^. •> - Class Book LBni 1^1 .S4S Copyright 1^^_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. ""^r^ — >^ '^<^. ,\ ^ ^ -^ * o •'' ■ ■ft * n 'o .^^ "^^ V^ ':^ 1^ ^ -^^ v^' ..^^ ci- h- * '^ 0^ v^. SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK CONTAINING Methods of Teaching all Subjects Commonly Taught in the Public Schools, together with Questions and Answers Fully Covering these Subjects. FOR TEACHERS' USE IN PERSONAL REVIEW, PREPARA- TION FOR THE RECITATION OR IN ACTUAL CLASS WORK BY LEVI SEELEY, Ph. D., Professor of Pedagogy in the Trenton, New Jersey, State Normal School, Author of "History of Education," "The Founda- tions of Education," "A New School Management," etc., etc. AND NELLIE G, PETTICREW of the Piqua, Ohio, Public Schools. 1905 F. A. OWEN PUBLISHING COMPANY, DANSVILLE, N. Y. v^^^^ LIBRARY of OGN««£SS Ywu Copies rtocmvotl APR 24 19U5 ^opvngnt tniry CiUSS A XAc. NUi Copyright, 1905, F. A. Owen Publishing Co., Dansville, N. Y. CONTENTS Chapter Page —Preface ...... = . .5 I.— Introduction 7 II. — Reading 12 -/j 1 1.— English and American Literature ... 30 TV. — Orthography 65 V. — Grammar and Composition 89 VI. — Arithmetic 125 aVII.— Algebra 151 ■7 VIII. — Physiology AND Hygiene 169 IX. — Geography 200 X.— United States History 281 XL— Civics 335 >-.XII. — School Management 355 XIII. — Methods OF Teaching 376 XIV.— Nature Study 389 XV. — Current Events 395 XVI. — Drawing 401 XVI I. — Writing 407 XVI 1 1.— Manners and Morals 412 PREFi^CE. THERE are many books on each of the subjects of the common school course, some of which clearly state what they desire to accomplish, while others express no clearly defined aim. There is also a respec- table list of books bearing upon the pedagogy of reading, arithmetic, history, grammar, etc. To those teachers who possess a library of works bearing upon all the themes taught in our schools, this book may not appeal. But to the thousands of young teachers who have had but little experience and few advantages, who cannot afford to buy a book bearing upon each subject, and yet who are earnestly seeking to do the best they can in the schoolroom, it is sincerely hoped that this volume will bring a message and be a blessing. Brief statements concerning the aim to be sought are made at the beginning of each chapter so that the teacher may start out with a definite purpose in mind. No attempt is made to tell the whole story, by any means. It is hoped that these discussions will create a taste for better things and awaken a desire for more knowledge upon the themes treated. To suggest means of satisfy- ing that anticipated desire, I have cited many books in the foot-notes, which will furnish material for wider study. No book is mentioned that I have not carefully examined, and that I do not vouch for. 6 PREFACE Great care has been exercised in the construction of the questions and answers, which form the large part of the book, to make them clear, concise, logical, and suffi- ciently complete. The chief part of this work has been performed by Miss Nellie G. Petticrew, of Piqua, Ohio. It is hoped that these questions will furnish an abun- dance of material, not only for class exercises, drills, reviews, tests, etc., but that they will also assist the teachers in obtaining information for their own upbuild- ing. Every teacher knows how important it is to have an abundance of material outside of the regular text- book, and how much labor it costs to collect it. This book, therefore, will save the over- worked teacher a great deal of labor and enable him to devote strength to other channels. Its aim is to help and, bless the com- mon school teacher. Levi Seeley. State Normal School^ Trenton^ N. J. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. EVERY young teacher, no matter what his previous training has been, is often puzzled as to the proper material to be presented to his pupils, and as to the ends which he should definitely seek to reach. As a consequence of this perplexity there is a great deal of waste effort and loss of time. It is like a man lost in a pathless desert, or in a vast forest with no sign-board to guide or no star in the heavens to beckon him to safety. He wanders in bewilderment and confusion, often finding after long and weary effort that he has been moving in a circle and that his most anxious endeavors have brought him no nearer his goal. Cer- tainly this picture is not overdrawn so far as the inexperi- enced teacher is concerned, or with many young teach- ers. Very often the new teacher finds neither course of study nor definitely outlined work to assist him, and like the mariner upon the wide sea without chart or com- pass, he may drift with the current or even steer his craft in the wrong direction. With the over-crowded curriculum, with the many new subjects demanding a hearing, with the greater thoroughness expected in those subjects that have already won recognition, and with the increasing demand that pupils shall be earlier prepared for the responsibili- ties of life, even experienced educators are at a loss as to the best and most profitable material to be presented to the child. How much more must the novice in the 8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK work of teaching find himself bewildered at the great problem confronting him. No wonder that he takes the text-books at hand and blindly follows their pages as others have done before him, with the narrow idea that the purpose of the school is to put the pupils through as many books as possible. It is an old saying that the school is for the child, but it needs often to be reiterated. The child should be the center of all educational thought and purpose. There is a great difference between the above two conceptions, namely, — ^education consists in filling the mind with knowledge, and education consists in the development of the child. I would have the teacher early conceive the purpose of education as set forth in the second definition, and bring to bear all the forces of intelligence, knowledge and training in the effort to attain that end. The object of this book is to assist in this important work. According to the report of the United States Commis- sioner of Education, the American child attends school an average of about five years of two hundred days each. This means, then, that the most important work of the great body of American teachers must be accomplished with the mass of children before their eleventh or twelfth year, while they are still in the common school. If educa- tion is essential to American citizenship, the most impor- tant factor in engendering patriotism, in preparing to earn a livelihood, in fortifying against evil habits, and in preparing for a just conception of duty towards fellow- beings and towards God, is the common school teacher. It is he who must shape the ideals, lay the foundations, and carry out the training that will have for its fruitage intelligent, self-respecting, law-abiding, industrious, duty-loving. God-fearing men and women. This is the great mission of the common school teacher and there is no nobler mission on earth! INTRO DUCTIOJV 9 But what are the specific subjects that are to be employed in the school in attaining these results? In other words, what have the parents a right to expect that the common school shall accomplish with and for their children ? Surely this is a fair and a practical question the answer to which must not be shirked. It is fair because the people are spending colossal sums of money upon their schools, and devoting a great deal of thought and self-sacrifice to the education of their chil- dren. They are entitled to know that their money is well spent and that the years in which they give up their children are not being wasted. The teacher is the educational expert put in charge of the school and he must be held answerable for results. If this is not true there is no excuse for the Normal School, the training class, or the institute maintained at public expense for the preparation of teachers. The schoolroom is the domain of the teacher where the full responsibility must be assumed and carried out by an expert in charge. The office of the people is to furnish abundant means for the maintenance of the school, sustain the teacher in wise regulations in regard to discipline, punctuality, regu- larity, etc., and give such moral support as is possible in matters of home-work, maintaining the good reputation of the school, and holding up the hands of the teacher. Having lived up to these requirements, they have done their part and have a right to expect the teacher to do his. It is a practical question for the obvious reason that the pupils are being prepared for life, and surely the parents have a right to know what end is sought and how well that end is being attained. If teachers would give more attention to this question, would take a com- prehensive view of the whole work before them, in a word, would see "The future man in the boy before lO SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK them," there would be less criticism from parents of the work that the school accomplishes. I would answer the question as follows: The child at the completion of the common school course should be able, — 1. To speak and write the English language accu- rately, not merely from habit, which of course is of chief importance, but also with a knowledge of the underlying reasons as taught by grammar. The power of express- ing one's self well, whether in speaking or writing, is an important essential to success in life. 2. To spell correctly such words as he will need to use in letter- writing or composition, and to write legibly. 3. To read from a newspaper or ordinary book with clear enunciation, correct pronunciation, and such under- standing as not only to gain the meaning himself but to convey it to others when reading aloud. 4. To be master of such arithmetical knowledge as is necessary for the ordinary affairs of life. 5. To be familiar with the history of our own country and possess some acquaintance, with the most important events in the world's history. 6. To know the elementary processes in our scheme of government so as to be able to act the part of intelligent and patriotic citizenship when called upon to do so. 7. To possess a good knowledge of the geography of our own country and a general knowledge of the geogra- phy of the whole world. 8. To understand the structure, nourishment, support, and care of the human body. 9. To know something of elementary science so as to comprehend the ordinary phenomena of the world about him. INTRODUCTION ii 10. In addition to these he will know many things that cannot well be formulated; such as, music, drawing, handiwork, and, in its broadest sense, moral living. This is not too much to demand of the school for every normal child that is fully committed to its influence for the complete common school course. If the above results are not attained the parent may justly complain. If the teacher has such a definite purpose before him it may be expected that far better results can be secured and higher ideals reached. Having the purpose of the common school clearly in mind and the end to be aimed at before us, we may turn to a discussion of each of the individual subjects through which that purpose and that end will be secured. The plan pursued in the succeeding chapters is, first, a general statement of the aim to be reached in the subject under discussion; and second, a series of questions bearing upon that subject, logically arranged and sufficiently complete fully to illustrate the purpose sought. There will be ample references showing sources drawn from and also suggesting further material for such as are able to go deeper into any given theme. This plan, it is hoped, will serve to clarify educational work in the mind of the teacher, and at the same time be a source of information, instruction and help. CHAPTER II. READING. THE MOST important subject of the school course is reading in its broadest sense. The ability to read is the key to all future educational success. It opens the door to all knowledge and furnishes the individual with a means for future self-improvement. Literature, history, science, art, as well as a knowledge of passing events of the world, are revealed to him through this means in newspapers, magazines, and books. Hence, reading is first in importance in the work that the school undertakes. It is also first in point of time. The child begins to learn to read the first day he enters school, and the progress of his formal education can be measured at first by his progress in reading. He must possess this key to knowledge before he can enter other fields. The discussion of this question, and a proper understanding of the ends to be sought in reading must be considered of paramount importance. What are the ends to be sought in reading? I think that a twofold purpose must be in the mind of the teacher; namely, the form and the conUnt of. reading. Under /o?'m we include the correct articulation and pro- nunciation of words, proper inflection, and emphasis. The child must learn to pronounce the words instan- taneously and correctly at sight and with clear articula- tion. He must not need to spell out the word, but must grasp it as a whole. Whether the word or the idea IS comprehended first is not under consideration, but the READING 13 probabilities are that both are grasped simultaneously. In any case, the word and its meaning must both be known. Nor does the method of securing this result come under discussion here. Whatever the method employed, the aim must be to give the child a fluent, accurate, clear and natural pronunciation. There must also be a natural rendering of the sentence as a whole, giving proper emphasis and inflection so that the meaning will be clear to the hearer. This can be brought about only by a great deal of practice and drill. Natural and pleasant expression is likely to be obtained only when the child has comprehended the thought, which he, in turn, gives to others in the form of reading. Having overcome the mechanical difficulties, the atten- tion is turned more and more to the content^ or thought side of reading, which is by far the more important object to be sought. There is but little value in reading which is mere calling of words, however accurately they may be spoken or however pleasantly the sentence may be rendered. Hence the modern idea of reading calls for many things to read, rather than the constant and painful repetition of the same pieces as was the custom in the old time school and with the earlier reading books. The carrying out of this idea has led publishers to place many of the richest gems of literature within the reach of all, so that, while the child is learning to read, he may also lay the foundations of a good taste and knowledge of English and American literature. Instead of forming a love for trash he may come in contact with the very best that the language affords. Herein lies one of the greatest opportunities of the teacher. ^, It is as easy to form good habits of reading as to form bad ones, and the teacher would be seriously wanting in appreciation of his opportunity who failed to select from the abundance of 14 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK pure and suitable literature now within his reach, and lead his pupils to read and love it. A wise selection of literature will afford a content in the child's mind of pure and noble thoughts and do much in shaping his moral life. The child will also commit to memory many gems of literature at that period when memory is most retentive. With this foundation, laid in connection with his read- ing lessons, the child will know what is the best litera- ture, and have opened to him avenues of information and literary enjoyment which will be likely to influence his whole future life. To recapitulate, then, the aim to be sought in reading is to give the pupil the ability to read distinctly and with proper inflection, and to establish in him, by an abundance of pure and standard material a good literary taste and a knowledge of and liking for the great masters of English. Questions and Answers. /. What is reading? Reading is getting thought from the printed page. 2. Define reading as an art. Reading as an art is the interpretation and expression of thought, sentiment, and emotion as found in written or printed composition. J. Why do we read? To gain practical guidance in every day affairs; to be helped by the experiences of others; to share in the learning and wisdom of the past; to obtain pleasure, knowledge and moral uplift. /J.. What are the physical requisites for good reading ? READING 15 A well controlled and modulated voice, distinct articu- lation, clear enunciation, healthy and free respiration. 5. What mental eqidpnient does a good reader need? Keen perception, clear conception, vivid imagination, broad and genuine sympathy, strong imitative powers, well cultivated taste and judgment, artistic skill. 6. What is articulation ? Articulation is the utterance of the elementary sounds of a language, and of their combinations. y. What is the difference between enunciation and pronunciation ? Enunciation means the manner of uttering words; pronunciation is the utterance of the words in accord- ance with the laws of accent, sound, etc. 8. What are some of the most common errors in articulation ? The omission of the vowel sounds in unaccented syl- lables; the incorrect articulation or use of vowel sounds; dropping the sound of terminal letters; adding or omitting syllables; blending the ending of one word with the word following. g. How may such faults be remedied? By careful practice in the utterance of the elementary sounds, and a close observance of the phonetic analysis of words. 10. What is an elementary sound? An elementary sound is a simple, distinct sound. //. Name and define the classes of elementary sounds. Vocals, consisting of pure tones only. Subvocals, the obstructed sounds. Aspirates, sounds produced by the breath alone. i6 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 12. What is the standard of pronunciation ? Thcj ultimate standard of pronunciation for a language is the usage which prevails among the best educated portion of the people to whom the language is vernacu- lar, particularly those gifted as public speakers. 7j. What is accent ? Accent is the prominence given to one syllable over another in a word. I /J.. Name aiid illustrate kinds of accent. How indicated ? The primary, or strong accent; the secondary, or weak accent. The former is usually designated by a heavy accentual mark; the latter, by a light mark: as care'- worn', con'tradict'. 75. What of the laws of accent ? There is no definite law of accent for the English lan- guage. The tendency is to place the chief accent near to, or at, the beginning of a word. In many cases of two-syllable words the verb has the final accent and the noun or adjective the other: contest' (verb), con'test (noun). 16. What is emphasis f Emphasis is a special stress of voice upon one or more words of a sentence. 77. What is the object of emphasis ? The object of emphasis is to attract attention to some particular word, thus indicating that the idea to be con- veyed depends especially upon that word, 18. How are emphatic words distingtiishd in print f By using italics^ small capitals, or CAPITALS. 79. In what three ways may words be emphasised? By pronouncing the word with increased force; by inflection; by prolonging the vowel or liquid sound. READING 17 20. What are the two kinds of emphasis ? Define eacJi. When a word is emphasized simply to indicate the importance of an idea, the emphasis is said to be abso- lute. When there is an antithesis, expressed or implied, the emphasis is relative. 21. What is the value of emphasis in reading? Emphasis constitutes the most important feature in reading or speaking, and, if properly used, gives life and character to language. 22. What is necessary that a person inay properly ein- phasize what he is reading? A thorough understanding of the thoughts which the language is meant to convey, and a just appreciation of their relative values. 2^. What are inflections ? Inflections are the turns or slides in the voice, used in reading or speaking. 2^. Name^ define^ and illustrate kinds of inflections. The rising inflection or upward slide of the voice, marked ('). Are you hurt?' The falling inflection, or downward slide of the voice, marked f). I am not hurt.'^ The circumflex, a union of the rising and falling inflections, marked (A)- Is he old' or is he young ?^ He is old,^ not young/ 25. When should each be used? The falling inflection is generally used whenever the sense is complete. When the sense is incomplete or the meaning demands a pause, the rising inflection is used. The circumflex is used chiefly to indicate the emphasis of irony, doubt, supposition, or contrast. 26. What is a monotone ? i8 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOR' A monotone is an unvaried tone throughout a sentence or discourse. 2y. When is it permissible ? It may be used to express solemnity or sublimity of thought, or intensity of feeling. It is used, also when the entire sentence is emphatic, 28. What is modulation ? Modulation is the variation of sounds in speaking, caused by the proper use of tone, pitch, force, emphasis, and inflection, and prompted by the feelings and emo- tions which the subject inspires. 2g. Define pitch. Compass. Pitch is the highness or lowness of voice as related to a definite key. The range of the voice above and below this key-note is its compass. JO. What is force? Force is the loudness of the voice, or degree of energy, with which sounds are uttered. J 7. What is stress ? Stress is the manner in which force is applied. J2. What is movement ? Movement is the rate or speed of utterance. jj. Distinguish betwee^i quality and quantity. Quality has reference to the kind of sound; quantity to the volume of sound. The quantity and quality of tone should always correspond with the nature of the subject. j^. What is a pure tone ? A pure tone is a clear, smooth, flowing sound, in moderate pitch. It is adapted to the expression of solemn, serious, tranquil, descriptive, and didactic thought. READING 19 J5. What is the orotund quality ? It is the full, deep, round, pure tone of voice, adapted to the expression of sublime, pathetic, and reverential emotions. ^6. What is a climax ? A climax is a sentence, or succession of sentences, in which each idea rises in importance, force, or dignity above that which precedes it. It should be read with a gradual increase in intensity, and a change in pitch and movement. J/. What is a pause ? A suspension of the voice in reading or speaking. j<5*. Name and define the kinds of pauses. Grammatical pauses are those indicated by punctua- tion marks. Rhetorical pauses are suspensions of the voice for the purpose of emphasis, or to give clearer expression to what is read. Poetical pauses are used to make prominent the melody of the measure, and in rhyme, to allow the ear to appreciate the harmony of similar sounds. Caesural pauses are metrical breaks in poetry, demanded by the meaning. jp. What are rhetorical points ? Characters used to mark the divisions in composition. They are: the comma(,); semicolon (;); colon (:); period (.); interrogation point (?) ; exclamation point (!); dash ( — ) ; parenthesis ( ) ; brackets [ ] ; quotation marks (" "). /J.0, Name the etytnological points and tell for what used. ^The apostrophe (') used to mark the omission of a let- ter. The caret (A) to show the omission of a word. The diaeresis (••) to mark the separation of contiguous 20 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK vowels. Marks of quantity ( a a a ) to show the length of vowel sounds. Marks of accent — the grave(^), the acute (0, and the circumflex (a) The h3^phen (-) used to separate parts of compound words, or syllables. ^i. What are the points of reference ? The asterisk (*), dagger (f), double dagger (J), sec- tion (§), parallel (||), and paragraph (^). These marks are used to refer the reader to some other part or page of the book. ^2, Give rules for the use of the comma. The comma is used: (1) To separate a series of words or ohrases in the same construction: Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing onward through life he goes. (2) To separate introductory phrases and clauses from the word they modify: The boat having anchored, the passengers disembarked. (3) To separate short and closely connected mem- bers of compound sentences: I love my country, therefore I will defend her. (4) To separate a long complicated subject, or one ending in a verb, from its predicate: He who is not worried over trifles, is able to bear great misfortunes. (5) To separate non-restrictive phrases and clauses from the words they modify : Rising in his place, he addressed the chairman of the meeting. (6) To separate contrasted elements: We live in deeds, not years. (7) To separate appositive, parenthetical, or independent elements: He invented, it is said, more than one hundred machines. (8) To separate transposed words, phrases, and clauses: In whatever he undertakes, he succeeds. READING 21 (9) To separate a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence: Then Agrippa said unto Paul, ** Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian." (10) To show the ellipsis of a verb: You seek wealth, I, honor. 4.J. When should the semicolon be used? The semicolon is used: (1) To separate short, slightly connected sen- tences: The flowers bloom; the birds sing; all nature is glad. (2) Before as^ namely^ viz., introducing an exam- ple for illustration: A noun is a name; as, Mary, Tom. (3) Before an example introduced by for or but, and showing reason or contrast: Rejoice the soul of thy servant; for unto thee, O Lord, I lift my soul. (4) Before a series of expressions having a com- mon dependence: The speaker asserted that the people were oppressed; that they were overtaxed; and that they had no means of redress. ^/j.. When is the colon used? The colon is used: (1) After a formal introduction to a speech, a quotation, etc., or the address at the beginning of a letter: — Dear Sir: — ^ Please send, etc. (2) Between parts of a compound sentence in which semicolons have been used: We saw the shadov/ moving along the dial; we saw the home- ward bound peasants: so we turned our faces toward the city, leaving the mountains behind us. (3) In titles of books, etc. : A History of Gram- mar: A Complete Account of the Formation and Growth of the Language. 22 SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK ^5. What is the rule for the use of the comma ^ semicolon and colon in a sentence ? When pauses of three degrees of strength occur in a sentence, the weakest requires the comma, the stronger, the semicolon; and the strongest the colon. "There are visions of conquests, of splendor, and mirth. Floating over each drear winter's day ; But the tintings of Hope, on his storm-beaten earth. Will melt like the snowflakes away. ' ' 4.6. When is the period used? The period is used after complete sentences, titles, and abbreviations: The horse is lame. A book of verse. By Rev. Thos. Green. ^7. What other punctuation marks are used at the end of sentences ? The exclamation mark is used after an exclamatory- sentence: Alas, his fate is sealed! The interrogation point is used after an interrogative sentence: Where is my book? 4.8. In what way should the dictionary help in the study of reading ? The dictionary should be placed convenient for use and pupils encouraged to consult it freely. They should be taught to look up the meaning of all words whose meaning they do not know, and to depend upon the dictionary for help in spelling and pronunciation. 4.(). What instruction sJiould be given theinas to its use? They should be taught how to find words; the use of the diacritical marks, and the determination of correct pronunciation from these marks; where to find special words, as Scripture names, foreign phrases, biographical and geographical names, abbreviations etc. ; how to find the history and origin of words; how to determine the meaning of the word in the particular sense where it is used. READING 23 50. What are the purposes in teaching reading ? To enable the child to get the thought from the printed page and to give that thought to others. 5/. What knowledge should the teacher possess before attempti7ig to teach a child to read? He should know something of the child's home life and environment, with what classes of objects he is familiar, and what is his range of thought and language. ^2. What should precede the study of written word forrns ? Conversation and language lessons, b)^ which the child will become accustomed to his new environment, gain self-confidence, and learn to express his thoughts freely. Such lessons will also enable the teacher to understand the child better, and will show him the extent of the child's ideas and the limitations of his knowledge. 5J. What are the essentials of reading? Mastery of the form and sound of words; ability to pronounce new words; an understanding of the meaning of words; the power to picture the things which the words describe. ^5. Give some suggestions for first lessons in reading. Choose such sentences for the first lessons as possess vital interest for the child. Read the sentence to him and have him repeat it. Add other sentences bearing upon the same subject and read them in the same way. At first this will not be reading on the part of the child, but mere repetition. Very soon, however, he will learn to distinguish the words, and then to recognize them when placed in new relations. Such words should be used as are easiest to recognize, — not the shortest words, but nouns, adjectives, and action words that represent things with which the child 24 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK is familiar. A few such phrases as, I am, he was, etc., may be taught as a whole. These little lessons should be arranged as short stories and written in such a way as to arouse and hold the child's interest. After each practice lesson in reading, there should be a thorough drill in recognizing and pronouncing words. This work should be kept up until the child has acquired a working vocabulary of at least one hundred words. 55. What should be the order in teaching words to a child? A child should first hear the word, then pronounce it, then compare it with other words, afterwards distinguish its sounds, and finally separate it into its component letters. ^6. When should the sounds of letters be taught ? After the child has gained a small reading vocabulary, he should begin to compare the words he knows. He will readily see the resemblance between such words as fall and call, and will easily recognize other words with similar endings. Then he should be taught the sounds of the initial letters, singly and in combination with the sounds he already knows. 57. How long should the study of sou7id be continued? Through the first four or five years of school life, or until the child has mastered the sounds of the letters and can use this knowledge in recognizing and pronoun- cing new words. ^8. Should the diacritical marks be taught ? With the younger children, if these marks have been taught in connection with the key-word, they will be helpful. But children may be taught to pronounce cor- READING 25 rectly without them. With the older pupils who use the dictionary, they are quite necessary, and the complete list of them should be learned. 5p. What should be the result of this kind of word study ? By the use of the various phonograms which he has learned, the child should be able to pronounce readily all new words, without help from the teacher, and thus be able to master the lessons for himself. 60. Is a child who has gained this mastery of words able to read? He is not. This is one of the essentials of reading but not its aim. He has mastered the vehicle of thought when he has learned to pronounce words but he has not gained the thought itself. 61. After a child has learried to pronounce and recog- nize words^ what should he then learn ? Their meaning should be taught. As a rule, the first words which the child is taught are those with whose meaning he is familiar, and but little time need be spent upon this part of the work. But as he advances new words will be presented and he needs to be carefully taught their meaning, 62. To what should the first efforts of the teacher be directed^ ift beginning the teaching of a new reading lesson f He should seek to find out how much the child knows, how much he can find out for himself of what he does not know, and how much he needs to be instructed. <5j. Suggest some ways by which this may be done. All reading lessons should be preceded by conversation upon some topic of the lesson, with which the child is familiar. The pupil should talk, the teacher question, 26 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK and listen. In this way the interest of the child will be quickened and the teacher will learn where his knowl- edge is deficient. Before any attempt is made to read the lesson, all new words should be studied. Not the lists arranged in the text book, but those selected from the lesson by the pupil and the teacher. Such words should be mastered as to form and sound, then by skillful ques- tioning their meaning should be found out and learned. 64.. What should follozv tlie study of the ineaning of words ? The getting of the thought which the words are intended to convey. 6^. Illustrate how this may be done. Children should learn from the first that words are used to express ideas and that every word in a sentence has its own meaning and use. "My little white kittie is asleep on my knee; As white as the snow on the lillies is she. " The child reads this couplet. What does it tell him ? What is asleep? Where? Whose kitty? Why kitty instead of cat? How do you know it is small? What color is it? How white? Which word tells what we are talking about ? Which one tells what kitty is doing? Which one tells us how big kitty is? Which one tells us the color ? Which ones help us to know certainly about that color? Such questions will clarify the child's thought and lead him to see the value of the words. It will also lead the child to look for the thought words in other sentences and assist him in mastering: them. '& 66. When sliould a child be made to study for himself? From the ver)?- first he should be taught how to study and be required to do so to the limit of his ability. If READING 27 he has learned to recognize a few words, let him find those words in his book. If he has advanced farther, allow him to use all the knowledge he has. The most essential thing in all teaching is to train the child to self- activity — not to do for him, but to teach him to do for himself. 6j. What should follow the ''thought getting'' of the reading lesson ? Why ? The "thought giving." First, that the teacher may- discover what thoughts have been gained. Second, that these thoughts may be shared with others. 68. What is the basis of good oral reading? Good expression. 6g. Upon what is good expression dependent ? Upon the mastery of words as to form, pronunciation, and meaning; upon the mastery of the thought of the sentence ; upon the vividness of the reader's imagination ; upon his desire to impart his knowledge to others; and upon his personal interest m what he is reading. JO. In what ways may the imagination be strengthened? By apt questions; by the pupil's description of the pictures of the lesson as he sees them; by dramatization; by drawing of the pictures which the lesson suggests. 77. What is a good rule for choosing reading for children ? Always choose what is good that the little child may curly learn to love those things which are "pure, lovely, and of good report." Choose v/hat you like yourself, because you can best give to others what is best to you. Choose what the child likes, for we must begin at the child level, and lead him to higher planes of appreciation and thought. 28 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK '/2. Give a suggestive outline as to kind of reading and stories suited to children of various ages. Nature, or human experience is the basis of all litera- ture. The little child knows more of the former than of the latter, hence in arranging reading matter for him, we should choose such stories as appeal to his knowledge of the natural world, or his childish imagination. The character of the literature should change as the child advances, and should ultimately lead to his acquaintance with the world of nature and the world of human thought and feeling. The following general outline may be found helpful: First Year. — Fairy stories. Stories of Indian children. Stories of Joseph, Moses, and Daniel. These stories to be told by the teacher and reproduced by the child. Stories of the cat and dog. Stories based upon the child's observation of nature in the changing weather, germination of seeds, and similar subjects. Second Year. — Fairy stories. Stories of the Indians; of the Pilgrims, Biographical stories of Washington and Columbus. Story of Samuel and David. Stories of domestic animals; of common insects and birds. Literature. — Hiawatha's Childhood. Child stories from Dickens. Third Year. — Fairy stories. History stories of local interest. Stories of Colonial home life. Stories from the "Seven Little Sisters." Stories of the migration of birds; of their nest building. Stories of the squirrel and rabbit. Literature. — Bible stories. Hiawatha Blessing the Cornfields, and Hiawatha's Hunting. Stories from Dickens. Fourth Year, — ^Myths and legends of Greece; of our own country. History stories of local interest and READING 29 stories of pioneers. Biographical stories of inven- tors. Story of the life of Lincoln. Stories in connec- tion with study of grains, trees and insects. Literature. — Hiawatha's Canoe Building. Stories from Kipling's Jungle Books. "The Courtship of Miles Standish." Memorize "Barbara Frietchie," or some other historical poem. With such a foundation, pupils should now be ready for some of the choice literary products which form a part of the permanent literature of the world.. However, the lines of study and reading will be about the same as those of the first years of school life. First. — The study of myths. They are the record of the primitive life of the race, typify all its virtues, put meaning into all other knowledge, and are the foundation of all subsequent literature. Second. — ^The traditional stories and historical legends of the nations. The tales of chivalry, many of which are found in the ballads of various countries. Third. — Stories of history and biography. Hero stories of explorers, settlers, and pioneers. Biogra- phies of some of the great men, especially of our own land. Fourth. — Stories of American life and interests. Poems of history and stories founded upon historical events. Fifth. — The study of nature as interpreted by poetry and prose literature. These materials should be carefully selected and adapted to the needs and capa- bilities of the child. In the advanced grades, where history is taught, selec- tions from our own authors should be taught. Also such orations, poems, essays and songs, as are typical of our national life and progress, and tend to inspire and foster sentiments of patriotism and national pride. CHAPTER III. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE IN THE preceding chapter I have shown that litera- ture is to be closely connected with the work in reading. It now remains to suggest the character of works from which selections may be made. The questions and answers which follow outline not only the great works that have appeared in the English tongue, but also their authors, together with the periods in which they wrote. The student will thus find an historic and systematic arrangement whereby he may obtain a com- prehensive view of the whole field of English and Ameri- can literature. To such as may desire to obtain a wider knowledge of this subject than is possible in connection with the read- ing lesson, the plan followed in these questions and an- swers, together with the valuable information furnished, will be an excellent guide. Only a skeleton of the work of this vast field is given, and this is all that is possible here. No student should be content with a study of this mere outline. The skeleton must be clothed with flesh by turning to biographies of the authors named, and to their productions. Literary taste is acquired by read ing literature, and the kind of taste acquired will depend upon the character of the literature studied, as I have already shown. Let the reader, then, in addition to a careful study of the material here given, enter into such a field as his taste LITERATURE 31 demands and pursue that until the desiivid result has been obtained. The outline here presented should aid in a systematic and thorough knowledge of English liter- ature. The multiplication of libraries abundantly sup- plied with standard works makes such study possible. It is suggested that a note-book should be kept, in which may be entered quotations, facts, outlines, and other material worthy of remembering or referring to, citing page and edition. The student who follows this plan will be saved from a great deal of waste effort, and will soon come into an accurate knowledge of the riches of literature that have been accumulating for many cen- turies like a mighty stream, and to which the noblest and greatest minds of the world have contributed. Until inspiration and power have been gained by such study and such acquaintance, the end to be sought in literature has not been reached. Questions and Answers. /. What is Literature ? Literature, in a general sense, includes all compositions in writing or print which preserve the results of observa- tion, thought or fancy. In its more restricted sense, it excludes all technical works, and embraces only such subjects as aim to please, and awaken thought, feeling, or imagination. 2. What are the two forms of literature ? Poetry and prose. J. What is poetry ? Poetry comprises whatever embodies the products of imagination and fancy, and appeals to these powers in others, as well as to the finer emotions and the sense of beauty. 32 SEELBY'S QUESTION BOOK ^. Name and define the divisions of poetry. Give an ex- ample of each. (1) An Epic is a narrative or heroic poem, in which the deeds of some real or fictitious hero are narrated in an elevated style; as, Milton's '*Paradise Lost." (2) Dramatic composition (either poetry or prose) is written in the form of dialogue. The two divisions of the drama are: tragedy, which usually deals with the^ trials and sufferings of mankind; and comedy, which ex- hibits merely the humors and follies of the race for the purpose of exciting laughter; as "Hamlet" (tragedy). "Twelfth Night" (comedy). (3) Lyric poetry especially expresses the individual emotions of the poet, and is suitable for music. It in- cludes odes, songs, hymns, ballads and elegies; as, Shel- ley's "Skylark," Tennyson's "In Memoriam." (4) Pastoral poetry is descriptive of rural life; as, Whittier's "Snow Bound." (5) A Narrative poem is a story in verse; as, Scott's "Lady of the Lake." (6) Didactic poetry is instructive in its character; as, Bryant's "Thanatopsis." 5, Define prose. Prose is the ordinary language used in speaking or writing. Coleridge defines poetry and prose thus; Prose — words in their best order ; poetry — the best words in the best order. 6. Define and illustrate the divisions of prose. (1) History is a recital of the important events of the past, so arranged as to show the connection of causes and effects, and to give an analysis of motive and action; as, Macaulay's "History of England." (2) Biography is an account of the life of an indi- vidual; as, Boswell's "Life of Johnson." LITERATURE 33 (3) Fiction is a prose work of the imagination in nar- rative form : Dickens, Scott and Thackeray wrote the best works of fiction. (4) Philosophical works are those which seek to estab- lish a truth. They include scientific, theological, and metaphysical writings; as, Mill's "Principles of Political Economy." (5) An Essay is a brief and informal expression of an author's own feelings or opinions on a subject; as, Car- lyle's "Essay on Burns." y. Give a brief account of the early inhabitants of England. The most ancient inhabitants of the British Isles were the Celts, who belonged to the Aryan race. In the first century of the Christian era, the central and southern part of England became a Roman province. When the Roman soldiers were withdrawn, about the middle of the fifth century, the unconquered tribes of the north invaded southern England. The southern Britons, unable to resist their warlike kinsmen, called to their aid their neighbors across the sea — the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. The northern tribes were driven back, but the guests, pleased with the country, decided to conquer the southern Britons and settle there. This they did and England, although invaded by the Danes who sought to conquer the entire land, remained under Saxon rule until its conquest by the Normans in 1066. 8. What effect had these invasions upon the language of England ? Early England had no national language. After the Anglo-Saxon conquest the language assumed a more defi- nite form. With the coming of the Normans many French and Latin words were introduced. Norman- French became the court language, while Anglo-Saxon 34 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK remained the speech of the common people. Aoout the middle of the twelfth century, the two languages began to coalesce. This marks the beginning of our modern English language. p. What is the first known poem of the English language? When is it supposed to have been written ? "Beowulf" is the earliest epic poem of the Teutonic language. It was probably composed by the Saxons who lived before the invasion of England. However, the only manuscript preserved was written not earlier than the tenth century. It was written in Danish, probably by a monk, who added some interpolations to the origi- nal Pagan story. 10. Tell something of this story of ' ^Beowulf. " The scenes of the story are laid in Denmark and Sweden. The hero, Beowulf, goes with a company of warriors to rid his friend Hrothgar, King of Denmark, of a horrid monster, Grendel. After a long contest Beowulf kills the monster, and also pursues and slays Grendel's mother, who sought to avenge the death of her son. He receives rich gifts from Hrothgar and returns to his own country — the land of the East Goths. He becomes king of this country and rules it for many years but dies from venom received in conflict with a fiery dragon which infested his own land, and which he slew. 11. Who was Ccedmon ? Caedmon was the first Anglo-Saxon poet. In the seventh century he wrote a "Metrical Paraphrase of the Scriptures." 12. What later English poem deals with the same subject ? Have we ajiy reason for supposing this early poem, in- fluenced the writer of the seventeenth century ? The poem of Caedmon seems in many ways like a skel- LITERATURE 35 eton of Milton's great epic, "Paradise Lost." The manu- script of this early poem was discovered and published in 1655. Milton's masterpiece was begun three years later. /J. What of the writings of Bede and Alfred? Bede wrote in Latin a "History of the English Church" and a "Life of Casdmon." Alfred translated Latin works into English to be used especially as text books. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was begun in his reign, and continued until 1154, the end of the Anglo-Saxon period of English Literature. i/j.. In what way is the twelfth century noted in Eng- lish history and literature ? The English nation made many advances in learning and national growth. Oxford and Cambridge Universi- ties were established and social and domestic refinement followed. In this century were discovered, in Brittany, the Legends of King Arthur, and the Eddas — the tra- ditions of the Gothic race — were collected in Iceland. Both of these were valuable literary acquisitions and be- came the foundation of many romances and ballads. 75. Who was the first English scientist ? Roger Bacon, the first English scientist, made many valuable discoveries, especially in optics. His works were written in Latin. 16. What works of this time mark the progress of the language ? The "Brut d'Angletree" of Layamon, is a fabulous his- tory of England. It is a specimen of almost pure Saxon. The "Ormulum" is a poetic version of the Scriptures, by Orm. It shows the gradual union of the Saxon and Norman-French languages. 77. Who is called the ^'■Father of English Poetry V^ Tell something of his life and times. 36 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Geoffrey Chaucer, the "Father of English Poetry,* lived during the latter part of the fourteenth century This was the age of intellectual regeneration throughout Europe. Chaucer had visited Italy, had met Petrarch, and had read the stories of Boccaccio. His writings show the gay, childlike character, of the man and his keen appreciation and great love for nature. He was the first author to use the "King's English" and his success compelled other writers in England to use it in preference to the Latin and the French. J 8. Give a brief outline of his most famous work. His best known work is "Canterbury Tales." A company of pilgrims about to make a pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas a'Becket at Canterbury, assemble at Tabard Inn. It is proposed that each member of the company shall relate two stories going and two coming, in order to while away the tedium of the journey. These travelers are from all walks of life, and the stories which the poet puts into their mouths give an excellent picture of the life of his time. ig Who were the contemporaries of Chaucer ? John Wycliffe, a learned preacher, called the "Morn- ing Star of the Reformation," and the author of the first English translation of the Bible; William Langland who wrote the allegorical poem of "Piers Plowman; John Gower, the friend of Chaucer, and the author of "Con- fessio Amantis;" Sir John Mandeville, who wrote a book of travels. 20. What four noted historical events followed the time of Chaucer f (1) The invention of printing, and its introduction into England by William Caxton. The first book printed in England (1474) was "Game and Play of Chess." (2) The discovery of America. , LITERATURE 37 (3) The Wars of the Roses. (4) The Protestant Reformation in England under Henry VlIL 21. What kind of poetry belo7igs to this period? The stirring English ballads belong to the fifteenth century. They recount the deeds of the warriors and outlaws, and picture the rude life of the time. The "Ancient Ballad of Chevy Chase," "The Battle of Otter- bourne," and the various poems on Robin Hood, are among the best known examples of ballad poetry. 22. Who were the authors of this time ? John Skelton, the first "Poet Laureate," was a writer of satirical poetry. Sir Thomas Wyatt, a lyric poet of the time of Henry vni. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who was the first writer to use blank verse. Sir Thomas More, the most distinguished prose writer of his time, and the author of "Utopia." Sir Thomas Malory, who collected the legends of King Arthur. 2j. What period is known as the Golden Age of Eng- lish L iter at II re'' ? The time embraced in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I, and Charles I, is known as the Elizabethan, or Golden Age of English Literature. 2/}.. For what two tJmigs is this age noted? For the translation of the Bible, and the rise and de- velopment of the English drama. 