Farmer, Braee' & Co.'s Publications.
Hi^TnnniWTiciiii sr&aws.
1. Schell's IntrOdaotoiy Lesaons in Arithmetic.
2. Encs' InteHectual and Practical Arithmetic.
3. Bodd's Elementary and Practical Arithmetic.
4 Bodd's High School Arithmetic.
5. Bodd'a Elementary Algebra.
. 6. Bodd's High School Algebra.
7. Bodd's Key to Algebra.
8. Bodd's Geometry, (in pres^.
9. Whitlock's Geometry and Surveying
The steps taken in Schell's Arithmetic are as easy as possible, but at
every step the child gets on. in Enos' work the mental exercises are so
varied as to prepare the pupil fur almost every contingency in after life.
The books prepared by Prof J. B. Bodd, of Transylvania University, not
only give great satisfaction in the school-room, but they have a marked
influence upon other textbooks. No slight indication this of originality
and well directed genius. The following gentlemen express in brief the
opinions of those who use these books:
" I wish to introduce Schell's little Arithmetic. It is just the tiling
for beginners." ' J. Makkhah, Ohio!
"Having used Enos' Arithmetic in my school, T believe it to be supe¬
rior to all other works of the kind." W. Bailey, N. Y.
" Having used Bodd's High School Arithmetic for more than a year,
I am free to say that I have no wish to change it for any other, its di¬
visions and general arrangement peculiarly adapt it to my wants."
' J. W. P. Jenks, Principal Pierce Academy, Mass.
" I am delighted with Bodd's Algebra, and think it the best extant."
A. Lester.
" I consider Bodd's Algebra the very best work I have ever seen. We
are using it." • ' B. F. Stern.
Br. J. L. Comstock's Series on the Sciences, viz : Philosophy, Chemis¬
try, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, Physiology and Natural History.
Olney's Geographical Series and Outline Maps.
GriiGn's Southern Reader, 1, 2. 3, 4.
Brocklesby's Meteorology and Views of the Microscopic IVorld.
The Students' Series, including Primer, Spelling Book, Readers 1, 2,
3^, 5, and Juvenile Speaker. By J. S. Benman.
^irkham's Elocution.
Palmer's Bookkeeping for Common Schoo.„.
Grcenleaf s Grammar simpIiGed.
Gallaudet & Hooker's School and Family Bictionary.
Bentley's Pictorial Spelling Book.
Goldsmith's Geographical View of the World.
Robinson's History of England.
Prof. Worthington Hooker's Physiology for High School
Prof. Peissner's Germ^ Grammar.
THE
PEINCIPLES
OF
LATIN GRAMMAR
comprising the substance of the most approyed
grammars extant, with an
APPENDIX.
USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D.
lATF PROFESSOR OF LANOUAOES IN THE~AI3ANT ACADElfT ; AUTHOR OF THE
SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON THE
SAME FLAN, ETC. ETC.
FIFTY- NINTH EDITION—REVISED AND IMPROVED.
NEW YORK:
PRATT, WOODFORD, FARMER & BRACE,
NO. 4 CORTLANDT STREET.
• 1855.
Entebed, according to Act of CongrMS, lu tno Year One Thousand Eight Hnn
dred and Fifty-three, by PETEE BULLIONS, D. D., in the Clerk's Offica
of the Northern District of Now Yck.
PREFACE.
lu the study of any language, the foundation of success must be laid in
a thorough acquaintance with its principles. This being once attained,
future progress becomes easy and rapid. To the student of language, there¬
fore, a good Grammar, which must be his constant companion, is of all his
books the most important. Such a work, to be really valuable, ought to
be simple in its arrangement and style, so its to be adapted to the capacity
of youth, for whose use it is designed; comprehensive, and accurate, so as
to be a sufficient and certain guide in the most difficult as well as in easy
cases; and its principles and rules should be rendered familiar by numer¬
ous examples and exercises.
The fundamental principles are nearly the same in all languages. So
far ds Grammar is concerned, the difference lies chiefly in the minor de¬
tails—in the forms and inflections of their words, and in the modes of ex
pression peculiar to each, usually denominated idioms. It would seem,
therefore, to be proper, in constructing Grammars for different languages,
that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be arranged in the
same order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the same words. Where
this is carefully done, the study of the Granunar of one language becomes
an important aid in the study of another;—an opportunity is afforded of
seeing wherein they agree, and wherein they .differ, and a profitable exer¬
cise is furnished in comparative or general grammar. But when a Latin
Grammar is put into the hands of the student, differing widely in its
arrangement or phraseology from the English Grammar which he had
previously studied, and afterwards a Greek Grammar different from both,
not only is the benefit derived from the analogy of the different language.''
in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is made to appear intolerably
intricate and mysterious. By the publication of this series of Grammars,
English, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan, this evil Js now remedied
probably as far as it can be done.
The work here presented to the public, is upon the foundation of Adam's
Latix Geammab, so long and so well known as a text book in this country.
The object of the present undertaking was, to combine with all that is
excellent in the woi!k of Adam, the many important results of subsequent
I PEEFACE.
tors in this field; to supply its defects; to bring the -whole up to that
int which the present state of classical learning requires, and to give it
ih a form as to render it a suitable part of the series formerly projected,
accomplishing this object, the author has avaded himself of every aid
bin his reaeh, and no pains have been spared to render this work as
aplete as possible in every part His acknowledgments are due for the
istance derived from the excellent works of Scheller, Crombie, Zumpt,
drews & Stoddard, and many others, on the whole or on separate parts
this undertaking; and also for many hints kindly furnished by dis-
guished teachers in this country. As in the other grammars, so here,
: rules and leading parts which should be first studied, are printed in
ger type; and the fiUing up of this outline is comprised in observations
1 notes under them, made easy of reference by the sections and numbers
ifixed. The whole is now committed to the judgment of an intelligent
blic, in the hope that something has been done to smooth the path of the
rner in the successful prosecution of his studies, and to subserve the
srests of both English and Classical literature in this country.
EEVISED EDITION.
ifew plates ha-ving become necessary for this work, the opportunity has
in embraced of thoroughly revising and improving it The rules, defi-
ions, and leading parts, with very few exceptions, remain just as they
re; but still, some things deemed important have been added in many
ces in the form of new Observations, or of additions to the former ones,
this account the pages of this edition do not correspond to those of
ner editions; but this wiU occasion no diflBculty, as the Sections, Obser-
ious, <fec., are arranged and numbered as they were before. Besides this
de of reference which is still retained, the simpler method, by a running
ies of numbers, from first to last, as in the English Grammars, has been
led. A leading object kept constantly in view, in the revision of this
rk, as well as of the Greek Grammar just completed, has been, to bring
)ut a still greater uniformity in the works composing this series, and
indicate more fully and distinctly wherein the languages agree, and
erein they differ. The additions that have been made to this work,
ount in all to about twenty-eight pages, and no labor or expense has
in spared to render the work in all respects more worthy of that favor
h which it has already been received.
NetB York, Jmie, 1863.
INDEX.
A.
PAGE
AtlatiTe, meaning of, 13
construction of, 243
governed by nouns,... 243
by adjectives 244
by comp. degree,.. 244
by verbs, 246
by passive verbs,... 252
variously, ... 247
Accidents of the noun, 10
Accusative, meaning o( 12
construction o^ 240
governed by verbs,.... 240
by passive verbs,... 252
by prepositions,.. 263,264
variously, 242
and genitive 247, 248
and dative 249
and accusative 250
and ablative, 251
Adjectives, 48
Root of 13
of first and second decL 49
of third, 61
irregular, 54
exercises on, 66
numeral 67
cardinal, .57
ordinal, 60
comparison of 63
Rules for, 63, 64
irregular, Ac. 66
derivation of, 67
distributive 60
Multiplicative, 62
construction of, 209
Adverbs, signification of 196
derivation of, 197
comparisonof, 198
construction of 261
. cases govemea by 262
PAGB
Analysis of sentences, 294
examples of, 297
Apposition, substantives in,..' 207
Archaism, 291
Arrangement, Latin, 291
General principles of, 292
B.
Beginners, directions for, 299
0.
Case 12
Cases, government of 205
Csesural pause, 321
Cause, manner, and instrument, 255
Circumstances, construction of 254
of limitation, 254
of cause, manner, Ac... 25&
of place, 256
of time, 258
of measure, 259
of price, 260
Concord, of 207
Conjugations, of, 109
General remarks on,... 162
First^ 119
irregular, 167
Second, 128
irregular, 168
Third 136
irregular, 171
Fourth 146
irregular, 179
1st Periphrastic, 163
2d do. 164
Conjunctions, 203
construction of, 288
Consonants, 2
Construing, Rules for, 300
D.
Dative, meaning of, 12
construction of 230
'governed by nouns,... 281
vi
INDEX.
Dative, gove Bed page
by adjectives, 231
by verbs, 233
by impersonals 236
by the pass, voice,.. 253
variously 239
Datives two, gov'd by verbs, 238
Declension, Rules for, 13, 14
First, 15
Exceptions in '16
Greek nouns in,.. 16
Exercises on 17
Second 17
Exceptions in,... 19,20
Greek nouns in,.. 21
Exercises on, 21
Third, 22
Observations on,.. 22
Examples of,.... 23-25
Exercises on, 26
Genders in 27
Exceptions in,.... 30
Greek nouns in,.. 33
Fourth, 33
Exceptions in,.... 34
Observations on,.. 35
Exercises on,.... 36
Fifth 36
Exercises on, 37
Deponent verbs, 154
irregular, 180
Derivatives and compounds,
quantity of, 315
special rules for, 316
Diphthongs ".. 1
E.
Ellipsis 290
EnaUage, 290
Etymology 8
F.
Feet, simple, 317
compound, 318
isochronous 318
G.
Gender, of, 10
Observations on, 11
Genitive, meaning of, 12
construction of, 222
gov'd by noims 222
by adjectives,.. 225
by verbs, 228
by passives,.,.. 252
Genitive, governed page
by adverbs, 262
variously, 230
Gerunds 108
construction of, 284
Gerundives 107
construction of, 286
Government, of 221
Grammar, definition of,..._... 1
division of . 1
H.
Hellenism 291
Hyperbaton, 291
Increment of nouns, 306
of the 2d decl.... 307
of the 3d decl.... 307
of the plural,.... 308
of the verb, 309
Interjections, 202
construction of 242
Irregular nouns, 38
adjectives 54
comparison, 65
Verbs, 181
L.
Letters, 1
Limitation, circumstances of 254
M.
Marks and characters 3
Measure, circumstances of... 251
Metre, 319
different kinds of, 321
Iambic, 821
Trochaic 322
Anapaestic 323
Dactylic 323
Choriambic, 325
Ionic 326
Metres, compound, 326.
Metres, combination of in
Horace, 328
Metrical key to Odes of Hor¬
ace 329
Moods, 88
Indie., tenses of 92
construction of, 266
Subjunctive, tenses of, 96
construction of.... 267
with conjunctions, 268
with relative 270
used for imperative, 90
INDEX.
vii
page
Moods, ImperatiTe, tenses of,.. 100
.construction of 2'75
Infinitive, tenses of... 100
construction of, .... 275
■without a subject, 276
with a subject, 278
N.
Negatives, construction of,... 261
Nominative, meaning of, 12
construction of, 217
after the verb, 220
Notation, of numbers, 69
Nouns, • 9
Accidents of 10
Root of, 13
Irregular, 38
defective 40
Nouns, redundant, 46
Syntax of, 207, 222
increment of 306
Number, -12
Numbers, notation of, 59
Numeral adjectives 67
O.
Orthography, 1
P.
Parsing, directions for, 301
examples of, 302
Participles, of, 106
construction of, 282
case absolute, 283
Parts of speech, 9
Person 10
Person, and number of verbs, 104
Place, circumstances of, 256
Pleonasm, 290
Prepositions, of, 199
Observations on 200
in composition, 201
inseparable 202
governing the accusa¬
tive, 263
the ablative, 263
the aec. and
ablative,.. 264
in composi¬
tion,.... 264
Price, circumstances of, 260
Pronouns, Personaf 68
Observations on, 69
Adjective,....* 72
Pronouns, page
Possessive, 73
Demonstrative 74
Observations on,.. 76
Definite, 77
Relative, 77
construction of, 213
case of, 216
Interrogative, 78
Observations on,.. 79
Indefinite, 80
Patrial 80
compound, 80
Pronunciation, 4
English method of.... 341
Prosody, 304
Figures of, 327
Punctuation, 3
Q.
Quantity, of, 6, 304
General rules for,... 6, 304
Special rules for, 306
of penult syUables,... 310
of final syllables, 312
of derivatives and com¬
pounds, 315
R.
Resolution or analysis, 294
Examples of 300
S.
Scanning, 327
Stanza, ■ 328
Supines, of, 108
construction of 287
Syllables, 5
Syntax, 204
General principles of, 205
of cases. Synopsis of, 205
Parts of 207
of the noun, 222
of the verb 265
Figures of 290
T.
Tenses, of, 91
of the indicative, 92
subjunctive,.... 96
imperative 100
infmitive, 100
participles, .... 106
Active, how formed,... 110
Passive, how formed,.. IIS
Connection of 265
viii
INDEX.
PAGE
Terminations, table of, 14
Time, circumstances of, 268
V.
Verb,
Different kinds of,.... 86
Inflection of, 86
Voices of, 86
Observations on, 87
Moods of, 88
Tenses of 91
of the Indicative, 92
of the Subjunctive, 96
of the Imperative, 100
of the Infinitive,.. 100
Number and person of 104
how formed, 110
Regular, conjugation of. 109
1st conj. Active, 119
Exercises on, 122
1st conj. Passive 124
Exercises on, 127
2d conj. Active, 128
Exercises on, 131
2d conj. Passive, ; 132
Exercises on, 136
3d conj. Active, 136
Exercises on 141
8d conj. Passive, 141
Exercises on 145
4th conj. Active 146
Exercises on, 149
4th conj. Passive, .... 160
Exercises on 153
Deponent verbs, 164
Verb, PAG*
Deponent, 1st eonj 166
2d do. 166
3d do. 167
Verb, deponent, 4th do. 168
Exercises on, 159
Verbs, Neuter-passives 160
compound, 166
irregular in pert and
Sup 166-179
Irregular,
Sum
Exercises on,
Defective,
Impersonal,
Exercises on,..
Redundant,
Derivatives
Frequentatives,
Inceptives,....
Desideratives
Diminutives, ..
construction of, with
■Nom.
Special rules for.
Syntax of,
Increment of....
Versification
Vocative, meaning of....
construction of.
'Voice,................
Vowels,
Vowel sounds, table of..
W.
Words,
CONTENTS OF THE APPENDIX.
, 1 Roman computation of time, 331
IL Roman names, 334
III. Divisions of the Roman People, •. 335
IV. Divisions of the Roman civil officers, 336
V. The Roman Army, 333
VI. Roman Money, Weights, and Measures 337
VII. Different ages of Roman Literature, 340
VIIL English pronunciation of Latin, 841
LATIN GRAMMAR.
1.—Latin Grammar is the art of speaking or
writing the Latin language with propriety.
It is divided into four parts; namely, OrtTio-
grapTiy^ Etymology^ Syntax, and Prosody.
PART FIRST.
OETHOGEAPHY.
2.—Orthography treats of letters, and the
mode of combining them into syllables and
words.
§ 1. LETTERS.
3.—A Letter is a mark or character used to represent an
elementary sound of the human voice. ;
The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, the same
in name and form as those of the English Alphabet, but with¬
out the w. ' . *
Letters are either Vowels or Consonants.
VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.
4.—A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate sound;
and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone.
The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. In Latin, y is never a consonant as in
English.
5.—The union of two vowels in one sound, is called a Diphthong. Diph¬
thongs are of two kini^ proper and improper.
2
LETTERS.
6.—A Proper PiplUhong is one in which both the vowels are sounded
The Proper Diphthongs in Latin are three, viz; au, eu, ei; as, aurura,
euge, hei.
