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FROM THE LIBRARY OF
DANIEL BONBRIGHT
PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN NORTHWESTERN
UNIVERSITY 1856-1912
^ GREAT OUTLINE
OF
FOR
HIGH SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES
BY
THEODORE S. FAY
WITH -A.IT -A. T L-A. S.
"Worship him that made heaven, and earth, and the sea, and the fountains
of waters." Rev. XIV. 7
BERLIN
STILKE & VAN MUYDEN
21. U. d. LINDEN.
PARIS & PETERSBURG
EMILE MELLIEK.
NEW-YORK
S. p. PUTNAM it SON.
LONDON
TRÜBNER & COMP.
FLORENCE & TURIN
H. LOE8CHER.
JíO
PREFACE.
We have numerous, excellent School-Geographies.
Why another? A few lessons, given or received,
with the present work, will be a sufficient answer.
It is because a large and simple enough circle of
geographical knowledge is not generally taught.
What countries does the traveler pass through, from
Hammerfest to Hobarton — from London to the most
populous city of the globe, Han-kow; or from the
Baltic to the Adriatic? Why is the arctic circle, or
tropic of Cancer, drawn just where it is? Explain
the phenomena of the seasons; the condition of day
and night, climate, etc., at the different points
of the globe's surface. Why has one point of
the earth, six months uninterrupted day or night,
and another, never more than 12 hours? Why
is the winter colder, and the summer hotter, in
the S. Hem., than in the northern? Ask these,
and similar questions, of young students, who
have completed their geographical course; and
IV
/
PREFACE.
we shall often perceive that there is room for
another geographical School-Book — that there is
need of another, wider reaching, and which does
its work more thoroughly. Consider, moreover, that
the science of Geography itself has recently made
striking advances—from geographical discoveries —
from the concentration of knowledge in geographical
societies — from the perfection to which map-drawing
has been brought; and, also, that new political
events, in many parts of the globe, have changed
territorial limits.
Our country has just passed through a great
crisis. It is, at last, seated upon the foundations of
Law, Liberty and Christianity. It has taken a higher
place among the nations, and is beginning to exer¬
cise weightier influence in the councils of mankind.
The uttermost corners of the earth are being ex¬
plored. Remote, until now unknown, civilisations
are being opened; and steam and electricity are
bringing them more within our observation, and in
nearer relations with us. The entire Eastern Con¬
tinent is threatened with immense changes. It is
pecessary that the American people should follow
them with intelligent attention; and the rising gen¬
eration, particularly, require a clearer knowledge,
not only of their own, but other countries. They
must know the divisions of the whole earth, as
they know the States of the Union or the rooms of
their houses. Yet more. They must become
better acquainted with the planet they inhabit, and
with its immense and various populations — fellow-
tenants of their wonderful abode. To give this
\
\
PREFACE. \ V
instruction completely, in a little volume, like the
present, is impossible. A part, only, can be first
given. What part? That is the question. We bave
attempted to discover and separate this part. We
present a School - Geography, upon an entirely new
principle — a Great Outline, intended equally for the
use of persons who have never studied Geography
(these will find it a foundation), and for persons
who have completed their studies (these will find
it a résumé). It includes the main points — the
essential parts of the science — that part which all
persons will find it most advantageous, as well as
most easy, to fix in their minds, and to carry with
them through life. If you do not know this Outline,
you can have no real knowledge of Geography. If
you know it — all other geographical knowledge,
which your circumstances may require, will come
to you far more easily, indeed almost naturally.
How to frame this Outline? What to select and
reject? How to introduce it, when framed, into the
mind? How to engrave it there permanently? How
to give it a power of self-development, so that it
will remain in the mind — not a mass of dead facts
unconnected with each other — but a living seed, to
bring forth fruit in its season? This is the task
undertaken by the writer. The friends of education,
the teacher, the student are respectfully invited to
examine, whether, or not, it is accomplished. It
has been said: there is "no royal road to Mathe¬
matics". The author cannot wholly repress the hope
that he has cut a shorter and pleasanter pathway
to Geography.
VI / PREFACE.
/
Among the advantages oí this method the
following may be stated.
1. The teacher reads all lessons from the book.
The pupil follows every word upon the plates. He
thus studies, at the same time, with his ear and
eye. The effect will soon become apparent.
2. No formal demand is made on his memory;
yet he cannot help learning by heart, understand¬
ing, and retaining what he has learned; because
the book itself teaches him how it must be
studied.
3. By an arrangement, equally simple and
useful, the confusion of crowded names, on the
maps, is avoided.
4. The text is constructed so that the more
advanced pupils may easily become competent
teachers of other classes.
5. The work will be equally usefiil to mothers,
governesses, elder sisters, and brothers, who, even
when not prepared by previous study, will find no
difficulty, by its aid, in taking the younger mem¬
bers of the family through the whole course.
6. No study at home is necessary. The reci¬
tation is study enough. Thus the trouble of carry¬
ing books backward and forward is avoided.
7. The text is broken apart into 500 or 600
sections, each one carefully arranged after, or rather
above the other, so that the ascent is as easy as
the steps of a flight of stairs.
8. If any thing is left out, which other School-
Geographies give, it is done intentionally, to
supply the place with more important matter, which
PREFACE.
VII
others omit. Such remarks, therefore, as "this river''',
"that town!', etc., are not given, will, we think,
be withdrawn, upon a better understanding of the
plan. A man, passing around the globe, does not
carry every thing in his knapsack.
A correct opinion of the work cannot be formed
by turning over the leaves. It is not a book of
reference or reading. It is a teaching — a studying
book. The text without the plates, or the plates
without the text, might be deemed imperfect and
unintelligible. They are parts of a machine; and
must be used together, like the blades of a pair of
scissors.
While Parts I. II. and III. give a uniform bird's-
eye view of the entire, globe's surface — not by dis¬
jointed maps, on different scales, but by planispheres,
presenting whole views of the earth — Parts IV.
and V. present outline views of Europe and the
United States of America, on a larger scale, applying
to them the same principles, which have been
previously applied to the entire globe. The writer
has not attempted to teach the whole science. Some
may object that he has not taught enough. The
answer is: learn this first; then it will be time to
ask for more. Such as are prepared for more, are
referred to Text-book, sections 6 and 98.
Lastly, the work is not intended to reflect upon,
far less, to displace,any other good School-Geography.
We have several which execute, with conscientious¬
ness and success, the task they have undertaken.
But that task differs from ours in this. We have
blended, into their natural union, astronomical and
VIH
PREFACE.
physical Geography. We have boldly rejected all
the usual mass of details, irreconcilable with the
simplicity and symmetry of a great, uniform out¬
line— an outline comprehending the entire Earth,
and which cannot be properly got into the mind
unless it be taken, apart from those details. It is
hoped, therefore, that the "Great Outline" will be
regarded, by other School-Geographies in the field
— not as ati enemy, but as a re-enforcement.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
As the best mode of ascertaining imperfections
of the first edition, the writer spent some months,
teaching a private class selected for that purpose.
The result is this second, corrected edition; in
which several new names are supplied — the
counting is more carefully adjusted — errors and
discrepancies are removed — explanations given, in
large outlines, of trade winds — tides — ocean-
currents, etc., and the lists of names, more freely
interspersed with brief, striking descriptions; intended
to avoid monotony, awaken curiosity and impart
a more living interest to the subject.
Berlin, 8. May, 1868.
TEXT-BOOK OF GEOGRAPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
(1.) Geography is a description of the surface of
the earth, as the residence of man. " It is generally
divided into Ancient and Modern Geography; the first
embraces the period of man's residence on the earth,
from the beginning of human history till the fall of
the Roman Empire; the latter extends from the fall of
the R. Empire (sec. 459) to our day.' Geography is
subdivided into four departments — Astronomical or
Mathematical, Physical, Political, and Historical.
Remark to the teacher. Where another section is
referred to (as four lines above), it is not intended to
be read to the class, on going over this work for the
first time, except where it is perceived to be indispensable.
The notes, also, at the bottom of the page, may be
omitted till the second reading.
(2.) Astronomical Geography describes the
earth as one of the heavenly bodies — its form, magnitude
and place in our solar system — its motions and
relations to other celestial bodies, particularly to the
sun — the way in which it holds itself as it moves
around that central orb, etc. It explains seasons—
climates — currents — tides — winds — lines drawn on
maps and artificial globes, as arctic circle, tropic of
Capricorn, equator, ecliptic, etc. By it we ascertain the
true position of places on the earth's surface.
1
2
INTRODUCTION.
(ö.) Physical Geography — sometimes termed
Natural Geography — describes striking natural features
of the earth's surface — configuration of land — phe¬
nomena of the ocean — the soil — modifications of cli¬
mates—of tides—currents—winds, etc., and their physical
causes. It also gives a general idea of great land and
water divisions — continents — oceans — lakes — islands
— peninsulas — capes — mountain-chains — mountain-
peaks — rivers — plains — valleys, etc.
4
(4.) Ordinary, Political or Descriptive Ge¬
ography describes the divisions of the earth's surface
into countries — empires — republics — kingdoms — states
—towns, etc.; and gives some account of their inhabitants
— governments — religions— languages — civilisation —
natural productions — manufactures — commerce, etc.
(5.) Historical Geography treats of the origin
of countries — of what, for the sake of convenience,
we call the different races and families of man — the
great events, changes and revolutions through which
they have passed — the enterprises and expeditions,
by which we have gradually explored remote continents,
islands and oceans; thus obtaining an exact knowledge
of the real shape and dimensions of our planet and a
tolerable acquaintance with nearly every part of its
surface (see sec. 454.).
(6.) Purpose of this work. — It is obvious that
no mere school-hook can give a complete knowledge of
these subjects. All that we can conscientiously promise
to teach the young student, is an outline, to he more
or less filled up, according to the opportunities and
requirements of future life. The want of such a fun¬
damental work has long been felt by every intelligent
teacher. We have endeavored to supply it by giving,
within the smallest possible compass, and, consequently!
by the premeditated sacrifice of many details, such aii
outline of perfectly selected, philosophically arranged|
INTRODUCTION.
3
and scientifically analyzed geographical facts, as is most
necessary, not only for the student of every school,
but for all persons in every class of life. And, as it
is much more desirable to learn an elemental, definite
part of a science thoroughly, than to obtain a larger
amount of general knowledge superficially, we have
limited our treatment of Astronomical, Physical and
Political Geography to an epitome'^, constructed so as to
— (we venture here to use this word) force itself into
every mind; and to form a solid and permanent foun¬
dation. Whatever may be reasonably desired to complete
the circle of Ordinary Geography, will he subsequently
supplied by a second Text-book: Outline of Descriptive
Geography, nearly ready for publication, containing
articles on countries, prominent rivers, mountains, etc.
The second Text-book is not necessarily to be taken
as a part of this work. The student, after having
mastered the latter, will be thoroughly prepared, un¬
aided by any teacher, to pursue his study merely hy
reading, with attention, any good Treatise within his
reach. The purpose of the second Text-book, is to
furnish such a Treatise, framed to suit the knowledge
thus acquired, corresponding with the Atlas in his
possession, and presenting a clear, panoramic view of
the nations now occupying the globe — their degree of
christian civilization — the very striking peculiarities
of their present position and condition, etc.
* EPITOME (e-pit'-o-me) — from a greek word, to cut off,
to shorten — a condensed statement containing the substance or
essential matter of a subject, disengaged from all such details and
digressions as would distract the attention and make it difficult
to comprehend the whole and retain it in the memory.
1*
PART 1.
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
{7.) Starry heavens. — On a cloudless evening,
the heavens appear scattered with stars set like gems
in the interior of a vast concave. Our eye is not
conscious of their unequal distances. Some seem
larger than others and sparkle with far more brilliancy.
(8.) Number of stars. — A person in the lati¬
tude of the United States can count, with the naked
eye, 2 or 3,000. On the equator, where, in 24 hours,
the spectator can get a view of the whole heavens
without changing his place, he could distinguish about
5,000. The telescope discloses hundreds and thousands
of millions — in fact, a number without limit*.
\0iV.j ♦ The young student, somewhat advanced in Astron¬
omy, will understand (at least on the second reading of this volume),
by the aid of PI. I. B and C, that, if we stood on the North
pole, we should never see any part of the heavens except the
northern half — on the South pole, except the southern half.
But, if we stood on the equator, at midnight of 23. Dec., we
should see one half the starry heavens; at midnight of 23. June,
the diametrically opposite half (PI. I. C.). On those two nights,
we should thus behold all the starry universe within the vision
of human beings. On the equator, in consequence of the earth' i
daily rotation on its axis, it is true, we should have a view
of both sides of the entire heavens in 24: hours; but, during;
12 of those hours, it would be daylight.
A8TROKOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
5
(9.) Fixed Stars. — Except the planets, of which
six (in their turns) are visible, all the stars are called
Fixed Stars. They are blazing suns, many far ex¬
ceeding our sun in magnitude and brilliancy, but so
immeasurably — so unimaginably distant, that the tele¬
scope discovers no disks — no dimensions at all — only
inappreciable points of intense light.
(10.) Constellations. — Now examine Pl.VIII. A.
You there see two groups of fixed stars—that is, two
constellations—very conspicuous in our winter night-sky,
namely, Orion (O-ri'-on) and Taurus (the Bull). Such
groups, from time immemorial, have been named after
persons, animals or other objects, and are drawn on
maps as in the diagram. You perceive these groups
bear little resemblance to the figures after which they
are called. Century after century, they appear in the
same position with regard to each other. The three
stars of Orion's belt thus always remain in a straight
line with Sirius. The cluster, Hyades (hy'-a-dez), for
thousands of years, has thus represented the letter V,
with the red star Aldebaran (al-de-ba'-ran) at one of
its extremities; although this letter V, as is the case
with other groups and constellations, seems to be con¬
tinually moving through the heavens (around the earth),
and consequently always changes its position relative
to the person looking at it. You will see the same
constellations in the picture of the heavens (PI. I. A).
Point out, there, Pleiades (plê-'-ya-dêz), Hyades, Alde¬
baran (in the Bull's eye), the two stars in the tip of the
Bull's horn, Orion's belt, Sirius. You would do well, on
the first 'clear winter night, to seek out and recognize
these constellations and stars in the natural heavens, of
which they form the most brilliant ornaments. We shall
presently explain why PI. I. A. is entitled: "Imaginary
view from Neptune." (Sirius—in Great Dog).
(11.) Milky Way. — As the night grows darker,
we become more aware of a wonderful, luminous belt
6 ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
I
or ring, irregolar in outline, breadth and density,
extending across the entire heavens, like a zone of
indistinct clouds, or a river rolling in soft waves of
light. During many ages, the world was unable to
account for this. The telescope shows it to consist of
masses upon masses of stars (PI. I. A) (594).
(12.) Planets. — A slight study of the heavens
enables the eye to detect, among the other stars, several,
distinguished by the peculiarity that they do not generally
sparkle like the fixed stars (although they sometimes
do), hut shine with a soft, steady light, like that reflected
from the moon*. These are called planets (wanderers),
because, while the fixed stars remain thousands of years
in the same position relative to each other, the planets,
on the contrary, move or wander about, among the
fixed stars, backward and forward — so that, in a few
nights, or weeks, we can observe that they have changed
their positions with regard to the fixed stars, and to each
other. When we say, however, that they wander among
the fixed stars, we do not mean that they are as far
oif as the fixed stars. They are very, very much
nearer. They belong to our solar system — heavenly
bodies wheeling, at different distances, in the same di¬
rection, and nearly in the same plane, around the sun.
While wheeling around the sun they, at the same time,
and in the same direction, revolve on their axes. These
planets do not, like the fixed stars, shine with their
own light,- but are dark, opaque bodies like our earth.
They appear bright, only because they reflect back the
light received from the sun, as a wall, or a house, or
a distant mountain, would. Our earth would appear
just as much like a star and just as bright, if we
could stand on one of them and look at it. Among
the fixed stars (PI. I. A) you will easily distinguish
two planets.
* It is true, several planets occasionally sparkle, but they may
be distinguished from the fixed stars, by a little habitual attention.
They often appear ßrst in the evening sky.
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
7
(13.) Solar System — eight principal planets re¬
volving around the sun (PI. VIII. B): Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus (U'-ra-nus) and
Neptune (with asteroids, moons, comets and meteors).
(14.) Remark. The discovery of a new planet, Vulcan,
about half way between the orbit of Mercury and the sun,
has been announced.
(15.) Asteroids. — an unknown number (100 in
1868) of little worlds — revolving around the sun be¬
tween orbits of Mars and Jupiter (PI. VIII. B) — largest
about the size of Long Island — the diameter of one,
14 miles (a journey around his equator, half an hour
by railroad, only a pleasant day's walk). Humboldt
called them "pocket planets." One, Vesta, sometimes
visible, to naked eye.
(16.) Planet Neptune — is the most remote from
us and from the sun, nearly 3,000 million miles. It
is not easy to conceive this distance. Were it pos¬
sible to construct a railroad to Neptune, and the train
travel at the rate of 40 miles an hour, day and
night, without stopping a single moment, it would
reach him in about 8,000 years; a cannon ball, in
456 years; a rapid pedestrian, without stopping to eat
or sleep, in about 80,000 years. To walk along the
entire path (PI. VIII. B) which Neptune describes
around the sun, would require 480,000 years. A ray
of light comes from Neptune to the earth in 51/2 hours.
(17.) light-Years. — The distance of Neptune is
very wonderful, compared with any we can measure
on our earth; but the fixed stars are so prodigiously
remote that, in proportion, the space, between us and
Neptune, diminishes to almost nothing. It would be
useless to speak of pedestrians, railroads or even flying
cannon-balls,with reference to fixed stars. Astronomers
have sought a different standard, namely, light. Light
passes 200,000 miles in a second. It could go 8 times
8
ASTRON.OMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
around our earth while you count one. It comes frora
the sun (PI. VIII. B) to the earth in 8 minutes
18 seconds. It traverses the whole breadth of the
solar system (B) in 11 hours. Who then can imagine
the distance it travels in a year? Between 6 and
7,000,000,000,000 (seven billion) miles. This distance
is called a light-year. A billion is a million times a
million. It would take 30,000 years, night and day
without stopping, to count one billion. Yet the nearest
fixed star, alpha Centauri (Fl. VIII. C), is so remote,
20 billion miles, that it takes a ray of its light 3'/a
years to reach our earth. Thus that distance is called
31/2 light-years. It would take, therefore, more than
600,000 years to count the distance, in miles, of the very
nearest fixed star. Now what is a light-year? The distance
which a ray of light traverses in one year. And what
is that distance? Between 6 and 7 billion miles. And
what is a billion? A million millions.
(18.) Remark. 1. The teacher, according to his dis¬
cretion, will put similar questions.
2. Among the French, a billion is a thousand millions.
(19.) Distances of other Fixed Stars. — PI. VIII.
C will help you to conceive the amazing distance of
even the nearest fixed star. Our entire solar system,
(whose dimensions are described in sec. 16) is, in
PI. VIII. C, only about as large as the head of a pin.
This is the reason why the fixed stars would appear
materially in the same form and groups, and at about
the same distance, whether seen from Neptune or from
our earth. It would make almost as little difference
which one of the planets we view the Fixed-Star World
from — as which house of a city, or which story of
a house. What is the reason? Because the distance is
so great that, m comparison*, the whole size of the solar
(ly A.J • As, however, the distance between the earth's posi¬
tions, at any two opposite points of its orbit, has alone enabled
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
9
system would scarcely be greater than the head of a pin.
PL VIII. C gives the distance of the principal stars
which have been measured. The star called alpha
Centauri, S'/j light-years — that numbered 61 in Cygnus,
91/2—Vega, IS'/î — Arcturus, 26 — Sirius, 22 — Iota,
in Great Bear, 25—Polar Star, 31 — Capella, 72.
These stars are tfw very nearest to our solar system.
The others are too distant for measurement; the Milky
Way, thousands of light-years; other starry systems,
called nebulae (outside of—far, far beyond the Milky
Way), probably millions of light-years distant. In PI.
VIII. C the solar system is given as a point. The
fixed stars, alpha Centauri, etc., are at different distances
from it. The dotted lines give the relative distances
of those fixed stars, compared one with the other-, for
instance, Capella is nearly three times farther, from
the solar system, than Iota, in the Great Bear, is; but
these lines are not intended to show the distance of
any star, compared with the size of the solar system.
( 19 B') Remark to teacher. — If any pupil here inquire what
man knows as to the origin, dimensions and duration of the
physical universe, it wonld not be proper to leave such a
(juestion without reply. Modern atheists declare the world infinite
in extent and duration — without beginning and without end.
This assertion rests on no proof. According to Scripture, it had
a beginning. It has limits. The stars are numbered. Each one has
a name (98 B). The hints of the Bible on these, and other similar
points, are among the eternal evidences of its divine origin ; not only
from their superhuman sublimity, and their wonderful correspond¬
ence with each other, during all the centuries from Job and Moses to
Paul and John; but from their correspondence with the discoveries
of modern science. As to the duration of the universe, the sacred
page represents it as destined to undergo the most amazing trans¬
formations in its progress to a state of far higher, eternal perfection.
(20.) Imaginary view of the heavens from
Neptune — Our earth a star. — We cannot see
Neptune, from our earth, with the naked eye; scarcely
with a telescope. Indeed his existence was unknown
astronomers to measure a few of the fixed stars, it is pretty
certain that more could be measured from Neptune-, because the
diameter of his orbit is so much greater than that of the earth (595).
10
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
till 1846. He is far larger than the earth, his diame¬
ter being more than 4 times greater. Suppose we had
a Car, propelled by light, in which we could visit
the heavenly bodies. Imagine yourself (PI. I. A) thus
arrived upon that dark, cold, remote planet. The
starry heavens are drawn as they appear from our
earth on a winter night. You easily recognize Orion
and his belt; Taurus, with the two clusters, Hyades
and Pleiades; two stars in the tip of the Bull's
horn; the brilliant star Aldebaran; Sirius, etc. The
sun, although, from our earth, too dazzling to be looked
at, seen from Neptune, would dwindle to a compara¬
tively insignificant luminary 1,300 times weaker than
he appears to us. We may well imagine an occasional
winter day of that planet so nearly resembling in
darkness some of the nights of our earth, as to afford
a view of the starry heavens. Although, from Neptune,
we should see the same fixed stars, as from our earth,
several of the planets, which ornament our sky, would
not be visible, at least to the naked eye. A glance at
PI. VIII. B will show the reason why Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn are visible to us inhabitants
of the earth; Uranus, scarcely; Neptune, not at all,
with the unassisted eye. From Neptune, on the con¬
trary, we should easily distinguish those nearest him
— Uranus, Saturn and Jupiter. Two of these will
be found in the picture (PI. I. A). If really on
Neptune, we should naturally cast our eyes over the
heavens in search of the little planet on which we
had lived. Its distance, perhaps its proximity to the
sun, would bide it from our view. If we had a
sufficiently powerful telescope, however, we might detect,
very near the sun, a small star — a distant point of
light — an atom of gold dust floating in free space
among the millions of other worlds. That is our Earth
(star nearest the .sun, PI. I. A) (596).
(21.) Nearer view of the Earth. — Let us now
leave Neptune in our Light-Car, and, instead of visiting
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
11
any other heavenly body, let us choose a point, in free
space, so near, that the earth would appear somewhat
as it does in PI. I. B. We here arrest our Car in full
sight of the earth, to explain the meaning of several
terms connected with Astronomical or Mathematical
Geography. Take PI. VIII. and PI. I.
(22.) The Earth an oblate spheroid (PI.I. B).
You there see the earth — a round body — an orb — a
sphere — a globe. A globe is a round, spherical body
whose surface is, in every part, equally distant from
the center. What is a globe? The earth is so nearly
a perfect sphere that it would not be possible to rep¬
resent it correctly in a picture, except by an absolute¬
ly spherical figure. Its stupendous mass, however,
has been measured with wonderful accuracy and the
discovery made that it is not a perfect sphere. It was
once, and perhaps still is, a flexible body—that is,
yielding and capable of being bent without breaking.
By its diurnal rotation, the equatorial mass has been
thrown a little out, and the parts about the poles, in
a corresponding degree, drawn in. Its circumference,
at the equator, is 24,899 english statute miles; its
polar circumference, less. Its diameter is, therefore,
greater at the equator than at the poles, the former
7,907Ys miles; the latter 7,880 miles. The différence
therefore is 27 Vs miles, very little, compared with the
dimensions of the whole planet; each pole being only
about 13 miles nearer the center, than the equator is*.
Its real figure is called an ohlate spheroid, that is, a
figure not absolutely a sphere. PI. VIII. M gives the
real figure of the earth but, of course, in an exagger¬
ated form. The same Plate (D) gives the earth with
notes of its dimensions.
(22 A.) * "We have reason to believe the equator to be not
strictly circular, but in some degree, elliptic; the proportion of
its greatest and least diameters not being yet precisely known,
though very much nearer to equality than that of the equatorial
and polar diameters." (Sir John Herschel.)
12
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(23.) Axis — Pole — Bevoliition — Bota-
tion. — PI. VIII. E represents a wooden globe, with
an iron rod passing through its center and projecting
at each extremity. One end of the rod rests on the
floor, the other is held by my hand. Now suppose
this globe to turn over and over, on the rod, from the
direction of the word west, to that of the word east.
It would revolve, or rotate, on the rod, from west to
east. The rod would be its axis-, the points of the two
extremities, where they reach the circumference, would
be the two -poles of the globe. The two poles then
are the only two points of the globe which do not
revolve; and, remember, the N. Pole of the earth, during
its whole annual revolution around the sun, always
points to the N. Star.
Now look at PI. I. B. The earth revolves in this
way, on its axis, from "W. to E., and in the same oblique
position relative to the ecliptic, as the wooden globe
in the diagram, with its N. Pole pointing to the N.
Star. Only it has no rod. The earth and other plan¬
ets revolve on their axes, in the void of space, un¬
supported by any rod, floor or hand, except that of the
Creator.
"He hangeth the earth upon nothing".
The axis of the earth in B. is represented by a
line drawn through the earth's center. Those two
points, where the axis reaches the circumference of the
earth, are called its poles. A man standing in the
picture B, where the word west is written, would be
carried completely around by the rotation of the earth,
and would thus, in 24 hours, get a view of every
portion of the celestial sphere (see sec. 8). But a man
standing at the N. Pole, immediately beneath the N.
Star, would not he carried away from that position at
all. The N. Star would he in his zenith (33) directly above
his head, and would remain so during the whole rotation;
although the rest of the heavens, above his horizon,
would seem to revolve around him, without ever descend¬
ing beneath his horizon. What is the earth's axis?
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
13
An imaginary straight line, on which the earth revolves
from west to east, once in every 24 hours.
(24). Remark. Speaking with astronomical accuracy,
the earth revolves once every 23 hours, 56 minutes,
4 seconds and nine one-hundredths of a second. This
daily rotation is performed with a punctuality which
has no parallel within human knowledge. It has not
varied the one-hundredth of a second in 2000 years.
(25.) North Star and Great Bear. — The earth
is surrounded on every side by stars (PI. I. A and B).
Wherever we travel over its surface, we find the night
heavens scattered with thousands, and, when observed
through a telescope, thousands of millions of stars.
One of these, the North Star or Polar Star is always
to be found in our heavens, over the back of the con¬
stellation, the Great Bear. Its position may be seen
in PI. VIII. F.
You will easily recognize* the Great Bear on any
clear night, and the two stars called the pointers, point¬
ing to the N. Star. In the course of 24 hours the
Great Bear and all the stars of the heavens seem to
revolve around the N. Star. The diagram represents
the Great Bear at 4 different periods of the 24 hours
— 6 o'clock in the evening, 12 at night, 6 in the
morning, 12 the next day (noon)—at the latter hour,
of course, invisible on account of the daylight.
(26.) Remark. He does not always stand with
his feet toward your horizon at 6 o'clock in the evening.
He stands with his feet toward your horizon once
every 24 hours; but is seen in that position, at 6 o'clock
in the evening, only once during the year.
(27.) North Star stationary. — The N. Star
is thus the only star which does not seem to revolve
every 24 hours; the reason has been seen (PI. I. B
and PI. VIII. E). As the earth revolves from W. to
E., the whole heavens appear to revolve from E. to
14
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
W. As the N. Pole of the earth points to the N.
Star, and the poles are the only points of the earth
which do not revolve, so the N. Star is the only point
of our heavens which does not seem to revolve.
(28.) North — South — East — West. —
(PI. I. B) North, toward the North Pole; South, toward
the opposite Pole. When you stand on the globe's
surface with your face toward the North Pole, your
right hand is toward the East; your left toward the West.
(29.) Equator of the earth — hemisphere.—
The equator is a large circle, supposed to be drawn
around the earth, equi-distant from the poles. It is
marked upon the earth in PI. I. B. It divides the
globe into two equal parts. Northern hemisphere and
Southern hemisphere (half sphere). We often hear also
the terms Eastern, Western, Land and Water hemispheres.
Each half of the globe is a hemisphere.
(30.) Sensible Horizon.—Wherever we are —
on a plain, at sea, on a desert, on a mountain—we
have a circular view. A circle appears drawn around
us, beyond which we can see no more of the earth's
surface and no more of the etherial concave. At the
center of this circle we stand; at the circumference of
it, the earth and sky seem to meet. This circle —
when applied to our earth — is called our sensible horizon
(from a greek word, I terminate). It contracts or
enlarges of course according to the elevation of the
spectator. Upon the ocean, supposing our eye to be
elevated 5 or 6 feet, the diameter of the sensible
horizon would be only about 3 miles. The summits of
lofty objects, as a mountain, or the masts of a ship, can
be seen at a greater distance — in favorable weather,
the Peak of Teneriffe, at the distance of a hundred
miles. Now what is the sensible horizon? It is a
small circle, bounding our view of the earth's surface, in
the center of which, we stand, and at the circumference of
which, the earth and sky seem to meet.
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
15
(31.) national Horizon.—If we were suspended
(in our Light-Car) in free space, the earth not existing
at all, how would the heavens appear? A vast, hollow
sphere, of which we should see the whole interior. The
Milky Way would present itself a continuous ring, one
half over our head, the other, beneath our feet. There
would thus be no horizon, either sensible or rational.
As, however, we stand, not in free space, but upon the
stupendous, convex globe, our view is quite different;
and, wherever we stand upon its surface, we can see,
never the whole, but always exactly one half of tl\e
Celestial Sphere. The other half is, of course, hidden
by the globe itself; and our view is limited by a great
circle, of which our eye forms the central point. This
great circle is called our rational horizon. Thus the
rational or true horizon divides the heavens into two
equal parts, the one visible, the other invisible. These
two horizons are, in one sense, the same. While the
term sensible horizon is applied to the small circle which
terminates our very contracted view of the earth's sur¬
face, the term rational horizon is applied to that great
circle which terminates our view of the immense celestial
concave, cutting off the lower half of it from our sight.
Now what is the rational horizon? You will not
perhaps, immediately understand what is meant by the
further explanation that, the rational horizon is also an
imaginary plane extending, through the center of the
earth, on every side, to the starry heavens, thus cutting
into two halves, both the heavens and the earth. The
sun, moon and stars become visible to us, when they
rise above this plane.
(32.) Axis of the heavens — apparent daily
revolution of the Celestial Sphere npon it. —
PI. I. B shows a line reaching, through the earth's
center, across the heavens, to the N. Star, and to a
corresponding point in the southern heavens.
The axis of the heavens is an imaginary line
16
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
identical* with the axis of the earth, — a prolongation
of it. The entire hollow sphere of the starry heavens
appears to revolve upon it from E. to W., and the
northern extremity of it passes through, or very near
the N. Star.
As the earth, with its N. Pole always pointing
to the N. Star, revolves, once every day, on its
imaginary axis, from W. to E. —, that motion makes
the great starry concave, called the Celestial Sphere, seem
to revolve, once every day, from E. to W., on the
imaginary line, called the axis of the heavens. The
atmosphere, forming an envelope around the earth
about 500 miles high, accompanies the planet in all its
movements, with no other consequent disturbance than
the trade- winds and the storms connected with them.
Thus — the clouds — the birds — man — the atmosphere
itself—are borne softly around, with the earth, in its
annual and diurnal rotation. Kther, which is believed,
to fill all space, is too rare and delicate to offer any
perceptible resistance; so that we are unconscious of
the earth's motion, and have no means of discovering
it, except by watching disconnected objects, quite apart
from it, and not moving with it, snch as the sun, moon
and stars. These, of course, seem to revolve in a
contrary direction, on an axis exactly corresponding
to the earth's axis, that is the axis of the heavens.
The two points of the heavenly sphere (at the extrem¬
ities of its axis) which do not seem to revolve, are
called its poles. The N. pole of the heavens is at the
North Star — the S. pole, opposite the S. pole of the
earth, is, of course, as far heneath our southern horizon,
as the N. pole of the heavens is above it. (Please here
read 597.) — (for trade-winds, 603).
(33.) Zenith (zee'-nith) — is that point of the
visible celestial sphere vertical to the spectator, that
* IDENTICAL; the same; not different; from the Latin,
idem, the same.
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
17
is, directly over the place where he stands. A man
standing on the N. pole (PI. I. B) would have the
North Star in his zenith.
(34.) Nadir (nä-dir) — that point of the
heavens directly opposite the zenith — directly under
the observer's feet. A perpendicular line drawn from
the zenith, through the spectator, and through the center
of the earth, to the opposite point of the lower celestial
hemisphere, would extent to the nadir. At noon, 23.
of June (PI. I. B), a person, on the tropic of Cancer,
would have the sun in his zenith. The center of the
sun would be vertical, that is, exactly over his head.
Zenith and nadir are arabic terms.
(35.) Right line or straight line — shortest
line between two points.
(36.) Curve line — a line which departs con¬
tinually from a direct course.
Remark. 1. The diagrams referred to, in sections
35 to 55, will easily be found in PI. VIII.
2. Our plan requires that the pupil should not be
instructed, at this stage of his studies, on any other
points than those presented in the text. The subjects
explained have reference to future lessons. As much
care has been taken to exclude explanations not yet
needed, as to furnish those necessary. The object is
to teach, not Geometry nor Astronomy, but Geography ;
and that, only ascending step by step.
(37.) Parallel lines — lines extended in the
same direction and equally distant from each other
throughout the whole length.
(38.) Oblique lines. — Oblique means slanting.
Oblique lines are such as are inclined toward each other
from a direct line, whether horizontal or perpendicular.
2
18 astronomical geography.
(39.) Horizontal line — a level line par¬
allel to the horizon.
(40.) Perpendicular line. — When one straight
line stands upon another, so as to make the angles,
on each side, equal to each other — that is, neither
leaning to one side, nor to the other — the lines are
said to be perpendicular to each other — as in the
diagram entitled "right angle".
(41.) Angle — the space comprised between two
straight lines that meet in a point.
(42.) Bight angle — formed when one right
line intersects another right line perpendicularly.
(43.) Acute angle — less than a right angle.
(44.) Obtuse angle — greater than a right angle.
(45.) Circle — Center. — A circle is a single
curve line, every part of which is equi-distant from a
point called its center.
The six following sections describe parts of a
circle (PI. Vm. Q):
(46.) Circumference. — The curve line that
encompasses a circle — about three times the diameter.
(47.) Arc (P) — any portion of the circumference
of a circle. In the figure there are three arcs and
three chords.
(48.) Chord (P) — a right line joining the
extremities of an arc.
(49.) Diameter (Q) — a straight line from
any point of the circumference passing through the
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
n
center to the opposite point. It divides the circlet
into two equal parts.
(50.) Eadius (ra-di-us) (Q) — a straight line
drawn from the center to the circumference. All radii
of the same circle are equal to each other and each
is half the diameter. Radii, the plural of radius.
(51.) Quadrant (Q) — one quarter of a circle
or 90 0 (the circle being divided into 360®). The
circumference of the globe, from the equator to the
pole, is 90®—that is a quadrant.
(52.) Remark. The terras drcumferenee B,Tidi diameter
are equally applied to a globe and other solid bodies.
(53.) Concentric Circles (P) — circles drawn
within each other which, although of different dimen¬
sions, have a common center.
(54.) Great Circle — Small Circle. — A
circle drawn around the earth may be either great
or small. A great circle passes around its greatest
circumference and divides its surface into two equal
parts or hemispheres. The equator, therefore, is a
great circle. The meridians are great circles. The
ecliptic, sometimes drawn upon maps and globes (E),
is also a great circle. All other circles drawn around
the earth are small circles. In PI. VIII. S. you see the
equator drawn completely around the globe as a great
circle, while the two tropics and the two polar circles
appear as small ones. Examine the great and small
circles upon all the figures of the earth in PI. I.
(55.) Ellipse — Focus (P). — An ellipse is an
oblong figure, such as a circle would appear if held
obliquely (as the cart-wheel i in PI. VIII. L). The
figure of an ellipse is described around two points,
called its foci (the plural of focus).
2*
■20
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(56.) Latitude (R) — upon the earth, is distance
from the equator, north or south, reckoned, toward
the poles, in degrees, minutes and seconds. In plani-
globes (PI. II for instance), it is marked on the entire
circumference; in other maps (Pis. IV. VI. etc.), on the
right and left margins. In PL VIII. R. you see the
equator and four parallels drawn at 20® N. lat., at
40®, 60® and 80®. There is also in diagr. R. the same
number of south parallels. The pole is of course at
the 90® of latitude. No place can be farther from
the equator than the pole; so no place can have a
higher latitude than 90®. When, in your journey N.
or S. from the equator, you pass the point called thé
pole, in what direction must you go? Answer: In
passing the North pole, we must go south-, of course,
we then approach the equator on the opposite side of
the globe; in passing the .South pole, of course, we go
north, toward the equator.
(57.) Parallels of Latitude (R) — shortly called
Parallels — are small circles supposed to be drawn
around the earth parallel to, and at different distances
from, the equator.
(58.) Longitude (R) — distance of a place, E.
or W., from any given meridian, and, like latitude,
measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. In plani-
globes (PI. II), it is marked, by the arabic figures, on
the equator and on the two parallels, nearest the poles;
in other maps (PI. IV, VI. VII, etc.), on the top and
bottom margins.
(59.) Meridians (R) — great circles supposed
to be drawn around the globe and to pass through the
poles of the earth, intersecting the equator at right
angles. Each of them divides the sphere into two
hemispheres. For parallels and meridians see also all
figures of the earth in PI. I. Point out there the par¬
allels; the meridians.
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
21
(60.) Degrees — Minutes — Seconds. — A
circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts.
Each part is called a degree, expressed by a small
sign, thus (®). Take PI. VIII. T. Each degree is
subdivided into 60 equal parts, called minutes, marked
by a comma, thus ('); and each minute is subdivided
into 60 equal parts, called seconds, marked by two
commas, thus ("). We write 10 degrees, 5 minutes,
and 4 seconds (as in T)—10» 5' 4".
(61.) How an angle is measured. —An angle
is measured (PI. VIH. T.) by making its sides radii
of a circle and taking the length of the arc in degrees,
minutes, and seconds.
Diagram T. (fig. o) shows a circle divided into
360®. You, must imagine each degree to be subdivided
into 60', and each minute, into 60". Fig. h shows a
right angle measured on the arc of the circle, the
arc here, being exactly a quarter of the circle, meas¬
ures 90". In fig. c the two lines e. f. form an acute
angle of 23" 27' 26" (twenty-three degrees, twenty-
seven minutes, twenty-six seconds). The two lines g.
h. form the same angle of 23" 27' 26". Fig. T. c-
is drawn in the same position as that in which the
earth holds itself, in its annual journey around the sun.
The line g represents the equator ; the line h, the ecliptic,
or the plane of the ecliptic, or the plane of the earth's
annual orbit or path around the sun. Hence we say
the equator is inclined to the ecliptic 23" 27' 26".
(62.) Remarle. Young people, who cannot com¬
prehend what is meant by such phrases as "inclination
of the equator to the ecliptic" — "plane of the ecliptic"
— "plane of the earth's orMt" — "earth's axis leans 23^
27' 26" toward the ecliptic", etc. — must not be dis¬
couraged. Let them mark these phrases well, whether
they understand them or not; and the meaning will,
we trust, become gradually clear. It is scarcely possible
for an inexperienced student to grasp these ideas by
22
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
any single explanation. He must, by a series of ex¬
planations, following each other in a carefully arranged
succession, slowly ascend to a point, where the earth's
true position, with its axis inclined toward the plane
of its orbit, and thus holding itself, obliquely^ as it
annually moves around the sun, will at last break upon
him, like the effect of a stereoscope. Hence our readers
will find several apparent repetitions, which however
are not accidental, but premeditated.
(63.) Plane. — When a ball rolls on a level meadow
or floor, it rolls on a plain. The solar system consists
principally of the sun with eight planets, revolving
around him in nearly the same level or plane, as if
they were rolling on a floor. The word ^lain means
smooth — even — level — flat — without elevations or de¬
pressions. But when astronomers describe the planets
revolving around the sun, áll of them in about the
same level, just as if they were rolling on a great
level or plain in space, they use the word plane.
(63 A.) PI. Vni. G. will aid in giving an idea of the
plane of an orbit and how planes may be inclined
or perpendicular to each other. It represents the inte¬
rior of a room. At A, the planets revolve on the
plane of the floor; at C, on an inclined part of the ceil¬
ing; at B and Z), on two walls perpendicular to each
other and to the floor. We here see that the expres¬
sion, the "earth's orbif, and the "plane of the earth's
orbit", are not to be confounded with each other. The
line, marked "earth's orbit", describes the path which
the earth pursues around the sun. It is therefore a
line—a curve line. The plane of the earth's orbit is
the level or plane in which this line or orbit lies,
that is, in which the earth revolves. In PI. VHI. G.
it is the floor, or the walls, or the ceiling. In the solar
system itself, there is no floor; but the earth and planets
revolve in about the same plane, as if there were a
floor. That imaginary floor, extended out in every di¬
rection, is the plane of their orbits.
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
23
(6 3 B.) PL Vni. L. will help you to understand this.
A cart-wheel is held up to your eye in different
positions. At a, it is a circle. You have only to
suppose the sun in the center, and then the circum¬
ference or tire of the wheel to be the orbit of the
earth. You can hold it up before you so that the tire
will appear a circle. If you were directly above the
orbit of the earth, ii, also, would be a circle, as at a.
If you were to take another stand-point, half on one
side, the earth's orbit would appear as in h. But, if
you were to go quite on one side of the earth's orbit,
it could then be represented as a straight line, as in c.
Your eye would then be said to be in the plone of
the earth's orbit.
The earth's orbit thus (PI. VIII. L. c) is given
as a line; and the plane of the earth's orbit is repre¬
sented as a line. A figure of the earth is drawn in
the wheel c to show the inclination of the axis and
the equator, to the plane of the orbit. The equator,
as we have seen, forms an angle of 23® 27' 26"; and
the axis leans, from a perpendicular, 23® 27' 26".
In B and C, Plate I, the earth is drawn in this
position; the orbit, and the plane of the orbit, are each
represented by a line instead of a circle. In D, the
orbit is drawn as the wheel at h. In PI. VIII. B. the
orbits of the planets are seen from the same stand¬
point as the wheel at a.
(64.) Ecliptic — plane of the ecliptic —
angle formed by equator and ecliptic (or by
their planes). — If we suppose ourselves standing
outside of the solar system and looking upon the circle
which the earth describes around the sun (PI. VIII. G. a),
we call that the orUt of the earth. But, as we stand
upon the earth, we are not conscious that the earth
moves annually around the sun. It seems to us that
the sun moves annually around the earth. The circle,
in which he seems to move, is called the ecliptic. Thus
the ecliptic must be defined by a double definition.
24
ASTRONOMICAL GE06RAFHT.
First, it is the orbit in which the sun seems to move,
once every year, around the earth. Secondly, it is the
orbit in which the earth really does move once every
year around the sun. In PI. VIII. G. you have several
views of the earth's orbit; in one. Mercury, Venus and
the Earth revolve on the floor. The line in which the
earth there revolves around the sun, is the earth's orbit^
the floor is the plane of the earth's orbit. But, remember,
to the people upon the earth, the earth seems to stand
still; and the sun seems to go around the earth in a
circle just like that in which the earth goes around
the sun. The orbit of the earth, therefore, is the
ecliptic, and the ecliptic, although it does not so appear
to us, is, in reality, the orbit of the earth. They are
quite the same. The floor is, at the same time, the
plane of the earth's orbit and the plane of the ecliptic.
Now when we describe the position, in which the
earth holds itself, as it goes around the sun, it is usual
to represent the plane of the ecliptic as a line, and
the plane of the equator as a line; and thus to show
what angle they form together. PI. I. B. shows it
clearly. The earth holds its axis with regard to the
ecliptic so that the equator forms an angle of 23® 27' 26".
Astronomers, in describing the earth's position,
therefore, say "the obliquity of the equator is 23" 27' 26"".
The earth's position may be described however in an¬
other way. The axis is inclined 23" 27' 26" toward
the ecliptic, i. e. away from a perpendicular line. In
PI. I. B. the line of the shadow forms the perpendic¬
ular; and the distance of the N. Pole from that line is
23® 27' 26"—exactly the same as that from the ecliptic
to the equator.
Remark. We have now commenced to acquire
some idea of various terms generally used in explain¬
ing the four seasons, climates, and the inequalities of
day and night.
SEASONS.
25
SEASONS.
(65.) Succession of Seasons. — For thousands of
years, mankind Tainly endeavored to account for the
phenomena of the seasons. At one period, we are
conscious of oppressive light and heat; at another, we
pass into a gloomy shadow, and suffer from darkness
and cold. Spring and autumn bring days and nights
equal all over the globe. In our midsummer, the sun
remains 12 hours above the horizon at the equator;
24 hours at the arctic circle; and 6 months at the N.
Pole. In our midwinter, the sun remains iemath our
horizon 24 hours, at the arctic circle, and 6 months at
the N. Pole. As man became better acquainted with
the shape and surface of our planet, it was discovered
that the S. hemisphere underwent the same ever varying
revolutions of heat and cold, winter and summer, as the
N. hemisphere, with a perfectly mathematical corre¬
spondence, except at diametrically opposite periods.
These changes follow each other annually with extra¬
ordinary regularity. The true explanation was given,
about 300 years ago, by Copernicus, who demonstrated
that the earth was not a fixed point, with the sun and
heavens revolving around it, once every day, and then,
again, once every year, (as, to its inhabitants, seems
to be the case; and as Ptolemy and other learned men
had taught), but that it daily rotates, on its axis, and,
at the same time, moves annually around the sun.
The causes of the seasons are as simple as the
reason why the sunny side of a house is warmer than
the shady side; or why one side of a house may be
shady in the morning and sunshiny in the afternoon.
(66.) Earth at midsummer. — In PI. J. B. we
have the earth, 21 — 23 June. You see the equator
drawn equally distant from either pole. N. of equator
are two parallel circles — tropic of Cancer and arctic
circle; S. of equator—tropic of Capricorn and ant-»
arctic circle.
26
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Remark ten phenomena (fig. F):
Summer and longest day in N. hemisphere.
Winter and shortest day in S. hemisphere.
Greatest inequality in length of day and night
everywhere except on equator. This inequality in¬
creases as you approach either pole — i. e., the day is
longer, the farther you go N., till you come to a re¬
gion where there is no night at all; and the day is
shorter, the farther you go S., till you come to a re¬
gion where there is no day at all.
Sun's center as far N. as tropic of Cancer.
Within arctic circle no night.
Within antarctic circle no day.
At point of N. Pole, noon of a day which
lasts six months.
At point of S. Pole, midnight of a night which
lasts six months.
Between arctic circle and N. Pole (that is every¬
where within arctic circle), a day varying in length
from 6 months to 24 hours (with a night the same in
the antarctic circle).
Between arctic circle and equator, a day varying
from 24 hours to 12 hours, and between the antarctic
circle and equator, a night varying from 24 hours
to 12 hours.
Every season, in one hemisphere, exactly the
reverse of that in the other.
This is the state of our earth on 21—23 June.
(67.) Suppose earth stationary 23. June. —
If the earth did not move in its annual orbit around
the sun, this condition would be permanent. The
daily revolution would never bring any point, lying
within the arctic circle, away from the sun's rays, nor
any part, within the antarctic circle, out of the earth's
shadow. At one pole, it would be uninterrupted sum¬
mer and day; at the other, uninterrupted winter and
night. The condition of the countries, lying on or
near the equator, would scarcely be changed from that
SEASONS.
27
which they actually always enjoy; except that those,
lying on tropic of Cancer, would have the central
point of the sun in their zenith permanently; while
those, on tropic of Capricorn, would see him far to
the North, We, in the United States, should have
an unchanging summer, always long days and short
nights, as on the 21—23. of June. The length of the
day and night, at any given latitude, would never vary.
(68.) Earth at midwinter. — PI. I. C. is an
illustration of the four seasons. The earth is visible
at 3 points of its orbit. A figure of the earth is
supposed to be also at the point opposite 2 (of course
on the other side of the sun and thus hidden from
our eye). At 1, we have the earth as already given
in B; 3 represents the earth on the 23. of December.
Point out these figures; name the 5 principal circles.
The ten phenomena, marking the 23 of June,
are here exactly reversed (fig. 3).
Winter and shortest day in N. hemisphere.
Summer and longest day in S. hemisphere.
Greatest inequality in length of day and night
everywhere except on equator, but in an inverted
order; and in a ratio always increasing as you
approach either pole.
Sun's center as far S. as tropic of Capricorn.
Within arctic circle no day.
Within antarctic circle no night.
At the point called S. Pole, noon of a day which
lasts six months.
At the point called N. Pole, midnight of a night
which lasts six months. .
Between antarctic circle and S. Pole (that is
everywhere within antarctic circle), a day varying in
length from 6 months to 24 hours (with a night the
same in the arctic circle).
Between antarctic circle and equator, a day
varying in length from 24 hours to 12 hours (night
the same from arctic circle to equator).
28
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Condition of equatorial regions little changed.
Only difference—the central point of the sun is per¬
pendicular over tropic of Capricorn instead of tropic
of Cancer, The people on the equator have him on
the S., -whereas on the 23. of June, they have him on
the N. (in fig. 1.).
(69.) Solstices and Eqninoxes. — Let us now
(C) follow the earth in its annual movement around
the sun and watch the coming on and passing away
of the summer, autumn, winter and spring. We are
supposed to be in a position, where the orhit of the
earth is turned toward us, like the edge of the wheel
in PI. VIII. L. fig. c—that is, where our eye is in the
plane of the earth's orhit. Thus we see the orhit, not
as a circle, hut as a line. Now take PI. I. C. again.
The earth is represented in 4 points of its orhit —
1. summer solstice (N. hem.); 2. autumnal equinox; 3.
winter solstice; 4. spring equinox (at the point exactly
opposite to, and behind the sun).
(70.) Summer solstice. — Fig. 1 represents the
earth as having reached the point of midsummer, the
21 of June. It is here at its summer solstice (from two
latin words, meaning the sun and to stand), because,
at this part of the year, from the shape of the earth's
orhit, and the inclination of its axis, the increase and
decrease in the length of day and night are, for some
days, less than usual. The earth thus seems to stand
still. The sun thus seems to stand still.
(71.) Autumnal equinox. — We behold the
globe move slowly around in the direction of the arrow.
In three months, it reaches the position of fig. 2. It
is then the 21. of September — our autumnal equinox.
Which pole is there turned the most toward the
sun? (For all these sections, PI. I. both C and D.)
Neither (nee-ther) one nor the other. Each pole is
turned equally toward him. The earth is turned sideways
SEA.80NS.
29
toward him. The sun's center is directly over the
equator. He is said here to cross the equator, because
he is just now in the zenith of the people on the
equator. In fig. 1, our midsummer day,^ he was in
the zenith of the people on tropic of Cancer ; in
fig. 3, our midwinter day, he will be in the zenith of,
that is vertical to — the people on tropic of Capricorn.
At fig. 2, our autumnal equinox (21. of Sept.), he is
vertical to the people on equator who see him exactly
over their heads (only for one day), because he is passing
on his way from tropic of Cancer to tropic of Cap¬
ricorn. At fig. 4, he will cross the equator again
on his way back to tropic.of Cancer. He is thus
said to cross the equator, or to cross the line, at our
autumnal and spring equinoxes. In fig. 2, the whole
of the E. hemisphere is turned toward the sun's light;
the whole of the W. hemisphere is turned away from it.
It is therefore, at this moment, midnight in America
and noon in Asia; and the days and nights are equal
on every part of the earth's surface —12 hours night
and 12 hours day at the equator — also 12 hours night
and 12 hours day at each of the two poles. This,
and the corresponding opposite point of the year, are
called equinoxes (from two latin words signifying equal
and night.') It is called our autumnal' equinox, because
it is autumn. We are just half way on our journey
from the point where we had the longest summer day,
to the point where we shall have the longest winter night.
What is the condition of the two poles at fig. 2?
The N. Pole has its autumnal equinox. Day and
night are equal. It is just bidding adieu to its long
Summer and entering upon its long winter. The sun,
which has been visible for six months, now sinks be¬
neath the horizon, to remain invisible for the next six
months. He will reappear, at that pole, about the 21.
of March, when the earth shall have completely passed
on to the other side of the sun.
At the S. Pole, the condition is reversed. The
sun is, there, just rising above the horizon, to remain
30
ASTRONOMICAL OROGRAPHY.
till the 21. of March. Summer begins to break over the
S. hemisphere. The days grow longer, the nights shorter.
(72.) Winter solstice (fig. 3). — Watch the
progress of our planet three months more. It slowly
advances to the point 3, where we have winter in the
N. hemisphere with the longest night and the shortest
day. This is called, in the N. hemisphere, the winter
solstice; of course it is the summer solstice in the 8.
hemisphere.
(73.) Spring or vernal equinox. — In three
months more, the earth moves to the point opposite
that occupied by the central fig. 2; being covered by
fig. 2. and also by the sun, it is of course invisible
in Pi. I. C. It is now our spring or vernal equinox.
Instead of bidding farewell to the summer, we are
now advancing to meet that season. The phenomena
of the autumnal equinox are here exactly repeated — the
two poles turned neither toward the sun, nor away
from him; the sun's burning orb exactly over the
heads of the nations on the equator (of course at their
noon) so that each pole receives «n equal portion of
his light; day and night are equal; exactly 12 hours
each, on every part of the earth's surface—even at
the poles. This entire equality of day and night (or
of light and darkness) which at the equator is perpet¬
ual, extends over the whole earth twice a year, and
lasts only 24 hours.
(74.) Unequal length of seasons. (PI. VIII. K)
— The seasons are not of the same length. In the
N. hemisphere the winter is the shortest, the summer
the longest. The autumn is shorter than the spring.
The exact duration is given in the following table.
Winter 88 days 19 hours 29 minutes.
Autumn 89 „ 17 „ 24 „
Spring. 92 „ 21 „ 11 „
Summer 93 „ 13 „ 56 ,
SEASONS.
31
The summer is thus 16 hours 48 minutes longer
than the spring, and 4 days 18 hours and 27 minutes
longer than the winter. The spring is 3 days 3 hours
47 minutes longer than the autumn. (598.)
(74 A.) Remark. "We may well here pause to observe
the exactness with which that divine creation, called the
solar system, performs its operations. It has been
seen that the time of the earth's daily revolution, for
thousands of years, has not varied the hundredth part of
a second; and here, the relative length of each returning
season is found to be always precisely the same. It is
true that, on looking deeper, there appear certain irreg¬
ularities. But, on looking still deeper, these supposed
irregularities are discovered to be limited by precise
periods and to be in conformity to regular, eternal laws.
May we not infer that the.moral world, also, is guided
by the same supreme, omnipotent Intelligence — that its
seeming irregularities, also, are measured by periods,
and subject to laws, and that they will finally disappear
altogether, or appear only as necessary parts of one
harmonious whole (98 — 98 A).
(74 B.) Another phenomenon connected with the
seasons is the symmetrical correspondence in the S. hemi¬
sphere, where the above given inequalities of duration
in the N. hemisphere, are diametrically reversed. The
winter of the S. hemisphere is not only longer, hut
colder in proportion; and the summer, not only shorter
but warmer in proportion. This would not be the case,
if the earth's orbit were a circle. The seasons, in that
case, would be of equal length. The sun would be in
the center of the circle. The distance traversed by the
earth, during each of the four seasons, would then be
absolutely equal, and the earth would move, during
these four seasons, and over every portion of her orbit,
with the same invariable velocity. This equality is
disturbed by the real form of the earth's orbit, which is
not a perfect circle with the sun in its center. It is an
ellipse, with the sun, not in its center, but in one of the foci.
32
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(74 C.) In Pl.VIII. K. the elliptical shape of the earth's
orbit is given in an exaggerated form, in order to
make more apparent the way in which the unequal
duration of the seasons results from it.
(74 D.) Remark, in this diagram : First, the two points
of the earth's orbit, the most distant from each other, are,
not the summer and winter solstitial points, B and E,
but the greatest length of the ellipse is between the
points A and D (sec. 599). Secondly, the earth, at our
(N. hem.) winter solstice, is much nearer the sun than
at our (N. hem.) summer solstice. Thirdly, the two
lines, B E and C F, drawn through the sun's center
and the solstitial points, and through the sun's center
and the equinoctial points, divide the earth's elliptical
orbit into four unequal parts.
The earth, during our northern winter, passes from
B to F-, during the spring, from F to Fduring
the summer, from F to C; and during the autumn,
from G to B again. It is plain therefore that it must
traverse a greater distance, during the spring, and par¬
ticularly during the summer, than during the autumn,
and the still shorter winter.
(74 E.) The inequality In the duration of seasons is
augmented by another circumstance. The earth moves,
with increased velocity, along those parts of the orbit
which are nearest the sun (because it is there more
exposed to the sun's attracting power), and relaxes its
speed in proportion to its greater distance. Hence,
during the spring and summer of N. hemisphere, its
velocity is less than during the autumn and winter.
The long spring and summer are thus made longer
by the diminished velocity of our planet, while the
increasing speed with which it passes through the rest
of the ellipse, makes the short autumn and winter still
shorter. This cause and effect are reversed in the S.
hemisphere, where, as we have already seen, the seasons
are reversed. Instead of having a long spring and a
SEASONS. 33
still longer summer — a short autumn, and a still
shorter winter, it has a long winter, which corresponds
in length to our summer; and a short summer which
corresponds to our winter — an autumn corresponding
in length to our spring; and a spring, to our autumn.
(74 F.) The diagram shows the earth to be nearer the
sun in winter than in summer. Our winter is never¬
theless cold from the fact that the N. hemisphere is
so far turned away from the sun as to receive its
rays obliquely; but the S. hemisphere has its summer
just at the point where the earth is nearest the sun;
so that the intensity of the heat, in summer, is greater
than in winter, from two causes:
1. It receives the sun's rays more vertically.
2. It is nearer the sun than at any other period*.
(74 G.) The same causes, reversed, increase the
intensity of the S. hem. winter, which takes place at our
■summer solstice, when the earth is farthest from the sun.
The S. hem., then, receives the sun's rays, not only
obliquely, but from a greater distance. And, as the earth,
at that period, moves more slowly, the S. hem. winter
is so much the longer. The intensity of the winter,
however, is counterbalanced by that of the summer.
The same, inversely, in the N. hem.; so that the mean
annual temperature is equal N. and S. of equator. (600.)
(74 H.) * The earth is about 3 million miles nearer the sun,
in our (N. hem.) winter, than in our summer. The former season
ought, consequently, to he the hotter. But, remark, two circum¬
stances neutralize the effect of this proximity. 1. It occurs at the
period when the N. hem. leans the farthest away from the sun.
2. Much heat is lost by the greater velocity with which our planet
moves through that part of its orbit. In the S. hem., just the
contrary. There, it is hotter, the nearer the earth is to the sun.
In other words, the whole earth is hotter at the period of our
midwinter, than it would be, if the sun were in the center of
a circle. The summer of the S. hem. is hotter than it would
then be; and the winter of the N. hem. is hotter than it would
then be.
3
34
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(74 K.) Remark. In reading sec. 74, and, indeed, all
the astronomical sections, the student of N. America,
Europe, etc., must be careful continually to remember
that he inhabits the northern hemisphere.
(75.) Earth and its orbit seen partly from
above. — Let us now pass to D. We are here
supposed- to stand, neither at a point directly above
the plane of the ecliptic, where the earth's orbit would
appear a circle, nor in the plane of the ecliptic, where
the orbit must appear a line; but about hcdf way
between those two points, where the orbit appears,
neither a line, nor a circle, but an oval, because the
circle is fore-shortened* (as in the cart-wheel PI. VIII.
L. Fig. b). We will now reconsider (PI. I. D) the
earth's annual movement, beginning at the summer
solstice. The ten phenomena are here, in the N.
hem., still more visible. As we have taken a position
somewhat over the N. hem., the S. Pole is, of course,
invisible. Read again the ten phenomena of 23. June
(66). By examining the earth (PI. I. D. fig. 1) you
will better understand the causes of these phenomena.
You see how the N. hem. here leans toward the sun;
why, within the arctic circle, there can he no night;
why the N. hem. has now its summer and its longest
day, etc. The whole arctic circle here lies in the sunshine
24 h., that is, during the whole diurnal revolution;
because the whole arctic circle is turned toward the
sun. It takes the earth three months to come round
to the autumnal equinox (fig. 2), where just one half
of the arctic circle lies in the shadow. Day and night
must, consequently, be there equal. Three months later,
at the winter solstice (fig. 3), the whole arctic circle,
for 24 h., lies in the shadow. The daily revolution
brings no part of this space into the sun's light. At
the vernal equinox (fig. 4), one half the arctic circle
* FORE-SHORTENED ¡ — represented as it would appear to
the eye when seen obliquely.
SEASONS.
35
is again in the light, and one half is in the shadow;
giving thus, at the pole, and everywhere else, on that
day, perfect equality of day and night. As the earth
passes, from the vernal equinox, to the summer solstice
again, equality of day and night begins immediately to
disappear. With every revolution, the day, in our N.
hem., becomes longer, the night shorter, the season
more advanced, till we reach that point again (fig. 1),
where the N. Pole is turned as far toward the sun as
the earth's position will ever permit. We no sooner
reach the longest day (fig. 1), than the movement of
the ever advancing earth begins to change our condi¬
tion again. The days begin to shorten. Remark, how¬
ever, the next section.
(76.) Sun stands still. — At two points of the
year—midsummer and midwinter — the sun is said to
stand still, because, for a short period, the days have
scarcely any perceptible increase or decrease. You have
already learned, first, that the sun is stationary in the
center of the solar system, and that the planets roll
around him; secondly, that, to the inhabitants of the
earth, our planet does not seem to move at all, but
to be a fixed point, while the entire heavens seem to
move around it, once every 24 hours. In addition,
the sun, and the whole starry sphere, seem to float
slowly around the earth once in about 365 days. When
astronomers say the sun stands still, they, of course, speak
only of this last apparent annual movement around the
earth, which is nothing more than a reflection of the
earth's annual movement around the sun. Thus the
term "the sun stands still" means only "the earth stands
still". But does the earth stand still? Certainly not.
Yet, at the two solstitial points (keep your eyes on
fig. 1 D), the days remain, during several diurnal
revolutions, almost exactly of the same length. This
results from the fact that the inclination of the earth's
axis, and the elliptical form of its orbit, are such, that
the path of the sun, instead of being, as usual, N. or
3*
36
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
S., appears parallel to the equator, E. and W. He
^oes, for a time, neither N. nor S., hut lingers (C) in
•tropic of Cancer. The days remain, therefore, of about
the same length. Hence has arisen the -word solstice;
and the term, the "sun stands still".
(7 6 A.) JRemark. I, We abstain from many expla¬
nations indispensable to more advanced students—par-
ticulary students of astronomy — hut which would be
out of place in these lessons. When we say, for instance,
the sun is stationary in the center of the solar system,
we mean relatively. He is not, strictly speaking, in the
center; neither is he stationary. He not only revolves
on his axis, hut he moves, in a kind of orbit, around
his central point. In addition, like the rest of the
fixed stars, he and his family of worlds, are sweeping
forward, probably in an unimaginable circle or ellipse,
around an unknown center.
(^76B.) 2. The ellipticity of the earth's orbit, in
PI. I. D, is not intended to show the real form of the
orbit. It results merely from the circle being held up
to the eye obliquely. The real ellipticity (22) is too
slight to be represented on any sheet, as other than a
circle. But, although exaggerated, the elliptical form
in D, illustrates correctly one of the reasons why, at
this point of the orbit, the sun, for several days,
scarcely changes his direction.
(77.) Four circles. — Eemark. In the 8 pictures
(PL I), from E to M, the earth is drawn at its summer
solstice (23. June). In E, F, G, H, your eye is sup¬
posed to he in the plane of its orbit and you see four
different points of the diurnal revolution, by which
New York passes through the 24 hours. In I, you
are exactly over the N. Pole. You see the six months
day of the arctic circle (midsummer of N. hem.). In
K, you are exactly over the S. Pole, with the N. Star
CIRCLES.
3i7
on the opposite side of the earth. You there see the
six months night of the antarctic circle (midwinter of
S. hem.).
Figs. B, C, D, will enable you to understand'
the four circles are drawn where they are. If the axis
of the earth were perpendicular to the ecliptic, there
would be no change of seasons; and the length of day
and night would be always equal. There would be no
regularly defined zones and no reason for the arctic or
tropical circles. It is the inclination of the axis which
brings the earth into the different positions seen in
PI. I figures C and D.
Remark. Most of the figures on PI. I ought to
be consulted during the examination of the circles, hut
particularly B, C, D.
(78.) Arctic Circle. — In this position (B), the
shadow has receded from the N. Pole as far as it ever
can. There is thus, around the pole, a circular space,
out of the earth's shadow and in the sun's light during
one diurnal rotation. The arctic circle describes the
limits of this space. Its entire circumference can be
seen on D, I, and L.
(79.) Antarctic Circle. — A similar space around^
the S. Pole (B), is described by the antarctic circle;
and the same conditions are, at the same moment,
repeated there, except inversely. While the arctic circle
remains in the sunshine, independent of the earth's
revolution, the antarctic circle remains in the shadow.
(C. fig. 1 K and M.)
The regions within the arctic and antarctic circles
are the only parts of the globe's surface where the sun ever
remains 24 hours either above or below the horizon. And,
remember, that, while, on the circle itself, the day, or the
night, is never longer than 24 hours, it lengthens, as we
advance from the circle to the pole, until, at the point of
the pole itself, it has a duration of six months. Now
what is the distinguishing feature of the arctic and
38
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
antarctic circles? And what are the conditions, there, of
day and night*?
(80.) Tropic of Cancer. — If the earth's axis
were perpendicular to the ecliptic, the sun's center
would always be vertical over the equator; but, as the
axis leans 23® 27' 26", from a perpendicular, toward
the ecliptic — that depresses the equator 23® 27' 26"
below the ecliptic and brings a corresponding point of
the earth 23® 27' 26" N. of the equator (21. June),
under the perpendicular rays of the sun. A circle,
supposed to be drawn at this point around the earth,
is called the tropic of Cancer. This can best be seen
in C. The sun is never vertical over any point of the
earth N. of this tropic-, and that is why the circle is
drawn just there. When the N. hem. turns so far toward
the sun that his center is vertical over this point, he
seems to turn and go back again. Hence the word
tropic (from a Greek word, to twni). What is the
distinguishing feature of the tropic of Cancer?
(81.) Tropic of Capricorn. — The tropic of
Capricorn marks (PI. I. C. fig. I) in the S. hem., the
same phenomena, at the opposite period of the year.
Fig. 3. shows the earth at our northern winter solstice.
Instead of the N. hem., the S. hem. is turned,
toward the sun, as far as it ever can be — far enough to
bring the sun vertical over the tropic of Capricorn.
His ray& are never vertical over any point S. of this tropic.
Hence the space, between these two tropics, is the
only space on the surface of the globe which ever
receives the vertical rays of the sun. Name the distin¬
guishing feature of tropic of Capricorn.
(82.) Sun's apparent semi-annual movement
N. and S. between the tropics. — Look at the
* The teacher is here again reminded to put such questions,
where not found in the text.
CIRCLES.
39
summer solstice (PL I. C). There the sun is in the
zenith of the people on tropic of Cancer. In our
autumnal equinox (fig. 2), his center is vertical* over
the equator. At our winter solstice (fig. 3), his center
is vertical over the tropic of Capricorn. At our vernal
equinox (fig. 4) it is over the equator once more. At
our summer solstice, it is directly over the tropic of
Cancer again. Thus, to the people of the earth, the
sun seems to come into the northern heavens as far as
tropic of Cancer, then to pass S. as far as tropic of
Capricorn, and thus to be, continually and forever,
passing vertically over their heads, north and south,
between those two circles or tropics, crossing the
equator twice a year.
(83.) Fonr'seasons at equator. — Take PI. I.