2^. What translations of the Bible have been made into English ? In 1380 John Wycliffe translated the New Testament, and his followers added the Old Testament. 38 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Tyndale's New Testament was printed in 1525. In 1535 Miles Coverdale translated and published the first English version of the whole Bible. Matthew's Bible was published in 1537 "by the king's license." The Great Bible, or Cranmer's, as it was called, be- cause Archbishop Cranmer wrote a preface to it, ap- peared in 1539. The Geneva Bible was published in 1560 by the Eng- lish Protestant refugees in Geneva. The Bishop's Bible appeared in 1568. The Rheims-Douay version was made by the Catholics and published in 1582 and 1609. King James' Bible, known as the Authorized Version, was made in 1611. A revised version by English and American scholars was completed in 1881. 26. What was the earliest form of the drama ? As early as the eleventh century, representations of Bible scenes, known as Miracle Plays, or Mysteries, were given. These were employed by the church to instruct the ignorant in Bible history and the tenets of the Chris- tian religion. The Moral Plays, which succeeded the Mysteries, were not based upon religious subjects, but were allegorical representations of moral qualities. Following these came the Interludes. They were in the form of dialogue, were short and merry, and were generally played in the intervals of some festivity. The Interlude was the first step toward the English comedy. s 2y. What was the first comedy ? The first drama ? The first English comedy, "Ralph Royster Doyster," was written by Nicholas Udall, about the time of the accession of Queen Elizabeth. *'Gorboduc," the first LITERATURE 39 English tragedy was written by Thomas Sackville and acted in 1562 for the entertainment of Queen Elizabeth. 28. Who was the greatest dramatist ? Tell briefly of his work. William Shakespeare was the greatest dramatist of this and all ages. His first poems were very meritorious although not dramatic. But it is upon his wonderful dramas that his reputation rests. His plays are based upon historical and legendary subjects and upon Italian romances and older plays. 2g. How many plays did Shakespeare write ? Naine three tragedies^ three comedies^ and three historical plays. Shakespeare wrote thirty-seven dramas. "Othello," "Macbeth," and "Hamlet" are tragedies; "As You Like It," "Twelfth Night," and "Midsummer Night's Dream" are comedies; "Henry VIII," "Richard III," and "King John" are historical. JO. What writings have had most influence upon the permanency of the English language ? The common version of the Bible made in 1611, and the writings of Shakespeare, have had a powerful and lasting influence upon the language. Its form is prac- tically the same as it was more than three centuries ago and its permanency is due to these two works. J/. Who were the other dramatists of the Elizabethan Age? Christopher Marlowe, the greatest dramatist before Shakespeare. John Lyly, the author of "Euphues, " a work which greatly affected the language of the time. Ben Jonson, second only to Shakespeare, succeeded Daniel as poet-laureate. He wrote "Every Man in His Hum- or," "The Sad Shepherd," etc. He was the most learned dramatist of his age and did much to give the drama its 40 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK proper direction. Beaumont and Fletcher, Massinger, Shirley, the last of the Elizabethan dramatists, and many others produced dramas of varying merit during this period. ^2. Who was the greatest of the Elizabethan poets ? What was his greatest work ? Edmund Spenser (1553-1599) was the second of Eng- land's great poets. The "Faerie Queen," his most fa- mous poem, was dedicated to Queen Elizabeth, and typi- fied her splendid reign. jj. Who were some of the other poets of this time ? Daniel, Drayton, Joseph Hall the first English satirist, Herrick, Carew, Lovelace and Suckling. J/. Who was the first English philosopher ? Name his principal works. Francis Bacon was the most brilliant scholar of his time. His greatest work was the "Novum Organum." Others were "The Advancement of Learning," "Es- says," and some historical and political writings. J5. Mention other prose writers of this age. Sir Philip Sidney, whose life has been of more interest and benefit to the world than his writings. He wrote "Arcadia" and the "Defence of Poesy." Sir Walter Raleigh, courtier, soldier, explorer, and writer, was the author of a "History of the World," and of several poems. Roger Ascham, the learned tutor of Elizabeth, wrote "Toxophilus" and "The Schoolmaster." Richard Hooker, the greatest theologian of his time, wrote "Ecclesiastical Polity," a defense of the church of England against Puritanism. John Knox, the founder of Presbyterianism, was a prominent figure at this time. He wrote the "History of the Reformation in Scotland." LITERATURE 41 j6. What were the characteristics of the Puritan Age? This was a time of fierce political and religious con- troversy. Few works were produced except such as re- flected the character of the age. J/. Who was the greatest writer of this time ? John Milton (1608-1674). J 6*. Into what three periods may his literary life be divided? Name some of his best works. The first period, previous to 1640, was the time when he wrote his early poems, — "11' Penseroso, " " L' Allegro, " the "Masque of Comus, " and others. The second period of twenty years may be called the period of his prose works. During this time he gave to his country his time, talents, and eyesight. He wrote "Areopagitica or Plea for Unlicensed Printing," the "Image Breaker," "Defense of the People of England," and many other books and pamphlets bearing upon the political and religious controversies of the times. After the downfall of the Commonwealth and the res- toration of the Stuarts, Milton retired from political life. During this, the third period, he wrote his great epic, "Paradise Lost." Soon after, "Paradise Regained" was written, and in the last years of his life he wrote the sacred drama of "Samson Aofonistes." jg. Who were tJie prose writers of this time ? Jeremy Taylor the great Cavalier theologian, who wrote the "Rule and Exercise of Holy Living and Dying." The three distinguished Non-conformist divines — ■ Richard Baxter, the author of "The- Saints' Everlasting Rest;" John Bunyan, who wrote "Pilgrim's Progress;" 42 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK and George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends. Izaak Walton, whose chief work is the "Complete Angler." ^o. Who are called the four great 7nasters of English foetry ? Chaucer, Spenser, Shakespeare, Milton. /J.I. What was the character of the Age of the Restora- tion ? Corruption and vice reigned in court, literature was debased, the drama was corrupt, and the authors catered to the false tastes and low ideals of the ruling classes. /J.2. Who was the leading writer of this ti^nef What did he write? John Dryden, who founded, in England, the artificial or critical school of writing, was the leading author of the Restoration period. He wrote poems, essays, and dramas. His best drama is the ''Indian Emperor.** ^'Alexander's Feast," "The Hind and Panther," and "Absalom and Achitophel" are his best known poems. ^j. What two men wrote diaries that picture the times vf Charles II? John Evelyn and Samuel Pepys. /J.4.. Who wrote ^^Hudibras ?'' What was its character ? "Hudibras" was a satire upon the Puritans, and was written by Samuel Butler. ^5. What eminent divine denounced the corruption of the dramas of Drydeji^ Wycherly and Congreve ? Jeremy Collier openly attacked the corruption of the stage. In his "Short View of the Profaneness and Im- morality of the English Stage," he strongly denounced these authors. 4.6. Who were the scientists of this time ? LITERATURE 43 Robert Boyle, who' gained for himself a high reputa- tion in experimental philosophy. Sir Isaac Newton, the greatest scientist of the age, and the author of "Princi- pia. " John Locke, who by his "Essay on Human Under- standing" first popularized the study of mental science. Locke was also one of the greatest English philosophers. ^7. Give dates of the A ugustan Age ? The Augustan Age of English Literature includes the reigns of Queen Anne and George L (1700-1727). 4.8. What characterized the writings of the time ? It was an age of superficial refinement, not in morals and character, but in manners and language. Poetry did not thrive because the age was too keen and critical, but the prose writings possessed a marked degree of ex- cellence. 4.g. Who were the chief authors of this period? Alexander Pope, the professed follower of Dryden, was the chief of the Artificial Poets. His best known works are the "Essay on Criticism," "Essay on Man," "Rape of the Lock," and a "Translation of Homer." Joseph Addison was a genial, polished writer of refined tastes and instincts. He was the originator of the periodical essay. In conjunction with Steele he pub- lished the "Spectator," a magazine devoted to literary discussions, and thoughts on morals and manners. Richard Steele was Addison's life-long friend and his associate in literary work. - His principal writings were the essays published in the "Tatler, " "Spectator," and "Guardian." Jonathan Swift was noted for his satire. His chief works are, "The Tale of the Tub," and "Gulliver's Travels." Daniel DeFoe the most independent writer of his time, is best known as the author of "Robinson Crusoe." 44 SEELE Y'S Q UES TION BOOK 50. Tell something of the Age of Dr. Johnson ? This is one of the most interesting periods in literature and history. It was the time of Burke and Pitt. It saw the establishment of the British empire in India, and the independence of the American colonies. It was an age when patronage had ceased and public taste had not begun to demand literature. Hence the writers of the time had to struggle with poverty and adversity. The writings of the day still bore Pope's artificial stamp, but were characterized by greater sincerity and merit. 5/. Who was the cefiter of the Londojt literary world of the Eighteenth Century ? Dr. Samuel Johnson was the most unique character of his time. He was conservative, narrow and prejudiced, yet honest, earnest, and grand in his way. His princi- pal works were the "Dictionary of the English Lan- guage," "Rasselas," and the "Lives of the Poets." He is best remembered for his conversations. ^2. Who were the poets of this period? Thomas Gray, whose fam^; as in phonograph, tough. K has four substitutes, hard c^ q, ch, and gh ; as in chronic, bouquet, choral, lough. 5 has two substitutes, soft c, and z; as in city, quartz. T has one substitute, ed when final after an aspirate ; as in blessed. Fhas two substitutes, /and/^; as in of, Stephen. PFhas one substitute u\ as in quick. The consonant jF has one substitute i; as in million. Z has three substitutes s, c and x\ as in was, sacrifice, xylophone. 5J. What is a word? A word is the sign of an idea. 5^. How are words classed as to form ? How^ as to origin ? ♦Writers differ greatly on this subject. The list given is based upon that found in Irish's Orthography. 78 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK Words are classed as to form, as simple and compound words. As to origin, as primitive and derivative words. 55. What is a simple word? A simple word is a single word, either primitive or derivative; as book, orator. ^6. What is a compound word? A compound word is made up of two or more simple words; as, housewife, alehouse. 57. What is a primitive word? A primitive word is one not derived from any other word in the language; as, strong. 58. What is a derivative word? A derivative word is one formed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to a primitive word; as, stronger. 5p. Define prefix^ suffix^ root word. A prefix is a letter or syllable joined to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning. A suffix is a letter or syllable joined to the end of a word to modify its meaning. A root word is a word from which other words are formed. 60. How are words divided according to syllables ? Words are divided according to syllables into mono- syllables or words of one syllable; dissyllables, or words of two syllables; trisyllables, or words of three syllables; polysyllables, or words of four or more syllables. 61. Give the leading rules for the division of words into syllables. Rule I. The members of a compound word form sepa- rate syllables; as mill-stone. Rule II. A diphthong, digraph or trigraph must not be separated into syllables; as bu-reau, rain. ORTHOGRAPHY 79 Rule III. Two vowels coming together but sounded separately belong to separate syllables; as sci-ence, a-eri-al. Rule IV. Prefixes and suffixes are generally separated from the body of the word; as con-duct-or. Rule V. When a single consonant comes between two sounded vowels it naturally joins the following vowel; as, fla-vor. Rule VI. When two or more consonants, capable of beginning a syllable, come between two sounded vowels, all may be joined to the following vowel, or one may be joined to the preceding vowel; as se-cret, ves-per. Rule VII. When two or more consonants not capable of beginning a syllable, come between sounded vowels, part, but not all of them, are joined to the preceding vowels; as min-strel. Rule VIII. In writing and printing, no syllable is separable which does not contain a vowel. 62. Name and define the two kinds of spelling. Phonetic spelling is uttering in order the phonic ele- ments of which a word is composed. Orthographic spelling is the naming or writing, in proper order, of the letters of a word. 6j. Give the principal rules for spelling. Rule I. Final silent e is dropped when a syllable be- ginning with a vowel is added to a word, but is retained if the added syllable begins with a consonant; as, live, living; live, lively. Rule II. In monosyllable ending in /, /, or s^ the final letter is doubled if preceded by a single vowel; as hill. Rule III. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a 8o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK single vowel, double the final consonant when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added; as, begin, beginning. Rule IV. In monosyllables ending with hard r, k is added; as, clock. Rule V. When a suffix is added to a word ending in j/ preceded by a consonant, the j^ is changed to i\ as lively, livelier. Rule VI. Compound words usually retain the spelling of the simple words of which they are composed; as, watchword. 6^. Define and give exa^nples of synonyms. Synonyms are words which have nearly the same meaning and therefore may be often used interchange- ably; as empty, vacant; hasten, expedite, hurry. 6^. What are homonyms ? Illustrate. Homonyms are words having the same sound but dif- fering in meaning; as clime, climb; air, ere, heir. 66. Give the rules for the use of capital letters. Capital letters are used : [1) To begin the first word of every sentence. [2) To begin all proper names. [3) To begin all titles of honor. [4) In writing the pronoun /and the interjection O. ;5) To begin the first word of every line of poetry. ;6) To begin the names of objects personified. [7) To begin appellations of the Deity. [8) To begin names of the days of the week, and of the months. [9) To begin direct quotations. (10) To begin words derived from proper names. (11) To begin chief words of titles of books. (12) To begin words of special importance, titles of honor or office, etc. ORTHOGRAPHY 8i 6j. Give a list of the most common prefixes. English — a=on or in; a-live, a-board after=:behind; after-thought be=to make; be-numb for=against; for-bid fore=:before; fore-arm mid = middle; mid-night mis= wrong; mis-shapen out = beyond; out- ride over=above, in excess; over-step un=not; un-happy under=beneath; under-stand with=against; with-hold Latin — a, ab, abs=from; a-vert, ab-solve ad (ac, ap, at, etc.)^to; ac-cept amb, am = about; am-biguous ante, anti=: before; anti-cipate bis, bi = twice; bi-sect bene = well; bene-fit circum = around; circum-scribe com, con=:::together; com-mand contra, counter=against; contra-diet de=down; de-scent dis, di, dif=:apart; dis-perse ex, e, ef=from; ex-pend en=in, on; en-trap in = in; in-spect in^not; in-competent inter=between; inter-cede mal=ill; mal-treat non=not; non-sense ob=against; ob-struct 82 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK pene, pen=almost; pen-insula per=through; per-mit post^after; post-pone pre = before; pre-cede pro=forward; pro-gress pro= instead of; pro-noun re=back; re-turn retro=backwards; retro-grade se, sed=apart; sed-ition semi=half; semi-annual sub, subter=under; sup-press, subter-fuge super, sur=:above; super-scription trans=across; trans-mit un, uni=:one; una-nimous vice=instead of; vice-roy Greek — a, an= without; an-archy ana=up, through; ana-lysis anti=:against; anti-dote apo=:away; apo-state archi=chief; archi-tect auto=:self; auto-mobile cata=over; cata-log dia=through; dia-gonal dis, di = twice; di-pthong dys=ill; dys-entery eu, ev = well; eu-logy hemi=half; hemi-sphere hy per = over; hyper-critical hypo=under; hypo-crite mono=alone; mono-poly pan=all; pan-orama par, para=beside; par-allel poly = many; poly-gon pro= before; pro-phet ORTHOGRAPHY 83 syn = with; syllable tele = far; tele-phone 68. Give a list of the most common suffixes. English — ar, er=doer; bak-er dom = condition; free-dom en = made of; gold-en er=:more; cold-er ern=: pertaining to; west-ern est=most; cold-est fold=times; two-fold ful=fullof; hope-ful hood = state of; child-hood ish=like; girl-ish less= without; hope-less ly=like; man-ly ness=state of being; kind-ness ship = office of; judge-ship some=full of; lone-some y = belonging to; rock-y Latin — able = capable of; peace-able acity, acy=quality; loqu-acity an = belonging to; Greci-an ance=state of being; endur-ance at=one who; deleg-ate ent=onethat; resid-ent fy=to make; puri-fy ice= the thing that; just-ice il=quality; gent-ile ion = state of being; connect-ion ite=one who; favor-ite ment:=act of; judg-ment mony=:state of being; matri-mony 84 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK or=onewho; invent-or ory=:place where; laborat-ory ous=fullof; danger-ous ple=^fold; multi-pie tude==state of being ; magni-tude ty=state of being; plen-ty Greek — ac, ic=pertaining to; Homer-ic archy, cracy=government; mon-archy graphy=writing; tele-graphy ics=:science of; econom-ics ise=to make; adver-tise ism=doctrine; Method-ism ist=:one who; evangel-ist logy=science of ; geo-logy French — age=:state of being ; lugg-age ee=one to whom ; mortgag-ee eer=one who; engin-eer ery=condition ; rival-ry ette, let=little; statu-ette, rivu-let 6q. Give some of the derivatives of the root ''''act,'" act=to do or make. act-or=one who acts. act-ion=:the process of acting. act-ive=:full of action. act-ively=in an active manner. act-ivity=:state of action. act-lessr=without action. act-ual=:involving an act. act-uate=to incite to action. counter-act=to act against. en-act=to make by law. ex-act=to make or take from. ORTHOGRAPHY 85 ex-action=a taking from. ex-actly=in a correct manner. re-act ; to act against. re-en- act to make over. 70. Make a /ist of the most common abbreviations. A. M. . Before noon. Ave. Avenue. A. M . Master of Arts. A. B. Bachelor of Arts. A. D, In the year of Our Lord Amt. Amount. Agt. Agent. Acct. Account. Ans. Answer. Adj. Adjective. Adv. Adverb. Apr. April. Aug. August. Bal. Balance. Bbl. Barrel. B. C. Before Christ. Bro. Brother. Capt. Captain. Col. Colonel. Chap. Chapter. c. 0. D. Collect on Delivery. Cr. Credit. Ct. < Cent. Cwt. Hundred weight. Dec. December. Dem. Democrat. Dept. Department. Diet. Dictionary. Do. Ditto. 86 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Dol. Dollar. Dr. Debtor. Dr. Doctor. Esq. Esquire. Etc. And so forth. Ex. Example. Elec. Electricity. Eng. England. Feb. February. Fern. Feminine. Fri. Friday. Ft. Foot or fort. Fut. Future. F. O. B. Free on board. Gen. General. Gent, . Gentleman. Geo. George. Geog . Geography. Gov. Governor. Hdki :. Handkerchief. Hhd. Hogshead. Hon. Honorable. Interj. Interjection. Jan. January. J. P. Justice of the Peace. Jul. July. Jr. Junior. Lb. Pound. LL. D. Doctor of Laws. Long. Longitude. Mag Magazine. M. Noon. Mar. March. Mas. Masculine. M. C. Member of Congress ORTHOGRAPHY 87 Mr. Mister. Messrs. Gentlemen. Mrs. Mistress. Nat. Natural. Naut. Nautical. N. B. Take notice. No. Number. Obj. Objective. Oct. October. Ph. D. Doctor of Philosophy. P. M. Afternoon. P. M. Postmaster. P. O. Post Office. P. S. Postscript. Plu. Plural. Pk. Peck. Prof. Professor. Pt. Pint. Ques. Question. Qt. Quart. R. R. Railroad. Rep. Representative. Rep. Republican. Rev. Reverend. Sat. Saturday. Sun. Sunday. Sec. Secretary. Sing. Singular. Sr. Senior. S. S. Sunday School. St. Saint, Street, Strait. Subj. Subject. Supt. Superintendent. Sept. September. Tues, Tuesday. 88 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Thurs. Thursday. U. S. United States. Wed. Wednesday. Yd. Yard. /I CHAPTER V. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. T IS argued by many that if the child is brought up in an environment where he is taught to speak cor- rect English he will never need to study formal grammar. No doubt it is a great advantage to begin life under such favorable circumstances, that is, in a home where only pure speech is heard, but such homes are rare. It is possible for parents to hedge their chil- dren about with barriers that protect them from intel- lectual as well as moral evils, but this cannot continue indefinitely. They must come in contact with others who have been less favored, they must enter life in busi- ness and social relations, and must be prepared to meet conditions as they find them. It is not sufficient to possess the habit of using correct language, though it will readily be admitted that this is the most important end to be reached, but the child must learn why his lan- guage is correct, must know the grammar of his native tongue. This will doubly fortify him in his speech and his written composition. The teacher must exercise great care to secure correct language from his pupils, in season and out of season, in every subject of instruction, and from the beginning of the school course. Landon says, "The study of grammar brings into relief and fixes in the pupil's mind a standard of accurate usage, fortifies him against the influence of bad examples by making clear the nature of wrong forms and faulty constructions, and renders his imitation of what is cor- 90 SEELE Y'S Q UES TION BOOK rect more certain, rapid, and intelligent."* Not only is grammar essential to the understanding and use of the language, it has also a great disciplinary value. Aside from its utilitarian purpose, it is an important educa- tional means. We may ask, What must the teacher have before him as the end to be sought in this department of education? AVhat shall the teacher endeavor to accomplish with his pupils? In general, we may say that the end to be sought is the power habitually to use the English language with accuracy and fluency, whether spoken or written. This power should become so completely a habit that even in examinations and other supreme tests correct language will be used quite unconsciously. Thus the whole strength of the pupil can be given to the thought, to the answer demanded, and not to the expressing of that an- swer. This habit can be secured only through constant watchfulness on the part of the teacher. It is expected that the child shall employ correct English in every school exercise until the habit becomes fixed. There are three things to be taken into account in training the child to this power; namely, language les- sons, grammar, and composition. Let us study the function of each. I. Language Lessons. Formal grammar should be preceded by language lessons, which should begin upon the child's entrance to school and continue for four or five years. This work should gradually pass from the informal to the systematic until the child is ready to take up grammar, which is the formal study of language. According to Dr. White, there are two ends to be sought in language lessons: 1st, "Facility in the expression of one's knowledge," and 2d, "Skill in the use of the written forms of one's mother ♦"Teaching and Class Management," p. 412. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 91 tongue."* The child is led to talk about things familiar to him, suitable stories are told to him which he repro- duces, songs and poems are committed to memory, care being taken to explain the meaning of unfamiliar words. Nature Study will suggest an abundance of material for conversation and composition. Pictures may be ob- served and orally described, afterwards furnishing themes for original compositions. Biography and his- tory will also suggest material. In this connection letter-writing will receive attention, and capitalization, punctuation, and abbreviations will be given considera- tion. Through dictation exercises the child is taught the written forms of language and their use. While this is being done the child is gaining a vocabu- lary, and is also learning to use his language correctly and fluently. Besides this he will gain some insight into the simpler forms of grammar, such as the parts of speech and the construction of the simple sentence. The child can comprehend the terms noun or verb as easily as he can comprehend the terms name or action word. The necessity for his learning this material thus early becomes more apparent when we remember the large proportion of children who leave school before they reach their twelfth year. 2. Grammar. We have shown that the unconscious absorption of the principles of language will not suffice. Attention must be directed to the science and art of language. "Eng- lish grammar has an important function in school train- ing, and no other study can take its place," says Dr. White. He adds further that it is not a child's study, and believes that in a twelve-year course about half the time should be devoted to language lessons and half to formal grammar. The purpose of grammar is to furnish *"Art of Teaching," p. 219. 92 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK a standard whereby one may be sure as to the correctness of the English employed, whether spoken or written; to train the power of analytical judgment; to discipline the intellectual powers; to cultivate a taste for and apprecia- tion of the best thoughts that have been expressed in our tongue as presented in literature; and to systematize the child's knowledge of the forms of language. Much of grammar is abstract and therefore it should not be pre- sented to the child too early. Landon says, "Grammar is usually the child's first introduction to abstract think- ing." J. Composition. Composition goes hand in hand with the study of language lessons and grammar. Landon very clearly remarks that, "The teaching of compositions in school should be directed to secure the writing of plain, straightforward English prose, free from error and ob- scurity." He further shows that the ends to be sought are naturalness and simplicity, correctness, clearness, directness and force. Many teachers make the mistake of expecting pupils to write about things concerning which they know nothing. Letter-v/riting, reproduction of stories, biography, history, description of pictures and of individual experiences, such as visits, trips, etc., use of the facts obtained from nature study, will furnish an abundance of material quite suitable for composition work in all grades. The proper employment of composi- tion will strengthen all other language study. Indeed, no good work in grammar can be conducted without these written exercises. And it will also be interesting to the children who love to tell with pencil or pen as well as by vocal utterance. Composition thus taught will not be a bugbear or dread to children, but will be a con- stant source of delight and profitable instruction. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 93 Questions and Answers. 1. What is language ? Language is the name given to any means of express- ing or communicating thoughts or feelings. 2. WJiat is grainmar ? Grammar is a record of the forms and construction of any language as used by its best speakers and writers. J. Define grafnmar as an art. As a science. As an art, grammar is the ability to read, write, and speak a language correctly. As a science, grammar is a systematic account of the principles and usages of a language with especial regard to the inflection of its parts of speech and their construc- tion in sentences. /J.. What is English graminar ? English grammar teaches of the principles and usages of the English language. 5. What are the divisions of grammar ? Orthoepy, which treats of articulate sounds and their correct use. Orthography, which treats of letters, words, and spell- ing. Etymology, which treats of the classification, deriva- tion, and properties of words. Lexicography, which treats of the meaning of words. Syntax, which treats of the arrangement and construc- tion of sentences. Prosody, which treats of versification and punctuation. 6. What is a sentence ? A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought. 94 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK J. What are the classes of sentences according to mean- ing and use ? (1) A declarative sentence which states a fact. **The wind blows." (2) An imperative sentence, which expresses a com- mand or entreaty. "Go to the ant, thou sluggard." (3) An exclamatory sentence which expresses feeling or emotion. "Oh, that I were there! " (4) An interrogative sentence, which asks a question. "Why do you hesitate? " 8. What are the two essential parts of a sentence ? De- fine each. The subject and the predicate. The predicate is that part of a sentence which makes an assertion. The subject is that part of which the assertion is made. p. What is analysis ? Analysis consists of separating a sentence into its parts. 10. What is the natural order of a declarative sentence ? Of an interrogative sentence ? When a declarative sentence is in its natural order, the subject precedes the predicate. In an interrogative sentence the predicate (or part of it) precedes the subject. //. What is a compellative ? Give example. A word in a sentence used to attract or compel the attention of the person addressed, is called a compellative. "Backward, turn backward, O Ti^ne, in thy flight." 12. What are parts of speech ? The classes into which words are divided according to their use, are called parts of speech. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 95 ij. Name the parts of speech. Noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. 7^. What is a noun ? A noun is a word or group of words used as a name. 75, Name a7id define the two general classes of nouns. (1) A common noun is a name which belongs to a class of persons, places, or things. Cat, man, book. (2) A proper noun is the name of some particular per- son, place, or thing. Mary, Boston. 16. What are the classes of cominon nouns ? Collective and abstract nouns. 77. Define and give examples of each. (1) A collective noun is a name, that in the singular is applied to a collection or group of objects of the same class. K flock of sheep are feeding on the hillside. (2) An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or condition. In union there is strength. 18. What is inflection ? Inflection, in grammar, is a change in the form of a word to mark a change in its meaning or use. 7p. What parts of speech are inflected? Nouns, pronouns, verbs, and some adjectives, are inflected. 20. What is declension f The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declen- sion. 21. What are the properties of a noun ? Gender, person, number, and case. 22. Which of these are indicated by inflection ? Gender, number, and the possessive case. 96 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 2^. What is munber f Number is that property of a noun which distinguishes one from more than one. 2^. How many numbers are there ? What does each denote ? There are two numbers. Singular number denotes but one. Plural number denotes more than one. 2^. How is number usually indicated? Most nouns indicate number by a change in termina- tions, but personal pronouns require an entire change of words. 26. Explain and give examples of the two ways in which plurals are formed. (1) Most nouns form their plurals regularly, by adding s or es to the singular; as hat^ hats. (2) Others form their plurals irregularly, usually by an entire change of word; as, man^ men. 2J. Give examples of the formation of plurals of nouns endijig in f, />, jf', y and preceded by a consonant, y and preceded by a vowel. Thief, thieves; chief, chiefs; knife, knives; fife, fifes; bluff, bluffs; pony, ponies; calico, calicoes; solo, solos; key, keys; oratorio, oratorios. 28. Give examples of irregular plurals. Ox, oxen; foot, feet; mouse, mice. 2g. What nouns have the same form for both singular a7id plural? Deer, sheep, swine, trout, cannon, heathen, and nouns ending in ese, denoting race ; as, Chinese. JO. What nouns are used only in the singular? Abstract nouns and names of materials are seldom used except in the singular. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 97 J7. Name some nouns which are always plurai,. Ashes, tongs, scissors, tidings, trousers, mumps, measles, victuals, thanks, riches. J2. Give examples of nouns which are plural in form but singular in meaning. News, politics, mathematics, gallows, optics, ethics. jj. When does a noun have two plurals ? When the meanings of the plurals are different; as, brothers (of the same family), brethren (of the same society). j^. Hoiv is the plural of letters and other characters formed ? By adding 's. Two a's. J5. How should the plural of proper names be expressed? By making the title plural, or pluralizing the name itself. Messrs. Ray, the Misses Lee. jd. How is the plural of compound words formed ? In compound words, the part described by the rest is generally pluralized ; as steamboats, sisters-in-law. When the two words are in the nature of appositives, both are made plural ; as. Knights Templars. jy. What are the plurals of foreign nouns? Foreign nouns adopted into our language generally retain their original plural. ^8. Why is the deter inination of the number of norms important ? Because the number of the noun determines that of its verb and also of the pronoun of which it is the ante- cedent. jp. What is gender? 98 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Gender is the distinction of nouns and pronouns with regard to sex. /J.O. Name the genders and tell what each signifies. (1) Masculine gender denotes males. (2) Feminine gender denotes females. (3) Such nouns as have nothing to do with defining sex are said to be of the neuter gender. (4) Nouns that may be applied to either sex, or, as in the case of animals, names that do not indicate sex, are sometimes spoken of as being of common gender. If there is anything in the sentence, however, to indi- cate sex, the noun should be classed as masculine or feminine. ^i. In how many and what ways may the gender of nouns be indicated? (1) By the use of different words: MASCULINE FEMININE nephew niece king queen wizard witch (2) By different terminations: actor actress czar czarina testator testatrix (3) By the use of a distinguishing word man-servant maid-servant landlord landlady Mr. Gray Mrs. Gray /J.2. What of the gender of a collective 7toup ? When a collective noun is used in the plural, or when the objects are considered as a unit, it is neuter gender; when it is used otherwise its gender is that of the indi- viduals composing the collection. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 99 The jurj/ has announced its decision. The c/ass received tketr diplomas. ^j. What is personification ? Personification is a figure of speech by which gender is ascribed to inanimate objects. When strength, power, or violence is implied, such nouns are regarded as mascu- line; if gentleness, beauty or peace is ascribed, then they are classed as feminine. "The Sun holds his fiery course through mid-heaven." ' ' When Fortune means to men most good She looks upon them with a threatening eye. ' ' ^^. Define person. Person is that distinction in nouns and pronouns which shows whether they represent the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or object spoken of. ^5. Notms are usually in the third person. Show by sentences how the same noun 7nay be used to denote dif- ferent sentences. I, John^ saw him. (First person.) John., did you see him? (Second person.) yt7^;2 saw him. (Third person.) 4.6. What is case f The word case is used to indicate the three relations which a noun or pronoun may hold to other words in the sentence. ^7. Name and define the cases. (1) The nominative case is the case of the subject. (2) The possessive case denotes possession. (3) The objective case is the use of the noun or pro- noun as the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. 48. Illustrate by sentences the different uses of the nominative case. tofC. loo SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK (1) As the subject of a verb ; The birds sing. (2) As a predicate, or the noun complement of an intransitive verb; Henry is the captain of the ball team. (3) As an appositive to another nominative; Kipling, the author of "The Jungle Books," is an Englishman. (4) As a compellative, or nominative, of address; J/<3:r^, go and call the cattle home. (5) As the nominative absolute, with a participle; The raiyi having ceased, we resumed our journey. 4.g. How is the possessive case of nouris shown ? By the addition of the apostrophe and s, to the nomina- tive form, unless that ends in s^ then only the apos- trophe is added. 50. How else may possession be show7t ? By the use of the preposition of. Our present termi- nation '.$■, is a contraction of the old English possessive es. 57. What nouns are inflected to denote possession ? Such nouns as are names of persons, animals or person- ified objects are inflected to denote possession. In all other cases, it is best to use the possessive phrase. ^2. How is the possessive case of compound ter7ns formed? (1) Generally compound terms take the sign of posses- sion at the end; yiy father-in-law's house was burned. Whitney and Lockwood's grammar. .(2) If, however, separate possession is implied, then each noun should have the sign; White's and Milne's arithmetics. (3) In an appositive construction the sign is added to the last noun; That is Mr. Brown, the baker's wagon. ^j. Show by sentences the different uses of the objective case . GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION loi (1) As the direct object of a verb; Success crowned our efforts. (2) As the indirect object of a verb; He paid the men their wages. (3) After prepositions; The robin built her nest in the ehn tree. (4) In apposition with another objective; I took my watch to Mr. Long, thQ Jeweler. (5) As an object predicate or complement; The Turks call their ruler Sultati, (6) As an adverbial object, to express time, measure, age, value, etc. ; He waited an hoicr. The hill is nearly a thousand y^^/ high. 5/. What is an appositive ? What determines its case ? An appositive is a noun used to explain, emphasize, or identify another noun or pronoun. It must be in the same case as the word it represents. Bryant, \}\^ poet^ translated the Iliad. (Nominative.) I have seen Venus the evening star. (Objective.) Peter the Hermifs eloquence aroused the people. (Possessive.) 55. What is a pronoun ? x\ pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 5<5. What is the difference between a noun and a pro- noun ? (1) A noun is a name, a pronoun does not really name anything. (2) A pronoun is never qualified by an adjective placed just before it. 57. What are the classes of pronouns ? Personal, relative or conjunctive, interrogative, and adjective pronouns. ^8. What is a personal pronoun ? 102 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK A personal pronoun is one which shows by its form whether it is of the first, second, or third person. 5p. Define antecedent. That for which the pronoun stands, is its antecedent. 60. What may the antecedent of a pronoun be f A word ; Tom has lost his book. A phrase; He hoped to see his friend but it was denied him. A clause; He sold his property ^ and now he regrets it. 61. Name the forms of the pronoun of the first person. I, we, my, mine, our, ours, me, us. 62. Show by example how ''''we'' and '"'our'' are some- times used in the singular. We (the person writing) give this as our opinion. 6j. What are the pronouns of the second person f Thou, ye, thy, thine, thee, you, your, yours. 6/f. What of the use of these pronouns f The first five mentioned are no longer in common use. You is used in both nominative and objective cases, and as either singular or plural. Since you is properly a plural pronoun it takes a plural verb, even if but one person is addressed. 65. What is the use of the pronouns of the third person ? Name them,. The pronouns of the third person distinguish not only number and case, but in the singular, gender also. They are he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, theirs, them. 66. What are the special uses of the pronoun it ? (1) This pronoun is sometimes used as the grammati- cal subject of a verb instead of the phrase or clause, which in this case follows the verb; as, It is true that he is blind. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 103 (2) As the impersonal subject of the verb, it helps the verb to express an act or condition without reference to the actor; as, It will soon be night. (3) It may also be used as an impersonal or cognate object, following such verbs as are not really transitive; as, They are roughing it in a miner's camp. d/. When are the forms mine^ hers^ ours^ yours and theirs used? They are used when no noun follows them, but retain their possessive significance. 68. What are compound personal pronouns ? Compound personal pronouns are those which are formed by adding .y^//" or i-^/z^^i- to many of the simple pronouns. 6g. What are their uses ? They are used merely for emphasis; or they may be used in the predicate as a repetition of the subject. This latter is called the reflexive use; as. He injured himself hy his conduct. 70. What are relative or conjunctive pronouns ? Pronouns which connect the clause in which they stand with some word which the clause modifies, are called -relative or conjunctive pronouns. yi. Na7ne the conjunctive pronouns. The conjunctive pronouns are who^ which^ what and that. y2. What are the differences between conjunctive and personal pronouns ? (1) Personal pronouns have different forms for each grammatical person, while the conjunctive pronouns do not change their form. (2) A personal pronoun may be the subject of an inde- I04 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK pendent sentence, but the conjunctive is always found in a dependent clause. 7J. What are the two uses of a conjunctive pronoun ? Its pronominal use in representing a noun in any rela- tion, and its conjunctive use in joining a limiting clause to its antecedent. 7^. What of the use of ^'who f " Who is used only in speaking of persons or personified objects. It has three case forms, who, whose, whom, and may be either singular or plural. Who is sometimes used with its antecedent omitted: Who steals my purse steals trash. 75. How is '■^ which'' used? Which is applied to living creatures that are not per- sons, and to things. As it has only the nominative and objective cases, whose is often used as its possessive: A triangle whose sides are equal. '/6. Explain the meajting and use of ''Hhaf as a con- junctive pro7ioun. That is a general relative. It may be used when speaking of either persons or things, and must be used when its antecedent refers to both. That is preferred to who or which — (1) When introducing a restrictive clause: I saw the vessel that had been wrecked. (2) After an adjective in the superlative degree: 'Tis the finest flour that money can buy. (3) AitQV all, very, and same: I gave him all that I had. (4) To avoid the repetition of who: Who that hears me dare deny my statement ? That, as a conjunctive pronoun, cannot be preceded by a preposition but throws it at the end of the clause: GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 105 The book that I told you of; not, The book of tJiat I told you. 77. What is peculiar about the pronoun ^^whatf What has no antecedent expressed, but contains with- in itself both antecedent and relative. It is always neuter and is used only in the nominative and objective cases. It is equivalent to that which: What (that which) you say is true. yS. What other parts of speech are sometimes used as conjunctive pronouns? Give examples. The conjunctions, when following sucJi^ many and same and but used as a negative relative, equivalent to that not, 3.rQ classed as conjunctive pronouns: Such ^i" are worthy will be promoted. There is not a man here but knows it. The adverbs where, whence, how, wherewith, etc., are sometimes used in a pronominal sense, as if equivalent to what and which with a preposition: We visited the place where (in which) he lived. He had no money wherewith (with which) to buy bread. 7p. How are compound conjunctive pronouns formed? Compound conjunctive pronouns are formed by annex- ing ever or soever to the simple conjunctive pronouns. They have no antecedent expressed, refer to no definite person or thing, but have the same connective force as the simple conjunctives: Whoever (he who) studies will learn. 80. What are interrogative pronouns? Na^ne them. Interrogative pronouns are those used in asking ques- tions. Who, which, what, and whether. , Si. Explain the use of these pronouns. They are used in interrogative sentences and are usually placed very near the beginning of the sentence. io6 SEELE Y '5 QUESTION BOOK Who and its objective form whom, are the only forms likely to be misused. Who is always used as the subject, and whom as an object. Who is my neighbor ? Whom seek you here ? Whether is an old English form often found in the Bible. Whether is greater, the gift or the altar ? 82. What are adjective pronouns ? Such adjectives as are used as pronouns are called adjective pronouns or pronominal adjectives. 8j. Give classification and use of adjective pronouns. (1) Demonstrative pronouns this and these, referring to things near by ; that and those, to things more distant : This is the house where those men live. (2) Indefinite pronouns point out objects indefinitely. Each, either, and neither are always singular. One and its compounds, soinebody and the like, other and another, either and neither, have a possessive case. One and other have plurals. Some may be used in either a singular or plural sense. None is usually singular. Each praised the other, '''^h.ei's, sojnebody's mother, boys," he said. Some of the passengers were injured. None but the brave deserves the fair. S/f.. What are reciprocal pronouns ? Each other and one another imply reciprocal action and are classed as reciprocal pronouns: They helped each other. 8j. What is an adjective ? An adjective is a word used to qualify the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 86. What are the classes of adjectives ? (1) Descriptive adjectives, which denote quality. In this class are included the adjectives derived from a GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 107 proper noun and called proper adjectives. The little girl has a Japanese doll. (2) Definitive adjectives, which denote quality, or point out a noun without describing it. This class includes the articles, numerals, and those adjectives which are used as pronouns: The lady bought two books for each of her children. 8y. What are the classes of numerals ? (1) Cardinals, which tell how many ; one^ two^ thou- sand. (2) Ordinals, which tell position in a series; first ^ hundredth. 88. What are the articles ? How used? A., used before words beginning with consonant sounds, and an^ used before words beginning with vowel sounds, are the indefinite articles. The is the definite article and is used to point out a particular object, to call attention to a proper noun, to indicate a whole class, and with an adjective, to form the equivalent of an abstract noun. 8g. In what three ways may an adjective be joined to the word it modifies ? (1) By being placed directly before the word: The tall trees rock in the wind. (2) By being used as the complement of an incomplete verb: The trees were tall. (3) Following the noun: I remember the fir trees dark and high. go. What is comparison ? Comparison is the inflection of adjectives (and adverbs) to denote degrees of quality or quantity. gi. What are the degrees of comparison ? io8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The positive, or simple root form. The comparative, which makes a comparison between two objects or sets of objects, or between two qualities of one object. The superlative, which is used in comparing three or more objects. g2. In what two ways are adjectives compared regularly ? By inflection and adverbially. Adjectives of one syllable, and those of two ending in le or y, are usually compared by adding er and est to the root form: j^ne, finer ^ finest', early^ earlier^ earliest. Most adjectives of two or more syllables are compared by the use of the adverbs more and most^ and less and least \ cheerful^ inore cheerful^ most cheerful] cheerful, less cheerful^ least cheerful. A few adjectives may be compared either by inflection or adverbially: completer, completest more coinplete, most complete complete pj. Give the most cojnmon of the adjectives which are compared irregularly. Positive Little, Good Well ';} Many, Much, Bad, Evil, 111, Late, Old, Comparative less, better, more. worse, j later, ( latter J older, ( elder, Superlative least. best, most. worst. j latest, ( last, j oldest, I eldest. GRAMMAR AND COBIPOSITION 109 p^. What adjectives are not compared? Most of the definitive adjectives, and such descriptives as have in themselves a superlative signification: ex- treme, perfect, right, wrong, supreme, eternal, dead, omnipotent. p5. What is a verb ? A verb is a word which tells, declares, or asserts some- thing. ^6. How are verbs classified according to their use ? As transitive and intransitive verbs. p/. Define each class. A transitive verb is a verb expressing an action that is received by some person or thing: Isidivy gathers roses. An intransitive verb is a verb expressing being, or state, or action not received by any person or thing: The wind blows. g8. What determines whether a verb is transitive or intransitive ? As some verbs may be used both transitively and in- transitively, and as the meaning of many verbs is changed by the words which modify them, it is the use which must determine the classification of the verb as transitive or intransitive. pp. Give examples of verbs which are used both transi- tively and intransitively. Transitive — Intransitive — The hoy flies a kite. Birds y^. The cook turns the meat. The flower turns to the light. She tastes the apple. The apple tastes sweet. He laughed at me. He laughed heartily. The boys ran a race. The boys ran away. 100. What is a complete verb? An incomplete verb? no SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK A complete verb is one that forms a predicate without help. An incomplete verb is one which requires the addition of one or more words to complete the predicate. loi. What is a complement ? A complement is that which must be added to a verb to complete the predicate. ■ 102. Define copulative verb. All intransitive verbs that require a complement are classed as copulative verbs. /oj. What verbs are copulative. The verb be and all its forms; verbs of motion, posi- tion, and condition, as seem^ become^ f^^h taste ^ look^ sou?td^ appear; such passive forms as is called, is elected, is c J 10 sen, etc. 104.. What is the complement of a transitive verb called? Of a copulative verb ? (1) The noun complement of a transitive verb is called the object complement, or the object. (2) The complement of a copulative verb, whether an adjective or a noun, is known as the predicate of the verb, or as an attribute of the subject. 