtained in large quantity, and is in great -demand. It is ap- plied to the clayey soils and marshy grassijands with much ad- vantage, and is carried far inland for this purpose. It is there called trez^ and is laid on the fields at the rate of 10 to 16 tons ANIMAL MANURES. 315 to an acre. On the southern coast of France, where shell sand is met with, it is known by the name of tangue. The shell sand of Cornwall, on the coast of England, contains from 40 to 70 per cent, of carbonate of lime, with an equally variable mix- ture of small quantities of animal matter and sea salt. The re- maining portion is chiefly silicious sand. A specimen of tangue from the south of France, analysed by Vitalis, and one of shell sand from Isla, on the coast of England, analysed by Profes- sor Johnston, were composed of the following ingredients : — Tangue. Shell sand. Sand, chiefly silicious, 20.3 ^ fi"; 7 Alumina and oxide of iron, 4.6 \ '' Caibonate of lime, 68.0 34.0 Phosphate of lime, ? 0.3 Water and loss, 9.1 — 100.0 100.0 The chief value of these sands consists of the carbonate of lime they contain. They act with more energy, when applied as a manure, when mixed with night soil or farmyard dung. SKINS OF ANIMALS, SOUTCH, OR GLUEMAKER'S REFUSE. In the yards of the gluemaker and fellmonger, a substance accumulates to which is given the name of " scutch." It con- sists of a general mixture of hair, small fragments of hides, and other animal matters, with lime, occurring chiefly as car- bonate, but partly in a caustic state. It has a smell, which is more or less offensive, according to the time it has lain decom- posing, and bears a price in proportion to its age. It is com- monly used as a manure in the state of a compost with peaty or earthy substances ; but sometimes it is employed to increase the powers of stable or farmyard dung. When plowed in with seed wheat, it has been found highly serviceable to deep loamy land, and to strong soils which are not too wet. From 30 to 40 bushels are sufficient to manure an acre of wheat on land of a medium quality. 316 ANIMAL MANURES. In two samples of scutch analysed by Mr. Ogsion, as pub- lished in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land, the ingredients were as follows : — JVu. 1. JVo. 2. Water, 26.48 24.30 Animal matter and salts of ammonia, 12.42 33.42 Sand, &c., 18.00 6.10 Carbonate of Ume, 33.19 29.98 Sulphate of lime, 7.25 3.79 Phosphate of lime, 0.50 1.84 Magnesia, trace 0.56 Per-oxide of iron and aluminum, .... 1.87 0.77 99.71 99.76 When examined for nitrogen, No. 1 gavcy^^oths of 1 per cent., equivalent to ly^^ths of ammonia, and No. 2 gave ly^^ths per cent, of nitrogen, equal to ly^hs of ammonia. It will be seen that the only ingredients in this case, to which any monied value can fairly be attached, are the ammonia and the phos- phate of lime. Estimating No. 2 after the mode of determining the value of guano, we find the following to be the result : — 1.9 per cent, of ammonia is equal to 38 lbs. in a ton of > -.« -.- 2,000 lbs., at 12i cents, i **-'^ 1.84 per cent, of phosphate of lime is equal to 36.8 lbs. ) « ce in a ton, at 1^ cents, S Value of a ton of scutch, $5.30 The skins of nearly all animals find their way ultimately into the soil as manure, in a more or less changed state. The re- fuse parings from the tan yards, and from the curriers' shops, though usually employed for the manufacture of glue, are sometimes used as a manure, and with great advantage. They may either be plowed in sufficiently deep to prevent the escape of volatile matter when they begin to decay, or they may be made into a compost, by which their entire virtues will be more effectually retained. Skin differs considerably in its constitution from flesh and blood. It contains, in the recent state, about 68 per cent, of ANIMAL MANURES, 317 water, and leaves, when burned, only 1 per cent, of ash. The combustible or organic part consists of Carbon, 50.99 Hydrogen, , 7.07 Nitrogen, 18.72 Oxygen, 23.22 100.00 It contains, therefore, 3^ per cent, more nitrogen than flesh or blood. So far as the fertilising action of these substances depends upon the proportion of this constituent — glue, the par- ings of skins, and all gelatinous substances, will consequently exhibit a greater efficacy than flesh or blood. — Johnston, UEINE. Urine, the fluid excrement of mammalia, is produced by the action of the kidneys on the blood, and is a kind of caput mortu- um which these glands throw into the bladder. In birds and reptiles, it is solid, and is voided in their dung. All urine con- tains the essential elements of vegetables in a state of solution ; but the various species of urine from different animals differ in their constituents ; and the urine of the same animal alters when any material change is made in its food, as well as when there is an increased flow of milk. For instance, a cow in milk, when fed on rich food, yields less urine than one which is dry ; and the urine varies in quantity in proportion to the amount of milk she gives. Urine contains the greater portion of the nitrogenised mat- ter of the excrement of animals, and is therefore the most im- portant part of the manure with which it is mixed. Its efficacy as a fertiliser depends upon the quantity of solid matter which it holds in solution, upon the nature of said matter, and espe- cially upon the rapid changes which the organic part of it is known to undergo. The following table exhibits the average proportion of watei, and of the solid organic and inorganic 318 ANIMAL MANURES. matters contained in the urine of man and some other animals, in their healthy state : — Urine of Man, Sheep, Horse, Cow, (not in milk,) Pig, Water, Solid organ- Solid inor- per cent. ic matter, ganic matter. From the above table, it will be seen that the urine of the cow, estimated by the quantity^ of solid matter it contains, is more valuable than that of any other of our domestic animals, with the exception of the pig. But the quantity voided by the cow must be so much greater than by the pig, that in annual value the urine of one cow must greatly exceed that of many pigs. The next step to be considered is, to examine more closely the composition of urine, the changes, which, by decomposition, it readily undergoes, and the effect of these changes upon its value as a manure. Human Urine. — The exact composition of the urine of a healthy individual, analysed in its usual state, was found by Berzelius to be as follows : — ■ Urea, 3.01 Uric acid, 0.10 Indeterminate animal matter, lactic acid, and lactate ) j yr of ammonia, $ Mucus of the bladder, 0.03 Sulphate of potash, 0.37 4 Sulphate of soda, 0.32 Phosphate of soda, 0.29 Chloride of sodium, 0.45 Phosphate of ammonia, 0.17 Chloro-hydrate of ammonia, 0.15 Phosphate of lime and of magnesia, 0.10 Silica, trace. Water, 93.30 100.00 ANIMAL MAiVURES. 319 From what has been slated in other parts of the present work, in regard to the action upon living plants, of the several phosphates, sulphates, and other saline compounds named in the preceding analysis, it will be obvious that the fertilising action of urine would be considerable, did it contain no other solid constituents. But it is to another substanca, urea, which exists in it in a much larger proportion than any other solid ingredient, that its immediate and marked action in promoting vegetation is chiefly to be ascribed. Urea, which is a white, salt-like sub- stance, consists of Per cent. Carbon, .'..... 20.0 Hydrogen, 6.6 Nitrogen, 46.7 Oxygen, 26.7 • ___, 100.0 It is therefore, far richer in nitrogen than flesh, blood, or any of those highly fertilising substances, of which the main effi- cacy is believed to depend upon the large proportion of nitro- gen they contain. But urea possesses this further remarkable property, that, when urine begins to ferment, as it is known to do in a few days after it is voided, it changes entirely into carbonate of ammonia. Of the ammonia thus formed, a portion soon begins to escape into the air, and hence the strong ammoniacal odor of fermenting urine. This escape of ammonia continues for a long period, the liquid becoming weaker and weaker, and con- sequently less valuable as a manure every day that passes. Experience has shown that recent urine exercises, in general, an unfavorable action upon growing plants, and that it acts most beneficially after fermentation has freely begun, but the longer time we suffer to elapse after it has reached the ripe state, the greater quantity of valuable manure we permit to go to waste. Urine of the Cow. — The urine of a cow, not giving milk, has 820 ANIMAL MANURES. been analysed by Sprengel, in several states, with the follow- ing results : — ♦ . The first variety of fermented urine. No. 1, had stood four weeks in the open air in its natual state of dilution ; and the second, No. 2, had been mixed while recent with an equal bulk of water, which is again deducted from it in the analysis, with the view of ascertaining how far such an admixture would tend to retain the volatile ammonia, produced by the natural decom- position of the urea. An inspection of the preceding analyses shows three facts of importance to the agriculturist : First, that the quantity of urea in the urine of the cow is considerably greater than in that of man ; second, that, as the urine ferments, the quantity of urea diminishes, while that of ammonia increases, owing to a gradual decomposition of the urea, and its conversion into carbonate of ammonia ; and thirdly, that, by dilution with an equal bulk of water, the loss of this "carbonate of ammonia, which would otherwise naturally take place, is in a consider- able degree prevented. The quantity of ammonia retained by the urine, after dilution, was in the same circumstances nearly three times ANIMAL MANURES. S21 as great as ivhen it was allowed to ferment in the state in which it came from the coiv. But even by this dilution, the whole of the ammonia is not saved. One hundred parts of urea form by their decomposi- tion 56i parts of ammonia, and as 36 parts of the urea in the urine No. 1, had disappeared, there ought to have been in its stead 19 parts of ammonia in addition to that which the urine contained in its recent state, or 21 parts in all ; whereas, the table shows it to have contained only 16 parts. Even when diluted with its own bulk of water, therefore, the urine had lost by fermentation in the open air upwards of ith of the ammonia produced in it during that period. This shows the necessity of causing liquid manures to terment in covered cisterns, or of adopting some other means by which the above serious loss of the most valuable constituents may be prevented. For, when left to ferment for 5 or 6 weeks, alone, and with the addition of an equal bulk of water, the urine of the cow loses a consider- able proportion of volatile matter ; and in these several states, will yield in a year as follows : — Solid matter. Yielding of ammonia. Recent urine, 900 lbs 226 lbs. Mixed with water, after 6 weeks, 850 " 200 « Unmixed, after 6 weeks, 550 " 30 " Those who scrupuously collect in tanks, and preserve the liquid manure of their stables, cow houses, and fold yards, will see, from the great loss which it undergoes by natural fermen- tation, the propriety of occasionally washing out their cow houses with water, and by thus diluting the liquid of their tanks, of preserving the immediately-operating constituents of their liquid manure from escaping into the air. Even when thus diluted, it is desirable to convey it to the land without much loss of time, since even in this state, there is a constant blow escape, by v/hich its value is daily diminished. Gypsum, sulphate of iron, and sulphuric acid, are, by some, added for the purpose of "fixing" the ammonia, but in addition to diluting it, an admixture of rich vegetable soil, and especially of peat, 14* 322 ANIMAL MANURES. will be much more economical, and, except in so far as the gypsum and sulphuric acid themselves act as manures, nearly as effectual. Urine of the Horse, Sheep, and Pig. — These have not been ex- amined so carefully as those of man and the cow. They con- sist essentially of the same constituents ; and the samples which have been analysed were found to contain three most impor- tant of these in the following proportions : — Horse. Sheep. Pig. Water, 94.0 96.0 92.6 Urea, 0.7? 2.8 5.6 Saline substances, 5.3 1.2 1.8 100.0 100.0 10Q.0 Some of the saline substances present in the urine, as above stated, contain nitrogen. This is especially the case in the urine of the horse, so that the quantity of urea above given is not to be considered as representing the true ammonia-produ- cing power of the urine of this animal. The urine of the pig, if the above analysis is to be relied upon as anything like an average result, is capable of producing more ammonia from the same quantity than that of any other domestic animal. From observations made by Boussingault, with every pre- caution to insure success, it appears that the average quantity of urine annually voided by man, the cow, and the horse, amounts to the following : — Pounds of mine. Pounds of solid matter. Pounds of ui-ea. Pounds of ammonia. Man, Hoi-se, Cow, 1,000 1,000 13,000 67 60 900 30 400 17 ? 230 It may appear surprising to some that the amount of urine voided by a l\orse should not exceed that of a man, particular- ly, when the quantity of liquid taken into the stomach of each ANIJlAf. MANURES. 