7.—An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is
sounded The Improper Diphthongs in Latin are oe and os, often written
together, ce, a; as, toeda, poena.
8.—OBSERVATIONS.
1. Ai and oi are found as diphthongs in proper names from the Greek;
as Maia, Praia.
2. After g and q, and sometimes after », m before another vowel in
the same syllable, does not form a diphthong with it, but is to be regarded
as an appendage of the preceding consonant, having nearly the force of w,
as in the English words, linguist, quick, perssiade ; thus, lingua, sanguis,
qui, quae, quod, quum, suadeo, are pronoimced as if written lingwa, sangwis,
kwi, kwce, kwod, kwum, swadeo. So also after c and h in cui and huic, pro¬
nounced in one syllable, as if written cwi or kwi, and hwic; also ui after
a consonant, in such words from the Greek as Harpuia.
S. Two vowels standing together in different syllables, pronounced in
quick succession, resemble the diphthong in sound and among the poets,
are often run together into one syllable; thus de-in, de-inde, pro-inde,A<s.,
in two and three syllables, are pronoimced in one and two, dein, deinde,
proinde, &c.
CONSONANTS.
9.—A Consonant is a letter which represents axi.ti,rticulate sound and, in
a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in connection with
a vowel or diphthong.
10.—The consonants in Latin are h, e, d, f g, h,j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v,
X, z. Of these, eight, viz, p, b, t, d, c, k, q, and g, are called mutes, because
they interrupt or stop the sound of the voice, as ( in «u6 ,<-^four, viz, 1. m,
n, r, are called liquids, because of their fluency, or the ease with which
they flow into other sounds, or, in combining with other consonants, are
changed one for another;—^two are called double c^sonants, viz, x and
because they are each equivalent to two other consonants; namely, x to
cs or gs, and z to cfe. The letter j, likewise, is sounded by us as a double
consonant, equivalent to dg, and in prosody is so considered, because, ex¬
cept in compounds of jugum, it uniformly makes the vowel before it long.
Ihe letter s represents a sibilant or hissing sound. The h is only au
aspirate, and denotes a rough breathing: in prosody, it is not regarded as
§1
LETTERS.
s
a consonant The letters k, y, and z, are used only in -words derived from
the Greek.
11 .—Note. Anciently, the lettcry seems to have been more nearly allied to
a vowel than to a consonuut, and was represented by i ; thus, yut, pyne, &c.,
were written eiue, peiue, &c.; and they thus tbrming a sort of diphthong with
the preceding vowel, of course made the syllable long; as, ei-ve, &c.
In like manner, « and « were represented by the same letter, namely,v.
MARKS AND CHARACTERS.
12.—The marks and characters need in Latin Grammar, or in -writing
Latin, are the follo-wing:
" Placed over a vowel shows it to be short
~ Placed over a vowel shows it to be long.
" Placed over a vowel shows it to be short or long.
" Is called Diceresie, and shows that the vowel over which it is placed
does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel, but belongs to a dif¬
ferent syUable; as, aer, pronounced a-er.
^ The circumfiex shows that the syUable over whieh it stands has been
contracted, and is consequently long, as nuntidrunt for nuntiavirunt, dimi-
edssent for dimicavissent; or that the vowel over which it is placed, has its
long open sound; as, pennd.
^ The grave accent is sometimes placed over particles and adverbs, to
distinguish them from other words consisting of the same letters; as, quod,
a conjimction, " that," to distinguish it from quod, a relative, " which."
The acute accent is used to mark the accented syllable of a word ■ as,
tdba, domlnus.
' Apostrophe is written over the place of a vowel cut off from the end
of a word; as, men' for mene.
PUNCTUATION.
13.—The different divisions of a sentence are marked by certain cha¬
racters caUed Points.
The modem punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks
«nployed are the Comma {,); Semicolon (;); Colon (:); Period (.); Inter¬
rogation (?); Exclamation (I).
14.—The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients, was a point (.),
which denoted pauses of a different length, according as it stood at the
top, the middle, or the bottom of the line—^that at the top denoting the
shortest, and that at thfr bottom the longest pause.
4
PRONUNCIATION.
§2
§ 2. PRONUNQATION.*
15.—The pronunciation of the Latin language prevalent
among the nations of continental Europe, is greatly preferable
to the English, both because it harmonizes better with the
quantity of the language, as settled by the rules of Prosody,
and because, by giving one simple sound to each vowel, dis¬
tinguishing the short and the long only by the duration of
sounds, it is much more simple. The sound of the vowels, as
pronounced alone or at the end of a syllable, is exhibited in
the following—
16.—TABLE OF VOWEL AND DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS.
Short
S, sounds like
a
Long
Short
S.
e
like
like
a
e
Long
Short
e .
i
like
like
ey
i
Long
Short
i
6
like
like
i
0
Long
Short
6
ii
like
like
o
u
Long
u
like
u
ae or ® j
oe or oe !
|- like
ey
au
like
ou
eu
like*
eu
ei
like
i
in
Jehovah,
as
Itm&t.
in
father.
as
fama.
in
met.
as
petSre.
in
they.
as
docere.
in
uniform,
as
unltas.
in
machine.
as
pinus.
in
polite.
as
indoles.
in
go,
as
pbno.
in
popular.
as
populus.
in
rule, or pure.
as
tuba, tisu.
in
they.
as
j Pasan.
1 Phoebus
in
our.
as
aurum.
in
feud.
as
eurus.
in
ice,
as
hei.
17.—OBSERVATIONS.
1. The sound of the vowels a and e remains unchanged in
all situations.
2. The sound of i, o, and «, is slightly modified when fol-
• The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language, cannot now be certainly
ascertained. The variety of pronunciation in differcirt nations, arises from a
tendency in all to assimilate it in some measure to their own. But of all
varieties, that of the English—certainly the farthest of any from the original
—is, in our opinion, decidedly the worst; not only from its intricacy and
want of simplicity, but especially from its conflicting constantly with the set¬
tled quantity of the language. In English, every accented syllable is long,
and every unaccented one is short. V hen, therefore, according to the rules
of English accentuation, the accent falls on a short syllable in a Latin word,
or does not fall on a long one, in either case, its tendency is, to lead to false
quantity.—For the English orthp6py of the Latin language, see p. Ml.
§3
SYLLABLES.
5
lowed by a consonant in the same syllable, and is the same,
whether the syllable is long or short. Thus modified,
i sounds like i in sit, as mlttit
o like o in not, as poterat, forma,
u like u in tub, as fructus.
Nate. For the sound of before another vowel, after y, j, and sometimes
«, <&c.. See 8-2.
8. The consonants are pronounced generally as in the English language.
<7and g are hard, as in the words cat, and got, before a,, o, and and e is
soft like »; and g, likey, before e, i, y, ae, and at.
4. Tand c, following or ending an accented syllable before i short, fol¬
lowed by a vowel, usually have the sound of eh; as in nuntiue or nuneme,
patientia, eoeius; pronounced nunehiue, paehUnehia, eoehime. But ( has not
the sound of eh before > long, as tofiue; nor before such Greek words as
Mlltiades, Boeotia, Mgyptiue; nor when it is preceded by another t, or e, or
x; as Bruttii, oetvum, mixtio, &o.; nor, lastly, when ti is followed by the
termination of the infinitive passive in er, as in nkier, guatier.
Note. The soft sound of e before e, i, y, ee, and ce, adopted by all European
nations, is evidently a deviation from the ancient pronunciation, accordi^
to which c was sounded hard, like k, or the Greek «, in all situations. T%
sounding ehi is a similar corruption, chiefly English, which it might perhaps
be well to change by giving ti the same sound in all situations; as, arti,
arti-um, arti-btie.
5. S has always the sharp sound like ee, and never the soft sound like s/
or like e in ae, peae, dose, &o.; thus, nos, donHnoe, rupee, are pronounced as
if written nose, dominoee, rupees, not nose, dominoee, rupees.
I 3. SYLLABLES.
18.—A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a
word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once.
Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct vowel
sounds.
A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable.
A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable.
A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable.
A word of many syllaWes is called a Polysyllable.
19.—^In a word of many syllables, the last is called the final
syllable; the one next the last is called the penult, and the sylla^
ble preceding that is called the antepenult.
6 SYLLABLES. § 3
20.—^Thes Figures which affect the orthography of words, are
as follows;
let. Prosthexit prefixes a letter or syllable to a word; as, gndtu* for
nOtus, tetulit for tUXvt.
2d. Epenthcait inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a word; as,
navUa for nauta, Timdlut for Tinelui.
8d. Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word; as, ammrier
for amari,
4th. Apfueresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of a
word; as, brSvis't or brivist for hrMs e$t; rhdbo for arrh&bo.
5tL Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word; as,
ortuclum for oraeulum ; amdrim, for amavirim; deum for deOrum.
6th. Apocope takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word; as,
Antoni for Antonii, men' for mene, die for dice.
fth. Aniithesis substitutes one letter for another: as, olli for Uli; mdt,
vultis, for volt, voltia, contractions for v6lit, votiiis.
8tL Metathesis changes the Order of letters in a word; as, pistris for
pristis.
9th. Tmesis separates the parts of a compoimd word by inserting
another word between them; as, qy^ me cumque vocant terrce, for
qxuxeumque me, Ac.
10th. Anastrophe inverts the order of woi-ds; as, dSre dr.cum for circum-
dare.
QUANTITY AND ACCENT.
21.—Quantity is the measure of a syllable in respect of the
time required in pronouncing it.
In respect of quantity, a syllable is either long or short;
and a long syllable is considered equal to two short ones.
22.—General Rules.
1. A diphthong is always long; as, aurum, pot-na.
2. A vowel before another vowel is short j,as, vt-a, de-us:.
3. A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant is
long; as, consul, pinna, traxit.
4. A vowel before a mute and a liquid is common ; i. e.,
sometimes long and sometimes short; cerlhrum, ox cere¬
brum.
[For special rules on this subject, see Prosody.]
§ 3 SYLLABLES. 7
23.— Accent is a special stress or force of voice on a parti
cular syllable of a word, by which that syllable is distinguished
from the rest.
Every word of more than one syllable has an accent; as himo,
dom'inus, tolerdbXiit.
The last syllable of a word never has the accent. In a word of two
Billables, the accent is always on the first. In a word of three or more
syllables, if the penult is long, the accent is on the penult; as, sermS'nis,
amare mm ; but if the penult is short, the accent is on the antepenult; as,
fdrXlis, ducere, pectbru, pecl&r^ims.
24.—An enclitic syllable (y?te, ve, ne, <fec.), being considered, in pronun¬
ciation, part of the word to whieh it is annejted, generally changes the place
of the accent by inereasing the number of syllables; as, vlrum, virOmqm;
dom'inm, dommusve.
25.—A word of one syllable is properly without an accent; but if an
enclitic is annexed, it becomes a dissyllable, and takes the accent on the
first syllable; as, <», tune.
26.—In English, an accented syllable is always long, or rather the ac¬
cent makes it long; but in Latin, the accent makes no change in the quan¬
tity of its syllable, and, except in the penult, is as often on a short, as on a
long syllable; as, fd'ciles, pi'tire, vtrum.
Note 1. These rules respecting accent, in connection with the general rules
for quantity, will be sufficient to guide thq pupil in accenting words, without
the artificial aid of marking the accented syllables. Where the quantity of the
penult is not ascertained by the preceding rules (22), it will be marked in this
work.
Note 2. In reading Latin, it is important, as much as possible, to distinguish
accent from quantity—a matter not without difficulty to those accustomed
to a language in whieh accent and quantity always coincide. It should be
remembered tliat in Latin, the accent does not make a syllable long as in
English, neither does the want of it makethc syllable short. Homines, for
example, should not be pronounced tio'mmes: and care should be taken to
distinguish in reading the verbs le'go anA.le'go;—tfie noun pbp'idus (the
people) from pd'pulus (a poplar);—or the verbs fU'ris, ISgis, regis, from the
genitives fiPris, U'gis, re'gis. The accented short syllable should be pro¬
nounced with greater force of voice, but be preserved short still; and the
long syllable, whether accented or not, should be made long.
8
of words.
§4
PART SECOND.
ETYMOLOGY. «
27.—^Etymology treats of the different sorts of
words, their various modifications, and their de¬
rivations.
§ 4. WORDS.
28.—^WoEDS are certain articulate sounds used
by common consent as signs of our ideas.
1. In respect of Formation^ words are either
Primitwe or Derivative', Simple or Compound.
A Primitive word is one that comes from no other; as,
puer, bonus, p&ter.
A Derivative word is one that is derived from another
word; as, pueritia, honitas, paternus.
A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other
word; «s, pius, doceo, verto.
A Compound word is one made up of two or more simple
words; as impius, dedoceo, animadverto.
2. In respect of Form, words are either De¬
clinable or Indeclinable.
A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes
of form or termination, to express the different relations of
gender, number, case, &c., usually termed, in Grammar,
Accidents. •
An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of
form.
3. In respect of Signification and Fse, words
are divided into different classes, called Parts ofi
Speech.
§ 5, 6 pabl's op speech.—op the noun,
9
§ 5. PARTS OF SPEECH.
29.—^The Parts of Speech in the Latin language
are eight, viz:
1. Noun or Suistanlme^ Adjectwe^ Pronoun^
Vei'h^ declined.
2. Adverh^ Preposition^ Interjection^ Conjwno-
tion^ undeclined.
30.—Any part of speech used simply as a word, and spoken
of, is regarded as a noun (271). Thus used, it is indeclinable,
and in the neuter gender.
§ 6. THE NOUN.
31.—A Noun is the name of any person, place,
or thing; as Cicero^ Pbma^ Jwmo^ Inher.
82.—Nouns are of two kinds. Proper and Co^m-
mon.
1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an
individual only; as, Cick'O, Aprilis^ Jtidma.
To this class belong,
Patronymics, or those 'which express one's parentage or family; as,
Priamldes, the son of Priam.
Gentile, or Patrial, which denote one's country; as, PomUnus, Gallus.
Obs. A proper noun applied to more than one, becomes a common noun;
as, duodicim Cces&res, the twelve Osesars.
2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all
things of the same sort; as, a man; domus,, a
house; liber, a book.
Note. A Proper noun is the name of an mdim&ual only, and is used to
distinguish that individual from all others of the same class. A Common
noun is the name of a doss of objects, and is equally applicable to all the in¬
dividuals contained in it.
33.—Under this class may be ranged,
1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in the
singular number; as, popUlus, a people; exereXtus, an army.
• 1*
10 ACCIDENTS OP TH£ NO0N. § 7
2. Abstract noun«, or the names of qualities; as, bonitas, goodness; dtd-
eedo, sweetness.
3. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the signification
of the nouns from which they are derived; as, libellus, a little book, from
Kber, a hook.
4. AmpUJieative noxms, or those which denote an increase in the signifi¬
cation of the nouns from which they are derived; as, capito, a person hav¬
ing a large head, from eSput, the head.
§ 7. ACaCENTS OF THE NOUNS.
34.—^To Latin nouns belong Person,, Gender,,
Number, and Case.
, 1. PERSON.
85.—^Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of
nouns as used in discourse, to denote the speaker,
the person or thing addressed, or the person br
thing spoken of. Hence,
There are three persons, called First, Seeond,
and Third.
A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker
or writer; as, Ego ille consul qui verba en'ves in exilium ejicio.
A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person
or thing addressed; as, Catillna, perge quo coepisii,
A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person
or thing spoken of; as, Tempus fugit.
Note. Person has nothing to do either with the form of a nonn, or with
its meaning, bnt simply with the manner in which it is used. Hence, the
same noun may at one time be in the first person; at another, in the second;
and at another, in the third.
2. GENDER.
86.—Gender means the distinction of nouns
■with regard to Sex. ^ •
87.—^There are three Genders, the MaseuUne,
the Feminine, and the Neuter.
38.—Of some nouns, the gender is determined by their signi¬
fication ;—of others, by their termination.
§7
ACCIDENTS OP THE NOtTN.
11
39.—^The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which de¬
note the male sex.
40.—The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote
the female sex.