C. Suppose yourself on the equator, in that figure of
the earth, marked 1 (our summer solstice). We have
here one of the equatorial winters. For, in this zone,
there are two winters and two summers every year.
The sun's center is as far away from the equator, on
the N., as it ever can he. The tropic of Cancer marks
the limit. The sun will now begin to turn back toward
the equator. In three months, his center will be exactly
over the equator (2). That is one of the equatorial
midsummers. From figs. 2 to 3, he will, after having
crossed the equator, be passing S. of it. At 3, his
center will be vertical, as far S. as it ever can be, on
tropic of Capricorn. The equator, now, has its second
annual winter. At 4, invisible in the Plate (supposed
to be on the opposite side of the sun), the equator
has its second midsummer. At fig. 1, the sun has
withdrawn as far N. again as tropic of Cancer. The
equator has once more its winter. During the successive
seasons, as will easily be understood by examining that
* VERTICAL — : in the zenith — placed perpendicularly over
the head. The sun is vertical to the inhabitants within the
tropics at certain times every year. (Webster's Diet.)
40
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
point of the equator intersected by the shadow (fig. 1),
day and night are of equal length.
Remark, also, the two midsummers, at equator,
correspond to our two equinoctial points — while one
midwinter corresponds to the northern midsummer; and
the other midwinter to the southern midsummer. The
seasons of this equatorial region are marked by rain
and drought instead of by heat and cold (600 A).
(84.) Four seasons at tropic of Cancer. —
Suppose yourself (PI. I. C. fig. 1) on tropic of
Cancer, in Mexico for instance. It is midsummer, about
23. June. You have, on that day, the burning sun
directly over your head. He does not, however, seem
to move farther N. He seems to stand still a few days
(except, of course, the apparent motion arising from
the daily rotation of the earth). He then turns toward
the S., rising every morning on a more southern paral¬
lel. The day and night cannot here he equal, as on
the equator. The day is about 14 hours; the night,
about 10. As the earth moves around to fig. 2, the
day and night are equal again; because the sun has
moved 8. as far as the equator. At fig. 3, the sun
rises as far S., as tropic of Capricorn. Your night is
now 14 hours long, your day, only 10.
(85.) Four seasons at arctic circle. — Place
yourself at Behring Strait, on the arctic circle (PI. I.
D. fig. 1). Here, about 23. June, you can see the
sun all night — that is during the whole diurnal rotation.
You have a circle which does not turn away from the
sun, at this point of the year, during 24 hours. Each
day, however, that circle contracts. You have less
sunshine every 24 hours. Thus your days shorten and
your nights lengthen. At fig. 2, your day and night
are equal. At fig. 3, the season of fig. 1 is exactly
reversed. During one diurnal revolution of the globe,
you have, here, no view of the sun at all; but the
circle of darkness begins to contract, just as the circle
ZONES.
41
of light did at 1. Your day lengthens again till, at
fig. 4, it is 12 hours, and it continues to lengthen, till,
at fig. 1, your night, during a single revolution of the
globe, ceases altogether.
(86.) Four seasons at North Pole. — Take your
stand at the point called the N. Pole (D. 1). You have,
here, the sun as high in the heavens as he ever can
be. He wheels, or rather seems to wheel, without
disappearing at all, in small circles around the N. Star;
because the region of the earth, on which you stand,
wheels in small circles around the pole, without being
withdrawn from his rays. He has been shining, with¬
out interruption, since you left the point 4. He con¬
tinues to shine, till you reach fig. 2 (that is six months) ;
but wheels lower and lower toward the horizon till,
at 2 (our autumnal equinox), his fiery globe disappears
altogether, and you will not see him again for six
months. He has passed S. of the equator. He has
crossed the equator, and thus sunk beneath your line
of vision. He has descended beneath your rational
horizon (32). At 3, he is at farthest S. point — the
tropic of Capricorn. The night circle around the N.
Pole has reached its greatest circumference, because
the sun is as far beneath your horizon as he ever
can be. We call this circumference the arctíc circle.
The day after you leave 3, the shadow begins to
contract. It grows smaller and smaller, till, at 4, it
recedes from the point of the pole. You then catch,
once more, a glimpse of the sun and do not lose sight
of him again for six months.
(86 A). Remark. The rising of the sun, after his pro¬
longed absence, is a great event to the poor tribes of
these dreary regions. The first sign of his gradual reap¬
pearance is hailed with extravagant joy, and his slow
approach watched with extraordinary interèst. We may
imagine also with what emotions they behold him
(PI. I. D. fig. 2) slowly descend, and at last entirely
42
ASTRONOMICAI, GEOGRAPHY.
disappear beneath their horizon, for days, weeks, or
months (according to their latitude).
(87.) Five Zones. — The four circles thus
divide the surface of the globe into five regions or
zones — the north frigid zone, the north temperate zone,
the torrid zone, the south temperate zone and the south
frigid zone (PI. VIII. N). Name these 5 zones and
describe their limits.
(88.) North Frigid Z one. — The phenomena
of this zone are (PI. I. D) — :
1. It is a circle, every part of which, at the
summer solstice, has the sun above its horizon during
one entire revolution of the earth on its axis.
2. At its central point (the pole), the sun does
not set for six months.
3. At the intervening points, between the center
and the circumference of the circle, the sun remains
above the horizon from 6 months to 24 hours, accord¬
ing to the different parallels of latitude.
4. At the winter solstice, the conditions of day
and night are (fig. 3) reversed. The whole of its area
has the sun beneath its horizon, during one entire
revolution of the earth on its axis, and the length of
the night increases from 24 hours to 6 months, as
you approach from the circumference of the circle to
the central point — the pole. Of course the seasons
correspond to the conditions of day and night.
5. While the sun's rays are thus withdrawn in
the winter, they fall so obliquely on this region, even
in the summer, that, except for a very brief period,
the heat and vegetation are feeble, and the frigid
zone is thus, from intense cold, scarcely inhabitable
by human beings. Name distinguishing features of
the N. frigid zone.
(89.) South Frigid Zone. — The conditions of
the N. frigid zone are exactly reproduced, except at
opposite points of the year.
LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT.
43
(90.) Torrid Zone. — 1. Some part of it always
has the sun in its zenith (PI. I. C.)
2. Every part of it receives the sun's perpendicular
rays twice a year. He seems to come N., till (our
summer solstice) his center is in the zenith of places
on the tropic of Cancer. île then turns and moves S.,
(that is, he rises every day at a more southerly point
than on the preceding day), until (our winter solstice)
his center is in the zenith of places on the tropic of
Capricorn, when he turns and begins to go back
toward the N.
3. On the equator, and in a zone about 6® on
each side of it, the day and the night are always of
equal length, namely 12 hours. The winter cold, as
in the four other zones, is unknown.
4. The sun never remains above, nor below, the
horizon an entire revolution of the earth on its axis.
Name distinguishing features of torrid zone.
(91.) North Temperate Zone. — 1. It has
(unlike the frigid zones), never the sun above, nor below,
the horizon during a revolution of the earth.
2. It has (unlike the torrid zone), never the sun's
rays vertical over any part.
3. The length of day and night (except at
equinoxes) is never equal (as on the equator); but far
less unequal tban witbin the polar circles. Name
distinguishing features of N. temperate zone.
(92.) South Temperate Zone. — The same
peculiarities, but at opposite period of the year. June,
July, August, are the winter months, while December,
January and February are the summer.
(93.) Different length of day and night in
different zones. — A glance at the figures of the
earth on PL I. will show that, on 21. June, the relative
length of day and night must be different at every
parallel of latitude, from arctic circle to antarctic circle
(fig. F). The arctic circle will have the longest day,
44
ASTRONOMICAL GKOGRAPHY.
namely 24 hours. The day will be shorter, and the
night longer, on places in proportion as they are nearer
to the antarctic circle. This condition of coui-se will
be exactly reversed at C. 3. Half way between 1 and
3, (that is, at the equinoctial points), the day and the
night will be equal in length. At the different points
of the earth's orbit, between the summer and winter
solstices again, these'conditions will be reversed: and
the relative length of day and night will change pre¬
cisely as the earth moves forward from one of these
points to the other. From the circumference of the
arctic and antarctic circles to their centers (i. e. the
poles), the length of the day, according to the parallel
of latitude, will vary, from 24 hours to 6 months,
with the earth's annual revolution, the phenomena
being exactly reversed every six months (601).
(94.) Table of different length of day and
night — on the 23. June, at different parallels
of latitude.
On equator, and 6 degrees each side of it, day
and night always . . . .
12
hours.
On parallel 16® 44'
the longest day
13
-
30» 48'
14
-
41® 24'
- - -
15
-
49® 2'
- - -
16
-
54® 31'
. - -
17
-
58® 27'
...
18
-
61® 19'
...
19
-
63® 23'
.
20
-
64® 50'
.
21
-
65® 48'
.
22
-
66® 21'
...
23
-
67® 23'
.
1
month
69® 51'
...
2
-
73® 40'
...
3
-
78® 11'
.
4
.
84® 5'
.
5
.
90® 0'
...
6
LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT.
45
You will understand this better by PI, I. fig. F.
There the six months day at thé N. Pole, in our mid¬
summer, and the six months night and winter at the
S. Pole, in our midsummer, may be comprehended at a
glance, with the diíFerent lengths of day, on the different
intervening parallels (also W. hem. PI. II.)
(95.) Morning —Noon —Afternon —Night, at
New York. — By the 8 figures of the earth (PI. I),
particularly from E to H, you see how the continents,
oceans, etc., are situated, with regard to zones and
climates; and how differently they are affected by the
motions of the earth, as to the length of day and
night, etc. Bear in mind that, in all these figures, the
earth is represented at our summer solstice. Describe
condition of N. hem. Midsummer and longest day.
Describe S. hem. Midwinter and shortest day. At the
point called N. Pole. Six months day. At the point
called S. Pole. Six months night. "Where is the sun's
center? Vertical over tropic of Cancer. Describe condi¬
tion of arctic circle. It has the sun above the horizon
24 hours. Antarctic circle? Sun beneath the horizon
24 hours.
As the globe revolves from west to east (E), the
point, marked New York, has moved from the shadow
into the light. At New York, therefore, in E, it is
morning or forenoon. At F, it is noon. In G, New
York is on the opposite side of the globe, and moving
toward the shadow; it is therefore afternoon. In H,
New York has passed into the shadow and nearly out
of it again; it is therefore night, but not long before
sunrise. When the diurnal movement shall carry New
York to the limit of the shadow, the sun will rise.
You see here, in H, that the sun rises earlier, at mid¬
summer, to places on the same meridian, in proportion
as they lie nearer the N. Pole, till the point of the
arctic circle, after which the sun remains above the
horizon the whole 24 hours. The sun, in H, is just
rising over Hudson Str. which is on the same meridian
46
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
as the Republic of Ecuador (S. America). But the sun
will not rise, in the latter place, till 4 hours later. By
the table of the different length of day and night (F),
we perceive that New York has the sun about 15
hours above the horizon, on our longest summer day;
of course, 15 hours beneath our horizon, on the longest
winter night.
(96.) Why does the N. Pole always point
to the North Star? — The attentive student may
desire a more particular answer to one question.
The earth moves annually in an immense ellipse
around the sun and, at midsummer and midwinter
(PI. I. C.), occupies two positions about 200 million
miles distant from each other. Its axis, at the same
time, retains its parallelism — that is (consult PI. VIII.
H.) at every point of its orbit, remains parallel to
itself at every other point of its orbit. How then can
the N. Pole always point to the North Star, during
its whole annual revolution around the sun? This phe¬
nomenon results from the stupendous distance of the
North Star, which is so amazing that the whole solar
system, in comparison, dwindles to a mere needle-point
We have already (17 and 19) touched on the subject.
In PI. I. B., you observe a small circle, little more
than a dot, called orbit of Neptune, drawn in the line
between the N. Pole and the North Star. That is in¬
tended to represent the comparatively insignificant space
occupied by our solar system among the fixed stars.
You must suppose the earth, revolving around the sun,
within that little circle; you will not require any farther
explanation, why the N. Pole always points to the
North Star.
RECAPITULATORY QUESTIONS.
47
QUESTIONS UPON THE SEASONS.
(97.) There are, as we have seen, four causes which
co-operate to produce the seasons actually existing on
our planet:
1. The inclination of the earth's axis to the plane
of its orbit.
2. The annual movement of the earth around
the sun.
3. While moving annually around the sun, the
earth remains always in the same plane.
4. The axis retains its parallelism.
(97 A.) Repeat the first of these causes. The inclina¬
tion of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit. How
does that cause the seasons? Would there be no seasons,
if the earth's axis were not inclined? Would the sun
not be there and shine? Would there not be heat and
coldt There would he seasons. What would be the
condition of the globe, if the earth's axis were not
inclined, — that is, if it were, we will say, perpendicular
to the plane of its orbit? Take PI. I. C. fig. 1. How
would the axis then be situated with regard to the
line of the shadow? It would he identical with it. How
would the equator lie with regard to the earth's orbit
or ecliptic? It would he identical with it. What season
would it be in the torrid zone? Midsummer. In the
two temperate zones? Neither midsummer nor midwinter,
hut between the two — about the same temperature as our
spring or autumn. What in the frigid zone? Would
it be midwinter or midsummer there? It would he
there also a season between the two. We see, therefore,
that there would be seasons, but different from our
present seasons. As the axis would form a perpetual
right angle with the ecliptic, the N. Pole would, of
48
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
course, never be turned toward the sun, as in fig. 1.,
nor away from it, as in fig. 3. Midsummer and mid¬
winter, therefore, would never exist in the frigid and
temperate zones, as they now do; hut there would
he an everlasting midsummer in the torrid zone. What
would he the condition of the earth with regard to day
and night? Day and night would be always equal every¬
where upon the earth's surface. What is it then which
causes our actual midsummer and midwinter N. and
S. of the tropics? The inclination of the earths axis to
the plane of its orbit. We have observed that the prin¬
cipal result of the inclination of the earth's axis, is our
present midwinter and midsummer N. and S. of the
tropics. What effect does this inclination have upon
the torrid zone? At present, the inclination of the axis
causes the sun to pass from the tropic of Cancer to the
tropic of Capricorn, and then from the tropic of Capricorn
to the tropic of Cancer again, once every year; whereas if
the axis were perpendicular, the sun would be always in
the zenith of the people on the equator. To what extent
is the axis inclined? Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven
minutes, twenty-six seconds. What angle (PI. VIII. T.
fig. c.) does the axis form with the perpendicular line
of shadow? Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven minutes,
twenty-six seconds. What angle does the equator form
with the ecliptic? Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven
minutes, twenty-six seconds. You say the axis leans
23" 27' 26", Irom a perpendicular, toward the ecliptic
— what angle does that perpendicular form with the
ecliptic? An angle of 90'> or a quadrant (see PI. VIII.
T. fig. h). Now if the perpendicular line of shadow
form an angle of 90® with the ecliptic, state again,
what angle the axis forms with the perpendicular?
Twenty-three degrees, twenty-seven minutes, twenty-six seconds.
Now state, what angle the axis forms with the ecliptic.
Of course it will he 90®, less 23® 27' 26"; and as it
is a somewhat slow process to deduct 23® 27' 26" from
90®, we will give you the answer—66® 32' 34", Now
state what is the angle formed by the axis with the
RECAPITULATORY QUESTIONS.
49
ecliptic? Sixty-six degrees, thirty-two minutes, thirty-four
seconds. If the axis were itself perpendicular to the
ecliptic, it would form a right angle — that is, an angle
of 90®. As it leans 23® 27' 26", from a perpendicular,
toward the ecliptic, of course its angle with the ecliptic
will be 23® 27' 26" less than 90®*. Now supposing
the axis to be always perpendicular to the ecliptic,
how would the seasons be influenced by the annual revo¬
lution of the earth around the sun? Not at all. There
would be no succession of seasons. There would he
no variety. But would there not be one slight change
of temperature? (see note, 74H). There would, as the
earth is, at one point of the year, 3 million miles nearer
the sun than at the opposite point, the temperature would
slightly rise everywhere on the earth's surface at one period
of the year. The inclination of the earth's axis, there¬
fore, explains why, in fig. 1. of C., it is summer in
the N. hem. and winter in the S. hem.
(97 B.) But another cause is required to explain the
succession of the seasons. For if the earth remain
stationary, as at fig. 1, the seasons would remain
stationary also. If the sun revolved around the
earth, in the plane of the ecliptic, as Ptolemy taught,
there would, indeed, he a succession of seasons. But
the evidences of the fixity of the sun, as the center
of the solar system, are too overwhelming to he
doubted; the annual movement of the earth is de¬
monstrated by unanswerable arguments. We may,
therefore, take the earth's annual movement as a
second cause.
(9.7C.) Suppose the earth, while moving annually
around the sun, were frequently to rise above the plane
of its orbit; and, again, to sink beneath it, without
* The teacher will perceive that these are premeditated
repetitions.
4
50
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
keeping in an unchanged level — what would be the
effect of that on our seasons? A proportionate irregu¬
larity of the seasons. Yes, if our planet were to sink
below the sun, we should have the sun of course above
the N. Pole — tropical heat in the arctic circle — ice
and snow on the equator—in the antarctic circle, an
increased intensity of cold and darkness. What, there¬
fore, is the third cause of the regularity with which
the seasons follow each other? The earth always moves
in the same plane. Yes, the earth's center never rises
above, nor falls below, that line (PI. I. C) representing
the ecliptic.
(97 D.) Lastly. Suppose the earth's axis should
sway backward and forward, like the masts of a rolling
ship at sea — what would be the effect of that on our
seasons? The effect would be, an irregularity, similar to
that which would result, if the planet were to pass above
or beneath the plane of the ecliptic. The seasons would
fluctuate in proportion to the vacillation of the axis.
The N. Pole would sometimes hend down toward the
ecliptic, presenting the N. hem. more broadly to the
sun; sometimes it would turn away from the sun, into
far more intense cold and darkness than our polar re¬
gions have ever experienced. Equatorial heat and polar
cold would suddenly displace each other, according as
the huge globe reeled to and fro. God has ordained
it otherwise. He who "hath meted out heaven with
the span", hath said: "While the earth remaineth, seed¬
time and harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter,
and day and night, shall not cease'\ Not only the axis
is inclined so many degrees, mirrutes and seconds, to
the plane of the orbit, but, during its entire annual
journey around the sun, it keeps invariably its axis at
the same angle with that plane. How do you describe
this circumstance, in other words. The earth's axis
always retains its parallelism (as in PI. VHI. H). What
do you mean by the axis retaining its parallelism? I
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
51
mean that the axis, at every point of its orbit, remains
parallel to itself, at every other point of its orbit. Now
name the four circumstances which explain the seasons,
and the regularity with which they succeed each other
(section 97).
(98.) Parallelism of the earth's axis. —
This term, like many others, must not be taken without
a reserve. There is, in fact, a perpetual departure from
absolute parallelism, although too inconceivably minute to
be perceptible to us, and therefore (at least for thousands
of years) not affecting any thing said with regard to our
seasons. As the earth revolves, it continually performs
a gyratory motion, in the manner of a spinning top,
or te-to-tum, so that, like the extremity of the axes
of those two toys, the N. pole is always describing a
circle. The circle, which the N. pole of the earth thus
describes, in the heavens, reaches from our present N.
star to the star Vega (in Lyra) (PI. I. B). But a period
of 25,868 years is required for each one of these gyra¬
tory movements (which the te-to-tum makes in a second).
Thus, in 12,000 years, our N. pole will point to Vega;
in about twice that time, it will come back to our
present N. star again. The S. pole, of course, describes
a corresponding circle in the southern heavens. This
period is called the platonic or great yeat*.
(98 A.) Remark. To the questions, how this
"swaying backward and forward of the earth's axis"
(97 D), during the platonic year, would affect our
existing seasons; and how a change in the latter could
be reconciled with the scripture-passages quoted in
97D, we answer: first, this sketch is confined to points
required by the student of Geography. For such as
desire to study Astronomy, the writer has prepared a
* It has been suggested that the platonic year may be re¬
ferred to, in some Bible-passages, which man has generally
interpreted Ao mean our solar year.
4*
52
ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY.
third volume (6), entitled: Great Outline of Astronomy,
treating that science, in a simple form, intelligible to
all who read in connection with its accompanying
plates. Some remarks will there be found upon the
platonic year, the precession of the equinoxes, and the we-
period (138). Secondly, the fair-minded, christian student
may continue his studies, with the perfect assurance
(whatever a certain class of philosophers declare to
the contrary) that, the more clearly the outline oj
Nature and Science is understood; and the more clearly
the outline of Scripture-Revelation is understood, the
more they will be found in harmony with each other.*
(98B.) Fixed stars not fixed. — The constel¬
lations, from time immemorial, have remained in the
same relative positions, so that the orbs composing them
may well be called "fixed stars". But they are fixed
only in appearance. There is reason to believe that,
with oar sun (76 A), they are all pursuing their eternid
courses, around a mysterious center, with a velocity
which, however great, is imperceptible from the fact
that their remoteness is too amazing for the human
intellect. During the next, let us say, million years, the
groups, called constellations, will be dissolved. The
seven stars in the Great Bear, for instance — those in
Taurus, with Hyades and Pleiades — Aldebaran, Al¬
cyone, Sirius, Arcturus, Betelgeux, and the rest, will
recede from their present places, and move far off
into distant and opposite points of. space. The sky
will then present new combinations of stars — the
"bands of Orion" will be "loosened", by the same
Almighty hand which brought the orbs of those clusters
into their present juxta-position. But they will,
doubtless, during subsequent centuries, re-appear in
their former stations; for the universe is obviously »
machine (as much so as a clock), framed by a Supreme
Intelligence, outside of, and above it; and performing
* Frederick de Rougemont of Neufchatel.
»
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
53
its movements on a scale so stupendous, that the time,
since the human race first appeared on the earth, is
too short to afford more than some faint indications.
It is the work of a divine artist. "Thus the heavens
and the earth were finished and all the host of them".
They may be likened to a wonderful temple, whose
godlike beauty, by the researches of science, is, in some
degree, slowly breaking upon the human mind. "We
may reasonably conclude that this resplendent and
majestic structure is not without a beneficent, eternal
purpose; corresponding to the stupendousness of its
dimensions — to the harmonious grandeur of its archi¬
tectural form — to the prodigious scale of its periods —
to tke series of ascending changes by which the earth has
reached its present state — to the nature of man, capable
of happiness and able to discriminate between right and
wrong — to the exultant representations of the prophets
— to the hints of the new heaven and the new earth,
so frequent in the Bible — and to the revealed character
of that infinite, omnipotent, incomprehensible Being who,
in creating the universe, conceived, and is still executing, a
plan of love, worthy of Himself. "The heavens declare the
glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handy-
work. Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto
night sheweth knowledge". — "Lift up your eyes on
high, and behold who hath created these things, that
bringeth out their host by number: he calleth thèm
all by names by the greatness of his might, for that
he is strong in power; not one faileth".
(98 C.) To the teacher. — Many intelligent pupils
will fail to acquire a clear knowledge, from one reading
of the previous pages. The - lessons are prepared to
be best understood during a second reading. The
brevity of the text-book, and the circumstance that
no study is required, except the recitation, render it
quite practicable to give it several complete readings,
without devoting as much time as is usually accorded
to other text-books.
PART IL
PHYSICAL OR NATURAL GEOGRAPHY.
NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS
OP THE GLOBE.
(99.) Prefatory Observations. — By the aid
of figures A, B, C, D (PI. I), we have endeavored
to acquire some idea of astronomical geography.
The rest of the pictures bring us nearer to the earth,
and enable us to examine several striking objects upon
its surface. We here commence the study of physical
or natural geography. The 8 circular views of
the earth are called Planispheres, because each one
represents a sphere upon a flat surface or a plane.
They are also called Hemispheres.
western hemisphere. fig. E. — N. Pole is at
top; S. Pole, at bottom; equator, equi-distant between
them. Your eye is here supposed to be in the plane
of the equator.
eastern hemisphere. fig. G. — Poles and equa¬
tor seen from same stand-point, as in previous fig. (E),
but the earth has here made a half revolution.
northern hemisphere. fig. I. — Here wc haVC
changed our position. We are over the N. Pole. Hence
we look down on that half of our planet N. of equator.
NINETEEN LAND AND W ATER Dl VISION S. 55
The equator, therefore, forms the circumference of our
circular view — N. Pole, its center. As the earth re¬
volves, the point, called N. Pole, will remain stationary
and the objects of N. hem. will move around in circles,
without disappearing.
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. FIS. K. — Same Con¬
ditions as in fig. I, except that, instead of being over
North Pole, we have moved around to a point exactly
over South Pole. We are looking down upon that half
of the globe, south of equator. The equator is the cir¬
cumference of our circular view — S. Pole, its center.
With earth's revolution, the objects will move in circles
around the point called S. Pole. Remark, we were
supposed to look down upon the earth, in fig. I. But,
opposite South Pole (K), should we not look up at the
earth? How can we look doum upon it? Because, when
we break away from our childish ideas of up and doim,
we discover that, in reality, there is no such thing except
relatively. Down is toward the center of the earth; up,
away from the center. We look equally down, toward
the earth, when our Light-Car is over N. Pole — over
S. Pole—over equator—over either tropic — or over
any other point of the globe's surface.
LAND HEMISPHERE. FIG. L. — That side of globe
which contains greatest mass of land.
WATER HEMISPHERE. FIG. M. — Greatest mass
of water.
PACIFIC HEMISPHERE. FIG. F. — Best general
view of Pacific.
ATLANTIC HEMISPHERE. FIG. H. — Complete vicw
of Atlantic.
Now consider these figures more particularly.
(100.) Western—Eastern Hemispheres. —
Let us suppose ourselves in our Light-Car, sailing
through free space, and sufficiently near the earth to
distinguish oceans, continents, etc.; with power to go
where we like — to stop and remain stationary when we
like — to pass above, around, below the earth, in every
56
physical geography.
direction, and to view it on all sides. We move to
that point of space where we behold the earth, as in
fig. E (PI. I). It presents the western hemisphere.
Now we move to another side of the globe (G), exactly
opposite Western Hemisphere. There, we view eastern
hemisphere. These two hemispheres, together, show
every part of the earth's surface.
(101.) Three Continents and Antarctic Re>
gion (often called a continent). — Many geographers
count four continents, viz. in W. hemisphere (E), the
immense broken fragment, extending nearly from N.
pole to S. pole: america, western continent or
new world; in E. hemisphere (G), the principal land-
mass: eastern continent or old world; the small¬
er portion of land, S. E. of E. Continent (sometimes
called an island, but, compared with islands, having
more the proportions of a continent): Australia. The
unexplored land and ice around S. pole (K), although
little known, is usually termed antarctic continent.
Point out and name four continents. What is a con¬
tinent? (Read 121.)
(101 A.) Eemark. Region called Antarctic Continent.
— It has been supposed that the area (ay'-re-ah) within
antarctic circle is occupied by a continent, nearly
3000 m. long and 2000 m. broad — without the least
vegetation — buried under everlasting snows — untrod¬
den by human feet — gigantic volcanoes, one of which,
Erebus, 12,367 f. high, when first discovered, was in
full eruption and is believed to be in constant activity
— land, in the interior, seemed to reach an elevation
of 3000 f. — broken coasts, consisting of ice-precipices,
sometimes 200 f. high. From the remarkable shallow¬
ness of the waters near the shore, some infer a land-
mass— climate 10 degrees colder than in correspond¬
ing northern latitudes (74 G.) — wind and seas more
boisterous — limit of drifting ice (PI. II.) extends al¬
most to Cape Horn, La Plata Bay, and C. of Good
nineteen land and water divisions. 57
Hope; many degrees nearer the equator than is the
case in northern hem. For supposed form of the
coasts, consult PI. II. and PI. I. K and M.
(101B.) Remark. Until its incorrectness be demon¬
strated (de-mon'-strat-ed), we retain the name continent,
to indicate this mass of land and ice, yet (the student
must carefully bear in mind) there is no proof that it
really is (any more than that it really is noí) one solid
body of land, or even large islands, or island-chains, or
groups. A continuous coast has not been discovered;
and no exploration of the interior effected. Some of the
land, reported by "Wilkes (A. D. 1839), has since been
freely traversed by Ross, in the ships Erebus and
Terror. Several eminent authorities incline to the idea
of a few islands, locked together by a frozen ocean.
(102.) Subdivisions of Continents. — The
w. continent (E) is Subdivided into north America
and south america; e. continent (G), intO europe,
asia and africa.
(103.) Remark. The ural mountains form part
of the boundary between Europe and Asia.
(103 A.) Geographers sometimes consider the world
in eight divisions: — n. america —s. america-europe—
asia — africa — australia—antarctic continent
or region—oceania — the latter subdivided (PI. I. G
and F) into three island-groups: — Malaysia—Austral¬
asia (including Australia)—Polynesia.
(104.) Oceania — the great island-world (F and G)
— consists of an immense number of islands extending
north, east and south of Australia, between W. and
E. Continents, over nearly whole Pacific. PI. II. gives
a view of Oceania, on a larger scale, with its three
subdivisions. You may here also consult PI. IV.
(105.) Six Oceans. — Seen from some points
(PI. I. K. M), the planet we inhabit appears a vast
58
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
water-globe. One universal ocean covers about two-
thirds of its surface. Several large, broken landmasses,
and a great number of islands, are distributed in it
and divide it into diiferent parts, bearing different
names, as if different oceans, namely: pacific ocean
(fig. F) ATLANTIC OCEAN (fig. H)—INDIAN OCEAN
(fig. G) — GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN (fig. K) — ARCTIC
OCEAN (fig. L) — ANTARCTIC OCEAN (fig. K). Point
out Pacific on all the planispheres. Now Atlantic. Indian
Ocean. Great Southern Ocean. Arctic Ocean. Ant¬
arctic Ocean. How many oceans are there? Six.
Name them. What is an ocean? (Read 153).
(106.) Great Sonthern Ocean. — Point out
Southern Ocean on figures of PI. I. — Some geogra¬
phers have considered the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
Oceans to extend down to antarctic circle (F, G, H,
K), and given the names. Southern Pacific, Southern
Atlantic, etc., to those portions reaching below C. Horn
(S. America), C. of Good Hope (Africa) and Australia.
Others have made the Antarctic Ocean reach up to
C. Horn, C. of Good Hope and the whole S. coast of
Australia. Point out these? In 1845, the Geographical
Society of London recommended that the southern
limits of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans,
should be the antarctic circle (E, F, G, K, M). This
recommendation has not been generally adopted. The
navigator, in the neighborhood of the antarctic circle,
does not enter upon his log-book (sea-journal) what
ocean he is in, but only his latitude and longitude; for
what ocean is he in, on the meridian of C. Horn and
antarctic coast? In order more clearly to define an
area of the great universal ocean, distinguished from
the rest by a peculiarity, as striking as any marking
the different zones, we shall, as some others have done,
give the name of Great Southern Ocean to all that
water which (K) lies N. of antarctic circle, and S. of a
line drawn from C. Horn to C. of Good Hope, thence to
S. point of Australia round to G. Horn again. In N.
NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS.
59
hem. (I), it is not possible for a ship to sail in one
continued circle, due E. or W., around the earth; be¬
cause its course would be interrupted by land, (except,
possibly, a small, unexplored area encircling the N.
Pole (I. L), supposed by many to be blocked up with
eternal ice); but, in the Southern Ocean (K), a ship
might sail, due E. or W., in a circle, around the globe,
and come back, without interruption from land, to the
point whence it started.
Remark. The words, "Great Southern Ocean", on
the planispheres of the earth (PI. I), have the appear¬
ance of being placed on the map negligently. The
shape of the ocean, however, requires that they should
be so inscribed, in order to show the very irregular
northern limits: for instance (fig. H), from C. Horn to
C. of Good Hope (also PI. IV).
(107.) Continents and Oceans in one unbroken
outline. — Take PI. IV. — a different kind of map,
called Mercator's Projection (Mer-ca'-tor) — more partic¬
ularly explained hereafter (442). The advantage of it
is that we have, at a glance, all the different continents
and oceans — an unbroken view of Great Southern Ocean,
bounded on the N. (106) by a line reaching from C.
Horn to C. of Good Hope, thence, touching southern
point of Australia, to C. Horn again — and the entire
limits of Oceania. The antarctic circle, forming the
southern limit of the map, cuts off the Antarctic Ocean
and part of the so called Antarctic Continent. How
many objects have we indicated on the surface of the
earth? Nineteen. How many continents? Four. How
many subdivisions of continents? Five. What others?
Oceania (with its three subdivisions) and six oceans. Name,
and point out, on Plates I and IV, each of these 19
objects.
(108.) Nineteen chief objects on the globe's
surface. —
1. AMERICA, WESTERN CONTINENT Or NEW WORLD;
60
physical geography.
— 2. EASTERN CONTINENT Or OLD WORLD; 3,
AUSTRALIA; — 4. ANTARCTIC CONTINENT OR REGION;
5. NORTH AMERICA;— 6. SOUTH AMERICA;— 7.
EUROPE;—8. ASIA; 9. AFRICA;
10. oceania, divided into—11. Malaysia, 12.
australasia (including Australia), and 13. Poly¬
nesia; —
14. PACIFIC OCEAN;—15. ATLANTIC OCEAN; —
16. INDIAN OCEAN; 17. SOUTHERN OCEAN; 18.
ARCTIC OCEAN; —19. ANTARCTIC OCEAN.
(108 A.) Remark. You will more easily repeat
and retain these 19 objects, by always dividing them
(in your own mind) as follows ; — four continents — five
subdivisions of continents (that makes nine) — Oceania,
with its three chief subdivisions (make thirteen) and
six oceans (make nineteen). These to be repeated
several times.
(109.) Light -Car in plane of equator, over
W. Hemisphere. — Let us now, in our imaginary
Light-Car (100), move around the earth, in every
direction, as we have seen a swallow fly over and
around a great church; only with this difference^our
Light-Car will take us, so to speak, under, as well as
over. We bring our Car to a stop, and remain station¬
ary, opposite fig. E, over that point where equator is
intersected by the middle meridian. What hemisphere?
AMERICA, WESTERN CONTINENT OR NEW WORLD. Name
nineteen chief objects (108). Which objects are here
visible, partly or wholly? — America, western con¬
tinent or new world — n. america — s. america —
SMALL POINT OF ASIA ATLANTIC PACIFIC, WITH
OCEANIA — ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC OCEANS. Which
part of Oceania (F)? Polynesia and Australasia. Name
those of the nineteen objects not visible in E. Where
are they? Opposite side of the globe. In which figure?
In ßg. G.
nineteen land and water divisions. 61
Remark. There are three oceans and one continent,
namely: Arctic, Antarctic and Southern Oceans, and
Antarctic Continent: which, encircling the North or
South Pole, extend quite around the globe. We will
not name those four objects in replying to the follow¬
ing questions of sect. 109.
What lies E. of America? Atlantic. E. of Atlantic.
europe and africa. E. of Europc and Africa?
asia and indian ocean. E. of Asia and Indian
Ocean? pacific with Oceania, divided into Malaysia,
australasia (including Australia), and Polynesia.
E. of Pacific? america. Now go eastward around
the earth, from America, and name those objects. Now
go westward around the earth, from America, and
name those same objects. America — pacific with
etc. —ASIA AND INDIAN OCEAN EUROPE— AFRICA —
atlantic — america again. Repeat these backward
and forward, a number of times. Point out circles on
fig. E. Which of the nineteen objects lie within arctic
circle? — Between arctic circle and tropic of Cancer? —
Between two tropics? — Between tropic of Capricorn
and antarctic circle?—Within antarctic circle?
(110.) Light-C ar over Pacific Hemisphere
(F). — Remember, we keep our Light-Car stationary,
at the point selected (109), over fig. E. We remain
stationary, but tbe earth slowly revolves, from W. to
E.; so that, in a few hours, we should have, beneath
ns, fig. F, and we should be in the zenith of that point,
where the equator intersects the middle meridian. What
hemisphere? Why so called? Name again nineteen ob¬
jects. Which are here visible, wholly or in part?
AMERICA, W. CONTINENT Or NEW WORLD — EASTERN
continent or old world — australia antarctic
continent — n. america — s. america — asia —
oceania, divided into Malaysia, Australasia (in¬
cluding australia), and Polynesia — pacific —
atlantic (a very small part) — southern ocean —
antarctic — arctic. Name those of the nineteen ob-
62
physical geography.
jects not visible here. Point out circles. What objects
lie within antarctic circle? — Between arctic circle and
tropic of Cancer? — Within the tropics? — Between
tropic of Capricorn and antarctic circle? — Within ant¬
arctic circle?
(111.) Light-Car over Eastern Hemisphere
(G). — Name nineteen objects. Name those visible,
wholly or in part, in E. hemisphere, eastern con¬
tinent or old world — australia — antarctic
continent— europe— asia — africa — oceania,
divided into Malaysia, Australasia (includingAustralia),
and polynesia — pacific — atlantic indian
ocean great southern ocean — arctic and
antarctic oceans. Which of the nineteen objects
are wholly, or in part, on opposite side of G? Describe
their positions with regard to the circles.
(112.) Light-Car over Atlantic Hemisphere
(H). — Name nineteen objects. Name those visible
in H. america, w. continent or new world
— e. continent or old world — antarctic conti¬
nent — n. america — s. america — europe — asia
— africa —pacific — atlantic — indian ocean
— southern ocean — arctic and antarctic oceans.
Describe positions of these objects with regard to the
circles.
(113.) ^ Light-Car over Northern Hemisphere.
(fig. I). — If we remain in the position thus
selected (109) — that is in plane of equator — the earth
would continue to revolve beneath us, and the four
hemispheres E, F, G, H, would follow each other in
a perpetual succession; but we should never, at one
glance, obtain a complete view, either bf N. or S. hem¬
isphere. In order to do this — (we will first seek
to obtain a complete view of tbe N. hemisphere)—we
must move our Light-Car to a quite different point of
nineteen land and water divisions.
63
spacp, and greatly change our position with regard to
the earth. We must quit plane of equator, where it
appears a line, go N., and arrest our Car at a point,
just one quarter way around the globe, where we shall
have the arctic circle fully in front of us — and where
the equator will, of course, appear a circle. We will
direct our Light-Car, first, to a point above the N. Pole.
Over which figure are we now? Fig. I. Where is the
N. Star? In our zenith. The S. Pole? Beneath our
feet., on opposite side of globe. Where must our
Light-Car stand, in B, to afiord the view of the
earth in fig. I? It must stand at the point marked by
the letter W, on the line between N. Pole and N. Star.
Name objects, visible wholly or in part in fig. 1. Begin
at America and go eastward, america — Atlantic —
europe — africa-asia — indian ocean - pacific
0 c K A NIA. What parts of Oceania (F)? parts of
malaysia and polynesia. Name Same objects going
westward. Point out N. Pole — arctic circle — tropic
of Cancer — equator — tropic of Capricorn. Where
is tropic of Capricorn? On the other side of the globe,
exactly opposite tropic of Cancer. Where is antarctic
circle? What other objects lie on opposite side of globe
(K)? What four objects in fig. I. appear entirely? What
part of the earth, in fig. E, is visible in I? All that
part N. of equator. Point out the objects visible, both
in E and I? What part of the earth, in each of the
other figures, is visible in I? All those parts N. of
equator. Point out the objects, in F, also visible in I?
The objects in G? in H? in M? in L? in K? Why
are none of the objects, in K, visible in I? Because
1 presents only the objects North of equator and K
presents only the objects South of equator. Point out
those objects, in E, which are also visible in K. Now
those objects, in F; in 6; in H; in M; in L. Say
what parts, of each of the other figures, are visible in
K? Only those parts south of equator. Why are none
of the objects in K visible in I? Because K presents
only that portion of the earth, south of equator. Which
€4
physical geography.
■way does the earth revolve? From W. to E. In what
direction would America move in fig. I? Toward top
or bottom of the map? Toward top of the map and so
around. Yes, it would go in a direction contrary to
that in which the hands of a clock move. All the
objects would move, in that direction, around the N.
Pole, in circles, more or less large, according to their
distance. If our Light-Car remain always stationary,
in its present point, should we see any other hemi¬
sphere? No. Suppose we desire to examine the S. hem.,
as we have now examined the N. hem., where must
we go? We must move just half way around the globe,
to a point of space, on the other side of S. hem. —exactly
corresponding to that which, in fig. I, we occupy over
N. hemisphere.
(114.) Light-Car over Southern Hemisphere
(K). — Where is N. Star in K? — On opposite side of
heavens, over N. Pole. Where should we stand, in B,
in order to see the earth as in K? At point marked
by letter Z. Point out S. Pole and circles. Name ob¬
jects visible, wholly or in part. Begin with America
and go east. —s. america — Atlantic — afeica —
indian ocean — pacific with oceania. Which
subdivisions of Oceania (F)? australasia (including
Australia) — parts of Malaysia and Polynesia.—
Which way do objects move, when we stand opposite
S. Pole? In the direction of the hands of a clock.
(115.) The terms East and West, in free
space. — We have seen (113) that, to an eye above
N. hem. (fig. I), objects, moving, with the earth's daily
rotation, eastward, move in a direction contrary to that
of the hands of a clock; whereas, to an eye above S.
hem. (fig. K), objects move with the hands of a clock
— that is, in the same direction. Yet, as the earth's
daily motion is always from West to East, the objects
on it can never change their direction. This is to he
NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS. 65
explained as follows. There is no such thing as East
or West in infinite space. If the N. Star and solar
system did not exist, how would you describe North,
South, East and West? The terms are relative — invented
by the inhabitants of the earth. That part of oar
horizon in which the sun rises, we call the East — the
opposite point, the West. As the sun's apparent daily
motion is from E. to W., and as this apparent motion
results from a real, contrary, daily motion of the earth,
on its axis, we say the earth revolves on its axis from
TFcst to East We know that the sun and all the
planets revolve on their axes, in the same direction
as the earth does; we say therefore the sun and the
planets revolve on their axes from W. to E. The
earth revolves around the sun in the same direction
as that in which it revolves on its axis; we say
therefore the earth revolves around the sun from W.
to E. All other planets revolve around the sun, in
the same direction with the earth; we say therefore
all the planets revolve around the sun from W. to E. In
order to understand North, South, East and West on the
earth, we must suppose our face to the N. pole and our
back to the S. pole (28). But for persons not on the
earth, this definition must be enlarged. Let us leave
our planet in our Light-Car and choose a point
directly opposite the S. pole, so that our globe is
presented to us as in PI. I. K. We now know the
earth moves from W. to E., and when we stand
opposite the S. hem., we stand with our face toward
the N. Star. Thus we can still speak of North,
South, East and West, as when we stood upon the
earth. Here we perceive also another circumstance,
that not only all the planetary movements are from
W. to E., but, standing as we do with our face toward
the S. pole (and also of course toward the N. Star),
the earth's movement on its axis is in the direction
of the hands of a clock. If we recede far enough to
obtain a view of the entire solar system (PI. VIII. B),
we shall see that the planetary movements are uniform
5
66
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
— from W. to E. — and (to ns standing on the south
side) in the direction of the hands of a clock.* If
we go to opposite side of solar system (i. e. the
north side), the motions, of course, would be contrary
to that of the hands of a clock. To a person standing
behind a transparent clock, the movement of the hands
would be reoersed. That is the reason why the direction
of the revolving objects, in fig. I, is the reverse of those
in K. Which way does the earth move in C? Neither
with, nor contrary to, the hands of a clock, as we are
neither over N. nor S. hemisphere. But in D, where
we look down upon the northern hemisphere, we see a
direction contrary to that of the hands of a clock.
(116.) Light-Car over Land Hemisphere (L).
— We now move to that point whence we behold, at
a glance, the greatest mass of land. Name objects
visible. Begin at America going eastward. Repeat
them westward. Name objects not visible (M). Point
out circles. Which way does the earth revolve in L?
As the hands of a clock? or in a contrary direction?
In a contrary direction. Why? Because, viewed from
the north side of the globe, instead of the south side.
Where is the N. Star, in L? Behind our head, but not
exactly over it.
(117.) Light-Car over Water Hemisphere
(M). —-Name objects visible.— Objects not visible.
Point out circles. Which way is the rotation, compared
with the hands of a clock? In the same direction. Why?
Because we are opposite S. hem.
(117 A.) Bemark. London (L) lies almost exactly
in the central point of the Land Hemisphere; while
• In the diagram (PL. VDI. B), the planets are represented
(by the small arrows) as moving contrary to the direction of
the hands of a clock. Why? Because we are there supposed
to be looking down on the northern hemispheres. You have
only to turn the transparent sheet toward a window; you will
then be opposite their southern hemispheres. Then their motions
will he in the direction of the hands of a clock.
NINETEEN LAND AND WATER DIVISIONS.
67
New Zealand (M), a British possession, lies nearly in
the central point of the Water Hemisphere.
(H7B.) We know very little of the arctic and still
less of the antarctic region. They have resisted all man's
efforts to penetrate into their awful solitudes. It is not
probable that, any human being has ever visited those
points of our globe's surface called the poles. . If the
climate were not an insurmountable obstacle—if a mild,
perpetual summer could displace those frozen winters
with their eternal ice-masses, we should be surprised
tO' .see how near, in reality, are British America,
Siberia, etc. (L); how those coasts, now frequented only
by the bear, the walruss, the seal, and legions of other
animals and birds, would be crossed by lines of rapidly
going steamers, or perhaps railroads — so that points
of the globe, at present, for all purposes of intercom¬
munication, the most remote from each other — as, for
instance, Behring Str. and London (L)—C. Horn and
Australia, etc. (K) — would be brought together, as
Italy and England — New York and Cuba.
(118.) Boundaries of continents and oceans.
— Examine these boundaries on each of the proper
figures, as well as on the one indicated.
Bound Western Continent (E). — N. by Arctic
Ocean; E. by Atlantic; S. by Atlantic, Great Southern
Ocean and Pacific; W. by Pacific, Behring Str., separating
from Asia, and Arctic Ocean.
Eastern Continent (G). — N. by Arctic Ocean;
E. by Behring Str., N. America, Pacific, Malaysia,
and Indian Ocean; S. by Pacific, Malaysia, Indian,
Great Southern and Atlantic Oceans; W. by Atlantic
and Arctic.
Bemark. The whole E. Continent is not given
on E. hemisphere; the N. E. part of Asia stretches
over into W. hemisphere and nearly joins the N. W.
part of N. America, from which it is separated by
Behring Strait (E. F. I. L.).
5*
68
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
Australia (G). — N. by Pacific and part of Oceania;
E. by Pacific and part of Oceania; S. by Great South¬
ern Ocean; W. by Indian Ocean.
Antarctic Continent (K). — N. E. and W. by Ant¬
arctic and Great Southern Oceans. It has properly
speaking no southern boundaries — except S. Pole. For
doubt, as to Antarctic Continent, (101B).
Nctrth America (E). — N. by Arctic Ocean; E. by
Arctic, Atlantic and part of S. America; S. by Atlantic
and Pacific; W. by Pacific, Behring Str., separating
from Asia, and by Arctic Ocean.
South America (E). — N. and E. by Atlantic; S.
by Atlantic, Great Southern Ocean and Pacific; W. by
Pacific and a small part of N. America.
Europe (G). — N. by Atlantic and Arctic; E. by
Asia; S. by Asia and Africa; W. by Atlantic and
Arctic (103).
Asia (G). — N. by Arctic; E. by Behring Str.,
separating from N. America, and by Pacific; S. by
Pacific, Malaysia, Indian Ocean and Africa; W. by
Africa, Europe and Arctic.
Africa (G. H). — N. by Atlantic, Europe and
Asia; E. by Asia and Indian Ocean; S. by Indian,
Great Southern and Atlantic Oceans; W. by Atlantic.
Pacific (F). — N. by Asia, Behring Str. and
America; E. by N. and S. America; S. by Great
Southern Ocean and Australia; W, by Australia, part
of Oceania, Indian Ocean and Asia.
Atlantic (H). — N. by S. America, N. America,
Arctic Ocean, Africa; E. by Europe and Africa; S.
by Africa, Great Southern Ocean and S. America; W.
by S. and N. America.
Indian Ocean (G). — N. by Africa and Asia; E.
by Pacific, Malaysia and Australasia; S. by Great
Southern Ocean ; "W. by Africa and Asia.
Great Southern Ocean (K). — It is bounded only
on the North and South. N. by S. America, Atlantic,
Africa, Indian Ocean, Australia and Pacific Ocean; S.
by Antarctic Continent and Ocean.
EARTH 8EEN FROM MOON.
69
Arctic Ocean (I). — The water within arctic circle
is called Arctic Ocean. Whether the area be chiefly
land, ice or water, we know not; how is it bounded?
N. by N. Pole, which is also its center; S. by N.
America, Atlantic, Europe, Asia and Pacific, to which
it is united by Behring Str.
Antarctic Ocean (K). — We can only say, it is
bounded N. everywhere by Great Southern Ocean, and
S. E. or W. by what is called Antarctic Continent.
EARTH SEEN FROM MOON.
(119.) Suppose we now make an imaginary journey
to our nearest neighbor among the heavenly bodies —
the moon; (although, probably, no human being could
exist there). Distance, about 200,000 miles; — by rail¬
road {sec. 16), 8 months; — by Light-Car, one second.
Fancy that, (an exception to all other mortals,) we
have reached the moon. We anchor our Gar upon some
broken plateau, surrounded by shattered cliffs. It is
one of her long nights (two of our weeks). The most
prominent object, in the starry concave above our heads,
is an immense, magnificent moon, 14 times larger than
the full moon appears to us. That is our earth. Con¬
trasted with the dark sky, its broad, illuminated disk
offers a spectacle of unsurpassable interest and splendor.
The continents and oceans are distinctly visible (when
the dense vapor which loads our gross atmosphere,
permits a clear view). The circles of snow and ice,
under which the polar regions lie perpetually buried,
shine with white, dazzling lustre. That around the
S.Pole, is the larger (101A—740—600). The landmasses
are brighter than the oceans, because land reflects, and
water absorbs, light. The continents are spotted, here
and there, with clouds — mountain-ranges and shadows
— vallies — seas — deserts — table-lands — glaciers — pri¬
meval forests (those of N. America, Brazil etc.). With
our telescope, we fancy we descry faint indications of
70
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
the larger cities. While we gaze, one edge of the
luminous orb darkens; a black, circular shadow moves,
for some hours, across its disk, and gradually passes
off at the opposite edge. That is the shadow of the
moon itself. The countries of the earth, over which
it passes, have an eclipse of the sun.
Western Hemisphere. — Our first view is (let us
say) the W. hem, (fig. E)*. As we contemplate it,
with wonder and delight, we become aware that the
spots are not stationary. They move, very slowly, along
the disk, from W. to E. The mighty globe is majes¬
tically revolving on its axis. The Atlantic gradually
disappears. America moves toward the eastern edge.
S. America speedily passes beyond the edge and van¬
ishes (F). The Pacific (with Oceania) comes more
and more into view; until, in about six hours, we have
before us the:
Pacific Hemisphere. — Here (F) the globe has
turned one quarter around. We see part of W. hem.
and part of E. hem. As the movement is scarcely
perceptible, we have ample time" to study the objects.
This side of the earth — the Pacific hemisphere — affords
an unbroken view of that vast waste of water, in all
its immensity, washing the coasts of Asia, Australia
and America, and reaching nearly from pole to pole
(for what we call the Great Southern Ocean, however
properly designated by a name of its own, is still a
continuation of Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans).
While we gaze, the objects almost imperceptibly change
their positions. N. America, in a few hours, and, after
it, the principal part of the Pacific, advance beyond
the eastern edge and disappear. Australia moves for¬
ward, on its way around to the other side of the sphere
* The figures E, F, Gr, H, with their circles and names,
are, of course, not intended to represent the supposed appearance
of the earth, seen from the moon. But, as they are successive
hemispheres brought into view hy four periods of one revolution,
the pupil will find it agreeable to use them during the follow¬
ing description.
EARTH SEEN FROM MOON.
71
■(as in G). That subdivision of Oceania, called Ma¬
laysia, in 12 hours, passes from western to eastern
edge. Behring Str. vanishes over north-eastern limit,
till, in about six hours more, the retreating objects are
succeeded by whole E. Continent and Indian Ocean*.
They glide along with no greater celerity than the
hour-hand of a clock.
Eastern Hemisphere (G). — The stupendous globe
has now made exactly a half revolution. It has turned
W. hem. completely away and brought E. hem. into
full view. Slowly advancing, by and by, Asia and
Australia follow the remnant of Pacific out of sight.
Europe and Africa creep forward toward the eastern
rim (as in H); till yet other portions of the globe's
surface come round and the:
Atlantic Hemisphere (H) — now lies broadly be¬
fore us. The entire Atlantic, with its vast, broken
coasts, has glided into the center of the disk, revealing
its immense form, somewhat in the shape of the letter
S. Slowly N. and S. America project forward their
huge shattered angles, followed by the deeply indented
gulfs of N. America; while the Pacific, which only an
hour or two before, sank beneath the eastern edge,
already re-appears on the western side.
Remarks. Has the earth yet completed a revolu¬
tion? No. For that, it requires about six hours more.
It would then present to us the W. hemisphere again
(as in E), and so, forever and ever, it accomplishes its
wonderful revolutions (24); every place returning to a
given meridian in precisely 23 hours, 56 minutes,
4 seconds and nine one-hundredths of a second —
counting from that hundredth part of a second on
which it left it. To the inhabitants of the moon, if
there were any, it would perform the office of a clock
far better than any machine made by human hand.
* The hemispheres F and G do not absolutely correspond
to the period of six hours. The slight deviation was expedient
in order to present unbroken outlines of the Pacific and Atlantic.
72
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
We may, at our ease, contemplate this phenom-
enon; for the glorious orb will never set, as the moon
does to us. It reniains stationary in its place; becauso
the moon itself revolves on its axis, only once a month,
and, in such a way, as to keep the same side always:
turned toward the earth. But, although the stupendous
orb never sets, a person, in the moon, would see it
pass through the same monthly phases, as the moon
does to us. Sometimes, it would float in the heavens,
a slender crescent; sometimes, a half moon ; and some-
times, the mighty globe would turn broadly toward him
its entire, illuminated hemisphere. These varying phases
are caused by the monthly revolution of the moon
around the earth, which brings her, sometimes, between
the earth and the sun (when she has the earth as a full
moon) — sometimes, to a point, where the earth is be¬
tween the sun and her (then she sees the earth, if at
all, as a crescent). Remark, the earth, as a half moon
(Ë to M), would not be all visible, as in the figures.
The night-half would entirely disappear. Along the
broken edge, would be, at times, distinguished the illu¬
minated peaks of the Andes, Alps etc.
DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS.
(120.) Remark. — It is not expected that every younger
student will here acquire a very exact idea of the objects
treated in the following definitions. They are now merely
to be read over as a preparatio-n; each pupil reading, aloud,
one at a time. They will be referred to, hereafter, again
and read over more under standingly, at the proper stages
of the lessons, and in connection with examples.
(121.) Continent. — A term applied to the three
largest landmasses of the earth, and, doubtfully, to the frozen
mass, whether of ice or islands, within antarctic circle. The
word is often used by geographical writers, when speaking
of smaller land divisions; as. Continent of N. America;
Continent of S. America; Continent of Europe; Continent of
Asia; Continent of Africa.
DEFINITIONS OF LAN,D DIVISIONS.
73
^122.) Island. — A portion of land, smaller than a
continent, entirely surrounded by water.
(123.) Island Chain. — Islands ranged in a line,
whether straight or curved, are termed a chain. Such fre¬
quently connect a group with the mainland; or promonto¬
ries or peninsulas, with corresponding portions of the oppo¬
site coast; as, Aleutian or Fox Is., connecting N. America
with Asia — the three chains, of which the West India Is.
are principally composed (PI. III. fig. 3), namely: 1. Cuba,
Jamaica, St. Domingo, and Porto Rico. 2. Bahama Is. (ba-
hay'-ma). 3. Lesser Antilles-, also (PI. II.) Kurile Is. with
Japan—Ladrona Is., etc.
(124.) Peninsula. — Land almost surrounded by water
as. Nova Scotia, Florida, Italy, Malacca.
(125.) Key. — Sometimes Cay (from the Spanish cayo,
an islet), a ledge or lay of rocks near the surface of the
water; or a chain of low, sandy islands, reefs and sandbanks
sometimes of coral formation, very dangerous to the navi¬
gator, as (PI. III. fig. 3) Florida Keys, southern extremity of
Florida, constantly the scene of disastrous shipwrecks. The
term is applied to many small islands in the West Indies;
also to certain islands of Oceania, in the south west of the
Moluccas.
(126.) Isthmus. — A narrow neck of land joining
landmasses.
(127.) Coast or shore. — That part of land which
borders on the sea. The shore or beach of the sea is
sometimes called the strand-.
"From Greenland's icy mountains;
From India's coral strands."
Bluff. A high bank, almost perpendicular, projecting
into the sea or a river—an American term, used princi¬
pally to designate the abrupt banks and high clifis along
the Mississippi.
(128.) Cape. — The extreme point of a portion of land
stretching into the sea.
74
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(129.) Promontory. .— A high point of land or rock
projecting into the sea. It differs from a cape in denoting
highland. Every promontory therefore is a cape, but every
cape is not a promontory (prom'-on-to-ry).
(130.) mountain—Knob — Dune—Down. — A mass
of earth or rock greatly elevated above the surrounding
country. Hill is a mass of earth rising above the common
level of the surrounding land. A hill is less high than a
mountain, but of no definite magnitude. The term is some¬
times applied to a mountain. Knob is a hill or low mount¬
ain with a round top. Dunes—low hills of blown or
movable sand on low coasts; as, the dunes of England,
France, etc. Down — an elevation or bank thrown up by
the sea; in England, also a tract of poor, naked, hilly land,
used only for pasturing sheep. Remark. A well known
road for shipping, in the English Channel, near Goodwin
Sands, is called the Downs. (162. 162 A.)
(131.) Monntain-range—ridge or chain. — A term ap¬
plied to a number of mountains, more or less united at the
base, and having the same direction; as, the Andes, Rocky
Mts., Alleghanies, Ural Mts.
(132.) mountain-system. — This term has two mean¬
ings; first, a mass of mountains elevated at the same geo¬
logical period; as, the Pacific Range, the Himalaya, the
Ural Mountains. The Alps and Apallachian (or All^hany)
Mountains, on the contrary, were each thrown up, by
different plutonic actions, at different periods. Secondly,
the term "mountain-system" is applied to mountain - chains
grouped together without reference to geological age.
(133.) Peak. — An elevated mountain, isolated, and of
difficult access, the summit of which, seen from a distance,
appears pointed. The term is also applied to the most
elevated summits of a mountain-range. Crest is a general
term for the highest part of a mountain.
(134.)
Volcano. — An opening in the surface of the
earth, or in a mountain, which casts out fire, smoke, ashes,
lava and other substances, (vol-cay'no).
DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS.
75
(^loO.j Uonntain-pasB. — A place, between peaks, or
higher elevations, where a mountain-chain is passable.
Mountain-passes are usually at the angle formed by one
part of a chain with another, and consequently, being at
the head of valleys, are also at the headwaters of rivers.
A pass was sometimes, by the ancients, called a gate, as it
is now by the Spaniards.
(135 A.) Gap — Col—Port — Defile—Gorge — B a vine
— Quebrada (kay-brah'-da) — Canon—Barancas. — In the
United States and British America, mountain - passes are
often called gaps; in the French Alps, cok (from the French
word col, narrow) as. Col de Balme, Col de Tenda, etc.; in
the Pyrenees, ports, as. Port de Roncevaux. Defile ^\s a
narrow passage, between precipitous rocks, especially if
long and winding; gorge is often near the summit of a
mountain ; and ravine is a long, deep, narrow hollow, worn
by a stream or torrent of water; hence, any long deep and
narrow pass through mountains. Quebradas immense "breaks"
or "valleys", frequently 2000 feet deep, with a stream
running at the bottom. In some parts of S. America, •
Mexico and adjacent territories, the term canon (kan-yown)
is applied to a high, narrow defile through which flows a
rapid stream; or to a deep ravine, worn in the mountains
by torrents. Barancas are immense rents in the earth's
surface by volcanic action. In Mexico they intersect parts
of the country in a direction E. and W. The precipitous
walls rise sometimes 1000 feet.
(136.) Valley. — A tract of land between hills or
mountains.
Remark. The term "valley" may be applied to any
depression on the surface of the globe; the beds of the
oceans are only great valleys. Vale is the diminutive of
valley, properly applied to undulating depressions between
hills.
(137.) Avalanche. — An immense mass of snow and ice,
precipitated, with thundering roar, from mountain - heights,
into the valleys, and sometimes bearing away, and burying
travellers, huts and entire villages. The term is also
applied to masses of earth and rock in Alpine regions
which break away and slip down.
76
PHYSICAL GEOGBAPHY.
(^Idö,^ Olacier (glay'-seer). — Vast fields or immense
accumulations of ice, perpetnallj filling the more elevated
parts of valleys in the higher mountain-chains, and always
in slow motion. They sometimes descend considerably below
the snowy mountain elevations and advance far into com¬
paratively low, fertile valleys. The Alps, Norway, Iceland,
Spitzbergen, the shores of the Antarctic Continent, present
extensive, remarkable examples. There are numerous
snow peaks in the Andes, but few or no glaciers, except
in Patagonia, where are found the most tremendous and
astonishing of the globe. In the Alps, 400 have been
counted, occupying a space of 14,000 sq. miles. These
glaciers move slowly downward, "intruding themselves, like
unwelcome guests, into the lower valleys". They bear with
them immense blocks of stone, with masses of gravel and
mud. One of these transported blocks measured 100 feet
long by 40 broad. Some of the Swiss glaciers are 400 yards
in length; others 20 miles long by ó broad. Sometimes
the lifeless bodies of men, lost among the mountains, are
discovered, years afterward, perfectly preserved in the ice,
at places remote from the spot where they perished. Until
recently it was supposed there were but few and small
glaciers in the Himalaya Mountains; modem travellers have
discovered them of extraordinary extent and stupendous
height.
(138 A.) Ice period. — Remark. The glacier theory,
elaborated by Agassis, supposes that the frigid and
temperate zones were, at some period or periods, covered
with ice nearly to the tops of the highest mountains—that
the temperature, from whatever cause (98), has gradually
risen and melted the ice, the agency of which, during its
formation and dissolution, accounts for several phenomena;
the rounded forms of bowlders (592 A), the deep lines on
certain rocks, the distribution of various stones and other
loose materials over the earth's surface, etc. (602.)
(138B.) Iceberg. — A hill or mountain of ice floating
on the ocean, sometimes detached from the ice masses on
the shore of the frigid zones, sometimes formed at a distance
from the land, often carried toward the equator as low as
the 40"» parallel, making the early summer passage between
the United States and England dangerous. Fifty icebergs
DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS.
77
have been seen at one time floating on the coast of Pa¬
tagonia, one of which was 160 feet high—all loaded
with blocks of granite and other rocks. Occasionally gla¬
ciers, descending by the slow motion mentioned in sec. 138,
reach the sea and become icebergs. (101Á.)
(139.) Watershed. —• An elevated part or ridge of a
country which divides the sources of its streams or rivers
— one set, flowing down one of its slopes, the other, down
the opposite one. The entire mountain - range or region,
in fact, may be called a watershed. Remark the Rocky
Mts., for instance (PI. II.), with the rivers flowing down
the eastern and western slopes. From the great Himalaya
watershed, see what rivers flow to the N., to the E., to
the S., and to the W. So of the Alpine system — also of
the Alleghany system (PI. VII.), etc., etc.
(140.) B asín*. — The entire tract of country drained
by a river and its tributaries. The basin of a sea is the
region watered by all the rivers which it receives.
(141.) Table-land—High plain—Blatean. — A level,
or nearly level, tract of land, at a considerable height above
the sea. A very large portion of the dry land of the globe
consists of extensive, more or less elevated districts.
(142.) Terrace. — This term is applied to plateaux
particularly when rising in succession one above another,
as the terraces of Guiana.
(143.) PI ain — Lowland. — An extensive tract of laud
nearly flat, as the great northern plain of Europe and Asia,
the plains of Lombardy (river Po) and Hungary (Danube).
When at about the level of the sea it is often called Low¬
land or Lowlands. Hence the term as applied to Holland,
{Pays Bas, Netherlands, Lowlands). The plain of Hol¬
land is so low that the whole country, but for the dikes,
would be overflowed by the sea. The plain, around the
Caspian and Aral seas, sinks considerably below the level
* In some respects a hasin is synonymous with valley, ex¬
pressing the same idea; as, the basin or valley of the Amazon,
of the Mississippi, of the Po.
78
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
of the ocean, forming a vast cavity of 160,000 sq. miles.
The surface of the Caspian Sea itself lies 348 feet below
the sea level. The low plains and steppes of Europe and
western Asia are occasionally crossed by hills swelling in
long waves or undulations.
(144). Frairie. — An extensive tract of land mostly
level, destitute of trees, covered with tall, coarse grass; as,
in the United States, W. of the Alleghany Mts., especially
between the Ohio, Mississippi and the five great lakes.
(145.) Savanna. — Indian name given to the large
grassy plains in the southern part of Ñ. America; as, the
Alachua Savanna (Florida).
(146.) Llanos (lyanos). — Spanish word for great plains
on the Orinoco — on the La Plata, pampas (PI. II).
(147.) Karroos. — Extensive interior plains of southern
Africa (Cape Colony), occupying most of the terraces be¬
tween the mountain-ranges. In the great karroo of Cape
Colony, there is sometimes no rain for 2 or 3 years. The
karroos, the hunting-grounds of the colonists, are wonder¬
fully crowded with various kinds of animals — the antilope,
buffalo, elephant, river-horse, rhinoceros, wild ass, zebra, etc.
(147 A.) Vlakten. — African plains in the Orange
Kiver Territory, useless for agricultural and pastoral pur¬
poses; but, like the karroos, supporting incredible numbers
of animals — herds of tens of thousands.
(148.) Steppes — (from the Russian, step, harren).
Vast level plains, destitute of trees, in .south-eastern Euro¬
pean and Asiatic Russia—marked by ifearful extremities of
cold and heat — neither man nor animal can resist their
storms — in the summer-drought, cattle perish by thousands.
(148A.) Tnndra or Tundras a succession of level,
desert tracts forming the northern part of the great plain
of Siberia (582.), near Arctic Ocean (Kara Sea, Asiatic
Polar Sea)—in the short summer, covered by lichens and
other mosses, coarse grass, and dwarf willows — in the win¬
ter, one dreary extent of solid ice (PI. II).
DEFINITIONS OF LAND DIVISIONS.
79
(149.) Silvas (Pl. II.) — Portuguese name for vast
plains in valley of Amazon, covered with primeval forests.
(150.) Desert. — A vast and barren tract of land;
as, desert of Sahara, desert of Gobi or Shamo.
(151.) Oasis, (ö'-ay-sis) — A fertile spot in a desert,
watered by springs, as the oasis of Tuat, 100 miles long
and 15 wide. It is generally a depression below the surface.
(152.) Delta. — A term applied to low tracts of land
sometimes found between the forks of a river (172), or at
its mouths. These tracts are generally triangular, some¬
what in the form of the Greek letter delta A. whence the
name; as, the delta of the Nile, Ganges, Niger (Ni'-jer).
(152 A.) Swamp — marsh — morass — bog — quagmire
(that is quake-mire)—everglade—quicksand —. Various
terms applied, under somewhat different circumstances,
to low, spongy ground saturated with water; for instance,
the Great Dismal Swamp in Virginia and N. Carolina
—40 m. long by 25 m. broad—consisting of black, soft,
wet, vegetable matter — generally covered with stagnant
pools. There is another swamp in N. Carolina, called the
Little Dismal. These two once formed retreats for run-away
negro, slaves. Persons have been born, have lived and died
there, never seeing any thing else of the earth, and perhaps
never knowing that the globe offered scenes of adifferent de¬
scription. The Runn of Cutch in Arabian Sea {sec. 230 and
PI. II.) is another example. Everglade, a tract of land of
large extent, more or less covered with water; the Ever¬
glades of Florida, for instance (PI. VII.) —160 m. long,
60 broad — studded with thousands of islands — might al¬
most be called a lake; the water, only from one to six
feet deep, does not prevent a rank growth of tall grass —
soil adapted to the banana* (bah-nah'-nah) and plantain
* BANANA — a delicious fruit—size and form of the cu¬
cumber— growing almost spontaneously and abundantly, upon
a tree 15 or 20 feet high — sometimes a hundred bananas are
found on a single stock — leaves, from six to ten feet long.—
"No other plant", says Appleton's Am. Cyclop., "produces the
same amount of nutriment, from the same space of ground".
The plantain is a variety of the species.