823 considered, the horse often drinking 4 or 5 gallons of water in the 24 hours, while man seldom drinks more than S^lbs. The explanation of the cause of this difference is to be sought for in the extent of skin and lungs in the horse, capable of giving off large quanties of water as insensible perspiration, while the same functions in man seldom amounts to yV^^ P^^'^ of the liquid taken. On this subject, however, observers disagree in opinion. It appears, also, from the experiments of Boussingault, that, when a cow is giving milk, a less amount of urine is voided. He found that a horse, which drank 35 lbs. of water in 24 hours, only gave 3 lbs. of urine ; and a cow, which drank 132 lbs. of water in the same time, gave 18 lbs. of urine and 19 lbs. of milk. But, besides the amount of water drunk, many other circumstances tend to modify this amount of nitro- genous and saline substances, contained in the urine, such as the quantity and quality of the food, the temperature of the air, and the amount of exercise. The use of urine, as a fertiliser, is of great antiquity. The ancient writers on agriculture and rural affairs advise the fre- quent use of it, and direct that it should be old, or long kept. Thus, Columella says: "Human urine which you have let grow old for six months, is well fitted for the shoots of young trees. If you apply it to vines, or to young apple trees, there is nothing that contributes more to make them bear an abun- dance of fruit ; nor does this only produce a greater increase, but it also improves both the taste and the flavor of the wine, and of the apples;" which is confirmed by Conradus Heres- bachius, who says in his "Foore Bookes of Husbandrie," trans- lated by Googe, in 1578, "Man's urine, being three moneths kept and poured upon the rootes of apple trees and vines, bringeth greate fruitfulnesse to the trees, and yeeldethe a pleas- ante fruite." In Holland, urine has been employed for cen- turies, where they have found it to be one of the richest ma- nures in the world. When used, however, in its recent and unadulterated state, it was regarded by Jethro Tull as very 324 ANIMAL MANURES. pernicious to seed wheat. He says : " If seed be soaked in urine, it will not grow ; or, if only sprinkled with it, it will most of it die, unless planted presently." But urine, in its natu- ral condition, is not so fatal to vegetation as is commonly sup- posed. If repeatedly thrown upon plants, doubtless it would kill them ; but experience shows", that, after it has turned them yellow or brown, if no more be applied to them, they will not only recover, but grow much more luxuriantly than before. The late Arthur Young, as long since as 1787, proved the ad- vantages of urine when used as a top-dressing to potatoes. And Mr. Hannam, the same year, found that, by the use of 32 gallons of putrid urine, mixed with about 200 lbs. of gypsum, and 12 bushels of bones, his turnip crop was increased more than 2id tons. In its application, urine, if not mixed with solid compost, as gypsum, charcoal dust, dried peat, swamp or pond muck, char- red tan bark, saw dust, apple pomace, flax waste, chaff, linen and woollen rags, soot, coal ashes, shell or coral sand, or some other absorbent, it should be diluted with water, and applied in the form of a liquid manure ; for, when thus diluted, it contains. too much animal matter to afford a proper fluid nutriment for absorption by the roots of plants. WOOLLEN RAGS. The use of woollen rags, as a manure, was in vogue on the Chilton lands, in England, certainly as long ago as the year 1669. For John Worlige, who was celebrated as an agricultu- ral author, at that time, makes mention of them in the follow- "ing words: — "In rags of all sorts, there is good vertue; they are carried far, and laid upon land, and have in them a warm- ing and improving temper; one good load will go as far as a dozen or more of cow dung." William Ellis, in his " Modern Husbandman," published in 1742, says : " These rags are a most excellent dressing for all Chalks, chalky, sandy and gravelly loams, and such-like dry I ANIMAL MANURES. 325 earths ; and the more so, as they come from places where they use much oil, or grease, in the woollen business ; for nothing gives a greater fertility to the earth than those things that abound with a nitrous o unctuous quality. For this reason, it is that some of the better sort of farmers, in our parts, fetch their woollen rags from about Newport-Pagnel, in Northamp- tonshire, which lies about twelve miles from their own home, and think it good husbandry to go so far with a waggon and five or six horses." Again, he remarks, that several of the best husbandmen dress the dry, lean, loose and hungry soil about Ivinghoe Common Field, and in many other places, twice in the fallow season; " once by folding over all the land, and at sowing time, with rags. Others dress with the fold in the sum- mer, and with London soot in the spring time ; but nothing comes up to the woollen rags in this soil ; because the rag be- ing of a greasy, tough and spongy nature, it lodges and holds water a long time, keeps the roots of the corn, (wheat,) moist in dry land, warms them in cold weather, and causes them to withstand the wash of rains, that easily carry down some of the lighter dressings into the " hurlock," or rag stone, to the great loss of much of their vertue." " But I must further write, that the most general way of using woollen rags is thus : When your chalk, chalky loam, sandy loam, or other dry soil, fit for the purpose, is harrowed plain, ready for sowing and plowing in wheat seed, then apply eight sacks of chopped rags on one broad acre, each sack containing fiffy-six pounds' weight, and each sackful to lie in one heap, at some distance from another. When this is done, let a man fill a seed cot with them, and sow the rags broadcast with his hand over the ground, and so on till the surface of the acre is covered; then let a man directly sow his wheat seed all over the same land, and plow both rags and wheat seed in together. * * * Thus one acre of land is finished; and in so doing, you will experi- ence that no manure suits those soils better than woollen rags ; for these will, in some degree, become so many watering pots to such dry earths in the summer time ; and, in the winter, so 320 ANIMAL MANTTRES. warm the roots of the wheat, as to keep ofT the power of frosts and chills of waters." Woollen rags are also well known to the farmers of the pres- ent day as a powerful manure. Owing to their slow decompo- sition, they are not so well fitted for root culture ; turnips and other plants of this kind, requiring more active and readily- soluble manure to produce a rapid growth. In a sample of rags, analysed by Professor Way, taken in the ordinary condi- tion of dryness, consisting of the seams and other useless parts of old cloth garments, which, from the appearance of these remnants, had been cut up to be manufactured into cloth, in- cluding portions of the calico linings, together with the cotton or linen thread used in sewing them, the per-centage of nitro- gen amounted to lOy^oths, which is equivalent to ISyV^ths per cent, of ammonia. From recent experiments in England, woollen rags are applied with the best effects to wheat and hops. They are usually chopped up fine, and applied at the rate of half a ton to an acre, and are greatly improved by thoroughly saturating them with urine before they are used. They will last 4 or 5 years, and during their decay, they become converted into carbonate of ammonia, in the same manner as horn, hair, and wool. LIQUID MANURES. APPARATUS FOR COLLECTING AND APPLYING THE LIQUID MANURE OF STABLES OR BARN YARDS. 'J^HE construction of the best and most convenient form of a tank, and a suitable apparatus for the collection and applica- tion of liquid manure, in the most cleanly and economical manner, is a subject of great utility, and one which has more or less occupied the attention of the most eminent agricultur- ists in various ages, and in all civilised countries of the globe. The chief faults in the arrangements heretofore made for the purpose of collecting liquid manure appear to have been that, the tanks, in some instances, received the urine alone, while the drain ings of the barn yard and manure heaps were allowed to escape; or that they formed a receptacle for the rain water from the adjoining buildings, as well as the urine, by which the liquid manure was much diluted, and consequent- ly an increased expense in applying it ; while, in other instan- ces, the compost heap was at too great a distance from the tank, and hence, inconvenience was experienced in impregnating the compost when necessary. A mode by which these disadvan- tages would be obviated, and what appears to be an efficient system of collecting the drainage from the stables, farm yard, manure heaps, &c., is as follows : — First, let a site be fixed upon for the manure tank, on the northerly side, if convenient, and behind the buildings of the 328 LIQUID MANURES. yard ; the tank being made of bricks, laid in cement or hy- draulic mortar, and covered over, as indicated in the following cut. A scuttle, or " man hole," should be constructed in the 1 IG. 6. top, to allow a person to enter to clear out the sediment which is liable to collect. The size should be regulated by the stock usually kept in the stables or sheds. Into this tank, all the urine from the stables, stalls, &c., should be collected, b)' means of drains communicating with each, as well as with the barn yard, which should be made a little concave in its bed, so that no portion of the liquid manure may be allov/ed to escape. A channel should be made around the compost heap, which should be close by, so that the drainage from it may be col- lected in the tank. All the farm buildings should have gutters, or spouts, which should be so arranged that the water running from them may be conveyed away by a drain, or collected in cisterns for the purpose of irrigation, diluting the urine, or for domestic use. Lastly, let there be a pump fixed in the tank, by which its contents can at any time be transferred to 'a liquid-manure cart, or discharged on the compost heap, by the use of a hose. By an arrangement like the foregoing, all the urine from the stables or stalls, and most of the wash from the dung heaps and the yards would be effectually collected, which might either be allowed to ferment spontaneously, the ammonia. generated LIQUID MANURES. 329 being converted into a sulphate, from time to time, by the ad- dition of sulphuric acid, gypsum, or copperas, (sulphate of iron,) or it may be diluted with water, by which means, much of the ammonia would be retained in solution as a carbonate — the former being the most effectual mode of securing the am- monia in the liquid. If nothing is used to fix the ammonia, it would be advisable to have the tank divided in the middle, al- lowing the urine or drainings to accumulate, diluted with 3 times its bulk of water, until one division is full ; this should be allowed to ferment for 6 weeks, when it will be fit to apply to the land as a top-dressing ; the water used to dilute it re- ♦taining in solution most of the ammonia generated by the de- composition of the urea. If this arrangement be adopted, it will be necessary that the drains should be made to commu- nicate with either division of the tank at pleasure ; this may be effected by making the main drain divide into two branches near the partition in the tank, with a sluce placed in each branch of the drain leading to the separate divisions, so that the liquid may be discharged into either division; the pump, also, should have a moveable pipe, or should be moveable it- self, so that either division of the tank may be pumped out at will. In applying this manure, where the soil is light and not de- ficient in organic matter, loam, or mould, it would be advisable to administer it in a liquid form ; but where the land is stiff and clayey, its application in the form of a compost will be found most serviceable, as it then renders the soil lighter, more porous, and of easy cultivation. To the farmer possessing light soils, liquid manure from the tank, with the ammonia properly converted into a sulphate by the use of gypsum or sulphuric acid, will be found of great value. It may be applied to the land with a liquid-manure cart or a hand tub, denoted by the succeeding cuts, just before the last plowing for the seed, or as a top-dressing for the young crops ; particularly, when they are looking yellow and sickly ; but let this important fact in re- gard to the application of liquid manures always be borne in 330 LIQUID MANURES. mind : That it is a waste to give it to plants before the formation of their secondary leaves, which is true in all cases. If applied at other periods, it will have some effect, but not so much. When applied directly to the plants, it is preferable to use it in showery weather ; for let it always be remembered, that, during warm and dry weather, plants absorb fluids faster than Fig. 7. when it is cool and dull, and that they perspire most in a dry, warm atmosphere. If the supply at the roots, therefore, is not kept up, then they become deteriorated in quality, and the pro- duce is considerably lessened. The practice of pouring ma- nure water immediately around the stem of a plant should be Fig. 8. avoided, for two reasons ; first, the roots, which absorb most, are in or approaching the centres of the spaces between the drills or rows ; therefore, to be benefitted by it, the liquid should be distributed there. Another very important matter, common LIQUID MANURES. 831 in vegetable culture, should not be lost sight of; that is, by ap- plying the liquid in a limited circle around the plants, individ- ually, as the roots have less inducement to travel in search of food ; hence, they will be fewer in number. But if their food be Fig. 9. placed at a greater, yet a reasonable distance from them, they will seek it out by instinct, as it were, fresh roots will be emit- ted, and they will have a much larger pasture to feed in. Fig. 10. When the liquid manure is to be used for watermg the plants, a portion of it is pumped out of the tank into casks, fixed on watering carts, denoted by fig. 7 and fig. 8 ; and then i32 LIQUID MANURES. diluted with or 6 times its bulk of water, and allowed to flow gently over e surface of the land between the plants, either by letting it run, when clear, through a tube perforated with holes, or upon a plank, when thick or turbid. Fig. 11. A portable liquid-manure cart has lately been constructed in England, denoted by fig.,^. It is made of iron plates, securely cemented and bolted together, and contains 200 gallons. It is mounted on wheels, 4 feet 10 inches high, with a new pattern half-round tire, 4i inches wide. The tank body is fitted with a brass outlet valve, acted upon with an iron-lever rod, with which the driver opens and closes the valve whilst walking by the side of the horse. The pendulum-spreading apparatus, with regulating slide front, is adapted to water uneven land 6 feet broadcast. A partition, running lengthwise the inside of the tank, prevents the surge and overflow of its contents when upon rough land or bad roads. A simple contrivance, also, consisting of a box trough, and four flexible India-rubber tubes, is made to water four rows or ridges of turnips any required width at a time; two lads, with a handle in each hand, guide the delivering tubes in applying the liquid manure, guano water, dissolved bones, bleacher's ley, soap suds, diluted night soil, &c. Meadows just mown, or fields sown with grain, may also be LIQUID MANURES. 