1 • A^^ - ' 
 
 
 p5°^ - 
 
 : * ^ « 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 'O, '» 
 
 
 1 
 
 S ... <&.*'■ •' ^ % ••••• A <v ... <*. 4 
 
 ,A S 
 
 
 
 
 
 &°+ • 
 
 O -IP- 
 
 9a, ♦•• 
 
 
 
 
 v-*. 
 
 
 
 
 <- *'.Vi* , 4 
 
 ** <L^ % 
 
 .^ 
 
 
 
 ^. **T 
 
 
 o^ ^^ 
 
 
*s» a^ *£H12&* ^ <£ *-* 
 
 V\*l£L% ^ 
 
 W 
 
 
 o^, *<>•** jV 
 
 ^\»liir..% 
 
 5 »i*°- "> 
 
 ^* «fc V** :«£•: W .'&fifc V 
 
 
 : ^d* : 
 
 
 
 •• -<o 
 
 ,4 <^ „, 
 
 
 r. 
 
 
 W 6 • 
 
 1°*, 
 
 *V- 
 
 V v *- «** 
 
 ** ■-* ♦YBKV. >* 
 
 
 ■40, 
 
 
 
 0> *o • » * A 
 
 r oV T 
 
 • »0^ 
 
 q. •..•• jo 
 
 1 »!*** 
 
 jL y< 2* - ^ ^7 • e.'s W o V/f^WS • *v>*<U * "S^ ^? • J? * 
 
 
 \ k 4J >* 
 
 
 v .4? ** - 1 
 
 
TkktxQ 
 
 A HANDY MANUAL OF UP-TO-DATE 
 MONEY-SAVING SUGGESTIONS AND 
 FORM-SHEETS FOR SMALL AND LARGE 
 BAKERIES, THE RESULT OF YEARS OF 
 STUDY AND PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 
 
 BY 
 
 EMIL BRAUN 
 
 (Expert and Consulting Baker) 
 
 Author of "Perfection in Baking," 
 
 'The Baker's Book," Vols. I. and II. 
 
 Published By 
 
 EMIL BRAUN 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 1912 
 
; 
 
 Copyright, 1911 
 
 by 
 
 EM1L BRAUN 
 
 Cincinnati, O. 
 
 
 »» 
 
 V 
 
 CI.A305G90 
 MO; f ' 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part 1. 
 
 ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS, ACIDS, 
 CHEMICAL TERMS. 
 
 Part 2. 
 
 YEAST, FERMENTATION, YEAST FOODS, 
 BREAD DISEASES. 
 
 Part 3. 
 
 FLOUR, GLUTEN, CHEMICAL and 
 PRACTICAL TESTS. 
 
 Part 4. 
 
 DOUGH MAKING, PROPER TEMPERATURE, 
 BREAD FORMULAS and STANDARDS. 
 
 Part 5. 
 
 HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL, OVENS. 
 
 Part 6. 
 
 MODERN BREAD MAKING, 
 MACHINERY and EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Part 7. 
 
 SYSTEM and ECONOMY. 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IT is now over fifteen years since the first edition of 
 "Perfection in Baking," my initial effort in contri- 
 buting to the baker's library was submitted to the 
 trade. The preface of that Book explained its pur- 
 pose. In part it read, "It is the main object of this 
 work to show in plain language all who are interested 
 hoiv to become successful in baking; the theories of 
 how to put together and how to change recipes, when 
 the same grades or brands of material are not at hand. 
 Judgment and common sense must be displayed to 
 insure success." Well, the Book was a success and 
 fourteen editions have been disposed of and there are 
 thousands of bakers in the country to-day who will 
 attest to having been benefited by the recipes and gen- 
 eral hints in my first Book. 
 
 Some years later with the introduction of modern 
 machinery and improved working methods, I was 
 induced to prepare another Book that would be more 
 up-to-date, more progressive. The introductory words 
 in that work again suggested its purpose ; it read — 
 "The principal purpose of this work, as indicated by 
 its title The Baker's Book' is to become every baker's 
 Hand Book. It is not a recipe book ; it is not a tech- 
 nical book ; it is not a one man's book, but it embodies 
 a whole library for any baker." 
 
 Now, after I proceeded with the work, I discovered 
 that the material could hardly be compiled in one vol- 
 ume; it took Vol. I and II and then there was lots of 
 
Introduction 
 
 good material left. Now k goes without saying, the 
 Baker's Book also made good. A set of Vol. I and II 
 of "The Baker's Book" can be found in the public li- 
 braries of nearly all larger cities in America, it being 
 recognized as a standard work. But as I came to real- 
 ize the necessity or at least the advantage of a scien- 
 tific training and understanding of the elementary 
 principles or chemistry, the more I become convinced 
 that there were thousands of bakers who have not the 
 time or patience to study and go through whole librar- 
 ies of technical books, besides caryring on tedious, 
 time-taking experiments and observations, but who 
 should be given an opportunity to learn the A. B. C/s 
 of practical science. 
 
 Again, many bakers seem to think, that because 
 their shop and business are small there is no great 
 necessity for accuracy in the various operations. But 
 that is a mistaken idea. Economy and System in the 
 small bakery will help materially, in fact are indis- 
 pensable in laying the foundations for a successful, 
 larger business. And as business built up on Economy 
 and System keeps on growing, the practical, progres- 
 sive baker must keep posted on economical improve- 
 ments on machinery and tools and must study the ways 
 and means of getting baked goods of the best possible 
 quality at the least possible expense. To do this, it 
 does not require any extra money, only a little study 
 and sacrifice of a few spare hours to get acquainted 
 with the principal laws of practical chemistry. The 
 "System" end is just as important and shows up the 
 leaks and weak spots in working methods and manage- 
 ment. 
 
Introduction 
 
 After several years of experimenting and study, 
 condensing and rewriting copy on hand, I at last have 
 succeeded to present this Book as a manual of prac- 
 tical instruction in such order in which it will be most 
 useful and most likely to be retained in the memory. 
 
 As the author, I make no pretense to literary abil- 
 ity, but claim for this book the support of every baker 
 in the land, on the ground of an earnest desire to im- 
 part to others the knowledge which I have acquired by 
 consistent work and hard study during a busy life as 
 a "practical baker." 
 
 P. S. I have made it a special point not to mention 
 any one firm or any particular brand of Material, Ma- 
 chinery, Ovens, etc. in the text of this book. 
 
 However, I have reserved some space for such 
 leading Manufacturers and Millers with whose product 
 I am personally familiar and for which I can vouch in 
 every respect. 
 
PART 1 
 
 Elements, Compounds, Acids, 
 Chemical Terms. 
 
 CHEMICAL KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 If we look at it right, every process in baking 
 rests on "chemistry." Chemistry is largely a study 
 of chemical changes and a branch of natural science. 
 Every young man or boy who has entered a bakeshop 
 with the intentions of learning the profession of bak- 
 ing, is really a student in chemistry, although com- 
 paratively few are conscious of this fact, and they 
 look at their routine work as a necessary evil. The 
 knowledge possessed by any competent baker, being 
 exact knowledge, is in the truest sense "scientific" 
 knowledge, and such accumulated knowledge in all 
 stages and branches of baking is really its "science." 
 The average baker hardly realizes what wonderful 
 chemical changes are constantly taking place around 
 him and right under his eyes and what great opportun- 
 ities for study and experiments are at his disposal. 
 Therefore every conscientious, progressive baker 
 should know at least the elementary principles of 
 such elements, compounds and chemical changes as 
 enter into his daily work. 
 
 The first principle (technical chemistry) is trans- 
 mitted to the baker by such technical chemists and is 
 of comparatively little use to the average baker unless 
 he understands, as he is supposed to understand or 
 should understand at least the secondary principles or 
 (practical science) of baking. While the mechanical 
 baker goes ahead with his work like a machine after 
 it is started, the chemist or scientific baker before he 
 
2 Part 1 
 
 enters into any work, asks himself: "Why do these 
 changes occur? What do these materials consist of?" 
 
 All known substances are classified either as Ele- 
 ments, Compounds or Mixtures and we will give a 
 plain, short explanation of such as are of value to the 
 baker or applied by him in his daily work. 
 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 Are such substances which can not by any known 
 means be separated or split up into two or more 
 substances. Although the chemist knows over seventy 
 such elements, the majority of these are of no partic- 
 ular value or interest to the baker. Therefore I will 
 only mention the most important ones. Each element 
 is designated by a symbol which is generally the first 
 letter of its name, for instance O is the symbol for 
 Oxygen and N for Nitrogen. 
 
 Most of our metals are elements, such as gold, 
 silver, copper, iron etc. 
 
 Other elements are called nonmetalic or metalloids. 
 
 These again are divided into Solids, such as Carbon 
 and Sulphur and Gases like Nitrogen, Hydrogen and 
 Oxygen. Others like Bromine and Mercury are 
 Liquids. 
 
 As a number of elements have the same initial 
 letter, the symbol of some is made up of two letters, 
 for instance C represents Carbon while the symbol 
 of Chloride is CI. The symbols of other elements are 
 taken from their latin names as indicated in the 
 following list : 
 
 Symbol for Iron (Latin Ferrum) is Fe. 
 Symbol for Sodium (Latin Natrium) is Na. 
 
 Capital letters are always used for symbols or 
 when two letters are used the first one is always a 
 capital and no period is used after the symbol. 
 
Ca 
 
 40 
 
 C 
 
 12 
 
 CI 
 
 35.5 
 
 Cu 
 
 63 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 Fe 
 
 56 
 
 Mg 
 
 24 
 
 N 
 
 14 
 
 O 
 
 16 
 
 P 
 
 31 
 
 K 
 
 39 
 
 Na 
 
 23 
 
 S 
 
 32 
 
 Part 1 3 
 
 Name of Element Symbol Atomic Weight 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Copper (or Cuprum) 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 Iron (or Ferrum) 
 
 Magnesium 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Potassium (or Kalium) 
 
 Sodium (or Natrium) 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 A short explanation of the characteristics of the 
 most important elements will help the baker to a 
 better understanding of the chemical processes con- 
 fronting him in his daily work. 
 
 CALCIUM (Ca) belongs to the group of so-called 
 earth metals. It is not found pure and free, but its 
 compounds and salts are very numerous, such as 
 Calcium Carbonate, Calcium Hydroxide, Limewater, 
 Calcium Oxyde, etc. (See Compounds.) 
 
 CARBON (C) is found in nature only in solid form, 
 either as Diamonds or Graphite which are remarkably 
 different from each other. Coal, Wood, Bones, Flour, 
 etc- contain Carbon in a more or less impure state. 
 The chemist terms this impure Carbon Amorphous 
 Carbon. In fact Carbon is a very important factor 
 in the existance and growth of all plant and animal 
 life. Carbon is of great importance to the baking 
 industry. It forms a vast number of compounds . in 
 nature as well as artificially prepared. 
 
 In the large group of bodies, sugar, starch, etc., 
 called Carbohydrates which are explained later on, 
 carbon is always present. Also in all albuminous sub- 
 
4 Part 1 
 
 stances or Proteins. Carbon is one of the principal 
 components. (See Compounds.) 
 
 CHARCOAL is another variety of carbon, which is 
 obtained by heating wood or meat, bones, flour or other 
 organic matter in enclosed vessels (without exposure 
 to air) or by slowly or partially burning or charring 
 them with little air. The process practically consists 
 in driving off the volatile (gaseous matter) and re- 
 taining the carbon. Wood, charcoal and coke are 
 more thoroughly treated in Part 5- One of the char- 
 acteristics of charcoal is, that it absorbs any colored 
 matter from liquids when filtered through charcoal. 
 Animal charcoal used to be also used to clarify or 
 bleach sugar. Charcoal also absorbs foul air and 
 purifies water by filtration. 
 
 Carbon in connection with oxygen produces heat 
 and Carbon Dioxide (CO2), the gas which is of the 
 greatest importance to the baker. This is more thor- 
 oughly explained under compounds and in Part 5 
 (Combustion). 
 
 CHLORINE (CI). This element is never found in 
 nature free, because it combines too freely with other 
 elements. It is a gas with a suffocating, disagreeable 
 odor which is very penetrating, as in the disinfectant 
 Chloride of Lime, one of its compounds. The most 
 important of these compounds for the baker is Sodivw 
 Chloride or common Salt. (See Compounds.) 
 
 Chlorine dissolves readily in water, thus being called 
 chlorine water. When this solution is placed in the 
 sunlight, the oxygen liberates and the resulting sub- 
 stance is Hydrochloric Acid or Muriatic Acid. 
 
 HYDROGEN (H) in its pure state, as a gas, has no 
 odor, taste or color. It is the lightest known sub- 
 stance and is therefore us?d as the standard for reck- 
 oning the density of gases and atomic weight of ele- 
 ments and compounds. (See Atoms and Molecules.) 
 
Part 1 5 
 
 Hydrogen burns in air and in pure oxygen, but the 
 pale blue flame is almost invisible, although the heat 
 of burning Hydrogen is very intense. Hydrogen was 
 first called inflamable air. 
 
 Compounds of Hydrogen Hydrocarbons and Car- 
 bo-Hydrates are of great importance to the baker and 
 are more fully explained later on. 
 
 NITROGEN (N) is also a gaseous element, has no 
 taste or odor and is colorless. It constitutes about 
 78 per cent of the atmosphere (by volume). It differs 
 greatly from oxygen as it does not support combustion, 
 neither will it burn or sustain life. It is not poisonous, 
 for the air we breath, as stated above, consists nearly 
 four-fifths of nitrogen (by volume). Its main func- 
 tion is to dilute the oxygen in the air. It is an im- 
 portant food for all plant life. It is an inert or non- 
 active element but is found in a great many com- 
 pounds, such as Ammonia, Nitric Acid, etc. Being 
 itself non-active, it acts as a restraint to the more 
 active oxygen. Nitrogen or its compounds are mem- 
 tioned frequently by chemists in flour tests and in 
 the bleaching of flour controversies nitrogen played a 
 leading role. It is a little lighter than air and only 
 slightly soluble in water. 
 
 OXYGEN (O) is a gaseous element and more wide- 
 ly distributed than any other known element. It is 
 colorless, has no smell or taste and is slightly heavier 
 than air. The most striking characteristic of oxygen 
 is its chemical activity and great affinity towards some 
 of the other elements, especially carbon. Oxygen is 
 necessary to all forms of animal and plant life, as it 
 forms one-fifth (by volume) of the air or atmosphere 
 and eight-ninths (by weight) of water. The import- 
 ance of oxygen in producing heat or sustaining fire 
 is thoroughly explained in Part 5. Also in Part 2 and 
 3 Oxygen is referred to quite often, especially in 
 fermentation. 
 
6 Part 1 
 
 OXIDES. When oxygen combines with other ele- 
 ments, the resulting compounds are called Oxydes. 
 Oxydation means a chemical change. The rusting of 
 iron and other metals, the burning of other elements, 
 carbon, sulphur, etc. is principally oxydation. Decay 
 is also a form of oxydation and decomposing of sugar 
 into alcohol and carbon dioxide may be termed as 
 oxydation. (See Fermentation.) 
 
 Oxygen forms a part of most every manufactured 
 chemical product. Its specific volume and weight is 
 explained later on under Atoms and Molecules. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS (P). This element is not found in 
 a free state in nature, but its compounds (phosphates) 
 are numerous. Phosphorus ignites very easily which 
 makes it dangerous to handle. It is very poisonous 
 and burns from it are very painful and hard to heal. 
 When exposed to the air, it gives off white fumes 
 and in the dark or in moist air it glows or shines, which 
 you can see by rubbing the head of a match in a 
 dark room. Phosporus and its compounds are very 
 essential to the growth of plants and animals as it is 
 called a bonemaker. Bones contain often as high as 
 60 percent of calcium phosphate. 
 
 POTASSIUM is a metal, which however, is not 
 found free, but there are a great many compounds of 
 this element. The mineral Mica contains a large per- 
 centage -of potassium. 
 
 SULPHUR (S) has been known for ages. Ordinary 
 sulphur of commerce is a brittle, yellow, solid sub- 
 stance. It is insoluble in water and is also a poor heat 
 conductor. Sulphur ore is mostly found in volcanic 
 regions and requires purification by melting after 
 which it is popularly called Brimstone. It melts very 
 rapidly at about 260 degrees F. It ignites very easily 
 and burns with a pale blue flame, the escaping vapor 
 being Sulphur Dioxide (SO2). 
 
Part 1 I 
 
 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 When Elements or Substances unite or combine 
 with each other, the resulting body or product is 
 called a Chemical Compound. 
 
 In Newell's descriptive Chemistry are mentioned 
 three essential characteristics of such compounds: 
 
 1. Their components are held together by chem- 
 ical attraction. For instance, Hydrogen and Oxygen, 
 the components of water, can not be separated unless 
 their attraction for each other is overcome by heat, 
 electricity or some other agent. 
 
 2. In any given chemical compound the elements 
 or components are always in the same ratio or pro- 
 portion. For instance: Pure common Salt, however 
 prepared or wherever found, always contains 39.32 
 percent of sodium and 60-68 percent of chlorine. Or 
 as another example water always contains eight parts 
 (by weight) of Oxygen and one of Hydrogen. 
 
 3. In chemical compounds the identity of the 
 components or different substances is lost. For in- 
 stance : Copper (red metal) and Sulphur (yellow, 
 solid) and the invisible gas Oxygen, are the sub- 
 stances which make the blue colored solid Copper 
 Sulphate. 
 
 There is a distinction between Organic and Inor- 
 ganic compounds. 
 
 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS are generally under- 
 stood such which have some connection with living 
 organisms, animal or vegetable, or carbon compounds. 
 Although their number is very large, they are com- 
 posed of very few elements. 
 
 Hydrocarbons for instance, found in natural gas, 
 petroleum, etc., contain principally carbon and hydro- 
 gen. Fats are also heat producing hydrocarbons. 
 
8 Part 1 
 
 Carbohydrates or vegetable compounds, such as 
 starch and sugar, contain oxygen in addition to car- 
 bon and hydrogen. Albuminoids or Proteins, which 
 we find in Qgg albumin, gluten, gelatine, muscle, etc., 
 contain generally nitrogen as well as hydrogen, car- 
 bon and oxygen, some also contain sulphur or phos- 
 phorus in small proportions. 
 
 Other organic compounds are Ethers, Alcohols, 
 Acids, etc. 
 
 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS. This term is gen- 
 erally used for mineral elements and their compounds 
 or the constituents of the inanimate, lifeless portions 
 of minerals of the earth. 
 
 These terms organic and inorganic are still used 
 in chemistry, but their original narrow meaning has 
 been greatly broadened since it has been discovered 
 that some organic compounds can be prepared from 
 inorganic substances. Organic chemistry is also often 
 referred to as Chemistry of Carbon Compounds. 
 
 MIXTURES. 
 
 These must not be confused with compounds. Un- 
 like a compound (see above) you can mix different 
 bodies in different proportions, such as sifting to- 
 gether one sack of dark flour and one sack of white 
 flour. The color then will be different from either 
 one separate, but still it is only merely mixed and 
 the particles of each flour stay separate, and all is 
 still only flour. No actual union or chemical change 
 has taken place. Or if you sift and mix together cer- 
 tain quantities of cream of tartar, soda and flour you 
 will call it baking powder- You sift it a number of 
 times to get it thoroughly mixed, but still you only 
 have a mixture and each ingredient retains its own 
 character as long as kept dry. 
 
Part 1 
 
 ACIDS 
 
 are chemical compounds and have more or less sour 
 or acid taste, due to the presence of nitrogen. The 
 acid content of any substance can be found out with 
 blue litmus (litmus paper) which turns red in an 
 acid solution. For a determination of the acid of 
 flour a more definite acid test is obtained with other 
 chemicals. (See Flour, Part 3.) 
 
 Acids also have the power to decompose most of 
 the carbonates like limestone, thereby liberating car- 
 bon dioxide gas, which escapes with effervescence. 
 Effervescence means this: When certain substances 
 are put together or exposed to the air, a commotion 
 takes place and some part of the mass or liquid flies 
 off in a gaseous form, producing a lot of bubbles and 
 raising up as if it was boiling. 
 
 Most acids are soluble in water and are called 
 either dilute solutions or concentrated, according to 
 the strength of such solutions. Some acids are liquid, 
 such as sulphuric and nitric acid, lactic and acetic 
 acid; others are gases such as hydrochloric acid and 
 others are solid, like tartaric acid, citric acid, etc. 
 
 The more important acids of interest to the baker 
 are: 
 
 Name of Acid Symbol of Formula 
 
 1 . Acetic Acid C2 H4 O2 
 
 2. Butyric " C4 Hi O2 
 
 3. Citric " Ce Hs O 
 
 4. Hydrochloric Acid H CI 
 
 5. Lactic " C3 He O3 
 
 6. Palmitic " C16H32O2 
 
 7. Sulphuric " H2 S O4 
 
 8. Stearic " Cis HseO 
 
 9. Tartaric " C4 He Oe 
 
 ACETIC ACID is the most common organic acid. 
 
 The commercial acetic acid is manufactured principally 
 by distillation from wood and seldom contains more 
 
10 Part 1 
 
 than. 30 percent, of pure acetic acid. This is known also 
 as wood vinegar. The common vinegar is also a mild so- 
 lution of acetic acid produced from a combining of 
 alcohol with oxygen (oxydizing) through fermenta- 
 tion. This transformation can be accomplished by two 
 different processes, which Professor Newell quotes 
 as: — 
 
 1. When beer, weak wine or cider are exposed 
 to the air, they slowly become sour owing to the con- 
 version of alcohol into acetic acid. The change is 
 caused by the presence and activity of a ferment, 
 known as mycodermuce acedi or mother of vinegar. 
 
 Strong wines and pure dilute alcohol do not become 
 sour, because the ferment cannot live in such liquids. 
 
 2. In the "quick vinegar process" impure dilute 
 alcohol is oxydized by exposing it to an excess of air. 
 
 The formation of Acetic acid or Acetic fermenta- 
 tion is explained in chapter on Fermentation, (Part 2). 
 
 BUTYRIC ACID is the acid which in combination 
 with capric and caproic acid gives butter that pleasant 
 flavor, but if present in too great a proportion it causes 
 butter to become rancid. In bread fermentation, bu- 
 tyric acid or butyric fermentation follows closely or 
 develops (only in smaller proportions) along with the 
 lactic acid. (See Part 2.) 
 
 CITRIC ACID is principally obtained from the lem- 
 on, but can also be abstracted from various other fruits. 
 It is vegetable or fruit acid. It is sometimes adulter- 
 ated with tartaric or mineral acids. When the ques- 
 tion of a lemon flavor or tartness is to be considered, 
 the preference is given to citric acid by the baker or 
 confectioner, because it is stronger in acidity than 
 tartaric acid. But it is little used in manufacturing 
 of baking powders, because it is very susceptible to 
 dampness and therefore must be kept in a dry atmos- 
 phere and tightly sealed. 
 
Part 1 11 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID is a transparent, colorless 
 gas. When it escapes into moist air it forms fumes or 
 vapors which have a choking, sharp, pungent odor. This 
 gas does not burn, neither does it support combustion. 
 It is 1.25 times heavier than air. It is soluble in water, 
 and this solution is known at Muriatic Acid. This so- 
 lution is manufactured in large quantities and is used 
 extensively for bleaching purposes. 
 
 A mixture of salt and sulphuric acid moderately 
 heated produces this acid. 
 
 LACTIC ACID is a syruplike liquid and easily de- 
 composed by heat. Lactic acid is quite an important 
 factor in bread making and it is the so called lactic 
 fermentation which gives the bread that pleasant, nutty 
 flavor (see Part 2). Lactic Acid is the most promi- 
 nent acid in the total acid bodies contained in flour, 
 (over 90 per cent). Therefore, in making acid tests 
 of flour, the same are based on or expressed as lactic 
 acid. Lactic Acid is also the cause of milk turning 
 sour, being one product of the fermentation of the 
 milk sugar. When sour milk is used in baking, the 
 necessary carbonic gas (carbon dioxide) to raise the 
 dough, is produced by adding sufficient baking-soda 
 (see Alkalies) which interacts with the lactic acid 
 in the sour milk. The original cause of lactic acid 
 is a specie of bacteria called bacterium-lactis, which 
 are always present more or less in the atmosphere. 
 They are also said to be present in varying numbers 
 on the surface of Malt and in yeast. 
 
 PALMITIC ACID is one of the principal com- 
 pounds in palm oil and also present in olive oil and 
 animal fats. 
 
 STEARIC ACID is found as a compound in nearly 
 all fats, but principally in beef suet and mutton fat. 
 Both of these acids are white solids- 
 
12 Part 1 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID is an oily liquid, colorless when 
 pure, but as we usually see it, it has a brown color, 
 due to the presence of organic matter. When you 
 add water to it, a great deal of heat is evolved, and 
 if this is not carefully done and slowly, the intense 
 heat may cause an explosion. It is used directly or 
 indirectly in a great many industries. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID is a white crystalized solid, sol- 
 uble in water or alcohol. It is found as potassium salt 
 in grapes and some other fruits. It has a tart, sour, but 
 not unpleasant taste. It is deposited during the fer- 
 mentation of grape juice in an impure or crude state 
 in the casks. When pure, it has between two and 
 three times the neutralizing strength of cream of 
 tartar. 
 
 Cream of Tartar is obtained in the same way as 
 tartaric acid. Its quality and purity depends greatly 
 on the care taken and time allowed during the refine- 
 ment. In the pure state it is produced in crystals, but 
 the Cream of Tartar of commerce is generally sold 
 in powdered form. 
 
 Cream of tartar, like tartaric acid, interacts with 
 bicarbonate of soda, neutralizing the latter, carbon- 
 dioxide being produced. 
 
 However, cream of tartar dissolves and acts slower 
 than tartaric acid, and for that reason is preferred by 
 the bakers. There are some substitutes on the market 
 claimed to be as strong or stronger than pure cream 
 of tartar, but these are produced from phosphates and 
 they usually produce gas too rapidly and the power 
 is exhausted before the baker can get his biscuits or 
 cakes into the oven. Cream of tartar is supposed to 
 neutralize half its own weight of bicarbonate of soda 
 when pure. Genuine cream of tartar is called 99 
 per cent pure. Both cream of tartar and tartaric 
 acid absorb moisture very readily, and should be kept 
 in tightly closed cans or jars, 
 
13 
 Part 1 ___^ 
 
 BASES or ALKALIES. 
 
 Bases are commonly known as alkalies which 
 means any substance that will neutralize an ac d Most 
 bases are solids and are usually soluble in water Any 
 substance which will turn red Litmus paper to blue 
 s understood to contain an alkali or base, or to have 
 ,S reaction Most of the stronger alkahes 
 like Caustic Soda, have a slimy, soapy feeling and a 
 very bitter taste. Alkalies also dissolve grease and 
 fat? and we use them, especially caustic soda, in water 
 Station for cleaning bread pans and greasy to* 
 All alkalies absorb moisture and thereby lose ttieir 
 length; therefore they should be kept air tight. 
 
 Litmus or sometimes called Lacmus, is a peculiar 
 coloring substance which is obtained from certain 
 soecies of lower parasitic plants or fungus, called 
 
 for the purpose of determining the strength of reac- 
 tion of various liquids. 
 
 RTCARBONATE of SODA or baking soda, as stat- 
 ed before is obtained through a chemical process Com- 
 merckl baking soda is supposed to be at least 95 per 
 ^tn, re and is used by the baker in connection with 
 an Idd usually cream of tartar as a raising substance 
 ?or cakes and biscuits. The baker should by al 1 means 
 avoid anv cheap, common soda, as good neutralization 
 of the acid is very important and a bad color, reddish, 
 and a bitter flavor of the baked goods may be the 
 result. 
 
 In connection with m-lasses for cakes or brown- 
 bread or with sour milk, it may be used alone without 
 an acid when mixed in the dough, the acid in the sour 
 
14 Part 1 
 
 milk acting on the soda and the heat of the oven will 
 liberate the carbonic acid gas, which makes the cake 
 or bread raise very quickly. 
 
 The manufacturers of some of the best known 
 brands of baking soda sold, guarantee their soda as 
 99 per cent pure, containing over 52 per cent of car- 
 bonic acid gas, which means for each pound to create 
 5 cubic feet of the gas. Baking Soda or Carbonate 
 of Soda or Sodium Bicarbonate is also known as 
 Saleratus, which means the salt which aerates. 
 
 AMMONIA proper is a colorless gas, possessing a 
 very pungent, peculiar, strong smell; but the same 
 name is used for its solution in water, although the 
 chemical term for the latter is ammonium hydroxide. 
 This solution is a strong alkali or caustic alkali, which 
 neutralizes the strongest acids and forms salts. Am- 
 monia is one of the most important compounds of 
 nitrogen. When you heat any animal substance con- 
 taining nitrogen, ammonia is given off. During the 
 decav of any vegetable or animal matter, which con- 
 tains nitrogen, the nitrogen combines with the hydro- 
 gen and escapes as ammonia. A strong ammonia 
 odor is noticeable near stables, and especially when 
 the dung pits are emptied. Ammonia used to be ex- 
 tracted principally from horns and hoofs of deer and 
 other animals, by heating the same in closed vessels 
 which is called dry distillation, the product frequently 
 being termed "spirits of harts horn." The German 
 expression "Hirschhornsalz," has the same origin. 
 Ammonia and its compounds are now, however, mainly 
 obtained from gas works. When soft coal is burned 
 to make illuminating gas, one of the by-products is 
 ammonia. Ammonia is decomposed by heat, and 
 carbon dioxide is generated, which in escaping, forms 
 the leavening power. 
 
 Ammonium Carbonate is the compound used by 
 the baker and often called "Volatile." When kept 
 from the air, it is a hard, semi-transparent, stonelike 
 
15 
 Parti 
 
 Sins =« K?5J»tfM 
 
 auickrTtT water or milk. Ammonium Carbonate is not 
 a ways Iform in strength and <***££"?% 
 somewhat uncertain in its ae ion and he results ob 
 tained are not always satisfactory. Ihis accounts ior 
 he difference in lightness of different batches of cakes 
 aw 11 as the unequal smell and color although the 
 regular formula has been strictly fo owed. Occasion- 
 allv vou find that cookies or biscuits in wl ch bicar- 
 bonate of ammonia has been used., will smell strongly 
 Re ammonia when coming from *e oven or hav 
 a reddish color. This mav be caused by an overdose 
 of tie ammonia which has in consequence not been 
 Mly neutralized by the heat of the oven, or it may 
 have been of inferior quality. 
 
 There has been some agitation condemning the 
 use of Bicarbonate of Ammonia for baking purposes 
 as a dangerous article and a poison. Tins is absurd 
 as hi no book on chemistry, either caustic ammonia or 
 ammonia combined with any other substance, is men 
 doTed as a poison. The carbonate of ammonia which 
 added to your dough or mixture, leaves no residue 
 whatsoever/it completely evaporates m the baking 
 heat even at a lower temperature than the baking 
 heat, sav, 160 to 180 degrees F. 
 
 Commercial carbonate of ammonia is composed of: 
 
 Carconicacid 55 per cent 
 
 Ammonia JO per cent 
 
 Water « P er cent 
 
 Both these substances are volatile, the carbonic acid 
 evaporates at about 150 degrees and the ammonia at 
 
16 Part 1 
 
 1T0 degrees, consequently the leavening power is about 
 85 per cent. Carbonate of ammonia does not melt; 
 it completely evaporates. You can convince yourself 
 of its purity by making the following test: 
 
 Place a small piece of the carbonate of ammonia 
 in a small evaporating dish and heat it. The ammonia 
 will be gradually transformed into gas, no residue or 
 ash being left, only a strong ammonia smellis notice- 
 able, which, however, disappears very quickly. 
 
 LIMEWATER has a strong alkaline reaction and 
 therefore turns red litmus paper blue. It is a solution 
 traced back to Calcium carbonate or limestone. When 
 this is super-heated or burned in kilns, the gases are 
 driven of! and the remaining substance is called Cal- 
 cium Oxide, Quicklime or Caustic Lime, which eats 
 up or destroys organic matter. When exposed to suf- 
 ficient water, it forms a white powder, called Calcium 
 Hydroxide, a solution of which is the limewater sold 
 in the drug store. 
 
 The limewater, as the baker knows it, for pickling 
 eggs, or to check or neutralize undesirable acids in 
 dough or to soften hard water, is a solution of slacked 
 lime with plenty of cold water. But, as water absorbs 
 only a small percentage of lime, there will very likely 
 be a sediment of lime at the bottom ; pouring off the 
 liquid on top, you can pour on some more cold water, 
 stirring up the lime from the bottom, then after it 
 has settled, you can pour off the limewater again. 
 This can be repeated several times. 
 
 SALTS. 
 
 A SALT may be defined as the main product of the 
 interaction of an acid and a base. There are, however, 
 substances which have the properties of a salt regard- 
 less of different method of formation. 
 
Part 1 ^ 
 
 Most SALTS are solid and soluble in water. Such 
 salts in which the hydrogen atoms of the corresponding 
 acid have been replaced by a metal, are known as 
 normal salts. When some of the salts is not replaced 
 by a metal, the resulting substance is known as an 
 acid salt. 
 
 But besides the above way, salts can also be pro- 
 duced by the interaction of acids with oxides of some 
 metal or with the metals themselves. 
 
 A salt which has no action on litmus is called 
 neutral. 
 
 The most familiar salt is of course, our common 
 table salt (sodium chloride) NaCl. Salt is found in 
 sea water, rock-salt and brines. Sea water contains 
 nearly four per cent of salt, and in some countries the 
 sea water is evaporated by the sun and wind. Salt de- 
 posits in England, Austria and Germany and to some 
 extent in the U. S. are found in the ground and the 
 salt is mined and purified. Most of the salt used in 
 this country is obtained either from natural or artifi- 
 cial brines or strong solutions of salt, made by forcing 
 water into the salt deposits. 
 
 Salt is soluble in cold or hot water, but the differ- 
 ence in temperature of the water has little effect, as 
 hot water does not melt it any faster. 100 parts by 
 weight of water will dissolve about 36 parts of salt 
 Boiling water will absorb hardly four parts more. 
 Salt readily draws dampness from the air, which is 
 mainly due to the presence of magnesium chloride. 
 Therefore it is to be recommended to the baker to 
 use a refined salt, which is drier and not so easily 
 affected by dampness. The effects of salt on fermen- 
 tation, etc., is explained mo"e thoroughly later on. 
 
 MATTER and FORCE or ENERGY 
 
 are two of the fundamental laws of Chemistry. 
 
 MATTER means any substance which has weight, be 
 it a solid like iron or a liquid like water or a gas like 
 
18 Part 1 
 
 air. All substances or matter are recognized and dis- 
 tinguished by their properties. Color, odor, weight, 
 taste and their solubility are familiar properties of 
 matter, but the chemist also considers their behavior 
 or action with heat, light and electricity, as well as 
 the action of different kinds of matter upon each other. 
 
 The properties of matter can be changed, but not 
 destroyed. In some cases the change is only temporary 
 as in the freezing of water or melting of iron. Such 
 changes are called physical changes. But when the 
 change is permanent, as in the burning of coal or the 
 digestion of food, the change is called a chemical 
 change. Physical and chemical changes are closely re- 
 lated and are often inseparable. When a substance 
 or several substances undergo a chemical change, it 
 is called a chemical action. When such chemical ac- 
 tion involves several substances, it is called a reaction. 
 
 Analysis means decomposition of compounds or the 
 separation of matter into its original components. 
 
 FORCE is really ENERGY. 
 
 Any exertion made to act on a body is force. 
 
 The strength of a man's arm is a force, so is the 
 power of a horse to pull a wagon. The wind is also 
 an invisible force, able to tear down houses and trees 
 or to move ships on the water. 
 
 Heat, light and electricity are different forms of 
 energy, producing special changes. It is also possible 
 to transform the different kinds of energy into each 
 other. Electricity, for instance, is generated from the 
 heat liberated by burning coal, and this electricity in 
 turn can be transformed into light. 
 
 Chemical energy, or a chemical attraction is an im- 
 portant factor in all chemical changes. But although 
 in such chemical changes matter or the original sub- 
 stances are often transformed and apparently lost or 
 destroyed, the total weight of the substances partici- 
 pating in any chemical change is always the same. It 
 
Part 1 19 
 
 follows that — Matter cannot be destroyed or lost and 
 no weight is lost or gained in a chemical change. 
 
 ATOMS and MOLECULES. 
 
 ATOM means the smallest particle into which an ele- 
 ment can possibly be divided. The Atomic Theory as 
 first proposed by John Dalton assumes : 
 
 1. That the chemical elements consist ultimately 
 of a vast number or very small, indivisible particles or 
 atoms. 
 
 2. That the atoms of the same element have the 
 same weight. 
 
 3. That atoms of different elements have different 
 weights. 
 
 4. That chemical action is union or seperation of 
 the atoms of the elements. 
 
 The chemist of to-day, assumes that atoms do not, 
 as a rule exist in the uncombined state. As soon as 
 atoms free themselves from one combination, they 
 at once unite with some other atom or a number of 
 atoms. 
 
 MOLECULES. According to above theory we learn 
 that the smallest particle of matter or of any substance 
 which can exist independently or alone is not an atom, 
 but a group or combination of atoms, which are known 
 as molecules. If the atoms composing a molecule are 
 atoms of the same element, then the molecule is a mole- 
 cule of an element ; but if the atoms of different ele- 
 ments are combined, then the molecule is the molecule 
 of a compound. For instance, the smallest possible 
 particle of a drop of water is a molecule of water, 
 but this insignificant little mite or molecule of water 
 contains still smaller particles, namely atoms of hydro- 
 gen and oxygen, the elements of which water consists. 
 (See Elements.) 
 
20 Part 1 
 
 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS and FORMULAS. 
 
 SYMBOLS and their signs have been explained un- 
 der chapter of Elements and in Part 5, but the letters 
 only represent single atoms of each element. For in- 
 stance, O means just one atom of Oxygen ; H one atom 
 of Hydrogen, etc. If we want to indicate more than one 
 atom of any element, we place the proper number be- 
 fore the symbol, for example : — 
 
 20 means 2 atoms of Oxygen. 
 3N means 3 atoms of Nitrogen. 
 
 However, when the atoms are to represent a com- 
 pound, or are in chemical combination, then a small 
 number is placed after and below the symbol like 
 this :— 
 
 O2 means 2 atoms of Oxygen in combination. 
 N 4 means 4 atoms of Nitrogen in combination. 
 
 FORMULA. A chemical formula means a group of 
 symbols, designed to express the composition of a com- 
 pound. In writing a chemical formula, the symbols 
 of the different atoms making up the compound are 
 placed side by side. 
 
 Therefore, the formula for water is H2O, which 
 means that the molecule of water is composed of two 
 atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. Hydrochloric 
 acid has the following formula, HC1, which tells us 
 that the molecule of this acid is composed of one atom 
 of hydrogen and one atom of chlorine. 
 
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS. When we want to 
 express the different facts of chemical reactions or 
 changes, the proper symbol and formulas are used, 
 which is called an equation. 
 
 Let us repeat the previous example of the formula 
 of Hydorchloric acid again, which is: — 
 
 H + CI = HC1. 
 
PartJ_ 2 1 
 
 Hydrogen (1 atom) Chlorine (1 atom) Hydro- 
 chloric acid (1 molecule). If we want to represent 
 several molecules, we set the respective number or 
 figure (in large type) in front of the formula. 
 
 Another example: — 
 
 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O. 
 
 Hydro-en, 2 molecules Oxygen, 1 mole- Water, 2 molecules, 
 
 each 2 atoms. cule, 2 atoms. 4 atoms Hydrogen. 
 
 2 atoms Oxygen. 
 
 ATOMIC WEIGHTS. We have learned that all 
 matter has weight, even the invisible gases and air. A 
 bottle filled with air, for instance, weighs more than the 
 same bottle if the air is forced out of it. Therefore, 
 no matter how small an atom of any element is, it has 
 weight. As stated before, (see Elements) it has been 
 found that Hydrogen is the lightest known element 
 Therefore, the atom of Hydrogen stands for one (1) 
 and the weights of atoms of other elements are ex- 
 pressed in the relative numerals. For example, when 
 we say the atomic weight of oxygen is 16, it means 
 that one atom of oxygen has 16 times the weight of 
 an atom of hydrogen ; or if we could place one atom of 
 oxygen on the one pan of a scale, we would have to 
 put 16 atoms of hvdrogen on the other side to balance 
 it. But, as we have no balance sufficiently delicate to 
 determine the exact weight of a single atom, the atomic 
 weight is determined by indirect means, and many 
 principles influence the numbers finally adopted as the 
 atomic weight. 
 
 MOLECULAR WEIGHTS. As we learned be- 
 fore, atoms combine and form molecules. 
 
 Therefore, the molecular weight of a compound is 
 the sum of the weight of the atoms in a molecule. 
 
 Just as the symbols stand for atomic weight, so the 
 formulas express the molecular weight. For example : 
 
22 Part 1 
 
 Acetic Acid : the formula reads C2 H* O2 = 60. 
 
 How do we get the 60? 
 
 Carbon, 2 atoms ; atomic weight being 12 X 2 = 24 
 Hydrogen, 4 atoms ; atomic weight being 1X4= 4 
 Oxygen, 2 atoms ; atomic weight being 16 X 2 = 32 
 
 60 
 
 It does not matter what weight the different parts 
 represent, whether grams, ounces or pounds, the pro- 
 portion or relation to each other will always be the 
 same as by atoms and molecules. 
 
 NOTE — It has been my honest endeavor to explain the f undamenta 1 
 principles of Chemistry, or explanation of chemical terms, in as condensed 
 but simple a way as to make it comprehensive to every baker. However, 
 to every young baker who has the time or patience to go deeper into the 
 mysteries of Chemistry, I would strongly recommend Prof. Lyman C. 
 Newefl's book, "Descriptive Chemistry. " 
 
PART 2. 
 
 Yeast, Fermentation, 
 Yeast-Foods, Bread Diseases. 
 
 Yeast and Fermentation are so closely related, that 
 it really makes little difference which we explain first. 
 The name fermentation originally was given to a pe- 
 culiar but very interesting class of decompositions. It 
 has been known for ages that many organic bodies 
 are liable to ferment if exposed to certain organisms, 
 which are called "Ferments." The dust in the air con- 
 tains such ferment organisms ; but the air also con- 
 tains other organisms, bacteria and moulds ; for in- 
 stance, stale bread becomes covered with mould ; shoes 
 or books left in a damp place become mouldy ; wine, 
 beer or milk become sour when exposed to the air 
 which is hastened when the temperature of the air is 
 above 60 degrees (F). 
 
 YEAST. 
 
 Yeast has practically been known and used for 
 thousands of years. The Egyptians obtained some 
 "wild yeast" from the air and started a dough with 
 it. From the first baking a portion of the dough was 
 saved and used to start the dough for the next day's 
 baking; this was called "leaven." You can gather 
 and cultivate such "wild yeast" by exposing a dish 
 of Malt Extract, Glucose or other fermentable sugar 
 solution to the air. Alcoholic fermentation will soon 
 set in, and as alcoholic fermentation can only be pro- 
 
2 Part 2 
 
 duced by yeast, consequently the yeast plants or yeast 
 fungus must have been present in the atmosphere. 
 But as stated above, there are other organisms or bac- 
 teria floating around in the same air which are det- 
 rimental to a healthy yeast growth if they drop into 
 your ferment started with the desirable or healthy 
 yeast. The same method of starting and raising the 
 bread dough with "leaven" is still carried on in France 
 and other countries of Southern Europe, only more 
 care is exercised in nursing the dough along. (See 
 Fermentation.) 
 