80
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(plan'-tin). Quicksand or Quicksands—tracts of loose, unsolid
sand which have the appearance of land, and yet are yielding
like water — formed on many sea-coasts, or at the mouths
of rivers, as those of the NUe and Senegal. The horseman
or other traveller, hastening on his way, suddenly disappears,
in one of those places, and is never seen again.
DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS.
(153.) Ocean. — A va.st body of salt water.
(154.) Sargasso Sea or Fnons bank. — A large tract of
the Atlantic, extending from Bermudas to Azores and C.
Verde Is. — covered, at intervals, with vast quantities of a
marine plant (sea-grass or gulfweed) called sargasso (fucus
natans)—sometimes torn from its roots in the Mexican
Gulf and collected in this part of the ocean by the vast
whirling eddy of one of the branches of the Gulf Stream-
sometimes growing up from the bottom of the sea, which
Humboldt concludes to be, here, an immense submarine pla¬
teau. It occupies an area equal to six times that of Germany
— but, at different seasons, its dimensions are changed by
winds and currents. The appearance is that of an endless, ever
green, inundated prairie, the grass swaying gently to and
fro with the waves and winds — in some places, sufficiently
thick to impede the advance of a ship during a light breeze—
inhabited by innumerable marine animals. It was discovered
by Columbus, and caused great alarm to his crew, who
feared they would never escape from its entanglement.
Similar tracts are found at south-east extremity of South
America (neighborhood of Falkland Is.), in Southern
Ocean (south of Indian Ocean), where it is called Long Kelp',
and in Pacific (North of Sandwich Is.). Occasionally the
stems are 800 feet long and nearly a foot in diameter.
(155.) Sea. — As usually applied, is a body of salt
water smaller than an ocean.
DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS. 81
(156.) Archipelago (ar-ke-pel'-a-go). — Â sea studded
with groups of islands. The term was originally applied to
the sea between Greece and Asia Minor, i. e. Aegean Sea
(e-jee'-an), and is derived from the Greek, arc/ios, chief, and
pelagos, sea, because that was the most important sea to the
Greeks. A number of island groups is called an aréhipelûgo.
(157.) Tide. — The alternate rising and falling of the
waters of the ocean, with bays, rivers and waters connected
therewith. The tide ebbs and flows twice in little mOre
than 24 hours. The flow or rising of the water is called
the Jiood-tidé, the descent of the water, the ebb-tide. The
tide, higher than the common tide, which happens twioe a
month, namely at. Or soon after, the new and full moon,
is called the spring-tide. The tides which happen near the
first and last quarters of the moon, when the difference
between high and low water is less than at any period of
the month, are Called neap-tides. They are the opposite
to spring-tides. A tidal wave, following the moon in her
revolution, flows around the earth, arriving at any partic¬
ular place about 50 minutes later every day (605).
(157 A.) Bore—pororoca. — When the tidal wave,
compressed within a narrow channel, rises rapidly with
terrible force and noise, this is ëalled a bore (from a Hindoo
word, signifying a flood); as, the bore of Bristol Channel,
Bay of Fundy, the Hoogly, the Amazon (2ÓSA and 605 F).
Nearly all similar situations, especially where exposed tö the
direct action of the tidal wave, show more or lesS of this
phenomenon.
(158.) Ocean Current. — Constant and reprúlar move¬
ments of portions of the ocean, in certain directions — in
their nature and origin, quite distinct from tides. They
sweep forward, through the surrounding flood, like rivers
flowing between their banks (604) ; ex. Japan Current, etc.
(159.) Gnlf. — A portion of water almost surrounded
by land.
(160.) Bay. — An indentation of the ocean, lying more
open than a gulf.
6
82
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(161.) Bight. — A bend between two points of land
— synonymous with bay.
(161 A.) Haff — lagoon. The first term is particu¬
larly applied to three large estuaries on S. shore of
Baltic (PI. V.)—communicating with it by narrow passages.
They are all in Prussia, at the mouths of the Oder, Vistula
and Niemen; example: Stettiner Haff. Lagoon — an extens¬
ive body of shallow water, near the sea and connected
with it; lagoons of Venice.
(162.) Port—Haven—Harbor—Boad or Boadstead—
Downs. — Any bay, cove, inlet or recess of the sea, or of
a lake, or the mouth of a river, which ships or vessels can
enter, and where they can lie safe from injury by storms.
Ports may be natural or artificial-, sometimes works of art,
as piers and moles, are added to the natural shores of a
place, to render a harbor more safe. The word port, is
generally applied to spacious harbors much resorted to by
ships, as the Port of New York or Boston-, and not to
small bays or coves which are entered occasionally, or in
stress of weather only. Harbor includes all places of safety
for shipping. Road or Roadstead — a part of the open sea
or other water at some distance from the shore, where
ships may ride at anchor in safety; for instance (PI. VI. B)
Spithead, S. coast of England, near I. of Wight; also the
Downs, S. E. extremity of England, near Str. of Dover,
where valuable shelter for shipping is ensured by the
Goodwin Sands which serve as a breakwater.
(162 A.) Shoal or Shoals — shallow sandbanks, often
dry at low water; for example, Goodwin Sands—a range
of shoals in the Str. of Dover.- Their shifting and loose
nature is in the highest degree dangerous to life and prop¬
erty. Sbakspeare alludes to them three times;
Salanio. Now what news on the Rialto?
Salarino. Why, yet it lives there unchecked, that Antonio hath a ship
of rich Jading wrecked on the narrow seas; the Goodwim,, I think they call
the place; a very dangerous flat, and fatal, where the carcasses of many a tall
ship lie buried. (Merchant of Venice.)
^163.) Bank, — Shoals, shelves or shallows — also ele¬
vated ground at bottom of sea, as. Bank of Newfoundland-,
one of the most extensive submarine plateaux of the globe
DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS.
83
— 600 m. long, 200 m. broad — 25 to 94 fathoms deep —
bottom, in some places, solid rock—covered with dense
fog from Gulf Stream — swarming with cod and almost
every other variety of fish—yielding annually several million
dollars—occupying 2 or 3000 vessels. Another example is
that remarkable elevation of the bottom of the sea extend¬
ing between Ireland and Newfoundland, sometimes called
Telegraphic Plateau, on which was laid great submarine
telegraphic cable which unites Europe with America.
(164.) Seef—bar—breaker. — Numerous low rocks
lying at, or near, the surface of the water. Those stony
habitations, constructed for themselves, in various parts of
the tropical seas, by the little coral animals, the zoophytes
(zö'-o-fites), are called coral reefs. The coral builds not
only reefs, but regular islands. In the space of ocean,
extending from the southern end of the Low Archipelago
(Polynesia) to the northern end of Marshall Archipelago,
every island, with one exception, is atoll-formed—atolls
being circular islands of coral, with a very shallow salt¬
water lake within them. Some of these islands measure
from fifty to eighty miles in length and nearly twenty miles
in breadth. Bar—a bank of sand, gravel or earth forming
a shoal at the mouth of a river or harbor, obstructing
entrance or rendering it difficult. Breaket—waves forced
by the tide, wind or currents, foaming and roaring over
rocks and shoals. The term is sometimes applied to the
rocks themselves.
(165.) Strait. — A narrow passage of water separating
two pieces of land and connecting, two bodies of water. A
small strait, or the narrowest part of the strait, is some¬
times called a g\it. The term strait is often erroneously
used in the plural.
(166.) ch annel. — A passage connecting two seas or
bodies of water, longer and broader than a strait.
(167.) Sound. — Nearly the same as a strait, but
distinguished from it in not, of necessity, having a double
communication with the ocean; it is also in '^soundings",
(eighty fathoms—a fathom, six feet).
6*
84
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
(168.) Belt. — A term applied to narrow passages or
straits in the Baltic. The Great Belt is. the passage between
I. of Seeland and that of Funen, at the entrance of
Baltic. The passage, separating I. of Funen from mainland
(Danish Peninsula), is the Little Belt (PI. V).
(169.) Lake. — A body of water surrounded by land,
often, differing from a sea only as being fresh water.
(170.) Biver—Creek—Brook —Bun. — A stream of
fresh water flowing into another river, ocean, lake or ether
body of water; the spring or fountain, from which it first
proceeds, is its source or head; the part, where it empties
into another body of water,, is its mouth; the cavity, in
which a river flows, is called its channel; the bottom of
the channel, its bed; the right and left sides, proceeding frem
the source to the mouth, are its right and left banks. The
banks may be sloping or steep, rocky or fertile. Some
rivers, particularly in Africa, lose themselves in sand. The
salt tide-water of the oceans enters into many rivers for
some distance from the mouth. Greek—a narrow portion
of water running into the land: in some of the American
States a small river. Brook—a small natural stream of
water, or a current flowing from a spring or fountain less
than a river. In the Middle and Southern States of America,
run is used in a like sense ; but it is also applied to streams
larger than a brook.
(171.) Estuary—Frith — Firth (furth) — a narrow
passage of the sea. The term is occasionally used to des¬
ignate that part of a river opening into- the sea, as Frith
of Forth — Swedish, Fiord.
(172.) Tributary—affluent—fork—branch. — An¬
other smaller stream which flows into a river; for instance,
the Ohio has many large tributary streams and is itself
tributary to the Mississippi. The point, at which they
unite, is called the conjiuence; as, the confluence of the
Tigris and Euphrates, or of the Ohio and Mississippi. The
term fork is applied to the part where a river divides, or
rather where two rivers meet and unite into one stream.
£ach branch is called a fork (15*2).
DEFINITIONS OF WATER DIVISIONS.
85
(173.) Cataract — A large body of water falling over
a precipice. The greatest of the world, believed to be
Falls of Niagara.
(174.) Cascade or waterialL^— A small body of wa¬
ter falling over a precipice.
(175.) Kapid. — The part of a river where its bed is
much inclined and the water rushes down rapidly.
(176.) Xoch. — In Scotland a lake or an arm of the
sea is sometimes called a loch, in Ireland lough (lock).
(177.) Whirlpool—Eddy. .— When, by the force of
the tide, or currents, pressing the water diagonally against
the shore, or between rocks or banks, a circular direction
is given to it; or where a similar effect is produced by
the meeting of two currents; or by deep holes, causing a
downward suction — this is termed an eddg. In the latter
case, when very large and powerful, it is called a whirlpool-,
as the Maelstrom (mahl'-strum) i. e. millstream — caused by
the force of' currents and of the ebbing and flowing tides,
among the Loflb'-den and other islands, on the coast of
Norway (PI. II). It is not always dangerous. Twiçe every day
it subsides to rest (at the two low tides — 605 C.) and is then
safely traversed. At certain times—in the winter — during
heavy storms—particularly at the full and new moon (605 F)
and during equinoxes—it becomes violent and unnavi-
gable. Ships must then keep at a distance of at least 10
or 15 miles. Many other whirlpools render this coast
dangerous.— Charyhdis — (kah-rib'-dis)—celebrated point in
Str. of Messina, between I. of Sicily and mainland, .where
strong currents meet and make wild uproar — navigation
has been, and still is dangerous — now called Galofaro (193).
(178.) Wady, — (Wod'-y) an Arabian word — a river
channel, dry, except in the rainy season; as, Wady Draa
(southern boundary of Morocco, PI. II). A small valley,
a river, even a town, sometimes take this name.
(179.) Inle t—Cove. — A recess in the shore of a sea,
or of a lake, or large river, or between islands — a kind of
bay. Cove—a small inlet, creek, or bay.
86
PHYSICAL 6B06RAPHY.
(180.) Remark. The terms, Sea, Gulf, Bay, Inlet, Bight,
are very vaguely used. The Gulf of Mexico might be
called a Bay; the Bay of Biscay, a Gulf. A gulf is said
to differ from a bay only in extent. A bay is a "large or
small recess of the sea;" a gulf is only "a large extent of
■water." But why do we say. Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea ; or Hudson Bay and Gulf of Mexico ? Why not Chan¬
nel of Tartary instead of G. ofTartary? Why not Hudson
Gvlf and Bay of Mexico? The student will often find the
same piece of water called a gulf, by one geographer, and
a bay, by another; as for instance, Mosquito Bay.
WATER DIVISIONS.
(PLATE II.)
(181.) Remark to teacher. Make no demand upon the
pupil's memory. Read, slowly, from text book, three
names at a time; the pupil, as he finds each place on thé
map, reads the name aloud. Thus certain that he is not
expected to repeat from memory, his confidence becomes
every moment greater; his task, as well as that of the
teacher, more easy; and the lesson, as he constantly reads
from, and contemplates the map, gradually photographs
itself upon his mind and remains there permanently. No
study is needed, except the recitation itself, which, for
young persons, ought not to be extended over one short
hour.
(181 A.) How to connt the names. — The names
should be repeated, by all the pupils, in the same order,
and counted in the same way, by threes, (unless there
appear some special reason for the contrary).
(181 B.) One pupil must not say Gulf of California, and
another, California Gulf, but the name is to be read always,
and by everyone, exactly as it is on the map, California.
Gulf. In this, as in other respects, the text and Atlas
are intended to coincide.
(18lC.) The starting-points, that is, Behring Str., Str.
of Belle Isle, etc., are counted twice, because they serve
as stations or land-marks to guide the pupil.
WATER DIVISIONS.
87
(181D.) When an archipelago (156) is namedi
and then, any group of islands composing it, count the
archipelago-name as one, and each group-name as one-,
because our object is, to get a clear idea of the number
of names we have to remember; for instance (209),
antarctic archipelago, consisting of south Georgia,
SANDWICH GROUP, SOUTH ORKNEY, and SOUTH SHET¬
LAND IS., count five.
(181E.) Names of river-mouths to be counted with
the rest.
(181E.) The teacher, ot course, may apply the principle
of repetition according to his discretion and the wants of
the class.
(182.) (Western Continent). — North Coast of
N. America, from Behring Strait to Strait of
Belle Isle (bel-île). — Behring str., kotzebue
sound (kot-se-bü), American polar sea with mouth
of mackenzie river. (Read 4). — str. prince
of wales, north-west passage, boothia gulf
(Read 3. — Read from Behring Str.). — k a n e • s
supposed open sea, kennedy channel, kane sea
(Read 3. — Read from Behring Str.). — smith str.,
baffin bay, davis str. (Read 3.—Read from Behring
Str.). — hudson bay with mouth of saskatchewan
or nelson river, hudson str. (Read 3. — Read
from Behring Str.). str. of belle isle. (How many
from Behring Str.? Read 17).
Remark. Kane's supposed open sea, i. e., supposed to
be more free from ice than farther south.
(183.) East and South Coast of N. America,
from Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito Bay. —
str. of belle isle, G. of st. lawrence with mouth
of river st. lawrence, b. of fundy (R. 4). — long
island sound, delaware b., chesapeake b. with
mouth of potomac r. (R. 4. — R. from Str. of Belle
Isle). — florida str. and gulf stream, g. of mexico
88
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
■with moüth of mississippi r. (R. 4. — F. from Str.
of Belle Isle). — campeachy b., hondorab b., mos¬
quito b. C^. 3. — How many from Sir. of Belle Islel
B, 45. —Read from Behring Str.).
(184.) Whole Coast of S. America, from
Mosquito B., around Cape Horn, to B. of
Panama. — mosquito b., Caribbean sea (kar-rib-
bee'an), darien b. (day're-en). (R. 3.) — g. of mara-
caybo (mah-rah-kï-bo), mouth of amazon r. (am'a-
zod), all saints bay (R. 3.—R. from Mosquito Bay).
— la plata river or bay, st. george gulf, str. OF
magellan (mah-jel'laD) (R. 3.—R. from Mosquito B.)
— guayaquil g. (gwi-ah-keel'—near equator),— b. OF
panama (pahn-a-mab') (R. 2. — How many from Mos¬
quito B.? R. 11. — R. from Behring Str.).
(185.) W. Coast of N. America, from B. of
Panama to Behring Str. — b. of panama, te-
huantepeo g. ((tay-wahn-tah-pek'), california g. with
mouth of colorado R. (R. 4) — B. of san francisco
with str. golden Gate, mouth of Columbia h.
(R. 3. — R. from B. of Panama) — str. juan de fuca
(foo'-ka), queen charlotte sound, cook inlet
(R. 3. — R. from B. of Panama) — bristol bay, Beh¬
ring sea or sea of kamchatka (kahm-chaht'• ka^
norton sound with kwichpack r. (R. 4. — R. from
B. of Panama) — Behring str. (How many from B.
of Panama^ R. 15).
(185 A.) Rule for teaching. At the end of the section,
or as often as may be deemed proper, the pupils, silently
examining the map, must answer, each one separately, to
the question: how many, etc.? If any answer incorrectly,
that one must be asked to prove the answer, by pointing
out the objects on the map; the others may correct him,
until the class be unanimously agreed.
(185£>.) The class will now answer, as above, to the
following question : how many waterdlvisions have we named
water divisions.
89
altogether from Behring Str. to Behring Str.f (the teacher
has alwajs the answer in his hand). Kead 58.
(185 C.) Remark to the class. You say there are 58
naqies ftom Behring Str. to Behring Str. again. Have
^ou not counted some of them more than once? Examine
what the actual number of names is. Answer: 54. What
were the four starting-points? Answer; behring str.—
str. belle isle —mosquito b.-b. of panama. How
many times too often did you count each of those starting-
points? Each one was counted twice. Suppose I say you
have counted each starting-point three times; prove to me
the contrary from the map? You have then learned 54
names instead of 58. ( R. 54 from PI. III. — then
from PI. IV. — then, as far as they are to he fotmd, from
PI. VII).
(186.) (Eastern Continent). — E. Coast of Asia,
from Behring Str. to Str. of Malacca. —
behring str., anadir g. (ahn-ah-deer'), behring sea
or sea of kamtchatka again (R. 3) — sea of
okhotsk (o-kotsk'), g. of tartary with mouth of
amoor r. (ah-moor') (R. 3 — B. from Behring Str.) —
japan sea (jab-pan'), str. 9f corea (ko-ree'-a) (B. 2
— R. from Behring Str.) — yellow sea with mouths
of hoang-ho and yang-tse-kiang rivers (yahng-tse-
ke-ahng' — (R. 3 — R. from Behring Str.) — china sea
with mouth of canton r., tonquin g. (ton-keen')
(R. 3 — R. from Behring Str.) — siam g. (st-am'), str.
of malacca (R. 2 — How many from Behring Str.f
R. 16.)
Remark. We select only a few great rivers.
(187.) S. Coast of Asia, from Str. of Malacca
to B.ed Sea. — str. of Malacca (mah-lak'-ka),
b. of bengal (ben-gawl') with mouth of ganges r.
(gàn'-jeez) (R. 3) — palk's str. (pawk), Arabian sba
with mouth of indus r. (R. 3 — R. from Str. of
Malacca) — g. of oman (o-mahn'), sttr. of or'mus (R. 2
— R. from Str. of Malacca) — Persian g. with mouth
90
physical geography.
of the united rivers tigris (tî'-gris) and edphrates
(u-frä-teez) (E. 3.—E. from Str. of Malacca — now
out of Persian G., by Str. of Ormus and G. of Oman)
g. of aden (ah'-den), str. of bab-el-man'deb, red
sea (i2. 3.—E. from Str. of Malacca — now in Eed Sea,
consult also fig. 5.) g. of a'kabah, g. of suez (soo'-ez)
(E. 2. — How many from Str. of Malacca"? E. 16.—Eead
from Behring Str.).
(187 A.) Gulf of Suez—200 m. long, 30 m. broad.—
It is supposed that the Israelites, pursued by Pharaoh and
his hosts, crossed Red Sea (1491 B. C.), two miles from
head of this gulf. Between Gulfs of Akabah and Suez, is
mt. sinai, or jebel-hoosa ("Mouut of Moscs") — One
of a cluster of mountains—where the ten commandments
were given. Opinions differ as to which peak was the
original Sinai (fig. 5.).
(187B.) Str. of Bab-el-Man'deb O'gate of tear^') so
called from the number of vessels, formerly wrecked in
passing through it—distance between Asia and Africa, at
this point, about 20 miles.
(188.) Coast of Africa, around C. of Good
Hope, from Red Sea to St. of Gibraltar (je-brawP-
ter). — red sea, (out of Eed Sea again by Str. of Bab-
el-Mandeb and G. of Aden) Mozambique channel
(mo-zam-beek') with mouth of zambeze (zahm-bay'-
ze) (E. 3) — delagoa b., (round C. of Good Hope)
g. of guinea (ghin'-nee) with mouth of niger
(ni'-jer) (E. 3 — E. from Eed Sea) — bight of biafra
(be-af'ra), bight of renin (ben-een') str. of Gibral¬
tar. (E. 3 — How many from Eed Sea? E. 9 — Eead
from Behring Str.).
(189.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring
Str. (along W. coast of Europe and N. coasts of Europe
and Asia — PI. II).—str. of Gibraltar, b. of bis'cay,
british channel (E. 3)—str. of dover, north
or german sea, zuyder-zee (zl-der-zee), or south
water divisions.
91
SEA (for latter Pl. VI. B. — R, 3. — R. from Str. of
Gibraltar) — in North Sea: mouths of ehine, wesbr
(wee'-ser), elbe (elb) (R. 3 — R. from Str. of Gibraltar)
— baltic sea, with mouths of oder, vis'tula,
niemen (nee'-men) and duna (R. 5 — R. from Str.
Gibraltar) — white sea with dwina (dwee'na), spitz¬
beugen or barentz sea (between Is. of Spitzbergen
and Nova Zembla), g. of ob or obi (o'-bee) with
obi r. (R. 5 — R. from Str. of Gibraltar)—kara'sea,
with mouth of yenisei (yen-e-say'e). Asiatic po¬
lar sea with mouth of lena r. (R. é—R. from
Gibraltar) — polynia, or ice-free sea, behring str.
(R. 2 — How many from Str. of Gibraltar^ R. 25. How
many from Behring Str. to Behring Str.? Teacher apply
rule 185 A. R. those 66. What were the starting-
points for E. Continent? behring str.—str. of Ma¬
lacca—red sea —str. of gibraltar—and behring
str. again. How many? 4. How many times too
often was each one counted? Twice. How many names
did we actually read? 62. Please prove it from the
map. The teacher will now require the class to read
the waterdivisions over again from PI. HI, then from
PI. IV, then from PI. V, then from PI. VI. B; care¬
fully pointing out the objects.
(189 A.) North or German Sea, often incorrectly called
German Ocean.
(189 B.) Zvyder-Zee, dutch zoider, "south", in contra¬
distinction to North Sea with which it is connected.
(190.) Seven Seas and Lakes. — (Name seven
seas and lakes almost in a line, E. and W., with Str. of
Gibraltar), mediterranean sea, with mouths of
rhone, po, and nile (R. 4)—black sea, with
mouths of danube, pruth (prooth), dniester (nees'-
ter), dnieper (nee'-per) (R. 5 — R. from Mediterranean)
— sea of az'of, with mouth of don (R. 2 —
R. from Mediterranean) — Caspian sea, with mouths
92
physical geography.
volga and ural (yoo'-ral) (B. 3 — jB. from Medi¬
terranean)—a. of aral (ar'-al), with mouths of
amoo-daria (Oxus) and sir-daria (j ax artes) (jax-
ar'-teez) (R. 3 —from Mediterranean) — l.balkash, l.
baikal (bî-kal). {R. 2. — How many from Mediterranean
to L. Baikal? 19. How many waterdimsions of E. Continent
have we now learned without giving any name twice?
(Apply rule 185 A.). Answer will be 81. Now read aloud
those 81 names from PI. IL).
Remark. The class is notified, there has been an error
in counting which will be corrected hereafter.
(190 A.) Sir or Syr-Daria—Amoo-Daria — Daria, the
tartar word for river. Oxus — Jaxartes, the ancient names.
(190B.) We now go back and consider the subdivisions
of the waters of Mediterranean, Black and Baltic Seas,
and of Great Britain and Ireland
(191.) Water sub-divisions of Mediterranean
and Blaek Seas (without river-mouths) (PI. II.
fig. 5). str. of gibraltar, g. of lions, g. of
genoa (jen'o-a). (R. 3) — str. of Bonifacio (bo-ne-
fah'cho), tyrrhenian (tir-recn'ian), sometimes Tuscan
sea (between Italy and Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily,
B. of naples (R. 3 — R. from Str. of Gibraltar) —
str. of messina (mes- see'nah) (ancient Scylla and
Charybdis, Adriatic sea (ad-re-at'ic) or g. of Venice
(ven'-iss), str. of otran'to (shortest distance between
Italy and Turkey) — (R. 3 — R. from Str. of Gibraltar)
— g. of ta'ranto (hollow of Italy's foot), ionian sea
(T-o'-ne-an), g. of cor'inth or lepan'to (R. 3 —
R. from Str. of Gibraltar) — aegean sea (e-jee'-an)
or grecian archipelago (ar-ke-pel'a-go), g. of sa¬
lonica (sa-lo-nee'-ka), g. of Smyrna (R. 3 — R.
from Str. of Gibraltar) — Dardanelles (dar-da-nelz'),
or hellespont, sea of mar'mora, str. of constan¬
tinople (kon-stan-te-no'pl), or bos'phorus (R. 3 —
R. from Str. of Gibraltar.) — For next 3, PI. HI.
water d1vi8iok8.
93
fig. 1.} black sea, str. OF kertch OF yenikale
(jen -e• kah'-le), sea of az'OF (R. 3 — R. from Str.
of Gibraltar. — Now back again to african coast. PI. II.
fig. 5.) G. OP siD'ra, G. OF cabes (kahb'es), G. OF
aegina (e-jee'-na), or athens (ath'-enz—for last.
PI. VI. B.~R 3. — How many from Str. of Gibraltar^
R. 24).
Remark. G. of Lions (not Lyons, as that town lies
far distant) has its name from the violent storms and
waves which frequently cause it to swallow the ship as a
lion his prey. Some geographers give it Gulf of the Lion.
(192.) Levant. — E. coasts and waters of Mediterra¬
nean are often called the Levant—an Italian term, meaning
the "East"; more particularly applied to Turkey, Syria,
Asia Minor, Greece, Egypt, etc.
(193.) Scylla and Charybdis (in Sir. of Messina) the
terror of ancient mariners, and dangerous even to the
modern pilot. Charybdis (PI. V. B. fig. 2.)—an eddy or
current on the Sicilian side, just outside harbor of Messina
— 500 to 1000 feet deep — less the appearance of a whirl¬
pool than a current which sweeps the ship rapidly along
—in bad weather, heavy waves and winds render steering
almost impossible — when favored by a south wind, a ship,
escaping Charybdis, is in danger of being dashed to pieces
against Scylla (coast of Italy, N. entrance of the strait).
This is a high, precipitous rock, about 9 sea miles distant
— by the action of the waters worn, at its base, into
hollow cavities, connected with each other, through which
the floods rush with a roar said sometimes to resemble
the barking of dogs — between principal rock and eddy, a
number of other rocks, reefs and whirlpools — the strait,
20 miles in length, offers 23 good anchorages. In the
course of ages, the waters have worn away masses of
rock, and artificial means have been employed to render
the navigation less formidable. The experienced pilot,
choosing wind and time, may sail safely through Charybdis
and find fishing boats lying quietly under the shadow of
Scylla. But, in strong winds, no anchor, it is said, can
hold against the stream.
94
physical geography.
(194.) Water divisions of Baltic (without
river-mouths (PI. III. fig. 4). — Skagerrack,
cat'tegat, sound (B. 3) little belt, great
belt, (Pi. v.), g. of dantzig (dant'-sio). (E. 8 R.
from Skager Rack) — o. of riga (ree'-ga), g. of
finland, G. of bothnia (both'-ne - a). (R. 3 — How
many from Skager Rack? R. 9—R. water divisions of
Mediterranean and Baltic. How many? R. 33).
(195.) Waters of Great Britain and Ireland
(Pi. VI. B). — murray frith, frith of forth,
mouth of humber (R. 3) — THE wash, mouth of
thames (temz), str. of dover (R. 3 — R. from Mur¬
ray Frith) — british channel, estuary of south¬
ampton, portsmouth harbor (R. 3 — R. from Mur¬
ray Frith) — plymouth sound, bristol channel
st. george's channel (R. 3 — R. from Murray
Frith) — cardigan b. (kar'-de-gan), menai str. (men'-
ny), irish sea (R. 3.—R. from Murray Frith) —
north channel, frith of clyde (kllde), the minch
(R. 3 — R. from Murray Frith) — galway b. (gawl'-
way — Ireland). (How many from Murray Frith? R. 19.
— How many have you read altogether in Mediterranean,
Black and Baltic Seas, and in waters of Gr. Britain
and Ireland? R. 52. How many of these 52 names had
been counted before? Three, namely Str. of Gibraltar, British
Channel, Str. of Dover. Read these 49 names from
PL III).
(195 A.) Remark. Portsmouth harbor (PI. VI. B) —
unequalled in the kingdom — fortress considered impreg¬
nable— head-quarters of British navy — a secure shelter for
nearly whole fleet at same time — opens into celebrated
roadstead (162), called spithead, where vessels in the
Channel, during a storm, find a convenient asylum.
(196.) Water divisions of Oceania (PI. II). —
JAVA SEA (jah'-va), STR. OF SUNDA, BANDA SEA (R. 3)
— TORRES STR., CARPENTARIA G. (kar-pen-tah're-a),
water divisions.
95
moreton b. (R. 3 — R. from Java Sea) — bot'any b.,
bass str., great australian bight. (R. 3 — How
many from Java Sea! R. 9).
(197.) Water divisions of Antarctic Conti¬
nent (PI. II). — Begin with Bransfield Str., near
C. Horn. One of the class will please to pass around
Antarctic Continent in a circle from W. to E. and
read water divisions on PI. II.—bransfield str.,
near C. Horn, george iv sea, repulse b., porpoise
b., disappointment b. (R. 5. — Please point these out
on PI. I. K. M.).
(197 A.) The mouths of how many rivers thus far
learned'! (Rule 185 A — R. 4:5). — Mackenzie, Sas¬
katchewan or nelson r., st. lawrence, potomac,
mississippi, amazon, la plata, colorado, colum¬
bia, kwichpack, amoor, hoang-ho, yang-tse-
kiang, canton, ganges, indus, tigris and euphra¬
tes, zambeze, niger, rhine, weser, elbe, oder,
vistula, niemen, duna, obi, dwina, yenisei, lena,
rhone, po, nile, danube, prúth, dniester, dnie¬
per, don, volga, ural, sir-daria, amoo-daria,
humber, thames.
(197B.) Remark to teacher. Let class have ample time
silently to examine map before replying to each of follow¬
ing questions. Names to be all counted including repe¬
titions of starting-points, etc.
Questions-. How many water divisions of W. Continent
were given? 58. — How many seas and lakes in a line with
Mediterranean including river-mouths? 19.— How many
subdivisions of Mediterranean and Black Seas without river-
mouths? 24. — How many subdivisions of Baltic without
river-mouths? 9.— How many waterdivisions of Great
Britain and Ireland? 19. — How many waterdivisions of
E. Continent from Behring Str. to Behring Str. (excluding
those of 7 seas and lakes, of Baltic, and of Gr. Britain
and Ireland; but taking in British Channel and Str. of
Dover?) 66. — How many waterdivisions of E. Continent
altogether, with river-mouths? 137. — How many water-
divisions of Oceania? 9.— How many of Antarctic Continent?
96
physical geography.
5. — How many of E. Hemispbere altogether? 151. — How
many waterdivisions of whole globe have we named? 209. —
How many of these names have been counted more than once?
To guide the teacher. For following names counted
more than once, deduct — for Behring Str., 3;—. Belle Isle,
1—Mosquito B., 1—Panama B., 1—Str. of Malacca, 1 —
Bed Sea, 1—Str. of Dover, 1 — British Channel, 1—Str.
of Gibraltar, 2 — Behring Sea or Sea of Kamtchatka, 1.
Thirteen must be deducted from two hundred and nine.
Ileal number of names, 196. The error, referred to at
end of sec. 190, is the double counting of Behring Str.
and Behring Sea or Sea of Kamtchatka, which were counted
among divisions of W. Continent, and again among divisions
of E. Continent. Point 196 out on Pis. III. and IV.
(197C.) Remark. The review - lessons on Pis. III. and
IV, to be carefully repeated. The advantage of a clear,
universal outline far more than counterbalances the time
required. We present only a general statement of geograph¬
ical facts. But that statement ought to be as completely
learned, and as permanently retained through life, as the
multiplication table or the alphabet.
LAKES.
(plate ii.)
(198.) (W: Continent.) Remark a line of fresh water
lakes, running in a S. E. direction, through N. America,
from Arctic to Atlantic. One, called Great Salt Lake,
lies apart to the S. W. among Rocky Mts. We name
these by fives.
(199.) Lakes of N. America. — (E. of Rocky
Mts.) great bear lake, great slave lake, atha-
ba'sca lake, lake win'hepeg, lake of the woods
(R. Ö) — l. superior, l. michigan (mish'e-gan), l.
huron, l. erie, l. ontario (on-ta're-o^—between two
last, Falls of Niagara. — R. 5. — E. from Great Bear
L.—Lastly, apart, and among Rocky Mts., 4200 feet
above sea) great salt lake. — (How many? R. 11.)
'Remark. Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,
Ontario pour their surplus waters into Atlantic by the
river st. lawrence.
lakes.
97
(200.) Lakes of Central America. — nicara^
«ua lake. — (How many from Great Bear Lake7 B. 12.)
(201.) Lakes of S. America. — lake titicaca
(te-te-kah'-kah), (one of the most elevated of the world'.
11,540 feet above the sea. — How many from Great Bear
Lakel B. 13. — Point them out on PI. III., then on PI. IV.)
(202.) (E. Continent.) Lakes of Europe. —
Of twenty or thirty most prominent, we here name
only three, l. wener (way'-ner—Scandinavian Peninsula).
lakes ladoga (lah-do'-gah) and one'ga (between
Baltic and White Seas. — B. 3. — B. from Great Bear
Lake).
Bemark. Near the latter, observe other lakes; the
names however are of no importance. The adjoining
territory, Russian provincp of Finland, is nearly covered
with water, forming an immense system of lakes and
marshes. There is reason to believe it was once the
bottom of the Baltic (282 C).
(203.) Lakes of Asia. — Although we have
previously (190) read several inland waters of Asia,
we here take them again. Caspian sea, sea of ar'al,
L. balkash (B. 3.) l. baikal, l. tengui-n0r (ten'-
gree-nor), the latter, among Himalaya Mts., highest in
the world, 12,500 feet. (B. 5.—B. from L. Wener —
then from Great Bear Lake).
Remark. A small lake in Asia, the sir-i-kol (seer-
ee-kol')—forming one of the sources of Amoo-Daria R.,
is said to be 15,600 feet above the sea.
(204.) Lakes of Afric a. — l. melrhir, l. tsad,
tsana or dembea (B. 3) — l. albert-n y anza Or
lüt&, l. ukerewe (oo-ker-eh-we) or victoria-ny-
anza, l. tanganyika (tahn-gahn-yee'ka) (B. 3.—
B. from L. Melrhir) — l. nyas'si, l. ngami (n'gah'-
mee) (B. 2. — How many from L. Melrhirl B. 8. — B.
7
98
physical geography.
/roTO Caspian Sea — B. from L. Wener — R. from Great
Bear Lake).
Remark. The words Nyassi and Nyanza mean "lake"
in the aboriginal dialect. L. Melrhir, also called Melgig,
is salt and below the sea-level.
(205.) Lakes of Australia. — lake eyre
(air) — a salt lake. (How many from Great Bear Lake?
R. 30. Point them out on PI. IV).
(206.) Questions. — Define word Strait? (165). The
teacher will first read and then cause pupil to repeat
definition; then, to give examples. Channel? (166) —
Sound? (167)—Belt? (168)—Lake? (169) —Bight? (161)
— Bay? (160) —Gulf? (159)— Archipelago? (156)—Sea?
(155) —Estuary? (171) —Inlet? (179) —Frith? (171) —
Eddy or Whirlpool? (177) — River? (170)—Water-shed?
(139) — Basin? (140)—Marsh? (152 A) — Cataract? (173).
At close, teacher read remark (180).
ISLANDS.
(plate n.)
(207.) (W. Continent) — Arctic Archipelago,
from Behring Str. to Str. of Belle Isle. —
baring i., victoria i., king william i. (R. 3). —
parry is. with melville i., north devon (R. 3.—
Read from Behring Str.) — cockbdrn is., grinnell
land, greenland (R. 3.—Read from Behring Str)
— iceland. (How many from Behring Str.'t Read 10).
Remark. Iceland (PI. II; also PI. 1. figs. I. H. L;
also PI. IV) — lying nearer Greenland than European
coast, is, by many geographers, included among american
polar islands, although its population and civilisation are
European.—Baring I. — sometimes Bank's Land-, Cockbum
I.—sometimes Baffin's Land.
islands.
99
(208.) From Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito
Bay. — NEWFOUNDLAND, ARCHIPELAGO OF ST. LAW¬
RENCE, LONG ISLAND (R. 3). BERMUDA Or SOMEUS
IS.*, WEST INDIA IS. (R. 2. — R. from Behring Str.)
(209.) From Mosquito B. to B. of Panama.—,
marajo i. (mouth of Amazon), trinidad' i., Falk¬
land is. (fawk'-land), terra del fuego is. (fway'-go)
(R. 4). — antarctic archipelago, consisting of
south georgia, sandwich group, south orkney
and south shetland is. (R. 5. — R. from Mosquito B.)
— wellington is., chonos is. (ko'-nos—sometimes
called Chonos Group or Chonos Archipelago), i. of
CHiLOE (cheelo-â', almost cheel'-way) (R. 3. — R. from
Mosquito B.)—i. of ju'an fernan'dez, chin'cha is.,
seal or lobos is. (R. 3. — R. from Mosquito B.) —
galapagos (gah - lah - pah'-gos) or tortoise is. (How
many from Mosquito Bayf R. 16.—R. from Behring Str.).
(209 A.) Marojo I. ( or Johannes I.) — 450 m.
in circumference — part elevated by volcanic action
— part, by alluvial deposits brought down by the
river.
(210.) From B. of Panama to Behring Str.
or Baring I. — REVILLA-GIGEDO (ra-veel'ya hee-hay-
do), VANCOUVER I., QUEEN CHARLOTTE IS. (R. 3.)
— prince of wales i., sitka i., kodiak i. (R. 3.—
R. from B. of Panama) — Aleutian archipelago
(a-loo'-she-an) orrox is., to Behring str. again, (".ß. 7.
— How many islands of W. Continent^ R. 38. Point out
their places on PI. JV). Let us now return to:
(211.) West India Islands (PI. III. fig. 3). —
Vast Archipelago — greater part between tropic of Cancer
anc^lO"* N. parallel — some reaching more than 3® N.
of that tropic and approaching within about 50 miles
♦ Scene of Shakspeare's Tempest, in one of these islands.
7*
100
physical geography.
of Florida—extending, in two lines, somewhat in form
of a crescent, from peninsulas of Yucatan and
Florida to the mouth of Orinoco. They are said to
be more than 1000 in number, but, except about 60,
are barren islands or mere rocky islets. They are
sometimes called Columbian Archipelago, from Co-
"lumhus; Antilles (an-teel'), from being opposite to
the continent; West hidies, because, when Columbus
landed, he thought he had succeeded in finding part of
Asia, or the East India Is.
(212.) West India Islands divided (fig. 3)
into: bahama (ba-hay'-ma), or lucayo is., (loo-kï'-o),
greater antilles, lesser antilles, s. american
coast is. (R- 4).
(212 A.) Among bahama or lucayo is.,* are
new providence, cat i. and watlings i. (ot san
salvador or guanahani. (B. 3.—R. from Bahama Is.)
Remark. The Bahama Is., of coral formation, are
said to be about 500 in number — only 12 or 14 inhabited
—the rest, mere rocks and sand-banks—many not even
explored. On New Providence is the salubrious town and
capital, Nassau. — Cat I, — sometimes, but erroneously,
supposed to be the San Salvador of Columbus. — Watlings
Is. or Guanahani, the real San Salvador, on which Colum¬
bus landed, A. D. 1492.
(213.) Among Greater Antilles are: cuba
with ISLE OP PINES, JAMAICA (R. 3.) — HAYTi (hay'-tee)
or SAN DOMINGO, PORTO RICO (R. 5. — R. from Ba¬
hama Is.).
(214.) Among Lesser Antilles are: virgin is.,
SANTA CRUZ (krOOs), ST. BARTHOLOMEW (R. 3.) —
•
* Bahama Is. or Bahamas. — One of a class of names which
take an s when used alone: examples, Molucca Is. or Moluccas
— Bermuda Is. or Bermudas — Lucayo Is. or Lucayos — Madeira
Is. or Madeiras (Mah-deh'-rahs).
islands.
101
guadeloupe (gaw - da-loop'), martinique, baebadoes
(bar-bay'-does) (B. 3.—B. from Virgin Is.) — british
trinidad, st. john st. Jan), st. thomas (B. 3.
— Bead 9. Bead from Bahama Is.).
(215.) Among Soatli American Coast Is. are:
curaçoa (ku-ra-so'-a). (How many West India Is.
have we read includinq the names of the four qreat divi¬
sions? B. 22.).
(216.) West India Islands according to
nationalities. — The West India Is. (except Hayti
■which is independent) belong to 8 Powers, namely:
Spain, Gr. Britain, France, Denmark, Sweden, Vene¬
zuela, Holland, and the United States. Thus, with
the exception of Hayti and the islands belonging to
the United States, and Venezuela, they are entirely in
the possession of European nations. Spain owns the
larger portion: cuba, isle of pines, porto rico
(B. 3.) — to Great Britain belong: Bahama is., jamai¬
ca, barbadoes, trinidad (B. 4.—B. from Cuba)
to France-. Guadeloupe, Martinique (B. 2. — B.
from Cuba) — to Denmark-, santa cruz (B. from Cuba)
— to Sweden-, st. Bartholomew (B. from Cuba)—to
Venezuela: part of s. American coast is. (B. from
Cuba) — to Holland: curaçoa, etc. (B. from Cuba) — to
United States: st. thomas, st. juan. (How many from
Cuba? B. 15. — B. all West India Is.).
(217.) Questions on West India Is. — To
whom do the West India Is. belong? (216) — How are
they divided? (212) — Among Greater Antilles (an-teel')
are? (213). Among Lesser Antilles are? (214) — In
what division is I. of Curaçoa? (215).—Name governments
to which following Is. belong. Curaçoa? Holland. — St.
Bartholomew? Sweden. — Santa Cruz (kroos)? Denmark.
— Guadeloupe and Martinique? France. — Cuba? Spain.
— Jamaica (ja-may'ka)? Great Britain. — Porto Bico?
Spain. — Barbadoes? Gr. Britain. — Isle of Pines? Spain.
102
physical geography.
— Trinidad (trin - e - dad') ? Gr. Britain. — St. Thomas and
St. Juan"? United States. — (R. from PI. Ill, then from
PL IV). (i2. all from Behring Str.).
(217 A.) Windward or Leeward Is. {lee'-ward—often,
particularly by sailors, pronounced lu'-urd). — The Spanish
apply the term windward islands, that is, islands in the
wind, or in the direction from which the wind comes, to the
whole Lesser Antilles, because, from the eastern position
of these islands, they first receive the trade wind. The
South American Coast Is. are termed leeward islands, as
lying away from the wind—toward the lee, or that part
toward which the wind blows. When the wind blows a
ship toward the shore, the latter is called a lee-shore.
The English, and some american geographers, apply the
terms windward and leeward to different portions of Lesser
Antilles which are often also called Carihbee Is.
(217B.) Remarks on W. India Islands. — Their
history, from landing of Columbus till to-day, is peculiarly
interesting. The Spaniards exterminated the aboriginal
inhabitants of Hayti and introduced African slave-trade
and negro-slavery. Since then earthquakes, shipwrecks,
hurricanes (connected with currents and trade-winds, as
is the case also in East Indies), the atrocities of buccaneers,
etc., have followed each other in terrible succession. One
of the most interesting events is the history of Toussaint
L'Ouverture, the unfortunate hero of the I. of Hayti and
finally victim of Napoleon I.
(218.) (E. Continent.) From Behring Str. to
Str. of Malacca (PI. II.). — kookil is., saghalien
i. (sah-gab-lee'-en), island empire of japan (R. 3)
— Empire of Japan consists principally of four large
islands: yesso, niphon, sikoke (see-kok'), and kioo-
sioo {R. i. — R. from Behring Str.) — lew chew is.
(loo-choo), formosa i., britishi.ofhong-kong (R. 3.
— R. from Behring Str.) — Portuguese i. of maoao
(mah-cow'), Hain.an i. (hi-nahn'), singapore {Str. of
Malacca). (How many from Behring Str.'i _ß. iß).
islands.
103
(218 A.) L of Hung-kong — entrance of Canton R.—
belonginjr to England — good road-steads and harbor
—free from typhoons (violent tornadoes which sweep other
Chinese waters) — as a colony of Gr. Britain on Chinese
soil, a valuable and important position — head-quarters
of her mercantile, military and naval establishments in that
part of the world. Shortest sea voyage to London,
12,900 miles; shortest time, by sailing vessel, 102 days.
(218B.) Macao — Portuguese I. and town at
mouth of Canton R.—trade, tea and silk from interior,
chiefly in hands of Americans and English.
(218C.) Singapore ("city of the lion") — a small
island off S. extremity of Malay peninsula—purchased,
in 1819, by the English from the sultan of one of the
insigniflcant Indian states — chiefly valuable as a depot
(de-poh') for British and Indian trade with islands of
the eastern sea — a vast system of fortifications is
now in progress. Pop. about 80,000, among whom,
25,000 Chinese, 30,000 Malays and a few Europeans (A.
K. Johnston). "According to a recent authority", says
Lippencott, "tigers swarm in the jungles, sometimes
carrying off a great number of persons annually".
(219.) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. —
andaman is., nic'-obar is., i. of ceylon (see'-lon)
(R. 3.) — mal'dive i., lao'cadive is., i. of so co'tra
(R. 6 — R. from Behring Str.). *
(220.) From Red Sea, around África, to Str.
of Gibraltar. — Seychelles is. (sâ-shel'), ami-
rante is. (am-e-ranf), com'oro is., madagas'car i.
(a kingdom — R. 4.) — mascarene' is., consisting of
rodrigues (ro-dreeg'-ez), Mauritius (maw-rish'e-us)
or isle of france, reunion (formerly Bourbon)
(R. 4. — R. from Red Sea).— kerg'uelen land
(kerg'-e-len), or i. oF desolation, Tristan da cunha
(da-koon'-ya), st. helena (sent hel'-ee-na) (R. 3.—
R. from Red Sea) — ascension, annobon' i., st.
Thomas, fernando po i. (R. i. — R- from Red Sea)
104
FHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
CAPE VERDE IS., CANA'RY IS., MADEIRA IS. (mah-
deh'-rah) (R. 3.—R. from Red Sea) — .^z'ores is.
(Hawks Is. in portuguese). (How many from Red Seat
R. 19.—R. from Behring Str. — Point out four last on-
PI. IV).
(220 A.) Madagascar L — the inhabitants are of
various races; some with the black skin and woolly hair
of the negro; some mulattoes; and some resembling the
Malays. The whole population is colored except about
the one-twentieth part. "Their religion is a rude species
of polytheistic idolatry, and the monarch is the high
priest as well as the despotic ruler of his subjects. The
prevailing language, called Malagasse, bears no resemblance
to those of the opposite coast of Africa, but is very similar
in construction and forms to the Tagala, the most perfect
of Polynesian dialects. Christianity was introduced, for
the first time, in 1818, and the Scriptures have since been
translated into Malagasse. Under the late king, Radama,
the missionaries were protected, civilization introduced,
slave-trade abolished, and schools established; but since his
death, a disastrous change has taken place. The profession
of Christianity is prohibited under severe penalties, the
missionaries expelled, and many of the converts massacred.*
(220B.) Kerguelen Land — from the French navigator,
who discovered it, A. D. 1772 — about 100 m. long—a
mass of naked precipitous rocks and mountains, between
2 and 3000 f. high—inhabited only by sea birds, whales,
etc. — surrounded by immense fragments of drifting ice—
visited but by whale ships which find, amid the universal
desolation, a good harbor and plenty of coal.
(220 C.) St. Helena — a huge, volcanic mass of
bazalt, partly covered with lava, partly with fertile soil—
culminating point, nearly 3000 f.—population 6860, half
negroes — climate, temperate. The emperor Napoleon I.
confined here by British government, as a too persistent
disturber of the peace of mankind —remained from 16 Oct.
* Manual of Modern Geography by Rev. Alexander Mackay.
Edinburg and London. — one of the best.
islands.
105
1815 till his death, May 5, 1821. The island rises
almost perpendicularly from the sea—striking; the beholder
with astonishment and awe. "Almost impregnable from
nature", says Daniel, "the British government has trans¬
formed it into a fortress more formidable than Gibraltar.
Every height bristles with fortifications and canon."
(220 D.) Tristan da Cunha — was taken possession
of, in 1811, by Americans, but afterward abandoned.
During the imprisonment of Napoleon I, it was occupied
by the British government—at present the seat of a
little, well behaved, industrious English population of
9 families or 85 persons, under protection of the governor
of Cape Colony — an Episcopalian clergyman — climate,
temperate — ships, plying between India and Australia, and
not landing at the Cape, here stop for supply of water,
etc.—the island well watered and said to be one of the
healthiest places of the globe.
(221.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring^
Str. (Pl. II). — british channel and irish sea is.
(counted as one), Heligoland, british is. (i. e.
gr. britain and Ireland) (R. 5)—Hebrides (heb'-
rid-eez) or western is., Orkney is., shetland is.
(R, 3 — R. from Sir. of Gibraltar) — faroe is. (fah'-
ro, not to be confounded with Ferro I., the most south¬
west of Canary Is.) — lofoden i. (lof-fo'-den), Iceland
(again) (R. 3. — R. from Str. of Gibraltar) — jan
mayen i. (yan - mi'-en), Spitzbergen is., nova Zem¬
bla is. (R. 3. — R. from Sir. of Gibraltar) —new
siberia is., herald i. (How many from Str. of Gi-
braltarl R. 16).
Remark. From Herald I. (Pis. II and IV) has been
seen, in the distance, an unknown and unexplored coast
with high peaks.
(221 A.) Shetland I. — The ancients applied the
name ultima thdle (ul-ti-mah thu'-le) to what they
supposed the northernmost point of the habitable globe;
according to some, Iceland-, to others, Norway, to others,
with more probability, the largest of the Shetland Group.
106
PHTSICaL geogkapht.
(222.) Mediterranean Is. (PL XL 5 —PL VI. B).
— BALEAKic isles, Consisting of itiça (e tce'sah),
Majorca, misorca (2. 4). — elba. Corsica, bar-
disia (B. 3. — B. from Bakarie Is.) — Note, dose to
Naples, isCHiA and capri (is'-ke-«) ("ß. 2. — B. from
Balearic Is.) — lipari is. (lee-pah're), sicilt, malta
(B. 3.—B. from Balearic Is)—iosiab is. (i-o'ne-Ao)
and crecias archipelago (B. 2. — B. from BaUarie
3s.) — caspia or crete, rhodes (rod*), ctprcs
<si'-prns), (How many from Balearic /«.? B. 17).
(223.) Britisli Channel and Irish Sea Is.
(PL TL B). jersey, sark, gcersset, alderset
(the xormas is.) (B. 4). — i. of wight, scillt is.
(B. 2 — B. from Jersey).— (Iri-k Sea) i. of asglbsea.
i. of mas. (How many from Jersey^ B. 8.—How many
from Balearic /«.? B. 2-5).
(223 A.) SormoH Ifles (PL VL B) — hare remained
I in possession of England since cession of Xonnandj to
France bj kins John (A. D. 1Í15). A smngslers nest—
an asjlom for French exiles and political refugees—thej
are obnoxious to France; while England finds in them aa
important, fortified watch-tower on the coast of her power¬
ful neighbor. Since the restoration of Cherbonrg, and the
fortification of the whole French coast, their salue has
greatlj increased, and works of defence are alwajs
becoming more strong and formidable.
(221.) Baltic Sea Islands. (PL VLB.). —
FtrSES. sbe'lasd. laalasd (lah'-land) (B. 3.) —
falster, rc6es. borsholm (B. 3—B. from Funen)
oelasd (oh'-land), goth'lasd (Land of the Goths),
oesel (oh'-sel) (B. 3—B.from Funen)—dagoe (da-go-eh),
alasd (ah-land). (How many from Funen"* B. 11. How
■many hace tee now gicen. altogether, TTl and E. Comtinenisf
(Sec rule 185A). B. 150. Point them out on PL III.)
(225.) Islands of Oceania (Pb. II. IV — for
3nbdÍTÍiions see PL 1. G. F. E — Teacher read 103A.).—
islands.
107
Malaysia (Pl. II). — suma'tra, java (jah'-vah),
bor'neo (B. 3.) — celebes (sel-e-bes or beeze),
moldc'oa or spice is., philippines (fil'-ip-pin)
including I. of luzon (loo'-zown). (How many from
Sumatra? — B. 7). Sumatra, Java, etc., called Sunda Is.
Remark. Malaysia, sometimes called by various other
names, as Malay, Indian, Asiatic, Eastern Archipelago.
Many of these islands present very lofty volcanic peaks.
On I. of Java is the great seaport, Batavia, capital of the
Dutch possessions in the East, and the commercial emporium
of the Malay Archipelago.
(225 A.) Australasia — Australia (aws-tray'-
le-a), Tasmania (taz-may'-ne-a) (formerly Van Diemen's
Land—van dee'-menz), papua (pa'-poo-a) or new gui¬
nea (R. 3) — new caledonia, norfolk is., new
zealand is. including stewart i. (R. 4. — R. from
Australia) — warekauri i., antipodes i., Auckland
is., macquarie i. (R. 4. — How many from Australia?
R. 11. — R. from Sumatra).
(225B.) Remark. Antipodes I. (49° 32' S. lat.—178°
42' E. long.) — a small island in Pacific, about 600 m. S. E.
of New Zealand — the land nearest that point of the globe
diametrically opposite to London.
(225 C.) Polynesia. — ladrones (lah-drone'),
marshall is., sandwich or hawaiian is. (hah-wi'-
ee-an) (R. 3.)—American Polynesian is., fee'jee
is., friendly \s.,(R.3—R. from Ladrones) — society
is. with tahiti (ta-hee'-tce), low or dangerous is.,
pitcairn i. (R. 4—R. from Ladrones)—marquesas
(mar-kay'sahs), waihu or easter i. (How many from
Ladrones? R. 12.—Haw many of Malaysia? 7.—of Austral¬
asia? 11. — of Oceania? — R. 30).
(225 U.) Remarks on Oceania. — Of course we have
named only the chief islands. To enumerate the whole
would be useless, if not impossible. Some groups consist
108
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
of hundreds, the trhole of thousands of islands. The area,
including Australia, if joined, would about equal that of
Europe. The population (Malays, Negroes, etc.) has been
variously estimated at from 21 to 30 and even 35 millions.
The negroes are in a savage state. In Malaysia, mahome-
tanism is widely spread, but the religion of the greatest
part of the population of Oceania, as of the African
negroes, is feticMsm (fee'-tish-ism), one of the lowest and
most stupid. Material things are worshipped as the
abodes of spirits. The object worshipped is called the
fetish (fee'-tish). It may be a rock — a mountain - peak—
a tree — a serpent — a crocodile—a snail—a stone — an
old stick—a forest—in fact, anything.
(225E.) Names of subdivisions of Oceania. — Geog¬
raphers of different nations are not agreed as to these.
The French have the following; Malaysia, Melanesia,
Micronesia, Polynesia and Antarctic Lands. The Germans,
under the head of East India Is., include Malaysia and
the islands of Indian Ocean, and call the rest Australia
and Polynesia. Many german geographers give the name
South Sea Is. to Australasia. The great subdivisions are
not arbitrary; the different groups are marked by dif¬
ferences in the flora and fauna*, in the color and pecul¬
iarities of men. — Oceania is sometimes called the fifth
division of the globe; that is, America, Europe, Asia,
Africa, Oceania.
(225F.) Melanesia (from two Greek words, signifying
black and island) — those islands of Australia which form
a kind of semi-circle around Australia. Among them are:
New Guinea or Papua, New Caledonia. Pop. negro.
(225 Gr.) Micronesia (from two Greek words, signifying
small and island)—a name often given to that large crowd
of small islands lying N. of equator and E. of Malay
Archipelago.
(225H.) Philippine Is. — next Cuba the most valuable
(225 K.) * FAUNA — the various animals belonging to
a country — FLORA, the various plants.
islands.
109
colony of Spain—named after Philipp II — about 1200
islands — principal island, luzon (loo-zown'), on which,
Spanish city, manila (Pl. IV) — more than 100,000 inhab¬
itants. Earthqualfes common — in 1863, the greatest one,
when the ground sank two feet — cathedral, palace, and
most of the churches, destroyed—2000 lives lost.
(225 L.) Sandwich Islands (PI. IV) — about 15 in
number, only 8 inhabited — 3, little more than small, naked
rocks—4 or 5 prominent by their dimensions — on tropic
of Cancer — climate, mild and salubrious—with sea breezes
and moderate rains—precipitous coasts — few good harbors
—important from their position between America and
China, not only as a station for whale and other ships,
but marked by nature as the great naval and maritime
post commanding North Pacific Ocean—a center, surrounded
by a circle of important commercial states, etc. — Russia
—growing towns of Nicolajefsk and Petropaulovsk (448.
449) — United States Territory Alaska—Brit. Am. — Cali¬
fornia— Mexico — New Zealand — Australia — Malaysia with
great islands of Sumatra, Java, Pilippines — China—Japan,
etc. They are on the way to India and within limits of
tradewinds (603)—distance from Canton, 5800 m.; from
California, 3000 m.; from Australia and New Zealand,
between 3 and 4000 m. — Pop. 59,000; among them many
American citizens — aborigines (ab-o-rij'e-neez) rapidly
disappearing — Christianity introduced in 1819—govern¬
ment constitutional. Nearly all islands consist of high,
steep mountains of volcanic formation—on Hawaii, the
largest of the group, is Mauna Loa, one of the highest
active volcanoes of the world; and Manna Kea, the most
wonderful. (276 E. 277). Among productions are wheat,
sugar, coffee, cotton, arrow-root, cocoa, bread-fruit, etc.
A treaty of commerce is in negotiation between the
Hawaiian government and that of the United States.
(225 M.) Waihu or Easter I. — one of the Polynesian
group — about 2000 m. W. of Chili—remarkable for the
remains of colossal mason-works and the ruins of ancient
temples, which indicate a civilisation of remote antiquity
long passed away.
(225 N.) Questions on Oceania. — What five (arge
110
physical geogeapht.
islands of Oceania lie on, or near, equator? Answer:
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Papua or New Guinea.
What important island-group lies nearly in center of
Pacific, close to tropic of Cancer, between Mexico and
China? Sandwich or Hawaiian Is. What island is inter¬
sected by tropic of Capricorn? Australia. Name all groups
which lie wholly or partly within tropics ; first of Malaysia
(i. e. Malay Archipelago)? Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes,
Moluccas or Spice Is., Philippine Is.—in fact, Malaysia lies
entirely within tropics and chiefly on equator. What
islands of Australasia lie, partly or wholly, within tropics?
Australia, New Guinea or Papua and New Caledonia. What
islands of Polynesia? Ladrones, Marshall Is., Sandwich Is.,
American Polynesia, Feejee, Friendly, Society with Tahiti, Low
or Dangerous Is. What islands lie N. of tropic of Cancer?
Part of Sandwich Is. What S. of tropic of Cancer? Part
of Australia, Tasmania, Norfolk I., New Zealand including
Stewart I., Warekauri I. and Macquarie 1. ,
«
^225 0.^ Teacher see rule 185Â. How many islands
of W. Continent without West India Is.? 38. How many
West India Is. including names of 4 great divisions? 22.
How many Islands of E. Continent from Behring Str. to
Behring Str., excluding Mediterranean, Baltic, British waters
and Oceania? 54. How many islands of Mediterranean ? 17.
How many of British Channel and Irish Sea? 8. How
many of Baltic? 11. of Oceania? 30. How many islands
of the globe have we named? 180.
PENINSULAS.
(PLATE II.)
(226.) (W. Continent.) From Behring Str.
to Str. of Belle Isle. — boothia felix p., mel-
VILLE P., P. OF LABRADOR (R. 3.)
(227.) From Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito
B. — p. OF NOVA SCOTIA, P. OF FLORIDA, P. OF YUCA¬
TAN, (yoo-kah-tahn') (R. 3. — R. from Behring Str.).
PENINSULAS.
Ill
(228.) From Mosquito B. to Behring Str.—
p. OF CALIFORNIA, P. OF ALIASKA (ahl-yas'kah) (R. 2.
R. from Behring Str.).
(229.) (E. Continent.) From Behring Str. to
Str. of Malacca. — p. of tchooktchees (chook'-
chees), p. of Kamtchatka (kam-chat'ka), p. of corea
(ko-ree'a). (R. 3.)—p. of chin-india or indo-china,
p. of kambodia, p. of malacca (soutkeru part of
Indo-China. — R. 3. — R. from Behring Str.).
(230.) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. —
p. OF HINDOSTAN WITH P. OF KATTYWAR, P. OF ARABIA,
P. OF SINAI (sl-nay—up Red Sea. — R. 4. R. from
Behring Str.).
Remark. The water on the S. of the P. of Kattywar
(where "Nerbudda R." is written) is called G. of Cambay.
That which appears an immense gulf, on the N., is a vast
extent of morass, called the Great Runn of Cutch — area
7000 sq. m. — caused by an earthquake, in 1819, which
elevated one large, tract of land and depressed another —
often flooded by the rains, and, during the monsoon, by
the water — when dry, it swarms with flies — the only
product, salt. That small indentation of the Arabian Sea
which leads to the Runn of Cutch, N. of Kattywar, is G.
of Cutch. The name Cvtch or Kachh belongs to one of the
native states of India which includes the great Runn.
(231.) From Red Sea (around C. Good Hope)
into Mediterranean and Black Seas. — p. of
somauli (so maw'-lee), sp a nish p., p. of italy (R. 3.)
— turkish and grecian p. including p. of pelo¬
ponnesus or morea (PI. VI. B), p. of asia minor
(R. 3 — R. from Red Sea) — p. of Crimea (krim-ee'-a)
(How many from Red Seat R. 7 — R. from Behring
Str.).
(232.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring
Str. — SPANISH p., p. OF BRITTANY, DANISH P. Or
112
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
P. OF JUTLAND (R. 5^P. OF SC ANDIN AVIA, SAMOY-
EDE P., P. OF TAiMOOR (ti'-moor) (R. 3. How many
in E. ContJ R. 22. Which counted twice? Spanish P.).
Remark. — The Spanish P. is often, in English .liter¬
ature, called "thd' peninsula — also the: Iberian P., from R.
Ebro (ancient Iberus); — Brittany, generally, except in
England, Bretagne.
{233.) Peninsulas of Oceania. — (Australia)
ARNHEM p., YORK p. (R. 2. — R. fvom Behring Str.).
(234.) Peninsulas of Antarctic Continent. —
GRAHAM LAND P. (opposite C. Horn), KEMP LAND P.,
TERMINATION LAND P. (R, 3) — WILKES LAND P.,
VICTORIA LAND P. (S. of New Zealand—How many
Jrom Graham Land P. ? R. 5. — How many from P. of
Tchoohtchees? R. 30.—/rom Boothia Felix P.? R. 38.
Point out all peninsulas thm far learned, on PI. Ill, then
on PI. IV.).
CAPES.
(plate ii.)
(235.) (W. Continent.) From Behring Str. to
Str. of Belle Isle. — c. prince of wales, c. lis-
burn, point barrow or cape north (R. 3.) — c. bath-
ürst, c. union, c. constitution (R. 3.—R. from
Behring Str.) — c. farewell, c. chidley, c. st. louis
(R. 3.—R. from Behring Str.) — c. reikianac, (ri-ke-a-
nac—Iceland. — How many from Behring Str.? R. 10.)
(236.) From Str. of Belle Isle to Mosquito
Bay. — c. race, c. canso, c. sable (Nova Scotia) (R.
3.)—0. cod, sandy hook, c. hatteras (R. 3.—R.from
Belle Isle.) — c. sable (Florida), c. cato'che, c. gra-
ciAs-a-Dios (gra-se-as a-dee'-oce) (R. 3. — How many
from Belle Isle? R. 9. R. from Behring Str.)
C A.PES.
113
(237.) From Mosquito B. to B. of Panama.
— point gallinas (gahl-yee'-nahs), c. st. roque (rôk),
c. frio (free'o) (R. 3.) — c. maldonado, c. st.
antonio, 0. delgado (R. 3. — R. from Mosquito B.)
— c. HORN, c. . FROWARD, c. PARiNA (pah-ree'-na)
(R. 3. — R. from Mosquito B.) — c. blanco (How many
from Mosquito Bfi R. 10. — R. from Behring Str.).
(288.) Fro m B. of Panama to Behring Str. —
o. corrientes, c. st. lucas, c. mendocino (men-do-
see'-no) (R. 3.) — c. romanzoff, c. prince of wales,
(R. Ö. — How many from Behring Str.? R. 34.)
Remark. Another C. Corrientes in Africa (Mozambique
Channel). The same name given to several capes of New
Granada, Cuba, Mexico; also to a town and river of S.
America.
(239.) (E. Continent). From Behring Str. to
Str. of Malacca. — east cape (the most easterly of
the Old Continent), c. lopatka, c. king (Japan)
(R. 3.) — c. cambodia, c. romania (southernmost
point of Malacca, near I. of Singapore). (How many
from Behring Str.? R. 5.).
(240.) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. —
c. com'orin, c. or ras-el-had, and (up Red Sea,
at the S. extremity of P. of Sinai) c. or ras mohammed
(R. 3) — c. guardaful (gwar-dah-fwee') (R. 4.—R.
from Behring Str.). Ras — Arab — "a headland."
(241.) From Red Sea to Str. of Gibraltar. —
c. amber, c. st. mary (Madagascar I.), c. corrien'tes
(R. 3.) — c. agulhas (ah-gool'yahs), c. of good
hope, c. coast castle (R. 3. — R. from Red Sea) —
C. palmas, c. mesurado (mes-oo-rah'do), c. rox'o
(R. 3. — R. from Red Sea) — c. verde, c. blanco, c.
spartel' (R. 3.—How many from Red Sea? R. 12.—
R. from Behring Str.).
8
114
physical geography.
Remark. C. Spartet or Espartel— northernmost point
of Africa on Atlantic—at the beautiful entrance of Str. of
Gibraltar—a promontory rising 1000 feet above the sea.
(242.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Behring'
Str. (Pl. II). — o. st. vincent, c. finisterre, c.
st. matthieu (matb'-ü) (R. 3.)—c. land's end Yvlth
LizzARD vomT (England—south of Land's End—too near
for PL II, see PL VI. B), c. clear (Ireland) (R. 3.—R.
from Gibraltar.) — c. wrath (Scotland), the naze
(Scandinavia) (R. 2.—R. from Gibraltar.)—c. platen
and south cape (Spitzbergen I.), north cape (the
northernmost of Europe—R. 3.—How many from Gibraltar^
R. 11.—R. from Behring Str.)
(243.) From Str. of Gibraltar around Med¬
iterranean (PI. II, fig. 5.). — c. GATA (Spain),
c. palos, c. teulada (te-oo-lab'-dab) (R. 3.) — c. pas'-
saro (Sicily), c. spartiven'to (Italy), c. leuca (le-
oo'-ka—om on toe, the other on heel of Italy) (R. 3.—R.
from Str. of Gibraltar.) — c.matapan (Greece — a pro¬
montory), c. bon (Africa). (How many in Mediterranean
from Gibraltar 1 R. 8.—How many in E. Continent from
Behring Str. to Behring Str. including Mediterranean^
R. 40.)
(244.) Capes of Oceania. — c. york, c. more-
ton, c. wilson, c. chatham (Australia — R. 4.) —
south cape (Tasmania), north cape and east cape
(New Zealand — W. Hem. — R. 7.)
(245.) Capes of Antarctic Continent. —
c. possession (S. of C. Horn), c. ann (S. of Mada¬
gascar), 0. ADARE (a-dair'—S. of N. Zealand). (R. 3.
— How many from C. York? R. 10.—How many capes
of the globe altogether? R. 84, first from PL III, then
from PL rV.)
(245 A.) Questions. Define term island? (122.) — Island
chain? (123.) — Peninsula? (124.) — Archipelago? (156.)
MOUNTAIN CHAINS.