333 thus watered, as the vegetative force, imparted y this liquid manure, although of short duration, may have great influ- ence ; for, once covered with green young plants, the ground is protected from drought ; and, moreover, the plants themselves, by this means, rapidly acquire .ae necessary strength to resist various adverse influences, and to draw from the soil and at- mosphere their quota of nourishment. Another mode of spreading this manure, as has long been practised in Flanders, is, to take it from the tank without dilu- ting, convey it to the fields in casks, and pour it into a tub, fig. 11, from which it is made to flow over the ground ; or it is distrib- uted directly from the tank in a hand cart, denoted by fig. 10. It is a question which has not been satisfactorily determined, whether means may not yet be devised of completely^ easily, and cheaply separating the fertilising ingredients of urine and tank stuffs from the water in which they are dissolved. It is well known that alum, green vitrol, (sulphate of iron,) Epsom salts, (sulphatb of magnesia,) and the sulphate of zinc, when mixed with fermenting urine 'or tank stuff, cause a precipitate to fall to the bottom, more or less dense, which will contain the phos- phates and a portion of the other saline, and even of the or- ganic constituents of the liquid. This precipitate, therefore, when dried to a powder, may be used as a manure, either by itself, or what is better, in admixture with other fermenting manure ; but all these substances leave most of the valuable salts in the water behind them, and, therefore, besides their cost, are open to the objection that they do not perform the purpose for which they have been employed. The method which would seem to be the most rational, and is generally within the reach of the farmer, without much ex- pense in the outlay, is, to absorb the whole liquid manure by partially-dried peat or swamp or pond muck, and thus add to its bulk, the fertilising matter contained in it. A method which has been extensively employed both in Ireland and Scotland, is, to use the peat in a half-charred state, instead of using it raw, Tn localities where peat does not abound, charred saw dust, tan 334 LIQUID MANURES. bark, apple pomace, or bagasse may be substituted with equal- ly good effects. The waters of barn yards, common sewers, of gas houses, bone boilers, glue makers, bleacheries, flannel man- ufactories, &c., &c.,may all be applied with the forenamed ap- apparatus, or they may be absorbed by peat, &c., as recom- mended in the preceding page. BLEACHER'S WASTE. _-5» ill; In the bleacheries of cotton, linen, and woollen goods, paper mills, &c., it is usually the custom to throw away the residuum of the stills or vats, as worthless articles ; but from various experiments made in Great Britain and elsewhere, it has been found that these substances, whether used in a liquid or dried state, possess considerable agricultural value. A portion of this lime refuse taken from the large waste heap of a bleacheryi analysed by Fromberg, after drying, consisted of Per cent. Organic matter and a little water, 18.57 Sulphate of soda and sulphuret of Bodium, 14.23 Oxide of iron and alumina, 5.07 Oaibonate of lime, ,55.18 Silicious matter, 6.60 99,65 • Coiisidering the large proportion of alkaline matter, as well as lime, it contained, it is evident that it might be used with ad- vantage in preparing land for green crops, or as a top-dressing for grass, and especially for clover. Mixed with a moderate quantity of night soil, it serves as an excellent dressing for turnips. Besides the lime refuse of bleacheries, there are considerable quantities of waste leys, containing alkalies, as well as chlo- ride and sulphate of lime, which daily run off, that would be valuable to the farmers in the vicinity, if collected in casks or manure carts, and applied to young growing oats and other crops as a liquid manure. LIQUID MANURES. _ 336 BRINE REFUSE. Old brine, in which meat or fish has been salted, contains more or less salt, blood, oil, scales, &,c., and when saved and composted with farmyard dung, pulverised peat, and dried swamp or pond muck, forms an admirable manure for almost every cultivated crop. It may be obtained in considerable quantities at a small ex- pense, at most of our meat markets, the packing establish- ments of beef, pork, and fish, and generally at retail groceries, in all of our cities and larger class of towns. CRENIC AND APO-CRENIO ACIDS. • Crenic acid is a comparatively new substance, found in all soils, and in many mineral waters, and in the juices of plants. It was first discovered in the Porla Spring, in Germany, by Ber- zelius, and was named by him " crenic acid," from the Greek word signifying a fountain, or spring. It abounds more in sub- soils than on the surface, owing to the solubility of some of its combinations, particularly those with lime and the alkalies. It possesses highly fertilising properties, when neutralised by bases forming soluble salts. Apo-crenic acid is also one of the new acids, first discovered in the waters of Porla Spring, by Berzelius. Its name signifies " from the crenic," as it is always found with that acid. It is one of the constant ingredients of the organic matter, or mould, of soils, and is an active fertilising agent, being highly charged with nitrogen. It is found combined with per-oxide of iron, forming bog-iron ore. Its combinations with bases are called apo-crenates. Some of them are highly soluble ; as for instance, apo-crenates of the alkalies, potash, soda, and ammonia ; others are difficultly soluble ; such as apo-crenates of lime, alumina, manganese, and per-oxide of iron. Alkalies decompose all the insoluble apo-crenates and form with the acid, fertilising manures.— Jac^OTi. 336 LIQUID MANURES. GAS-HOUSE LIQUOR— GAS TAR. The ammoniacal liquor, (so called from the quantity of car- bonate and acetate of ammonia it contains,) being absolved by the water employed in purifying the gas from these salts, it is too i^owerful to be applied as a manure in the liquid form with- out being previously diluted with water. One hundred gallons, it is stated, contain in solution 25 lbs. of carbonate, muriate, and sulphuret of ammonia and other impurities. It may be applied in this form, at the rate of 4 gallons of water to 1 gal- lon of the gas liquor, by means of a watering cart, 250 gallons of the latter being sufficient for an acre of grass and other green crops. Gas liquor may also be used in saturating composts of peat, swamp or pond muck, saw dust, and other absorbent matter, by means of which, it v/ill hasten decomposition, and will add greatly to the virtues of the compost, resembling very much in its action the liquid manure of the farm yard. Gas tar, or coal iar, from the amount of ammonia it contains, like all other matter in which ammonia is present, must be rich as a manure, whether diluted with water and applied in a liquid form, or is composted with peat or other absorbent matter. As this substance is produced in rather limited quantities, and employed very commonly as a paint for posts, fences, farm buildings, &c., it has not been much used as a fertiliser on ac- count of the expense attending its purchase; but wherever it can be obtained at a small cost, it is an article well worthy of the farmer's notice. It is composed entirely of ingredients which enter into the composition of all plants, is gradually de- composed in the soil, and is powerful in its effects ; hence, it is preferable to apply it in a compost made of pulverised peat, swamp or pond muck, loam, mould, or any of the absorbents treated of in other parts of this work. It may be applied as a top-dressing for most kinds of crops of grass, turnips, or grain ; or it may be employed in the hills ^r drills of most of our gar- den vegetables, Indian corn and other hoed crops. LIQUID MANURES. 337 IRRICJATION. Irrigation, in a general sense, is applied to the watering of the earth by inundation, by sprinkling its surface, or moisten- ing it by infiltration, by means of rills or streams to increase its productiveness. The term, however, is usually confined to the operation of causing water to flow over lands for nourish- ing plants. The artificial watering of the earth, chiefly to produce in- creased crops of grass, has been in use from a very early pe- riod. Frequent allusion is made to it in the Old Testament, and on the veracity of historians, we are led to believe that it has been practised by the Chinese and other oriental nations, as well as by the Mexicans and Peruvians, from time immemorial. In Italy, especially on the banks of the Po, the cultivators have certainly employed this process for a period previous to the days of Virgil, and it is still carried on with a zeal and care worthy of the art they practise. Cato, the earliest of the Ro- mon writers upon agriculture, (150 years before Christ,) en- joined upon the ancient farmers "to make water meadows, if you have water, and if you have no wateiyhave dry meadows." The directions of Columella, also, who wrote more than 1,800 years ago, seem to have all the freshness about them of a mod- dern age. He was the first who noticed the inferior nutrition afforded by the hay from water meadows. " Land," says he, " that is naturally rich, and is in good heart, does not need to have water let over it; and it is better hay which nature, of its own accord, produces in a juicy soil, than what water draws from a soil that is overflowed. This, however, is a necessary practice when the poverty of the soil requires it ; and a mead- ow may be formed either upon a stiff or free soil, though poor at the time, water may be let over it ; neither a low field, with hollows, nor a field broken with steep rising ground is proper ; the former, because it retains the water collected in the hol- lows too long ; the latter, because it makes the water run too quickly over it. A field, however, that has a moderate descent, 15 338 • LIQUID MANURES. may be made a meadow, whether it be rich, or so situated as to be watered ; but the best situation is where the surface is smooth, and the descent so gentle as to prevent either showers or the rivers that overflow it, remaining too long ; and, on the other hand, to allow the water that comes over it quickly to glide off; therefore, if in any part of the field intended for the meadow, a pool of water should stand, it must be let off by draining ; for the loss is equal either from too much water or too little grass." The question of extending the practice of irrigation has re- cently received an additional impetus, in consequence of its having formed a prominent subject of examination at a late meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Anoth- er matter, and possibly of greater ultimate importance, has also been introduced to the notice of agriculturists, within a short period, by Professor Way and H. S. Thompson, Esquire, namely, " the absorbent power of soil in fixing salts of ammo- nia, potash," &c. The subject last mentioned appears to ac- count, in a great measure, for a number of circumstances hith- erto unexplained, and doubtful in reference to the sources from whence the fertilising effects of irrigation are derived. These experiments are interesting from their novelty, and also, in some degree, for subverting many previous opinions which have heretofore been considered as well established. The practical utility of their application is beyond question. Mr. Thompson's experiments were made in the summer of 1845, and were instituted in consequence of the then very gen- eral endeavor that was made to prevent the escape of ammonia from tanks, manure heaps, by means of sulphuric acid, gyp- sum, sulphate of iron, &c., and also in consequence of observ- ing its escape in ordinary farm practice, by casting manure into large heaps some months before applying it to the land — it being desirable to ascertain whether the manure might be plowed into the soil any time during the winter without loss, and immediately on its removal from the yard. In the experiments made by Professor Way. it was invari- LIQUID MANURES. 339 ably found that the salts of ammonia became fixed in the soil wherever clay was present, which gives scientific evidence of the correctness of the practice of placing layers of clay in manure heaps, and under cattle, for the purpose of absorbing and fixing the valuable constituents of manure. The whole art of irrigation may deduced from the three fol- lowing simple rules : — 1. To free the land to be irrigated thoroughly of water, by draining. 2. To give a sufficient supply of water during all the time the plants are growing. 