705. When is be a complete verb ? When it asserts existence: There is a river, the streams whereof make glad the city of God. 106. What are attributive verbs ? Attributive verbs are those which contain in them- selves attributes of the subject. In this class are in- cluded all complete intransitive verbs and all transitive verbs. The equivalent of an attributive verb is a copula and attribute: The X2i\x\ falls. The rain is falling. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION m loy. How are verbs classed with respect to form ? De- fine each. As regular, or weak verbs, and irregular, or strong verbs. All verbs which form their past tense and per- fect participle by adding d or ed to the root, are called regular verbs. All others are irregular verbs. 1 08. What are the principal parts of a verb ? The root, past tense and perfect participle are called the principal parts of the verb. log. What is a defective verb ? A redundant verb f A n impersonal verb ? A defective verb lacks some of its principal parts. A redundant verb has more than one form for the past tense or perfect participle. An impersonal verb has no determinate subject. It snows. no. What modifications have verbs ? Form or style, voice, mode, tense, person, and number. 111. Name and give examples of the different forms of a verb. Common form: The wagon creaks along the dusty road. Passive form : The house was struck by lightning. Progressive form: The boys are playing h^XX. Emphatic form: The girls do work earnestly. Interrogative form : Will he be there ? Ancient form : Thou art our refuge. 112. What are auxiliary verbs ? Name them. Auxiliary verbs are those which help in the inflection of the principal verbs. The auxiliaries are be^ do, have, shall, will, may, can, must. iij. What is tense? 112 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK The forms of the verb that indicate the time to which the action or state is referred, are called tenses. 11^. Name the divisions of the tenses. The primary tenses — present, past, and future — which denote indefinite or incomplete action. The perfect tenses — present, past, and future perfect — which denote completed action. 775. What does the root and '"'■s'" form of the verb ex- press ? Illustrate. (1) Present time: Do you see him? (2) Indefinite time: The lark sings in the meadow. (3) Historical present: After conquering the prov- inces, Caesar returns to Rome. (4) As referring to the future: He enters Harvard next year. 116. How is past time denoted? By the inflected form of the verb: I wrote a letter. 777. How is future time expressed? By the use of the auxiliaries shall and will with the root form. 118. How should shall and will be used? Shall in the first person, and will in the second and third, usually denote futurity. I shall go, if my mother will consent. Will in the first person, and shall in the second and third, denote determination or necessity. I will learn the language. He shall be punished for this. In asking questions, shall is used with /or %ve. With other subjects, use whichever auxiliary is expected in the answer? Shall wq sqq you. tonight? Will they re- turn to New York ? (They will.) iig. How are perfect tenses formed? GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 113 Perfect tenses are formed by combining the perfect participle of a verb with the primary tense forms of the verb have. 120. What is voice ? Voice is a form of the verb which shows whether its subject names the doer or the receiver of the action. T2I. Name, define, and illustrate the voices. A verb is in the active voice when its subject denotes the doer of the action: The servant lighted t^^ lamp. A verbis in the passive voice when the subject denotes the receiver of the action : The lamp ivas lighted by the servant. 122. How is the passive voice formed? Passive voice is formed by joining some form of the verb be to the perfect participle of a transitive verb. I2J. How may a sentence be changed from active to passive voice ? By making the object in the active voice (the receiver of the action) the subject in the passive, and making the subject in the active (the doer of the action) the object of a preposition in the passive: A cat killed a rat; (active.) A rat was killed hy a cat; (passive.) 124.. What of the voice of intransitive verbs ? All verbs are active voice, their subject naming the doer of the action. But as intransitive verbs have no ob- jects (receivers of the action) to become subjects in the passive, they cannot be changed to passive. A few in- transitive verbs have a passive form but not passive voice: The melancholy days are come. ' Others which are followed by a preposition and its ob- ject assume passive form : The soldier dreamed of home, Home was dreamed of by the soldier. 114 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 12^. What is mode ? Mode is the manner in which the action, being, or state of a verb is asserted. 126. Define and illustrate the different modes. The indicative mode is used to make an assertion or ask a question : The sun shines. The subjunctive mode is sometimes used to express a doubt, a contingency, or a wish. This mode is gradually going out of use: If I be in the wrong, I will confess it. The imperative mode is used to express a command or entreaty: Lift up your heads, O ye gates! I2J. How may a verb in the subjunctive mode be dis- tinguished as such ? (1) By the use of //", though^ except^ etc. (2) By the peculiar use of be and were^ and of ttie root form of the verb: Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. Were he honest, we would employ him. 128. How is the imperative mode distinguished? By the omission of the subject, or the use of the aux- iliaries do and be. 12^. Explain use of may^ can^ etc. ? These are auxiliary verbs expressing possibility, per- mission, purpose, etc. When combined with the infini- tive they form potential verb phrases. These phrases are either subjunctive or indicative mode according to their meaning and use. You may go. (Indicative.) I fear he may lose it. (Subjunctive.) I JO. What is conjugation ? Conjugation is the orderly arrangement of the forms of a verb in the different modes and tenses. iji. What determines the person and number of a verb? The person and number of a verb is determined by the person and number of its subject. GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 115 1^2. Give a general rule for use of verbs. Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural sub- jects require plural verbs. 7JJ. Give other instances where singular verbs are required. (1) When the subject is a singular collective noun denoting a group as a unit: The government has se- cured the Panama route. (2) When the subject is two or more singular nouns joined by and, yet denoting but one person or thing. "A laggard in love and a dastard in war was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar." (3) When the subject is modified by each^ every^ many, a, etc. : Each man received a share. (4) When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by eitJier — or^ or neither — nor: Either John or Tom goes for the mail. jj^. In what special cases are phiral verbs used? (1) When the subject is a collective noun referring to the individuals: The committee were invited, and all were present. (2) When the subject noun is modified by adjectives of different meaning: Slant and vertical writing are both taught. (3) When two or more subjects are joined by and: The horse and his rider zvere drowned. (4) When the subject is modified by a plural adjective: Several days were spent in the search. jjj. When several subjects of different persons are used how is the person of the verb determined? In such cases, the verb agrees with the subject nearest to it. Either you or I am to go. ij6. What is a participle? ii6 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK A participle is a word derived from a verb and par- taking of the nature of a verb, of a noun, or of an ad- jective. ijy. Name the participles and tell how formed. The imperfect participle is formed by adding ing to the root verb: Believing. The perfect participle is the inflected form of the verb: Believed. The compound participle is formed by combining beings havings or having been with the perfect participle: Having been believed. I J 8. How are participles used? They are used to modify nouns and as such are called verbal adjectives. jjp. What are verbal nouns f The imperfect participle is often used as a noun and is therefore called a verbal noun or the infinitive in ing. Seeing is believing. i/j-O. What is the difference between the verbal noun and the verbal adjective ? Verbal nouns may be modified by adjectives and ad- verbs, may govern the possessive case, may take an ob- ject, and may be used in the nominative or objective cases. Verbal adjectives admit adverbial modifiers and ob- jects, but have no case and can be used only as ad- jectives. 7^7. What is the grammatical equivalent of this in- finitive ? The root infinitive, formed by the combination of the preposition to and the root verb. To read is pleasant. Reading is pleasant GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 117 1^2. Give examples of the different uses of the root.^ in- finitive or infinitive phrase. (1) As a noun subject: To learji music requires pa- tience. (2) As a noun complement: All we want is to be set free. (3) As a noun object of a verb: Learn to labor and to wait. (4) As a noun object of a preposition: He is about to Join the army. (5) As a noun appositive: They had the good fortune to escape. (6) As an adjective: A desire to learuis commendable. (7) As an adverb : She was sorry to hear of your loss. i/f-j. What is an adverb ? An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. 1^4.. Into what classes are adverbs divided according to their use ? (1) Simple adverbs, which modify the meaning of the word with which it is used: The rain i2X\^ gently. (2) Interrogative adverbs, used in asking questions: Where are the flowers, the fair, young flowers ? (3) Conjunctive adverbs, which perform at the same time, the oflice of an adverb and a subordinate conjunc- tion: The expedition will go to Greenland when naviga- tion opens. 7^5. How are adverbs classed according to meaning? Give examples. Adverbs of place, (where?). F(!7;2^^ stock at 120, or 4>^^ stock at 75? Ans. The former by ^^. 33. What must I invest in U. S. 5's at 118 to yield an annual income of $960.50 in currency, when gold is 113? Ans. $20,060. 34. Bought stock at 90 which yielded the same annual income as 15^ stock bought at 225. What was the rate on my purchase ? Ans. 6'fo. 35. What per cent on investment does a man make who buys 5^ stock at 10^ discount? Ans. 5|^. 36. What must be paid for 8^ bonds to realize 7^4% on investment ? Ans. 106^. 37. A note for $565.80, dated June 3, 1894, was paid Nov. 28, 1899, interest 7^; what was the amount paid? Ans. $783.08+. 38. A note of $850, dated March 4, 1885, interest 6.^, was indorsed as follows: Sept. 1, 1885, $12; May 4, 1886, $10; Sept. 15, 1886, $250; Jan. 20, 1887, $400. What was due, July 1, 1888? Aits. $293.14+. 39. What is the amount at annual interest of $875 for 4 yr., 8 mo., 12 da. at 10^? Ans. $1,363.25. 40. What is the difference between the simple and annual interest of $1,560 from June 12, 1880, to January 18, 1886, at 5^? Ans. $50.70. 41. What will be the cost of a draft for $550, at 30 days, interest 4^, exchange ^^premium ? Ans. $551.42. 42. What is the face of a draft on New York, at 90 ARITHMETIC 147 days sight, which may be bought for $1,000, exchange yiio discount, and money being worth 7^? Ans. $1,027.57. 43. The face of a draft for 30 days, exchange being 98^, and interest 6^, was $1,588,595. What was the cost? Ans, $1,560. 44. A note of $1,440 dated April 13, 1901, payable in 7 mo., was discounted August 12, 1901, at 6^. Find proceeds. Ans. $1,416.96 45. A note of $1,200 dated Feb. 13, 1897, due in 9 mo. with interest at 6^, was discounted in bank July 31, 1897, at8^^. What were the proceeds ? Ans. $1,224.49. 46. A bank paid $336.43 for a note of $340 at 6^ dis- count. How long did the note run? A71S. 60 days. 47. The bank discount on a 60-day note was $72.66, interest 6^. Find the face of the note. Ans. $6,920. 48. A dealer sold oil at $1.25 a barrel and took in payment a 99-day note, which he discounted in bank at 6^. The proceeds were $1,228.75. How many barrels of oil were sold ? Ans. 1,000 barrels. 49. A note dated May 9, 1898, due Sept. 21, 1899, interest 8^, was discounted in bank June 26, 1899, at 6^. If the proceeds were $874.68, what was the face of the note. ? Ans. $800. 50. What must be the length of evergreen ropes to reach from the center of a ceiling 20 ft. square, to each corner, allowing three feet for the drooping of each fes- toon? Ans. 68.56 ft. +. 17.14 ft. each. 51. A rectangular garden 180 ft. long and 108 ft. wide, is surrounded by a tight board fence 5^ ft. high. What is the cost of painting both sides of the fence at 18 cents a square yard? Ans. $120.96- 52. The width of a house is 32 feet. The rafters. 148 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK which project 2>^ feet over the sides of the building, are 22^ feet long. What is the height of the gable ? Ans. 12 feet. 53. How many yards of carpet ^ oi a yard wide will be required for a room 18^ feet long, 15 feet wide, if the strips run lengthwise, and an allowance of 8 inches is made for matching? A7is. 44^ yards. 54. What will it cost to slate a roof, each side of which is 34 feet 9 inches long, and 16 feet wide, at $4.75 per square, allowing 4 slates to a square? Ans. |211.28. 55. What will it cost to plaster a room 18 feet long, 15 feet wide, 10 feet high, if there are 6 windows 3 feet 6 inches wide, 6 feet high, and 4 doors, 4 feet wide, 7 feet 6 inches high, at $1.75 a square yard ? A7is. $133. 56. The above room was papered as follows: The paper cost 42 cents per roll (a roll is 8 yards long and 18 inches wide; the paper hanger charged 10 cents per roll for hanging; the picture moulding extended entirely around the room and cost 7^ cents per foot. What was the entire cost? Ans. $13.83. 57. A field in the form of a trapezoid is 60 rods long, and contains 16 acres, 20 square rods. If one of its parallel sides is 38 rods long, what is the length of the other? A71S. 48 rods. 58. The edges of a triangular sail are 24, 27^, and 36^ feet. What did it cost, at 45 cents a square yard ? Ans. $16.50. 59. Find the area of a field whose sides measure 9, 12, 13 and 14 rods, respectively, the distance from the starting point to the opposite corner being 15 rods? Ans. 134 acres. 60. The diameter of the greater of two concentric circles is 30 ft., and that of the less is 20 ft. What is the area ofthe space between them. A7ts. 392.7+sq. ft. ARITHMETIC 149 61. If the area of a circular field whose diameter is 30 rods is 707-f square rods, what is the area of a circle whose diameter is 20 rods? Ans. 314|- sq. rds. 62. How many more rods of fencing are required to enclose a square field that contains an acre, than to en- close a circular field of the same area ? Ans. 5.76 rods. 63. How many square yards in the surface of a four- sided pyramidal roof, the length of each side being 22 feet and the slant height 16 feet? Ans. 78| sq. yds. 64. How many square yards of pasteboard in 100 cir- cular boxes, each of which is 2 inches high, 4 inches across the top, and the rim of the lid % inch deep ? Ans. 4.36^ sq. yds. 65. How much hay in a conical stack 15 feet high and 12 feet in diameter at the base, if each cubic foot weighs 15 pounds? Ans. 3.8874-T. 66. How many square inches of map surface on a 15- inch globe? A71S. 706.86. 67. How much leather will be required to cover 600 balls if the circumference of each is 12 inches? Ans. 190| sq. ft. 68. A street f of a mile long and 100 feet wide is 6 feet below grade. At 60 cents a cubic yard, what is the cost of fining it up to grade? Ans. $61,600. 69. If a bushel measure is 18)^ inches in diameter and 8 inches deep, what must be the diameter and depth of a half-bushel measure of similar form ? Ans. 14.6-f inches, diameter. 6.3-}- inches, depth. 70.- How many quarts of water will a pan contain which measures 11}^ inches across the bottom, 14 inches across the top, and 3^ inches up the side? Ans. 6. 65 -|- quarts. 71. At 85 cents a bushel what is the value of wheat I50 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK sufficient to fill a bin 25 feet long, 20 feet wide, 12 feet high? Ans. $4,080. 72. What will be the cost of flooring for a two story house 24 feet long, 32 feet wide, at $40 a thousand, the boards being \% inches thick? Ans. $76.80. 73. I wish to build a cistern that will hold 20 hogs- heads (63 gal. each), and to have it 5 feet, 10 inches in diameter. How deep must it be? Ans. 6 ft., 3.6-J-in. 74. What are the solid contents of a globe whose diameter is 15 inches? Ans. 1 cu. ft., 391.5 cu. in. 75. A pile of grain in the form of a cone is 7 feet high and 16 feet in diameter. How many bushels are in the pile? Ans. 376-|- bushels. 76. How many bricks (8 in. X 4 in. X 2 in.) will be required for a square chimney 86 feet high, 10 feet wide at the bottom, and 4 feet wide at the top, outside, and the inside opening 3 feet square ? Ans. 89,857. 77. A man owns a lot 320 feet long, 140 feet wide. He places a walk all around it 8 feet wide. What will it cost to pave this walk at 75 cents a square yard ? Ans. $592. 78. How many feet, board measure, in a 4 -inch plank that is 15 feet, 6 inches long 2 feet 3 inches wide at one end, and 1 foot 11 inches at the other end ? A71S. 129 J feet. . 79. What will it cost to paint a steam boiler 30 feet long and 5 feet in diameter, at 2 cents a square foot, allowing 10 square feet for openings? Ans, $10.01-1-. CHAPTER VII. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS IN ALGEBRA. 7. Define quantity. Quantity is the amount or extent of anything. A quantity may be increased, diminished or measured. 2. What is mathematics ? Mathematics is a science which treats of the proper- ties, relations and measurements of quantities. J. What is algebra ? Algebra is a general method of solving problems and investigating the general relations and properties of numbers by means of figures and symbols. ^. Hozv do algebra and arithmetic differ ? In arithmetic the figures represent definite numbers and the signs are symbols of operations to be performed. In algebra, numbers are generally represented by let- ters, and the signs are symbols of relation and operation. 5. Define known and unknown quantities and tell hozv represejited. Known or literal quantities are such as have definite values, either expressed or assigned. They are generally represented by the first letters of the alphabet or by figures. Unknown quantities are those whose values are to be found. They are represented by the last letters of the alphabet. 6. Name the signs of operation. 152 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK These signs are, + plus; — minus; ±, the double sign, meaning either plus or minus; X, times, also indi- cated by a dot (a. b. c), or by writing the factors in close succession (abc) ; ~-^ divided by, also expressed by writing the quantities as a fraction, lj\ or by using the ratio sign {a:b). J. Give the signs of aggregation. The parenthesis ( ), the brackets [ ], the braces \ \ ^ the vinculum , and the bar | , are the signs of aggre- gation. They show that the quantities included by them are to be subjected to the same process. 8. Name and explain the signs of relation. The sign of equality, =, denoting that the numbers between which it is placed are equal. The sign of inequality > or <, denoting that the numbers thus placed are unequal, the opening being toward the greater number. The sign of deduction .-., meaning hence, or therefore. The sign of continuation .... or - - - -, meaning and so on. g. Define coefficient. A known factor placed before a quantity to show how many times the quantity is taken, is called a coefficient. A coefficient expressed by figures is a numeral co- efficient; when it contains one or more letters it is a lit- eral coefficient. 10. Define power. Exponent. A power of a number is the product arising from tak- ing the number one or more times as a factor. A number placed at the right of a quantity denoting how many times it is to be taken as a factor, is called the exponent. It may be numerical or literal: as x^^ or x^. ALGEBRA 153 //. Define root. Radical sign. Index. One of the equal factors of a quantity is called the root. The sign of evolution -|/ , also called the radical sign., when placed over a number, indicates that the root is required. The number placed above this sign -^ ", is called the index of the root. When no index is given the sign -j/ indicates the square root. 12. What is an algebraic expression ? An algebraic expression is the expression of a quantity in algebraic symbols. 7j. Define term; similar terms. A term is an algebraic expression not connected with another by the signs -f or — . Similar, or like terms are those which are composed of the same letters and their corresponding letters affected by like exponents. I /J.. What are the different classes of terms ? A monomial, which consists of a single term. A polynomial which contains two or more terms. A binomial which is a polynomial of two terms. 75. What is meant by the dimerisions of a term. ? By its degree ? The dimensions of a term are its literal factors. The degree of a term is the number of its literal factors, and is determined by the sum of their ex- ponents. 16. What is a homogeneous polynomial ? It is one whose terms are all of the same degree. ly. What is '"'■numerical value T' The numerical value of an algebraic expression is the 154 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK number obtained by substituting a number for each letter, and then performing the operations indicated. 1 8. What are the signs of opposition^ and how used? In algebra the signs -{- and — not only denote oper- ation, but they also show that the quantities belong to opposite series. In temperature, degrees above zero may be considered as + degrees of temperature, those below zero as — de- grees. Thus if the mercury falls 10° below zero we in- dicate it thus — 10°. If it fall 6° more we say it is 16° below, and we express this second variation thus, — 10° and — 6° is — 16°. So in algebra, a number preceded by -h, expressed or understood, is called a positive quan- tity; one preceded by — is called a negative quantity. These signs are called positive and negative signs, and numbers having the same signs are said to have like signs. jp. Explaiii the laws of the signs as relating to addition of quantities. In adding — 10° and — 6°in the preceding explanation, we found the result to be the sum of the figures with the — sign prefixed. Had the signs been -j- the sum of the figures would have been the same but the signs would have differed. Hence, in adding quantities with like signs, the re- sult is the sum of the quantities with the common sign prefixed. If our thermometer be 16° below zero or ™ 16°, and rise 20° we find that it has not only reached the zero point but passed beyond it the difference between 20° and — 16°, which is 4° above, or +4°. Hence in adding two numbers of unlike signs the re- sult is the difference between the quantities with the sign of the greater term prefixed. 20. Why are the signs changed in subtraction ? ALGEBRA 155 If there are two elevators in a building and one travels upward from a given floor 3 stories (+3), and another travels downward 2 stories ( — 2) the passengers in the two are 5 stories apart [-|-3 above -j- ( — 2 below)=5 apart]. To obtain this we have really added the two quantities. If the first elevator had traveled 2//'w^r<^ 3 stories (+3) from the starting place, and the second had traveled upward 1 story (+1) then we readily see they would have been but 2 stories (-|-2) apart, and both above, [-f 3 above — (-{-1 above)= -f2 apart]. Had the elevators traveled downward from the same place, the distances just mentioned, their relation would have been the same, except that both would have been below, ( — 2). But if one is at — 1, and the other travels — 3 spaces up- ward from it, it will be at +2 above their first starting place, [ — 1 below — ( — 3 below)=+2 above]. Hence, in subtraction, we change the signs in the subtrahend and add the resulting quantities. 21. Give the laws for the signs in multiplication and division. Like signs give +? unlike signs give — . As multipli- cation is a short method of addition, and division is the inverse of multiplication, the laws which applied in the proof of addition are applicable in the proof of the other two processes. 22. What is the law of exponents ? The exponent of the product of two or more powers of a number is equal to the sum of all the exponents. 2j. What is an equation ? An equation is an expression of equality between two quantities. 24.. What are the parts of an equation ? The first member (the quantity at the left), the sign 156 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK of equality, and the second member (the quantity at the right). 2§. What is transposition ? It is the process of changing a term from one member of an equation to the other. 26. What are the laws of equations ? (1) A quantity may be transposed if its sign be changed. This is based on the principle that adding or subtracting equal quantities to both members does not change the value of an equation. (2) The signs of all the terms in an equation may be changed since the result is the same as multiplying both members by — 1. (3) Both members of an equation may be multiplied or divided by the same number without altering the value of the equation. 2y. What are the three general principles most often used in algebra ? Principle I. The square of the sum of two quantities is equal to the square of the first, plus twice the product of the first by the second, plus the square of the second. Principle II. The square of the difference of two quantities is equal to the square of the first, minus twice the product of the first by the second, plus the square of the second. Principle III. The product of the sum and difference of two numbers is equal to the difference of their squares. 28. What is the Binomial Theorem ? By the Binomial Theorem (discovered by Sir Isaac Newton), the sum or difference of any two quantities may be raised to any power. Its laws are as follows: I. The number of terms in the result is always one more than the exponent of the power. ALGEBRA 157 II. The exponent of the first term is the same as the exponent of the given power and decreases by one in each succeeding term. III. The exponent of the second term of the binomial, is one in the second term of the series and increases by one in each succeeding term. IV. The last term of the binomial does not appear in the first term of the series, and its first term does not appear in the last term of the series. V. The coefficient of the first term is one, and the co- efficient of the second term is the same as the power. In the succeeding terms the coefficient may be found by multiplying the coefficient of the preceding term by the exponent of the leading letter and dividing the product b}' the number of the term. VI. When both terms are positive the signs will be positive. When the second term is negative, all the odd terms will be positive and all the even terms negative. 2g. What is the reciprocal of a quantity ? The reciprocal of a quantity is 1 divided by that quan- tity. JO. What is the sign of a fraction f It is the sign written before the dividing line, and be- longs to the fraction as a whole. J/. What determines the degree of an equation ? The degree of an equation is determined by the high- est power of the unknown quantity which it contains. J2. What is a simple equation f A quadratic equatioyi ? A literal equation ? A simple equation is an equation of the first degree. A quadratic equation is an equation of the second degree. A literal equation is an equation in which some or all of the unknown quantities are expressed by letters. 158 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK jj. What are simultaneous equations ? Simultaneous equations are those in which the same unknown quantities have the same value. J/. What is elimination ? The process of deducing from simultaneous equations, other equations containing a less number of unknown quantities than is found in the given equations, is called elimination. J5. What are the methods of elimination f Elimination by substitution, by comparison, and by addition and subtraction. jd. What is involution ? Evolution ? Involution is the process of raising a quantity to a given power. Evolution is the process of finding the required root of a given quantity. J/. What of the signs in involution and evolution ? In involution all the even powers of a quantity are posi- tive and all the odd powers have the sign of the quantity itself. In evolution, the sign of the even root of a positive quantity may be either -f or — , but the odd root of any number has the same sign as the number itself. J 8. Explain the meaning of fractional exponents. According to the fundamental law of expoj:ients the ex- ponent of the power of a quantity is equal to the sum of the exponents of its factors. l_L.i Therefore, m\y^m\-^m,'^ ^=m^ or m\ since m\Y,m\--m^ then m\=\/'m\ or the square root of m is denoted either by -j/^ or ni^. NOTK. — The principles which apply to problems in factoring and fractions in algebra are the same as those of similar processes in arithmetic. To these should be added the laws of signs and other principles applied in addition, subtraction, m^ultiplication, and division, of algebraic quantities. ALGEBRA 159 From this it follows, that the numerator of a fractional exponent denotes the power of the quantity and the de- nominator denotes the root of that power. jp. Give explanation of zero and negative exponents, a^y^a^^a*" (exponents added). a^-^a^=a^ (exponents subtracted), a^-^a^=l Therefore ^^=1 Hence any quantity having for an exponent equals 1. x^~-x^=x~^ (exponents subtracted). x^ 1 — = — (same operation expressed fractionally). x^ x^ Therefore — (the reciprocal of x^)=x~^. x^ Therefore, the reciprocal of a quantity is equal to that quantity with the sign of its exponent changed. It also follows, that any factor may be transferred from one term of a fraction to another if the sign of its exponent be changed. ^o. How is the sum, etc. , of quantities with negative or fractional exponents found ? By following the same law of exponents as is applied when the exponents are whole numbers; namely, adding or subtracting them as the conditions of the problem demand. /f-i. Define radical; rational quantity; irrational quan- tity. A radical is the indicated root of a quantity. A rational quantity is one without a radical sign, or one whose root can be found exactly. A surd, or irrational quantity is one whose exact root cannot be found. ^^. How is the degree of a radical indicated? i6o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The degree of a radical is indicated by the index of the radical sign or by the denominator of the fractional exponent. ^j. What are similar radicals ? Similar radicals are those which have the same index and the same number under the radical. ^^. How are radicals added or subtracted? To add or subtract radicals, reduce them to similar radicals, and prefix the sum or difference of their coeffi- cients to the radical part. If the radicals cannot be made similar, indicate the operation by a suitable sign. ^5. To what is the product of two or 7nore radicals equal? To the products of their coefficients prefixed to the product of the radical quantities. 4.6. How is the quotient of two similar radicals found? By dividing their coefficients and prefixing the result to the common radical. ^7. What is rationalization ? Rationalization is the process of changing the number under the radical so that its root may be found. ^8. How is rationalization applied? In clearing the denominators of fractions of radicals, and in dividing radicals which are not similar. A radical is rationalized by multiplying by such a factor as will render it rational; thus: l/ 5^1/ 3_x^ 15^1/ i5^^]/i5- /f.g. What are the two classes of quadratic equations ? ALGEBRA i6i A pure, or incomplete quadratic equation, which con- tains only the second power of the unknown quantity. An affected, or complete quadratic equation, which contains both the first and second powers of the unknown quantity. 50. How may complete quadratic equations be solved? If the coefficient of the term containing the second power of the unknown quantity is not a perfect square, make it such by multiplying or dividing both members of the equation. Then add to both sides of the equation the square of one-half the coefficient of the second term, thus completing the square of the first member. Extract the square root of each member, and find the values of the unknown quantity. As the square root of a quantity may be either plus or minus, the unknown quantity will always have two values. Problems. 1. Find the value of the following when -^=2^, ^=|, ux — uy , ^ A ^ -^ Vz{y^z)=^l Ans. 0. xy — uz ^ \^ \ ) When 2^=1, ^=4, j=9, z=\(y\ y wxyz -^ wxy^^z ~' ^^^- f 2. Simplify: a — b — \ — Zc — \_{a-\-b) — {a — b — c)"] — 2c )- . Ans. a-\-b-\-lc. {p'^J^\) — lab—\ —{-^2ab-^7)—ab—b^—7 }+2b'-^. Alts, 1, i62 SEELE Y *S QUEST/ON BOOK 3. Factor: Ans. (x^ — ■j/2-|-^+^) (^^ — f^ — a — b). {x'^—xy) 2—2 {x^—xy) (xy—l) + (xy—1)^. Ans. {x^—2xy-^l) {x^—'2xy-\-l). ax^ — by'^-\-2ax'^y — bx'^-\-axy'^ — 2bxy. A ns. {ax — b) (x-\-y) {x-{-y) . Slx^—72xy-{-16y^ A ns. (Zx-\-2y) (3x+2y) (3x—2y) (Zx-'2y). 4. Find highest common factor of : ^4_5^3_j_8^^_7^_|_3and 2^3—9^^+10^—3. Ans. a^ — 4^+3. x^-S)x^--Z^x—2S and x^-\-x'^—1x'^-\-Sx. Ans. x^-\-3x-\-5. 14^4_|__^3_|_8j/a_j/_f-2 and 6y'^-\-7y^-\-7y^+3y-\-l. Ans. 2y^-\-y-\-\. 5. Find Least Common Multiple of: Ans. /3_3/2__4/_|.i2. :tr2— 4, x^-i-2xi+4x-i-8, x^—2x^-^4x—8. Ans. x^—l(), y&—y, jJ/3 — 1, J/^+1, J/4+J/2 + 1. A7ts. y"^ — ^. 6. Reduce to lowest terms: x^—b^x ^^^ x(x-{-b) x^—2bx-{-b^ ' x—b (^a-b)2-{-ib-c)i-{-(c-a)^ ^^^^ 2 a^-{-b^-]-c^ — 3abc a-\-b-j-c ALGEBRA 163 7. Reduce to simple fractions: y^~^yTT a—l : — . Ans. a — 1. a a^\ 8. Reduce to simplest form : a^ — x"^ a^A-x^ a^ — x^ ^ a^ — a^x^-{-x^ a'^-\-x^~^a^—x^^a^-\-x^~^a^-]-a^X^-i^ 2^4 Ajts. a^^x^. V . Ans. a. \x—l 2(,r+l 2(.r^— 1 / ^ ^ Ans. 0. 9. Find the value of Ans. — ^ 2ab {a—b)' 2ab ^ [ . b j Ans. 1. 10. Find the value of the unknown quantities in the following problems: i64 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 11. 12. 13. 14. [c , d -A — =in X y j c d [ ax-\-by=^r \ by-\-cz=s \^ax-\-cz=v Ans. ;r= 2c \ 2x^Sy 10 ' X .+ ^ I ^ 7 _ 5 91 t ^~~^~^ 90 J f 5;ir— 3_;/4-25'=25 -{ 3;rH-7j/— 2^=— 19 t4;ir4-3j/— 2^=-2. ( x~'^-\-y~^=a ^ //^ -|-^' _y= 2d Ans. x= ni — n. r — s-\-v y- z= 2a ' r-]-s — V ~2l s — r-\-v 2c. Ans. x^S Ans. x=3 y=-4i. Ans. X- a-\-b — c y=a—b^i — a-\-b-\'e' 15. Find the square root of: Ajis. 2a^—a^—Za-\-2. ia'-^iM-\-ia^-\-ib'^+b^j\. ALGEBRA 165 16. What is the cube root of: A71S. 2c'^—Zcd^d\ x^y-^—()X^-[-l2x'^y^Sy^. Ans . x'^y-'^—2y\ 17. Simplify: |/45;r3'+5|/2o^3 — j/80^3. Am. 9x1/5^. 3/rx2/|X5i/7-f-|/S- ^^^^- ^V^- 18. Simplify: Ans. f^—dfS. (x^) — ^X(^~^)^. Ans. x~^ ov x)4. 19. Find the value of the unknown quantity in the following problems: 19. 2 1 20. |/^3_i l/y^-7' \ ^—3 i/«— 3 Ans. y=±:3. Ans. diS. Ans. -V a — 2 Ans. Tor- -1 3 21. 2 , 2 ^ a 22. 7 2;r— •5 _ 3;tr— 7 4 ;r4-5 2;ir * 23. 7^ — (a — l)j/ — a=-o. Ans. y=^a, or — 1. ^A f X i.\ ^ ^(^b , , . • r-\-b b — a • 24. (aA-b)x^ jX=a-\-b. Ans. x=^ yor-r-, — ^ ^ a — b a — b b-\-a. x-\-\ d4-l . J \ 25. — 1:^=— ^' Ans. x=^d, or -. yx yd c i66 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK ^^' i/2"iq:^=-^'j+6+i. A71S. x==6, or ~^. 27. ya~^2>-^^^^^=i(). Ans. ^=13 or 78. 28. x^-\-xy-\-2y^=AA. Ans. x=±:2, or zbi/l 2x'^ — ;rj/_|_j/2=l6. j^=±4, or ±3-1/2. 29. 1 1^^ ■^ -^ Ans. x=S, or 10; /=10, or 5. ^"^^ ~~20' 30. x^ — xj/-\-y^ = 19. Ans. x=S, or — 2. ;r — y =3. J=2, or — 5. 31. From a tank of oil, one-fifth was sold, and after- wards 10 gallons leaked away. The tank was then ys full. How much was in it at first ? A7is. 75 gallons. 32. A boy was hired for 40 days, at fifty cents a day and his board. For each day he was idle he forfeited 25 cents. At the end of the time he received $11, how many days did he work? A7is. 28 days. 33. There are three numbers which added together make 460. The second is ^ of the remainder left after taking 40 from the first, and the third is 100 less than twice the first. What are the numbers? Ans. 160, 80, and 220. 34. When a general drew up his regiment in a solid square he found that he had 35 men too many, but if he put one man more in the front rank he had 30 men too few. How many men in the regiment ? A71S. 1,059 men. 35. If I loan my money for a given time at 6%, the in- terest will be $720. If I loan it for 3 years longer, the interest will be $1,800. Find the amount of money and the time. Ans. $6,000. 2 years. ALGEBRA 167 36. A man walked 87 miles in 3 days. One-third the distance walked the first day equaled % the distance walked the second day, and yz the distance walked the second day equaled % the distance walked the third day. How far did he walk each day ? A71S. 27 miles, first day; 36 miles, second day; 24 miles, third day. 37. A man has two square fields. The side of one is 2y2, rods longer than the side of the other, and both together contain 1,131X square rods. How much larger is the first one than the second? Ans. 118^ sq. rds. 38. The sum of two numbers multiplied by their prod- uct is 70. Their difference multiplied by their product is 30. What are the numbers ? Ans. 5 and 2. 39. A person bought two pieces of cloth which together measured 36 yards. Each cost as many dollars a yard as there were yards in the piece. If one piece cost 4 times as much as the other how many yards were in each piece ? Ans. 12 yds; 24 yds. 40. If the numerator of a fraction be multiplied by 2, and 2 be added to its denominator, the result will be one; but if the denominator be multiplied by 2, and 3 be added to the numerator, the result will be ^. What is the fraction? Ans. Y^. 41. At what time between 3 and 4 o'clock are the hands of a watch opposite each other ? At what time between 8 and 9 o'clock? Ans. 49 j^ minutes past 3. 10^^ minutes past 8. 42. The sum of the three digits of a number is 10. The sum of the first and last digit is Yi of the second digit; and if 198 be taken from the number the digits will be reversed. What is the number? Ans. 361. 43. There are three numbers such that \ the first, \ the second, and \ the third, together make 115; J- the first, J i68 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOM the second, \ the third, together make 86; and J the first, \ the second, and |- the third, together make 69. What are the numbers? Ans. 60, 120, 180. 44. The height of a room is Yz the breadth, and the breadth is 6 feet less than the length. It cost $80, at 50 cents a square yard to plaster the room. What are its dimensions ? Ans. 4 yards, height; 6 yards, breadth; 8 yards, length. 45. A banker has two kinds of coin ; it takes a pieces of the first to make a dollar, and b pieces of the second to make the same sum. How many pieces of each kind must be taken that c pieces will make a dollar ? Ans. 2^>' ^^^- a — ^, {a — 0) 46. The length of a rectangle is to its width as 5 to 4 ; if 8 feet be added to each dimension, the length will be to the width as 7 to 6. What are its dimensions ? Ans. 20 ft. and 16 ft. 47. The difference of two numbers is 8, and twice the sum of their reciprocals is equal to 3 times the difference of their reciprocals. What are the numbers ? Ans. 10 and 2. 48. Find two numbers whose sum, product and differ- ence of their squares are equal. Ans. J(3±l/5),i(i±l/5)- 49. A cistern supplied by two pipes could be filled by one alone in 5 hours less than by the other alone, and both together could fill it in 6 hours. In how many hours could each fill it alone ? Ans. 15 hours; 10 hours. 50. The sum of the diagonal and the longer side of a rectangle is three times the length of the shorter side, and the difference in the length of the two sides is 4 yards. What is the area of the rectangle ? Ans. 192 square yards. CHAPTER VIII. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. THE IDEA that the purpose of the school is mere intellectual development is coming more and more to be abandoned. No good work, either manual or mental, can be done when the body is not properly nourished. Some years ago during a great coal strike, which lasted for many weeks and reduced the miners to the verge of starvation, it was found that the children of the strikers were unable to perform their tasks as well as they had formerly done. Doubtless the unsettled conditions prevailing, the lawlessness, rioting, and anxiety in the homes had much to do with this; but the uncertainty of meals, the scarcity of food, the poverty that was so intensely aggravated were the prime causes of poor school work. The children were weak from lack of sufficient nourishment for their bodies, and that affected the mental output. A practical philanthropist in the city of Berlin annual- ly spends thousands of dollars in supplying rolls for the children in the schools of the poorer quarters of the city. He is as truly assisting in the education of the children as if he had supplied textbooks or other school material. The authorities of Paris spend large sums annually in furnishing food for hungry school children, and London is now agitating the same question. Nor is scarcity of food the only hygienic condition to be considered. In many homes even where there is abundance as well as in homes of the poor, there is ignor- ance and neglect in the matter of cleanliness. The com- I70 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK monest rules for keeping the body clean are ignored because people do not appreciate the necessity of attend- ing to these thinofs. It would not be difficult to find either in the country or in the city plenty of places where sanitation is neglected, and where disease is invited through gross carelessness and ignorance. Diphtheria, or scarlet fever, or smallpox, or typhoid breaks out and ravages a community, finally arousing it to action when the damage is done, and compelling it to take steps which ought to have been taken as a preventative at the outset. Then, too, the ignorance among the American people of all classes as to kinds and uses of foods is appalling. It finds its emphatic expression in the universal suffer- ing from dyspepsia and other stomach and intestinal troubles. We do not know what to eat or how to eat. We mix the most incongruous articles of diet, bolting them down in a hurry; we patronize "ten-minute" lunch counters and are impatient if we have to wait a moment for service; we swallow hot bread and ice water; we top off our lobster-salad with a plate of ice cream, and then wonder why we have headache, heart-burn, indigestion, or colic. The only wonder is that we survive this gross abuse of the bodies God has given us and do not collapse much earlier than we do. Our intemperance extends to eating as well as drinking, and often intemperance in the latter is caused by intemperance in the former. We have not yet learned that it is just as truly a sin against the body to abuse it in eating as to abuse it in drinking. If we would teach the nature, value, and use of foods, and impress the necessity of self-control in the use of foods upon our pupils, there would be less need of instruction concerning stimulants, for a large part of the craving for drink would be eliminated. Great forward steps have been taken to teach the PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 171 young the evils and dangers of stimulants and narcotics. Most states in the Union have laws requiring instruction upon these subjects in the common school. It is one of the most effective means for checking intemperance, in that it takes the child at a susceptible period of life and instructs him in the nature of alcohol and the danger of using it from a physical as well as from a moral stand- point. The reasons above given would seem to be sufficient to warrant the consideration of physiology and hygiene in the school. The common school alone reaches the great body of children and through it alone may we hope for universal attention to these matters. "The school teacher is the high priest of the future," says Professor Earl Barnes. The teacher is to sow seed that shall bear fruit in coming generations in better manhood and womanhood. The child must be taught the nature of his own body and how to care for it; must be instructed concerning foods, their purpose, preparation, character, and use; concerning stimulants and narcotics, their nature, use and abuse; concerning cleanliness, clothing, draughts, sleep, recreation, exercise, etc. The teacher must also be familiar with the subject of ventilation, light, heating, seating, cleanliness of the schoolroom, and know how to meet conditions. There are many things concerning the contagious diseases com- mon to children that the teacher should know; such as, the symptoms of measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, how to disinfect a schoolroom after a contagious disease has appeared so as to remove the danger to other children. It is the duty of the board of health to attend to this, but it is well that the teacher should know what to do in case other agencies fail. If the teacher possesses a knowledge of the human body, he will be able to give the kind of physical training 172 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK necessary to produce symmetry, grace, and self-control; he will know how to correct deformities, such as, round- shoulderedness, or spinal curvature; secure graceful movement; mitigate weaknesses and remove them when possible, such as, weak eye sight, poor hearing or other physical deficiency. Knowledge of this kind will enable the teacher to do a great deal to preserve the health of the school and of the community. It will lessen the danger of many children coming together from all classes of homes to remain in close contact for several hours a day. It will also make school work more efficient by removing many obstacles from the pathway of unfortun- ate children. To summarize, then, such practical knowledge of physiology and hygiene should be possessed by the teach- er as to enable him to determine the right conditions of light, heat, ventilation, seating, and cleanliness; to know about food, when, how, how much, what kind to eat; the nature of narcotics and alcohol; concerning contagious diseases, and how to disinfect books and schoolroom; and, in general, how to train the body so as to bring it under the perfect control of the will. Such a practical applica- tion of physiology, and hygiene as has thus been outlined would be a great immediate blessing to our school chil- dren, and a still greater blessing upon future generations. Questions and Answers. /. Define anatomy^ physiology^ and hygiene. Anatomy is that science which treats of the structure of organic bodies. Physiology is that science which treats of the functions of organic bodies. Hygiene is a study of the laws of health and of the art of its preservation. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 173 2. Define organ ; function. Any part of the body which has a special work to do, is called an organ. The work or action of an organ is its function. J. Define cells ; tissues. Cells are the units of structure in the body. Tissues are groups of similar cells devoted to a com- mon work. /J.. What is the skeleton ? The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. 5. What are the uses of bo7tes ? The bones give form to the body, support the softer tissues, protect the delicate parts, and serve as levers in producing motion and locomotion. 6. Give the composition of bone. Bone is composed of two parts mineral matter, and one part animal matter. The former gives rigidity to the bone, while the latter insures toughness and elasticity. 7. Explain the structure of bodies. The structure of the bones is such as to combine the greatest strength and the least weight. If we examine one of the long bones we will find its exterior hard and resisting, its broad extremities porous, while the central portion is hollow. Careful examination will show that even the hardest portions are composed of fine tubes which increase both the strength and lightness. The marrow, the oily substance found in the interior of bones, supplies nourishment to them. The ends of the bones are covered with a thin layer of cartilage which lessens the friction in the movements of the joints. 8. How are bones fastened together ? 174 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The point of union between two or more bones is called an articulation, or joint. g. Name mid give examples of the differeiit kinds of joints. (1) Immovable joints, such as the sutures in the bones of the skull. (2) Mixed joints, such as are found between the verte- brae. (3) Movable joints which allow free motion of every part; as, the joints in the elbow and knee. 10. What are the classes of movable joints ? (1) The ball and socket joint, found in the hip and shoulder. (2) Hinge joint, as in the knee and elbow. (3) Pivot, as in the forearm, and between the axis and atlas. (4) Gliding, as between the short bones of the ankle and wrist. 11. Define periosteum ; endosteum- ; ligame^its ; synovial fluid. All bones are enveloped in a firm vascular membrane called the periosteum. It clings closely to the bone and nourishes it. The inner tube of the long bones is lined with a web of connective tissue known as the endosteum. The bones are held together by strong bands of fibrous connective tissue called ligaments. The articulating surfaces of bones are covered with a very fine, smooth membrane, called the synovial mem- brane, that secretes a slimy fluid, which serves to lubri- cate the joints and prevent friction. This fluid is called the synovial fluid. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 175 12. Give names and number of bones in the human body. 1 Frontal 2 Temporal 2 Parietal 1 Occipital 1 Sphenoid 1 Ethnoid Head Skull (8) Face (14) Ears (6) Cervical Region (8) 2 Superior Maxillary 2 Nasal 2 Malar 2 Lachrymal 2 Turbinated 2 Palate 1 Vomer 1 Inferior Maxillary Malleus Stapes Incus 7 Cervical Vertebrae 1 Hyoid Thorax (37) 14 True, 6 False, 4 Floating Ribs 12 Thoracic Vertebrae 1 Sternum Upper Extremities (64) ^ Shoulder Arm Hand j Clavicle \ Scapula ("Humerus < Radius I Ulna 8 Carpal 5 Metacarpal 14 Phalanges 176 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Lumbar Region (5) \ 5 Lumbar Vertebrae (2 Innominat Pelvis (4) I 1 Sacrum (l Coccyx f Thigh \ 1 Femur Lower Extremities (60) - (\ Patella Leg \ 1 Tibia ll Fibula ( 7 Tarsal Foot < 5 Metatarsal 1 14 Phalanges 7j. What is the main support of the skeleton f De- scribe it. The spinal column is the main support of the skeleton. It bears the weight of the upper part of the body and maintains it in proper relation to the lower part. The spinal column is composed of twenty-six bones or vertebrae. Each vertebra is composed of a disc shaped body, with a bony arch at the back, and seven projecting processes. Each vertebra has a large opening extending through it up and down. The vertebrae are united by strong ligaments, while between them are cushions of very elastic cartilage. They are so united that their openings form one long tube called the spinal canal, which serves for the lodgment and protection of the spinal cord. The vertebral column has four curves by which the pressure is better distributed and an upright position more easily maintained. I//.. What are the cavities of the skeleton ? What does each contain ? (1) ThQ skull or craniiun, which is the bony box in v/hich the brain is located. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 177 (2) The thoracic cavity, extending from the neck to the diaphragm, and containing the heart, lungs, esoph- agus and many blood vessels and nerves. (3) T\iQ pelvic or abdominal cavity, which contains the stomach, liver, kidneys, bladder, intestines, etc. 75. Describe the ribs and explain the object of their dowmvard slope. Branching out from each side of the spinal column are twelve ribs. They slope downward and outward, and with the dorsal vertebrae and sternum form the bony walls of the thorax. All the ribs are united to the vertebrae by true joints. The seven true ribs are joined to the breast bone by flexible cartilages. The three false ribs unite to a cartilage which is common to them all, and by which they are attached to the breast bone. The two floating ribs have no. forward attachment. This articulation and the elasticity of the cartilages permit a considerable expansion of the chest cavity, which is essential to the process of breathing. 16. What is a sprain ? A dislocation ? A sprain occurs when a ligament is strained or lacer- ated. A dislocation is a bone '*out of joint." 77. Define atlas ^ axis., sesamoid bones. The first cervical vertebra is called the atlas. It is shaped like a ring, and upon its upper side are two smooth surfaces upon which the skull rests. The second vertebra, the axis., has a process called the odontoid process, which fits into the ring of the atlas and forms a pivot upon which the ring revolves. This arrangement allows the free motion of the head. Sesamoid bones are small seedlike bones or cartilages formed in the tendons, where unusual pressure is ex- erted, by the gliding motion of these tendons. 178 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 1 8. What are muscles ? Muscles constitute what is called the "flesh" of the body. They are formed of numerous bundles of fleshy fibers bound together by a connective tissue. 7p. What is the use of muscles ? Muscles are the direct instruments by which the movements of the various parts of the body are effected. 20. Name and define the two classes of muscles. Voluntary muscles are those which are controlled by the direct action of the will; such as the muscles of the arm. Involuntary muscles are those which discharge their functions independently of the will; as the muscles of the stomach. 21. How are the muscles attached to the parts to be moved? Voluntary muscles are usually connected with bones. This connection is effected either by muscular tissues or by means of white, firm, fibrous tissue called tendons. These tendons are flexible and inelastic and serve as connecting bands or cords when the parts to be moved are remote from the moving muscle. Where the tendons are attached to bones, their fibers penetrate the solid bone and hold very firmly. 22. What other uses have inuscles besides being organs of motion ? Muscles not only move the parts of the body, but they also give to it form and symmetry. Besides this, they shield the blood-vessels, nerves and lymphatics; forma part of the covering of the cavities of the body; and serve to lessen the force of shocks and blows. 2j. To what is the moving power of muscles due? The chief characteristic of muscular tissue is its PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 179 ability to shorten, and at the same time to thicken and harden. It does its work by shortening, pulling on the bones by means of the tendons, and thus producing motion. 2/1-. How are tJie tnuscles of the body arranged ? The muscles of voluntary motion are arranged in pairs on each side of the body, so that the right and left sides correspond exactly in the number and position of their muscles. 2^. Define flexors^ extensors^ rotators^ sphincters. Flexors are muscles which bend the joints; as those which bend the forearm. Extensors are those muscles which restore the bent parts to their straight condition; as the muscles on the back of the arm. Rotators are those which turn the parts to which they are attached upon their axes; as the oblique muscles of the eye. Sphincters are ring-like muscles which close or con- strict natural openings of the body; as the eye and mouth. 26. How is the action of a muscle controlled? The action of a muscle is controlled from the nerve centers. When a certain movement is to be made a message is sent from the brain along a nerve to the muscle which performs the desired movement. 2J. Upon what system of physical mechanisin are the motions of the body based? Why ? The movements of the body by muscular action are performed through the mechanism of levers. This mechanism consists of a bar or lever, resting upon a fixed point or fulcrum, and acted upon by a force or power, which moves a weight attached to the lever. i8o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The lever system is utilized in the body to gain in range of motion. A muscle attached to the short end of a bone lever, and moving but a short distance, by its action moves the weight at the other end of the bone lever a long distance. 28. Upon what does the development of the muscles depend? The development of the muscles depends upon a proper supply of food, suitable exercise, and the removal of waste matter. 2g. What kind of exercise is best ? Exercise should be regular and judicious and should never be excessive. It should not be taken soon after meals, as all the blood is needed at that time for the organs of digestion. It should be of such a character as to produce a symmetrical and even development, not only of the voluntary muscles but of the vital organs. Real strength is in endurance and power to resist disease, and it is found only in an evenly developed organism. JO. What is the effect of alcohol upon muscular energy ? Alcohol does not permanently increase either the muscular energy of the body or its capacity for work. Repeated experiments show that the power for muscular work and endurance is diminished by the use of alcoholic stimulants. J J. How are the muscles affected by the use of tobacco ? Tobacco smoking or chewing diminishes the usefulness of muscles by its poisonous action at all times, and in youth by hindering development. The paralyzing effect of tobacco upon the nerve centers diminishes the amount of nerve energy which is available for muscular action. It is especially dangerous for growing children. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE i8i ^2, What is excretion ? Name the organs of excretion. The process of the elimination of the waste products of the body is called excretion. The organs of excretion are the lungs, skin, and kidneys. 33' What is the skin ? Describe it. The skin is the outer covering of the body. It con- sists of two distinct layers, the dermis or true skin, and the epidermis or scarf skin. The dermis, or inner layer, is composed of a dense network of fibrous and muscular tissue, and contains blood and lymphatic vessels,nerves, oil and sweat glands, hair and hair follicles. The surface of the dermis is rendered irregular by the papillae. These are made up of terminal blood vessel loops, and oval nerve enlarge- ments, and in them the sense of touch resides. The epidermis, or outer skin, is composed entirely of cells and is without blood vessels and nerves. The epi- dermis is not sensitive and is well adapted as a covering and protection for the sensitive tissues beneath. The pigment which gives color to the skin, lies in the deeper cells of the epidermis. j^. What are the functions of the skin ? The skin is a covering and protector of the surface of the body; an organ of sensation; an organ of excretion; a regulator of temperature; an organ of absorption, and an accessory organ of breathing. J3. What are the appendages of the skin ? The sweat and sebaceous glands and the hair and nails are classed as appendages of the skin. ^6. Explain the structure and function of sweat glands. The sweat glands are minute tubes whose inner ends are closed and whose outer ends open upon the surface of the skin. The tubes are coiled in a sort of ball in the i82 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK connective tissue just beneath the dermis. As the blood flows around this coil it gives off lymph, and from this lymph the cells of the glands take certain waste matter which passes out to the surface of the skin. The sweat glands are thickly distributed over the entire body. They are of an excretory character and rid the body of waste matter. J 7. What are sebaceous glands ? Sebaceous glands are also found in the skin and secrete an oily matter which lubricates the skin and hair, thus preserving their softness and pliancy. J 8. Describe the hair and its uses. Hairs are distributed over most of the surface of the body. Each hair is oval, and is composed of a pith-like substance surrounded by a fibrous tissue and an outer layer of epidermis-like cells. Hairs are supplied with blood at the base of the hair follicles, and are strong and elastic. The hair has various uses. It protects the head from cold and heat. The eyebrows prevent per- spiration from running into the eyes, and the lashes keep dust out of the eyes. jp. What are the nails ? The nails are modifications of the epidermis. They are a support and defense to the ends of the fingers and toes, and assist in picking up and grasping small objects. ^o. What care should be given the skin ? Why ? The skin should be carefully bathed and properly protected by clothing. Perspiration evaporates and leaves its solid matters crusted on the skin. Sebaceous excretions collect there, and dirt accumulates from without. All these sub- stances obstruct the pores and interfere with the healthy action of the skin, therefore they should be removed by PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 183 frequent and careful bathing. In this way the pores will be kept open, excretion promoted, bodily temperature regulated, and the whole system put into a better con- dition to resist and ward off colds, fevers, skin eruptions, etc. ^/. How does clothing regulate the heat of the body ? The body loses heat by radiation. Clothing hinders this loss by confining the warmed air between itself and the body. In like manner it protects the body from excessive external heat. Clothing also protects the body from dust and from the injurious effects of winds, damp- ness, etc. /J.2. What are three desirable qualities in clothing ? Lightness, proper ventilation, and warmth are desir- able qualities in clothing. 4.J. What is food? Food includes all substances, whether liquid or solid, which are necessary for the nourishment of the body. ^^. How are food substances classified? How inany che^nical elements must they supply ? Foods are classified as organic and inorganic. The body is said to contain fourteen chemical elements which must be supplied by food. The principal of these are carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. ^5. Name the classes of organic foods. The organic foods ar,e the proteids,. carbohydrates, and fats. ^6. Describe the proteids. The proteids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxy- gen, nitrogen, sulphur and sometimes a little phosphorus. They do not diffuse through animal membranes easily, are coagulable, and putrefy when moist or warm. Pro- i84 ^ SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK teid elements are the essential constituent of the tissues of the body. As they alone of the organic foods contain nitrogen, they are absolutely necessary in the food sup- ply. The principal foods which contain proteids are lean meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese, and such vegetables as peas, beans, etc. As the proteids also contain other im- portant constituent elements of the body, man can sub- sist upon proteid food alone, with the addition of water and mineral salts. ^j. Describe the carbohydrates and fats. The carbohydrates are compounds of oxygen, hydrogen and carbon. The chief carbohydrate foods are the grains, vegetables, and fruits. The fats contain the same elements as the carbo- hydrates but in different proportions. The chief fats are butter and cream, fat of meats, and oil. Both car- bohydrates and fats enter into the formation of tissue but neither is absolutely essential to the renewal of tissue, and as they contain no nitrogen the body cannot be sustained upon them alone. Their great use is in the acquirement and production of bodily energy and heat. /j-S. What two inorganic substances are essential to life. Water and mineral salts, especially sodium chloride or common salt. ^p. Why is a jnixed diet necessary ? As no one food contains all the needed material, in the right proportion, for the sustenance of life, a mixed diet is essential. ^o. Why is food cooked ? Cooking renders food more palatable and more di- gestible. 51. What is the food value of coffee ? Tea ? Cocoa ? Coffee and tea are not positive foods, but in moderate PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 185 quantities stimulate dormant energies, retard waste, and assist in digestion. Cocoa contains fatty matter, albumen and starch. It is not so stimulating as coffee and tea, but is a true food of a very nutritious character. ^2. Why is food necessary ? Various parts of the body are worn out by constant use. They are built up again by the blood, and the blood is renewed by the food. 5J. By what processes is the body nourished? In order to nourish the body, food must pass through certain preparatory changes, as follows: (1) Digestion, by which the food is reduced to a liquid state; (2) Ab- sorption, by which the digested food is taken into the blood ; (3) Circulation, by which the enriched blood is carried to various parts of the system; (4) Assimilation, by which each tissue selects from the blood the materials necessary for its nutrition. 5^. What are the organs of digestion ? The alimentary canal and its accessory parts are the organs of digestion. This canal consists of the mouth, pharynx, esoph- agus, stomach and intestines. Connected with it are structures known as glands which assist in its functions; as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas. 55. Define mucous membrane. All the internal cavities or passages of the body which communicate with the external air are lined with a thin layer of tissue called the mucous membraite. This mem- brane secreets a fluid called mucus, which serves to keep it moist. ^6. What is the structure and functio7i of a gland? i86 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK A gland is an organ which consists of follicles and ducts interwoven with connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. Its office is to separate some particular substance from the blood and to transform it into a new substance known as the gland secretion. 57. What organs are contained in the mouth ? The mouth contains the teeth, tongue, and palate. ^ ^8. Describe the teeth. The teeth are hard bone-like structures attached to the jaw. The parts of the teeth are the crown and the fangs or roots. The bulk of the tooth is a substance called dentine. The crown is covered with a very hard enamel, and the roots have over them a bony cement which fastens them to the fang socket. Nerves and blood vessels enter the tooth to the pulp cavity by a hole in the tip of the root. In the adult there are eight teeth in each half of both jaws; two incisors, one canine, two bicuspids, and three molars. 5p. What care do the teeth require ? The teeth should be thoroughly brushed at least twice a day that all particles of food may be removed. No metallic substances should be used in picking the teeth. It is prudent to have the teeth examined by a competent dentist about once a year, that any cavities may be discovered and filled. 60. What do human teeth indicate as to the proper food for man ? The teeth of the human being are adapted to the mastication of both animal and vegetable food. The first appearance of the teeth indicates that the child may now take other than liquid food, while the cutting of the permanent teeth shows that food which requires chewing is now a proper diet. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 187 61. What is the tongue ? The palate ? The tongue is a movable muscular organ, covered with a mucous membrane in which are situated the organs of the sense of taste. The uvula, or soft palate, is a curtain-like muscular flap which partly separates the mouth and pharynx. 62. Tell of the location and function of tJie salivary glands. There are three pairs of salivary glands — i\iQ parotid, just back of the angle of the jaw under the ear; the sub- maxilary, under the angle of the jaw ; the sublingual, in front of the submaxilary. These glands secrete a viscid, watery, alkaline fluid called saliva. Its active element is ptyalin which has the power of changing starch to sugar. Saliva serves to keep the mouth moist, helps in the process of mastication, develops the peculiar taste of certain substances, and renders the food more susceptible to the action of other digestive fluids. 6j. Define pharynx, epiglottis, esophagus. The pharynx is the cavity connecting the mouth with the esophagus. The epiglottis is a fold of tissue which extends from the walls of the larynx and shuts it off from the pharynx while food is being swallowed. The esophagus is a muscular tube which runs along the spine from the throat to the stomach, and through which the food is carried. 64.. Give the structure and function of the stomach. The stomach is an oval, muscular sac, lying just be- neath the diaphragm, with the large end to the left. The outer coat of the stomach is the peritoneum. The inner, or mucous coat secretes an acid fluid called gastric juice. i88 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Pepsin is the active element of this secretion. The food enters the stomach from the esophagus through the cardiac orifice^ and is broken into small particles and mixed with the gastric juice by the muscular action of the stomach. This pulpy mass is called chyme, and it passes from the stomach, through an opening called the pylorus, into the small intestine. 6^. What are the intestines and their work? The mesentery ? The intestines are a long tube lying in coils in the abdomen, below the liver and stomach. Folds of con- nective tissue known as the mesentery support these coils and carry blood to the intestines. After the chyme enters the small intestine it is mixed with bile and pan- creatic juice. This emulsion-like liquid, called chyle, is now absorbed by the lacteals and carried to the blood stream. The unabsorbed portions of food pass through the ileo-ccecal valve into the large intestine. Here more food and most of the water is absorbed, while the residue passes into the rectum from which it is expelled as faeces. 66. Describe the pancreas and liver. T\i& pancreas is a large fleshy gland near the stomach. It secretes the viscid, alkaline pancreatic juice. This fluid acts principally upon the fats. The liver is the largest gland in the body. It secretes a yellowish-green fluid called bile. This fluid is stored in the gall bladder, a pear shaped bag attached to the under side of the liver. Bile assists in digesting fats and prevents the decomposition of food in the in- testines. 6y. What is portal circulation ? Blood is carried to the liver by the aorta and the portal PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 189 vein, — the latter being formed by the union of veins from the stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen. This vein divides and subdivides into capillaries ramify- ing the liver. These reunite and form the hepatic vein which carries the blood into the inferior vena cava. Tnis process is cdHXtd. portal circidation. 68. Give the action of the different digestive liquids. Saliva acts on starch, gastric juice on the proteids, and bile on fats, while pancreatic juice acts on all three. 6g. Define lacteals, lymphatics, thoracic duct. Lacteals are small absorbent vessels peculiar to the small intestine. They absorb the chyle, which they are especially adapted to receive. The lacteals unite, form- ing the thoracic duct, which carries these emulsified fats directly to the subclavian vein. The lymphatics are delicate vessels which carry lymph. This is a colorless fluid resembling blood plasma which undergoes renovation in the lymphatic system and is carried into the blood to be wholly purified. 70. What is the spleen ? The spleen is a large gland-like organ situated on the left side of the abdomen, just inside the lower ribs. In its spongy tissue are found red and white blood corpuscles, and other cells. The white corpuscles pass into the blood, while the red corpuscles are probably collected and broken up here. The spleen is supplied by an artery, and its vein empties into the portal system, yi. What are the location and function of the kidneys ? The two kidneys are located in the loins behind the intestines, on either side of the spinal column. They are about four inches long and shaped like a bean. The function of the kidneys is to purify the blood by the I90 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK excretion of a poisonous substance called urea, and other waste products. The watery fluid secreted by the kid- neys is carried by two tubes, called ureters, to the bladder. y2. What is circulation ? Name the organs of cir- culation. The flow of the blood to and from various parts of the body is called circulation. The organs of circula- tion are the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. J J. Describe the heart. The heart is a hollow muscular organ. It lies in the thorax, just above the diaphragm, between the two lungs, and chiefly on the left side of the body. It is en- closed in a fibrous sac called t\iQ pericardiuin. The lining of the interior of the heart is the endocardium. The heart is divided into four cavities — two auricles^ left and right, and two ventricles^ left and right. Between these cavities on either side are valves — those between the cavities on the left side are the mitral valves^ those be- tween the ones on the right are the tricuspid valves. At the entrance to both the aorta and the pulmonary artery are found the semilunar valves. The heart is nourished by arteries from the aorta known as the coronary arteries. j/f.. Define arteries. Veins. Arteries are cylindrical, firm, elastic canals which carry pure blood to all parts of the body. The aorta, the largest artery, sends branches to all organs of the body. These branches as they divide, grow smaller and more numerous, terminating in small hair-like vessels called capillaries. These vessels give origin to the system of veins which unite with each other and finally form two great veins, the superior vena cava and the in- PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 191 ferior vena cava, through which all the veins of the general circulation communicate with the heart. 75. Describe the circulation of the blood. The impure blood, collected by the small veins from various parts of the body, is poured through the venag cavas into the right auricle. Passing the tri-cuspid valves, this venous blood enters the right ventricle, from where it is sent by the pulmonary artery to the lungs, distrib- uted through their capillaries and purified. This pure blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins, passes through the left auricle, over the mitral valves into the left ventricle. From here it is forced into the aorta and is thence carried by the arteries to all parts of the body. Passing from the capillaries of the arteries into the veins, it is again returned to the venae cavae thus completing its journey. y6. Of what is blood composed? Blood consists of two portions, the liquid plasma, and the globules or corpuscles. The plasma is composed of water, fatty and albuminous matter, salts, and some organic substances. The corpuscles are of two kinds, the red and white. The red corpuscles are smaller than the white and more numerous. They are disc-shaped, while the white corpuscles are globular in form. 77. What are the uses of the blood? The blood is the great provider and purifier of the body. Through the agency of the plasma new materials are carried to the tissues and worn-out particles of matter removed, while the corpuscles convey the life- giving oxygen and carry away the carbonic acid. J 8. Describe the lungs. The lungs, two in number, are located in the thoracic cavity. The lung substance is soft, elastic and spongy. 192 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK and is filled with minute cells containing air. The lungs and the cavity in which they are situated, are covered with a very smooth, delicate membrane called the pleura. The lungs are the chief organs of respiration. yg. What changes take place in the air and in the blood during respiration ? The inspired air is robbed of a large part of its oxygen which is taken up by the blood. In turn the air acquires various matters which have been brought to the air cells by the circulation. Hence the expired air is charged with carbonic acid gas and other noxious materials. Certain changes also occur in the blood during respira- tion. In its passage through the tissues the blood loses oxygen and gains carbonic acid, while in the lungs it gains oxygen and loses its carbonic acid. 80. Name the air passages and their functions. The air passages are the interior of the nose, the mouth, pharynx, lar^mx, trachae, and the bronchial tubes. These air passages not only form a transit for the air but they cleanse, warm, and moisten it before it reaches the lungs. 81. Describe and give special use of the larynx. The larynx consists of a number of cartilages which together form a chamber in the air tube between the mouth and lungs. The vocal cords are stretched across this chamber and the air passing over them causes them to vibrate. The parts of the larynx are the thyroid, cricoid, and two arytenoid cartilages. 82. Hozv are voice sounds produced? Voice sounds are produced by the vocal cords and the muscles of the larynx. 8j. How are the vital processes of the body controlled and regu la ted? PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 193 The special activity of all parts of the body is con- trolled and regulated by the action of the nervous system. 8^. What are the organs of the nervoits sytem ? The organs of the nervous system are the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. 8^, Locate a^id describe the brain. The brain occupies the cavity of the skull. It consists of three parts: the cerebrum^ cerebelliun and medulla oblongata. The cerebrum, which is the largest, occupies the upper, front, middle and back part of the cranial cavity; the cerebellum fills the lower and back space of the cav- ity; and the medulla oblongata lies below and in front of the cerebellum and is attached to the spinal cord. The outer covering of the brain is a strong membrane called the dura mater. Under this is the arachnoid inembrane^ while closely adherent to the brain and spinal cord, and dipping down into the furrows, is the third covering, the pia mater. 86. What are the offices of the various parts of the brain ? Each hemisphere of the brain is connected with and has control of the opposite side of the body. The cerebrum is the seat of thought, emotion, sen- sation, and the will. The cerebellum regulates voluntary motion. From the medulla oblongata arise most of the cranial nerves and it is also the center of control for res- piration, circulation and some other processes. 8j. What are nerves ? How classified as to their function ? Nerves are cords composed of white matter extending to all the tissues of the body and connecting all organs with the brain or spinal cord. They are classified as motor and sensorv nerves. 194 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 88. Describe the sympathetic nervous system. The sympathetic system of nerves consists of a double chain of ganglia on each side of the spinal column, and of scattered ganglia in the head, neck, and abdomen. These ganglia are connected with each other and with the cerebro-spinal system by sensitive fibers. This sympathetic system controls for most part the involun- tary processes of the body. 8g. Describe the spinal cord. The spinal cord is a continuation of the medulla ob- longata, and fills the cavity of the spinal canal in the vertebral column. It consists of gray and white matter, and from it thirty-one pairs of nerves are given off. po. Name the special senses and their particular organs. The special senses are sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell. To these may be added the sense of temperature, of pressure, and the muscular sense. The eye is the organ of sight; the ear, of hearing; the sense of touch is located in the skin and some mucous membranes; the tongue and palate are the organs of taste; the organs of the sense of smell are located in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavities. gi. Describe the structure of the eye. The eyeball is spherical in form and has the segment of a smaller sphere set upon its front portion. It is about an inch in diameter. The larger part of the eyeball has three coats: the sclerotic which is white; the choroid which is dark and closely adherent to the sclerotic coat ; the retina or inner coat, which is a delicate membrane containing an expan- sion of the optic nerve. The small spherical segment in the front of the eye is the cornea. Just inside of this and seen through it, is a continuation of the choroid coat, called the iris, with a PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 195 Circular opening in the center known as the pupil. Be- tween the cornea and the iris is a clear watery substance the aqueous humor. Back of the pupil is the crystalline lens, while between the lens and the retina is a clear fluid substance called the vitreous humor. Q2. How is the eye protected? Each eyeball rests in a bony cavity and is partially surrounded by cushions of fat. The eyebrows which grow from the brows that project above the eyes, pre- vent perspiration from flowing into the eyes. In front of each socket are two movable curtains or eyelids, which, when closed, cover the eye. Both lids have eye- lashes upon their edges which screen the eyes, and give warning of approach of insects, dust, etc. At the outer side of each socket is the lachrymal gland which secretes the tears. This gland constantly secretes a watery sub- stance which is spread over the eyeball by the lids, thus keeping the eye in a moist and transparent condition. pj. Explain the tnechanism of sight. The eyeball is moved by six muscles which turn it in all directions. Light enters the eye through the cornea, is refracted by the aqueous humor, crystalline lens, and vitreous humor, and the rays focused upon the retina where a small inverted image of the object is formed. These rays of light stimulate the elements in the retina, and the nerve impulses, thus started, pass along the fibers of the optic nerve to the brain and we have the sensation of sight. p^. What is said of the structure and location of the ear ? The ear is the most complicated of all the structures which receive external impressions. It is composed of numerous small and delicate parts. Most of these are 196 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK located in the cavity of the temporal bone where they are well protected. From their positions the three parts of the ear are called the external ear, middle ear, and in- ternal ear. P5. Describe the structure and function of the outer ear. The external ear consists of a shell-shaped cartilage covered with skin. This shell collects the sound. From the outer portion a canal extends inward. A membrane, called the tympanum^ stretches across the inner end of this canal shutting it off from the middle ear. This auditory canal has many coarse stiff hairs and numerous wax-producing glands, all of which tend to prevent the accumulation of dust or the inroads of insects. g6. Describe the middle ear. The middle ear is an air cavity and is connected with the air passages of the throat by the Eustachian tube. It contains a chain of three small bones, the malleus^ incus^ and stapes. gy. Describe the internal ear. The internal ear consists of several complicated cavi- ties and tubes which contain a liquid, in which rests the nerves. The cavities are known as the vestibule^ the cochlea^ and the semi-circular canals. g8. How do we hear ? Sound waves are collected by the outer ear. Passing down the auditory canal they strike the tympanum. This vibrates and sets in motion the little bones, and they, in turn, communicate this motion to the fluid of the internal ear. These impressions are communicated to the auditory nerve, which carries them to the brain. pp. What is the prime condition of good health ? In the absence of structural derangements in the other PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 197 organs, the proper development and healthy action of the brain and nerves is the prime condition of good health, 100. What is disease ? Disease is a disorder of the structure or functions of the body. loi. What are some of the causes of disease ? Disease may arise from some mechanical injury, from exposure to cold and wet, from improper food, over work, insufficient rest, or the taking of such substances as alcohol, tobacco, and other narcotics, which poison the body. 102. How may disease be prevented? The first preventive against disease is the observance of the laws of health. A knowledge of these laws is the result of the study of the body. Briefly these laws are: to eat plenty of good food; to eat, work, and sleep regularly; to breathe pure air; to take plenty of outdoor exercise; to avoid all substances which can injure the body; to avoid exposure to cold or wet or to contagious and infectious diseases. 10^. What are the most common com^jnunicable diseases ? Tuberculosis or consumption, pneumonia, diphtheria, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, measles, smallpox. lo/j.. What is a narcotic ? Name principal narcotics. A narcotic is a substance which directly induces sleep, allaying sensibility and blunting the senses, and which in large quantities produces complete insensibility. Direct narcotics either produce some specific effect upon the cerebral gray matter, or have a very decided action on the blood supply of the brain. Opium, belladonna, chloroform, alcohol, nicotine are some of the chief narcotic poisons. 198 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 10^. How is alcohol produced? Alcohol is the product of fermentation, it being one of the bodies resulting from the decomposition of sugar. It is an active agent in all malt, fermented and distilled liquors. The chemical action of alcohol is to arrest or impede change in organic substances. 1 06. Give some of the effects of alcohol upon various parts of the body. Alcohol retards digestion, develops an abnormal growth of the connective tissue of the liver, causes fatty- degeneration of the heart, impoverishes the blood, and decreases muscular energy. 707. Upon what part of the body are the effects of alcohol most harmful? The physiological effects of alcohol upon other parts of the body are quite subsidiary to its effects upon the ner- vous system. Its first effect upon this sytsem is to pro- duce a sense of exhilaration. This leads to over-exertion and hence over-fatigue. It also deadens the sensibilities, weakens the power for genuine brain activity, deranges the whole mental machinery, destroys the harmony be- tween the mental and moral powers, impairs the will power, and lowers the moral tone of the individual. 108. What is the poison in tobacco ? What are some of its effects ? Nicotine is the exhilarating agent in tobacco. It is a powerful emetic, diminishes the contractile force of the muscles, weakens the action of the heart, diminishes the desire for food, impairs the will-power, weakens the memory, blunts the finer moral feelings, and decreases the powers of abstract thought. log. Why is the use of tobacco especially harmful to the young ? PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 199 The habitual use of tobacco by the young will hinder growth of brain, muscle and nerve, and will so impair the vital energies of the body as to weaken them for the entire life. Boys who smoke suffer from headache, con- fusion of intellect, loss of memory, impaired power of attention, lassitude, feeble will-power, and many kindred mental evils to say nothing of impaired physical powers. no. Name the commonest principles of hygiene that every one should practice. The body should be kept clean by frequent baths, and changes of clothing, pure air should be breathed and draughts avoided, clothing suitable to the climate and season worn, healthful food eaten and pure water drank, and unnecessary exposure to contagious diseases avoided. III. What measures of a hygienic nature have been in- troduced into modern life^ and what has been the effect ? Abundance of pure water is furnished wherever people live close together, sewer systems have been installed, halls and other audience rooms are provided with ven- tilation, contagious diseases have been studied and per- sons infected with them isolated, vaccination insisted upon, and boards of health, established everywhere and clothed with power, have rendered efficient service in enforcing stringent laws. The result has been the prac- tical extermination of many dread diseases, and the con- trol of others, while the death rate has been greatly lessened. CHAPTER IX. GEOGRAPHY. iHE study of geography has undergone a great many changes in recent years and no subject of the school curriculum has demanded greater at- tention. The former conception of geography regarded it as a description of the earth's surface. Chief atten- tion was given to rivers, bays, lakes, mountains, islands, etc., as facts to be located and remembered. The pupil hunted up places located on the map, while the teacher read the questions from the book and determined whether or not the answers fitted. A later and truer conception of geography considers the earth as the home of man, and with man in his relation to his physical environment as the central thought. "According to the definition of geography, — ■ which treats of the relation between man and the earth, — a hill or lake is worthy of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the men upon the earth; consid- ered by itself it is not a part of geography."* If man in his relation to his environment is the central idea it becomes clear that home geography, the things immed- iately at hand, must be studied first. The report of the Committee of Fifteen, which has done so much to clarify educational theories and shape practice, puts the case as follows: "The child commences with what is nearest to his interests, and proceeds grad- ually toward what is to be studied for its own sake. It *Tarr and McMurry's Geography, Macmillan, New York. GEOGRAPHY 201 is therefore a mistake to suppose that the first phase of geograph}?- presented to the child should be the process of continent formation. He must begin with the natural differences of climate and lands and waters and obstacles that separate peoples, and study the methods by which man strives to equalize or overcome these differences by industry and commerce, and make it possible for each to share in the productions of all. The industrial and com- mercial idea is therefore the first central idea in the study of geography in the elementary schools. It leads directly to the natural elements of difference in climate, soil, and productions, and also to those in race, religion, political status, and occupations of the inhabitants, with a view to explain the grounds and reasons for this counter-process of civilization which struggles to over- come the differences. Next comes the deeper inquiry into the process of continent formation, the physical struggle between the process of upheaving or upbuilding of continents and that of their obliteration by air and water; the explanation of mountains, valleys, the plains, volcanic action, the winds, the rain distribution. But the study of cities, their location, the purposes they serve as collecting, manufacturing, and distributing centers, leads most directly to the immediate purpose of geogra- phy in the elementary school." In this statement we have a broad and comprehensive view of the work to be undertaken in geography and it quite accords with the definition that geography is the study of the earth as the home of man. The plan of geographical study is admirably outlined by Dr. Charles McMurry as follows:* "In this outward movement from the home there are four distinct stages: (a) Home geography, with its excursions and varied study of local topography, occupations, and social life. ^"Special Method in Geography," p. i6, Macmillan. 202 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK (b) The leading topics of the United States and North America. This is a very interesting field of broad and varied studies, illustrating almost all phases of geograph- ical knowledge. (c) The important phases of European geography. While Europe is relatively a small part of the world it has a greater number of valuable and instructive geographical topics than any other continent, due to the varieties of its physical structure, the many distinctly different nationalities it exhibits, and the higher degree of excellence attained in the arts of life, (d) The movement from Europe outward into the world- whole, — Asia, Africa, South America, Australia, and the larger physical and commercial aspects of the world- whole." Here we have a suggestive plan based upon sound educational principles which may serve as a guide to the teacher in his work in geography. An important feature of home geography will be the field trips in which the material is studied first-hand. In the olden time the child was taught that **a river is a stream of water flow- ing through the land," but he was not taken out to study the river or stream close by, and so it was with the other features of geography. An excursion to a stream of water, to a hill, or to a factory will not only prove of deep interest at the time, but will also furnish material for profitable instruction for many days following. A proper conception of geography will lead the teacher to lay stress upon the products of the soil, and of the mill; upon commerce and railway and ocean routes; upon the reasons for the founding of cities at particular localities rather than somewhere else; upon the effect of climate; upon the foods and occupations of men, upon the natural resources; upon the government and the religion of the people. Incidentally while learning these things the child will fix all the necessary data as to GEOGRAPHY 203 places, boundaries, and other geographical material. He will also easily and naturally correlate that material with other subjects of the school course. This conception of geography properly carried out will make it one of the most interesting and profitable subjects of the curricu- lum. I desire to call special attention to Dr. McMurry's book on "Special Method in Geography," from which quotation is made above. In this book the reader will find not only the method of teaching geography fully treated, but also an elaborate course of study in geography for each of the eight grades. There is also a fine bibliography of works on this subject for the use of pupils and teachers. Questions and Answers. 1. What is geography ? Geography is the study of the earth as the home of mankind. From it we learn of the building of this home, of its structure, furnishings and equipments, and of the life of its inhabitants. 2. What is the form of the earth? The form of the earth is that of a sphere slightly flat- tened at its poles. So small a part of the earth's surface is visible at a time that the curvature of its surface is not apparent. Several proofs and illustrations may be given to show that it is spherical in form. (1) The change in appearance of approaching and re- ceding vessels on the ocean. (2) The change in the position of the stars, in going from one pole to the other. (3) The circular shadow cast by the earth in an eclipse. 204 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK (4) The many routes of travel and communication which extend around the earth in all directions. J. Give the dimensions of the earth. Its axis (the shortest diameter) is 7,900 miles long. Its greatest circumference (the equator) is 24,900 miles long. Its surface contains 196,900,000 square miles. ^. How many and what motions has tJie earth ? Two. It rotates upon its axis and revolves around the sun. 5. Why is the rotation of the earth important ? The earth rotates upon its axis, from west to east, re- quiring twenty-four hours for one rotation. This period of time is called a day. The sun lights but one half of the earth's surface at a time,but by this rotation of the earth all parts are illuminated at some time during a day, and all parts are also in darkness during a portion of this period of rotation. The time when darkness prevails is called night. This is followed by a period of illumina- tion called day. 6. How is a clock related to rotation ? Clocks are machines which indicate the speed of rota- tion. In most clocks the hour hand moves twice around the dial plate during a single rotation of the earth. y. What are the chief directions^ and how may they he found? The direction in which the earth always rotates is called east^ from a word which means morning. The direction opposite to this is west, which means evening. North is the direction toward that end of the earth's axis, called the north pole, and soutJi is the direction toward the opposite end of the earth's axis, called the south pole. GEOGRAPHY 205 (1) If a person faces the rising sun, the north will be toward his left, the south to his right, and the west back of him. (2) From the polar star which indicates the north, other directions can be found. (3) By the use of the compass any direction may be determined. 8. What is the equator ? What determines its location ? The equator is an imaginary line drawn round the earth from east to west half-way between the poles. The rotation of the earth fixes the position of the poles of the earth and from these definite points the equator is located. g. Explain what is 7nea,nt by parallels^ latitude^ me- ridians^ longitude. Other east and west lines are supposed to be drawn around the earth above and below the equator and parallel to it. These lines are called parallels and their distance from the equator is called latitude. Imaginary lines are supposed to connect the north .and south poles, crossing the equator at right angles. These lines are called meridians. One of the meridians (usually that of Greenwich, England) is called ih^ prime meridian. The distance of a meridian east or west of this prime meridian is called longitude. 10. How may the exact location of a plaxe on the earth's surface be described? By giving its latitude and longitude. 11. How are Icttitude and longitude measured? The east and v/est lines are circles. The north and south lines are semi-circles. To these, circular measure may be applied in reckoning distances. Hence we num- ber 90° (or one-fourth of a circle) of latitude from the 2o6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK equator to either pole, and 180° (or one-half of a circle) of longitude, east or west from the prime meridian. 12. What determines the length of a year ? The year is the period of the earth's revolution around the sun. /J. What are the results of this second motion of the earth ? The various positions which the earth occupies with reference to the sun while making this revolution, to- gether with the inclination of its axis, causes the vari- ation in the length of day and night and the changes of the seasons. I /J.. What are the equinoxes and solstices ? On March 21, the sun's rays fall vertically upon the equator and reach both poles. The days and nights are equal. This is the beginning of spring in the northern hemisphere, and of autumn in the southern hemisphere, and is called the vernal equinox. June 21, the sun's rays are vertical over the Tropic of Cancer, and reach all the region within the Arctic Cir- cle but do not light any of the region in the Antarctic Circle. This is the summer solstice^ the beginning of the northern summer and southern winter. At this time there is the greatest inequality between the days and nights. About September 22, occurs the autumnal equinox^ when the position of the sun's rays is the same as at the vernal equinox. This is the beginning of autumn north of the equator, and of spring south of it. December 21, the rays of the sun shine vertically on the Tropic of Capricorn, the Arctic region is in darkness, and the Antarctic region is illumined. This is the wifiter solstice^ the time of the shortest days and the be- GEOGRAPHY 207 ginning of winter in the northern hemisphere, and the season of long days and summer in the southern. 75. What are the tropics and polar circles ? The parallels 23}^°, north and south, mark the farthest points from the equator, upon which the sun's rays fall vertically. When either of these points is reached the vertical rays recede toward the equator. Hence, these points are called tropics or turning points. The Tropic of Cancer is 23>^° north of the equator, the Tropic of Capricorn, 23>^° south of the equator. The parallels 23}^° from either pole inclose the region of complete darkness and illumination, and are called re- spectively, the Arctic Circle, and the Antarctic Circle. 16. What are zones ? Zones are heat belts. 77. Name and locate the zones. In the region between the tropics the rays of the sun are always vertical somewhere, and it is very warm there. Hence this is called the torrid or hot zone. Within the polar circles lies a region which is not reached at all times by the rays of the sun, and such rays as do fall are slanting and carry very little heat. These regions are called the frigid^ or cold zones. The north frigid zone lies within the Arctic Circle, and the south frigid zone, within the Antarctic Circle. Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere, and the Antarctic Circle and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemipshere, lie broad belts where the temperature is not so extreme as in the frigid and torrid zones. These belts are called the north and the south temperate zones. 18. What are the parts of the earth ? In a general way, the earth may be considered to be 2o8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK made up of three parts: (1) the solid earth; (2) the partial water covering; (3) the gaseous covering — or atmosphere. ig. What of the surface of the solid earth ? It is supposed that the entire mass of the earth was once very hot and that as it cooled some parts shrank faster than others, thus making its surface very irregu- lar. These irregularities have been increased by vol- canic upheavals, and by the action of various elements and forces. 