41.—The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are
neither masculine nor feminine.
42.—Nouns which denote both males and females, are said to
be of the Common gender; i. e., they are both masculine and
feminine.
43.—Nouns denoting things without sex, and which are
sometimes of one gender, and sometimes of Another, are said
to be Doubtful.
44.—The gender of nouns not determined by their significa¬
tion, is usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will
be noticed under each declension.
45.—GENEEAL OBSEEVATIONS ON 6ENDEE.
I
1. Nouns denoting brute animals, especially those whose
sex is not easily discerned or but rarely attended to, com¬
monly follow the gender of their termination. Such are the
names of wild beasts, birds, fishes, insects, &c.
2. A proper name often follows the gender of the common
noun under which it is comprehended; thus.
The names of months, winds, rivers, and mountains, are
masculine, because mensis, ventus, jluvius, mons, are mascu¬
line.
The names of countries, towns, trees, and ships, are femi¬
nine, because terra, urbs, arbor, navis, are feminine.
To these, however, there are many exceptions.
3. Some nouns are masculine and feminine both in sense
and grammatical construction; as, adolescens, a young man
or woman; Afflnis, a relation by marriage; d%ix, a leader.
Some nouns are masculine or feminine in sense, but mascu¬
line only in grammatical construction; i. e., they have an
adjective word always in the masculine gender; such as, ArCi-
fex, an artist; fur, a thief; senex, an old person; &c.
Some nouns are masculine or feminine in sense, but femi¬
nine only in grammatical construction; i. e., they have an
adjective word always in the feminine gender; such as, copice,
forces, troops; custodice, guards; operce, labourers; &c.
4. Some nouns denoting persons, are neuter, both in termi-
12 ACCIDENTS OP THE NOUN. § 7
nation and construction; as, Acroama, a jester; Auxilia, auxi
iiary troops; mancipium, or servilium, a slave.
5. Some nouns distinguish the masculine and feminine by a
difference of termination; as, Victor, victrix; ultor, uJtrix;
coquus, c5qua. Some names of animals distinguish the two
sexes by different forms; as, Agnns, agna; cervus, cerva;
columhus, columha; gallus, galllna, &c. In some cases, the
words are altogether different; as, taurvs, a bull; vacca, a
cow. But, in general, the male and the female are expressed
by the same term; passer, sparrow; corvus, a raven; felis, a
cat; vulpes, a fox; canis, a dog; homo, a man.
3. NUMBER.
46.—Number is that property of a noun by
which it expresses one, or more than one.
47.—Latin nouns have two numbers, the Sin-
gvHa/r and the PlwrcH. The Singular denotes
one', the Plural,more than one.
48.—Some nouns in the plural form, denote only one ; as,
Athenoe, Athens; others signify one or more; as, nuptioe, a
marriage or marriages.
4. CASE.
49.—Case is the state or condition of a noun
with respect to the other words in a sentence.
50.—^Latin nouns have six cases, the Nominati/oe,
Genitwe, Dati/oe, Acmsative, Vocative, and Ahla-
time. '
1. The Nominative case, for the most part, denotes the name
of an object simply, or as that of which something is affirmed.
2. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, the
idea of origin, possession, or fitness.
3. The Dative represents the thing named, as that to which
something is added, or to, or for which something is said or
dono,
4. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affected
or acted upon by something else, and also, as the object to
which something tends or relates.
§8
DECLENSIOK.
13
5. The Vocative is used when persons or things expressed
by the noun, are addressed.
6. The Ablative represents the thing named, as that from
which something is separated, or taken; or, as that by or with
which something is done, or exists.
51.—All the cases, except the nominative, are called Oblique
cases.
52.—The signs of the oblique cases, or the prepositions by
which they are usually rendered into English, are the follow¬
ing, viz : Genitive, of; Dative, to or for; Vocative, 0Abla¬
tive, with, from, in, by, &c., as in the following scheme:
Singular.
Nom. a king,
Gen. of a king,
Dat. to or for a king,
Acc. a king,
Voc. O king,
A}o\.with,from,in,ovby, a king.
Plural.
Nom, kings.
Gen. of kings,
Dat. to or for kings,
Acc. kings,
Voc. O kings,
Abl. with, from, in, or by, kings.
§ 8. DECLENSION.
53.—Declension is the mode of changing the
terminations of nouns, <fec.
54.—^In Latin, there are five declensions, called
the First, Second, Third, FerwrtJi, and Fifth
55.-—^The declensions are distinguished from one
another by the termination of the genitive sin¬
gular; thus.
The first declension has the genitive singular in -®,
The second " " in -i.
The third " " in -is.
The fourth " " in -Us,
The fifth " " in -ei.
56.—All that part of a noun, or of an adjective, which pre¬
cedes the termination of the genitive singular, is called the
Root. All that follows the root, in any case or number, is
called the Case-ending, or Termination.
14
DECLENSION.
§8
57.—GENERAL RULES FOR THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi¬
native, accusative, and vocative, alike in both
numbers, and these cases, in the plural, end al¬
ways in a.
2. The vocative, for the most part in the sin¬
gular, and always in the plural, is like the nomf-
native.
3.- The dative and the ablative plural are alike.
4. Proper names for the most part want the
plural.
The difference between these declensions will be seen at*
one view in the following :
58.—TABLE OF TERMINATIONS,
Singular.
First.
Second.
TJtifd
Fourth.
Fifth.
M.
N.
M. N.
M.
N.
N.
-a,
-US, -er.
-um.
— —
-us,
-h,
-es.
G.
-ae.
-i,
-is, —
-us.
-us.
-ei.
D.
-o,
-i,
-ui,
-h,
-ei,
Ac.
-am,
-um,
-um.
-em,
-um.
-a,
-em.
V.
-a,
-5, -er.
-um.
— —
-us.
-a,
-es.
Ab.
-a.
-6.
-e, or i.
Plural.
-u.
-u.
-e.
N.
-se.
-i,
-a.
—es, —a, —ia.
-us.
-uS,
-es,
G.
-arum.
-orum,
-um,-ium.
-uum.
-erum,
D.
-is,
-is,
-ibus,
-ibus,orubus,
-ebus.
Ac.
-as,
-OS,
-a,
■""CSj
-us,
-ua.
-es.
V.
-i,
-a.
-us,
-ua.
-es.
Ab.
-is.'
-is.
-ibus.
-ibus. or ubus.
-ebus.
59.—The terminations of the nominative singular in the
third declension, being numerous, are omiUed in the table;
also those of the vocative, which, in this declension, is always
like the nominative. The terminations of the genitive, da¬
tive, and ablative neuter, are the same as the masculine.
§ 9
FIKST DECLENSION.
15
§ 9. FIRST DECLENSION.
60.—^The first declension has four terminations
of the nominative singular: two feminine, ej
and two masculine, es.
Latin nouns end only in a ; the rest are Greek.
Singular.
Nom. -S,
Gen. -80,
Dat. -80,
Acc. -am,
Voc. —a,
Abl. -a.
TERMINATIONS.
Plural.
Nom. -80,
Gen. -arum,
Dat. -is,
Acc. -as,
Voc. -80,
Abl. -is.
Penna, a feather,—later, a pen. Fem.
N. penn-a,
G. penn-80,
D. penn-s0,
Ac. penn-am,
V. penn-a,
'Ab. penn-a.
Singular.
a pen,
of a pen,
to or for a pen,
a pen,
0 pen,
with a pen.
Plural.
N. penn-80,
G. penn-arum.
D. penn-is,
Ac. penn-as,
V. penn-80,
Ab. penn-is.
pens,
of pens.
to or for pens,
pens,
0 pens.
N. vi-a,
G. vi-80,
D. vi-se,
Ac. vi-am,
V. vi-a,
Ab. vi-a.
Singular.
Via, a way. Fem.
a way,
of a way,
to a way,
a way,
0 way,
with, &c., a way.
N. vi-80,
G. vi-arum,
D. vi-is,
Ac. vi-as,
F. vi-se,
Ab. vi-is,
Plural.
of ways,
to ways,
ways,
0 ways,
with, &c., ways.
Note. The words declined as examples in this and the other declensions,
are not divided into syllables, and the hyphen (-) is never to be regarded as
a division of syllables, but only as separating the root from the termination,;
as petmr-a, agr-i, &o.
In lihe manner decline:
Ara, an altar ; Sella, a seat; Tuba, a trumpet; Litera, a letter.
ADDITIGNAL EXAMPLES.
a imng.
a chest.
Ala,
Area,
OAsa, o cottage.
Causa, <t cause.
Faba, a bean.
Hora, an hour.
Mensa. a table.
Norma, a rule.
Ripa, a bank.
Turba, a crowd.
TJnda, a wave.
Virga, a rod.
16
FIKST DECLENSION.
§9
61.—EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER.
1. Nouns in a, denoting appellations of men, as pincerna, a
butler; names of rivers; (4^2,) likewise Madrid, the Hadria-
tic; cometa, a comet; planeta, a planet; and sometimes talpa,
a mole; and dama, a fallow-deer, are masculine. Pascha, the
passover, is neuter.
EXCEPTIONS IN CASE.
2. The Genitive Singular.—^The ancient Latins sometimes
formed the genitive in ai; as, aula, a hall; Gen. aulai;—some¬
times in as; as, mater-familias, the mother of a family, (See
96-9).
3. The Accusative Singular.—Greek nouns in a, have some •
times an in the accusative singular; as, Maian, Ossan.
4. The Dative and Ablative Plural.—The following nouns
have abus instead of is, in the dative and ablative plural, to
distinguish them from masculine nouns in us, of the second
declension^ viz:
Asina, a she ass. Filia, a daughter.
Dea, a goddess. Mula, a she mule.
Equa, a mare. Nata, a daughter.
Several others are found in inscriptions and in ancient au¬
thors. Still, except dea and filia, notwithstanding the ambi¬
guity, they generally prefer the termination is.
GREEK NOUNS.
62.—Greek nouns in as, es, and e, are declined
as follows, in tlie singular number:—
.^Eneas, AEneas. Anchises, Anchises. Penelope, Penelope.
N. iEne-as,
Q. JEne-ss,
D. iEne-ae,
Ac. JEne-am, or an,
V. .Ene-a,
Ab. Ene a.
E Anchis-es,
O. Anchis-ae,
D. Anchis-se,
Ac. Anchis-en,
V. Anchis-e,
Ab. Anchis-e.
E Penel6p-e,
G. Penel6p-es,
D. Penel6p-e,
Ac. Penel6p-en,
iii Penelop-e,
Ab. Penel6p-e..
like uEnlas, decline Boreas, the north wind; Midas, a IHng of Phrygia;
—also, Oorgias, Messias.
Like Anchises, decline Alcldes, a name of Hercules; eometes, a comet;
—also, Priamldes, Tydldes, dynastes, satrSpes.
SECOND DECLENSION.
17
Like PenelSpe, decline Circe, a famous sorceress; Cyhile, the mother of
the gods; epitime, an abridgment; grammaHce, grammar;—^also, cUSe,
erambi, Circe, Dan&S, PhoenlcS.
Obs. 1, When the plural of proper names occurs, it is like
the plural of penna; thus, Atrldce, Atridarum, &c.
Obs. 2, Nouns in es have sometimes & in the vocative, more
rarely a. Nouns in stes have sta. They also sometimes have
the accusative in em, and the ablative in a.
EXERCISES ON THE FIRST DECLENSION.
[The words in the following exercises will be found in No. 60.]
1. Tell the case and number of the following words, and trans¬
late them accordingly.—Penna, pennam, pennarum, pennis,
penna,*)»ennae;—aram, aris; sellae, sella, sellS, sellarum; tubis,
tubam, tubae; litera, literarum, pennis, aras, tubae, literis;—
Penelopes, Penelopen, vEnean, Auchises, Anchisae, ^Enea.
2. Translate the following words into Latin :—^The pen, of
pens, with pens, from a pen, in a pen, by pens; from the altars;
of a trumpet; with letters; a seat; O altar; the seat of Pene¬
lope ; of iEneas; with Anchises; a trumpet; from the altar;
to a seat; with a pen; of the altars; &c., ad libitum.
I 10. SECOND DECLENSION.
63.—^The Second Declension has seven termi¬
nations of the nominative singular: namely,
Five masculine, er, ir, w, us, and os.
Two neuter, vm and on.
Of these terminations, os and on are Greek;
the rest are Latin.
TERMINATIONS.
Masculine. Keuter.
Singular. Plural. Singular.
N. -er,-ir,-ur,-us, AT. -i,
G. /-I, G. -drum,
D. -6, D. -is,
.4r.-um, .dc.-OS,
V. -er,-ir,-ur,-e, F. -I,
Ab.-Q. ili.-is.
N. -um,
G. -i,
D. -d,
.Ac.-uni,
V. -um,
Ab.-6.
Plural.
N. -a,
G. -drum,
D. -is,
Ac. -a,
V. -a,
.46.—is.
18
SECOND DECLENSION.
64.—Nouns in er, ir, and ur, add i in the genitive; but«» and um are
changed into i. The only nouns in ir are vir, and its compoimds duumviri,
trevlri, <&c. The only word in ur of this declension, is the masculine gender
of the adjective sMur, fulL All these are declined like puer.
Pdee, a ^oy, Masc.
Singular.
N. puer,
G. puer-i,
D. puer-o,
Ac. puer-um,
V. puer,
Ab. puer-o,
a hoy,
of a boy,
to, or for a boy,
fl boy,
0 boy,
with, &c., a boy.
Plural.
N. puer-i, boys.
G. puer-orum, of boys,
D. puer-is, to or for boys,
Ac. puer-os, boys,
V. puer-i, 0 boys,
Ab. puer-is, with, &c., boys.
65.—AU the nouns in er declined like puer, are the compounds of firo
and giro; as, Lucifer, the morning star; armlger, an armor bearer: also
the nouns adulter, an adulterer; Celtlber, a Celtiberian; Iber, a Spaniard;
Liber, Bacchus; sbcer, a fether-in-law; vesper, the evening; and sometimes
Mulclber, a name of Vulcan: also the plural libiri, children.
Words in er, ir, and ur, it is probable, originally ended in irus, Irus, and
urus; and hence, in some words, both forms are stiU found; as, socirus
and sdcer.
66.—Rule 1. All otter nouns in er, lose e in the
root, by syncope, when the termination is added; as,
Singular.
JV. liber,
G. libr-i,
J), libr-o,
Ac. libr-um,
V. liber,
Ab. libr-o.
Liber, a book, Masc.
Plural.
AT. libr-i,
G. libr-orum,
H. libr-is.
Ac. libr-os,
V. libr-i,
Ab. libr-is.
Thus decline:
Ager, a field.
Aper, . a wild boar.
Culter, a knife.
Magister, a master.
Auster, the south wind.
Cancer, a crab.
67.—^Rule 2. Nouns in us, have the vocative
in e,' as, ventus, vente.
Dominus, a lord, Masc.
Singular,
domin-us,
domin-i,
domin-o,
Ac. domin-um,
F. domin-e,
Ab. domin-o.
N.
G.
D.
Plural.
AT. domin-i,
G. domin-orum,
D. domin-is,
Ac. domin-os,
F. domin-i.
Ah. domin-is.
Ventus,
Oculus,
Annus,
riuvius,
Hortus,
Radius,
Thus decline:
the wind,
the eye.
a year,
a river,
a garden,
a ray.
SECOND DECLENSION.
19
Siugolar.
If. regn-um,
G. regn-i,
J), regn-o,
Ac. regn-um,
V. regn-um,
Ab. regn-o.
Regnum, a kingdom., Neut.
N.
G.
D.
Ac
V.
Plural,
regn-a,
regn-orum.
regn-is,
regn-a,
regn-a.
Thus dediue:
Ab. regn-is.
Antrum,
Astrum,
Donum,
Jugum,
Saxum,
Pomum,
a cave,
a star,
a gift,
a yoke,
a stone,
an ajpple.
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES.
Arbiter,
a judge.
Folium,
a leaf.
Sooer, a father-in-law.
Bellum,
war.