3. Never to allow the water to accumulate and remain suffi- ciently long on the land to stagnate. The general principles of irrigation, however, may be de- scribed as the supplying of every portion of the surface of the ground with an abundance of water, and taking it rapidly off again. In many localities, the great difficulty in irrigation arises from the want of a supply of water ; but even then, a partial irrigation may be effected, which, although not perfect, will have its advantages. A small rill, which is often quite dry in summer, by judicious management, may still be made to im- prove a considerable portion of land. Its waters may be col- lected and allowed to accumulate in a pond or reservoir, and let out occasionally, so that none be lost or run to waste. If there is water only at particular seasons of the year, and at a time when it would not be of much use to the land, it may be thus kept in ponds, and will lose none of its qualities by expo- sure to the air. If animal or vegetable matter, in a partial state of decomposition, be added to this water, it will much improve its quality, and by a proper distribution of it over the land, a great benefit will follow. The supply of water must come from natural lakes and streams, or from artificial wells and ponds, in which it is col- lected in sufficient quantity to disperse itself over a given sur- face. As it must flow over the land, or in channels through it, the supply of water must be above the level of the land to be 340 LIQUID MANURES. irrigated. This is one of the principal objects to be considered. If no water can be conducted to a reservoir above the level of the land, it cannot be self-irrigated ; but there must also be a ready declivity, or descent, for the water to escape, and there- fore, the land must not be so low as the natural level of the final receptacle, whether it be a lake, river, or sea. Along the banks of running steams, nature points out the de- clivity. A channel that receives the water at a point higher than that to which the stream flows, may be dug with a gentler declivity than that of the bed of the stream, and made to con- vey the water much higher along the sides of the valley, than the natural banks. It may thence be distributed so as to de- scend slowly, and water a considerable extent of ground on its way to rejoin the stream below the fall. This is by far the most common mode of irrigation, and the form, size, and direc- tion of the channels are regulated by the nature of the surface and other circumstances, which vary in almost every situation. Let us suppose, for instance, that a river running with a rapid current between two distant hills, as denoted in fig. 12. At the point A, of its course, a dam is constructed, and a portion of the water diverted into the feeders //, dug along the hill sides, with a slight declivity. The water in these canals will flow with less rapidity than that in the stream, but will maintain nearly the same level as that part of the river directly above the dam, at A. Thus the water may be carried over lands which are situated considerably above the bed of the stream, further down, and it is obvious that all the places between these canals and the river, may be irrigated, if there be a sufficient supply of water. With a given quantity of water at command, it may be con- ducted from these canals, or feeders, to smaller channels, lower down the sides of the valley, so. as to irrigate the whole equal- ly. These lower channels, b c, b c d, should be nearly hori- zontal, in order that the water may overflow their sides, and be equally distributed over the land directly below them. Each channel should have a corresponding drain below it, running LIQUID MANURES. 341 nearly parallel, to carr}^ off the water; otherwise it might stop and stagnate. Wlien the water has run 20 or more feet, ac- Ground Plan. — Fig. 12. cording to the declivity over the land situated below the feed- er, or the channel which brings the water from above the dam, ^/5:*g ^^l^^l|^>§:^^J#^^>-- .\#$^$i:$<^$^lJ^:^^-"^ Vertical section. — Fig. 13. it should be collected in a drain to be carried off, unless it can be used to irrigate lands that lie still lower down, and finally 342 LIQUID MANURES. discharge itself into the river from which it was taken at a lower point of its course. Ground Plan. — Fig, 14. Instances may occur, howeve]-, where there is not sufficient fall, or declivity, in the river or stream to enable the water to Vertical Section. — Fig. 15. flow to any considerable elevation along the sides of the val- ley or hills. In such cases, if a idW of a few feet is at com- LIQUID MANUKES. 343 mand, a portion of the stream can be elevated at a proper height and distance to irrigate the intervening lands along the banks, by means of a hydraulic ram. Again, there are other instances where broad dales or glens occur, through which descend brooks or rills, fed by living springs on the more elevated ground, that may be made to ir- rigate the parts of the declivity below. Or, if circumstances warrant the expense, in situations where no such streams are to be found, a well may be bored or sunk at or near the sum- mit of the hill, the water raised by wind, steam, or animal pow- er, and distributed by means of a series of horizontal chan- nels, situated one below the other, in a manner that the second may collect the water the first or uppermost has supplied, and in turn becomes a feeder to the third, and so on to the fourth, thus irrigating the lower parts of the declivity, until the last discharges itself into a river or waste ditch, and is of no fur- ther use. In illustration of what is stated above, let R, fig, 14, denote a reservoir or well, situated on elevated ground, at a convenient point on the side of a dale or glen ; //, feeders, running hori- zontally around the upper part of the declivity, as far as the nature of the surface will allow ; a b c, horizontal channels, situated one below the other, for catching the water, as it flows^ over the whole length of their margins, or sides, across the ter- races or inclined planes into the " waste ditch" w, at the lower- most part of the glen ; i? ^^?, a " water way," having " stops," or gates, at the lower margin of each channel, for the expedi- tious conveyance of the water to every part of the ground, and also for the final discharge of what water might remain in the channels to prevent it from becoming stagnant. With proper attention to levelling or grading the slopes, the construction of the channels, water ways, aqueducts, gates, hatches, waste drains, &c., the foregoing embrace the general modes of irrigation, as practised by the most enlightened na- tions of the present day. Sometimes, situations occur at the foot of hills, or along the 344 LIQUID MANURES. borders of streams, where the land is flat, or nearly level, and the modes just described for distributing the water, cannot be applied, for the want of a sufficient declivity to allow the water to pass rapidly over the surface. In such cases, the whole field Ground Plan. — Fig. 16. should be laid out into broad beds, 60 or 80 feet wide, undula- ting, as it were, like the waves of the sea. The central or I Vertical Section. — Fig. 17. upper part of these beds, or panes, should be made quite level from end to end, through each of which a channel, or "float," a «, should be cut for conducting the water from the feeder /, at the higher side of tlr3 meadow, as indicated by fig. 16. LIQUID MANURES. 345 From the edge of these channels, the surface of the ground should be made to slope, from 1 to 2 feet, both ways from the centre, and ditches, or drains d d d^ cut at the bottom, be- tween the beds, parallel with the floats. These beds should not be curved like the ridges of a plowed field, but form in- clined planes from the centre to each side. The floats are sup- plied by a main channel, or feeder /, at right angles to the beds, elevated somewhat above them, and all the ditches, or drains d d d, should be made to run into another main ditch, or waste drain w^ at the lower side of the field, parallel to the feeder/. By this arrangement, the course of the water will be ^(arf^arrrfi Irrigation by Inundation. — Fig. 18. very regular. As soon as the " stops," or flood gates, are opened, it flows into floats, or upper channels, until they are full to the brim, when they will overflow the whole of their length, and the sloping sides of the beds covered with a thin sheet of run- ning water, which the lower drains will collect, and carry off in the waste drain w. There are other cases, also, which occur along the borders of streams, where the land is level, and too low to be irrigated by any means, except by inundation. As a familiar instance of this, let a, fig. 18, denote a dam thrown across a river or brook, where there is a fall of four or more feet ; h b, &c., a ditch running along the base of a hill, or the upland, adjoin- 346 LIQUID MANURES. ing a level, swampy piece of ground, kept constantly wet by a number of springs, which this ditch will cut off, and give the low, boggy ground a chance to dry; c c, &c., are lesser ditches, running nearly at right angles with the main ditch, h b, &c., to carry off the spring water, and aid, also, in drain- ing the meadow, on either side. An embankment is thrown up along the margin of the stream, to prevent its overflowing, ex- cept at very high water. Gates are constructed at each end of the lateral ditches, as at b b, &c., and c c, &c., which can be opened or closed, at pleasure. When it is required to draw off the water from the meadow, the gates at c c, ^ tr. n " . « -^ "oo la' S Bj m^ £« •amn lbs. 1.38 7.50 00 •piOB ounqding lbs. 0.44 5 r •sajcqdsoqd a^^ ^ •pi3B ot.ioqdsoqj lbs. 19.31 12.23 ■* 2 M •Boini3 lbs. 1.00 149.46 1 IC •8J0B jad spunod ui pnpo.ic[ lbs. 2,356 6,712 1 00 . ^ c3 13 ^^' S 1! C!l ■^ 1 V = A cd 1 C K 1 CO 1 "*• CO |o " o UO 1 o o S" 9- ff- S| © '"' S£ GO ^S CO CO CO CO 0-) "O 1-1 O ^ oi-^- - 05 C'J o OiO tS CO CO I- 1—1 1— ( CI e^ e^ «>- 00^ ooo s «» CO s ooo o i o o c o s- .s ^ 5'S C 2 ,§ g Ico CO CO o ^ o«; o c^ o- c. oo s Off* •- C< CO g *s S2 ^ o »t ox o o a CO IS couo h 88 o \ o C*C5 ja 2^ o 00 ^■^ IQ 1 §5S ^ lO C' o o c*o o GO C3 2,016 3,024 IS o sa •= C3 S3 Ch ~o O I o CO CO I «o od o' O O 1 o C5— O do- i-^ C- (>• c- 0.70 1.90 2.60 o O 1 o OT ..T CO '^'c^ 00 i-iG( CO 0.40 1.20 1.60 O O 1 o t-i-l l»ou 1.60 14.00 15.60 0.50 3.80 4.30 1 14,20 93.00 107-20 O O 1 O o_r^ I o_ cfco^ 1 ift" ^ -c 632 393 SPECIAL MANURES. g—Biiii mill IIP III I ofi t^ .£ -'^ S Oh canissBjod JO spijono j i; U I i f I I ^- I I I ^ •uniipos JO 8pi.l6ll{0 1^ 1^ •aauoiqo jC d d 1-* oi o '^ CO o * to •epos c» ■* 0-. o ■^ CO 00 00 ^'S'dt-^dc^^uoc^'o JCO 1 „: c. uo o lo i^ ^ t- ^.'-loqcoic-'t. .ID 5^ C; O 1^ Oi - — «< r- Gi 14.83 8.23 l!3 CO 'piOB 3i.ioqdsoq- e^. C0-.O rr CO § os< CO ■i*" CO o ■* •* CO — " lO CO CO ■^d d §2 ©1 ©-H *"* I I I I ! CO t^ UO I "0 r-n CO 05 i-. c« o lo od o 00 cj O— " r-J CO I -.O CO I CO LO CO oc •8.rDB .lad spnnod I x ^.^ m ]onpo.id: j £ ^ o ooao 1-- CO C^ co' d in CO so d CM 0.09 23 1.04 o CO 1— ( ■* CO as CO 00 C3 si d» •.o d 0.25 0.43 1.14 ©» 00 a.-r 52 e»- o. c^ 5>-. 10.67 0.79 1.70 CO 0.67 38 10 11531 -*< SrECIAL MANURES. 393 "l ?? o 1 o s Ol^ t^ ^ B« >^ 28 J?; ;ooi OS s ss r-( ". 1 JS? o 1 o 3^1 ^ U^r-l o n CD s "g2 ^ SS 33 O'-H CN e- o>« «^ to— < 00 e»5ff< ^ to o^ i2g 1 m 1 1 1 s , s c^ 1 - S^ . 1 1 1 1 54.00 57.00 22.90 g CXJ 1.10 O.PO 1.00 od--^- °i§ c1 00 OOO l-C* o OOGOM S 2 o-. a^. c>- (?. 29.50 40.00 15.10 cio ooo o 00 -r T -T CO o o (Q 1 1 i is S §?, £• 0" 1?- 1 1 n CI " SS aj f5 l--* c< 13^ s S"' 00 fe^ ^ §S C-. I'TQC 1 « o O .-c lO s^. <^. s^ •^ o ^ CO CO (TO >oo CO ro rt 00* qC ^ o o o cq o o . - S C- SPECIAL MANURKS. S95 Gt CI GO O I C5 05 ci i ^' =^,-; ^" r-, cJ O O I o 0< CO I o 81; 1^. , M O ! CO S 1 o o =,1, (J» O 1 C5 c 1 5« 12 1 c-0 1 iC od 00 n 1 o» CN^ 1 C5 n in 00 lO lO i COIM ^ «> ^g5 :S C<03 r* 00 So s 1 g^ cd I- 1 ;:£ 1 CO 1 C-. CO 00 O lO 1 ■* 1 o» -^ s< 1= oo o o c o dcf 1 •== 1 ST 1 o :-5 I ^. -h'E: CH = .^ o CO u^ ^ oo 1 o c t f-H 1—1 ct s^. c- «>- o to o 1 o gs ^ t~C5 c* C O o -•ro^ 1> o o U5 r-1 s CO — o Ct 00 i o o n o I- o o ^ c< 00 M o- c*-» 1 ?g CO r.S f? "§ •>Tl 00 -'s ~ r-^ a. ;i^ P^ 396 SPECIAL MANURES. From an inspection of the preceding tables, it will be obvi- ous why it is that so much manure is required for the growth of some of oiu* cultivated plants, a heavy crop of potatoes, for instance, by which the alkaline and earthy bases, as well as phosphoric and sulphuric acids, are largely abstracted from the soil, and which, it is evident, must be replaced, if the land is to be retained in its fertility. In a like manner, these tables may be made serviceable to the farmer by showing him how many pounds of inorganic or mineral matter has been drawn from an acre of land Ity each crop cultivated upon it. He should not rest satisfied, however, with calculations made on average crops, but apply them to individual cases on his own farm. In order to make an economical and judicious use of manure, as especially applied to crops, tkree things are requisite to be known : 1. The amount of inorganic or mineral ingredients abstracted from an acre by an average 3'ield of the class of plants designed to be grown, as determined by chemical analysis 2. Accurate analyses to be made of the soil and subsoil, tak- en from several parts of the field on which the crop is to be planted or sown, so that one may be enabled to determine in what ingredients the soil is deficient, and what quantity of such ingredients is necessary to be added, in the form of a manure, to produce an average yield of the crop or rotation of crops intended to be cultivated. 3. The amount of fertilising matter contained in a given quantity of the class of manures purposed to be employed, determined by chemical analysis, and the quantity of such manure that experience has pointed out as producing the most economical and satisfactory results;. It must always be borne in mind, however, that the replace- ment of mineral food, in the form of manure, must not be made exactly in the form and quantity of the ingredients expressed in the analysis. For, in the present state of science, it wouhl be premature to specify the exact manner in which the alkalies SPECIAL MANURES. 