 I presume that every baker knows today that yeast 
 is a plant of the most simple structure, consisting of 
 chains of small, round or oval cells or of single cells 
 which grow vigorously and multiply thousand fold if 
 given the proper food or nourishment, particularly a 
 liquid containing principally sugar in some form. 
 However, the chemist tells us that yeast requires for 
 its existence and growth, lots of other substances or 
 elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, carbon, 
 hydrogen, mineral substances, proteins, etc., but which 
 must be so combined as to be ready for immediate 
 assimilation. 
 
 Yeast belonging to the family of Fungi, grows or 
 multiplies by "buds" and "spores." Budding of yeast 
 cells means, the mother cell produces several buds 
 which break away as new plants and cells, afterwards 
 repeating the same process. This process goes on 
 very rapidly and in a short time there are millions 
 of such cells. 
 
 SPORES are practically young yeast cells nursed 
 within the covering or hull of the mother cell. In 
 a short time the covering breaks and the young cells 
 are set free to shift for themselves. However, yeast 
 spores are only formed when there is only little food 
 available for the yeast cells and the spores will not 
 bud or grow as fast into budding plants as the buds 
 
Part 2 3 
 
 set out under more favorable conditions, or having 
 better food. 
 
 The chemists in speaking of yeast, use so many 
 different words, for instance : yeast plant, fungus, bac- 
 teria, germs, bacilli, minute organisms, etc.; besides 
 in these lower minute forms of life which you have to 
 magnify about 500 times to make them visible, it is a 
 difficult task to distinguish or keep apart bacteria 
 (plant) from microbes (animal). The French chem- 
 ist Trouessart, gives us the most simple explanation: 
 "We shall make use of the term microbe as the general 
 designation of all the minute organized beings which 
 are found on the borderland between animals and 
 plants/' 
 
 The baker may easily get confused, having all 
 these different terms mentioned in connection with 
 yeast. The different kinds of yeast, such as Hop yeast, 
 Barm yeast, Dry yeast, Compressed yeast, etc., are 
 really mixtures of different substances, only one of 
 these substances however being yeast, the rest is food 
 for the yeast plants. Other species of fungus or little 
 midgets of invisible microbes or bacilli will grow in 
 the same food as the pure yeast cells, if they get a 
 chance, but then the fermentation will get "wild" or 
 putrefaction may set in. 
 
 Therefore, it is very essential that the yeast cells 
 or yeast plant is kept from contamination and supplied 
 with the proper yeast food. Healthy yeast, sufficiently 
 active and added in sufficient quantity in addition to 
 causing the dough to rise by the production of alcohol 
 and liberation of gas, also prevents or at, least checks 
 the development of other bacilli, such as butyric and 
 lactic, or in other words, prevents the dough from 
 
 gettin 
 
 & 
 
 too "acid" or sour. Such bacilli only 
 
 become abundant or dangerous after alcoholic or yeast 
 fermentation grows weaker and gets exhausted. (See 
 Fermentation.) 
 
4 Part 2 
 
 The yeast cells for a heatlhy growth require: — 
 
 1. Warmth (78 to 90 degrees F is the most 
 favorable temperature). 
 
 2. Moisture. 
 
 3. Food, which as already stated consists of ni- 
 trogenous matter, mineral matters and sugars (Carbo- 
 hydrates) . 
 
 4. Oxygen, which it gets from the air. 
 
 As the yeast grows or the cells multiply, they break 
 up the sugar, forming alcohol and carbon-dioxide gas 
 which forces its way between and gets entangled in 
 the tenacious particles of the gluten which keeps the 
 gas from escaping too quick and thereby the dough 
 is raised and made porous. 
 
 On account of the great many ways or methods 
 of growing or cultivating yeast, there are different 
 kinds or species of yeast. These are all closely related 
 and very much alike in appearance and all produce 
 alcoholic fermentation. But although grown in a similar 
 wort, they develop some distinctly different by-pro- 
 ducts or different flavor in the fermented liquids. The 
 yeast cells of wine, beer and those raised in whiskey 
 distilling, each produce a different taste and flavor. 
 From the last named source, (the distilleries) nearly 
 all the compressed yeast is obtained. 
 
 The strength and flavor of any yeast depends a 
 great deal on the care with which it is made and pre- 
 served. Temperature plays an important part in yeast 
 cultivation. 
 
 The compound barm of the Scotch bakers or prac- 
 tically all stock yeasts or barms, although prepared in 
 many different ways by different bakers, depend prin- 
 cipally on the stability furnished by the hops and the 
 diastasic properties of the malt. Sugar, scalded flour 
 and potatoes are also used more or less in these liquid 
 yeasts and barms. 
 
Part 2 6 
 
 BREWERS' and distillers' yeasts are formed from 
 hops, malt or other liquors which have been boiled 
 down in large vats. This is called the mash. In then- 
 case the yeast is cultivated principally for the purpose 
 of giving the product (such as beer, ale, whiskey, etc.) 
 the proper flavor. The yeast is a by-product with 
 them. But as they make yeast a special study, and as 
 they know just which specie of yeast gives them the 
 desired flavor, they watch their yeast cultures pretty 
 close, so as to keep away all "wild" yeast cells and 
 objectionable ferment bacteria. There are two kinds 
 of liquid yeast ; "top" yeast and "bottom" yeast. The 
 difference between the two lies mainly in the difference 
 of temperature. At a temperature of from 60 to 80 
 degrees (F) fermentation in the mash or wort (al- 
 ready stocked with yeast) gets more vigorous. The 
 increasing amount of carbon dioxide gas, as already 
 explained, forces its way to the top of the liquid in 
 the vats in numerous bubbles, carrying along the yeast 
 cells which settle on top into a sticky, thick scum. 
 This is called "top" yeast. 
 
 At a lower temperature, especially below 50 de- 
 grees (F), fermentation progresses less vigorously 
 and much slower, the gas is not so active and does not 
 send near so many nor near so strong bubbles to the 
 top and consequently most of the yeast sinks to the 
 bottom of the vats and settles there. This is "bottom" 
 yeast. 
 
 COMPRESSED yeast is produced by alcoholic 
 fermentation of malt or other grain worts. On ac- 
 count of the large amounts of moisture in the yeast 
 (estimated by Hayduck to be 73.5 per cent) a small 
 amount of pure starch (corn, rice or tapioca starch) 
 is usually added by the manufacturers, before the yeast 
 is pressed ; besides they claim that this preserves the 
 yeast. 
 
 The most important point in favor of using com- 
 pressed yeast manufactured by a reliable firm, is the 
 
6 Part 2 
 
 fact that you can depend more on its uniform strength 
 and quality in all seasons of the year and in any kind 
 of weather. Of course the baker must do his share 
 in keeping this compressed yeast always in a dry, clean 
 refrigerator at the proper temperature. Compressed 
 yeast should be kept always in a temperature of not 
 below 40 degrees (F) or not over 60 degrees. Where 
 it is impossible to get compressed yeast fresh oftener 
 than once a week, I have found the yeast will keep 
 fresh for some time if kept in a ve-y clean jar or crock 
 of cold pure water. The yeast will settle at the bottom 
 and the water can be poured off every two days and 
 replaced with fresh water. In this way and if kept 
 away from sunlight and heat (keep close to 40 degrees) 
 the yeast will keep its vitality for some time. But care 
 must be taken that no sugar, malt or flour gets into 
 the water or else the yeast will start to ferment and 
 go bad. Even a few bread crumbs dropped in ac- 
 cidently will start a disturbance and spoil it. 
 
 DRY yeast can be prepared from almost any good 
 healthy liquid stock yeast. Wheatflour and cornmeal 
 is added sufficiently to make a dough stiff enough so 
 it can be rolled and cut into thin squares or cakes, 
 which are then kept exposed to dry air until all mois- 
 ture is taken out. Such dry yeast has been used ex- 
 tensively in starting ferment and new mother yeast or 
 stock before the use of compressed yeast became so 
 universal. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 Fermentation is a fundamental and most important 
 subject in bread baking. It requires continuous at- 
 tention and the most practical experience. You may 
 have the best flour and other materials at your dis- 
 posal and the most up-to-date equipment, but if the 
 fermentation is imperfect and the doughs do not get 
 ready at the proper time, the whole business is de- 
 moralized. 
 
Part 2 7 
 
 The term "Fermentation" itself is derived from 
 the latin word " fewer e" (to boil) and "fermentum" 
 (yeast) so that strictly taken by its meaning it refers 
 to a boiling process. Saying a ferment is boiling, how- 
 ever is speaking only figuratively. When for instance 
 in beer brewing, some yeast is added to the sweet, 
 warm liquor or wort, we notice a lively agitation an 1 
 bubbles start to come up and soon the whole mass 
 seems to be boiling. But as already mentioned in 
 chapter on yeast, the bubbles are only the escaping car- 
 bonic acid gas (carbon dioxide). 
 
 However the term "fermentation" is very broad 
 and a great many theories established by such great 
 chemists as Pasteur, Liebig, Thenard and others have 
 been contradicted again as scientific researches pro- 
 gressed in the study of fermentation and Zymology. 
 Mr. Kirkland disposes of the matter correctly in one 
 short sentence : — 
 
 "The process of fermentation is the act of an organ- 
 ism seeking its ozvn growth and development." This is 
 called the "germ" or "vital" theory of fermentation 
 now generally recognized. As mentioned above, be- 
 sides the yeast plant, which we can culture and control, 
 nature provides a great number of species of wild fungi 
 and bacteria, microbes and bacilli, all capable to start 
 or promote some kind of fermentation. 
 
 Fermentation or Nitrification is also the process 
 by which all vegetables and animal substances 
 ultimately undergo destruction or decay and finally 
 return to the inorganic world (the soil) in the form 
 of Carbon dioxide, — Water, Ammonia, Nitrogen, etc. 
 — to become again valuable food for plants, and 
 under the influence of the sun rays again to generate 
 different organic bodies or compounds. 
 
 This practically proves again the indestructibility 
 of matter. 
 
8 Part 2 
 
 The development and character of fermentation 
 is greatly influenced by temperature, and fermentation 
 ceases almost entirely below 40 degrees (F) or above 
 140 degrees. 
 
 The principal forms of fermentation which interest 
 the baker are : — 
 
 1. ALCOHOLIC fermentation, producing princi- 
 pally alcohol and carbon dioxide. 
 
 2. ACETOUS fermentation. Here we recognize 
 again two divisions. 
 
 a. Lactic fermentation the main result being 
 Lactic acid. 
 
 b. Acetic fermentation the alcohol being turned 
 into acetic acid. 
 
 3. BUTYROUS or putrefactive fermentation the 
 main product of which is butyric acid* 
 
 4. VISCOUS or mucous fermentation which 
 causes beer to become gummy and sticky and is also 
 suspected of causing "rope" in bread. (See Acids, 
 Part 1.) 
 
 Fermentation is further divided into two distinct 
 classes as applied to chemical action, these are : — 
 
 1. ORGANIZED ferments such as yeast, bacteria, 
 etc. 
 
 2. UNORGANIZED ferments or ENZYMES. 
 
 The first are called organized ferments because 
 they contain life; pure cultures or new plants can be 
 raised or grown from the original stock the same as 
 seeds of larger plants, sown in the soil, germinate and 
 grow. We have explained them in previous chapter. 
 
 The second class, ENZYMES are chemical sub- 
 stances which are not living organisms but are pro- 
 duced by living organisms. 
 
 Such substances or enzymes are present in the yeast 
 cells, malt, flour, etc., and the chemist recognizes quite 
 
Part 2 ___ y 
 
 a number of different enzymes; Zymase,, Invertase, 
 Diastase, Maltase, etc. 
 
 Invertase is the substance or ferment which 
 changes cane sugar or sucrose into glucose. 
 
 Zymase acting on sugars produces the alcohol and 
 carbondioxide. 
 
 Diastase changes raw starch into soluble starch 
 and then into maltose and dextrose. 
 
 However, before any of those Enzymes can be- 
 come active, they must get in contact with plenty of 
 water. This is called Hydrolosis. 
 
 ALCOHOLIC fermentation can be started with 
 any kind of yeast— liquid, compressed or dry yeast. In 
 fact, whenever fermentation is mentioned in con- 
 nection with breadmaking, it means "alcoholic" unless 
 otherwise mentioned. Alcoholic fermentation pro- 
 g-esses best in a sponge or dough at a temperature 
 between 78 and 80 degrees (F). Flour and water 
 (for sponge) and other ingredients (for doughs) are 
 mixed with a specified amount of yeast, the tem- 
 perature of the water being calculated to give the 
 sponge or dough the desired temperature ; which varies 
 according to conditions of weather or shop. The 
 sponge or dough is then set away and fermentation 
 will soon start. The yeast will start budding and as 
 the yeast is looking for food, it changes the fermen- 
 table substances or carbohydrates into alcohol and 
 carbon dioxide gas. While trying to escape as already 
 mentioned (see Yeast) these gases will expand and puff 
 up the dough (held in check by the gluten) making the 
 spono-e or dough light and porous. But as soon as the 
 amount of alcohol produced bv the yeast gets too large, 
 (over 10 per cent of the total liquid) fermentation 
 slows down and finally ceases, or in other words the 
 further growth of the yeast has been stopped; the 
 cells are dead, having been choked and killed by over- 
 production of alcohol caused by the yeast itself. 
 
10 Part 2 
 
 In fact it is a peculiarity of all ferments, that they 
 keep on producing such substances as they need for 
 tfieir own food in such superfluous quantities, that they 
 (these substances) in time put a stop to the activity 
 of the yeast or other ferments. 
 
 This is one of the most important points in the 
 whole process of breadmaking and requires the most 
 study, experience and care of any baker. It is up to 
 him to know the proper time when to check the al- 
 coholic fermentation, by knocking down the dough 
 first and second or third time, or if necessary when to 
 cut over the dough and later, when to put the loaves 
 in the oven. This will be explained more thoroughly 
 in Part 3, under Doughmaking. 
 
 ACETOUS fermentation. A great many bakers 
 imagine or take it for granted that all acetous fermen- 
 tation produces sour bread ; but that is not so. Most 
 all the materials used in a bread dou^h contain more or 
 less acid bodies — the flour and yeast, the fat and malt ; 
 even the air and the water used in dough making con- 
 tain large quantities of oxygen, and as we learned in 
 Part I, oxygen produces all kinds of acids or acid 
 salts through oxydation. 
 
 We might accept this as a fact : 
 
 "That acid producing germs of one kind or another, 
 or several species at the same time, are akvays present 
 in every form of bread making and in every country." 
 
 Acid is always there, whether it can be tasted or 
 whether it is concealed or hidden from the palate by 
 an excessive amount of salt. Salt is the principal in- 
 gredient which will check acidity in a dough. The 
 acid germs have also a certain action on the gluten, the 
 gliadin, especially being softened. The protine matter 
 of the flour changes into protones and this paves the 
 way for another change by a putrefactive ferment, 
 known as the Bacterium termo. The increase or 
 development of the acidity in a dough however depends 
 
Part 2 11 
 
 almost entirely on the temperature of the dough. 
 (This is illustrated more thoroughly in Part 4, under 
 Dough Making.) 
 
 There are some certain rules which govern the 
 acidity during fermentation. For instance, if you add 
 one more pound yeast than usual to a five hundred 
 pound dough, you can thereby either shorten the fer- 
 mentation period at the usual temperature, or make 
 the dough cooler giving it the usual time. It is the 
 length of time the sponge or dough is allowed to 
 stand, that causes most sour bread. ( More facts about 
 this are found in Dough Making, Part 4.) 
 
 Lactic fermentation can be carried on to some ex- 
 tent at the same time or together with the alcoholic 
 fermentation in the same dough. 
 
 In my opinion that pleasant "nutty"- flavor in white 
 bread is created by one specie of "Lactic" bacillus, 
 in conjunction with certain acid ferments (enzymes) 
 contained in the flour. 
 
 This particular flavor-producing specie of lactic 
 bacillus is always present in every dough, more or less, 
 being brought into existence by some of the chemical 
 changes of starch into sugar, the condition or quality 
 on which the sugar supports or feeds this specie of lac- 
 tic bacillus. This further strengthens my firm belief 
 that the germs and ferments or enzymes, which produce 
 and cause that "nutty" lavor in a loaf of b~ead are 
 contained in the flour or rather in its carbohydrates — 
 sugar and starch, — and it is up to the baker to know 
 how to regulate his fermentation to suit the flour he 
 uses, so as to get the proper or the best food for these 
 flavor producing organisms. Of course, good healthy 
 yeast must be used, and milk helps the flavor, so do 
 other yeast foods like Malt Extracts, especially if the 
 flour is lacking in quality. 
 
 But remember we have several species of closely 
 related acid germs. When allowed to grow undis- 
 turbed, it is principally lactic and butyric acid which 
 
12 Part 2 
 
 causes dough or bread to get sour, more so than the 
 acetic acid. (See Dough Making. Part 4.) 
 
 We will have to come back to the same subject 
 in Part 4, but I want to call attention here to my 
 opinion that although all authorities on bread fermen- 
 tation state, that the total acid in sour b"ead consists 
 of from 85 to 95 percent of lactic acid, the rest being 
 acetic and butyric acid, you can not raise any dough 
 with lactic fermentation alone. If it is as I suppose 
 a lactic bacillus, which gives the "nutty" flavor, which 
 the baker wants, then we must watch its development. 
 If lactic fermentation is allowed to develop too fast, 
 the lactic acid will get the best of it ; it will get slimy 
 and encourage butyric or putrefactive fermentation and 
 increase the sharpness or sourness of the acetic acid, 
 in short, cause "sour bread" by killing off all other 
 ferments. 
 
 It has been estimated that there may be no more 
 than four to five parts of lactic acid in 10,000 parts of 
 baked bread. Of course, bread made with ferments or 
 barms, like the scotch bakers use, contains more than 
 this proportion and is sharper to the palate. Let me 
 quote here the conclusion of Mr. James Scott: "It 
 might be thought by some people that such compara- 
 tively small quantities of acid would hardly affect the 
 bread, and that its sourness could be traced to acetic 
 acid ; but it is a curious fact that, as purposely staled 
 bread reveals a gradually inc r easing quantity of it, the 
 lactic acid really has the largest share in the trans- 
 actions. There may often be quite 85 to 90 percent 
 by weight of lactic acid in sour bread, while the acetic 
 acid may be as low as from 5 to 6 percent and the 
 butyric acid still less. Yet lactic acid does not smell, 
 whereas acetic acid has a very pungent scent which 
 can be distinguished in the fluid squeezed from sour 
 bread." 
 
 Lactic fermentation develops or thrives best in 
 a temperature between 82 and 95 degrees. When the 
 
Part 2 13 
 
 temperature of any dough or sponge passes 85 degrees, 
 then look out for fast development of acetic acid or 
 acetic fermentation. 
 
 Acetic fermentation. Acetic acid has been treated 
 in Part I, under acids and also referred to in lactic 
 fermentation. In my opinion, the acetic acid is not as 
 dangerous in turning dough sour as lactic acid is. In 
 fact, I think when yeast gets weak and less alcohol 
 is produced (like in an old sponge dough) it is the 
 acetic acid which stimulates the fermentation and 
 causes a larger expansion of the loaf. As stated above 
 however, while a proper percentage of acetic acid fer- 
 ment will increase the ultimate expansion of the finished 
 loaf, we must guard against an excess amount, because 
 as we allow the acetic acid ferment to develop, the 
 lactic acid will also increase but in larger proportions 
 and sour bread will be the result. It has been proven, 
 that in a fresh dough about ready for baking, the acetic 
 acid percentage is larger in proportion to lactic acid 
 than at any time afterwards. In some old doughs ace- 
 tic acid may be found to have remained stationary for 
 24 hours, while lactic acid has increased materially. It 
 may be well to remember also, that lactic acid does not, 
 weight for weight, correspond with the same acidity 
 of acetic acid. Three parts by weight of lactic acid 
 have the same acidity as two parts by weight of acetic 
 acid. 
 
 BUTYRUS fermentation. From above descrip- 
 tions we find the "butyric" acid fermentation follows 
 closely after lactic fermentation, especially when tem- 
 perature in dough is allowed to go above 90 degrees 
 F. Therefore, to discourage the fermentation of buty- 
 ric acid, the process of fermentation must be carried 
 on with lower temperature, say between 80 and 85 
 degrees F. 
 
 But when fermentation is carried on at too low a 
 temperature say below 80 degrees, we have to increase 
 the usual amount of yeast, at least one ounce for every 
 
14 Part 2 
 
 extra gallon water used and decrease the salt a half 
 ounce at the same time; in this way, we get a whiter 
 loaf of bread and a good texture but can not get the 
 same flavor as in a dough made at 81 to 84 degrees. 
 (See Dough Making.) If a dough is mixed and fer- 
 mented below 80 degrees we must look out for such 
 wild ferments or bacteria characteristic to low fer- 
 mentation, encouraged by retarded yeast growth, which 
 in turn produces small amount of alcohol and conse- 
 quently the evolution of carbon dioxide is too weak. 
 
 In figure 1, I give an illustration of two loaves of 
 bread, both standard loaves, each taken at random 
 from a thousand-loaf batch. Loaf A has a very fine 
 texture, a fine white crumb and thin crust. However, 
 
 A B 
 
 FIG. 1. — A, cool dough, made at 80° B, warm dough, made at 84° 
 
 crust is rather tough and rubbery and of a foxy, red- 
 dish color and the flavor lacks that something which 
 makes people "eat more" bread. Ice is used in mixing 
 to keep the temperature down below or at 80 degrees, 
 as dough must be mixed longer or better than usual to 
 stretch and develop the gluten. Loaf B shows a 
 darker, creamy color of crumb, and texture is not so 
 close. Crust is also heavier and a darker brown but 
 more brittle and tender than in loaf A. The flavor of 
 loaf B, however, is decidedly more satisfying, "home- 
 made" like, and although to a baker loaf A may appeal 
 better as to general appearance, the average consumer 
 will eat more slices of loaf B than of loaf A. 
 
Part 2 15 
 
 Now as indicated before, the principal difference 
 between the two loaves lies in the temperature at 
 which the dough is fermented. In loaf A, more yeast 
 and less salt is used to stimulate fermentation at a 
 lower temperature. In loaf B, less yeast and more 
 salt is used to prevent fermentation from proceeding 
 too rapidly. All other ingredients, flour, sugar, yeast- 
 food, shortening, etc., are the same. Hence I say 
 again the baker who knows his business can make 
 bread of different texture, color and flavor out of same 
 flour. 
 
 Some chemists have carried on extensive experi- 
 ments in adding certain acids in addition to the yeast 
 in mixing bread dough, and if I recollect right some 
 such process has been patented. Now I think there 
 are sufficient acid bodies and acid producing ferments 
 and enzymes in any good flour which together with 
 good yeast, proper food (and a little brain on the 
 baker's part) will make a good loaf of bread without 
 any artificial acids or drugs. 
 
 SUMMARY ON FERMENTATION OR 
 RAISING BREAD. 
 
 B-ead is always raised by some process for the evo- 
 lution of carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide) (CO 2). 
 
 The process of creating and liberating this gas 
 within the substance of a dough may be carried on by 
 four different methods. 
 
 1. Chemical combination between carbonate of 
 soda and some acid — cream of tartar, tartaric, phos- 
 phoric acid or muriatic acid. The first three are con- 
 stituents of baking powders, and effervesce, (foam up) 
 when wetted. The principal products of the above 
 chemical actions are, tartaric, phosphate and chloride 
 of sodium (common salt) with of course the carbonic 
 acid gas. the latter being the product wanted. 
 
16 Part 2 
 
 2. Chemical decomposition on heating. Carbonate 
 of ammonia at about 150 degrees (F), releases over 
 50 percent of carbonic acid gas. Bicarbonate of soda 
 is so decomposed into carbonic acid gas and carbonate 
 of soda. (See Part I, Acids, Bases and Salts.) 
 
 3. The effervescence of aerated water (water in 
 which carbonic acid has been dissolved by compres- 
 sion). Thus ordinary soda water may be mixed with 
 some flour into a dough under pressure. As soon as 
 the pressure is removed the gas is liberated from solu- 
 tion, and the dough expands. This is called aerated 
 bread. 
 
 4. By Fermentation. This simply depends on the 
 multiplication and products of bacteria or microbes. 
 As already explained (Fermentation Part 2), these 
 organisms feed on oxygen and carbon extracted from 
 the carbohydrates or sugars, which are always present 
 in dough, and they exhale carbon dioxide or carbonic 
 acid gas as the waste product of their life-sustaining 
 processes. Temperature, as we have learned, has a 
 great deal to do with the condition or nature of fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 The importance of water in fermentation is fre- 
 quently overlooked by the baker. Water was consid- 
 ered an element even by the most famous chemists, up 
 to the end of the 18th century, when experiments first 
 proved it to be a compound of Hydrogen and Oxygen. 
 In Part 1. (Elements and Compounds) we learned that 
 the chemical composition of water is H 2 O : 
 
 By volume = two parts hydrogen and one part 
 oxygen. 
 
 By weight = one part hydrogen and eight parts 
 oxygen. 
 
 On account of its remarkable solvent power, water 
 is never found pure in nature. This means that many 
 solid substances, most any liquid and many gases are 
 absorbed or dissolved when they are put in water. 
 
Part 2 17 
 
 Even rain or snow water which are considered the 
 purest of natural waters, contain dust, gases, etc., 
 washed down from the air. These are called natural 
 "Soft" water, because they contain little or no calcium 
 or magnesium salts. 
 
 HARD Water contains carbonates and sulphates 
 of calcium (lime) or carbonates and sulphates of mag- 
 nesium in solution. The hardness, due to the presence 
 of carbonates is removed by boiling the water, hence 
 the term "temporary" hardness. But where calcium 
 or magnesium are present in the water as sulphate or 
 chloride, these salts are not precipitated or affected to 
 any extent by boiling, and the hardness, due to their 
 presence, is spoken of as "permanent" hardness. It is 
 also claimed that boiling will remove most any ob- 
 jectionable bactena that may be present in the water. 
 But boiling or distilling gives water a "flat" taste, be- 
 cause it removes the gases originally taken in from the 
 atmosphere, which give the drinking water that fresh- 
 ness and pleasing flavor. We may say that any water 
 which upon analysis is pronounced harmless as a drink- 
 ing water is also satisfactory for use in the bakery. 
 From a sanitary standpoint this is very true. How- 
 ever, from the practical standpoint the baker must look 
 at it different. 
 
 The filtered water supplied by different cities, varies 
 to a great extent. Some cities draw their supplies 
 from natural springs and brooks ; others have to get 
 water from muddy, sluggish, poluted rivers, and many 
 communities can pump their supply from fresh water 
 lakes. Naturally different methods are applied to make 
 the water clear and fit to drink, and in many localities 
 some chemicals have to be employed. The passage of 
 water, containing considerable atmospheric oxygen and 
 carbonic acid, through iron pipes is apt to cause the 
 solution of enough of the metal as "ferrous" or iron 
 carbonate, to cause tea steeped with that water to be 
 blackened, cloths washed with it to be stained yellow 
 
18 Part 2 
 
 and sometimes a peculiar taste to be produced. We 
 also know that some water, especially very soft water, 
 containing much dissolved oxygen or organic acids 
 attack lead pipes very materially. How can the baker 
 say then, that all water looks alike to him? 
 
 Most hard waters dissolve less of the proteins of 
 the flour on account of the mineral salts they contain 
 in solution as mentioned above. A dough mixed with 
 such hard water usually gets tougher during mixing 
 and tightens up more during fermentation ; but the 
 fermentation will proceed slower and the dough will 
 stand a longer time before it is ripe. The crumb is 
 usually very white, but coarse to the touch and dry to 
 the taste. I know quite a number of bakeries, espec- 
 ially in the middle west, in the natural gas belt, who 
 drove wells on their premises from which their water 
 supply is pumped. Such water usually contains a 
 great deal of sulphur or magnesia salts, making it 
 especially well adapted for cracker baking. It makes 
 a crisp, very white, but dry cracker. If you want such 
 crackers tender, you will have to use more shortening 
 than with softer water or add some gelatinized 
 (cooked) starch. Now we might draw our conclu- 
 sions this way : 
 
 "Hard water produces about the same results in 
 comparison with soft zvater, as hard spring wheat flout 
 does when used in place of soft winter wheat Hour!'' 
 Therefore the baker should take into consideration the 
 quality or chemical property of his water supply when 
 buying or blending flour. 
 
 I have often heard flour men say they could never 
 understand why they cannot get a hold with their flour 
 in one city or convince some baker of its merits, while 
 in another place they sell every baker and grocer in 
 town. I almost feel inclined to suggest to millers 
 having trouble of this kind to get a sample of the water 
 the complaining baker is using and have it analyzed. 
 If water is hard, and you have a strong hard flour, 
 
Part 2 19 
 
 more yeast or a higher temperature for the dough may 
 be of advantage, or you may blend such flour with 
 some softer or some winter wheat flour or even more 
 malt extract may give better results. Limewater is 
 also recommended as a solvent, especially in rye dough. 
 
 YEAST FOODS. 
 
 The question of how to improve his bread is one 
 that interests every progressive baker. In times gone 
 by when every baker made his own yeast, stock yeast, 
 barm yeast, potato yeast, etc., there was without 
 question more individuality in bakers' bread, especially 
 as to flavor. Some bread tasted better to some people 
 than all the other bakers' bread; some was nearly 
 always good ; some was occasionally good ; but a great 
 deal was oftener tainted with a suggestion to being 
 sour. We admit that bakers' bread today lacks variety 
 of flavor and is very much alike in everything but the 
 name, of which there are legions ; but it is a fact on 
 the other hand, that there is not so much poor bread 
 or sour bread turned out by the bakers in these days 
 of compressed yeast, as there was in" the days of the 
 home-brewed yeast. We also cannot get the men to 
 stay up sixteen or eighteen hours to watch the yeast 
 and sponge, as in years gone by, and the boss himself 
 does not want to take a nap and get up again to watch 
 the yeast, start the ferment or set the sponge, and then 
 lay down again for a few hours. The flour and water 
 bread with a little yeast and salt thrown in does not 
 exactly suit the public any more, as a commercial 
 loaf eaten at every meal. This is especially true of 
 the American -born bread eater. Therefore the baker 
 is always looking for a bread improver and the best 
 food for his yeast. 
 
 CARBOHYDRATES are mentioned in Part 1, 
 under compounds. The different sugars, dextrine, glu- 
 cose, etc., are called soluable carbohydrates, while the 
 raw starch in the flour is an insoluable carbohydrate 
 
20 Part 2 
 
 and must first be converted into sugar or glucose. 
 They may therefore practically be classed with yeast 
 food. (See Part 3 for further details.) 
 
 SUGAR. When we speak of sugar in general we 
 mean cane sugar or perhaps beet sugar. I prefer 
 the flavor of the cane sugar for use in bread dough. 
 I think the New Orleans or raw, unrefined or clarified 
 sugar is preferable; even the New Orleans seconds, 
 if not too dark contain a good amount of sucrose and 
 a rich flavor. 
 
 With sugar it is as with flour. There are a number 
 of grades, according to the amount of boiling and the 
 quality and color varies # also from the different plan- 
 tations. Color does not always indicate the quality 
 and there is the old style open kettle process and the 
 clarified or centrifugal. The juice from the sugar cane 
 is boiled down and clarified at the plantation down 
 south before it is shipped to the eastern refineries to 
 be reboiled and refined. The plantation granulated 
 sugar varies from 94 to 98 degrees sucrose-test. The 
 N. O. seconds run in color from light gray to dark 
 brown and in test for sucrose from 85 to 94 degrees. 
 N. O. thirds are too heavy and dark for use in bread- 
 making, but they do for mince meat and fruitcake but 
 most of it is used in tobacco. 
 
 If I have to use refined sugar in bread dough, I 
 find a soft Confectioners A or light colored Cvery 
 satisfactory for fermentation and prefer them to the 
 higher priced granulated. The eastern seconds or 
 C sugars run in a number of shades from 1 to 14. 
 
 Beet sugars have no seconds or no soft sugars. 
 After the granulated or loaf sugar is refined, the rest 
 is sold as syrup. There are sugars found in other 
 plants, especially the Indian corn or Maize, but are 
 not as sweet as cane sugar. 
 
 Of course, in fermentation or dough making, cane 
 sugar, especially the refined sugars, do not work so 
 fast as a yeast food as malt or malt sugar or glucose. 
 
Part 2 21 
 
 GLUCOSE (grape sugar, dextrose, starch sugar) 
 as mentioned in chemistry or fermentation, is found 
 in a great many plants, grains and fruits, the latter 
 being called fructose. The glucose of commerce can 
 be manufactured from any substance containing starch 
 — rice, wheat, corn or maize, potatoes, etc., — but it is 
 not nearly as sweet as sugar or malt extract. I re- 
 member some years ago, some of the larger bakers 
 started to use glucose in bread making to take the 
 place of sugar, but as far as I know, most of them 
 have discarded the same, as unprofitable, although it 
 was cheaper. The same with glycerine, which was 
 much more expensive, but being much sweeter, so 
 much less was required. But it did not prove a suc- 
 cess. It is a characteristic of all yeast foods or sug- 
 ars, that after the yeast has done its work, the baked 
 loaf of bread contains much less sugar or sweetening 
 than was originally put in the dough. 
 
 MALT is also considered an yeast food and has 
 great powers on fermentation when properly prepared. 
 Different grains such as barley, wheat, corn, rice and 
 oats are capable of being malted. The word malt 
 really means a grain which has entered into the pri- 
 mary or first stages of germination by artificial means 
 and then being dried i. e. the germination checked. 
 Experience has proved long ago that barley makes 
 the best malt because it produces more diastase than 
 any other cereal, and therefore barley malt has been 
 used almost exclusively by brewers and distillers for 
 hundreds of years and also by bakers in making their 
 yeasts, barms and ferments. 
 
 MALT EXTRACT is an unfermented extraction 
 made from Malt by adding a la^ge quantity of water. 
 The whole is then concentrated into syrup, the water 
 being removed by evaporation at a low temperature. 
 The quality of the finished Malt Extract depends prin- 
 cipally on the care during this process, the proper 
 process of germination or malting of the barley, the 
 quality of the barley used, etc.. 
 
22 Part 2 
 
 In cheaper extracts some corn or rice grains can 
 be used, but I believe such Malt Extract has to be 
 labeled as a compound which is proper. A small per- 
 centage of pure alcohol is mixed with the finished 
 extract before it is gotten ready for shipment to in- 
 crease its keeping quality, i. e. keep it from fermenting 
 or souring. 
 
 The chemical composition and action of Malt Ex- 
 tract has been so freely explained and discussed in the 
 trade journals and at conventions, that an exhaustive 
 scientific treatise is hardly necessary. A good pure 
 Malt Extract contains: 
 
 (a.) PJiosphatic Salts or Grain Phosphates, which 
 include the soluable Lacto, Phosphpates of different 
 elements — as Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium, etc. 
 
 (b.) Proteins or Nitrogenous Matter, including 
 principally digested Barley Gluten, and Digestive 
 Enzymes=Diastase, Albumins, Peptones, etc. 
 
 (c.) Carbohydrates or Malt Sugars, which means 
 digested Barley Starch, Maltose and Malto-Dextrine, 
 etc. 
 
 (d.) Moisture which also includes the added al- 
 cohol. 
 
 Although a firm believer in Malt Extract since its 
 first introduction and a constant user of large quanti- 
 ties of it, I have felt it my duty to determine or prove 
 to our firm, whether the extra expense of buying Malt 
 Extract is justified or if it is only a "luxury" a "no- 
 tion", or a waste of money as some bakers declare it 
 to be. 
 
 As with all other practical experiments, I based my 
 conclusions on results obtained from our regular size 
 doughs (about 1,000 loaves to each dough). In this 
 instance I made three such doughs, each containing the 
 same amount of materials such as salt, compressed 
 yeast, water, flour and shortening (except sugar and 
 malt.) Temperatures, conditions, amount of mixing, 
 
Part 2 
 
 23 
 
 if 
 
 I 1 '* 
 
 \ * • 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ■1 
 
 1\ I 
 
 JH^. . ^# __jlii^^^l 
 
 
 B 
 
 ■t 
 
 BHflftti 
 
 u s 
 
 3 
 
 c/1 
 
24 Part 2 
 
 etc. also were the same in each dough. The formula 
 is one used in one of our leading pan loaves, made 
 from straight dough. The illustration (Fig. 2.) on 
 page 23 shows one loaf of each dough. 
 
 FIRST DOUGH A. was made with .sugar only. 
 I use New Orleans or clarified soft sugar (see sugar). 
 
 SECOND DOUGH B., in this dough I use my 
 regular ''quick ferment" made of malt extract, corn- 
 flour, yeast and water, (see fermentation.) But I 
 used sugar besides the malt extracts in this dough. 
 
 THIRD DOUGH C, malt extract alone was used 
 as an yeast food and sweetener. 
 
 IN DOUGH A., the usual amount of yeast and 
 sugar and special cornflour was mixed with 18 lbs. 
 of water at 90 degrees. After standing for nearly 10 
 minutes, the mixture did not show any signs of fer- 
 mentation or expansion like regular ferment; (this 
 however, I expected, judging from previous experi- 
 ments.) I then added one pound more of yeast and 
 two pounds more sugar and poured the whole mix- 
 ture into the dough which was already running in the 
 mixer as usual. 
 
 FOR DOUGH B., our usual ferment was made 
 with 4 lbs. of malt extract, 6 lbs. of cornflour (spec- 
 ial) 4 lbs. of yeast and 14 lbs. of water. This fer- 
 ment was ready in the usual time (about 18 min ; for 
 particulars, see ferments.) It was then added at once 
 to the dough already running in mixer. Besides this 
 ferment, 12 lbs. of sugar had already been added to 
 the dough, with the salt, shortening and water. The 
 reason why I add the extra sugar in my straight doughs 
 is explained in chapter on Fermentation. 
 
 IN DOUGH C, the same ferment was prepared as 
 in Dough B, with the exception that I used the double 
 amount of malt extract and no sugar in the dough. 
 This ferment was ready or fell in two minutes less time 
 than in Dous:h B. 
 
P *rt 2 25 
 
 These three doughs were made 25 minutes apart, 
 which is the regular time we allow between each 1,000 
 loaf dough. Each dough is supposed to be ready for 
 first knockdown in 3y 2 hours; second knockdown in 
 4% hours, and ready for bench or divider in 5 hours. 
 
 However, as I expected, the first dough A., stood 
 3 hours and 40 minutes or 10 minutes overtime before 
 it was ready for first knockdown, although it had one 
 pound extra yeast. Second knockdown also had to be 
 waited with 15 minutes longer than usual. 
 
 Second dough B. came on regular time Z]/ 2 hours, 
 4:% hours and was ready in five hours. 
 
 Third dough C. stood just about the regular time 
 for first knockdown (3y 2 hours) but came quicker sec- 
 ond time (4 hours) and had to be punched once more 
 (4^4 hours). 
 
 The consequence was that the first dough A. was a 
 little too young; the second dough B. was perfect and 
 the third dough C. was already getting a little old. I 
 could have taken dough C. first, dough B. next and 
 dough A. last, and then I could have obtained about 
 same kind of loaf from each dough. But as it was an 
 experiment ; the object was to note the results for com- 
 parison. In the proof-room the following time was 
 required : 
 
 Dough A. These loaves stood 55 minutes 
 
 " B. « " « 48 " 
 
 _ " C. « << « 45 « 
 
 This shows that the loaves from all three doughs 
 were ready for the Oven at almost the same time, es- 
 pecially as the loaves made with Malt Extract alone 
 (dough C) do not require to come up so high in the 
 pans. In the ovens the bread from doughs B. and C. 
 colored and baked a little quicker than the loaves from 
 dough A. The illustration tells the story : 
 
 Loaf A. is rather close grained and solid, although 
 the heavy crust indicates that it was thoroughly baked. 
 
26 Part 2 
 
 Color of crumb or inside is a clear, healthy white and 
 flavor sweet and pleasant. Crust is a good, healthy 
 golden brown. 
 
 Loaf B. has a very regular texture, almost perfect 
 and a good, rich, clear, light creamy color. The crust 
 is a little heavy but very tender, not a bit tough and 
 of a rich brown color. The flavor is that pleasant, 
 sweet, satisfying, "nutty" kind, frequently referred to 
 as homemade. 
 
 Loaf C. is the largest loaf, but texture is not quite 
 as good as B. and color of crumb not quite so white. 
 This dough C. should be taken sooner, i. e. — kept 
 younger. (Crumb means inside or soft part of loaf.) 
 From my own experience I came to these conclusions 
 on the merits of Malt Extract: 
 
 It stimulates fermentation. 
 
 It is an excellent yeast food and by providing or 
 preparing proper food for the yeast, less yeast can be 
 used. 
 
 It also gives bread a distinct, pleasing, rich flavor. 
 
 The crust of a malt loaf always has a rich, golden 
 brown color, if dough is kept young enough. 
 
 But the most important point in favor of malt ex- 
 tract is, its power to reduce the amount of raw or 
 unconverted starch in our bread and make it better 
 digestible. 
 
 Malt Extract also helps to retain the bread moist 
 or fresh for a longer time; the chemists call this the 
 hydroscopic power or moisture retaining properties. 
 
 For large bakeries working with modern improve- 
 ments and having the doughs under perfect control, I 
 recommend a high diastasic Malt Extract, say 120 de- 
 grees Lintner. For a smaller bakery however, where 
 the dough can not always be worked off at schedule 
 time, I would recommend to be careful and not use 
 too much malt extract or too strong an extract, as it 
 
Part 2 27 
 
 can do more harm than good, if allowed to work itself 
 all out by prolonged fermentation, or especially if 
 dough is made too warm. 
 
 The "Lintner" process for determining or testing the 
 diastasic power or strength of Malt Extract, is used by 
 the manufacturers of malt extract and chemists, and 
 they offer or are able to prepare an extract of such 
 test as : 
 
 140 degrees 120 degrees 
 
 90 degrees 60 degrees 
 
 or as low as 20 degrees. But as one degree Lintner 
 represents such a small amount of diastasic action it 
 sound bigger to speak of 120 degrees than of a 60 de- 
 gree extract than what the difference really represents 
 in actual strength. To make these Lintner tests is a 
 rather complicated process, and it would be almost im- 
 possible for a baker to select or test different extracts, 
 to find the proper degree extracts to suit the different 
 kinds of dough. It takes an expert chemist or malt 
 specialist to accurately make these tests. 
 
 As to the quantity of malt extract a baker should 
 use, conditions such as water, temperature, altitude and 
 strength of flour vary so, that no certain amount can 
 be recommended to every baker. In general from l l / 2 
 to 2 pounds is sufficient to a barrel or say 200 pounds 
 of flour if you want to use it with sugar ; malt extract 
 alone figure 3 to 4 pounds. 
 
 I have mentioned above that I prefer to use malt 
 extract and sugar both in the same dough. My ex- 
 perience has been that in this way I get best results, 
 and my reasoning is this : Malt extract works faster 
 or more aggressive, especially a 120 degree extract on 
 both the starch and gluten than sugar. Therefore, I 
 use the malt ferment to start the work and provide 
 ready food for the yeast, the sugar will be working 
 slower and preserve more of its sweetness. Both used 
 in same dough, work better than either malt or sugar 
 alone. As there are now several responsible firms who 
 
28 Part 2 
 
 make a pure, uniform Malt Extract, the baker, large 
 or small, should have no difficulty to get the right qual- 
 ity of Malt Extract if he is willing to pay the right 
 price. 
 