^ Gladius,
a sword.
Telum,
a dart.
CSdus,
a cask.
Lupus,
a wolf.
Torus,
a conch.
Cervus,
a stag.
Murus,
a wall.
Tectum,
the roof.
Collum,
the neck.
Nidus,
a nest.
Truncus,
the trunk
Equus,
a horse.
Ovum,
an egg.
Velum,
a sail.
FSber,
an artist.
Praelium,
a battle.
Vidum,
a ford.
Flcus, £,
a fgtree.
Ramus,
a branch.
. Vstum,
a vow.
68.—EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER.
Exc. 1. Of nouns ending in us, the names of plants, towns,
islands, and precious stones, with few exceptions, are feminine,
(45-2.)
Obs. In many cases, where the name of a tree ends in us,
fem., there is a form in um denoting the fruit of the tree; as,
cerasus, cerasum ; m.alus, malum ; morus, morum ; pirus,pirum ;
prunus, prunum; pomus, pomum. But flcus means both a
fig-tree, and a fig.
Exc. 2. Besides these, only four words, originally Latin,
are feminine; viz, a^vus, the belly; cd^ws, the distaff; hUmus,
the ground; and vannus, a winnowing fan.
Exc. 3. F%rus, juice, poison; and peldgus, the sea, are neuter,
and have the accusative and vocative like the nominative.
Vulgus, the common people, is both masculine and neuter.
Pampinus, a vine branch, is rarely feminine, commonly mas¬
culine.
Exc. 4. Many Greek nouns in us, are feminine, especially
compounds of odos; as, methodus, periodus, &c. So also, biblus^
papirus, diphthongusfparagraphus, diametrus, perimeirus.
20
SECOND DECLENSION.
§10
EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION.
69.—Exc. 5. The Vocatwe Singula/r. 1st. Pro¬
per names in ins lose us in the vocative; as,
Vvrgilms^ V. Vi/rglU; except Pius^ which has
In like manner, Jilius, a son, has Jili; and genius, one's
guardian angel, has geni. But other common nouns in ins,
and such epithets as Delius, Saiurnius, &c., not considered as
proper names, have ie. Also proper names in ius, from
Greek nouns in sioj, have ie.
2d. I>eus has deus in the vocative, and in the plural more
frequently dii and diis, (sometimes contracted di and dis,)
than dei and deis. Mens, my, has the vocative mi, sometimes
mens.
70.—Obs. The poets, sometimes, make the vocative of
nouns in us, like the nominative, which is seldom done in
prose. Sometimes* also, they change nouns in er into
us; as, Evander or Evandrus; in the vocative, Evander
or Evandre.
71.—Exc. 6. The Genitive Singular.—Nouns in ius and
ium, in the purest age of the Latin language, formed the
genitive singular in i, not in ii, both in prose and verse; as,
fili, Tulli, ingeni; they are now frequently written with a
circumflex; thus, Jili, Tulli, ingeni; for, Jilii, Tullii, &c.
72.—Exc. 7. The Genitive Plural.—Some nouns, especially
those which denote value, measure, weight, commonly form
the genitive plural in iim, instead of drum; as, nummiim,
sestertium, &c. The same form occurs in other words, espe¬
cially in poetry; as, deum, Danaiim, &c.; also, dlvom is used
for divorum.
Pie,
73.-;-Deus, a god, is thus declined:
Siogular.
N. De-us,
G. De-i,
B. De-o,
N. De-i, or Di-i, Contr. Dl,
G. De-orum,
D. De-is, or Di-is, " Dis,
Ac. De-os,
Plural.
Ac. De-um,
V. De-us,
Ah. De-o.
V. De-i, or Di-i, " Dl,
Ah. De-is, or Di-is, " Dis.
THIRD DECLENSION.
21
GREEK NOUNS.
74.—Greek nouns in os and on, are often changed into u$
and um ; as, Alpheos, Alpheus ; Hion, Ilium: and those in ros,
into er ; as, Alexandras, Alexander. When thus changed, they
are declined like Latin nouns of the same terminations.
Otherwise,
Greek nouns are thus declined:
Akdrogeos, Masc; Delos, Fem.—Barbiton, a lyre, Neut.
Singular. Singular. Plural.
N. Androge-os, Del-os,
Q. Androge-o, or -i, Del-i,
D. Androge-o, Del-o,
Ac. Androge-o, or -on, Del-on,
V. Androge-os, Del-e,
Ab. Androge-o. Del-o.
N. barbit-on, barbit-a,
G. barblt-i, barbit-on,
D. barbit-o, barbit-is,
Ac. barbit-on, barbit-a,
V. barbit-on, barbit-a,
Ab. barbit-o. barbit-is.
75.—Some nouns in os, anciently had the genitive in «; as, Menandru.
Panthu occurs in VirgU, as the vocative of Panthus. Proper names in eiis
are declined like domtnus, but have the vocative in eus, and sometimes con
tract the genitive singular; as, Orphe'i into Orphei, or Orphi. Proper names
in which is a diphthong, are of the third declension. Other nouns, also,
are sometimes of the third declension; as, Androgeo, Androgeonis.
EXERCISES ON THE SECOND DECLENSION.
List of words in the following exercises:
Puer, a hoy. Regnum, a kingdom, Solum, the soil,
Dominus, a lord. Yentus, the wind, Ochlus, the eye.
Liber, a hook. ' Coelum, heaven. Filius, a son.
Tell the case and number of the following words, and trans¬
late them accordingly:—Pueri, dominorum, dommo, puero,
puerum, pueros, bbri, libris, librum, libro, dommis, domine,
regnum, regna, regnbrum—ventus, vento, ventum—oculus,
oculorum—filii, fill, filiis, filios.
Translate the following words into Latin:—To a boy, from
a boy, O boy, O boys, of boys; books, of books, for books,
in books, with a book; a lord, from a lord, to a lord, of lords,
the lords; of a kingdom, the kingdom, to the kingdoms; to
the winds of heavenf lords of the soil, &o., ad libitum.
22
THIRD DECLENSION.
§11
§ 11. THE THIRD DECLENSION.
76.—^Nouns of the third declension are very
numerons; they are of all genders, and generally
increase one syllable in the oblique cases. Its
final letters, in the nominative, are thirteen, a, e,
% 0, y, c, c?, w, r, % X. Of these,. a, % y, are
peculiar to Greek nouns.
Obs. A noun is said to increase, when it has more syllables
in any case than it has in the nominative.
TERMINATIONS.
Masculine and Feminine. Neuter.
Singular. Plural. Singular. •Flural.
N. —, N. -es,
G. -is, G. -um, or-ium,
D. -i, D. -ibus,
Ac. -em, Ac. -es,
V. —, V. -es,
Ai.-e, or-i. A6.-ibus.
N. —, N. -a,
G. -is, G. -um, or -ium,
D. -i, J), -ibus,
Ac. —, Ac. -a,
V. -, V. -a,
Ah.-Q,or-i. A6.-ibus.
77.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
1. In this declension, the nominative and vocative of mas¬
culine and feminine nouns are always alike. As the final
syllables of the nominative are very numerous, a dash (—)
supplies their place in the preceding table. Neuter nouns
come under the general rule, (57-1).
2. All nouns of this declension are declined by annexing
the above case-endings, or terminations to the root.
3. The Root consists of all that stands before is in the
genitive (56), and remains unchanged throughout. Hence,
when the genitive case is found, the cases after that are alike
in all nouns, except as noticed hereafter. In most nouns of
this declension, the root does not appear in foil form in the
nominative, nor in the vocative singular. See 78, 80, 81.
4. The genitive singular of.nouns, in this declension, will
be most easily learned from the Dictionary, as all rules that
can be given are rendered nearly useless by the number of
exceptions under them.
THIRD DECLBNSION.
23
5. In the following examples, the root and terminations are
separated by a hyphen (-), in order to show more distinctly
the regularity of the declension. This being mentioned, it
will occasion no difficulty, though standing, as it often does, in
the middle of syllables; as, tr-is.
78.-8 12. EXAMPLES OF THE THffiD DECLENSION.
Smgular.
N- Sermo,
G. Sermon-is,
D. Sermon-i,
Ac. Sermon-em,
F. Sermo,
Ab. Sermon-e,
1. Sermo, a speech, Masc.
Plural. • Thus decline:
AT". Sermon-es, Carho, a coal.
Q. Sermon-um, Leo, o lion,
D. Sermon-ibus, " Oratio, an oration.
Ac. Sermon-es, Pavo, a peacock.
V. Scrmon-es, Prsedo, a robber.
Ab. Sermon-ibus, Titio, a fire-irand.
Notb. Homo, riemo, ApoUa, and turho ; also, cardo, ordo, margo, and like¬
wise, nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, change o into i before
the terminations; Homo, hominie ^ Oupido, Oupidinin; imago, ima^init.
But Comido, uritdo, and tuxrpago, retain a ; as, Comedo, comedOnit. Anw and
Nerio change o into ej as, Anio, Anionis; and cdro has carnis, by syncope
for eardnis.
2. Color, a color, Masc.
Singular. Plural. Thus decline:
AT. cblor, AT". col6r-es, Arbor, a tree
G. color-is, G. color-um. Cantor, a singer.
D. col6r-i, D. color-ibus, Honor, honor.
Ac. color-em, Ac. col6r-es. Labor, labor.
V. color, V. col6r-es. Lector, a reader.
A6. color-e. A6. color-ibus. Pastor, a shepherd.
3. Miles, a soldier, Masc.
Singular.
AT", miles,
G. milit-is,
D. milit-i,
Ac. milit-em,
V. miles,
Ab. milit-e.
Plural.
N. milit-es,
G. milit-um,
D. milit-ibus,
Ac. milit-es,
V. milit-es,
A9. milit-ibus.
Thus decline :
Ales, a bird.
Comes, a companion.
Limes, d limit.
Trames, a path.
Seges, -etis, a crop.
Teges, -^tis, a mat.
24
THIRD DECLENSION.
§ 12
79.—^Rule 1. Nouns in es and is, not increasing
in the genitive singular, have imn in the genitive
plural; as,
4, Rupes, a rock, Fem.
Singular. Plural. Thus decline:
N. rup-es, N. rup-es, Apis, a bee.
O. rup-is, Q. mp-ium, Classis, a Jleet,
D. rup-i, D. rup-ibus, Moles, a mass.
Ac. rup-em, Ac. rup-es, Nubes, a cloud.
V. rup-es, V. rup-es, Vitis, a vine.
A6. rup-e. Ai. rup-ibus. Vulpes, . a fox.
Exo. Strues, a pile; votes, a prophet; eSnis, a dog ;juvinis, a young man •
■ nvugtiis, a mullet; pOnis, breaa; strigtlis, a scraper, have ttm. Sedes,
mensis, Opis or Opes, and volOcris, have mn or ium.
80.—^Rule 2. Nouns of one syllable in as apd
is, and also, in s and a?, after a consonant, have
ium in the genitive plural; as.
5. Pars, a part, Fem.
Singular.
A", pars,
G. part-is,
D. part-i,
Ac. part-em,
V. pars,
Ab. part-e.
Plural.
N. part-es,
G. part-ium,
D. part-ibus,
Ac. part-es,
V. part-es,
Ab. part-ibus.
Thus decline:
Calx, -cis, the keel.
Vas, -dis.
Lis, -tis,
Arx, -cis,
Urbs, -is,
Pons, -tis.
a surety,
a lawsuit,
a citadel.
a city,
a bridge.
81.—Rule 3. Nouns of more than one syllable
in as and ns, have itm, and sometimes ium, in
the genitive plural; as.
6. Parens, a parent, Masc, or Fem.
Singular.
N. p^ens,
G. parent-is,
D. parent-i,
Ac. parent-em,
V. parens,*
Ab. parent-e.
Plural.
N. parent-es,
G. parent-um,-ium,
D. parent-ibus,
Ac. parent-es,
V. parent-es,
Ab, parent-ibus.
• Thus decline:
Bid ens, a fork.
Rudens, a cable.
Cliens, a client.
Serpens, a serpent.
Sextans, o sixth of an as.
Torrens, a torrent.
THIRD DECLENSIOK.
25
82.—Obs. 1. Masculineandfemininenouns, which have 2M»4
in the genitive plural, sometimes have is, or eis, as well as es
in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural; as, partes,
pariium ;■—nominative, accusative, and vocative, partes, parteis,
or partis.
7, Opus, a work, Neut. (57-1.)
Siogolar.
JV. §pus,
G. oper-is,
2). opSr-i,
Ac. opus,
V. 6pus,
Ab. op^r-e.
Plural.
N. oper-a,
G. opSr-um,
D. oper-ibus,
Ac. op§r.a,
V. oper-a,'
Ab. oper-ibus.
Thus decline:
Funus, a funeral.
Latus, the side.
Corpus, -6ris, the body.
Caput, capitis, the head.
Femur, -oris, the thigh.
Iter, itineris, a journey.
83.—^Rule 4. Nouns in e, cH, and m, have
i in the ablative singular; ivm in.the genitive
plural; and ia in the nominative, accusative, and
vocative plural; as.
Singular.
N. sedil-e,
G. iSedil-is,
D. sedil-i, .
Ac. sedil-e,
F* sedil-e,
Ab. sedil-i.
8. SedIle, a seat, Neut.
Plural.
N. sedil-ia,
G. sedil-ium,
D. sedil-ibus,
Ac. sedil-ia,
V. sedil-ia,
Ab. sedil-ibus.
Thus decline:
Ancile,
Mantile,
Mare,
Ovile,
Rete,
Cubile,
a shield,
a towel,
the sea.
a sheep-fold,
a net.
a couch.
Singular.
N. animal,
G. animal-is,
D. animal-i,
Ac. animal,
V. animal,
Ab. animal-i.
9. AnImal, an animal, Neut.
Plural.
N. animal-ia,
G. animal-ium,
D. animal-ibus,
Ac. animal-ia,.
V. animal-ia,
Ab. animal-ibus.
Thus dechne;
Cubital, a cushion.
Calcar,
Jubar,
Nectar,
Toral,
VecGgal,
a spur,
a sun-beam.
nectar,
a bed-cover,
a tax.
Exe. Proper names in e have e in the ablative • as, Pnxneste, Neut, a
town in Italy; ablative, F^tneste.
%
26 THIRD DECLENSION. ' § 12
84.—ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES.
Acer, -Srls, n.
• a maple tree.
Homo, -inis, e.
a man
.^tas, -atis, £,
age.
Imago, -inis, £,
an image
Arbor, -6ris, £,
a tree.
Lac, -tis, n.
milk.
Aries, -6tis, m.
a ram.
Lapis, -idis, m..
a Steele.
Ars, -tis, f,
an art.
Laus, -dis, £,
praise.
canon, -dnis, m.
a rule.
Lex, legis, f,
a law.
Career, -gris, m.
a prison.
Monile, -is, n.
a necklace.
Cardo, -inis, m..
a hinge.
Mons, -tis, m..
a mountain
Carmen, -inis, n, a poem.
Munus, -aris, n.
a gift.
Cervix, -ieis, f.
the neck.
•Nix, nivis^ £,
snow.
Codex, -ieis, m.
a book.
Nox, noctis, £,
night.
Consul, -ulis, m..
a consul.
Onus, -aris, n..
a burden
Cor, cordis, il.
the heart.
Peeten, -inis, m..
a comb.
Crux, -flcis, £,
a cross.
Begio, -dnis, £,
a region.
Dens, -tis, m..
a tooth.
Salar, -aris, m.,
a trout.
Dos, dotis, £,
a dourry.
Serpens, -tis, c..
a serpent.
Formido, -inis, £, fear.
Trabs, -abis, £,
a beam.
Fornax, -acis, £,
a furnace.
Turris, -is, £,
a tower.
Frater, -tris, m..
a brother.
Uter, utris, m.
,a bottle.
Fur, furis, e..
a thief.
Virgo, -inis, £,
a virgin.
Gfinus, -5ris, u.
a kind.
Voluptas, -atis, £, pleasure.
Hseres, -edis, e..
an heir.