397 and acids are combined in the plant. In the statements in the tables deduced from chemical analysis, they are given sepa- rately, though they never so exist in the natural state of the crops. Hence, the chemistry of Nature and of art are so differ- ent, that a relationship can hardly be said to exist between them J and in the processes of combustion and decomposition, Nature holds in scorn the attempts of man to follow her steps by his utmost investigations, into the operations of the grand laboratory of the universe. It has been said that the highest excellence of art is to imitate the beautiful productions of Na- ture ; but the chemist can only watch and slowly understand the wonderful modes of her operations ; he can reduce the materials, but not combine them ; and after the most minute investigations, he remains comparatively in ignorance of the wondrous powers and means by which the vast variety of or- ganic substances is produced. Recombination of the elements exceeds the power of short-sighted man. Sivgar, for instance, is a combination of charcoal and water, but the chemist cannot form sugar from these elements, because he is unable to com- mand the circumstances under which the materials come into contact in the growth and maturity of the sugar cane. Again, in examining the ash of different samples of wheat, we fiiid that there is an entire absence of some substances, or that there are deviations in the proportions of the several in- gredients, which, although they do not destroy the principle of uniformity of composition upon which the whole interest of the subject depends, but tend very materially to interfere with its simplicity. If wheat, then, requires certain inorganic or min- eral substances for its growth and perfection, v/hy, it may be asked, should it not always take up these bodies in the same proportion and to the same amount? Why should one sample of wheat give an ash containing 40, and another an ash con- taining 50 per cent, of phosphoric acid ? Why should the pot- ash dFtfer in two samples from 27 to 37 per cent? One, cer- tainly, would not expect to find such an amount of difference in the composition of the ash of the same kind of plants; or, at 398 SPECIAL MAJJURES. all events, he would naturally have looked for sonne evident connection between the mineral matter and the variety of the particular sample, which would appear, in the case of wheat grain, to be absolutely without influence on the composition of the ash. On the other hand, the character of the soil does not much affect the compositon of the ash ; that is to say, the predomi- nance of any particular substance in the soil does not cause it to be present in greater amount in the ash. In one sample, for instance, grown on magnesian limestone, the quantity of mag- nesia will be but a very little above the average, and by no means so great as in several other specimens. Nor does the ash of samples of wheat grown on chalk contain more lime than when it has been the produce of a clayey or sandy soil. It is a curious fact, too, that the larger the crop in any instance, the smaller, in general, is the per-centage of ash in the grain. In assigning a cause for this want of correspondence in the composition of the ash of the same kind of plants, the follow- ing arguments have been offered as affording a clue to it: — "The grain of wheat is not homogeneous, but consists of two mechanically distinct parts — the skin, or bran, and the flour ; and these two, again, are not themselves elementary vegetable principles — the flour contains starch and gluten, sugar and gum — the bran, woody fibre and nitrogenised bodies allied to gluten. Now, it is quite possible that each one of these bodies has an ash peculiar to itself, both in quantity and composition ; and accordingly, as they exist, to a greater or less extent in the grain, so will its mineral composition difler. As the bran con- tains more mineral matter than the flour, a thick-skinned wheat will give a greater quantity of ash than one having less bran. And again, if gluten and starch have a different mineral con- stitution, the flour of two wheats will be influenced in respect to its ash by the relative proportion of gluten and starch which it contains." Thus it will be seen that we are comparatively in the dark as to the best form in which to present the inorganic constii- SPECIAL MANURES. 399 uents of a plant as food to that plant ; and to what extent that food must be modified to meet the continued warmth of the sun of the south, or of the cold short summers of the north, as well as the j^reat local difffe-'^nces in the quantity of rain, or in the variations in our soil. It is obvious that the same ma- nure will not be equally adapted, as to quantity and the mode of applying it, to Louisiana and Texas and to Canada and New England ; for a difference certainly must be made in the sol- ubility and stimulating nature of the ingredients of a manure intended to be used in each of these sections. And lastly, we are in want of more minute information — more actual and well-tried experiments — than we at present possess, as to the influence of special manures upon the nature of the constit- uents of all our cultivated plants. It is to be regretted, therefore* that the limited knowledge I have at my disposal prevents me from entering into the subject at length ; but all that I can do for the present, is, to offer the following remarks and formula?, or recipes, as applicable to several of our staple crops, some of which are based upon strictly scientific principles, while others have been derived from experience, or have proved sat- isfactory in their results, without the aid of modern science or speciality of design : — METHODS OF SUPPLYING THE INGREDIENTS TO THE LAND FOR THE FOOD OF A WHEAT CROP. From the investigations of Professors Way and Ogsto-n, of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, it seems that silica, the first-named substance in the tables, constitutes, on an aver- age, out of 28 samples of wheat, only Sj-^gr^ths per cent, of ash, varying between the limits of If'oths and OyV^ths per cent. Phosphoric acid, the riext body in the tables, is certainly the most important of all the mineral ingredients of wheat, both on account of the large proportion of it which exists in the ash, and tie very limited extent to which it usually is present in soils. The ash of the grain of wheat contains a quantity 400 SPECIAL MANURES. of this substance, varying between 35 and 50 per cent, of its weight. The largest amount removed in any crop examined by the chemists before mentioned, was 22 lbs., 5 oz. Sulphuric acid is generally present in the ash of wheat, though in small proportion. It does not exceed in any in- stance 2 per cent., and is usually much less than this, the mean quantity in the ash of the grain being yVo^bs of 1 per cent, and the largest amount removed by an acre of wheat only about i lb. Carbonic acid is an ingredient of the ashes of many plants ; but in the composition of the ashes of the grain of wheat, it is seldom met with. The presence of this acid in an ash indi- cates the existence of organic acids combined with lime, &c., in the plant. Lime is the next ingredient under consideration. The mean quantity in the ash of the grain of wheat is S—^ths per cent., varying between 1^- and 8 per cent. The largest amount re- moved from an acre was rather more than 3^ lbs. Magnesia is a highly important constituent in the ash of the grain of wheat, varying between 9 and 14 per cent. The larg- est quantity of this substance in any crop examined was G lbs., 13 oz. to an acre. Per-oxide of iron exists to a small extent in the ash of the grain of wheat, its quantity varying between ^th of 1 per cent. and 3^ per cent. The average proportion is yVoths of 1 per cent., an-d the largest amount removed from an acre by tlie grain, 1 lb., 6 oz. Next to phosphoric acid, is potash, the most considerable and important of all the substances which exist in the ash of wheat. In quantity, it varies between 27 and 37 per cent., the mean of 26 samples being 3Iyyoths per cent. The largest quantity removed by the grain of an acre was 14 lbs. Soda is an alkali scarcely ever entirely absent from wheat, but present only in small quantity. When compared with potash, it usually varies between 1 and 5 per cent., but in one mstance, it reached as high as 9 per cent. SPECIAL MANURES. 401 With regard to the conjecture that one alkali may be substituted for another, siyzh an opinion certainly cann-ot be substantiated by- facts. At all events, it does not appear to be of usual occurrence. If it be indifferent to the plant, whether the alkali furnished it be potash, why should the quantity of the latter seldom ex- ceed |th part of the fornier ? Again, in guano, we always have an abundance of chloride of sodium, (common salt,) and other salts of soda, and yet, in cases where guano has been applied as a manure for wheat, the proportion of soda did not exceed the mean, which is 2//_ths per cent. Chlorine, in combination with sodium, (as common salt,) was found by Professors Way and Ogston to be present only in some two or three instancies, and then in very minute quantity ; and it is remarkable that, in the cases where it occurred, an un- usually large proportion of oxide of iron was also present, as if the same circumstances had led to the peculiarity in both intances. The absence of soda in any quantity, either as soda or as common salt, both from the grain and straw, would seem in- compatible with the belief that common salt is a natural ma- nure for wheat ; or rather, perhaps, it might be adduced as an argument in favor of the theory which supposes the existence of two distinct classes of manures — one serving as the food of plants — the other assisting in preparing that food, or in effect- ing some other desirable object in the amelioration of the soil. In the first of th«se suppositions, common salt certainly can have but little or no influence at all on wheat — it cannot serve as food for the crop, because it is not required ; and the little soda existing in the ash, if essential, is always abundantly sup- plied by the soil. Common salt probably owes its efficacy in part to the power which it possesses of absorbing and retain- ing moisture — a tendency which would insure a certain, though small supply of moisture to the roots in the dryest seasons. It is also poisonous to the wire worm, and other depredators of the crop. Trom th.«' pr:>ceding observations, it may fairly be concluded. 402 SPECIAL MANURES. that in whole numbers an average crop of wheat would remove from the soil of an acre, in straw, chaff, and grain, lbs. Silica, 84 Fhosphonc acid, SO Sulphuric acid, 4 Lime, v 8 Magnesia, 6 Pei--oxide of iron, 1 Potash, 23 Soda, li Azotised matter, 386 Carbonised substances, as starch, 1,758 Of these substances, four may be considered as non-essentials in a practical point of view, namely, lime, per-oxide of iron, soda, and carbonised matter, all of which, if the plant requires them, it may readily obtain from almost any soil, with the ex- ception of the latter, which, in part, may be derived from the atmosphere ; and, unles-s the soil is purely calcareous, the silica may be dispensed with, as it would always exist in sufficient quantity in the soil. In order to supply the other ingredients we must employ a salt of potash, and one of magnesia, a phos- phate and a sulphate of lime, and a due proportion of nitrogen or ammonia, in a state capable of being assimilated by the plants, purely calcareous soils excepted, which would require an alkaline silicate. The silica and potash can be most eco- nomically supplied by means of unleached wood ashes, the ashes of wood from soaper's waste, the silicate of potash, as it is manufactured for agricultural purposes, and by New-Jersey greeivsand marl ; the phosphoric acid, by horn shavings, ivory dust, the various forms of bone manure, either calcined or un- burned, or by the new mineral phosphorite ; the sulphuric acid, by gypsum, the sulphates of potash, and magnesia, or sulphated bones (bones dissolved in sulphuric acid) ; the magnesia. If it does not already exist in sufficiency in the soil, by magnesian lime or marls, or sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) ; and the azotised matter from nitrogen or ammonia, in their various forms, as the nitrate of lime and of soda, gas lime, the ammo- SPECIAL MANURES, 403 niacal liquor of gas works, bituminou-s coal dust, and from many ot the animal and homestead manures treated of in other parts of the present work. The next grand object to be attained, is, to substitute for guano or farmyard manure, both of which contain the univer- sal food of plants, their elements from the above-named sources, retaining at the same time their full efficacy ; but this can only be done when we shall have learned, what as yet, we know but imperfectly — that is, how to give an artificial mixture of the in- dividual ingredients the mechanical form and chemical qual- ities essential to their reception, and to their nutritive action on the plant ; for, without this form, they cannot perfectly sup- ply the place of Peruvian guano, nor of farmyard manure. Considering this subject, then, in its various bearings, the fol- lowing formulae, or recipes, are offered, together with such direc- tions and explanatory remarks as may be necessary for afford- ing the requisite nutriment to an acre of wheat, the land being of fair quality, and in good condition as regards its aspect to the sun, state of tilth, drainage, &., &c. RECIPE No. 1. ( To be applied as a top-dressing.) lbs. Take of Silicate of soda, '224 Bones, crushed or broken, 1 12 Oil of vitriol, (sulphuric acid,) 56 Sulphale of magnesia, 40 Carbonate of potaeh, 35 The bones should be dissolved in the oil of vitriol, previously diluted with an equal measure of water. When they become thoroughly broken down, the sulphate of magnesia and car- bonate of potash should be added, and the whole well stirred, and left at rest for 24 hours. At the end of this time, the mix- ture would probably be found sufficiently dry, when broken up, to be distributed on the land; or, it might otherwise be mixed with ashes or mould, in order to obtain a proper con- dition to be sown. Two thirds of the silicate of soda, and id 404 SPECIAL MANURES. of the last-named mixture may be applied as a top-dressing to the young wheat plants very early in the spring ; but the re- mainder of both should be reserved, and a~pplied as late as prac- ticable, in order that they may be at the command of the plants as the ears fill, and as the straw and chaff strengthen. In many soils, such as stiff' silicious clays, and in all local- ities where the soil is formed from granitic or other primitive rocks, the addition of silicates would be an unnecessary outlay of money ; but the other mixture is comparatively cheap, and would in many cases more than remunerate the farmer, if not in the crop of wheat which would follow, at least at some other period of rotation. EECIPE No. 2. {To be applied as a top-dressing.') lbs. Take of Bonedust, 200 Magnesian lime, (air-slacked,) 100 Wood ashes, (uxileached,) 300 Mix the three substances well together with an equal measure of coal ashes, powdered charcoal, fine loam, or common dry earth, and sow uniformly over the field of young wheat in the spring. In place of the wnleached ashes, 400 lbs. of leached may be employed, or if more economical, 400 lbs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl. RECIPE No. 8. (To be applied to a newhj-plowed grass sward or c clover ley.) lbs. Tzke of Peruvian guano, 200 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100 C)ommon salt, 200 Mix the three well together with an equal quantity, by meas- ure, of coal ashes, fine loam, or common dry earth. If more convenient to the farmer, a bushel of powdered charcoal may be substituted for the gypsum, the whole to be uniformly scat- tered over the suiface of the field, just before plowing under or harrowing in the wheat seed. The spring and summer follow- ^FECIAL MANURES. 