 GROUND MALT, Malt Powder or Malt Flours 
 made from selected barley make a very strong yeast 
 food. The flavor is more of a distinct malt flavor, but 
 even more care must be taken not to use too much of 
 it. It does not start its work with the yeast as quick 
 as liquid malt extract, but after it has started there 
 is no holding back and dough works older in a shorter 
 time. The reason why malt in powder form has not 
 been manufactured more extensively, was explained to 
 me by a malt extract manufacturer, that it is difficult 
 to prepare a uniform malt powder in large quantities 
 and keep its strength. 
 
 I used Malt Flour some twelve or more years ago, 
 and got good results. In rich, sweet doughs, for coffee 
 cakes, rolls and buns, wherever more sweetening sub- 
 stance is wanted, I find malt powder does good work. 
 To use very large quantities of sugar, is liable to make 
 the dough too rich, while malt furnishes & better yeast 
 food and makes the dough lighter. Therefore I rec- 
 ommend to use malt as stimulant and sugar to sweeten 
 the dough. One advantage is, that you can take such 
 sweet rich doughs very young as the rolls, buns or 
 coffee cakes will come along faster in the p-oof-room, 
 and the expansion in the oven is remarkably good. 
 
 BREAD DISEASES. 
 
 What causes dough getting sour ? As we all know, 
 dough is more liable to turn sour in summer than in 
 winter. We know further that uncleanliness of tools 
 and vessels facilitates the souring of dough, but this 
 does not solve the question. We must seek the cause 
 elsewhere. 
 
 But it is not only bread dough which gets sour in 
 the summer time, but almost all meat, yeast, milk, etc., 
 
Part 2 29 
 
 will soon spoil if left openly or exposed to the air. 
 Therefore, we most naturally must suspect "the atmos- 
 phere." But is it solely the heat? That can not be, 
 because we try to keep the same temperature in the 
 shop and dough room in winter, and even make the 
 dough warmer. Now, since the heat of the shop does 
 not (as the sun heat or atmospheric heat) facilitate 
 souring of the dougii, the cause must be in the chemical 
 condition of the atmosphere. We have learned in 
 Part I, that the air consists largely of oxygen, and this 
 change in the atmosphere in summer time contains a 
 larger proportion of oxygen or the oxydising faculty 
 or chemical attraction of the same, becomes more 
 active; especially before or during electrical distur- 
 bances or thunder storms, the air becomes heavy and 
 sultry and milk curdles, the dough gets sour, if not 
 watched closely. Lime-water kept in flat vessels _ in 
 the bakeshop and dough room is a good preventative 
 for this evil ; so is an occasional washing of the troughs 
 and tubs, water tanks, etc. with lime water and fre- 
 quent white-washing of walls and ceilings to be re- 
 commended. These precautions have the effect of 
 neutralizing the acids which may be present and render 
 them harmless. 
 
 MOULDY FLOUR and mouldy bread are caused 
 by certain species of moulds, somewhat allied to the 
 mushroom, <and like those formed on top of preserved 
 fruits. The most common is the "blue green" mould ; 
 dampness in flour causes such mould and murky 
 weather has the same effect on bread. 
 
 BUTYRIC FERMENTATION may also be 
 classed with the bread diseases, because as soon as 
 this strong acid gains any foothold in a dough, putre- 
 faction (rottenness) is the result. 
 
 ROPE IN BREAD. The most dreaded bread dis- 
 ease is the so-called "Rope." Fortunately to say, I never 
 had an opportunitv to become personally acquainted 
 with this dreaded "foe" of the bakeshop. I have seen 
 loaves of bread infected with the disease and have met 
 
30 ^^ Part 2 
 
 bakers, half crazy and worried to death over it. But my 
 opinion is, that the bacteria, microbes or organism's 
 causing rope are present more or less in nearly even- 
 flour, or different grades of flour, and they may also 
 be hanging around on the walls and ceiling of any shop 
 or lurking in some crevises of your dough troughs 
 and tubs for a long time perfectly harmless. They 
 are just waiting for the proper condition or food to 
 come within their reach to materialize, and behold, 
 
 when once started, it is h to get rid of them. I 
 
 agree with the American Miller who says in an editor- 
 ial : ''He contents himself with stating that rope is 
 caused by a ferment, but whether it is the 'pediacoccus 
 cercoisive' as Jago calls it, or the bacillus subtillus of 
 Blandy, he evidently cares not, contenting himself with 
 a study of the conditions under which 'rope' appears 
 and how to avoid or neutralize these ferments." 
 
 German scientists claim that rope is caused by the 
 potato bacillus 'bsc. meseutericus fusciis Flugge' which 
 are present in the flour. Now I compare this "rope" 
 with the germ of contagious diseases. Disease germs 
 are always present more or less in the human body, 
 just waiting for the proper condition for infection and 
 their development and multiplication. This theory is 
 supported by the fact that certain diseases make their 
 appearance in different seasons of the year and dis- 
 appear in colder or warmer weather. The same with 
 rope in bread. It is most prominent during the hot 
 summer months, especially in a long damp, sultry hot 
 spell. You hear little about it in winter. 
 
PART 3. 
 
 Flour, Gluten, Chemical and 
 Practical Tests. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 STANDARD OF FLOUR. 
 
 The establishing of a flour standard seems impos- 
 sible. Few bakers seem to realize the difficulties the 
 miller is up against. To get a supply of wheat to make 
 exactly the same quality of flour from one crop to 
 the next is a harder proposition than we bakers com- 
 prehend. The miller's raw material varies a great 
 deal more than the baker's raw materials. Not only 
 does the wheat from different sections of the country 
 differ in quality and demand different treatment before 
 it can be profitably milled, but the wheat growing in 
 the same section, even on one farm frequently differs. 
 The blending of this wheat and the dressing of it 
 during the milling, to get a uniform run of flour is a 
 science, the practice of which requires more care and 
 experience than the average baker ever dreamed of. 
 
 To sell a baker flour three or six months ahead, 
 guaranteeing a certain standard to be delivered at 
 that time, is a pretty hard proposition. In fact, it is 
 only the larger mills who can honestly guarantee their 
 product so far ahead, as they alone have the means 
 enabling them to ascertain the exact composition their 
 product will have. This is accomplished by tests made 
 m their experimental mills or their laboratories. But 
 
2 Part 3 
 
 one thing the baker can assure himself of is that the 
 miller making a standard brand of flour can not 
 afford to deliberately deceive him as to quality for 
 any length of time. They al'l make good flour and none 
 of it should be condemned as bad. 
 
 The main thing is, the baker must first study his 
 method of working a flour and then pick out the one 
 that is best adapted to this method. He can also 
 change his method of working and give a flour a 
 chance to show its best results. As business is now, 
 the cracker man demands one kind of flour, the small 
 baker another and the large baker still another. But 
 the complaints the average miller or the miller's agent 
 gets, come more frequently from the small baker than 
 from any other source. The larger percent of high- 
 priced flours are put out as short patents. The gluten 
 in them is of a better quality than in the longer patents, 
 even though there may not be as much of it. The 
 better the quality of the gluten the shorter fermenting 
 period is necessary or the less time the dough needs 
 to stand. 
 
 Right here is where the trouble comes in. The 
 average small baker makes a long time sponge or 
 long time straight dough. These allow so much acid 
 to develop that it weakens the gluten of good quality 
 in a short patent, and causes a runny dough with poor 
 raising power and often a dark, smaller loaf. But 
 with a longer patent or straight, this method often gives 
 fair results, especially if a baker has become used to 
 handling a certain brand for any length of time. 
 
 By this you can readily see that it is up to the baker 
 to choose, for a standard, the flour that is best adapted 
 to his methods of working, -or else change his methods 
 to suit the flour — or, still another way is to blend. 
 But one thing in particular to remember is, that the 
 large mill with well advertised brands can not afford 
 to give you bad goods, so in place of blaming it all 
 on the flour, why not try and change your method and 
 formula and you will get good results. 
 
Part 3 3 
 
 Then there are so many conditions affecting the 
 different constituents of a Hour after it leaves the mill, 
 that the original laboratory test may be changed con- 
 siderably before it is made into dough. Suppose the 
 car is sidetracked somewhere on the road and left 
 exposed to dampness and rain or snow. The flour 
 will draw more or less of the dampness, especially if 
 it is put in storage for a month or more afterwards. 
 The consequence is, that such a flour will develop more 
 acidity which has a weakening effect on the gluten, 
 and when finally brought to the bakery it will not pro- 
 duce the same loaf of bread when given the same work- 
 ing method the baker used for the sample or the 
 previous car ; or a car of flour is exposed for several 
 days to scorching sun rays, when it is 95 or over in 
 the shade, and then the flour is stored' for some time 
 in a dark or badly ventilated warehouse. Such flour 
 will not give the same test as the one taken and placed 
 on record at the mill. 
 
 From my own particular experience after thirty- 
 five years in the bakeshop, and being up against all 
 kinds and qualities of flours (varying widely from year 
 to year according to conditions of wheat crop) I 
 have come to the conclusion that there is more good, 
 reliable, uniform flour at the baker's disposal at the 
 present, than ever before. If the baker is willing to 
 pay the price, he can get the right quality of flour, and 
 frequently one can get hold of an excellent or valuable 
 flour from a smaller mill, at a low price ; on account 
 of their brand not being so well known, and their 
 selling facilities being limited, they often accept a 
 lower cash offer than the quality of their flour really 
 would entitle them to. 
 
 I like to go on record with the statement, that in 
 my opinion the time is not so far distant, when the 
 baker will leave the blending entirely to the miller, and 
 many a wise baker is doing so today. All that is 
 necessary, is the confidence in a square deal, and the 
 taking in consideration of unforseen circumstances, 
 
4 Part 3 
 
 which may affect the flour, after it leaves the mill, 
 as mentioned above. Of course different kinds of 
 bread require different grades of flour, as described 
 further on, under Blending and Dough Making. 
 
 Every baker should keep a note book for records 
 of all tests of flours, marking down dates receiving 
 flour, date of test, brand, percent of gluten, its quality 
 and color, absorption, color and character of each flour, 
 etc. 
 
 DISTINCTION IN FLOUR. 
 Grades of Flour. In general, wheat flour may be 
 classified as follows : 
 
 1. Flour obtained from center of grain and 
 ground more or less fine (fine flours). 
 
 2. Flour milled from other part of grain as well 
 as part of center, not so finely ground (fine sharps, 
 seconds, etc.) 
 
 3. Flour obtained from the entire grain (whole- 
 meal flour, graham). 
 
 The main differences between these flours exist in 
 the amount of nitrogenous matter, and salts which 
 each contains. As we change from the finer flours to 
 whole meal, we notice that the nitrogenous particles or 
 proteins and mineral matter increase and the carbo- 
 hydrates, starch, sugar, etc., decrease in percentage. 
 Now we know that part of the nitrogenous matter and 
 also a small proportion of the carbohydrates are sol- 
 uble in water. But during the process of cooking 
 the soluble albuminoids are coagulated and thereby 
 rendered quite insoluble, while insoluble carbohydrates 
 like starch are rendered into more soluble forms. 
 
 It is quite sufficient for the baker to recognize five 
 grades of wheat flour. 
 
 1. First Patent (60 to 65%). 
 
 2. Second Patent (65 to 70%). 
 
 3. Straight (70 to 85%). 
 
 4. First Clear (80 to 90%). 
 
 5. Low grade Red Dog (9-0 to 95%). 
 
Part 3 5 
 
 The germ which would be included in the first 
 Patent, is always separated from the other constitu- 
 ents of the grain. 
 
 DIFFERENT GRADES OF FLOUR. 
 
 The most simple explanation how the different 
 grades of flour* are accounted for, was given by Mr. 
 TL S. Helm, at the Mineapolis Bakers' Convention. 
 To give us all a chance to memorize these names, I 
 miote Mr. Helm's remarks: 'There are four sources 
 during the milling process which account for all the 
 'flour from the wheat viz: the Break flours, the Mid- 
 dling flours, the Tailings flours, and the Dust Col- 
 lector flours. Each of the thirty to forty streams of 
 finished flour comes from one of these four sources. 
 The purified Middlings flours, comprising from 60 to 
 70 percent of all the flour product are always run 
 together and make up what is called a pure middlings 
 patent, the highest grade of flour made. When run- 
 ning a pure middlings patent, the break flours, tail- 
 ings flours and dust collector flours, aside from a 
 small portion of low grade, are run together for a 
 grade called first clear. All grades of flour between 
 middlings patent and first clear are some combination 
 of the two. Therefore, in discussing the working pro- 
 perties of bread making flours, we may designate them 
 either as middlings patents, long patents or first clears." 
 
 Flour Bleaching. The yellow or dark coloring 
 matter in flour is minute in quantity and has no food 
 value. It is claimed by competent chemists, that the 
 minute quantity of bleaching gases used for bleaching 
 flour have the power of changing this coloring matter 
 in such a way as to make it appear colorless, but does 
 not introduce any injurious substance into the flour. 
 It has even been claimed that some flours are improved 
 in quality by drying it out by the bleaching process, 
 and by thus aging it, it produces more loaves of bread 
 and a larger loaf. However; I prefer to see nature do 
 the bleaching in its natural way. Furthermore, the 
 
6 Part 3 
 
 baker would always be at the mercy of the miller unless 
 he tested every shipment of flour or had an analysis 
 made, because the color could deceive him very easily. 
 Although by bleaching different grades of flour they 
 may hold their relative position or composition in 
 every other respect, as before the bleaching process is 
 applied, there is always room for mis-representation of 
 grade. Some second patents or straights from one mill 
 may be as good (and somttimes are) as the first 
 patent from another mill, and the baker may be willing 
 to pay a better price for such second Patent or Straight 
 than he would ordinarily pay ; but if the miller knows 
 this fact it is more than likely that he would apply 
 the bleaching process and sell it to the baker at a 
 more fancy price. Now the baker buying this flour 
 at its natural stage at the grade price, can blend it with 
 a white fancy Winter or first Spring patent and save 
 the premium otherwise added by the miller. There- 
 fore, bakers are safer since the bleaching of flour 
 has been prohibited. 
 
 If bleaching is a benefit to flour, commercial loy- 
 alty or honesty demands that the buyer should be in- 
 formed whether any chemical or physical process has 
 been applied. 
 
 Flou'r Blending. Now there is not so much danger 
 of chemical changes affecting the flour or quality in 
 general from blending if flours are about of same age, 
 as there is in- blending flours of different age ; for 
 instance one flour just from the mill fresh ground, 
 and another flour which was kept in warehouse for 
 several weeks or months. 
 
 I can not see as much benefit in mixing flour of last 
 crop with flour of new crop, either, as most bakers 
 imagine. It is better to adjust your working methods 
 or fermentation to the condition of the flour on hand. 
 Of course you get less volume out of a fresh ground 
 new wheat, and new flour may not be as strong in 
 gluten as that from previous crop. Therefore, it is 
 well to have some flour from last crop in reserve to 
 
Part 3 I 
 
 use as a blend until the new flour is seasoned and its 
 working character established. 
 
 Kansas flour makes a good blend with hard Nor- 
 thern or Minnesota Spring Patent. I like a rich, 
 short, 60 percent Kansas Middling Patent for this 
 purpose. It gives a good color to the loaf and good 
 texture, and good flavor. 
 
 Then an addition of say 10 to 15 percent of soft 
 winter straight makes a rich blend of good flavor, and 
 enables you to cut down sugar and shortening. 
 
 Any well known brand of Minnesota Spring Patent 
 may be used as Standard in the laboratories. It is not 
 conclusive, however, that the same brand of Spring 
 Patent is or can be used every year as standard for 
 comparison in chemical analysis with all other flours. 
 The most uniform and best balanced in every respect 
 is selected after new crop wheat has matured. I, my- 
 self, have had occasion to change the standard for 
 three successive years, and then again I have adopted 
 one brand for three years in succession for my stand- 
 ard flour. As mentioned before, it is not only very 
 instructive, but also of real cash value to any baker to 
 preserve these records from year to year for compar- 
 ison. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FLOUR. 
 
 Moisture in Flour. The moisture or water con- 
 tained in fresh milled flours varies very little. Even 
 the different grades do not vary to any great extent; 
 the highest percent seldom exceeds 15 percent, the low- 
 est being less than 9.50 percent. The percentage of 
 moisture or water as standard for a good bread flour 
 mav be set down at 12.00 percent. Most of this water 
 is found in the starch or carbohydrates. These being 
 very susceptible to taking up moisture, (hydroscopic 
 power) flour is very liable to take up moisture when 
 exposed to damp, moist air. However, this is detri- 
 mental to the baking quality of flour, as an excess of 
 water causes chemical changes in the flour, the acidity 
 
8 Part 3 
 
 increases and softens the gluten (gliadin), and more 
 or less dextrin and maltose will be produced by dia- 
 stasic enzymes. Also moulds are encouraged by ex- 
 cessive moisture in flour. 
 
 When exposed to dry air, sun rays, and heat, 
 flour loses moisture. This has more effect on the 
 fat (ether extract) and color of flour; it bleaches out 
 and loses in flavor also due to chemical changes. How- 
 ever, as to the money value of the loss to the baker, that 
 is evened up by the larger absorption of water in dry 
 flour. If flour loses V/ 2 to 3 percent or an average 
 of 2 pounds per barrel in transit or storage, it surely 
 will take up that amount or more extra water in dough 
 making. 
 
 The miller is the one who has to pay more atten- 
 tion to the moisture in the wheat, as the soundness 
 of wheat is greatly affected by too much water, also 
 much skill and care is required during the process of 
 milling, to have the finished flour contain the proper 
 amount of moisture, without affecting the different 
 constituents of the flour. 
 
 Absorption. As we all know, different flours ab- 
 sorb, or take up, more or less water. The difference 
 may be 15 percent, or in other words a barrel of flour 
 may absorb from 100 to 135 pounds of water. The 
 extra water may be credited as nearly so many pounds 
 of bread, allowing a trifle extra expense for salt, yeast, 
 sugar, etc. Two flours may be nearly alike in general 
 composition, but differ greatly in the amount of water 
 they can carry. I say carry, because some flour, (es- 
 pecially cheaper grades) may take up more water in 
 mixing, but the dough slackens up and gets sweaty and 
 sticky afterwards. Some flour men lay great stress 
 on the absorption power of their flour; some are reg- 
 ular "water eaters," "hungry as wolves," for water; 
 but as I have mentioned the relation of absorption to 
 other qualities in the different chapters, it needs no 
 further comment. .All I say, if a baker gets 60 
 percent water into his dough for every pound of 
 
Part 3 9 
 
 wheat flour used, he ought to be satisfied. I say 
 pound of wheat flour because we can add a mush or 
 prepared corn flour, maize flakes, etc., which take 
 more water, up to 200 percent. Any excess amount 
 over 60 percent will either evaporate in baking or re- 
 quires extra yeast, yeast-food, fat, etc. Of course as 
 will be shown later on, the process of developing the 
 gluten during mixing process, increases water absorp- 
 tion and gives whiter color. 
 
 Strong Flours need a longer fermentation with 
 straight dough method, as short fermentation with 
 strong flour produce tough, dry bread with irregular, 
 coarse texture and occasionally large holes. 
 
 Some flours, especially short Patents, are mis- 
 leading in absorption of water as they dough up 
 rather soft first, but tighten up either during mixing 
 or during fermenting stages of the dough. 
 
 You can judge by doughing up a sample of flour 
 if dough will be firm and elastic or slacken up and 
 ferment wet and sticky. Work the sample well with 
 your hands and break frequently with a quick snap. 
 Then let rest for ten minutes under cover and repeat 
 working again. Make note of your observation. 
 
 PROTEINS. The total protein content of differ- 
 ent kinds of flour shown by analysis, varies more than 
 any other item, but in the various brands of the same 
 grade of flour from different mills the difference is 
 very slight, nowadays. The proteins in a wheat ker- 
 nel (and in flour) are best classified as follows: 
 
 1. An albumin, which is soluble in water and co- 
 agulable by heat. 
 
 2. A globulin, which is soluble in salt solution, also 
 coagulates in heat. 
 
 3. A proteose body, soluble in water, but not co- 
 agulated by heat. 
 
 4. Gliadin soluble in dilute alcohol (of TO percent). 
 
 5. Glutenin, which is not soluble in either water, 
 salt solutions or alcohol, but softened and partly dis- 
 solved by certain acids. 
 
10 Part 3 
 
 These bodies are present in average bread flour 
 about as follows : 
 
 Albumin 0.3% 
 
 Globulin 9% 
 
 Proteose Body 2% 
 
 Gliadin 6.8% 
 
 Gl'Utenin 4.0% 
 
 Total 12.2% 
 
 It will be seen from this table that the gluten (con- 
 sisting of gliadin and glutenin) forms nearly the whole 
 protein content of the flour. The other protein bodies 
 are of little practical interest to the baker. For in- 
 stance, when we mix a spring wheat flour with a 
 soft winter wheat flour, we are mixing two glutens of 
 a different character or in a different condition for 
 peptonization ; they will act and react to some extent 
 on each other. This applies also when we blend 
 different grades of spring wheat flour. 
 
 COLOR OF FLOUR. 
 
 The usual method of testing color of flour is to 
 place a small amount of the flour on a glass tile or 
 smooth board. Smooth it down solid with a "slicker," 
 cut off three sides which leaves a rectangular, smooth 
 body. Now prepare a similar sample of your stan- 
 dard flour ; push the two close together, side by side, 
 and with one firm stroke of the slicker, smooth them 
 both at the same time. If there is any difference in 
 the colors it will be readily noticed in the line between 
 the samples. But any difference in color can be noticed 
 much plainer by plunging the slab with the samples into 
 a basin of water. As the flour dries, the more marked 
 will be difference in the color. It is advisable to keep 
 a sample of a standard unbleached spring Patent flour 
 on hand for the purpose. Keep 'it in a bag in a dry, 
 airy place, but not exposed to direct sunlight. 
 
 Another good simple test for color a flour will pro- 
 duce in bread dough, is made like this: Dough up a 
 
Part 3 11 
 
 small amount of flour, not too stiff (or use a piece of 
 same dough made for gluten test as described in 
 "Practical Flour Tests,") and place it on a piece of 
 clear, colorless glass, and flatten it down some. After 
 standing for about 24 hours, turn it over, and examine 
 the bottom of the dough through the glass. Thus 
 you get a good test of the exact color of the flour. I 
 understand this test has been used by officers of the 
 commissary department in charge of the purchase of 
 flour for the army. 
 
 My own way to determine color has been described 
 in " Practical Flour Tests." 
 
 FAT CONTENTS OF FLOUR. 
 
 What the chemist calls the "Ether Extract" in 
 Hour is mostly natural fat or oil. The relative quan- 
 tity of extract which is obtained from a flour depends 
 almost entirely upon the degree of perfection with 
 which the grain is freed from its germ in middlings. 
 Where some of the germ is left in the flour, the per- 
 cent of ether extract will be high ; where the germs 
 are almost completely removed the ether extract or 
 fat will be low. Wheat flour contains an average of 
 1.02 percent of fatty matter or ether extract ; Rye 
 flour as much as 2 percent. The fat is extracted from 
 flour by mixing one part of the flour (say one ounce) 
 with four parts of ether and four parts of pure al- 
 cohol and shaking well. It is then heated in a tube 
 to 104 degrees F. and the fat will be seen separating 
 and coming to the top in little globules. 
 
 ACIDS IN FLOUR. 
 
 Although the acidity of a flour can be ascertained 
 in a chemical way by titrating with an alkali solution 
 (as explained later on), I depend more on my prac- 
 tical test (Plate II, page 33). By repeated practice any 
 practical baker can become quite efficient to judge the 
 acidity of a flour by this simple method. There is still 
 another valuable advantage in these doughing tests 
 
12 Part 3 
 
 for determining the character of the acid ferments 
 contained in a flour. When you break the pieces of 
 dough after standing about 24 hours you will be sur- 
 prised by the difference of the odor of the interior 
 of each piece. Some retain a rather sweet, pleasant 
 flavor while others have a more or less pungent, sour 
 smell, some even may be called rotten (putrefactive). 
 After gaining some practice through repeating these 
 tests regularly with different flours, you can form a 
 very fair judgment not only as to the acid in the flour, 
 but as to the relation of the ash com out as to color and 
 acidity in large doughs. The percentage of acid grad- 
 ually increases as the grade of flour decreases and we 
 may say acidity goes up or down with the percentage 
 of ash in a flour, the lowest grades containing most 
 and the highest the least. 
 
 Acidity of Flours and Doughs. Prof. H. C. Har- 
 rison summed up the acidity as follows: 
 
 1. Flours from different localities show a wide 
 variation in their acid and bacterial content. 
 
 2. The alkaline test indicates a rapid development 
 of acid in 3 to 5-hour doughs. 
 
 3. Weak flours test higher in acidity than stronger 
 flours. 
 
 4. Flours yielding a good quality of gluten have a 
 lower acid content than those with an inferior quality 
 of gluten. 
 
 5. Graham flours test highest of all in acid. Next 
 in order are "low grades," "straight" and "patents." 
 
 6. Numbers of bacteria are not in the same ratio 
 as the amount of acid found in flours and doughs. 
 
 7. No colonies of the lactic acid bacillus were 
 found. 
 
 8. The commonest organism present in practically 
 all the samples was an organism producing a yellow 
 color which had an acid reaction when grown in sterile 
 milk and curdled it. 
 
Part 3 L3 
 
 9. The bacteria in stale flours were chiefly putre- 
 factive forms and most of them formed spores. 
 
 10. Hard wheat flours and "patents" contained 
 comparatively few bacteria. "Graham," "low grade" 
 and "soft" wheat flours, on the other hand, contained 
 very large numbers of both bacteria and molds. 
 
 Acid Tests of Flour, Sponge, Doughs, Etc. Flour 
 does not readily give up its acids to solvents. To 
 determine the acidity of a flour the chemists use this 
 method : 10 grams of the flour and '300 c. c. of dis- 
 tilled water are placed in a bottle and shaken well 
 and repeatedly. After about one* hour the solution is 
 filtered, and 50 c. c. of it is titrated with a tenth normal 
 solution of pottassium-hydrate, using phenolphthalein 
 as an indicator. This is done as follows : 
 
 Pour 50 c. c. of the flour solution in a glass (very 
 clean-) and add ;> drops of phenolphthalein and stir 
 with glass rod. Then fill a burette with normal solu- 
 tion of potassium hydrate to a certain mark, say, 50 
 c. c, so you can read the amount used correctly. Drop 
 some of the normal solution from the burette into the 
 glass containing the flour solution, stirring it contin- 
 ually, adding a few drops at a time from the burette. 
 As soon as the solution in the glass turns pink, the re- 
 action is complete, and you calculate the acidity from 
 number of c. c. (cubic centimeters) of the standard 
 solution in the burette used to turn the flour (or 
 sponge or dough) solution pink. This is called 
 "Titration." 
 
 ASH CONTENT IN FLOUR. 
 
 There has been considerable said and written 
 about the ash content of flours. Some bakers 
 buy their flour on the ash content test, fur- 
 nished by a laboratory, but if I was a miller, 
 I would never sell to a baker on such agreement. 
 Now while a low percentage of ash indicates a short 
 Patent, or so-called first or fancy Patent, and a 
 
14 Part 3 
 
 larger percent of ash is supposed to identify the flours 
 as a second or long Patent, yet a longer Patent from 
 one mill may be almost identically the same grade or 
 have the same value to the baker as a shorter or first 
 Patent from another mill. 
 
 Low ash must correspond with other qualities of a 
 flour, such as gluten, color, etc. The quantity of ash 
 recovered from a sample of flour is so small, that the 
 slightest oversight by the chemist or his assistant, who 
 generally makes these tests, renders the test unreliable. 
 Another weak point is, that chemists do not all make 
 their ash determinations under absolutely identical con- 
 ditions. 
 
 You may get a widely different ash result on the 
 same flour if submitted to different chemists, due to 
 very slight differences in the methods of analysis em- 
 ployed. However, in a good first or fancy Spring 
 Patent, the ash is expected to amount from forty to 
 forty-eight hundredths (0.40 to 0.48) average 0.44 per- 
 cent; in second Patents 0.48 to 0.65, and then in 
 straight, clear and whole wheat flours up to 0.84 and 
 to 1.80 percent respectively. 
 
 The ash bears a very close relation to the color of a 
 flour. The higher the ash content, the lower, or poorer, 
 the color. 
 
 GLUTEN. 
 
 What is Gluten? 
 
 Gluten has commanded more attention and dis- 
 cussion in bakers' trade journals and at conventions 
 than any other substance, connected with flour or bread 
 making. It has been called the "backbone of cereals ;" 
 the "lean meat of the vegetable kingdom," the "Prince 
 of Proteins," etc. As a fact it stands related to the 
 vegetable kingdom as does albumin to the animal 
 kingdom. However, in no other cereal or plant is 
 the gluten so prominent or important, as in the wheat 
 and the flour made therefrom." 
 
Part 3 15 
 
 But, it will be shown in this chapter that the quan- 
 tity or percentage of total gluten in a flour is not of 
 as great an importance to the baker, as most flour 
 salesmen have tried to make him believe. However, 
 most flour men are getting wise to the fact, that there 
 are mo-re bakers interested in the baking quality of 
 gluten, than in the quantity of same. 
 
 GLUTEN is composed of two substances — Gliadin 
 and Glutenin. These two parts are quite different in 
 character, but when wet, both cling together and 
 form the gluten. 
 
 Glutenin is more granular and tough and rubbery, 
 and of a gray dead color. 
 
 Glia'din is more sticky, and acts like glue in binding 
 together the particles of the glutenin and is of a creamy 
 or greenish color. The proper composition which 
 makes the best gluten (viz. — that which gives the 
 most expansion and best color in bread) is 60 to 
 65% gliadin and 35 to 40% glutenin. In the flour from 
 soft or winter wheats the average ratio is TO and 30% 
 Bread made from flour deficient in gliadin has poor 
 expansion powers ; but when the percentage of gliadin 
 is in excess, the dough will relax, get softer and sticky 
 during fermentation. 
 
 If the total gluten amount in a flour is smaller, but 
 its character or quality is good, the bread baked from 
 such flour may be as good or better than that from 
 a- flour containing more gluten. 
 
 If the total gluten amount in a flour i-s excessively 
 large, it does not follow that the bread made from it 
 is lighter, larger or better ; rather the reverse. The 
 quality of the gluten which gives it its high value in 
 bread making is found principally in its ability to en- 
 tangle and hold the gas. ( See Fermentation. ) 
 
 EXTRACTING GLUTEN. Weigh 50 grams of 
 flour into a cup and mix with 27 grams of water. 
 This will make a medium stiff dough. Weigh off 50 
 grams of this dough and set aside in a cup of water 
 
16 Part 3 
 
 for 20 to 30 minutes. Then start working it in a 
 basin of cool water between the fingers of both hands. 
 The starch separates from the dough and by repeated 
 washings with fresh water, all the gluten is finally 
 obtained, as a rubber-like mass. Keep on working and 
 rolling it in your hands and pulling it, drying your 
 bands frequently on a towel to get all the moistures 
 out of it. 
 
 Some bakers wash the gluten under a light stream 
 of punning water, keeping on until the water runs off 
 clear ; but it is advisable to have a sieve below your 
 faucet lined with silk bolting cloth (about No. 16) to 
 catch any particles of gluten, which may break off 
 during washing. 
 
 For beginners it is advisable to fold up a piece of 
 bolting cloth (not too fine) or muslin into a little 
 bag, put the piece of dough inside and start washing 
 as above, by squeezing the dough continually. This 
 method is the only one you can use in washing out 
 gluten from a piece of fermented sponge or dough, as 
 you must use water below 45 degrees, or even ice 
 water, because the glutenin has been softened so much 
 and gliadin in ol'd sponges is about ail gone during 
 fermentation. In fact water should never be warmer 
 than 65 degrees for washing out glutens, unless the 
 gluten is very tough and strong, as in the "straight" 
 flour when it may be 70 degrees. 
 
 For washing out just flour samples doughed up, 
 the water should not be too cold either, otherwise you 
 chill the gluten and it gets stringy. Here is where many 
 bakers and millers and even chemists make a mistake, 
 as they do not regulate the temperature of the water 
 according to the quality or strength of the gluten. You 
 try this yourself. Start washing with properly tem- 
 pered water, then change into a warm or even tepid 
 water, and in a few seconds you will feel the gluten 
 break up into little strings and curdles, and you never 
 recover it again. Then wash another piece in water of 
 65 degrees until you have part of the starch removed, 
 
Part 3 17 
 
 when you take it into water of 38 or 40 degrees, so 
 you can hardly keep your hand in it. You will notice 
 the gluten shrivel up like a piece of rope or in strings, 
 and unless you put it back into a warmer water you can 
 not get it smooth and to hold together. 
 
 Now, after you have all the gluten you possibly can 
 exact by washing it carefully, form it into a solid 
 little ball and weigh accurately. Then place it on a 
 piece of strong tough paper (about 2 inches square) 
 and put away until you have the other samples ready, 
 when you bake them on a strong level pan. I get best 
 results when baking gluten in an oven filled with 
 bread, or at least at same temperature as bread. Be- 
 fore baking it take notice of color and firmness of 
 gluten and keep record of same. 
 
 For other characteristics and effect of color of wet 
 gluten on the quality also see "Practical Flour Tests." 
 
 EXPANSION TEST OF GLUTEN. An apparatus 
 to test the expansive power of gluten has been invented 
 by Mr. C. M. Foster. The accompanying illustration of 
 this gluten "tester" will be of interest to bakers who 
 are not acquainted with it. It is made of metal, consists 
 of two cylinders of like diameter, each 8 inches long. 
 One gluten sample is placed in each cylinder, the same 
 fitted on the little bowl and the piston inserted with a 
 certain weight on top of it. The pistons are then 
 fastened down by pressing down the lever as shown 
 in illustration, and the apparatus is ready to go into 
 the oven. The chemists generally have a small electric 
 oven, but I get best results by placing it in one of our 
 regular bread ovens ; I even prefer to have it in with 
 an oven full of bread, as this is the right temperature. 
 The moisture in the washed gluten as it becomes 
 heated, is converted into steam, expands the gluten 
 and forces up the pistons. Gluten of the greatest 
 elasticity will force the piston highest, making it pos- 
 sible to obtain a record in inches of expansion of 
 glutens from like quantities of different flours. I 
 
18 
 
 Part 3 
 
Part 3 19 
 
 always use the amount of wet gluten washed from 50 
 grams of dough. (See Practical Gluten Tests.) 
 
 I generally leave it in the oven 20 minutes, which 
 is sufficient to bake gluten from Patent flours. But 
 some Kansas glutens get too dry and too dark in 
 that time, while glutens from "straight' or "clears" 
 take longer. Some of the latter come up very quick, 
 but have not sufficient power to hold the weight up 
 and they settle again. In the photograph (Fig. 2),. 
 I show two such samples, after they came from the 
 oven. The gluten in cylinder B weighed over 3 
 grams more than the gluten in cylinder A, and B also 
 raised quicker and as high as A, but B fell, lacking 
 the power of upholding the weight, which is equivalent 
 to the gas pressure in the loaf during baking. A is a 
 "Spring Patent," B is a "Straight." 
 
 There is a further characteristic of the gluten. If 
 you watch different gluten samples in the oven, during 
 baking, those popping up first will soon stop or fall 
 back, while the glutens from the best patents generally 
 raise slow but sure, and never settle. 
 
 In figure 3, I reproduce samples of gluten from 
 different grades of flour, baked in Foster's apparatus. 
 
 A. Gluten from 60 percent Spring Patent. Shows 
 good strong fibre and light brown color. 
 
 B. Gluten from 60 percent Kansas Hard Winter 
 Patent (middlings.) Expansion very good, but fibre 
 not so strong and tough ; more brittle and glossy, and 
 color is dark reddish brown. 
 
 C. Gluten from Second Spring Patent (about 75 
 percent). Fibre and shape strong and solid. Color 
 good rich brown. 
 
 D. Gluten from Kansas Hard wheat Patent. 
 About 70 percent. Expansion was good but as shown 
 in photo it settled some, fibre being more delicate and 
 brittle ; break up very easy. Color a good deep, rich 
 brown with reddish tint. Very glossy. 
 
20 
 
 Part 3 
 
Part 3 
 
 21 
 
 E. Gluten from a clear, such as used in Rye mix. 
 Fibre very tough, and outside crust not hard or brittle ; 
 rubbery. Color a dead grayish brown. 
 
 I will refer again to these samples in Part 4, on 
 Dough Making. 
 
 COMPARING GLUTEN (Fig. 4). The accompany- 
 ing photographic reproduction of six samples of baked 
 glutens illustrates the different characteristics, as well 
 
 Fig. 4. — Samples of Baked Gluten. 
 
 No. 1 , Clear (for Rye Mix) . No. 2, Kansas. No 3. Fancy Spring Patent. 
 
 No, 4, Standard Brand Minnesota Spring Patent. No. 5, Washed 
 
 out of Gluten Flour. No. 6, Blend of Nos. 2, 3 and 4. 
 
 as the percentage of gluten contained in the different 
 brands of flour. Each sample is from two ounces 
 of the flour named. No. 1, shows the gluten from 
 "clear" or Rye Mix; No. 2, that from Kansas Flour; 
 No. 3, from Fancy Minnesota Spring Patent ; No. 4, 
 from Standard Brand Spring Patent ; No. 5, washed 
 out of Gluten Flour ; No. 6, from a blend of the Nos. 
 2, 3, and 4 flour. 
 
22 Part 3 
 
 You will notice that No. 1 hardly raised at all, 
 although the original piece before baking was 10 per- 
 cent larger than No. 3 or 4. It had raised some first, 
 but fell again. This shows that the quantity or per- 
 centage of gluten alone in any flour does not count 
 for much, if it lacks in strength. This gluten can be 
 made to raise some, however, but requires a slower 
 heat and longer time to bake than the others. 
 
 No. 2 is taken from a Kansas Hard Winter Patent 
 flour of exceptionally rich gluten. This gluten has also 
 a good spring, but it will be observed that it does not 
 come up as uniform and round on bottom as the Min- 
 nesota Spring Patent, or the sample from gluten flour. 
 It also has a reddish, glossy color, which is noticeable 
 by the light shading. This is characteristic of most 
 Kansas flours. 
 
 No. 3 indicates a very high quality of gluten, com- 
 pared with the gluten from "gluten flour" (No. 5). 
 It also has a rich, brown color, and tender smooth sur- 
 face, which will be noticed on the crust of any loaf 
 of bread baked from such high grade flour. 
 
 No. 4 is taken from one of the most popular brands 
 of Standard Spring Patent flour, milled for the bakers' 
 trade. It is a good strong and evenly balanced gluten, 
 but not quite as rich in color as Nos. 3 and 5. 
 
 No. 5 is washed out of a sample of flour sold as 
 Gluten Flour. The amount of gluten recovered 
 is much larger than that from any of the 
 other flours; but is shows up hardly any larger than 
 glutens from many first spring patents. The main 
 object of the manufacturer of gluten flour is to pro- 
 duce the largest possible amount of gluten in his flour. 
 
 No. 6 is taken from a blend as follows: No. 3, 
 25 percent; No. 4, 50 percent; No. 2, 25 percent. 
 
 It will be noticed that the Kansas Gluten in the mix 
 shows in the light spot, which is of a lighter reddish 
 shading. It also was not quite baked, when the samples 
 were taken from the oven and settled a little. This 
 
Part 3 
 
 23 
 
 indicates that the dough made from this blend can 
 stand a little more time before being knocked down, 
 and also before taken to the bench, and it also requires 
 a little more time in baking. 
 
 By careful study of such comparisons of baked 
 gluten, you run occasionally against some surprises in 
 in finding some cheaper flour making a valuable blend 
 with higher priced flours. Do not be deceived by the 
 good showing of the sample of Kansas gluten No. 2). 
 as not all Kansas flour shows up like this one; and 
 this sample was not from the highest priced Kansas 
 flour out of a selection of three or four either. 
 
 It has often appeared to me that the majority of 
 millers do not pay sufficient attention to the character 
 of the gluten in their brands of bakers' patent flour. 
 I have often noticed that the same brand of flour does 
 not always produce similar samples of baked glutens, 
 although the percentage of wet gluten may be the 
 same. The millers' statement of how large a percent- 
 age of gluten his flour contains is of no consequence to 
 me, as I form my conclusions only after comparing 
 the baked sample with other samples. 
 
 The flavor also varies considerably in baked gluten 
 and gives us some idea of flavor the bread produced 
 from such flour will have. However, I believe that 
 the only marked effect gluten has on flavor in bread, 
 is in the crust. Therefore the efficiency of a bakei 
 in gluten-testing makes him a good judge of flour and 
 will surely save him some money. 
 
 How often does a baker condemn the flour or yeast, 
 when his bread does not come out right, although he 
 thinks he used everything the same as usual. With a 
 few careful tests he may find that by changing the 
 proportions of different flour in his blend, or by 
 giving dough more or less time than usual, he will 
 obtain the same results as before. Besides the char- 
 acter of the gluten, the study of gas and heat developed 
 in the doughs during fermentation, is very important, 
 as demonstrated in Part 4. 
 
24 Part 3 
 
 Behavior of Gluten in Sponge and Dough. In 
 Figure 5 we find an interesting study of the gluten left 
 in dough and sponges. As previously mentioned, the 
 gluten changes or softens in the dough during fer- 
 mentation and if one is able to recover any gluten at all, 
 the same has to be placed in a little linen or bolting 
 cloth bag and washed in ice water or water not over 
 45 degrees F. The same blend of flour has been used 
 in all of these doughs, also the same amount as in 
 the gluten tests from unfermented flour, namely 50 
 grams — with the exception of the glutens A, B, and C, 
 washed from dough where I allowed 5 grams extra 
 dough, the extra 5 grams being allowance for sugar, 
 lard, salt, etc., used in the dough, besides the flour 
 and water. Now it will be seen in the illustration, 
 much plainer than by any chemist's analysis, how the 
 gluten is lost during the different stages of fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
 A. The gluten washed from a straight dough 
 after it stood for 5 hours and was ready for mould- 
 ing into loaves. This gluten has a rich dark color 
 and almost as strong expansion as the gluten from 
 same amount of unfermented flour. In weight it 
 lost a little more — about 5 percent. The darker color 
 towards the top, I charge to the presence of sugar 
 and ether extract (shortening). 
 
 B. Gluten from a Vienna sponge dough. This 
 sample was nearly 10 percent less in weight, due to the 
 gluten dissolved by acids in the sponge. But the ex- 
 pansion is nearly as good in proportion, as from un- 
 fermented gluten. 
 
 C. Gluten from a dough made with an older 
 sponge (8 hour). Loss in weight through acids in 
 sponge about 25 percent ; but the loss in expansion is 
 not so large in proportion. 
 
 D. Gluten from Vienna sponge (4^ hours). This 
 sponge shows about 30 percent loss in weight due to 
 action of acids. Expansion is getting weaker, color is 
 almost gray, and it is plainly seen in the illustration 
 
Part 3 
 
 25 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 <->"-i 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 . a 
 
 
 -j= .« 
 
 en 
 
 3°> 
 O " — 
 
 X 
 
 "° 4J 
 
 u 
 
 t> U) 
 
 Z) 
 
 00 c 
 
 c o 
 
 o 
 
 8. 8- 
 
 a 
 
 M t» 
 
 
 : 3 
 
 a 
 z 
 
 < 
 
 W O 
 
 'f ^ i 
 
 g ^r o 
 
 CO 
 
 Js « -* 
 
 UJ 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 z 
 
 <B w. W 
 
 o 
 
 li- 
 en 
 
 It* 1 
 
 •n 5 -a 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 S g c 
 
 QC 
 
 £ 1 « 
 
 Q 
 
 I o i 
 
 3 . >J3 
 
 en 
 
 < 
 
 CO 
 
 Z 
 
 o Q 2 
 
 CQ ^ "1 
 
 DO £ 
 
 "oo -0 § 
 
 UJ 
 
 ■s c 
 
 5 
 
 -a g.ui 
 
 •a » 
 
 J 
 
 £ "° 
 
 t 
 
 S c 
 
 10 
 
 o « 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 
 c <§ 
 
 
 a * 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 < 
 
26 Part 3 
 
 that the loss is mainly in gliadin, the gluten being 
 much tougher and irregular in shape. 
 