115
(24Ö.; Remark to teacher. After completing capes, the
teacher will ask some questions, like the following. The
pupil, of course, where necessary, will answer from the
maps. What waters surround P. of Nova Scotiaf—Italy? —
Hindostán ?—Kamtschatka ? •— Scandinavia ? — Yucatan ?— Den¬
mark?—Labrador?—United States Territory of Alaska?—
P. of Corea?—1. of Nova Zembla? — New Siberia Is.? —
Greenland? etc. — What island is washed by Queen Charlotte
Sound and Str. Juan de Fuea? — by Str. of Magellan? —
What pieces of land are separated by Str. of Gibraltar? —
Str. of Ormus? — Bab-el-Mandeb? — Belle Isle?—What lands
form O. of St. Lawrence, etc,— What lands separate Med¬
iterranean and Red Seas?
MOUNTAIN-CHAINS.
(PLATE II.)
(247.) Plate II is constructed to show, at a glance,
five different elevations of the globe's surface above
the sea level.
The green marks elevations — to 1000 English feet,
including lowlands, undulating regions, hills, plains, etc.
The light brown — from 1000 to 3000.
The next deeper brown — from 3000 to 5000.
The next still deeper brown — from 5000 to 10,000,
The black — from 10,000 to 29,000.
The white indicates perpetual snow.
(248.) "We divide mountains into three classes: —
Mountains of W. Continent ; — Mountains of E. Con¬
tinent;— Island Mountains, including Australia and
Antarctic Continent.
One mighty chain, in length about 9000 miles,
traverses W. Continent, nearly north and south. Another,
in length about 10,000 miles, crosses E. Continent,
nearly east and west. Each intersects its respective
continent, something as the backbone does a fish. The
8»
116
physical geography.
culminating point of the New "World is believed to be
mt. aconcagua (ah - kon - kab'-gwah—Chili), 23,910
feet; that of the Old World, gauris^nkar or mt.
EVEREST (Nepaul, near Hindostán), 29,002 f.
(249.) (W. Continent.) Great Pacific Range.
— A single immense chain, stretching from C. Horn
to Arctic Ocean, bears the general name of Great
Pacific Range, but has received local appellations, in
different latitudes and countries. In S. America:
Andes; in N. America: Volcanoes of Central America
(R. 3)—Cordilleras of Mexico (kcr-deel-yay'-ras) with
Sierra* Madre (se-er'-rah mah'dray), Wahsatch Mts.
(settlement of the Mormons) (R. 3) — Rocky Mts.
(How many excluding the name Great Pacific Range?
R. 6.).
(250.) Five Eastern Side Ranges. — From
whole Pacific Range (but separated by great valleys,
and, in one instance, by the ocean) beginning at C.
Horn, extend, on E., four subsidiary systems: Mts. of
Brazil (brah-zil'); — Mts. of Guiana (ghe - ah'-nab)
with Sierra Parime (pah-ree'-may) ; — West India Island
Mts.; — Allegha'ny or Appala'chian Mts. (R. 5.—R.
from Great Pacific Range).
(251.) Three Western Side Ranges. — A
western parallel chain or system of Rocky Mts.,
running along Pacific coast of N. America up to Mt
St. Elias, bears different names: — Sierra Nevada
(nay-vah'dah), Cascade Mts. and Coast Range. This
western parallel system traverses (PI. VII) California,
Oregon, Washington Territory, British America, and a
portion of United States Territory Alaska. The name.
* sierra — a Spanish word, signifying a saw, fre¬
quently used to designate a ridge, or chain of mountains.
Craggy peakfe, seen from a distance, often resemble a saw.
— cordilleras — English pronunciation, Kor-dil'-le-ras.
MOUNTAIN CHAINS.
117
Sea Alps, is, by German geographers, sometimes
applied to the Coast Range. (R. 3.—How many from
Pacific Range? R. 14.).
(252.) (E. Continent.) Great Central Trunk
of Asia and Europe, or Culminating Ridge of
E. Continent — starts from Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of
Japan, Yellow and China Seas, traverses southern
Asia, leaves the vast plains of northern Asia and
Europe on the N. (to pour their mighty rivers into
Arctic Ocean, Baltic and North Sea) overleaps Caspian,
Black and Mediterranean Seas, strikes broadly across
Soutbern and Central Europe, grazes N. coast of
Africa, and seems to re-appear in Azores, Madeira,
and Canary Is. (PI. IV). Let us now follow its
various principal names in Asia and Europe (PI. II).
(First in Asia). Himalaya Mts., Hindoo Koosh,
Elbruz Range (on plateau of Persia, south of Caspian
Sea — R. 3). Caucasus (between Black and Caspian
Seas), Taurus (on P. of Asia Minor), and, (striking
•from Taurus, south, through Palestine or Holy Land,
to Sinai Peninsula) Syrian or Lebanon Mts. (How
many? R. 6).
(Now in Europe) — continuing great Central Trunk
— Balkan Mts., Great Alpine System and Pyrenees.
~R. 3 — R. from, Himalaya Mts.)
(253.) Northern Side Ranges of Asia. —
Grouped, on the N., around Himalaya Mts., and, in
some degree, forming parts of them — Karakorum
Mts., Kuenlun Mts., Thian-Shan or Celestial Mts.,
and Altai (R. 4).
(254.) Southern Side Ranges of Asia. — Mts.
of Chin-India or Indo-China and Ghauts (Hindostán)
(R. 2 — R. from Karakorum Mts.)
(255.) Northern Side Ranges of Europe. —
Carpathian Mts., Mts. of Middle Germany; then
118
PHYSICAL GEOGKAFHY.
Still farther north, three isolated systems— Ural Mts.,
■Scandinavian Mts., and Mts. of British Isles (R. 5.
— R. from Karakorum Mts.)
Remark. Ural (yoo'-ral) or Oural Mountains (oo-rahl')
generally taken as boundary between Europe and Asia, are
•considered to extend into Nova Zembla Is. They might
be said to belong equally to Asia.
(256.) Southern Side Ranges of Europe. —
Grecian Mts., Apennines, Sierra Nevada. (R. 3.—
R. from Karakorum Mis.)
Remark. Sierra Nevada ("snowy mountain^'X—We have
already had a Sierra Nevada (269) in United States (Cal¬
ifornia). The name is given also to a mountain in Venez¬
uela (S. America), Nevado de Herida.
(256 A.) QuestiotiS on mountain-chains.—How many
names have we given of the Great Central Trunk of Asia
and Europe or Culminating Ridge of E. Continent from
Sea of Okhotsk and China Sea to Atlantic (excluding the
general name Great Central Trunk itself)? 9. How many
of these are in Asia? 6. In Europe? 3. How many northern
side ranges of the whole Central Trunki 9. How many of
these in Asia? 4. In Europe? 5. How many southern side
ranges? 5. How many in Asia? 2. In Europe? 3. How
many altogether of Central Trunk and all the side rängest
23. How many in Asia? 12. In Europe? 11.
(257.) Mountain-ranges of Africa. — We now
leave great Central Trunk of Asia and Europe, with
its side branches, and take Africa, separately. In the
N. W., Atlas, Plateau and Mts. of Abyssinia (Red
Sea), Mts. of the Moon or Snow Mts. (sometimes
called Jebel-el-homri) (R. 3)—Drakenberg, Cameroon
Mts., Kong Mts., and Mts. of Air or Ásben (Desert
of Sahara) (R. 4.—How many from Atlas'? R. 7. Class
to count (Rule 185 A) how many mountain-chains of the
globe altogether with side-ranges? 44. R. these from PI. Ill,
then from PI. IV. Teacher will find them (258) next section.)
MOUNTAIN CHAINS.
119
Remark. The table-lands and mountains of E. Africa
might be said to be also connected, by the elevated Arabian
and Persian plateaux, with Great Central Trunk of Europe
and Asia.
(258.) Review of Mountain Chains. — We
will read over list of mountain ranges from Great
Pacific Range.
(W. CONTINENT.) GREAT PACIFIC RANGE.—AndeS
— Volcanoes of Central America — Cordilleras of
Mexico—Sierra Madre — Wahsatch Mts.—Rocky Mts.
(259.) FIVE EASTERN SIDE RANGES. — MtS. of
Brazil — Mts. of Guiana with Sierra Parime — West
India Island Mts.— Alleghany or Apallachian Range.
(260.) THREE WESTERN SIDE RANGES (of Rocky
Mts. — with three different names)—Sierra Nevada
— Cascade Mts. — Coast Range.
(261.) (E. CONTINENT.) GREAT CENTRAL TRUNK
OF ASIA AND EUROPE, OR CULMINATING RIDGE OF E.
CONTINENT. — (Asia) Hymalaya—Hindooh Koosh
Mts. — Elbruz Range — Caucasus — Taurus — Syrian
or Lebanon Mts. — (Europe) Balkan Mts. — Alpine
System — Pyrenees.
(262.) NORTHERN SIDE RANGES OF ASIA. —
Karakorum Mts. — Kuenlun Mts. — Thian - Shan or
Celestial Mts. — Altai.
(263.) SOUTHERN SIDE RANGES OF ASIA. —
Mts. of Chin - India or Indo - China — and Ghauts
(Hindostán).
(264.) NORTHERN SIDE RANGES OF EUROPE. —
Carpathian Mts.— Mts. of Middle Germany — ; (still
farther N. — three isolated groups) Crul Mts. — Scan-
dinacian Mts. — Mts. of British Isles.
120
physical geography.
southern side ranges of europe.
Grecian Mts. — Apennines — Sierra Nevada.
(266.) mountain-ranges of africa. — AtlaS
—Plateau and Mts. of Abyssinia — Mts. of the Moon
or Snoic Mts. (Jehel-el-Komri) — Drakenherg — Cam¬
eroon Mts. — Kong Mts. — Mts. of Air or Ashen.
(B. these over again from PI. IV—i. e. from sec. 258 —
266.)
MOUNTAIN HEIGHTS OR PEAKS.
(267.) We now select some chief separate heights
of this great skeleton of mountain chains. The words,
"no peak", mean merely, no peak of sufficient importance
for our list. The arable numbers, giving the height,
need not be read more than once.
(WESTERN CONTINENT.) Great Paclflc Range.
First repeat the six different names of this range (258).
(s.america) — Andes chain. — Chief peaks are;
aconcagua, 23,910 f., sahama, 23,014 f., illimani
(eel-yah-mah'-neh), 21,150 î. (B. 3).—chimborazo (chim-
bo-rah'zo), 21,424 f., cotopaxi (ko-to-pax'ee), 18,875 f.,
tolima, 18,000 f. (B. 3 — B. from Aconcagua.)
(n. america) — Volcanoes of Central America
— V. IRASU, 11,200 f., V. AGUA, 15,000 f. (B. 2.—
B. from Aconcagua).
Cordilleras of Mexico with Sierra Madre —
popocatepetlb, 17,780 f., orizaba, 17,372 f. (B.
2 — B. from Aconcagua).
Wahsatch Mts. — No peak.
Rocky Mts. — pike-speak, 11,497 f., fremont-s
peak, 13,570 f., mt. murchison, 15,790 f. (B. 3.)—
mt. brown, 16,000 f., mt. hooker, 16,750 f. (highest
measured point of Rocky Mts.). (B. 2. — How many from
Aconcagual B. 15.)
mountain peaks.
121
(268.) Five Eastern Side Ranges. — (R. them 259.)
Mts. of Brazil—mt. itambe (e-tahm'bay), 6000 f.
Mts. of Guinea with Sierra Parime. — mt.
roraima (ro-ri'-mah), 7500 f., mt. maravaca, 10,500 f.
(B. 3.)
West India Island Mts. — pico turquino (toor-
kee'no), highest point of Sierra Maestra, in Cuba, 7670 f.,
blue mts., in Jamaica, 7770 f., mt. cibao, in Hayti,
7 200 f. (R. 3 — R. from Mt. liamhe).
Alleghany or Apallachian Mts. — black mts.
with black dome, in N. Carolina, 6707 f., white
mts. with mt. washington, in New Hampshire, 6288 f.
(R. 4 — R. from Itambe.)
(269.) Three Western Side Ranges. — R. them.
— Sierra Nevada., Cascade Mts. and Coast Range.—
The peaks are: mt. shasta, (Calif:) 14,440 f., mt.
hood, 14,361 f., mt. olympus, 8000 f. (R. 3.) —
mt. fairweather, 14,783 f., mt. st. elias, 14,970 f.
(R. 2 — R. from Mt. Shasta.— How many peaks of Great
Pacific Range, five eastern side ranges and three westemt
R. 30. Rule 185 A).
(270.) (E. Continent.) Great Central Trunk of
Asia and Europe, or Culminating Ridge of E.
Continent. — R. names of this Trunk (261).
(270 A.) (asia.) Himalaya Mts. (him-a-lay'a).—
kunchinjinga, 28,156 f., gaurisankar Or mt.
everest, highest measured peak in the world, 29,002
f., dholagiri or dhavalagiri (da-wol-a-gher'-ee),
26,826 f. (R. 3.)
(270B.) Hindoo Koosh. — hindoo koh, 20,000 f.
(R. from Kunchinjinga.)
(270 C.) Elbruz Range (on plateau of Persia,
south of Caspian). — demavend, 18,464 f. (R. from
Kunchinjinga).
122
ppysical geography.
(2 70 D.) Caucasus. — mt. elbruz, 18,570 f.,
mt. ararat, 16,964 f. (R. from Kunchinjinga.)
Remark. Mt, Elbruz, highest peak of Caucasus, not
to be confounded with Elbruz Range, on plateau of Persia,
south of Caspian Sea (sometimes called Elburz).
(270E.) Taurus. — mt. argaeus, 13,000 f. (.ff.
from Kunchinjinga.)
(270 F.) Syrian or Lebanon Mts. — mt. hermon,
9400 f., mt. sinai, 9000 f. (R. from Kunchinjinga.)
Remark. Lebanon ("snow or white"). The snow-capped
Mt. Hermon commands a strikingly interesting panorama—
Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Range — Damascus with its
green plain — the desert beyond—Mediterranean — narrow
coast of ancient Phoenicia (fe-nish'e-a), with the antique
cities of Tyre (tire) (now Sour or Sur), Sidon (now Saida)
and Tripolis — Antioch (an'-ti-ok), ancient metropolis of
Syria, where the followers of Christ first received name,
"christians"—mountains of Samaria and of Galilee — the
Jordan R. — Lake Tiberias — in length 16 m., in breadth
6 m.—in the grandeur of its appearance, almost equaling
L. Geneva. On its shore Jesus saw Peter and Andrew his
brother casting their nets, and said unto them', "follow
me, and I will make you fishers of men." On its waves
our Saviour walked and Peter attempted to follow his
example. The Bible uses Lebanon as a type of its most
grand and glorious revelation. Isaiah, describing the future
earth during the millenium, says: "It shall blossom abund¬
antly and rejoice even with joy and singing; the glory of
Lebanon shall be given unto it." Solomon despatching an
embassy to Hiram, King of Tyre, to procure cedars for the
building of the first temple (as the type of Christianity, or
rather of the invisible Church of Christ) says: "Send me also
cedar trees, fir trees, and algum trees out of Lebanon .... for
the house which I am about to build shall be wonderful great."
—The cedars of Lebanon are particularly spoken of. They
have now almost entirely disappeared — about 380 remain —
some of the largest have a circumference of forty feet,
consisting, however, of two or more trees grown together,
and undoubtedly 3000 years old. Solomon and David may
mountain peaks.
123
have reposed beneath their branches. They are held sacred
by Turk, Greek and Roman Catholic. The christian pilgrim
to the Levant, even from I. of Cyprus, more than 60 miles
distant, can behold these mountain forms, on a clear day,
lying like clouds in the sky. As his vessel advances, the
bold Syrian coast rises to view, and the whole range of
Lebanon towers like a huge wall. He remembers the glory
of David and Solomon and of a greater than Solomon.
The Lebanon may be said to belong to the Caucasian Mts.,
and to extend down to Horeb and Sinai. (Pis. II and III,
fig. 5.)
K. names of Great Central Trunk or Culminatiiig
Ridge in:
(europe.) — Balkan Mts. No peak.
Great Alpine System. — mont blanc, culminating
point of Europe, 15,810 f.
Pyrenees. — pic nethou (peek neh-too'), 11,168
f., mont perdu, 10,904 f. {Tlow many from Mont Blanc?
B. 3. How many from Kunchinjinga? B. 13.)
(271.) Northern Side Ranges of Asia. —
R. them. (262.)
Karakorum Mts. — dapsang peak, one of the
highest of the globe, 28,272 f. ,
Kuenlun Mts. (kwen'-loon). — No peak.
Thian Shan (te-ahn'shan) or Celestial Mts. —
TENGRI-KHAN, 20,000 f. (B. 2.)
Altai Mts. pillars of katoonya, 12,000 f.,
BiELUCA, 12,700 f. (How many from Dapsang Peak?
B. i.—How many from KuncMnjinga? B. 17.)
(272.) Southern Side Ranges of Asia. —
R; them (263.).
Mts. of Inda China. — No peak.
Ghauts* (gawts). — NEILGHERRIES (neel), 10,000
f. (How many from Dapsang Peak? B. 5.—How many
from Kunchinjinga? B. 18.)
* Ghaut means a way or pass through a mountain ; also,
a range or chain-of mountains.
124
physical geography.
(273.) Northern Side Ranges of Europe.
— R. them (264.).
Carpathian Mis. (kar-pay'the-an). — No peak.
Mts. of Middle Germany. — No peak.
(Still farther North) Ural Mts. — konjakofski,
5397 f.
Scandinavian Mts. (skan-de-nay'-ve-an). —
YMESFIELD, 8540 f.
Mts. of British Isles. — mt. snowdon (Wales),
3590 f. BEN NE'VIS (Scotland), 4368 f. (B. the last 4.
How many from Dapsangi B, 9.)
(274.) Southern Side Ranges of Europe. —
R. them (265). (For sec. 274, consult PI. VI. B.)
Grecian Mts. — mt. olympus, 9749 f.
Apennines (Italy). — monte corno, 9520 f.,
v. vesuvius, (near Naples), 3948 f. and v. etna
(Sicily), 10,875 f. (B. 4.)
Sierra Nevada (Spain). — cerro mulahacen,
11,663 f. (B. 5. How many from Konjakofskil B. 9.—
How many from Karakorum Mts.? B. 14.—How many
from Kunchinjinga? B. 27.)
Bemarh. Cerro Mulahacen—a majestic pyramidal peak,
cut off at the top — N. side a precipice of 2000 f. — highest
point of Spain and (except several Alpine peaks) of Europe.
— Name from Muley Hassan, one of the last Moorish Kings
of Granada. The Arabs ( Saracens or Moors ) invaded
Spain 711 and held possession about 600 years.
(275.) Mountain Ranges of Africa. —
R. them (266).
Atlas. — miltsin' peak (milt-seen'), 11,400 f.
Mts. of Abyssinia. — abba yared, 15,000 f.
(Ä. 2.)
Mts. of the Moon or Snow Mts. (Jebel-el-Komri),
— mt. kenia (ke-ne'-ah), 21,000 f., mt. Kilimandjaro
(kil-e-mahn-jah-ro'), 20,000 f. This range is also called
Dschaga Mts. (B. 2 — B. from Miltsin Beak).
MOUNTAIN PEAKS.
125
Drakenberg (sometimes called Quathamhd). —
COMPASS MOUNTAIN, Culminating point of all South
Africa, 10,200 f.
Cameroon Mts. — albert peak, 13,119 f. {R.
from MiUsin Peak.)
Kong Mts. — No peak.
Mts. of Air or Ashen. — peak of ashen, from 3
to 5000 f. {How many from Aliltsin Peak? R. 7.—How many
from Carpathian Alts.? R. 16. — How many from Kara-
korum? R. 21. — How many from Kunchinjinga? R. 34.)
Remark. Opinions differ as to the location of Mountains
of the Moon. Ptolemy, 1700 years ago, described them as
covered with eternal snow which formed two lakes — the
sources of the Nile; and, after arabian authorities, called
them, also, by the now little used term, Jehel-el-Komri. But
as, notwithstanding reports, we have not yet (April 1867)
discovered the sources of the Nile, it is not possible to
say what range Ptolemy meant. The name is sometimes
applied to mountains west of Victoria Nyanza; but, by the
best authorities, to those east of that lake — where we have
accordingly placed them. The English traveller, Speke
(1858), represented them — but only from report and, it is
believed, quite erroneously—as crossing Central Africa,
N. of L. Tanganyika.
(276.) Island Mountains, including Austra¬
lia and Antarctic Continent. —
(276 A.) Island Empire of Japan.— mt. foosee-
YAMA (Niphon), 12,000 f.
(276 B.) Sumatra. — dempji, 10,440 f., singal-
lang, 10,150 f., ophir, 13,000 f. {R. 4.)
(276 C.) Java. — Highest peak semeroe, (pr.
Semeroo) 12,150 f.
(276D.) Borneo. — kinibaloo peak, 13,680 f.
(276 E.) Sandwich Is. — (On Hawaii (ha-wi-ee)
126
physical geography.
or Owhyhee, the largest and most southerly), v. mauna
LOA (mov'-nah-lo'ah), 13,760 f., v. M a un a kea, 13,950
f., v. kilahea, (kil-o-e'-a) 3970 f. (E. 9.)
(276 F.) New Zealand — MT. EGMONT, 8270 f.,
MT. COOK, 13,200 f. {R. 11.)
(276G.) Ceylon (see'-lon). — pedrotallagalla,
8280 f.
(276H.) Madagascar. — ankaratra, 10,000 f.
{R. 13).
(276K.) Cape Verde Is. — v. fogo, 9157 f.
(276L.) Canary Is. — peak teneriffe (pico
de teyde), 12,180 f. (i2. 15.)
(276 M.) Azores. — peak of pico (pee-co), 7613 f.
(276 N.) Iceland. — mt. hecla, 5110 f., mx.
oeraefa-jokull, 6409 f. {R. 18.)
(276 0.) Australia. mx. sea view, 6000 f.;
Australian Alps, mx. hoxham, 7500 f. {R. 20.)
(276P.) Antarctic Continent. — mx. erebus,
active volcano, 12,367 f., mx. terror, 10,884 f. The
range has been called ross mxs.; near meridian of C.
Horn: mx. william, 4500 f. (R. 3 — How many from
Mt. Fooseeyama R. 23.).
(277.) Mt. Kilauea, notwithstanding its inferior height,
is one of the most wonderful volcanoes in the world —
not a lofty peak, but rather an upward sloping volcanic
plateau, 4000 feet above the sea, with a crater three miles
in diameter and ten miles in circumference — a frightful,
unfathomable abyss of ever red and boiling lava, so that
it seems to offer a glimpse into the burning central regions
MOUNTAIN RANGES.
127
of the globe. The surface of this fiery lake is between
500 and 1000 feet below the upper edge of the crater
and, seen in the night, is awful beyond description. The
I. Hawaii itself is wholly volcanic. Its coasts are com¬
posed of lava or volcanic cinders, presenting perpendicular
overhanging cliffs, worn and broken by the furious billows
of the sea and indented with deep caverns inhabited by
innumerable birds.
(277 A.) Questions. — How many mountain-ranges
of globe altogether? 43. How many mountain - peaks of
W. Continent? 80. of E. Continent? 34. How many peaks
of globe altogether including Island Mountains? 87.
(278.) The Pacific Range — longest unbroken line
of lofty summits on the globe — is, in its whole extent,
of volcanic origin, full of extinct craters, intermittent
volcanoes and others in constant action. The Cordilleras
of Central America contain more volcanoes, in frequent
eruption, than any other country of equal area, except
the antipodal* Island of Java. The volcano Agua,
15,000 feet, is the highest of Central America. It
receives its name from the fact that it emits torrents
of hot water and stones, instead of fire. The Andes,
forming, in some degree, a double chain, after reaching
their greatest elevation in Mt. Aconcagua, gradually
decline in height, as they approach Str. of Magellan,
where they are only from 4000 to 7500 feet. They
include many magnificent and awful volcanoes. The
Cotopaxi, 18,875 feet, sometimes shoots flames 3000
feet above its summit, with a roar which, it is said,
can be heard at the distance of 550 miles. The region
of the Andes is celebrated for the sublime beauty of
its scenery and the abundance of mineral riches (gold,
silver, copper, lead, iron, etc.). Terrible earthquakes
frequently devastate towns and shake the whole ad¬
jacent continent. At Copiapo (Chili) there is an earth-
* Antip'odal : — pertaining to the antipodes, or those who
have their feet directly opposite ours.
128
physical geography.
quake almost every day. The cluster of broken rocky
islands, on west coast of Patagonian Peninsula, were
probably rent from the mainland by convulsions of
this nature. — Until recently, mt. elias was supposed
the highest point of N. America, and its altitude
erroneously given at 17,900 feet. It has lately been
J measured by the Russians, in their coast survey, and
found to be 14,970 feet. The highest peak in N.
America, yet measured, is popocatepetle (Mexico),
17,780 feet The general elevation of the other Rocky
Mountain peaks is supposed to range between 10,000
and 16,000 feet. Some peaks may, however, be higher.
Their height is far surpassed by the peaks of 8.
America. The Chimborazo, 21,424 feet, was formerly
believed the loftiest in the world. Subsequent measure¬
ments have corrected this error. There are at least
six higher summits of the Andes; and the highest
Andes peak, Aconcagua, 23,910, is overtopped by
nineteen known peaks of the Himalaya', possibly by
many others, mt. Washington, piled upon the top
of aconcagua, would ahout reach the height of
Gaurisankar (Mt. Everest) 29,002.
We have selected only a few Andes peaks. There
are more than 50 stupendous eminences along the
chain; and 70, although less high, in N. America; in
all more than 120 (without side ranges). In the
Himalaya have been measured 216 peaks, of these 17
are more than 25,000 f., 40 more than 23,000 f., and
120 more than 20,000 f.
(279.) Volcanoes of Pacific. — A line of volcanic
action extends from Aleutian Is., through Island king¬
dom of Japan', Philippine Is., Sumatra and Java; in
latter island, it reaches its maximum, in about 50 vol¬
canoes. "One of these extinct volcanoes, generally
called Guem Upas, or Vale of Poison, half a mile
round, is held in horror by the natives. Every living
creature that enters it, drops down dead, and the soil
is covered with carcasses of deer, birds, and even the
MOUNTAIN RANGES.
129
bones of men, killed by the carbonic acid gas which
lies at the bottom of the valley. In another crater,
are found the half preserved relics of animals, tigers,
birds, innumerable insects, etc., killed by the sulphureous
exhalations. In the regions of this volcanic line earth¬
quakes are of frequent occurrence causing great devas¬
tations, sometimes destroying 23 villages at a time.
This was the case in Jesso 1783. A volcano of Kioo-
Sioo is the terror of the natives. An eruption (1792)
destroyed- 50,000 people". In Iceland have occurred
the most destructive eruptions on record, their ashes
reaching even the Orkney Islands. The Great Geyser
throws out water sometimes 100 feet high.*
(280.j Himalaya Mountains of snow", Imaus
of ancients,) — name more particularly applied to those
massive heights, loftiest of the globe, N. boundary of
Hindostán — length, 2000 m. — breadth, 100 to 350 m.
— mean height of peaks, twice that of Alps — S. side
terminated by precipices 4000 to 5000 f., between
which and higher northern ranges, lie fertile valleys,
Nepaul, Bootan, etc. (PI. III). Karakorum Pass,
connecting Cashmere with China, is 18,600 f. high —
other passes, more than 20,000 f. — almost altitude of
Black Dome (N. Carolina), 6707 f., piled upon Mont
Blanc, 15,810 f. Vegetation flourishes at 18,000 f.
(hundreds of feet higher than highest snow peak of
Europe), in consequence, it is said, of the serenity
and dryness of the air and heat radiated from extensive
sloping table-lands. These stupendous masses—some
covered with snow, others naked forms of granite
rock, amid which gleam, here,- dazzling glaciers, here,
beautiful vailles, there, ravines of tremendous depth
worn by impetuous mountain streams — present scenery
astonishingly magniflcent and sublime. Five distinct
regions with regard to climate and vegetation: 1. Lowest,
tropical zone on south side. 2. An elevation of 5000
* Lippencott's valuable "Pronouncing Gazetteer".
9
130
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
feet, blending climate and vegetation of torrid and
temperate zones. 3. About 8000 f., productions almost
entirely those of temperate zone of Europe and
America. 4. Elevation between preceding and snow¬
line, corresponding to alpine region of Switzerland.
5. Perpetual snow. Among these mountains lie a
number of small states with monarchical or, so-called,
republican institutions, most of them tributary to
England.
(281.) Remarks on Mountains.— Maps gener¬
ally do not present mountains as they exist in nature,
where we seldom find a distinct range like a long
wall crossing a plain. What we call a chain is, in
fact, a broad mountain - region, the whole surface
upheaved, rising gradually to a culminating ridge.
PI. II gives principally these culminaiing ridges. They
form the water-sheds, elevations many hundred miles
broad. A glance at PI. II will show how the rivers
flow off on either side from these water-sheds. Observe
what portion of the globe's surface is occupied by
plains and vaUeys.
(282.) The Scripture teaches that God created the
heavens and the earth, and that the latter, before it
became tbe abode of man, had passed through several
astonishing transition - periods. Science has attempted
to examine into the mysteries of pre-adamic nature,
and has discovered many striking facts as to the
progressive course and processes of this creation; but
it has made no progress whatever toward explaining any
original cause of things in nature itself. According to
a theory now generally received, the sun, earth, other
planets, moons, etc., composing the solar system, were
once a mass of gaseous matter, at some time ignited,
and throwing off fragments or rings, which, gradually,
took the shape of globes or planets. The central
portion became the sun. The burning and perhaps
liquid globe of the earth slowly cooled, requiring for
REMARKS ON MOUNTAINS.
131
that process, according to Bischof, three hundred and
fifty million years, (while the formation of our com¬
mon coal-measures occupied, it is said, a period of one
million and a half). The surface or crust appears to
have afterward been covered with one universal ocean,
deposited by the slowly cooling atmosphere. Above
this ocean, subsequently, arose continents and islands,
and, at later successive periods, mountain-ranges and
peaks. We know little of the interior of our planet.
Ten miles is about the greatest depth to which man
has ever penetrated; that is, 1 — 400 th (one four-
hundredth) of the distance from surface to center.
But enough is known to suggest the opinion
that the earth is a globe of molten lava, or other
matter so intensely heated as yet to consist of a
burning fluid mass. Everywhere the temperature
increases, in proportion as we go deeper, at the rate
of about I» Fahr, for every 55 feet from the surface.
This heat, at a depth of 20 or 30 miles, would hold
granite in a state of fusion, and dissolve, into a
liquid form, the most refractory elements of which the
globe is composed. The increase of heat, as we de¬
scend, is, generally, regular and uniform.
(282 A.) Remark. The above hypothe.sis of the
origin of the earth, and of the present fiery, liquid
state of its central regions has, however, opponents.
In this, as in all theories of science, not absolutely
demonstrated, the student must bear in mind the advice
of Humboldt, "not to confound that which is based only
on imperfect induction, with that which has been reduced
to mathematical certainty."
(282 B.) Learned men were once divided upon
the question, whether the changes and irregularities
of the earth's surface resulted from water or fire. It
is now admitted that those irregularities have been
produced by the co - operation of fire and water.
Mountains are thus divided into neptunic and plutonic.
9*
132
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
The materials composing the tieptunic, result from the
agency of water (remember the entire surface of the
globe was once ocean) which has deposited regular
etrata, one above the other, containing ore and fossils.
The formation of these strata (sand stone, free stone,
marble, etc.) must have required immense periods
whose duration man can only conjecture. The plutonic
mountains consist of rocks (granite, porphyry, etc.),
probably consolidated, at an ancient geological date,
from a melted condition, at a great depth from the surface.
The plutonic formations lie, it is said, at the bottom
■of the earth's solid material; and, at successive periods,
havp been elevated into mountain-ranges, peaks,
islands, etc., by fiery eruptions and upheavals which
burst through the neptunio formations, and gave, to
their horizontal strata, slanting, and sometimes even
perpendicular positions. Geologists report several
extremely striking facts: 1. The mountain - chains,
disposed in parallel lines, have been elevated at the
same period. 2. The mountains, elevated in the most
remote geological age, are the lowest and occupy the
least area. 3. The earth has been convulsed by about
12 telluric* eruptions of this kind. 4. The intensit}' of
the plutonic, subterranean energy increases as our
planet grows older. 5. The mountains, later thrown
up, are the most stupendous; among them the Andes,
with their gigantic peaks. In Europe, the highest
Alpine peaks, Mt. Blanc, etc., are the most modern.
The Scandinavian Mts. are very ancient, consisting of
primary rocks, with the oldest deposited strata lying
unbroken above them.
(282 C.) Science teaches that these changes of
nature are not yet at an end. The present repose of
the earth is only an interval. There is some reason
to believe that the next planetary crisis may be on a
* TEL-Lû'-Ric — from the L. tellus, the earth—pertaining
to the earth.
REMARKS ON MOUNTAINS. 133
greater scale than its predecessors. The burning
central regions are continually in activity, indicated
hy volcanoes, earthquakes, boiling springs, etc. The
bottom of the ocean has volcanoes which throw up
mountain masses and new islands. There are, at least,
400 Volcanoes upon the land, of which more than
half are in a state of activity. By far the greater
number are found on islands. The surface of some
parts of the globe is always rising — for instance,
Scandinavia and other regions around the Baltic. The
waters of that sea are continually retiring at about
the rate of an inch a year. Lübeck, once a sea-port,
is now 12 miles from the shore. "All the geological
phenomena", says Humboldt, "point to this periodical
alternation of rest and activity. The earthquakes
which agitate the surface of our planet in all its strata
and beneath every sky — the ascending Sweden — the
rising of new islands, etc., show the crises to which
Nature is exposed."
RIVERS.
(PLATE II.)
(283.) Not only the surface of-a country, but the
size and course of rivers, are determined by mountains,
whose flanks absorb the moisture of the atmosphere,
forming immense everlasting accumulations of water
and ice. Snow peaks and Alpine glaciers are always
melting and thus feeding rivers. Ice-masses have been
measured, in Switzerland, more than 600 feet deep.
These, in their turn, are renewed by the universal and
perpetual exhalations from the waters of the globe.
Nature has thus established a never ceasing circle of
demand and supply. If there were no mountains, there
would be few or no rivers. The sublimely beautiful
mountain-ranges, and the rivers which flow from them,
thus obviously belong to a plan; for, what reasonable
mind can fail to see that the earth is a creation; that
134
physical geography'.
its Creator designed it as the abode of man — that
mountains are framed as work-shops of rivers and
ornaments of the earth; and that rivers are intended
to be features of beauty, sources of fertility, roads of
commerce, veins of life, and channels of civilisation.
Rivers also exercise important influence over political
events. They sometimes determine the limits, and
modify the destinies, of countries. The Danube, the
Rhine, the Main, the Nile, the Mississippi—what parts
they have played in the drama of history! The early
advances made by Europe out of barbarism and dark¬
ness, must be principally ascribed to the configuration
of its coasts and the proximity, number and dimensions
of its navigable rivers. The water-systems of the
United States of America, and the facilities for inland
navigation, indicate them as the seat of an extensive,
pre-eminent civilisation. No part of the globe is more
favored with large rivers.
(284.) CW. Continent.) — Great Rivers of N.
America. — Water-shed—read 139. The Germans
call it "Wasserscheide" (shi'-de), from a verb meaning
to separate. Webster defines it, "a range of high land
that casts the water in different directions." N. Amer¬
ica (PI. II.) is intersected by three such mountain-
ridges or ranges of high land — the Rocky Mts., the'
Alleghanies and that elevated region, in some degree
uniting the two mountain systems, near the parallel of
the five great lakes. The rivers thus flow in different
directions down four opposite slopes or declivities. The
water-shed must not be confounded with the basin.
While the water-shed is the ridge or high land, from
which, (and we may say, also the slope down which)
the water flows, the basin is the entire tract of country
drained by the river and its tributaries, or drained by
rivers emptying into a sea or lake. 1. The first of
these four declivities leaning toward N., bears Macken¬
zie—Saskatchewan or nelson and sx. Lawrence
with ottawa r. — into Arctic, Hudson Bay and G. of
KIVEES.
135
St. Lawrence. 2. From the second (S. E. slopes of
Alleghany), the hudson and numerous others (PI. VII)
flow into Atlantic. 3. The E. slopes of Rocky Mts.,
W. slopes of Alleghany, and N. table-land W. of great
Lakes, form the third—the immense basin and valley
along which the Mississippi, swollen by a hundred
important branches, sweeps across the vast N. Ameri¬
can plain to 6. of Mexico. Among branches,
and branches of branches, are: red r. —Arkansas,
missouri with platte Or nebraska r. —ohio with
tennessee r. The mississippi rises in the elevated
table-lands of Minnesota State, W. of L. Superior, and
enters G. of Mexico, 3000 miles from its source:
forming, with Missouri, longest river of the globe —
4350 miles. The rio grande del norte (boundary
line between U. States and Mexico), pours from Rocky
Mts. into G. of Mexico. 4. From fourth declivity—
(i. e. W. slopes of Rocky Mts.) flow, into Pacific —
colorado (G. of California)—sacramento —colum-
BiA-frazer — and KwiCHPACK Or yucon (latter,
into Norton Sound).
(285.) List of N. American Rivers. —
mackenzie, saskatch'ewan ("swift Current") or
nelson, st. lawrence with ottawa r. (ot'ta-way)
(R. 4.) — hudson, poto'mac, (B. 2.—B. from Macken¬
zie.)— mississippi with its confluents red, river,
arkansas, missouri with platte Or nebraska r.
(B. 5.—B. from Mackenzie.) — o hi o with Tennessee r.
(B.2. — B. from Mackenzie.) — rio grande del norte,
rio colorado (B. 2.—B. from Mackenzie.)—sacra¬
mento, columbia (B. 2. — B. from Mackenzie.) —
frazbr r., kwichpack Or yucon (yoo'-kon). (B. 2.—
How many from Mackenzie'^ B. 19).
(286). Great Rivers of S. America. — Four
river-basins of S. America are easily distinguished.
1. Most prominent, that of Amazon R.; 2. That of
the La Plata; 3. The Orinoco basin; 4. That of the
136
physical geography.
Magdalena. The magdalena flows into Caribbean
Sea; the okinoco with cassiquiare (kas-se-kee-ah'-ree)
and. essequebo (es-se-kay'-bo), into Atlantic. The
great river of 8. America and of the world, the
amazon or maranon (mah-rahn-jown') also empties
into Atlantic. Nearly as long as the Mississippi and
Missouri together, its mighty floods are swollen, on
the N., by two affluents: the putdmajo (poo-too-ml'-o),
rio negro; and on the S. by seven: the ucayale
(oo-kr-ah'-lee), purüs (poo'-rooce), madeira (mah-
day'-rah), tap a jo s (tab-pah'-jhoce), xingu (shing-goo')
and tooantins (to-kahn-teens') with the araguay
(ahr-ah-gwi'). Farther S., the paranahyba (pah-rah-
nah-ee'-bah), san francisco, la plata and its five
affluents: Uruguay (oo-roo-gwi'), Parana', paraguay
(pah-rah-gwi'), pilcomayo (pil-co-mi'o), and salado
(sah-lah'do) — then the colorado (kol-o-rah'do), and
rio negro (ree'-o iiay'-gro), all emptying into Atlantic.
(286 A.) Cassiquiare R. — length 120 miles — deep—
rapid — a navigable communication between Orinoco and
Rio Negro — flows out of former river—100 yards broad,
600 yards where it empties into Rio Negro. This singular,
natural canal completes a water communication, for canoes,
throughout the vast valleys of Amazon, Orinoco, and their
affluents.
(287.) List of S. American Rivers. —
magdalena, orinoco with the cassiquiare, esse¬
quebo (R. 4.). amazon or maranon — two northern
branches: putumajo —Rio negro (R. 3. — R, from
Magdalena.) Seven southern confluents: ucayale,
PURUS, MADEIRA, TAPAJOS, XINGU, TOCANTINS, with
araguay (R. 7.—R. Amazon, with its 9 confluents —
R. from Magdalena), paranahyba and san francisco
(R. 2. — R, from Magdalena), la plata with five afflu¬
ents: uruguay, parana', paraguay, pilcomayo and
salado (R. 6.—R. from Magdalena), colorado and
rio negro (R. 2. — How many from Magdalena^ R. 24.
— How many from Mackenzie^ R. 43.)
kivers.
137
(287 A.) Rio (Je la Plata or Plate River — not
strictly speaking a river, although valley of La Plata takes
its name from it—rather a great estuary formed by
junction of Parana and Uruguay — about 200 m. long, and,
at mouth, 140 broad — projects its muddy waters 200 m.
from coast into Atlantic. Among its affluents, the most
navigable appears to be the Paraguay. Along shores
of the latter, extensive tracts, populous and cultivated —
navigable into interior of Brazil for steamships of consid¬
erable size.
(288.) Remark. The rivers of W. Continent are in
general laVger than those of E. Continent. The Mis¬
souri presents two natural curiosities. At about 400
miles from its source, it passes through the gates of
the Rocky Mts, a ravine 150 yards wide and 6 miles
long, between rocks about 1200 feet high, rising per¬
pendicularly from the water's edge. A little more than
1500 miles from its source, it descends 357 feet in
16'/2 miles, in a succession of falls, one of which is
87 feet. These falls, next to Niagara, are considered
the greatest in N. America.
While the Mississippi, with the Missouri, is the
longest, the Amazon is the largest river of the glohe.
It bears the immense floods of the Andes, from the
interior of Peru, along the almost entire breadth of
the continent — a distance of 4000 miles — to its two
great mouths on the equator; emptying into the Atlantic
the drainage of more than half S. America. So great
are its volume and impetuosity, that it projects its
turhid current into the sea more than 200 miles from
the coast.
(288 A.) Pororoca or bore. — The Amazon is the
scene of a singular phenomenon. Twice a month, at
or near new and full moon, the descending river-flood,
sweeping out toward the sea, is met by the ascending
tidal-wave of the ocean, entering the river-mouth. A
struggle ensues. The river is sufficiently powerful to
contest, for a time, the advance of its mighty opponent;
138
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
but in a few minutes, the latter, the whole Atlantic
behind it, accumulates a mass which overcomes all
resistance — hears down the out-rushing flood, rolls
over it in a broad billow, 12 to 20 feet high, and
advances up the river, with a roar audible at a
distance of 7 miles. Behind it, the pororoca leaves
the river to continue quietly its way, but it is very
dangerous to vessels in its onward course. Hence the
Indian name of the river, Amassona, signifying "boat
destroyer." As the entering wave advances, it almost
entirely subsides in the deepest points of the river.
These places are called Esperas (waiting places),
because the smallest vessels lie there secure. Sometimes
several waves follow each other. Many other estuaries
or rivers are visited by similar, indeed much more
powerful tidal-waves (605 F).
(289.) (E. Continent). From Behring Str. to
Str. of Malacca. — amooe, into Sea of Okhotsk —
HOANG-HO — YANG-TSE-KiANG, into Yellow Sea (^R. 3).
CANTON R. — ME-KONGOr CAMBODIA, intO Pacific (Ä. 5
from Amoor).
•
(289 A.) Hoang-ho (ho-ang-ho', almost Mrbang-ho'),
or YeUow River, from color of mud which it bears into
Yellow Sea — connected with Yang-tse-kiang by many
canals, among others, by the imperial canal — almost
unnavigable — characterized by violent impetuosity and dis¬
astrous inundations—its turbulent waters restrained only
by massive dykes. Some years ago it swept part of
these away, and poured, perhaps still pours, its waters into
most westerly extremity of Yellow Sea (known as Gulf
Pet-che-le).
(289 B.) Yang-tse-kiang, or Blue River, (called "son
of the ocean", and "girdle or belt of China",)—stretching
across center of the empire (see also PI. HI) — great
river of China, as the Mississippi is of United States; and
Amazon, of Brazil — drains central and most productive
provinces — an immense thoroughfare—navigable for sea-
rivers.
139
ships of largest class nearly 900 m. from its mouth—for
600 m. above that, covered with rafts and vessels of lesser
burden* — length, from source, in eastern mountains of
Tibet, to what may be called British, French and American
town, Shang-hai (shang'-hî) (Pl. IV.—sec. 375), between
3400 and 3600 m. Upon its broad and impetuous stream,
numerous, often vast towns, little known to other nations;
among them, Hang-kow, most populous, if not greatest city
of the world. Like the Amazon (288 A) this mighty stream,
as it issues from the coasts, accepts, and, in a certain
degree, maintains a conflict with the ocean. It confronts
and presses back the salt waves, and far and wide beyond
its mouth, covers a large surface of the sea with fresh
water. "The Chinese", says Daniel, "love and reverence
the Yang-tse-kiang, as a son his father; philosophers
borrow comparisons from the greatness of its might and
the salutary effects of its influence; historians record its
inundations and droughts, as events of equal interest with
the rise and fall of dynasties; and poets find no more
popular subject on which to pour forth their melodious
songs."
(290.) From Str. of Malacca to Red Sea. —
irrawaddy — brahmapootra— ganges (gan'-Jeez) —
godavbry (go-dav'-e-ry), into B. of Bengal (if. 4).—
nerbudda — indus, with tributary sutledj, into Ara¬
bian Sea. (B. 3. — R. from Irrawaddy) — Tigris —
euphrates, into Persian Gulf {R. 2. — How many
from Irrawaddy'i R. 9 — R. from Behring Str. i. ,e.
Amoor R.).
Remark. Hoogly R.—westernmost arm of Ganges —
forming part of delta (152)—200 m. 1. By this branch
only, large vessels enter Ganges — not inscribed on the
map to avoid crowding names.
(291.) From Red S ea, quite around Africa,
to Str. of Gibraltar. — nile, with branches white
and blue nile, into Mediterranean — juba (joo'-ba),
* Burden — the quantity or number of tons a vessel will
carry; as, a ship of a hundred tons burden.
140
physical geography.
into Indian Ocean — zambeze (zam-bay'-zee), into
Mozambique Channel (JR. 5).— orange r.— coan'za
— congo (kong'-go) or zaire (zah-ee'-ray), into Atlantic
(R. 3.—R. from Nile) — ogabai — Gaboon' — niger
(nî'-jer), called also joliba (jol'e-bah) or quorra,
with the newly discovered benue, into G. of Gninea
(R. 4. — R. from Nile)— Gambia —Senegal (sen-e-
gawl') —wadi draa, into Atlantic (R. 3. — R. from
, Nile) — Interior: shary and other tribotaries, into L.
Tsad. (How many from Nile? R. 16. — R. from Behring
Str.). (Benue R.—pron. Beh-noo-eh).
(291 A.) Benue River. — That branch of Niger
discovered by Barth in 1849. In consequence of this
discovery, the British steam-ship, Pleiad, Capt. Baikin (A.
D. 1854) sailed up Niger and Benue—245 miles farther
than any European ship had ever before penptrated. The
river Benue was explored and surveyed; its whole course
and depth ascertained; also the certainty that a profitable
trade, particularly in palm - oil, can be easily opened with
the friendly natives of the highly productive adjoining
territories. The crew of the Pleiad, 66 in number — not
one died during the voyage of 118 days. Barth's
discovery important from facilities which it offers for
civilization and christianization of this part of interior
Africa.
(292.) From Str. of Gibraltar to Danish
Peninsula. — (Spanish Peninsula): Guadalquivir
(gaw-dal-kwiv'-er), Guadiana (gaw-de-ah'-nah), tagus,
into Atlantic (R. 3.) — douro, minho (meen'-jo), into
Atlantic. — (France): garonne, Gironde (for these two
latter PI. VI.B.), loire, into B. of Biscay (R. 5.—
R. from Guadalquivir.)— seine (sayn), into English
Channel. — (Gr. Britain): Thames, into German or
North Sea (R. 2. — R. from Guadalquivir.) — (Northern
Europe): meuse (mooz) or maas (name not on some
copies of PI. IL), rhine, weser, elbe, into North
Sea. (How many from Guadalquivir? R. 14. — R. from
Behring Str.)
rivers.
141
(292 A.) Gironde (Pl. VI. B.) — estuary, formed by
junction of Garonne and Dordogne, near town Bordeaux.
In this department are grown most of the claret wines —
name Gironde, celebrated in old frencb revolution, from a
noble political party, Girondists, most of whom perished
on the scaffold—twenty-two beheaded at one time.
(293.) Rivers emptying into Baltic. —
oder, vistüla, niemen (B. 3) — duna, neva, tornea
(R. 9. — R. from Behring Str.).
(294.) From North Cape to Behring Str. —
dwina (dwee'-na), into White Sea, petschora (petch'-
o-rah), into Arctic Ocean ÇR. 2.) — obi (o-bee), into G.
of Obi, iRTiscH, into Obi R., Yenisei (yen-e-say') with
its tributary toongooska or angara, flowing through
L. Baikal, into Arctic (R. 4. — R. from North Cape) —
lena (lay'-nah), kolyma (ko-lee'-ma), into Arctic.
(^How^many from North Cape? R. 8. — How many from
Guadalquivir? R. 28. From Behring Str.? R. 58.)
Remark. The Dwina and Petschora are in Europe —
the other 6 in Asia.
(295.) Rivers emptying into Mediterranean.
— ebro, rhone, po, nile {R. 4.)
(296.) Into Black Sea . — danube, prüth,
(prooth), dniester, (nees'-ter), Dnieper, (nee'-per)
{R. 4. — How many from Ebro? R. 8.)
(297.) Into Sea of Azof. — don {How many
from Ebro? R. 9.)
(298.) Into Caspian Sea. — volga, ural
{How many from Ebro? R. 11.)
(299.) Into Sea of Aral. — sir-daria (ancient
142
physical geography.
Jaxartes), amoo-daria (ancient Oxus) (B. 2. — How
many from Ebro'i R. 13.)
(300.) Rivers of Australia. — cooper or
barkoo — goolwa op murray, with its tributary the
darling, into Southern Ocean (B. 3. — How many
from Ebro? B. 16 — How many from Amoor'i B. 74 —
How many rivers of the worldl B. from PL IV 117).
(300 A.) Remark. Rivers often expand into lakes,
more or less extensive, and then re-assume the form of
rivers; thus the Mackenzie (at first called Athabasca) expands
into L. Athabasca and Great Slave Lake; the Saskatchewan,
into L. iVin'nipeg, flowing out again under name Nelson R.;
the St. Lawrence, under name St. Louis (PI. VII), into the
5 (or it may be said 8) great lakes; the Rhine, into L.
Constance (Pl.V. B); the Rhone, into L. Geneva (sometimes
L. Leman)-, Blue Nile, into L. Dembea; White Nile, into
Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza-, Yenisei (or rather its
branch, the Toongooska), into L. Baikal, etc. (PI. II. figs. 1
and 2).-
(301.) Orthography — Fronnnciation — Monntain
Heights — present difficulties, as indeed, in many cases,
do the names themselves. The natives of a country
have often a name or pronunciation quite dissimilar from
that adopted by other nations, who moreover differ among
themselves. Authorities of the same nation disagree. To
reconcile these conflicting stardards is simply impossible.
The student must not be surprised to find broad differ¬
ences, as he advances in geographical reading. In order
to accustom him to them, we have occasionally, in different
places, given a different spelling to the same word. The
name is sometimes scarcely recognizable; as for instance,
Mt. Kilimandjaro, in Kilima Ndscharo. Mountain heights
are, also, often most loosely and incorrectly given. We
have, as far as possible, followed Berghaus' list of one
hundred measured heights, just published at Gotha, in
the Geographisches Jahrbuch for 1866, by Justus Perthes.
Aconcagua is generally allowed to be the highest point
of America. But measurements, particularly of Aeon-
RIVERS.
143
cagua, do not agree. One even gives the pre-eminence
to Sahama.
(302.) Concluding remarks. — Forms of Continents.
— What has determined their broken, angnlar shapes? Do they
result from sodden, telluric convulsions (282B)? Have those shat¬
tered wrecks been slowly lifted by that internal power, which
(282 C) is raising above the sea-level, at about the rate of two
feet per century, the whole mass of Scandinavia? We have seen
that the earth's axis, in 12,000 years, so far changes its
inclination, as to point to the star "Vega instead of our present
North Star. Does this, in any way, influence the relative
position of land and water upon our planet's surface? Can
it be, that our northern hemisphere was once, and will again
become, the water-hemisphere of the globe? that our present
continents and islands will lie depre.^sed beneath miles of shore¬
less ocean? that our alpine and himalayan snow-peaks will
be transformed into island - chains and archipelagoes? and
that, beneath its watery waste, its immeasurable glaciers and
icebergs, the antarctic hemisphere conceals submarine continents,
and beautiful island-groups, waiting to emerge; and, in future
centuries, destined to become the abode of vast populations?
(when that hemisphere shall, in its turn, be visited by the
platonic summer). Sir John Herschel thinks all existing conti¬
nents and islands are being worn away by the ocean and rivers
— that they have been before, and will, in this way, again he,
the bottom of the sea—and that earthquakes, etc., are continually
supplying the wear and tear, by a process of gradual, subterranean
elevation. Theories of great interest are awakening the attention
of thinking men. Science is rapidly unfolding vast secrets and
opening new, immense paths of investigation. But our knowledge
is very imperfect. "We see through a glass darkly". A scientific
truth, demonstrated, must be received. But many theories, sup¬
posed to be demonstrated, ■ have been subsequently overthrown.
Man has acquired much knowledge; but, compared with what
remains unknown, his knowledge is as the height of our mountain-
peaks compared with astronomic distances. We make many mis¬
takes, with regard to facts; and still more in the inferences drawn
from facts. Whatever we know, enough remains unknown, to
teach the wise, humility. The student must not forget the warning
contained in sections 282 A and 98 A. A learned philosopher
may be without wisdom in the use he makes of his knowledge.
An unlearned person may possess wisdom to draw, from his very
ignorance, the highest truth.
^^Knowle^ge a'nd wisdom^ far from being one,
Have ofttimes no connection. Knowledge dwells
In heads replete with thoughts of other men;
M'isdom in minds attentive to their own.
Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much;
Wiedom is humble that he knows no more." {Cowper.)
f
PART III.
POLITICAL GEOGEAPHY.
COUNTRIES.
(PLATE III.)
(303.) Political Bivisions of N. America. —
By "N. America" we mean, not only continent, but
all adjoining insular landinasses. First: —
danish america, Consisting of Greenland —
iceland — santa cruz {West India I. — PI. III. fig. 3.
—st. thomas and san juan have lately been pur¬
chased by U. States).
unoccupied arctic lands — without govern¬
ment, because without population, except a few wan¬
dering Esquimaux tribes — cannot be strictly called
either a colony, or a political division.
UNITED STATES TERRITORY ALASKA (formerly
RUSSIAN AMERICA).
british america — not Only that immense colony
N. of United States — nearly size of Europe — but
also in Central America: balize, or british hon¬
duras — british west indies, namely: Bahamas,
jamaica, barbadoes, trinidad, etC. (216 — PI. III.
fig. 3.); to which add bermud or somers is.
french america—France, which, in 1755,
owned from Labrador, New Foundland, Nova Scotia,
New Brunswick to G. of Mexico and Pacific, excepting
countries.
145
a narrow territory on Atlantic (the English colonies),
now possesses only those small islands S. of New¬
foundland: namely: sx. pierre and miquelon (called
FRENCH FISHERY IS.) — FRENCH WEST INDIES (216 —
PI. III. fig. 3.), namely Guadeloupe and Martinique.
rep. OF united states OF america.
rep. of mexico.
five independent republics of central
america (PI. III., corner map fig. 2), namely:
guatemala — st. salvador — honduras — nicara¬
gua— and costa rica.
mosquito coast (following five — PI. III. fig. 3).
SPANISH AMERICA — CUBA—ISLE OF PINES—and
PORTO RICO.
REP. OF HAYTI.
rep. of san domingo, sometimes called Domini¬
can republic. These are two independent negro
republics on one island bearing three different names:
Hayti, San Domingo and Hispaniola—entire population,
600,000, is black, except about 28,000.
SWEDISH WEST INDIES (Ní. Bartholomew).
DUTCH WEST INDIES {CuTOÇOa, etC.)
(304.) Remarks. 1. Central America — not a political
division, but a name vaguely given to part of the Isthmus.
The five republics, in 1823, formed a so-called Confederation,
which broke up in 1839.
2. Mosquito Coast—unsettled territory occupied by
Indians, whose chief calls himself King of Mosquitia — by
treaty between England and Nicaragua, January 1S6Ó,
included within territory of latter republic.
3. Plate III. is a reproduction of PL II. on same
scale. The water divisions, lakes, islands, peninsulas,
capes, mountain - chains, etc., will be found, but more
lightly drawn, and without their names. The pupil, having
already, by a series of ascending steps, familiarized himself
with them, comprehends, at a glance, the general config¬
uration of a country, its rivers, mountains, etc., and takes
in, by the eye, a variety of circumstances. United States
of America, for example : Mississippi and its branches and
valley, Colorado and Columbia Rivers, Rocky Mts., Alle-
10
146
political geography.
ghanies, etc., present themselves, in their relative positions,
far more clearly to his mind, than would be the case if
the map were crowded with the usual confusion of names,
or if the lists were to be studied from the book. A
reference to PI. II. will assist his memory in case of need.
We use the word country to indicate the whole terri¬
tory of a republic, kingdom or other independent state;
as, ukited states op america, france, etc. In a
few instances, for convenience, under this name, are
classified divisions, not independent countries; as, british
america, french fishery is., hindostan Or british
india, etc.
4. Esquimaux — a people of Mongol origin, inhabiting
Greenland and shores of N. America, 60° N. lat., and also
adjoining parts of Asiatic coast—number conjectured to
be about 10,000—very ignorant and superstitious. The
aurora borealis, they believe to be the souls of their
departed friends playing ball in heaven — meteors are souls
traveling from heaven to hell — the earth is supported by
columns which, being rather in a delapidated state,
sometimes give way a little, cracking and occasioning
earthquakes, thunder, etc. Sorcery, general — but many
have no idea of God. They think themselves better than all
other nations. If a European or American please them,
they say, "he is almost worthy to be called an Esquimau."
The christian missionaries (moravians) are working most
favorable changes in the condition of this poor, benighted
people.
(305.) (W. Continent.) Countries of N. America.
danish america — unoccupied arctic lands —
united states territory alaska (formerly russian
america) (R. 3) — british america, with balize Or
british honduras, etC. — french america (R. 3
— R. from Danish America) — rep. of united states
— rep. of mexico (R. 2 — R. from Danish America)
— five independent republics of central amer¬
ica, namely: Guatemala — san salvador—hon¬
duras— nicaragua — costa rica (R. 6 — R. from
Danish America) — mosquito coast (R. from Danish
America) — Spanish America — rep. of hayti —
rep. of san domingo (R. 3—from Danish America)
countkies.
147
— swedish west indies—dutch west indies (R. 2
— How many from Danish America'^ R. 20),
Remark. The teacher will here put the necessary
questions from sec. 303, such as; What does Danish
America consist of? What was said of Unoccupied Arctic
Lands, etc.
(306.) Countries of S. America. — rep. of
columbia (formerly new granada) — rep. of Ven¬
ezuela (ven-ez-wee'Ia) (R. 2.) — english guiana,
dutch guiana Or surinam — french guiana Or
cayenne (R. 3. — R. from Columbia) — empire of
brazil (brah-zil') — rep. of paraguay (pa-ra-gwï')
— rep. of uruguay (oo-roo-gwi'—formerly called
oriental republic of b and a-oriental) (R. 3
— R. from Columbia) — argentine confederation
(ar'-jen-teen), or states of la plata, including
BUENOS AYRES (bwâ'-noCC ires) — PATAGONIA REP.
OF chili (i?. 4. — R. from Columbia) — rep. of Boliv¬
ia— rep. of peru (pe-roo') — rep. of ecuador
(ek-wa-dore') (R. 3. — R. from Columbia—How many
from Danish America? R. 35).
(307.) Remark. All independent organized countries
of N. and S. America are republics, except Brazil. Pata¬
gonia, not an organized government. It has no cities.
The inhabitants are nearly savage and among lowest of
the earth. Attempts have been frequently made, particu¬
larly by Chili, to form settlements on coasts and adjacent
islands, but with little success.
(308.) (jB. Continent.) — Countries of Europe
— divided into two groups:
Those on, or near, North Sea and Baltic —
united kingdom of great britain and ireland
— united kingdom of sweden and norway —
russia (roo'-she-ah) in Europe (i?. 3.)— Germany
— kingdom of belgium — kingdom of holland-
10*
148
political geogkaphy.
(B. 3. — E. from Gr. Britain.') kingdom of Denmark.
(^How many 7 E. 7.)
Those on, or near, Mediterranean — kingdom of Por¬
tugal kingdom of spain empire of france.
(E. 3. — E. from Portugal.)—rep. of Switzerland
— kingdom of italy—papal territory {E. 3.—
E. from Portugal.)—empire of austria — rodmania,
or danubian principalities—empire of turkey
in europe. (^E. 3. — E. from Portugal.) — kingdom
of greece. (^How many from Portugal? E. 10.—
E. from Gr. Britain.)
andorra — san marino. Two Ycry Small, so-
called independent republics, rep. of andorra — in
Pyrenees, between France and Spain; san marino —
in Italy. — (How many from Gr. Britain? E. 19.)
(308 A.) Lapland — not a separate country—only
a region of Sweden, Norway and Kussia — surrounded by
Baltic, White Sea and Arctic — lat. between parallels 64«
and 71®—long, between 10® and 42® E.—two-thirds in
Russia — inhabited by a diminutive and despised people,
called the Lapps, who are, nevertheless, gradually rising
to higher intelligence. The Bible has been translated into
their language—pop. 16,000—principal river. Tornea.
(oUy.J Germany — until 1866, formed one league,
called Germanic Confederation. In that year, the growing
struggle for supremacy, of the two principal states
of the Confederation — Prussia and Austria—led to a
war which resulted in the enlargement and aggrandize¬
ment of Prussia, and the complete exclusion of Austria
from Germany. In Plates III and IV, we give merely
the frontier lines of Germany without Austria. For Ger¬
many or the German States, as at present constructed, and
for kgdm. of Prussia, see PI. V. B.
(309 A.) Monaco — formerly an independent prin¬
cipality. By treaty, 2. February, 1861, the Prince sold a
considerable part, for four million francs, to France (PI.
V. B. fig. 2.) The treaty reduced population, frrm 7627
countries.
149
to 1887. It has however a Council of State and several
accredited Consuls.
(310.) Countries of Asia — divided into
six groups:
On Mediterranean — turkey in asia.
On Red Sea — arabian states, with kgdm. of
WAHABEBs and MUSCAT' (JR- 4. from Turkey in Asia.')
On Indian Ocean with Persian Gulf. — arabian
STATES, with KGDM. OF WAHABEES and MUSCAT
(arabia, etc., again, because they are also on Indian
Ocean and Persian Gulf. Count them here, but take
note, at the end of the section, that they are not
finally counted twice.) (R. 5.) —Persia—beloochistan
(bel-oo-chis-tahn')—Hindostán or british india (i2.5
—R. from Arabian States.)—The indo-chinese states,
consisting of birman empire — empire of anam —
empire of siAM and malay states. {How many on
Indian Ocean with Persian G. ? R. 11. — R. from Turkey
in Asia.)
On Pacific — indo-chinese states, consisting
of birman empire — empire of anam {Cochinehino) —
empire of siam—malay states (R. 5.) — chinese
empire, consisting of china proper — eastern
TOORKISTAN — MONGOLIA and MANTCHOOUIA (R. 5.
R. from Indo-Chinese States)—kgdm. of corea (ko-ree'-a)
— island empire of japan (How many on Pacific^
R. 12. — R, from Arabian States — R. from Turkey
in Asia).
On Arctic Ocean — Russia in asia or Siberia
(How many on Mediterranean^ R. 1. On Red Sea? R. 3.
On Indian Ocean? R. 11. On Pacific? R. 12. On Arctic
Ocean? R. 1.)
Interior States — western tartary or toor-
kistan — afghan states — cashmere (R. 3.) —
nepaul (ne-pawl') — bootan (boo-tahn') — Thibet
(How many? R. 6. — How many in Asia altogether? R. 34.)
Remark. You counted several countries twice. Say
how many countries we have really counted in Asia? 26.
150
political geography.
Remember our rule that, in cases like 'Arabian States with
Kgdm. of Wahabees and Muscat," we count the general
name Arabian States, as one, and each subdivision, " Wahabeed'
or 'Muscat" as one.
(311.) Palestine, Judea or Holy Land—Canaan of
Scripture—"promised land" of the Israelites — a narrow
district of Turkey in Asia, on eastern shore of Mediterra¬
nean— length, 145 m.—breadth, 45 m.— scene of the most
interesting events in history of mankind, related in Old
and New Testaments — river Jordan, flowing through L.
Galilee and valley of Jordan, to Dead Sea (PI. II. fig. 5).
(312.) Thibet and Corea are often given as parts
of the Chinese Empire. We have thought it more proper
to place them among independent states. Indeed the
Chinese, like the Turkish Empire, seems to be falling to
pieces. Thibet is one of the most elevated countries of
the earth; its plains average from 10,000 to 11,000 feet
above the sea.
(312 A.) Cochinchina — a province of Anam — name
sometimes applied to whole empire—520,000 Roman Cath¬
olic residents. In consequence, it was said, of bloody
persecutions, and the horrible massacre of Bishop Juan Dias,
France and Spain declared war (A. D. 1858), which re¬
sulted in a treaty, in 1862, ceding 3 provinces of Cochin-
china to the French. Chief town of french Cochinchina,
Saigon. At Hué, capital of Anam (Ph IV.), 60,000
inhabitants — immense fortifications built by french engineers
and a formidable citadel with 600 cannon.
(313.) Countries of África. — We consider
these countries in five groups.
On Mediterranean — empire of morocco with
TUAT — ALGERIA (R- 3.)—TUNIS—TRIPOLI with FEZZAN'
and barca (R. 4. — R. from Morocco.) —Egyptian
STATES, including EGYPT proper — NUBIA — kordo-
FAN, etc. (R. 4. — R. from Morocco.)
On Red Sea and G. of Aden. — Egyptian states,
including egypt proper — nubia — kordofan, etc.
countries.
151
(r. 4.^—empire of habesh of abyssinia—somaoli
(so-maw'-Iee) — galla country (R. 3. — How many
m Red Sea and G. of Aden? R. 7. — R. from Morocco.)
On Indian Ocean. — somauli and galla country
— suaheli coast and Zanzibar (R. 4.) — island
kingdom of madagascar — portuguese colonies
of sofala and mozambique ( R. 3. — R. from
Somauli.) — zooLoo country — cape colony with
natal and kaffraria (the latter three, British Posses¬
sions (R. 4. — How many from Somauli? R. H. — R.
from Morocco.)
On Atlantic. — cape colony — land of the
demara and namaqua, including the hottentot
country (R. 4.)—lower guinea, Consisting of ren¬
gúela (ben-gä'-lah) —ANGOLA — CONGO — LOANGO —
biafra (be-af'-rah). (R. 6.—R. from C. Colony.)—upper
guinea, including calabar coast — slave coast —
gold coast — ivory coast — grain coast (R. 6.
— R. from C. Colony.)—In Upper Guinea are the three
kingdoms benin (ben-een') — dahomey (dah-ho-may')
and ashantee (ah-shahn-tee') (R. 3.—R.from Cape Col¬
ony.)—negro republic of liberia—sierra leone,
("mountain of the lion"), a British settlement. (R. 2.
— R. from C. Colony.) — sene Gambia, comprising
mandingo country, foolah country, jolof coun¬
try, also gambia, an English commercial post (R. 5.
—R.from C, Colony.) — great desert of Sahara.
(How many on Atlantic? R. 27. — R. from Morocco.)
Interior Countries. — soudan, or land of the
blacks — unexplored central regions of africa
— empires of möropue and cazembe, Consisting
principally of the powerful Molua or Loonda tribes
(R. 4) — land of the bechuanas — orange rep.
— transvaal rep.— (R. 3 — How many from Soudan?
R. 7 — How many from Morocco? R. 63—How many
■twice counted? R. 7. How many countries of W. and E.
Continents? R. 136 from PI. IV).
Remarks. 1. Seven african countries — viz.
152
political geography.
Morocco (with Tuat), Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli (with Barca
and Fezzan) are called barb art states — sometimes
barbary (from Berber—the name of a people who once
inhabited this region). 2. Algeria has been a french
colony since 1830. 3. Tunis and Tripoli are dependencies
of the Ottomann Porte, or, as the Turkish Government is
officially called, the Sublime Porte (from the gate of the
Sultan's palace, where justice is administered). 4. Of the
Egyptian States, only Egypt Proper is washed by the
Mediterranean. 5. Hottentot—name not known in Africa
— the tribe so-called included under name Namagva. 6.
Sahara—inhabited principally by Tooarek» and Tibboos,
also by Moors (Arabs). The Tooareks are mahometans
and the Tibboos, pagans, somewhat resembling the negro.