Vulnus, -Sris, u.
a wound.
EXERCISES ON THE EXAMPLES.
Tell the case and number of the following words, and trans
late them accordingly : — Sermonis, sermonum ; coloribus,
colori, colore, colores; militum, milltis, militem, militibus;
rupis, rupe, rupium, rupi, rupibus; partium, partes, parte,
partis; parenti, parente, parentum, parentes, parentis; opera,
opere, operi, operibus, operum; sedilis, sedilia, sedilibus, sedili.
sedilium; animalia, animalis, animali; carminis, carmini, car
minibus. •
Translate the following words into Latin:—Of a rock, of
rocks; from a soldier, with soldiers; to a seat, seats, of seats,
the wc rks, of a soldier; to the color, of a rock, a seat, for s
parent, the speech, of a parent, to a soldier, the color, of an
animal, from ropks, tp rocks, of a region, for a serpent, tht
night, &c., ad libitum.
§13
THIRD DECLENSION.
27
§ 13. GENDER OF NOUNS IN THE THIRD DE-
CLENSION.
1. MASCULINE NOUNS.
85.—^Kule 1. Nouns in w, o, ei\ or, es increas-
ing (76, Obs.,) and as, are generally masculine.
86.—^The following are exceptions; viz:
1. deceptions in N.
Fem. Sindon, aedor; halcyon, and Icon, are feminine.
Nect. Gluten, wnguen, inguen, pollen, and all nouns in men ; as carmen^
nomen, etc., are neuter.
2. Exceptions in O.
FiJt. 1. Notins in io, denoting things incorporeal, are feminine.
2. Nouns in do and go, of more than t\70 syllables, with grando,
virgo, and sometimes margo, are feminine.
But harp&go, eomldo, unldo and Cupldo, Cupid, are masculine.
Note. Gupido, desire, in prose, is always feminine; in poetry,
often masculine.
3. Cdro, flesh, is feminine, and Greek nouns in o; as, echo, Argo.
3. Exceptions in EE.
Fem. Tuber, the tuber-tree, and sometimes linter, a boat, are feminine.
Nkut. Acer, cadaver, cteer, \ter, laser, Idver, papaver, piper, slier, spinther,
sober, tuber, a sweUing, uber, tier, verber, zingiber, and sometimes
siser, are neuter.
4. Exceptions in OK.
Fem. Arbor, a tree, is feminine. (45-2.)
NBtrr. Ador, cequor, marmor, and cor, the heart, are neuter.
5. Exceptions in ES, increasing (76, Obs).
Fem. Compes, merees, merges, qures, requies, inquies, slges, tiges, tudes, and
sometimes ales, a bird, are feminine.
Nedt. uEs, brass, is neuter.
6. Exceptions in OS.
Fem. Arbos, (45-2) cos, dos, eos, are feminine.
Neitt. Os, the mouth; os,«bone; also, the Greek chaos, ethos, (pos, and
melos, are neuter.
28
THIED DECLENSION.
2. FEMININE NOUNS.
87.—Eule 2. Nouns in as, es not increasing,
is, ys, and aus ;—also in s after a consonant, and
a?, are, for the most part, feminine.
88.—The following are exceptions; viz:
1. Exceptwm in AS.
Maso. As, a, piece of money, and Oreek nouns in as, -antis, are masculine.
Neut. Vas, a vessel, and Greek nouns in as, Stis, are neuter.
2. Exceptions in ES not increasing.
Maso. AcinSces, edles, and sometimes palumbes, and vepres.
Neut. Cacoethes, hipp(m8.nes, nepentlies, and panSces, Greek.
3. Exceptions in IS.
MiAsa 1. Latin nouns in nts are masculine. 'B\Aamnis,<Anis,cliinis, finis,
and funis, are sometimes feminine. Fines, boundaries, in the
plural, is always masculine.
2. The following nouns are masculine, viz:
Axis,
Cossis,
Lapis,
Semissis,
Aqualis,
Callis,
Cucumis,
Mensis,
Sentis,
Decussis,
MugUis,
Sodalis,
Cassis,
Ensis,
Orbis,
Torris,
Caulis, or )
Fascis,
Piscis,
Unguis,
Colis, f
Follis,
PoUis,
Vectis,
Centussis,
Fustis,
Postis,
Vermis,
Collis,
Glis,
Sanguis,
Vdmis.
Maso. or Fem. Anguis, candlis, eenchris, eorbis, pulvis, scrSbis, tigris, tor-
quis, are masculine or feminine.
4. Exceptions in YS.
MAsa Names of rivers and mountains, as Halys, Othrys, Ac., are commonly
masculine. (45-2.)
5. Exceptions in S after a opnsonant.
MAsa 1. Bens, fons, mans, and pons; also, chSlybs, ellops, ipops, gryps,
hydrops, mirops, and seps, are masculine.
2. Nouns in ns, originally participles, and compounds of dens, as
oceldens, oriens, bldens, a two-pronged hoe; also sextans, qua'
drans, triens, &C., parti of as, are masculine; but bldens, a sheep,
is feminine.
MAsa or Fem. Adeps, forceps, rUdens, scrobs, serp>ens, stirps.
Note. Antmans, a living creature, is of all genders.
THIRD DECLENSION.
29
6. Exceptions in X.
Maso. ' 1. AX. CSrax, eordax, dropax, siprax, thorax, are masculine.
3. EX. All nouns in ex are masculine, except lex, nex, supellex,
feminine; cortex, imbrex. Obex, rOmex, iUex, sometimes
feminine; grex and pumex, rarely feminine; and atriplex,
neuter.
3. IX. COlix, fornix,pheenix, spodix, are masculine, and sometimes
periix and vOrix; o&erwise feminine;
4. OX. Box, Isox, and volvox, are masculine.
6. UX. Tradux is masculine.
6. YX. Bombgx, a silk worm; cSlyx, coccyx. Oryx, are masculine •
but Onyx, and sandyx, are masculine or feminine.
1. NX. Quincunx, septunx, dlcunx, deunx, parts of at, are mas¬
culine ; lynx is masculine or feminme.
Calx, lime, is feminine; calx, the heel, masculine or feminine.
Bombyx, silk, is feminine.
Nkut. Atrlplex, gold-herb, is neuter.
3. NEUTER NOUNS.
89.—^Rule 3. Nouns in «, e, % c, and t, arc
always neuter; those in I, ar^ v/r^ and w<s, are al¬
most always neuter.
90. The following are exceptions; viz:
1. Exertions in L.
Maso. Mugil and »ol are masculine; »al, in the singular, is commonly
masculine or feminine, sometimes neuter; in the plural, always
masculine.
2. Exceptions in AR.,
Maso. S&lar is mascnline. Par, in the sense of "mate," is masculine or
feminine; in the sense of " a pair," it is neuter.
3. Exceptions in UR.
Maso. Attur, furfur, turtur, and vultur, are masculine.
4. Exertions in US.
Maso. Llpus, mue, rhus, meaning a see^, or spice, and Greek nouns m pui
(except lagOpus, feminine), are masculine.
Fem. Nouns m us, having utis, or Udis in the genitive; also plcus, -udis
tellus, lagbpus, a|^ rhus, meaning a tree, are femiiune. Grus, is
masculine or fenunine.
30
THIRD DECLENSION.
90.—§ 15. EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION.
THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR.
1. The following nouns in is have im in the accusative.
Amussis, C, a measure, rule. Ravis, £, a hoarseness.
Buris, £, the beam of a plough. Sinapis, £, mustard.
Cauoabis, hemp. SItis, £, thirst.
Cuc&mis, m., a cucumber. ■ Tussis, £. a cough
Gummis, £, gum. Vis, £, strength.
Mephitis, £, a strong smell.
2. Proper names in is not increasing in the genitive, have
im in the accusative; viz :
Names of cities and other places; as, BilMlis, f., a city of
Spain; Syrtis, f., a quicksand on the coast of Africa^
Names of rivers; as, Tiberis, m., the Tiber; Boetis, m., the
Guadalquivir.
Names of gods; as, Anubis, m.; Osiris, m., Egyptian deities,
Kote. These nouns have sometimes in in the accusative.
3. The following nouns in is have em or im in the accusative;
viz:
Aqualis, £, a leater pot. Puppis, £, the stern of a ship.
Clavis, £, a key. Restis, £, a rope.
Cutis, £, the skin. Securis, £, an axe.
f ebi'is, f, a fever. Sementis, £, a sowing.
Lens, L lentiles. Strigllis, f, a curry-comb.
Navis, £, a ship. Turris, £, a tower.
Pelvis, £, a bason.
Sbtel. Puppis, restis, securis, vnd turris, have generally im; the others
commonly em. The oldest Latin writers form the accusative of some other
nouns iu im; as, avis, auris.
4. Nouns which have been adopted from the Greek, some¬
times retain a in the accusative; as, heros, an., a hero, heroa ;
Tros, m., a Trojan, Troa. (See No. 13 below.)
Kate 2. This form of the accusative singular is seldom used by the best
prose writers, and is chiefly confined to proper names, except in acr, m., the
air; eether, m., the sky; delphin, tn., a dolphin; Pan, m., the god of the
sheplierds, which commonly have aera, oethera, delphlna, and Pdna.
Obs. 1. Many Greek nouns in es have en, as well as em, in
the accusative; as, Euphraten, Oresten, Pyladen.
§15
THIKD DECLENSION.
31
ABLATIVE SINGULAR.
5. Nouns in is^ wliicli have im in the accusative,
have i in the ablative; as, mti.
But cannabis, Bcetis, sinapis, ahi Tigris, have e or i.
6. Nouns in is, which have em or im in the
accusative, have e or ^^in the Ablative; as, cldvis,
clave or cldvi.
Note 3. But cutis, and resiis, have e only; seeuris, sementis, and strigilis,
seldom have e.
7. The following nouns, which have em in the acccusative,
have e or i in the ablative; viz:
Amnis, m., a river. Occiput, a, the hind-head.
Anguis, m. and f, a snake. Orbis, m., a circle.
Kote 4. Finis, mugil, occiput, pugU, rus, suveUex, and vectis, have « or i
indifferently ; the others much more frequently have e.
Obs. 2. Names of towns, when they denote the place in or
at which any thing is done, take e or i ; as, Carthagine, or
Carthagini.
Obs. 3. Canalis, m. or f., a water pipe, has canali only.
Likewise names of months in is or er; as, Aprllis, September,
AprlH, Septembri ; and those nouns in is which were originally
adjectives ; as, cedilis, afflnis, bipennis, familiaris, natdlis,
rivalis, sodalis, volucris, &c. This class of nouns also admits
e in the ablative : Mudis, f., a rod, mdjuvenis, c., a youth, have
e only.
8. The following neuter nouns in al and ar have e in the
ablative; viz:
"Bace&r, ladles glove, luhar, a sunbeam. Far, a pair.
Far, corn. Nectar, nectar. Sal, salt.
Obs. 4. Mare, the#ea, has the ablative in e or i.
Avis, £, a bird.
Civis, c., a citizen.
Classis, £, a fleet.
Finis, m. and £, an end.
Fustis, m., a staff.
Ignis, m, afire.
Imber, m., a shower.
Mugil, m., a mullet.
Unguis, m., a nail.
Vectis, m., a lever.
PQgil, c., a pugilist.
Rus, n, the country.
Sors, f., a lot.
Supellex, £, furniture.
Pars, f, a part.
Postis, m., a door post.
82
THIRD DECLENSION.
GENITIVE PLURAL.
Lar, m., a household god. Par, d., a pair.
Linter, ui. or £, o Ixxst- Quiris, m., a Roman.
Mas, HL, a male.
Nix, f, srum.
Nox, £, night.
Os, n., a hone.
Samnis, m, a Samrnte,
Strix, £, a sereech-oal.
Uter, m., a bottle.
Venter, m, the belly.
[See Rules, 79—83.]
9. The following nouns have ium in the genitive plural:
CSro, t,Jlesh.
Cdhors, £, a cohort.
Cor, n, the heart.
Cos, £, a whetstone.
Dos, f., a dowry.
Fauce, f., the jaws.
Obs. 6. The compounds of uncia and as have likewise ium; as, Septunx,
m., seven ounces, septuncium ; sextans, m., two ounces, sextantium.
Obs. 6. Apis, t, a bee, has Spurn and apium; fraus, fraud; and mus, a
mouse, generally, and fornax, lar, pSlus, and rSdix, sometimes, have ium;
ipis, £, power, has Spurn only. Gryps, m, a griffon; lynx, m. or £, a lynx;
and Sphinx, £, the Sphinx, have um. Bos, c., gen. bSvis, an ox, has boum.
DATIVE PLURAL.
10. Bos, c., an ox or a cow, has bsbus or bobus in the dative plural; and
sus, c., a sow, has suibus, or subus. Nouns in ma have tis as well as tXbus; ,
as, poema, a, a poem, poemalibus or poemStis. The Greek termination si
or sin is very uncommon in prose, and is admissible only in words purely
Greek. (See No. 13, below.)
ACCUSATIVE PJ.URAL.
11. The form of the aecusative plural' in as is admissible in all wordi
which have that termination in Greek, but is rarely used in prose. Livy
however, frequently uses Macedonas; and AllobrSgas is found in Csesat
(For the accusative plural in is, or eis, see 82.)
12. Some nouns of the third declension are somewhat p«
culiar in different cases, as follows :
Jupiter.
Singular.
N. Jupiter,
G. J6v-is,
D. J6v-i,
Ac. J6v-em,
F. Jupiter,
Ah. J6v-e. -
Vis, force., power., Fem.
Singular.
N. vis,
G. vis,
D. -,
Ac. vim,
F. vis.
Ah. vi.
■ Plural.
N. vir-es,
G. vir-ium,
B. vir-ibus.
Ax. vir-es,
F. 'vir-es,
Ah. vir-ibus.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
Bos, an ox, or cow.
Singular.
JV, bos,
G. bov-is,"
D. b6v-i,
Ac. bov-em,
V. bos,
Ab. bov-e,
* Contracted
Masc. or Fem.
Plural.
JV. bov-es,
G. bourn,
D. bobus, or bfibus,*
Ac. bov-es,
V. b(5v-es,
Ab. bobus, or babus.
r lovilnu.
Kom.
S. Lampas
PI. Lamp-ades,
S. Tro-as,
Pi-Tro-Mes,
S. Heros,
S. Phyll-is,
S." Pir-is.
S. Chlam-ys,
S. Cap-ys,
S. Ilserea-ls,
S. Orph-eus,
S. Did-o,
13. GREEK NOUNS THROUGH ALL THE CASES.
Voc.
Oen.
-idis, or -&dos,
-lidum,
-§Ais, or -S.dos,
Sdum,
•CIS,
-idis, or -Idos,
idis, or -idos,
-ydis, or -ydos,
yis, or-yos,
-is, -IDS, or -COS,
-COS, w-ei, or-ei,
-us, or -6nis,
Dot.
-3di,
■adlbus,
-idi,
(-adlbus,
<-asi, t^r
t-Ssm,
-01,
-Idi,
-Idi,
-ydi,
•y.
•1.
or -ei,
0,<w-6ni|
Ace.
'Sdem, or -&da,
-&des, or -adas,
-adem, or-ida,
I-iides, or-Mas,
ogm, or -oa,
-Idem, or-ids,
•idem,-im, or-in,
•ydem, or -Ida,
-ym, or -yn,
im, or -in,
-ea,
-o, or -Onem,
-as,
-Mes,
■as,
■ades,
-08,
1, or-is,
i.
-ys.
-y.
-eu,
-o,
All.
-Me.
-Mibus.
-ade.
I -adlbus,
< -Ssi, or
' -asin.
-06.
-Ide.
Ide.
-yde.
-ye.
-i.
-eo.
-o, or-bne.
§ 16. FOURTH DECLENSION.
91.—^The Fourth Declension has two termina¬
tions of the nominative singular, va and u.
Those in u are neuter.
TERMINATIONS.
Masculine and Feminine.
Neuter.
Singular.
Plural
Singular.
Plural
If. -us.
-us.