 E. Gluten from old sponge (8 hours old). The 
 size shows a loss in wet gluten of nearly 50 percent 
 compared with sample A, due to the action of increased 
 acidity, and expansion is very weak. The color is a 
 dark, dead, ash gray, indicating that nearly all the 
 gliadin has disappeared. 
 
 From this illustration (Fig. 5) we form the con- 
 clusion that the longer fermentation reduces the gliadin 
 content. We know that some flours require a longer 
 fermentation than others to produce a good loaf of 
 bread, and hence the same method of bread making 
 does not produce the same results with all flours, all 
 because of the difference in the composition of the 
 gluten in the various flours. 
 
 However, I can not see how dry gluten percent 
 is of any particular advantage to the baker. Give me 
 any piece of gluten washed out carefully and baked in 
 any oven heated for bread baking, and I will tell the 
 kind of flour it came from, and the kind of bread it 
 will produce. You can judge the character of a 
 gluten much better when baked ; color, fibre, shape, ex- 
 pansion, etc. 
 
 The wet gluten is approximately three times the 
 amount of dry gluten, so by multiplying the amount of 
 dry gluten given by three, gives a very fair percentage 
 of the wet gluten. 
 
 The chemical laboratories determine and compute 
 the gluten content in flour now mostly by chemical 
 process, giving the percentage as dry gluten. Even 
 when washing out the gluten, it is often dried at about 
 200 degrees F and weighed again as "dry" gluten. 
 
 The quantity of dry gluten in a flour varies from 7 
 to 15 percent, according to the grade of flour The glu- 
 ten content is influenced by the locality — the wheat 
 from different states showing distinct variations. It is 
 also influenced by the season, and is different in spring 
 and winter wheats. 
 
Part 3 2? 
 
 As already shown, the quality of gluten also differs ; 
 some is soft, sticky and easily tears when stretched 
 like rotten rubber. In better flours it is firm, elastic 
 and stretches like the best of rubber. 
 
 Spring flours show a higher gluten percent than 
 soft winter flour. However, the Kansas Hard Winter 
 Patent compare of late years very favorable with 
 Spring Patents in percentage and quality of gluten. 
 But it requires, as a rule, more care and understanding 
 how to handle the doughs and fermentation. 
 
 BURETTES, SCALES. To get satisfactory re- 
 sults out of any flour or gluten tests, reliable weight 
 and measures are a necessity. The most practical 
 outfit is the metric system, and it is surely simple 
 enough for any baker to mascer or comprehend. The 
 unit of weight'is the gram, usually abbreviated to grm. 
 The unit measure for liquids (for all technical pur- 
 poses) is the cubic centimeter, shortened to c. c. 
 
 The measure of a c. c. of water, weighs one gram ; 
 hence if we weigh 100 grams of flour and it takes up 
 60 c. c. of water, that constitutes the percent of 
 water absorption (60 percent). This is very simple, 
 to be sure. Then, if you have only 50 grms. of flour 
 you multiply the number of c. c. of water it took, 
 (say 29 c. c.) by 2 and you have the precentage, i. e. 
 29X2=58 percent of water absorption; if 200 grms. 
 of flour are used, divide the amount of water (number 
 of c. c.) by 2; i. e. 200 grms. flour and 124 c. c. of 
 water — 124-^-2=62 percent of water, and so on. The 
 simple instrument for the exact measuring of water, 
 which every baker can afford to possess, is called a 
 burette. It is a long thin glass tube, with stopper and 
 delivery tube at the bottom to regulate the flow of 
 water. The tube is accurately marked to hold a cer- 
 tain number c. c. of water, say, 50, 70 or 100 c. c, 
 and the graduation of each c. c. is marked carefully 
 on the tube, 100 c. c. measure a trifle more than 3 l / 2 
 ounces (3.52 fluid ounces) and 28.35 grams equal one 
 ounce. 
 
28 Part 3 
 
 Now, to get the gram weight of small samples of 
 flour and exact weight of gluten, a small accurate 
 balance (scale) is another handy apparatus. It should 
 be equipped to weigh as small amount as one-tenth of 
 gram (decigram). However, if a baker does not 
 possess any burette or metric balance, he can take two 
 ounces of flour and a trifle over one ounce of water for 
 his gluten tests. 
 
 LABORATORY TEST OF FLOURS. 
 
 I recently sent ten different samples of flour to a 
 well known laboratory for analysis to use them in com- 
 parison with my practical tests, which I have made 
 with samples of the same flour. The report is re- 
 produced in this chapter. The samples I sent were 
 only numbered, no brand or name of flour they were 
 taken from was mentioned. 
 
 The top line gives the analysis of a high grade 
 Spring Patent, used by this laboratory as their stand- 
 ard. 
 
 Notes referring to table: 
 
 No. 1. High priced fancy Patent, extensively ad- 
 vertised for family trade. 
 
 No. 2. Well known brand of Bakers' Spring 
 Patent. 
 
 No. 3. Medium priced Northern Bakers' Spring 
 Patent. 
 
 No. 4. One of the best known Short Spring 
 Patents. (Bakers' brand.) 
 
 No. 5. A strong Bakers' Hard Spring Second 
 Patent. 
 
 No. 6. Same as No. 4. (Family brand.) 
 
 No. 7. Highest priced fancy Kansas Patent. 
 
 No. 8. Kansas Hard Winter Patent. 
 
 No. 9. Another well known Kansas Middling 
 Short Patent. 
 
 No. 10. Kansas Turkey Hard Wheat Flour, me- 
 dium priced. 
 
Part 3 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 W- 
 
 Moisture . . 
 
 on <<r no q ~ 
 
 CM* — ' CN (si ~ 
 
 © © ~ sO 
 en © — - cn 
 
 r>« on 
 — * 0< 
 
 
 
 
 -; 
 
 Quality of 
 Gluten 
 
 q so so q no 
 o cn csi rr oo 
 
 O ON ON ON ON 
 
 q no on q 
 tt od en © 
 
 On ON O O 
 
 98.2 
 98.6 
 
 
 ~- 
 
 Ferment- 
 ing Period 
 
 q q q on en 
 
 d ts n m' -- 
 o o o o o 
 
 on en en q 
 
 >n -^ vO* O 
 O O On o 
 
 01.8 
 01.3 
 
 
 
 c/5 
 
 D 
 
 E- 
 
 Average 
 
 Value 
 
 q q oo in so 
 
 o O r< cd on 
 O O On On On 
 
 vO On CN CN 
 
 h>i On O 00 
 
 ON ON O ON 
 
 98.7 
 99.4 
 
 O 
 
 o- 
 
 Quality of 
 Loaf 
 
 O © © in m 
 © O 00 OO On 
 O O On On On 
 
 O CO N ifl 
 
 od On On r^ 
 
 On On Qn On 
 
 98.0 
 99.0 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 Uu ■ 
 
 Size of 
 
 Loaf 
 
 O O O O O 
 ©'©'©©© 
 O O O O O 
 
 o o o o 
 © © © o 
 o o o o 
 
 00.0 
 00.0 
 
 en 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 OQ 
 
 
 id ■ 
 
 Loaves 
 per Bbl. 
 
 o oo ^ q oq 
 o ~ en en — 
 o o o o o 
 
 't CN 00 CN 
 O O O O 
 
 01.8 
 03.6 
 
 
 Q- 
 
 Color .... 
 
 © © © m © 
 
 O On ^ <N r^ 
 
 O ON ON On On 
 
 °. P ""J °. 
 © sO On tT 
 On On On On 
 
 95.0 
 95.0 
 
 U- 
 
 Absorption 
 per cent 
 
 
 nO vO nO nO nO 
 
 vO OMT| T t 
 
 sO vO \D nO 
 
 m CO 
 
 < 
 
 DQ • 
 
 I Ash 
 
 | per cent 
 
 cn) c\l en tn t 
 tj- tj- vo irj ^ 
 
 vO Tf — tt 
 m "^f ^ m 
 
 in ^r 
 
 
 < 
 
 \ Gluten 
 
 1 per cent 
 
 q q oo ^r en 
 ~ c4 c4 cn — ■' 
 
 ^r en cn q 
 <N ~-' o — ' 
 
 rr en 
 
 
 
 
 
 SAMPLE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w - (M CO 't 
 
 «j 6 . 
 
 m o fN <D 
 
 ON O 
 
 
 & Z " 
 
 
 
30 Part 3 
 
 No. 1, figures more gluten than the standard, but 
 quality of the gluten is poorer by nearly 8 percent. 
 Acording to the ash percentage this flour figures a 
 very short or fancy Patent, and quality of loaf is equal 
 to standard (100) although poor quality of gluten 
 would seem to lower its value. 
 
 No. 2, also shows the same percentage of gluten 
 as No. 1. The very large percent of ash (21 points 
 more than No. 1) proves this to be a much longer 
 Patent ; color is poor, which is only natural considering 
 the large amount of ash. 
 
 No. 3. Percentage of ash and color figure chis 
 medium Patent belonging between No. 1 and No. 2, 
 but quality of gluten is given a higher percentage. 
 
 No. 4. Although gluten percent is smaller than in 
 either No. 1, 2 or 3, the quality is considerably better ; 
 color and every other item compares very favorable 
 with the standard. 
 
 No. 5. In every respect about the same commer- 
 cial value as No. 3, all the different comparisons being 
 nearly the same. 
 
 No. 6. In every respect about the same as No. 4. 
 The large absorption is accounted for by the lower 
 moisture content. 
 
 No. 7. The analysis of this flour is remarkable in 
 several ways. Although the gluten percent is the 
 smallest of all samples, the quality of same is also 
 superior, including the standard. Ash content is also 
 lower than the standard, which also accounts for 
 shorter fermenting period. 
 
 No. 8. In ash contents, this Kansas flour would 
 figure as a medium patent ; gluten content is the aver- 
 age of a good Kansas, but the quality of same shows 
 better than the average. 
 
 No. 9. Although the quality of the gluten is some- 
 what below No. 8, the average value of the flour and 
 quality of loaf is figured higher than No. 8. This 
 
Part 3 31 
 
 result is undoubtedly due to its smaller ash content 
 and better color. 
 
 No. 10, shows up better than No. 8 and 9 in most 
 every respect. The remarkable low moisture naturally 
 means a larger absorption. 
 
 As general summing up, it is shown that the fer- 
 menting period is governed by the amount of gluten 
 which every flour contains, and also by the quality of 
 the gluten. That flour which contains the largest 
 amount of gluten will generally require the most fer- 
 mentation to get it ready for baking. This may be 
 obtained in two ways ; by giving dough more time and 
 using the same amount of yeast, or by using more yeast 
 and giving the usual time. 
 
 NOTE — The best guide the baker has in choosing which of these two 
 methods to employ is the acid test given under heading of Practical Tests. 
 If flours with a large acid content, such as 2 and 5 (see Practical Tests), 
 are given a long fermenting period the acid fermentation will increase too 
 rapidly, as the alcoholic fermentation slows up, and the result is sour bread. 
 In a case of this kind it is advisable to use more yeast, to hasten fermenta- 
 tion, rather than give the dough more time. This is really a necessary test 
 to make in conjunction with the laboratory test to find ont the nature of the 
 acids and ferments of the flour. The laboratories can furnish a report on 
 acid content in a flour, but from it the baker can not quite judge the effect 
 it will have on a large dough. This simple yet practical method of dough- 
 ing up a small amount of flour and allowing it to stand twenty-four hours, 
 will show him to what extent the acid contained in his flour will affect the 
 larger doughs. 
 
 PRACTICAL FLOUR TESTS. 
 
 On the following plates (I and II) you will find 
 illustrations of my own practical tests carried on with 
 the same ten flours used in the laboratory or chemical 
 tests shown on above table. 
 
 Plate I, shows samples 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. 
 
 Plate II, shows samples 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 
 
 These numbers correspond with the numbers of the 
 laboratory analysis. 
 
 The top line on both plates show the baked gluten 
 of the different samples. 
 
32 
 
 Part 
 
 
 
Part 3 
 
34 Part 3 
 
 The second line shows the small pieces of dough, 
 each taken from the same dough that the correspond- 
 ing gluten was washed from. 
 
 The bottom line shows acid ferments in flour after 
 standing 20 to 24 hours. 
 
 From the color of these pieces of dough I judge 
 the color of the flour and make a note of same. Taking 
 notice of the color again in about 24 hours you can 
 judge the value of the flour as to color of the crumb 
 in the baked loaf. In some flours the change is quite 
 noticeable, changing to gray or brown. I find these 
 color tests more reliable than the customary dipping 
 test. After 24 hours a hard crust has formed on the 
 outside of each of these pieces, but you will find on each 
 a blister-like eruption formed on the side as seen in 
 the illustrations. Now the large pieces are pulled 
 away from the smaller blisters, gently. During the 
 24 hours a chemical change has taken place inside of 
 these pieces of dough, a kind of spontaneous fermen- 
 tation, the acid bodies in the flour also having more 
 or less acted upon the gluten. Some can be pulled 
 away in long strings without breaking, which indicates 
 a richer gluten and a well balanced acid content. 
 Others will break short and in a solid mass, which 
 indicates stronger acids and more ash. Some very 
 strong second patents or straights will hardly have 
 anything left but the thick shell, the inside having 
 been all eaten up or decomposed by acid ferments, and 
 a disagreeable sharp smell is also noticeable in some 
 cases. By comparing these different samples with the 
 laboratory analysis, you will, in most cases, find that 
 the characteristics pointed out in the practical tests 
 correspond with the percentages of the laboratory re- 
 ports. However, I frequently find that my practical 
 tests give a better indication of the actual value or 
 working properties of a flour, when made into large 
 doughs. 
 
 We will now explain the preparation of the samples 
 of gluten and dough shown on Plate I and II. 
 
Part 3 35 
 
 Starting with flour No. 1, the same process is re- 
 peated with the others, seeing that the right number is 
 attached to each sample. Of course when so many 
 samples are to be made, as in this case, we only mix 
 up five at one time, washing out the gluten of those 
 first and while they bake, proceed with mixing the 
 others. 
 
 Method of preparing samples : 50 grams flour and 
 27 cc. water are mixed into a smooth dough, using 
 same utensils and same method as mentioned in 
 gluten tests. Have water same temperature you would 
 use in a large dough to make it 83 or 84 degrees when 
 mixed. 
 
 Next, 50 grams of this dough are weighed off and 
 set aside to soak from 20 to 30 minutes in a cup or 
 beaker of cool water. The starch is then washed from 
 the gluten. 
 
 In the meantime the remaining piece of dough is 
 kneaded into a little oblong roll (as shown on Plates 
 I and II, second line) and set on a smooth slab of 
 wood or glass. These little pieces of dough are placed 
 in a warm place (83 to 85 degrees F.) for 20 to 24 
 hours. But as they must be guarded against draft, 
 it is best to have a small box made to place them in, 
 leaving one side or top open. Now having all reports 
 and samples before us in the illustrations, we will 
 compare the results. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 1. The baked gluten (top line, 
 Plate I) shows a good brown color and not many 
 blisters but not having expanded quite round and 
 symmetrical, indicates the presence of some fancy, soft 
 Winter or short, rich Kansas Hard Winter Patent. 
 The wet gluten weighs 16.40 grams, or 44 percent. 
 The color of same is a creamish yellow with greenish 
 streaks, it runs some but is not sticky. The second line 
 (Plate I) shows good color, cream white; the acidity 
 of the dough (see bottom line) indicates some healthy 
 acid ferments, but the strings running together into 
 
36 Part 3 
 
 a sweaty, solid mass, shows weakness of gluten which 
 again points to presence of winter flour. 
 
 Comparing both the chemical or laboratory analysis 
 and practical test, the results of both show this flour 
 to be of a better value to the housewife for general 
 baking than the baker. He can get lower priced flours 
 and blend them to get same results or same quality 
 flour for less money. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 2. The baked gluten has a dark 
 brown, glossy color, which together with the thin, 
 irregular, puffed-up shape indicates a large percentage 
 of gliadin in the gluten, but the total gluten content 
 being very large also leaves sufficient glutenin to hold 
 it up after a very large expansion. This makes the 
 gluten more valuable to the baker. Wet gluten weighs 
 16.5 grms. (44 percent), is grayish yellow with dark 
 green spots, feels very firm and tough, but after stand- 
 ing awhile softens down. But as shown on second line 
 Plate I, the color is off considerable, being a dark 
 grayish brown which indicates large ash content. This 
 flour is better for a blend with a better colored, shorter 
 Spring or Winter Patent. This is all the more advis- 
 able on account of the strong acid ferments (shown 
 on bottom line, Plate I). The dough breaks off short, 
 the acid ferments in the flour having eaten up or 
 dissolved most all the gluten. This flour is really 
 worth more money to the baker than the laboratory re- 
 port indicates and I have used thousands of barrels of 
 it in the last two years with the best results in our 
 blend. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 3. Baked gluten shows up fairly 
 good and uniformly balanced ; wet gluten, 15.9 grm. 
 (43.8 percent) ; color a deep yellow with greenish 
 streaks. Works firm and tough and does not soften 
 very much. 
 
 Second line (Plate I) shows dough of good cream 
 color, little dark, and when pulled apart (see bottom 
 line) shows healthy acid ferments and a fair strength 
 
Part 3 37 
 
 for gluten. Comparing my practical test with the 
 laboratory analysis both reports give this flour about 
 the same value as a fair Bakers' medium Spring Patent. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 4. As shown on Plate I, (top line) 
 the gluten in this flour is perfectly balanced in glutenin 
 and gliadin which gives a uniform expansion and good, 
 rich, brown color. Although the wet gluten is less 
 than some of the other samples, weighing only 13 
 grams. (40.1 percent), it makes up in expansion and 
 quality. This gluten is very elastic and firm, does not 
 soften or run flat and has a rich cream color with 
 greenish tint and green streaks. This is equal to 100 
 percent or perfect. Color of dough (second line) 
 is clear, rich cream. This is also good for 100 percent. 
 The piece of dough on bottom line shows a firm shell 
 with large even eruption on one side, and when pulled 
 apart, the dough shows a number of tough, rubbery 
 strings, which are very elastic and withstood the 
 attacks of the acids very effectively. I consider the 
 acidity sufficiently strong and healthy to assist perfect 
 fermentation and produce a good flavor. 
 
 The laboratory analysis on this flour corresponds 
 almost in every item with my practical test. This is 
 the flour I have used as my "Standard" for the last 
 two years. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 5. The baked gluten points to a 
 rather long or second hard Northern Patent flour, in- 
 dicated by its greenish gray, dull color and thick, 
 tough shell, which together with the more solid fibrous 
 interior, indicates an overbalance of glutenin. The 
 wet gluten weight is very large, 14.4 grms. (44 per- 
 cent), but as may be expected, is of very poor color, 
 a grayish yellow, with deeper, nearly brown spots. 
 No sign of a greenish tint. 
 
 As may be expected, color of dough (see second 
 row, Plate 1) is also poor, a dead ash gray. Broken 
 open (see bottom row) the crust appears to be very 
 thick and the large blister formed by the acid ferments, 
 
38 Part 3 
 
 indicates strong acidity, but nevertheless the gluten 
 is tough enough to withstand the attack of the same, 
 as plainly seen in illustration. This flour is all right 
 to use in a blend with a short Spring or Kansas Patent 
 of good color and rich flavor, or a soft Winter. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 6. As already mentioned in lab- 
 oratory analysis, this sample is same brand of flour as 
 No. 4, only this is the Family Brand. Color of dough 
 is a trifle whiter than No. 4, and acidity a little stronger 
 which shows plainly on Plate II, bottom row. 
 
 SAMPLE No. 7. This is the most remarkable 
 sample in the lot. The baked gluten is smaller than 
 any of the others, but in consideration of the small per- 
 centage of wet gluten, 11.5 grms. (35.5 percent) the 
 expansion is not bad. The color of baked gluten is 
 a delicate, even, golden shade, and the shell and in- 
 terior is exceptionally mellow and tender but not brittle 
 or glassy. The wet gluten has that rich, creamy, yellow 
 color, and after standing a while, light greenish streaks 
 appear over the top. It feels mellow but dry and stands 
 up firm and well rounded. The dough (second row, 
 Plate II) has that rich, clear creamy color and feels 
 very elastic but mellow and tender. The acid ferments 
 in this flour are not very active, but their presence is 
 noticeable when you break the piece of dough open. 
 The interior presents a rich, stringy mass, softened 
 and mellowed by the ferments, but has a healthy, 
 pleasant smell. In comparing the practical test with 
 the laboratory analysis, the reports are very similar, 
 and although gluten content is remarkably smaller 
 than in any of the other samples, the quality of the 
 gluten and the quality of loaf in every respect, es- 
 pecially the color and flavor, stand out even above the 
 standard. This is the flour I have for years re- 
 ferred to as the nearest to the celebrated Hungarian 
 Kaisermehl, and I know a number of bakers who keep 
 this flour as a special fancy brand to use for French 
 and Vienna bread and rolls, or as a blend especially 
 for its fine flavor. 
 
Part 3 39 
 
 SAMPLES No. 8, 9 and 10. These are all three 
 good Kansas hard winter wheat Patents and compare 
 very favorably with the average Spring Patents. 
 However you will notice from the appearance of the 
 baked glutens (top row Plate II, No. 8, 9 and 10) 
 the characteristics of most Kansas hard winter wheat 
 flours, that the gluten in baking expands more or less 
 irregular, breaking out in very thin, glassy blisters, 
 which will either burst or shrink soon after the gluten 
 is taken from oven. They show good expansion in 
 oven, but are of a foxy reddish color. Wet gluten= 
 No. 8—13.5 grms. (41.0 percent) ; No. 9—13.6 grams. 
 (41.9 percent); No. 10—13.8 grms. (42.2 percent). 
 (For further explanation see chapter on gluten.) 
 Color of these Kansas flours is fair, only more of 
 a pinkish cream than the Spring Patents. Acidity is 
 quite strong, but the natural ferments in the flour are 
 not so active as in most Spring Patents. The acids 
 work more on the gluten which would suggest a 
 shorter fermentation period and different handling of 
 the dough. 
 
 STORAGE AND AGING OF FLOUR 
 
 In Europe the larger bakers kept their flour supply 
 in the top floor, called the "Mehlboden." The differ- 
 ent grades are dumped into large separate bins, first 
 being sifted. The rooms are well ventilated, airy 
 and lofty. The floors are laid with tile. The flour 
 is frequently turned over and stirred up with large 
 wooden shovels ; this is of great benefit, especially 
 in aging newly milled flours and flour milled as soon 
 as new crop wheat is harvested. Flour stored in bags 
 should be changed at least once a month and not piled 
 over eight bags high and rows kept apart to allow for 
 circulation of fresh air. 
 
 Referring to sifting flour, before storing it; that 
 will help considerably to improve new flour. If there 
 are no bins where it can be kept and stirred, it may 
 
40 Part 3 
 
 be put into barels after sifting. This suggestion con- 
 cerns the small baker as well who has little room or 
 not the means to lay in more than a week's supply. 
 If only one or two days' suply is sifted ahead, it will 
 be an improvement. 
 
 Some bakers keep their flour over the hot ovens 
 to age it quicker. I do not approve of that ; or, at 
 least, it should not be allowed to get too warm, and 
 must frequently be changed around. I know many 
 large bakers who do not hesitate at any expense for 
 the latest machinery and improvement, but shy at the 
 expense of a cheap extra laborer in the flour room 
 to change the flour frequently. They do not seem 
 to want to recognize the fact, that the extra expense 
 of a few dollars a week for labor will improve their 
 flour tenfold that amount. 
 
 I have stated before, that direct sunlight hurts the 
 flour. Trouble with old flour, often begins when the 
 new wheat begins to sprout in spring; in some years 
 more than in others, some wheat will commence to 
 sweat. Therefore, the flour milled from it acts older 
 towards the end of the old crop, and I find that one 
 month storage is the proper time as compared with 
 two months within four months of harvest, and three 
 months for flour milled from new wheat. 
 
 Flour is also very susceptible in absorbing odors 
 from things placed near it. For instance, place a basin 
 of kerosene near some sacks of flour, or near a 
 trough filled with flour, and you will discover in a 
 few hours that the flour is tainted with a kerosene 
 smell ; paint and kalsamine have the same effect. Sul- 
 phur fumes and chloride of lime, etc., will even effect 
 the gluten. 
 
PART 4. 
 
 Dough Making, Proper Tern 
 
 perature, Bread Formulas 
 
 and Standards. 
 
 DOUGH MAKING. 
 
 SPONGE DOUGHS AND STRAIGHT 
 DOUGHS. The method of making bread differs 
 in various countries. In Germany and Austria 
 the baker sticks to old-time "Sauer" and "Vorteig;" 
 the French baker still makes his famous "pain 
 de luxe" by setting a "pouliche" or batter first, 
 or using the leaven (levain) left over from the day 
 before, to start his doughs with. The Scotch baker 
 thinks there is nothing like his "barm" or "quarter 
 sponge;" the English baker likes his "ferments" or 
 sponge doughs, although he is getting used to the 
 straight dough system which he calls "off hand" 
 dough; the progressive American baker thinks there 
 is nothing like a ''straight" dough. 
 
 The system of first setting a sponge is no longer 
 the prevailing method in the larger bakeries; sponge 
 doughs are only used for hearth bread, such as Vienna 
 and Rye and Hotel bread, Pullman, Snowflake, etc. 
 But many of the smaller or retail bakers still cling 
 to the old time "long" sponge, because they think it is 
 more convenient. 
 
 He sets his sponge in the evening at 8 o'clock, 
 goes to bed and lets the sponge take care of itself 
 until 4 or 5 o'clock in the morning. He then makes 
 a whole variety of doughs out of the one sponge, such 
 
2 Part 4 
 
 as Home-made, Vienna, Graham, Rolls, Coffee Cakes, 
 Buns, and some even use it for Rye dough. 
 
 However my advice to all is to discard this anti- 
 quated method as much as possible, as it is against the 
 laws of fermentation to hold a sponge or dough too 
 long. The time when a sponge or dough is at its 
 best, is very short. But where two or more kinds of 
 bread and perhaps rolls must be made out of this 
 sponge, my advice is to weigh out the amount of 
 sponge needed for each dough, instead of first break- 
 ing down the sponge with water needed for dough 
 making and then dipping it out, as some old timers 
 are still in the habit of doing. Sponges are called 
 "short" sponges (3 to 6 hours) or "long" sponges (6 to 
 10 hours), according to the length of time allowed them 
 to get "ripe." 
 
 SPONGE DOUGHS. There are some advantages 
 to the "sponge" method. A sponge dough requires only 
 about half the amount of yeast than a straight dough. 
 A sponge can stand a longer time when ripe, while a 
 straight dough must be worked up when ready. 
 Where "volume" or size of loaf is the main object, the 
 
 sponge dough is the thing. 
 Cheaper grades of flour, or stronger flour, can be 
 
 used in sponges to better advantage. 
 A sponge dough can be better regulated, especially 
 when new, or when young flour is used. If the 
 sponge comes slow or too fast, you can hasten 
 or hold back the dough by regulating the tempera- 
 ture of the water, and increasing or cutting the 
 amount of salt. Or, if any extra order comes in, 
 you can pour on more water. 
 
 SHORT SPONGES are generally used for 
 "Hearth" bread, such as Vienna and Rye, also Vienna 
 and French rolls. Making a comparatively soft sponge, 
 more water can be used than in a straight dough, be- 
 sides you can develop a real good "nutty" flavor and 
 get a better testing, crisp, tender crust on "Hearth" 
 
Part 4 3 
 
 bread than with a straight dough, at the same time 
 using less sugar or yeast food, milk and shortening, 
 A "short" sponge should only be allowed to break, or 
 drop one time. 
 
 Doughs from short sponges I do not mix as much 
 as straight doughs. Some bakers use too much of 
 the total liquid (water or milk) in the sponge, but I 
 prefer to pour nearly as much on dough as on sponge. 
 For instance, if I want a Vienna dough of 100 pounds 
 of water, I set sponge with 60 pounds of water and 
 pour on for dough at least 40 to 45 pounds. It makes 
 a closer loaf. For short sponge doughs, let dough 
 come up once until it starts to break, then knock 
 down and let come half way again, no more. 
 
 LONG SPONGES are used for Columbia, Hotel 
 or Pullman and Cream Bread. They are made stiffer 
 (say 13 to 15 pounds of flour to the gallon of water), 
 and stand from 7 to 10 hours. Only about half as much 
 yeast is required as in Straight doughs. 
 
 For Cottage or Pan loaves made from long sponge 
 dough, the dough is run through brake only six times 
 but for Sandwich, Hotel and Pullman it requires 14 
 or 15 times rolling. 
 
 The oftener you roll such old sponge dough, the 
 whiter the crumb and the higher the loaf will be. 
 
 Long Sponge and Dough. The long sponge must 
 be set stiffer, as it slackens considerable after stand- 
 ing about 5 hours. It can be allowed to drop the 
 second time, especially if the dough is run through the 
 break. A large sponge requires less yeast (in propor- 
 tion) than a small sponge. 
 
 Care must be taken that a sponge is not disturbed 
 after it is half raised as it falls by the least touch or 
 knock. 
 
 The time for a sponge to ripen can be lengthened by 
 increasing or lowering the temperature of the water, 
 or by using more or less yeast, or by using more or 
 less flour thereby making the sponge tighter, stiffer, or 
 slacker (softer). 
 
4 Part 4 
 
 When yeast is scarce, a little old or weak, you can 
 make it stronger by making a small batter with the 
 yeast, a few pints of warm water, a very little malt 
 extract or malt powder and sufficient flour. Set this 
 away for about 20 minutes, covered, in a warm place. 
 Then set the sponge with it, adding the water and flour. 
 
 Figure 1. 
 
 No. 1 , Loaf made of "short" sponge process ; No, 2, Loaf made with 
 all the same ingredients except a "long" sponge is used. 
 
 Why a dough made from a sponge produces a 
 larger loaf, is principally due to the addition of the 
 sugar or yeast food (malt extract), as well as the 
 sugar or diastasis converted from the starch of the 
 extra flour added in dough making. As we learned 
 in Part 2, sugars produce alcohol and gas and as the 
 dough after being made from the sponge only stands 
 from one to one and a half hours, we get a fresh 
 
Part 4 5 
 
 healthy supply of food for the yeast and consequently 
 more fresh gas production which means better expan- 
 sion. Furthermore, we have a new supply of gluten 
 in the dough making. 
 
 But, as we further know that the acidity increases, 
 the longer fermentation is allowed to go on, the re- 
 markable expansion power of a dough made from an 
 old sponge of 7 to 9 hours, must be due, to a great 
 extent, to "acetous" (acetic) ferments. (See Part 2.) 
 
 To illustrate this fact, I refer to Figure 1, which 
 shows a loaf of very large volume, and rich, healthy 
 color and fine tender but crisp crust. Loaf No. I, is 
 made from "short" sponge dough (4^ hours), but 
 sponge and dough being set rather soft. Size, color 
 and flavor are very good and texture solid and even. 
 Loaf No. 2 is made from a "long" (8-hour) sponge 
 dough. However, as this sponge and dough have been 
 set stiff er, the size of loaf shows to be smaller (same 
 weight). It has a mild but not unpleasant acid flavor 
 which, however, a great many people like. The crumb 
 is of somewhat darker color, and more open, but not 
 coarse or dry. 
 
 Now I have tried in different ways to produce this 
 loaf with a straight dough but found it impossible. It 
 will get soft after it has been out of the oven for a 
 while, no matter how hard baked, and it will never 
 spring so high and round ; it lacks that "bouncing" 
 strength. I can use quite some second grade flour, and 
 very little "dope" — sugar and shortening. The flour, 
 gluten, yeast and natural acid ferments (sponge) do the 
 work. I make another loaf, (cottage) from an old 
 (8-hour) sponge of which we make from 5,000 to 7,000 
 loaves a day, and although they weigh not heavier 
 than our straight dough loaves — and I have tried to 
 substitute the same shape loaf (double loaf) made 
 from a much richer straight doueh — some customers 
 want that loaf, and they seem to like that slight acid 
 flavor, in preference to the richer loaf. The only 
 difficulty is, to get rich, brown colored crust, and I 
 use a small amount of malt extract for this purpose. 
 
6 Part 4 
 
 A small amount of salt added to a sponge is to be 
 recommended, especially when flour contains consider- 
 able acidity and in "longer" sponges. I figure one to 
 two ounces for every 25 pounds of water used in 
 sponges, the larger amount in stiffer and older sponges. 
 
 Short sponge doughs like Vienna do not re- 
 quire so much salt as old sponge doughs. In damp and 
 rainy weather, especially in close murky summer 
 days, Hearth bread (like Vienna, Rye, Cornmeal and 
 French) is likely to lose its crispness, and crust gets 
 tough and rubbery, no matter how hard the bread is 
 baked. This is due partly to the hydroscopic char- 
 acter of the salt. My dough-mixers are instructed, 
 whenever the weather changes as above mentioned, to 
 cut down the amount of salt 1 to 2 ounces on every 
 pound of salt used regularly. 
 
 Bread made from sponge dough also does not re- 
 quire as much sugar or shortening as straight dough 
 and keeps moist and fresh longer. You can in fact, 
 produce a good pan loaf with hardly any sugar or 
 shortening from sponge dough, while a straight dough 
 without sugar, shortening, malt or milk will make a 
 mighty poor loaf of pan bread, even if a better grade 
 of flour is used. Bread made from sponge dough has 
 a more velvety feeling and is more spongy. One im- 
 portant point to get best results from a sponge dough 
 is to make and keep the dough warm; at least at 83 
 degrees. Sponge can be set cooler as it warms up more 
 than dough during fermentation. If sponge dough is 
 too cold, say below 81 it will sweat and get sticky. The 
 loaves lack expansion in oven, and flavor after being 
 baked is not there. 
 
 Some experts advocate to give sponges a very 
 good mixing or beating, at fast speed, but I believe 
 this is not only no advantage but detrimental. A 
 sponge does not require so much air or oxygen, as the 
 certain oxidizing processes during fermentation means 
 more or stronger or too much acid formation, which 
 weakens the gluten. I mix sponges very little and 
 
Part 4 7 
 
 leave to natural fermentation. Sponges must be broken 
 up well first with the water, sugar, salt, malt, etc. 
 before adding the flour for mixing the dough. 
 
 If a sponge happens to get too warm (say 86 de- 
 grees) for some reason, you will get rid of some of 
 that fever heat by mixing the sponge first with part of 
 the dough-water and salt, adding a few pounds of ice. 
 After breaking it up, let stand a while before adding 
 flour, etc. Pour on the rest of the water gradually, 
 by dipperfuls, adding to each dipper a handful of ex- 
 tra salt. You will be surprised how the sponge gives 
 out its heat. I compare an over-heated sponge or 
 dough to a fever patient ; the heat or fever can only 
 be drawn out by ice and salt or ice water added grad- 
 ually. If a sponge can not be worked off in time, for 
 some unforseen reason, throw it into the mixer and add 
 part of the water and salt, and give it a few turns to 
 break it up ; water must be colder than usual by several 
 degrees, or in summer a few pieces of ice can be 
 added as sponge warms the water. This will keep it 
 fresh for some time. 
 
 Never take a sponge too young, as no matter how 
 long you let dough stand afterwards, it will work 
 young and wet and bread will be small and heavy, 
 coarse grained and dark. Any sponge must at least 
 break before you can make the dough. If you have 
 a piece of some older dough on hand, break it up with 
 the sponge and mix dough a little softer, increasing 
 the amount of salt also. 
 
 STRAIGHT DOUGHS. One of the advantages 
 of straight doughs over sponge doughs is the saving 
 of time and labor, as all the ingredients are mixed 
 at one time and length of fermentation can be con- 
 trolled at will, according to amount of yeast used ; 
 however, best results as to sweetness and flavor, also 
 texture, are obtained from straight doughs standing 
 from $y 2 to 6 hours. Straight doughs standing over 
 6 hours will not make as good a loaf of bread, and they 
 must be made stiffer. A straight dough needs more 
 
8 Part 4 
 
 mixing than a sponge dough, as the gluten must be 
 stretched and worked more. The condition or change 
 of weather does not effect a straight dough as readily 
 as it will a sponge or sponge dough. 
 
 A sweeter loaf and a loaf of fine texture can be 
 made by the straight dough method; also a fine rich 
 flavor can be imparted, but it requires considerable 
 extra stimulants, such as sugar, malt, lard, milk, etc. 
 
 I get best results by setting a short time ferment 
 of yeast, prepared cornflour or flakes, malt and some 
 water, as described in Fermentation. However, a 
 straight dough must also be watched more closely. 
 If knocked down too soon (first time) it will never 
 have the same expansion and bread will be heavy and 
 coarse. On the other hand, if it gets too old, the 
 bread will be worse than from an old sponge dough 
 and no mixing or coaxing along with extra yeast will 
 improve it. 
 
 You can take a small piece of old dough and use it 
 as a leaven, freshening it over several times and you 
 can build up a good fermentation that way, but you 
 can not do it with a whole straight dough, if it has 
 become sour. 
 
 I used to believe in cutting over the straight doughs, 
 but I came to the conclusion, that this destroys the 
 flavor. I only have a dough cut over if it gets too 
 warm or has to stand over its regular time. A straight 
 dough should never be allowed to stand until it settles 
 or falls. If flour is new or young, then you can cut 
 dough over once, after first knock down. 
 
 A straight dough should never be over 84 degrees 
 when mixed, and it can be mixed at 78 degrees — but 
 never lower, as explained before. 
 
 Sweet Dough for Buns, Coffee Cakes and Rolls. 
 The same rule applies here as stated before. The 
 amount of material added to the flour, water and salt 
 does not alone make the difference in quality. I prefer 
 a straight dough for all sweet goods. For instance, 
 you use a very fancy Spring patent flour and blend it 
 
Part 4 9 
 
 with 10 to 20 percent of rich soft Winter patent for 
 sweet dough ; you can save on sugar and shortening 
 but may use more yeast. The same when you use pure 
 milk or milk-powder, you can reduce the other im- 
 provers. For all coffee cakes, especially when butter 
 is used, the same should always be creamed up separate 
 with part of the sugar and the eggs, and added to 
 dough when it is partly mixed. This also applies to 
 Hot Cross buns and all sweet bun doughs and rolls. 
 
 Sweet doughs are also improved by making a 
 batter of the malt (liquid or powder) with sufficient 
 water and a few pounds of corn flakes or corn flour, 
 and set it aside for 20 to 30 minutes, adding it when 
 dough is partly mixed. 
 
 PROPER TEMPERATURE. 
 
 Is there anything as important as proper tem- 
 perature in bread making? I say NO. And still 
 there are so many diversions of opinion, that it is 
 a hard matter to draw conclusions too close. Having 
 explained the nature of yeast, flour, etc., and the cause 
 and effect of fermentation, we come now to the actual 
 work of dough making. The most important in- 
 strument in the modern bakery, no matter how large 
 or how small its output, is the thermometer. And not 
 only one do we need, but several, as the success of our 
 baking depends on the free use of this instrument. 
 We need it: — 
 
 1. To ascertain the outdoor temperature before 
 we start work. 
 
 2. To get the temperature of the bake room or 
 mixing room. 
 
 3. In the dough room and moulding room, the 
 proofing room, and finally the ovens. In the dough 
 room we ought to have two thermometers as the tem- 
 perature near the floor and ceiling often differ several 
 degrees. This affects dough in iron or steel troughs 
 more of course than in wooden troughs. 
 
10 Part 4 
 
 4. To get temperature of flour every day. This 
 should be done if possible after flour is blended and 
 sifted. 
 
 5. To regulate temperature of water correctly, as 
 by this we regulate the temperature of the dough and 
 this is of the greatest importance. 
 
 6. To watch the temperature of the dough. The 
 dough-thermometer is the most expensive one needed, 
 but it pays to get the best, as I myself have tried 
 cheaper substitutes. The up-to-date mixer or fore- 
 man depends on his dough thermometer just as much 
 as the physician depends on his little, delicate looking 
 thermometer in watching his fever patient. 
 
 HEAT CALCULATIONS IN DOUGH-MAKING. 
 
 There have been a number of different methods 
 published from time to time for calculating the proper 
 heat of the water required in dough-making to get 
 the dough at the required temperature. The average 
 baker has no time for theorizing, but he should make 
 some effort to master some fundamental principles 
 of natural laws and become able to carry out certain 
 mental calculations. Heat calculations are certainly 
 of vital importance in dough-making, as they effect 
 fermentation and proofing more than anything else. 
 The best of flour and the purest, strongest yeast can 
 be spoiled by the baker if he abuses them through 
 extreme temperatures in mixing his dough either too 
 cold or too warm. Therefore, it is essential that we 
 first find out the meaning of the term. 
 
 Specific Heat. The principles of Heat, Heat Units 
 and Calories are thoroughly explained in Part 5. (See 
 Combustion.) By specific heat, we mean the quantity 
 of heat necessary to raise the temperature of any sub- 
 stance one degree compared with the quantity neces- 
 sary to raise the temperature of the same weight of 
 water one degree. Water is used as the standard 
 or unit of calculating the specific heat of all other sub- 
 
Part 4 11 
 
 stances, because the specific heat of water is taken as 
 One. Therefore, we understand, that a unit of heat 
 (B. T. U.) is the amount of heat required to raise 
 one pound of water through one degree Fahrenheit, 
 or to express it in the metric system, to raise one gram 
 of water from degree Centrigrade to 1 degree C, 
 one gram calorie is required. So, if we have one 
 pound of water at 60 degrees (F) and want to raise 
 it to 80 degrees (F) or 20 degrees, we require 20 
 units of heat (B. T. U.) (See Part 5.) 
 
 The principle involved in getting dough at a cer- 
 tain heat is that all substances which have more or less 
 warmth or heat will part with this warmth when they 
 are brought in contact with cooler substances, until all 
 are at an equal temperature. For instance, we mix 
 one pound of water at 60 degrees (F) with one 
 pound of water at 80 degrees, the colder water will 
 absorb the heat of the warmer and rise as the other 
 falls, until the temperature is half way between, which 
 in this case is 70 degrees. But if we take 2 pounds 
 of water at 60 degrees (F) and only one pound at 80 
 degrees, the resulting temperature of the mixture will 
 not be 70, but only a trifle under 67 degrees, because 
 we have a smaller amount of heat, having only half 
 the quantity of the warmer water. 
 
 However, when we mix different substances, say 
 water and flour together, the resulting temperature 
 of the dough is different. The specific heat of flour 
 differs from that of water (the average is 0.40) which 
 means that a given amount of flour requires less heat 
 to raise it a given number of degrees or heat units, 
 than does an equal quantity of water, or on the other 
 hand, the same quantity of heat will raise a given 
 quantity of flour to a higher degree of temperature (or 
 more heat units are produced) than it will raise the 
 same quantity of water. This leads us to the fact 
 that one pound of water will part with as much heat 
 as will raise two pounds of flour to a temperature 
 exactly between the two. 
 