7. Unexplored Central Regions of Africa—often, but
improperly, called Ethiopia. 8. Above political divisions
of Africa give only a selection from innumerable tribes,
kingdoms and countries, many imperfectly, some not at all
known. 9. Interior boundary lines intended to aid the
eye. It is not possible to draw them always accurately.
In some cases they do not exist at all.
(315.) Ethiopia — a name vaguely applied by ancient
geographers, sometimes to all southern parts of the known
world; sometimes to India; sometimes to those regions of
Asia and Africa whose inhabitants were of black or dark
color; sometimes to that entire portion of Africa S. of the
Atlas and Egypt. It belonged more particularly to that
ancient kingdom, called Meroe (mer'-o-e) of northern
Africa, with a capital of same name (PI. IV), whose ruins
are yet to be seen on banks of the Nile. This people
were negroes, and Herodotus remarks it was the only
country of antiquity where men of color made great prog¬
ress in civilisation. Their constitution, government, laws
and religion were of a high order. The king was amenable
to the law as the lowest of his subjects. Some writers
even give to Meroe the honor of having been the parent
of Egyptian civilisation. Meroe, the capital, was the great
center of commerce between Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia,
northern Africa and the Indies. Its inhabitants founded
Thebes. The kingdom appears to have been at the head
of a number of other Ethiopian kingdoms. Ethiopia and
Ethiopians are frequently mentioned in the Bible. "Abas-
COUNTRIES.
153
uerus reigned from India to Ethiopia". — Job, perhaps the
most ancient book, says, "The topaz of Ethiopia shall not
equal it".— "Can the Ethiopian change his skin or the
leopard his spots"? This last passage seems to identify
Ethiopia -with the negro race. A passage of Ps. LXVIII
appears to indicate that the negro people shall one day
be converted to the God of the Bible. — "Ethiopia shall
soon stretch out her hands unto God". Another passage
in Acts VII, 26—39, concerning "a man of Ethiopia", is
regarded by many as the first step toward the fulfilment
of this prophecy. There is now no country, Ethiopia,
except Abyssinia or Ilahesh, governed by a sovereign,
calling himself Theodore I, Emperor of Ethiopia.
(316.) The Negro. — The negro race, possessing
nearly two-thirds of whole continent—supposed to amount
to one hundred million—found throughout great part of
southern Africa, Madagascar, Oceania, America, etc.,
comprise many shades of color and physiognomical (fiz-e-
og-nom'-i-cal) varieties. They may be subdivided into
negro proper, and various negro tribes, such as Foohlas
or Fellatahs, Gaffers, Bechuanas, Bushmen, Hottentots,
ferocious inhabitants of Mozambique (half Malay) and
, other tribes of western coast. From great intermixture of
! negro blood and dialects it is impossible to draw boundary
line between negro and other races. The chief tribes are
subdivided into innumerable smaller tribes. Africa is the
home of the negro, although not exclusively inhabited by
him. It was to Africa that the children of Ham emigrated.
Science does not admit, but a large class of readers believe
that they there took upon them the negro nature in con¬
sequence of the curse pronounced against them. A part
of the population, at a very early period, re-emigrated
back to peninsula of Hindostán, but were driven out again
by the ancient Indians.—The part of Africa, now princi¬
pally possessed by them, is that space comprised between
C. of Good Hope, Senegal, desert of Sahara, northern
boundary of Nubia and Habesh or Abyssinia. The tract,
stretching along southern edge of Sahara, from Kong Mts.
to Nubia—called by Arabic names Soudan—also termed
Nigritia or Negro-land — consists of various independent,
mahometan and negro states. Its negro population, blackest
of whole Ethiopian race—in central regions, negro type
154
political geography.
more or less modified—maximum of black color not found
on equator, but among Jolofs and other tribes adjoining
Arabian section of Sahara. Indeed the blackness of the
negro diminishes gradually on approaching equator. Many
negro tribes resemble the Caucasian type, not only in
hair, but in formation of face, skull aud angle of forehead.
Experience has also shown their capacity for improvement,
and Daniel well remarks: "if a progress be already per¬
ceptible from the influence of mahometanism upon the
negro in Africa, what may not be expected when he
shall become christianized?"
COLONIES.
(plate Ilf.)
(317.) Colonies of Great Britain. — The
foreign British Possessions are:
(In America): The northern half of north amer-
ican continent, generally called british America, with
vancouver i. — newfoundland, CtC. (E. 3.)— ber¬
muda or somers is.—balize OP british honduras
— british west indies (216 — E. 3 — E. from Brit¬
ish America) — british guiana—Falkland is. (E. 2
— How many from British America'^ E. 8).
(In Europe): Heligoland — Gibraltar —
MALTA (E. 3 — How many from British Americat
E. 11).
(In Asia): aden, a strongly fortified sea-port
in Arabia with adjoining i. of perim (pay-reem') —
the Gibraltar of the Red Sea — british india (E. 3
— E. from British America) ceylon — Singapore —
hong-kong i. (E. 3. — How many from British
America'^ E. 17).
(In Africa): Gambia — sierra leone—gold
coast possessions (E. 3) — ascension i. — st.
helena — cape colony, with natal and british
colonies. 155
kaffr.4.ria (R- 5. — R. fvom Gambia)—Mauritius —
amirante, and seychelles (R. 3. — How many
from Gambia? R. 11. — How many from British America?
R. 28).
(In Oceania): Australia — Tasmania — new
zealand CR- 3) auckland isles cis. Of NcW
Zealand) — Norfolk i. (N. W. of New Zealand —
R. 2 — How many from British America? R. 33).
Australia consists of six colonies: western Aus¬
tralia— northern australia — queen's land
(R. 3) — new southwales — victoria — south
australia (jB. 3 — R. from Western Australia) — to
which may be added the colonies of Tasmania and
new zealand (R. 2 — How many from British Amer¬
ica? R. M).
(318.) Colonies of Holland. — (In America) :
DUTCH WEST INDIES — G U IA N A OT S U RIN A M (i?. 2).
(In Asia): Nearly all Malaysia, including
sumatra—java—borneo — celebes, CtC. (R. 5)
— and a part of papua or new guinea CR. 1.—
How many from Dutch West Indies? R. 8).
(In Africa): settlements on guinea coast
(How many from Dutch W. Indies? R. 9. How many
from British America? R. 50).
(319.) Colonies of Denmark. — (In America):
greenland—iceland—i. of santa cruz (WeSt
Indies). (R. 3).
(In Europe): faroe is. (R. from Greenland.
How many from British America? R. 54).
(320.) Colonies of Portugal. — (In Atlantic):
azores—madeira—cape verde is. (R. 3).
(In Africa) ; s o F a l a and Mozambique — an¬
gola— benguela, etc. (R. 4 — R. from Azores).
(In Asia): go a, etc. — settlements in Ma¬
laysia or malay archipelago — macao (mah-
156 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
kow') (B. 3 — B. from Azores. — How many from British
America^ B. 64).
(321.) Colonies of Spain. (In America):
SPANISH WERT INDIES.
(In Atlantic): canary is.
(In Mediterranean): Balearic is. (B. 3).
(In Africa): ceuta (su'-tah) (on Barbary Coast).
(In Oceania): part of philippine is. —
part of ladeone is. {B. 2. — B. from Spanish
West Indies. — How many from British America"} B. 70).
(322.) Colonies of France. — (In America):
FRENCH FISHERY IS. — FRENCH WEST INDIES —
FRENCH GUIANA Or CAYENNE (Ä. 3).
(In Europe): Corsica.
(In Asia): pondicherry {Coromandel Coast) —
cochinchina (312 A—3 provinces of Kgdm. of
Anam: Bienhoa, Saigon, and Mytho, with I. of Pulo-
Condor — names not on map) {B. 2. — B. from French
Fishery Is.).
(In Africa): Algeria—Senegal, etc., i. op
bourbon or réunion {Indian Ocean — B. 3. — B.
from French Fishery Is.).
(In Oceania): Tahiti {Society Is.)—marquesas
— new caledonia, ctc. {B. 3.—B. from French
Fishery Is. — How many from British America? B. 82.)
TOWNS.
(plate rv.)
(323.) Bemark. Plates II and III have now made us
familiar with chief natural land and water divisions, and
with countries of the globe. Plate IV, although Mercator's
projection, is a reproduction of Plates II and III, for the
purpose of presenting, at a glance, a universal, unconfused
view of chief towns, with no other names than a few in
arctic regions, required by a future lesson.
towns.
157
The outline selected is intended, as far as practicable,
to embrace the capital, great sea, lake or river-port, and one
or two others, interesting as centers of trade or manu¬
facture, or on any other account. For instance, Hillah, site
of ancient Babylon. With the view to aid the memory,
the towns are given, in the text, not in the order of their
importance, but in the order in which they lie; and with
few remarks. The United States of America and Southern
and Western Europe are given on a larger scale in Plates
VI. VII. The words "no town" mean no town proper for
our outline - list.
(324.) (W. Continent.) (PI. IV. B.) Repeat
countries of N. America (305). — Towns of Danish
America — godthaab (Greenland) — reikiavik
(Iceland) — christianstadt (Santa Cruz, West Indies
— B. 3.)
(325.) Unoccupied Arctic Lands. — No
town at all; only temporary snow-huts of wandering
Esquimaux.
(326.) United States Territory Alaska (for¬
merly Russian America). — new archangel (on
Sitka 1.—R. from Godthaab).
(327.) British America. — st. john (New¬
foundland)— halifax — st. john (New Brunswick) —
quebec (R. 3.) montreal ottawa — fort york
(R. 3. — R. from St. John.) — fort Garry (Red River
Settlement)—new Westminster (on Frazer River) —
victoria (on Vancouver I.) (R. 3. — R. from St. John.)
— balize or belize (British Honduras — PI. Ill, fig. 3)
kingston (Jamaica) — Hamilton (Bermudas) (R. 3.—
How many from St. John? R. 13. — R. from Godthaab).
(328.) French America. — On Frénch Fishery
Is. no town. — st. pierre (Martinique, West Indies)
(R. from Godthaab.)
158
political geography.
(329.) United States of America. — On At¬
lantic: portland—boston new york (R- S.) —
philadelphia — baltimore — washington (B. 3.
— B. from Portland.) — Richmond —Wilmington —
charleston (B. 3. — B. from Portland)— savannah
— st. augustin — key west (on the islaud — B. 3.—
B. from Portland.) — On G. of Mexico: key west —
mobile — new orleans (i?. 3.—B. from Portland.) —
galveston (gal'ves-ton) — Brownsville (B. 2.—B.
from Portland) — On or near Pdcific: san francisco
— sacramento — salem {B. 3. — B. from Portland)—
oregon city—olympia {B. 2. — B. from Portland)
— On Mississippi B.: new Orleans — baton rouge
— vicKSBURG {B. 3.—B. from Portland) — Memphis
— st. louis {B. 2. — B. 5. on Mississippi — B. from
Portland.) — On Ohio B.: louisville — Cincinnati
— {B. 2. — B. from New Orleans — B. from Portland).
Lake Towns: Milwaukee — Chicago (L. Michigan) —
detroit (iî. 3. — B. from Portland) — Cleveland —
buffalo (L. Erie) (fR. 2.—B. from Portland) — Interior
Towns: great salt-lake city—austin {B. 2.—
How many from Portland'^ B. 36.)
(330.) Mexico. — matamoras — tampico —
vera cruz {B. 3.) — merida—acapulco mazat-
lan (B. 3.—B. from Matamoras) la paz—chihuahua
(che-wah'-wah) — queretaro (B. 3—B. from Matamoras)
— mexico {How many from Matamoras! B. 10.)
(331.) Five Independent Republics of Cen¬
tral America (PI. III. fig. 2). — {Guatemala) Gua¬
temala— {San Salvador) san salvador {B. 2.) —
{Honduras) co mayagua — omoa (hottest point in New
World, except perhaps French Cayenne) — truxillo
{B. 3. — B. from Guatemala) — {Nicaragua) le on —
managua—granada {B. 3.)—nicaragua — st. juan
de nicaragua Or graytown {B. 2. — B.from Guate¬
mala)—{Costa Rica) vvTS 1 A. arenas — san josé {B. 2.
— How many from Guatemala! B. 12.)
towns. 15&
I
(332.) Mosquito Coast. — bloefields (^.
/rom Matamoros.)
(333.) Spanish America. — havana {Cuba.)
(if. from Matamoros).
(334.) I. Hayti. — PORT AU PRINCE {Bcp. Of
Hayti) — SAN DOMINGO (JRep. of San Domingo) (if. 2.—
if. from Matamoros).
(335.) Swedish America. — gustavia {St.
Bartholomew.)
(336.) Dutch America. — williamstadt {Cu-
roçoa — B. 2. — How many from Havana^ if. 5.—How
many from Godthaab? if. 82.)
(337.) Repeat (306) countries of S. America. —
Towns of Columbia. — aspinwall — panama —
BOGOTA (if. 3).
(338.) Venezuela. — caracas, with its port
la 6uayra {only 11 m. apart—if. 2.—if. from Aspinwall.)
(339.) Colonies of Guiana. — Georgetown
{English Guiana) — Paramaribo {Dutch Guiana) —
CAYENNE {French Guiana) (if. 3.—if. from Aspinwall.)
(340.) Brazil. — para — maranham — per-
nambuco (if. 3.) — bahia, Or st. salvador — rio
janeiro — ouro preto (formerly villa franca).
(if. 3. — if. from Para) — goyaz—cuyaba (if. 2. — B.
from Para — if. from Aspinwall.)
(341.) Paraguay. — asunción or assumption
— villa rica {B. 2. — B. from Aspinwall).
(342.) Uruguay. — MONTE VIDEO (if. from
Asuncion —from Aspinwall.)
160 political geography.
(343.) Argentine Confederation. — buenos
ayres — rosario — corrientes (i2. 3.—t?ien from
AspinwaUJ)
(344.) Patagonia. — No town at all.
(345.) Chili. — VALDITIA — SANTIAGO — VAL-
PARAiso — copiAPO {B. 4. — E. from Aspinwall.)
(346.) Bolivia. — cobya — chuquisaca —
la paz (E. 3. — E. from Aspinwall.^
(347.) Peru. — lima, with its port callao.
(348.) Ecuador. — guayaquil quito (E. 2.
— How many from Aspinwall? E. 33. — How many from
Godthaab? E. 115.)
(349.) (E. Continent) Repeat countries of
Europe, first (308) those on, or near, North Sea and
Baltic. — Towns of Great Britain and Ireland.
— (England) bristol—london—Liverpool {E. 3.)
— (Scotland) Glasgow — Edinburgh — dundee (R. 3.
— E. from Bristol) — (Ireland) cork — Dublin —
belfast (E. 3. — How many from Bristol? E. 9.)
(350.) Sweden and Norway. — (Sweden)
gothenburg— stockholm upsala (E. 3.) —
(Norway) christiania — bergen — drontheim (E.
3.—E. from Gothenburg) — tromsoe—hammerfest
— vardoehuus (E, 3.—How many from Gothenburg?
E. 9.—E. from Bristol.)
(350 A.) Eemarks. 1. Tromsoe — population, 2953.
2. Vardoehuus — northernmost fortress of the world — 90
inhabitants. Four years service in this fort exempts the
Swedish - Norwegian soldier from military duty during the
rest of his life. 3. Hammerfest — northernmost town of
Europe — with harbour sheltered from every wind — mild
towns.
16]
temperature even in winter, probably from Gulf Stream —
very warm summer — many large magazines — handsome,
neatly painted private houses — 2 hotels — private theatre.
In summer, sometimes 200 ships appear successively in the
harbor, some on their way to Archangel or Tromsoe
— trade, between Russia and Great Britain — imports,
flour, spirit, hemp; exports, stockfish, wh^le, walrus-hides,
eider-down. Olensk, farther N., only a village.
(351.) Russia in Europe. — tornea —
archangel — st. petersburg (B, 3) re val —
riga—warsaw (R. 3—B. fvom Tornea)—kiev (kee-ef)
— odessa—sebasto'ple (pronouBCcd like Constanti¬
nople) (B. 3—B. from Tornea) — astea oh an —
kasan — nishnei-novgorod (Nish'-nee Nov-go-rod')
(B. 3 — B. from Tornea) — Moscow (How many from
Tomea? B. 13 — B. from Bristol).
(852.) Germany . — koenigsberg — hamburg
— bremen (B. 3) — berlin—hanover — dresden
(B. 3—B. from Koenigsherg) — frankfort-on-the-
main — munich (B. 2. — How many from Koenigsherg^
B. 8. — B. from Bristol).
Remark. Teacher please here read sec. 309. German
towns given more at large hereafter.
(353.) Belgium . — brussels.
(354.) Holland . — AMSTERDAM,
(355.) Denmark. — Copenhagen (on I. of See-
land— PI. VI. B). (B. 3 — B. from Bristol).
(356.) 'Repeat (308) countries on, or near, Medi¬
terranean. Now towns of Portugal. — lisbon —
oporto (B. 2 — B. from Bristol).
(357.) Spain. — madrid — sevilla — cadiz
(B. 3) — granada (B. 4 — B. from Bristol).
162
POLITICAL ÔEOGRAPHY.
(358.) France. — MATRE—PARIS-~LYON8 (X. 5^
— bordeaux —marseilles (R. 5 — B. from Bristol).
(859.) Switzerland . — berne.
(860.) Kgd. of Italy . — florence — naples
(R. 3 — R. from Bristol).
(861.) Papal Territory. — rome.
(862.) Austria . — VIENNA —PE8TH TRIESTE
(R. 4 — R. from Bristol).
(868.) Boumania, or Danubian Principalities.
— bucharest (Boo-kar-eshf).
(864.) Turkey in Europe. — Constantinople.
(865.) Greece. — athens (R. 3 — How mmif
from Bristol? R. 63).
(866.) Now repeat countries of Asia (310). We
will take up these six groups in succession,
Turkey in Asia. — smyrna — trebizond
— MOSUL, with RUINS OF NiNiVEH (ou Tigris — R. 4)
— BAGDAD — HILLAH, with RUINS OF BABYLON (OK
Euphrates — R. 3 — R. from «smyrna) —basra — mokha
— mecca (R. 3 — R. from Smyrna) — jidda — Medina
(R. 2 — R. from Smyrna) — Jerusalem — jean d'acre^
— damascus {R.3—R. from Smyrna)—Beirut (bl'-root)
— aleppo (R. 2. — How many from Smyrna? R. 17).
(866 A.) Nineveh — capital of Assyria, onç of earliest
world - empires—4000 years ago — to which prophet Jonah
was sent, 862 B. C. During last 25 years, Botta, Layard,
and others, have excavated interesting ruins and relics
of "that exceeding great city"—60 miles in circumference
— with walls of enormous height, on which four chariots
might drive side by side—ruins of palaces, colossal temples,
t0wn8.
163
sculptures, inscriptions, offering perfect representations of
Assyrian life—battle scenes, hunting processions, trains of
prisoners bearing tribute, and groups engaged in mysterious,
religious rites—fortifications—gardens—aquaducts—drains
— statues of lions with human heads — winged bulls and
sphinxes. "Apart from the value", says Lippencott, "which
attaches to these remains considered simply as antiquities,
they possess a far higher value on account of the remarkable
confirmations which the inscriptions afford of the truth
of Scripture history." The student will find the deepest
interest in acquainting himself farther on these subjects.
(366 B.) Babylon — one of the oldest cities of the
world—capital of Babylonian Empire — most incredible
accounts are given of its ancient splendor—walls 350 feet
high—brazen gates and 250 towers. For Babylon in its
glory and its downfall, see Book of Daniel. Part of ruins
believed to be the foundation of the Tower of Babel —
2000 feet in circumference—even yet 200 feet high ; undoubt¬
edly the most ancient ruin of the earth. The absolute
destruction of this city was predicted by Isaiah, XIII, 19.
22—and of Nineveh, "the bloody city", by Nahum, III.
(366 C.) Mokka—Mecca-—Jidda—Jfedtita—sometimes
said to be in territory of Arabia, sometimes, of Egypt, and
sometimes, of Turkey in Asia. The eastern coast of Red
Sea is politically attached to Egypt; but, as the turkish
supremacy is nominally recognized over this part of Arabia,
which is occupied by turkish troops, we have considered
those ancient arabian towns to be yet within limits of
Turkey in Asia.
(367.) Arabian States, with kingdom of
Wahabees and Muscat. — er riad — muscat
—"aden (B. 3 — R. from Smyrna).
(368.) Persia. — teheran — ispahan (R- ^ —
R. from Smyrna).
(369.) Beloochistan. — kelat (R.from Smyrna).
(370.) Hindostán or British India. — labore
11«
164
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
— delhi (del'-lee) — lucknow (R. 3) — benares
(ben-ah'-res) — calcutta — Rangoon (iî. 3 — R. from
Lahore) — Hyderabad' — madras' — pondicherry
(pon-de-sher'-re—to France) (R. 3 — R. from Lahore)
— calicut — mysore (mi-zore') — goa (to Portugal)
(R. 3 — R. from Lahore) — bombay—baro'da —
currachee (i?. 3 — How many from Lahoret R. Í5 —
R. from Smyrna).
(371.) Birman Empire. — ava.
(372.) Empire of Anam. (Cochin China). — hue
(hoo-eh')—saigon (sî-gon') — latter, now capital of a
french colony.
(373,.) Empire of Slam. — bankok (R. á —
R. from Smyrna).
(374.) Malay States. — malacca (british town).
(375.) Chinese Empire. — maimatchin —
kirin-oola—mookden (R. 3) — peking nanking
— han-Kow (R. 3 — R. from Maimatchin) — shanghai
(shang'-hl) — poo-chow — canton (R. 3 — How many
from Maimatchinf R. 9 — R. from Smyrna).
(375 A.) Han-kow ("gate of commerce") — on Yang-
tse-kiang — 3 towns together—largest city and one of the
greatest commercial centers of the world. Hue, in 1846,
estimated population at eight million. The restless move¬
ment of this market resembles that of the fair of Nishnei-
Novgorod (445) only, instead of two weeks, it continues
throughout the entire year. •
(376.) Kingdom of Corea. — han-yang—
king-ki-tao (R. 2 — R. from Smyrna).
(377.) Island Empire of Japan. — hakodadi
— jeddo — miako — nangasaki ( R. 4 — R. from
Smyrna).
TOWK8. 165
(378.) Russia in Asia or Siberia. — On Arctic
Ocean and within arctic circle, olensk. — nishnei-
koeymsk {R. 2)—On Pacific', petropaulovski —
okhotsk—NicoLAiEFSK (iî. 3 — R. from Olcfisk') —
Interior Towns-, yakootsk—kiakhta — irkutzk
(Ä. 3—R. from. Olensk)—Krasnoyarsk—barnaüi,—
tobolsk (R. 3 — How many from Olensk? R. 11 — R.
from Smyrna).
Remarks. 1. Maimatehin and Kiakhta may be said to
be one town, the former being on Chinese, the latter on
Russian side. They are important trading stations be¬
tween Russia and China. 2. Olensk — northernmost town
(rather village) of Siberia with only 40 or 50 houses —
trading station.
(379.) Western Tartary. — khiva — kokand
— samarcand (R. 3 — R. fvom Smyrna).
(380.) Afghan State s. — cabul.
(381.) Cashmere. — serinagur.
(382.) Nepanl. — katmandoo {R. 3 — R. from
Smyrna).
(383.) Bootan. — tassisudon.
(384.) Tibet. — lassa (R. 2—-How many from
Smyrna? R. 77).
(385.) Repeat countries of Africa (313). Morocco
with Tnat. — morocco — fez — tangiers (R. 3)
— agably — insalah (Tuat) (R. 5).
(386.) Algeria. — algiers — constantine
ÇR. 2 — R. from Morocco).
(387.) Tunis. — TUNIS (near ruins of ancient
Carthage) — cabes (R. 3 — R. from Morocco).
166
political geography.
(387 A.) Bnini oí Cartbage. Several modern villages,
masses of ancient masonwork and the wreck of a colossal
aquaduct, mark the site of this celebrated city, one of
the richest and most powerful of antiquity — founded
8 or 900 years before the christian era—reached its
greatest grandeur about 146 years B. C. Twenty-three
miles in circumference—with 700,000 inhabitants—it became
the rival of Borne and met its destruction in attempting
to wrest, from that city, the empire of the world. It was
burnt to the ground by Scipio; the conflagration lasted
17 days. Upon its ruins, afterward, arose (A. D. 439)
the Vandal empire of Genseric which, in the 7»'» century,
fell a prey to the Saracens. The Carthaginians are dis¬
tinguished in history as a treacherous and faithless people.
They spoke the Punic language, and hence the phrase
"Punic faith" expresses perfidy. They offered human
victims to their gods. The ruins of a still more ancient
city, UTiCA, lies on the same bay as Carthage.
(888.) Tripoli with Fezzan and Barca. —
tripoli — moürzouk (latter in Fezzan) (R. 2—R.
from Morocco).
(889.) Egypt, with Nubia and Eordofan. — •
alexandria — rosetta — cairo (R. 3)— sübz —
ruins of memphis ruins of thebes (R' 3 — R.
from Alexandria) — Assouan — dongola — Khartum
(R. 3 — R. from Alexandria) — ruins of meroe (me'-
ro-e) — sENNAAR (R. 2. — How many from Alexandria^
R. 11 — R. from Morocco).
Remark. Thebes — (the No-Ammon of the Bible) —
once capital of Egypt, now a majestic ruin—one of the
oldest, by some called the very oldest, city of the world
— origin traced back to 2,500 years B. C. (but this only
on very precarious data furnished by supposed deposits
of the Niie).
(890.) Habesh or Abyssinia. — mass'owah —
GONDAR — MAGDALA (R. 3—R. from Morocco).
(891.) Somauli and Galla Country. — berrera
towns. 167
— hurrde (hoo-roor') — brava (R. 3 — R, from
Morocco).
(392.) Suaheli Coast or Zanzibar. — mombas
— ZANZIBAR (R. 2 — R. from Morocco).
(393.) Island kingdom of Madagascar. —
antananarivo — tamatavb (R. 2 — R. from MorOCCo).
(394.) Portuguese Colonies of Mozambique
and Sofala. — Mozambique — sofala (R. 2~-R.
from Morocco).
(395.) Zooloo Country. — no town.
(396.) Cape Colony, with Natal and Kaffra-
ria. — pietermaritzburg (Natal) — graham's
town — cape town (R. 3 — R, from Morocco).
(397.) Land of the Demara and Namaqua,
including Hottentot Country. — barmen.
(398.) Angola. — st. paul de loando.
(399.) Congo. — san salvador (R. 3 — R.
from Morocco).
Benguela. — loango — biafra.
Kingdom of Dahomey. — badagrt.
Negro Bepublic of Liberia. — mon
Senegambia. — st. louis (R. 3 — R.
from Morocco).
(404.) Soudan. — timbuctu — kouka — wara
(R. 3 — B. from Morocco).
(400.)
(401.)
(402.)
ROVIa,.
(403.)
168
political geography.
(405.) Land of the Bechnanas. — lattakoo
(How many from Morocco? R. 50).
(406.) Several important Island-Towns (two
or three of these are mentioned elsewhere). —
Remark. Possessions of Great Britain, Holland, Spain,
France and United States of America (in Oceania) are
indicated by boundary lines on PI. IV. Some parts of
region, marked to Holland, are, however, independent.
Spain possesses only a part of Philippine Is. and a part
of Ladrone Is. The N. W. region of I. of Borneo,
capital Bruni, is ruled by an independent Malay Sultan
and the northernmost angle, by a Malay pirate state:
Sulu or Soo-loo.
(407.) Principal British Island-Towns. —
nassau (New Providence, Bahama Is.) — point dk
galle (Ceylon) — Singapore (I. of Singapore) (R. 3)
— hong-kong (mouth of Canton R.) — Brisbane —
sydney (sid'-nee) (R. 3 — R. from Point de Galle) —
melbourne — adelaide—perth (Australia — R. 3
— R. from Point de Galle) — hobarton (Tasmania) —
auckland—wellington — dunedin (New Zealand
— R. i — R. from Point de Galle). In Mediterranean:
valetta (Malta). In Atlantic-, james town (St.
Helena — R. 2 — R. from Point de Galle).
(408.) Principal Butch Island - Towns. —
palembang (Sumatra) — batavia (Java) — banjar-
MAssiN (Borneo — R. 3 — R. from Point de Galle).
(409.) Principal Spanish Island-Towns. —
palma (on Majorca — Balearic Is.) — Havana (Cuba)
— manila (/. of Luzon — Philippine Is.).
(410.) Principal Portuguese Island-Towns.
— angra (I. of Terceira — Azores) — punchal (foon-
shal',— Madeiras) — macao (mac-cow') (R. 3 — R. from
Point de Galle).
TOWNS.
169
(411.) Principal French Island-Towns. —
BASTIA—AJACCio (a-yat'-cho) {I. of Corsica) — (R. 2
— B. from Point de Gallé).
(412.) Principal Italian Island-Towns. —
cagliari (cal-ya'ree — Sardinia) — Palermo {Sicily
— B. 2—B. from Point de Galle).
(413.) Independent kingdom of Sandwich
Is. — honolulu, chief sea-port. {How many from
Point de Galle? B. 29 — How many towns of the world?
B. those 334. Observe several have been counted twice, as
Key West, New Orleans, Havana. Deducting these 3,
remain 331).
(414.) Remark. That division of Oceania, marked
"American", and in Pi. II "American Polynesia", consists
of about 50 guano islands which, principally by right of
discovery, have become the property of various citizens of
the United States. By an act of the United States Congress,
August 18, 1856, they were declared part of the territory
of the United States. The name "American'Polynesia" is
proposed in the "Mittheilungen" by Dr. Petermann.
(414 A.) Questions. Pupil to give examples. —
What is a continent? (121)—island? (122)—island-chain?
(123) — peninsula? (124) — isthmus? (126)—cape? (128)
— promontory? (129)—mountain? (130) — mountain - range,
or ridge, or chain? (131) — mountain-system? (132) —
peak? (133) — volcano? (134) — ocean? (153)—river? (170)
— source or head of a river? (170)—mouth of river?
(170) — river - channel ? (170)—bed of river? (170) — right
bank — left bank of a river? (170) — tributary, affluent,
branch of a river? (172)—fork of a river? (172, also 152)
— wady? (178).
170 LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
EXERCISES '
ON LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
(415.) Let us read over again sections 56 to 60. How
many parallels of latitude are drawn on PI. II? Eight
north and eight south. How far are they apart? Ten
degrees. How many on PI. III? Also 8 north and
8 south.
(416.) Latitude of C. Horn. — Take PI. III.— What
is the lat. of C. Horn? Between 60° and 60° S. lat.
If the map were drawn on a large enough scale, not only
the degrees, but the minutes and seconds, would be
marked on the border, and we should find the lat. of 0.
Horn to be 55 ° 58' 4". A degree on all the large circles
of the earth—that is, on equator and on any meridian —
is about 69 english statute miles. Sixty nine times .860
is 24,840. C. Horn, then is, about 69 times 56 (more than
3800) mUes from equator.
(43 7.) First Heridian — that is, the meridian from
which longitude is measured. — Longitude, we have seen,
is the distance of a place, E. or W., from some given meridian.
Ancient geographers count from Ferro, the western¬
most of Canary Is. (PI. II), because this island was formerly
regarded as the westernmost point of the habitable world.
The Germans, and the people of eastern Europe, still
measure from Ferro; the French, sometimes from Ferro,
sometimes from Paris; the Spaniards, from Madrid; the
English, from the meridian which passes through the royal
observatory of Greenwich, a part of London. In nautical
works the Germans also measure from Greenwich. United
States geographers measure sometimes from Greenwich,
sometimes from Washington. In the present work, we
measure from Greenwich. All nations ought to unite upon
a common first meridian.
(418.) Longitude of C. Horn. — Counting from me¬
ridian of Greenwich, by the arabic figures on equator, we
find long, of C. Horn to be between 60° and 70°. On a
POLITICAlí GEOGRAPHT.
171
a larger map -we should be able to count with precision 67 "
16' W. Read "Explanation" PL III. fig. 6.— You here
leam to connect the terms minutes and seconds with
distance, as navigators and other travellers do, when
wandering over the wide surface of the globe.
(419.) Length of degrees of longitude and latitude,
— The length of degree of longitude varies in proportion
to the distance from equator. There is also a slight change
in the length of degrees of latitude, as we approach the
pole in consequence of the oblate shape of the glohe.
(420.) Different time of day, when noon at Green¬
wich. — Remark, on PI. II, the meridian of Greenwich.
Suppose it to be there noon. How late will it be, on the
meridian corresponding to that of Greenwich, on the (op¬
posite side of the globe? Midnight. As the earth re¬
volves from W. to E., where would the rising sun be first
seen—onplacesEast or West ofGreenwieh? On places
E. of Greenwich of course. When therefore it is
noon at Greenwich, where would it be 6 o'clock in the
afternoon? On meridian 90 degrees E. of Greenwich.
How late would it be on meridian 90° West? Six o'clock
in the morning. You will find these 4 meridians indicated
on PI. II. The Roman numbers, on equator, show how late
it is, at every point of globe's surface, when noon at
Greenwich.
Remark. The teacher may here put such questions as ;
When noon at New Orleans, how late would it be at
Greenwich? Six o'clock, afternoon. — How late on
the Feejee Is? Six o'clock morning. When noon in
Anadir G., how late in Spitzbergen? Midnight.
(421.) Latitude of different places.— A little atten¬
tion will secure you against awkward mistakes often made
with regard to relative position of places. Bear in mind
that the land of the globe lies principally north of
equator—that S. America, an angle of Africa and Australia,
with some small land fragments can, alone, ever have S.
latitude. No place can have a higher latitude, than 90®.
If we know exactly the countries intersected by equator,
tropics and arctic circles, we already approach a clear idea
of the relative position of all the countries of the earth.
172
LATITUDE AMD LONGITUDE.
Let US divide the countries of N. hem. into 7 groups, solely
with reference to their astronomical position on the earth's
surface.
(422.) Countries, etc., on, or near, equator.—Ecuador —
Columbia — Venezuela—(Ä. these 3). English — Dutch —
French Guiana—(ß. these 3—R. from equator). Brazil—
Bolivia —Peru—{How manyf R. those 9). Lower Guinea,
with Congo, Loango, Biafra — (fl. these 4 — R. from equator).
Unexplored regions of Central Africa — Empires of Moropne
and Cazembe—(ß. these 3 —' R- from equator). Somanli
and Galla Country — Suaheli Coast or Zanzibar (ß. these 3
—R. from equator). Sumatra—Borneo — Celebes (ß. these
3—R. from equator). Papua or New Guinea, through
Malaysian and Polynesian Is., American Polynesia to Ecuador
again (ß. from equator).
(423.)
Countries, etc., on, or near, 45th parallel —
The 45th parallel is exactly half way between equator
and pole. The objects are (Plates HI and IV) northern
torritories and states of the United States — great Lakes —
Nova Scotia (ß. these 3). French Fishery Is.—France—
Switzerland (ß. these 3—R.from United States). Roumania
— Turkey in Europe — Black Sea—(ß. these 3—R. from
U. States). Russia in Europe — Caspian Sea—Sea of Aral
— {R. these 3 — R.from U. States). Western Tartary or
Toorkistan — L. Balkash — China (ß. these 3 — R. from U.
States). Japan, across Pacific to United States again (fl.
from U. States—ß. countries on equator—on 45 th parallel).
(424.) Countries, etc., on, or near, tropic of Cancer.
— The tropic of Cancer is about half way between 45th
parallel and equator; nearly one quarter between equator
and pole. The countries and other objects are; Mexico —
Florida—West India Is. {R. these 3). Sahara—Egypt—
Arabia (ß. these 3—R.from Mexico). Persian G. — Arabian
Sea — Beloochistan {R. these 3—R. from Mexico). Hindostán
—Indo-Chinese States—China (fl. these 3 — R.from Mexico).
Philippine Is.—Sandwich Is. — Mexico (fl. these 3—R. from
Mexico).
(425.)
Conntries, etc., on arctic circle. — Behring
Str.— Russian America-—-British America (fl. these 3).
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
173
Unoccupied Arctic Lands—Greenland—Iceland — (R. these
3—R. from Behring Str.). Sweden and Norway — Russia
in Europe—Russia in Asia or Siberia {R. these 3 — R.from
Behring Str.) Tchooktchee P. — Behring Str. {R. from
Behring Str. to Behring Str. — R. objects on equator—on
45 parallel—tropic of Cancer—arctic circle).
(426.) Countries, etc., on, or near, tropic of Capricorn.
— Bolivia—Peru—Chili {R. these 3). Argentine Confed¬
eration— Paraguay — Brazil {R. these 3—R.from Bolivia).
Land of the Damara and Namaqua, including Hottentot
Country (R. these 3—R, from Bolivia). Land of Bechuanas
— Cape Colony — Transvaal Rep. {R. these 3 — R. from
Bolivia). Zooloo Country — Madagsiscar — Australia (R.
these 3 — R. from Bolivia). PI. II. New Caledonia —
Feejee Is.—Friendly Is. (Ä. these 3—R. from Bolivia).
Society Is. — Low Is. — Pitcairn I. (R. these 3 — R.from
Bolivia).
(427.) Conntries on, or near, 45 parallel south. —
S. point of Chili — Patagonia—Tasmania or Van Diemen's
Land (ß. from tropic of Capricorn — 45 parallel S.).
(428.) obj ects on antarctic circle. — Graham Land
—Cape Ann—Repulse B. — Wilkes Land {R.from arctic
circle—tropic of Capricorn—45 parallel S.).
(429.) Towns on, or near, parallel of Hammerfest
(northernmost town of the globe). — Among the very few
human habitations near parallel 70, are: Hammerfest —
Tornea — Archangel {R. these 3). Olensk — Yakootsk —
Nishnei-Kolymsk {R. these 3 — R. from Hammerfest). Godt-
haab — Reikiavik, etc, {R. these 2—R.from Hammerfest).
(430.) Towns near parallel of St. Petersburg. —
The class of towns, next removed from the frozen regions,
will be found between or near the 55°—60° parallels. St.
Petersburg — Moscow — Nishnei-Novgorod {R. these 3).
Kasan—Tobolsk — Barnaul {R. these 3 — R. from St. Peters¬
burg). Krasnojarsk — Irkutsk—Okhotsk {R. these 3—R.
from St. P.). Nicolajefsk—Petropaulovsk (R. these 2 — R.
from St. P.). Across Pacific, New Archangel — Fort York
(Ä. these 2 — R. from St. P.). Glasgow — Edinburgh —
174 CONFIGURATION OF GLOBE'S SURFACE.
Dundee (ñ. these 3 — R. from St. P.). Copentagen—
Gothenburg — Bergen (P. these 3 — R. from St. P.).
Christiania—Upsala — Stockholm (R. these 3—R. from St.
P.). Reval — Riga — St. Petersburg (P. these 3—R. from
St. P.).
(431.) London — about parallel 51. — London —
Berlin—Warsaw (P. these 3). New Westminster — Fort
Garry — Quebec (P. these 3 — P. from London). Montreal —
St. John (P. these 2 — P. from London).
(482.) New York — lat 41®. — Oporto — Madrid-
Rome (P. these 3). Naples — Constantinople — Trebisond
(P. these 3 — R. from Oporto). Khiva — Kokand — Samar-
cand (P. these 3—P. from Oporto). Peking—Mookden —
Kirin-oola (P. these 3 — P. from Oporto). Han-yang—
Hakodadi — (across Pacifie) Salt Lake City — Chicago —
Cleveland — (P. these 5 — P. from Oporto).
The teacher may multiply these questions at discretion.
CONFIGURATION OF GLOBE'S SURFACE.
(4oö.) We abridge from eminent geographers, among
whom are Humboldt and Carl Ritter, a few striking observ¬
ations on this subject.*
1. The northern hemis. (PI. First, I. K) contains three
times as much land as the southern—the eastern (E. G),
twice as much land as the western. 2. The N. temperate
zone presents a greater proportion of land than any other; and
13 times more than the S. temperate zone (I. L). 3. On
equator, five-sixths of the circumference is water, the excep¬
tion being narrow extremities of S. America, Africa and
several Malaysian Is. (1. K). 4. In each continent, a great
fragment is nearly broken off from the mainland, S. America
being united only by Isthmus of Dar^n—Africa, by that
• A small volume from Ritter, translated by Mr. Gage, and
published by Lippencott, is recommended to american students.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
175
of Suez. 5. The peninsulas of the world arc generally
projected toward the South; as Scandinavia, Spain, Italy,
Turkey, Greece, Arabia, Hindostán, Indo-China, Corea,
Kamtchatka, Africa, S. America, Aliaska, California, Ma¬
lacca, Florida, Nova Scotia, and Greenland. The principal
exceptions are, Jutland, and Yucatan, stretching north¬
ward— Russian America and Asia Minor, westward.
6. Peninsulas, like continents, have often the same pyramidal
termination—ex. Hindostán, Greenland, etc. 7, The E.
and W. Continents each throw out, far to the north, insu¬
lar masses; one—Greenland and the Arctic Archipelago;
the other —Nova Zemla Is., New Siberia Is. and Spitz¬
bergen. In N. hem. human explorations appear to have
been arrested about the 82 parallel. The am. expedition,
under Hayes, reached or saw the most northern land of
the known world. (PI. III). 8. The greatest breadth of
both continents is on the same parallel — 50 th (PI. III).
9. The southern extremities of Africa, Australia, New
Zealand and S. America (PI. IV) form a regular gradation,
each reaching nearer the pole in the order above named,
10. Both hemispheres have submarine prolongations, indi¬
cated, in S. America and Asia, by islands—in Africa, by
shoals. 11. Considering Australia a continent, one twenty-
fourth of the earth's land consists of islands. 12. Differ¬
ent and remote portions of the globe seem cast in somewhat
the same mould, as if the form were determined by the
same law: Examples. Florida, extending into West India
Is. ; — Grecian P., into Grecian*Archipelago — Malacca, into
Malaysian Is. Cuba lies, near Florida, in somewhat the
same relative position as Sumatra, near Malacca. 13. Three
pointed peninsulas projected by Europe southward into
Mediterranean, namely: Spanish P., Italy, Grecian P.—
correspond to three, projected by Asia into Indian Ocean
—Arabia, Hindostán and China. Remark the juxta-posi-
tion of Italy and Sicily, compared with that of Hindostán
and Ceylon. 14. S. America, Africa, Australia, are almost
destitute of gulfs and bays. N. America, Europe and Asia,
on the contrary, have innumerable, deep recesses, and pro¬
trude immense, shattered prominences. 15. The projections
and indentations of eastern coast of America singularly
coincide with those of western coasts of Europe and Africa.
The eastern angle of S. America suggests the idea that it
once occupied the place of G. of Guinea; while the western
176 CONFIGURATION OF GLOBE'S SURFACE.
protuberance of Africa looks as if it had been torn out of
Mexico. The conformity of opposite coasts of Greenland
and Norway is obvious. 16. Humboldt remarks the still
more interesting circumstance; viz. that, not only the
projections of one coast correspond with the recesses of
the other, but the nature of the mountains and plains also
correspond. 17. As mountain-ranges run in the direction
of the greatest length of each continent, so they do in
islands and peninsulas. Examples—Apennines—Ghauts—
Scandinavian Mts. etc. 18. The highest mountain peaks
rise in, or near, torrid zone. Mt. Aconcagua is just outside
the tropic of Capricorn; Mt. Everest, just outside the
tropic of Cancer. 19. The loftiest mountain ranges or
peaks stand upon elevated table-lands, as a statue upon
its pedestal. 20. The greatest elevation, above the
sea-level, of any point of the globe's surface, is 5 or 5'/«
miles; say 1—Í400th (one fourteen-hundredth) part of the
earth's diameter. The proportion is that of a grain of
sand upon the surface of a polished ivory globe, 6 feet in
diameter; so that the sphericity of the planet is scarcely
disturbed. The inequalities are not so great as those of
an orange. Supposing the orange to be our earth, the
roughnesses of the skin, scarcely perceptible to the eye or
hand, would be stupendous mountain-ranges, lifting their
awful heads into the heavens. "And, creeping at their base,"
it is sometimes added, "what an insignificant insect is man!"
(434.) Remark. A momentary digression is here proper.
There is a class of writers who think the smallness of
man's body, a reason for rejecting the Scriptures. Compared
with the earth's dimensions—still more with astronomic
distances (16, 17, 19) — man is such an inconceivably di¬
minutive animalcule* that the idea of God making a Revel¬
ation to him, is simply absurd. There are learned philos¬
ophers not ashamed to talk this kind of nonsense! The
logical reply is:—it has no connection whatever with
the subject. Intellectual and spiritual existence and pre¬
eminence are not dependent upon material dimensions. The
sophist may be confuted by the following question; "If
Plato, Paul and John are of too minute bodily stature to
♦ An-i-mal'-cule—an animal too small to be discerned
except by a microscope.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
177
occupy the attention of their Creator,—how many million
miles tall ought they to be, in order to attract God's
love, and to become worthy of revelation and immortality?"
Geology and Astronomy are most unjustly accused of
contradicting Scripture in another point. Science, it is
pretended, has discovered that the universe is explainable
without God. This is altogether untrue. We repeat
(280), and the fact cannot be too distinctly proclaimed:
science has never explained, and has not made the least
progress toward explaining, the origin of things. The
wisest savant, on this point, is as ignorant as a little
child. It is true, Copernicus, Kepler and Newton discovered
certain laws of matter, and showed how the laws operate.
But, whence came those laws? Whence came matter?
Whence came Copernicus, Kepler and Newton? The
atheist accounts for the bird by following it back to the
egg; but ask him to account for the egg! Science has
traced many effects to causes, and made amazing discoveries ;
but who has discovered the primal cause? Of the
universe and man, there is only one explanation: — "In
the beginning God created." •
DISTANCES AND DIMENSIONS.
(435.) We naturally desire to know the distance and
size of places; but a scale of distance, for planispheres,
like Plates II and III, would be too abstruse. Some
considerations, however, will assist us in forming tolerably
correct ideas. We know (22) that the equatorial circum¬
ference is 24,899 English or statute miles, and that the
polar circumference is nearly the same. A traveller,
passing around the earth, either on the equator, or on
any meridian, would thus make a journey, the length of
which we know exactly. Half way around the globe,
therefore, on a great circle, (either the equator or a
meridian), is half of 24,899 miles, namely 12,449 and
a fraction. One quarter is 6224 and a fraction, and
so on. This already gives some idea of distances.
From the pole to the equator (Plate II) is one quarter
12
178
DISTANCES AND DIMENSIONS.
of the globe's circumference. A quarter of the length of
the equator must be the same distance. If, therefore, yon
travel from any place, on the equator, to the N. or S.
Pole—say from Borneo, the Gaboon River, Chimborazo,
etc.—your journey is about 6224 miles. But this is
a vague mode of measuring, even for places both of which
lie on the meridian. We have a more exact mode. As
every meridian, and, of course, the equator, is divided into
360o, a degree, on the equator or on the meridian, must
be the 360th part of 24,899 mUes — namely 69 English
miles and a fraction.
(436.) Geographical mile — English or Statute
Mile. — The word mile has different meanings. It varies
in different countries. The English statute mile is 5280
feet; while the English geographical mile is one-sixth longer;
its length being determined by the fact that there are
exactly 60 of them in every equatorial degree. It would
be a great convenience to mankind, if a common standard
could be universally adopted.
(437.) Places on, or near, eqnator. — We thus easily
find the distance, length and breadth of places lying E. or
W. of each other on, or near, equator fPl. IV). What is
the breadth of S. America on equator ? — Omit fractions.
About 30 degrees. How many English mUes?—2070
miles. Breadth of I. of Sumatra?—About 4® or 276
miles. Distance, in degrees and mUes, of the town Brava
in Somauli and Galla Country (Africa), from Singapore?
— 60° or 4140 English miles. Distance from Batavia
to Guayaquil?— 172° or 11,868 English miles.
Breadth of Atlantic from mouth of the Amazon R. to mouth
of Gaboon R.? About 60° or 4140 English miles.
(438.) Places on samo meridian. — What is the
greatest length of S. America? About 69° — 4761 En¬
glish miles. Greatest breadth of Australia? — 29° —
2000 miles. Breadth of United States of America from
Brownsville to Lake of the Woods? — Ab out 24°—16 56
miles. Length of England and Scotland? — 9°—621
miles. Length of Caspian Sea? — About 11° — 7 60
miles.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
179
(^4:öy.j Distance oí places according to parallels. —
We have thus a certain mode of measuring the distances
of places -where both lie on equator, and also where both
lie on same meridian. Would this mode be applicable to
places lying E. and W. of each other on different parallels
of latitude? No, because the length of degrees, of
course, varies according to each parallel. How
then shall we measure the distance of two places on the
same parallel? We must ascertain the value, in English
miles, of a degree on that parallel. For this we must have
a table. One will be found (Plate IV, Explanation 2), on which
the length, in English miles, of a degree of longitude is
given on the equator, and also the different lengths, on 16
different parallels of, latitude. Let us measure the greatest
length E. and W. of United States (PI. Ill or IV) on
49°—i. e, the northernmost parallel. How many degrees?
—About 58°. We learn from the table that the degree
of longitude, on this parallel, instead of being 69, as on
equator, is only 44. What then is the length of the United
States, in English miles? — About 2552 miles.' We thus,
by help of the table, easily measure, in English miles, the
distance of all points on the same parallel.
VOYAGES.
(PLATE IV.)
(440.)
Projections. — It is almost impossible to con¬
struct maps so as to give the relative magnitudes of conti¬
nents, countries etc. with exactness, although their shapes
may be accurate. The different methods devised for doing
so, are called Projections. We shall here only notice
two. In Plates I. II. and III. the earth is drawn as a
globe. This is called the: —
(441.) Globular Projection. — Here (PI. II) the
equator is the largest circle. Every parallel is a small
circle; and the parallels grow smaller, as they recede from
the equator; till, at the pole, they dwindle to a point.
180
VOYAGES.
We have already seen that a degree, on the equator, con¬
tains more miles than on any parallel; and must, moreover,
be of different length, on each parallel. One advantage of
this projection therefore is, that the shapes of continents,
oceans, etc., are given more correctly. On the other hand,
one of the disadvantages is, that certain places, in nature,
close to each other, appear remote; for ex.: Behring Str.
and Japan—Australia and New Zealand. We receive a
confused idea of the relative bearings of those parts of the'
globe "whose contiguity, in the planisphere map", is well
said to be "so awkwardly interrupted by the diverging
circumferences of the two hemispheres."
You must distinctly understand the above expression.
We shall read to you the questions concerning it, with
their answers. Take PI. II. What projection.is that?
A globular projection.—How is that kind of map
called? — A planisphere or planiglobe. Why? Be¬
cause it represents a sphere on a flat surface
or plane. Trace with your finger the circumferences of
the two hemispheres in PL II. What is the meaning of
the word, "contiguity?" The actual contact or touch¬
ing of two bodies (from two latin words, signifying
together and touch). The sentence, which we are analyzing,
means then that, places or countries, which, in nature, touch
each other, are, on planisphere maps, awkwardly separated.
Define the word, "diverging!"—Proceeding from one
point and leaning away, in different directions.
Show on PI. 11. where the circumferences of the hemi¬
spheres meet or touch?—At 20* W. long.—Where do
they diverge?—They immediately begin to diverge
or to separate from each other, and may be called
"diverging or separated circumferences", at all their other
points. The form of the earth is represented as that of an
apple cut into two halves; each half separated from the
other and presented to the eye in that separated condition. >
Give an example or two of some objects whose contiguity,
in the planisphere map (PL II), is awkwardly interrupted
by the diverging circumferences of the two hemispheres?
— Iceland. It is quite cut in two. Kamtchatka.
Indeed all the points, bordering on the circumference of
one hemisphere, are separated from corresponding points,
bordering on the circumference of the other hemisphere.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
181
■with -which they ought to be connected. Not only the
contiguity, but also, of course, the proximity is inter¬
rupted. Places, near to each other, are made to appear
remote; for instance. New Zealand and Australia—Japan
and Aliaska. The Antarctic Continent, whioh ought to be
one figure, a huge ice-mass, is cut in two ; and the fragments
recede so far away from each other that we can scarcely
bear in mind their contiguity. Polynesia, Australasia, the
Tchooktchee P., are also awkwardly separated; the Azores
(PI. IV), opposite Lisbon, near Madeira, are made to recede
from both; while Greenland, comparatively near Scotland
and Ireland, looks more remote than the G. of Good Hope.
Among other distortions, are the Atlantic and Pacific —
particularly the former. The appearance presents a per¬
petual puzzle to the young student endeavoring to trace a
voyage from New York to London.
(442.) Kercator's Projection (PI. IV.) — was intro¬
duced by Mercator (mer-ca'-tor), in 1556, for the particular
convenience of mariners. It is also called the Cylindrical
Projection, because it is drawn as if the earth were
shaped like a cylinder, as in PI. VIII. O. A cylinder,
in Geometry, is a long, circular body, of uniform diameter,
its extremities forming equal parallel circles. If the earth
were shaped so, its surface, unrolled, would appear like
PL IV;—the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer—the arctic
and antarctic circles—the parallel of latitude at the pole —
and all the other parallels, would be as large as the equator.
The degrees upon each, therefore, would be of the same length.
— But the earth is not shaped so. Hence the disadvantage
of this map is that, among other peculiarities, the length of
the degrees of longitude, and those of latitude, are exag¬
gerated toward the poles; and the relative magnitudes of
the polar regions and the objects near them, as compared
with those near the equator, are larger than they ought
to be. Greenland, Sweden, Norway, British America, Asia
(PI. IV), will strike your eye as shapes different from those
in Pis. I. II. III. Bearing this in mind, so as not to fall
into an error as to the relative dimensions of places in the
polar and equatorial regions, the Mercator projection is
useful in several respects. It may be safely consulted in
connection -with the planispheres; for the errors of the two
projections ccrrecl each other. We see the earth's entire
182
VOYAGES.
surface at one view. No diverging circumferences interrupt
the contiguity, or distort the proximity, of places. The
disjoined pieces of Iceland and Kamtchatka—the Atlantic
and Pacific—Polynesia and Australasia—re-appear in their
natural entireness. We see New Zealand, close to Australia,
in its right place, and regular gradation between C. of Good
Hope and S. Pole (433,ninth paragraph). The eye follows
with pleasure every unbroken outline, and traces the rela¬
tive position of every point—of Kamtchatka and Behring
Str. — Tchooktchee P. and Japan — Iceland, Greenland,
Norway and Great Britain — New York and London—the
Azores and Madeiras—the La Plata and 0. of Good
Hope. The youngest schoolboy can go, in imagination,
from New York to London, without embarrassment. We
have, therefore, chosen the Mercator projection for the
following imaginary voyages to different countries and towns
of the world, although it will often be found useful to
refer to Plates I. IL III.
(443.) It would not be an easy task to cross all the
regions and visit all the points of the globe. We should
meet a variety of obstacles not always surmountable. Some¬
times we should find ourselves among populations speaking
languages quite unintelligible—in lands desolated by wars
—in oceans blocked up with ice — in burning deserts or
frozen steppes, where neither animal nor man can resist the
winter storm or the summer drought—in places atifiicted
with pestilence or malaria — seas infested with cruel pirates
or embarrassed by dangerous marine vegetation—savage
districts or islands where we incur the peril, not only of
being murdered, but of being eaten by our fellow-beings.
Magellan, who gave his name to the Strait, was killed (1521),
by the savages of the Philippine Is. Cook was massacred
by the natives of the Sandwich Is. (1779). An interesting
young Prussian savant, Mr. Schlagintweit, after crossing
the Himalaya Mts., from Calcutta to Lhassa (Pis. IV and
III), was seized, by the fanatic chief of a Turkish tribe, and
beheaded (1857).
(444.) Voyage from Kew York to Nishnei-Hovgorod.
— Bemark. 1. As it is not the object of these voyage-
lessons to convey instruction concerning present routes
of tr.avel, steamships, railroads, etc., we do not always choose
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
183
the most direct way. 2. Degrees of latitude and longitude,
miles, etc., are given without fractions.
Point out Nishnei-Novgorod (nizh'-nee). Go to it by
Gibraltar.—In what country? Russia in Europe.—In
what direction from New York? North-east.—Longitude
of New York? 74° W. from Greenwich.— Longitude
of Nishnei-Novgorod? 44° E.—How many degrees is
Nishnei-Novgorod E. of New-York? 118°.—Latitude of
New York? 41°. — Latitude of Novgorod? 56°.—How
many degrees does Novgorod lie N. of New York? 15°.—
Bound Russia in Europe (Plates IV and III). N. by a
part of Sweden, White Sea and Arctic Ocean; E.
by Russia in Asia or Siberia and Caspian Sea;
S. by Caspian Sea, Persia, Turkey in Asia, Black
Sea, Roumania, Austria; W. by Black Sea, Rou-
mania, Austria, Germany, Baltic and Sweden.—
In what zone lies Russia in Europe? N. temperate and
north frigid.—What is the northernmost parallel of
Russia in Europe? About 70°. — Conditions of day,
night and seasons on that parallel? Longest day, two
months; longest night, of course, tbe same. (See
Explanation, at left, of PI. IV ; also Text-Book 93 and 94).
It thus lies far within arctic circle and the region of intense
polar cold. The southernmost parallel ? 3 9 ". Conditions
of day, night and seasons on this parallel? Longest day
and, of course, longest night—about 15 hours:
—not very different from the day and night of Boston and
New York. What countries or places lie on that northern
seventieth parallel, going E. around the world? Russia
in Asia — Russian America — Unoccupied Arctic
Lands—Baffin Bay—Greenland—northern part of
Norway and Sweden.—What countries or places lie on, or
near, the southernmost parallel, going E. around the world?
Russia in Asia—Western Tartary or Toorkistan
— Chinese Empire—Kingdom of Corea—Empire
of Japan—the United States—Portugal — Spain
Italy (Rome, Naples) — Greece—Turkey in Asia.—
In going from New York to Novgorod, what waters do yon
pass through or near? E. across Atlantic—then (Pl.
H. fig. 5) — Str. of Gibraltar—G. of Lions — G. of
Genoa — Tyrrhenian Sea — Str. of Messina (Scylla
and Charybdis)—Ionian Sea — Adriatic Sea —
Levant(191)—Aegean Sea or Grecian Archipelago
184
voyages.
— Str. Dardanelles or Hellespont — Sea Marmora
— Str. of Constantinople or Bosphorus—(now PI. III.
Fig. 1)—Black Sea—Str. of Kertch or Yenikale
— Sea of Azof—(now PI. IV)—up river Don, cross
canal to Volga (largest river in Europe), to
Novgorod. — What countries have yon coasted, on your
left? Portugal — Spain — France —Italy —Austria
— Turkey in Europe — Greece—Turkey in Europe
again—a small part of the coast of Roumania
— Black Sea — then Russia in Europe. — What
countries did you pass on your right? Morocco —
Algeria—Tunis — Tripoli with Barca and Fezzan
—Egypt—Turkey in Asia (including Palestine or
the Holy Land).—The mouths of what great rivers have
you passed on your left? Guadalquivir — Ebro —
Rhone — Po — Danube — Dniester— Dnieper and
Don.—The mouth of what great river on your right?
The Nile.—Name towns you passed on, or near, your left?
Cadiz — Granada — Marseilles — Rome — Naples
—Palermo — Athens—Constantinople—Odessa—
Sebastople.—Name towns on your right. Tangier s —
Algiers—Constantino — Tunis— Cabes—Tripoli —
Alexandria — Cairo — Rosetta — Jerusalem — St.
Jean D'Acre —Beiruth — Damascus — Aleppo —
Smyrna — Trebizond — Kazan — Novgorod. — On
what sea, lake or river stand the following towns? Mar¬
seilles? On G. of Lions.—Constantinople? On Strait
of Constantinople or Bosphorus, near Black Sea.—
Trebizond? On Black Sea.—Smyrna? On Aegean Sea
or Grecian Archipelago.—Alexandria? Rosetta? Cairo?
On Nile.—Beiruth? St. Jean D'Acre? On Mediterra¬
nean.— Read rivers of Russia in Europe, beginning with
Volga, going W. and N. around. — Volga — Don —
Dnieper— Dniester —Prnth—Niemen (nee'-men) —
Duna — Dwina—Petchora. Read towns of Russia in
Europe. — Nishnei-Novgorod — Kazan — Moscow —
Astrachan— Sebastople—Odessa—Kiev—Warsaw
— Riga —Reval — St. Petersburg — Archangel —
Tornea. On what sea, lake or river stand the following
towns? Astrachan? On Volga and Caspian Sea.—
Archangel? On White Sea.—Tornea? On Baltic.—St.
Petersburg? On Neva R. and G. of Finland.—Reval?
Riga? On Baltic.—Warsaw? On Vistula.—Kiev? (Kief)
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
185
On Dnieper. — Nishnei-Novgorod? At the confluence
of Oka with Volga.
(445.) Nish nei-Novgorod. — This town, beside being
a great center of trade between Europe and Asia, interests
the traveler as the seat of the largest fair in the world.
From 2 to 300,000 (and sometimes more) Europeans and
Asiatics are collected; sales of wares and products take
place, to the amount of a hundred million dollars, within
about eight weeks. There, mingle in the immense crowd,
the long-bearded Russian tradesman, the Greek, with his
beautiful costume of scarlet and white, the Tartar, the
Turk, the Jew, the Persian, the Chinese, the Indian, the
Mongol, the Thibet merchant, and the agent of the Russian
American Fur-Company, with rich furs — brilliant, fiery fox
skins — precious ermines of Yakootsk—splendid sables, etc.
For these wares, so much prized by the princes and nobles
of Turkey, Persia and Russia, the fur merchant receives
hundreds of thousands of dollars.
(446.) From Nishnei • Novgorod to Fetropanlovsk
(sometimes written PetTopaulovski —pe-tro-pow-lof'skee) by
Irkutsk and Nicolajefsk. Point out Petropaulovsk.—In
what country? Russia in Asia.—In what direction from
Nishnei-Novgorod? Nearly E.—Longitude of Nishnei-
Novgorod? 44° E. from Greenwich.—Longitude of
Petropaulovsk? 159® E.—How many degrees is Petro¬
paulovsk distant from Nishnei-Novgorod? 115°. — Lati¬
tude of Nishnei-Novgorod? 56° N.—How many degrees
lies Petropaulovsk S. of Novgorod ? 3 ° S. —Bound Russia
in Asia. N. by Arctic Ocean; E. by Arctic Ocean,
Behring Str., separating from Russian America,
and by Pacific; S. by Pacific, Chinese Empire,
Western Tartary or Toorkistan, Persia; W. by
Caspian Sea, Europe, Ural river, Ural Mts. and
Arctic Ocean. — In what zones lies Russia in Asia? N.
temperate and N. frigid zones.—What is the northern¬
most parallel of Russia in Asia? 7 8°.— Conditions of day,
night, climate, etc., in places on that parallel? About
4 months uninterrupted day in summer, the same
night in winter; of course polar cold and ever¬
lasting ice.—What is the southernmost parallel of Russia
in Asia? 38° N.—Conditions of day and night in places
186
VOYAGES,
on that parallel? About 15 hours day in summer,
the same night in winter, much the same as in
New-York. — What towns, countries or places lie on, or
near, that northernmost parallel going E. around the world?
Grinnell Land—Smith Strait—Greenland—Spitz¬
bergen.—What towns, countries or places lie on, or near,
that southernmost parallel going E. around the world?
Persia—Western Tartary or Toorkistan — part of
the Afghan States—Chinese Empire — kingdom
of Corea—Niphon (the principal island of Japan) —
San Francisco—Sacra.mento — St. Louis—Louis¬
ville—Philadelphia—and Washington.—What coun¬
tries, mountains, lakes, seas, interesting regions do you pass
through, or near, in coming from Nishnei-Novgorod to Pe-
tropaulovsk? Ural Mts. — Lake Baikal — Sea of
Okhotsk.—What great rivers have you passed? , Irtish
—Ob (Obi)—Yenisei, with its branch Toongooska
or Angara — Lena.—By what towns did you pass?
Kasan —Tobolsk — Barnaul — Krasnoyarsk —Ir-
kootsk — Kiakhta, adjoining the Chinese town
Maimatchin — Nicolajefsk—to Petropaulovsk.—
Read the rivers of Russia in Asia. Obi, with its
branch Irtish—Yenisei, with Toongooska or
Angara—Lena—Kolyma and Amoor. — Read towns
of Russia in Asia? Tobolsk—Barnaul—Krasnoyarsk
— Irkootsk— Kiakhta — Nicolajefsk — Petropau¬
lovsk— Okhotsk —Yakootsk — Nishnei-Kolymsk —
Olensk. — On what sea, lake or river stand following
towns in Siberia or Russia in Asia? Tobolsk? On Irtish.—
Barnaul? On Obi.—Krasnoyarsk? On Yenisei.—Irkootsk?
On Toongooska or Angara (branch of Yenisei).—
Yakootsk? On Lena. — Nicolajefsk? On Amoor.—
Nishnei-Kolymsk? On Kolyma.
(447.) Irkootsk — nearly 4000 miles from St. Peters¬
burg and 1400 miles from Peking — is almost in the center
of Asia, where one would least suppose New York and
Paris fashions and comforts. Yet, so rapidly is the world
changing under the influence of telegraphs, railroads and
steamships, that the traveler will find it, in many respects,
resembling the towns of western Europe — a theatre, schools,
a library, 19 churches, a seminary, an orphan asylum, manu¬
factures, etc. It is the great center of the Russian-Chinese
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
187
trade, with an increasing population of about 25,000, and be¬
tween 2 and 3000 houses. It is the administrative seat of
government of the Russian Empire, for all affairs connected
with the fleet and marine establishment of the Pacific Ocean;
as it has been for Russian American Fur-Company, till
the late purchase (523).
(448.) Nikolaje/sk — on Amoor R. Here we shall
find a modern Russian town and fortified military post,
several hundred blockhouses, a new handsome church with
a lofty tower, many government buildings, a museum, an
observatory, a library of 4000 volumes, many schools, and
a brisk trade. The principal european newspapers have sub¬
scribers here. It is a station of the Russian fleet and
may become an important point of communication with
California. The Russian steamers ply up the River Amoor,
on which it stands. The cold is, however, intense and the
river is frozen many months of the year.
Remark. We will not extend our journey to the
cheerless region of northern Siberia — to Olensk, the
northernmost town of the Russian Empire—nor to Nishnei-
Kolymsk, upon the Kolima River, the coldest point of
Russia, where the summer breezes, although they bring
millions of mosquitoes, are mingled with snow; while in
January the thermometer falls to 40° R. (58° F).
(449.) Peti'opaulovsk — capital town of Kamtchatka—
principal station of Russian government in this part of the
world — population, about 1000 — harbor, formed by a
tongue of land, one of the most beautiful and secure upon
the earth—by Aleutian Is. closely connected with the
Russian Territory, now part of the U. States.
(450.) ïrom Fetropanlovsk to Kew York. — Go by
New Archangel — San Francisco — Panama—Aspinwall —
New Orleans and Key West. — Point out New York.—
In what direction from Petropaulovsk? S. E.—-Longitude
of Petropaulovsk? 159° E. from Greenwich,—Longitude
of New York?7 4° W. — How many degrees does New
York lie E. of Petropaulovsk ? 124°. — Latitude of Petro¬
paulovsk? 53° N.— Latitude of New York? About
41° N. — How many degrees does New York lie N. or S.
188
voyages.
of Petropaulovsk? 12® S. — Bonnd United States of
America. N. by British America; E. by British
America, Atlantic, G. of Mexico; S. by Atlantic,
G. of Mexico, Mexico; W. by Mexico and Pacific.
—In what zone lie the United States? Altogether in the
N. temperate zone, but much nearer the torrid
than the frigid zone.—Northernmost parallel of United
States? 49® N.— Conditions of day, night, climate, etc.,
on that parallel? 16 honrs longest day and longest
night.—Southernmost parallel of the United States? 25® N.
— Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., on that parallel?
Between 13 and 14 hours longest night, etc.