20. Into what parts is the surface of the earth divided? The deep depressions between these irregular masses of the solid earth are filled with salt water which forms the sea. The elevations which protrude above these bodies of water are called the land. Hence the surface of the earth is composed of land and water. 21. What is a plateau f Any broad region of elevation is called a plateau. 22. What is meant by the continental plateau ? How is it divided? The land mass of the globe may be considered as form- ing a great plateau, and upon this is found all the conti- nents, hence it is called the continental plateau. This plateau is divided into three continents called the Eastern, Western, and Australian Continents. The first contains the grand divisions of Asia, Africa, and Europe; the second embraces North and South America, while the third is the island continent of Australia. 2j. Define island. Archipelago. Isthmus. Peninsula. An island is a tract of land surrounded by water, and smaller than a continent. An archipelago is a group of islands. GEOGRAPHY 209 An isthmus is a narrow neck of land connecting two larger bodies of land. A peninsula is a portion of land nearly surrounded by water. 2/1-. Define and give examples of the two classes of islands. Continental islands are those which lie near the conti- nents and seem to be a part of the great continental plateau. The British Isles belong to this class. Oceanic islands are those which lie far from the shores of the continents and seem to have no connection with them. The Hawaiian Islands may be classed in this division. ^5. How is the water surface of the globe divided? The water surface of the globe is divided into five oceans; the Antarctic Ocean, lying about the south pole, the Indian, the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean extending northward between the continents, and the Arctic Ocean, which lies around the north pole. 26. Define lowlands. Highlands. Those parts of the land which are below an average height of about half a mile, are called lowlands. All parts above this height are highlands. 2j. Where are the great highland and lowland regions of the world? The great highland regions of the world lie on that side of the continental plateau which is toward the Indian and the Pacific oceans. The Atlantic and the Arctic oceans are bordered by broad lowlands, which are drained by great rivers, and broken by a very few small, and disconnected highlands. 28. What of the sinking and the rising coasts ? 210 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The coast lines of the continents are constantly chang- ing, owing to change in the elevation of the land. A sinking coast, causes the sea to creep up into the valleys, forming gulfs, bays, fiords or estuaries. Such a coast is very irregular. The rising of a coast usually gives it a comparatively regular and even coast line. 2g. Define inountain^ mountain range^ and mountain system. By the upheaval of the land many portions of rock and rock folds have been left projecting high above the sur- rounding country. These projections are called moun- tains. When this projection makes a single line of some length it is called a range. A series of ranges form a mountain chain or system. JO. What is a volcano ? An earthquake ? In many parts of the world melted rock, or lava, is forced up through crevices in the rocks, forming vol- canoes. These eruptions of volcanoes are often accom- panied by violent explosions which jar the earth's crust. Such jars are also caused by upheavals of the land, and are called earthquakes. J/. What is erosion ? The rocks are constantly subjected to the action of winds and water. This wearing away and breaking up of the rocks is called erosion. J2. What is detritus ? Soil ? Talus ? By the action of the elements — winds, water, cold, and heat — the surface of the land is being constantly broken up. These particles of rock form what is called detritus. This detritus mixed with decaying animal and vege- table matter forms soil. GEOGRAPHY 211 The soil, acted upon by various forces moves down the slopes and forms a broad apron of detritus at the foot of a hill or cliff, thus making it merge gradually into the plain. This deposit is called a talus. jj. Define evaporation. How does it effect the purity of water f Evaporation is the changing of water from its liquid form to vapor. When water evaporates the vapor is pure, as all sediment and impurities are left behind. j^. Explain the formation of dew^ f'^ost^ fog, clouds, rain, and snow. Warm air will contain more vapor than cool air. When the vapor-laden warm air comes in contact with a cooler surface the moisture is condensed and is precipitated in small drops called dew. If the surface which the warmer air touches is very cold, this dew is crystallized and becomes /r^^^. When the air contains so much vapor that it is visible it is called fog. The air as it rises becomes cooler and the vapor it contains is formed into clouds. If the condensed vapor in the clouds forms particles large enough these fall to the earth in drops of rain. When the temperature falls to freezing point these drops of rain change to delicate white crystals and reach, the earth as snow. J5. Explain the formation of springs? What are geysers f Artesian wells ? Much of the water that falls to the earth sinks into the ground, often to a considerable depth and is called ground water. Very often this water passing through porous rock, encounters a less porous bed and flows along this until it reaches the air either at the termination of the rock beds, as on a hillside, or through a crevice, thus forming a 212 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK spring. If the water has become heated in its journey, hot springs or geysers are formed. Or, if it contains an appreciable amount of dissolved mineral matter, it be- comes a mineral spri^ig. The water-bearing porous rock often lies between layers of more impervious rock. If a hole is bored through the upper layer of hard rock, the water (especially if the rock layers be inclined) will rise through the open- ing and form an artificial spring or an artesian well. j6. What other formations are due to the action of ground water ? In the limestone regions, the underground water often dissolves the rock leaving great openings, or caves. The lime laden water trickling through the roofs of these caves, evaporates and forms icicle-like stalactites and stalagmites. These sometimes unite and form columns. If a part of the roof of this cavern breaks in, a sink-hole is formed; while often the entire roof falls, thus forming a gorge or valley. A part of this roof may remain as a natural bridge. Metals are sometimes dissolved by ground water and afterward deposited in crevices of the rocks. The vei^is thus formed result in some of the richest of mines. J/. What is a river system ? A spring often becomes the source of a small stream. Several of these streams uniting form a river. This river, in turn, as it flows toward the sea, is joined by other rivers, or tributaries^ and all together form a river system. The valley drained by this system is called the river basin. ^8. How are lakes formed? A river sometimes spreads out over a broad plain, or encounters a barrier of some kind, and thus a lake is formed. If the evaporation of this lake causes its sur- GEOGRAPHY 213 face to sink below the level of the river so that it has no outlet^ the sediment left by evaporation causes the lake to become a salt lake. jg. What is a divide ? What are the 7nain slopes of the continental plateau f Any region from which the land slopes downward in opposite directions is called a divide. The great highlands of the world form contineittal divides separating the plateau into three main slopes: (1) the Indian Ocean slope; (2) the Atlantic-Arctic slope; (3) the Pacific slope. ^o. What is a canyon ? Hozv foyjued ? All streams carry detritus, and by friction cut their valleys deeper. Swift streams wear their channels more rapidly than slow ones. Hence the rapid streams of the mountains often cut deep narrow valleys with steep sides. Such valleys are called canyons. 4.1. Define and explain the various strea^tn features? A stream sometimes encounters a hard layer of rock which does not cut away so rapidly as the softer portions about it. The water passing over this forms rapids^ or if the descent is steep, a cataract. If the current of the stream becomes sluggish the detritus is deposited and sand bars are formed. When a stream which carries a large amount of sediment enters the ocean, its current stops and this sediment is deposited and a delta is formed. /J.2. What are glaciers ? Icebergs ? The accumulated ice and snow of the cold regions form great sheets, which gradually creep slowly forward pressed by the weight of material back of them. These are called glaciers. In their movement they excavate rock basins, widen and deepen valleys, wear off the hills, 214 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK and carry great quantities of rocky material. If the glacier reaches the sea, portions are broken off and float away as icebergs. ^j. How many and what ^notions has the sea ? The sea has three motions; waves, tides, and currents, ^^. Define and explain each. \ Waves are formed by the action \of the wind on the water. \ Tides are the regular rising and falling of the sea, caused by the attraction of the sun and moon. Currents are drifts of surface water caused by the winds, the unequal heating of the waters of the ocean, and the rotation of the earth. ^5. What are the effects of these motions f Name the chief ocean currents. The waves and tides wear away the coasts, tending to make them more uniform. By these movements of the water the coasts are washed and cleansed. The ocean currents modify climate, making the ocean itself and the neighboring lands either warmer or cooler. They keep the waters of the ocean in circulation and nourish large numbers of marine animals. They also bring food to the coral polyps which exist in the warmer parts of the ocean and thus help in the formation of coral islands. The principal currents of the Atlantic Ocean are the Gulf Stream, Labrador Current, and the Brazilian Cur- rent. In the Pacific Ocean the chief current is the Japanese Current. 4.6. What shore forms result from the action of the waves ^ or from the rising or sinking of coasts ? A peninsula^ already described as a body of land almost surrounded by water. GEOGRAPHY 215 A strait, which is a body of water connecting two larger bodies of water. Long, narrow straits called sounds. Arms of the sea extending inland and designated as gulfs, bays, or seas. 4.J. What is climate? By what is it affected? Climate is the condition of the atmosphere as regards temperature, winds, and moisture. It is affected by latitude, height above the sea level, nearness or remoteness of large bodies of water, winds, and ocean currents. ^8. What are winds ? Winds are currents of air in motion. ^p. What are the principal wind belts ? The winds from the temperate zones blow steadily toward the equator and are called trade winds. The heated air which is displaced by the incoming trade winds, rises, and moves away from the equator, forming the anti-trade winds. Beyond the trade wind belt, in both the northern and the southern hemisphere, is a region where the anti-trade winds have settled to the surface and blow steadily from the west. This is known as the belt of the prevailing westerlies. Besides the wind belts just mentioned, there are three belts of calms. At the heat equator the air rises to a great height, producing light, changeable winds or calms. Near the tropics where the trades begin to be permanent is a region of settling air known as the horse latitudes or the tropical calms. In the cold regions the stormy polar winds prevail. 50. What are the uses of winds ? Winds disseminate seeds, aid the flight of birds, propel sailing vessels, and purify the air. But the greatest use 2i6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK of the winds is to carry and distribute moisture over the land. 57. Upon what does the distribtction of plants depend f Upon the soil, temperature and moisture. ^2. Distinguish between forests^ grassy lands ^ tundras^ and deserts. In the torrid zone are found dense forests of luxuriant growth. In the temperate zone the forests are more open and consist of both deciduous and evergreen trees. In both torrid and temperate zones, where the rainfall is not sufficient for a forest growth, are found open grassy lands. These are called by the names of prairies, steppes, llanos, and pampas. Along the Arctic coast of Eurasia and America are vast tracts where little or no vegetation is found. These are called tundras. Some regions, where the rainfall is deficient, support little or no veoretation. These are the deserts. 'b> 5J. Upon what does the distribution of animal life depend ? Upon climate, the position of natural barriers, and the distribution of plants. 5^. What is said of the animals of tJie different life regions ? The largest wild animals are found in the torrid zone. The animals with the thickest fur live in the polar regions. The animals of the Australian life region belong to a low grade of animal life now extinct in all other regions. It includes the egg-laying mammals and pouched animals. The South American region is noted for its variety of animals and especially for its bright plumaged birds. The African and Oriental regions are especially noted for their flesh-eating animals. GEOGRAPHY 217 There is very little difference between the native ani- mals of the Eurasian and the North American region, showing that the barrier between these regions has existed but a short time. Most of our domestic animals (and plants) are descended from the wild life of Eurasia. 55. Name the races and tell of each. Mankind may be divided into three races; the white race, the black race, and the yellow race. The home of the white race is in Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia. Australia and the Americas have been settled almost entirely by the people of this race. It is the most civilized of the races and includes about one-half of the people in the world. There are two distinct branches of this race, the A-ryans, which have fair or blond complexion, light hair and eyes, and are above the average height; the Semitic peoples, having a darker skin, dark and often curly hair, and black eyes. The home of the yellow race is in northern and eastern Eurasia, America, and the Pacific islands. The people of this race have coarse, straight black hair, deep-set or almond-shaped eyes and a yellow or yellowish red skin. As a race, they are less civilized than the white race. Three types are included in this race; the Mongolians, the Malays, and the American Indians and Eskimos. Africa and the Australian Islands are the home of the least civilized and least numerous of the races — the black race. The people of this race have coarse, woolly hair, thick protruding lips, and dark brown or black skin. ^6. What is a nation ? A body of people united under one ruler and subject to the same general laws, is a nation. 5/. What is government ? 2i8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Government is the organized authority which rules a nation. ^8. Name and define the kinds of government. A monarchy is a form of government in which the ruler generally holds his office for life by virtue of birth. There are two kinds of monarchies; in an absolute mon- archy, the ruler has unlimited power; in a limited monarchy, the laws are made by a representative body of the people and the power of the ruler is limited. A republic is a form of government in which the peo- ple choose their own ruler and also elect a body of men to make their laws. 5p. What are the three great branches of industry ? Procuring materials ; transforming materials ; exchang- ing and transporting materials. 60. What is agriculture ? Agriculture is raising plants by tilling the soil. 61. Nam.e some of the most useful plants. The grains — wheat, rice, corn, etc. — are the chief food plants. The tuberous and underground stem plants, as the beet, potato, etc The sugar producing cane. The tea and coffee plants. Tobacco and opium, the narcotics. The fibrous plants — cotton, flax, and hemp. The various kinds of fruits. 62. What other occupation is closely allied to agriculture ? The raising of domestic animals for draught animals, but chiefly for food. 6^. What sea products are most valuable ? Fish of such kinds as may be used for food; oysters; GEOGRAPHY 219 seals, which are sought for their fur; whales, which furnish oil and whalebone ; sponges, which have many commercial uses. 64.. What are the most valuable forest products ? Timber for fuel; lumber for building, etc. ; sap products such as rubber, pitch, tar, and resins; dyewoods and drugs. 6s . What is mining? Mining is the process of obtaining minerals from the earth. 66. What are the chief minerals and for what used ? The most useful minerals are iron, coal, petroleum, copper, gold, silver, tin, zinc, lead, and building stones. Coal is used for fuel. Iron, for manufacturing. Gold and silver are coined into mone}^, and employed in the decorative arts. Petroleum, for fuel and illuminating purposes. d/. What is manufacturing? What are the chief manufactures ? Manufacturing is the converting of raw material into useful and necessary articles. The chief manufactures are the making of textiles, working of metals, and the preparing and preserving of food. 68. What leads to the exchange of goods ? Different places produce different articles, and that all may be supplied, goods are exchanged. This exchange is called commerce. Trade between parts of the same country is domestic commerce \ that between different countries i?, foreign commerce, 6g. What are routes of commerce ? 220 SEELE V'S Q UESTION BOOK Natural routes of commerce are the oceans, lakes, and navigable rivers. Artificial routes are canals, highways, and railroads. yo. Mention some aids to commerce. Telegraph and cable lines, telephones, and post office service, are valuable aids to commerce. yi. In what regions of the world are the great hidtis- tries carried on ? Generally speaking, the people who occupy the great lowland regions are engaged in agriculture. The moun- tainous regions contain the mineral wealth of the world. Manufacturing is centered in the towns and cities. While commerce is carried on between those places which have good commercial facilities. ^2. How do you account for the location of the chief towns and cities of the world? Commercial interests have determined the location of most cities. Good harbors, favorable points on navigable rivers and lakes, junctions of railroads, and such consid- erations have led to settlements, which have developed into towns and cities. 7J. Locate North Am^erica. North America occupies the northern part of the western continental plateau. It lies between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; it is separated from Asia by Behring strait, and joined to South America by the isthmus of Panama. It lies in the Torrid, North Temperate, and North Frigid zones. y^. What are the features of the coast line ? The western coast of North America is quite regular, being broken only by the gulf and peninsula of California, Behring Sea, the Alaskan Peninsula, and a few islands. GEOGRAPHY 221 The northern and eastern shores are deeply indented by gulfs and bays and fringed by many large islands, and peninsulas. The most important of these are Hudson Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, and Chesapeake Bay; Green- land and Newfoundland; the peninsulas of Labrador, Nova Scotia, and Florida. On the south east are the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; the West Indies; and the peninsula of Yucatan. 75. What are the surface features of North A rnerica ? In the western part of North America, the Rocky Mountain Highland extends the entire length of the grand division. This highland is composed of great plateaus from which rise the lofty range of the Rocky Mountains, and many other shorter ranges. East of the Rocky Mountains, the highland slopes gradually to the Central Lowland, which reaches from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The highlands of the eastern part, while much older than those in the western, are very much lower. They are the Appalachian Mountains and the Laurentian Plateau. East of this region, and bordering the Atlantic Ocean, is the Atlantic Plain. "J 6. How is North America drained? The Central Lowland of North America is drained by the Mackenzie River, which flows to the Arctic Ocean, the Nelson-Saskatchewan emptying into Hudson Bay, and the Missouri-Mississippi system, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico. The waters of the Great Lakes reach the Atlantic Ocean through the St. Lawrence River. The rivers of the Pacific slope are the Yukon, which empties into Behring Sea; the Columbia; the Colorado, which flows into the Gulf of California. The Rio Grande empties into the Gulf of Mexico. 222 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK 77. How was North America peopled? After the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, the continent was explored and settled by the Spanish, French, and English. The descendants of these early settlers, together with other European emigrants, a few native Indians, and Eskimos, the negroes, and some Chinese, form the pres- ent population of this continent. y8. What are the political divisions of North America ? The United States, including Alaska ; the Dominion of Canada; Mexico; Central America ; West Indies; Danish America, consisting of Greenland and Iceland. yg. Locate Canada and tell of its climate and vegetation. The Dominion of Canada occupies that part of North America which lies north of the forty-ninth parallel, the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. It lies in the Frigid, and northern part of the North Temperate zone. In the northern part there is but little vegetation. Farther south are valuable forest belts, while in the southern part, wheat, fruits, and the hardier plants of the temperate zone are raised. 80. What are the occupations of Canada ? Agriculture and commerce are carried on in the south- ern part. In the north where many fur-bearing animals are found, the fur trade is important. The fisheries of Canada are among the most extensive in the world. The mineral products, gold, silver, copper, nickel, and coal, make mining a paying industry. 81. How is Canada governed? Canada belongs to Great Britain. The country is divided into provinces and districts. From these repre- sentatives are chosen, who form the Canadian Parliament which is the law-making body of the country. The head GEOGRAPHY 223 of the government, the governor-general, is appointed by the ruler of Great Britain. 82. Name a7id tell something of the most important trade routes and cities. The chief trade route for eastern Canada is the St. Lawrence River. Montreal, the principal city is located at Lachine Rapids — the point in the St. Lawrence to which ocean steamers can ascend. Hence it is a great commercial and manufacturing city. Quebec, one of the most historical and most interesting cities in America, is also located on this river. Ottawa the capital of the Dominion is on the Ottawa River. Toronto, the second largest city, is located on Lake Ontario. Its excellent harbor, its situation in a fertile farming district, and its connections with the coal and lumbering regions, have made it a manufacturing center. The great Canadian-Pacific railway from St. Johns, New Brunswick, to Vancouver, is of great importance to Canada and has benefited the cities named. Other im- portant Canadian cities are Halifax, Nova Scotia, which has an excellent harbor; Winnepeg, Manitoba, in the wheat region ; and Dawson City in the Klondike country. 8j. What composes Danish America ? The islands of Greenland and Iceland belong to Den- mark and are called Danish America. Because of their location they are of little value or importance. Green- land is covered with a great glacier. Iceland is a vol- canic island and has many volcanoes and geysers. 84.. What of the location^ surface^ climate^ and prod- ucts of Mexico ? Mexico occupies the southwestern part of the Western Highland of North America. Many lofty volcanoes and peaks are found, Orsizaba and Popocatapetl are best known. 224 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Although Mexico is largely in the Torrid zone, yet, because of the elevation the climate is mild. The agricultural products are, coffee, cotton, sugar cane, tobacco, and sisal hemp. Silver and other minerals are mined. 8^. What are the chief cities of Mexico ? Mexico is the capital; Vera Cruz on the east and Aca- pulco on the southwest are the ports through which trade is carried on with the United States and other countries. 86. Give leading facts about Central America. The narrow mountainous region south of Mexico is occupied by the five small Republics of Central America. From these countries we get coffee, rubber, bananas, mahogany and indigo. Gold is found near Bluefields, and silver in Honduras. The chief cities are San Jose, Managua, and New Guatemala. Sy. What island groups form the West Indies? The Bahamas; the Greater Antilles composed of the islands of Cuba, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Haiti; and the Lesser Antilles. 88. What of the first and the last group ? The Bahamas are coral islands. Sponges are obtained from the waters near these islands. The Lesser Antilles belong to various European nations. Many of these islands are of volcanic origin. Their most important product is sugar cane. '^ 8g. Give leadijig facts concerning each of the islands of the Greater Antilles. (1) Cuba, the largest of the West Indies, lies south of Florida, and is in the Torrid zone. Its soil is very fer- tile. Much sugar cane and tobacco are raised, and trop- ical fruits abound. GEOGRAPHY 225 The important cities are found along the coasts at points where there are exceptionally fine harbors. Havana is the capital, largest city, chief railroad cen- ter and seaport. Its chief exports are sugar cane and tobacco and its trade is mostly with United States. Santiago, the second largest city, and leading port in the eastern province, exports sugar. Cuba, through the intervention of United States, has recently become independent. (2) Puerto Rico resembles Cuba in most points. Be- sides sugar and tobacco, much coffee is raised. The largest cities are Ponce, and San Juan, the capital. This island belongs to United States. (3) Jamaica, belonging to Great Britain, lies south of Cuba. Its soil is fertile, and its inhabitants, who are mostly negroes, are engaged in agriculture. The chief products are sugar, molasses, rum, early vegetables and fruits, and Jamaica ginger. Kingston is the capital. (4) Haiti contains two negro republics, — Haiti, and Santo Domingo. Port au Prince is the capital of the former, and Santo Domingo of the latter. po. Locate United States. United States occupies the central part of North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean on the east, to the Pacific Ocean on the west; and from the Great Lakes and Canada on the north, to Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico on the south. gi. In what heat belts is United States situated? United States lies between the steady heat of the torrid zone and the extremes of the frigid zone. It includes four climatic belts. The first, embracing the northern part, has temperate summers and cold winters. The second includes the central and north central part. 226 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK where the summers are hot and the winters cold. The third, is the southern part, which has hot summers and temperate winters. The fourth, the Pacific coast region, is always temperate. g2. What of the rainfall? Most of the country, except the western plateau region and plains along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, has plentiful rains. The greatest amount of rain falls along the northern part of the Pacific coast, where the moisture-laden winds come in contact with the high mountains which lie at no great distance inland. pj. What are the surface features of United States ? United States includes the Atlantic Coast Plain, the Appalachian Mountains, a large part of the Great Cen- tral Lowland of North America, and the broadest portion of the Rocky Mountain Highland. p^. Describe the Atlantic Coast plain. Beginning at the mouth of the Hudson River and extending along the Atlantic coast to Florida is a wide slope descending from the Appalachian Highland to the seacoast. This is the Atlantic Coast Plain. The part of the slope near the highlands consists of foothills and is called the Piedmont region. Nearer the coast the plain is low, flat, and sandy, with many sluggish streams which flow in broad flood plains. This is the Tidewater region. p5. What is the ^^ fall line,'' Where the streams pass from the hard rocky Piedmont region to the softer layers of the coastal plain, they dig rapidly into the latter, forming falls and rapids. These rapids mark the head of navigation of the larger streams and also furnish water power, hence this "fall line" has determined the location of many cities. GEOGRAPHY 227 g6. What are some of the characteristics of the Ap- palachian Highland ? The Appalachian Highland lies west of the Atlantic Coast Plain. Its eastern portion consists of many long parallel ridges, separated by wide and fertile valleys. South of the Potomac River the principal range is called the Blue Ridge. This range increases in height towards the south, its highest peak, Mt. Mitchell, being in North Carolina. The western part of the Appalachian Highland is a broad upland sloping gradually westward. The streams which flow to the Ohio through this part have cut deep gorges thus dividing it into detached plateaus. The rivers which flow to the southeast cross the moun- tain ranges through the water gaps. These gorges and gaps have been of great commercial value, since they afford low routes over the mountains. The valleys of the Appalachian region are fertile, some of the ridges are covered with forests, and many of them are rich in coal and iron ore. p/. Locate the Great Central Lowland^ and name its divisions. The Central Lowland slopes from the Appalachian Highland, to the Mississippi River and then gradually rises to the Rocky Mountains on the west. In the north- ern part are many lakes. It is known as the Lake plain region. South and southwest of this region are found level and rolling prairies. From the mouth of the Ohio, south- ward, the plain slopes toward the Gulf of Mexico and is called the Gulf plain. Lying between these plains and the Rocky Mountains is the slope known as the Western or Great plain. g8. What are the principal divisions and general characteristics of the Rocky Mountain Highland? 228 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK The Rocky Mountain Highland is a vast plateau traversed by lofty mountain ranges. The eastern ranges are known as the Rocky Mountains, and extend the entire length of the country from Canada to Mexico. The plateau on which the mountains rest is more than a mile high and the mountains rise between one and two miles above the plateau. West of the Rocky Mountains the plateau is divided into several parts by smaller moun- tain ranges. In the north is the Columbia plateau; south of this the Colorado plateau, noted for its deep, narrow canyons; while between the two lies the Great Basin, the driest part of the United States. It has few perma- nent streams and its lakes are salt. Along the west side of this plateau are the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade range. pp. What valleys lie west of the Rocky Mountain region ? Between this region and the Coast Range are found the fertile valley of California and the Sound valley. 100, Account for the locations of the different rivers of United States^ and for their size. The highland regions form the divides between the rivers of the Pacific, and the Atlantic-Gulf slopes. The rivers of the Pacific slope are fed from the snows of the Rocky Mountain Highland and by the abundant rains of the western slope. Those of the Central Lowland rise in the highland regions and drain a vast territory over which much rain falls, hence they carry large volumes of water. The rivers of the Atlantic slope are short. They have their source in the Appalachian Highland and do not drain a large territory, hence they are not large. ■ 707. Name the principal rivers of the Atlantic slope and tell into what waters they empty. GEOGRAPHY 229 The Penobscot empties into Penobscot Bay; Kennebec, into Casco Bay; Merrimac, into the Atlantic; Connecti- cut into Long Island Sound ; Hudson, into New York Bay ; Delaware, into Delaware Bay; Susquehanna, Potomac, and James, into Chesapeake Bay; Roanoke into Albe- marle Sound; Cape Fear, Santee, Savannah, and Alta- maha into the Atlantic Ocean. 102. What great river system drains tJie Central Low- lands. The Mississippi, with its western tributaries, the Mis- souri, Arkansas, and Red Rivers, and its eastern tribu- tary, the Ohio, together with many smaller branches of all these rivers, form the great system which waters and drains the Central Lowland. 70J. What rivers besides the Mississippi empty into the Gulf of Mexico ? The Appalachicola, Mobile, Brazos, Colorado and Nueces Rivers. 104.. What are the principal rivers of tiie Pacific slope ? The Columbia, which empties into the Pacific Ocean; the Sacramento and San Joaquin which flow into San Francisco Bay; the Colorado which empties into the Gulf of California. 105. Where are the principal lake regions of United States ? How were these lakes formed ? The northern part of United States abounds in lakes. These are the result largely of glacial action, by which valleys were deepened or else choked by glacial deposits. In the Great Basin are Great Salt Lake, and several others of like character, which have no outlet. 106. How is the distribution of plants and animals of United States related to the surface features of the country f 230 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Owing to its elevation, a large area of western United States has very little rainfall. There are no trees, and some portions are almost devoid of both animal and plant life. The sage bush, bunch grass, mesquite, and cactus, are the most common plants of this arid region. Along the Pacific coast, and on the mountain tops, where there is more rainfall, forests are found. Among the mountains are found the puma, cinnamon and grizzly bears, deer and elk. On the Great Plains the coyote, antelope, and rabbits abound. The central and eastern parts of United States was formerly covered with forests of evergreen and deciduous trees, and prairies. The forests have been mostly cleared away and this region now produces valuable crops of the various plants of the temperate zone. The settlement of this part of the country has resulted in the extermination of most of the wild animals. In their place are found domestic animals in great number. loj. Where are the most valuable mineral deposits in United States ? In the eastern part are found the largest coal and iron deposits. In the Rocky Mountain Highland gold, silver and copper are abundant and many other minerals are found. io8. What are the leading industries of United States ? Account for each. Owing to the fertility of the soil, and the variety of products that may be raised, more people of United States are engaged in farming than in any other occupation. In the corn growing belt, on the pasture lands of the west, on the prairie plains, and on the upland pastures, herding and stock raising are carried on. The mines of the United States are the richest in the GEOGRAPHY 231 world, and mining is carried on in almost every state, but especially in the highland regions. Manufacturing of all kinds is an important industry. It is carried on most extensively in the cities and towns of the eastern and central sections of the country. As a result of the other great industries, the commerce of United States is very great. While its foreign com- merce is important, it equals only about one-tenth of the domestic commerce. log. What is the population of United States? Where is it most dense ? Of what races and peoples is it made up? There are more than 76,000,000 people in the United States, nine-tenths of whom live in the eastern half of the country. The northeastern part is most densely populated. The country is inhabited by a few native Indians, some Chinese, and negroes, but largely by whites. Many of the latter are European immigrants who have been attracted to this country by its opportunities for success in life and by its free government. no. Why is this country called United States? The country is divided into many divisions, each hav- ing its own local institutions and government; but all are united into one nation under one general govern- ment and are called "The United States of America." ///. Of what does the United States consist ? The United States consists of forty-five states; six territories, including Alaska and Hawaii; the District of Columbia; the islands of Puerto Rico, Guam, Tutuila, and the Philippines. 112. What form of government has the United States ? The United States is a republic. /7j. What is the Federal Government? Name and explain its divisions. 232 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The general government of the nation is the Federal government. It has to do only with national and inter- national affairs. Its divisions are: (1) The legislative or law-making branch, called Congress^ to which each state sends two senators, and representatives according to its population. (2) The executive or law-enforcing branch, at the head of which is the President^ who is elected for a term of four years. (3) The judicial^ or law-explaining branch, con- sisting of the Federal courts. 11^. What are the industrial divisions of the United States f The Northeastern, or cloth manufacturing section; the Northern, or food, iron, and coal producing, and manufacturing section; the Southern, or cotton section; the Plateau, or mining and grazing section; the Pacific, or food and gold producing section. 7/5. What states compose the Northeastern section ? Give their capitals. Maine, Augusta; New Hampshire, Concord; Vermont, Montpelier; Massachusetts, Boston; Connecticut, Hart- ford; Rhode Island, Providence and Newport. 116. What are the leading industries of this section ? Why? Because of the thin and worn-out soil, agriculture is not carried on very extensively in this region. About one half the surface of Maine is covered with forests, hence lumbering is an important industry. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and Massachusetts have fine granite quarries, Vermont produces much marble, and Connecticut has valuable sandstone quarries. Much slate is also quarried in this section. Along the seacoast, many of the people are engaged in fishing, especially for cod and mackerel. The chief occupation GEOGRAPHY 233 of these states is manufacturing. This industry was stimulated in the beginning by the excellent water power furnished by the rivers and lakes. As coal and iron are scarce in this section, the articles manufactured are such as are valued for the ingenuity and skill displayed in making them. The chief manu- factures are cotton and woolen goods, boots and shoes, cutlery and jewelry, and rubber goods. iiy. What cities are engaged in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods ? There are more than four hundred cotton mills in New England and many woolen mills. The cities engaged most extensively in these industries are: Biddeford, Lewiston, Auburn, and Augusta, in Maine. In New Hampshire, Nashua, Manchester, and Dover. Lowell, Lawrence, Pittsfield, Fall River, New Bedford and Taunton in Massachusetts. Pawtucket, Woonsocket and Providence, in Rhode Island. 118. What cities manufacture the most boots and shoes ? Lynn, Haverhill, and Brockton in Massachusetts, iig. What are some of the metal manufactures and where carried on ? Worcester manufactures iron and wire goods. Providence makes jewelry. New Haven, Hartford, and Springfield produce fire- arms, also hardware, cars and bicycles. Bridgeport makes carriages and sewing machines. Waltham makes watches. Waterbury manufactures clocks and watches. Meriden makes jewelry and cutlery. 120. What other cities of New Eitgland are noted? 234 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK New Haven, the seat of Yale College. Cambridge, where Harvard College is located. Gloucester is the greatest fishing port in United States. Quincy and Barre have fine granite quarries. Rutland has the most noted marble quarries. Bath is a ship building center. 121. Name the Northern Appalachian States and their capitals. New York, Albany; Pennsylvania, Harrisburg; New Jersey, Trenton; Delaware, Dover; Maryland, Annapo- lis; Virginia, Richmond; West Virginia, Charleston. 122. In what parts of this section is agriculture carried on ? What are some of the chief products ? In nearly all of New York state, in the valleys of the Appalachians, and on the coastal plains agriculture is an important industry. In the northern part, food and dairy products receive most attention. In Virginia, especially, much tobacco is raised. In most of the states fruits of all kinds and berries, and vegetables are raised in large quantities. I2J. What are the most important ^niiteral products ? Anthracite and bituminous coal, iron, petroleum and salt. 12/].. What w.ay be said of the iron industries of this region ? How are they dependent upon the coal supply ? Almost every city in these states is engaged in some kind of iron work. Coke, a product of bituminous coal, is used in smelting and in manufacturing iron from iron ore. Coal is also used for fuel in the mills and factories. 12^. What other fuels are found in this locality? Petroleum and natural gas. GEOGRAPHY 235 126. What of manufacturing in these states ? As in New England, manufacturing is an important industry. Besides the manufacturing of all kinds of iron goods, there are glass manufactories, potteries, silk and carpet mills, sugar and oil refineries, and many other branches of this industry. 12^. What are the most i'tnportant cities of this section ? Account for their location and growth. New York, on New York Bay, at the mouth of the Hudson river is the largest city in America. Its growth is due to its excellent harbor, and its connection, by rail and water, with the west. It has half the foreign com- merce of the country. Philadelphia, on the "fall line" of the Delaware can be reached by ocean vessels. Its nearness to the coal and iron regions makes it a great shipping port for these products. Baltimore, at the head of Chesapeake Bay, has a good harbor, excellent railroad facilities, and is especially noted for its oyster fisheries. 128. Locate and tell something about Washington. On the Potomac River in Maryland, is the District of Columbia, in which is situated Washington, the capital of United States. Its chief buildings are the great government buildings, and its inhabitants are chiefly the government officials and employees, the foreign repre- sentatives, and the members of Congress. I2g. Name some of the other important cities of this section. Buffalo, the great lake port in western New York. Rochester, which has many nurseries in its vicinity. Syracuse, near the salt works. Utica, a great cheese market. 236 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK West Point, the seat of the United States Military Academy. Annapolis, where the United States Naval Academy is located. Ithaca, the seat of Cornell University. Princeton, of Princeton University. Baltimore, of Johns Hopkins University. Newark, noted for its manufactories. Jersey City, as a railway center. Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, Reading and Altoona, which have iron manufactories of all kinds. Trenton, where are many potteries. Wheeling and Pittsburg, which manufacture glass. Richmond, the largest city and shipping port of Vir- ginia. I JO. What are the commercial advantages of this region ? The deep bays and good harbors along the Atlantic coast; the navigable rivers; the connection through the Great Lakes with the west; the Erie canal, and other canals; the numerous railroads. iji. What states are known as the East Central States ? Give their capitals. Ohio, Columbus; Indiana, Indianapolis; Illinois, Springfield; Kentucky, Frankfort; Michigan, Lansing; Wisconsin, Madison. 1^2. Name the states of the Northern section which lie west of the Mississippi^ and their capitals. Minnesota, St. Paul; Iowa, Des Moines; Missouri, Jefferson City; Kansas, Topeka; Nebraska, Lincoln; South Dakota, Pierre; North Dakota, Bismarck. /jj. In what part of the United States does this sectio7i lie ? GEOGRAPHY 237 Largely in the Lake and Prairie plains — the most fertile parts of the Central Lowland. 7j^. What is the chief industry ? Because of its location agriculture is the chief industry of this section. It is the greatest food producing region of the world. 135' ^<^^^^ the chief crops. Wheat, oats, corn, potatoes, hay, tobacco, and flax. 7j(5. What other industries are dependent upon these crops ? The raising of domestic animals and the production of butter and eggs. 7J7. What 7ninerals are found in this section ? Iron in great quantities, and copper are found near Lake Superior. Lead and zinc in the Ozark mountains; coal and iron in Ohio, Illinois, and other states. I J 8. Are there any forest regions in this section ? Much of the northern part of this section has valuable forests of pine. 7jp. What is characteristic of the manufacturing of this section ? The manufacturing of this section consists largely of the manufacture of the raw materials which it produces. 1^0. What are some of the chief articles of mamfacture ? Flour, dressed and preserved meats, iron and steel goods. ' 1/J.1. Which states of the Northern Section are especially noted for one or ^inore of the following: wool, wheat, flax, cor7t, tobacco, dairy products, iron, coal and petroleum? Ohio noted for wool and petroleum. Minnesota and North Dakota for wheat. 238 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK The states of the Missouri basin produce much flax. Iowa produces more corn, oats, hay, and hogs than any other state. Kentucky and Virginia lead in the production of to- bacco. New York and Iowa are noted for dairy products. Pennsylvania and Michigan produce the most iron, and Pennsylvania the most coal. 14.2. Why do we expect to find many large cities in the Lake and Prairie section ? \ Because of the commerce and manufacturing which naturally result from the abundance of raw materials produced. j^j. Where are these cities found? Along the Great Lakes, and the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers. 7^^. Locate and tell something of the cities on the Great Lakes. Duluth and Superior at the west end of Lake Superior, are at the head of navigation of the Great Lakes and ship much wheat, lumber, iron, etc. Chicago, at the southern extremity of Lake Michigan, is the nearest lake port to the greatest grain region of the world. It is, therefore, a great grain market. It is also the most important meat market in the world. It is a lumber market, has numerous manufacturing inter- ests, is a great railroad center, and is the second largest city in United States. Milwaukee, the largest city of Wisconsin, is a grain and lumber market and has many tanneries and brew- eries. Detroit, the largest city of Michigan, is also on the Great Lakes water route. It is a shipping and manufac- turing center. GEOGRAPHY 239 On the lake shore of Ohio are Toledo and Cleveland, both of which are busy and growing cities. Buffalo in New York, and Erie, Pennsylvania, "are also included in these lake cities. 7^5. What are the largest cities on the Mississippi ? St. Louis, in Missouri, is an important market for grain, stock, cotton, and tobacco. It is also a manufac- turing city and its commerce by water and rail is very extensive. Minneapolis, the leading flour producing city of Amer- ica, and its "twin city," St. Paul, which is an important trade center, are the largest cities of Minnesota. 14.6. What are the cities on the Missouri? Kansas City, Missouri; Kansas City, Kansas; and Omaha, Nebraska. These cities are markets for stock, grain and flour, are engaged in meat packing, and are railroad centers. 7^7. Name the principal cities of the Ohio valley. Three cities of the upper Ohio, Pittsburg, Allegheny, and Wheeling, owe their importance to iron and coal, and to their location on this navigable river. Cincinnati, the largest city in this valley, is a great manufacturing center. Louisville, the largest city of Kentucky, is situated at the "falls of the Ohio." It is a manufacturing city, a railway center, and the largest tobacco market in the world. i/f-S. What are the commercial facilities of this section ? The natural water routes of the Mississippi and its tributaries; the Great Lakes; canals; and more railroads than any other section of United States. 7^p. What are some of the most important canals ? The Erie Canal from Buffalo to Albany ; the Welland 240 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Canal, around Niagara Falls; the "Soo" canal, connect- ing Lake Superior and Lake Huron, through which is carried more freight than through any other canal in the world. 750. Name the states of the Southern Section and give their capitals. North Carolina, Raleigh; South Carolina, Columbia; Georgia, Atlanta ; Florida, Tallahassee; Alabama, Mont- gomery; Tennessee, Nashville; Mississippi, Jackson; Louisiana, Baton Rouge; Arkansas, Little Rock; Okla- homa, Guthrie; Texas, Austin; Indian Territory. 75/. How are the industries of this section i^ifluenced by surface and climate ? Almost the entire area of this section is a plain, hav- ing an abundant rainfall, and long hot summers and temperate winters. Only in the extreme west, do droughts occur, and the surface is rugged only near the Appalachian and Ozark Mountains. As the soil is fertile, and other conditions are favor- able, agriculture is the chief industry. 152. What are the leading products ? The most important product is cotton. Other products are rice, sugar, corn, wheat, tobacco, oranges, peaches, and sweet potatoes. 75J. Where are the forest regions and what products do they furnish ? In the valleys of the mountains are forests of oak, hickory, ash, poplar, and cottonwood. On the sandy plains the yellow pine abounds. From these forests are obtained building lumber, especially the hard or yellow pine, also turpentine, resins, and tannic acid. GEOGRAPHY 241 75^. What of the other industries in these states ? The principal coal and iron mining region is in Ala- bama. Recent discoveries have made Texas a noted oil-pro- ducing region. Few other minerals are found. The commerce of this section is not extensive owing to the few good harbors and the comparatively small amount of manufacturing. The manufacturing of cotton, iron and steel, and the distilling of turpentine are the chief industries of this kind. But muanufacturing interests are advancing and factor- ies are increasing rapidly. In the western part many sheep and cattle are raised. 755. Why are there fewer large cities in the southern states tJian i7i the northern ? Large cities are the result of superior shipping ad- vantages and numerous factories. This region has few good harbors or navigable rivers, and its people are largely engaged in farming. 1^6. What is the largest city of this region ? Why ? New Orleans, the largest southern city, is located about one hundred miles from the mouth of the Missis- sippi at a point to which ocean steamers ascend. It is connected by water with Pittsburg, St. Paul, and Kansas City, and by rail with cities north, east and west, and is at the gateway of the most productive valley in America. Hence it is an important commercial city, being a mar- ket for cotton, sugar, rice, and other products. 