12 Part 4 
 
 We may figure the average specific heat of flour 
 at 0.40 but there is no end of exceptions or differences. 
 For instance, different kinds of flour vary in specific 
 heat; for instance, for Rye sponge and dough and 
 Graham, I take the water cooler than for wheat flour 
 sponges and doughs, although the flour has the same 
 temperature. (See Mixing-room Chart.) Even in 
 the same flour the specific heat varies ; it requires 
 more heat to raise one pound of flour from 50 to 51 
 than it does to raise one pound of the same flour 
 from 70 to 71 degrees. Now, if the temperature of 
 the flour was the only factor to consider, it would 
 even then be more simple to get the proper dough 
 temperature, but the variations of shop temperature 
 must also be considered, the size of dough, etc. 
 
 After many experiments with doughs of from 1 
 to 4 barrels of flour, my advice is this : Never have 
 water over 85 degrees (or 90 maximum) for mixing 
 a dough in winter or under 65 degrees (F) in summer, 
 no matter what temperature the flour may have. 
 
 Of course you will ask, "How are we to get a 
 dough of 80 or 81 degrees when the flour is 86 or 88 
 in summer or only 60 or 65 in winter?" There are 
 a number of methods given by different expert bakers 
 for determining temperatures. Some recommend to 
 deduct flour temperature from the required dough 
 heat and add the difference to the dough heat, 
 the result being the temperature for the water. This 
 would mean, take the water at 101 deg. F. In another 
 book the method of multiplying the required temper- 
 ature of the dough by 2 and subtract the temper- 
 ature of the flour with allowances, brings the water 
 to 104 degrees. Now I have a fixed standard which 
 acts as a guide. Temperature of flour is taken in 
 the flour bin, every morning, before the mixer begins 
 his work and marked down on the dough sheet. The 
 condition of the weather and outdoor temperature is 
 also marked down. The dough room is kept at 78 
 or 80 degrees, summer and winter. We know from 
 
Part 4 13 
 
 the previous day's record of temperature, how much 
 water to hold back to be added to doughs at a higher 
 temperature. The reason for not mixing the flour 
 with water over 85 degrees is this : Water over 85 
 degrees will dissolve the soluble gluten immediately 
 it gets in contact with it, and at the same time the 
 cold flour, say at 65 degrees, will chill the water very 
 fast. By adding a small quanity of water, even if 
 boiling, after the water and flour is mixed together, 
 the extra heat in the hotter water will add many 
 thousands of heat units or calories and raise the tem- 
 perature as desired. 
 
 Of course, every baker should have a fixed stand- 
 ard of calculating or figuring the temperature of the 
 water required according to the temperature of the 
 flour, shop, and outside temperature ; of course, some 
 judgment must be used or allowance made for pre- 
 vailing conditions ; but, whenever the water tempera- 
 ture is required to be above 85 degrees, mix your 
 flour with water at 85 degrees, holding back one or 
 two gallons. When flour is all well mixed with the 
 water, take the remaining amount of water many de- 
 grees hotter (even if boiling, it does not matter), and 
 this water added at a high temperature will bring the 
 dough at the required 82 or 84 degrees. 
 
 Pour the water on gradually while the mixer is 
 running. By any other method you would perhaps 
 require your water to be 102 degrees for 83 degrees 
 dough. So on each pound of water we are 17 degrees 
 short, which means 1,700 degrees short on the hun- 
 dred pound of water. Now, take scalding water at 
 170 degrees, and the difference between 85 and 170 
 is 85. Therefore, 20 pounds of water (2% gallons) 
 at 170 degrees will give you the twenty times 85 
 degrees, or 1,700 degrees, which you need to bring 
 the whole dough to 83 degrees, or give the same re- 
 sult as if you took all the water at 102 degrees. 
 
 When you have been using the water at 95 de- 
 grees, the flour not being quite so cold, and want to 
 
14 Part 4 
 
 take it now at 85 degrees, it would take only 100x10 
 or 1,000 degrees to add, or a trifle less than 12 pounds 
 of water (1^ gallons) at 170 degrees. If you use 
 boiling water to bring up the temperature of the 
 dough, it requires a smaller amount. 
 
 Example: We should take 100 pounds water at 
 95 but wanted only 85 degrees, multiply the amount 
 (100 pounds) by 95 gives 4,500 degrees. Next, mul- 
 tiply the temperature of the 100 pounds of water which 
 we want to take at 85 degrees, and have 100x85 
 or 8,500. Therefore, we are 1,000 degrees short. 
 One pound of boiling water, 212 degrees and the 
 other water at 85 degrees shows a difference of 127 
 degrees. Divide the 1,000 degrees by 127 gives about 
 8 pounds (or one gallon). Consequently, if we use 
 water at 85 degrees, instead of 95 and keep one gallon 
 back, to be added at the boiling temperature after the 
 flour and water is well mixed, we will have a better 
 dough. 
 
 To convince yourself that it is detrimental to the 
 gliadin, and consequently to perfect fermentation, to 
 use the water above 85 degrees, mix a little flour 
 into a small dough with sufficient water at 95 de- 
 grees. Now try to wash out the gluten in water 
 of the same temperature, and you will find a very 
 small amount of gluten. The gliadin has been dis- 
 solved by the hot water. You repeat the same test 
 making another dough, using water at 50 degrees 
 or colder, and then try to wash out the gluten in 
 water of the same low temperature, you find that the 
 starch is hard to wash out, the whole dough being 
 like a piece of leather. After you succeed in getting 
 out the starch you will get a tough, stringy, gray sub- 
 stance which is glutenin. The smooth binding part 
 (gliadin) again is missing. To get a perfect test, or 
 gluten sample, you have to use the water for both 
 operations, mixing the dough and washing out the 
 starch, at a temperature between 68 and 80 degrees. 
 
Part 4 
 
 15 
 
 However, sponges must be treated different than 
 straight doughs. Water must be taken colder, as tne 
 gluten (principally the gliadin) has been softened dur- 
 ing the fermentation. I have found that the water 
 should be taken much colder to pour on a sponge when 
 ready to mix with more flour for dough. Salt and 
 other ingredients may be added same time with water, 
 the sponge broken up with the water and then let stand 
 at least five minutes before adding the v flour required. 
 With an eight hour sponge this is still more important 
 than with a four or five hour sponge. The cold water 
 will draw the excess of heat from the sponge and 
 stiffen the gluten, invigorate it to stand the mixing 
 into dough without getting a sticky dough or a dead 
 
 A B 
 
 Fig. 2. — A, shows Gluten washed from 50 grams unfermented Dough ; 
 B, washed from eight-hour Sponge. 
 
 Example: Take a piece of sponge when it has 
 dropped and is ready for taking; try to wash out the 
 starch (to get the gluten) using water at 85 degrees 
 or over. You will not be able to find any gluten. Take 
 the water at 65, you save a few stringy, tough little 
 pieces. Now put a piece of same sponge in water at 
 35 or 40 degrees, and you will be able to gather all 
 the gluten contents left during the fermentation pro- 
 
16 Part 4 
 
 cess of the sponge. However, it is most all glutenin 
 and has a gray dead color. It is about one-third of 
 amount that you get by washing out same amount of 
 dough made of water and same kind of flour. This 
 explains my statement, that in hot weather the water 
 for mixing the dough should not be taken below 60 
 degrees, no matter how warm the flour is. Keep suf- 
 ficient water back (from one to two gallons) and later 
 on, when dough is partly mixed, add that amount of 
 colder water, — even ice water will not hurt. The 
 large difference in degrees of the comparatively small 
 amount of colder water will draw the heat out of the 
 flour much better than when the whole amount of 
 water is taken at a low temperature, which chills the 
 gluten and retards fermentation. 
 
 After any dough is partly mixed (straight dough 
 or sponge dough), especially in a mixer, with fast 
 speed, it does not hurt, but rather improves, the dough 
 to add a few pieces of ice, and let them run along in 
 the mixer until the dough is nearly finished ; then take 
 them out, or if the ice has been chopped fine, it will 
 have melted. This will keep the mixer and blades 
 cool, and make a whiter dough and better texture. 
 
 Although I believe in fast speed mixers, I do not 
 believe in over-mixing a dough for the sake of yield, 
 being able to use a few pounds more of water to 
 every barrel of flour. You do so at the expense of 
 flavor. 
 
 BREAD FORMULAS. 
 
 In reality there is no such thing as a bread formula. 
 Every baker has his own method of working out a 
 formula suited to his own fancy or to suit his par- 
 ticular trade. One baker gets best results from one 
 flour while the other baker condemns it. One baker 
 told me that it is wasting money to use any dry milk 
 in bread, while thousands of barrels are sold every 
 month to some of the most progressive bakers ; I my- 
 self have used hundreds of barrels. The same refers 
 
Part 4 1? 
 
 to Malt Extracts and Shortenings. I have a col- 
 lection of formulas of the leadinig loaf from a dozen 
 large, successful bakers, in as many cities, and not two 
 of these formulas are alike, and I have not copied 
 either one myself but use one of my own get up. 
 And as to some advertised kinds of bread, where a 
 certain formula is furnished, the same has to be 
 changed in different cities and bakeries according to 
 conditions, and in some cases a different formula 
 altogether is used, only retaining the name for ad- 
 vertising purposes. 
 
 Every baker has a regular formula for every kind 
 of bread he makes and this we call a "basic" formula. 
 For instance to one barrel of flour he may be using — 
 14 gallons of Water; 1% pounds of Yeast; 2 pounds 
 of Malt; 3 pounds of Sugar; 4 pounds of Lard; 3 
 pounds of Salt. 
 
 Then when he gets another flour or buys a higher 
 diastasic malt extract, a richer shortening or a richer 
 sugar, a different yeast, or runs short on yeast, he 
 changes his formula accordingly. 
 
 As I had occasion in several large bakeries to 
 start a system in the shop, I naturally had to find the 
 easiest way of getting the men in the mixing room 
 used to figuring and calculating. Now, we all know 
 that there are lots of bakers to this day who figure 
 the amount of water by "buckets" or pails. Some 
 use 10 quart buckets, others 3 gallon buckets. To 
 every bucket they figure a certain amount of salt, 
 yeast, sugar, etc. Now, we know that this will not do 
 any longer, in an up-to-date bakery, where the total 
 weight of every dough has to be marked down. A 
 baker generally figures a gallon of water at 8 pounds. 
 I have made this more simple by figuring. — 
 25 lbs. water for 3 gallons 
 50 " " " 6 " 
 100 " " "12 " 
 This is practically correct, as we learned that the 
 weight of water varies at different temperatures. 
 
18 Part 4 
 
 With this method, even the retail baker using only two 
 buckets for sponge or dough can figure out the number 
 of pounds of water without using a pencil. For in- 
 stance he wants to use 9 gallons or 3 buckets of water : 
 Well, 6 gallon is 50 pounds and 3 gallon is 25 pounds, 
 makes 75 pounds. Or, he used 2 l / 2 buckets (7 J / 2 gal- 
 lon.) Now, 1 bucket is 25 pounds, 2 buckets is 50 
 pounds, and Vz bucket fl^ gallon) is 12 pounds, 
 making a total of 62 pounds, equal to 2 l / 2 buckets or 
 *ty 2 gallons. Now when I want, for instance, 160 
 pounds of water, my men would figure it this way — 
 100 lbs. are 12 gal., 50 lbs. are 6 gal. and the other 
 10 lbs. they figure as 1 gal., the result, 12+6+1 = 19 
 gallons or 6 1-3 buckets. It certainy does not cause 
 a great mental strain to memorize these simple calcu- 
 lations. Then the rest of material can be figured out 
 all based on 25 lbs. of water, say for — 
 
 WATER FLOUR YEAST 
 
 25 lbs. take 40 lbs. 6 ozs. 
 
 50 " " 80 " 12 " 
 
 75 " " 120 " 18 " 
 100 " " 160 " 1 1/ 2 lbs. 
 125 " " 200 "30 ozs. 
 
 Now, most bakers also figure a barrel of flour as 
 their basis, but I find it is more reliable to take the 
 water as the basis for all calculations in bread doughs. 
 Our standard of buying and selling flour by the barrel 
 of 196 lbs. is certainly very antiquated and even if 
 we buy our flour in sacks which weigh 140 lbs., the 
 amount is based on the barrel standard. We know 
 that 7 sacks make 5 barrels or 980 lbs. but the miller 
 does not quote us price on 1,000 or 10,000 sacks, but 
 so many barrels although it is all delivered in sacks. 
 I hope the day is not far distant when some cental 
 like the Metric System of Weights and Measures (Kil- 
 ogramm and Metre and their decimals) will become the 
 universal standards, and we can buy flour in packages 
 of round figures. 
 
 SALT SUGAR 
 
 LARD 
 
 10 ozs. 
 
 12 ozs. 
 
 1 2 ozs. 
 
 1 Va lbs. 
 
 1 1/2 lbs, 
 
 ■ l'/2" 
 
 30 ozs. 
 
 21/4 " 
 
 2'/ 4 " 
 
 2V2 lbs. 
 
 3 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 3% " 
 
 3% " 
 
Part 4 19 
 
 BREAD STANDARDS. 
 
 There have been attempts made in several cities 
 to pass ordinances for the purpose of establishing 
 standards of quality for all kinds of bread. Food 
 inspectors, health officers and doctors are sometimes 
 over zealous in their effort to protect the public against 
 fraud and deception and the baker comes in for a 
 good share of the accusation. 
 
 They can not understand why a Gluten loaf of 
 bread should contain anything but pure gluten flour 
 or a graham loaf be made out of graham flour only, 
 or they call it adulteration or unlawful to use any white 
 flour in Rye Bread. Now the baker knows that the 
 public would not buy a Graham loaf made out of gra- 
 ham flour only, because it would appear as if it was 
 made out of sawdust, or a Gluten loaf out of all pure 
 gluten flour would not hold together and very few 
 people do relish a loaf of Rye bread made out of even 
 three-fourths parts of pure rye flour, to say nothing 
 about all rye. Of course if a baker is trying to use the 
 very lowest grade of wheat flour like "red dog," he 
 is hurting his own interest more than the public, be- 
 cause he cannot improve his bread that way, and al- 
 though he can save some money on the cost of such 
 flour, he not only gets an inferior quality, but also a 
 smaller yield. 
 
 Many people, even many bakers imagine that Win- 
 ter Wheat flour is added to a bread dough only because 
 it is cheaper. But that is not so. By adding 10 to 15 
 percent of rich, soft winter wheat flour most bread 
 doughs are improved, because we get a richer dough 
 and a better flavored, better colored, loaf of bread ; 
 and, too, we can reduce the amount of shortening and 
 sugar or other yeast food, 
 
 After thirty years of practical experience it is my 
 conception — "that the actual value or standard of any 
 Flour or Standard of Bread is depending on the abil- 
 ity and experience of the baker." 
 
20 Part 4 
 
 One of the most successful bakers made this char- 
 acteristic remark: "It is a poor baker who has to buy 
 all first Patent flour to make a good colored, good 
 looking and good tasting loaf of bread." 
 
 BAKING TESTS, whereby the loaves are baked 
 in tins, are easier for measuring the expansion of the 
 loaves, but are not as reliable as to the actual strength 
 of the flour, as if we make the loaves for such tests in 
 "Cottage," "Vienna" of any other hand-made shape 
 and bake them on the hearth of the oven. The pan 
 loaf has only one direction of expansion and a weak 
 flour can be helped along with yeast, yeast foods, etc., 
 and will hold up in oven. With the loaves set on the 
 hearth, each loaf has to depend on its own inherent 
 strength and if the flour is weak the loaves spread or 
 fall flat. You make a set of pan loaves and an equal 
 set of "bottom" or "hearth" loaves from different 
 kinds of flour and put them in the same oven. You will 
 not find much difference in the appearance of the pan 
 loaves from the different grades of flour all made of 
 the same formula. A number of hearth loaves, each 
 made from the same formula with different flours, 
 will show different results. Some will crack on side, 
 some will run flat, and some will be too tight and round 
 and some may be just right. Therefore it will be an 
 advantage to have different flours for different kinds 
 of bread ; for instance, for sponges you can use a 
 stronger but cheaper flour, and in dough making add 
 some of a very fancy patent for flavor and bloom only. 
 
 CRACKING OF BREAD CRUST. It frequently 
 happens that bread cracks on top, especially if baked 
 on the hearth like Rye and Vienna Bread. The cause 
 of this is that too much steam is used in the oven. 
 For instance we make several thousand five-cent and 
 ten-cent large loaves of a certain kind, which are 
 proved with very little steam, and baked without any 
 steam in the oven. They are not required to get a 
 glossy finish, but in the hundreds of thousand loaves 
 
Part 4 21 
 
 baked in a year, I never noticed the crust of one loaf 
 being cracked, and crust is always tender and brittle, 
 not tough. If you use steam in oven, turn it on be- 
 fore bread is put in and then as soon as bread has 
 stopped expanding or raising and starts to color, you 
 must turn off steam altogether, as the bread creates 
 sufficient steam itself. In some cases it is even advise- 
 able to open steam damper, especially as in large heavy 
 bohemian rye and cottage loaves. When bread is taken 
 direct from oven into a cold bread room, or to the 
 wagon, the crust will also crack on top every time. It 
 should be kept in the warm bakeshop until it has 
 cooled some and the moisture or steam inside the loaf 
 has all escaped. 
 
 There is another kind of cracking of bread. The 
 loaves will crack on top or side, especially hearth bread, 
 when two are set too close together, or when the 
 steam is not sufficient, or too dry. (See part 5 Steam, 
 Ovens.) The Vienna and Rye will also crack open 
 when sponge or dough is too old. 
 
 COLOR OF BAKED LOAF. 
 Color of flour is not exactly a guide as to the color 
 ob the baked bread. For instance we make two kinds 
 of bread — Buster Brown and Home-made — from the 
 same blend of flour. The amount of ingredients used 
 in the two doughs — yeast, shortening, milk, sugar, malt, 
 and water — are exactly the same ; the only difference 
 is, for the Buster dough we use 12 to 16 ounces less 
 salt and 30 pounds less flour than for the Home-made 
 to 400 pounds of water. The temperature is also 
 alike, but the Buster loaf is whiter than the Home- 
 made loaf. This I trace to the smaller amount of salt, 
 principally. The more salt, the darker or richer the 
 color of the loaf in crumb and crust. This is especially 
 noticeable in bread made from sponge dough. I may 
 further mention that both have a distinct flavor and 
 texture. To give the Buster a richer looking crust, 
 I use steam in the oven, while the Home-made is dusted 
 with flour and baked without steam. 
 
22 Part 4 
 
 KEEPING BREAD MOIST. 
 
 CORN MUSH. Cooked flour (gelatinized) or a 
 mush made from fine white Cornmeal is a very good 
 retainer of Moisture in Bread. Before we had Malt 
 Extract, we used a good deal of such mush in pan 
 bread, especially the homemade kind. There are now 
 corn preparations on the market, which are already 
 cooked or steamed or otherwise prepared, taking the 
 place of cooked mush, which together with Malt 
 Extract, make also a good yeast-food. Absorbing 
 from 100 to 200 percent more water than ordinary 
 raw wheat flour, we also get a larger yield — more 
 pounds of such mush to every 100 pounds of water in 
 a straight dough can safely be used, but I would not 
 advocate more, as the bread is inclined to become 
 heavy and be more difficult to bake thoroughly. In 
 damp weather during the summer such bread is in- 
 clined to get mouldy much quicker. Therefore, the 
 amount used should be reduced in summer. 
 
 COOKED OR GELATINIZED flour answers 
 about the same purpose as corn mush, only does not 
 take up quite so much water, but gives a nice bloom 
 and helps the flavor. 
 
 POTATO MUSH. Patatoes are another mois- 
 ture retainer, and by the introduction of Potato Flour 
 the use of potatoes has become much less laborious 
 and more convenient. It gives bread a special flavor 
 and also increases yield. But as potatoes in any form 
 hasten fermentation, as any kind of yeast has strong 
 affinity for them, more care must be observed to 
 avoid "wild" fermentation or prevent bread going sour. 
 
 RYE BREAD. 
 
 The first consideration for making a good Rye 
 bread is a good fresh Rye Flour. In large bakeries 
 where a separate apparatus-blender, sifter and stor- 
 age-bin are used for Rye flour, I recommend the use 
 of pure Rye flour and a good first clear or second 
 straight and sometimes a small amount of Hard Kan- 
 
Part 4 23 
 
 sas. Of course, where only a few hundred loaves of 
 Rye bread a day are made, a good blended flour, 
 Rye and straight or spring wheat already mixed at 
 the mill are more convenient. 
 
 There are several kinds of Rye Bread made, Half 
 Rye, Bohemian Rye, Sauer Rye, etc. For hardly any 
 other kind of bread does the method differ so widely 
 in different bakeries as for Rye bread. Some bakers 
 make a very soft sponge with nearly all Rye flour, 
 using two-thirds of the total water in the sponge. For 
 the dough, they use nearly all white flour, straight or 
 clear, and perhaps a small amount of Hard Kansas 
 with it. Others use their regular blend, 2 to %y 2 
 sacks of straight Spring flour to one sack of blended 
 Rye flour, or 3 sacks straight or clear Spring to one 
 sack of pure Rye in both sponge and dough, a little 
 second Spring Patent or Kansas added to the dough. 
 Some make a straight dough. In this case a piece of 
 dough kept over from previous dough (not sauer) 
 makes a larger loaf. 
 
 I use a medium soft sponge about 36 pounds of 
 flour to every 25 pounds of water and pour on a half 
 gallon more or 28 to 30 pounds for dough. A soft 
 dough gives largest, best-grained loaf. I also add 2 
 pounds Sauer to every 25 pounds of water used in the 
 sponge, but Sauer is mixed in doughing not in the 
 sponge. Rye sponge should only drop once. Rye 
 dough made from sponge should be allowed to get 
 ready only once (when it breaks), then knocked down 
 and only allowed to stand about twenty minutes the 
 second time. For Bohemian Rye, I set a larger 
 sponge with two-thirds of the total water and use 
 more pure Rye flour in sponge and dough. For 
 doughing use about same amount of Sauer as in half 
 Rye dough. 
 
 This dough goes to the bench (or the divider) as 
 soon as mixed, which makes a fine rounded loaf in 
 the oven. This Bohemian Rye a3so needs a cooler 
 oven, otherwise it will crack open. All Rye bread 
 
24 Part 4 
 
 requires plenty of steam in the oven until it starts to 
 color. Rye flour should always be fresh from the mill ; 
 not over two or three weeks supply at a time being 
 kept. It must also be kept in a cool place. I prefer 
 Wisconsin or New York State Rye, and not too dark. 
 SAUER. I start fresh Sauer only once a week 
 with say 3 ounces of yeast to a gallon of water and 
 sufficient Rye flour to make a medium stiff dough, 
 temperature not over 83 degrees. This will spring 
 up nice and round and break like a cauliflower. Then 
 freshen it up with 2 to 3 quarts more water, of about 
 same temperature, and add more pure Rye, also a 
 half pound ground caraway and 2 ounces of salt. 
 When this breaks again, add from 2 to 4 quarts more 
 water, the same amount of salt as before, more ground 
 
 ABC 
 
 Fig. 3. — A, Rye bread made from straight dough ; B, Rye bread made 
 
 from sponge dough ; C, Bohemian rye bread made with "Sauer." 
 
 caraway and more pure Rye flour. By this time you 
 can add scraps of white dough from the machines, etc, 
 and later on all Rye scraps as well. 
 
 Some bakers have the mistaken impression, that 
 any old pieces of sour dough and scraps will do for 
 sauer, and think it should smell sour. Sauer dough 
 must always be kept sweet by freshening up con- 
 tinually. When it once gets sour or bitter, you may as 
 well start a new Sauer. Scraps do not hurt the Sauer, 
 as long as it is always freshened up. 
 
 Sauer must be mixed thoroughly every time, and 
 kept in a warm place. Keep adding ground caraway 
 
Part 4 25 
 
 and little salt every time you work it and every day, 
 or every second day, a little yeast added will keep 
 it fresh and sweet. I add salt for the purpose of 
 keeping it from working in the dough as I only use 
 the Sauer for flavor, and when made right and watched 
 •closely, it will be as sweet as a nut all the time. Only 
 use pure Rye flour in Sauer. 
 
 Figure 3 gives an illustration of how I get about 
 the same texture in Rye bread made with different 
 methods. (A) is made from a straight dough (half 
 Rye). But more yeast is required than for sponge 
 dough and a piece of left over rye dough besides some 
 Sauer. Say use 4 ounces of Sauer, 3 to 4 ounces 
 of yeast and 3 to ?>y 2 ounces of salt to the gallon of 
 water. The loaf is a little smaller than the sponge 
 loaf but very sweet and close grained and smooth. 
 
 (B) is made from our regular half rye sponge dough, 
 more water poured for the dough, than for the sponge. 
 
 (C) is a Bohemian Rye loaf, for which less water is 
 poured on dough than on sponge and taken from the 
 mixer direct to the divider or bench. I use ground 
 caraway in every rye sponge, besides what is mixed 
 into the sauer. 
 
 BREAD BAKED ON HEARTH. 
 
 The one factor to be considered when baking any 
 kind of bread on the hearth is the steam in the oven. 
 You will find full information about Steam in Part 5. 
 
 The steam prevents the cracking of the loaf and 
 keeps it in shape during its expansion in the oven. 
 Steam produces a gloss or glaze on the crust, which is 
 more natural than if bread is washed after it comes out 
 of the oven. The glaze on Vienna in the oven is 
 caused by the gelatinizing of the starch in the dough ; 
 in other words, by the formation of dextrin or gum 
 while the crust is forming. 
 
 As any bread or rolls baked on the hearth are im- 
 proved greatly in looks by a rich, dry gloss, we must 
 help to get that gloss; it is even more important for 
 this bread to keep it covered up during proofing (or 
 
26 Part 4 
 
 in a moist place) to prevent it from getting crusted. 
 If that happens, it should be washed with weak starch 
 wash before going to the oven. Or if there is not 
 sufficient steam in oven, bread must be washed when 
 it comes out of the oven ; however, this must be done 
 immediately or else crust gets very tough and wet. It 
 is better to place loaves or rolls back in oven for a 
 minute after washing them. 
 
 About Flour for Hearth Bread ; that depends on the 
 method of fermentation. For Vienna and French 
 bread and Vienna rolls, the addition of some extra 
 fancy middlings patent flour, (Spring or Kansas) from 
 15 to 40 percent, is the greatest improver, and helps 
 more than any other material to produce a tender crust 
 and delicious flavor. I would advise any baker, includ- 
 ing the small retail baker, to keep some of the very 
 finest Patent always on hand, even if he pays from 50 
 cents to a dollar more for it. The flavor of such fancy 
 Patents I compare with the finest brands of Hungarian 
 flour. I only advocate such rich flour as a special 
 blend to improve the color, crust and flavor, so, re- 
 ember, as I said, for Vienna, French Bread and Rolls, 
 you just add this fancy flour to the dough, not in the 
 sponge. 
 
 In one large bakery where we made about a thou- 
 sand dozen "Weeks" or Butter Rolls (baked on the 
 hearth) a day, we made a soft sponge (2 hours) with 
 regular blend, and for the dough we used half of the 
 Fancy Patent. To every Vienna dough we also used 
 one sack of the Fancy Patent. A flour like No. 7 
 mentioned in the Laboratory and Practical Flour Tests 
 ( Part 3 ) , is about the right kind for this purpose. 
 
 To illustrate my contention about such fancy flours 
 which are made as a specialty by several large mills 
 and sold at an extra fancy price, I give result of a 
 test of one, which we shall call Fancy Hungarian 
 Patent. The sample loaf made from the above was 
 characteristically flat in proof; it sprang up better in 
 oven. However, it would not stand up full, but sank 
 
Part 4 
 
 27 
 
 some. When it was cut after 12 hours, it was a darker 
 yellow than Standard Spring or Kansas. However, 
 flavor of crumb and crust was delicious, and crust a 
 fine rich golden brown. 
 
 All bread baked on the hearth should first be 
 rounded up and allowed to spring on before it is 
 moulded up in proper shaped loaves. The effect of 
 careless moulding is plainly demonstrated in Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 4. — First loaf moulded loose ; second loaf moulded tight. 
 
 The loaf in the right being moulded proper, sprang 
 up fine and cracked perfectly in oven, while the loaf 
 on the left, moulded up carelessly and too loose, ran 
 flat in oven and did not crack. Both loaves are from 
 same dough, made at same time and baked in same 
 oven together. 
 
 TEXTURE AND GRAIN OF BREAD. 
 
 When cutting a loaf of bread, we first look at 
 the cut surface, and from the regularity or evenness 
 of the network of the little cells, most bakers form 
 their judgment on the texture of the loaf. However, 
 I call this only the grain. Some bakers may condemn 
 a loaf having a very good texture, just because of 
 their erroneous impression that the presence of one 
 or a few larger holes destroys the texture of the loaf. 
 In reality the holes can accidently happen in the best 
 loaf, or perhaps in only a few loaves in a batch of a 
 thousand loaves. This is illustrated in Figure 5, show- 
 ing a loaf of bread fit to get a prize in any competi- 
 tion, judging from first cut. which shows it perfect 
 
28 Part 4 
 
 in grain, color and texture, and having a very smooth, 
 velvety feeling. But, prompted by mere curiosity, I 
 cut the loaf on the other end, and behold ! several 
 large holes were there. This deceiving fact struck 
 me so forceful, that I had the two pieces (from the 
 same loaf) photographed. Now, suppose I had cut 
 the wrong end first and formed my opinion on the 
 appearence or grain of the crumb? This proves: — 
 
 That real Texture is not the gram alone, as seen 
 zvith your eyes, but it is decided by the touch of your 
 fingers, the sense of feeling. 
 
 A B 
 
 Fig. 5. — A, Loaf aimost perfec* in grain, texture and color. B, Same 
 Loaf cut on the other end. 
 
 When you rub the fingers over a fresh cut piece 
 of bread and it feels like a piece of velvet, or in other 
 words, "as smooth as silk," that is good, perfect tex- 
 ture. But when it feels rough and dry, coarse, or 
 perhaps even crumbles away like sawdust instead of 
 being elastic and smooth, that is poor grain. The real 
 texture (judged by the sense of touch or feeling) is 
 largely influenced by the temperature during fermenta- 
 tion ; while what we may term the grain, depends 
 mostly on the strength of the gluten and its develop- 
 ment by stretching during the dough-mixing process. 
 The holes in the loaf shown above are not to be con- 
 sidered at the expense of the real texture, as they 
 were caused accidently. (See holes in bread). 
 
PART 5. 
 
 Heat, Combustion, Fuel, Ovens. 
 
 HEAT. 
 
 The introduction of machinery and patent bake- 
 ovens necessarily demands of the up-to-date baker a 
 more or less technical education. r lhe regulation of 
 the temperature of water, sponge and dough, as well 
 as the regulation of heat in bake-shops and the ovens, 
 must be studied, and the principles governing them 
 properly applied. 
 
 The heat in a bake-oven can and should be kept 
 under control just as the engineer has perfect control 
 over his engine or boiler. A pyrometer or thermo- 
 meter should be attached to every bake-oven, whether 
 made of brick or iron; indirectly (rlue-heated) or in- 
 side (direct) fired. There are three different scales 
 of heat measure ; the Reaumur, Celsius or Centi- 
 grade and the Fahrenheit. To abbreviate these names 
 on pyrometer or thermometer, the following letters 
 are used: R. (Reaumur), C. (Celsius), F. (Fahren- 
 heit). The freezing point on the R. and C. is marked 
 at zero, 0, while on the F., it is 32 degrees above zero. 
 The respective boiling points are marked at R. 80 de- 
 grees, C. 100 degrees, F. 212 degrees. In R. and C, 
 reading the number of degrees below zero are marked 
 "Cold,'' or "Minus" ( — ) degrees. Those above are 
 marked "Heat," or "Plus" (-f ) degrees. By this you 
 can readily understand how important it is to men- 
 tion the system of "Scale" used when speaking of 
 temperature. 
 
 To transform degrees of Fahrenheit into Reau- 
 mur, you deduct 32 from the F. degrees ; multiply 
 the remaining number by 4, and then divide by 9. 
 
2 Part 5 
 
 For example: 77 degrees F. are equal to 20 R; de- 
 duct 32 from 77, equals 45; multiply with 4, equals 
 180; divide by 9, equals 20. 
 
 To transform Fahrenheit into Celsius, deduct 
 32 ; multiply by 5, and divide by 9. 
 
 To transform Celsius into Reaumur, multiply by 
 4, and divide by 5. To transform Celsius into Fahren- 
 heit, take the number of C. degrees 1 4-5 times, and 
 add 32. 
 
 To transform R. degrees into C, take the num- 
 ber of R. 1% times. R. degrees are transformed 
 into F., by taking the number of R. degrees 2 1 /^ times 
 and add 32. 
 
 Mercury has been adapted as the standard for 
 use in thermometers, due to the regular and never- 
 varying way in which it expands or contracts under 
 normal conditions. The column of mercury in the 
 tube of a thermometer seems to be round, and about 
 one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. A^ a matter of 
 fact, it is flat, and a good deal finer than a single 
 hair. Mercury does not expand to any great extent 
 so it is imperative that we confine it in as small a 
 space as possible. It is the magnifying effect of the 
 glass that enables us to see it so plain. Spirits of wine 
 is sometimes used, with coloring matter added, but it 
 is not perfectly accurate. 
 
 Up till a few years ago, Mercury Thermometers 
 for bake-ovens were not extensively used, owing to 
 their frail construction and liability to breakage as well 
 as constant separation of the mercury column. Mod- 
 ern manufacturing methods and new invention along 
 this line have overcome these defects. There are now 
 on the market two distinct styles of heat records. 
 They are the Angle Thermometer and the Improved 
 Pyrometer. In classing the heat indicators on the 
 market to-day in two styles, I reserved the "Electric 
 Pyrometer" for a class in which it stands alone. With 
 this instrument, the height of achievement has cer- 
 
Part 5 3 
 
 tainly been reached. In most shops, while the oven- 
 man is responsible for the appearance of goods coming 
 from the oven, it is the foreman in charge who gets 
 the blame for things going wrong. Think of the 
 saving of time and worry for the foreman or superin- 
 tendent who has such diverse things to keep his mind 
 on, to be able at a moment's notice to stand at one 
 end of a chain of ovens or in his office and see the 
 temperature of every oven in the shop by simply 
 throwing an electric switch. Could we wish for any- 
 thing more simple and satisfactory? The movements 
 and all parts subject to heat on these as well as 
 the modern thermometers and pyrometers now on the 
 market are made of non-corrosive material. They 
 are all very sensitive, and the indicator shows instantly 
 the slightest variation in temperature. The proper 
 degree of heat for baking and handling of the above 
 instruments will be more thoroughly mentioned under 
 "Ovens and Firing." It appears that this part of the 
 shop system has been grossly neglected in most bak- 
 eries, both large and small. If the firing of different 
 styles of ovens is properly understood, a more uni- 
 form heat is acquired and a great saving in fuel is 
 the result. Very few bakers have paid any attention 
 even to the first principles of combustion and heat 
 units. However, before we go into details of correct 
 firing methods and kinds of fuel, a few facts on the 
 principles of combustion will be necessary. 
 
 COMBUSTION. 
 
 Chemists classify all known substances either as 
 elements, compounds or mixtures. We will deal only 
 with the elements and compounds. Compounds are 
 those substances which can by chemical action or by 
 action of physical energy (heat or electricity) be di- 
 vided into two or more simpler substances. These 
 substances which cannot by any known means be 
 further split up are called elements. The principal 
 
4 Part 5 
 
 elements we have to deal with in the combustion of 
 fuel are : 
 
 Carbon C. 
 
 Hydrogen H. 
 
 Oxygen O. 
 
 Sulphur S. 
 
 In referring to these elements, it is customary to 
 use the symbol or abbreviation which is usually the 
 first letter. Thus, C stands for Carbon, and O for 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Popularly, combustion means fire or burning. Ex- 
 clude air from a fire, and the fire goes out. Oxygen 
 is therefore necessary for combustion. Science has 
 proved that oxygen has a great attraction for carbon, 
 therefore, when these two elements are exposed, they 
 rush together with great rapidity and force, and the 
 chemical action is accompanied by light and heat. In 
 combining in this way, they form an invisible gas, 
 called carbon dioxide. The chemical symbol of this 
 is CO2. From this we plainly see that for every part 
 of C or carbon present, we must have two parts of O, 
 or oxygen. If we do not have these proportions pres- 
 ent, a different gas is formed, producing through the 
 chemical action, a larger or smaller amount of chemical 
 energy, or heat. For instance, cut off the air supply, 
 until you have but one part of O or oxygen for each 
 part of C, or carbon, and these two uniting, form the 
 gas Carbon Monoxide, the chemical symbol of which, is 
 CO. When this occurs, that is, when less air is sup- 
 plied, the combustion is said to be imperfect, and the 
 carbon burns to CO instead of CO2. The quantities 
 of heat produced by the complete combustion of carbon 
 in our fuel, is found by experiment to be as follows : 
 Carbon burned to CO.2 generates 8080 calories, 
 or 14500 B. T. U. 
 
 Carbon burned to CO generates 2473 calories, or 
 4452 B. T. U. 
 
 By this you see we lose 5607 calories or 10,000 
 B. T. U., if the supply of air is not sufficient to burn it 
 
Part 5 ° 
 
 from CO to CO 2. Calories is the standard name in 
 referring to the table of Heat Units. A calorie of heat 
 is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature 
 of one gram of water, from degrees to one degree, 
 Centigrade. This is called the Gramme-Calorie or lesser 
 calorie. For measuring larger quantities of heat, just 
 the calorie is used. This is the amount of heat neces- 
 sary to raise one kilogram of water, through one degree 
 of Centigrade. The Gramme-Calorie is 1-1,000 part 
 of the Calorie above mentioned. 
 
 There is another system of heat units used among 
 engineers that depends entirely on British standards of 
 weight and temperature. This is called the British 
 Thermal Unit, and is abbreviated B. T. U. One B. 
 T. U. represents the amount of heat required to raise 
 one pound of water through one degree F. 
 
 To transform Calorie Units (metric system) into 
 British Thermal Units (Fakrenheit degrees) multiply 
 the former by 9 and divide by 5. 
 
 Usually the quantity of air admitted to the furnace, 
 is from 50 to 100 per cent more than is necessary for 
 the complete combustion of the fuel. This extra quan- 
 tity of air enters the furnace at a temperature of from 
 60 to 70 degrees and escapes up the chimney at a 
 temperature of from 400 to 600 degrees. A large 
 quantity of heat is thus wasted and the temperature 
 of the fire lowered. So you see that by being careful 
 not to get too much draft, you overcome the loss of 
 heat the same as by being careful that you have enough. 
 Following are a few conditions existing in our fuels 
 that aid or retard complete economical combustion, 
 and they should be understood by all bakers. 
 
 The conditions necessary to consume the gases 
 generated are the same as for the burning of the car- 
 bon, that is, a sufficient supply of air, allowing it a 
 chance to mix with the gases at a high temperature 
 in the furnace box. 
 
 Be sure that your fuel is not wet. The moisture 
 of the fuel must be evaporated at the expense of the 
 
6 Part 5 
 
 heat produced by combustion. This moisture enters 
 the furnace at the prevailing outside temperature, say 
 70 degrees, and passes up the chimney in the form of 
 vapor, at 400 degrees or more. In producing this 
 rise in temperature, thousands of heat units will be 
 lost daily. Therefore, always keep your fuel under 
 cover as far as can be helped, and never expose it to 
 rain. 
 
 Oxygen and hydrogen are found in fuel in com- 
 bination in the form of moisture. This is one reason 
 for using fuels containing as small a percentage as 
 possible of these two elements. Although black smoke 
 contains quantities of small particles of unburned car- 
 bon, the heat loss is not as great as we might imagine. 
 This is more thoroughly treated under the heading of 
 Firing. 
 
 Now that we have a little better knowledge as to 
 how our fuel is consumed, we will discuss the various 
 kinds of fuel. 
 
 Comparative Table of Total Heat Evolved During Combustion. 
 
 Combustibles 
 1 Lb. Weight 
 
 Weight of 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Consumed 
 
 per Pound 
 
 of 
 Combustible 
 
 Qyantity of Air 
 
 per Pound 
 of Combustibles. 
 
 Total Heat 
 
 per Pound 
 
 of 
 
 Lb. 
 
 Air Cubic 
 Ft. at 60° F 
 
 Combustible 
 
 B. T. U. 
 
 C to CO2 
 
 C to CO 
 
 Average Coal 
 
 Coke 
 
 Wood 
 
 2.66 
 1.33 
 2.46 
 2.50 
 1.40 
 
 11.60 
 
 5.80 
 
 10.70 
 
 10.90 
 
 6.10 
 
 152 
 
 76 
 
 140 
 
 143 
 
 80 
 
 14500 
 
 4452 
 
 14133 
 
 13550 
 
 7792 
 
Part 5 
 
 Chemical Composition of Combustibles. 
 
 PECLET (Authority). 
 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 and 
 Sulphur 
 
 Water 
 
 Ash 
 
 Total 
 
 Coal 
 
 (Average) .804 
 
 .0519 
 
 .0787 
 
 .0246 
 
 .0408 
 
 1.000 
 
 Coke 
 
 .850 
 .510 
 
 
 
 
 
 .150 
 .020 
 
 1.000 
 
 Wood (Dry) 
 
 .023 
 
 .417 
 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 Wood 
 
 (Ordinary) 
 
 .408 
 
 .042 
 
 .334 
 
 
 .200 
 
 .016 
 
 1.000 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 (Wood) 
 
 930 
 
 
 
 
 
 .070 
 
 1 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FUEL. 
 
 Fuel is now such an expensive commodity that the 
 economic ways in which it can be used, its quality, 
 and power to generate heat, become subjects of great 
 importance, wherever it is used in large quantities. 
 
 Fuel, as the word is ordinarily used, means all sub- 
 stances that burn in the air and produce heat. The 
 fuels most commonly used are generally of an organic 
 or vegetable origin. This includes all kinds of coal, 
 peat, wood, coke, charcoal, as well as combustible gase. c 
 and liquid fuels. All fuels consist of more or less car- 
 bon, an element necessary for producing heat. But 
 hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and ash are all 
 substances found in the above list of fuels, and must 
 be considered, as the quantities in which they are 
 present influences the value of any fuel as a heat pro- 
 ducer. The number of heat units they produce ranges 
 between wide limits, and vary according to the chemi- 
 cal composition. The more organic oxygen present in 
 
8 Part 5 
 
 a fuel, the less heat produced, owing to its being in 
 combination with other elements. Sulphur is also an 
 undesirable element in fuel, as it does considerable 
 damage by corroding the grate bars, flues, chimneys 
 and oven fixtures. The more ash a fuel contains, also 
 lowers its value for economic purposes, as less heat is 
 produced and much time is lost cleaning fires and 
 digging out clinkers. 
 
 Many of the large manufacturing concerns and 
 institutions employing chemists, make a practice of de- 
 termining the chemical composition of their coal. By 
 doing this, they are enabled to buy only those fuels, 
 coal or coke, having the largest percentage of heat- 
 producing elements. This detail work in connection 
 with fuel has not, to the author's knowledge, been 
 adapted by any of our large bakers. 
 
 I will give a few practical pointers on the compo- 
 sition and action during combustion of various fuels, 
 that may be of interest and value to the baking in- 
 dustry and the manufacturers of bake-ovens. Opin- 
 ions about the most economical fuel for bakers' ovens 
 differ, and local prices of material must be considered 
 in the selection of the fuel. 
 
 COAL. 
 
 Coal is divided into four different varieties, the 
 market price of which vary considerable. They are 
 mentioned as follows: 
 
 1. Anthracite coal, which contains about 92 or 
 more per cent of carbon. 
 
 2. Semi-anthracite coal, over 85 up to 93 per 
 cent of carbon. 
 
 3. Semi-bituminous coal, which contains over 70 
 to 87 per cent of carbon. 
 
 4. Bituminous coal, which contains from to 
 75 per cent of carbon. 
 
Part 5 
 
 ANTHRACITE COAL. 
 