Remark. While the northern parallel sensibly ap¬
proaches the character of the frigid zone, the southern
parallel is almost identical with tropic of Cancer. The
winters of the North, therefore, are long and severe, while
the southern states have a tropical climate. It is to be
observed, however, that climate does not exclusively depend
on latitude, but is modified by other circumstances; as, for
instance, elevation, the ocean, mountains, northern or
southern slope, geological character of the surface, winds,
etc.—What towns, countries or places lie on, ornear, that
northernmost parallel going E. around the world? Quebec
— St. John — Newfoundland — Paris — Munich—
Vienna — Odessa — Maimatchin — Eiakhta — and
Victoria (on Vancouver I.).—What towns, countries or
places lie on, or near, the southernmost parallel, going E.
around the world? Canary Is.—desert of Sahara
— Insalah — Mourzouk — Assouan — Ruins of
Thebes — Medina — er-Riad — Muscat —Kelat —
Curr achee —Luck now — Calcutta —Canton —Sand¬
wich Is.—What waters do you pass through, or near,
from Petropaulovsk to New York? Pacific —then
crossing Isthmus of Darien or Panama—B. of
Darien—Mosquito B. — Caribbean Sea—B. ofHon-
duras—G. of Mexico and Atlantic.—What countries
have you passed on your left? Russia in Asia or Si¬
beria— Russian America — British America —
United States of America—Mexico—republics of
Central America, namely: Guatemala—St. Salvador
— Honduras — Nicaragua—and Costa Rica — and
that part of the Isthmus belonging to the United
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
189
States of Columbia, then crossing the Isthmus,
through territory of Columbia, we pass Costa
Kica again, Nicaragua—Mosquito Coast—Hon¬
duras — Guatemala — Balize or British Hon¬
duras—Mexico—United States, to New York.—What
countries have you passed on your right? Colombia—
Hayti and republic of San Domingo. — The mouths
of what great rivers have you passed on your left?
Kwickpack or Yucon — Frazer — Columbia—Colo¬
rado— Rio Grande del Norte—Mississippi—Hud¬
son.—Name the towns on, or near the coast, you have
passed on your left? New Archangel—New West¬
minster— Victoria — Olympia — Oregon City — Sa¬
lem — San Francisco — Sacramento — Mazatlan —
Guatemala—San Salvador—Panama—A spin wall—
San Juan de Nicaragua or Greytown — Bluefields
—Vera Cruz— Mexico—Matam or as— Brownsville
— Galveston—New Orleans — Mobile — Key West
— St. Augustin—Savannah—Charleston-^Wilming-
ton—Richmond—Washington—Baltimore — Phil¬
adelphia to New York.—Name towns on or near, the
coast, you have passed on your right? Guayaquil—
Quito — Bogota— Kingston — Havana — Port au
Prince. — On what lake, river, or other waters stand the
following towns? New Orleans? On Mississippi,
near its mouth.—Vicksburg? On Mississippi.—Louis¬
ville? On Ohio.—Cincinnati? On Ohio.—Milwaukee? On
L, Michigan. — Chicago? On L. Michigan.—Detroit?
Cleveland? Bufialo? On L. Erie. — Read from map great
rivers of N. America (285)—Towns of United States.—What
towns stand on the following rivers, lakes and other waters?
On Sacramento R.? Sacramento City (329). — On
Rio Grande del Norte? Brownsville (United States), oppo¬
site Matamoras (Mexico).—On Mississippi? New Orleans
— Baton Rouge—Vicksburg—Memphis—St. Louis.
— On Ohio? Louisville—Cincinnati. — On Potomac?
Washington.—On, or near, Chesapeake B.? Richmond
— Baltimore.—On Hudson and East Rivers? New York.
— On L. Erie? Buffalo — Cleveland — Detroit. — On
L. Michigan? Chicago — Milwaukee.
(451.J We have now circumnavigated the globe. It
would be useless to describe more voyages. The teacher
190
VOYAGE».
may lead the pupil, from one point to another, according
to hi.s" discretion (see table of questions (453). We suggest
a few voyages, particularly for the aid of young persons,
who, it is believed, will often be found competent teachers
of this work,
(452.) Several plans of voyages. — 1. From New
York, by C. of Good Hope, to Malacca. — 2. Malacca, by
Red Sea, to London. — 3. London, by C. of Good Hope
and Calcutta, to Lassa. — 4. Lassa, by Sea of Azof, to
Moscow and St. Petersburg. — 5. St. Petersburg, by Rei-
kiavik, to Godthaab.— 6. Godthaab, by Cape Horn, to Pa¬
nama.— 7. Panama to Hobart Town. — 8. Hobart Town, by
Batavia, to Rangoon.— 9. Rangoon, by Cape Town to C. Horn.
—10. C. Horn to Honolulu. —11. Honolulu, by Cook Str.
(New Zealand), to Wellington.—12. Wellington to Manilla.
—13. Manilla to Yeddo.—14. Yeddo to Antananarivo.—
15. Kouka to Massouah.—16. Massouah to Jerusalem.—
17. Jerusalem to Paris. —19. Paris, by Trieste, Athens, Cairo,
to Hurrur.— 20. From Hurrur, by Hobart Town, to San Fran¬
cisco and Great Salt Lake City, to St. John. — 21. St. John, by
St. Lawrence and Lakes, to New Orleans. — 22. New
Orleans, by C. of Good Hope, to Pietermaritzburg. — 23.
From same to same, by C. Horn. — 24. From C. Horn,
very shortest line, to Hobart Town, across antarctic con¬
tinent and ocean (PI. I. K). — 25. From Hudson Bay, short¬
est way, to Tobolsk, across N. Pole (PI. I. L).— 26. New
Zealand, shortest way, to C. of Good Hope, across ant¬
arctic continent (PI. I. K). — 27. Shortest way from La
Guayra to Nishnei-Kolymsk, nearly across N. Pole (PI. 1.1).
— 28. New York (PI. IV. sec. 456), by north-west passage, to
India. — 29. From San Francisco to Ural Mts., shortest way
(PI. I. I). — 30. From New York, through Str. Bab-el-
Mandeb, to Mt. Sinai. — 31. From source of Jordan
(PI. II. fig. 5), by Dead Sea, G. of Akabah (ah'-kah-bah),
through Str. of Bab-el-Mandeb, to Mt. Hotham (Australia).
(453.) Table of questions for each voyage.
Go from A, (the town you start from), to B, (the
town you visit).
Remark. The teacher to indicate the route; as for
instance, go to Nishnei-Novgorod, from New York by
Str. of Gibraltar — or round C. of G. Hope, up Red
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
191
Sea—or up the Persian G.—or west, by Salt Lake city,
San Francisco and Sandwich Is.
Point out B (the town you are to visit).
In what country is that town B ?
In what direction from A?
Longitude of A?
Longitude of B?
How many degrees does B lie E. or W. of A?
Latitude of B?
How many degrees does B lie N. or.S. of A?
Bound C, (the country in which is situated the town
you are to visit.)
Remark. This boundary may be sometimes repeated,
with more or less detail, according to the discretion of
the teacher, taking in towns, lakes, provinces, gulfs, etc.
In what zone or zones lies the country C?
Northernmost parallel of the country?
Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., in places on
that northern parallel?
Southernmost parallel of the country G ?
Conditions of day, night, climate, etc., on that parallel?
What towns, countries or places lie on, or near, that
northernmost parallel, going E. around the globe?
What towns, countries or places lie on that southern¬
most parallel, going E. around the globe; (or, ,if the
countries, to and from which, we go, are of small dimen¬
sions , the question might be : what countries or places lie
within the two parallels?
What waters do you pass through, or near, from A
to B? (ör, when the voyage is between two inland coun¬
tries, as from Novgorod to Petropaulovsk, then the question
will be : What countries— mountains — rivers — sea(s — lakes
— interesting regions, etc., do you pass through, or near?
What countries have you passed, on your left, from
A to B?
On your right, from A to Br
The mouths of what great rivers have you passed,
on your left, from A to B ?
On your right, from A to B?
Name the towns, on or near the coast, you passed
on your left, from A to B.
UNKNOWN EKGIONS.
On what sea—lake—river, stand the following towns?
(the teacher wUl here select a few of the most prominent
towns on the way from A to B.)
Bead the rivers of C. (that is the country you are
visiting.
Read the towns of C.
Name the river—sea—lake—on which stands each of
the following towns: (the teacher will here select the most
prominent towns of C.) These questions, of course, may be
multiplied according to circumstances.
(454.) Unknown Begions (117, 118). — The actual
surface of the globe is reckoned at about 197 million
square British statute mUes. Of these, 145 million are
covered by the ocean. A glance at PI. II. will show
four or five regions, almost unknown to the civilized
inhabitants of the earth — the N. polar region (3 million
sq. m.)—the S. polar region (8,500,000 sq. m.)—and a part
of the African equatorial zone (1,500,000 sq. m.) — total,
13 millions — that is one-fifteenth part of entire globe's
surface. To these may be added the central region of
Australia, and part of eastern Sahara desert.
The supposed advantage of reaching those mathematical
points of the earth's axis, called the Poles, is, the important
observations and discoveries which may be made in various
sciences—among others. Ethnography*, Meteorology(•), Bot¬
any, ZoologyC"), Geology, Astronomy, etc. "As a family",
says Behm, "wUl of course know all the rooms of its
own house, so man, from the very beginning, has been
inspired with- a desire to become acquainted with all the
lands, oceans, and zones of the planet, assigned to him as
a dwelling place". Among the next great events, to be
looked for in the history of geographical discovery, are the
arrival of some daring navigator at the point of the N. or
S. Pole, and the discovery of the sources of the Nile. For
the instruction of our young voyagers, we add a few
words upon the latter, and what has been discovered with
regard to them (May, 1867).
• Eth-nog'-ra-phy—the science which treats of the so-called
different races of men.
(a) Me-te-or-ol'-o-gy—of the atmosphere and its phenomena.
(b) Zo-ol'-o-gy—of animals.
POLITICAL GEOGEAPHT.
193
(45Ô.;
Sonreei of the Kile. — The Nile is formed,
principally, by the union of two great rivers (Plates II. III. IV)
— one, (sometimes the Black, but, in English, the Blue NUe, in
Arabic, Babr-el-Azrek), has been found to flow through L.
Dembea, from a marshy district, 6000 feet above the sea,
in about 10® N. lat. The source of the Nile was then
supposed to be discovered, (by Bruce), until it became ap¬
parent that the other great branch, the White River
or White Nile, (Bahr-el-Abiad), was the ynncip«/ one—and
the attempt to ascertain its origin has cost an immense
number of lives. The English traveller, Speke (1861—62),
found a large river flowing, north-westward, out of L.
Victoria-Nyanza or Ukerewe*, 3500 feet above the sea.
His reports have rendered it ■probable, although not abso¬
lutely certain (&om ocular demonstration), that it connects
that Lake with L. Albert-Nyanza or (Luta), from which
latter, it has been demonstrated, by Baker, that the White
Nile flows. Our Plates II. III. IV. are thus drawn. At
the E. of L. Victoria-Nyanza, wiU be observed another
river and lake. These are the river Assua and the L.
Baringo. Both, on our map, are drawn only after hear-say—
that is, the reports of the aborigines, who declare them
even connected with Victoria-Nyanza. But all this is
not sufficient to prove that L. Albert-Nyanza and L.
Victoria-Nyanza are the sources of the White Nile—any
more than, tracing the Rhone or the Rhine to L. Geneva
or L, Constance, would show those lakes to be the
sources of their respective rivers. A large region, E. of
Victoria-Nyanza, between the Mts. of the Moon and
that lake, is absolutely untrodden by civilized man. It is
possible, if not probable—but it has not yet been demon¬
strated— that the White Nile originally flows from the
lofty Snow Mts. He who shall first trace the widening
course of some petty, bubbling rivulet, from the group of
Kenia or Kilimandjaro, to L. Victoria-Nyanza, will, at last,
solve the problem of the source of the Nile, and identify
that mountain-range with the Jebel el-Komri, or Mts. of
the Moon, mentioned by Ptolemy (see remark 275).— The
• It may- be presumed (204) that the world at large will
generally find it convenient to give this class of names, thus, in
full, — Lake Victoria Nyanza—however often it may be told
that the word, lake, is included in the aboriginal name.
13
194
UNKNOWN REGIONS.
nnnamed branch, on the maps, between the White and Blue
Nile, is the Sobat R, Its coarse has never been explored.
(456.) North-West Passage.— We have (182) passed
from Behring Str. to Str. of Belle Isle, by -what is called
the north-west passage. Let us bestow a few moments
attention upon this interesting portion of the earth. More
than 300 years ago (1519), Magellan, a Spaniard, sailed
from Spain, down Atlantic, discovered the strait bearing
his name, and crossed Pacific to Ladrone and Philippine Is.
—while one of his ships continued the voyage, around C.
of Good Hope, back to Spain. Our globe was thus cir¬
cumnavigated, for the first time, and its spherical form
demonstrated. This voyage suggested the idea of a shorter
passage to India, around the northern coast of N. America.
From that time, until our day, the existence of what is
called the north-west passage, has been one of the problems
of Geography. — Since the beginning of the 18 th century,
a succession of daring navigators, whose names, as well as
those of their patrons, are often inscribed upon the straits,
islands, etc., have led expeditions into the arctic zone. Behring
discovered Behring Sea and Strait (1725—28). Cook passed
beyond the 70 th parallel (1778). Mackenzie explored a part
of this northern coast (1789). The Hamburg whale ship,
Capt. Ocken, sailed up the Behring Str. to 80 th paral¬
lel and reported an open ocean, free from ice, (1815). In
1815 — 18 Kotzebue demonstrated that no connection
existed between America and Asia. Parry, Franklin, Ross,
and others, have penetrated into these regions and sometimes
passed several years. Sir John Franklin (1845) led an ex¬
pedition in search of the north-west passage and never
returned. It has been since ascertained that his ship was
locked in by ice, near Beechy I. (PI. IV.) in Wellington
Canal, near Lancaster Sound, on lat. 75 N. He perished,
with 105 companions, June 1847. In 1850, the British
Capt. McClure visited Banks Land, demonstrating it to be an
island—sailed, from W., through Str. Prince of Wales and
discovered the mouth of great Melville Sound. His vessel
was afterward seen, by Lieut. Pim, coming from the E.
The fact was thus established, of a water communication,
between Atlantic and Pacific, by Arctic Ocean. A
passage runs from Baffin Bay — through Lancaster Sound—
Barrow Str.—Melville Sound or Str.— then through Prince
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.
195
of Wales Str., or, north--west, through Banks' Str., some¬
times called McClure Str. In 1850 and 1853, two ex¬
peditions, under the patronage of Henry Grinnel Esq.,
New York, were headed—one, by Capt. De Haven—the
other, by Dr. Kane; the latter appeared to confirm the
report of the Hamburg Capt. Ocken, that the pole is
surrounded by an open sea. The am. expedition (Hayes,
May 1861) reached the northernmost known land of our
planet—81° 35'—and could see along the coast to a point,
82° 30' —which he named C. Union. There is believed to be a
second passage, farther to the North, through Banks' Str.
and Lancaster Sound; and a southern one, through Hudson
Str.—Fox Channel—Fury and Hecla Str. — Boothia G.
to Coronation G. The north-west passage, although thus
demonstrated to exist, does not appear practicable as a
better way from Atlantic to India, being nearly always
blocked up by ice. If, however. Smith Str. or Sound, Kane's
Sea, Kennedy Channel should be found an open way, and if
the reports of Dr. Kane and Capt. Ocken should turn out to
be correct, that a considerable central area of the arctic
circle is occupied by a warmer ocean, free from ice—the long
cherished hope of reaching the pole, may yet be accomplished;
and, possibly, a shorter way discovered from Greenland,
London and St. Petersburg to Behring Str. (Pl. I. L).
(456 A.) Remark. 1. There is no idea of abandoning
polar expeditions. By sledges or ships; by governments
or private munificence, the North Pole will soon be reached.
A knowledge of the whole globe's surface has become a
necessity of science. We must know every inch of Sahara
— Australia—New Zealand — New Guinea—Patagonia—
central Africa—the polar regions, and even the valleys
of the ocean.
2. The U. S. Government hae granted greater sums
for geographical works than any government of Europe.
3. "The christian missionaries", says the German Year
Book, "now scattered over the globe, have rendered import¬
ant services to Geography; among them. Hue, Livingston,
Krapf, etc. Their patient and long-persevering intercourse
with half-known peoples and tribes, has advanced our knowl¬
edge of languages and of the different varieties of men."
To this we add: their influence, on the cause of christian
civilization, has been far more striking and useful.
13*
PART TV.
OUTLINE VIEW OF PROVINCES,RIVERS,
TOWNS, ETC.
OF
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
(PL. V. AND PL. VL B.)
(457,) Remark. We have now acquired an idea of natural
land and water divisions, the names and positions of coun¬
tries, towns, mountains, rivers, etc. We have not confined
ourselves to our own, nor to other civilized countries. We
have examined, with the same attention, the polar, the
temperate and the equatorial zones; remote, savi^e lands,
and waters scarcely known, as carefully, as those in our
vicinity. We have taken a hird!s-eye view of the globe's
entire surface. Two regions—United States and Europe—
require more particular study. And, first, Europe. In
order better to understand PI. VI. B., it is proper to
glance slightly at the most striking territorial changes
which this portion of the E. Continent has undergone;
and briefly to review some of the great historical events
which have caused them.
(458.) Roman Empire. — At the birth of our
Saviour, the world may be said to have lived under
the scepter of one man, the Roman emperor, Augustus
Cesar, nephew of Julius Cesar. Following the authority
of Gibbon, and sometimes using his words, we compress
a very general account of the extent of bis empire. It
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
197
comprehended the fairest part of the earth and the most
civilized portion of mankind (PL III fig. 5 — also
Pis. II and III). The northernmost bends of the
Rhine, Danube and Carpathian Mts., formed its N. E.
boundary, in Europe. In Asia, its frontier embraced
Asia Minor, the territory S. of Caucasus, and a region,
east, reaching to Caspian Sea and Persian G. Ex¬
cluding the greater part of Arabia, it took in Palestine,
the principal part of Egypt, and all the N. coast of
Africa, known as Barbary States; on the N. W., England
with "Wales and the lowlands of Scotland to the Friths
of Forth and Clyde (PI. VI). The modern countries,
standing upon the territory once occupied by the Roman
Empire, are, Portugal, Spain, France, England, Belgium,
Prussian Rhine Province, portions of Baden, Wurtem¬
berg and Bavaria, Switzerland, Italy, southern prov¬
inces of Austria, including Hungary and Transylvania,
Turkey in Europe and Greece, all Turkey in Asia,
Egypt, Barca, Tripoli, with Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria and
Morocco. The excluded adjacent countries are, Ireland,
part of Scotland, Holland, Prussia, with the North
German League (N. of the Main), Bohemia, Moravia,
Galicia, Russia, etc. Arabia, on the S. E., remained also
unconquered. The whole extent of the Mediterranean
Sea, its coasts and islands, were comprised within the
Roman dominion, which was, in breadth, more than
2000 miles, from the N. European frontier, south to
Mt. Atlas and tropic of Cancer—in length, more than
3000 miles, from Atlantic to Euphrates. About as
large as the United States of America, and nearly
between the same parallels, it was situated in the finest
part of the temperate zone, and, like the previous five
consecutive world empires (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon,
Persia and Greece or Macedonia), it comprehended,
within its boundaries, that remarkable country, Palestine
" which says Gibbon, " will live for ever in the mem¬
ory of mankind, as, from its narrow limits, has issued
forth the religion, adopted by aU the civilized nations
of the earth". That country, less than 200 miles long.
198
SOOTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
by about 75 miles broad, forms, in our day, several
Turkish pashalics, at the E. extremity of Mediterranean.
Fig. 5. Pi. II. gives its "narrow limits", with lake Ti¬
berias, river Jordan and Dead Sea.
No inferior animal has ever aspired to universal
dominion over its fellow beasts. But, to use again
the words of Gibbon, "the ambitiom desire of subduing
the earth" has been the favorite dream of great con¬
querors. Nebucadnezzar, Xerxes, Alexander, Cesar,
Charlemagne, Napoleon — each, in his turn, has been
dazzled by a splendid vision of "all the kingdoms of
the world and the glory of them". During nearly a
hundred years, Augustus and his successors the
emperors Nerva, Trajan, two Antonines, etc. — may he
said to have, in some degree, attained this coveted
prize. The transitory heathen kingdom, which man
had established, "by the might of his power and for
the honor of his majesty"—"the city and tower whose
top was to reach unto heaven"— had risen to its
culminating point, at the moment, when a greater than
man in the form of a friendless infant, scarcely ad¬
mitted into the stable of a tavern, appeared upon the
earth, to lay the everlasting foundation of the kingdom
of God. This impressive antithesis is carried out during
the whole life of our Redeemer, and, particularly, in his
death. While the pure and lowly Jesus, the Savior of the
world, who had never committed a sin, was extended
on the cross, an atonement for mankind—Tiberias, the
emperor of this present world, marked by the vilest
vices and the basest qualities, was closing his life in
the luxurious island of Caprea, sunk in infamous,
disgusting debaucheries; and, by "his infernal machina¬
tions and crimes, exposing the life, the fortune and the
honor of every Roman citizen".
(459.) Fall of the Roman Empire. — The
Roman Empire (1) broke to pieces in the 4th century.
The Persians, the Scythians, the Goths and other bar¬
barians, attacked it at every point. Out of its immense
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
199
ruins, liave risen the modern states of Europe. It is a
singular circumstance, however, that it did not cease to
have a political representative, from the time of
Augustus to that of Napoleon I; and the plan of reviv¬
ing it, in more than all its ancient power and gloiy,
has never been permanently abandoned. This is one
of the secrets of history.
(460.) Germanic or Holy Roman Empire. —
Among the various political organisations, built upon
the ruins of Rome, was Germany. Charlemagne was
crowned, at Rome, by the Pope, Emperor of the West,
or Emperor of the Romans (A. D. 800). His suc¬
cessors kept up this title about 160 years (A. D. 962),
when it vested in the emperor of Germany, thenceforth
designated, monarch of the Holy Éoman Empire. The
second head was added to the eagle, in order to
denote the union of the empires of Germany and Rome.
From this time, and through the subsequent period of
a thousand years, the Empire of Germany was styled,
the Holy Roman Empire. At the breaking out of the
great french revolution (1789), its territories were di¬
vided into 10 Circles (PI. V. A. Fig. 1).
(461.) Frencli Revolution — Napoleon I. —
Under the reign of Louis XV, king of France, the
vices of the king and court, the oppressions of the
people, the general spread of infidelity, etc., produced a
revolution, the most terrific recorded by history. One
might almost infer that the great crises of human affairs
grow, in intensity, like the plutonio irruptions of our
planet (282C). The outbreak reached its height under
Louis XVI. who, with his queen, was beheaded. It
deluged France with the blood of the scaffold, and
devastated Europe with wars. Out of the stormy
biUows of these political disorders, rose that young
officer. Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the most remark¬
able men, and the greatest soldier, of any age, whose
brilliant military genius, and unbounded ambition, nearly
200
80ÜTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
succeeded in reducing Europe, and the adjacent parts
of Asia and Africa, under his scepter; and in thus
reviving the magnificent empire of the Cesars. By his
victories over Austria (Marengo, 14. June, 1800,—
Austerlitz, 2. Dec., 1805) and over Prussia (Jena,
14. Oct., 1806) he overturned the old Germanic or
Holy Roman Empire, already tottering into decay. He
created, fpr his brother Jerome, a new kingdom,
Westphalia; and raised, other members of the Germanic
Confederation, into independent sovereigns, united by a
league, called the Confederation of the Ehine. Under
these circumstances, the German Emperor, Francis II,
by a communication (Aug. 6, 1809) addressed to the
great Powers of Europe, officially renounced the title of
Emperor of Germany and of the Holy Roman Empire,
which his ancestors had worn for a thousand years,
and assumed the title. Emperor of Austria. "The
Emperor of Germany" says Alison, in his History of
Europe, "thus ceased to be the representative of the
empire of the Cesars". Napoleon had already ascended
to this lofty pre-eminence. He had been crowned
Emperor of France, by the Pope, (Dec. 2, 1804).
He then exacted that he should be crowned, again,
King of Italy and Rome, with the iron crown of
Charlemagne, as the new representative pf the empire
of the Cesars, and, consequently, a monarch higher
than all the other monarchs of the earth. The cere¬
mony took place at Milan (1805). The haughty con¬
queror seized the crown and placed it upon his own
head, thus intimating that he reigned by his own
power; at the same time, uttering the words: "God ha»
given it to me. Beware who touches it!" The Roman States
were annexed to France, and the heir apparent of the
french throne was invested with the title of King of Rome.
(462.) Treaties of Vienna. — The fall of Napo¬
leon Bonaparte was more sudden even than his rise.
His splendid fabric was dashed to pieces at Moscow,
Leipsic and Waterloo; and he was confined at St.
SOÜTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
201
Helena, a rock in the Atlantic, where he died a
broken-hearted prisoner (1821). The victorious mon-
archs of Europe met, by their representatives, in a
Congress at Vienna (1815), and, by those celebrated
documents, called the Treaties of Vienna, gave, to the
European countries, the political frontiers which, with
some exceptions, continued to be their limits until 1866.
(463.) Changes since Treaties of Vienna. —
Italy, by these treaties, was occupied by seven
independent monarchies or states, (PI. V. B. fig. 2.
— sec. 482), while the beautiful plains of Lom-
bardy and Venice, in northern Italy, were given to
the then triumphant Austria. Belgium and Holland
were united into one kingdom; and Greece was left
under the Turkish scepter. By the revolution of
1830, Belgium was separated from Holland and erected
into an independent kingdom; and the Italian war of
1859, (in which France and Sardinia, by the victories
of Magenta and Solferino, drove Austria entirely out
of Italy) erected the whole Italian Peninsula into one
kingdom and, finally, brought Lombardy (1859) and
then Venice (1866) under the scepter of Victor Eman¬
uel. A very small region was left with the name
of Papal Territory (PI. VI. B) which the now united and
powerful people of Italy desire to incorporate as the
capital of their kingdom. To these changes, must be
added the revolution, by which Greece (1829) threw off
the Turkish yoke; the elevation of the Turkish provinces,
Moldavia and Wallachia (known as the Principalities of
the Danube), to the rank of a nation (1866); and,
greatest of all, the resurrection of Napoleonism (Dec.
2, 1851), when Louis Bonaparte (Napoleon III.) seized
the imperial sceptre; thus overthrowing the public law
of Europe, as founded on the treaties of Vienna.
(464.) Germanic Confederation from 1815 to
1866. — By the treaties of Vienna (1815) Germany
was reconstructed in such a way as to consist of
202
80VTH-WESTERK EUROPE.
38 states, and, with few essential changes, it so re¬
mained till 1866, at which time, three had been merged
into others, leaving only 35. Holland was a member
of the Confederation, for two of her provinces—Luxem¬
burg and Limburg; Denmark, also, for Holstein,
with Lauenburg. The Germanic Confederation (marked
by a red line PI. V. A) then extended from North
Sea and Baltic, to Adriatic. It was bounded, N. by
North Sea, Denmark (Schleswig), and Baltic; E. by
non-German Prussia, Russia, and. non-German
Austria; S. by Adriatic, Yenetia and Switzerland;
W. by Yenetia, Lombardy, Switzerland, France, Bel¬
gium and Holland. (R. these boundaries again from
PI. Y. A). The states of the Confederation were
distinguished by 8 different forms of Government,
namely: 1 Empire, 5 Kingdoms (exclusive of Denmark
and Holland), 7 Grand Duchies, 9 Principalities,
1 Electorate, 1 Landgraviate, and 4 Free Cities. A
glance at PI. Y. A, will, in a few moments, acquaint
the attentive student with the names, relative size
and position of the German States (Pop. 46 millions).
It was of this Plate that Alex. v. Humboldt said:
"Perhaps no mapever did make Germany so clear."
(465.) List of German States before 1866 —
One Empire. — Austria.
Five kingdoms. — Prussia — Saxony — Bavaria
— Wurtemberg — Hanover.
Seven Grand-Dttchies. — Baden — Hesse-Darm-
Stadt — Luxemburg with Limburg—Oldenburg
— Mecklenburg-Schwerin (Shway-reen') — Meck-
lenburg-Strelitz (straylitz) — Saxe-Weimar (wï-mar).
Seven Duchies. — Nassau — Brunswick — Hol¬
stein, with Lauenburg — Anhalt (formerly Duchies
of Bernburg, Koethen (curten), and Dessau) — Saxe-
Altenburg — Saxe- Meiningen — Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha.
Nine Principalities. — Reuss-Greitz (îtze) —
Reuss-Schleitz (îtze) —Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
203
— Schwartzburg-Sondershausen — Schaumburg
Lippe—Lippe-Detmold —W aldeck — Hohenzol-
lern — Lichtenstein (lik'-ten-stîne), on the ea.stern
frontier of Switzerland.
One Electorate. — Hesse-Cassel.
One Markgraviate. — Hesse-Homburg (near
Frankfort — very small).
Fowr Free Hanse Towns. — Frankfort-on-the-
Main (seat of the Germanic Diet) — Bremen — Ham¬
burg—Lübeck.
(466.) Thuringian States. — This name is
given to the following (PI. V. A); G. D. S axe-Wei-
mar—D. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha—D. Saxe-Meinin-
gen—D. Saxe-Altenburg—P. Schwartzburg-
Rudolstadt— P. Schwartzburg-Sondershausen.
(467.) Hanse Towns — called also the Hansa,
and Hanseatic League. In the Middle Ages, Ger¬
many, and the neighboring seas, were infested with
tyrannical feudal chiefs, banditti, pirates, etc. Many
towns, among others those we have mentioned, entered
into a commercial alliance for mutual defence, under
this name. The number of towns is said to have
once amounted to 85. The alliance was dissolved
about 200 years ago; but Hamburg, Bremen, Lübeck
and Frankfort - on-tbe-Main, still continued in some¬
what similar relations, and were called the free Han¬
seatic cities of the Germanic Confederation.
(468.) Prussia, with North Oerman League,
after civil war 1866. — Plate V.A. and VLB. show
Prussia before this war. Her disjointed territory lay, it
has been said, like a pair of garters, on a table. As it
consisted of several fragments, it might better be likened
to a plate fallen upon the floor, and broken to pieces.
Between the two provinces, Westphalia and Rhine Pr. and
the rest of her territory, nearly all the small Gerrnan States
intervened; so that, in this respect, she could be re-
204
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
garded but as a very weak Power. Now mark the
changes after the war (PJ. V. B). Five of the intervening
States — one of them, a considerable kingdom — have
been incorporated into her territory, namely: Kgd.
Hanover — Electorate Hesse-Cassel — D. Nassau
— Free City Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Land-
graviate Hesse-Homhurg. Not only D. Hol¬
stein, hut the adjacent Danish D. Schleswig are
annexed. Twelve States or Free Cities, beside those
called Thuringian States, if not incorporated, at
least have been induced to enter into close subordinate
relations with her, under the name of North German
League. They lie wholly, or in part, enclosed within
her territory, and are: Egd. Saxony—G. D. Meck¬
lenburg-Schwerin— G. D. Mecklenhurg-Strelitz
— G. D. Oldenburg — Northern half of G. D. Hesse-
Darmstadt— D. Brunswick — D. Anhalt—P.
Lippe—P. Waldeck — Thuringian States (466)
including the adjoining states ofReuss — Free Cities
Hamburg—Bremen — Lübeck.
It requires only a glance at the maps to per¬
ceive the consequent aggrandizement of Prussia.
Situated in the center of Europe — with a population of
29 millions — a compact territory — an unbroken frontier
on every side — a perfect military organisation—
a largely increased coast-line both on Baltic and
North Seas—Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, converted
almost into Prussian ports — she has become one of the
greatest Powers of the world.
The rest of the states, members of the Germanic
Confederation before 1866, and having opposed Prussia
in the war, namely, G. D. Baden, kgd. Wurtemberg,
kgd. Bavaria, southern half of G. D. Hesse-Darm¬
stadt, i. e., the half S. of River Main, and P. Lich<
tenstein, do not form part of North German League.
But they have entered into treaties, offensive and de¬
fensive, with the king of Prussia, stipulating, in case
of war, to invest him with the command of their
troops. We may well presume that these political ar-
80ÜTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
205
rangements are not permanent. It is necessary, however,
that they should be understood by every attentive ob¬
server. While Prussia has risen to this great political pre¬
eminence, Austria has suffered a series of misfortunes
which have threatened almost her existence. By the
Italian war of 1859 she lost Lombardy; by the war
of 1866, the territory of Venetia; and she was compelled
to retire before the supremacy of Prussia as a German
Power. This is not the place to point out the prob¬
able consequences of these great changes. Many believe
that Austria has still vitality and allies enough to
procure indemnification for her losses, on her south¬
eastern frontier (PI. VI. B.); thus precipitating the
banishment of the Ottoman Power from Europe; and
rendering the dreaded Turkish question, not only
more urgent, but more complicated.
COUNTRIES AND PROVINCES OP SOUTH¬
WESTERN EUROPE.
(469.) Our purpose in presenting PI. V. A. and
B. and PL VI. B. is;—1. To give the limits of the
German States (PI. V. A), as they existed from 1815
till 1866. 2. A view of the reconstructed Germany, as
far as it has proceeded, since the dissolution of the
Germanic Confederation. 3. A somewhat nearer view
of the rivers, towns and exterior waters of Great
Britain and Ireland. 4. The great historical provinces
of Portugal, Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Roumania,
Turkey in Europe, Greece, Italy, and Switzerland; with
a nearer view of their towns, and rivers, including
Belgium and Holland. In the wars which have already
taken place, and those which may be hereafter expected,
territorial changes are frequently made, are often the
objects of the wars, and are best understood by those
206
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
who have studied the names, relative positions, and
antecedents of historical provinces. Thus, 1860, after
the Italian war, France annexed the Italian provinces
of Savoy and Nice, by the consent, most reluctantly
extorted, of the government of Italy, and not without
awakening a deep feeling of resentment, on the part of the
Italian nation; for ' Savoy is the key to Italy. At
the same time, Italy took Lombardy from Austria. One
of the first results of the late civil war in Germany,
was the cession of Venetia to the king of Italy. The
erection of the two provinces, Moldavia and Wallachia,
into what may be called an independent kingdom,
seems to be the forerunner of greater changes in the
Ottoman Empire. The province of Luxemburg — that
portion of Holland, for which its sovereign was member
of the Germanic Confederation till 1866 — till the question
was settled by a european Conference (London, May, 1867)
threatened to become the occasion of a general war. It
•would be superfluous to give the provinces of all countries;
but it is deemed important that the intelligent young
American student should have a clear view of the sub¬
divisions of this part of the world, whose great approach¬
ing changes attract the attention of thinking men.
(470.) Provinces of Portugal. — Minho —
Tras-OS - Montes — Beira—Estremadura—Alem-
tejo — Algarve. — Insular Provinces-. Azores—Ma¬
deiras.
Remark. Of Portugal, Spain, France, and Turkey,
we give the names of historical provinces still retained
in those countries, although these ancient divisions, for
administrative purposes, have been subdivided into
departments, etc. (in Turkey, into eyaUts or pashalics).
(471.) Provinces of Spain. — On Atlantic: An¬
dalusia — Galicia — Asturias — Old Castile —
Basque Provinces (Biscaya, Guipúzcoa, Alava)
— On France: Basque Provinces again — Navarre
— Aragon — Catalonia. — On Mediterranean: Cata-
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
207
Ionia again — Valencia — Murcia — Granada —
Andalusia again — On Portugal; Andalusia again —
Estremadura — Leon. — Central Province; New Cas¬
tile (Madrid). — Insular Provinces; Balearic Is. —
Canary Is.
(472.) Basque Provinces. — This term is
omitted in the Plate, in order to avoid the confusion
of crowded names. The three small provinces, com¬
prehended, under it are Biscaya or Vizcaya
— Guipúzcoa — and Alava. The Basques are cel¬
ebrated for their courage and energy, and form the
best soldiers and sailors of Spain. They boast that,
not only no Arab steed has ever stamped upon their
soil, but that, though the most ancient representatives of
the Spanish race, neither Carthaginian, Roman, Goth
nor French, has ever subdued them, or even corrupted
their language, which they declare to be that used by
Adam and Eve in Paradise. In the 13 th century, they
voluntarily became subjects of the Queen of Castile,
reserving, however, many inviolable rights. They enjoy
a considerable independence, a diet, judiciary, laws and
a representation of their own. In fact they form a kind
of independent government. For 1300 years, their
parliament has been held near an old oak at Vizcaya.
(473.) Provinces of France. — On English
Channel; Brittany or Bretagne — Normandy —
Picardy — Artois — Flanders. — On Belgium and
Germany; Flanders (again)—Champagne—Lor¬
raine— Alsace. — On Switzerland; Franche-Comté
— Burgundy (Bourgogne) — Savoy.— On Italy;
Savoy (again) — Dauphiné — Provence — Nice —
On Mediterranean Sea; Provence (again) — Langue¬
doc— Roussillon — I. of Corsica. — On Spain;
Roussillion (again) — Foix — G as cony — Béarn.
— On Bay of Biscay; Gascony (again) — Guienne
— Saintonge — Poitou with Vendée. — CentralProv-
inces; Anjou — Maine — Orléanais — Isle de
208
SOUTH WESTERN EUROPE.
France (Paris) — Nivernais — Bourbonnais — Ly¬
onnais— Auvergne — Limousin — Angoumais —
La Marche — Berry — Tourraine.—
(474.) Pro rinces of Prussia (Pl. V. A) — may,
at present, be divided into two classes, namely, the
9 original provinces before 1866 — and the 7 prov¬
inces subsequently annexed. Nim original provinces:
Pomerania—West and East Prussia—Posen
(Prussian Poland) — Silesia (Prussian) — Saxony
(Prussian) —Brandenburg —Westphalia — Bhine
Province — Hohenzollern — the latter added at
a later period, quite isolated in the S. of Germany.
Seven provinces subsequently annexed: Egdm. Hanover
— Electorate Hesse-Cassel—Free territory and
city of Frankfurt-on-the-Main — D. Nassau —
Landgraviate Hesse-Homburg—German Duchy
Holstein with Lauenburg — Danish Duchy
Schleswig. (Now see PI. V. B).
(475.) Provinces of Austria (PI. V. A and B
and PI. VI. B) — before 1859 might be grouped as
follows: 1. German provinces. 2. Non-German prov¬
inces. 3. Italian provinces. German provinces: Bohe¬
mia— Austrian Silesia — Moravia — Upper Aus¬
tria — Lower Austria — Styria — Salzburg —
Tyrol with Vorarlberg — Carinthia — Carniola
(with Istria, Goritzia, and the town and territory of
Trieste).—Non-German provinces: Galicia with
Cracow—Hungary with Banat—Bukowina —
Transylvania — Slavonia — Croatia — Military
Frontier — Dalmatia. — Italian provinces: Lom-
bardy and Venetia (the latter two now ceded to
Italy).
(476.) Coast Land — Littorale — Kgd. Illyria.
— These terms were once, and are sometimes yet,
applied, to the Duchies of Carniola, Carinthia,
Istria, etc., with the town and territory of Trieste.
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
209
(477.) Magyar Provinces. — Hungary and
Transylvania are so called.
Remark. The subdivisions of Austria, since the revo¬
lution of 1848, have undergone so many changes that, says
Daniel, "they are enough to drive any geographer to des¬
peration."
(478.) Provinces of Ronmania. — Valakhia
— Moldavia.
(479.) Provinces of Turkey in Europe. —
Bosnia .with Turkish Croatia and Herzegovina
— Servia — Bulgaria with Dobrodja — Roumelia
(ancient Macedonia and Thracia) — Albania with
Thessaly — Montenegro — Jezayr (Dschesair), or
the "Islands" — Candia or Crete.
Remark. The existence of Turkey in Europe appears
drawing to a close. Many of its nominal provinces are
in fact independent—particularly Egypt.
(480.) Provinces of Greece. — Roumelia —
Morea or Peloponnesus — Ionian Islands — Gre¬
cian Archipelago.
Remark. — 1. — That part of present kingdom of
Greece, called Rumelia, was, under the Turkish govern¬
ment, Livadia; among the ancient Greeks, Hellas. It is
not necessary here to give the administrative subdivisions.
2. — The Archipelago, or islands in the Aegean Sea,
between the mainland of Greece and Asia Minor, are, on
the map, distinguished, from the Turkish islands, by a red
ime. PL VI. B.
(481.) Cyclades — Sporades.— Observe (PI. VI.
B.) a group of islands, lying on the east coast of
Greece, somewhat in parallel lines. They may be re¬
garded as insular prolongations of Euboea and Ru¬
melia. 'Among them are: Delos, Syra. They are
called the Cyclades (sik'-la-deez), from a Greek word, a
circle — because they closely encircle the little I. of
Delos. The rest of the islands of the Archipelago,
14
210
80ÜTH-WESTBEK EUKOPB.
both greciao and tarkisb, are called the Sporades (spor'-
a-deez), from a Greek word, scattered—because they
lie scattered around the Cyclades. Among them are:
Enboea or Negropont, Hydra, Aegina, etc.
(482.) Sabdivlsions of Italy from 1815 to
1859 (PI. V. B. fig. 2). — Kgdm. Sardinia (incind-
ing D. Savoy, P. Piedmont, D. Genoa, County
Nice, and I. of Sardinia) — D. Parma—D. Modena
—D. Lncca — G. D. Tuscany — Papal States,
enclosing the little rep. San Marino — Kgdm. Naples
with Sicily. The Lombardo-Venetian kingdom formed
part of Austria.
(483.) Present Provinces of kingdom Italy
(PI. VI. B). — Piedmont—Lombardy—Venetia
— Emilia— Marca—Umbria—T nscany — Naples
or Lower Italy — I. of Sicily — I. of Sardinia.
Remark. The Papal Territory has not yet (April
1867) been included among the provinces of Italy.
(484.) Cantons of Switzerland (PI. V. B). —
Switzerland consists of 22 cantons —? ñ-ench, german and
italian. — Bern — Soleure (so-lnr') —Basel — Aargan
— Zurich (zn'-rik) — Schaffhausen — Thnrgan
(tooP-gow)—St Gall — Appenzell — Grisons —
Ticino (te-chee'-no) — Valais — Geneva — Vand
(vö) — Nenfchatel (nosh-ah-tel') — Freybnrg (firx'-
boorg) — Lucerne (lu-sern') — Zug (zoog) — Schwyti
(shweetz)—Glarus (glaP-roos) — Uri (u'-ree) — Unter-
walden.
Remark. Where names of town and canton are iden¬
tical, the former, alone, is sometimes given.
RIVERS AND TOWNS OF SOUTH-WESTERN
EUROPE.
(PL. VI. B.)
(485.) Chief Sivers of England. — Thames
— Severn with Upper and Lower Avon — Mersey
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
211
— Eden—Tyne — Humber, with its affluents Ouse
(ooz) and Trent—Great Ouse.
(486.) Chief Towns of England and Wales.—
We first name some great sea and riyerports. London—
Dover— Brighton — Portsmouth — Southampton
— Cow es — Exeter — Plymouth — Falmouth —
Bristol—Swansea andPembroke(Wales)—Chester
—Liverpool—Lancaster—Carlisle—N ewcastle-
upon-Tyne — Sunderland— Hull —Yarmouth —
Colchester. Now we name some of the chief
interior towns. Bradford — Leeds —York— Bolton
— Manchester — Sheffield — Lincoln — Shrews¬
bury— Derby—Nottingham—Wolverhampton —
Birmingham —Leicester—Norwich —Worcester
(Woo'ster) — Oxford—Cambridge—Bath—Canter¬
bury — Merthyr - Tydvil (Wales). Towns on
the following rivers, beginning at the source. On
Thames'. Oxford — London — Greenwich (cele¬
brated for its royal observatory, from which longitude
is often measured). On Severn: Shrewsbury —
Worcester. On Upper Avon: Stratford (the birthplace
of Shakspeare, who is therefore often called the Swan of
Avon). On Mersey: Manchester—Liverpool. On
Eden: Carlisle. On Tyne: Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
On Humber and its affluents Ouse and Trent: Hull —
York — Leeds, (for Wales, see 522.)
(487.) Chief Rivers of Scotland. —Tweed —
Forth — Tay— Dee—Ness — Clyde.
(488.) Chief Towns of Scotland. — Berwick
— Edinburgh — Dundee—A herd een — Inverness
— Paislay — Glasgow—Dumbarton. What towns
lie on the following rivers? On Tweedt Berwick. On
Earth? Edinburgh. On Tay? Perth — Dundee. On
Dee? Aberdeen. On Ness? Inverness. On Clyde?
Paisley— Glasgow — Dumbarton.
14*
212
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
(489.) Chief Elvers of Ireland. — Liffey with
D ublin Bay— Suir (share) with Waterford Harbor
— Blackwater — Lee — Shannon—Corrib (River
and Lake) with Galway (gawl'-way) Bay.
(490.) Chief Towns of Ireland. — Sea and river-
ports; Dublin — Waterford — Cork with Queens-
town— Limerick — Galway— Londonderry —
Belfast. — Interior towns: Tipperary — Killarney.
(491.) Rivers of European Continent. — We
review these rivers, adding some of the more important,
not previously named, for the purpose of studying their
relations to the countries and towns (PI. VI. B). Into
Atlantic: Guadalquivir — Guadiana — Tagus —
Douro — Minho. — Bay of Biscay: Gironde (with
Dordogne and Garonne) — Loire. English Channel:
— Seine. — North Sea: Scheldt (Sheld) — Meuse or
Maas (with its mouths) — now PI. V. A and B —
Rhine (with its 4 principal branches — right bank:
Neckar — Main; left bank: Aar — Moselle)—Weser
— Elbe (with its branches Havel and Spree).—
Baltic: Oder — Vistula — Niemen — (now PI. H)
Duna —Neva —Tornea. — White Sea: Dwina. Arctic
Ocean: Petchora. — Caspian Sea: Ural—Volga.—
Sea of Azof: Don. — Black Sea: Dnieper — (PI. VI.)
Dniester — Danube, (with its branches — left bankj;
Theiss (tïce) and Pruth (proot); right bank: Isar
—Inn—Drave and Save).—Adriatic: Po.— Tyrrhenian
or Tuscan Sea: Tiber — Arno. — G. of Lions: Rhone
(with its (branch Saone (sown). — Mediterranean: Ebro.
(^492.) Remark. 1. The Isar is the national river of
Bavaria, having in all times, from its source to its mouth,
belonged to the Bavarians. Its banks are rich in fruit
and its basin is the principal seat of the old Bavarian
population.
2. As the teacher reads the three next sections, very
slowly, the pupil will follow each place on the proper
map or maps.
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
213
(493.) The Rhine — sometimes called by the
Germans Father or King Rhine, is often said to
spring from three small streams, the Vorder Rhine
— the'Hinter Rhine and the Middle Rhine. In
reality it originates in a large number of mountain-
torrents, each bearing its name. It is the "highest
born" of the German streams, rising in the Swiss
Alps, near Mount St. Gothard, about 7000 feet above
the sea. It is more than 800 miles long, and its
depth varies from 20 to 50 feet. It flows, after
various bends, in a N. W. direction, into North Sea. —
Examine PI. V. B. and see what states or territories
it passes through or between. After traversing a part
of Switzerland, it forms, with the broad Lake Con¬
stance, into which it expands, the boundary line between
Switzerland, on the one side, and Austria, Bavaria,
Wurtemberg and Baden, on the other. Then, flowing
directly N., it forms the boundary Hue between France
and Baden; thence, intersecting several small German
States, it sweeps through the Prussian Rhine-Province
and Holland, pouring its waters into North Sea,
through a number of broad arms or estuaries which
enclose an extensive delta. The River Meuse or
Maas, unites its waters with those of the Rhine, in this
part of its course; and, strange to say, the principal
channels of entrance to the Rhine bear the name of
the "mouths of the Meuse"; — while the Rhine preserves
its name only in an insignificant stream, called the
Old Rhine, which reaches the sea near Leyden. It
is navigable, for tolerably large vessels, as far up as
Strasburg; for smaller steamers as high as Basel; and
boats ascend some distance higher, to Schaffhausen.
No German river is so much visited by tourists. In
Switzerland, its scenery is sublime. Its impetuous
waters rush through the valley of the Rhine, surrounded
by the most picturesque crags and lofty alpine peaks.
Between Mayence (or Mainz) and Cologne, in the Pr.
Rhine Province, the scenery is particulary celebrated.
Beautiful mountains and rocks crowd around the river
214
BODTH-WESTEBN EUROPE.
shores, which are scattered with rich vineyards, towns,
valleys, churches, etc. Sometimes, the mountains rise
in an amphitheatre, capped with the ruins of ancient
towers and castles, connected with which are the most
romantic legends and interesting, historical associations.
At other points, they open into delicious valleys, through
which numerous affluents flow, swelling the waters of the
parent river. The navigation of the Rhine is of great
and increasing importance. Perhaps no river is more
closely connected with the political state of Europe.
The French appear to consider it their natural boundary.
Upon this point there is a deep susceptibility on the
part both of the German and French nations. This
river was first made known to the civilized world by
Julius Cesar, who twice crossed it in his wars with
the Germans.
(494.) The Danube — the second in magnitude
among european rivers — rises in Baden, one of
its sources being enclosed within the court of a castle,
in the small town of Donaueschingen (do'now-esh'ing en).
It thence flows through Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Austria,
Roumania and Turkey; becomes part of the boundary
line between the two latter States; and enters the
Black Sea by several channels, forming a large marshy
delta. Near its mouth, in consequence of sand-banks
and other obstacles, there are difficulties in the navi¬
gation, which have occasioned many disputes between
Turkey and Russia. The region, on the right side of
the Danube, called the Dobrodja—a pestilential
tract — has recently been the seat of Russian and
Turkish warfare. The scenery is highly diversified.
Sometimes the river rolls along among beautiful
eminences, like those of the Rhine, crowned with
picturesque ruins — sometimes it washes the rocky angles
of precipices and mountains — sometimes, in many
circuits, meanders over vast level plains. Here, it is
divided into numeroiis channels, enclosing marshy
islands — there (as on the borders of Hungary and
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
215
Roumania, at the point called the "Iron Gate"), it
rushes, with deafening noise, through a- deep defile,
breaking into a series of minor cataracts. Sometimes
narrow — sometimes wide — its movement is now
dangerously rapid — now measured and slow. It is,
nevertheless, navigable through the greater part of its
course, though the navigation is often obstructed by
rocks, shoals, and whirlpools. It has been described,
by a German writer, Biffard, to resemble "a beautiful,
intelligent, coquettish woman, full of changes and
contradictions. Now, she advances silently, as if lost
in reverie — now, she overflows with sparkling mirth.
At one moment, she is full of humors and caprices —
at another, she proceeds with dignity and reflection.
But have a carel—trust her not! Where she is the
least deep to-day, to-morrow, we cannot fathom her;
and, after years of attentive examination, we know as
little of her real character, as in the first hour of our
acquaintance".
The limits of this work do not permit an ex¬
amination into the political importance of the Danube.
From various circumstances, it has been, and still is, closely
connected with the interests of Europe. "While the
other great rivers", says the American Cyclopaedia,
"flowing in a northerly or southerly direction, formed
barriers against the invasions of savage nations, the
Danube, on the contrary, served as a highway from
East to West. Hence, the ebb and flow of the great
migration of nations, subsequent to the downfall of the
Roman Empire, were the strongest in the basin of the
Danube, and, for long centuries, the fate of European
civilization depended on the contest of races, in that
portion of the continent."
(495.) The Main (PI. V. A and B). — We have de¬
parted from our general plan in giving a more detailed
account of the Rhine and the Danube, because of the
commercial, historical and political importance of those
streams. They are examples of rivers by the influences of
216
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
which Europe has taken the lead in civilization. The
River Main must not be passed over without a few
words. It is the most considerable branch of the
Rhine, flowing, for many miles, through a mountainous
country, which would otherwise be, in a great degree,
closed to commerce and ideas. It opens a communi¬
cation with the south-western sources of the Weser;
and, what gives it a still higher value, connects the
basins of the Elbe, the Rhine, the Neckar and the
Danube. By its westerly course, and connection with
the Rhine, it also opens central Europe to the N., the
W. and the E. Moreover, Germany is divided by it into
N. and S. Germany. It has its source in Bavaria.
Traversing the northern portion of that kingdom, it
grazes the southern frontier of Hesse-Cassel, intersects
the territory of Frankfort, leaving the city of Frank¬
fort on its right or north hank, cuts the G. D. Hesse-
Darmstadt into two, almost equal, parts; and then,
advancing between the southern part of Hesse-Darm¬
stadt and the D. Nassau, enters the Rhine at: Mainz
(or Mayence). Now remark the southern limits of the
new North German League, on PI. V. B, and we see
an instance of the influence which a river may exercise
on political events, arresting the advance of conquering
armies and determining, at least for a time, the extent
of territories. The south limits of the new N. German
League nearly follow the course of that river. Thus
may be explained the fact that Germany has been
broken into two parts. The new and greatly strength¬
ened Prussia had reason to believe she would not be
permitted to pass below the Main, and become sole
possessor of that important international highway.
Hence, the south limits of the Prussian League, following
the course of the Main, take in only the Thuringian
States — Hesse-Cassel, the northern half of Hesse-
Darmstadt and Nassau—leaving out Baden, the southern
half of Hesse-Darmstadt, Wurtemberg and Bavaria. It
may be added that, in territorial arrangements, the
lower portion of the river has generally been separated
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
217
from the upper. Segments of the Rhine and the
Danube formed boundary lines of the old Roman
Empire, whose frontiers intersected the Main. Distance,
in a direct line, from source to mouth, about 157 miles;
but its windings, more peculiar and extensive tban those
of any other German river, measure 3C0 miles.
(496.) Towns of Portugal. — Seaports: Oporto
—^Lisbon — Setubal, or St. Ubes— Lagos. Interior
towns: Braganza — Braga — Almeida— Coimbra.
Name rivers of Portugal. 'What town on Tagus? On
Douro ?
(497.) Towns of Spain. — Seaports on Mediter¬
ranean: Barcelona — Ï arragona — Castellon-de-
1 a-Plan a — Valencia — Alicante — Cartagena —
Almeria — Malaga — Gibraltar (British fortress and
town) — Tarifa. On Atlantic: Cadiz—Santa Maria
— Xeres — Palos — Coruna — Ferrol. On Bay of
Biscay: Gijon (he-hon') — Santander — Bilboa or
Bilbao — San Sebastian. Towns not seaports nearest
Atlantic and Bay of Biscay: Santiago — Oviedo —
Astorga — Leon —Palencia—Valladolid — Bur¬
gos. Nearest the Pyrenees frontier: Pamplona, or
Pampeluna — Saragossa — Lérida — Gerona.
Nearest Mediterranean: Tortosa—Murcia—Granada
— Cordova — Sevilla. Nearest Portugal: Badajos
— Alcantara — Ciudad Rodrigo — Zamora. Central
Towns: Segovia — Escurial — Madrid — Cuença —
Albacete—Ar an juez—T ole do —Tal a ver a. Towns
of the Insular Provinces: Palma on Majorca — Port-
Mahon, capital of Minorca—Santa Cruz, capital of
the Canary Is.— Iviza, on 1. of Iviza.
Remark. 1. Pahs was the port from which Columbus
sailed (1492); and to which he returned, after having dis¬
covered the New World. At the gates of the convent, La
Rabida, in the neighborhood of Palos, he had once begged
a crust of bread. The ruins of the convent yet remain.
2. From Santa Maria, is exported the celebrated sherry
218
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
wine, the name of which is a corruption of Xeres, where
it is chiefly manufactured.
Name rivers of Spain ? Towns on or near the Guadal* -
quiver? on or near the Tagus? on the Ebro?
(498.) Towns of France. — On Mediterranean
(seaports): Monaco—Nice (neess) — Antibes (an-teeb)
—F rej us —T oulon —Marseilles — Cette. Nearest
Spain: Perpignan — Pau (pô). -Bay o/ 3iscay
(seaports); Bayonne with Biarritz — Bordeaux
(Bor-do') — Rochefort —La Rochelle —Nantes-*-
L'Orient Brest. British Channel (seaports)'. Cher-
burg (Share-burg) — Caen (Kan)—Rouen (Roo-en) —
Havre (Hah'-vre) — Dieppe — Boulogne (boo-lon').
On Strait of Dover: Calais—^Dunkirk. Nearest Bel¬
gium: Lille — Arras. (Ar-rah) — Cambray — Laon —
Rheims (rîmes). Nearest Luxemburg, Bhine Province,
Rhenish Bavaria and Baden: Metz—Nancy—Stras¬
bourg—Mülhausen, or Mulhouse. Nearest Switzer¬
land: Besançon (Be-san-son). Nearest Italy: Cham-
bery — Grenoble. Interior towns: Aix (Aeks) —
Avignon — Nimes (neem) — Montpellier — Nar-
bonne — Toulouse — Perigeux — Angoulême —
Limoges—Poitiers—Angers —Tours — Le Mans.
Fontainebleau (blö)—Paris with Versailles —
Amiens —Châlons (sha-long) — Troyes—Dijon —
Autun — Lyon —Vienne —Valence —Etienne —
Clermont—Moulins —Bourges — Orleans. What
french towns on Garonne? on Loire? on Rhone? on
Rhine?
(499.) Towns of Belgium. — Antwerp —
Malines or Mechlin — Brussels with Waterloo —
Louvain — Liège — Namur — Möns — Ghent —
Bruges — Ostende. Name rivers of Belgium. What
towns on the Scheldt? Meuse?
(500.) Towns of Holland. — Groeniugeu—
Zwolle — Arnhem — Utrecht — Nymvegen, or
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
219
Nimeguen —Dort—Rotterdam —Hague —Ley-
den — Amsterdam — Haarlem — Maestricht —
Luxembourg (in Prov. Luxg. PI. V. A). What
dutch towns on Rhine? Meuse or Maas?
(501.) Towns of Denmark. — Copenhagen —
Elsiueur (on I. of Seeland) — Odensee — (on I. of
Funen) — Aalborg — Aar hau s.
(502.) Towns of P russia. — Name 16 present
provinces of Prussia (PI. V. A and B). Pomerania:
Stralsund — Putbus — Stettin — Col berg. W.
and E. Prussia: Dantzic — Elbing—Koenigsberg
— Tilsit —Memel —Insterburg —Thorn. Posen
or Prussian Poland: Posen — Bromberg. Prussian
Silesia: Goerlitz —Liegnitz —Breslau—Neisse —
Glatz. Prussian Saxony : Magdeburg—Wittenberg
— Torgau — Halle. Brandenburg: Brandenburg —
Berlin — Spandau—Potsdam — Cus tri n —F rank-
fort-on-the-Oder. Westphalia: Minden — Biele¬
feld— Munster. Rhine Province: Crefeld — Elber¬
feld— Dusseldorf— Cologne — Aix-la-Chapelle
— Bonn — Coblentz — Kreutznach — Treves.
Hohenzollem: Hechingen — Sigmaringen. Hano¬
ver: Hanover — Goettingen. Hesse-Cassel: Cassel.
Frankfort-on-the-Main: Frankfort - on - the - Main.
Nassau: Wiesbaden — Ems. Hesse-Homburg: Hom¬
burg. Holstein with Lauenburg: Rendsburg — Kiel
— Gluckstadt — Altona. Schleswig: Flensburg —
Schleswig.
(503.) Towns of the other States united
in new North German League. — Mecklenburg-
Schwerin: Rostock — Schwerin— Ludswigslust.
Mecklenburg - Strelitz: Strelitz. Oldenburg: Olden¬
burg. Northern half of Hesse-Darmstadt: Glessen.
Brunswick: Brunswick. Anhalt: Dessau. Wal-
deck: Arolsen. Ldppe-Detmold: Detmold. lAppe-
Schaumburg : Buckeburg. Schwarzburg - Rudolstadt :
220
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
Rudolstadt. Schwarzburg-Sondersharisen: Sonders¬
hausen. Thuringian States: Altenburg — Weimar
— Gotha—Eisenach. Saxony: Leipsic—Dresden
Freiberg — Chemnitz. Free Cities: Bremen —
Hamburg — Lübeck.
(504.) Towns of the South German States. —
Baden: Manheim — Heidelberg — Carlsruhe —
Baden-Baden — Constance —F reí burg. Wurtem¬
berg: Stuttgard. Bavaria: Wurzburg — Bamberg
— Nuremberg— Ratisbon— Ulm — Augsburg —
Landshut — Passau—Munich. Rhenish Bavaria:
Speyer (or Spire, Spires) — Landau. Hesse-
Darmstadt: M'entz (or Mainz — Fr. Mayence) —
Darmstadt — Worms.
I
(504 A.) Remark. 1. Rhenish Bavaria. —Hhe little
territory, on the right bank of the Rhine, sometimes called
the Palatinate, because it formed part of one of the old circles
of Germany, bearing that name before the French revolu¬
tion of 1789 (PI. V. A. fig. 1), is now a province of Bavaria.
2. Speyer. — The name, Protestant, originated at the Diet
held in Spires (1529). The Roman Catholic members, act¬
ing for the Pope and the Emperor of Germany, had passed
a resolution, that no further innovations in religious matters
should, for the present at least, be allowed. Against this,
the Evangelical Estates entered their solemn Protest, declar¬
ing their readiness to obey all orders of the Emperor, except
such as they deemed repugnant to "God and his Holy Word."
3. Worms.—Many diets were also held at Worms.
That of 1521 is the most celebrated, from the fact that
Luther appeared there, in presence of the Emperor Charles
V, the princes and nobles of the empire, the dignitaries
of the Church, and an immense concourse of spectators.
Instead of recanting his doctrines, which seemed the only
way to save himself from being burned alive, he boldly
reiterated them; and proclaimed, still more solemnly, his
conviction of their truth, adding: "Here I stand! I cannot
otherwise! God help me! Amen!"
4. Augsburg — is also famous for many events, partic¬
ularly the diet of 1530, at- which the well known Confession
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
221
of Faith, called the Confession of Augsburg, drawn up by
Melanchton, and subscribed by the Protestant princes, was
publicly presented to the Emperor Charles V.
Name rivers of German States (Austria being excluded).
What german towns on Rhine? Main? Aar? Moselle?
Weser? Elbe? Oder? Vistula?
(505.) Towns of Austria (PI. VI. B). — Bohemia:
Eger — Carlsbad — Prague — Teplitz —Reichen¬
berg — Gitschin —Trautenau — Nachod—Koe-
niggraetz (battle-ground 1866) — Bud weis — Pil¬
sen. Austrian Silesia: Troppau. Moravia: OXmutz —
Brunn — Austerlitz. Upper Austria: Linz — Ischl.
Lower Austria: Vienna—Neustadt. Styria: Graetz.
Salzburg: Salzburg — Gastein. Tyrol with Vorarlberg:
Innsbruck — Bötzen — Trent. Carinthia: Klagen¬
furt. Çarniola with Istria: Laibach — Goritzia, and
the territory and townshipof Trieste. Hungary : P r e s -
burg — Comorn — Schemnitz — Kremnitz — Neu¬
sohl— K ase h au—Tokay—Miskolcz—Debreczin
— Gross war dein,Sz egedin (seg'ed-in)—Temes war
—Neusatz—There si opol —Punfkirchen—Stuhl-
weissenburg — Pesth — Buda — Raab — Oeden-
burg. Oalicia with Cracow: Cracow — Wieiiczka —
Lemberg — Brody. Bukowina: Czernowitz. Tran¬
sylvania: Klausenburg — Maros — Vasarhely —
Kronstadt— Karlsburg—Hermanstadt. Slavonia:
Peterwardein — Semlin. Croatia: Agram — Carl¬
stadt— Fiume. Dalmatia: Zara — Spalato — Ra¬
gusa— Cattaro.
Remark. Cracow—ancient capital of Poland — (after
Congress of Vienna, a small independent republic,) was
annexed to Austria in 1846.— Wieiiczka (Vee-litch'-kah)
—celebrated for magnificent mines of rock-salt — contains
a subterranean town, with streets, churches, statues, etc.,
all out of the solid salt-rock. Within the mines are a small
lake, a rivulet of fresh water, and a chapel hewn out of
rock-salt.
222
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
(506.) Military Frontier — is not strictly
speaking, a province. The strip of country so called,
extending along nearly the whole Turkish frontier, from
the Adriatic eastward to Moldavia, and consisting of
portions of Croatia, Slavonia, the Banat and Transyl¬
vania, was, in 1807, erected into a kind of military
organization, as a protection against the Turks. It is
no longer of any importance, although the name is
still used.
(507.) Towns of Roumania. — Moldavia-. Bo-
tuschani—Jassy (yas-see)—Galatz—Kilia. Valakhia:
Braila (or Ibrail) — Bucharest (or Boo'kar-esht)
— Giurge vo — K raj o va.
Remark. Kilia, a fortified town on one of the mouths
of the Danube, was ceded to Turkey by the Treaty of
Paris, 1855.
(508.) Towns of Turkey in Europe. — Bosnia
with Turkish Croatia, and Herzegovina-. Banyaluke —
Travnik — Serajevo (or Bosna Serai) — Mostar
(Herzegovina.) Servia: Belgrade—Kragnyewatz.
Bulgaria with Dobrodja or Dobrudja: Vidin — Sistov
or Sistova — Rustchuk — Silistria — Sulina —
Kostendje — Varna — Schumla — Sofia. Rumelia:
Nish—Uskub—Philippopli (or Philippopolis)—
Slivno —Burgas—A drianople — Constantinople
(or Stambul) — Rodosto — Gallipoli — Seres —
Salónica — Bitolia. Albania with Thessalia: Scu¬
tari* — Durazzo"— Avlona — Yanina — Larissa.
Montenegro: Cettinie. Candia: Kanea — Rithymno
— Candia, or Megalo Kastro — Gerapetre.
(509.) Towns of Greece. — Rumelia: Zeitoun
or Lamia — Mesolonghi — Lepanto — Thebes —
* Rot to be confounded with Scutari in Asia Minor, oppo¬
site Constantinople.
eODTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
223
Athens — Piraeus (port of Athens). Morea: Patras
— Corinth — Argos — Nauplia — Tripolitza —
Sparta — Navarino. Ionian Is.: Corfu (on I. of
Corfu). Cyclades: Syra (on I. of Syra). Grecian
Sporades: Chaléis (Egripo or Negropont on I. of
Euboea) — Hydra (on I. of Hydra)—Egina (on
I. of Egina).
(510.) Syra or Hermopolis — capital of the govern¬
ment Cyclades — residence of consuls from most
European States — principal station of Mediterranean
steamers going to and from Constantinople — harbor
accessible to large ships. Corinth. — Paul addressed
two Epistles to its inhabitants.
(511.) Towns of Italy. — Piedmont: Aosta —
N ovara—Turin —Alessandria—Cuneo—Savon a
— Genoa—Sp'ezzia. Lombardy: Sondrio—Ber¬
gamo — Como — Milan — Pa vi a— Cremona — Sol¬
ferino — Brescia. Venetia: Belluno — Udine —
Treviso — Venice— Chiozza —Padua —Legnago
(len-ya'go) — Mantua — P eschiera (pes-ke-a'-ra) —
Verona—Vicenza. Emilia: Piacenza—Parma —
Ferrara — Moden a — Bologna—Ravenna — Forli
— Rimini — Carrara. Tuscany: Leghorn — Pisa —
Lucca—Florence — Siena. Marca: Sinigaglia
(se-ne-gal'ya)— Ancona—Macerata — Fermo. Em-
bria: Perugia — Rieti. Naples: Gaeta — Capua —
Naples — Porti ci — Pozzuoli — Castel-a-mare —
Sorrento —Amalfi—Salerno — Cosenza —Reggio
— Ca tan zar o —Taranto — Gallipoli — Otranto —
Brindisi —Bari—Foggia— Chieti —Campobasso
— Benevento — Potenza-. 7. of Sicily: Palermo —
Messina — Catania — Syracuse — Girgenti —
Marsala — Trapani — Nicosia — Caltanisetta.
Papal States: Viterbo — Civita Vecchia — Rome —
Velletri. I. of Sardinia: Cagliari — Sassari.
Remark. Mantua, Verona, Peschiera, Legnago, form
together the supposed impregnable fortresses, called the
224
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
QuadrilateraL They were ceded, by Austria to France,
and by France to Italy, 1866—Austria retiring from Germany
and Italy at the same moment (468).
(512.) Towns of Switzerland (PI. V. B). —
Name cantons of Switzerland. Berni Bern — Thun.
Soleure: Soleure. Basel: Basel. Aargau: Aarau.
Zurich: Zurich. Schaffhausen: Schaffhausen. Thur-
gau: Frauenfeld. St. Gall: St. Gall—Ragatz.
Appenzell: Appenzell. Grisons: Chur (koor). Ticino:
Lugano — Locarno — Bellinzona. Valais: Sion
— Martigny — Lenk. Geneva: Geneva. Vaud:
Lausanne — Vevey. Neu/châtel: Neufchâtel —
Chaux-de-Fonds. Fribourg: Fribourg. Lucerne:
Lucerne. Zug: Zug. Schwytz: Schwytz. Glarus:
Glarus. Uri: Altorf (famous in history of W. Tell).
Unterwaiden: Stanz.