406 ing, a top-dressing may be added to the growing crops, pre- pared agreeably to Recipes No. 1 or No. 2. RECIPE No. 4. (7\> be applied lo land not in grass^ and somewhat worm.) lbs. Take of Puruvian guano, 300 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 150 Ck)nimon salt, 100 Incorporate the three ingredients well together with 2| cords of mould, or swamp or pond muck, to be lightly plowed in previous to sowing the seed, after which the young wheat plants shoul'd be top-dressed as directed in Recipe No. 3. RECIPE No. 6. {To be plowed in previous to sowing the seed.) lbs. Take of Peruvian guano, 100 Gypsum, gi-ound or bm-nt, 100 Common salt, 100 First mix the gypsum and salt well together with 10 bushels of wnleached ashes, or with 20 bushels that are leached^ and 5 cords of mould direct from the woods ; let them remain in a heap for 2 or 3 weeks ; then incorporate the guano with the mixture, and spread it upon a field in tolerable condition, and lightly plow it in before sowing the wheat seed. If more con- venient or economical to the farmer, 1,000 lbs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl may be substituted for the ashes ; or instead of the gypsum, a bushel of powdered charcoal may be used. RECIPE No. 6. (1\> be plowed in previous to sowing the seed.) lbs. Take of Peruvian guano, 100 Bonedust, 100 Gypsum, powdered or bm-nt, 100 Common salt, , 100 Soot, 100 Mix the whole well together with 20 bushel? of leached ashes and a cord of dried river or pond mud, and lightly plow it in 406 SPECIAL MANURES. previous to sowing the seed. If more convenient, a bushel of powdered charcoal may be applied instead of the gypsum; or» for the leached ashes 1,000 lbs. of New- Jersey green-sand marl may be used. RECIPE No. 7. (To be plowed in previous to sowing the seed.) lbs. Take of Pei-uvian guano, 100 Bonedust, ....100 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 200 Salt bitterns, powdered, 100 Mix them well with a cord of dried river or pond mud, and lightly plow it under just before sowing the seed. RECIPE No. 8. ( To prepare wheat seed for an acre — a remedy for smut.) Take of Seed wheat, ly to 2 bush. Common salt, ^ pint. Caustic lime, 1 quai't. On the evening previous to sowing, put the wheat into a tub of a convenient size ; pour on a sufficient quantity of rain water to cover the wheat 2 or more inches deep ; immediately stir it with a large spatula or spade, and skim off the seeds of weeds and light kernels of wheat as long as they rise to the surface ; after which, the wheat should be carefully turned out on the floor or some other suitable place, in order that the water may be drained off. When this is done, pour another or fresh parcel of clean water into the tub with the salt and lime, which, by stirring, will soon dissolve ; then gradually stir into the liquid the wheat seed with the spatula or spade, and in this condition let all remain till the next morning, (say 12 hours,) when the watery part should be poured off, and the wheat spread on the floor to drain dry, and immediately after sown. If the kernels do not appear of a whitish color, or coated with the lime, more of that material may be sifted upon them, and the wheat stirred or worked over with a spade or a hoe until sufficiently covered with it. SPECIAL MANURES. 407 Another remedy for the smut in wheat, is, after it is cleaned, to form a brine by a mixture of salt and barnyard water, strong enough to bear up an egg, in which the wheat seed should be soaked from 12 to 24 hours ; then drain off the brine, spread the wheat on the barn floor, scatter over it air-slacked lime, and work the heap over with a shovel or hoe, until each grain is covered with a white coat. The seed may then be sown. In either of the two last-named methods, no more seed should be prepared than can be sown the same day ; otherwise, it would heat and spoil. RECIPE No. 9. (^ remedy for slug's on wheat.) bushels. Take of Common salt, 1 Jr Wood ashes, (unleached,) 6 Mix and sow broadcast on the young wheat in the spring. METHODS OF SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS TO AN ACRE OF RYE. This crop is generally consigned by the farmer to the poorer class of soils of his fields, with the impression that it will grow almost anywhere, in consequence of its sometimes producing a fair yield on thin, light, sandy lands ; but rye, like all other grain-bearing plants, depends upon the earth, not to the atmos- phere, for most of its nutriment after the kernel begins to form ; and if that nutriment does not already exist in the soil, it must be artificially supplied. Yet, such soils as are dry and nusky, and consist of chalky, sandy or gravelly loams, which are not able to maintain a crop of wheat, will produce a good crop of rye. Thus, by inspecting the tables, it will be seen that the pro- portions of lime, potash, and phosphoric acid are not compara- tively large, but that, from the great quantity of straw in a rye crop, a considerable proportion of other ingredients are taken 408 SPECIAL MANURES. away from the soil. Therefore, set it down as an established principle, that rye cannot be grown except on a fertile soil, or a poor one that has been manured. The amount of azotised matter taiien up by an acre of rye is estimated to be 243 lbs. ; that of carbonised substances, 1,994 lbs. The following methods of manuring an acre of this crop have been adopted in various places, and have been attended with satisfactory results : — -v RECIPE No. 10. (To be plowed or harrowed in with the seed.) lbs. Take of Peruvian guano, S^OO New-Jersey gi*een-sand marl, 1,000 Common salt, 50 Charcoal dust, 100 Mix the whole well together with double their bulk of fine mould or dried mud, and scatter it broadcast over the field, and lightly plow or harrow it in with the seed. If the green-sand marl cannot convenientl)'' be obtained, 10 bushels of wnleached wood ashes, or 20 bushels of leached may be applied as a top- dressing after harrowing in the seed, RECIPE No. 11. {To be plowed and harrowed in at the time of sowing.) lbs. Take of Bonedust, 100 Common salt, 50 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100 Cubic nitre, 100 Incorporate the bonedust and salt with 8 bushels of unleached wood ashes, and lightly plow them in previous to sowing ; then mix the gypsum and nitre with 2 bushels of ashes, sow it broad- cast, as a top-dressing, and harrow it in with the seed. RECIPE No. 12. {To be plowed in previous to sowing the seed.) lbs. Take of Menhaden, 1,000 Gypsum, ground or bm'nt, 100 Green-sand marl, 600 Incorporate them with a cord of rich loam, dried peat, SPECIAL MANURES. 409 swamp or pond muck, and, either plow in the mixture at once, 15 or 20 days before sowing the seed, or let it lie in ^ heap for the same length of time, and then spread it broadcast on the field, and plow it in a day or two before sowing. RECIPE No. 13. {To prepare seed rye for an acre.) lbs. Take of Saltpetre, 3 Air-slaked lime, (powdered,) 10 Put the saltpetre into 3 quarts of scalding water, and stir it till dissolved, which will require less than 15 minutes; let it remain until it is cold ; sprinkle it over from 1 to 2 bushels of rye, in a tub of a suitable size ; directly after, pour over as much barnyard water, (an infusion of cow dung,) as will lie above the seed 4 inches deep ; let it soak 4 hours ; then drain off the liquor ; gradually stir in the lime until the kernels are well coated, and immediately sow. METHOD OF SUPPLYING- THE REQUISITE ING-REDIENTS TO AN ACRE OF OATS. It will be seen from the tables that, in total inorganic ingre- dients, oats abstract comparatively a large quantity from the soil. The amount of phosphoric acid, however, is rather smaller than that of wheat and barley, but in alkalies they are nearly as rich. They also require less azotised matter as well as carbonised substances to perfect their growth, the amount of the former being about 298 lbs. to an acre, and that of the latter, 1,675 lbs. A manure, or amendment, which has been found congenial to this crop may be prepared and applied agreeably to the fol- lowing directions . — RECIPE No. 14. {To be plowed in previous to sowing the seed.) lbs Take of Bonedust, 100 Gypsiim, ground or burnt, 100 Common salt, 50 18 410 SPECIAL MANURES. Incorporate the whole well together with 10 bushels of un- leached ^od ashes ; spread the mixture broadcast over the field, and harrow it in with the seed. If more conveninent, 500 lbs. of New- Jersey green-sand marl may be substituted for the wood ashes. METHODS OF SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS TO AN ACRE OF BARLEY. By comparing the results in the tables, it will be seen that a crop of barley removes more mineral matter from the soil than a corresponding crop of wheat, with the exception of silica, phosphoric acid, and magnesia, the potash and soda being about the same. The amount of azotised matter takSn up by the crop is also rather more than that of wheat, and the carbonised substances require more than double, the quantity of azotised matter removed by an acre of barley being 397 lbs., and that of the carbonised substances 3,726 lbs. In Great Britain, it appears that the proper place for a crop of barley, in a course of rotation, is after turnips, and before rye grass and clover ; and any departure from this mode upon such soils as are especially adapted for its growth, (that is a sandy or gravelly loam,) is thought to be bad economy. On light soils, where the previous crop of turnips has been grown solely by the aid of special manures, such as guano, bones, or super-phosphate of lime, the practice has, for a long time, been to consume either the whole or a portion of the crop on the field, as a preparation for barley and grass seed ; and it is one which serves the purpose so fully in that country, as yet, that no other mode has been pointed out by which the light-land farmer can keep up the fertility of his soil so easily and at so small an expense ; but in the United States, where the turnip is usually considered a precarious crop, in consequence of the , fly, with a different climate, as well as a different system of economy to be pursued, barley necessarily has to occupy a dif- ferent place in a course of rotation. SPECIAL MANURES. 411 Farmyard manure was long held in high repute for its pecu- liar adaptation to the barley crop, before folding and artificial manures were in vogue ; and the Scottish farmers long ago re- corded their opinion of its merits in the pithy proverb : " Dirt makes bere grow." The practice of dunging for barley direct- ly from the barnyard is now nearly absolete. Pigeon dung, however, in countries where these birds abound, is still used at the rate of about 20 bushels to the acre, sowed and harrowed in with the seed. Guano, also, has frequently been applied to this crop, and in many cases with the best possible results. Its action, however, has, in general, been found too forcing — increasing the bulk of straw to such an extent as to endanger the quality of the grain, and the safety of the succeeding crops of clover and rye grass. On naturally weak soils, when sown with barley, it has been found to encourage an inordinate premature growth, which, however, ceases when the ear is about half filled. When this occurs, "whitening" takes place before ripening; the straw becomes soft and feeble, and the grain proves husky and shriv- elled. But on good hard land, which will carry a bulky crop, without being laid, (lodged,) guano may be used with great advantage. The manures suitable for an acre of barley may be com- pounded agreeably to the following directions: — RECIPE ifo. 15. (7\? be applied to land previously cultivated with potatoes^ wheats or Indian eom^ lbs. Take of Peruvian guano, 100 Nitrate of soda, 50 Epsom salts, 50 Common salt, 200 The guano should be harrowed or lightly plowed in with the seed, which may be done without damage to its vitality, and the saline substances can afterwards be applied as a top-dress- ing, with most effect when the plants have made some little progress above ground. 412 SPECIAL MANURES. RECIPE No. 16. {To be harrowed in with the seed.) Iba. Take of Peruvian guano, 200 Bonedust, 100 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 200 Common salt, 100 Incorporate the bonedust and salt well together with 5 bush- els of wnleached wood ashes, or with 10 that have been leached^ into one heap, and the guano and gypsum with 10 bushels of mould or common earth into another heap ; then, mix the whole, and apply it broadcast on the field, and harrow it in immedi- ately with the seed. If more coavenient to the farmer, instead of the ashes, 500 lbs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl may be used. RECIPE No. 17. (To he plowed in before sowing the seed.) lbs. Take of Menhaden, 2,000 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100 Common salt, 100 Incorporate the whole well together with 5 bushels of uiu leached wood ashes, or 10 bushels of leached, and 2 cords of swamp or pond muck, and lightly plow the mixture into the land a few days before sowing the seed. If more economical, 500 lbs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl may be employed in- stead of the ashes. RECIPE No. 18. (To prepare seed barley for an acre.) Take of Bailey, li to 3 bush. Common salt, 1 pint. Caustic lime, 1 quart. If the kernels of the barley are thick-skinned, proceed pre- cisely as directed in Recipe No. 8 ; but if it be of a thin-skinned variety, one half of the time as therein given will be sufficient for it to steep. SPECIAL MANURES. 