 Does not ignite so quickly and requires a stronger 
 draft to burn it. It is quite hard and shiny ; burning 
 with almost no smoke, gives it the preference over other 
 coal in bakeries. 
 
 This coal is sold under different names, accord- 
 ing to size into which the lumps are broken. They 
 are named in regard to the dimensions of the screens 
 over and through which the lumps of coal will pass, 
 for instance : 
 
 PEA passes over J^-inch mesh and through 1-inch 
 square mesh. 
 
 CHESTNUT passes over ^J-inch mesh and 
 through 1^-inch square mesh. 
 
 STOVE passes over 1^-inch mesh, and through 
 2-inch square mesh. 
 
 EGG passes over 2-inch mesh, and through 3-inch 
 square mesh. 
 
 Another advantage in using anthracite coal, is the 
 fact, that its available heating power is practically 
 constant. The semi-bituminous coals and all good 
 caking, soft coals yield just about the same quantities 
 of available heating power as does the best anthracite 
 coal, but require more attention and raking and con- 
 sequently the fire and heat is not as constant and uni- 
 form as if the former coal is used. 
 
 Anthracite is a non-caking coal. As stated it 
 contains more carbon than any other coal and the least 
 amount of volatile matter (hydrocarbons) from one to 
 ten per cent. The best anthracite coal is mined in the 
 northeastern part of Pennsylvania, in the Lehigh Val- 
 ley, Susquehanna, Shamokin and Lackawanna Dis- 
 tricts Occasionally, you get some anthracite coal 
 which is flinty and hard as stone. It is almost im- 
 possible to ignite it; just glows like stone and the 
 pieces frequently fly all apart in the furnace with a 
 crackling noise like a gun explosion. Such coal is 
 
10 Part 5 
 
 called Graphitic Anthracite, contains from 1 to 2 per 
 cent of gaseous matter and as a fuel is almost worth- 
 less. Graphitic Anthracite is found more frequently 
 in the New England coal fields, especially in the Rhode 
 Island Basin. 
 
 SEMI-ANTHRACITE coal has about the same 
 composition as the anthracite, but, is not as hard and 
 burns more quickly ; it crumbles readily and is not as 
 clean, but burns with little smoke. Contains from 8 
 to 12 per cent, of volatile hydro-carbons. 
 
 BITUMINOUS COAL. 
 
 SEMI-BITUMINOUS coal containing from 12 
 to 25 per cent, of volatile hydro-carbons is easily ig- 
 nited, burns freely with little or no smoke and is used 
 extensively for heating steam boilers. This coal forms 
 a hollow fire. 
 
 BITUMINOUS COAL contains the most volatile 
 hydro-carbon, varying from 20 to over 75 per cent. 
 The nature and composition of this coal varies more 
 than any other kind of fuel, therefore they are divided 
 into three distinct classes : 
 
 1. Caking Coal are those which swell and fuse 
 together, forming a solid, spongy mass when burned 
 in the furnace or grate. Therefore the fire must be 
 frequently broken down with a slice bar and cleared 
 from the grate in order to admit the air to pass 
 through. 
 
 2. Free Burning or Non-Caking Coal is so called, 
 because it does not cake together as the above men- 
 tioned varieties. 
 
 3. Cannel or Gaseous Coal is very rich in vola- 
 tile matter or hydro-carbons and therefore preferred 
 for making gas. 
 
 SLACK is the name given to the dust or left overs 
 from anv soft coal after thev are screened. 
 
 LIGNITE or BROWN COAL is the connecting 
 link between Peat and Bituminous coal, the color varies 
 from brown to black, absorbs moisture very rapidly 
 
Part 5 11 
 
 when exposed to the weather, which causes the lumps 
 to break up and crumble quite readily. It burns quite 
 easy and freely with a yellow flame and emits a tar- 
 like disagreeable odor. However, its heating power 
 is very low and it leaves considerable ash ; is classed 
 as a non-caking coal. 
 
 PEAT is the first product resulting from decayed 
 vegetable matter, partly carbonized and being found in 
 marshes and swamps ; it generally is spongy and satu- 
 rated with moisture, containing on the surface as high 
 as 80 per cent water ; deeper down where it is more 
 de-composed, it is also more solid. Before being fit 
 for transport or burning, it must be dried out, being 
 cut or pressed into brighettes. 
 
 HARD COAL VERSUS SOFT COAL. 
 
 When caking coals are burned, they fuse at com- 
 paratively low temperatures, forming a crust over the 
 top of the fire which prevents the immediate escape of 
 the volatile gases that comprise from 40 to 50 per 
 cent of the fuel's heating power. 
 
 These gases are then driven to the side of the 
 fire-pot where they unite with the rising oxygen and, 
 igniting at that point, are converted into volatile heat- 
 ing power. 
 
 When free burning coals are used, they disinte- 
 grate at comparatively low temperatures and some of 
 the hydro-carbon gases escape without coming in con- 
 tact with the necessary oxygen for ignition. 
 
 It makes quite a difference whether the coal is dry 
 or wet. If it is wet, a large percentage of heat is 
 necessary to bring up the temperature of the wet fuel 
 to 212° first, in order to turn the water (dampness) 
 into steam, and as a large percentage of this steam 
 passes through the flues and chimney, that amount of 
 heat is lost for heating purpose. As mentioned before, 
 to raise the heat of one pa r t (sav one pound) of water 
 one degree Fahrenheit it takes one Heat Unit. There- 
 fore, if you pour one pound (one pint) of water at 
 
12 Part 5 
 
 GO degrees F. over the coal, it takes 152 Heat Units 
 (B. T. U.) to raise the water from 60 to 212 degrees 
 F. or to the boiling point and as it takes about 910 
 Heat Units (B. T. U.) to evaporate or turn this pint 
 of water into steam, you need altogether 152-J-970— 
 1122 Heat Units (B. T. U.) This same example 
 worked out in Calories would read like this : For one 
 Kilogram (one liter) water at 15 degrees Centigrade 
 or Celsius (60 degrees F.) it takes 85 Calories to raise 
 this pint of water from 15 C. to 100 C. or the boiling 
 point, and as about 540 Calories are required to evap- 
 orate or turn all the water into steam, you need alto- 
 gether 85+540=625 Calories, which equals the 1122 
 British Thermal Units on Fahrenheit bases. 
 
 This example shows very plain that large quan- 
 tities of heat are lost when damp or wet fuel is used. 
 
 COKE. 
 
 Is the residue left from certain kinds of Bitumin- 
 ous coal, when burned or heated with almost the en- 
 tire exclusion of air and all its volatile matter driven 
 off, leaving practically only carbon and a little ash. 
 (see table.) It does not resemble the original coal 
 at all ; is hard, rough and honey-combed, and has a 
 metallic ring, being much lighter than coal. Coke 
 burns with almost no flame when combustion is com- 
 plete. 
 
 GAS HOUSE COKE is a by product from the 
 manufacture of illuminating or artificial gas and mostly 
 consumed locallv. 
 
 FURNACE COKE used to be made similar to 
 charcoal in piles or mounds, but the demand having 
 steadily increased, large Kilns and Coke Ovens of 
 brick or stone have been erected for its manufacture. 
 The most extensive coke centers are located around 
 Pittsburg in the Connelsville district and the Alle- 
 ghanev Mountain sides. West Virginia also produces 
 considerable coke in the New River and Kanawha 
 districts. Furnace coke is classed and its price fixed 
 
Part 5 13 
 
 according to the time it has been in the oven. (Car- 
 bonizing.) The standard kinds are known as 48 and 
 72 hour coke, the latter giving the highest number of 
 Heat Units. Although the price of the 72 hour coke 
 is from 50 to 75 cents per ton higher, it is the most 
 economical, very light in weight, dry and uniform 
 in size. Good Connelsville coke analizes as follows : 
 
 Carbon 88.00 to 89.00 per cent 
 
 Ash 9.50 to 11.00 per cent 
 
 Volatile Moisture 1.00 to 1.50 per cent 
 
 Sulphur 0.75 to 0.90 per cent 
 
 GAS 
 PRODUCER or ILLUMINATING GAS is dis- 
 tilled from coal. On account of its high price it is used 
 very little for heating bake ovens. Its heating value 
 is estimated at about 155 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 
 
 NATURAL GAS. In sections where a plentiful 
 supply of natural gas has been discovered, it is used 
 very extensively, and to-day is supplied from central 
 stations to cities hundreds of miles away. The only 
 trouble with natural gas is the inconsistency of pres- 
 sure and in some localities the flow has given out en- 
 tirelv. Natural gas concerns claim that on an average, 
 20,000 to 23,000 feet of this gas has the heating value 
 of one ton of coal: The principal constituent is Marsh 
 Gas (Methane) C. PU. The complete or proper com- 
 bustion of natural gas is a problem which kept many 
 scientists and engineers busy and experimenting ever 
 since the introduction of natural gas for heating pur- 
 poses. 
 
 The combustion of natural gas is a very difficult 
 problem to solve. To be able to use this ideal fuel 
 successfully, both from a commercial and financial 
 standpoint, a few fundamental principles must be 
 observed. 
 
 1. The proper amount of gas and oxygen must 
 be brought in contact with each other. 
 
 2. After being brought together, they must be 
 thoroughly mixed before reaching the point of ignition. 
 
14 Part 5 
 
 3. Combustion must take place before they have 
 a chance to separate again, which they will do soon 
 after being mixed. 
 
 The supply of proper amount of air must be 
 watched, as a natural gas flame cannot exist unless 
 supported by oxygen. Withdraw the air or oxygen 
 supply, and the flame will be extinguished, while the 
 gas will keep on flowing or escaping. Therefore, care 
 must be taken when lighting a gas burner in any inside 
 or furnace oven, that the dampers are first opened and 
 that there is enough draft to carry away the product 
 of combustion, otherwise there will be an explosion. 
 It is a peculiarity of gas explosions that they strike 
 back ; that means through the open oven or furnace 
 door. The writer witnessed several accidents as a re- 
 sult of such gas explosions, where the men opened the 
 valves of the burners before they had the lighted torch 
 applied. In bakeovens with direct firing (inside the 
 oven chamber) the danger of explosion is still greater. 
 But nine times out of ten, the man who lights the fire 
 is the cause through his carelessness. The writer al- 
 ways cautioned his men to surely first open damper 
 and oven door for a minute, to let any possible accu- 
 mulation of gas in the oven escape before he puts his 
 torch or light near the burners or grate, and only then 
 open the gas valves. 
 
 One of my foremen was burned three different 
 times through his carelessness. One time the force of 
 the explosion striking back through the oven door, 
 threw him clear across the shop against the wall, burn- 
 ing his chest and face frightfully. 
 
 As there may be a leak somewhere, unnoticed, it 
 is the safest way to have an automatic pilot (small 
 flame) burnii ..- all the time. 
 
 Air and gas may be compared to oil and water, as 
 they will not mix unless they are violently agitated, 
 and unless combustion takes place promptly after prop- 
 er amount of oxygen and the carbon in the gas have 
 been agitated, they will separate again and escape with- 
 
Part 5 15 
 
 out furnishing- the desired heat. As stated before, 
 complete or perfect combustion requires the union of 
 one atom of carbon C. and two atoms of oxygen O 2. 
 The gas people claim that they can use nearly 80 per 
 cent of air with their gas. 
 
 A natural gas from Pittsburg district shows aver- 
 age composition of: 
 
 Marsh gas (C. H 4 . 67.00 per cent 
 
 Hydrogen (H) 22.00 per cent. 
 
 Nitrogen (N) 3.00 per cent. 
 
 Oxygen (O) 0.80 per cent. 
 
 Other gases, 7.20 per cent. 
 
 There are different styles of gas burners, but they 
 do not all answer the purpose of heating bakeovens. 
 The writer's experience with different gas burners will 
 be explained later on under firing. 
 
 WOOD. 
 
 Is not used as extensively nowadays as a fuel for 
 heating bakeovens, as it was before the introduction of 
 Patent Flue and Continuous Bakeovens, except for 
 kindling the fire. In a general way, one cord of the 
 best hard wood is estimated to be equal to one ton of 
 coal ; one cord of soft wood is equal to y 2 ton of coal. 
 B. & W. Co. give a comparison of ^ l / 2 lbs. of dry wood 
 to one lb. of bituminous coal in heat value. Of course 
 these figures are calculated for heating Steam Boilers. 
 For heating Bakeovens, I find heating value of wood 
 closer to that of coal, especially in inside fired ovens. 
 Green wood contains from 30 to 50 per cent of mois- 
 ture. When perfectly dry, it contains about 50 per 
 cent of carbon. An analysis of Oak has been quoted 
 to be composed of 49 per cent carbon, 6 per cent hydro- 
 gen, 42 per cent oxygen, a little over 1 per cent ash 
 and not quite 1 per cent nitrogen. 
 
 The heating value of wood varies from about 
 6,500 B. T. U. to 9,000 B. T. U. or an average of 7,700 
 B. T. U. per lb. (see tables, pages 6 and 7, part 5.) 
 
16 Part 5 
 
 OIL. 
 
 PETROLEUM is being used only in sections 
 where coal is scarce and oil plentiful, especially in Cal- 
 ifornia, Texas and Wyoming. CRUDE OIL from 
 Pennsylvania contains about 85 per cent carbon, 14 
 per cent hydrogen, 1.4 per cent oxygen which gives 
 a theoretical heating power of about 20,000 B. T. U. 
 but there is quite a loss of heat by evaporation, which 
 reduces the number of Heat Units considerable. There 
 is also danger of explosion. The Standard Oil Co. es- 
 timate that 173 gallons of their oil equal one long 
 ton (2,2-10 lbs.) coal, allowing for all savings inci- 
 dental to its use. > 
 
 COMMERCIAL VALUE OF FUEL. 
 
 The commercial value of a given fuel for a certain 
 amount of baking, can only be determined by an ex- 
 tended trial, keeping careful records, adding to the 
 fuel cost, the cost of firing and removal of ashes. (See 
 Oven Record cards). Keeping a record of same 
 items under same conditions, but with different fuels, 
 it may be found at times, that a low priced fuel can be 
 more expensive than the real high priced on account 
 of requiring more labor for firing and removing ashes, 
 cleaning grate and flues since larger quantities must 
 be burned to get the same amount of heat. 
 
 Anthracite Coal (small size) bought at $2.50 per 
 ton will furnish about 10,000,000 B. T. Heat Units 
 for $1.00. 
 
 Larger sizes like Stove and Egg at the price of 
 $6.25 per ton furnishes about 4,500,000 B. T. U. for 
 $1.00. 
 
 The heat value of various grades and qualities 
 of Bituminous or Soft coal will lie between the above 
 figures or average between 4,000,000 to 10,000,000 B. 
 T. U. for $1.00. 
 
 Illuminating Gas at $1.00 per 1,000 cubic feet will 
 yield only about 500.000 heat units for $1.00. 
 
 Natural Gas if sold for 10 cents per 1,000 cubic 
 foot will give about 10,000,000 B. T. U. for $1.00. 
 
Part 5 17 
 
 Crude Oil selling at 4 cents per gallon will average 
 4,000,000 heat units for $1.00. 
 
 Kerosene selling at 10 cents per gallon is equiva- 
 lent to 1,200,000 heat units for $1.00. 
 
 Nearly all liquid fuels (distillates) furnish about 
 same amount of heat per pound, but vary greatly in 
 cost. 
 
 One ton of Anthracite coal averages 25 bushel at 
 80 pounds. 
 
 One ton of soft coal averages 30 bushels at 
 65 pounds. 
 
 One ton of coke averages 40-50 bushels at 40 
 pounds. 
 
 A " long" ton of coal weighs 2240 pounds, but is 
 only sold on these bases to dealers or car load buyers ; 
 the extra 240 lbs. being figured as allowance for loss 
 or shrinkage. 
 
 OVENS. 
 
 All old time ovens were fired with wood and were 
 built on the same principle as the ovens found to this 
 day in most smaller bakeries in Europe, especially in 
 country districts. These ovens are well filled with dry 
 wood and then fired. When all burned out, the ashes 
 are removed and the oven chamber swabbed out with a 
 wet cloth fastened to a pole. Such ovens are called 
 the old "Vienna" Ovens and are used to this day by a 
 number of Italian and French bakers in this country, 
 even in New York and other large cities. However, 
 with the introduction of modern improvements a great 
 number of different constructed bakeovens have been 
 devised and placed on the market. They may be di- 
 vided into different classes, according to their con- 
 struction, method of firing or kinds of fuel required: 
 
 1. DIRECT or INSIDE fired ovens. 
 
 2. INDIRECT or FURNACE fired ovens. 
 
 3. CONTINUOUS BAKING or HOT AIR 
 CHAMBER ovens. 
 
 4. HOT WATER or STEAM PIPE ovens. 
 Then again baker ovens are known irrespective of 
 
18 Part 5 
 
 the method of firing or kind of fuel used, under differ- 
 ent names according to their mechanical construction, 
 such as: Portable Ovens, Stationary (Brick) Ovens, 
 Rotary, Reel and Drawplate Ovens, and now we have 
 even Traveling ovens. 
 
 DIRECT FIRED OVENS.— In this class belongs 
 first the old Vienna Oven as above mentioned, fired 
 with wood. After the fire has been drawn, the oven 
 is allowed to stand off for one half to one hour with 
 door and damper tightly closed, to allow the heat to 
 equalize through every part of the oven chamber. 
 However, after two or three batches are baked, the 
 chamber must be retired again. One german authority 
 even refers to having the oven refired after every batch. 
 His figures are: 
 
 For first baking, 100 Kilo Bread requires 32 Kilo 
 Wood. 
 
 For second baking, 100 Kilo Bread requires 12 
 Kilo Wood. 
 
 For third baking, 100 Kilo Bread requires 8 Kilo 
 Wood. 
 
 For fourth baking, 100 Kilo Bread requires 7.5 Kilo 
 Wood. 
 
 The crown is built as low as possible and raised 
 10 to 14 inches in center, sloping on both sides from 
 4 to 6 inches, above the hearth or sole. Further, the 
 hearth of the genuine Vienna Oven also slopes from 
 back to front. The object of this is to keep the steam 
 from coming out of the mouth or oven door. (See 
 Steam.) 
 
 The author of this book has had some of these 
 old style Vienna Ovens under his supervision, which 
 were fired with natural gas. Two or three large gas 
 pipes are run into the oven chamber extending about 
 18 inches into the oven, set at an angle towards the 
 crown, with valves and air chamber on outside of the 
 oven to the right of the oven door. When gas is turned 
 on, long flames will stream along the crown of the 
 oven chamber, diagonal towards the left rear wall 
 
Part 5 19 
 
 where the damper is located. After being- fired from 2 
 to %y 2 hours steady, the arches should show a white 
 heat, and the hearth a bright red when gas is turned 
 off. Being allowed to stand off for at least one hour, 
 it is ready for baking. Steam being injected or water 
 splashed in, these ovens bake especially nice milk or 
 water rolls (hearth rolls.) After a few bakings, the 
 gas is turned on again for from 15 to 30 minutes. 
 
 The more popular style of direct fired oven, very 
 efficient for general baking, bread, cake and pies has 
 the furnace placed inside the baking chamber on one 
 side of the door in front, the damper being on the op- 
 posite side. After the fire is lit, the heat travels to the 
 back of the chamber and then turns back to the flue to 
 reach the chimney, or in more modern ovens, the heat 
 chamber above the baking chamber. It is best to let 
 oven rest awhile after damper is closed and fire cov- 
 ered or drawn, to settle the heat. The advantage of 
 this oven is, that you can cool it down and get up a 
 flash heat again in short time, which is of special value 
 where small batches of different kinds of baked stuff 
 are wanted alternately, depending on one oven. 
 
 The grate is set a few inches below the sole or 
 hearth. Having no extra heat storage chamber, it is 
 essential that the heat is allowed to linger longer in the 
 oven, and a slow fire (or a larger fire^banked) should 
 be kept during the time there is no baking done. 
 
 This style oven is built as a stationary brick oven 
 or portable oven, the out side frame being metal, stand- 
 ing on iron lesfs. 
 
 INDIRECT OR FURNACE FIRED OVENS 
 we call such ovens which have a furnace underneath 
 the oven-chamber, fired from front, side or rear, the 
 fire or heat traveling around and over the top of the 
 baking chamber, adopted principally for Portable ovens 
 or as in Shelf ovens, where stove pipes are run through 
 the baking chamber from the stove or furnace under- 
 neath. REEL and ROTARY also Ijave a furnace be- 
 low, but the heat strikes the baking chamber more 
 
20 Part 5 
 
 directly, as the furnace is open on top or only partly 
 arched over the top. 
 
 REEL OVENS are used almost exclusively in 
 Cracker bakeries, on account of the shelves or plates 
 being so easily reached with the peel for filling and 
 emptying, but are also used in some large bread baker- 
 ies for pan-bread. They are built on the principle 
 of a Ferris Wheel. The baking blades are made of 
 steel or sheet iron. 
 
 ROTARY OVENS have only one baking surface 
 revolving like a Merry-go-round. These ovens have a 
 tile or soapstone hearth and are mostly used for pie 
 baking. 
 
 CONTINUOUS or HOT AIR CHAMBER 
 OVENS are usually called Patent Brick Ovens and 
 are the most popular for bread baking exclusively. 
 The heat never strikes the baking chamber direct, being 
 fired from the furnace below, either in front, side or 
 back. The heat is accumulated and stored in chambers 
 below and above the baking chamber, and no flame, 
 smoke or dust can enter the same. The heat being 
 stored, they are generally fired some hours before bak- 
 ing is commenced, and can be used continuously. 
 These ovens are preferred for baking bread and rolls 
 exclusively on account of the heat being constant and 
 uniform, but are not so practical for a general baking, 
 including bread and cakes on account of the difference 
 of heat required. When once the baking chamber is 
 allowed to cool down, as needed for cakes it takes some 
 time to get it hot enough again to bake bread. 
 
 The baking chamber of the Continuous Ovens 
 measures generally from 10 to 13 feet wide by 12 to 
 14 feet deep inside measurement. Of late, however, 
 these ovens are built in much larger sizes with wide 
 mouth or two doors. The hearth is from 14 to 22 or 
 even 25 feet across, by 13 to 14 feet deep. Although 
 these new features we~e looked at by the bakers very 
 sceptical and considered in diametrical opposition to all 
 theories and traditions of oven building, they have 
 
Part 5 21 
 
 apparently given complete satisfaction so far. A great 
 saving of fuel and labor, besides offering many con- 
 veniences and better facilities for peeling and un- 
 loading. 
 
 HOT WATER OR STEAM PIPE OVENS are 
 heated with a number of wrought iron pipes, located 
 below and above the oven sole or drawplate. These 
 pipes, are partly filled with water and hermetically 
 sealed on both ends. The rear ends extend about a 
 foot or less into the furnace which is usually at the 
 rear of the oven. The furnace heat converts the water 
 in the pipes into steam, and this steam being prevented 
 from escaping, acquires a continually rising atmos- 
 pheric pressure upon the water and a higher temper- 
 ature is the result, which is transmitted from the pipes 
 throughout the baking chamber. These pipes or 
 tubes being first carefully tested as to their strength 
 and flawless tightness, by exposing them to a consid- 
 erable higher pressure than required for the baking 
 heat, there is little danger of explosion. However, if 
 in time any of the pipes should burst or swell, it is an 
 easy matter to replace any single pipe with a new one, 
 as they are not connected or dependent in any way on 
 one another. The most popular Steam Pipe Ovens are 
 the DRAWPLATE. The principle of these ovens 
 which also accounts for the name, lies in the arrange- 
 ment of the baking plates being removable from the 
 oven chamber. The slower process of loading the oven 
 with the peel, has led to the idea of building ovens 
 with sliding plates, which can be withdrawn, loaded 
 quickly, and running mechanically on wheels, pushed 
 back into the oven. The objection to the extra space 
 required, when plates are pulled out, has been greatly 
 dispelled, with the construction of Double deckers, one 
 on top of the other, practically taking only the space 
 of a single decker, and reducing the cost of construc- 
 tion as well as the cost for fuel and operating. 
 
 TRAVELING or CHAIN OVENS have been in 
 use in Europe for baking crackers and small sweet 
 
22 Part 5 
 
 goods for some years, and in this country for Matzos. 
 They are equipped with a steel wire netting or steel 
 plates fastened to endless chains traveling through the 
 baking chamber which can be from 30 to 60 feet long ; 
 speed can be regulated, fast or slow. Attempts have 
 been made lately to build this style oven for bread 
 baking. The writer has had an opportunity to watch 
 the baking process of the first oven of this kind built 
 in America (in Montreal, Canada) and was very favor- 
 ably impressed with the uniformity in baking, simplic- 
 ity of mechanism and great reduction in oven help. 
 The baking chamber in this oven is 50 feet long and 5 
 feet wide. The firing is done from a small tunnel built 
 under the center of the oven where two furnaces are 
 located, one running towards the rear, the other to- 
 wards the front of the oven. It requires comparative- 
 ly a small amount of fuel considering the amount of 
 b-ead turned out in a day's baking, from 8,000 to 12, 
 000 loaves and its capacity is claimed to be far above 
 that amount, being a continuous baker. 
 FIRING. 
 The proper firing of any bake oven depends on 
 the construction of the flues and heat chambers, the 
 kind of fuel and the draft of chimney, and differs 
 greatly from firing a boiler or larger furnace. I have 
 twice tried the experiment to put regular firemen in 
 charge of firing the bake ovens. Both men claimed 
 to be expert firemen ; one having fired on Railroad 
 Locomotives, the other in a large power house. How- 
 ever, both failed to make good ; they were so used to 
 keeping on firing and poking and keeping up a lively 
 fire, which we do not require for our Ovens. A well 
 known baker remarked at a convention, "I am satisfied 
 the fuel can be reduced twenty per cent or more, if it 
 was handled with judgment, but it seems impossible 
 to get laborers to use brains, they simply go on firing 
 without using any judgment." Now, I never trust 
 the firing of any oven to a cheap laborer, whether there 
 is one oven or ten to be looked after. 
 
Part 5 23 
 
 When starting a new lire with coal or coke in a 
 cold oven, you will have less smoke and less loss 
 of heat by kindling the wood in the front part of the 
 grate, throwing a few shovels full of fuel in the back 
 part of furnace, to raise its temperature first to the 
 igniting point before spreading it over the new fire, 
 and vou will not smother the flames. 
 
 When burning BITUMINOUS or Soft Coal, 
 which as stated before contains large amounts of vol- 
 atile or gaseous matter, I recommend the so-called 
 caking system for firing. This means when charging 
 the fire with fresh coal, the coal is piled in the front 
 part of the furnace as close as possible to the door and 
 left there from 10 to ij minutes. As this coal is get- 
 ting heated, the volatile matter (hydrocarbons) a r e 
 driven off as vapor or gas making the coal carbonized 
 or coked, and they will give more heat and make less 
 smoke when later pushed back and distributed evenly 
 over the fire, besides, these escaping gases while pass- 
 ing over the fire in the rear, yield a good percentage 
 of heat (8,000 to 12,000 B. T. U.) Although soft coal 
 is considered cheaper than hard coal or coke, it re- 
 quires more care and judgment as they will produce 
 soot and smoke, clogging up the flues and chimney and 
 leave more ashes to be removed. The loss of heat 
 from these causes is often as high as 50 per cent. 
 (See fuel, page 11.) 
 
 Burning ANTHRACITE or HARD COAL, a 
 smaller fire is required, especially in Patent Ovens. 
 Don't smother the fire with piling too much fresh coal 
 on top of it, especially if wet. (see fuel.) The smaller 
 the size of the coal, the more you will choke or chill the 
 fire and obstruct or prevent combustion, besides burn- 
 ing out the grate bars, (see page 9) Percentage of 
 ashes varies from 8 to 24 per cent in hard coal. When 
 coal is wet, the coking system mentioned above will be 
 found of great advantage. Firing hard coal in Draw- 
 plate Ovens, I prefer Chestnut and Egg mixed. For 
 direct firing Furnace Ovens, Egg Coal is the best size. 
 
24 Part 5 
 
 For Reel and Rotary Ovens, larger sizes are prefer- 
 able ; Egg or Stove or both mixed ; but I prefer coke 
 in either oven. 
 
 COKE, as stated before (see fuel) is composed of 
 about 89 per cent pure carbon, or plainly speaking, 
 gives 89 per cent heat and only about 10 per cent ashes. 
 Many bakers make the mistake when burning coke, to 
 start the fire too slow. The coke being honeycombed 
 and leaving so much space for air to pass through, 
 you should fill the furnace considerable more then with 
 coal, and also pull the damper wide open, until there 
 are no more dark spots to be seen in the fire. The arch 
 as well as the coke must show almost a bright light red 
 heat, which should take from 40 to 50 min. Then close 
 the damper, leaving about one inch opening for the 
 escape of the gases. After, say two hours from time 
 of firing, you will notice no more flame or just the least 
 bit of a bluish tongue of flame ; then you close damper 
 down tight, and the heat will last from 10 to 12 hours. 
 Coke fires never need much shaking of grate or poking 
 of fire. When once you have a solid fire, the most that 
 may be required, is to pull damper two or three inches 
 after several hours for 15 or 20 min. To get a good 
 solid heat from coke, let first firing burn up brisk, then 
 shake down or poke a little, to settle ; then fire the 
 second time which will be sufficient to last for a day's 
 baking. 
 
 The most important rule to get best results from 
 any kind of fuel in a Patent or Hot Air Chamber Oven 
 is, to let fire draw brisk first, then close damper half 
 until top arch and sides show bright red clear back to 
 flues. This is what produces storage heat, because so 
 long as the fire d~aws and the dampers are open, the 
 heat will pass through the chambers rushing for the 
 chimney. I can demonstrate the value of solid heat in 
 a good Patent Continuous baking brick Oven best, 
 from our own report of our average Friday's Baking 
 (for Saturday) which means about forty-six thousand 
 loaves. Our ten continous baking ovens which have 
 
Part 5 23 
 
 not been fired after ten o'clock Friday morning are 
 almost continually used from one A. M. Friday to one 
 A. M. Saturday, full 24 hours. No baking- being done 
 on Saturday, they stand idle, and instead of cooling off 
 (with no fire in the furnace) the accumulated heat 
 penetrates the oven chamber, and by Saturday we even 
 open front oven door, (baking chamber) and smoke 
 damper for several hours, to let the heat out and start 
 baking Sunday morning with practically the heat left 
 over from previous Friday. The fire started Saturday 
 night will not have full effect until Sunday noon or at 
 least 6-8 hours after being started. Just get the arch 
 to white heat once in twenty-four hours, and you can 
 bake bread continually. However, if such ovens must 
 be cooled down for cakes, it is a matter of many hours 
 to get the solid heat back again. 
 
 Ovens used exclusively for Hearth Bread must 
 have a good bottom heat to give the loaves a good 
 spring, otherwise they run flat. Drawing so much heat 
 continuously, a larger fire must necessarilly be kept in 
 the furnace, but little or no extra draft is required, 
 the object being to keep the heat lingering under the 
 Oven chamber as much as possible. An occasional 
 rest is of great benefit and the Thermometer or Pyro- 
 meter will go up 20 to 30 degrees in a short time. 
 
 IF MIXED BAKING, B-ead, Cakes and Pies are 
 to be done in one oven, the DIRECT FIRED brick or 
 portable oven is very popular. As already explained 
 (see ovens) grate is set a few inches below level of 
 oven sole. I advise a banked fire to be kept all during 
 time there is no baking, and giving it before baking is 
 commenced a slow draft to allow the product of com- 
 bustion, seen in long pale tongues, to spread and 
 linger along the crown or top of oven chamber. There 
 are several styles of modern PORTABLE OVENS 
 with furnace below the baking chamber which turn out 
 a large amount of well baked goods. It is to be 
 specially recommended, to start a moderate fire ai long 
 as possible before baking time to get a more uniform, 
 
26 
 
 Part 5 
 
 steady heat. Natural gas being used as fuel, I have 
 always found it a fuel saver and heat p-eserver to pile 
 some fire brick loosely in the fire box or furnace for the 
 gas flames to pass around them. 
 
 Judging Heat by Color. 
 
 Temperature 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 Temperature 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 900° 
 1200 
 1400 
 1600 
 
 Red (dull) 
 Red (dark) 
 Red (cherry) 
 Red (bright) 
 
 1900° 
 2100 
 2300 
 Over 2500 
 
 Orange 
 Yellow 
 White 
 White (dazzling) 
 
 Melting Point of Different Metals. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Degree F. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Degree F. 
 
 Tin 
 
 446° 
 
 Copper 
 
 1996° 
 
 Lead 
 
 608 
 
 Glass 
 
 2377 
 
 Zinc 
 
 680 
 
 Iron (cast) 
 
 2450 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 1400 
 
 Steel 
 
 2500 
 
 Bronze 
 
 1692 
 
 Gold (pure) 
 
 2590 
 
 Silver 
 
 1873 
 
 Iron (wrought) 
 
 2912 
 
 Brass 
 
 1900 
 
 Platinum 
 
 3080 
 
Part 5 27 
 
 DRAFT. 
 
 Draft is a current of air, and as we have learned 
 from chapter on combustion, air is the life of fire, and 
 the briskness of the fire depends entirely on the proper 
 amount of air supplied. Therefore, it is most impor- 
 tant to have proper facilities to increase or decrease 
 this current of air (Draft.) To control or regulate 
 the draft, we need the draft door on the ash-pit (below 
 the fire) and the damper in flues or chimney (above 
 the fire.) They work in conjunction with each other. 
 Either one worked alone will be a waste of heat or 
 fuel. The draft door should be so arranged that it 
 can be kept wide open, half open or nearly closed, or 
 it must be perforated and supplied with a slide to reg- 
 ulate the air supply. The size of furnace depends on 
 kind of fuel used. Soft coal being lighter than hard 
 coal, requires more area for the same amount (by 
 weight) as hard coal. When burning coke, the grate 
 can be set a few inches below the dead plate in front 
 and the bridge in back of the grate, a larger amount 
 of coke being fired at one time, than coal. This is 
 especially to be considered in direct or inside fired 
 ovens. The grates, most always made of cast iron, 
 do not only hold the fuel, but also admit the air, and 
 for that reason must have open spaces between the 
 supports. At least half the grate surface must be air 
 space, the other half (the bars) serving to hold the 
 fuel. There are different styles of grates used by 
 different Oven Manufacturers. The single bar grate 
 is very popular; about 2^4 to 3 feet in length. The 
 thickness of the lugs on both ends determine the 
 width of the open spaces of the grate. These bars are 
 more or less sloping (thinner) on the bottom, which 
 gives a better air supply. Another style used more 
 for very small coal (as in boilers), is the Herringbone. 
 
 SHAKING GRATES are preferred by many 
 bakers and used in most all portable ovens, and are 
 especially an advantage where the square fire-box or 
 round pot is set below the furnace proper. Another 
 
28 Part 5 
 
 great advantage of a shaking grate, is because the 
 furnace door can be kept closed while raking the fire, 
 and no smoke or ashes will blow into the shop. The 
 inrush of cold air over the fire through the open fur- 
 nace door (the damper always being opened when 
 shaking fires) is also avoided, which means preventing 
 a loss of heat. 
 
 The furnace door should also be perforated and 
 have a slide, especially when coke or soft coal, rich 
 in carbohydrates are burned, as in this way, some air 
 can be admitted over the top of the fire to mix with 
 the gases which linger on top of fire, causing com- 
 bustion of same. The admission of steam or water 
 under the grate or furnace does not produce more 
 heat, as some bakers imagine. It is only of benefit 
 when coal are used, which stick to the grate bars or 
 clinker badly ; the steam coming from below will 
 prevent this to some extent, keep the grate clear and 
 also keep it from burning or melting. A better dis- 
 tribution of air and more complete combustion is the 
 result, which also means indirectly, a saving of fuel. 
 But, care must be taken not to admit too much steam, 
 and I recommend the safer method of keeping a 
 basin of water in the ash-pit, or better still, to have 
 the bottom ash-pit cemented, and a few inches lower 
 than the floor, keeping a small pool of water in same. 
 Glowing pieces of fuel dropping through the grate 
 will create sufficient steam for this purpose. 
 
 CHIMNEY AND FLUES. 
 The chimney answers two purposes; (1) to create 
 a natural draft for the fire; (2) to carry off the ob- 
 noxious gases of combustion and the smoke. The 
 area and height of a chimney and the position of its 
 top outlet to the surrounding buildings, has an im- 
 portant bearing when erecting a chimney. Gases, 
 hot air and smoke always ascend in a spiral column, 
 which means, for instance, that a ten by ten-inch 
 square chimney flue is no better or its practical work- 
 
Part 5 o.<) 
 
 ing area no more extensive than a ten-inch round 
 flue. There is also less friction in a round chimney 
 flue than in a square one, because the spiral ascent of 
 the draft moves more easily. The efficiency of the 
 chimney (flue) depends on volume of passage due 
 to area (size of flue) and velocity due to height of 
 chimney. Therefore, the suction or speed alone do 
 not make perfect draft; there must also be sufficient 
 room to carry off the smoke. The chimney top should 
 reach above the surrounding buildings if possible, 
 as wind currents will rebound or be checked by walls 
 or roofs in their way, and will force the air down into 
 the chimney. It is also well known that there is quite 
 a difference in draft of a chimney in summer or hot 
 days and that produced in winter or cold days. On 
 damp and murky days the d~aft is especially poor, and 
 it is more difficult to get sufficient heat out of the fuel. 
 
 The outside air passing over the top of chimney, 
 say ranges between 40 and 85 degrees on an average, 
 while the hot gases passing through the chimney 
 average from 400 to 450 decrees. Bulk for bulk, the 
 outside air has about twice the weight of the hot gases 
 In localities high above the sea level, where air is 
 rarified or thinner, a larger volume of same must be 
 supplied to get sufficient oxygen for combustion. 
 
 The wind or air currents passing over the chim- 
 ney, carry off the gases or hot air and smoke as they 
 come from the furnace, also create a suction or draft. 
 With a high wind blowing, the fuel will burn away 
 more or less briskly, even if the draft door (ash-pit) 
 is closed as long as damper in chimney or flue is wide 
 or even only partly open. The inside area of a chim- 
 ney should never be less than 9 or 10 inches if round, 
 or 8 x 12 rectangular, or 10 x 10 square, or always be 
 a little larger than the end of stove pipe or flue where 
 it leads into the chimney. Never have the end of 
 stove-pipe, bricks or casing of flue, etc., extend beyond 
 the inside surface or wall of chimney, neither allow 
 any crevices or leaks, as the least obstruction prevents 
 
30 Part 5 
 
 the free passage of gas and smoke. The inside walls 
 of chimney should be as smooth as possible. Some 
 masons are very careless in this respect. The inside 
 finish of a chimney is certainly of more importance 
 than the outside, and every baker should watch the 
 erection of any new chimney very carefully. Every 
 oven should have its own chimney flue if possible, and 
 no other flues or stove-pipes running into it. For a 
 Two Oven chimney, it is best to allow a double area, 
 and have a thin partition running up through the 
 center. Sharp bends or offsets in the chimney will 
 also reduce the area and choke the draft. If there is 
 a soot pocket in the chimney below the point where 
 the smoke-pipe or oven flue runs into the chimney, 
 the same should never be deeper than one or two feet, 
 and the slide or door of same must be kept closed 
 perfectly tight. 
 
 DAMPERS are checks or valves in or above the 
 chimney, and control the draft. On Continuous Bak- 
 ing and Portable Ovens, dampers usually have the 
 shape of a slide, to be operated from front of oven, 
 by a rod. On Draw-plate and Reel Ovens, the damp- 
 ers generally consist of a drop door or lid, fitted over 
 top of chimney, and are operated by a chain. The 
 reason for the latter arrangement is, on Reel Ovens, 
 especially used for crackers, there must be a constant 
 flash heat and a quick draft and frequent manipulation 
 of damper is necessary. On Draw-plate Ovens, the 
 heating surface (see ovens) is so small, that the fire 
 must be drawing nearly all the time, more or less, 
 and the drop door on top of chimney is more efficient 
 for the purpose. I would not recommend to have the 
 inside area of chimney reduced toward the top, es- 
 pecially when solid fuel is burned, coal or coke. Some 
 bakers think bv running the brick chimney only half 
 way the required length, and putting a pipe on top, 
 they save money. But alas, they have more annoy- 
 ance from smoke or poor draft, and do not get the 
 full heat value out of the fuel. Theoretically, anthra- 
 
Part 5 31 
 
 cite or hard coal requires more draft than soft coal, 
 but on account of the latter having a greater propor- 
 tion of gaseous products of combustion, the flue area 
 must be larger for burning soft coal than for anthra- 
 cite. The height of chimney does not matter materi- 
 ally, but the difference in area of the flue required may 
 be as high as 30 per cent, or a flue 8 x 12, good for 
 hard coal fire, may have to be increased to 10 x T3 
 for soft coal. So, when changing from one coal to 
 another, it is often well worth looking up the available 
 chimney area. Coke requires a good draft, but burn- 
 ing easily without smoke, the area of chimney can be 
 limited without danger to draft. 
 
 To clean out flues and chimney, I throw salt on the fire 
 and open damper. Amount of salt depends upon area to be 
 cleaned. The sulphurous gases eat the suds in a very short 
 time. I use rocfy salt, from three to six pounds. 
 STEAM. 
 
 A certain amount of steam or moisture is required 
 for the heat of the baking chamber during baking. 
 The amount, of course, varies widely, and every baker 
 knows that especially for Rye and Vienna Bread and 
 Rolls, in fact anything baked direct on the Oven-hearth, 
 a larger amount of steam is necessary, and the supply 
 of steam must be replenished; therefore, it is essen- 
 tial that no steam can escape. In inside fired ovens, 
 the direct fire leaves more or less moisture in the oven 
 chamber. In smaller bakeries, with only one oven, 
 perhaps a portable one, with no live steam supply, you 
 may produce sufficient moisture by placing a pan of 
 water near the fire-place and get it boiling. However, 
 small boilers of sufficient capacity can now be bought 
 so reasonable, that it will be a paying investment ev^n 
 for the small baker, as he can do all his cooking, pie 
 filling, icings, mush, etc., in shorter time, and have a 
 liberal supply of steam for proofboxes. Most Oven 
 Builders also make it a point to supply steam or hot 
 water boilers to their ovens on request. However, I 
 prefer an independent boiler as a safer proposition, 
 
33 Part 5 
 
 as you can raise or lower your steam supply or pres- 
 sure at any time with very little fuel and in a few min- 
 utes. For larger bakeries, of course, more steam and 
 larger boilers are required. However, the pressure 
 should not be over 30 lbs., and always carry plentv 
 water in the boiler, at least 2 to %y 2 gauges, to keep the 
 steam moist. Dry steam or too much steam in oven 
 is worse than not any at all. Some bakers think steam 
 is steam, and always alike, and I have found it difficult 
 to convince some of the old oven men that they can 
 use too much steam. Of course, most ovens have a 
 steam damper in the rear in the baking chamber, by 
 which you can let surplus of flash heat and steam 
 escape. 
 
 Steam for Bakeovens is best at a pressure from 
 15 to 30 pounds and the boiler should never be allowed 
 to be less than half to two thirds full of water, indi- 
 cated on the water gauge. While drawing the steam 
 from boiler, you will notice the gauge ( indicating the 
 pressure) drop rapidly. Therefore, you must keep 
 up a good fire. For this reason you may have 30 
 pounds pressure at the start; it will then be easier to 
 keep it from going below 15 pounds, which is called 
 one Atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Steam is like gas, expanding through application 
 of heat. The temperature of steam increases with the 
 amount of pressure (indicated on the gauge) as shown 
 in the following table : 
 Pound Pressure Temp, of Steam 
 
 212 degrees F. 
 