N. -u,
-ua.
G. -6s,
-uum.
G. -6s,
-uum,
J), -ui.
-ibus.
D. -u (ui).
—ibus,
Hc.-um,
-us.
Ac. -u.
-ua.
F. -us.
-us.
V. -u.
-ua.
Ab.-u,
• -ibus.
Ab.-\x, -
-ibus.
84
FOURTH DECLENSION.
Singular.
iV. fi'uct-us,
G. fruct-6s,
D. fruct-ui,
Ac. fruct-um,
V. fruct-us,
Ab. fruct-u-
Singular.
JV. corn-u,
G. corn-US (93-4),
D. corn-u,
Ac. com-u,
V. corn-u,
Ab. corn-u.
rRU0Tos,yWtt7, Masc.
Plural.
If. fruct-us,
G. fruct-uum,
D. fruct-ibus,
Ac. fruct-us,
V. fruct-us,
Ab. fruCt-ibus.
CoBNU, a horn, Neut.
Plural.
If. com-ua,
G. corn-uum,
D. com-ibus,
Ac. corn-ua,
V. corn-ua,
Ab. comlbus.
Thus decline
Cantus,
Casus
Currus,
Fluctus,
GrMus,
Senatus, ike senate.
a song,
a fall,
a chariot,
a wave,
a step.
Thus decline:
Gelu,
Genu,
Pecu,
Vgru,
tee.
ike knee,
cattle,
a spit.
Note. The only neuters in this declension are comu, gWa, gewu, rierv, and
pecu, which has the dative pecui : tonitrue, ■&», m., and tonitrwan, i, n.,
thunder, are in common use ; is hardly ever mund in classic writers,
and never in the nominative or accusative singular.
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES.
Flatus, a blast.
Ictus, a stroke.
Manus, f., the hand.
MOtus, a motion.
Nutus, a nod
Passus, a pace.
Ritus, a ceremony.
Sinus, a bosom.
Situs, a situation.
92.—EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER.
Exc. 1. The following'nouns are feminine; viz :
Acus, a needle. Reus, afg. Porticus, a gallery.
Anus, an old woman. Mwus, the hand Spficus,* a den.
Domus, a house. Pgnus,* a storehouse. Tribus, a tribe.
* Sometimes masculine.
EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION.
Exc. 2. The Genitive and Dative singular:—In some writers,
the genitive singular is occasionally found in uis ; as, ejus anuis
causa, for Units. Tekencb : sometimes also in i ; as, sendti and
tumulti. Sall. In others, the dative is sometimes found in u;
as, resistbre impetil, for impetui ; Esse usH sibi, for usui. Cio.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
85
Exc, 3. The Genitive, Dative, and Ablative plural:—^The
genitive plural is sometimes contracted; as, cvrrum, for cur-
ruum. The following nouns have ubus instead of ibus in the
dative and ablative plural; viz :
Acus, a needle. Lacus, a lake. Sp^cus, a den.
Arcus, a bow. Partus, a birth. Tribus, a trike.
Artus, a joint. Portus,* a harbour. VSru,* a $pit.
GSnu,* the knee.
• These word Also have -ibu* in the dative plural.
93.—OBSERVATIONS.
1. Nouns of this declension seem to have belonged anciently
to the third, and were declined like grus, gruis; thus, fructus,
fructu-is,fructu-i, &c. So that all the cases, except the Dative
singular and the genitive plural, may be regarded as contracted
forms of that declension.
2. Several nouns of this declension are, in whole or in part,
of the second also; such as, Flcus, laurus, penus, plnus, ddmus,
senatus, tumultus, and several others. Capricornus, m., and
the compounds of manus, as unimSnus, centimanus, &c., are
always of the second.
3. Jesus, the name of the Saviour, has um in the accusative,
and M in all the other oblique, cases. This word does not pro¬
perly belong to this declension, but is after the Greek: 'Irj<rous,
oS, ov, ovv, ov.
4. Nouns in u were formerly considered indeclinable in the
singular; but the recent investigations of Freund and others,
have shown this opinion to be incorrect, at least with regard
to the genitive; and that u, the only termination of the dative
now found, is probably a contraction for ui—just as usu is
contracted for usui, (Exc. 2.)
5. Domcs, a house, Fem., is thus declined:
Singular. Plural.
N. d6m-us, N. d6m-us,
O. dom-fts, or -i, G. dom-orum, or -uum,
D. dom-ui, or -o, D. dom-ibus,
Ac. dom-um, Ac. dom-us, or -os,
V. dom-us, V. d6m-us.
Ah. d6m-o. Ah. dom-ibus.
Note.—Ddmue in the genitive, signifies a house. Nomi is used only to
signify at home, or of ho^e.
86
FIFTH DECLENSION.
EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH DECLENSION.
1. Tell the gender, number, and case, of the following words,
from the paradigm and additional examples, pp. 34 and 36, and
translate:
Fructus, fruct<is, fructuum, flatibus, flatu, manuum, manibus,
nutu, passuum, passibus, passbs, cornua, tonitribus, verfibus,
CMu, currum, currui, fluctu, fluctibus, comibus, &c.
2. Translate the following words imto Latin, and tell the
gender, number, and case, in which the words are put; viz:
Of fruit, to fruit, with the hand, for the hand, of a horn, to
a horn, with a horn, from horns, horns, the horns, of the
chariot, for a chariot, of chariots, from the waves, for the
waves, from his hands, with a nod, &c.
§ 17. FIFTH DECLENSION. "
94.—^The Fiftli Declension Las Lnt one termi¬
nation of tLe nominative singular, namely, es; as,
res, a thing: dies, a day.
All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies, a
day, which is masculine or feminine in the singular, and al¬
ways masculine in the plural; and meridies, the mid-day, which
is masculine in the singular, and wants the plural.
1. Dies, a day.
1
TERMINATIONS.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
N. di-es.
N. di-es.
-es.
—es.
G. di-ei.
G. di-erum.
—ei*, —6i*,
-erum
D. di ei.
JD. di-ebus.
—bi*, —ei.
-ebus.
Ac. di-em.
Ac. di-es.
-em.
-es.
V. di-es,
V. di-es.
-es, •
-es.
Ah. di-e.
Ab. di-ebus.
-g.
-ebus,
Obs. 1. Dies, res, and species, are the only nouns of the
fifth declension which have the plural complete; acies, effigies,
fades, series, and spes, in the plural, have only the nominative,
accusative, and vocative; the other nouns of this declension
have no plural.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
87
2. Facies, ihe face, Fem,
Singnlar.
N. faci-es,
G. faci-ei,
D. faci-ei,
Ac. faci-em,
F. faci-es,
Ah. faci-e.
Plural.
N. faci-es,
G.
D. ——
Ac. faci-es,
V. fadl-es.
Ah.
Thus dedine:
Acies, an army.
Effigies, an image.
Series, a series.
Spes, -ei, hope.
Exc. The poets sometimes make the genitive, and moi-e
rarely the dative singular, in e; as, fide for fidei, Ov,: some¬
times in i; as, pernicii for perniciei, Nep.; and plebi for
pkbU, Lav. Bequies is both of the third and the fifth declension.
EXERCISES ON THE FIFTH DECLENSION.
1. Tell the gender, number, and case of the following nouns,
and translate them ;—Diei, sp6i, aciem, acie, faciei, facies,
diebus, dierum, dies, faciem, effigiem, series, rerum, diebus,
diem, &c., ad libitum.
2. Translate the following English words into Latin, and
tell the gender, &c.:—The image, of the face, the things, of
the army, the hope, of the army, a series, of days, to a day,
from the days, with the army, to an image, &c.
PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES ON ALL THE DECLENSIONS.
Tell the gender, declension, case, and number, of the following
nouns, in the order here mentioned, and give the- translation;
thus, Fennli, a noun, feminine, of the first declension, in the
ablative singular, " with a pen " *:
Via, pueri, genSro, ventis, puerorum, sermo, sedile, sedili,
sedilium, sedilibus, fructuum, fructfis, sellae, tubam, regno.
* The following are the
indicated by the genitive,
Ala, -se, a wing.
Bellum, -i, war.
Caput, -Itis, the head.
C61or, -is, eohrr.
Dies, -el, a day.
Domlnus, -i, a lord.
Facies, -61, the face.
Fructus, -iks, fruit,
Gener, -i, a eon-m-law.
Udp.or, -is, honor.
words used in these exercises; i the declension is
according to No. 55.
Iter, itineris, a way.
Manus, -us, a hand.
Mensa, -se, a table.
Miles, -itis, a soldier.
Parens, -tis, a parent.
Pars, -tis, apart.
Puer, -i, a boy.
Begnum, -i, a hingdom.
Res, rei, a thing.
* Rapes, -is, a rock-
Sedile, -is, a seat.
Sella, -se, a seat.
Sermo, -Onis, a speech.
Templum, -i, a temple.
Tempus, -6ris, time.
Tuba, -se, a trumpet.
Urbs, -is, a city.
Ventus, -i, the wind.
Via, -se, a way.
Vulpes, -is, a for
38
IKEEGtJLAR NOUNS.
tefnpli, dies, rerum, capite, capitum, itineribus, partis, parent-
ibus, rupe, urbis, vulpem, vujpibus, parente, sedilia, die,
colorem, militis, militibus, sermones, honore, m^us, mands,
manibus, faciem, ala, tubam, mensarum, bellum, dominorum,
templum, puerorum, bella, bello, &c.
Translate the following into Latin, and state the gender, de¬
clension, case, and number, always following the same order;
thus, " Of boys," puerorum, a noun, masculine, of the first de¬
clension, in the genitive plural :
From the way, to a speech, with a part, of a seat, of seats,
to the wind, a kingdom, to a boy, of boys, with lords, foxes,
of tables, to parents, with seats, of soldiers, from the head,
heads, to a part, with a trumpet, in a time, of war, the time,
of color, in a journey, to a seat, of a rock, to sons-in-law,
with fruit, of the face, with a seat, to tables, of rocks, &c.
§ 18, IRREGULAR NOUNS.
95. Irregular Nouns are divided into Variable, Defective, and
Redundant,
L VARIABLE NOUNS.
96.—Nouns are variable either in Gender, or Declension,
or in both. Nouns varying in gender are called. Hetero¬
geneous. Those which vary in declension are called, Hetero-
clites.
Heterogenecni-s Nbune.
1. Masculine in the singular, and neuter in the plural; as,
Avernus, a hill in Campania. Pangeeus, a promontory in Thrace,
Dindymus, a hill in Phrygia. Tsenarus, o promontory in Laconia.
IsmSruB, a hill in Thrace. TartSrus, hell.
Msenaliis, a hill in Arcadia. TaygStus, a hiH in Laconia.
2. Masculine in the singular, masculine and neuter in the
plural; as, jocus, a jest, plural j6ci and j6ca; Idcus, a place,
plural loci and Idea.
3. Feminine in the singular, neuter in the plural; as,
carbasus, a sail, plural carbSsa; Perg&mus, the citadel of
Troy, plural Pergama.
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
39
4. Neuter in the singular, masculine in the plural; as, Argos,
Argos, a city in Greece, plural Argi; Elysium, the Elysian
fields, plural Elysii; caelum, heaven, plural coeli.
KoU 1.—Argos, in the Singular, is used only in the Nott., and Aco.
5. Neuter in the singular, masculine and neuter in the
plural; as, frlnum, a bridle, plural freni and frena; rostrum,
a rake, plural rasiri and rostra.
6. Neuter in the singular, feminine in the plural; as, bal¬
neum, a bath, plural balneal, seldom balnea; epulum, a ban¬
quet, plural epulae; delieium, a delight, plural deliciae.
,Heteroclites.
7. Vas, vasis, neuter, a vessel, of the third declension, plural
vasa, vasdrum, of the second. Jugerum, jugeri, neuter, an
acre, of the second declension, plural jugera, jugerum, of the
third. Jugeris and jugere from jugus, are also found in the
singular. (See Num. 11 below.)
8. Some Greek proper nouns are declined both by the
second declension and the third, as follows:
Nom. Gen.
Orpheus,]
Achilleus, -ei,
Achilles, -lis, or -ICos,
DOUBLE NOUNS.
9. To this class may be referred a few double nouns, the
parts of which are of different declensions. When the two
nominatives combine, both parts are declined like a substantive
and adjective; thus,
Respublica, a commonwealth, Fem.
Siugular. Plural.
JV. respublicaj iV. respublicae,
G. reipublicse, G. rerumpublicarum,
D. reipublicae, E. rebuspublicis,
Ac. rempubllcam, Ac. respublicas,
V. respublica, V. respublicse,
Ab. repubMca. Ab. rebuspublicis.
Pat.
Acc.
Voci
Abl.
-eo.
-eum, or -eon.
-eo;
2d Decl.
-ei.
"-ea.
-eu.
3d Decl.
-0,
-um.
-o;
2d Decl.
-tkii.
-odem, -
-u.
-<kle;
3d Decl.
-eo.
-eu.
-eo;
2d Decl.
-li,
-lem, or-len.
-les, or-le.
-le;
3d Decl.
40
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
JusjcRAKDUH, (tn Oath, Neut.
Singular. Plural.
N. jusjurandum, N. jurajuranda,
G. jurisjurandi, G.
D. jurijurando, D.
Ac. jusjurandum, Ac. jurajuranda,
V. jusjurandum, V. jurajuranda,
.46. jurejurando, Ab.—
When the one part is a nominative, and the other an oblique
case, the part in the nominative only is declined; as,
Materfamilias, a mistress of a fqjmily, Fem.^
Singular.
N. materfamilias,
G. matrisfamilias,
B. matrifamilias,
, Ac. matremfamilias,
V. materfamilias.
Ah. matrefamilias.
Sole 2.—Hero,/amilias is an old form of the genitive, and is governed bjr
mater. So, Fater-familias, filius-familias, jilia-familiae. PI. matree-famv-
Itarum, <&c. In thus yia.y,famUim is used as well aa/amilUu.
II DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
Nouns are defective either in Case or in Number.
Obs. 1. Indeclinable nouns, i. e., nouns which have the same
form in all cases, though commonly ranked under this class,
do not properly belong to it, because none of the cases are
wanting. They are such as pondo, n., a pound or pounds;
semis, n., the half; mille, a thousand; coepe, an onion; 6pm,
need or needAil, used both as a substantive and an adjective.
To these may be added any word used as a noun; as, velle, in
the phrase, suum velle (for sua voluntas), his own inclination;
—proper names adopted from a foreign language; as, ElieH-
bet, Jerusalem, &c. . ^
1. Nouns defectwe i/n particular cases.
Ifbte,—A noun used in one case only, is called a monoptote; in two cases, a
diptote; in three, a triptote; in four, a tetraptote; in five, apentaptote. An
indeclinable word is called an aptote.
10. The following nouns are used only in one case •
Nominative. Inquies, £, want
§ 18 IKBEGULAR NOUNS. 41
Aliative,
A.dmomtu, m., an admonition. Ingratiis, £, in »pite of.
Amb^e. t, a winding. Injussu, m, without order.
Casse, m, a net. Interdiu, by day.
Diu, by day. Natu, m, by birth.
Ergo, on account of. Nootu, f., by night.
Fauce, f, the jaws. ' Fromptu, m, in readiness.
Obs. 2. Many verbal nouns of_ the fourth declension are
used only in the ablative singular; as, accltu, ^rompiu, &c,
Dlcis, {., and nauci, n., are used only in the genitive singular;
as dlcis gratia, for form's sake; res nauci, a thing of no value.
Jnficias, f., and incita, f., or incttas, have only the accusative
plural; as, injicias ire, to deny ; ad incitas reductus, reduced
to extremities. Ambages, casses and fauces, are regularly de¬
clined in the plural.
11. The following nouns are used only in two cases:
Nominative and Accusative.
Astu, n., the city of Athens. Instar, n., likeness, bigness.
Inferiae, -as, f., sacrifices to the dead. Suppetiae, -as, £, hdp.
Nominative and Ablative.
Astus, -u, m., cunning. Vesper, -e, or -i, m., the evening.