757. Name the leading coast cities ? Charleston, vSavannah (which ships more naval stores than any other port in the world), Tampa, Mobile, and Galveston are engaged chiefly in shipping lumber and cotton. 242 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 1^8. What are some of the river and inland cities ? Memphis, Vicksburg, Natchez, Baton Rouge, Shreve- port and Little Rock are river ports. Chattanooga in central Tennessee, Birmingham in the iron region of Alabama, Dallas, Ft. Worth, San Antonio and El Paso, the leading cities of Texas, are other important places. /5p. Name the states and territories of the Plateau Section and their capitals. Montana, Helena; Wyoming, Cheyenne; Colorado, Denver; New Mexico, Santa Fe; Arizona, Phoenix; Utah, Salt Lake City; Idaho, Boise; Nevada, Carson City. i6o. What are the states of the Pacific Section ? Give their capitals. California, Sacramento; Oregon, Salem; Washington, Olympia. i6i. Why is m^ining a leading occupation in these sections ? Because of the great mineral deposits in the moun- tains, and because the character of the surface, and the soil does not favor other industries. 162. What are some of the chief minerals and where found in largest quantities ? Gold, silver, copper, lead, and quicksilver are mined. Montana produces more copper than any other state in the Union. Colorado is the greatest silver producing region of the world, and produces more lead than any other state. It ranks with California in the production of gold. California also produces a large amount of quicksilver. Wyoming and Washington mine most coal. i6j. What is another important industry? GEOGRAPHY 243 Herding ranks next to mining. On the Great Plains and the high plateaus many cattle and sheep are pas- tured. Montana and California lead in wool production, and New Mexico and Wyoming in cattle raising. 16^. What is irrigation ? Much of this region is so arid that farming is impos- sible. By making reservoirs and digging canals and ditches, water is distributed at will over the land and it can then be cultivated. 16^. What other industries are found in the Pacific states ? Lumbering in the north, where the forests are very heavy; salmon fishing in the Columbia river; the pro- duction of fruits, especially in California. 166. What are the co7n7nercial conditio7is of these sections? This is the most thinly populated part of United States and there are few large cities. The mountains are crossed by several lines of transcontinental railroads, and the Sound and California valleys are traversed by roads from north to south. Because the mountains rise almost from the sea there are few good harbors on the west coast. i6y. Name and locate the chief cities of the interior. Denver and Pueblo in Colorado, are important trade, manufacturing, and railroad centers. Colorado Springs is a leading health resort. Leadville and Cripple Creek are in the mining dis- tricts of this state. Salt Lake City and Ogden are in Utah. Butte, Montana, has great copper mines. 168. What are the leading cities of the Pacific slope ? San Francisco on San Francisco Bay is the greatest shipping point on the Pacific coast. Other California 244 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK cities are Oakland, Stockton, San Diego, and Los Angeles. Portland, Salem and Astoria in Oregon ; and Seattle, Tacoma, and Spokane in Washington are commercial and manufacturing cities. From San Francisco, Portland, and Seattle, are steam- ship lines to Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, Asia, and Australia. i6g. How did Alaska become a part of U?iited States f What are its resources ? Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1866. Among its industries, whale and seal fishing are important. Its most valuable industry is gold mining near Juneau and in the Klondike region. Sitka is its capital and largest city. 770. What islands in the Pacific Ocean belong to United States ? The Hawaiian Islands, Philippines, Guam, and Tutuila. iji. Of what use are the two latter ? They are valuable only as coaling stations. IJ2. Locate Honolulu and Manilla. Give leading facts about each. Honolulu is the largest city on the Hawaiian Islands. It has a fine climate and is a coaling station for Arctic whalers, warships and merchant vessels. It exports sugar, which is the chief product of these islands. Manilla is the only city of importance in the Philip- pines. It has a good harbor and from it are exported sugar, tobacco, and Manilla hemp. ly^. Name the ten largest cities of United States. New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, Baltimore, Cleveland, Buffalo, San Francisco, and Cin- cinnati. GEOGRAPHY 245 ly^. Name in tJie order of their importance the ten leading exports afid ten leading imports of United States. The exports are cotton, breadstuffs, meats and dairy products, iron and steel, petroleum and similar oils, copper, wood, cattle, tobacco, leather and articles manu- factured from many of these materials. The imports are sugar and molasses, silk, hides and skins, flax and hemp, chemicals and drugs, coffee, cotton and woolen goods, rubber and rubber goods, fruits and nuts. 775. Give the rank of United States in size^ population^ wealthy and a few leading products. United States ranks first among the nations of the world in wealth, commerce, manufacturing, in miles of railroad, and in the production of cotton, wheat, coal, and iron. It ranks second in the production of silver, in the length of its waterways, and in its merchant marine. In the production of gold and sugar it ranks third. Its rank in the production of wool and in population is fourth, while in area it ranks fifth. iy6. Locate Eurasia. Eurasia occupies the northern part of the eastern con- tinental plateau. It lies between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans on the east and west, and between the Arctic ocean on the north and the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea on the south. 777. What are its two divisions f By what natural boundaries are they separated? This continent includes Europe and Asia. The boun- dary between them is the Ural mountains, Ural river, Caspian Sea, Caucasus mountains, and the Black Sea. 246 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK iy8. What are the coast line features of Europe ? What are its advantages f Europe has the most irregular coast line of any grand division. Its principal indentations are the White, Baltic, North, Adriatic and ^gean Seas, and the Bay of Biscay. Its five great peninsulas are the Scandinavian, Danish, Spanish, Italian, and Balkan. Such irregulari- ties give a great length of seacoast and afford many ex- cellent harbors. //p. Describe the surface of Europe. The mountains of Europe are mostly in the southern part and consist largely of detached ranges running east and west. The most important of these are Pyrenees between France and Spain; the Alps in the south cen- tral part; the Apennines in Italy; the Carpathians in Austro-Hungary, and the Balkans north of Turkey. In the north are the Kiolen mountains in Scandinavia, and a few minor ranges in the British Isles. About two-thirds of Europe is a great low plain which occupies all the western, northern and eastern part. J 80. What of the climate of Europe ? Europe lies in the northern part of the north temper- ate, and the southern part of the north frigid zones. Owing to the influence of the Gulf Stream, its numer- ous inland seas, and the position of its mountains, the climate of Europe is very mild. 181 Name the principal rivers of Europe and tell into what waters they empty. The rivers of Russia are the Petchora, emptying into the Arctic ocean; the Dwina, into the White Sea, Volga, into the Caspian Sea; the Don and Dnieper, into the Black Sea. The rivers of Germany are the Oder and Vistula emptying into the Baltic Sea, and the Rhine and Elbe into the North sea. GEOGRAPHY 247 The Danube, which is mostly in Austria-Hungary, empties into the Black Sea. The Po in Italy flows into the Adriatic. The Rhone flows south through France to the Medit- erranean; the Seine and Loire flow west to the English Channel and Bay of Biscay. The rivers of Spain, the Douro, Tagus, Guadiana and Guadalquiver empty into the Atlantic. The Thames, flowing into the English Channel, is the only important river in England. 182. What is the prevailing form of government ijt Europe ? Most of the states of Europe are limited monarchies. r--Rttssiu:fe'a;n"ate0lrut^^^^^ and France and Switzer- land are republics. 18^. Why has Europe so many states ? Because of the natural barriers between various parts of the continent, and because of the difference in lan- guage, customs and manner of life, Europe is divided into twenty or more independent countries. 18^. What are the chief industries of Europe? In what part is each carried on ? Agriculture, manufacturing and commerce. Agriculture affords occupation for more than half the people and is carried on in all parts except in the extreme north and on the more rugged mountain slopes. The manufacturing region includes the British Isles and the countries which border the English Channel and the North and Baltic Seas. Commerce is an important industry in all the states of Europe. The foreign commerce is especially great because of the large amount of goods required by the immense population. 248 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK 1 8^. What minerals are found ijt Europe, and where ? On the southwestern coast of England are tin mines. This country also produces large quantities of coal and iron ore. Germany leads the world in the production of zinc. In the Ural mountains gold, silver, copper and platinum are found. Russia also has some iron and coal mines, while the, region about the Caspian sea is noted for the production of petroleum. 1 86. Of what does the British Empire consist ? The British Empire consists of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and^:^fe^a!H# and of the colonial pos- sessions. 18^. Locate the British Isles and give reasons for their leading industries. The British Isles lie northwest of the continent of Europe. Much of the land is used for pasturage and cattle and sheep are raised. The mines of England afford employment for many miners. Upon the coal from these mines depends the manufacturing greatness of Great Britain. More than half of the working population are engaged in manu- facturing. The importation of raw material and the exportation of manufactured articles give this country the largest commerce in the world. 188. Name the representative cities of the United King- dom and tell something of each. London, the capital of the British Empire, is the largest city in the world and the center of the world's commer- cial and financial interests. Liverpool is the great seaport for the manufacturing regions. GEOGRAPHY 249 Leeds, with the cities around it, is noted for woolen manufactures; Manchester is the great cotton manufac- turing center; Birmingham and Sheffield are renowned for steel products and cutlery. Southampton and Ports- mouth are important ports on the south. Glasgow, the center of shipbuilding and the manu- facture of machinery, and Edinburgh, are two great cities in Scotland. Of the Irish cities, Belfast is noted for its linen, Dub- lin is the capital and chief port of English trade, and Queenstown is an important seaport. i8g. What country of Europe ranks next to Great Britain in industrial and co7nmercial greatness ? Give its leading products. As a greater part of the soil of the German Empire is productive, this country ranks next to Great Britain in commercial advancement. It manufactures great quantities of food stuffs, be- sides textiles of all kinds, hardware, and porcelain and wooden ware. This country has many railroads, .and navigable rivers, hence its commerce is great. igo. Of what does the German Empire consist ? Give capital and chief cities. The German Empire consists of twenty-two separate states and some free towns. Its capital is Berlin. Hamburg is the most important seaport on the continent. Bremen is another seaport. Leipzig is famous for its book publishing; Munich, for its art industries, Nuremberg, for its quaint architecture and its toys; Essen, for the Krupp steel works. Cologne on the Rhine, and Frankfort on the Main, are also noted. igi. What is tJie third great co'imnercial country of Europe? For what are its people noted? 250 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK France ranks third among the European commercial nations. Its people are noted for their vivacity, thrift, and intelligence. 1^2. What are the leading industries of France ? The culture of grapes and the manufacture of wine, and the culture and manufacture of silk. The French also manufacture much cloth. jpj. Name and tell something of the chief cities of France. Paris, the capital, is the third largest city in the world, and is considered the most beautiful city on the globe. It is a great commercial city, and a center of art and learning. Havre, the most important seaport. Marseilles on the Mediterranean, and Bordeaux, the great shipping point for wines, are other seaports. Lyons is the center of silk manufacturing. ig/f.. What cotmtries lie between Germany arid France ? What is peculiar about their surface ? Belgium and the Netherlands, or Holland. These countries occupy the delta of the Rhine and contain the most fertile farming land in Europe. In Holland it is necessary to build drainage canals and dikes in order to collect the surface water and keep out the sea. 1(^5. How are the industries of these countries affected by their surface and location f Because of their fertile soil these countries are engaged in agriculture. Dairy products are exported, but they are so densely peopled that the food products are consumed at home. Shipbuilding and fishing are among the industries of Holland. In the southern part of Belgium are iron and coal mines and the country is famous for the iron, steel, GEOGRAPHY 251 and hardware manufactured in this section. The manu- facture of woven goods — carpets, laces, woolens and linens — is also an important industry of Belgium. Because of their location both of these countries have great commercial advantages and their commerce is extensive. ig6. Name the capitals and chief cities of these coun- tries. The capital of Netherlands is The Hague. Amster- dam, the largest city, is noted for its university and museums, and for shipping and diamond cutting. Rot- terdam is a great seaport. Brussels is the capital of Belgium and is a commercial, political and art center. Antwerp is one of the leading seaports of Europe. igj. What countries lie between the North and Baltic Seas ? Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. ig8. Give tJie industries and cities of each of these countries. Very little of the surface of Norway is tillable and as there is no coal, manufacturing is not profitable. The chief industries are lumbering and fishing. Christiania, the capital, and Bergen, a noted fishing port, are the principal cities. Agriculture, lumbering, and the mining of lead, cop- per, zinc and iron, are the leading industries of Sv/eden. Stockholm, the capital, is a most beautiful city and Gothenburg is the chief center for exports. Farming, especially dairying, and the manufacture of porcelain, are the chief industries of Denmark. Copen- hagen, the capital, guards the entrance to the Baltic Sea, and has the only good harbor in this country. 252 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 7pp. What country occupies the eastern part of Europe ? Tell of its surface^ climate^ and industries. Russia, the largest state in Europe, occupies the east- ern part. Extremes of temperature and lack of sufficient rainfall are characteristic of this country. Agriculture, lumbering, and mining are the leading industries. A greater part of the manufacturing is done by hand. Russia ranks next to United States in the production of grain and petroleum. The navigable rivers of Russia have aided domestic commerce, but because of lack of good harbors its foreign commerce is small. 200. What are the leading cities of Russia ? Why ? St. Petersburg at the head of the Gulf of Finland, is the capital and largest city of Russia, and the chief northern seaport. Riga is also a northern seaport. Moscow, the second city in size, the former capital, and the chief manufacturing city is located near the center of the country. Its situation is well chosen be- cause of the rivers which flow from this region, and since railroads have been built it has become the greatest rail- way center of Russia. Odessa, on the Black Sea, is a great grain market and flour milling city. Warsaw is an important railroad and trade center. Nijni-Novgorod on the Volga is noted for its annual fairs. It is suited, by its superior water connection, to be a great center of exchange for Asiatic and Russian products. "" 201. What large empire is drained by the Danube river ? What of the stir face and products of this country ? Austria-Hungary is almost surrounded by mountain ranges which enclose the fertile plains of the Danube. GEOGRAPHY 253 These plains are a great wheat producing region, and other grains and agricultural crops are raised. The western part of this country is very mountainous. Forests abound and lumber is obtained. Salt, gold, silver, lead, mercury, copper and coal are mined. 202. What are the cities of Austria- Hungary ? Vienna, the capital, is the fourth city of Europe in size. It is located on the Danube and at an opening between the mountains through which has always been a great trade route from western Europe to Asia and the Medi- terranean. Budapest is in the grain growing regions, and is en- gaged in manufacturing flour and shipping grains. Prague is located in the mining district and is also a noted manufacturing city. Trieste, on the Adriatic, is the largest Austrian sea- port. 20 J. What country is situated oit the Alphte plateau ? For what is this country especially noted ? Switzerland, the mountain republic of Europe. It is famous for its beautiful scenery and is the most noted summer resort of Europe. 20/1-. Tell something of the character aitd occupations of the people. The people are independent, brave, skillful and indus- trious. Although a mountainous country, agriculture is the principal industry, and dairy products are exported. Textiles, laces, watches and carved wood are manufac- tured. Many of these are made by hand. 205. What are the cities of Switzerland ? Zurich is an important railway center, being connected by the St. Gothard railway (named from the famous St. 254 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK Gothard tunnel) with Italy, and by other lines with France, Germany and Austria. Basel is also on this railway, and both these cities are noted for manufacturing of silk. Geneva is a celebrated educational center, and manu- factures watches. Bern is the capital. 206. What country lies south of Switzerland? What of its climate and products ? Italy, with the islands of Sardinia and Sicily, lies south of Switzerland. Because of its location in the Mediterranean, and the protection afforded by the Alps, the climate is very mild. Agriculture is the leading in- dustry. Grapes are the chief product, Italy ranking as the second wine producing country of the world. Many silk worms are raised and raw silk is the chief export. Other products are rice, wheat, corn, olives, lemons, and wool. Sulphur from Mt. Etna is the most important mineral product, and fine marble is quarried. 20J. What is the most fa^nous city of Italy ? Name five other cities. Rome, the capital of Italy, is famous for its ancient greatness, notable ruins, fine art galleries and magnificent buildings. The ruins of the Colosseum and of the Forum, the Vatican, the palace of the Pope, with its wonderful collection of paintings and statuary, and St. Peter's, the largest church in the world, are some of the most noted sights of the city. Naples, near Mt. Vesuvius, on the beautiful Bay of Naples, is the largest city of Italy. Near it are the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Milan and Turin are the commercial cities of northern Italy. They owe their importance to their location at the crossing of the routes of travel and railways of the GEOGRAPHY 255 Alps and the Po valley. Genoa is the natural port of these cities and the most important seaport of Italy. Venice, the most interesting of European cities, because of its location, is the seaport of the Adriatic. Florence is famous for its art galleries. 208. What states occupy the Spanish Peninsula ? Give their capitals. Spain, the capital of which is Madrid; Portugal, whose capital is Lisbon. 2og. What effect have the highlands of this peninsula had upon the climate and industries ? In the highlands the winters are very cold and the rainfall is light. Much of the southern portion is too arid for agriculture. The rivers, except the Guadal- quiver, cut through the mountains and are unnavigable and useless for irrigation. Although the peninsula is well located commercially, its elevation is a barrier to commerce. 210. What are some of the leading products of this peninsula f Spain produces more quicksilver than any other coun- try and ranks next to United States in its output of copper and lead. Many fine sheep are raised and the sardine fisheries are valuable. Portugal is a famous wine producing district. Other products are cork, olives, grapes, dried fruits and leather. 211. What are the principal cities ? Oporto is the seaport of Portugal. Valencia, Barcelona, Malaga, and Cadiz are commer- cial and manufacturing cities, as well as the chief seaports of Spain. Gibraltar, which guards the entrance to the Mediter- 256 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK ranean and is the strongest fortification in the world, belongs to Great Britain. 212. Who are the Turks f What country do they inhabit ? Give leading facts concerning it. The Turks are a Mohammedan people of the yellow race who came into the Balkan peninsula from Asia. They represent a very low and unprogressive type of civilization. The only productions beyond raw mater- ials, are the famous Turkish rugs and some beautiful leather and metal goods. There are few railroads and domestic trade does not flourish. Constantinople occu- pies one of the strategic points of Europe. It is at the crossing of the trade routes from Europe to Asia and controls the military and commercial movements of the Black sea and eastern Europe. Saloniki is the only other important city. 21 J. Of what country is Athens the capital? For what was this country once noted? Athens is the capital and most important city of Greece, the state which occupies the southern part of the Balkan peninsula. The chief products of this country are currants, fruits, and fine sponges. Shipbuilding is an important indus- try. Ancient Greece was noted for its advancement in literature, art, commerce and government. 21^. What other states occupy the Balkan peninsula ? Montenegro, Servia, Bulgaria and Roumania are four other states of this peninsula. 2/5. What of the adva7icement of these states ? These states were formerly under Turkish control hence their civilization is similar to that of Turkey. Their resources are poorly developed and the industries are carried on in a very primitive manner. GEOGRAPHY 257 The only cities of any importance are the capitals. Belgrade, the capital of Servia; Cetinje, of Montenegro; Sofia, of Bulgaria; Bucharest, of Roumania. 216. What other points should receive attention in the study of Europe ? It would be impossible to study the geography of Europe without giving some attention to the wealth of material found in the legends, history, and literature of the various countries. The many famous buildings, the renowned cities, the noted historical personages, all furnish profitable and helpful subjects for study. The most important of all these interesting things should be brought to the attention of the pupil and made to contribute to the interest and value of his study of geography. 2iy. Why should the geography of Europe be of especial interest to A mericans ? Because this country was discovered and peopled by Europeans, and because of the present social, diplomatic, and commercial relations between America and the nations of Europe. 218. Which is the largest of the grand divisions? Locate it. What of its size ? Asia, the largest of the grand divisions, lies in the northeastern part of the eastern hemisphere. It includes almost one-third of the land of the globe. It extends from the equator to about 78 degrees north latitude and includes about 150 degrees of longitude. 2ig. What are the chief featttres of its coast line ? Its coast line is broken by many seas, gulfs and penin- sulas, and fringed by numerous islands. 220. Name these seas and peninsulas. 258 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK The seas on the east are Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, Yel- low, East China and South China Seas. On the south are the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and Red Sea. Kamchatka and Korea are the peninsulas on the east. On the south are the Malay, Indian, and Arabian pen- insulas. 221. What are the surface features of Asia ? The northern part of Asia is a great low plain. Plains are also found in the river valleys of the east and south. The central part of Asia contains the loftiest moun- tains of the world, and many plateaus. From Pamir plateau, the highest plateau in the world, the mountain ranges branch out like the fingers of a great hand — the Thian-Shan, Kuenlun, Himalaya, Sulie- man, and Hindu Kush Mountains. To the north and east are the Altai, Yablonoi, Stanovoi, and Khingan ranges. While in India are the Eastern and Western Ghats, and south of the Caspian Sea are the Elburz Mountains. The plateaus are Iran, Mongolia, Tibet and Dekkan. 222. What are the chief rivers of Siberia ? Of China ? The rivers of Siberia are the Obi, Yenisei and Lena, which flow into the Arctic ocean, and the Amur which empties into the sea of Okhotsk. The Hoang, emptying into Pechili gulf, and the Yangtze flowing into the East China sea, are the large rivers of China. 22 J. Name rivers of Asia which flow toward the South ? The Mekong in Farther India, empties into the South China Sea. The Irrawaddy in Burma, and the Ganges and Brahma- putra of India, empty into the Bay of Bengal. GEOGRAPHY 259 The other great river of India, the Indus, flows into the Arabian Sea. The Tigris and Euphrates, rivers of Mesopotamia, empty into the Persian gulf. 22^. What of the drainage of central and western Asia ? The rivers of western and central Asia flow into salt lakes. The largest of these lakes or seas are lake Bal- kash, the Aral sea, and the Caspian sea. 22^. In what zones does Asia lie? Tell of the climate. Asia lies in all the zones of the northern hemisphere, and because of this and its varied elevation, it has many- different climates. The northern part is extremely cold. Upon the moun- tain slopes, except at great elevations and in the central latitudes the climate is that of the temperate zone. In the south, tropical heat is found. 226. What are the conditions of plant life in Asia ? Northern Siberia is a vast frozen tundra. South of this is a forest belt, while farther south are grassy steppes. In the tropical regions of southern Asia are found the bamboo, palms, rubber trees, spices, dyewoods, etc. The rainless regions are deserts. 22 J. What animals are found in Asia ? In the cold north the reindeer furnishes milk and meat, and is the beast of burden. The camel is the traveler of the deserts. The yak among the mountains, the ele- phant and buffalo in the tropical countries, are beasts of burden. On the steppes horses, sheep and cattle are raised. Fur-bearing animals, elk, and wolves are found in the north. In the jungles and forests are found the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, monkey, and poisonous snakes. 26o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 228. To what races do the people of Asia belong? How does Asia compare with the other grand divisions in pop- ulation ? More than half of the people of the world live in Asia, hence it is the most densely populated of the grand divisions. Most of the people live in the river valleys or near the coast, leaving large portions of the country almost uninhabited. Two-thirds of the people of Asia belong to the yellow race, the others belong mostly to the white race. 22g. What form of government prevails i?i Asia? Why? Most of the native governments of Asia are absolute monarchies. The people are not far enough advanced to organize or carry on a more independent and liberal form of government. 2 JO. Why have the peoples of Asia advanced less than the Europeans^ who originally came from Asia ? The Asiatic peoples were so cut off by natural barriers that they had no opportunity to learn from others. Many of them, like the Chinese, became self-satisfied, and refused to advance. The wonderful development of navigation by the Europeans brought them in touch with all the world and gave them many colonies. 2JI. What are the religioiis of Asia ? The people of China, Japan, and Korea are mostly Buddhists. Mohammedanism prevails largely in the southern and western parts. In India, many of the peo- ple are Brahmins. The Greek church is found in Siberia. In Asia Minor are many Christians and Jews, but the only other Christians are the converts made by the American and European missionaries. 2^2. What part of Asia is known as Asiatic Russia? Give leading facts concerning it. GEOGRAPHY 261 The northern and western parts of Asia are known as Asiatic Russia. The northern part of Siberia contains some mines and a portion of it is suited to agriculture. The opening of the trans-Siberian railway will do much to develop this country. Irkutsk, near Lake Baikal, and Vladivostok, the eastern terminus of the road, are the only important cities of Siberia. Tashkend, in Turkestan, is in a district where cattle, grains and fruits are raised. Tiflis in Transcaucasia is the largest city of Asiatic Russia. Near Baku are valuable petroleum wells. 233' ^h(^t European nation controls the Indian Em- pire? How did it gain this control? The Indian Empire is a part of the British Empire. More than three hundred years ago London merchants established trading posts on this peninsula. Through settling disputes between the native rulers of India and in protecting the English traders, Great Britain gradually gained control of the peninsula. 23^. What of the occupations and products ? The fertile plains and river valleys of India support a dense population. More than three-fifths of the people are engaged in agriculture, raising millet and rice for their own use. Other products are cotton, wheat, tea, opium, indigo, jute and coffee. The manufactured goods consist mostly of fine hand- made articles. The British have constructed good roads in many parts of India and built more than 20,000 miles of railroad. This has furthered domestic commerce. The foreign commerce of India is nearly as great as that of all the rest of Asia. 233. Are there any large cities in India ? Although only about one-twentieth of the people of 262 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK India live in the cities, yet there are seventy-five cities with a population of over fifty thousand. 2^6. What are the largest of these cities ? Calcutta, the largest city, is a seaport on the Ganges delta. It is a commercial center and the residence of the Viceroy. Lucknow, and Benares, the "holy city of the Hindus," are also in the valley of this sacred river. Bombay, the nearest port to England, has a fine harbor, and is a great business center. Madras is another commercial and seaport city. 237' What other Asiatic territory does Great Britain control ? In what way are these possessions valuable ? The desert country of Baluchistan on the west of India, the fertile Burma on the east, and the island of Ceylon on the south belong to the Indian Empire. Baluchistan makes more secure British control of India. Burma raises- vast quantities of rice and produces rubies, sapphires, and tropical woods. Rangoon exports rice, and Mandalay is the largest city. Ceylon is one of the greatest tea-producing regions of the world. Sapphires, rubies, and beautiful pearls are also found. 2j8. In what division of Asia are the Holy Land and Mesopotamia ? What are its cities ? Turkey in Asia contains that part of Asia known as the Holy Land. It includes the region about the Dead Sea and the Jordan River. This is the land where occur- red many of the events recorded in the Bible. Here are situated Damascus, the oldest city of the world, and Jerusalem, the sacred city of the Jews. Mesopotamia, in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, was the seat of the civilizations of Nineveh and Babylon, but it has been GEOGRAPHY 263 wasted by many invasions. Bagdad, on a caravan route to the east, is the only city of any importance. 2^g. What three countries lie between India and the Turkish Empire ? Afghanistan, Persia, and Arabia. 24.0. What of the civilizatioit and government of these countries ? The civilization of these countries is of a very low type and the government very poor. Many of the people are nomads, each tribe being ruled by its own Sheik. z/j-i. Give the chief products and cities. Fruits and drugs are produced in all these countries. Arabia is noted for its fine horses. Persia for its beauti- ful hand woven carpets and shawls. On the shores of Arabia and Persia precious pearls are found. Aden, the chief seaport of Arabia, belongs to Great Britain. Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, is sacred to all his followers, Maskat, the capital of Oman, is a seaport from which pearls, dates and fruits are exported. Teheran is the capital of Persia, and the center of caravan trade. Kabul, in the mountains of Afghanistan, is the capital. 24.2. Give brief accowit of Korea. Korea occupies the mountainous peninsula north of China. Seoul is its capital. It became an independent country after the war be- tween China and Japan in 1894. Its independence is one of the points in the contest between Russia and Japan. (1904-05.) 24^. Where are Bangkok and Singapore ? 264 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Bangkok is the capital of the native kingdom of Siam one of the countries of Indo-China. Singapore is the seaport of the Straits Settlements. 2/I./J.. What of the products of Indo- China ? The chief products are rice, sugar, woods, jewels, and tin. The foreign commerce, conducted largely by Europeans, is very extensive. ^^5. What is the largest native e^npire of Asia f Tell of its population. China, which is larger than United States, has more inhabitants than any other nation in the world. The Chinese live mostly on the river flood plains and deltas, making the southern and eastern parts of the empire the most densely populated area on the globe. 24.6. To what race do the Chinese belong f Tell some- thing of their civilization. The Chinese belong to the Yellow race. In very early times this nation developed a remarkable civilization. The manufacture of gunpowder, of silk goods, and of porcelain ware, the art of printing, and other important arts were known to them. Their objections to improvements, to labor saving machinery, and their many peculiar customs, have hin- dered their advance. Consequently the civilization of China has very little in common with that of modern nations. 24.J. What are the leading productions of China ? Many Chinese are engaged in fishing, but agriculture is the most honorable occupation. Rice is raised for food, but tea and silk are the chief exports. Bamboo is one of the most valuable products, furnishing material for food, clothing, shelter, and manufacturing. China has won- derful mineral resources but they are not developed. The manufactured articles are hand made. GEOGRAPHY 265 2/1-8. What are the ^'■treaty ports?'' Foreigners are only allowed to trade in certain ports of China. These are known as the ''treaty ports." Canton, which is larger than Chicago and noted for its silk, and Shanghai are the chief ports of American trade. Tien-tsin, the northern terminus of the Grand Canal, is the seaport of Pekin, the capital of the Chinese Empire. Hongkong, on an island belonging to Great Britain, is the center of a large foreign trade. 2/j.(^. Locate Japan and tell of its surface. Japan occupies the chain of islands east of Asia which extend from Formosa on the south to the Kurile Islands far to the north. Much of the surface is mountainous and unfit for culti- vation. There are more than fifty volcanoes, the most noted of which is Fujiyama, the sacred mountain of the Japanese. 2^0. How do the Japanese rank in civilization ? The Japanese are the most civilized of the Asiatic peo- ples. Their early civilization resembled that of their kinsmen, the Chinese. They held aloof from the rest of the world until about the middle of the last century. Since 1868 the country has been opened to the world, and its progress has been marvelous. ' 2^1. What are the resources and products of Japan ? The well developed mines produce gold, silver, copper, iron and coal. The forests of cedar, camphor, and lacquer trees are of great value. The fisheries are very important. Wheat, sugar-cane and rice are raised. Tea and silk are the chief exports. Japan has long been noted for its fine porcelain and lacquered ware, and for many other beautiful hand-made articles. 2 §2. What are the principal cities of Japan ? 266 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Tokio is the capital of Japan. It is the home of the Mikado, and has numerous manufactories. Yokohama is the chief center of foreign commerce. Osaka is noted for its cotton manufacturing, and Kioto is in the tea district. ^53' Wh(^t ^^^ some other topics in the study of Asia which will be of interest to pupils ? The home life of the Chinese. The characteristics of the Japanese and of the Hindus. Modes of travel — sledges, caravans, jinrikishas, the trans-Siberian rail- road, etc. The sacred cities of Asia. The methods of growing tea, rice, silk, and opium. The story of how the various European nations gained territory in Asia and the wars which the possession of this territory has caused. ^5^. What grand division lies south of Eurasia ? How are they separated and co7i7tected? Africa occupies the southern part of the eastern con- tinent. It is separated from Eurasia by the strait of Gibraltar, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, strait of Babel Mandeb, and the gulf of Aden. It is connected with Asia by the isthmus of Suez. 2^5 . Give the shape of Africa^ and its coastline and surface features ? Africa is triangular in shape, with a very regular coast line. Its surface is mainly a plateau with a mountain rim around it. The Atlas mountains in the north are the most important range. 2^6. In what zones is Africa ? Tell of its climate. Africa lies in the torrid zone and warmer temperate zones, therefore the climate is tropical. In the equatorial regions are tropical forests. These forests grade into the savannas or grassy regions, and GEOGRAPHY 267 these in turn become deserts. On the mountain slopes of the Mediterranean and along the south-eastern coast there is more rainfall. The climate of the interior is somewhat modified by its elevation. ^57- W'hat are the best kriown plants and animals of Africa ? More than one third of Africa consists of deserts. In the oases of the deserts the date palm grows. The camel and ostrich are about the only animals of this region. In the forest regions are sago and oil palms, rubber trees, etc. Here are found many large wild animals — the antelope, giraffe, elephant, lion, leopard, rhinoceros, gorilla and chimpanzee, and in the rivers the hippopot- amus and crocodile. 2^8. Name the rivers of Africa. The Nile which empties into the Mediterranean; the Niger, Orange, and Kongo which flow to the Atlantic; the Zambezi which empties into Mozambique Channel. ^5p. What divisions compose Northern Africa ? Egypt, the four Barbary States — Tripoli, Tunis, Al- geria and Morocco — and the Sahara. 260. What is the Sahara f The Sahara is the largest desert region of the world. It occupies a large portion of northern Africa. Because of the lack of rain it is mostly a sandy waste. Its chief product is salt. It is crossed by caravans which carry the products of Central Africa — ivory, skins and ostrich feathers — to the coast. One of the chief caravan routes is from Tafilet in Morocco to Timbuktu. 261. Tell of the governm^ent^ products^ and cities of the Barbary States. ^ These states are Mohammedan countries and their civilization resembles that of the other countries where Mohammedanism prevails. 268 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Algeria and Tunis are under French control. Tripoli is a Turkish province. Morocco is ruled by an absolute monarch. The products are hand-made leather, woolen, and silk goods; olive oil, dates, esparto grass, sponges and coral. Fez and Morocco, the capitals of Morocco, and Tan- gier; Tunis, the capital of Tunis; Algeria, of Algeria; and Tripoli, of Tripoli, are the leading cities. 262. Why is agriculture the chief occupation of Egypt f What are the products ? Because this country occupies the flood plain of the Nile and the annual overflow of the river makes the soil of Egypt fertile. Grains, rice, sugar-cane and cotton are raised. 26^. What is the most important commercial route of Egypt? The Suez Canal, through which passes a large part of the commerce between Europe and Asia. 26 /J.. How is Egypt governed? The ruler of Egypt is called the Khedive, The coun- try is nominally subject to Turkey, but in reality, it is controlled by Great Britain. 26^. What are the chief cities ? Cairo, the largest city of Africa, is the capital. Alex- andria is the seaport of Egypt. 266. Why is Egypt the most interesting of the African countries ? Because of its ancient history, its people, and the re- mains of its ancient civilization. 26y. Who are the inhabitants of Central Africa ? Give a brief account of this region. Central Africa is the true home of the negro. It is GEOGRAPHY 269 only recently that this region has been explored by Eu- ropeans. The Sudan is claimed by the French. Great Britain, Germany, Italy and Portugal, all exer- cise control over large portions of this territory. The Kongo Free State was established by the Euro- pean powers for commercial purposes. The King of Belgium is its ruler. The products of this region are palm oil, rubber, ivory, varnish gums, hides, and some cotton, sugar, and coffee. 268. Who cojttrols Madagascar? Canary Islands? Cape Verde Islands ? St. Helena ? Madagascar is controlled by the French. Its products are tropical woods, rubber and coffee. Tananarive is its capital. The Canary Islands belong to Spain; the Cape Verde and Madeira Islands to Portugal, and St. Helena to Great Britain. All these islands are valuable as naval stations. 26g. What of A byssinia and Liberia ? Abyssinia is a small native kingdom on the east side of Africa. Its people are somewhat civilized, and pro- fess Christianity. They produce fine hand-made fabrics. Liberia, on the west coast of Africa, was settled by negro slaves from United States. Its capital is Monrovia. 2yo. What part of Africa is known as ^^ South Africa V By whom was it first settled? What of the present coit- dition of the colonies ? South Africa includes the region south of the Zambezi River. The first important settlement was made by the Dutch at Cape Town. When Cape Colony came into possession of the British the Boers '''trekked'' northward and estab- lished the Orange Free State and the Transvaal. In 1900 these republics became British colonies. The Ger- 270 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK mans and Portugese also have possessions in South Africa. The colonies of this region are the most flourish- ing of all the European colonies of Africa. ^77. What are the prodiicts of South Africa ? Wheat, tobacco, vegetables, grapes, and other agricul- tural products are produced wherever the rainfall is sufficient or irrigation possible. The most important productions are wool, hides, meat and ostrich feathers. 2^2, For what are Johannesburg and Kimberley noted f Johannesburg, in the Transvaal, is in the most im- portant gold producing district of the world. At Kimberley, in Cape Colony, are diamond mines which supply nearly all the world's diamond product. ^73- What are the commercial cities of South Africa ? Cape Town, the capital and largest city of Cape Col- ony, has a good harbor. It is connected with the interior by a railway line which is a part of the proposed railway from Cairo to Cape Town. The capital of Portuguese East Africa, Lourengo Marquez, and Durban, the seaport of Natal, are also connected by rail with the interior. 2 J /J.. Locate South America and give its coast line features. South America occupies the southern part of the west- ern continent. Its coastline, like that of Africa, is very regular, hence there are very few good harbors. 27 5' Give the location and character of the highland and lowland regions. The Andes, one of the loftiest mountain systems of the world, extend the entire length of the continent on its western side, rising from the very seacoast and reaching many miles inland. On the eastern side is the plateau of Brazil, while the GEOGRAPHY 271 plateau of Guiana occupies the northern part. Neither of these plateaus is very lofty. The remainder of the continent is a vast lowland. 2y6. Name the rivers of South America, Account for their size. The rivers of South America are the Orinoco, Amazon and Plata, all of which flow to the Atlantic Ocean. The enormous amount of rain which falls on the Atlan- tic slope of South America, and the extent of the great lowland, give to it some of the greatest river systems of the world. 2jy. In what zones is South America situated? Tell of its climate aiid vegetable life. South America lies in the torrid and south temperate zones. The lowlands are hot but the plateaus are temperate. The most plainly marked seasons are the rainy and dry. Because of the prevailing winds and the position of the highlands most of South America is well supplied with rain, there being but two regions, — the desert of Ata- cama and part of Patagonia — which are arid. In the great lowland region are found the forests, or silvas of the Amazon ; the low plains, or llanos of the Orinoco, and pampas of the Plata. 2y8. What of the animal life of South America ? The animal life of South America is the most varied of all the grand divisions. In the forests are many tree- dwelling animals, birds, and reptiles. On the plains are found deer and the rhea, or South American ostrich. In the mountains live the condor, the largest of flying birds, and the llama, which is used as a beast of burden. 2yg. What are some of the forest products of South America f 272 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK India rubber, cinchona, dyewoods, sarsaparilla, timber and edible nuts. 280. What are the inmeral products and where found? Gold, silver, and copper are mined in the Andes, but the chief mineral product is nitrate of soda which is ob- tained from the old lake beds on the western slope of the mountains. 281. What are the chief industries of South America ? Where carried on ? Herding, agriculture and mining are the chief indus- tries. Brazil, and the valleys of the Orinoco and Plata rivers are the chief herding and agriculture regions. Mining is carried on in the mountains. 282. What are some of the leading products of South America ? Brazil produces more coffee than all the rest of the world. Other products are sugar, tobacco and cocoa. Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, are agricultural and herding countries. The principal products are dried and cured meats, wool, etc. Argentina is one of the great wheat producing countries of the world. Coffee is also raised in Venezuela and Dutch Guiana. The four tropical Andean countries, Columbia, Ecua- dor, Peru and Bolivia, are the mining countries. These countries also produce some of the characteristic forest and argicultural products of South America. 28;^. What Etiropean nations settled South America ? All of South America except Brazil was settled by the Spanish. Brazil was settled by the Portuguese. 28/}.. What for7n of government prevails in South A merica ? All the independent states of South America are re- publics. GEOGRAPHY 273 28^. Give the capital and chief cities of Brazil. Rio de Janeiro, situated on a fine harbor, and in the midst of the coffee plantations, is the capital of Brazil. Santos exports coffee. Bahia and Penambuco are the ports of the sugar and tobacco districts. Para is the city from which most of the rubber, vanilla, and other forest products are shipped. 286. Name the other South Anierica^i states, their capi- tals and chief seaports. STATES. Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Venezuela, CAPITALS. Bogota, Quito, Lima, Santiago, Buenos Aires, Montevideo. Asuncion. Sucre. Caracas, SEAPORTS. Maracaibo. Guayaquil. Callao. Valparaiso. La Plata. Valencia. 28"/. What and where are Titicaca f Trinidad? Pariama ? Titicaca is the only large lake in South America. Trinidad is an island opposite the mouth of the Orinoco, from which asphaltum is obtained. Panama is a city on the isthmus of Panama. It is im- portant because of its position on the route of the Pana- ma canal. 288. Name the highest peaks of the Andes. The volcanoes of Tobina, Cotopaxi, Chimborazo, Sahama, and Aconcagua, and Mt. Sorata and Mt. Illmani. 28g. Give chief points as to location., coast and surface features of Australia, 274 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK Australia is the island continent and lies in the south- ern hemisphere. Its outline is very regular, there being but two gulfs or bays, and two peninsulas worthy of mention. The surface suggests a plate in form, since the low interior rises gradually to plateaus and moun- tains which often descend steeply toward the sea. The highest part of the continent is in the east. 2go. What of the climate of A ustralia f Australia lies in the temperate and torrid zones, but because its summer occurs when the earth is nearest the sun, and its winters when the earth is farthest away, and because of its surface, the summers are very hot, and the winters cold. 2^1. What of the plaiits and animals of this region ? The life of this region is peculiar, but well adapted to the climate. Many of its forms belong to a class long since extinct in other continents. The eucalyptus tree, acacias, and myrtles are the best known native plants. Of the native animals, the kangaroos, cassowaries and emus are most remarkable. Wheat and other plants of the temperate zones are cultivated. Many sheep, cattle and horses are raised. 2g2. What mineral product has helped in the develop- inent of A ustralia ? Gold was discovered in Australia about 1850. This brought thousands of people to the continent and led to the rapid settlement and development of the country and its resources. Gold mining is still of great importance and Australia ranks second among the gold producing nations. 2g^. What other minerals are found? Coal, copper, iron, silver, tin and limestone are im- portant mineral products. GEOGRAPHY 275 2^4.. What is the most important occupation of Aus- tralia ? Grazing is the characteristic and important occupation. 2g^. How does this influence the commerce ? Wool, frozen and canned meats, and dairy products are exported in large quantities. 