418 METHODS OF SUPPLYING THE REQUISITE INGREDIENTS TO AN /.ORE OF INDIAN CORN. By an inspection of the tables, it will be seen that Indian corn may be ranked among the most exhausting crops. It is evident that poor, thin soils will scarcely remunerate the farmer for its cultivation ; and that, unlike other cereals, there is but little danger of using too much manure in its product ; nor is it liable to run to foliage, and thereby fail to produce grain ; neither will it lodge, or fall down, by its own excessive disproportion of or- ganic to the inorganic matter of which it is composed. There is one remarkable feature in regard to the amount of mineral matter extracted from the soil by this crop, which it is hoped, will dispel the popular notion that phosphate of lime, (bone earth,) is sufficient to supply the food of a corn crop ; or in other words, that bonedust or phosphorite will furnish the necessary elements of the whole plant without the aid of much, if any other manure. But, in order to perfect the crop, it is as necessary that the stalks, silks, and tassels be supplied with their appropriate food, as the kernel ; for it is not to be doubted but that the grain itself depends upon the full develop- ment of all the parts which precede it. Supply them with matter suitable for their increase and perfection, and the grain will also be supplied. For, it must not be forgotten that these, or similar parts of plants, very frequently contain elements which are not found, except in very small proportions in the seed or grain ; yet it is obvious that, in some way or other, these elements are quite essential to their perfection. Those who desire to raise large crops of this grain, may be guided by the following directions : — RECIPE No. 19. (To be plowed or harrowed in previous to planting the seed.) Iba. Take of Peruvian guano, 400 Gypsum, ground or burnt, 100 Incorporate them well together with 2 cords of rich mould, 414 SPECIAL MANURES. road scrapings, or decomposed peat ; scatter them broadcast over the field, and lightly plow or harrow them in, as fast as the mixture is spread, just before planting the seed. Then, at the first or second hoeing, scatter close to the plants, i pint of tinleached wood ashes, or a pint leached, to every four hills, (6 or 10 bushels,) previous to drawing up the earth. RECIPE No. 20. (^To be applied to an acre of light sandy land.) Take of Half-decomposed stable dung, 3 cords. Gypsum, 100 lbs. Mix them well together, and apply about 5i pints in each hill at the time of planting the seed ; then, just previous to the first hoeing, or weeding, scatter broadcast between the hills, 10 bushels of wnleached wood ashes, or 20 bushels leached, and at the second hoeing, or moulding, bury midway between each hill 1 menhaden, or some other kind of fish of a corresponding weight. RECIPE No. 21. (To be applied in the hill with the seed.) Take of American poudretto, 10 bush. Bonedust, 200 lbs. Incorporate them well together, and sprinkle the mixture in the places where the seed has been, or is about to be dropped, at the rate of a pint to every 4 hills. If the land is light, and naturally rather poor, i pint of leached ashes may be buried around every 4 hills at the moulding, or second hoeing. RECIPE No. 22. ( To prepare a steep for an acre of seed corn.) lbs. Take of Saltpetre, 1 Copperas, (sulphate of iron,) 2 Dissolve each of them in separate vessels, in 6 quarts of water (rain water is best) ; put 8 quarts of shelled seed, (eight- rowed yellow,) into a tub of a convenient size, over which pour SPECIAL MANURES. 416 the two liquids ; stir the whole well together, and allow it to remain for 24 to 36 hours just before planting. Seed prepared in this manner will be loss liable to the attacks of birds and worms, and will give the young plants an early start, a vigor- ous growth, and an early maturity of the v/hole crop. RECIPE No. 23. (To make a soak for seed corn.) Take of Saltpetre, 2 lbs. Flom* of sulphui', I " Taj-, 1 pint. Inclose the sulphur in a bag, which, together with the salt- petre, put into 10 gallons of hot water ; pour this over the corn in a tub, and allow it to soak for 6 to 12 hours. Then, stir and dissolve the tar in 2 gallons of boiling water; drain the other liquid from as much of the seed corn as you wish to plant in a day; stir it around in the tar water until it becomes well coated with the tar ; drain off the tar water, and dry the corn by rolling it in a mixture of equal parts of powdered gypsum and wood ashes. No more seed should be taken from the solu- tion of sulphur and saltpetre than can be planted in a day. The germinating power of the corn will not be injured for several days, if kept constantly covered with the steep. METHODS OP SUPPLYING- THE REQUISITE ING-REDIENTS TO AN ACRE OF POTATOES. From an inspection of the tables, it will be apparent why it is, as is found to be the case in practice, that so much manure is required for a heavy crop of potatoes. The alkaline and earthy bases, and both phosphoric and sulphuric acids are ab- stracted largely from the soil by this crop, and must be re- placed, if the land is to be retained in its fertility. More than one half of the amount of ash produced by the entire plant consists of potash and soda, and it is evident that it requires the use of such substances for manuring the crop as are rich in these elements. 416 SPECIAL MANURES. The amount of azotised matter required for an acre of pota- toes, as far as ascertained, is 615 lbs.; and that of carbonised substances, 4,000 lbs. The modes of manuring, which have been practised with success in the cultivation of the potato, are conformable to the following dirsctions : — RECIPE No. 24. {To be applied in the hill at the time of planting.) Take of Horse dung, unfermented, 6 cords. Gypsum, gi'ound or burnt, 3 bush. Wood ashes, (unleached,) 10 " Common salt, 100 lbs. First mix well together the ashes, gypsum, and salt; then incorporate them with the horse dung, and apply nearly half a peck to each hill with the potatoes at the time of planting. If more convenient to the farmer, instead of the unleached ashes 20 bushels of leached ones, or 1,000 lbs. of New-Jersey green- sand marl may be used. RECIPE No. 25. (To be applied in the hill at the time of planting.) Take of Long barnyard mauui-e, 6 cords. Gypsum, ground or burnt, 3 bush. Wood ashes, (unleached,) 15 " Common salt, 100 lbs. Mix and apply as in Recipe No. 24. For the wood ashes, 1,500 lbs. of green-sand marl may be substituted. RECIPE No. 26. ( To be applied to an acre of newly-broken sod.) bushels. Take of Bonedust, 1| Gypsum, ground or bm-nt, 3 Oyster-shell lime, 3 Wood ashes, (unleached.) 24 Mix the whole well together, and apply about 3| pints to each hill, on top of the potatoes at the time of planting. If more convenient, 48 bushels of leached ashes, or 2,400 lbs. of green-sand marl may be substituted for the ashes unleached. SPECIAL MANURES, 417 CONOLUDINa REMARKS. The preceding recipes and directions will suffice to show the manner in which the analyses of the ashes of plants may be made serviceable to the farmer by instructing him what mate- rials he has abstracted from the soil of various crops that he may have cultivated upon it. He should not rest satisfied, however, with calculations made on individual varieties of plants, and what may be considered as more than an average yield, but apply them to actual cases on his own farm, making use of such manures, and in such quantities, as will best suit his economy or convenience, in affording a due proportion of organic and inorganic food to his crops, without impoverishing the normal fertility of the soil. For, it is assumed in most of the foregoing recipes that the land is in good heart at the onset, and that the quantities of manures or fertilisers recommended will chiefly be abstracted by the respective crops succeeding. A proper regard should also be paid to the rotations, and due care observed that allowances be made for the excess of min- eral matter not removed by the preceding harvest, always bearing in mind that those parts of the plants which are left to decay on the field, will return their quota of mineral ingre- dients to the soil, and consequently will not have to be supplied by other means. It is to be regretted that the recipes and directions cannot be extended to all of our cultivated plants, garden vegetables, fruits, and trees, but owing to the limited space allotted to this treatise, I am compelled to suspend operations for the present, and leave the task to the inquiring and intelligent agriculturist to study and perform for himself. In order to aid him in his operations in calculating the approximate amount of chemical ingredients that certain manures or fertilisers will impart to his crops, the following list of substances is offered as affording the chief ingredients that the plants will require :— 100 lbs. of common farmyard manure, in its ordinary state, contains about 3i lbs. of pota.sh, and 3^ lbs. of phosphoric acid. 18* 418 SPECIAL MANURES. 100 lbs. of good Peruvian guano will yield about 17 lbs. of ammonia; 10 lbs. of phosphoric acid; and 8 lbs. of alkaline salts. 100 lbs. of American unleached wood ashes contain about 7 lbs. of phosphoric acid ; 3 lbs. of sulphuric acid ; 12 lbs. of potash; 9 lbs, of soda; 25 lbs. of lime, and 5 lbs. of magnesia. 100 lbs. of leached or washed ashes are estimated to contain about one half as much potash, magnesia, and soda as tliose which have not been leached, and nearly as much lime, and sulphuric and phosphoric acids. 100 lbs. of gypsum, (plaster,) contain 46 lbs. of sulphuric acid, and 54 lbs. of lime. 100 lbs. of New-Jersey green-sand marl contain about 6 lbs. of potash, and 24 lbs. of prot-oxide of iron. 100 lbs. of common salt contain about 39 lbs. of sodium. 100 lbs. of salt hitlerns contain 28 lbs. of sodium ; 6 lbs. of sulphuric acid ; and 8 lbs. of lime. 100 lbs. of bonedust contain about 25 lbs. of phosphoric acid. 100 lbs. of phosphorite, or native phosphate of lime, Contain about 40 lbs. of phosphoric acid. ROTATION OF CROPS. The experience of husbandmen, from the earliest times, has shown that the same kinds of plants, with some exceptions, cannot be cultivated advantageously in continued succession on the same soil. The same or similar species have a tendency to grow fdeblv, degenerate, or become more subject to diseases, when cultivated consecutively upon the same ground ; and hence, the rule which forms the basis of a system of regular alternation of crops is, that plants of the same or allied species are not to be grown in immediate succession; and furthermore, the same rule would imply that similar kinds of crops should recur at as distant intervals of the course as circumstances will allow. As no particular systems of rotation have as yet been estab- SPECIAL MANUrtRS. 419 lished in the Uni- ted States, those in the following ta- bles are offered for the consideration of the cultivator, until better ones can be found. It is to be understood, how- ever, that they are adapted only to strong virgin soils, or to older ones, maintained in good tilth by the aid of manures. When tobacco, hemp, cotton, or sugar cane is to be cultivated, a place should be assigned for it, according as it is raised as a green crop, for its fibre, or for its seeds. Thus, in the following tables, cotton or hemp, cultivated for their seeds, may take the place of wheat or Indian corn ; and tobacco may fol- low either by again restoring the soil with manure. O & n H m N m o » O h m o i-t H < H O o d o fc. to m ^ rt a « O Cu (1. ►-( j= a3 c > >. > !> g O W o O O 05 o A s , 6C Jl O C3 tn (^ \^ o &< o m , ft S J3 a 3 c O s o T- a, P3 5'? >) orj o 5 « O, "2 "? "2 »5 2i C3 c p c ft « £ >>3 ^^ >» '^ PiH C^p •^ c pi c3 c . n - O O o S o c O g "rt o ^'-^ ^^ rt K> ^ a) a a> C (£4 t ^ i^ t-H -^ >:A © &. 03 no to n ,3 ^OO i:iH KH O n in 00 o cu O O o Ch P. Oi J= a . 5S n 5 1 gi S i» C « O P H o 2 H H H 36 "O o .So IS c S3 O "2 5 13 a> 1 O a I— 1 o « « PS ^ ^ PS >> . 50 a. rn as. 0) 1 O 17) "'I cH o3 O CO 0) _o O p O C CO c3 a. s a n (^^ O >> P4 "O . "So .2 "S > c S o 3 Ox; Id .is! III c^ O ^ og ^^^ CQ ea P2CL. 2 - Q 0) o O Pi 'o i9 C3 o ca *i ^ iS foi CO ._ "2 »5 T3 37 §3 o o S^S « c \^ WH «H q: "S CO 5 P3H fl op? J SPECIAL MANURES. 421 o O PH 02 Pi o Hi o p o o C5 o 02 o H O Fm O n H ^ i M d > - "5 fl ^ Pm E ^ o 3 O . a 5 5 ^ 3 t3 in II ^1 . a 5 3 t3 • QJ TO .S* '«H 1 ^ d 05 o -2 ©ts o >> pa 5 >> 03 >>a Cj ,5 rt Ph Otf =3 o O •a IS . in O Rye and Tur- nips, Wheat, or Indian Corn. 3 a OH P5 3 •"5 •O in ^ 3 o 3 "d en Tj 05 O o 5 7? >.3 63 ^ S >»3 .Si o «H f^^ P^H P5H ^?, l-t ■2 »1 O Q a? 3 Rape, Car- rots, or Beans. in B o C3 4| OPh ^1 o 1i CO g O4 P5H -2 e3 o n P5^ .ceo "d ^. ^ 1 s 1 * i 02 © o js a a O III B •_ >.° C « •- a .2 J3 422 SPECIAL MANURES. By the preceding tables, there is exhibited, at one view, the crops that may succeed each other for ten consecutive years on three general classes of soil. For instance, to commence with flax, clover, or carrots, in the first table, wheat, Indian corn, oats, or barley and turnips may be cultivated the second year ; rye and turnips may be cultivated after wheat or Indian corn the third year ; rye, carrots, or barley and turnips after oats, the third year ; and rye or carrots after barley and turnips the third year. Rye, or barley and turnips may be cultivated after rye and turnips the fourth year ; and potatoes after rye, car- rots, barley and turnips, and rye or carrots the fourth year. In like manner, proceed in the other tables, continuing hori- zontally in a direct line across the tables until the tenth year is reached, when the course of rotation is commenced anew, &c. INDEX. Pages. AciPt Apo-Oenic 335 Carbonic 10,169 Crenic 335 Humic 104,199 Hydi'ochloric 25 Muriatic 25 Nitric 349 Oxalic 206 Phosphoric 303 " Dilute 351 Silicic 152 Sulphuric 245 " Dilute 351 Ulmic 104,199 Uric 38, 257, 281, 283 Ai r of the Atmosphere 5 Dephlogisticated 27 Empyreal 27 Fixed 10 Maish 19 Vital 27 Alabaster 68 Albite 64 Alum, Earth of 33 Alumina 33 Ammonia 7, 35 Ammoniacal Salts 35 Analysis of Albite 64 of American Potash 135 of Augite lt>4 of Basalt 165 of Bitterns 55 of Bleacher's Waste 334 of Blood 236 of Bones 232, 233, 243, -244 of Brewer's Steep Water — 359 of Coal 61,62 of Common Salt 144 of Coprolites 63 of Cotton Fibre 180 of Feldspai- 64 of Gas Lime 103 of Green-Sand Marl 124, 125, 127 of Greenstone Trap 163 of Guanos. (Table of,) 288 Paqbs. Analysis of Hair 293 of Horn 293 of Hornblende 67, 164 of Infui'isorial Sand 249 of Ivory Turnings 299 of Kelp 44 of Magnesian Limestone 112, 113 of Mica 66 of New-Jersey Phosphorite. .132 of New- York Clays 59 of New-York Marls 122 of Night Soil 264, 265 of Oyster Shells 3L1 of Pan Scale 55 of Peaiia-sh 135 of Peat 41 of Pond Mud 381 of Salt Springs 368 of Scutch 310 of Sea \Yater 367 of Sewer Water 369 of Shales and Slates 153 of Shell Sand 315 of Skins of Animals 317 of Soda Ash 155 of Soot 160 of Spring Water 361 of Urea 319 of Urine of the Cow 320 of " of Man 318 Analysis of Ashes of American t .