(513.) Lakes. — Nature appears to have gathered
the lakes of Europe into two groups—one, distinguished
by larger size, in the neighborhood of the Baltic;
the other, generally more elevated above the sea, and
marked by exquisite beauty of scenery, scattered among
the Alps. In the Hungarian plain are several; and a
large number, very shallow, are found in the low
marshes of Holland. The entire area of the continental
European lakes has been estimated at about 38,000
English square miles. Those situated around the Baltic,
i. e. Ladoga, Onega, Wener, etc., (PI. II) comprehend
more than five-sixths. They are all fresh-water, except
the Neusiedler See and L. Balaton, both in Hungary.
(513 A.) Remark. Plate II. figs. 1. 2. give a selection
of the principal rivers of the world with their length; and
the lakes through which they flow — the Rhine, through L.
'Constance, the Rhone through L. Geneva. The two lakes,
through which the Nile flows, are the Victoria-Nyanza and
the Albert-Nyanza (455). The student will do well to read
over all those rivers in figs. 1. 2. with their respective
lakes.
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
225
(514.) Lakes of Austria. — L. Zirknitz (Ca-
rinthia), 18 sq. m. — Neusiedler See, 150 sq. m., and
Platten See (or L. Balaton) 250 sq. m. (the two
latter in Hungary).
(515.) L. Zirknltz contains numerous tunnels—
like holes, 50 £eet deep, called sieves, through which
the water alternately quite vanishes, then suddenly
re-appears, so that a person can, each year, plant
buckwheat, cut hay, fish and shoot water-fowl, in
and on same spot. The water sometimes fills the
whole hasin in twenty-four hours. The streams, which
feed this lake, are also most curious; flowing, in part,
on the surface of the earth, then suddenly vanishing,
to re-appear again later.
(516.) Lakes of Germany. — Koenigsee (Ba¬
varia).
(517.) Lakes of Switzerland. — L. Constance
or Boden See, 228 sq. m. — L. Qeneva, 240 sq.
mk — L. Neufchatel, 115 sq. m. — L. Sempach,
4 sq. m. — L.Zurich, 76 sq. m. — L. Wallenstadt,
22 sq. m. — L. Zug, 135 sq. m. — L. Lucerne or
Vierwaldstaedter See 99 sq. m.—L. Brienz, 12 sq.
m.— L. Thun, 20 sq. m.
Remark. Switzerland has more celebrated lakes, in
proportion to its size, than any other country. They are
surrounded by lofty mountains, and give, to scenery,
already remarkable for magnificence, an additional and
ravishing beauty. Vierwaldstaedter See—i. e. Four-forest
cantons-lake.
(518.) Lakes of Italy (PI. v. B). _ l. Mag-
giore, 152 sq. m. — L. Como, 66 sq. m.—L. Iseo —
L. Qarda, 183 sq. m. — (Ph VI. B) L. Perugia, or
Tr asi me ne.
15
226
SOUTH-WESTERN EUROPE.
(519.) Lakes of England. — L. Windermere
— L. Dervent Water — L. Keswick — L. Bala
(Wales).
(520.) Lakes of Scotland, — Loch Lomond
(lok) — largest lake in Scotland — twenty-four miles in
length, and seven miles in its greatest breadth. It
contains more than 30 islands. — Loch Awe — second
in magnitude—Loch Ness — Loch Oich—Loch
Lochie — Loch Leven — Loch Katrine.
Remark. Scotland is remarkable for the number,
great beauty and wild grandeur of its lakes ; some of them,
in connexion with the deeply indented friths and estuaries
which make its coast so striking, have been admirably
used for purposes of internal navigation. The Caledonian
Canal, one of the greatest works of modern engineering,
connects the North Sea with the Atlantic. It is more
than 60 miles long, of which 37 miles lie through Loch
Ness, Loch Oich, Loch Lochie.
(521.) Lakes of Ireland. — Lough Nea
(loh-nay) — largest lake in the British Isles — twenty
miles long (from north to south),' and ten in breadth
— Lough Erne—area fifty-seven sq. m. Lough
Allen — Lough Conn —Lough Mask —Lough
Corrib — Lough Ree — Lough Derg — Lakes of
Killarney, highly celebrated for picturesque beauty;
upon their western side the highest mountains in Ireland
rise steeply from the edge of the water.
Remark. The word lough (lob), by which the lakes are
distinguished (like the similar word loch in Scotland), is
applied equally to inland lakes and to estuaries, or salt¬
water inlets.
(522.) Wales (486). — S. W. portion of Gr. Britain
— till 1536, an independent Principality—still retaining
its name, from which the title, Prince of Wales —140
miles long — 90 broad — mountainous, Mt. Snowdon,
culminating point of the whole island (PI. VI. B).
PART Y.
OUTLINE VIEW OF TOWNS, RIVERS, ETC.
OP
ÜNITED STATES OF AMEBICA.
INTRODUCTION.
(523.) It now remains for us to take a somewhat
nearer view of the towns, rivers, etc., of the United
States of America. This republic, is bounded N. by
British America, from which it is separated by 49th
parallel, great lakes, and St. Lawrence; E. by Canada
(New Brunswick) and Atlantic; S. by Atlantic, Florida
Str., G. of Älexico and Mexico; W. by Mexico and
Pacific (from C. Flattery to town of San Diego). It
comes in immediate contact with no foreign Power
but British America, Mexico, and, since the recent
purchase (424), Russia. On the S. E., Cuba and the
rest of the West India Isles, bring it into certain
relations with 6 European, and 3 American States
(211—216. PI. III. fig. 3). Farther, on the N. E.,
lies the Danish Possession, Greenland, where the
christian missionary, by a life of labor, danger and
self-sacrifice, is silently carrying out the great work
of his divine Master. The Unoccupied Arctic Lands
are scarcely inhabited, except by the few Mongol
15*
228
UNITED STATES OP AMERICA.
wanderersj originally from eastern Asia, called Esquimaux.
Before particularly considering the U. States, it will
be useful to take a brief survey of the other countries
of N. America.
(524.) Russian America, including (PI. 11.)
Eodiak I., Sitka I., the Aleutian or Fox Is., and several
other groups — lately, by purchase, N. W. territory of
the United States in consideration of 7,200,000 dollars.
We have thus acquired a part proprietorship in Behring
Str., and in Mt. St. Elias. Our flag now floats within
the arctic circle, about 71®*^ parallel—a point, where the
sun, in summer, remains more than two months above,
and, in winter, the same period below, the horizon.
Remark (PI. II.) when it is 6 o'clock in the afternoon,
on the Yenisei R. (Russia in Asia), it is 6 o'clock in
the morning, at the mouth of the Mississippi; and about
midnight, at the mouth of the Kwichpack. "Now", Senator
Sumner remarks, "as the settlements of this coast came
eastward, from Russia, bringing, with the Russian flag,
western time, the day is earlier, by twenty-four hours,
with them than with us; so that their Sunday is our
Saturday; and the other days of the week are in
corresponding discord. This must be rectified according
to the national meridian". Population, about 54,000
(Esquimaux, Kenaians, Aleutians and other Indians —
in 1866, about 900 Russians), generally fishermen and
fur-hunters. This territory had never been actually
taken possession of by the Russian government. The
supreme authority was vested in a Russian Company,
whose sole object was to collect furs. We are sepa¬
rated from the territory by British Columbia.
(525.) British America — between Unoccupied
Arctic Lands, Great Lakes and St. Lawrence — a
colony of Gr. Britain, intersected by arctic circle —
with a shattered and broken coast washed by dreary
and desolate oceans — population (British and French),
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
229
3,404,240, exclusive of about 155,000 Indians. Its
chief political divisions are: Hudson Bay Company's
Territory (including Labrador, Rupert's Land, Columbia,
with Vancouver I.) — East or Lower Canada — West
or Upper Canada, with Anticosti I. — New Brunswick
— Nova Scotia, with Cape Breton I. — Newfoundland
—Prince Edward I. The vast western region supplies
the world (even including Russia) with furs. The
fur-bearing animals are decreasing.
Canada has a united population of about 2,500,000
— a considerable portion french, still preserving french
customs and the Roman Catholic religion.
Euperfs Land — central and chief division of
the Hudson Bay Company's Territory — capital and
principal trading station. Fort York — magnificent
forests, vast prairies and a soil yielding European
cereals.
Red River Settlement — immediately N. of our
northern frontier — thriving colony, with a good
climate and fruitful soil — wheat, rye, oats, barley in
great abundance — drained by the Assiniboin and
Saskatchewan rivers — capable of supporting a dense
population.
Columbia (witb Vancouver I.)—sometimes called New
Caledonia—capital, Victoria. Gold has been discovered
near the Frazer River — single pieces worth 10 or
15 dollars. A digger has gained, sometimes, 50 dollars
a day — one gained 213. Gold is found thickly
scattered, not only over this region and California,
but also over Washington Ter., Oregon, Idaho,
Montana, Colorado and Arizona — generally side by
side with silver and other mineral treasures.
Vancouver I. — on 50"* parallel — formerly Quadra
— in some parts, extremely fertile — splendid timber —
rich in coal, fish, furs — excellent harbors — a position
favorable for trade with Oregon, Russia, China, Australia
— ceded to Gr. Britain (1846).
Remark. — A Royal Proclamation, by the British
government, took effect July 1, 1867, uniting into one
230
dnited ;statbs of america.
Confederation, under the name of canada, the three
provinces, Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia.
(526.) Mexico — extensive coast on Pacific
and G. of Mexico — intersected by tropic of Cancer —
an immense plateau of plutonic origin, from 6 to
9000 feet high, ramifying into separate monntain-
chains — population, nearly 8,000,000 — the only
limitrophe* country of the United States on the S.—
provinces adjoining United States: Tamaulipas, New
Leon, Coahuila, Chihuahua, Sonora and Lower California
— established religion and only one recognized by the
government, the Roman Catholic—education, very
backward. Mexico was a Spanish possession till 1810.
General Iturhide suffered death by military execution
(1824) for having a second time proclaimed himself
emperor. Spain recognized the independence of Mexico
in 1836. Since then Mexico has been in a chaotic state.
In 1862, the Emperor Napoleon III. conceived the idea
of placing an Austrian Prince, Maximilian, as emperor,
upon the Mexican throne. The attempt to execute
his plan by french bayonets, accompanied by enormous
bloodshed and suffering, resulted in signal failure,
and Maximilian was shot by the Mexican authorities.
Slavery has been prohibited, hut the laborers on the
great plantations (that is the haciendas) being deeply
indebted to their employers, are said to suffer from a
condition of thraldom, more insupportable than that of
a negro slave.
(527.) Cuba, this luxuriant and lovely island, just
within the Tropics, has a peculiar interest, from its
close proximity to the United States; and from the
general opinion that, notwithstanding the prohibition
of the slave-trade, that cruel traffîc has continued
to he carried on.
* Limitrophe — on the limits of.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
231
STATES AND TERRITORIES.
(528.) The number of regularly organized states
is 38. The number of territories, 10, besides a portion
of land, 10 square miles, called District of Columbia,
ceded, by Maryland and Virginia, as the seat of
the national government, and under its immediate
jurisdiction. The rapidly increasing population will
probably soon transform the territories into organized
states. In the following lessons, for the convenience
of learning, we, at first, take states and territories
together, without distinction. The list of territories
will subsequently be learned apart. The states and
territories are naturally divided into 12 groups.
Where a state belongs, at the same time, to two
groups, it will be repeated; as, for example, in the
case of Florida, Texas, California, etc. The pupil is
begged always to follow this rule in the series of
repetitions.
(529.) New England States. — Maine—New
Hampshire—Vermont (R. these 8). Massachusetts
— Rhode Island — Connecticut (R. these 3. — How
manyi R. 6 from Maine).
Remark. The name, New England States, has no
political signification. The region, when a French possession
New France, was afterwards called New England. AU
these states touch the Atlantic, except Vermont.
(530.) Other States touching Atlantic. —
New York — New Jersey—Pennsylvania (R.
these 3). Delaware — Maryland — E. Virginia (R.
these 3. — R. from New York). N. Carolina — S.
Carolina—Georgia (R. these 3. — R. from New
York). Florida (R. — How many from New Yorkl R.
these 10. — R. from Maine).
232
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
(531.) Toacliing G. of Mexico. — Florida-
Alabama— Mississippi (R. these 3). Louisiana —
Texas (R. these 2.—How many from Florida? R. these 5.
— R. from Maine).
(532.) Touching Mexico. — Texas — New
Mexico — Arizona (R. these 3). California (How
many from Texas? R. these 4. — R.from Florida—R. from
Maine).
(533.) Touching Pacific. — California —
Oregon—Washington (R. these 3. — R. from Florida
— R. from Maine).
(534.) Touching British America, W. of
Lakes. — Washington — Idaho — Montana (R.
these 3). Dakota — Minnesota (How many from
Washington? R. these 5. — R. from Florida—from Maine).
(535.) Touching Great Lakes. — Minnesota
—W isconsin—Michigan (R. these 3). Illinois —
Indiana—Ohio (R. these 3. — R. from Minnesota).
Pennsylvania — New York (R. these 2.—How many
from Minnesota? R. these 8.— R. from Florida—R. from
Maine).
(536.) Lake States which directly touch
British America. — Minnesota — Michigan —
New York (R. these 3, — R. states from Washington
—from Florida—from Maine).
(537.) Touching British America, £. of Lakes.
— New York — Vermont — New Hampshire (R.
these 3). Maine (How many from New York? R. these
4. — R. from Washington—from Maine).
Remark. We have now named, how many (states
and territories)? Thirty-four. How many remain yet
unnamed, including District of Columbia? Fifteen.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
233
(538.) Interior States, W. of Mississippi. —
Nevada — Utah—Wyoming* (7?. these 5^.Colorado
^Nebraska—Kan sas (B. these 3. — R. from Nevada).
Iowa—Missouri — Arkansas (R. these 3.—R. from
Nevada). Indian Territory.** (How many? R. these
^10.— R. from Washington—from Maine).
(539.) E. of Mississippi. — Tennessee —
Kentucky^—W. Virginia (R. these 3). Lastly,
District of Columbia. (How many? R. these é.—
How many states altogether? R. these 48, bearing,
however, in mind that they include territories and
one District).
(540.) On Arctic Ocean. — The territory, till
now called Russian America. (R. the whole 49).
(541.) Ten Territories, July 1867. — Of
these 49 divisions, 10 are as yet territories. By
territory is meant those portions which, from want of
sufficient population and other causes, are not yet
organized as states. Washington — Idaho — Mon¬
tana— Dakota (R. these 4). Utah—Wyoming —
(R. these 2.—R. from Washington Ter.).— Arizona —
New Mexico — Indian Territory (R. these 3. — R.
from Washington Ter.). Russian America.
WATER DIVISIONS—LAKES —ISLANDS-
CAPES.
(542.) Water Divisions. — On the Atlantic, from
B. of Fundy to Florida B. — Passamaquoddy B.—
Machias B. — Frenchman's B. — Penobscot B.—
* A section of Dakota is called Wyoming, by some maps,
altbongh it has not yet been organized as a territory. ** The
Indian Ter. is not, strictly speaking, a territory. It is a
region set apart, by the government of the United States, as
a home for certain Indian tribes.
234
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Cai^co B. — Massachusetts B.—Cap Cod B.—
Buzzard's B. — Narraganset B. — Long Island
Sound — New York B. — Little and Great Egg
Harbor — Delaware B. — Chesapeake B. —
Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds—Raleigh B.
(raw'-lee) — Onslow B. — Long B. — Winyaw B.—
Bull's B. — Charleston Harbor — Port Royal
Entrance — Str. of Florida — Florida B.
G. of Mexico, from Florida B. to mouth of Bio
Grande. — Chatham B.— Oyster B. — Charlotte
Harbor — Tampa B. — Appalachee B. — Appa-
lachicola B.— St. Joseph's B.— Pensacola B,—
Mobile B. — Mississippi Sound — Chandeleur
B. — Atchafalaya B.—Vermillion B. — Galveston
B.—Matagorda B.—
Pacific, from, town San Diego to G. of Georgia. —
Monterey B. — San Francisco B. — Str. of Juan
de Fuca — Puget Sound — G. of Georgia. —
On Lakes. — Keweenaw B. (L. Superior) —
Green B. — Gr. Traverse B. (L. Michigan) —
Mackinaw Str. and Saginaw B. (L. Huron) — Str.
St. Mary — Sandusky B. (L. Erie). —
Remark to the teacher. — In these sections, the principle
of repetition can easily be applied. The pupil may be
required, also, to repeat each state, with the water-divisions,
islands, etc., belonging to it—as, for example, Maine-. Fassam-
aquoddy B., etc. Where a name is not found on the
large map, seek it on the corner-figures, 1 and 2.
(543.) Lakes. — Maine-. Eagle Lakes—Grand
L. — Schoodic Lakes (skoo'dic) — Millinoket —
Moosehead — Moosotocmaguntic —Umbagog
— Sebago. — New Hampshire: Umbagog — Ossipee
Winnipiseogee — Sunapee.—Vermont: L. Cham-
plain—L. Memphramagog.—New York: L. George
— L. Champlain — Saranac— Black — Oneida
— Skaneateles — Owasco — Cayuga — Seneca
— Canandaigua — Crooked — Chautauque —
Ontario — Erie.—Florida: L. George — Kissime
ONITBD STATES OF AMERICA.
235
— Okechobee. — Louisiana-. Pontchartrain —
Manrepas — Borgne — Calcasieu. — California-.
L. Clear — Tulare — Soda. — Minnesota-. Red
L. — Itasca L. — Leech. — Michigan-. L. St.
Clair. — Wisconsin-. L. Winnebago. — Nevada:
Pyramid L.—Walker L. — Oregon: Klamath L.
— Summer L.— Sylvanille L, — Malheur L.—
Abert L. — Idaho: Pend Oreille. — Montana:
Flathead. — Utah: Great Salt Lake—Utah L.
— Sevier L. — Salt L. —
(544.) Islands. — In Atlantic: Mt. Desert I.
— Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard — Block
I.— Long Island and Staten Island — Roanoke
I. — St. Helena Is. — Hilton Head I.—
In G. of Mexico: Florida Keys—Pine Is.—
Dry Tortugas Is.— Cedar Keys — Santa Rosa
I. — Chandeleur Is.—
In Pacific: San Clement I. — Santa Catalina
— San Nicolas — Santa Cruz — Santa Rosa I.
— San Miguel.-^
In Great Lakes: Group of Apostles —Isle
Royale (L. Superior).—
(545.) Capes. — In Atlantic: C. Ann — C. Cod
— Sandy Hook — C. May—C. Henlopen — C.
Charles — C. Henry — C. Hatteras — C. Lookout
— C. Fear — C. Canaveral.
In G. of Mexico: C. Sable—C. Romano — C.
St. Bias.
In Pacific: Pt. Conception — C. Mendocino —
C. Blanco — C. Foulweather — C. Lookout —
C. Flattery.
RIVERS AND THEIR TOWNS.
(546.) River basins. — The rivers of W. Con¬
tinent, in magnitude and extent of drainage, excel
those of E. Continent. Remark three great river basins
236
ÜNITBD STATES OF AMERICA.
inclined, first, to G. of Mexico — second, to Atlantic
— third, to Pacific.
Let us now consider the rivers flowing into G.
of Mexico.
(547.) Mississippi B. — marks boundary line
between following states, right bank-. Minnesota —
Iowa—Missouri—Arkansas—Louisiana; left bank:
Wisconsin —Illinois — Kentucky — Tenessee —
Mississippi — Louisiana.
(548.) Branckes of Mississippi. — Among
50 mighty affluents we select the following, rißht
bank: Minnesota—Upper Iowa R. — Red Cedar
R.— Iowa R.— Des Moines — Missouri—White R.
— Arkansas, largest tributary of Mississippi, after
Missouri—Red River, formed by the confluencé
of Washita and Bartholomew rivers. Left bank:
St. Croix — Chippeway R. — Black R.—Wiscon¬
sin R.—Rock R. — Illinois R. with Fox R., Kan¬
kakee and Sangamon — Kaskaskia — Ohio —
Obion R. — Hatchee R.—Yazoo with Sunflower
— Big Black R.
(549.) Towns on or near Mississippi. —
Ft. Snelling — St. Paul — Stillwater — Prescott
—Wabashaw — Prairie du Chien—Dubuque —
Galena — Davenport — Muscatine — Burlington
— Fort Madison — Keokuk — Quincy—Hannibal
City — Alton — St. Charles— St. Louis — St.
Genevieve — Kaskaskia — Cairo — Memphis —
Helena — Arkansas — Napoleon — Columbia —
Vicksbnrg — Natchez — Bayou Sara — Baton
Rouge— Donaldsonville — New Orleans.
Remark. — 1. The pupil, in repeating, will name the
state or territory to which the town belongs.
2. The teacher will, here, also, at his discretion, apply
the principle of repetition, as in sections 285. 287 and
elsewhere.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
237
(550.) Towns on branches of Mississippi. —
Iowa City — Des Moines — Batesville — Little
Rock — Arkansas— Harrisonburg — Shreveport
— Natchitoches (natch-i-totch'iz, often pron. nak-e-
tush')—Alexandria— O pelo us as— Portage—Wa¬
te rtown — Janesville — Peoria— Springfield —
Vandalia — Kaskaskia. —
(551.) Missouri R. — flows from Rocky Mts.
through Idaho Ter., Dakota — then between Nebraska
and Iowa, by Kansas, through Missouri State, where
it empties into the Mississippi.
(552.) Branches of Missouri R. — Right bank:
Yellow Stone with Big Horn and Powder R.—
Little Missouri — North Fork — Shyenne —
White R. — Niobrara R. — South Fork of Platte
or Nebraska with Panee Loup or Wolf R.—
Republican Fork — Smoky Hill Fork or Kansas
— Osage R. — Gasconade R. — Left bank: Milk R.
— James R. — Big Sioux — Little Sioux — Grand
R. — Chariton R.—
(553.) Towns on Missouri and branches. —
Virginia City — Ft. Benton — Ft. Union — Ft.
William — Ft. Clarke — Ft. Connor — Ft. Pierre
—Yankton — Omaha City — Kearney—Nebraska
City — St. Joseph —Atchison — Leavenworth —
Platte City — Ft. Riley — Topeka — Lecompton
— Wyandot — Independence — Jefferson City
— St. Charles — Alton.
(554.) Ohio R. — one of the most important
—formed by the confluence, at Pittsburg, of the Alleghany
and Monongahela with its branch, the Youghiogheny
(yoh-ho-gay'-ny), flows through the following states,
right bank: Pennsylvania — Ohio — Indiana —
Illinois; left bank: Pennsylvania — W. Virginia
— Kentucky.
238
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
(555.) Branches of Ohio.— right bank: Beaver
Cr. — Muskingum — Scioto — Miami — Wabash
with Little Wabash—left bank: Little Kanawha
— Gr. Kanawha — Big Sandy R. — Licking —
Kentucky—Rolling Fork — Green R. —Cumber¬
land — Tennessee.
(556.) Towns on Ohio and branches. — Main
stream: Pittsburg—Alleghany City — Steuben-
ville — Wheeling — Marietta — Farkersburg —
Guyandotte — Portsmouth — Maysville — Cin¬
cinnati — Newport — Covington — Madison —
Louisville—New Albany—H awes ville—E vans-
vil le—Cairo — Branches: Nashville — Clarksville
—* Ft. Donelson — Chattanooga — Decatur —
Florence.
(557.) Other Rivers, flowing into G. of
Mexico.— Those East of Mississippi: Caloosahatchee
— Pease Cr. — Suwanee R. — Appalachicola,
formed hy the junction of the Chattahoochee and
Flint — Choctawhatchee with Pea R.—Yellow
Water—Escamhia—Perdido R.—Alabama, formed
by Tallapoosa and Coosa — Mobile R. with Tom-
bigby, Black Warrior and the E. outlet Tensaw
— Pascagoula with Chickasawha and Leaf —
Pearl R. — Those West of Mississippi: Calcasieu —
Sabine R. — Neches R.—Trinity R. — Rio Brazos
— Rio Colorado — Guadalupe — San Antonio —
Nueces — Rio Grande del Norte.
(558.) Towns on Rivers, E. and W. of Mis¬
sissippi. (Pupil will name each river.) — East:
Atlanta — La Grange—Columbus —Montgomery
— Mobile — Selma — Aberdeen — Columbus —
Gainesville —Jackson. West: Austin — San
Antonio — Corpus Christi — Brownsville — Ft.
Fillmore — Mesilla —Belen — Albuquerque —
Santa Fé—Taos.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
239
(559.) Rivers flowing into Atlantic. — St.
Lawrence forms, in part of its course, boundary
line between Canada and New York. Towm on British
side: Toronto — Ottawa—Montreal—Quebec; on
American side: Superior City — Sault St. Mary
(so St. Mary) — Sheboygan—Milwaukee—Racine
— Kenosha — Chicago — Grand Haven — Port
Huron—Detroit — Monroe—Toledo — Sandusky
City— Cleveland —Erie —Buffalo — Oswego —
Ogdensburg.
(560.) Penobscot R. — Maine— 275 miles —
lovely scenery — large vessels ascend as far as Bangor
—remarkable for a superior slate-quarry (on the
branch, Piscataquis) — traverses nearly the whole state
and is studded with a number of small islands. Towns:
Bangor, Rockland.
(561.) Eennebeck Maine — rises in Moosehead
L. Towns: Moscow — Solon — Norridgewock —
W aterville.
(562.) Connecticut R. — longest and one of
the most beautiful of New England — 400 m. — rising
near Canada, separates New Hampshire from Vermont,
and, after having traversed Massachusetts and Connect¬
icut, empties into Long Island Sound, at New London,
one of the best harbors of the state. Towns-: Guildhall—
Lancaster — N ew bury — Haverhill — Norwich —
Hanover—Windsor—Char les town—Brattle bor o
— Greenfield — Deerfield — Springfield—Hart¬
ford— Middletown.
(563.) Hudson — 300 m. — flows out of the
Adirondac Mts. into New York Bay, through enchanting
scenery, rivaling that of the Rhine. Principal Towns:
Troy—Albany—Hudson —P oughkeepsie —W est
Point — New York — Hoboken.
240
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
(564.) Delaware B. — 300 m. — rises in New
York among the Katskill Mts. — flows through following
states, right bank-. Pennsylvania, Delaware; left
bank: New York, New Jersey. Ships of largest
size come up to Philadelphia — steamboats to Trenton.
Toums: Easton — Trenton — Philadelphia— Cam¬
den— New Castle—Wilmington.
(565.) Susquehanna — largest stream in Penn¬
sylvania—length, 500 miles—traverses New York, Penn¬
sylvania, Maryland and falls into Chesapeake B. —
numerous beautiful islands — navigation, obstructed by
rocky rapids, carried on by two parallel canals. —
Town: Havre de Grace.
(566.) Potomac — Length, 350 miles — largest
branch, Shenandoah—boundary between Maryland and
Virginia — beautiful scenery — navigable for largest
ships to Washington City. Principal towns: Cumber¬
land— Georgetown—W ashington —Alexandria
— 8 miles below the latter. Mount Vernon, the
former residence of Gen. Washington.
(567.) Four Bivers flowing into Pacific. —
Colorado (called also Colorado of the West) — length,
with its branch. Green River, 1200 m. — forming part
of boundary between California and Arizona—^.remark¬
able for the great defile, by which it has forced its
way through the Rocky Mts. — precipitous banks, 1000
to 1500 feet high — tribes of Indians live along its
shores — traces of ancient irrigating canals, showing
that this region was formerly cultivated — a great tidal
wave at its mouth renders the entrance dangerous
except for vessels of light draught. Totm: Fort
Y uma.
Remark. There are two other American rivers of this
name, one, the Rio Colorado, emptying into Matagorda B.
(G. of Mexico), the other (Pi. II.), traversing the Argen¬
tine Confederation from Andes to Atlantic.
UNITED STATES OF AHERICA.
241
(568.) Sacramento — large and important river
— 500 m. long — draining, with its branch, the San
Joaquin, the great central valley of California —
navigable at all seasons to Sacramento, and for small
vessels 150 m. farther. Tovons-. Shasta—Sacra¬
mento—Stockton.
(569.) Columbia or Oregon B. — 1200 m.
long—enters the Pacific — part of its course, boundary
between Oregon and Washington. It is the largest of
the Pacific rivers — navigable 145 m. up. Tovons: Ft
Walla-Walla — Ft. Vancouver.
(570.) Ewichpack or Yucon (Plates IT. IV.) —
great river of the yet unnamed N. W. territory of the
United States — length, with its windings, 1500 m.—
rises in the Rocky Mts. and enters into Behring Sea
(Pacific). The Kwichpack and Yucon are considered,
by some geographers, to be one river, as on our maps.
(571.) The Mississippi — ("Great Water" —
"King of American streams") — with its tributaries,
one of the largest river systems of the globe,
draining one-seventh part of north american continent.
It rises in the highlands of Minnesota State, at a place
called Hauteur de Terre, W. of L. Superior — length,
from L. Itasca, the source of Mississippi proper, 3,200 m.;
but, from the source of the Missouri, the main branch,
4,350 m. Flowing, at first, through majestic primeval
forests, the solemn uncleared land of the red Indian,
from a point, where the earth is covered, a great part of
the year, with snow and ice — then, along tracts marked
by moss, the fir-tree, and other northern vegetation —
it rolls on, between ever changing shores — by populous
and rapidly growing cities — receiving, from the Rocky
Mts. and Alleghanies, as it advances, about 50 mighty
affluents which, in Europe, would be called important
rivers — bearing upon its bosom, night and day,
hundreds of immense steamers, crowded with human
16
242
ÜKITED STATES OP AMERICA.
beings, it sweeps through vast, monotonous savannahs
covered with long grass — plantations of sugar-cane,
cotton and fruits of the south — into G. of Mexico, at a
point where snow and ice are unknown phenomena,
and where the odors of the orange, lemon and magnolia
are wafted by the breezes of a perpetual summer. There
are several falls, among others, those of St. Anthony.
It is studded with numerous islands. Its banks some¬
times rise into broken and precipitous bluffs, 150 to
750 feet high, intersected by deep ravines—gentle valleys
opening on either side and waving with forests of
pine, birch, maple and cedar — wide prairies and wood¬
lands — sometimes inundating its shores for a hundred
miles — masses of timber annually drifting down its
stream, occasionally forming floating islands covered
with vegetation and fixing, into the bottom, the dread¬
ed snag*. As we approach its mouth, it becomes
a rapid, desolating torrent, loaded vyith mud — breaking
over its banks in immense freshets, forming there large
lakes, inhabited by alligators and wild birds —
sweeping away whole forests and producing the greatest
disasters which are said to be increasing in frequency
and extent. About four thousand million cubic feet
of solid matter are annually brought down to the
gulf. The formation of the delta, by these deposits,
is supposed to have occupied a period of 67,000
years. "The facility", says M® Culloch, "afforded by the
Mississippi, and its various tributaries, for internal
navigation, are wholly unequalled, except, perhaps,
by the Amazon and its tributaries, in S. America. In
so far, indeed, as navigation is concerned, the Missis¬
sippi should be regarded, from its great depth and
comparative freedom from shoals and cataracts, not
so much a river as a vast, internal sea, a Medi-
*) Snag: — in the western rivers of the United States, the
trunk of a large tree firmly fixed to the bottom at one end, and
rising nearly or quite to the surface at the other end, by which
steamboats, etc., are often pierced and sunk (Webster's Diet.)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
243
terranean, in fact—extending through all the central
and most fertile portion of N. America; and enabling
its remotest recesses, though 2,000 or 3,000 miles
inland, to maintain a direct communication, by water,
with the distant quarters of the globe. It is but
yesterday, as it were, since the valley of the Missis¬
sippi began to be occupied by civilized man, and
reclaimed from the wilderness; and its astonishing
increase. in population and wealth is principally
ascribable to the facility, afforded by this noble river,
for its intercourse with the other parts of America,
and of the world. The trade and navigation of the
Mississippi is already, indeed, incomparably greater
than that of the Ganges, the Danube, the Elbe, or any
other river of the ancient continent. Let, then, the
reader, who compares the commerce and importance of
the Mississippi, at this moment, with its state only half
a century ago, imagine, if he can, what it must be,
when all the vast country between the Rocky Mts.
and Alleghanies has been fully peopled, when New
Orleans has become a second London, and large cities
have been built on its most distant affluents!
"Vast as are the natural capacities of the Missis¬
sippi for navigation, they have been, and, no doubt,
will continue to be, greatly extended by canals and
artificial means. It is already united with the grand
chain of lakes and the basin of the St. Lawrence; and
goods, taken on board at New York, may at present be
conveyed to New Orleans without being unshipped,
and conversely."
(572.) Missouri (i. e., "Mud River") — longest
tributary stream of the globe — rises in the Rocky Mts.,
about one mile distant from the Salmon R., one of
the affluents of the Columbia. About 400 miles from
its source, it has broken its way through a sublime and
extraordinary ravine, 5 or 6 miles long and 150 yards
wide, called the Gates of the Rocky Mts., whose black
16*
244 \ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
granite cliffs rise 1200 feet perpendicularly. A short
distance beyond, it pours its floods, during 16 miles, over
the Great Falls, second only to Niagara, a descent
altogether of 307 feet. These form the first absolute
obstacle to navigation, from its mouth, at the Mississippi,
(about half a mile wide and 2500 miles from its source).
It flows through well-wooded valleys — extensive and
beautiful meadows and plains, surrounded by distant
and lofty mountains — through a boldly undulating
country — by sterile and arid regions — by immense
grassy prairies, where the elk, the white bear, the
antelope and buffalo are followed by the huntsman,
the trapper and the red Indian. It strikes the Missis¬
sippi at a point where that river, to which, in length
and mass of water, it is greatly superior, has half
completed its course. Some european geographers con¬
sider the Mississippi as only an affluent of this gigan¬
tic stream; but the subordinate rank of the Missouri
is determined by the fact that it flows through regions
deficient in wood and coal. Its sinuous channel is, more¬
over, sometimes shallow and interrupted by sandbars,
snags and rapids, by timber embedded in its channel
and by the impetuosity of its current. Some of these
obstacles are obviously removeable. The entrance of
the Missouri into the Mississippi is described, by Capt.
Hall, as particularly striking. "It seemed as if the
dirty Missouri had insinuated itself under the clear
Mississippi, for we saw it boiling up at a hundred places.
First, a small curdling white spot, no bigger than a
man's hand, appeared near the surface, which rapidly
swelled and boiled about, till, in a few seconds, it
became as large as a steam-boat, spreading itself on all
sides in gigantic eddies and whirlpools, in a manner
astonishingly grand and striking. At other places, the
two currents ran along, side by side, without the least
intermixture, like oil and water; but this separation
was never of long continuance, and the contaminating
Missouri soon conquered the beautiful Mississippi: indeed,
the stain is never for one moment got rid of, during
united states of america
245
the 1,200 miles that the stream fuds over, before it
falls into the G. of Mexico."
(573.) The St. Lawrence. — The great lakes,
the largest mass of fresh water in the world, pour
their surplus floods into G. of St. Lawrence by St.
Lawrence R., which may he said to rise at the source of
the St. Louis, W. of L. Superior. It hears différent names
in different parts of its course; between L. Superior
and L. Huron—the St. Mary; between L. Huron and
L.Erie — the St. Clair and Detroit; between Lakes
Erie and Ontario — the Niagara; and from Ontario tO'
the sea — the St. Lawrence. Total length, including
windings,— 2273 m., of which nearly the whole is
navigable. The Miamis River, western extremity of
L. Erie, rises so near the northern affluents of the
Ohio, as to aflTord means of communication between
the lake and the Mississippi. The Niagara River,
thirty-four miles in length, presents that great world-
curiosity, the Niagara Falls, of which we here say
nothing, except to quote the opinion of Prof. Ansted
"that the recession of these falls is probably more
rapid than is usually supposed, very considerable
portions of the rock having fallen, within the memory
of man; this is not to be wondered at, when 15
million cubic feet of water have been estimated to
pass over it every minute."
(574.) Rivers according to States. — Mainet
(Fig. 2.) St. John with Aroostook, Allaguash,Wal-
loostoock and St. Francis—St. Croix — Machias
— Penobscot with Mattawamkeag and Piscata¬
quis— Kennebec with Dead R. — Androscoggin
(an-dros-cog'-ghm) — Saco — Piscataqua. — New
Hampshire'. Androscoggin — Saco — Piscataqua —
Merrimac with Contoocook — Connecticut (Con-
net'-i-cut).— Vermont: Connecticut with White R.
— Batten Kill—Otter Creek — Onion R.—
La Moille R. — Missisque. — MassachuselU: Merri-
246
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
mac with Nashua—Charles R. — Blackstone —
Connecticut with Chicopee, Deerfield and
Westfield — Farming ton — Housatonic. — Rhode
Island: Blackstone — Pawtucket. — Connectieut:
T hames — Connecticut with Farmington —
U ousatonic.—New York: (Fig. 1.) St. Lawrence with
Oswegatchie and Racket R. — Saranac — Hud¬
son with Batten Kill—Hoosic—Croton — Mo¬
hawk R. with Schoharie—Delaware — Susque¬
hanna— Chenango — Chemung — Alleghany —
Cattaraugus — Tonawanda — Genesee — Seneca
— Oswego — Black R.—Pennsylvania: Delaware
— Lehigh — Schuylkill (skool'-kil) — Susque¬
hanna with N. Branch, West Branch and
Juniata—Ohio with Beaver, Alleghany, Clarion
Creek, Youghiogeny (yoh-ho-gah'-nee) and Mo-
nongahela. —Delaware: Delaware — New Jersey:
Hudson — Raritan — Little Egg Harbor R. — Gr.
Egg Harbor R. — Delaware — Maryland: Potomac.
—E. Virginia: Shenandoa—Potomac—Rappahan¬
nock —Y ork R.— James— Appomattox— Staun¬
ton.— W. Virginia: South Branch of Potomac —
Cheat R. — Little Kanawha—Gr. Kanawha with
Elk, Gauley and Greenbrier — Ohio with Big
Sandy. — N. Carolina: Chowan — Roanoke — Tar
—^Neuse — Cape Fear — Deep R. — Catawba —
French Broad — Yadkin — Dan.—S. Carolina:
Little Pedee—Great Pedee — Lynch's Creek
— Black R. — Santee — Con gar ee—W ateree —
Broad R. — Saluda — Edisto — Comb ah ee—Sa¬
vannah. — Georgia: Savannah — Ogeechee — Al-
tamaha(Al-ta-ma-haw') with Oconee and Ocmulgee
— Santilla — St. Mary — Suwanee (su-wah'-nee)
with Allapahaw— Flint—Chattahoochee — Eto¬
wah.— Florida: St. John's R. — Kissime — Caloo-
sahatchee — Pease Cr. — Suwanee — Appalachi-
cola —Chocktawhatchee — Yellow Water —
Escambia — Perdido. — Alabama: Pea R.— Es¬
cambia— Tensaw — Alabama with Tallapoosa,
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
■247
Coosa, Mobile (mo-beel'), Black Warrior, and
Tombigby — Tennessee R. — Mississippi: Pasca-
goula with Chickasawha and Leaf R. — Pearl
R. — Big Black R. — Yazoo with Sunflower R.
— Mississippi.— Louisiana: Mississippi with Red
River and Washita — Âtchafalaya—Calcasieu
— Sabine. — Texas: Red River — Sabine — Neches
(Netch'-ez)^Trinity— Rio Brazos (Brah-zos) —Rio
Colorado — Guadalupe — San Antonio — Nueces
(Nwa'-ces) — Rio Grande del Norte—Pecos. — Cal¬
ifornia: Klamath R. — Sacramento — San Joaquin
— Colorado—Minnesota: Mississippi — St. Croix
— Minnesota—-Red River of the North — JliicAi-
gan: Menomonee — Manistee — R. au Sable —
Saginaw — St. Joseph's — Kalamazoo — Grand
River — Muskegon. — Wisconsin: Menomonee —
Wolf R.—W isconsin — Mississippi — Black R.—
Chippeway—St. Croix.—Illinois: Ohio with Little
Wabash—White R. — Wabash — Mississippi with
Rock R. —Illinois with Fox and Kankakee —
Sangamon — Kaskaskia — Indiana: Kankakee —
Tippecanoe—Wabash (Waw'-bash) —White R.
with West Fork and East Fork — Ohio. —
Ohio: Ohio — Muskingum — Scioto — Miami —
Sandusky — Maumee. — Nevada: Humboldt R.—
Walker R. — Nebraska: Niobrara — Missouri —
Panee Loup or Wolf R. — Nebraska or Platte
R. — Republican Fork.—Kansas: Missouri—Re¬
publican. Fork— Smoky Hill Fork or Kansas
— Neosho — Arkansas. — Iowa: Mississippi —
Upper Iowa — Red Cedar — Iowa — Des Moines
— Chariton — Missouri with Little Sioux. —
Missouri: Mississippi — Grand R.— Chariton R.
— Missouri with Gasconade — Osage—Current.
— Arkansas: Mississippi —White R. with Black
R. — Arkansas — Bartholomew — Washita. —
Tennessee: Tennessee with Clinch, Holsten, Hi-
wassee. Elk and Duck R. — Mississippi with
Hatchee and Obion — Cumberland. — Kentucky:
248
TJNITBD STATES OF AMERICA.
Ohio — Big Sandy R. — Licking—Kentucky —
RollingR.— Green R. — Cumberland —Tennes¬
see— Mississippi.— Washington Territory. Okonagan
—Columbia — Yakima.— Oregon: Willamette R.
— Columbia R. — John Day's R. — Malheur R,
— Idaho: Clark's Fork — Salmon R. —Lewis or
Snake R. — Jfowiana: Missouri with Milk R., Yellow
Stone with Powder R. and Big Horn R. — Dakota:
Missouri with Big Sioux — Shayenne — James
— Little Missouri — North Fork — Shyenne R.
— White R. — Niobrora—Utah: Colorado with
Green R. — Grand R. — San Juan — Sevier —
Jordan. — Wyoming: Big Horn — Powder — Platte
R. with Laramie — North Fork and Sweet Wa¬
ter R. — Colorado: South Fork of Platte R.—
Republican Fork — Arkansas — Gunnison —
Grand R. — New Mexico: Rio Pecos — Rio Grande
del Norte. — Arizona: Colorado with Little Colo¬
rado—Rio Gila—Rio San Pedro—WilliamsFork.
— Indian Territory: Red Fork of the Arkansas
with Arkansas and Neosho — Canadian R. with
North Fork of Canadian R. — Red R. with False
Washita and North Fork. — District of Columbia:
Potomac.
(575.) Exercises on Rivers. — PL VI. A. —
The States, E. of Mississippi, are here reproduced,
upon a somewhat larger scale than on PI. VH., and
without names, for a clearer view of the chief rivers.
The teacher will read the arabic number and, the pupil,
in reply, will name the river from the corresponding
number on the map; and also the states through, or
by which it flows. River 1. — St. Croix, boundary
line between Maine and New Brunswick.—
River 2. — Penobscot (Maine). — River 3. — Ken¬
nebec (Maine).—River 4.— Androscoggin (Maine,
New Hampshire).— River 5. — Merrimac (New
Hampshire and Massachusetts).—River 6. — Con¬
necticut R. (New Hampshire, Verm ont, Massachu-
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
249
setts and Connecticut).— River 7. — Housatonic
(Massachusetts and Connecticut). — River 8. —
Hudson (New York and New Jersey).—River 9.
— Mohawk (New York). — River 10. — Passaic
(New Jersey).—River ÍÍ. — Rar i tan (New Jersey).
— River 12.— Delaware (New York, Pennsyl¬
vania, New Jersey, Delaware).— River 13.—
Schuylkill (Pennsylvania). — River 14. — Susque¬
hanna (Pennsylvania, Maryland). — River 15.—
North branch of Susquehanna (New York,
Pennsylvania). — River 16. — West branch of
Susquehanna (Pennsylvania). — River 17. —
Juniata (Pennsylvania).—
Remark. — We now take the Ohio with its head waters
and branches—first, the three rivers which unite to form
the Ohio; then, the right bank branches, then, the left.
Riveris. — Alleghany (New York, Pennsyl¬
vania). — River 19. —Youghiogeny (yoh-ho-gay'-nee)
(Maryland, Pennsylvania).— River 20. — Monon-
gahela (W.Virginia, Pennsylvania).—River 21.
—Ohio (Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
W. Virginia, Kentucky). We now come to right
hank branches. River 22. — Muskingum (Ohio).—
River 23.—Scioto (Ohio).—River 24.—Miami (Ohio,
Indiana). —River 25. —White R. and branches
(Illinois and Indiana).—River 26.—Wabash (Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois).—Now left bank branches—River 27.
— Gr. Kanawha (N. Carolina, E. Virginia, W.
Virginia).—River 28. — Kentucky (Kentucky) —
River 29. — Cumberland (Kentucky, Tennessee).
—River 30.—Tennessee (E. Virginia, Tennessee,
Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee again, Ken¬
tucky). Now back to Maryland and the Atlantic basin.
River 31.-—Potomac (Maryland, E. Virginia).—
River 32. — James R. (E. Virginia). — River 33.—
Roanoke (E. Virginia, N. Carolina). — River 34.
— Cape Fear R. (N. Carolina).—River 35.—Gr.
Pedee R. (N. Carolina, S. Carolina). — River 36.
— Santee R. (S. Carolina). —
250
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Remark. — The branches of the Santee, flowing out
of N. Carolina, bear the names of Gongaree, Saluda, Broad
and Wateree,
River 37. — Savannah (between S. Carolina and
Georgia).—River 38.—Altamaha with branches
(Georgia).—River 39. — St. John's R. (Florida) —
River 40.—Appalachicola with branches (Geor¬
gia, Alabama, Florida).—River 41.—Alabama
(Georgia, Alabama).—River 42. — Mobile with
branches (Alabama, Mississippi).—River 43.—
Mississippi. States on right hank-. (Minnesota —
Iowa — Missouri — Arkansas — Louisiana). —
States cm left bank-. (Minnesota again—Wisconsin
—Illinois—Kentucky—Tennessee—Mississippi
— Louisiana). Now right bank branches. River 44. —
Minnesota or St. Peters (Dakota, Minnesota).
—River 45.—Iowa (Iowa).—River 46.—Des Moines
(Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri). — River 47. —
Missouri. — River 48.—White R. (Missouri, Ar¬
kansas),—River49.—Arkansas (Colorado, Kansas,
Indian Territory, Arkansas).—River 50.—Red
River (Texas, Indian Territory, Arkansas,
Louisiana). Now left bank branches'. River 51.—
Winconsin (Michigan, Wisconsin). — River 52.—
Illinois (Illinois).—River 53.—Yazoo (Missis¬
sippi).—River 54.—Sabine R., (forming part of bound¬
ary line between Louisiana and Texas). — River 55. —
St. Lawrence (boundary line for some distance between
State of New York and Canada.) — River 56. — Ottawa
(branch of St. Lawrence in British America.)
(576.) ComparatÎTe Dimensions (Plate VI. A
and B.) — These two maps are drawn on the same
scale, that the comparative dimensions of countries, lakes,
seas, etc., may be determined at a glance, or, more
correctly, with a pair of compasses. The teacher will
require no aid to lead the pupil through the proper
exercises; — such as, for example, the following;
Massachusetts corresponds in size to the Kgd. of
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
251
Wurtemberg — Maryland to Holland — Ireland to Maine
— the Atlantic coast of Spain and Portugal would reach
from New York City to the southern frontier of N.
Carolina, etc.
(577.) Towns according to States. — Maine-.
(Fig. 2.) Mattawamkeag — Calais — Eastport
— Machias — Ellsworth — Bucksport — Belfast
— Rockland — Waldoborough — Wiscasset
— Bath — Brunswick — Portland — Saco —
Biddeford — Wells — York — Berwick —
Alfred — Paris — Andover — Farmington — Mos¬
cow— Solon — Dover—Old Town — Bangor —
Newport—Norridgewock—^Waterville—Augusta
— Auburn.— New Hampshire-. Lancaster — Fran-
conia — Haverhill — Conway — Hanover with
Dartmouth College — Plymouth — Ossipee —
Gilford — Canterbury—Newport — Charlestown
— Great Falls — Concord —Dover — Portsmouth
— Exeter — Manchester — Keene—Winchester—
Amherst—Nashua, Vermont: St. Albans — Derby
—Irasburg— Guildhall—Danville—Burlington
—Montpelier—Middlebury—Chelsea—Newbury
— Norwich — Rutland —Windsor — Manchester
— Bellows Falls — Bennington — Newfane —
Brattleboro.— Massachusetts: Greenfield — Deer-
field — Lowell — Lawrence —Haverhill — New¬
bury port — Andover — Gloucester — Lexington
— Lynn — Salem —Nahant — Concord— Boston
with Charlestown, Roxbury, Cambridge, Dor¬
chester — Dedham — Abington — Marsh field —
Plymouth — Chatham— Barnstable— Nantucket
— New Bedford — Fall River — Taunton—Wor¬
cester— Springfield — Chicopee —Northampton
— Lenox — Pittsfield — Amherst. — Rhode Island:
Smithfield — Pawtucket (half in Rhode Island and
half in Massachusetts) — Providence with North
Providence —Warwick — Bristol — Newport —
South Kingston. — Connecticut: Sharon — Suffield
252
UNITED STATES OP AMERICA.
— Stafford—Tolland — Norwich — Stonington
— New London — New Haven — Bridgeport —
Fairfield — N or walk — Stamford — Danbnry —
Waterbnry— Litchfield — Middletown — Hart-
fort.—New York: (Fig. 1.) NiagaraFalls—Lewiston
— Lockport — Albion — Rochester —^'Oswego —
Volney—Pnlaski — Sackett's Harbor—Watertown
— Ogdensbnrg — Canton — Potsdam — M alo ne —
Rouse's Point — Platts burg — Ticonderoga —
Whitehall (Fig. 2.) — Caldwell — Queenshury —
Sandy Hill—Saratoga—Johnstown—Schenectady
— Cohoes — Lan sing burg — Troy — Albany —
Hudson — Catskill — Saugerties — Kingston —
Rondont — Poughkeepsie (Po-keep'-see) — Fish-
kill—Newburg—West Point—Sing Sing—White
Plains—New York—Brooklyn—(Fig. 2.) Hunting-
ton—Greenport—Sag Harbor—River head—Islip
— (Fig. 1.) Port Jervis — Monticello — Delhi —
Binghampton—Owego—Elm ira—Bath—Angelica
— Olean — Cub a — Ellicottville — M ays ville —
Dunkirk — Buffalo — Batavia — Lyons — Can an¬
da ig ua — Geneseo — Geneva — Havana — Ithaca
— Auburn — Syracus e — Salina — Cortland —
Norwich —Cooperstown — Morrisville — Utica
— Rome — Trenton Falls.—
Remark. — The close proximity of populous and
growing towns, particularly near New York City, requires
the omission of various names, such, for instance, as, Yonkers
r-Tarrytown—Green bur g—Morrisiana—Flushing
—Newtown—Oyster Bay—Hempstead, and others.
New Jersey. -(Fig. 1.) Newton — Belvedere—
Orange City — Paterson — Jersey City — New¬
ark— Elizabeth — New Brunswick—(PI. Vll.)
Princeton — Trenton — Camden — (i'ig- 2.)
Hoboken. — Pennsylcarúax Oil City — Titusville —
Erie — Athens—(Fig. 2.) Towanda — Milford —
Wilkesbarre — (PI. VII.) Easton — Pottsville —
Reading—Norristown—Philadelphia—Lancaster
—Harrisburg—York—Chambersb urg—Browns-
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
253
ville — Pittsburg — Alleghany City. — Delaware'.
Wilmington—New Castle — Delaware City —
Dover. — Maryland-. Cumberland — Hägers town —
Frederick — Baltimore — Annapolis — E. Virginia:
Winchester — Harpers Ferry — Alexandria —
Fredericksburg — Charlottesville — Richmond
—Williamsburg—York town — Fortress Monroe
—Norfolk—Portsmouth—Danville—Petersburg
—Abingdon—Lynchburg—Lexington—Staunton.
—N. Carolina: We Id on—Edenton—Tarboro—Raleigh
(raw'-lee) —Newbern—Wilmington—F ayetteville—
Charlotte—Salisbury.—S. Carolina: Spartanburg—
Yorkville — Camden — Columbia— Georgetown
— Charleston—Beaufort—Barnwell — Hamburg
— Abbeville—Anderson.— Georgia: Athens —
Augusta —M i 11 edge ville — Savannah — Darien
— Columbus — Macon — La Grange — Griffin —
Atlanta. — Florida: Pens acola — Quincy— Talla¬
hassee— St. Marks—Fer nan din a — Jacksonville
— St. Augustine — Key West.—Alabama: Florence
— Decatur — Huntsville — Talladega — Mont¬
gomery—Mobile — S el ma — Gainesville—Tusca¬
loosa.— Mississippi: Holly Springs—Aberdeen —
Columbus —Jackson —Vicksburg—Natchez.—
Louisiana: Shreveport—Harrisonburg—Bayou Sara
(bi'-oo-sah'-ra) — Baton Rouge — Madisonville —
Lafayette—New O rleans—Algiers—Donaldson-
ville — Opelousas — Alexandria — Natchitoches
(natch'-i-totchiz). — Texas: Houston — Galveston —
Matagorda — Corpus Christi— Brownsville —
San Antonio — Austin. — California: Humboldt
City — Shasta — Nevada —Marys vi lie — Placer-
ville— Sacramento — Stockton—Sonora — Mil¬
lerton— Los Angeles — Ft. Yuma — San Diego
— Santa Barbara — Monterey — San José —
San Francisco — Benecia. — Minnesota: Minnea¬
polis— St. Paul — Ft. Snelling— Still¬
water—Hastings City—Redwing—Wabashaw—
Winona — Mankato. — Michigan: Sault St. Mary
254
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
— Saginaw — Port Huron — Detroit—Ypsilanti
—Ann Arbor — Monroe — Kalamazoo — Jackson
— Lansing — Grand Rapids — Grand Haven.—
Wisconsin: Superior City — Green Bay—Oshkosh
— Fond du Lac — Sheboygan — Milwaukee —
Racine —Kenosha — Beloit — Janes vil le — Madi¬
son— Prairie du Chien — Portage — La Crosse
— Beaver Dam —Watertown —Waukesha —
Prescott.— Illinois: Galena — Rock ford — Chicago
— Joliet—Aurora — Ottawa City — Galesburg
— Peoria — Bloomington — Quincy— Jackson¬
ville — Springfield — Alton—Vandalia — Belle¬
ville— Kaskaskia— Cairo. —Indiana: South Bend
— Fort Wayne — Lafayette —Indiauopolis —
Richmond—Terre Haute—Madison—New Albany
— Evansville. — Ohio: Toledo — Sandusky City
— Cleveland — Steubenville — Zanesville —
Marietta—Portsmouth—Chillicothe—Cincinnati
—Hamilton—Dayton — Springfield — Columbus.
— Nevada: Gold Hill—Virginia City — Austin —
Jacobsville — Aurora — Carson City — Dayton.
— Nebraska: Omaha City—Bellevue—Nebraska
City—Brownville—Fort Kearney. — Kansas:
Mar y s vi lie —Atchison—Leavenworth —Topeka
— Lecompton — Lawrence —Wyandot — Mound
City—lola—Ft. Atkinson — Fort Riley. — Iowa:
Dubuque — Davenport— Iowa City — Muscatine
—Washington — Burlington —Fort Madison —
Keokuk — Oskaloosa — Des Moines — Council
Bluffs. — Missouri: St. Joseph — Hannibal City —
St. Charl es — St. Louis — St. Genevieve —
Jefferson City — Lexington — Independence —
Kansas City — Platte City. — Arkansas: Fayette-
ville— Batesville — Helena — Arkansas — Napo¬
leon — Columbia — Camden — Fulton — Fort
Smith—Van Buren — Little Rock — Pine Bluff.
— Tennessee: CI arks vi lie — Leb anon— Knoxville
— Chattanooga — Murfre es borough — Columbia
— Memphis — Jackson — Nashville. — Kentucky:
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
255
Covington—Newport — Mays vil le—Frankfort—
Lexington — Bowling Green — Paduca— Hawes-
ville—Louisville—Danville.— W. Virginia: Whee¬
ling— Parkers burg — Clarksburg — Charleston
—Wyoming — Guyandotte. — Washington Territory.
New Dungeness — Port Townsend—Whatcom
— Olympia — Nesqually or Nisqually—Stei-
lacoom — Ft. Walla-Walla — Ft. Vancouver —
Pacific City. — Oregon: Astoria — Portland —
Oregon City—Dalles City—Auburn — Jackson¬
ville— Empire City —Eugene City—Salem.—
/doÄo: Lewis tone—Florence—Ft. Hall—Ho 11 a day
— Silver City — Boisee City. — Montana: Ft. Ben¬
ton—Virginia City.—Dakota: Ft. Union — Ft.
William — Ft. Clark — Ft. Pierre—Yankton.—
Utah: Ogden City — Ft. Bridger — Gr. Salt Lake
City — Leb i — Provo — Springville — Fillmore
City. — Wyoming: Ft. Connor — Ft. Laramie.—
Colorado: Central City—Denver City — Golden
City—Colorado City.—Arizona: Prescott—Tucson
—New Mexico: Taos — Santa Fé — Albuquerque —
Belen — Mesilla — Ft. Filmore. — Indian Territory:
Tbalequa — Ft. Arbuckle — Ft. Washita —Ft.
Towson. —District of Columbia: Washington —
Georgetown — Alexandria.
(578.) Bemarks on United States. — We
abstain from any historical sketch. The American
youth must thoroughly study the history of his country,
elsewhere. We translate and compress, however, a
passage from a German work, "Meyer's Universum"
more valuable as the unbiassed opinion of a foreigner.
"In the U. States", says this writer, "we find all the
natural conditions requisite for the existence of one
single political organization, destined to become
superior, in extent, power and prosperity, to the
empires of Sesostris, Alexander and Augustus; and
not equaled by any existing country. The Creator
has spread, over this favored land, fertility— a uni-
256
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
form facility of internal communication — a singularly
vast and rich river-system (which Humboldt called
the life-giving element, big with future consequences,
and binding, by one common interest, the entire
population' together), and a lavish abundance of the
two most valuable minerals, coal and iron. These
blessings have been bestowed, in the same degree,
upon no other region of the globe.
"Nature herself has imposed, upon the U. States,
the necessity of erne permanent, political system. The
exterior configuration and the structure of the interior
surface, equally indicate that any separation can be
but transitory. The South,* inspired by its separate
interest, may dissolve its union with the North; Ibe
West may break away from the East; but, they will
speedily be compelled to reunite, by the want of
natural, interior boundaries, and of all aids of disjunc¬
tion, in a land obviously formed for mutual intercourse.
The struggles, and jealous competitions of independent
states, would produce collisions; and the strongest Power
would soon compel all the weaker, back again into
one system, as the sun holds the planets in their
orbits. One ultimate union must result from the
peculiar configuration of the great interior river-basin,
which, by its remarkable uniformity, necessitates a
corresponding uniformity in language, customs and
political organization. Hence the rapid transformation,
and amalgamation, of the affluent heterogeneous
nationalities; often erroneously ascribed to the striking
assimilation-power of the anglo-american race. It
was the obvious will of God, as, in contrast to the
structure of the eastern half of the globe, he modeled
the outline of the new continent, that it should be the
seat of one great nationality, of sufficient power to
assimilate to itself all tributary elements.
Nature has equally indicated the Ü. States as the
* This, bear in mind, 'was written before the abolition of
slavery and before the great rebellion.
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
257
seat of one democratic and commercial state, which,
as such, must be inspired with a passion for enlarging
its territory. Its position, between the two great
oceans of the globe, and the vast number of
internal rivers, invite the American to navigation
and foreign commerce. Agriculture and trade possess
less attraction. The native American is more likely
to become a merchant or mariner, than a farmer; and
to leave the laborious, and less profitable cultivation
of the soil, to the european emigrant. Commerce,
however, developes the lust of gold, habitual excitement
and the spirit of speculation.
Should the population increase in the past pro¬
portion, this country will reach its culminating point
in about 400 years. In the mean time, it offers ample
room for the immense european emigration. It will
then have a population of 500 millions. As the price
of labor becomes cheaper, and the resources of the
soil and industry, the' mines, the waterpower, steam,
etc., shall be fully developed, it will supply all the
countries of the earth with its produce and manufactures.
If it be true that Europe has, during so many
centuries, held the sceptre of the Old World, because
of its superiority, to Asia and Africa, in the commer¬
cial, and other facilities, offered by its broken, indented
coasts, peninsulas, bays and seas, and its interior
river-systems — what a role is reserved for the United
States, which, in extent of coast, internal lakes, seas,
natural and artificial navigable streams, etc., already
surpass Europe fivefold; and whose colossal mineral
and other resources increase with every year."
We cannot lay the above remarks before the
American youth, without reminding them, that the
great world - empires, described by history, fell into
corruption and decay, because of their lust for
gold, their ambition, pride, luxury, and sensual enjoy¬
ments, their ignorance of, or disobedience to, God.
The american continent, thus wonderfully constructed,
was, doubtless, at a later period, given to man, that
17
258
REMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
he might build up a great political fabric, upon a -new
system, more in harmony with the lessons of experience
and with the light of Revelation. This is our mission
as a people. It should be our aim to surpass
other nations, not in wealth, luxury, pride, territory
and military conquests, but in virtue, temperance,
justice, righteousness, humility, faith in God and
obedience to his Word. These, and these only — no
virgin continent, no river-system, no gold mines, no
form of government, without them — will permanently'
secure peace, liberty and christian civilization^
MISCELLANEOUS REMARKS ON EARTH'S
SURFACE.
(579.) Let us now rapidly (PI. II) cast our eyes over
the rest of the earth's surface, and mark the principal
plains, table-lands, etc. And first, America (here read
section 247).
(580.) Plains and Valleys of N. America. —
One vast plain extends from Arctic Ocean to G. of
Mexico, and from Alleghanies to Rocky Mts., interrupted
only by a more elevated region, near the parallel of
the five lakes. A large portion is covered with
immense, magnificent forest trees, while hundreds' of
square miles are occupied by monotonous tracts of
sand, clothed only with gigantic pines, denominated
pine-barrens. That part, N. of parallel intersecting
the five lakes, is, in a great degree, characterized by the
sterility of the frigid zone; but the rest (an area of one
and a half million square miles) is of almost unexampled
fertility. Some parts of this plain, in the northern
United States, bear- the name of prairies, — in the
southern, savannas (144, 145). This plain, in the
United States, being bounded on the E. and W. by
mountains, forms three principal valleys: the valley of
the St. Lawrence, the great valley of the Mississippi
and the valley of the Ohio.
REMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE. 259
(581.) Plains and Valleys of S. America. —
The eye here easily follows several great valleys,
spreading into vast plains; the valley of the Orinoco
— the valley of the Amazon — the valley of the La
Plata or Parana. The most' level part of the earth's
surface is said to be a tract in the valley of the
Orinoco, greater in extent than France, a large part
of it entirely destitute of trees', called llanos (146 — 149).
The plains of the Amazon valley are called silvas,
from their mighty and impenetrable forests occupying
more than one million square miles, 200,000 of which
are annually laid' under water by the inundations of
the Amazon. Humboldt says, these forests truly merit
the name of "primeval". "The intense, tropical heat
and the abundant' moisture acting upon the wonderfully
rich soil has", says Prof. Ansted, "produced an inconceiv¬
able exuberance of vegetable and animal life, which
actually offers a bar to civilization as great as the
sterility of the African desert". Farther S., 25"'
parallel, from the valley of the La Plata to Str.
of Magellan, extend treeless plains, about 2000 miles
in length and averaging 300 miles in breadth, called
pampas.
(582.) Plains and Valleys of Europe and
Asia — are distinguished without difficulty. Observe
the level parts of England, Scotland and Ireland,
Wales'and North Scotland being mountainous. See
what a stupendous plain, the largest in the world,
crosses N. Europe, interrupted only by Ural Mts., and
extends nearly to Behring Str. Leaning toward the
N., it rolls its mighty rivers into the German and
Baltic Seas and the Arctic Ocean. In different parts,
it bears the local names — Sarmatian Plain, traversed
by Oder, Vistula, Niemen and Dwina — Siberian Plain,
that vast level of N. Asia, some frozen parts of which
(PI. II.) are called tundras. — Kirghiz Steppes, in the
neighborhood of Caspian Sea and Sea of Aral. Trace
the valleys of the Danube (traversing the Hungarian
17*
260
REMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
plain, 300 miles long, and from 300 tj 400 feet
above the sea-level) — the Po (winding through the
beautiful plain of Lombardy) — the Rhone — the Rhine
— the Amoor — then the Ganges and Indus (flowing
through the plain of Hindostán) — the Tigris and
Euphrates, uniting into one stream. In south-eastern
and Asiatic Russia, and in the flats of Tartary, these
tracts are termed steppes (from a Russian word, signi¬
fying barren). A wilderness (in India called a jungle)
differs from a desert, as being often covered with
luxuriant vegetation. The term is applied also to
wild, harren spots among rocky mountains, as, for
ex. in Arabia. These plains, in various countries,
have different characteristics. Here, they form a vast
extent of frozen ground or snow — there, barren,
burning -sands—here, luxuriant gardens of tropical
vegetation — there, gloomy desolate wastes; now, a
monotonous level, varied by moderately sized hills,
without order or system — again, for many miles, the
soil rises into long waves or undulations perfectly
uniform in structure.
(583.) Plains and Valleys of África. — The
most remarkable plain of the globe is perhaps the
desert of Sahara—about 2500 miles long by 1200 miles
broad — extending from the valley of the Nile to the
Atlantic and even projecting its submarine sand-banks,
far beyond the coast, into the ocean (PI. III).. The
eastern and more favored portion, known as the Lyhian
Desert, is generally formed, not of sand, but of hard,
horizontally-bedded sandstone rock, perfectly smooth
and level. The western portion is one white, solitary,
desolate, awful sea of burning sand. "No animal —
not even an insect—breaks the dread silence; nor is a
tree or a shrub to be distinguished during days of
incessant travel. In the glare of noon, the air quivers
with the heat reflected from the red sand, and the
night is chilly, under the clear sky sparkling with its
host of stars" (Ansted). Oases, however, (151) are found
KEMAKKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
261
at intervals. Among the frightful features of this desert
are the simoon, a hot, dry wind which, sometimes, for
12 hours, so fills the air with sand, as almost to
obscure the sun — and the absence of rain, except
during short intervals, sometimes 20 years apart. Hot
springs are found, surrounded by a luxuriant vegetation
— salt mines, etc. Caravans cross it in various directions,
in danger of death and great suffering, from thirst, and
from exposure to the simoon.
(584.) Desert of Kalahari — in the southern
extremity of Africa, between Orange R. and L. Ngami
(Pi. II.), sometimes called the South African Sahara,
although, by no means, an uninhabitable, sterile waste.
It is occupied by the Bushmen and the black Kalahari, and
inhabited by immense numbers of wild beasts: ostriches,
antelopes, buffaloes, elephants, giraffes, lions, leopards,
panthers, hyenas, etc. A part lies within the tropics.
The surface is sometimes a waterless, sandy waste,
sometimes a vast sea of grass which, on the E., is
succeeded by thick impenetrable forests. The town,
Lattako, lies in the neighborhood.
(58o.) Table-lands, etc., of N. America. —
Thousands of feet above these lower plains, spread the
higher table-lands or plateaux, found not only on
Aîontinents, but on islands. In N. America, the great
plain of Mississippi R. rises on the N. to the heights
before mentioned, about the parallel of the five lakes,
and on the W., to. a wide and lofty plateau, 7000 to
9000 feet high which occupies a great part of Mexico
and extends also to California, where its elevation is
about 6000 feet above the sea.
(586.) Table-lands of S. America. — Besides
the elevated tracts of the Guiana and Brazilian Mts.,
the summit of the Andes presents table-lands of more
limited extent, but far greater height. That of Desa¬
guadero (Bolivia and Peru) — 500 miles long, 50 miles
262
REMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
broad, including L. Titicaca and city of Potosi — lies
higher than 13,000 feet. The table-land of Quito is
10,000 feet high — 200 miles long — 30 miles broad.
(587.) Table-lands of Europe and Asia. —
In Europe, the central plateau of Spain rises 3000 feet.
From the Adriatic and the Balkan Mts., an elevated
plateau extends across Asia to Pacific, bearing, upon
its gigantic pedestal, the loftiest mountains of the globe.
It includes the table-land of Persia — the desert of Gobi,
etc. The latter has not been thoroughly explored. Its
mean height is given at 4000 feet.
(588.) Table - lands of Africa. — Southern
Africa appears to rise to a considerable elevation, in
successive terraces, from the coast to the interior, and
even a considerable portion of the desert is an elevated
table-land, bearing mountains estimated, by Dr. Barth,
at from 3000 to 5000 feet high.