Genitive and Ablative.
Comp^dis, -e, f, a fetter. Spontis, -e, f., of onds own accord.
Impetis,-e, m,/oree. VerbSris,-e, n, a s<npe. -
Juggris, -e, n, an acre. RepetundSrvun, -is, £, extortion.
Obs. 3. Compedes, jugera and verbera are regularly declined
in the plural. Astus is found in the nominative and accusative
plural.
12. The following nouns are used only in three cases
Nominative, Accusative and Vocative.
Caeoethes, n, a bad custoni. NSfas, n, impiety.
(Also other Greek nouns in -«s.) Nihil, and Nil, n., nothing.
Cete, n., whales. Tempe, n., the vale of Tempe.
Dica, -am, £, a process; pL -as. '
Nominative, Accusative and Ablative.
Epos, n, a heroic poem. Melos, n., a song; pL -e.
Fas, n, divine law. Mane, -e, -e, n, the morning.
Grates, £, thanks. Tabes, f, eonmmytion.
Lues, £, a♦ Vepres, or-is, m., a An'er.
42
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
Kom^ Gen, and Abl. Tabum, a, prUrid gore.
Nom., Gen. and Acc. Munia, -drum, n, offieee.
Opii, £, genitive, help, (from ops,) has bpetn in the accusative, and bpe
in the ablative singular, with the plural complete, 6pe», bpnm, Ac., wealth;
and prlci, £, dative, a 'prayer, (from prex,) has prlcem and price, with the
plural entire, prices, pricum, Ao. Femlnis, a, genitive, the thigh, (from
fimen^ has femXni and fem\ne, in the dative and ablative singrilar, and
fem\na in the nominative, accusative and vocative pluraL
Obs. 4. Vepres has the plural entire; and tabes and grattbus,
the nominative and the ablative plural of tabes and grates, are
also found.
The following nouns want the genitive, dative, and ablative
plural:
Far, n., com. Mel, n., koney. Rus, a, the country.
Hiems, f., winter. MSttis, m.,fear. Thus, d.,frankincense.
(For nouns of the Fifth Declension, see 94.)
13. The following nouns want the nominative and vocative,
and are therefore used only in four cases :
To these may be added daps, t, a dish; frux, £, com; and nex, i,
slaughter, which are seldom used in the nominative. The plural of frux
is entire; daps wants the genitive; and nex seems to have the nominative,
accusative, and vocative only.
Chaos, n., a confused mass, wants the genitive and dative
.singular, and is not used in the plural.
Obs. 5. Pecudis and sordis have the plural entire; v\cis is
defective in the genitive; ditibnis has no plural.
14. Some nouns are defective in one case.
The following want the genitive plural:
Ditidnis, f., power.
Pecudis, f., a beast.
Sordis, i, filth.
Vicis, £, a change.
Faex, f., dregs.
Fax, £, a torch.
Labes, £, a stain.
Lux, £, light.
Os, n., the mouth.
PrSles,^ offspring.
Ros, m., dew.
Soboles, £, offspring.
Sol, m, the sun.
Satias, £, a glut of any thing, and s&lum, n., the sea, want the genitive
singular and the plwal entirely. SUus, m, a situation, mustiness, want»
§ 18
XBREGULAR NOUNS.
43
the genitive, and perhaps the dative singular, and probably the genitive,
dative, and ablative pluraL Nemo, c., nobody, wants the vocative singular,
and has no pluraL
• n. Nouns de^ectwe in tmmher.
15. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they
express, cannot be used in the plural. Such are the names
of virtues and vices; of arts, herbs, metals, liquors, different
kinds of corn, abstract nouns, &c.; as, justitia, justice; luxus,
luxury; mnsica, music; apium, parsley; aurum, gold; lac,
milk; tridcum, wheat; mapnxtudo, greatness; senectus, old
age; macies, leanness, <kc. But some of the nouns included
in these classes are occasionally found in the plural.
16. The following masculine nouns, for the most part, want
the plural:
Aer, aSris, the air.
i£ther, -Sris, the sky.
Fimus, -i, dung.
Hesperus, -i, the evening star.
Limus, -i, mud.
MeridicB, -iei, mid-day.
Mundus, -L a woman's ornaments.
Muscus, -i, moss.
Note 8.—Aer, pvlvis, and sSpor are
17. The following feminine
the plural:
Argilla, -«e, potteds earth.
Fames, -is, hunger.
Humus, -i, the ground.
Indoles, -is, a disposition^
Plebs, -is, the common people.
PQbes, -is, the yonth.
PSnus, -i, or -Us, M manner of pro¬
visions.
Pontus, -i, the sea.
Pulvis, -£ris, dust.
Sanguis, -mis, i/ood
Sopor, -oris, ste<y.
Vetemus, -i, a lethargy.
found in the pluraL
nouns, for the most part, want
S^us, -utis, safety.
SItis, -is, thirst.
Supellez, -ctilis, lumsehold furni¬
ture.
Venia, -se, pardon.
Vespfira, -se, the evening
The following are sometimes found in the plural;
.Bills, -is, bile.
Cholera, -se, eholer.
Cutis, -is, the skin.
Famsi, -Bi,fame.
Gloria, --se, glory.
Labes, -is, a stain.
Pax. -cis, peace.
Pituitsi, -se, phlegm.
Pix, -cis, pitch.
Prdes, -is, offspring.
Quies, -etis, rest.
Soboles, -is, offspring.
Tellus, -aris, the earth.
3*
44 lEHEGULAE KOUNS, § 18
18. The following neuter nouns, for the most part, want
the plural;
Album, -i, a list of names. Lutum, -i, clay.
Barathrum, -i, any deep place. Kectar, -aris, nectar.
Diluculum, -i, the dawn of day. PeMgus, -i, the sea.
Ebur, -dris, ivory. ' PSnum, -i, and pSnus, -dris, all kinds
Foenum, -i, hay. of provisions.
OSla, frost, indeclinable. Pus, purls, matter.
llilum, -i, the black speck of a bsan; Sal, sails, salt.
a trifle. Ver, veris, the spring.
Jiibar, -iris, the sunbeam. Virus,-i, poison.
Justitium, -i, a vacation, the time Yitrum,-i, glass.
when courts do not sit. Viscum, -i, the mistletoe.
Lardimt, -i, bacon. Vulgus, i, the rabble.
Lethum, -i, death.
Obs, 6. Ebur, lardum, lutum, and pus, are found in the
plural; and pelage is found, in some cases, as the plural of
peldgus; sal, as a neuter noun, is not used in the plural.
19. Many nouns want the singular; such as the names of
feasts, hooks, games, and many cities and places; as,
ApoUinares, -ium, games in honor of Olympia, -orum, the Olympic games.
Apollo. Syracusae, -irum, Syracuse.
Bacchanalia, -ium, and -brum, the Hierosolyma, -brum, Jerusalem.
feasts of Bacchus. Thermopylae, -irum, the straits of
BucoUca, -brum, a book of pastorals. Thermopylae.
20. The following masculine nouns are scarcely used in
the singular:
Antes, the front rows of vines. InfSri, the gods below.
Cancelli, lattices, or windows made Lemiires, -um, ghosts, hobgoblits.
with cross-bars. Liberi, children.
Cani, gray hairs. Majbres, -mn, ancestors.
Celbres, -um, the light-horse. • Manes, -ium, ghosts.
Codicilli, writings. Minbres, -um, successors.
Fasti, -brum, or fastus, -uum, calen- Penates, -umysr -ium, household god^
dars, in which were markedfestival- Postbri, posterity,
days, <tc. Proceres, -um, the nobles.
Fori, the gangways of a ship, or seats Pugillares, -ium, writing tables,
in the Circus. Superi, the gods above.
Obs. 7. Liberi and proceres are also found in the singular
l^procerem). Some of the others, as inferi, majores, &;c.,
IRREOULAK NOUNS.
45
are properly adjectives, and agree with the substantives which
are implied in their signification.
21. The following feminine nouns want the singular:
Clitellse, a pannier. Ealendse, NOuee, Idus, Parietmse, ruinoui walls
-uum, names which the Phal^rse, trappings.
Romans gave to certain Primitiee,^r«( fruits,
days in each month. Reliquise, a remainder.
Lactes, the small guts. Salinee, salt-pits.
Lapicidiose, stone guar- Scalse, a ladder.
ries. Sodpae, a besom.
Manubiae, spoils taken in Tenebrae, darkness.
COnae, a cradle.
Dirae, imprecations.
Bivitiae, riches.
Ezcubiae, watches.'
Exsequiae, funerals.
Ezaviae, spoils.
Feriae, holidays.
Gerrae, trifles.
Induciaa, a truce.
Tbenbae, hot baths.
Tricae, toys.
Valvae, folding doors.
Vindiciae, a claim of li
berty, a defence
war.
Minae, threats.
Induviae, clothes to put Nugae, trifles.
on. Nundinae, a market.
Insidiae, snares. Nuptiae, a marriage.
The following are generally found in the plural:
Alpes, the Alps. Cbarites, -urn, the Graces.
Argutiae, quirks, witticisms. Facetiaa, pleasant sayings.
Bigae, a chariot drawn by two horses. Ineptiae, silly stories.
Trigae, by three. Praestigiaa, enchantments.
Quadrigae, by four. Sal^rae, rugged places.
Braccae, breeches.
22. The following neuter
Acta, public acts or records.
/EstSva, summer quarters.
Arma, arms.
Bellaria, -um, dainties.
Breria, -um, shallows.
Cibaria, victuals.
Crepuudia, children!s toys.
Cunab&la, a cradle, an origin.
Exta, the entrails.
Februa, purifying sacrifices.
Flabra, blasts of wind.
Fr9ga, strawberries.
Hyberna, winter quarters.
Dia, -um, the entrails.
IwisL, furural rites.
Lamenta, lamentations. •
nouns want the singular :
Lautia, proKtatona for the entertain¬
ment of foreign ambassadors.
Magalia, -um, cottages,
Moeuia, -um, the walls of a city.
Orgia, the sacred rites of Bacchus.
■ ParentSlia, -vun, solemnities at the
funeral of parents.
Praecordia, the diaphragm, the heart.
Spons&lia, -um, espousals.
Stativa, a standing camp.
Talaria, -um, winged shoes.
Tesqua, rough places.
Transtra, the seals on which the rowers
sit in ships.
UtensBia, -um, utensils.
46
IRBEGULAB NOUNS.
Ob$, 8. Acm and transira, are also found in the singular.
Some of the others, as brevia, hyberna, slaCiva, &c., are
properly adjectives; and agree with the substantives which are
necessary to complete their meaning.
III. Medimdant Noims.
23. Some nouns are redundant in termination, gender, oi
form of declension: as, arbor, or arbos, a tree; vulgus, the
rabble, masculine or neuter; menda, mendce, or mendum, mendi,
a fault.
The most numerous class of redundant nouns, is composed
of those which express the same meaning by different termina>
tions; as.
uEther, -eris, & aethra, the air.
Alvear, ib -e, dt -ium, a bee-hive.
Ajnaricus, d; -um, smet marjoram.
Ancile, & -ium, an oval shield.
Augiportus, -As, d; -i, d: -am, a narrow
lane.
Aphractus, <Sc -um, an open ship.
Aplustre, -um, the Jlag, colors.
Arbor, d; -os, a tree.
Baculus, -um, a staff.
Balteus, <fr -um, a belt.
Batillus, -um, a fire-shovel.
CapuB, ds -o, a capon.
Cassis, -idis, A -ida, -Idas, a helmet.
Cepa, <fc -e, (indec.), an onion.
Clypeus, d; -um, a shield.
Colluvies, tk -io, JUth, dirt.
CompOges, dc -go, a joining.
Conger, -grus, a large eel.
CrScus, db -um, saffron.
Cubitus, d; mm, a cubit.
Diluvium, -es. a deluge.
£I€gi, -drum, -ia, ah elegy.
Elepbantus, di Elephas, -antis, an
elephant.
Essdda, dc -um, a chariot.
Eventus, dc -a, -drum, an event.
Gausapa, dc -e, -es; -e, -is; dc -um, a
rough cloth.
Gelu, <fr -um,/ros<.
Gibbus, -a; <fc -er, -Iris, or -Iri, a
bunch, a swelling.
GluGnum, -en, glue.
Grus, -uis, d: -uis, -uis, a crane.
Laurus, i, dc -ds, a laurel tree.
Maceria, d: -ies, -iei, a wall.
Materia, -se, -ies, -iei, matter.
Menda, -se, d: -um, -i, a fault.
MiUidre, dc -ium, a mile.
Monitum, -us, -ds, an admonition.
Muria, -ies, -iei, brine or pickle.
Nasus, d; -um, the nose.
Obsidio, <fr -um, a siege.
Ostrea, -ae, tfc -ea, drum, an oyster.
Peplus, cfc -um, a veil, a robe.
Penus, -ds, d; -i; db -um; db -us, -drin
provisions.
Pistrina, d: -um, a grinding-house.
Plebs, dc -es, the common people.
Praetextus, -ds, d; -um, a pretext.
Rapum, dc -a, a turnip.
Ruma, dc -met, the cud.
Ruscum, dc -us, butcher's broom.
Segmen, dc -mentum, a paring.
Sepes, dc seps, a hedge.
SibOus, dc -a, -drum, a hissing.
Sinus, -um, o
Stramen, dc -tum, straw.
§ 18
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
47
Suffimen, <fc -turn, a •perfume. Torofilar, & -8re, a wine-prett.
Tiginis, & -um, a plank. Vetemus, -um, a letltargy.
Toral, <fc -ale, o bedcovering. Yiseum, <fc -us, the mutletoe.
Tomtrus, -Os, & -u, d: -uum, thunder.
Obs. 9. Some of the nouns in the preceding list, may be
used in either or in any of the terminations, and in the singula]
or plural, indifferently; some, as auxilium, laurus, -its, are
used only in one! or two cases; or in one number, as elegi;
while others, as proetextus (a pretext) and prcetextum (a border),
though sometimes synonymous, are commonly employed in a
different meaning.
24. The following nouns have a meaning in the plural dif¬
ferent from that which generally belongs to them in the
singular;
Singular. ' -Plural.
Aedes, a temple. Aedes, a house.
Auxilium, assistance. Auxilia, auxiliary troops.
Bdnum, any thing good. Bona, goods, property.
Career, a prison. ' CarcSres," the barriers of a race
course.
Castrum, a fort. - Castra, a camp.
Comitium, a place in the Rorrian Comitia, an assembly of the people
forum where the comitia were held, -for the purpose of voting.
Copia, plenty. Copiae, troops.
Cupedia, daintiness. Cupediae, or -a, dainties.
Facultas, potaer, ability. Facultates, wealth, property.
Fascis, a bundle of twigs, a fagot. Fasces, a bundle of rods carried be¬
fore the chief magistrate of Rome
Fines, the boundaries of a country.
Fortunae, an estate, possessions
Gratiae, thanks.
Horti, pleasure-grounds.
LitSrae, a letter, epistle.
Lustra, dens of wild beasts.
Natales, birth, descent.
OpSrse, workmen.
Opes, wealth, power.
Partes, a party, faction.
Plagae, nets used by hunters.
Finis, the end of any thing.
Fortuna, fortune.
Gratia, grace,favor.
Hortus, a garden.
Lit^ra, a letter of the alphabet.
Lustrum, a period of five years.
Natalis, a birth-day.
Op^ra, labor.
Opis, (genitive,) help.
Pars, apart, portion.
Pl^a, a space, a tract of country.
Principium, a beginning, a first prin- Principia, a place in the camp where
ciple, or element. ^ the gencraVs tent stood.
48 adjectives. . § 19
Singular. Plural.
Bostrum, the beak of a bird, the 'Bjo&tca, a pulpit in the Roman formi,
sharp part of the prow of a ship. from which orators used to address
the people.
Sal, scd,t. SiUes, untticisms.
Rote 4.—All the nouns In the preceding list, except eastrum snd.«omiti«n»,
are sometimes found in the sii^ular, in the sense m which they more com¬
monly occur in the plural.