2g6. What station controls Australia? How is it governed ? Australia belongs to Great Britain. Its first settlers were convicts, but many free settlers came later. In 1901 the colonies united to form the Commonwealth of Australia. Its government is similar to that of Canada and is independent except in those matters which affect the entire British Empire. 2gy. What are the chief cities of A ustralia ? One third of the people of Australia live in the capital cities. Because of their location as seaports, and as seats of the government these cities have become the leading commercial centers. Melbourne, the largest city of Australia, is the capital of Victoria. Sydney, the oldest city of Australia, and the capital of New South Wales, is noted for its fine harbor. Adelaide is the capital of South Australia ; Perth, of West Australia; and Brisbane, of New South Wales. 2^8. What island groups belonging to England^ lie south and east of Australia ? Tasmania and New Zealand. 2pp. What are the products and cities f Wool, frozen and preserved meats, gold and kauri gum are the chief products. Hobart is the capital of Tasmania. Wellington is the capital of New Zealand, and Auckland and Dunedin the chief cities. 276 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK J 00. What is the general nafne for the island groups between Australia and Asia f The East Indies. 301. Of what value are these smaller island groups ? These island groups are inhabited by uncivilized natives. The only settlements are a few trading ports and coaling stations maintained by foreign powers. New Guinea the largest of the islands lies near Australia. 302. What are the products of Borneo., Java, Sumatra, and the Celebes? Coffee, rice, sugar-cane, spices, camphor, gutta-percha, tin, gold, and precious stones are among the valuable products. joj. To whom do these is la7tds belong f Name the chief cities. Borneo belongs to Netherlands and Great Britain. Sumatra, Java, and Celebes belong to Netherlands. These islands are known as the Dutch East Indies and owe their development to the enterprise of the Dutch merchants and to the wise control of Holland. Batavia, on the island of Java, is the largest city and the center of the colonial government. Northwest of Borneo are the Philippine Islands, which belong to United States. The largest city of the East Indies, Manila, is located on Luzon, one of these islands. J04.. To what extent should the map be used in the study of geography ? In all study of geography, the child should have the map and locate for himself every place about which he studies. He should also be taught to look into the *'why" of these locations. A map and a question mark go hand in hand in the study of geography. GEOGRAPHY 277 J 05. What use should be 7nade of map drawing? Mere drawing of maps as exact copies or pieces of finished work, has little value. Outline maps, upon which children may mark such things as products, surface features, rivers and lakes, cities, etc., are valuable, and should be used freely. ^06. How much physical geography should be taught to the child ? Only those points which can be explained to the child and which he can readily understand, should be given to him. 3oy. How should these be taught ? Objectively, so far as possible. The smallest stream furnishes in miniature all the forms of water and land. All knowledge should be based upon the child's ex- perience. Teach the various points in physical geography as they come up in connection with the study of different countries, and do not make a special subject of it in teaching it to pupils of the grammar grades. 308. What is the best ^nethod of teaching geography ? Geography is best taught by the use of topics and a good outline. A few leading facts well taught, and used as centers about which to cluster other facts, are of far greater value than a mass of unrelated and unclassified knowledge. jop. Give outlines which might be used i7i the study of any of the continents. 1. Position. 1. Hemispheres. 2. Heat belts. 3. Latitude and longitude. 4. As to oceans and other continents. 278 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 2. Natural divisions. 1. Border waters. 2. Land forms. 3. Surface. 1. Highlands. 2. Lowlands. 4. Drainage. 1. Water partings. 2. River systems. 3. Lakes. 5. Climate. 1. Varieties and causes. 6. Political divisions. 1. Countries. 2. Capitals. 3. Principal cities. 7. Life. 1. Animal. 2. Vegetable (products and resources) 3. Human. 1. Races. 2. Population. 3. Social, religious, and political life. 4. History. 8. Occupations. 9. Comparisons with other countries upon each topic. The following outline is arranged for the study of United States but may be modified and used in the study of other countries. UNITED STATES. 1. Location. 1. In North America. 2. As to other continents. 3. As to oceans (coast line features). GEOGRAPHY 279 4. In heat belts. 5. In highland and lowland regions of North Amer- ica. 2. Surface. 1. Highlands — influence upon climate and drainage. 2. Lowlands — position and extent. 3. Drainage. 1. Rivers — where and why. 2. Lakes. 4. Productions. 1. Distribution of plants, animals and minerals as determined by surface and climate. 5. Industries — resulting from this distribution of products. 6. Special consideration of principal products and typi- cal industries — mining, cotton raising, lumber- ing, etc. 7. People. 1. Races. 2. Government. 3. Education and general civilization. 8. Political divisions. 9. Industrial divisions. 1. Products and industries of each. Why? 2. Location of principal cities noted. 10. Commerce. 1. Natural conditions which aid commerce. 2. Commodities — natural and manufactured. 3. Exports and imports. Why? 4. Routes of commerce. 5. Commercial cities. 11. Comparison of United States with other countries. 12. Other territory belonging to United States. 28o SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK 1. Alaska. 2. Hawaii. 3. Porto Rico. 4. Philippines. 5. Where located? How acquired? People? Products ? CHAPTER X. HISTORY. WE HAVE seen that the education of a large pro- portion of the American children does not extend beyond the common school. Hence the im- portance of beginning their training in history much earlier than it was formerly begun. History furnishes most valuable material, not only for storing the mind with knowledge, but also for the establishment of health- ful moral ideals. No subject of the curriculum is more fruitful or abundant in the material offered to secure these ends. Dr. McMurry well says, in speaking of the interest that can be awakened in children, *"This intelli- gent interest is awakened first of all by a lifelike picture of the personal fortunes of men like Daniel Boone, or David, or Alfred the Great. Such biographies open a highway into the struggles and dangers of communities and young nations. The life stories also of inventors and benefactors like Stephenson, Fulton, and Peter Cooper, of Florence Nightingale, John Eliot, and William Penn, kindle social sympathies of lasting worth." In the early years the chief means to be employed are story and biography. All children love stories and this natural characteristic should be employed in fixing his- torical truths, while the lives of great men will form centers around which important events and epochs may be grouped. Nor is this all, the story of these lives will stimulate noble ideals in the children and lead them to ♦"Special Methods in History," p. i. Macmillan, New York. 282 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK desire to emulate the characters which have been por- trayed to them. To quote again from Dr. McMurry: "There are cer- tain lofty characters, like Alfred the Great, Caesar, Char- lemagne, Luther, Alexander, Isabella, Cromwell, and Napoleon, who have taught the world such commanding lessons that every child should have a chance to grasp in a few points the significance of their lives." Again he says, "Children should begin history as soon as they can take a strong and intelligent interest in its simpler phases." Let us now turn our attention to the question. What should be the aim of the study of history? Tlie tendency of modern times is to give less attention to wars, diplo- macies, exploits of kings, or individuals, and devote more time to those matters that mark the progress in civiliza- tion among the nations of the world. Green in his "Short History of the English People" states the purpose to be, "To dwell at length on the incidents of that con- stitutional, intellectual, and social advance in which we read the history of the nation itself." McMaster, in his great work "A History of the People of the United States," outlines his purpose — a purpose to which he con- sistently holds — as follows: "In the course of this narra- tive much, indeed, must be written of wars, conspiracies, and rebellions; of Presidents, of Congresses, of embas- sies, of treaties, of the ambition of political leaders in the senate-house, and of the rise of great parties in the nation, yet the history of the people shall be the chief theme. At every stage of the splendid progress which separates the America of Washington and Adams from the Arnerica in which we live, it shall be my purpose to describe the dress, the occupations, the amusements, the literary canons of the times; to note the changes of manners and morals; to trace the growth of that humane HISTORY 283 Spirit which abolished punishment for debt, which re- formed the discipline of prisons and jails, and which has, in our time, destroyed slavery and lessened the miseries of dumb brutes. Nor shall it be less my aim to recount the manifold improvements which, in a thousand ways, have multiplied the conveniences of life and ministered to the happiness of our race; to describe the rise and progress of that long series of mechanical inventions and discoveries which is now the admiration of the world and our just pride and boast ; to tell how, under the benign influence of liberty and peace, there sprang up, in the course of a single century, a prosperity un- paralleled in the annals of human affairs; how, from a state of great poverty and feebleness, our country grew rapidly to one of opulence and power; how her agricul- ture and her manufactures flourished together; how, by a wise system of free education and a free press, knowl- edge was disseminated, and the arts and sciences ad- vanced; how the ingenuity of her people became fruitful of wonders far more astonishing than any of which the alchemists had ever dreamed." It is not to be expected that the children of the com- mon school will gain so comprehensive a view of history as above outlined; but it is Avell for the teacher to pos- sess this view, thereby being able to approach the subject from no narrow standpoint. The teacher possessing such a view will give his pupils a much truer conception of the real character of history than one who conceives his- tory to be a mere record of wars, and of the rise and downfall of nations. Finally, the study of history offers most natural oppor- tunity for practical correlation. Geography, literature, and reading must be closely related to the work in his- tory. Maps, pictures, poems, stories, biographies are to be utilized. Indeed, history cannot be successfully 284 SEELE Y'S Q UESTION BOOK taught without taking these other subjects into account, and material which belongs to other work should also be freely employed here. Thus while enriching the mind with knowledge concerning the past, the judgment is trained, the imagination stimulated, the will strength- ened, the memory made retentive. The chief end in the study of history will be lost if the children are not made more patriotic, in the true sense, and if they do not learn from the lives of the heroes of the past, and from great events lessons of morality and religion. What do we mean by history ? Dr. Harris says, in answer to the question, "History is a window of the soul that looks out upon the deeds of the race. " Dr. Hinsdale says, "In the broadest sense, history is the story of man living in social relations in the world, as traced in various records and memorials.'* Questions and Answers. /. What can be said of the inhabitants of America ? Little is known of the first inhabitants of America. Throughout both continents are found remains of tem- ples, bridges and ancient cities, indicative of an advanced stage of civilization. Thousands of curiously con- structed mounds bespeak the military power and religious zeal of an ancient race. The Indians had no knowledge or tradition of the origin of these remains or of the people who built them. We give to these people the name of Mound Builders. 2, Who were the Indians f Why so called ? The Indians were the race found in America by Colum- bus. He supposed he had reached the East Indies, and therefore called the people Indians. J. What evidence have we that the Lidians were a distinct race from the Mound Builders? HISTORY 285 The Indians are not a progressive race. They have produced no permanent or high-class examples of archi- tecture, such as were left by their predecessors. The utensils, weapons and implements found in the mounds are not such as were used by the Indians. ^. What discoveries were made by the Northmen ? Were these discoveries of any beiiefit ? The historical records of Iceland assert that America was discovered by the Northmen in 1002. Claim is also made of a settlement in Greenland, the exploration of the eastern coast as far south as New England, and the establishment of a temporary trading post. No perma- nent settlements were made, the route was lost and the existence of the continent eventually forgotten. 5. What inve7itions of the fiftee?ith cejitury had an influ- ence in the discovery of A merica ? (a) The invention of printing, resulting in the publi- cation of books of travel by Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville. (b) The compass, by use of which sailors could venture farther from land. 6. What was the great co^mnercial problem of this cen- tury ? Why ? The finding of an all-sea route to India. The trade with the East had been greatly hindered by the taking of Constantinople by the hostile Turks (1453). y. By whom, had atteinpts been made to find this route ? By Portuguese navigators, who, sent out by King John II and Prince Henry, had sought to reach the East by sailing around the southern point of Africa. 8. What was Columbus's plan ? To sail directly west across the Atlantic, as he believed the earth to be round. 286 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK g. Give a brief account of the voyages made by Columbus ? Columbus spent eighteen years in his efforts to secure means by which to carry out his plans. At last, assist- ance was given him by Isabella, Queen of Spain. His equipment consisted of three small ships — the Santa Maria, Nina, and Pinta~and one hundred and twenty men. They sailed from Palos, Spain, August 3, 1492. After a voyage of seventy-one days, they landed on one of the islands of the West Indies, Friday, October 12, 1492. Columbus named this island San Salvador. He also visited Cuba and Haiti. On his second voyage, Columbus explored Jamaica and the neighboring islands; on the third, he visited Trini- dad and the coast of South America ; on his fourth and last voyage, he explored the coast of Darien. 10. How was America named? Americus Vespucius, an Italian in the service of Por- tugal, made a voyage along the coast of Brazil. Wald- seemiiller, a German geographer, published a letter describing this voyage and suggested that the new world be called Amerigo — the land of Americus, or America. //. What nations took an active part in the exploration of North America ? Spain, England, France, and Holland. 12. What were the leading motives which prompted these explorations ? Religious zeal, love of adventure and commercial inter- ests, especially the search for gold. jj. Give leading facts concerning the other Spanish explorers and discoverers. Ponce de Leon — founded San Juan, Porto Rico, 1511 ; discovered Florida, 1512. Balboa— discovered the Pacific Ocean, while ascending the mountains of Panama, 1513. HISTORY i^'j Magellan — sailed on the Pacific Ocean, gave to it its name, and crossing it, completed the first voyage around the world, 1519-1521. Cortez — explored and conquered Mexico, 1519-1521. DeSoto — planned a conquest of Florida; discovered the Mississippi River, 1541. Melendez — founded the first permanent settlement at St. Augustine, 1565. 7^. What parts of the New World were explored by the Spanish ? Central America, Mexico, Peru, Florida, the Mississippi Valley, New Mexico, and the coasts of California. 75. Name the French explorers. Verrazani — explored the coast from Newfoundland to North Carolina. This was the foundation of the French claim in America. Cartier— explored and named the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. Visited Montreal, 1535. Champlain — established the authority of France on the banks of the St. Lawrence. Discovered Lake Champlain. Marquette and La Salle — explored the lake region and the Mississippi Valley, 1682. Named the country Louisiana. 16. What parts of North America were explored and claimed by the French ? The St. Lawrence and Great Lake region; the Ohio and its tributaries; the Mississippi to the Gulf. They claimed all the basin of the latter. 77. Who were the early English Explorers ? John and Sebastian Cabot — visited the shores of Lab- rador and Newfoundland, 1497. Sir Francis Drake — the first Englishman to explore the Pacific coast and to circumnavigate the globe, 1579. 288 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK Frobisher — tried to find the northwest passage to Asia, 1576. Sir Humphrey Gilbert — made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony in Newfoundland, 1583. Sir Walter Raleigh — sent out an expedition which explored and named Virginia, 1584. Also made two attempts to plant a colony on Roanoke Island. Both failed. 1587. Gosnold and Pring — visited the coasts of New England, carrying back cargoes of sassafras and furs. 1602. iS. What was the English claiin in A merica ? The English claim, based on the voyage of the Cabots, extended from Florida to Labrador, and westward to the Pacific. ig. What part of America was visited and claimed by the Dutch ? Henry Hudson, an English navigator in the Dutch service, entered the harbor of New York and ascended the river which now bears his name— (1609). Upon this discovery the Dutch based their claim to the territory extending from the Delaware River to Cape Cod. 20. Why did so fnuch time elapse between the discovery and settlement of North A merica f The hostility of the natives, jealousy among rival claimants to the country, the absence of any great object of conquest, the distance from Europe, and the lack of means of transportation, tended to delay the colonization of this country. 21. When., where and by what nations were the first permanent settlements in America made? 1565. — Spanish at St. Augustine. 1582. — Spanish at Santa Fe. 1605. — French at Port Royal, Nova Scotia. HISTORY 289 1607. — English at Jamestown. 1608. — French at Quebec. 1613. — Dutch at New Amsterdam. 1620.— English at Plymouth. 22. What companies were formed in England for the colonization of America? The London Company, which was to have lands be- tween the 34th and 38th parallels; and the Plymouth Company, whose grants were between the 41st and 45th parallels. Both grants extended from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 2j. What is said of the Charter granted these com,panies f It contained no idea of self government and had no regard for the rights, wishes, or needs of the colonists. Councils appointed by the King, were to control all affairs of the colonies. The Church of England was to be maintained. The proceeds of all labor were to go into a common fund. 2^. What is a Charter ? How did it differ from a Patent ? A charter was a grant of land by a sovereign power, by which under certain conditions, title to the land was conferred, a form of government defined, and certain rights and privileges secured to the people. When the grant was made to a colony or a company it was called a charter, but when given to an individual, it was known as 2. patent. 2^. What names are associated with the settlement of f ante st own ? Captain Newport, who commanded the company. Captain John Smith, whose bold and determined char- acter, combined with wisdom and foresight, saved the colony from ruin. 290 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK Pocahontas, the daughter of Powhatan, who is said to have saved Smith's life. She afterward married John Rolfe, an English planter. 26. What was the Starving Time ? Dtiring the winter of 1609-10, Smith having returned to England, the colonists fell victims to laziness, disease and famine. They were reduced in six months from 490 to m. 2'j. What was the House of Burgesses ? An assembly, consisting of the governor, council, and two "burgesses" from each borough, met in Jamestown, June 30, 1619, to consider the affairs of the colony. This was the first legislative body ever assembled in America and was known as the "House of Burgesses." 28. How was slavery introduced into the country f In 1619, the captain of a Dutch trading vessel sold twenty negroes to the colonists. As their labor proved profitable in the cultivation of tobacco, many more were imported. 2g. How were wives obtained, by the settlers ? In 1620, the London Company induced one hundred and fifty reputable young women to embark for Virginia. Each planter gave one hundred pounds of tobacco for his wife. JO. How did Virginia become a Royal Province ? King James became jealous of the republican senti- ments of the London Company, took away the charter, and placed the colony under the direct control of the king. J 7. Who were the Cavaliers ? The Cavaliers were English Royalists, who espoused the cause of Charles I. During the commonwealth HISTORY 291 many of them emigrated to Virginia and afterward be- came prominent in the affairs of the colony. J2. WJio were the Puritans ? Separatists ? Pilgrims ? The Puritans were dissenters from the Church of Eng- land, who desired a purification from its old observances and doctrines. For this they were called Puritans. Some of them believing that any body of Christians might declare itself a church, broke oft from the estab- lished church and formed local churches. These were called Separatists. A band of these, being persecuted in England, took refuge in Holland. After some years^ not wishing to have their children grow up as Dutchmen, they came to America. These were the Pilgrims. jj. Give a brief account of Plymouth Colony. On December 21, 1620, the Mayflower, with one hun- dred and two Pilgrims landed at Plymouth in Cape Cod Harbor. Before going ashore, they entered into a com- pact agreeing to enact just and equal laws which all should obey. During the first years there was much suffering. The plan of working in common having failed, land was assigned to each settler. They were permitted to choose their own governors and make their own laws. In 1692 Plymouth became a part of Massachusetts Bay Colony. j^. Who were John Endicott and Governor Winthrop ? - They were the leaders of the Puritans who settled at Charlestown, Salem, and Boston. J5. What was the feeling in Massachusetts Bay Colony toward those of other religious beliefs f They were intolerant of all but Puritans. Quakers were punished and exiled. Roger Williams, a Baptist minister, being banished, fled to Rhode Island and founded Providence. 292 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK j6. What other settlements were made in New England f Maine and New Hampshire were settled by Gorges and Mason. The New Haven Colony was founded by wealthy Lon- don families. The Connecticut colony, founded by John Steele and Thomas Hooker, adopted the first written constitution ever framed by the people. J/. What two colonies were granted charters f Rhode Island and Connecticut. J 8. What colonies were united in i64jf Whyf A union of the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Ply- mouth, New Haven, and Connecticut was formed under the title of the United Colonies of New England. The object was protection against the Indians, Dutch and French, and the securing of a more stable local government. jp. What was the most notable Indian War in the his- tory of New England? King Philip's War, 1675. It grew out of the jealousy of the Indians at the en- croachments of the whites. Many settlers were killed, but the Indians were finally overcome and Philip was shot by one of his own tribe. ^0. What was the Salem Witchcraft f It was persecution against supposed witches. It began at Salem in 1692, and created great excitement through- out New England. Before it was over, about twenty innocent people, mostly old women and Indians, were put to death by the magistrate, supported and urged on by the clergy. /fi. Who was Cotton Mather ? HISTORY 293 Cotton Mather was a prominent minister in the Mas- sachusetts Bay Colony. He took an active part in the prosecution of persons charged with witchcraft. He was, however, a profound scholar and the leading theo- logian of his day. /J.2. Who were the patroons f The Dutch West India Company who controlled New Netherlands, in order to encourage farming in its domain, offered a large tract of land to anyone who would estab- lish a colony of fifty persons above fifteen years of age. This proprietor was called a "patroon" and was abso- lute ruler of whatever colonies he might establish. He was bound to transport the fifty settlers to New Netherlands at his own expense; to provide them with a well stocked farm and farming implements ; to charge a low rate of rent ; to employ a schoolmaster and a min- ister of the Gospel. In return the emigrant bound himself to cultivate the land for ten years; to bring his grain to the patroon's mill; to use no cloth not made in Holland; to sell his products to no one but his patroon, unless the latter so ordered. ^j. Who were the Dutch Governors f Minuit, Van Twiller, Kieft and Stuyvesant. ^4.. When and how did New Netherlands become New Yorkf In 1664 an English fleet anchored in the harbor of New Amsterdam and demanded the surrender of New Nether- lands in the name of the Duke of York, to whom this ter- ritory had been granted by Charles II. Despite the re- monstrances of Stuyvesant, the council surrendered, and the colony was named New York in honor of the proprietor. 294 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK ^5. How was New Jersey settled"^ The Duke of York granted the land between the Hud- son and the Delaware to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. It was called New Jersey in honor of Carteret, and the first English settlement made at Elizabethtown, 1664, was named for his wife. The two parts East and West Jersey were united and made a part of New York, but were afterwards set apart as a distinct royal province. /J.6. Who founded the Quaker Colony'^ What city did he also found '^ William Penn. Philadelphia, which means "brotherly love." ^7. What was the Great Law f It was a code agreed upon by Penn and the settlers. It made faith in Christ a qualification for voting and office holding, but granted religious toleration. ^8. What was Mason and Dixon's Linef It was a boundary fixed between Maryland and Penn- sylvania by two surveyors, Mason and Dixon (1763-67). It separates the former slave from the free states. 4-g. When, where, and by who7n was the first settlement made in Delaware ? In 1638, by the Swedes, near Wilmington. ^0. By who'm was the colojiy of Maryland established'^ Why f By Lord Baltimore, a Catholic, who sought a refuge for his friends. 57. Who settled the Car Unas ? English from Virginia, Dutch from New York, and Huguenots from France. ^2. What was the Grcnid Model f HISTORY 295 A form of government prepared for the colonies by- Lord Shaftesbury and John Locke. It provided for the division of the land into vast estates and granted heredi- tary titles, but it made no provision for self-government or personal liberty. It, therefore, found no favor with the colonists. 5J. What colony did Oglethorpe founds Why? Georgia, 1732, as a home for English debtors. 5 METHODS OF TEACHING 383 8. Give examples of the analytic Method. "Starting with a flower and proceeding to the study of its parts — calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, etc. — is an example of analytic teaching. As examples of the analytic method of procedure in other studies may be mentioned: taking a sentence in grammar and proceed- ing from that to a consideration of its parts, — subject, copula, predicate, modifiers, etc. ; taking a problem in arithmetic and proceeding to its solution by the method of independent analysis: taking a state or country in geography and proceeding to learn the several parts (the names, locations, and characteristics of the particular rivers, mountains, towns, etc.) of which it is composed. In the analytic method of teaching we have given us the individuals or wholes, which are simply the parts in their proper relations to each other ^ and we proceed to consider each of these parts as if it were then a separate thing." p. What is the synthetic Method ? "The synthetic method of teaching is the method in which we set out with the dissociated parts of things and proceed to bring these into proper relation to each other, so as to construct as a final product the individual." 10. Give examples of the synthetic Method. "Having a pile of dissolved bones, studying the function of each and then bringing them into such relation with one another as to produce finally the human skeleton, is an example of a synthetic method of teaching. Taking isolated words and building possible sentences with them is a synthetic procedure. Other examples are: teaching letters and then from these constructing certain words; learning about a particular river, its surroundings, the towns upon its banks, and further particular items, until we have built up a picture of some particular state." //. What is the inductive Method ? 384 SEELEY \S QUESTION BOOK "The inductive method of teaching is the method in which we set out with individual things, and by a com- parative study of several individuals — noting likenesses and differences — develop general notions or generaliza- tions; or, we begin with generalizations of a given order and by their comparative study we arrive at still wider generalizations. ' ' 12, Give examples of the inductive method. '* Solving several problems in arithmetic by independ- ent analysis, and then, by comparison of their processes, formulating a rule for the solution of such problems, is an inductive process. Generalizing definitions, rules, laws, and principles, from a comparative study of parts, is inductive." 7j. What is the deductive Method? "The deductive method of teaching is the method in which we set out with generalizations (definitions, rules, laws, or principles) and proceed to their application in individual cases. " 7^. Give examples of the deductive method. "Committing rules m arithmetic and then applying them to the solution of problems; studying the definitions of geography from a book and then proceeding to find them illustrated in the land and water forms about the school, reading the generalizations about the human body, which are contained in the ordinary works on physiology, and proceeding to examine our bodies in order to verify them; studying botany by first reading the book statements about plants, and following this by an examination of specimens of the plants previously described; starting with the axioms of mathematics and proceeding by a demonstrative process to principles, rules, and the solution of problems." METHODS OF TEACHING 385 75. How are these methods often confused ? The analytic method is considerd the same as the deductive because both start with individuals or wholes; and the synthetic method is regarded as identical with the inductive because both set out with parts. 16. What is the distmction between these methods ? The analytic and synthetic methods "have to do only with the mental movement between single things and their parts," while inductive and deductive "apply only to those mental movements which involve a passage from, generalizations, never to the mental movements between individual things and their several parts." 77. Give ail illustration of the synthetic a7id the induc- tive process. Take the words "was," "swimming," "in," "George," "river," "the," "afternoon," "this." The child may construct by synthetic process the sentence, "George was swimming in the river this afternoon." This is syn- thetic because the dissociated parts or words are brought together into a unit or sentence which conveys a thought. I may take this and many other sentences which express facts or tell something and we get a class which we call declarative sentences; stated in the form of questions they become interrogative sentences; as commmands they become imperative sentences. The terms declara- tive, interrogative, imperative apply not only to this sentence but also to all others of like character. They are therefore general terms. We arrive at general terms, such as rules, principles, etc., by the inductive method. We arrive at individual units, as a sentence built up from isolated words, or a word formed from let- ters, by the synthetic method. 18. Give an illustration of the analytic and the deduc- tive f}tethod. 386 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK Take an example in long division. We proceed step by step analyzing, taking apart, treating the exam;:le as an individual or starting with a country, we learn of its cities, its rivers, its mountains. This is the analytic method because we start with the whole and consider each of its parts as a separate thing. Let the child commit to memory a rule in arithmetic and seek to apply it in the solution of examples, or learn statements from a work on physiology and attempt to verify them by examining his own body, and he is proceeding by the deductive method. The analytic and the synthetic methods deal with individuals, and the inductive and the deductive methods draX with generalizations, or princi- ples. The teacher should carefully distinguish between these mxCthods and seek to apply the proper method at each stage of the child's development, and with each subject. /p. What ether methods may be mentioned ? (a) The oral method, in which the teacher presents the subject wit .out the aid of a text-book. (b) The text-book method, in which the teacher closely follows the book. (c) The lecture method, in which the material is pre- sented in the form of lectures and in which the pupils take no active part. 20. What application should be made of these methods ? The oral method is peculiarly suited to little children. With older children text-books should be employed, not with slavish subservience, but as guides. To abandon the text-book, is to reject what the past teaches — its expe- rience, its knowledge, its method, its accumulated wis- dom. It adds needlessly to the burdens of the teacher. Unless the teacher be unusually wise and experienced METHODS OF TEACHING 387 the absence of the text-book would mean aimless drifting, and want of systematic progress. Text-books are the product of the wisdom and experience of the past, and there is no reason why they should not be employed. But the teacher must be so familiar with the contents of the text-book as to be free from the necessity of employing it in class-work. No teacher can make the most forceful im- pression who must depend upon the text-book in instruct- ing a class. Let the text-book be a guide as to method and material. There is no reason why the accumulated wisdom of the past, as conserved in the progressive text- book, should not be utilized by the teacher and pupils. The lecture method is suitable only for mature stu- dents, and therefore has but little application in the elementary school. 21. What is the method of development with 'oung chil- dren ? The synthetic and the inductive processes are suited to children. They begin with the objects and things at hand and proceed to the remote. They go from individ- ual notions to general notions. It would be a mistake to give the young child a rule or principle at the outset and lead him back to the facts from which these generaliza- tions are derived. Take arithmetic for example, — ^many problems must be given, the pupils explaining how each individual one is done until they are able to tell how any problem of that class is performed. This final statement is a rule. Thus inductively he proceeds from the indi- vidual to the general. 22. What method sJiould be followed later f Older pupils generally will employ the analytic or de- ductive process. Thus in geometry the theorem may be given at the outset and the pupil taught to demonstrate it. ^ 388 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK ^j. What final suggestions should be made ? While in general the development of the child and the method to be employed will follow laws as set forth in the preceding pages, the versatile teacher will be able to adapt himself to individual cases. He will not hesitate to employ any or all of these methods as circumstances may demand. If one method fails another will be tried until the truth is brought home and fixed. Even when the pupils seem to comprehend a lesson as taught by one method, it is well to present it by another, thereby securing an all-round and thorough understanding of the truth. Let method be an instrument in the hands of the teacher to secure the bringing home of truth to the minds of the pupils, and not a dictator, a servant and not a master. CHAPTER XIV. NATURE STUDY. THE three leading points which claim our attention, in considering the subject of nature study are, aims, materials, and methods. The aims of nature study are: First, to establish a more harmonious relation between the child and his environment. Second, to train the powers of observation, memory, judgment, and reason. Third, to cultivate a sympathetic acquaintance with nature, to lead to an appreciation of the beautiful in form, purpose and adjustment, and to recognize the beauty and exactness of natural law. The prime object of this study is not to teach the child about nature nor to fill his mind with scientific facts, but its purpose is to make him a student of nature, to ac- quaint him with some of the most common natural phe- nomena, and to develop within him a love for all created things. The best materials for nature study are plants and animals in their constantly changing environment. Emphasis should be placed at all times, upon plants and animals as living things, and the phenomena of life should ever be made prominent. The presence in the schoolroom of plants and animals will not only furnish material for nature study but will arouse a deep interest on the part of the children, and lead them to observe more carefully the processes of life and growth. Both 390 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK in city and country there is a wealth of material for this work. That the teacher may not be embarrassed by the quantity and variety which are presented, it will be best to choose a few general lines of investigation and to fol- low them systematically and with a definite aim in view. It must be kept in mind always, that nature study is not a subject to be taught from text books. Books of a scientific character, and books which furnish plans and methods of study may be used with profit by the teacher for personal information and help in preparation. But nature study /^r se, must be the study of the thing itself both by teacher and pupil, otherwise it is without value. No amount of book knowledge about the life of a bird or the growth of a flower can ever equal the knowledge gained by the child from his own observation of the life and habits of the bird, or of the processes of growth of the flower through its life cycle. The teacher needs to know some of the scientific facts which the book records in order to guide the child in his investigations, but the knowledge gained from personal observation and study is the knowledge which possesses real value for the child. The most important phase of nature study, therefore, is the method employed. It matters not so much what the child studies as how he studies. Failure to recognize this fact often makes much of the so-called nature study in our school merely desultory, and the time given to it is worse than wasted. Pupils should be taught how to study in a careful sys- tematic manner. They should be made to know the dif- ference between merely looking at an object and observ- ing it, between observing it and studying it with a defi- nite aim. Only such subjects should be chosen for nature study as can be presented objectively, and preference should always be given to those which have the most NATURE STUDY 391 interest for the child. So far as possible all material should be observed in its natural environment. The child should be led to make observations for himself and to report such observations definitely and accurately. This report may be given verbally or in writing. It should consist of important points and leading facts and sho'ild omit all minor details. In presenting subjects to the class, the form, habits and relations to man should precede the study of structure and physiological rela- tions. Each season suggests definite ideas for nature work and ample material is available for the exemplification. The autumn thought is the preparation for winter through protection and storage, by plants, animals and people. The ripening of fruits, falling of the leaves, pro- tection of buds, and dissemination of seeds, denote the completion of the cycle of production in the plant world, and the preparation for rest. The migration of the birds, the laying up of food by the squirrels, the building of homes by the beavers, the thickened coats of the sheep — all these are but types of the provision which instinct teaches the animal world to make for the winter time. The gathering and storing of grains and fruits and the many other preparations made by man for protection against winter's inroads, also afford subjects for study. Winter brings rest to the organic world and the conserva- tion and preservation of life during this period furnish a fertile field for investigation. The winter homes of ani- mals, the hardy plants and animals which are able to withstand the rigors of the season, the nourishment of animal bodies, fuel and protection from cold, the trees in winter, snow and its uses, are topics v^hich are full of vital interest. The reanimation of nature is the thought of spring. 392 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK and the study of awakening life has a peculiar fascination for the child. The return of the birds, seeds and their germination, the opening buds, early flowers, prepara- tions for planting garden and field are a few of the many topics which this season suggests. The following outline is intended to furnish sugges- tions for nature study in the first six years of school, and is applicable to both city and rural schools. / FIRST YEAR. / , Study of autumn fruits and leaves. The caterpillar and cocoon. Migration of birds and the empty nests. Cat, dog, and other pets. Kindness to animals. Weather observa- tions. Observe maple tree throughout the year. Snow and its uses. The winter homes of a few animals. Our winter birds. Observation of leaf-buds. Seed3 and their germination. Parts of plant — root, stem, leaf, bud, and flower. The return of the birds — the pupils to learn to recognize some of the most common birds and to watch them building their nests and getting food. SECOND YEAR. Squirrels and rabbits — their homes, habits and food. Oak and pine trees observed throughout the year. Their life story, and value to man. Frost and its effects. Study of two native fruits and nuts. The going away of the birds. Weather observations. Wind. Changes of moon. Points of the compass. Nourishment of man and animals. Teeth, their use and care. The care and pro- tection of our winter birds. Germination. The plant- ing of grains, vegetables, etc., for food. Study of com- mon flowers. Observe the changes in the life history of the butterfly. Watch for the return of the birds. En- courage pupils to furnish them food, materials for nests, NATURE STUDY 393 and nesting houses. Teach them to recognize and name a few of the most common birds. THIRD YEAR. Plant hfe according to season. Falling leaves, autumn seeds, etc. Flowers — appearance, parts, uses to plants. Study of birds as in Second Year. Show how helpful birds are to man and what may be done to help domesti- cate and protect them. The habits and transformation of the bee, ant, moth and butterfly. Heat and fuel. Weather study. Lessons on trees. Learn to distinguish by leaves, form and bark. Pupils should know\of a few of the most common evergreen and deciduous trees. FOURTH YEAR. Study of nut-bearing trees. Uses of leaves, roots, and sap. Study of root-plants such as beets, potatoes, etc. Study of grains from germination to harvest. Native wild animals, their habits and value. Study of insect life; spider, fly. Domestic animals, treatment, use, products, commercial value. Work of water and its various forms as snow, frost, rain, etc. Continue study of birds and spring flowers. FIFTH YEAR. Study plants as to their use. Plants used for medicinal purposes, for fibre, sap, etc. Plant and animal life of temperate and torrid zones compared. Hibernating ani- mals. Animals of the frigid zone. The silk worm. Industries. Pupils to know the principal trees of their native state, and to be familiar with the wild flowers in their locality. Study flowers as to parts, habits, soil re- quired, etc. Observations and experiments supplement- ing geography work. 394 SEELE Y 'S QUESTION BOOK SIXTH YEAR. Trees and fall flowers. Dissemination of seeds. Trees of other countries. Forests and their effect upon climate. Characteristics of some of the most common flower fami- lies. Leaves classified as to outline. Medicinal and poison- ous plants. Rocks and minerals. Nature work to sup- plement geography. It would not be practical to attempt to teach all the subjects enumerated in the above outline, but such topics should be chosen as can be studied to an advantage in a given locality. All classroom work in nature study should be supplemented by field work and outdoor re- search. Stories, fables, poems, and other literature per- taining to the subjects taught, should be used. Through- out the course everything studied should be viewed in its relation to man's welfare and happiness. As the child comes to appreciate more this fact of the mutual relation of all created life, he will be brought into closer sympathy with his physical environment, and will gain that esthetic, ethical and moral culture which is the true result of the study of nature. CHAPTER XV. CURRENT EVENTS. THE efficiency of the teacher is measured largely by the acquirements of his pupils. The standards of efficiency vary, however, with the years. Roger Ascham, the tutor of Queen Elizabeth, so taught his illus- trious pupil that she became a proficient Latin and Greek scholar at a very early age. Upon this and similar achievements rests his fame, for Ascham was accounted the greatest teacher of his time. He lived in the days when the student was a recluse, when he shut himself up in his library or laboratory and spent his time in try- ing to discover the philosopher's stone, or square the cir- cle, or in attempting to solve some equally impractical mental or scientific problem. He lived in the world of mind while the world of life was to him a sealed book. The activities of the student of today are very differ- ent. Whatever he may seek in books or laboratories, he must ever keep in touch with the throbbing heart of the world and make his researches and discoveries accord with its needs. What is true of the student is also true of the teacher. The standard of today does not count that teacher efficient whose only ability lies in the power to impart a knowledge of Greek and Latin roots, or maintain order by the use of a ferule. The teacher of the present must be a man with not only a broad knowledge gained from books, but also one whose mental acquirements keep pace with the life and thought of the world at large. The greatest agency in the world today for the dessem- 396 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK ination of knowledge, is the public press. To the news- paper, the magazine, and the many periodicals and books published, teacher and student alike, must look for infor- mation and instruction upon both general and professional subjects. While the newspaper has its faults, yet it is the great source of information as to the what^ how^ and why of the things which are taking place in the world — in short it is the record of organized experience. Maga- zines and similar periodicals, furnish discussions and articles full of valuable thought and knowledge along all lines of literature, science, art, politics, ethics and mor- als. With such an abundance of material at his com- mand the student is confronted with two great questions, "What to read?" and "How to read?" While to the teacher the third question comes, "How can I induce my pupils to read and thus make this wealth of knowledge contribute to their welfare and enlightenment?" In considering the questions just propounded, it is our purpose to confine ourselves to such phases of the subject as refer to the acquirement of a knowledge of current topics, and to a few practical suggestions as to the study of current events in the schoolroom. The person who wishes to read or study upon a specific subject has a comparatively easy task in answering the question, "What to read ?" But the man who wishes to gain a general knowledge of the events which are trans- piring about him has more difficulty in formulating a satisfactory answer to this question. The class of reading matter which is most abundant and most accessible is the newspaper. A man who does not read the newspaper will never become educated in the highest sense of the world. The reader of the news- paper not only gains information along specific lines, but his horizon is broadened, his experience is enlarged, and his sympathies are quickened. The man who reads the CURRENT EVENTS 397 newspapers knows the life of the world; he who reads magazines learns what thoughtful men think of the world; while the reader of books views the world in its past history, its present needs, and its future possibili- ties. It is difficult to see how one who confines his read- ing exclusively to but one of these fields of reading can be broadly educated. In selecting reading matter the first consideration is the quality of the material chosen. One good news- paper, one or two magazines, and a few good books, thoughtfully read will be of more value than many times this number read aimlessly or carelessly. But the great fault with many is not in the choice of reading matter but in its use. There is no plan or pur- pose in the reading, and no especial thought is given to it. The first rule in reading a newspaper should be to omit all sensational articles. Read those portions which have some specific interest, then read such parts as give real irj.formation about national and international life and the affairs of the intellectual and moral world. If the rule relating to sensational matter is followed, it will not require much time to read many of the newspapers. The person who relies upon the newspaper for his knowledge of the happenings of the world, often finds, however, that the information gained is not always reli- able. The newspaper records a fact as presented at the time of the publication of the paper. Later develop- ments may prove the statement wholly untrue or may modify it so as to present it in an entirely different light. Because of this and the difficulty in choosing from the regular newspaper, and also because much that the aver- age newspaper contains is unfit for general reading in the home, many people prefer a well edited review or current events paper, which contains only authentic facts and well selected and suitable material. 