(589.) Gulf Str cam. — traceable back eastward
far as Pacific — proceeding from C. of Good Hope,
N. W. across Atlantic, into Mexican Gulf, and, assisted
by river - current of Mississippi, bursting out again
between Florida and Cuba — near Azores, breaks into
several branches, and spreads out thousands of square
miles, covering colder waters of ocean and Bank of
Newfoundland with fog. The warm air and vapor of
tropical regions are thus borne to the continent of
Europe, softening its climate, occasioning verdure of
Gr. Britain and Ireland and perceptible even at Spitz¬
bergen; while the shores of western continent, in same
latitudes as British Isles, are nearly uninhabitable
on account of cold. Remark, however, climate of
eastern continent is modified by another cause, namely,
its greater extension east and mest; in consequence of
which it remains longer under the sun, during the
daily rotation, thus receiving and retaining more heat.
One writer thinks the course of gulf stream influenced
KEMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
263
by sub-marine coral-banks; another, that it has melted
the European glaciers of the Ice-Period (but, in that
case, what has melted those of N. America?). Herschel
considers that its action has excavated Caribbean Sea
and Gr. of Mexico; and that it will, sooner or later,
cut through Isthmus of Darien. Should this be so,
the climate of western Europe might become neárly
as cold as Labrador and Hudson B. It is probable
that the current receives its original impulse from the
great antarctic drift-carrent, uniting with the equatorial
current (caused by the earth's rotation); "and that its
force is increased by the trade winds.
{589. A.) Japán Current. — A similar current
of N. Pacific wraps coasts of Jesso and Kurile Is. in
fogs, like those of Newfoundland — mitigates the cold
of Kamtchatka and Aleutian Is., to whose coasts it
bears the remnants of ships Wrecked in tropics, and the
costly woods of Sumatra and Java — in latitude of
Japan it is deflected eastward back aCross Pacific,
gathering, in its circuit, a 'sargasso sea, N. of Sand¬
wich Is. (PI. II), and bringiiig a milder and moistér
atmosphere to western coast of N. America.
(590.) Depth of tbe ocean. — Many attempts
harve been made to measure the greatest depth of the
•ocean (PI. IV). Such soundings are not always reliable,
there being no certainty that the line sinks directly
toward the bottom. It is supposed that the greatest
depressions of land, beneath the ocean-level, about
equal the greatest elevations of mountain-peaks above it.
(591.) Primeval Forests. — The following
rapid sketch of tropical nature is compressed from
Humboldt, Daniel, v. Kloeden, etc. The term
"primeval forest" is often used vaguely. It belongs
particularly to the great Brazilian forest which is so
impenetrable that it is scarcely possible, even with the
axe, to clear a passage between the enormous tree-
264
REMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
trunks, eight to twelve feet in dianaeter. This forest
includes a large part of the interior of S. America. Its
area, many times greater than that of Germany, exhibits
a wonderful luxuriance, resulting from the combined
inñuence of extreme moisture and high temperature.
It is vain, says Humboldt, to ask, of what trees it
consists, as a countless number of families are crowded
together and new forms are always presented.
(592.) Nature on Equator — a South Amer¬
ican River — Day. — D-aring the noontide
hours, the mighty river rolls on, sparkling and
flashing. Nature lies silent under the equatorial heat.
Sun directly in the zenith. Not a breath. The
naked rocks and bowlders* are covered with immense
numbers of iguanas, lizards and spotted salamanders,
which, motionless, with uplifted head and open mouth,
delight to inhale the burning air. Serpents, whose
colors eclipse the most brilliant flowers, come forth,
from hollow tree-trunks, or hiding places in the
ground, sun themselves on the rocks, or, winding up
the trunks and branches of trees, watch for insects or
birds. The crocodile lies in numbers on the shore,
waiting for the capibara (ca-pib'a-ra), an animal between
the hog and the rabbit, 3 or 4 feet long, vhich is
devoured, in the forest, by the tiger, in the river,
by the crocodile. Alligators swarm everywhere.
Turtles and water-serpents glide through the waves.
The bear, the black jag'-u-ar (american tiger — largest
and most blood-thirsty variety), the panther, etc.,
come sometimes down to drink at the river-side,
along paths which generations of beasts have worn
through the impenetrable woods and which human feet
(592 A.) * Bowlder: — a stone or rock, found on the sea
shore, and in, or near rivers—worn smooth or rounded by the
action of the water. Any rock apparently transported from a
distant place by water, glaciers etc. Such masses, of enormous
size, are sometimes found upon the highest mountains.
REMARKS ON EARTH'S SURFACE.
265
have never trodden. The animals all fear, watch, hate
and avoid each other. Most of the living creatures seek
rest and shade. The larger beasts sleep or sculk in
the black depths of the forest. Butterflies, of strangely
gorgeous hues, flutter from flower to flower, or drink
at the cool streamlet. The huge owl, sits motionless
upon his shaded branch, impatient for the night.
Myriads of chafers flash, like glittering jewels, through
the air. Upon invisible wings, the humming bird
hangs in the sunshine, clothed in the glory of the
rainbow. Nature would lie as in the stillness of death,
but for the fluttering and humming of millions of
insects in the lower strata of the atmosphere, inter¬
rupted, occasionally, by the blowing of the freshwater
dolphin, the distant scream of a monkey, or the
deep tones of the toad and frog, blending with the
monotonous chant of the cicada and locusts. At length
the burning orb descends toward the west. The
noonday heat begins to subside. The beast-world
awakens and comes forth with extraordinary activity.
Monkeys, by hundreds, issue from the forests, sporting,
leaping, fighting, screaming. Birds of wonderful form
and magnificent plumage, appear on all sides, now
sweeping onward in solitary flight, now swarming in
numbers along the odor-breathing shores. Flocks of
flammingoes, and other water-birds, occasionally darken
the air like a cloud. The whole parrot-tribe,
conspicuous from their striking tints of deep blue,
green or red, pierce the ear with discordant screeches.
The toucan taps the tree-branch with his hollow bill
and utters his plaintive cry for rain.
(593.) Night. — The sun goes down. The
countless creatures of the day seek rest. The night
animals, among them the blood-thirsty vampire-bat,
awake; the beasts of prey come forth, raging with
hunger. Millions of flashing fire-flies illuminate the
darkness. The wild nocturnal sounds render sleep
impossible. Various utterances of the ape-tribe are
266
ADDENDA.
heard; sometimes, soft, plaintive, almost flute-like;
again, breaking into shrill, passionate discords. The
black jaguar is the terror of the whole monkey-tribe.
His screams often proceed from the high tree-
branches, mingled with the sharp screeches and \
Wallings of the monkeys seeking to escape. The
cougar adds his roar. Now, these noises are heard
singly; now, they break forth spontaneously in one
universal chorus, filling the vast forests with shrieks
of rage, pain and despair. They appear to originate
in some accidental combat. The jaguar, for instance,
pursues the peccary (pec'ca-ry). The latter, flying in
terror, breaks, with crashing noise, through the
interwoven branches which impede his flight. The
apes, on the tree-tops, terrified hy the sound, join
their cries. This arouses the larger animals and
alarms innumerable birds, till the whole solemn forest-
world is thrown into disturbance. Such general
commotions occur more frequently on stormy nights,
amid violent torrents of rain, when flashes of lightning
illuminate the scene, and peals of thunder enhance
the tumult and disorder of the earth.
ADDENDA
TO PREVIOUS SECTIONS.
(594.) Milky Way. Addition to section 11. — It
has not always the same appearance. It becomes more
visible, the higher it mounts into our heavens, and is seen
to far greater advantage, at certain hours of the night and
at particular epochs of the year. There are moments when
its misty, irregular masses — .separated by black, empty
spaces — projecting mysterious branches — breaking into
billows of light — heavy clouds of world - dust — seem
preternaturally near, and become a most impressive revelation
of the Creator's power. "Is not God in the height of
heaven? and behold the height of the stars, how high they
are! .. . Praise ye the Lord from the heavens: praise him in
the heights. Praise ye him, all his angels: praise ye him.
ADDENDA.
267
all his hosts.... Praise him, ye heavens of heavens, and
ye waters that be above the heavens."
^595.) Addition to 19 A. — On the other hand,
the next nearest star which, because of its distance, man
has not yet been able to measure, may be so remote that,
even from Neptune — even from alpha Centauri — yes,
even from Capella (PI. VIIl. C.) — it would still continue
as immeasurable as from our earth.
With regard to stars named in sec. 19, they are
(except alpha Centauri) in our nori/iCTO - hemisphere sky;
North Star, Capella, Vega, visible every clear evening —
Arcturus and Sirius (latter very brillant), in winter and
spring. Many stars, not above horizon in the evening of
any particular season, become visible at a later hour of
the night, by the rotation of the earth.
(596.) Addition to 20. — On second reading, the
pupil may pause, to examine chief stars in PI. I. A, which
we have not yet named. The two at top of picture, nearly
over the sun and earth, are Castor and Pollux, in constel¬
lation Gemini or Twins. The two, below the earth and
sun, on the right, near Milky Way, are part of constellation
Canis Minor (Lesser Dog)-, the largest, Procyon. Capella,
although cut off from the picture by the upper edge, is
visible every clear night at New York, to the N. W. of
Castor and Pollux,, on the left (or east) of the Milky Way.
In comparing this plate with the natural heavens, do not
forget you are facing the south; your back is turned to
North Star; east, therefore, is on your left hand, west on
your right. Sirius is S. E. of Orion's belt; Aldebaran,
N. W.
(597.) Addition to 32. — You have only to grasp
the idea of our globe, hanging upon nothing, (as in
PI. I. B.), surrounded, on every side, by the infinite, starry
heavens. As, wherever we are on the earth, we have a
circular view (30 and 31), so, when we look away from
the earth, we have also a circular view. Again, — when
we stand upon our large, convex globe, we see only one
half the hollow, celestial sphere (because the globe itself
hides the other half from our view. But for the globe, we
should see the whole of the concave, celestial sphere (30.
268
addenda.
32.) Now, if the earth were removed from beneath our feet,
and we hung in our Light-car, in empty space, as an
aeronaut* in his balloon, we should seem to be in the
center of this stupendous, hollow sphere, which would
completely encircle us — above —around — on every side—
sparkling with stars and constellations,** far distant from
our eye, and not sweeping over us as they usually seem
to do, but quite immoveable. Now, picture to yourself
our earth, hanging in the center of this hollow, celestial,
unmoving sphere (PI. I. B.) The earth, with its pole
always pointing to the N. Star, revolves, from W. to E.,
on its axis, once every day. It is plain that, as the
earth thus revolves, from W. to E., the motionless
heavenly sphere will seem to revolve, from E. to W.
As the earth revolves, on its axis, with its îf. and S.
poles at its extremities, so the heavenly sphere will seem
to revolve, on its axis with its N. and S. poles at its
extremities. And this axis of the heavenly sphere will be
the same as that of our earth, except that it will correspond,
in length, to the greater dimensions of the heavenly sphere.
If the earth did not revolve, the heavens would not seem
to revolve. If the earth were to stof revolving, the heavens
would stop revolving. If the earth were suddenly to re¬
volve from E. to W., the sun, moon and stars would
suddenly seem to turn backward and to revolve from
W. to E. The only reason why there seems a N. pole of
the heavens is, because the N. pole of the earth is directly
under it. The S. pole of the heavens is, of course^ that
point exactly opposite the S. pole of the earth, although
it is not marked by any star as the N. pole of the heavens
is and is not visible from our northern latitudes. A
person (PI. I. B), standing on N. pole of the earth, would
have the N. pole of the heavens over his head. He could
see the heavens, on every side, as far down as the equator
of the heavens — that is, just one half of it. A circle,
supposed to be drawn around the heavens,' exactly equi¬
distant from the poles of the heavens we call the
* aeronaut (a-e'-ro-naut) — one who floats through
the air in a balloon.
** We must, however, suppose the light of the sun suspended:
otherwise, in the above case, the stars would be invisible, as
during our day.
ADDENDA.
269
equator of the heavens. This, of course, exactly corresponds
to the equator of the earth. A person, standing on the N.
pole, could see no part of the heavens south of the equator
of the heavens. Of course, he could not see the S. pole
of the heavens. He never could get a view of that, till
he traveled down as far as the equator of the earth. A
person, at N. York, or any other place, in the same
northern latitude, could not see the S. pole of the heavens,
although he could see the N. pole of the heavens, i. e. the
North Star. You understand now, why the S. pole of
the heavens is as far below our southern horizon, as the
N. pole is elevated above our northern horizon; and what
the poet means, when he says:
*^One pole rides high; one, plunged beneath the main.
Seeks the deep night, and Pluto's dusky reign."
(597 A.) Addition to 30 and 31. — A glance at
PI. I. B will help you to understand the difference
between the sensible horizon and the rational horizon.
Suppose yourself standing at the point of the North pole
—your sensible horizon would be that circle limiting the
very small portion of the earth's surface within your view
(too small to be represented in the picture even by the
point of a pin). Your rational horizon would be the
circle limiting your view of the heavens. Now, wherever
you may be on the earth's surface, you can always see
one half the heavens. At the North pole, you would see
the heavens as far as that line called equator of the
heavens, (in the picture it is a line; in the heavens, of
course, it is a circle drawn around the heavens). If you
stooil on the equator,, where the word west is written, you
would see that half of the heavenly sphere intersected in
the picture by the line called axis of the heavens.
(598.) — Addition to 74. — In other words, spring and
summer together, in our northern hemisphere, are 8 days
longer than autumn and winter together.
(599.) — Addition to 74. D. — The difference of distance
between points B and E and points A and D cannot be
very perceptible in a diagram. But it will become clear
by a moment's reflection. The two extremities of an ellipse"
form the two points at the greatest distance from each
270
ADDENDA.
Other. These two points, being A and D, are not B
and £.
(600.) Âdditon to 74 G. — One reason why S. pole is
colder than N. pole appears to be this: the southern
hemisphere, in, consequence of the 7 or 8 days longer
autumn and winter, and of the preponderance of ice—
loses more heat, in a year, than the northern hemisphere
does; and more than is compensated by the longer duration
of the southern-hem. spring and summer. A further con¬
tinuation of this subject would lead us to the Great Year •—
to the Ice Period — to the supposed gradual overflow,
by the ocean, of the continents and islands of the N. and S.
hemispheres, alternately, once about every 26,000 years—
and to other points which, however deeply interesting, are
beyond our present plan.
(600 A.) Addition to 83. — "Between the tropics",
says M'® Sommerville, "the rains follow the sun: when he
is north of the equator, the rains prevail in the northern
tropic; and when he is south of that line, in the southern.
Hence one half of the year is extremely wet and the
other half extremely dry; the change taking place near
the equinoxes. Nevertheless, in countries situated between
Sth and IQth parallels of latitude, north and south, there
are two rainy seasons and two dry ; one occurs when the
sun passes the zenith in his progress to the nearest tropic,
and the other at his return; but, in the latter, the rains are
less violent and of shorter duration. At sea, within the
region of the trade winds, it seldota rains; but in the
narrow zone between them, known as the variables, in
both the great oceans, it rains almost continually, attended
by violent thunder-storms".
(601.) Addition to 93. — The space within the polar
circles may be divided into six circular zones, in each of
which, the difierence of the time of perpetual sunshine is
one month. If we begin with arctic circle, the N. extremity
of that zone, in our summer, has one month perpetual
sunshine—the next nearer the pole, two months — and so
On. The point, called the pole, six months. Of course,
the same in antarctic circle.
TRADE WINDS.
271
(602.) Addition to 138. — What can the following
passages refer to if not to this Ice-Period?
By the breath of God frost is given : and the breadth
of the waters is straitened. (Job XXXVII. 10).
Out of whose womb came the ice? and the hoary frost-
of heaven, who hath gendered it? The waters are hid as
with a stone, and the face of the deep is frozen. (Job
XXXVUI. 29. 30.)
He casteth forth his ice like morsels: who can stand
before his cold?' He sendeth out his word, and melteth
them: he causeth his wind to blow, and the waters flow.
(Ps. CXLVII. 17. 18.)
TRADE WINDS.
(603.) In the earth's daily rotation (32), the
atmosphere, which encompasses it on every side (a huge
air-ocean) to the distance of 500 miles upward, is borne
around with it. So stupendous a mass — so unfixed, un¬
solid, elastic, impressionable — cannot but be affected, by
this motion, very differently from the rocks, plains and
mountains. The latter objects are drawn around more
rapidly. As our planet rotates from W. to E., it is thus
always leaving its airy envelop a little behind it. The
effect of this is exactly as if the air moved continually
around the globe from E. to W. Thus the first tendency
of the earth's rotation is to produce one broad, perpétuai
east wind over its entire surface. There is such an air-
current moving around the globe. It is called the trade wind.
(608 A.) But the trade wind is not uniform. The
atmosphere of our planet does not flow in one nnbroken
movement from E. to W. There are contrary, and even
conflicting winds. What are their causes? Here is one.
The velocity of the earth's movement is very unequal at
different points of its surface. At the equator, it is a
thousand miles an hour — at the poles, nothing — at each
intervening point or parallel, it is different. This very
unequal movement of the earth's surface cannot but be
transferred to the atmosphere and cannot but agitate it
unequally as we advance from the equator to either pole.
272
TRADE WINDS.
(bUoiJ.j The tendency to a universal east wind, a
natural consequence of the earth's rotation, is most clearly
visible in, and near tropical regions. The trade wind here
blows with remarkable steadiness and constancy, over large
areas of ocean and certain portions of continents and
islands. Its northernmost limit, about 30° N. parallel —^
its southernmost limit (PI. IV.), 32® S. parallel. These
limits, however, vary with the seasons, following the sun
N. and S. The northern limit is sometimes 25° N. parallel
(between parallels 25° and 32®, therefore, it is a periodical
wind.) Instead, however, of blowing directly from E. to
W., as it would do if resulting solely from the earth's
daily rotation, the trade wind blows, in N. hem., from
N. E.; in S. hem., from S. E. What is the cause? Let
us suppose the earth did not rotate on its axis. The at¬
mospheric movement from E. to W. (with its various
complications growing out of different rates of velocity
(603 A.), in that case, would not exist. But the repose of
the atmosphere would be disturbed by another very pow¬
erful agent — the sun's heat. We have seen (88 — 89)
how the frigid zones are almost withdrawn from the sun's
rays, never receiving them perpendicularly; and (90) how
the sun perpetually pours perpendicular floods of light and
heat upon the torrid zone. The sun is one million, four
hundred and five thousand times larger than the earth. The
air of the tropical regions is, of course, heated, by this
mighty orb of fire, to a much higher degree than that of
the frigid zones. It thus becomes rarified and lighter, and,
rising to the upper regions, leaves a vacuum* which thé
cold, denser air of the northern latitudes rushes down to
fill. This generates a universal movement of the atmos¬
phere, from the poles toward the equator. Thus, if the
earth's daily rotation on its axis were suspended, all that
easterly wind, arising from the westerly rotation, would
cease. There would then be no wind except that caused
by the high temperature of the tropical regions. Every
part of N. hem. would have a wind from the N.; while
(603 C.) *) Vae'ii-um — an empty space ; a portion of
space void of matter; a vacuity. A perfect vacuum, or space
void of all matter, seems not to exist, upon the hypothesis of
the luminiferous ether (32). ("IVorc. Diet.)
TRADE WINDS.
273
«very part of S. hem. would have a wind from the S.
The daily rotation and tropical heat, acting together,
produce the present trade winds which, if not disturbed
by still other causes, would blow, regularly and con¬
stantly, over a great portion of the globe's surface:
in the N. hem., from north-east-, in the S. hem., from
■south-east. Supposing the earth a smooth, absolute sphere
of ivory, like a billiard-ball — without oceans, valleys,
forests, mountains, or other inequalities, either in configu¬
ration or material of the surface—then, at Boston, New York,
San Francisco, London, Berne, Jerusalem, Petropaulovsk,
■Greenland, Nova Zembla, Behring Str. — that is, every
where in N. hem., we should have a uniform, never
ceasing, never changing north-east wind; and the traveller
over the S. hem. would find a S. E. wind even at Wilkes
Land, Kerguelen Land, Tristan da Cunha Is., Graham
Land, New Zealand, etc. Remark, however, the wind
would diminish in proportion to the distance from equator ;
■and various winds would result from the different rates of
velocity (603 A).
(603 D.) Why do these two winds not blow uniformly
over the whole earth? Several causes; among them
■continents and mountain-ranges, which become more heated
than the ocean (for instance, the desert region of Africa,
the districts of Hindostán, Indo-China (S. of Himalaya),
valleys of Orinoco, Amazon, etc.) and thus create new
winds. (Yet the trade winds are very perceptible in low
plains of Amazon and Orinoco and also in desert of
Sahara itself.)
( 608 E.) Another cause, — changes of seasons, bringing
sun's center, at one time, vertical over tropic of Cancer;
at another, over tropic of Capricorn. Of course, as it is
the sun's heat which causes the rarification of the air in
tropical region, this periodical movement of the sun
(nearly 50 degrees backward and forward, N. and S.)
cannot but affect the winds. Add currents, which sweep
around the globe, across different zones, causing new
changes of temperature—add also presence or absence of
vapor—direction and reflection of mountains—radiation of
heat in the night. These influences disturb the regular
18
274
TRADE WINDS.
course of the wind, particularly on continents, and evea
on parts of the ocean, where winds are frequently variable
and, sometimes, contrary to the general law. In Atlantic,
between New York and Liverpool, the prevailing wind is,
not from E. to W., nor from N. to S., but from W. to E.
The same is observed in Atlantic from coast of Senegal
and desert of Sahara; for nearly 100 m. out to sea the
wind blows from the W.—also on W. coast of S. America
(Chili and Peru). These exceptions are caused by proxim¬
ity of land. In that part of the ocean, between Str. of
Gibraltar, Canary Is. and West Indies, the trade winds
are much more perceptible. Perhaps the discovery o^
America would have been longer delayed, had not these
favorable and tranquil winds wafted the frail bark of
Columbus toward the island of St. Salvador. Perhaps it
was this E. wind, so frequently alluded to in the Old
Testament, which, thousands of years ago, first bore
some wandering members of the human family from the
old" to the new world.
(603F.) On each side of equator is a belt, 6° broad,
called "belt of calms", without trade wind; because, in
that zone, instead of blowing directly from E. to W. (as-
it ought to do from the rotation), thte heated and rarified
air is continually rising and probably returning to polar
regions by upper currents. The limits of this belt, also,
like those of the regular trade winds, vary with the seasons,
and from the same cause.
(603 Gr.) The trade winds blow, with greatest strength
and regularity, in S. hem. (PI. I. M) ; because that hemi¬
sphere oifers fewer interruptions. "It is by the facilities
they thus afford to navigation", says Appleton's Am. Cycl.,
"that they have acquired name of trade winds. By taking
advantage of them, vessels may run a regular cour.«e,
often for weeks together, without shifting a sail, and all
the time enjoying delightful weather, which everywhere
prevails under the regular trades. This course may be
before the winds, or obliquely across their line, in either
direction. Where their regularity is disturbed by local
causes, at certain seasons, as in the periodical changes of
the monsoons, terrific storms are of frequent occurence.
trade winds.
275
alternating with periods of calms and light variable breezes.
At these times are experienced the most violent extremes
of heat, rain and tornadoes, accompanied by waterspouts,
the most vivid displays of lightning and awful bursts of
thunder. The region about Madras, in India, is particularly
exposed to the violence of these phenomena, which recur
every 6 months. Vessels, at these periods, avoid the
coasts; and so violent are the storms of wind, that even
the fish from the sea are often found upon the tops of
the houses, being blown off from the waves, or carried up
by the waterspouts and then blown inland."
The following extract from Dana's admirable two
years before the mast illustrates some of our sections
upon Astronomy as well as the Trade Winds. His ship
has crossed the equator and is steering S. to double C.
Horn. "This was glorious sailing. A steady breeze; the
light trade-wind clouds over our heads; the incomparable
temperature of the Pacific — neither hot nor cold; a clear
sun every day, and clear moon and stars each night; new
constellations rising in the south, and the familiar ones
sinking in the north, as we went on our. course—stemming
nightly toward the pole. Already we had sunk the North
Star and the Great Bear in the northern horizon, and all
hands looked out sharp to the southward for the Magellan
Clouds, which each succeeding night we expected to make.
'The next time we see the North Star', said one, 'we shall
be standing to the northward, the other side of the Horn'.
This was true enough, and no doubt it would be a
welcome sight; for sailors say that, in coming home from
round Gape Horn, and the Gape of Good Hope, the North
Star is the first land you make".
^603 Magellanic Clouds, or Cape Clouds —
visible to naked eye in S. hem. (PI. I. B). The telescope
resolves these wonderful objects, not into stars, but into
other nebulae (19). They are crowded with immense stars.
The larger cloud occupies an apparent space 12 times
greater in diameter than our full moon. It surpasses in
splendor the whitest world-dust clouds of our Milky Way.
Berschel counted in it nearly 500 immense stars, about
300 nebulae, and 46 star-groups. The Arabs call it the
"white ox". These two clouds of light revolve, at different
distances, around the South Pole. Humboldt calls them
18*
276
OCEAN CURRENTS.
^objects unparalleled in the world of forms exhibited
throughout the firmament; and by which the picturesque
effect of the southern hemisphere is heightened. They
rivet the attention of travellers by their individual
isolation and the intensity of their light"'. Job (IX. 9)
seems to allude to them: "which maketh Arcturus, Orion
and Pleiades, and the chambers of the soutK\
OCEAN CURRENTS.
(604.) Suppose the earth in following condition.
1. It does not advance on its annual journey. 2. It
does not turn on its axis. 3. No continents, islands,
etc.; an orb of water, surface covered with one unbroken
ocean. 4. This universal ocean, of uniform depth. 5.
Without difference of temperature (frigid and temperate
^ones warm as, tropics). 6. Without winds. 7. Gravitating
power of sun and moon, suspended. 8. Moon's monthly
revolution around earth also suspended.
(604 A.) What would be the state of the ocean,
with regard to tides and cúrrente, in 604? Rest—perfect
rest. A steamship (if there were one) might circumnavi¬
gate this watery globe, in all directions—across poles —
across the equator — and find it, every where, peaceful and
motionless as a lake. Instead of this repose, our oceans
are subject to enormous agitations. The globe's entire
waters rise and fall, twice every day — many estuaries and
rivers are visited by periodical inundations or bores.
Beside this, immense masses of water,, hundreds of miles,
thousands of miles long, make their way across the oceans
with much greater velocity than the surrounding floods.
At different points are found whirlpools, like the Maelstrom,
Charybdis, etc. Whence come these violent movements?
We will examine the causes, one by one, successively.
(604B.) Make a single change in 604. Restore the
annual movement of the earth around the sun. How would
that effect the ocean? Probably not at all. Our planet.
OCEAN CUKRENÏS.
277
advancing on its way around the sun, finds little — we
may say, no interruption, opposition or friction, in space.
The entire atmosphere, remember, advances with it, and
both together, earth and atmosphere, move so softly
through the rare, delicate ether (32. 603 C), that it is
probable, if disquieted by no other agency, the ocean
would continue to sleep in placid tranquillity, notwith¬
standing the velocity of 19 miles a second, or 68,000
miles an hour. We have no reason to believe that oceanic
movements are produced by the annual revolution of the
earth around the sun.
(604 C.) Now make a second change in 604. Restore
also the diurnal movement of the earth on its axis. Here
we have a new motion, of another kind, which, as we
have seen, is communicated to the atmosphere (603), and
which cannot but disturb also the immense mass of denser
water. This rotation, from W. to E., produces a movement
of the globe's waters from E. to W. The solid globe
moves somewhat faster than its ocean envelop, which is
thus always left a little behind. This produces the same
effect, as if the globe stood still and the ocean moved in a
westerly direction. If the earth were a cylinder (442)
rotating from E. to W., every point of its surface would
go round with the same velocity and there would thus be
one universal, uniform current, from E. to W.
(604D.) The earth however is not a cylinder, but a
globe and all the points of its surface, as we have seen
(603 A), cannot move with equal velocity. Where is the
velocity greatest? At the equator (23. 24. 32.) It there
moves a thousand miles an hour. The velocity diminishes
in proportion to the distance from the equator, N. and
S., till, at the polar points, it ceases altogether. The
ocean cannot but be affected by these various rates of
velocity.
(604E.) Now add a new agent to 604 — continents —
gigantic dikes—built up, for thousands of miles, in front of
the globe's broad current — almost at right angles with
equator—marked by deep indentations, curved recesses and
angular projections. Add again innumerable islands,
grouped in close proximity, or stretching in chains. The
278
OCEAN CURRENTS.
great body of water, with its tendency to advance around
the globe from E. to W., is now opposed by these im¬
mense barriers. It rushes between the islands of Oceania,
West Indies, etc., as between the abutments of a bridge.
Its mass, compressed and thus augmented in volume and
strength, strikes against continents, sweeps into, and then
out of, gulfs, and by the worn coasts of peninsulas, capes
and promontories — is broken into various currents, branch¬
ing now to the N., now to the S. — now deflected back
again from one continent to another, in an easterly direction
(Gulf stream, Japan current), that is from W. to E., and
this deflected current, ' again breaking apart, and a portion
flowing to the N. E., another to the S. E. Remark,
there are prodigious, unexplored irregularities at the bottom
of the sea—submarine continents, with mountain - ranges,
valleys, coral rocks and forests, which impede or accelerate
the advance, and augment the conflict of oceanic movements.
(604F.) We now come to another agent, one of the
most powerful and constant, namely, the heat of the sun.
The tropical waters, like the air (603 B), are so much
heated by his vertical rays that they become lighter and
suffer a continual loss by evaporation. The tropical
ocean is thus annually lowered many feet. This generates
new and universal oceanic movements. Currents of cold,
dense water rush, from the frigid zones, toward the
equator, to displace the lighter, heated water, and to
supply the waste of evaporation. If the earth were in
the condition pictured 604, and this cause were added
unthout the others; the result would be two currents (and
only two), one from the N. Pole, the other from the S.
Pole, each setting heavily toward the equator. But when,
to the difference of temperature, are added the other causes,
such as the earth's movement on its axis at such different
rates of velocity on different parallels—continents—island-
chains and groups—yet unknown, submarine irregularities—
the result of all these combined causes, aided by others
less general, is numerous currents sweeping across the
ocean, in various unexpected and sometimes opposite
directions; so that the original impetus derived from the
rotation of the earth, although clearly discoverable, is very
much modified. In some cases, a current on the surface
moves in one direction, while a submarine current, beneath.
OCEAN CURRENTS.
279
moves in another; or two currents, side by side, move
in opposite directions. A glance at PI. I. L. and M. will
show, why the general laws act, with more unbroken
power, in the southern hem. than in the northern, being
"there opposed by fewer interruptions. The tendency of
the great mass of ocean water, even in closed seas, is to
move onward in a certain direction, although the direction
is not always what we should expect from the planetary
rotation.
■(604 G.) Name chief causes of ocean-currents: 1.
Rotation of the earth. 2. Unequal velocity of rotation,
diminishing, from a thousand miles at equator, to nothing
at poles. 3. Continents, islands, etc. 4. Inequalities at
bottom of sea. 5. Rarification and evaporation of water
in tropical regions by sun's heat. Among other, minor
«auses are winds — unequal pressure of atmosphere —
river-floods—changes of temperature—melting of iee, etc.
The student is now prepared to inquire, under standingly,
both of men and books, and to learn for himself, whatever
he may desire, with regard to number, name and nature
of ocean - currents.
TIDES.
(605.) The ocean presents three different kinds
of movement: Currents; Tides, or the Tidal Wave;
Wind-Waves. The first of these we have traced to their
origin (604). Wind-Waves, explained hereafter (606).
The Tidal Wave, we shall now examine. And first,
remark, while studying the tides, separate the thought of
■currents altogether from your mind. Tides have an origin
quite distinct from that of currents; although winds, tides
aud currents unavoidably mix with, and modify each other.
We now read section 604.
(605 A.) Here, in 604, the ocean is motionless. No
tides — no waves — no winds — no currents—no whirlpools.
Now take PI. I. fig. E. Alter the circumstances of the
earth, as described in 604, in one respect. Restore gravi-
280
TIDES.
tating povier to the moon; that is, its power of attraction.*"
What would take place? The attraction of the moon
would pull the earth a little toward it. And the fluid
ocean, being more susceptible, would, in a greater degree-
than the rest of the earth, yield to its attracting power.
The surface of the ocean would consequently be raised
up a few feet on the meridian of the moon. 1/ the earth
did not rotate on its axis; and if the moon did not move
around the earth, as it does every month, this watery
elevation would remain stationary. The ocean's surface
would be a certain number of feet higher, on the side
next the moon, than elsewhere. Remark, however, that the
moon attracts most strongly the side of the earth nearest
to it, and it attracts the center of the earth more strongly
than the opposite side of the earth. The earth is thus a
little drawn away from the waters on the opposite side,
which causes these waters apparently to recede. Thus, on
the meridian of the earth next the moon (or upper
meridian), the waters are heaped up; and on the opposite
side (or lower meridian), also, the waters are heaped up.
Now these two elevations of the ocean are two tidal waveSy
— in other words two high tides — (which we have not
yet set in motion). Remark, while the waters, on the
upper and lower meridians, are heaped up, the waters,
situated half way between them (on the meridians 90® E.
and 90® W.)—what would be the state of the ocean there?
Its surface would necessarily be depressed. At each of
those two points therefore (although without motion) we
have a low tide. There would thus be, always, somewhere on
our globe, at the same moment, two high tides simultane¬
ously, and two low tides simultaneously, at points removed
90® from each other — each high tide removed 180® from
the other high tide: and each low tide 180® from the
other low tide. Take PI. I. fig. E. Imagine yourself in a
ship, in the Atlantic (where the word East is written),
with the moon in our zenith. We should then have a
high tidal wave. The other tidal wave would be on the
opposite side of the globe (where the word West is written).
Each tidal wave would, of course, have the breadth of
* Of course the earth and moon attract each other mutually ;
but the purpose of illustration is gained without going into that
question (on this point see 605 D.)
TIDES.
281
12,000 miles, that is half the globe's circumference. One
of the low tides would be on the middle meridian (across
which the word equator is written); the other low tide
would be on the corre.sponding meridian on the opposite
side of the globe's surface.*
(605 B.) But, in nature, these tidal waves are not
motionless. The surface of the water rises and falls twice
every day all over the globe. Whence do our stationary
tidal elevations receive this motion? Answer; from the
rotation of the earth. As the earth rotates, from W. to
E., once in 24 hours, the moon seems to revolve around
it from E. to W., once in 24 hours; and as she revolves,
she drags (by her power 'of attraction) this broad tidal
wave after her. Here we have the first cause of tides. A
great tidal wave would thus advance every day around the
globe, immediately beneath the inoon, followed by another
great tidal wave, on opposite side of globe, and, of course,
at opposite hour of the day. Half way between these two
tidal waves, two depressions of the ocean, that is two low
tides, would follow each other, at their respective distances,
and, of course, also at opposite hours of the day.
(605 C.) The action of the moon is not powerful
enough to raise much of a tidal wave in small seas and
lakes, except where their po.sition particularly exposes
them to the inundations of the great tidal wave of the
ocean, or where the formation of the coast is such as to
compress the broad, advancing wave within a too narrow
channel, by which its height and strength are increased
in .proportion to its narrowness. Thus- the Baltic and
Mediterranean, being turned toward the West, without any
such peculiar coast formation, are feebly affected. But the
Yang-tse-kiang R. (289 B), the Hoogly (branch of the
Ganges — 290), the Amazon R., Bay of Fundy, etc., from
their geographical positions, are more directly exposed;
and the height and fullness of the wave are augmented by
the converging lines of their coasts and, perhaps, other
(605D.) * The teacher will prevent the class from going
into various irrelevant questions which might be disputatiously
raised against all illustrations.
282
TIDES.
local causes. Thus, as the advancing wave enters difierent
•estuaries and river-mouths, it greatly varies in height. At
New York, 6 to 8 feet; St. Francisco, 7; Amazon, 15 or
20. At B. of Fundy, it rushes up from the sea with such
rapidity as sometimes to overtake swine feeding on the
shores, rising to the height of 60 feet (Am. Cycl.). At
the Hoogly, 10 feet; Bristol Channel, 40; at french port,
St. Malo (British Channel), 60; at Yang-tse-kiang,
•sometimes 100 feet.
The tidal wave enters with dangerously augmented
height and strength into many estuaries and river-mouths
beside those we have mentioned (for instance sec. 567.) It
might be asked, why is the wave so immense at places
like Bristol, St. Malo, G. of California, etc., apparently
sheltered as much as the Baltic and Mediterranean.
Remark, however (605 G), the wave-tide rolls up the
Atlantic from the south (i. e. from south-east) flowing
westward and then eastward. The Mediterranean is
protected by the colossal peninsula of western Africa
which extends before it like a mole; the Baltic has the
additional protection of the British Isles. The tidal wave
is said to flow up the Niger 120 miles from the sea.
^605 E.) We have now accounted for the two chief
phenomena; 1. two high tides every day. 2. two low tides
every day. Let us again read 604. Bear in mind, we
are speaking here, not of currents, but only of tides.
What change did we first make in the condition of the
earth as supposed in 604? We first restored to the moon
its gravitating power (605 A.) What effect has that on
the ocean? It attracts the waters, on the side of the
globe next the moon, a few feet away from the earth; and
it attracts the earth a few feet away from the waters on
the opposite side of the globe. This would produce
(supposing the earth stationary as in 604) a stationary
elevation of the waters on the two sides of the globe thus
affected.
What was the second change we supposed in 604?
We restored the diurnal revolution of the earth on its
axis. What effect had this on the stationary elevation of
the waters before mentioned? The same as if the moon
really revolved around the earth, by her power of attrac¬
tion, dragging the broad tidal wave around the globe
TIDES.
283
after her. Thus if the earth were in the condition of
604, and we were to make the two chancees above named,
1. the attracting power of the moon, 2. the daily rotation
of the earth — then a great tidal wave would advance
around the globe — followed by another great tidal wave
on the opposite side — each of these followed at 90»
distance — by corresponding depressions of the ocean —
called low tides.
I am now about to ask a question which requires
»your utmost attention. Fir.st hear what is said, in sec. 24,
of the rotation of the earth. (The teacher will please read
this section). Now if the earth rotate with such punctu¬
ality, what effect would this have upon the tidal waves
and depressions thus advancing around the globe under
the moon ? Ought they not to arrive at any given point
with absolute punctuality? Ought it not to he high tide,
or low tide, at New York, or at any other given point,
every day at the same second as the day before—indeed
at the same one-hvndredth of a second^ Yet remark
how the facts of nature sometimes contradict our theories.
Instead of this punctuality, the attentive observer will
find that the tides of each day arrive, not only 50 minutes
late, but, every day 50 minutes later than on the preceding
day. Suppose the high tidal wave arrive at N. York to
day at noon-, to morrow, it will arrive about one-, the next
day, about two-, 12 or 14 days afterward, ahovA midnight-, in
about 28 days, N. York will have the same high tide at noon
again (thus going around, as it were, in a drelef* What
can be the cause? Let me read 604 again, and see if it
contain any hint as to the origin of this irregularity;
which, however, remark, although it may be called an
irregularity, in one sense, has in it a perfect periodicity
resembling that of the earth's rotation, except that it
completes itself in a month instead of completing itself in
a day. Can it arise from the earth's annual movement
around the sun? No. From the daily rotation? No. From
the presence of continents? No. From the difference of
temperature? No. From winds? No. From the gravitating
power of the sun and moon? No. From the moon's
monthly revolution around the earth? Yes, that must be
the cause of the daily retardation. If the moon did not
* Do not forget, however, there are two high tides every day.
284
TIDES.
revolve around the earth once in every 28 days, then the
tides would move with the same wonderful punctuality as
that which marks the earth's diurnal rotation (that is in
in the condition supposed by sec. 604). But the moon is
not immoveable. While the earth is revolving from
W. to E., thus causing the moon to drag the tidal
wave after her, in her apparent journey from E. to W.,
the moon is, in reality, moving backward all the time (her
monthly rotation around the earth) from W. to E.; thus
retarding, by her real motion, the tidal movement which
advancing by her apparent motion. Remark, we more readily
believe that this retardation is caused by the moon's monthly
revolution, from the fact that the two periods exactly
coincide—that is, the interval between two noon high tides
at New York exactly coincides with the period of the
moon's monthly revolution.* Or let us explain it another
way. If the moon's monthly rotation around the earth
were suspended, the earth's own revolution, on its axis,
would bring her across our meridian at the same second
every day. But, as she moves backward, so to speak, i.
e. from W. to E. on her monthly rotation, she reaches
our meridian 50 minutes later every day; and that
corresponds exactly with the 50 minutes retardation of
the tide. Thus the tides beautifully reflect the separate
movements of the earth and moon.
(^bUÔJb.; We have now accounted for the following
phenomena: 1. The daily simultaneous elevation of the ocean
water on two sides of the globe. 2. Simultaneous depres¬
sions, at the same moment, on two other sides of the globe,
caused by the attraction of the moon. 3. The advance of
these watery elevations and depressions every day around
the globe, caused by the daily rotation of the earth. 4. The
reason why (instead of advancing with absolute punctuality,
as would be the case, if the movement derived from the
rotation of the earth were not disturbed by any other
cause) the tidal wave arrives, every day, 50 minutes later
than on the preceding day.
* In other words, the tide-wave arrives 50 minutes later
every day, because'the moon arrives 50 minutes later on our
meridian every day.
TIDES.
285
(^bUoVr.J Now mark aoother tidal plienomenon. Have
we always high tide, at any point of the coast, exactly
when the moon crosses our meridian? By no means. The
high tide comes a certain time after the moon has passed
our meridian. This time is different in different places.
Take PI. VI. B. At Cadiz, we have not high tide when
the moon is on our meridian, but 1 hour 15 minutes
afterward; at Lisbon, 4 h.; at Bayonne, 3 h. 30 m.; at
Brest, 3 h. 45 m.; at Plymouth, 6 h. 5 m.; at Cherbourg,
7. h. 45 m.; at Calais, 11 h. 45 m., etc. If the earth
were a perfect sphere, of equal temperature, wholly without
continents and islands, encircled by an ocean of uniform
depth, this would not be so. The tidal wave would be
regular and punctual*. But the wave of tide, like the
ocean currents, is held back by continents and islands —
by the impediments at the bottom of the ocean ^—by the
motions of earth and moon in their orbits — by the inertia
and friction of the water — by opposing winds and currents
— by the submarine sloping terraces which sometimes
resist its advance near the shore. This delay, which is
called the retard or age of the tide, is, at New York,
sometimes, 24 hours; at Boston, 36 h.; even at C. of Good
Hope, 14 h. The causes are not yet fully understood.
Remark the tide wave consists of a movement of the
ocean to its lowest depth. From the position and extent
of the continents, it is not possible for it to continue its
uninterrupted and punctual flow around the globe, from
E. to W.
"The great reservoir of \vater in which regular tidal action occurs, is
not only in the southern hemisphere, but nearer the antarctic circle than the
equator (PK 1. K). The source of the tides is therefore to be sought in the
expanse of sea occurring within the soutJi temperate zone., where the great
central agitation seems to commence, and whence on all sides it appears to
flow northwards. The Atlantic (PI. IV) thus receives, from the souths its
great wave of tide, which gradually becomes a curve, whose convexity is
more and more northwards, until after passing the tropic of Cancer, the
advance of the wave is so greatly retarded on the coast by the narrowness of
the channel, that a portion of it has reaohed the latitude of the southern
extremity of Greenland by the time that another portion has scarcely passed
Cape Blanco on the African coast, and Cuba in the West Indies. The great
wave of tide passing northwards, in this narrow channel, thus forms an
enormous stream tide on the shores of Britain and North America; but it has,
by this time, become so complicated, that it is difficult to trace its relations
with the moderate and regular.^ndulation produced originally by the attraction
of the moon. So also in the Pacific, the tide is so checked by the sub-marine
* In that case, without looking at the shore, we shonld
always be able to say, we have now high tide, because the
moon is in our zenith; or low tide, because she is in our horizon.
286
TIDES.
irregularities of surface, that for a considerable part of that vast ocean, there
is scarcely any wave of the kind exhibited. In the Indian Ocean, on the
other hand, the tide wave, little interrupted by such causes, makes its way
in an irregular curve to the shores of India, and there divided by the
pyramidal form of the peninsula of Hindostán, one portion'proceeds up the
Bay of Benga!. and the other toward the Persian Gulf; the former having no
escape, and not dissipated by irregularities in the form of the land, gradually
increases in height as the bay narrows, and finally reaches the mouth of the
Ganges, where it expends its force on the shores in the form of the well
known and terrific bore of the Hooghly. In point of fact, therefore, the
tides, although formed entirely by the attraction of the sun and moon, by no
means follow the apparent course of those bodies. After the wave has once
entered the canal of the Atlantic, it moves continuously northwards, with very
various velocity, but at first at the rate of nearly a thousand miles per hour.
In the first twenty-four hours, it has brought high water to Cape Blanco on
the west of Africa, and Newfoundland on the American continent. 'In the
morning of the second day, this great wave having been driven eastward,
reaches the western coast of Ireland and England. Passing round the northern
Cape of Scotland, it reaches Aberdeen at noon, travelling in/precisely the
opposite direction to that of its first progress, and also opposite that of the
sun and moon. Still proceeding onward, at midnight of the second day, it
reaches the mouth of the Thames, and on the morning of the third day
brings the merchandise of the world to tlte port of Loudon. It thus takes
more time to reach London from Aberdeen than to pass over an arc of 120®,
(8000 miles,) between 60® south latitude and 60® north. The velocity of the
progress of this wave is greatest where the water is deepest, and where the
configuration of the shores ofifers the fewest obstacles." {Prof* Ansted),
(605 H.) Two other phenomena remain to be accounted
for. The causes thus far enumerated, namely the grav¬
itating power of the moon, the earth's daily rotation, the
moon's monthly rotation, ought to act with uniform
regularity. The tides ought to arrive, with the retardations,
mentioned in 605 E; and in 605 G; but they ought to be
always of the same height. How therefore .shall we account
for the fact that, at two periods of every month, the tidal
wave acquires extraordinary height and fullness; and at
two other periods of every month, it suffers a diminution
of height and fullness—that is, it is higher or lower
than it ought to be, from any cause heretofore enumerated.
Can these phenomena result from the annual or diurnal
movement? No. From islands or continents, etc.? No.
From inequalities of ocean bottom? No. From difference
of temperatur¿? No. From winds? No. From gravitating
power of moon? No. Her gravitating power, we have
already seen, exerts a uniform influence. What then can
be the cause? If we observe nature with proper attention,
we shall discover that, at the two periods of the month
when these two unusually high tides, called spring - tides,
occur, the sun and the moon are 1. either in a line with
the earth and on the same side of it (that is in conjunction)',
2. or in a line with the earth and exactly on opposite
TIDES.
287
sides of it (that is in oppositiori). In both these cases
there will be a high tide of peculiar fullness on the tw»
sides of the globe in a line with the sun and moon
whereas, when the sun and moon are placed dififerentlj
with regard to the earth—i. e. at the time of the moon's
quadrature, when the moon and earth are on one line,,
and the sun and earth are on a line perpendicular to the
moon's line; then, instead of pulling the same way and
combining their power to produce a tide of unusual fullness,
they at,tract in different directions-, and while the moon has
a tendency to produce a high tide on her upper and
lower meridian, the sun is exerting his feebler power to-
produce a high tide in a different direction. The spring¬
tide, therefore (288 A.), ought to occur twice a month, near
the times of the new and full moon; and the neap-tider
(157) ought to occur twice a month, near the times of the
quadrature of the moon. "Quadrature", says Berschel,
"is the position of the moon at the two points of her orbit,
equally distant from the conjunction and opposition".
(605 K.) Remark. In this rapid sketch, as in others,
we present only an outline. Of course, highly interesting
details remain untouched. For instance, the moon (in that
meandering line which she pursues around the advancing
earth) is, at one time, more than 20,000 miles nearer us-
than at another (thus not more remote than 10 times the
circumference of the earth). Many a man has travelled a
much greater distance. The tides are affected by these-
circumstances (605 L). The moon's volume is about
6 million times less than that of the sun; and 54 times
less than that of the earth — her circumference not so-
great as the arctic circle; yet, being our nearest neighbour,
she exercises a threefold greater power of attraction than
the sun. The distance of the latter luminary explains why
he does not produce any tide; although, from his stupendous
dimensions, he effects the above mentioned modifications-
of the lunar tides.
(605 L.) A few separate facts, viewed together, may
help the student to a clearer understanding. 1. Twice a
day, at intervals of about 12 hours 25 minutes, all the
ocean coasts and estuaries of the globe are visited by an
inundation. This has no connection with ocean - currents.
288
TIDES.
The latter are not periodical, 2. In 6 hoars, the flood
reaches its maximum and immediately begins to retire
again from the rocks and strands. In about 6 hours more
there is an ebb-tide. 3. The tide rises in less time than
it ebbs. 4. Of course (as the earth's daily rotation - time
is always absolutely the same (24), the tide-wave ought
to arrive every day at •precisely the same second. Its regular
arrival is delayed by the fact that, in consequence of the .
moon's real, backward movement, from W. to E., she
crosses our meridian, every day, 50 minutes later. Hence
the tide arrives, every day, 50 minutes later. 5. The
tide-wave does not arrive at the moment—sometimes, not
even on the day, when the moon crosses our meridian,
because (like the currents 604 E), by the intervention of
continents, etc., it is subject to various degrees of retardation
(605 G). 6. The unusually high tides (spring-tides) which
occur twice a month (288 A — 605 H) ought to occur
exactly at the times of the new and full moon. And the
unusually low tides (neap-tides) ought to occur exactly at
the times of the quadrature. This is not the case. Those
phenomena never take place on the days of th change
of the moon; but many hours afterward, from the retarding
causes already mentioned. 7, We have the greatest of all
tides, sometimes, at the equinoxes; because the sun then
crosses the equator (71. 73). When the moon is, at that
time, near the same plane, their united power of attraction
over the waters of the globe is the greatest. The weakest
floods, consequently, occur at the solstitial points. 8. The
sun and the moon arc sometimes nearer the earth than at
other times (605 K—74 H—Pl. VIII. K). The nearer
they both are, the higher is the flood-tide. The floods
of the winter-solstice, therefore, are higher than those of
the summer (but not higher than those of the equinoxes).
9. In the center of the ocean the tides are not high. 10.
Bodies of water, like Caspian, Mediterranean and Black
Seas, isolated (iz'-o-la-ted) from the ocean and connected
only by a narrow passage, are but slightly affected by
tides. A strong current toward the E. enters Mediterra¬
nean by Str. of Gibraltar (but does not come out of it
again), owing to the fact that this sea does not receive
water enough from rivers to compensate for the loss by
evaporation. But the tide-wave is scarcely observable.
Hudson Bay, in the direction of the tide-wave, has distinct
WIND-WAVES.
289
tides. 11. As the air is only another kind of ocean,
enveloping the earth, so it is influenced by the rotation,
as we have seen in the trade winds. It is subject, also,
to aerial or atmospheric tides, resembling ocean-tides,
resulting from attraction of the sun and moon.
(606.) Wind-Waves. — Every schoolboy knows what
a wave is, on a river or lake; but he has not reflected
what it becomes in the "great deep". In narrow seas or
even on the ocean, when the wind blows off" the land,
there is not room for the formation of those gigantic
billows which the ship has sometimes to encounter. But
when there is sufficient breadth of water, and the wind
is "such as to permit a gradual accumulation of volume and
force, we have those appalling surges which make C. of
Good Hope and G. Horn the terror of mariners — the
"Cape of storms" and the "abode of the tempest". The
height of the waves there, in a heavy gale, is estimated
at about 40 feet from the hollow of the trough (pron.
troff). Two ships, side by side, would thus often lose
sight of each other. Off Australia, the waves are some¬
times, 20 feet; in Mediterranean, 16 feet. Remark a
difference between the tide-wave and the wind-wave.
While the tide-wave consists of a movement of the whole
ocean from its lowest depth, the wind-wave extends only
a comparatively small distance below the surface. The
force of waves breaking against exposed points of rocky
shores, sunken reefs and headlands, is immense. Heavy
cannon, long before sunk in the bottom of the sea, have
been washed far up upon the shore. For instance, the
Eddystone rocks (English Channel near Plymouth, PI. VI).
They consist of several ridges about 700 f. in length, at
high tide entirely covered. It required all the genius of
a great engineer, at an immense expense, to erect a light¬
house strong and massive enough to confront the tremen¬
dous breakers which had already carried away a previous
tower; and "which have been known", says Hörschel, "to
dash up above its top, to 150 feet higher than the sea
level, and descend like a cataract on its summit". "The
violence of the swell at the light-house", says Am. Cycl.,
"renders communication with the shore extremely difficult,
even in serene weather; the sea frequently rises above
the light; the strong plate glass of the lantern having
19
290
ISOTHERMS.
been more than once broken by the waves. Three light-
keepers are employed and the house is always supplied
with provisions for 3 months, and a stock of 500 gallons
of oil".
(607.) Isotherms or Isothermal lines (l-so-turms). — If
our globe were a perfect sphere—of polished ivory—without
oceans — winds—mountains—plateaux — terraces— or any
inequalities of surface, climate would probably depend
upon latitude. The tropics and the polar circles would
mark gradations of temperature with as much precision
as- they now do the different conditions of day and night.
But, instead of being a polished sphere of one substance,
the earth, (however nearly spherical, when its irregularities
of outline are compared with its entire dimensions) presents
a very unequal surface, compared with the height of a
man; is composed of widely different materials and is
subject to various influences; among which are the direction
and height of mountain-ranges — the slope of the country
leaning toward or away from the sun — exposure to polar
winds — shelter from them by mountain-ranges—nature of
the soil—degree of cultivation of country—drainage—
forests — direction of prevalent winds—proximity of the
ocean — large tracts of water — desert—character of ad¬
jacent ocean - currents—elevation above the sea-level, etc.
Thus we find (PI. IV) England, Scotland, Ireland, N.
Germany, Sweden, etc., enjoying a mild climate; while the
opposite coast of British America (Labrador), about the
same parallel, has a winter of eight months; the clocks
stop from the cold; and the bedrooms of the Moravian
missionaries, although provided with enormous stoves from
Europe and immense iron balls, kept heated red-hot all
night, have the inside walls caked with ice and the bed¬
clothes frozen. The western shores of the continents are
warmer than the same parallel of the eastern shores; as
for instance, London and Nicola,Jefsk or Petropaulovski.
The mouth of the Thames lies nearly on the same parallel as
the mouth of the Amoor. Again, some places near equator
are colder than others at a far greater distance. Kerguelen
Land (220 B), almost beyond the habitable regions of the
globe, is little farther from equator than Str. of Dover,
Brussels, Dresden, and the vine-clad banks of the Rhine.
The parallel of Edinburgh, in whose mild climate snow
POPULATION TABLE
291
seldom falls, is the same as that of C. Horn; while
Hammerfest (350 A) is several degrees nearer the pole
than Graham Land, Repulse Bay, and Wilkes Land. If
within the antarctic, instead of arctic circle, it would be
separated from human beings by coasts of eternal ice. Instead
of being able, therefore, to mark the different climates by
parallels of latitude, they must be marked by very irreg¬
ular lines, called Isotherms or Isothermal lines (from two
greek words, signifying equal and heat). These are
imaginary lines passing through points on the earth's surface
which have the same mean annual temperature.
POPULATION TABLE.
(608.) It is not possible to say with certainty how
many human beings are, at this time, living on the
globe. All the usual estimates are conjectural and
probably vary from the truth by many millions.
The general impression is that the total number
amounts to 1350 millions. The following table, prin¬
cipally on the authority of the "Geographisches Jahr¬
buch" of Justus Perthes, Gotha, 1866, is perhaps the
latest and most reliable.
AMERICA 74,500,000
EUROPE 285,000,000
ASIA 798,600,000
AFRICA (from 60 to 100 million negroes)*. . . 188,000,000
AUSTRALIA 1,116,970
OCEANIA (including Australia) 30,000,000
N. AMERICA.
Danish America (total) 114,622
Greenland 9,404
Iceland 66,987
Danish West Indies (Santa Cruz) 22,862
* Africa. Population, extremely uncertain — latest explorers
report interior far more densely peopled than has hitherto heen
supposed — their estimates of 200 millions are considered too
high. We have thought it safer to take Boehm's estimate of
188 millions. Some even consider 120 millions nearer the truth.
— Oceania—estimates, here eijually unsafe, vary from 21 to
35 miUions.
19*
292
POPULATION TABLE.
British America (total) 4,404,396
Possessions N. of United States (total) . . . 3,444,914
(besides 155,000 independent Indians.)
' Upper Canada 1,396,091
Lower Canada 1,111,566
New Brunswick 252,047
Nova Scotia (with Cape Breton) 332,264
Prince Edward 1 80,857
Newfoundland 122,638
British Columbia 50,000
Vancouver 1 23,000
Red River Settlement 65,000
British West Indies (total) 933,847
Bahama Is. (5,500 white) 35,287
Jamaica (13,800 white) 441,264
Virgin Is 6,051
Barbadoes (16,500 white) 152,727
Trinidad (5,340 white) 84,438
British Honduras or Balize 25,635
Bermuda (or Somers) Is 11,451
French America (total) 277,954
French Fishery Is. (St. Pierre, Miquelon) . 2,497
French West Indies 275,457
Guadeloupe 118,867
Martinique 136,956
United States of America (1860) including Alaska,
54,000 ; St. Thomas, 12,660; and St. Juan, 1,715. 31,994,969
Mexico 8,259,000
Republics of Central America (total) 2,650,471
Guatemala 1,180,000
San Salvador 600,000
Honduras 350,000
Nicaragua 400,000
Costa Rica 120,471
West Indies (total) 3,935,352
Spanish West Indies 1,982,817
Cuba (of whom 793,484 white) 1,396,530
Porto Rico (300,406 white) 583,308
Swedish West Indies (St. Bartholomew) . . 2,800
Dutch West Indies (Curaçoa, etc.) 31,931
I. of Hayti (total) 708,500
Rep. of Hayti 572,000
Rep. of San Domingo 136,500
S. AMERICA.
Columbia (of whom 126,000 independent Indians) 2,900,000
Venezuela 2,200,000
POPULATION TABLE. 293
Guiana (total) 246,795
French (about '/is white) 27,137
Dutch (of whom 7500 maroons*) 57,632
British (143,538 negroes) 162,026
Brazil (1,715,000 slaves) 10,045,000
Paraguay 1,337,439
Uruguay 240,965
Argentine Confederation (besides 40,000 independent
Indians) 1,377,000
Patagonia 30,000
Chili (independent Indians 10,000) 1,676,243
Bolivia (245,000 Indians) 1,987,352
Peru 2,500,000
Ecuador (200,000 Indians) 1,300,000
EUROPE.
Great Britain and Ireland (total) 29,935,404
England and Wales 21,210,020
Scotland 3,153,413
Ireland 5,571,971
Possessions in Europe (Heligoland, Gibraltar,
Malta) 165,317
Total population of entire British Empire . 174,156,673
Sweden and Norway (total) 5,560,108
Sweden 4,070,061
Norway 1,490,047
Russia in Europe (total) 67,619,425
Russia Proper 61,061,801
Poland 4,840,466
Finland 1,717,158
Total population of the Russian Empire . . 76,083,818
Germany 38,016,968
North German League (total) 29,220,922
Prussia Proper (with Lauenburg) before
1866 19,304,843
Added in 1866:
Hanover 1,923,492
Hesse - Cassel 737,283
Nassau 466,014
Frankfort City (and territory) .... 89,837
Territory ceded by Bavaria 32,976
Territory ceded by Hesse-Darmstadt 75,102
Schleswig-Holstein 960,996
Total population of Prussia. . 2^,590,543
* Maroon — a name given to free blacks living on the
mountains in the West Indies.
294
POPDLATION TABLE.
Saxony 2,343,994
Mecklenburg-Schwerin 552,612
Mecklenburg-Strelitz 99,060
Oldenburg 301,812
Saxe-Weimar 280,201
Brunswick 292,708
Anhalt 193,046
Saxe Meiningen '..... 178,065
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 164,527
Saxe-Altenburg 141,839
Lippe - Detmold 111,336
Waldeck 59,143
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 73,752
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 66,189
Renss 130,396
Schanmhurg - Lippe 31,382
Hesse - Darmstadt, N. of R. Main .... 225,696
Hamburg 229,941
Lübeck 50,614
Bremen 104,066
Bavaria 4,774,464
Wurtemberg 1,748,328
Hesse - Darmstadt, S. of R. Main 816,902
Baden 1,433,551
Lichtenstein 7,994
Germanic Confederation before the war of 1866 . 46,057,916
Belgium 4,940,570
Holland (total) 3,735,682
Holland Proper 3,529,108
Luxemburg 206,574
Denmark 1,617,170
Portugal (total) " 4,351,509
Continent 3,987,861
Azores 251,884
Madeiras 111,764
Spain (total) 16,302,625
Continent 15,752,607
Balearic Isles 278,660
Canary Is 256,408
Spanish population of Tetuan (Morocco) . . 14,950
Rep. Andorra 12,000
France 37,472,732
Switzerland 2,510,494
Italy 24,263,320
Papal Territory 692,112
Monaco 1,887
Rep. San Marino 7,080
Austria 32,572,932
POPULATION TABLE.
295
Turkey in Europe 15,725,367
Turkey Proper 10,586,000
Roumania 3,864,848
Wallachia 2,400,921
Moldavia 1,463,927
Servia 1,078,281
Montenegro 196,238
Greece (with Ionian Is. 225,861) 1,329,236
ASIA.
Turkey in Asia (Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, and
part of Arabia) 16,050,000
Arabia (without Turkish possessions) 4,000,000
(1,219,000 Wahabees, 76,500 Bedouins.)
Persia 5,000,000
Beloochistan 2,000,000
Hindostán, or British India 135,694,323
French colonies in India (Pondicherry) 229,533
• Portuguese colonies in India (Goa) 527,067
Indo-Chinese States (total) 21,109,000
Birman Empire 4,000,000
Empire of Siam 5,000,000
Empire of Anam (Cochinchina) 11,000,000
French Cochinchina 900,000
Independent States of Malay Peninsula . . . 200,000
Wild wandering tribes of the Peninsula . . 9,000
Chinese Empire (total) 477,500,000
China Proper 450,000,000
Mongolia 3,000,000
Manchooria 3,000,000
Corea 9,000,000
Tibet 11,000,000
Japan 35,000,000
Russia in Asia (total) 9,327,966
Caucasus 5,057,028
Siberia 4,270,938
Afghan States with Herat 4,000,000
AFRICA.
Morocco 2,750,000
Algeria 2,999,124
Tunis 600,000
Tripolis with Fezzan and Barca 750,000
Egyptian States 7,465,000
Egypt Proper 4,306,691
Nubia 1,000,000
Kordofan 400,000
296
POPULATION TABLE.
Abyssinia 3,000,000
Galla Country, S. of Abyssinia to the equator . . 7,000,000
Somauli Peninsula 8,000,000
Portuguese Possessions on E. coast of Africa
(Mozambique, Sofala etc.) 300,000
Cape Colony 267,096
British Kaffraria 81,353
Kaffraria (between British Eaffraria and Natal). . 100,000
Land of the Kafifres, N. of Natal and Transvaal Rep. 440,000
Orange River Rep 50,000
Transvaal Rep 120,000
Land of Bechuanas, N. of Transvaal Rep 300,000
Land of Damara and Namaqua 60,000
Portuguese Possessions on W. coast (Angola, Ren¬
gúela, etc 9,057,500
Empire of Moropue (Molua) 1,000,000
Empire of Cazembe 530,000
Dahomey 150,000
Ashantee with tributary provinces and Gold Coast 4,500,000
Liberia 250,000
French Senegambia (Senegal) 170,101
Portuguese Possessions in Senegambia ...... 1,095
Dutch colonies on Guinea Coast 120,000
Sierra Leone (English Possession) 41,806
Empire of the Fellata or Foolah Country 22,300,000
Sahara 4,000,000
Unexplored negro countries on both sides of equa¬
tor according to reports 42,000,000
OCEANIA.
MALAYSIA
Sumatra with south-western islands 2,600,000
Java 13,649,680
Borneo with the neighboring smaller islands 1,200,000
Celebes 473,040
Molucca or Spice Is 376,029
Philippines (with Sooloo Archipelago) . . . 6,000,000
AUSTRALAYSIA
Australia 1,116,970
Tasmania 89,977
New Guinea 1,000,000
New Zealand 154,296
New Caledonia 26,680
POLYNESIA
Ladrone or Marianne Is 5,610
Marshall Archipelago 10,460
Sandwich or Hawaian Is 69,800
POPULATION TABLE. 297
Feejee Is 200,OOU
Friendly Is 25,000
Society Is 7,500
Tahiti 9,086
Marquesas 10,000
, ISLANDS IN INDIAN OCEAN
Andaman Is 10,000
Nicobar Is 5,000
Ceylon • • • • 1,919,487
Maldive Is 150,000
Laccadive Is. 6,800
I. of Socotra 3,000
Mauritius (with Seychelles 7,486) 322,517
Rodriguez, Amirauté Is 1,569
Reunion 205,972
Comoro Is 49,000
Madagascar 3,000,000
Zanzibar 250,000
ISLANDS IN ATLANTIC OCEAN
Tristan da Cunha 35
St. Helena 6,860
Fernando Po and Anhabon 5,590
St. Thomas 8,000
Cape Verde Is 89,310
Races of Men. — Rthuography—(from two
greek words, signifying nation and to describe). Mankind
is generally divided into 5 classes :
1. White, Caucasian, or Indo-European race (500 to
600 millions — Europe; S. W. Asia; N. Africa; America).
2. Mongolian — (yellow, 300 to 400 millions — N. E.
and Central Asia; China, etc.; Hungary; W. Russia).
3. Negro or Ethiopian — (100 millions — Middle and
S. Africa; some islands of Oceania; America).
4. American — (13 millions).
5. Malay — (20 millions — Oceania; Indian Ocean).
The Papuans and Alfuras (i. e. negroes of New
Holland, New Guinea, and other islands) are sometimes
counted as a sixth race.
298
ETHNOGRAPHY.
The so-called "races" are marked by striking differ¬
ences in size, color, hair, physiognomy, skull, etc.,
reasonably ascribable to the variety of circumstances in
which human beings have been placed for so many thousand
years. The theory that these races, not descended from two
individuals, have separate origins, has many advocates.
But it has never been, in any way, demonstrated; and is
opposed by the most eminent authorities; among whom,
Alex. V. Humboldt. It is not without striking arguments.
But those, against it, are far more convincing; and it is un¬
justifiable by any evidence drawn from reason, nature or
Revelation. No two men arc alike—not even persons
of the same family. Innumerable causes — climate — nature
—food— occupation — accidents—epidemic maladies—elec¬
tricity — magnetism, etc., introduce physical changes,
.perpetuate and amplify them. The Arab is in harmony
with his desert; the Esquimau has been dwarfed by the
influences of his arctic zone; the Greek, developed into
beauty by the balmy air of his azure sky. The Laplander
iind Hungarian present vast difterences; yet their languages
indicate a common origin. The attempts to establish a
theory of separate races, have failed before the evidences
of unity. The more science advances, the more we find
nature simple, and acting on a plan. Tacitus classed the
Germans as a distinct race. Cuvier divided mankind into
three races; Prichard, into 7; Bory de St. Vincent, into
15; others, into 16; others, into 22. These contradictory
conclusions, and the impossibility of distinguishing how
many races there are, denote that the supposed boundary
lines do not exist. Humboldt declares "the more we study
races, languages, traditions and customs, the more we shall
find one single organic type in the great family of the
human race, modified by circumstances which science will,
perhaps, never have the means of determining". Daniel,
in his great work: "Handbuch der Geographie", 1868, says:
"Careful anatomical and physiological* investigations have
demonstrated that the physical differences, found in man,
belong to one species; and that the so-called different
* PHYSIOLOGICAL—PHYSIOLOGY (from two greek
words, signifying nature and a discourse)—the science of nature,
more generally restricted to the science of living bodies, or of
natural organizations, animal or vegetable.
ETHNOGUAPHY.
299
races do not originate from different stocks, but are mere
varieties of one stock. Two circumstances, among others,
indicate this unity. 1. The numerous degrees, transitions,
or shades of color, and forms of skull, discovered by
modern science, pass almost imperceptibly into each other.
2. In every race, are individuals bearing the type of one
of the other races."
"The christian" says Paul Janet, one of the most able
of living french writers, "may well wonder at the incon¬
sistency of philosophers who reject Scripture, while receiv¬
ing systems equally incredible, and far less proved; who
declare man, an accidental development of the beast; and
Plato and Paul, descendants of a gorilla; yet who will
not admit that an Ethiopian could proceed from a Caucasian,
or an American Indian, from a Mongol."