 5 227 degrees F. 
 
 10 239 degrees F. 
 
 20 259 degrees F. 
 
 30 274 degrees F. 
 
 40 286 degrees F. 
 
 50 300 degrees F. 
 
 At about 320 degrees, F. steam is thoroughly 
 "dry" and will just do the opposite to your bread, from 
 what it is expected to do. 
 
Tart 5 33 
 
 It will cause it to be "blind," "shrink" the loaves 
 or it will even "char" the crust. Now as the tempera- 
 ture of the Oven is about 450 degr. R, and on account 
 of steam expanding with increase of heat, the oven 
 will be full of superheated steam, when forcing it in 
 quickly. "Through steam" or superheated is prac- 
 tically invisible. What you see issuing from the spout 
 of a closed tea-kettle, is condensed steam and visible as 
 vapor. The lower temperature of surrounding at- 
 mosphere chills or condenses the steam and naturally 
 in cold weather you can see steam much plainer than 
 in warm weather. You can notice that on your own 
 breath. The only true steam issuing from the spout 
 of a kettle or any other closed receptacle, (valve of a 
 steam boiler, etc.) is contained only in the small space 
 immediately in front or on top of the point, where it 
 issues into the atmosphere. You can notice this empty 
 space very plain wherever steam escapes. 
 
 Steam will always look for an outlet but does 
 not descend below the highest point of exit, for in- 
 stance, the oven door. For this reason, Vienna or Rye 
 Bread Ovens are built sloping from back to front and 
 the front door provided with a tin slide which can be 
 lowered while peeling in Vienna or Rye Bread, to pre- 
 vent the steam from escaping through oven door. 
 
 A strong kettle or pot with tight cover and spout 
 is preferable. A very simple arrangement for any oven 
 is to run a one inch pipe over the fireplace or if oven 
 is fired from below, run pipe along the inside wall, of 
 oven chamber; the pipe is connected with the cold 
 water and is perforated. The pipe takes on about the 
 same heat as the oven chamber and when you turn on 
 a little cold water it will instantly turn into steam and 
 spread through the oven. 
 
 OVEN RECORDS. 
 
 Every baker, no matter how small or how large 
 his business should keep occasionally a record of a 
 whole day's baking of one or more ovens, marking 
 down the heat variations, fuel consumed, amount of 
 
34 
 
 Part 5 
 
 baking turned out, time oven is fired, etc. I refer to 
 my own Oven Record Cards, samples of which I re- 
 produce herewith (filled out). With these cards I 
 was able to cut down the fuel gradually to less than 
 one half the amount previously used. My fireman 
 knows the character of every one of our ten ovens 
 exactly, how much fuel eve~y one requires, how often 
 to fire, when to close dampers, etc., of course in our 
 bakery the heat recording is much simplified as our 
 Ovens are equipped with Electric Pyrometers, all oper- 
 ated from one switch-board and all recording the exact 
 heat of each oven. I find that 450 degrees F. is the 
 proper heat to start Bread Baking. I give here a 
 record of the variations indicated on the "dial" of the 
 switch-board for each oven, at different hours during 
 one day's baking. 
 
 
 Record of Heat Variations. 
 
 
 
 Fuel 
 
 No. Oven 
 
 TIME AND DEGREES OF HEAT. 
 
 11 P.M. 
 
 2 A.M. 
 
 6 A.M. 10A.M. 
 
 4 P. M. 
 
 8 P.M. 
 
 Coke 
 
 1. 
 
 435 
 
 450 
 
 430 
 
 420 
 
 430 
 
 435 
 
 Cole 
 
 2.X 
 
 440 
 
 445 
 
 395 
 
 390 
 
 405 
 
 435 
 
 Coal 
 
 3. 
 
 450 
 
 460 
 
 430 
 
 415 
 
 430 
 
 440 
 
 Coal 
 
 4.X 
 
 435 
 
 450 
 
 400 
 
 385 
 
 405 
 
 425 
 
 Coke 
 
 5.X 
 
 440 
 
 455 
 
 395 
 
 395 
 
 390 
 
 430 
 
 Coal 
 
 6.X 
 
 450 
 
 460 
 
 405 
 
 395 
 
 420 
 
 415 
 
 Coal 
 
 7.X 
 
 445 
 
 455 
 
 400 
 
 390 
 
 395 
 
 420 
 
 Coke 
 
 8. 
 
 450 
 
 450 
 
 440 
 
 435 
 
 430 
 
 445 
 
 
 9. 
 
 Oven 
 
 in Re 
 
 pair 
 
 
 
 
 Coal 
 
 10. 
 
 440 
 
 440 
 
 445 
 
 445 
 
 430 
 
 435 
 
 Ovens marked X are used for Hearth bread, which 
 accounts for the drop in temperature. Firing started 
 at 11 P. M., Baking started at about 3 A. M. 
 
Part 5 
 
 35 
 
 &JUbu*.'Zf*™ jiiA . 
 
 OVEN REPORT. 
 
 BRAUN'S "PRACTICAL" SYSTEM 
 
 Oven No* l± 
 
 
36 
 
 Part 5 
 
 Ol 
 
 'JiCLLir, 
 
 <r/d^£ 
 
 OVEN REPORT. 
 
 BRAUNS "PRACTICAL" SYSTEM. 
 
 Oven lis.JjZLuKX Date ' ^Jj jl /iA 
 
PART 6. 
 
 Modern Bread Making, 
 Machinery and Equipment 
 
 MACHINE MADE BREAD. 
 
 It is an established fact that "machine" made bread 
 is far superior to "hand" made bread ; that there is a 
 saving of at least 10 percent of flour to the barrel by 
 reason of perfect sifting and loosening of the flour in 
 the blending and sifting apparatus ; that the mixing is 
 more perfect ; that the mixing machine does away with 
 the hard labor ; that the divider scales the bread more 
 accurate and more quickly than men can weigh it 
 by hand and that the moulding machine moulds the 
 loaves more perfectly and more uniform. If you 
 make sponge doughs, you also need a dough brake. All 
 this means better and more uniform bread every day, 
 which consequently means increased demand for 
 bakers' bread. The missing link has been furnished 
 by the automatic proving apparatus to recover the 
 spring of the dough between the divider, or scaling 
 machine, and the moulder. 
 
 Some bakers still look at machinery as an expense 
 because it costs money to buy it. They do not seem 
 to consider the same as an investment that will pay 
 larger percent in dividends, or interest than the money 
 would if it was invested in anything else. It will even 
 pay to borrow the money from the bank and pay 5 or 
 6 percent interest (as some of the larger bakers do 
 when making improvements), because the machinery 
 will earn more through saving on labor, better yield, 
 more uniform bread, better quality and increased sales 
 
2 Part 6 
 
 through better sanitary conditions. To sum it up, 
 as an economical investment, machinery can't be beat. 
 
 It is positively proven that the employment of 
 machinery has shortened the working hours of the 
 men. The average output per man in a bakeshop 
 equipped with machinery, increases from 20 to 40 per- 
 cent, according to the efficiency of the system of 
 regulating the working methods. Furthermore, a 
 machine does not get tired, and when once adjusted 
 to do the work right, it will do it right always, pro- 
 vided, of course, it is handled right. 
 
 Very true, indeed. But quite a bit of the blame is 
 to be brought home to the machine man. Assisted by 
 glaring figures and enticing testimonials, he shows 
 the prospective customer how much he can save in 
 labor, time and money. But as soon as a contract is 
 signed and a machine set up and delivered, the baker 
 is left with his fate and his machines. As it often 
 happens, there is not a man in the shop who has han- 
 dled machinery before, or, having been used to some 
 other style of machinery, swears by that one, imagines 
 that that one is "it" and that no other will do. By 
 proper adjustment of fermentation, handling of doughs, 
 etc., it is not necessary that the machine "kill" the 
 dough. 
 
 We must adapt ourselves and our dough to the 
 character of the machine, and study the same. A baker 
 must not expect to lay off a dozen men the first week 
 he has installed a new machine; and after the work 
 of the machine is satisfactory he must have one of 
 the men at least made familiar with the construction 
 of the machine, and held responsible to keep it properly 
 oiled and cleaned. This man should also be able to 
 take the machine apart and put it together again for 
 the same purpose. 
 
 Now about the samples of the bread which are re- 
 produced herewith. Figures 1 and 2 are from one 
 dou^h (about 1,000 pounds). They are manipulated 
 in different ways, and I leave it to my readers to judge 
 
Part 6 
 
 Fig. 1. — Loaf made up all by hand. 
 
 for themselves which is the better looking loaf in 
 texture. In flavor they are alike, and both good. 
 The other illustration (Fig. 3) shows a loaf of "ma- 
 chine-made" bread from a different kind of dough, 
 fermentation being altogether different, long sponge 
 and stiffer dough. None of these doughs have been 
 "killed" with the machines. 
 
 In favor of machinery, which applies to Mixer, 
 Moulding Machine and Scaling Machine (or Divider), 
 I would mention as one of the strongest points in 
 their favor, "uniformity." The more men you have 
 in mixing dough (or at the scales, or on the bench), 
 
 Fig. 2. — Loaf from same dough (as Fig. 1), run through Brake, Divider 
 and Moulding Machine. 
 
4 Part 6 
 
 the more different kinds of dough you have to reckon 
 with, and the more light weight and heavy weight 
 loaves you get, and the more different shaped and 
 tight or loose moulded loaves will go into the proof 
 room, — if the work is all done by hand. 
 
 If the different kinds of bread dough are to be 
 run though the machines, you have to carry on your 
 fermentation accordingly. Some bakers make all kinds 
 of bread out of the same kind of doughs, while each 
 loaf should have its own characteristics, flavor and 
 texture. 
 
 -? - 
 
 Fig.3. — Pullman Loaf from old sponge dough, run through 
 Brake (five times) , Divider and Moulder. 
 
 One peculiarity of machine made bread is the dif- 
 ference between the action of the divider and brake 
 on the same dough. The divider breaks the cells and 
 makes the dough somewhat raw and wet, but does not 
 reduce the acidity or gas to any great extent, and does 
 not hasten the final fermentation or raising of the 
 loaves in the proof room. The brake, on the other 
 hand (provided it is not set too close), merely squeezes 
 out the gas and acid, but does not break up the cells 
 or the ikin of the dough. 
 
 Run a piece from the same dough through the 
 divider, and even through the moulder, and you will 
 find the loaves raise quicker than if the brake had 
 
Part 6 5 
 
 not been used. It will also be noticed that the divider 
 will not deliver the loaves so wet or sticky if the dough 
 is passed through the brake first. 
 
 Furthermore, if the dough is run through the brake 
 before being deposited in the hopper of the divider, 
 the scaling device on the divider must be set back 
 at least one or two ounces. That means that for a 
 sixteen ounce loaf it is to be set to only fourteen and 
 a half, otherwise, the loaves will usually come out 
 too heavy. The brake facilitates the work of the 
 divider by rendering the pressure more uniform and 
 regular. But this is not to say that the modern di- 
 viders are unsatisfactory, or to be condemned. 
 
 Some bakers claim that the brake destroys the 
 flavor of the bread. This is only the case with over- 
 fermented dough, and when run through the brake 
 too many times.. 
 
 There is no such thing as a dough mixing machine 
 "killing the dough," or a dividing machine "bleeding" 
 the dough to death, or the moulding machine "taking 
 the life out of the loaf," if you understand the ma- 
 chines, and do not expect too much of either of them 
 the first week or the first month. Use some judg- 
 ment ; have a bit of patience and perseverence ; give 
 the machines their proper care, and there will be no 
 reason for "kicking" or disappointment. 
 
 I wish to say that too much must not be expected 
 of the machines. They are of no use unless common 
 sense is used ; and unless it is used, you are no better 
 off with them than without them. 
 
 FLOUR BLENDING AND SIFTING. 
 
 The first step in beginning work in the shop is 
 the blending and sifting of the flour. Blending has 
 already been explained, but I just want to mention 
 the importance of blending again. I have found by 
 mixing and sifting different flours together ahead and 
 letting them stand as long as possible, improves the 
 flour. For instance, a rich Winter and a hard North- 
 
6 Part 6 
 
 ern second Patent or straight sifted together improves 
 the flavor of the Northern flour. I have frequently 
 found that the amount of gluten recovered from a 
 blend of two or three different flours is larger than 
 the amount of gluten recovered from each flour rep- 
 arately added together. This cause is the action of 
 the soluble albuminoids of the softer flour on the 
 gluten of the harder flour. 
 
 One of the fundamental rules is "that all flour used 
 must be sifted." The extra time required will be well 
 repaid by improving the quality of the flour and giving 
 better yield in the dough. 
 
 There is no reasonable excuse possiblle, even in the 
 small shop without machinery, for using flour without 
 sifting. Not only must we make sure that all impurities 
 and strings, fuz, etc., are removed, but we areate and 
 improve the flour by sifting. Even the flour used for 
 dusting, either on the bench or on the machines, should 
 have our special attention, and only sifted flour should 
 be used. Because this flour is used raw, it is of more 
 importance than most bakers realize. I have found 
 that it pays "to use the highest grade, best flavored and 
 best colored flour for dusting/' I have been amazed 
 by the near-sightedness of some otherwise shrewd men 
 in the baking business, making the mistake of buying 
 an extra cheap flour, frequently off in flavor or color, 
 for dusting. 
 
 I say don't do it ; it does not pay. You use every 
 means to improve your bread, but reduce the quality 
 willfully (if unconsciously) by adding raw, unfer- 
 mented flour of inferior value at these last stages of 
 the process of making a good loaf of bread. For Rye 
 bread I also found it of advantage to sift some of the 
 best flavored pure rye flour together with some dry 
 wheat flour for dusting in moulding the loaves. 
 
 Mixing the Dough. If this is done by hand, dough 
 wants to be well shaken down and frequently kneaded 
 and cut over. However, as a one barrel dough takes 
 
Part 6 7 
 
 one horse power continuously to mix and knead a 
 dough of from 15 to 20 minutes, it will require several 
 men to produce the same dough in that time, as one 
 man cannot deliver more than one-sixth of a horse- 
 power for any length of time. The increase in yield 
 is due to the machine or mixer, develops the gluten 
 better and makes dough smoother. Dough Mixers 
 are now made in sizes from \y 2 to 6 barrels capacity, 
 to suit any baker, and the so-called self-contained 
 mixer (which means electric motor attached directly 
 to mixer, without any shafting, extra pulleys and belt 
 transmission) is especially adapted for the smaller 
 bakery, where room is limited. 
 
 The starting box or switch-board should be right 
 handy in front, if possible on the right side, so that the 
 man in charge can reach it at any moment with his 
 hand, to turn on or stop the power. Mixers with one 
 blade do not require as much power as those with 
 double blades. For a smaller shop, having only one 
 mixer, it is advisable to have a two speed arrangement. 
 Also figure one or two horse power more than is 
 actually needed. 
 
 There are now on the market whole outfits for the 
 smaller bakery, including bread mixer, flour sifter and 
 blender, cake mixer and egg beater, all driven by one 
 motor and taking comparatively little space. These 
 machines can all be run together, or each one alone, 
 by arrangement of clutches. 
 
 If mixer is very cold in winter, it is advisable to 
 let it run for a few minutes with a little boiling water 
 or take only part of water for first sponge or dough 
 and make this thirty or forty degrees warmer, to 
 warm up mixer before adding balance of water and 
 flour. 
 
 Where sponges and doughs are made in one mixer, 
 a two speed machine is of special advantage. Sponge 
 can be mixed as fast speed, so also all smaller doughs 
 and slack doughs. Sponge does not need to be broken 
 
8 Part 6 
 
 up so much as for hand made dough. The mixer, by 
 either stretching or pulling (by double blades) and 
 kneading and pressing (by single arm blades) obliter- 
 ates every little piece of the sponge, thus making the 
 dough smoother or homogeneous. 
 
 A machine made dough when newly made, feels 
 more solid and tougher than a hand made dough ; the 
 former being mixed more solid and much closer in 
 texture. Although I am not in favor of running a 
 dough at too slow a speed (not below 22 revolutions) 
 I am not in favor of over-mixing a dough. I believe 
 where a dough is mixed to the limit, to get the gluten 
 to absorb all the water possible, it gets like rubber 
 and expands with the gas ; very large, thin bubbles 
 appear on top of such usually very slack doughs ; 
 those break, the gas escapes, and considerable of the 
 flavor goes with it. I call this excessive, and as a proof 
 that it is forced energy, I mention that in such slack 
 doughs mixed to the limit, the amount of yeast used 
 is generally nearly double the amount as used in the 
 warmer, little stiffer doughs mixed slower say 400 
 to 450 revolutions. 
 
 There is not as much of a saving in using eight or 
 ten pounds more water to a barrel of flour, as may be 
 expected, because more yeast must be used, and that 
 is more expensive than flour. Of course dough gets 
 whiter, and texture or grain more uniform, — but all 
 at expense of flavor. There is also such a thing as 
 getting too much air, especially oxygen into a dough 
 by running the mixer long at fast speed. This has 
 been explained before as to its effect on sponges and 
 stiff doughs. 
 
 TEMPERATURE IN DOUGHROOM AND 
 PROOFING ROOM. 
 
 Excessixe heat in dough room and proofing room 
 closets must be avoided. With temperature at 85 de- 
 grees or over in the dough room, or 92 or over in the 
 proofing closets, or steam room, the dough in bulk 
 
Part 6 9 
 
 (in trough) or in the pans produce too much gas 
 (C02) and too much acid, and in consequence fer- 
 mentation becomes "wild." The gas cells, or rather 
 gluten cells, holding the gas, in any sound dough which 
 has been mixed and raised under proper conditions, 
 are regular during any stage of fermentation. Pull- 
 ing up a piece of any sound, cool dough, and stretch- 
 ing it after it has stood about two or three hours, it 
 will show a network of regular uniform web-like 
 meshes, which, (if not neglected in the proofing and 
 if baked in proper heated oven) will show the same 
 network only in smaller meshes when baked. There 
 are two distinct species of cells in the grain of any 
 loaf of bread, the same as in the dough; they are 
 
 In a dough made at a temperature of 80 degrees 
 or less and mixed very thoroughly and not too soft, 
 and not containing over three ounces of salt to the 
 gallon, the ce/ls are mostly oval and regular. These, 
 as a rule, also cut smoother, and texture is firmer. The 
 other specie of cells (round and looser) are predomi- 
 nant in a dough of 83 degrees or over and not mixed 
 so long, and containing from 3]/ 2 to 4 ounces of salt 
 to the gallon, such as Home-made Bread, New Eng- 
 land, etc. 
 
 If either of these doughs, however, are allowed 
 to go beyond the regular calculated time for fermenta- 
 tion or proofing, for some unavoidable reason or delay, 
 or through neglect of the men, the grain becomes 
 coarse, the color gets bad, and the flavor loses its 
 sweetness. The only relief to remove coarseness and 
 restore whiteness, is by rolling such dough through 
 the brake. (See Part 6.) But if the loaves after 
 being moulded are over-proofed or forced by exces- 
 sive steam in the proof-room, there is no more relief. 
 (See Part 6.) As mentioned before, the flavor of 
 the bread is not controlled or improved by the grain 
 or texture, and in some cases grain and color are only 
 improved at the expense of the flavor. 
 
10 Part 6 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 Electricity is the most mysterious force or phe- 
 nomenon in nature. 
 
 Although invisible, it manifests itself in various 
 ways. The exact nature of electricity is still puzzling 
 the wizards. They know the effects it produces, and 
 by studying these, have found methods for controlling 
 it, and have established laws and rules by which this 
 mighty invisible power can be used and governed. 
 Electricity is divided into three branches. 
 
 I. MAGNETISM. 
 
 There are natural magnets found in all parts of 
 the world. They are an oxide of iron and called load- 
 stones. They have the power of magnetizing and 
 attracting other bodies to them. Artificial magnets 
 are made by rubbing together a piece of steel and 
 loadstone. 
 
 II. STATIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 This appears as a charge on the surface of a sub- 
 stance. 
 
 This branch is noticeable principally in two ways; 
 by friction and induction, (a) Friction is explained by 
 the simple experiment of rubbing a piece of amber 
 on a piece of wool. Heat is generated but it also attains 
 the power to attract small pieces of paper and hold 
 them to it, acting in this respect the same as a magnet. 
 (b) Induction means to take one substance charged 
 with electricity and by holding it near or placing it 
 on a second substance the second also becomes charged. 
 When a substance becomes charged, or electrified, the 
 electricity it possesses is of two kinds. These are called 
 positive (-]-) and negative ( — ). By experiment it 
 has been proven that electric charges of the same 
 sign repell each other, while those of opposite sign 
 attract each other. This proven fact explains the 
 
Part 6 11 
 
 power of the magnet. Holding a foreign substance 
 near a magnet it becomes charged with the -f- and — 
 electricity. The + and — poles of the magnet then 
 attract the opposite poles of the newly charged sub- 
 stance. The surface and space surrounding the mag- 
 net is called the magnetic field. 
 
 III. DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 By this we study or consider the flow or action of 
 electricity in currents. In the preceding paragraphs 
 the static charge was shown to pass from one body to 
 another and after repeatedly charging one or more 
 bodies its power to keep on charging becomes ex- 
 hausted. That is if you can overload it, the charging 
 power is so diminished that it has no further effect on 
 the overload. Now if electricity could be supplied as 
 fast as it is given off, we would only need to connect 
 the positive and negative poles to maintain a continu- 
 ous flow. This is what we call forming the circir't, 
 and the flow which becomes continuous is termed the 
 current. The battery both dry and liquid performs 
 this duty for light work. But we will deal further on 
 with dynamos and motors as these are the machines we 
 have most in use in the bake-shop. 
 
 The principles of all dynamos are the same, that is 
 they posses three essential features. 
 
 I. A magnetic field. 
 
 II. A conductor called an armature, in which the 
 electro motive force is generated by some movement 
 in relation to the lines of force in the magnetic field. 
 
 III. A commutator or collector from which the 
 current is conducted to the main supply wires by two 
 or more conducting brushes. 
 
 In practice, No. I is carried out by placing a 
 number of electro magnets in the form of a circle. 
 This leaves a round space or magnetic field across 
 which the magnetic lines of force pass from one set 
 
12 Part G 
 
 of magnets to another. No. II, revolving at a rapid 
 speed in the space formed by No. 1, becomes charged 
 or develops electricity. This electricity then passes 
 on to No. Ill, which is a part of and revolves with 
 No. II, and is carried to the supply lines through 
 carbon brushes which rub or come in contact with 
 the surface. The power to make No. II and No. 
 Ill revolve in the space formed by No. I must be sup- 
 plied by some mechanical energy, such as a steam or 
 gas engine. So much for the dynamo. 
 
 The motor is practically the same as the dynamo. 
 Owing to the different and varied work required of 
 them they are constructed along different lines but still 
 embody the same principles, namely magnetic fields, 
 armatures and commutators, but motors are caused to 
 revolve by electricity instead of mechanical power. The 
 electricity is fed from the main line through the carbon 
 brushes. Then the commutator and armature being 
 charged are affected by magnetism from the charged 
 electro magnets and are caused to revolve. A driving 
 pulley attached to the shaft of the revolving armature 
 is what gives us our mechanical energy. 
 
 The apparatus used in connection with alternating 
 current installations differs in general from that used 
 in connection with direct current systems and on ac- 
 count of the nature of alternating currents, the latter 
 do not flow in accordance with the simple laws which 
 govern the former. In direct current circuits the cur- 
 rent flows continuously in one direction or in other 
 words as time elapses the value of the current does 
 not change. In alternating currents the direction of 
 the flow is continually changing, and a current of a 
 certain strength flows in a positive direction for a 
 definite interval of time and then reverses and flows in 
 the negative direction for a similar length of time 
 
 The complete set of values which an alternating 
 current passes through, from zero to a maximum 
 and back to zero in a positive direction and through 
 
Part 6 13 
 
 these same values in a negative direction, is called 
 a cycle. The number of cycles passed through in one 
 second is called the frequency. An alternation is half 
 a cycle. The number of cycles of any machine can be 
 found by multiplying the number of pairs of poles by 
 the revolutions per second of the machine. 
 
 It is often preferred to express the frequency of 
 an alternator in alternations per minute and therefore 
 if an alternator has 60 cycles, i e 60 cycles per second 
 (3,600 per minute) then, since there are two alterna- 
 tions per cycle, the alternator gives 7,200 alternations 
 per minute. 
 
 Owing to the fact that the electro-motive-force 
 called e. m. f. of an alternator does not reach its maxi- 
 mum and minimum values at the same time as the 
 current, they are said to be out of phase. If the arma- 
 ture of an alternator is so wound that two circuits can 
 be fed into it the machine is said to be two phase, and 
 the currents in the two circuits differ in phase by 90°. 
 Similarly if the armature is wound so that three cir- 
 cuits can be fed into it, the machine is said to be 
 three phase and the currents in the three circuits differ 
 in phase by 120 degrees. 
 
 The three phase motor with alternating current 
 has proved to be the best adapted and cheapest for 
 use in the bakery. 
 
 From preceding text, we now know that the mag- 
 nets form that part of the motor which surrounds 
 the revolving cylinder. The armature is the part of 
 the motor which revolves in the space surrounded by 
 the magnets, and the commutator is the copper part 
 attached to one end of the revolving armature and 
 on which the brushes set. 
 
 THE AMPERE is the practical unit denoting 
 the rate of flow of an electric current or the strength 
 of an electric current. 
 
 THE OHM is the practical unit of resistance. 
 
 THE VOLT is the practical unit of electrical 
 potential, mean pressure. 
 
14 Part 6 
 
 ONE AMPERE is the amount of electricity that 
 would pass through a circuit whose resistance is one 
 ohm under the pressure of one volt. 
 
 ONE OHM is the resistance that would limit the 
 flow of electricity under a pressure or electric motive 
 force (EMF) to a current of one ampere. 
 
 ONE VOLT is the EMF or pressure that would 
 cause a current of one ampere to flow against the 
 resistance of one ohm. 
 
 QUANTITY, ENERGY and POWER. 
 
 The strength of a current is determined, as we 
 explained in preceding paragraph, by the amount of 
 electricity which passes the conductor in a given time, 
 or in other words, the current strength expresses the 
 rate at which electricity is developed. Therefore the 
 quantity of electricity conveyed, depends upon the 
 current strength and the time the current continues. 
 
 THE COULOMB is the unit of quantity, and is 
 equal to the amount of electricity which passes the 
 conductor in one second when the current strength 
 is one ampere. 
 
 ENERGY, the unit used to express the amount of 
 work done in mechanics, is known as the foot pound 
 or the energy required to raise one pound one foot. 
 In electrical work the unit of energy is the amount of 
 work done when one coulomb flows between potential 
 or pressure differing by one volt. 
 
 The unit of electrical work is therefore, the volt- 
 coulomb and is called the Joule. One Joule equals 
 7,373 foot pounds. 
 
 POWER. In mechanical work the unit of power 
 is called the horsepower. In electrical work the unit 
 of power is called the watt. The energy of one horse- 
 power is 550 foot pounds per second. The energy of 
 one watt is one Joule or 1373 foot pounds per second. 
 
Part 6 15 
 
 One watt is equal to 1-746 of a horsepower or one 
 horsepower equals 746 watts. The watt is too small 
 for convenient use, so the kilowatt is generally used. 
 This is abbreviated K. W., and is equal to 1,000 watts, 
 or about V/z horsepower. The K. W. is the amount 
 of work done when one K. W. is expended for one 
 hour. So one K. W. hour equals 1,000 watt hours. 
 The K. W. hour expresses a definite amount of work 
 while the K. W. represents the rate at which the work 
 is done. 
 
 CONDUCTORS and NON-CONDUCTORS. 
 
 Conductors of electricity are such bodies or sub- 
 stances which offer a very weak resistance to the 
 electricity or electric current to pass through them. 
 Most metals, silver, copper, etc., are good conductors, 
 so is charcoal and also the human body. 
 
 Non-conductors or Insulators are such bodies or 
 substances which do resist the electric current very 
 effectively in passing through them. Very useful 
 substances as insulators are : Porcelain, Glass, Par- 
 raffine, Rubber or Gutta-percha, Oils, etc., also dry 
 air resists the electric current, while moist air and 
 ordinary water are very good conductors. 
 
 One can readily see from these few paragraphs 
 how important it is when ordering machinery to cor- 
 rectly notify the manufacturer in regard to exact 
 kind of motor and current in use in the shop. 
 
 Electric power has been one of the greatest helps 
 towards enabling the smaller bakers to use machinery 
 of all kinds. Dough Mixers are now made with the 
 electric motor set under the machine and connected 
 by gearing, thus saving floor space, using no more 
 space than a trough would occupy when mixing by 
 hand. 
 
 These machines are so built that the same motor 
 can be used to drive other machinery, such as Flour 
 
16 Part G 
 
 Sifter, Flour Blending Plants, Cake Machine, Egg 
 Beaters and Dividers, so that quite a large installation, 
 with a capacity of 50 barrels of flour per day, can be 
 run with one motor under the Mixer. 
 
 The expense for electric power is small, being but 
 one or two cents per barrel of flour, and the saving 
 in labor in a shop where three to five barrels of flour 
 are baked, will more than pay for an outfit of ma- 
 chinery in six months' time. 
 
 USING GAS OR GASOLINE. 
 
 Using a gas and gasoline engine there are several 
 rules to be observed. 
 
 1. The comparison must be right, and the ad- 
 mission valve tight enough to admit just sufficient 
 mixture (of gasoline and air) to take fire from the 
 sparker. 
 
 2. The sparker must be kept clean, and work 
 freely. 
 
 3. The valves must be kept well ground down 
 with emery, and well oiled. 
 
 4. The spark must be made when the connecting 
 rod is on the "up stroke," with the crankshaft two or 
 three inches below the horizontal line of the center of 
 the cylinder, which gives the greatest efficiency from 
 the least amount of gas or gasoline. 
 
PART 7. 
 
 System and Economy. 
 Suggestions. 
 
 A BREAD BAKER'S DIARY. 
 
 I have found a daily record of unusual happen- 
 ings or changes in the bakery quite useful for refer- 
 ence, and recommend this for any bakery. A few 
 samples may be of interest : 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 1st. Started new system in mixing room. Dough 
 sheet is made out in the office for the mixer, giving 
 him the figures for amount of each sponge and dough 
 on printed sheet, — time to set, temperature, and he 
 to mark down changes. It promises to work out all 
 right. 
 
 3rd. Extra order for 50 loaves of rye bread came 
 in too late to make regular dough. Took 100 pounds 
 of last (just ready for bench) back into the mixer; 
 added 30 more pounds of water, at 82 degrees, l / 2 
 pound yeast, 10 ounces salt and 35 pounds of rye mix 
 flour (1-3 rye, 2-3 clear), also 5 pounds Kansas Patent. 
 After mixing dough for about 8 minutes, let it rest 
 only 10 minutes more, and put it on the bench. Made 
 a nice large loaf. 
 
 4th. The first doughs all coming too fast and wild. 
 Mixer insisted he made no mistake. Finally traced 
 trouble to salt, being from a new sack opened, which 
 was very damp. Got another (dry) sack and it was 
 all right. If salt is wet, have to use more. 
 
2 Part 7 
 
 5th. (Saturday.) Ordered flues in two patent 
 ovens cleaned out. 
 
 8th. Changed flour blend, adding 20 per cent 
 Kansas Patent; but where Kansas is used, dough has 
 better spring if not punched down; just pulled over 
 to keep gas in and take to bench in shorter time. 
 
 9th. On account of heavy snow-storm had trouble 
 with electric lights. In lighting gas found many 
 burners missing, causing some confusion and delay. 
 Burners will be kept on hand now. 
 
 14th. Changed half rye formula from sponge to 
 straight dough. Use about 20 per cent strong Kansas 
 patent, 60 per cent, clear spring and 20 per cent pure 
 rye. Formula: 100 pounds water, 2 pounds yeast, 
 1 70 pounds flour, 2 l / 2 to 2% pounds salt, 3 pounds Sauei. 
 Let come once good (o l / 2 to 4 hours) then knock 
 down, let raise second time, pull over and in half an 
 hour it is ready for bench. Makes nice large rounded 
 loaf. 6 to 8 pounds old dough is also advisable, but 
 then it will be ready about half hour sooner. 
 
 15th. One pipe blew out on draw-plate oven ; 
 soot from oven chamber mixed with hot water, hit 
 oven man and black particles went through his skin 
 in face and arm. 
 
 18th. (Friday.) Advertised almond coffee rings, 
 15 and 20 cents. Orders came heavier than expected 
 and will try it again. Sprinkled chopped almonds 
 inside, with the sugar, before rolling cakes up, and 
 also sprinkled some shredded almonds (blanched) on 
 top, with granulated sugar, after cakes were washed 
 with egg wash before baking. 
 
 20th. Made some tests of molasses samples. Made 
 a solution of 1 ounce soda with 16 ounces water. I 
 mixed one ounce of this solution with 4 ounces of 
 flour, 2 ounces of one sample of molasses, y 2 ounce 
 cooking oil. Put this dough in a little pan and 
 
Part 7 3 
 
 baked. Compared the different sample cakes, each 
 being marked. Selected one (marked "O. P.") for 
 best color and flavor. 
 
 21st. Car of Kansas flour taken in. Some bags 
 were damp on bottom. Had them emptied and re- 
 filled in dry sacks, only the bottom part (damp) spread 
 out for drying. 
 
 23rd. In cake shop corner a box of oily rags was 
 discovered smouldering and burning from spontane- 
 ous combustion. Ordered all rags now to be kept in 
 galvanized iron cans. 
 
 28th. Had motor thoroughly cleaned; was all 
 clogged up. Vienna sponge taken too young and 
 bread was small. Changed formula for buns, using 
 now malt extract mixed with corn flour to a batter, 
 letting stand a half hour ; cut shortening and sugar 
 down, using a little more yeast. Heavy snow still 
 falling, after blizzard ; traffic paralyzed. 
 
 29th. Ordered new daily record slips for cake 
 shop, to start by first of month. Cut out some mix- 
 tures ; material cost running over 55 per cent. Re- 
 vised other formulas. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE NEW PANS FOR USE. 
 
 New bread pans must be baked before being used. 
 
 This means they should be put in a medium hot 
 oven (say between 350-400 degrees F.) for from 8 to 
 10 minutes, or until they take on a bluish tint like 
 steel. 
 
 Then remove as quickly as possible from the oven, 
 have one helper rub them out well with a rough but 
 clean cloth, and grease thoroughly (inside) with pu~e 
 lard. This must be done while pans are still very hot, 
 so the lard can soak in. Let stand until partly cooled, 
 then rub out once more with a cloth or a piece of 
 dough. 
 
4 Part 7 
 
 Now the pans are ready for the regular greasing, 
 which is best done with a round or flat greasing brush, 
 as you must get into all the corners to prevent the 
 bread from sticking, which happens so frequently with 
 new pans. 
 
 Although pure lard seems rather expensive for 
 this purpose, it is the cheapest in the end, because 
 compound or cottonseed oil burns and gets sticky when 
 the pans filled with bread are exposed to the heat in 
 the oven during the baking. 
 
 Bread pans or cake tins, when greased with lard 
 can be kept clean much easier. Keeping the lard 
 melted it does not require very much of it to grease 
 a large number of tins. 
 
 When properly greased, bread pans ought to 
 last for two or three bakings before greasing again. 
 
 To save lard, grease them while they are warm. 
 
 The bread also has a more tender crust on sides 
 and bottom when pans are greased with hog's lard. 
 
 Many bakers make a great mistake of greasing 
 new pans first, before they burn them out. 
 
 THE CARE OF RUSSIA IRON PANS. 
 
 All large pans made of Russia Iron are more or 
 less subject to getting rustv if not taken proper care 
 of. 
 
 Before being used at all, they must be burned, 
 but the same care as with the tin bread pans must 
 be observed. Then rub well with a coarse cloth to 
 get off all the acid and oily matter, which sweats out 
 of new metal when thoroughly heated. While still 
 hot, grease well with Oil or Compound and let stand 
 for a day or so. Then rub the grease all off, heat pans 
 once more, but not enough to burn ? and rub once 
 more with clean rags or waste. They are then ready 
 for light greasing required in baking. 
 
Part 7 5 
 
 Never wash any Steel or Russia Iron pans with 
 water, using neither soap, soap-powder or Sapolio, as 
 you will destroy the finish and they will surely rust. 
 
 If such pans should accidently get rusty through 
 exposure to dampness or water, you may apply a so- 
 lution made of three parts gasoline and one part lin- 
 seed oil. After rubbing in this solution well with a 
 soft rag, let the pans stand long enough to allow the 
 solution to soften the attack or dissolve the rust. Then 
 rub off well with sawdust or cornmeal, to remove all 
 odor of the gasoline or benzine. 
 
 Repeat this several times before heating the pans. 
 Then heat the pans and grease with oil or lard. Rub 
 off once more — best with an old piece of stiff dough. 
 Some bakers have the habit of rubbing such pans off 
 with coarse salt, which is condemned, as it scratches 
 off the finish of the Iron or Steel. 
 
6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Part 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 <2 
 
 er 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -a a 
 .a .° 
 
 * 00 A 
 
 • 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 I, 
 
 
 
 u 5 70 
 
 * 8 a 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1> 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Jfi 
 
 z 
 
 s 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 * 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 T2 a -s 
 
 r "Tl 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-g-p g 
 
 o a 2 m 
 
 i 
 
 g 
 
 * 
 
 (V) 
 
 IV 
 
 
 <3 
 
 
 a -a 1 e 
 
 ~ 3 2i •> 
 
 ^ Q 6 ^ 
 
 4 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 3 
 
 
 <5> 
 
 C 
 
 rr 
 
 
 
 
 ^ o "3 « 
 
 Uj 00 o 
 
 * o « « 
 
 | 
 
 5 
 
 5- 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 c; 
 
 
 ° C^l O -y 
 
 •11 - - 
 
 1 s « z 
 
 
 b ; 
 
 1: 
 
 * : o 
 
 1 
 
 z S 
 
 
 3 
 
 *> 
 
 °l 
 <5 
 
 
 
 2 _^ S a 
 
 S * S T3 
 
 S M -1 
 
 
 si 1 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 .2 -a J *2 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 y- 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 s S S J 
 
 -9 y « c 
 
 J 
 
 i 
 
 * *SG 
 1 ^^ 
 
 1 5"i 
 1 iJ 
 
 1 1 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 t 
 
 * 
 
 
 Fig. 1. — The j 
 out. It not only shov 
 of weather, etc., but 
 
 Each column ca 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 e 
 
Part 7 
 
Part 7 
 
 X 
 U 
 
 Z 
 U3 
 fiQ 
 
 £ 
 
 a 
 & 
 o 
 
 w 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 shows 
 :aling, 
 many 
 
 
 -0 * S 
 
 ^ 
 
 S^ J 
 
 v. <U 
 
 -c £ -b 
 
 v2 ■ 
 
 £ ° o 
 
 4> «° S 
 
 "in 4) 
 
 ' CQ Id S 
 
 ~ * 
 
 ineor 
 orrectn 
 know 
 
 > «j 
 
 -c o - 
 
 £ <u o 
 
 ^> O 
 
 4J <— 
 
 2§ ~ ^ 
 
 ■£ » 
 
 0° « ^ 
 
 
 
 1=: ^? £ 
 
 V to 
 
 the Sea 
 for chec 
 mediate] 
 
 TS.F 
 
 3 
 
 ^-8-9 
 
 * . 
 
 a 
 
 &1 §• 
 
 2 -a a 
 
 " S £ 
 
 _4J E 
 
 O ft 
 
 a bo^c 
 
 '" 03 OT 
 
 <J3 O 
 
 1 s j i 
 
 E -2 (U 3 
 
 O m 
 
 ... * *T3 
 
 <U _M 
 
 V to X 
 
 -c .2 •- 8 
 
 u ° 
 
 - „ so a 
 
 £ £ 
 
 u «— C _ 
 
 
 O 'ST3 
 
 *CO 
 
 -^-v >> 
 
 2 S o _g 
 E o u -S 
 
 CO * 
 
 ench Fore 
 Dough-ro 
 
 mistake in 
 loaves it 
 
 s & 
 
 ^ Si 
 
 . ID 
 
 CQ *> .. ^ 
 
 DO 
 
 *T3 « 
 
 •£ .S < E 
 
 ^-^ o a; 
 
 41 w 
 
 pt by 
 ready 
 and. 
 d how 
 
 !R « 
 
 SJ v * 
 
 
 » B 1 
 
 CJ B 3 
 
 This sheet is 
 5ach Dough 
 y machine o 
 ugh weighs, 
 
 ■3 S~ 
 
 * .5 •£ 
 
 > 4j 
 2 '00 60 
 
 1 " _Q O 
 
 -CO 
 
 '. s « ~° 
 
 h* >» tl 
 
 > o o 
 .£? V u « 
 
 | a; * 
 
 F 
 
 the tim 
 whethe 
 pounds 
 
 £ a 
 
Part 7 
 
 BAKE SHOP DAILY RECORD. 
 
 (Especially adapted for Small Bakeries.) 
 
 Date 191 
 
 Dough 
 
 Flour Pounds Temp. 
 
 Water Gallons Pounds Temp. 
 
 Yeast Pounds 
 
 Salt Pounds 
 
 Shortening Pounds 
 
 Sugar Pounds 
 
 Cornflouror) p^ 
 
 r takes ) 
 
 Malt Extract Pounds 
 
 Milk • • Gallons Pounds 
 
 Time when mixed 
 
 Temperature of Dough when Mixed Degrees. 
 
 Number of Loaves of Bread Baked 
 
 . Sponge 
 
 Fig. 4. — The above is a handy Record sheet for the smaller bakeries, 
 where only a few Doughs are made each day. One sheet is used for each 
 Dough or Sponge. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PART 1. 
 
 Elements, Compounds, Acids, Chemical Terms. 
 
 Pages 
 Acids 9-12 
 
 Alkalies or Bases 13-16 
 
 Atoms 19-21 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 
 8 
 
 Chemical— Formulas 21-22 
 
 Knowledge 1-2 
 
 Symbols 20-21 
 
 Compounds 
 Organic 
 Inorganic . . 
 
 7-8 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 Elements 
 
 Energy (Force) 
 
 Hydrocarbons 
 
 Matter 
 
 Mixtures (Chemical) 
 Molecules 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Peges 
 3-6 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 PART 2. 
 
 Yeast, Fermentation, Yeast Foods, Bread Diseases. 
 
 Bread Diseases 
 
 Pages 
 28-30 
 
 Fermentation 6-16 
 
 Acetous 10-11 
 
 Alcoholic 9-10 
 
 Butyrus 13 
 
 Lactic 11 
 
 Water 16-19 
 
 Yeast 
 
 Brewers . . . 
 Budding of 
 
 1-6 
 5 
 2 
 
 Yeast— Continued 
 
 Compressed 
 
 Dry 
 
 Spores of 
 
 Pages 
 
 5-6 
 
 2-3 
 
 Yeast Foods 19-28 
 
 Carbohydrates 19-20 
 
 Glucose 21 
 
 Lintner Process 27 
 
 Malt Extract 21-22 
 
 Malt Flour 28 
 
 Malt Tests 23-26 
 
 Sugar 20-21 
 
INDEX— Continued. 
 
 PART 3. 
 
 Flour, Gluten, Chemical and Practical Tests. 
 
 Burettes and Scales. 
 