398 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK That we may be more specific in this discussion let us consider how a business man should read his newspaper and current events magazine. If he is a merchant the first thing to claim his attention will be the market price lists. Then he will look for those things which directly affect his business — the crop reports, the industrial conditions, etc. But he has no time to wade through the lengthy articles describing minor happenings of the strike that is on, or those recording contradictory state- ments regarding the war in progress, or the partisan report of a presidential convention, or the one-sided dis- cussion of a political issue. If he is a thoughtful man who really desires information upon any of these sub- jects, he will turn from the imperfect and incomplete statements of the daily newspaper to the well edited and carefully .compiled current events magazine. Here he will find the real facts regarding the subject, and a broad-minded and unbiased discussion of the topics in which he is interested. The teacher, while reading for his own benefit, also has before him the question of how to interest his pupils, how to lead them to read and how to make practical use of the study of current events in his school room. Without discussing the various points, a few sugges- tions are given in answer to these questions. First, provide material for the pupils to read. No school should be without one good current events paper. If other creditable papers and magazines are available they will be helpful, but a current events periodical is indispensable. Second, in the beginning permit the pupil to read from this paper what he pleases until he acquires an interest in reading. He will read more as his intellectual capac- ity increases. CURRENT EVENTS 399 Third, make definite use of material from this paper in the regular lessons. Fourth, plan for a bulletin board, a scrapbook, or some other means of displaying and preserving clippings. Fifth, encourage pupils to bring to school such mate- rial as has a bearing upon the various subjects which are being studied. It is not to be expected that the current happenings of the world will be in accord with definite lessons in the textbook. Teach the textbook lesson if you must, but in some way connect it with some event of immediate occurrence. In geography a news item presented by a pupil may be made the basis of a lesson. If events of importance are transpiring in a certain place, rehearse these events, locate the place, and show how these events affect other localities. Lead the pupils to see that a place is often geographically important because of these events. Problems growing out of statements of industrial con- ditions, market reports, price lists, financial statements, etc., possess more interest for the child and are far more practical than those found in the text-book. In teach- ing history, the knowledge of current topics is most essential, for our understanding of past history is depend- ent largely upon our knowledge of present events. If a war is in progress, the events transpiring will lead to a better understanding of past wars. If important discov- eries or wonderful inventions are being made, a knowl- edge of them will help to a more intelligent study of former achievements of this kind. Several times in the recent past our papers have given an account of the launching of a new battleship. After noting this event, lead the pupils to a study of the beginning of our navy, the great maritime battles in our history, or the first conflict of ironclad vessels. A boy may be able to spell all the obsolete words in a SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK half-dozen spelling books, but if he can master a list of practical words taken from a current school paper he is acquiring a working vocabulary v/hich will be of real value to him. Current events and material gleaned from papers and magazines may be used to advantage as the sole basis for the study of civics. The articles referring to a municipal, state or national election, furnish the clew to the whole problem of the executive branch of government, the exercise of fran- chise, and the entire political machinery. A city ordi- nance will afford a starting point for the discussion of laws, while the body which enacted it is a type of all legis- lative bodies. A child always reads best what he likes and what possesses some interest for him. No better means can be found for improving the quality of school reading than that afforded by the reading aloud by pupils from a paper or magazine. What has been said of the use of current events in con- nection with the studies just mentioned applies to all the subjects of the curriculum. The immediate results of such teaching are, a deeper interest in school and lessons, and a broadening outlook upon the world at large. While the habit of looking into the events of the world and of reading papers and periodicals, enables the pupil to acquire a standard of taste which will be of the high- est value in after life. All progressive schools give train- ing in the use of book literature. But the majority of our pupils after they are out of school, will wish to read along the lines of political, social, and business life, and such reading matter belongs almost wholly to the realm of newspaper and periodical literature. Hence, aside from the benefits resulting from the study of current events in the school room, the pupils are gaining such training as will be of inestimable value to them in after life. CHAPTER XVI. DRAWING AND WRITING. ART education in the public schools has for its aim this three-fold purpose — to give to the child a means of expression; to cultivate his powers of observation ; and to develop his esthetic nature. It is not expected that it will produce finished artists, but it is intended that the training afforded will be such as to develop head, hand, and heart in the expression and appreciation of beauty. It is not made a part of the curriculum for the benefit of the artistic few, but for the good of the inartistic many. These are the ones who need just such training to refine and elevate their tastes and to brighten and enrich their lives. Mistaken ideas as to the aims of public school drawing, and lack of knowledge of how to teach this subject, often deter regu- lar teachers from attempting it in their schools. While it is acknowledged that well rounded, successful work can be best done under the direction of a competent supervisor, yet there are many phases of the subject which can be well taught and used to advantage by every teacher. If the drawings made by pupils below the high school (and often the work of the high school too), were judged only by the standard of value as works of art then about all would be cast aside as worthless. Children in the public schools are not capable of pro- ducing finished artistic drawings. What results then should be expected from the drawing in the grades? It should express the child's idea of form, size, color, and proportion. It should record his observation of growth, 402 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK arrangement, coloring, etc. It should express his thought of the activities of the world about him and show in a tan- gible form something of the development and workings of his imagination. These are a few of the things which the material prod- uct of the teaching of drawing should show. Yet if these are the only results obtained the work has failed in its purpose and the time given to it has not been well spent. The material product has its place and should always be an evidence of thoughtful, earnest effort. But far exceeding it in value is the effect of the work upon the pupil himself. The child's drawing may be very poor, but if, as a result of his efforts, the child shows quickened sensibilities, keener perception or awakened appreciation, the lesson has been a success. Many people look upon the ability to draw as a gift. The ability to draw well may be a gift, just as the ability to sing well is a gift. But the power to represent thought by means of drawing is just as much a natural faculty of every individual as is the faculty of speech. Give a little child a pencil and paper and tell him to show you a dog. What does he do ? Write the word dog? Or talk about his dog? Not at all. He will draw what to him is a picture of his dog. Drawing is to him the vehicle of expression. That he does not use it more as he grows older is because his freedom is suppressed by our adverse criticism or faulty teaching. The child learns to draw by drawing. And throughout his school life he should be encouraged to use this method of expressing his ideas just as much as he is taught to ex- press his thoughts in speaking or writing. As he grows older more attention should be given to teaching him a few of the leading principles and methods of work and in directing his attention to the productions of a few of the great artists. Such a course of art edu- DRAWING AND WRITING 403 cation can be planned and pursued by any teacher and the results will be a freer expression of thought by the pupils, a keener observation, and a more refined taste and a deeper love for and appreciation of beauty. It is not the intention to present any definite outline of work, but rather to give a few general principles and make some suggestions which may be put into practical •use in schools of either single or mixed grades. The pencil is the most general medium available in the schools. The first thing to be taught is to hold the pen- cil correctly and to draw broad, soft lines. To do this well a soft pencil is best. Terms of location and position (as right, left, vertical etc.,) need to be taught as they are used. Simple geometric forms, as circle, square, oblong and triangle, should be named and drawn. The study of the most common forms — sphere, cube, cylinder, square, prism, etc., is necessary in order to give the child an idea of definite form. Except as types in the very beginning, it is best to teach these forms as they exist in various ob- jects rather than to make use of the solids. In drawing objects choose those which are not too diffi- cult and which possess some life interest for the child. Draw spherical objects first, rendering in outline only. Draw objects of a cylindrical .form, teaching the fore- shortening of the circle by observation, giving the prin- ciples which govern it later. Follow the same plan in teaching the drawing of cubical objects. After the pupils can see the convergence of the retreating lines then give them the rules which apply to the drawing of such lines. Choose such objects for drawing as are of good form but which have no striking decorations to distract atten- tion. Urge pupils to observe carefully and to remember that every line drawn should be the expression of a defi- 404 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK nite idea. Fruits, vegetables, toys (for the younger pupils,) boxes, baskets, bowls, teapots, jugs, vase-forms etc., form good models for work in object drawing. At first the work should be finished in outline only, growth, texture and form being expressed by the variation in the line. Later values may be studied and applied in the rendering of still-life subjects. In order that pupils may gain a better conception of form and mass, and learn to omit unimportant details, brush drawing with ink should be taught.* Any objects, but especially those which have marked characteristics of form, may be used. Render in silhouette with brush and ink, without any previous drawing of outline. Leave highlights, and white lines to show where two objects touch each other or to indicate veins in leaves. In all grades, but especially with younger pupils, illus- trative and memory drawing should be used freely. This work not only develops the child's power of imagination and gives him an added means of thought expression, but it helps the teacher to know how much the pupil observes, whether he can form a clear mental picture of what he has seen, and whether he has any imagination. At first pupils should be asked to draw from the pic- tures in their own mind. This is pure memory drawing. Follow this by illustrative drawings of simple poems or stories which contain clear verbal pictures. Finally, illus- trate such stories and poems as require pictures which are purely imaginative. There should be free conversation about this work, but the actual drawing by the pupil should be done independently. In the line of so-called mechanical or constructive work there are a few principles which can be taught with profit to every school. *A good drawing ink may be made by pouring a pint of boiling water over one package of Diamond Dye (black for cotton) and allowing it to stand for a few hours before using. DRAWING 405 Each pupil should learn the divisions indicated on the ruler, and be able to make practical application of the same in measurements involving the inch, foot, yard, and the parts of each of these. The making of a pattern drawing and the construction to a scale of a working drawing of a simple object should be taught. Where pupils are provided with materials for color work the scope of the drawing is enlarged and the inter- est in it is increased. Pupils should be taught to recognize and name the primary colors. To combine these colors to produce other colors. To observe color in nature, in fabrics, decorations, etc. They should be taught how to care for materials and should be carefully instructed as to proper methods of work. In beginning the use of color, exercises may be given in spreading fiat washes on dry and moist paper, blend- ing color in the brush, flowing in color on moist paper, and such other practice work as will lead to skill in hand- ling the brush and freedom in the use of color. Follow this work by landscape washes, nature work from fruits and colored vegetables, bright colored objects, grasses, sprays, flowers, and growing plants. This work should express form or growth, mass, and color, but all minor details should be omitted. There should be no outlining with pencil or brush, but the free handling with the brush full of color should be encouraged, and the effort should be made to express all the essentials in | the first wash. The drawing in pencil, ink or color should be applied whenever possible in practical design and decoration. Work in drawing which is done for a purpose is of much more value than that which is done merely for the sake of the doing. The following are but a few of the many ways in which drawing as applied in the industrial arts, may be taught: Designs for 4o6 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK fabrics, floor and wall coverings, calendars, book and composition covers, decorated tiles for hearths, borders for towels and handkerchiefs, book racks, picture frames, sofa pillows, embroidery, etc., etc. The creative instinct is strong in the child and if he feels that he is making something and that the addition of a bit of drawing in decoration has stamped his in- dividuality upon it, the value in his eyes is greatly enhanced. It may not be possible for the teacher to carry out the work in drawing along all the lines suggested. But some one phase of the subject may be taken up, the work care- fully and definitely planned, and the ends to be sought kept clearly in mind. In this way much can be accom- plished and great profit and pleasure will accrue to both teacher and pupil. CHAPTER XVII. WRITING. THE power to read and write is the standard by which illiteracy is determined. Hence writing is-, a subject of the curriculum second in importance- only to reading. Not only must the educated person: possess the ability to get the thoughts of others from the printed page, but he must also be able to express his own thoughts with the pen for his own pleasure and for the information of others. The ability to express one's self, whether vocally or in writing, is a most excellent test of his power, and is very essential to his success in life. Every common school teacher must teach writing, and without doubt a clearer conception of the aim to be reached will assist materially in securing better penmen. It is not penmen who are capable of writing with a great many flourishes or who can execute in copy-plate fashion that we are seeking, but those that can write in an easy, fluent, smooth, plain hand, whether vertical, slant, or intermediate. And every child can reach this acquirement, if properly taught, without any reference to heredity. It is a foolish notion that a child must inherit a tendency to be a good penman in order to suc- ceed. But writing must not be considered as a hap- hazard exercise, a task at which the pupils may be set while the teacher goes on with some other lesson. It needs as careful and scientific instruction, according to a definite plan, as any other subject of the curriculum. Inasmuch as it is a universal requirement of all educated 4o8 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK persons, is of practical utility in gaining a livelihood, and is a source of so much enjoyment to the individual, it is worth doing and doing well. Let every teacher, then, study the aim and method of teaching writing as conscientiously as every other subject is studied. Before we can discuss the aim of writing there must be a common understanding as the meaning of the term. "Writing," says Prof. Farley,* "is registered motion subjected to the law of some form." It is not merely motion, for the hand may move through the air without writing, but that motion must be registered, as with pen or pencil. Nor is it the registering of mere marks, which might be meaningless scribbling conveying no intelli- gence. It must follow the law of some form that has been agreed upon and that indicates ideas or thoughts. We are to seek, then, to give our pupils the ability to register at will their ideas or those of others in such char- acters as will be understood by those who read. To do this we must know how to give instruction in writing." The importance of writing is increasingly appreciated. Prof. Farley says, "At no time in our history has the subject of writing agitated the minds of our leading educators and medical men as at present. Call it a fad or by any name you like. When men of the highest authority in medical science declare that the question of instruction in writing should occupy the first place, as the teaching of this subject is attended with so great danger to spinal curvature, breathing, and digestive disturbances, myopia or short sight; when such vital matters as the relation of writing to hygiene and the application of true educational principles are involved, is it not time to see that more attention is given to this subject by every teacher in our public schools?" *Prof. Farley is joint author with Dr. Gunnison of "The Normal Review Sys- tem of Writing," published by Silver, Burdett & Co., New York. WRITING 409 Writing is by no means a mere mechanical exercise. We may notice some of the educational lessons to be acquired through writing. (1) It trains the muscles of the hand and brings them under control. (2) It cultivates the power of observation and teaches the child accuracy. (3) It teaches the child to fix the attention. (4) It cultivates the taste and strengthens the v/ill. (5) It gives delicacy to the sense of touch and skill in execution. (6) It trains the eye to accurate and careful seeing. (7) In a word, it brings some of the physical and intellectual powers under control of the will. These are the ends to be sought in writing, and to secure them requires adequate knowledge and skillful teaching. The question as to whether the system employed shall be the vertical, intermediate, or slant does not enter here. The purpose is to teach the child to register motion according to the law of some form, and Prof. Farley remarks: "The essential thing in form with ad- vanced pupils is not necessarily whether it slants one or more degrees to the right or left of the vertical when the pupil is conveying thought in written characters, but the main thing is whether the hand will respond quickly to the mandates of the will, in writing a free, smooth, and legible page." The teacher may ask, "But how shall this end be accomplished?" I remark once more, this is not a book of methods, but without doubt the only sure means of securing good writers is through copy-books. A few years ago it was the fashion to condemn all employment of text-books. Text-books had, doubtless, been too freely used and that caused a reaction which sought to abolish them entirely. But the schools have returned once more 4IO SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK to the use of the text-book, no longer to follow it slav- ishly, but to accept it as a guide. There are peculiar reasons for the use of copy-books in writing. We will note some of them. (1) They systematize the work, following a sequential and carefully worked out plan. (2) They give stability to the work, enabling pupils and teacher to compare the work from time to time and to note progress. (3) They assist in fixing habits of neatness and accu- racy, the child being more careful with exercises put into a book than those written upon an isolated sheet. (4) They are more economical in the end because there is no waste. (5) They can be more easily and profitably examined and corrected by the teacher, a matter of great impor- tance when one considers the vast amount of exercises the teacher has to correct. (6) They teach many valuable lessons through the oft repeated and reviewed axioms, historical truths, and other facts presented in the copies. As to the use of the copy-book, I would like to quote once more from Prof. Farley. "The copy-book should be used as a means to an end and not as an end. Firsts dictate on practice paper from copy in book. Second^ compare and write in copy-book to learn form and to correct errors. Third, write again on paper as a test of improvement." Of course this plan could be employed only with pupils who have made advancement enough to be able to take dictation work. Prof. Farley's philosophy of writing is here presented in a series of "Don'ts. " "Don't put off the use of pen and ink. WRITING 411 Don't expect a book to take the place of the teacher. Don't avoid, but give special attention to, the real difficulties. Don't think that twenty minutes of painstaking work in the copy-book will counteract the effect of careless work during the rest of the day. Don't emphasize the necessity of a very light line. Don't think that a copy-book well filled means that the copyist is a good writer. Don't attempt to have pupils write when fresh from play. Don't divorce movement exercises from form exercises. Don't forget the value of persistent review. Don't expect a child to do a man's work. Don't permit any abnormal position of the body at the desk. Don't be afraid to have the children criticise your work. Remember it is the child you are developing. Don't expect the pupil to be enthusiastic if the teacher is indifferent. Don't forget that a child gets a good precept of a form by seeing a good form, hence the necessity of a good copy from the first. Don't believe that anything except well directed repe- tition will lead to skill. Don't forget that, with a reasonable amount of study, patience and practice, any person having one healthy hand and one good eye, can acquire a free, and practical handwriting." CHAPTER XVIII. MANNERS AND MORALS.* THERE is a close connection between good manners and good morals. Rosenkranz says, "Politeness is the virtue of civilization," and Matthew Arnold declares that "Conduct is three-fourths of life." Hence there is no incongruity in treating these two subjects in one chapter. There is a great deal of unselfishness in the practice of good manners and unselfishness is surely a virtue. If the education of the child is wanting in moral train- ing it is sadly deficient, and perhaps worse than no edu- cation at all. For life must be formed on ethical founda- tions or the very acuteness developed by education is likely to become a danger rather than a blessing. Cer- tainly much of real success in life depends upon a right conception of moral life and the fixed habit of practicing virtue. Nor is the possession of good manners without its importance in securing success in business and in the ordinary relations with our fellow-men. Indeed, much more depends upon it than many persons think. Good breeding not only opens the doors of society, but it indicates self-control and self-poise, which are evidences of a good education, it makes one's society desirable, it shows thoughtfulness for others, it is an evidence that an individual is no longer a savage, a boor, but a civilized person. If this be true, the teacher should give far more *SeeSeeley's "Foundations of Ejducation," alsoSeeley's "New School Manage- ment. "In these books will be found a fuller discussion of moral instructioH than is here possible. MANNERS AND MORALS 413 attention to the training of children in habits of polite- ness than is common, for every teacher seeks to do his best to prepare his pupils for life. During the past few years the French people have introduced moral instruction as a definite requirement of their curriculum and already it has been found to pro- duce a decided and beneficial effect upon the nation. There are but few school systems in this country where systematic moral instruction is required as a regular school exercise. While it may be impracticable for many schools to introduce regular exercises in morals, and its advisability may be debatable, there are some things that can and should be done. First of all, the teacher's moral life must be above reproach. It is a splendid commentary on our public school system that our teachers live up to so high a moral standard and are so universally beloved and respected for the purity and unselfishness of their lives. This counts for more than all else and without this all formal instruc- tion in morals would be wasted. The silent influence of a godly and pure life in the schoolroom and in the com- munity often counteracts the evil influences of the home and the street, and leads the child to noble aspirations and practices without a word concerning virtuous life being spoken. The teacher whom the child loves is his example and his guide, — what his teacher thinks and practices, he learns to believe and imitate. Surely a great responsibility as well as a great privilege rests with the teacher! Secondly, every lesson in arithmetic, or geography, or history, or other school subject, may have a moral aim. Not that a definite moral shall always be drawn, but by requiring accuracy, and thoroughness, and neatness, moral habits may be established in the child. Every time the child gets a correct answer he does something 414 SEELEY 'S QUESTION BOOK towards the establishment of the habit of truthfulness ; every time he hands in an exercise that exemplifies his best effort as to neatness and accuracy he is gaining strength of character; every time he reads of a noble act in history he is inspired to be noble himself; every time he meets a beautiful and pure thought in literature he is made more pure. Thirdly, the discipline of the school should teach mor- als. If the child is trained to be on time at school or with his lessons he is learning the virtue of punctuality; if he is taught to be quiet and orderly he is learning to respect the rights of others; if he learns to govern him- self so that he measures his acts by his own inward monitor and not by the rules which the teacher through watchfulness enforces, he is gaining the preparation which will make him a good citizen. And so the purpose of school discipline will not be merely to keep the chil- dren out of mischief for five or six hours a day, but to train them to govern themselves according to standards of right and wrong which have become their own. Fourthly, daily incidents should be utilized in teaching morals. Incidents of the schoolroom or the playground, items taken from newspapers or events that occur from time to time should be wisely selected and their lessons brought home to the children. Most profound and last- ing impressions can thus be made, added force being given because the event has occurred under the pupils' eyes or within their environment. Fifthly, excellent moral effect is produced by beautiful and healthful surroundings. The presence of good pictures on the walls, cleanliness of the schoolroom and neatness in teacher and children, as well as fine external surroundings are most valuable agencies in teaching morals. Goethe says, "The best instruction is derived from the most complete environment." Lastly, litera- MANNERS AND MORALS 415 ture and history will supply an abundance of material for moral instruction. The Bible, Aesop's Fables, Grimm's and Andersen's fairy tales, the biographies of many men, as well as general works on history or litera- ture furnish a rich material with which to give children high ideals of life. There is therefore no lack of suitable material and opportunity for teaching morals in the school. The principal thing is that the teacher shall recognize that the supreme end of education is moral character. It is not necessary that a course of study shall be outlined, or a specific hour of the day set apart for moral instruction in order that this end may be reached. It is necessary, however, that the teacher shall be possessed of a definite plan, which, by the means above indicated and by other means, he shall systematically carry out with the fixed aim of forming good character. There are times in every school when the most important duty the teacher has to perform is not to follow the program, not to teach the arithmetic or reading lesson, but to bring home some moral lesson, suggested possibly by an incident that has occurred right there, or by something that the school- work has called forth. The teacher that fails to recog- nize this, fails to appreciate his great opportunity, and the means of taking advantage of it. "Der Kopf, die Hand, dasHerz,"* said the great Professor Stoy of Jena, must all be included in a scheme of education. Superin- tendent Carr declares that "This culture of the moral understanding should be accompanied by a heart culture that causes the child to love the good. The moral sen- sibilities need cultivation as well as the moral intellect. But the final outgrowth of moral training is upright con- duct, and unless this result is attained the training goes for naught. The child should be taught to be industrious, ♦The head, the hand, the heart. 4i6 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK honest, truthful, obedient, patriotic, and reverential. His moral acts should be repeated until they become habits." It is impossible in the questions that follow to outline a complete code of morals or give the details of good manners. The teacher should possess a text book on these subjects.* It is hoped that the foregoing discus- sion has shown the importance of this work and that the questions will suggest to the teacher a practical way of giving such instruction. Upon the common school teacher largely rests the responsibility of training the future men and women of our country into habits of moral living and into the practice of good manners.! Questions and Answers. /. What is the first lesson in morals that a child should learn ? Obedience. Disobedience is an unnatural condition of the child. The child is naturally led by the parent, the teacher, or some one older or in authority over him. 2. What right has the teacher to exact obedience ? The teacher is clothed with authority by virtue of the license he holds and by virtue of his appointment by the school trustees. J. How far does that authority exte^id ? In most states, the teacher has the same authority in the school that the parent possesses in the home, i7i loco parentis. ^. What should be the character of the obedience ? * I have found ^E^verett's "Ethics for Young People," Ginn and Company, Bos- ton, I^ouise Fiske Bryson's "'Bvery Day Etiquette," Potter and Putnam, New York, andScherer's "Morals and Manners," Richardson, Smith & Co., New York, most excellent works. 1 1 call attention to the discussion of Moral Instruction in "White's School Management," p. 218. An outline of lessons in morals and manners is given, together with stories illustrating moral qualities. MANNERS AND MORALS 417 It should be prompt, genuine, complete. If not secured at once, the teacher must not be satisfied until there is genuine submission even though it require days to se- cure it.* 5. Why is it important that the child should learn to obey in the school 7 Through negligence or weakness in the home many children fail to learn this lesson. If the school does not succeed in imparting it, the child will lack respect for law and is likely to become a law-breaker, a criminal^ when he goes out into life. The state is strong enough to enforce its laws. The school should teach respect for and obedience to law thereby saving the child from the danger of encountering the heavy hand of the law through disobedience to it. 6. Of what value is the power of self -control ? Self-control enables the individual to restrain passion, abstain from evil, maintain poise of mind, control the body, and keep command of all the powers. 7. How is self-control taught ? By giving an intelligent conception of the powers of the body and mind. The child that is taught to sit erect, to carry his body in proper position, to walk firmly and easily, to bring his whole physical being under the direction of the will is being taught self-control. He who has learned to hold his mind to the matter in hand without regard to surrounding distractions has gained the power of self-control. Hence the school is peculiarly adapted to teach this habit. The teacher should utilize the subjects of the curriculum, the discipline, the whole life of the school to secure this end. 8. How can discipline be utilized to this end? *See discussion of this point in Seeley's "School Management," p. 67. 4i8 SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK There are two methods of discipline. In the first, the teacher by rules and constant vigilance in the enforce- ment of them may be able to keep the children in order. In this case the attitude of mind on the part of pupils is that the maintenance of discipline rests with the teach- er and the whole purpose is to escape detection. An evil committed, if undetected, causes the pupil but little conscientious qualm, — it is the teacher's business to pre- serve order. Indeed, to get ahead of the teacher is con- sidered quite a smart thing. In the other form of discipline, the child is placed on his honor*. He is taught to measure his deed by his own sense of right and wrong, by his inner consciousness. From this he cannot escape. It is true that some rules will be necessary in every school, but the pupil's attitude towards them will be that they are instruments to aid him in the carrying out of his own ideas of duty. Just in so far as the child possesses correct ideas of duty and is call- ed upon to exercise, these ideas is he trained to self-con- trol. School discipline therefore, is one of the most im- portant agencies in teaching children self-control. p. How is tuiselfishness taught '^ Most children are by nature selfish. If there are several children in a family, the opportunities for teach- ing unselfishness are great. They can be called upon to share with brothers and sisters. Everything does not center around them as in the case of an only child. The watchful teacher will discover many opportunities to teach unselfishness, not so much by requiring the pupils to share things with each other as by encouraging a generous spirit in games on the playground, in contests for honors, and in the mastery of tasks. This by no means indicates that a child shall not try to excel in his *I must again call attention to the full discussion of this subject in Seeley's "School Management," p. 74. MANNERS AND MORALS 419 Studies and surpass his playmates in skill or endurance; it means that in showing superiority he shall not degrade or take advantage of his competitor. Unselfishness will prevent unmanly sport, the injury of opponents in order to "put them out of the game," it will take no mean advantage in school work. 10. Suggest some means of teaching unselfishness. Utilize striking cases that occur on the playground or in the school, tell stories that may have been read or events that have transpired, recently or remotely, illus- trating this virtue. Mark with condemnation incidents that show selfishness. There are abundant incidents in history and literature, as well as in daily life, from which the teacher may draw. It will be found that children generally respond to this kind of teaching. 11. How "tnay honesty be taught^ Children should early be taught the sacredness of the "mine and thine. " Too often they are lacking in honesty in small things. A little girl picked up some cracked stones bordering the side-walk before a neighbor's house, put them in her basket and was playing with them. "May, where did you get those stones?" asked her mother. "I picked them up in front of Mrs. B's house," replied the little girl. "But they are not yours," said the mother, "I want you to put them back where you got \ them and tell Mrs. B. you are sorry." The child did ■ as directed. Now the stones were of little intrinsic value . and it may seem that this mother was making a moun- tain out of a mole-hill. I think not. Children have no idea of intrinsic values, and these stones were as valuable to the little girl as playthings as if they had been pearls. They were not hers, and her wise mother taught her a most valuable lesson in honesty. It is the little things that should be carefully watched and corrected if we are 420 SEELEY '5 QUESTION BOOK to expect honesty in larger things. In the home and in the school the child must be taught that he may not appropriate the property of another even to the value of a pin. This is a lesson to which the school needs to give serious attention. So many children are growing up with such loose notions of honesty that private grounds are invaded, fruit trees and flower gardens robbed, and property rights are disregarded. It is no wonder that peculation and other forms of stealing come easy to many, in later life. They have never learned the first principles of honesty. The school room affords abun- dant opportunity to instil these principles. A few years ago the child laboriously wrote in his copy-book, '* Hon- esty is the best policy." He that is honest for poHcy sake, is not honest in the best sense. It can be shown that it is good poHcy to be honest, but the child must be taught a deeper conception of honesty than that. He must learn to be honest because it is right, else the moral lesson has not been appreciated. 12. What is the effect of suspicion upon children ? It has a tendency to cause them to do the very things of which they are suspected. The teacher should trust his pupils as far as possible. Many a child has been redeemed by being trusted, and so has many a man. It is better to err in trusting too far than to be forever suspicious. 7j. What shall the teacher do to inculcate truthfulness f First of all he must be himself absolutely truthful in act and word. '*I have been deeply pained during the last few days to see the number of young men of our city who hang about the saloons," said a Sunday School sup- erintendent to his school one Sabbath. Imagine the effect of that speech when most of those present knew that that man was carried home drunk at least once a MANNERS AND MORALS 421 week. It is of no use for a teacher to attempt to teach truthfulness, or any other virtue, if he himself is wanting in that virtue. A principal of a school under the Regents of New York state was notorious in his violation of the plain rules of the body over him, although he was required to make affidavit that such rules had been followed. The fearful result was that almost every pupil in that school was untruthful. But there must be in addition to the pure life of the teacher, definite instruction. Many children need to be taught what a lie is, that it applies to acts as well as to words. Perhaps they have been taught to lie at home and rewarded for it. Great patience should be exercised towards such children until they understand the enormi- ty of the evil. Children sometimes will act a lie but would not tell one. Again they do not regard cheating as lying. Pains should be taken to show them that there is no essential difference between these forms of lying. Oftentimes children lie through fear in order to escape punishment. The teacher should point out the wicked- ness of lying and encourage the pupils to tell the truth. No excuse should be made for "white lies, " for "A lie that is half the truth is ever the worst of lies." /^. How can children be taught to respect the aged? Attention should be called to this virtue, historical incidents related illustrating it and the practices of such people as the ancient Spartans and the modern Germans described. History abounds in many incidents in which respect for the aged is treated as one of the highest vir- tues. Three little boys were pounding on an abandoned boiler in their back yard very much to the annoyance of the whole neighborhood After this had gone on for several days, a gentleman kindly asked them to cease. A few minutes later the father of the boys appeared and 422 SEELE Y 'S QUESTION BOOK said to them, "Boys, you make as much noise on that boiler as you please. This is a free country and if you can't make enough noise with that pipe, I'll give you the hammer." Of course this is a free country — sometimes too free — but this man forgot that it is free for the other party as well as for himself and his boys. To teach his boys to be a nuisance to the neighborhood was bad enough; to encourage their selfishness was also evil; but the worst wrong was done to the children in teaching them to show no respect for older persons. Some par- ents are very afraid that their children will lose their independence, that they will forget that they are "Young America." Too often this expression is nothing but an excuse for downright impudence, which needs rebuking rather than encouraging. It is beautiful to see children in the home and in school trained to respect those older than they are, — to see them give up a chair, or yield a seat in the car, or allow others to enter before them, or perform the many acts of unselfishness, true politeness, and respect for older persons of either sex. And such training will not make the child less self-reliant or free in the truest sense. Moreover, it would be well, not only for the individual, but also for us as a nation, if the principle discussed above were applied also in our treat- ment of those who are placed in authority over us. The child should be taught to respect those who are clothed with authority whether it be in the home, the school, or the state. Such teaching would be moral in the highest sense and it would tend to awaken a zeal for civic right- eousness. 75. Show how reverence for law is mculcated. We have so many laws that remain unenforced that there is a sad lack of respect for the authority of the law. This spirit manifests itself not only among children but also with adults. Reverence for the law can be inspired MANNERS AND MORALS 423 by the discipline of the school. Let there be but few- rules, but enforce those that are necessary strictly and impartially. Repeal rules that have become unnecessary. Let no obsolete rule be retained. Explain the necessity of law in the school and in the State. Wherever many people are brought together certain regulations for their control and government are essential. No man may be a law unto himself, but all must consider the rights of others and the demands of society. This is one of the highest moral requirements. 16. What should be taught in regard to public property ? The schoolhouse, with its furniture, books, apparatus, and other property is committed to the care of the teach- er. He owes it to the community as well as to himself to see that it is not damaged or destroyed. It often occurs that public property is held in too little esteem. The attitude of many towards public property as well as towards corporations is quite different from their attitude towards private property. Men expect higher remunera- tion for less service if they hold a public office than if employed by a private concern, and to cheat a trolley line out of a fare disturbs the conscience but little. It rests upon the school to teach sterling honesty in deal- ing with large concerns as truly as with private individ- uals. And this is essential for the child's sake rather than for the sake of the corporation. //. What is the moral value of industry f Children should be trained to industry, not merely "to keep them out of mischief," but as a safeguard against vice. The time of danger to child or man is dur- ing the unemployed hours. Hence in teaching the child to be industrious, he is being taught moral habits. Every teacher knows how important it is to the discipline of the school that the child shall be kept busy. The ques- 424 SEELEY'S QUESTION BOOK tion has a larger significance than the mere maintenance of order, it means the fortifying of the child against evil, the preparation for life. No idleness should be tolerated in the school. 1 8, What is the moral value of promptness and regular- ity? The child should be taught that tardiness and irregu- larity effect others than himself. "I am the loser, what difference does it make?" says the tardy person. It makes a great deal of difference that one shall acquire such an evil habit both to himself and also to others. The individual who is late or irregular interferes with the rights of others, the school is disturbed and the progress of the whole class interfered with. Business men quickly take this into account and will not tolerate such practice. Employees who come late to their work are penalized with a reduction in wages, and bank directors cut off the fee for attendance of such delinquents. It should be brought home to every child that he must be punctual and regular in his duties, not because the rules of the school require it, but because it is right and because the laws of successful business require it. jp. Show the importance of a proper sense of duty. Dr. White declares that the sense of duty is the supreme motive of human conduct. He adds further, "It ought to go without saying, that no teacher who disregards conscience, who treats moral obligation as if it may be a delusion, can ever awaken effectively the sense of duty in a child. Duty is the call of God. Ought is the ethical imperative. It is he alone who feels and honors these verities of conduct in his own life, who can stir them into vigor in another. Duty incarnate is an inspiration, as duty done is its own blessed reward." MANNERS AND MORALS 425 ' ' Do what conscience says is right ; Do what reason says is best ; Do with all your mind and might ; Do your duty and be blest." The child must be taught a sense of duty, and helped to perform that duty however unpleasant it may be. It often happens that the richest experiences and the great- est blessings grow out of the performance of a duty that was very hard and unpleasant. 20. Why should politeness be taughtf Politeness is an evidence of culture, it aids materially in attaining success in life, it will save from many embarrassing situations, it is an expression of real kindness and unselfishness. 21. Why should the school teach itf The school alone reaches all the children, it is forming the future citizens of our country, it trains to complete manhood. 22. What are the two phases of politeness ? Define each. Its spirit and its form. By the spirit of politeness we mean the unselfishness, the kindness of heart that seeks to be a blessing to others. It may be wholly unconventional and awkward in its expression, and yet full of goodness. It is this kind of politeness that Max O'Rell meant when he said, "The most uncultured American boor is more polite than the finest Parisian gentleman." But this conception of politeness, while it embraces the noblest idea, it is in- sufficient — there must also be the form of politeness. By this we mean a knowledge of the conventionalities of society and a practice of the same. It is conventional to eat in a certain way, to tip the hat at certain times, to excuse one's self under certain conditions. We may not *See chapter on Politeness in Seeley's "Foundations of Education," p. 57. 426 SEE LEY'S QUESTION BOOK be a law unto ourselves. We must conform to the ordi- nary requirements of the people with whom we live. Our children need instruction in the common convention- alities of life.* Their attention should be called to little acts of politeness and they should be taught how to per- form them until politeness becomes a habit. Possessed with the real spirit of politeness and trained as to the conventional forms which ordinary society follows, the American youth will have important qualifications for success in life. The school, through its great body of intelligent and devoted teachers, does not give him less than these requirements. As I have already remarked, it is not intended, nor is it possible to give in these pages a complete ethical code. Sufficient illustrations have been given to call attention to the importance of the subject of manners and morals, and to suggest a method of presentation that will apply to all subjects that are worthy of treatment. Patriotism, love of home and family, self-respect, cleanliness, grati- tude, forgiveness, courage, temperance and many other attributes will find a place in the instruction of the school and will never cease to be of interest and profit. The end of education is moral character. *As to details, I must refer to any text -book on morals and manners. I have already called attention to Miss Bryson's book, and would also mention Mrs. Sherwood's, published by Harper Brothers, New York. » Outlines, Devices and Recreations in United States Geography By Inez N. flcFee. HIS is one of the most practical and helpful manuals on Geography ever published. In it, the framework of Geography is carefully and accurately fitted together and the whole is rounded out by numerous references to geographical literature, practical and historical illustrations, suggestions for class management, etc. The United States as the home of man is the predominant characteristic of its teaching throughout, and the resources and advantages which each section offers to the people who reside therein is set forth in an attractive and forceful style. These outlines may be used with any text, and will appeal at once to any teacher in search for ways and means of enlivening her class. Price 25 cents. Substantially bound in attrac- tive paper cover. 166 pages. F. A. Owen Publishing Co^ Publisliers € Dansville, N. Y. Owen Series of Five Cent Classics Best and Cheapest Supplementary Reading. FIRST and SECOND GRADES. (Large Type.) 1. I^ittle Plant People — i. (Nature Stories.) 2. lyittle Plant People — 2. (Nature Stories.) 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