^ ^q Trees \ ' " Leached... . 51 of Barley 47 of Coal 39,40 of Cow Dung 255 of the Excrement ) nr, of the Cow i'"'* of the Domestic ( o^'r Fowl i^^ of the Hog 260 of the Horse 262 of Man 264 of the Pigeon 267 of the Sbe^p 260 424 INDEX. 53 168 Pages. Aaalyeia of Ashes of Flax 182 from Soaper's Waste of Hemlock Spruce Bai-k of Indian Com 190 of Kentucky Blue I jgg Gras8 J of Leaves of Iron ] qos Wood \ of " Dog Wood. .203 of " Apple Tree.. 203 of Linseed 206 of Oats 47,192 of Orchard Grass... 199 of Rape 47,399 of Rape Cake 218 of " " Seed.. 180 of " Oil Cake... 180 of Red Clover 188 of Rice Straw and ^ ooq ciiaff r^-^ of Sprats 274 of S ugar Cane 46 '^ Refuse 230 of Timothy 199 of Turnip 197 of Wheat 47 of Wool ..293 Anamalised Carbon 229 Animal Charcoal 229 Animals, Excrement of 25!) Apati te 109, 130 Apo-Crenate of Lime 1 02 of Potash 137 of Soda 157 Apple Murk 216 Argil 33 Asphaltum 54 Augite 164 Azote 26 Ashes 38 Leached 51 of Anthracite Coal 3'J of Bituminous " 40 of Peat 4!) of Seaweed 43 of Soaper's Wiwte 53 of Sugar Cane 45 of Vegetables, not Woody 46 of Wood 48 Bagasse 45 Bark of Trees and Shrubs 167 Barnyard Manure 370 Barilla 4.3, 154 Barley, Methods of supplying the Re- ) . .q quisite Ingredients to an Acre of j Basalt 164 Beryl 67 Bi-Carbonate of Soda 145, 158 of Lime... 86 Bi-Phoephate of Lime 107, 239 of Soda 158 Bi-Sulphuret of Iron 78 Bitterns 55 i Pages. Bleaching Powder 101 Bone Black 229 Earth 109, 231 Bones 231 Burning of 239 Decomposing of 246, 247 Dissolving of 245 Great Antiquity of Use of as a / q«i Manure ] Grinding of 2.39 Steaming of 240 Bleacher's Waste 334 Blood 225 Blubber, Refuse 227 Brick Dust 56 Bristles 294 Building Rubbish 58 Burnt Clay 56 Calcium, Prot-oxide of 81 Chloride of 103 Carbonate of Ammonia 70 of Iron 80 of Lime 87, 88 of Magnesia 112 of Potash 134 of Soda 154 Carbonic Acid 10, 16;) Cement, Water 87, 1 12 Chalk 87 Chai-coal Animal,. . . ; 229 Per-centage and weight of ) produced by various kinds ^ 172 of Wood ... ) Volume of (Jases absorbed / ,-„ i>y i Charred Peat 174 Apple Pomace i77 Baga-sse 177 Saw Dust 177 Tun B:uk 177 Weeds 178 Chip Dung 378 Chloride of Calcium 100 of Lime 101 of Magnesium 115 of Potassiuui 136 of Sodium 142 Chlorine 12 Chlc)rite 67 Choke Damp 10 Citrate of Potash 137 Clam Shells 317 Clay, Burnt 56 Unbuint 59 Clover 185. 187 Coal Dust 60 Coal Tar 332 Coprolites 62 Coral and Coral Sand 248 Cotton Refuse 179 Seed 18C " Oil Cake 180 Crenate of Lime 102 of Potash • 137 of Soda IS? raDEX. 425 Pages. Crops, Rotation of 418 Crustacea, etc., 273 Cubic Nitre 157 Petie 157 Cuttings 295 Dew 361 Dung of Animals 250 Long 372 Sliort 372 Electricity, as a Fertiliser 13 Epsom Salts 118 Excrement of Animals 250 of the Ass 253 of the Camel 253 of the Cow 254 of the Deer 256 of the Dog 256 of the Domestie Fowl 257 of the Duck 238 of the Goat 258 of the Goose 258 of the Guinea Fowl 259 of the Hog 260 of the Horse 261 of Man 264,301 of the Rgeon. 266 of the Rabbit 268 of Sea Fowls 268 of the Sheep 269 of the Tui'key 271 Fallowing 15 Feathers 272 Feldspai- 64, 110, 140 Fire Damp 19 Fish 273 Alewife, or Spring Herring 275 Clams, Crabs, Lobsters, etc 278 Cockles 278 Hard Head 276 Horse-Foot, or King Crab. . .' 275 Menhaden 276 Mossbunker 276 Mussels 278 OflFalof 278 Panhagen 276 Shad 275 Skippangs 276 Flax Shi ves and Leaves 181 Flesh, Muscles, &c., of Dead Ani- ( n,>^, mals l'^'^ Folding, or Yarding 278 Galvanism, as a Fertiliser 14 Gas, Azote 26 Carbonic Acid 10 Chlorine - 12 ttydrochloric-Acid 25 Hydrogen 19 Muiiatic-Acid 25 Nitrogen 26 Oxygen 27 Gas-House Liquor 336 Gas Lime 102 Gas Tar 336 Glauber's Salt. , ,_ 150 Gneiss 65 _ . Pages. Granite 65, 110 Grape Skins and Seeds 216 Greaves "'^93 Green Manures .....183 Artichoke 184 Bokhai-a Clover 185 Borage 186 Buckwheat 186 Cow Pea 193 Indian Com 190 Oats 192 Old Grass 190 Rape 193 Red Clover 187 Rye 194 Sorrel 194 Spurry 196 Turnip 197 Vetch 198 White Lupin 191 White iM ustrn-d 192 Yeatman Pea 193 Green Sand 123, 140 " Marl 110,123 Greenstone Trap 136 Guano 280 Anagamos 284 Bolivian 286 Chilian 286 Florida 269, 284 Ichaboe 286 T>lode of Estimating Value of. . .289 Patagonian 287 Peruvian 284 Saldanha-Bay 287 Selecting of 285 Guerneyism 17 Gypsum 68 Hail 361 Hair 294 Husk of Rice 223 Hay, Refuse 198 Heat, Influence of ou Vegetation 21 Herbaceous Plants 224 Hoofs 297 Hornblende 66, 110 Horns and Horn Piths 296 " Shavings 296 Humic Acid 104, 199 Humus 199 Hydrate of Lime 83 of Magnesia 1 13 of Soda 154 Hydrogen 19 Indian Corn, Methods of supplying ) the Requisite Ingredients to an > 413 Acre of ) Insect Remains 297 Iron 75 Irrigation 336 Ivory Tiu-nings 299 Kelp 43,154 Kitchen Wash 349 Leaf Mould 203 Leather Refuse 300 426 INDEX. Pages. Leaves of Ti-ees 202 Lichens from Rocks and Trees 204 Light, Influence of on Vegetation 21 Lime 80 Air-Slacked 83, 93 Apo-Crenate of 102 Bi-Carbonate of 88 Bi-Phosphate of 107, 239 Burning of 91, 92, 93, 94 Carbonate of 87, 83 Caustic , 83 Chloride of 101 Crenate of 102 Crude or Unburnt 98 Hipo-Sulphite of 103 Hot 83 Humate of 104 Hydrate of. 84 Hydraulic 87, 99, 105, 1 12 Mild 84 Modes of Applying 95 Nitate of 108 of Gas Works 102 Oxalate of 107 Oxy-Muriate of 102 Oyster-shell 83 Phosphate of 107 QuickUme 83 Shell 83 Silicate of 110 Slaking of 83, 93, 49 Solubility of 83 Sulphate of 68, 111 Sulphite of 103 . Super-Phosphate of 109 Theory of Action of 84 Water 87,112 Limestone, Crude or Unburnt 98 Crushed 98 Impure 99 Sand and Gravel 100, 15 1 Liquid Man\u*es, Collecting of 329 Apparatus for Ap- t ^cy plying r^ Carts 331,330 Tanks 328 Magnesia Ill Carbonate of 112 Caustic 115 Hydrate of 113 Nitrate of 116 Phosphate of 117 Sihcateof 117 Sulphate of 118 Magnesium, Chloride of 1 15 Prot-Oxide of HI Malt Dust 203 Manganese. 118 Manure, Barnyard 370 " Management of 370 Long 372 Pigyard 383 Short 372 Street 381 Manures, Special 387 Pages. Manures, Special, Application of 387 " Concluding Re- ) .,« marks on J " Rationale of 387 Marble 87 Marl 119 Clayey 120 Green-Sand 123, 110 Shell Ill Stony 122 Matter, Organic, "^ Amount i;emoved fgg^ 390 303, 394, 395 from an acre by f ' ' ' ' various Crops J Mica 66, 110 Moss from Rocks and Trees 204 Mould, Vegetable 199 Muck, Swamp 207 Mud 379 Frog-Pond 381 Pond 380 River 380 Salt-Marsh 382 Sea 382 Sink-Hole 381 Mulching 17 Muriate of Ammonia 36 of Soda 142 Night Soil 264, 301, 305 Nitrate of Ammonia 36 of Lime 106 of Magnesia 116 of Potash 137 of Soda 157 Nitre 137, 150 Nitrogen 26 Nitrogen, Amount of in Oil Cake ) oqi from Different Countries i Oats, Method of supplying the Re- ( inn quisite Ingredients to an Acre of ji Offal of Slaughterhouses 302 Oil Cake 204 O i 1 Cake, Composition of 205 Oil, Train 227 Orchards, Mulching of , 18 Oxalate of Ammonia 38 of Lims 107 of Potash ....138 Oxalic Acid 206 Oxidation 27 Oxide of Aluminium 33 of Calcium 81, 83 of Iron 76,77 of Magnesium Ml of Potassium 13.J of Silicum 1.52 of Sodium 154 Oxygen 27 Oxygenation 29 Oxy-Muriate of Lime 102 Oyster Shells 312 Pan Scale 55 Pai'ing and Burning 178 " without Fire 179 Pearlash 134, 13.5 l.NPEX. 427 Paors. Peat 207 Phosphate of Alumina 34 of Lime 107 of Magnesia 117 of Potash 139 of Soda 158 Phosphorite 107, 1U9, 130 Plgyard Manure 383 Pine Straw, (leaves,) 217 Plants, Constituents of 388, 389 Source of Carbon ot 389 " Hydrogen of 3H9 " Nitrogen of 390 « Oxvgenof 390 " Phosphorus of 390 " Sulphm-of 390 Amount of Min-"^ eral Matter of | abstracted } 392, 393, 394, 395 from an Acre I of J Plaster of Paris 69 Pomace 216 Potash, or Potassa 132 Apo-Crenate of 336 Carbonate of 134 Citrate of 137 Crenate of 336 Oxalate of 138 Phosphate of 139 Nitrate of 137 Sihcate of 140 Tartrate of 137 Potassium, Hydrated Prot-Oxide of 132 Chloride of 136 Sulphuret of 160 Potatoes, Modes of supplying the Re- i .,r quisite Ingredients to an Acre of ) Pouoi'ette 305 American 310 Flemish 305 Payen's 309 Madame Vivert Duboul's. . .307 Urate 308 Premings 295 Prot-Oxide of Sodium 154 of Calcium 83 of Hydrogen 354 of Potassium 136 PiTissian Blue, Kesiduum of 312 Pyrites 79 Bags, Woollen 324 Rape Dust 217 Recipe No. 1. To Prepare a Tt)p- i .„_ di-essing for an Acre of Wheat. . J '*""' No. 2. To Prepare a Top-^ dressing for an Acre of > 404 Wheat S No. 3. To Prepare a Dress- ' Ing to be plowed or hai*- rowed into an Acre of Grass Sward oi- a Clo- ver Ley for Wheat 404 Paoes Recipe No. 4. To Prepare a Dress- "j ing for an Acre of Land not in Grass, not much Worn, for Wheat 405 No. 5. To Prepare a Dross- ") ing to be plowed into an ! .q^ Acre of Land to be sown ] with Wheat J No. 6. To Prepare a Dress- ") ing to be plowed into an ! .^r Acre of Land to be sown J "* with Wheat J No. 7. To Prepare a Dress- "1 ing to be plowed into an I >q~ Acre of Land to be sown ( with Wheat J No. 8. To Prepare Wheat) Seed for an Acre— a Re- > 406 medy for Smui. ) No. 9. A Remedy for Slugs ) ./yj on Wheat J*"' No. lO. To Prepare a Dress- "j ing for an Acre of Rye [aqq to be plowed iji with the f Seed J No. 11. To Prepare a Dress- ing and a Top-Dressing for an Acre of Rye to be ^403 applied at the Time of Sowing ^ No. 12. To Piepare a Dress- ] ing for an Acre of Rye, I jna to be applied previous to j Sowing.... J No. 13. To Prepare Seed Rye ) .^n for an Acre of Land J No. 14. To Prepaie a Dress- ^ ing for an Aero of Oats, I 403 to be harrowed in with [ the Seed J No. 15. To Prepare a Dress- " ing for an Acre of Land previously cultivated 1 with Potatoes, Wheat, f or Indian Corn, for a I Crop of iiaiiey J 411 No. 16. To Prepare a Dress- ^ ing for an Acre of Barley [aio to be hallowed in with j the Seed J No. 17. To Prepai'e a Dress- "I ing for an Acre of Bar- 1 ..g ley to be plowed in with j the Seed j 428 INDEX. Pages. Becipe No. 18. To Prepare Seed Bai-- ) ^ .c, ley for an Acre of Land J No. 19. To Prepare a Dress- ing for an Acre of Indian ' Corn ' 413 No. 20. To Prepai'e a Dress- ^ ing for an Acre of Indi- i ^^^ an Corn on Light Sandy ; Laud J No. 21. To Prepare £ Dress- ^ ing for an Acre of Indi- ! ^, ^ an Corn to be applied in ' the Hill with the Seed. No. 22. To Prepare a Steep for an Acre of Seed Corn 414 No. 23. To Prepare a Soak ) aik for an Acre of Seed Corn jl No. 24. To Prepare a Dress- ~> ing for an Acre of Pota- t toes, to be applied in the } 416 Hill at the Time of Planting J No. 25. To Prepare a Dress- ing for an Acre of Pota- toes, to be applied in the Hill at the Time of | Planting 410 No. 26. To Prepare a Dress- ■\ ing for an Acre of Pota- toes, to be applied in the ) ^jg Hill on a newly broken ] sod at the Time of Plant- | ing J , ^ Reftiae, Cotton 1^9 Bleacher's 334 Blubber 227 Brine 335 Gluemaker's 315 Hay 198 Lard and Tallow Tiier's 293 Leather 300 of Sugar Refineries 229 Prussian Blue ' 312 Slaughterhouse 302 Starch 220 Wool 295 Woollen 293 Rice Straw and Husk 223 Botation of Crops 418 Rye, Methods of supplying the Re- ) ^qj quisite Ingredients to an Acre of i Sal Ammoniac 36 Salt, Common 101, 142 Glauber's 159 of Sorrel 139 Spirit of 25 Springs 367 Paogs Salt Spring Water 368 Saltpetre 137 Salts, Ammoniacal 35 Epsom 119 Sand 150 Coral 248 Green 123, 140 Limestone 100, 151 Sea 151 Shell 312 Saw Dust 221 Schorl 67 Scutch 315 Sea Water 367 Sea Weed 219 Selenite 68 Serpentine 165 Sewerage 386 Sewer Water 368 Shade, as a Fertiliser 17 Shale 153 Shavings of Wood 221 Shell Sand 312 Shells of Oysters, Clams, etc 312 Shoddy 295 Silex 152 Silica ..152 Silicate of Alumina 34 of Lime 110 of IMagnesia 117 of Potash 140 of Soda 159 SiUcum, Oxide of 152 Skins of Animals 315 Slate, Decomposed 153 Slugs on Wheat, Remedy for 407 Smut in Wheat, Remedy for 406 Snow, Melted 347, 361 Soap Suds 349 Sodium, Prot-Oxide of 154 Chloride of -. ... 142, 157 Sulphuret of 160 Soda 154 Apo-Crenate of 33(5 Ash 154 Bi-Carbonate of 145, 156 Bi-Phosphate of 158 Carbonate of 154 Caustic 156 Crenate of 336 Hydrate of 154 Muriate of 142 Nitate of 157 Phosphate of 158 Silicate of 159 Sulphate of 159 Soiling 280, 377 Soils, Absorbent Power of 60 Soot 160 Starch Refuse 220 Straw and Chaff of Grain 221 Straw of Rice 223 Sugar Refineries, Refuse of 229 Sulphate of Alumina 35 of Ammonia 36. 70 INDEX. 429 Pages. Sulphate of Lime 68,111 of Iron 79 of Magnesia 118 of Potash 142 of Soda 159 Sulphur 162 Sulphuret of Iron 78 of Potassium 160 of Sodium 160 Super-Phosphate of Lime 109 Swamp Muclc 207 Syenite 65, 110 Taffo 256 Tan Bark 221 Tangne 115 Taitrate of Potash 137 Tourmaline 67 Train Oil 227 Trap 110, 140, 163 Trez. 114 Ulmic Acid 104, 199 Urate of Ammonia 38 Urea 310 Urate, Manufacture of 308 Urine 317 of Man 318 of the Cow 319 of the Horse 322 of the Pig 322 of the Sheep 322 Vapor, Watery, of the Atmosphere. . . 30 Pages. Vitriol, Green 79 Oil of 352 Wash from Kitchen 349 Water 353 Brewer's Steep 359 Distiller's Steep 369 Dung 360 Fertilising Qualities of 346 Flax 360 Guano 360 Hail 361 Lake 361 of Starch Manufactories 361 Potato 361 Rain 361,347 • River 347, 361 Salt Spring •. 368 Sea 367 Sewer 368 Snow 347,361 Spring 361 Weeds 224 Wheat Crop, Methods of supplying i the Ingredients to the Land for > 399 the Food of ) Woodv Fibre 221 Wool.' 295 Woollen Rags 324 Woollen Waste 395 Yai-ds, Back, Scrapings of 378 Zeolite 66 tHE END. BY C. M. S A X T O N, 152 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK, SUITABLE FOR SCHOOL, TOWN, AGRICULTURAL, AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES. The American Farm Book; The Americin Farm Book ; or, a Compend of American Agriculture, being a Practical Treatise on Soils, Manures, Draining, Irrigation, Grasses, Grain, Roots, Fruits, Cotton, Tobacco, Sugar-Cane, Rice, and every staple product of the United States ; with the best methods of Planting, Cultivating, and Preparation for Market. 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