 Pages 
 27-28 
 
 Flour 1-14 
 
 Absorption 8 
 
 Acidity (Tests) 11-13 
 
 Aging 39 
 
 Ash Content 13 
 
 Bleaching 5 
 
 Blending 6 
 
 Color (Teste) 10 
 
 Composition 7 
 
 Fat Content 11 
 
 Moisture 7 
 
 Proteins 9 
 
 Pages 
 Flour— Continued 
 
 Storage 39 
 
 Tests (Laboratory) 28-31 
 
 Tests (Practical) 31-39 
 
 Gluten 14-27 
 
 Comparing 21-27 
 
 Composition 14-15 
 
 Expansion 1 7-2 1 
 
 Extracting 15-17 
 
 Gliadin 15 
 
 Glutenin 16 
 
 Tests (Laboratory) 18-19 
 
 Tests (Practical) 19-24 
 
 PART 4. 
 
 Dough Making, Proper Temperature, Bread 
 Formulas and Standards. 
 
 Pages 
 
 Bread 16-28 
 
 Baking Tests 20 
 
 Color of 21 
 
 Cracking of 20 
 
 Formulas 16-19 
 
 Hearth Baked 25-27 
 
 Moisture in 22 
 
 Rye 22-24 
 
 Standards of 19 
 
 Texture and Grain 27-28 
 
 Vienna 25 
 
 Pages 
 
 Dough Making 1-16 
 
 Heat Calculations 10-16 
 
 Heat (Specific) 10-16 
 
 Short Sponges 3 
 
 Long Sponges 4 
 
 Sponge Doughs 1-6 
 
 Straight Doughs 7-9 
 
 Sweet Doughs 9-10 
 
INDEX— Concluded. 
 
 PART 5. 
 Heat, Combustion, Fuel, Ovens. 
 
 Combustion . 
 
 Pages 
 3-7 
 
 Fuel 7-17 
 
 Coal 8-12 
 
 Coke 12-13 
 
 Gas 13-15 
 
 Oil 16 
 
 Wood 15 
 
 Commercial Valve of . . . 16-17 
 
 Heat 
 
 Calories . . . 
 
 Units 
 
 Variations 
 
 1-7 
 4 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 Pages 
 
 Ovens 17-36 
 
 Kinds of Ovena 17-22 
 
 Chimneys 28-29 
 
 Dampers 30-31 
 
 Draft 27-28 
 
 Firing 22-26 
 
 Flues 28-29 
 
 Records 33-36 
 
 Steam 31-33 
 
 PART 6. 
 Modern Bread Making. Machinery and Equipment. 
 
 Pages Paget 
 
 Electricity 10-16 f Sifting and Blending 
 
 of Flour 5-7 
 
 Gas (or Gasoline) Power 1 6 
 
 .. , . _. ,. „ . B Temperature- 
 Machine Made Bread 1 -5 | Dough . room 8-9 
 
 Mixing the Dough .... 6-8 Proof-room 8-9 
 
 PART 7. 
 System and Economy. Suggestions. 
 
 Diary for Bakery. 
 
 Pans — For Bread and Rolls 
 
 Care of Bread Pans 
 
 Care of Russia Iron Pans 
 Preparing New Pans .... 
 
 Pages 
 1-3 
 
 3-5 
 3-4 
 
 4-5 
 3-5 
 
 Record Sheets- 
 Bench Record 
 
 Dough Room Record . . 
 Mixing Room Record. 
 Small Bakery Record . 
 
 Pagei 
 
ADVERTISERS' 
 SECTION. 
 
 NOTICE 
 
 I have made it a special point not to mention any 
 firm, or any particular brand of material, machinery, 
 ovens, etc. in the text of this book. 
 
 However, I have reserved some space for such leading 
 Manufacturers and Millers, with whose product I am 
 personally familiar, and for which I can vouch in every 
 respect. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
3 
 
 < 
 CQ 
 
 a 
 
 cu 
 D 
 
 q> 
 
 UJ 
 
 Z 
 
 S 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
GUIDE TO GOOD BUYING. 
 
 Almond Paste— Henry Heide, New York City. 
 
 Architect— Anthony Kunz, Jr.. Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Baking Powder— S. Gumpert & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Baking Soda— Church & Dwight Co., New York City. 
 
 Cocoa and Chocolate— Walter Daker & Co., Ltd., Dorchester, Mass 
 
 Cork Insulation— Armstrong Cork Co., Main Office, Fittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 Dough Dividers (Scalers)— Dutchess Tool Co., Fishkill-on-Hudson, N. Y. 
 Werner & Pfleiderer, Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Dough Mixers— American Oven and Machine Co., Chicago, 111. 
 The J. H. Day Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 A. Roth, Newport, Ky. 
 Werner & Pfleiderer, Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Egg Saving Apparatus— The Lockwood Mfg. Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Engineers— The Reliance Engineering Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Flour — Big Diamond Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 
 F. Hattersley, St. Louis, Mo. 
 Russell-Miller Milling Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 
 Washburn-Crosby Co , Minneapolis, Minn. 
 The Williamson Milling Co., Clay Center, Kans. 
 
 Flour (Special Yeast-Food) —Chas. Herendeen Milling Co., Chicago. 
 
 Malt Products— The American Diamalt Co., Cincinnati. O. 
 P. Baliantine & Sons, Newark, N. J. 
 Malt-Diastase Co., New York City. 
 Chas. Mechel Mfg. Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Milk-The Dry Milk Co., New York City. 
 Ekenberg Co. Cortland, N. Y. 
 
 Ovens — Clauss Patent Oven Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 The J. H. Day Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 Duhrkop Oven Co., New York City. 
 Gorndt Oven Co., Chicago, 111. 
 Marshall Oven Co., Chicago-Boston. 
 Middleby Oven Co., Chicago-Boston. 
 Chas. Rinck & Bro., Cincinnati, O. 
 Werner & Pfleiderer, Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Pans — The Lockwood Mfg Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 The Aug. Maag Co., Baltimore, Md. 
 
 Racks and Trucks— The J. H. Day Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 Union Steel Screen Co., Albion, Mich. 
 
 Rounder Up and Moulding Machines— 
 
 C. A. Thomson Machine Co., Belleville, N.J. 
 Werner & Pfleiderer, Saginaw, Mich. 
 
 Shortenings— The Proctor & Gamble Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 The Southern Cotton Oil Co., New York-Chicago. 
 
 Thermometers and Pyrometers— 
 
 Hohmann & Maurer Co., Rochester N. Y. 
 Taylor Instrument Co., Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 Trade Journals— Bakers' Helper, Chicago, III. 
 Bakers' Review, New York City. 
 
 Wagons— The O. Armleder Co., Cincinnati, O. 
 
 Yeast— Flebchmann Co., Main Offices, Cincinnati-New York. 
 
The Reliance Engineering 
 
 Co. 
 
 
 t£C?3C?3 
 
 
 311- 
 
 CONSULTING ENGINEERS 
 
 , Ohio. 
 
 1 3 Fourth National Bank Building, Cincinnati 
 
 
 Engineers for the Most Modern Bakery in the 
 World, "THE BANNER GROCERS 
 BAKING COMPANY," of Cincinnati. 
 
 
 The 
 
 Design of Modern Bakery Installations Our 
 Specialty. 
 
 Anthony Kunz, Jr. 
 
 955-957 W. Court Street CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
 Architect and Construction Superintendent for the 
 New Modern Plants of 
 
 BANNER GROCERS BAKING CO. 
 
 C I N C I N N AT I 
 
 DOMESTIC SCIENCE BAKING CO. 
 
 C I N C I N N AT I 
 
/ J| > I E make wagons for bakers — the kind that 
 +W* will give you service, advertise your 
 business, and bring you customers. 
 
 Remember that you and your business are 
 judged by the wagon you own — it bodes good 
 or evil. 
 
 Write for our catalog showing many styles 
 and sizes, with full description of each. 
 
 THE O. ARMLEDER CO 
 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO. 
 
WASHBURN-CROSBY CO. 
 
 liMiiiiMi 
 
 *1shburn-crosbyC| 
 
 
 GOLD MEDAL fLO^ 
 
 ^ii,-.s::;-i;;-.'v J :;^.^-y^.(i-AV^ v;i . | .j^y , ^.^ - ■ | .. | -|.. - ( . n -n , v ,i : ,t; ;>- ' ■••■,-rv«--iift i> i ii '""" 1111 " " 
 
 GOLD MEDAL FLOUR 
 
Flour of Quality 
 
 WILLIAMSON'S 
 BEST 
 
 THE FLOUR 
 
 Bakers Want 
 
 MADE IN THE 
 
 Wheat Belt of Kansas 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED 
 
 The Williamson Milling Go 
 
 OLAY CENTER, Kansas 
 
 CODES : 
 Robinson Heath, W. U. 
 
"PRODUCER" 
 ..FLOUR.. 
 
 I 
 
 RODUCER is a highly glutinous, hard 
 wheat flour milled especially for baker's 
 use. Its uniform, dependable qualities 
 
 have made a permanent place for it with many 
 
 discriminating bakers. 
 
 Considering its excellent strength and uni- 
 form working properties, the bread quality and 
 yield, "Producer" is unequalled at the price. 
 
 It will pay every baker to prove these facts 
 to his own satisfaction. Write for quotations. 
 
 •B- 
 
 RUSSELL- MILLER 
 
 MILLING CO. 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, - - MINN, 
 
 FLOUR 
 
c^r$5€-?^^^ 
 
 USED BY LEADING BAKERS EVERYWHERE 
 
 BIG DIAMOND MILLING CO. 
 
 MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. 
 
 F. HATTERSLEY 
 
 Brokerage and Commission Co. 
 
 Sales Department 
 
 205 PINE STREET, 
 ST LOUIS, MO. 
 
 OUR Specialty is supplying Minnesota Patents 
 and Kansas Hard Turkey Wheat flour to Bread 
 Bakers in car load lots. We are manufacturing 
 and selling flour for the last 50 years, so we surely 
 know the Bakers' wants. Also supply dealers in 
 car load lots. Samples and quotations, also our 
 Weekly Letter to trade on flour markets, etc., sent 
 on request. 
 
GOOD YEAST MEANS 
 
 Good Broad. 
 
 OSE FLEISCHMANN'S 
 
-DIAMALT- 
 
 We need not say much; 
 our patrons say it for us. 
 
 QUALITY WILL TELL 
 
 Prestige with us no longer 
 
 means experiment 
 
 The American Diamalt Co. 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
The Definition of a Perfect Yeast Food Is : 
 
 OP Malt Ira Extract 
 
 YEAST requires for its life and growth Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Oxygen, 
 Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Sulphur, Flourine, 
 so combined as to be available for ready assimilation. 
 
 These elements exist, properly combined and proportioned in OP. Malt 
 Extract, in the form of soluble protein, carbohydrates, phosphates, etc. 
 
 Compressed yeast begins to consume itself the moment it is taken from the 
 solution of food in which it is grown and put into cake form, just the same as 
 a Hibernating Bear or Fasting Animal, each little cell growing weaker until 
 again placed in a solution of food, which must be before it dies of starvation. 
 
 Every cake of compressed yeast should be thoroughly dissolved in a solution 
 of OP. Malt Extract, so that each of the millions of cells can cover itself with 
 proper food so as to become revived and invigorated into full wakefulness before 
 being set to work °t the serious job of raising dough. 
 
 This means always fine grain, — healthy fermentation, — highest expansion, 
 — uniform air cells in loaf and entire satisfaction to the Baker and Consumer. 
 
 Compressed Yeast contains seventy-five percent water and twenty-five 
 percent solids. 
 
 OP MALT EXTRACT 
 
 CONTAINS TWENTY-FIVE PERCENT WATER and SEVENTY-FIVE PERCENT 
 SOLIDS all AVAILABLE as FOOD FOR THE YEAST. 
 
 If we were selling you compressed yeast we would forget to call your 
 attention to this important factor, or if we did tell you, do it in a luke warm 
 manner. We might even Pooh-Pooh it as a dream of the Humbug. 
 
 Mr. Baker think it over. 
 
 It is up to you to protect your pocket book a rid work y° ur oWn thinker. 
 
 Our recommendation for your own benefit and ours is to use OP. MALT 
 EXTRACT for your yeast, for flavor, for color, for bloom. 
 
 OP. Malt Extract is rich as Jersey Cream in clover time. 
 
 Send for Booklet. 
 
 Order a can or barrel to suit your needs. Now I 
 
 Your money 's worth in every pound. 
 
 MALT-DIASTASE CO. 
 
 79 Wall Street, - - - NEW YORK 
 
 42 River Street, Chicago. 74 Front Street, East, Toronto. 
 
 519 Board of Trade Building, Boston, Mass. May Building, Liverpool, England. 
 
Take These Three Rings 
 
 Purity Strength Flavor 
 
 o 
 
 Assemble them in this manner 
 
 and 3 t ou have the mark that stands for the 
 best there is in Malt Extract. 
 
 Making- all the malt we use from the best 
 barley purchasable enables us to supply you 
 with better Malt Extract for less money than any 
 °ne in the business. 
 
 Let us prove it to you. 
 
 P. Ballantine & Sons 
 
 Natural Cereal Syrup Dept. 
 NEWARK, N. J. 
 
 '-Distributing Depotsz. 
 
 NEW YORK, CHICAGO, PHILADELPHIA, 
 BOSTON, BUFFALO, TORONTO AND MONTREAL 
 
 KEE 
 

 z 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 < 
 </) 
 
 h- 
 O 
 U 
 
 u. 
 
 Of 
 Ui 
 
 CL 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 O 
 
 s^z^j? 
 
 Liverpo- 
 
DIASTO 
 
 Registered 
 
 in the United States Patent Office, 
 
 June 26, 1909. 
 
 Not Adulterated 
 
 But a Guaranteed Pure 
 Malt Flour 
 
 Preferable to any Liquid Malt 
 Extract 
 
 Better- — Cheaper — Cleaner 
 
 Sold in 
 25 lb. Pails, 70 lb. Drums, 175 lb. Barrels. 
 
 We have stock in every large City in the United States. 
 
 Write for our Pamphlet and Recipes which are worth 
 hundreds of dollars to any baker 
 
 Chas. Mechel Mfg. Co. 
 
 Originators and Manufacturers 
 MILWAUKEE : : : WISCONSIN 
 
Efcenforg pntuforrin iltlk 
 
 IS RECOMMENDED AND ENDORSED BY 
 THE MOST SUCCESSFUL BAKERS AS THE 
 
 BEST MILK KNOWN 
 
 FOR BREAD, CAKES, ROLLS, 
 DOUGHNUTS AND PIES 
 
 Do not be annoyed with loss of time, cost and waste. 
 Write for booklet, samples and prices. 
 
 Skpttherg iltlk flnitmrts Company 
 
 CORTLAND, N. Y. 
 
 BAP SODA SPOILS GOOD FLOUR 
 
 PURE SODA-the Best Soda 
 
 COMES ONLY IN PACKAGES 
 
 BtsaiKS Trade Murk: Arm &. Hammer 
 
 T COSTS NO MORE THAN INFERIOR 
 PACKAGE SODA-NEVErt SPOILS THE 
 FLOUR-ALWAYS KEEPS SOST. 
 BEWARE OF IMITATION TRADE 
 MAPKS AND LABELS. AND INSIST 
 ON PACKAGES BEARING 
 THESE WORDS- 
 
 ^^ GHURCH & DWIGHT CO., New York. 
 
 Sold by Grocers Everywhere. 
 
 WRITE FOR AR.-v 
 
 ..} BOOK OF 
 
 RECIFES-FREE. 
 
DF 
 
 MILCORA 
 
 THE FLAKY KIND' 
 
 Mr. Leading Baker. Letter Xo. 8 
 
 Anyoldtown, U. S. A. 
 Dear Sir: 
 
 In the long run Mrs. Housewife and her family will buy wholesome, fine flavored bread rather 
 than a large loaf, which weighs no more and is dry and tasteless. 
 
 People want all they can get for their money, and a large loaf looks tempting from this stand- 
 point. BUT IT ISN'T THE OCCASIONAL CUSTOMER YOU'RE AFTER, IT'S 
 THE STEADY BUYER, 
 
 It doesn't take long tor Mrs. Housewife's lamily to realize that the small crusty loaf contains as 
 
 and tastes better, and she will do her buying 
 
 kinds for a month and see which shows the 
 
 time. 
 
 uses the phrase "THE MEMORY LIN- 
 
 the first appearance, or even the low price, 
 
 much real nourishment as the big spongy one, 
 where she can get what she wants. 
 
 If you don't believe this, |ust try both 
 bigger increase in sales at the end of that 
 
 A certain food product on the market 
 GERS." IT'S THE LINGERING MEMORY, 
 that BRINGS REPEAT ORDERS. 
 
 The "FLAKY KIND" makes the sort of bread which COMPELS MRS. HOUSEWIFE 
 TO BECOME A STEADY CUSTOMER. Her family insists on it. 
 Yours for good bread, clean bread, money making milk bread. 
 
 THE DRY MILK COMPANY iSSSR 
 
"FLAKEWHITE" 
 
 A White Lard Substitute, Clean and 
 Rich in Shortening Value. For Bak- 
 ing and the manufacture of all manner 
 of Pies and Pastry it is Unexcelled ! 
 
 "PLANTENE" 
 
 Made from Choice, Selected Yellow 
 Oil. To be USED IN COOKING, 
 in place of either Butter or Lard. 
 PLANTENE gives better results at 
 Lower Cost! The Best and Richest 
 Shortening for Bread and Cakes. 
 
 Manufactured by 
 
 The Proctor & Gamble Co. 
 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
The Three 
 Great Necessities 
 
 used by bakers everywhere and acknowledged to be the 
 
 best, the most effective, and the most 
 
 economical cooking fats: 
 
 Wesson Cooking Oil 
 Snowdrift Hogless Lard 
 Bakers' Palmatina 
 
 The Southern 
 Cotton Oil Company 
 
 NEW YORK SAVANNAH NEW ORLEANS 
 
 ATLANTA CHICAGO 
 
The absolute purity, high quality, delicious flavor 
 and thorough reliability of 
 
 WALTER BAKER & CO.'S 
 
 Cocoa and Chocolate 
 
 have secured for these preparations the endorse- ', 
 ment of good cooks and housekeepers throughout \ 
 the world. 
 
 One good housekeeper savs : "All 
 
 the early years of my life were spent 
 
 in the tropics of India; and in the 
 
 many English and American 
 
 homes with which I was 
 
 familiar Baker's Cocoa was 
 
 almost universally used. Since 
 
 coming to this country, I have 
 
 experimented with other makes, 
 
 but have put them all aside 
 
 for Baker's, which seems so 
 
 much more acceptable." 
 
 Send for free recipe bot\ 
 finely illustrated 
 
 WALTER BAKER & GO. Ltd. 
 
Dwight's Cow Brand 
 
 IN RECIPES CALLING FOR SODA OR SAL E RATI! S ALWAYI 
 
 use DWl-GHT'S COW BRAND 
 
 GUARANTEED BY CHURCH & OWISHT CO..UNOER THE FOOD « DRUGS ACT. JUNE 30.1906. 
 — — . SERIAL Mo. 2046. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 
 
 LARGE 
 PACKAGE 
 
 Over 70 years. 
 
 TO AVOID DISAPPOINTMENT, INSIST UPON HAVING 
 COW BRAND IN ORIGINAL PACKAGES, AND DON^T BE PUT 
 OFF WITH CHEAP, INFERIOR SUBSTITUTIONS 
 
 CHURCH & DWIGHTCO.,NewY0RK, 
 
 SEND ADDRESS FOR COW BRAND COOK BOOR-FREE. 
 
 USE HENRY HEIDE'S GENUINE ALMOND PASTE 
 
 For baking 
 
 Macaroons 
 
 and 
 
 Almond Paste 
 
 Confections 
 
 On the Market 
 
 since 1875 
 
 Guaranteed 
 Absolutely PURE 
 
 ORIGINAL 
 
 and the 
 BEST 
 
 HENRY HEIDE 
 
 Manufacturer 
 
 Hudson & Vandam St». 
 
 NEW YORK CITY 
 
PYROMETERS 
 
 FOR BAKERS 
 
 Save time and worry for the Superin- 
 tendent or Foreman and produce better 
 goods and greater profits for the Proprietor 
 
 — covers every range of Temperature. 
 Tycos BASE-METAL THERMO-COUPLES are most 
 exact and accurate in covering all Temperatures 
 from 200° F. to 1800° F. They are robust in 
 construction, practically instantaneous in action 
 and cost almost nothing for "up-keep." The in- 
 crease in quality and uniformity of production will 
 more than pay for their first cost in a few months 
 in any first class bakery. Get in touch with this 
 proposition to-day. Write for booklet on "Tycos" 
 Pyrometers for Bakers. 
 
 Taylor Instrument Companies 
 
 CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT CO. (American Branch) 
 
 ROCHESTER, N. Y. 
 
 "Where the Thermometers Come From" 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICACO 
 
THERMOMETERS 
 
 FOR BAKERS 
 
 The control of temperature is so vital 
 a factor in the different processes of bread 
 making as to call for instruments of the most 
 practical construction and adaptation to the 
 particular requirements. 
 
 THERMOMETERS 
 
 are "Shop Tools" in the hands of Bakers 
 all over the country because of their superior 
 construction and adaptability. 
 
 Write us at once for our new Catalogue 
 of Bakers' Thermometers. You owe it to 
 yourself to know about them. 
 
 The Hohmann & Maurer Division 
 
 Tayfor fnstrutnent Companies 
 
 ROCHESTER, IM. Y. 
 
 "Where the Thermometers Come From" 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
A New Dough Mixer 
 
 A. ROTH'S 
 
 
 Simplified Dough Mixer 
 
 "VTOU as a baker are aware of what a long 
 and tedious operation it is to clean and 
 scrape the curved and twisted agitators or 
 stirrers of a Dough Mixer. This work is 
 greatly reduced with A. ROTH'S SIMPLI- 
 FIED DOUGH MIXER, which has straight 
 agitators, or stirrers, and consequently has only 
 straight surfaces to clean and scrape off, and 
 very few at that, but just enough to mix and 
 knead the dough thoroughly. 
 
 A. Roth, 542 Central Ave., Newport, Ky. 
 
VAN HOUTEN 
 Automatic Dough Dividers 
 
 DUTCHESS TOOL COMPANY 
 
 Fishkill-on-Hudson, - - N. Y. 
 
LABOR SAVING 
 
 MONEY MAKERS 
 
 Day's Self-Contained Dough M 
 
 Over twenty years 
 use have proved that a 
 Day Mixer gives the 
 best service and the 
 greatest value for the 
 money invested. It is 
 superior in design, 
 material and work- 
 manship and made in 
 various sizes to suit 
 any shop. 
 
 There is a 
 growing de- 
 mand for small 
 cakes and 
 nothing will de- 
 velop this pro- 
 fitable business 
 quicker than 
 Day's Queen 
 City Cake Ma- 
 chine. BakerS Day's Queen City Cake Machine 
 
 who have installed this machine say that it is without an 
 equal as a money maker. 
 
 Write us for detailed description of these machines and 
 catalog showing complete line of Bakers' Machinery. 
 
 THE J. H. DAY COMPANY 
 
 Main Office and Factory: CINCINNATI, OHIO 
 
 NEW YORK BOSTON PHILADELPHIA 
 
 CHICAGO SAN FRANCISCO LCS ANGELES 
 
"A GOOD PAIR" 
 
 Simplicity ^ Perfection 
 
 PEERLESS 
 
 as its 
 Name Implies. 
 
 W. & P. Loaf Rounder 
 
 "IT ROUNDS UP" 
 
 Automatic 
 
 Bakeries 
 
 W. & P. Peerless Dough Mixer. 
 
 WERNER & PFLEIDERER, 
 
 SAGINAW, MICH. 
 
 BAKERS MACHINERY. 
 
 EMIL STAEHLE, Gen. Mgr. 
 
 BRANCH OFFICES: 
 NEW YORK. PHILADELPHIA, SAN FRANCISCO 
 
"PERFECT GOODS" 
 
 REAP THE REWARD 
 OF PERFECTION 
 
 DIVIDERS 
 ROUNDERS 
 PROOFERS 
 MIXERS 
 OVENS 
 
 Automatic 
 Bakeries 
 
 that 
 EXCEL. 
 
 W. & P. Steam-Pipe Draw-Plate Ovens 
 
 "TELESBOCAR" 
 
 WERNER & PFLEIDERER, 
 
 SAGINAW, MICH. 
 
 EMIL STAEHLE, Gen. Mgr. 
 
 BRANCH OFFICES: 
 NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
"THE BEST 
 
 BY TEST" 
 
 COMPLETE EQUIPMENT 
 OUR SPECIALTY. 
 
 W. & P. 4 Box Loaf Dough Divider. 
 
 WERNER & PFLEIDERER, 
 
 Manufacturers of 
 
 Bakers Machinery and Ovens. 
 
 SAGINAW, MICH. 
 
 EMIL STAEHLE, Gen. Mgr. 
 
 BRANCH OFFICES : 
 NEW YORK, PHILADELPHIA, S AN F R ANCIS CO. 
 
PATENT " N[W [RA" MIXER 
 
 Positively GUARANTEES You 
 
 MORE and BETTER Bread! 
 
 Write us for information. 
 
 American Oven & Machine Co. 
 
 FELIX NOTZ, Pres't. CHICACO. 
 
List of Well-known Bayers who during RECENT 
 months installed the 
 
 patent » NEW ERA" 
 
 MIXER 
 
 
 <r&tg&&^t3&> 
 
 Machines 
 
 N. Y, 
 
 New York Shults Bread Co. 
 
 (16) 5-bbl. 
 
 M 
 
 Dillman Baking Co. 
 
 ( 2) 3-bbl. 
 
 14 
 
 Rochester Deininger Bros. Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 " 
 
 Rochester Baking Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 MICH. 
 
 Detroit Morton Baking Co. 
 
 (3) 5-bbl. 
 
 " 
 
 Newberry Baking Co. 
 
 (2) 4-bbl. 
 
 " 
 
 Wagner Baking Co. 
 
 (3) 5-bbl. 
 
 MO. 
 
 St. Louis Manewal Bread Co. 
 
 (2) 5-bbl. 
 
 «< 
 
 French Bakery 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 << 
 
 Heydt Bakery 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 OHIO 
 
 Cincinnati Banner Grocers Baking Co.(2) 5-bbl. 
 
 i< 
 
 Columbus Reynolds Baking Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 it 
 
 Toledo Maumee Valley Baking 
 
 Co. 4-bbl. 
 
 i< 
 
 United Baking Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 << 
 
 Dayton Grocers Baking Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 «< 
 
 Krug Bakery 
 
 5-bbl. 
 
 IND. 
 
 Ft. Wayne Haffner Star Bakery 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 «« 
 
 Perfection Buscuit Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 TENN. 
 
 Memphis Winkleman Baking Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 « 
 
 Nashville Hill Grocery Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 WASH 
 
 Spokane Spokane Baking Co. 
 
 4-bbl. 
 
 COLO. 
 
 Denver Campbell-Sell Baking Co. 5-bbl. 
 
 ILL. 
 
 Chicago H. H Kohlsaat Co. 
 
 5-bbl. 
 
 " 
 
 Schulze Baking Co. 
 
 (2) 4-bbl. 
 
 (All told we have 75 "NEW ERA' 7 Mixers in operation 
 in CHICAGO alone.) 
 
 AMERICAN OVEN & MACHINE CO. 
 
 FELIX NOTZ, President 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
CLAUSS 
 PATENT BAKE OVENS 
 
 Dayton, Ohio, May 31, 1910 
 
 The Clauss Patent Bake Oven Co., Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 Gentlemen : 
 
 The best recommendation for your Patent Bake Ovens is the 
 fact that after you put up two (2) of them last fall, you have just fin- 
 ished the third one for our bakery. Would we have contracted with 
 you if your ovens had not been giving us full satisfaction? Send any- 
 one who wants to put up a bakery to us, and we will cheerfully show 
 him all the advantages and good features of your ovens ; faults we 
 have so far not been able to find. Yours very truly, 
 
 THE KROGER GROCERY & BAKING CO., 
 
 By Roehll, General Manager Dayton Branch. 
 
 CLAUSS PATENT BAKE OVEN CO. 
 110 East Third Street Cincinnati, O. 
 
CLAUSS CELEBRATED 
 ROTARY OVENS 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, May 24, 1910. 
 William Clauss, Esq., Pres't Clauss Rotary Bake Oven Co., City. 
 My Dear Sir: 
 
 Pie Rotary Oven recently built by your Company is giving us 
 the best and most excellent satisfaction and service. 
 
 Your Rotary Oven is doing as much work and baking better 
 and more perfect pies than our other three ovens combined. Using two 
 oven men on our three (3) square ovens, and only one man on your 
 Rotary Oven, shows that it is also a labor saver. 
 
 Baking three times as many pies, and only using the fuel for one 
 ordinary oven, it is also a decided fuel saver. I am always proud to 
 show visitors your Rotary Oven, on account of its beauty and varied 
 good points. 
 
 Our business has increased wonderfully in the past six months, 
 some of which is certainly due to the high class baking of your Rotary 
 Oven. Very truly yours, 
 
 THE HUBIG PIE & BAKING CO., Simon Hubig, Pres. 
 
 CLAUSS PATENT BAKE OVEN CO. 
 110 East Third Street Cincinnati, O. 
 
THE HIGHEST ACHIEVEMENT 
 
 In Continuous Baking Ovens is the MARSHALL. 
 // can be moved. 
 
 THE MARSHALL OVEN. 
 
 A Brick Continuous Oven THAT CAN BE MOVED. For baking Hearth 
 and han Breads of all kinds. 
 
 For Bread baking: Rye, Vienna, French, 
 and other kinds of Hearth, as well as Pan 
 Breads, we recommend the MARSHALL Contin- 
 uous Baking Oven, — the only Solid- Wall Con- 
 tinuous Baking Oven in the world that can be 
 moved! We absolutely guarantee it to bake in 
 a first-class manner. 
 
 When once heated, the fire-brick tile of 
 which the baking chamber is built will keep a 
 steady temperature for a surprising length of 
 time. Baking chamber always clean and fresh. 
 
 MARSHALL OVEN COMPANY 
 
 CHICAGO, 761 W. Adams St. ST. LOUIS, 605 S. 6th St. BOSTON, 284 State St. 
 
NO TROUBLE 
 
 To turn out FINE BAKERY GOODS, if you 
 use the right kind of an Oven for the work you 
 have to do. 
 
 THE MIDDLEBY OVEN. 
 
 A Brick Furnace Oven THAT CAN BE MOVED. For baking Bread, 
 Cakes and Pastry. 
 
 For all round work: Bread of all kinds, 
 Cakes and Pastry, we recommend the 
 MIDDLEBY Furnace Oven. This is practically 
 a brick oven that can be moved. Bakes evenly, 
 holds heat, holds steam, saves fuel. Can be 
 heated with any oven fuel known. 
 
 The fuel question — usually such an import- 
 ant one, because of the expense connected with 
 it — ceases to be an anxiety, for our ovens take 
 very little fuel. 
 
 MIDDLEBY OVEN MFG. CO. 
 
 CHICAGO, 761 W. Adams St. ST. LOUIS, 605 S. 6th St. BOSTON, 284 State St. 
 
fad 
 
 c 
 
 
 0) 
 
 fiQ 
 
 S 
 
 > 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 -< 
 
 w 
 
 u, 
 
 w 
 
 On 
 
 6]?fr s 
 - -^ 8 
 
 H C 3 4) 
 
 W o fl-i: 
 
 QO £ S 
 en *S 
 
 Z S c 1 
 
 cr* ^ £ <u c 
 p> p > \3 
 
 •^ HJ >> «s «j 
 
 •lb & ^ 
 
 _s.>> o 
 
 Oh # c C3 
 
 aS£o 
 
 «> 8 
 
 H S 
 
 no oo 
 
 JS 
 
 O 
 
 ^ I 
 <3 « 
 
 c/3 
 
 GO 
 
 h 
 
 <: 
 z 
 
 2 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 u 
 
DAY REEL OVEN. 
 
 Over twice the capacity of a flat oven, adapted 
 to a greater variety of baking, and uses no more 
 fuel. ^ Does perfect work on pan or hearth 
 bread, rolls and all kinds of cakes and cookies. 
 IJ Day Reel Ovens are used by a number of 
 successful bakers who say that it is superior to 
 any other style of oven made. tj Interested 
 bakers may investigate these ovens in actual 
 operation. 
 
 Write for full information, and letters 
 from satisfied bakers who are using it. 
 
 THE J. H. DAY COMPANY 
 
 Main Office and Factory, Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 NEW YORK 
 BOSTON 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 CHICAGO 
 
 KANSAS CITY 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
12,960 
 
 LOAVES 
 
 Were baked in eight straight, consecutive hours. 
 
 TWO OVENS 
 
 Baked this, and at the end of eight hours they 
 were baking as fast as when they started. 
 
 ONLY DUHRKOP OVENS 
 
 HAVE THIS WONDERFUL CAPACITY. 
 
 Duhrkop Ovens Jf ,5££ 
 
 capacity, but the bread is better baked, more 
 uniform and at LOWEST cost of fuel and labor. 
 
 Duhrkop-Baked Bread has spelt " Succsss" for many Bakers. 
 
 DUHRKOP OVEN CO. 
 
 1 133 Park Row Bldg., NEW YORK 
 
GORNDT PERFECT OVEN 
 
 You KNOW that you are a good baker, 
 but you CANNOT show results when 
 you have an inferior oven. 
 
 The GORNDT PERFECT alone will 
 do your baking justice. 
 
 It will increase your sales, and save you 
 money. 
 
 Write to us for help when remodeling 
 your plant. 
 
 Gorndt Oven Company, 
 
 160 East Washington Street, CHICAGO. 
 
 NONPAREIL CORKBOARD 
 
 Is the best insulation for Dough Rooms, Mixing 
 Rooms, Proving Rooms and Cold Storage Rooms. 
 It has been used in numerous Bakeries all over the 
 country, among them the following : 
 
 WARD BAKERY, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 FLEISCHMANN'S VIENNA BAKERY, 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 BAUR BROTHERS CO., 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 
 WARD BAKERY, Bronx, New York City. 
 WARD-MACKEY CO., 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa. 
 GORDON-PAGEL BREAD CO. 
 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 McKINNEY BREAD CO. , St. Louis, Mo. NATIONAL BISCUIT CO. , Houston, Tex. 
 Estimates Cheerfully Furnished. 
 
 ARMSTRONG CORK COMPANY 
 
 Insulation Dept. Pittsburgh, Pa. Branches in all large cities 
 
It Pays to Recognize Superiority 
 
 SOME FACTS REGARDING 
 
 "Steel Shod'W.) 
 Strapped Bread Pans 
 
 MAY INTEREST YOU 
 
 
 PATENTED 
 
 ••SteehShod" is the new (and only) strapped breadpans that the oven peel 
 can't dent and smash. 
 
 "Steel'Shod" has sheets of steel to armor-plate the outer face of both end 
 pans, in sets. 
 
 "J'teel-Shod" has rigid plates to steer the peel under the"pan, instead of 
 jamming holes in it. 
 
 ••Steel-Shod" will put an end to crippled loaves and all the fuss about them. 
 ••Steel-Shod" will two or four times outwear the stoutest old-time pan you 
 ever bought. 
 
 ••Steel-Shod" can be made in any size or style — with square or rounded 
 bottom edge. 
 
 FREE SAMPLE-FOR THE ASKING 
 
 We are the Exclusive Manufacturers, Selling Direct, or through the Jobbers 
 
 Utensils for BAKERS, CONFECTIONERS, ICE CREAM MAKERS and DAIRYMEN 
 
 fun august r* r\ 
 
 1 1 IE MAAG VV/. 
 
 107 Sharp St., Baltimore, Md 
 
EASY- PEEL PANS 
 
 HOP ON THE PEEL. 
 
 EVERY up-to-date bakery uses EASY-PEEL PANS. 
 They are the newest; most practical, up-to-date 
 labor saving pans made 
 
 Discard the old method of handling pans ; Use 
 EASY-PEEL, they peel without effort, and save enough 
 time in the emptying of your ovens to pay for themselves 
 
 EASY-PEEL PAN Booklet No. 3 shows a large 
 variety of styles and sizes, and we make any special size 
 to order 
 
 DO NOT BUY PANS AGAIN WITHOUT 
 INVESTIGATING EASY-PEELS. 
 
 The Lockwood Manufacturing Co. 
 
 CINCINNATI, OHIO. 
 
 When you think of Pans, think of Lockwood. 
 
The "Perfection" EGG SAVER! 
 
 (EMIL BRAUN'S PATENT) 
 
 It costs but $7.50, and 
 saves that amount several 
 times each year. 
 
 It is easy to clean and 
 does not draw flies. 
 
 It does away with the 
 old - fashioned custom of 
 using a quart measure, 
 
 It keeps the eggs from 
 running all over the bench 
 while breaking and separat- 
 ing them. 
 
 It prevents throwing away 
 shells before the liquid is 
 entirely drained from them. 
 
 It is THE ONLY DEVICE on the MARKET 
 
 that meets the Health Department requirements. 
 
 Manufactured by 
 
 THE LOCKWOOD MFG. COMPANY 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 SCLD BY ALL LEADING SUPPLY HOUSES. gi^See Testimonials on opposite page. 
 
The Best Testimonials are Duplicate Orders 
 
 When Eggs are Cheap and Plentiful, 
 
 The "PERFECTION" EGG SAVER 
 
 Saves You Money! 
 
 When Eggs are Dear and Scarce, 
 
 The "PERFECTION" EGG SAVER 
 
 Saves You More Money! 
 
 What It Does for Other Bakers It Will Certainly Do for You 
 
 Please order for us three (3) more of the Perfection Egg 
 Savers, to be shipped to 
 
 HOWE & HUTTON BAKERIES, New York City. 
 
 We received your Egg Saver, which has proved satisfac- 
 tory, and enclosed find order for ONE MORE to be used at 
 our other Bakery. You will also find our check herein, in 
 payment of both machines. 
 
 L. A. CUSHMAN BAKING CO., New York City. 
 
 Received the Perfection Egg Saver all right, and are well 
 pleased with it. Please send us ANOTHER one, for the 
 Fulton Street Bakery. W. H. PERRY, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Please send us by boat, THREE MORE of Braun's Pat- 
 ent Egg Savers, as they are all right. 
 
 GEO. C. FOX CO., Boston, Mass. 
 
 We are much pleased with the " Perfection Egg Saver" 
 received from you some weeks ago, as it SAVES us about 
 FIVE DOZEN EGGS every week, but it is also of great 
 advantage in regard to CLEANLINESS, besides being a 
 very handy article. Send us ANOTHER one at once. 
 
 H. PIPER BAKERY, Chicago, 111. 
 
 Please send us ANOTHER Braun's " Perfection Egg 
 Saver," at once. ward-mackey CO., Pittsburg, p a . 
 
 Braun's "Perfection" EGG SAVERS are manufactured by 
 
 THE LOCKWOOD MFG. COMPANY 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
A. Roth's Cake Mixing Machine 
 
 i — — ■n 
 
 «t 
 
 i 
 
 n 
 
 > 
 
 Cut showing Mnchine with 
 
 Egg Beater, and electric motor 
 
 direct connected 
 
 Cut showing 
 Machine for belt drive. 
 
 This is the Cake Mixing Machine that will do your 
 work and do it RIGHT. It creams and mixes 
 from 20 to 200 pounds of cake dough, in seven 
 minutes, also beats Sponge Cakes to perfection. 
 
 The mosl important part of this machine is 
 the spiral steel blade agitator with reverse 
 motion, which creams and mixes the dough 
 thoroughly. 
 
 Capacity: 12, 20 and 35 gallons. 
 
 A. ROTH 
 
 542 Central Ave., Newport, Ky. 
 
Bread Moulding 
 Machine 
 
 MOULDS 2000 LOAVES EVERY HOUR 
 SAVES $50.00 EVERY WEEK 
 
 IF INTERESTED WRITE TO 
 
 C. A. Thomson Machine Co. 
 
 BELLEVILLE, IM. J., U. S. A. 
 
"Union Sanitary" 
 Racks and Shelving 
 
 IjJLEASE note the following points — Racks are constructed with 
 * our patent one-piece malleable corners. Ball bearing, easy 
 cleaning, caster with detachable 4-inch wheel. 
 
 Shelves are removable, light and sanitary in every respect. 
 Most durable rack and shelf on the market. 
 Recomended by all bakers. 
 
 WRITE FOR CIRCULARS. 
 
 •Htwm !§>tM §>tmn (Efl.&tfL 
 
 ALBION, MICH. 
 
Do You Use 
 
 H. O. F. SPECIAL 
 
 Yeast Food Flour? 
 
 IF NOT, WHY NOT? 
 
 IT IS NOT A FILLER BUT JUST 
 WHAT THE NAME IMPLIES, A 
 
 "YEAST FOOD" 
 
 WE GUARANTEE | f ^to^sTes 
 
 Extra "BAKED BREAD" per barrel of wheat flour- 
 Will give it a finer texture. Will keep it fresh longer. 
 Will give it that rich nutty flavor. Will build up a loaf for 
 you that will build up your trade, besides saving you in 
 YEAST, SUGAR, SHORTENING and MALT. 
 
 — =11— ^— 11= — 
 
 WRITE FOR SPECIAL PROPOSITION 
 
 Charles Herendeen Milling Go. 
 
 MAKERS OF CORN PRODUCTS 
 No. 1333 Republic Bldg. Chicago, III. 
 
J ONE DOLLAR ONE YEAR 
 
 A SHORT STORY. 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 IS WHAT ITS NAME 
 SAYS IT IS. 
 
 There are hundreds of progressive, growing 
 bakers, all over America ; every one knows 
 them as trade leaders. 
 
 Ask any of them how the 
 Bayers' Helper helps bakers. 
 
 Hundreds of salesmen go about the coun- 
 try, visiting bakers — men who know what 
 is going on in the baking business — 
 
 Ask any of them what journal 
 has done most to help bakers. 
 
 csxp 
 
 Want to see a sample copy ? 
 Glad to send you one. 
 
 address BAKERS' HELPER, Chicago 
 
 431 South Dearborn Street 
 
 ONE DOLLAR ONE YEAR 
 
"We can't get along 
 without it" 
 
 That's the statement of ninety per cent, of the subscribers to 
 
 The Bakers Review 
 
 Can you afford to be without what is prized so 
 highly by thousands of your intelligent fellow 
 bakers ? At least you will admit that it Would 
 be wise to investigate by sending for a sample 
 copy, which doesnt cost anything. 
 
 Note that The Bakers Review's 
 
 zhief 
 
 to be 
 
 Practical 
 
 Every issue is full of new ideas, instruction, 
 suggestions— a Very mine of useful inform- 
 ation. No one but the "know it all" can fail 
 to learn a great deal which will improve his 
 business and indirectly put money in his pocket. 
 
 Inddently The Bakers Review is a 
 
 handsomely gotten-up, entertaining magazine, 
 
 as fit for the home as the bake shop. 
 
 It is published in both English and Qerman. 
 
 ONE DOLLAR A YEAR 
 
 SAMPLE COPY FREE ON REQUST 
 
 WM. R. GREGORY CO., Publishers 
 
 NEW YORK CITY 
 
PRESS OF 
 EMANUEL G. KREHB1EL PRINTING CO. 
 
 216-220 Ninth Avenue, East 
 CINCINNATI, O. 
 
* *fe 
 
 
 
 
"oV* 
 
 :< 
 
 
 » ^ vs 
 
 L #"> 
 
 
 
 
 fa^Mtfa. %<* .*£fc \/ .•&&£> ^ 
 
 WERT 
 BOOKBINDING 
 
 Grantville, Pa 
 Nov Dec. 1988 
 
 l0 
 
 
 8 * •<** -n* •