§ 19. THE ADJECTIVE.
97.—An Adjective is a word used to qualify
a substantive; as, vir bonus, a good man; decem
nd/ves, ten ships.
A noun is qualified by an adjective when the object named
is thereby described, limited, or distinguished fi-om other things
of the same name.
1. The accidents of the adjective are gender, number, and
case, and, of most adjectives, also comparison.
2. Adjectives, in Latin, indicate the gender, number, and
case, by the termination; as, bon-us, bon-a, bbn-um. (98.)
3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives,
while, in time and signification, they belong to the verb.-
4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termi¬
nation in the nominative, and consequently have three ter¬
minations. Some have one form common to the masculine
and feminine, and are adjectives of two terminations; and
some are adjectives of one termination, which is common to
all genders.
5. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions,
or of the third only.
6. Adjectives of three terminations (except thirteen), are of
the first and second declensions; but those of one or two ter¬
minations, are of the third.
Exc. Thirteen adjectives in er, of three terminations, are
of the third declension. (See 99-45,)
f
§ 20 % 'a.DJECTIVES. 49
§ 20. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND
DECLENSIONS.
98.—Adjectives of the first and second declensions have the
masculine always in us or er; the feminine always in a, and
the neuter always in um; as, masculine bdnus, feminine bdna,
neuter Jonum, good.
'The masculine in m and er, is declined like dommus, and
gener; the feminine in a, like penna; and the neuter in «»>.,
like regnum: thus,
1. Bonus, bona, bonum, good.
Singnlar.
Plural.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
N. bon-us.
a.
um.
If. bbn-i.
a.
G. b6n-i.
se.
i,
G. bon-orum.
arum.
drum.
D. bon-o,
o>
D. b6n-is, .
is.
is.
Ac. b6n-um
am,
um.
Ac. b6n-os,
as,
a,
V, bbn-e.
a,
um.
V. bon-i.
ffi.
a.
Ab. b6n-o.
k.
o.
Ab. bon-is.
is.
is.
In the same manner decline:
Altus, high. ■ Cavus, hollow. loitvis, joyful.
Amplus, large. Doctus, learned. Plenus, full.
Blandus, flattering. Durus, hard. Privatus, private.
Carus, dear. Ftdus, faithful. Rectus, right.
Also all participles, numerals, and pronouns, in us; as, amct-
tus, amaturus, amandus,—primus, secundus, &c.,—metis, tuus,
suus.
Mote 1.—Metis has mi in the vocative masculine, seldom meus.
2. Tenee,
tenera
tenerum, tender.
Singular.
Plural.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
Masc. Fern.
Neut
N. tener,
a,
um.
N. tener-i, se,
a,
Q. tener-i,
se.
h
G. tener-drum,arum.
drum.
D. tener-o.
se.
O,
D. tener-is, is.
is.
Ac. tener-um, am.
um,
Ac. tener-os, as,
a,
V. tdner.
a,
um.
V. tener-i, se,
a,
Ah. tener-o.
«.
Ab. tener-is, is,
is.
60
ADJECTIVES.
In the same manner decline
Asper, rough. Miser^ wretched. 'Exter, foreign.
lAher,/re«. Erosper, prosperous. S&tur, full.
Ako eompounds derived from giro and flro; as, lander, bearing 'wool;
opifer, bringing help.
But most adjectives in er lose the c in all the genders (66); as,,
Singular.
Fern.
atr^a,
atr-se,
atr-ae,
3. Ater, atra, atrum, black.
Plural.
Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut.
atr-um, N. atr-i, atr-se, atr-a,
atr-i, G. atr-6rum,ati'-arum,atr-6rum,
atr-o, D. atr-is, atr-is, atr-is,
atr-um, Ae.atr-os, atr-as, atr-a,
atr-um, V. atr-i, atr-ae, atr-a,
atr-o. A6.atr-is, atr-is, atr-is.
In like manner decline :
Macer, lean. Sacer, sacred.
Pulcher,/air. Sinister, lefl.
Dexter, right, has dextra. dextrum ; or dextlra, dextlrum.
4. The following adjectives have the genitive singular in
IMS, and the dative in i; namely.
Alius, another of many. S6lus, alone.
Alter, the other of two. Totus, whole.
Alteruter, the one or Ullus, any'.
other. TJnus, one.
Neuter, neither. Uter, whether.
Nullus, none.
In the other cases, they are like bonus, tener, or ater; as,
Masc.
N. ater,
O. atr-i,
2>. atr-o,
Ac. atr-um, atr-am,
V. ater, atr-a,
Ab. atr-o, atr-k.
A^ger, sick.
Cz-eber, frequent.
Uterlibet, which of th*
two you please.
Uterque, both.
Utervis, which of the
two you please.
Torus, tota, totum, wholc.
Singular.
_ Plural.
Masc. Fern.
Neut.
Mate
Fern.
Neut.
N. tot-us, a.
um.
N. tot-i.
se.
a,
G. tot-ius, ius.
ius.
G. tot-orum.
arum.
orum,
D. tot-i, i.
i,
D. tot-is.
is.
is.
Ac. tot-um, am.
um.
Ac. tot-os.
as.
a,
V. t6t-e, a.
um.
V. tot-i.
a»
Ab. tot-o, &,
o.
Ab. tot-is.
is,
is.
§ 21 . ADJECTIVES. 51
NoU 2.—AUm has aliud in the neuter; and in the genitive aliu$, contracted
for aliius ; dative, alii. The genitive in in poetry, has the % either long
or short; in prose, always long. UUr, neuter, alter, aliue, vUue, and nuUut,
instead of ius in the genitive, and i in the dative, occasionaily, in the early
writers, have the regmar genitive i, ce, t, and dative o, ce, o.
§ 21. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
99.—^Rule 1. Adjectives of tlie third declen¬
sion, have e or in the ablative singular; but if
the neuter is in the ablative has i only.
Rule 2. The genitive plural ends in mm, and
the neuter of the nominative, accusative, and voca¬
tive, in ia.
Exc. Except comparatives, which have vm
and a. ■
I. Adjectives of one termination.
Mate.
N. felix,
Q. felic-is,
D. felic-i, ■
Ac. felic-em,
V. felix.
Ah. felic-e or i, e or i.
Singular.
Fern.
felix,
is,
i.
1. Felix, happy.
5
em,
felix.
Plural.
Fern.
es,
ium,
ibus,
es.
Nevi.
ia,
ium
ibus,
ia,
ia,
ibus.
Neut. Maee.
felix, N. felic-es,
is, G-. felic-ium,
i, 2>. felio-ibus,
felix, Ac. felic-es,
felix, V. felic-es, es,
e ori. Ah. felic-ibus, ibus,
In like manner decline:
FSrox, hold. Supplex, taippliant. Trux, -Qcis, cruel.
Sdgax, sagacious. TSnax, tenacious. Velox, -dels, swift.
2. Prudens,
Singular.
Masc. . Fern.
N. prudens, prudens,
G. prudent-is, prudent-is,
D. prudent-i, prudent-i,
Ac. prudent-em, prudent-em,
V. prudens, prudens.
Ah. prudent-e, or -i, • prudent-e, or -i,
Neut.
prudens,
prudent.-is,
prudent-i,
prudens,
prudens,
prudent-e, or -L
62
AiS»T!CTIVES.
§ 21
Mate.
N. prudent-es,
O. prudent-ium,
D. prudeiit-ibus,
Ac. prudent-es,
V. prudent-es,
Ab. prudent-ibus.
Flural.
Fern. Neut.
prudent-es, prudent-ia,
prudent-ium, prudent-ium,
prudent-ibus, prudent-ibus,
prudent-es, prudent-ia,
prudent-es, prudent-ia,
prudent-ibus, prudent-ibus.
In like manner decline:
CUmens,-tis, Ingens, jrreat. Beceiis,/r«sA.
Also all participles in ns; as, &mans, doeens, llgem, audient, ix.
Sou.—Participles have e oftener than i in the ablative singular, and in the
ablative absolute, they have e only.
II. Adjectives of two terminations.,
3. Mixis, MiTE, meek.
Singular.
Plural.
Mate.
Fern. Seut.
Mate.
Fern,
Neut.
M. mit-is.
is.
®' ,
iV. mit-es.
es.
ia.
G. mit-is.
is.
is.
G. mit-ium.
ium,
ium,
D. mit-i.
b
i,
D. mit-ibus,
Ibus,
ibus,
Ac. mit-em.
em.
e,
Ac. mit-es.
es,
ia.
F mit-is.
is.
F. mit-es.
es.
ia.
Ab. mit-i.
i,
h
Ab. mit-ibus.
ibus.
ibus.
In the
same manner decline:
AgQis, active.
BrSvis, short.
DebQis, weak.
Incolumis, tafe.
Talis, such.
Utilis, usefxd.
4. Comparative Degree,—Mitior, mitius, more meek.
Mate.
N. mitior,
•ff. mitior-is,
D. miti5r-i,
Ac. mitior-em
V. mitior.
Singular.
Fern.
Seut.
mitior, mitius,
is, is,
i, i,
em, mitius,
mitior, mitius.
Ab. mitior-e ori, e or i, e or i.
Plural.
Mate. Fern.
N. mitior-es, es,
G. mitior-um, um,
D. mitior-ibus, ibus,
Ac. mitid»-es, es,
F. mitior-es, es,
Ab. mitior-ibus, ibus.
Seut.
a,
um,
ibus,
a.
ibus
In like manner decline:
Altior, higher. Felicior, happier. Melior, better.
Brevior, shorter. Fortior, braver. Molior, so/ter.
Durior, harder. Major, greater. PSjor, worse.
§ 21
ADJECTIVES.
53
Exc. Plus, more, has only the neuter gender in the singular,
and is thus declined:
Singular.
Plural
Neut.
Masc.
Fern
Neut...
N. plus.
N. plur-es.
es.
a, (ia,)
G. plur-is.
G. plur-ium.
ium.
ium,
D.
E. plur-ibus.
ibus.
ibus.
Ac. plus.
Ac. plur-es.
es.
a, (ia,)
r.
V.
Ab. plur-e, or i.
Ab. plur-ibus.
ibus.
ibus.
Note.—^The neuter plural in ia is hardly ever used. The compound, cotn-
fluret, has no singular.
III. A djectwes of three termmations.
5. Ac^r or ACRis, ACRE, sharp.
Plural.
Singular.
'Mase. Fern. Neut.
N. acer, or acr-is, is, e,
G. acr-is, is, is,
D. acr-i, i, i,
Ac. acr-em, em, e,
V. acer, or acr-is, is, e,
Ab. acr-i, i, i.
Mate.
N. acr-es,
O. acr-ium,
D. acr-ibus,
Ac. acr-es,
V. acr-es,
Ab. acr-ibus.
Fern.
es,
ium,
ibus,
es,
es.
Neut.
ia,
ium,
ibus,
ia,
ia,
ibus, ibus,
Besides &cer, the following twelve are declined in this way :
AlScer, cheerful. Equester, equestrian. Saluber, wholesome.
Campester,level. Paluster, marshy. Silvester, woody.
Oel6ber,/amo««. Pedester, on foot. Terrester, terrestrial.
CSloT, swift. VXAot, putrid. VolQcer, wi/?.
100.—Excerptions in the Ahlatwe Singideur and
Genitive Pl/u/rcd.
Exc. 1. The following adjectives have e in the ablative
singular, and urn, in the genitive plural; viz:
Coelebs, unmarried Pauper, poor. Sospes, safe.
Compos, master of. Juvgnis, young. Impubes, beardless.
Hospes, strange. Pubis, marriageable. Superstes, surviving.
ImpoB, unable. S^nex, old. VStus, old.
The compounds of cSlor, corpor, cuspis, and pes, have liPetvise e and
54
ADJECTIVES.
22
Note.—Ccdebt, com/pot, impoa, and evperetes, have sometimes i in the
ablative. Vetua has commonly vetiri in the ablative, bat always Vetera and
veterum in the plural.
Exc. 2. The following adjectives have e or i in the ablative
singular, and um in the genitive plural; viz:
Ales, winged.
Anceps, doMe.
Artifez, artificial.
Clear, tame.
Compar, eqiud.
DegSner, degenerate.
Dispar, unequal.
Dives, rich.
Impar, unequal.
Inops,poor.
Partlceps, aharing.
Praeceps, headlong.
Princeps, chief.
Sapplex, auppliant.
Vigil, watchful.
Nof.e.—JIftnor, mindful; iOTntJroor, unmindful; par, equal; fertile;
voliicer, swift, have i only in the ablative singular, aud. um in the genitive
plural; except par, which has ium.
Locuplea. rich; aona, guilty, and inaona, innocent, have um, as well as iatm,
in the genitive plural.
101.—§ 22. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.
Irregular adjectives are Defective or Redundant.
L DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES.
1. The adjectives temperate; saf or sdfts, sufficient;
semis, half; and the plurals quoi, how many ? tot, so many;
aliquot, some; quotqvot, and quotcunque, how many soever;
toRdem, just so many, are indeclinable. Nequam, worthless,
is also indeclinable, but used in both numbers.
2. Exspes, hopeless; and polls, neuter pole, sometimes
pdlis, able, are used only in the nominative. They are of all
genders, and potis is also found joined with plural nouns.
Tantundem, as much, has tanRdem in the genitive, and tan-
tundem, m, and n., in the nominative and accusative singular.
Necesse, or necessum, necessary; and volupe, pleasant, are
used only in the nominative and accusative singular.
3. Mactus, -e, and plural -i, a common Word of encourage¬
ment, brave! gallant! is used only in the nominative and
vocative singular, and nominative plural.
Plus, more, in the singular, is neuter only; wants the dative,
and probably the vocative; has e only in the ablative, and a,
seldom ia, in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural
neuter.
§ 22 ADJECTIVES. 66
Primoris, genitive, first, wants the nominative and vocative
singular, and the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural
neuter; likewise semiiiecis, half dead, which is not used in the
neuter, and has aeminecum in the genitive plural.
Paxici, few; and plerique, the most part, are seldom used in
the singular.
4. The following classes of words want the vocative; viz:
Partitives; as, quldam, alius: Relatives ; as, qualis, quantus:
Negatives; as, nuUus, neuter: Interrogatives; as, quotus?
tiler ?
Except ahquis, quicunque, quillbet, and quisque. (See 131.)
5. The following adjectives of one termination, in the sub¬
joined list, are scarcely used in the nominative, accusative,, or
vocative plural of the jieuter gender; viz :
Adjectives in ER : as, pauper, puber, celer, degener, uier.
Adjectives in FEX : as, artifex, carnifex.
Adjectives in OR : as, mlmor, concdtor, bicorpor.
Adjectives in ES : as, ales, dives, locuples, sospes, superstes,
deses, reses, hebes, teres, prcepes.
Adjectives in OS : as, compos, impos, exos.
Also pubis, impubis, supplex, cbmis, inops, vigil, sons, insons,
intercus, rldux, and perhaps some others.
Cceter, or cceterus, the rest, is scarcely used in the nominative
singular masculine.
Victrix, victorious, and vltrix, revengeful, are feminfne only
in the singular, but feminine and neuter, in the plural; victrlces,
victricia.
IL REDUNDANT ADJECTIVES.
6. Some adjectives compounded of cllms,frlnum, hacillum, arma,jugHm,
llmus, sommis, and animus, have two forms of declension; one in ns, of the
first and second declensions; and another in is, of the third; aa,,accllvus,
-a, -vm, and accllvis, -e, steep; imbecillus, and imbecillis, weak; semisomnus,
and semisomnis, half-sleeping; exanlmus, and exanlmis, dead. Also,
hilSris, and hilarus, merry.
Obs. Some of these, compounds do not admit of this variation; as,
magnanlmus,jlexanlmus, effrlnas, levisomnus,not magnanlmis,&,c. On the
contraiy, pusillanimis, injugis, illlmis, insomnis, exsomnis, are used, and
noi pusillanlmus, Ac. Semianlmis, inermis, subllmis, accllvis, declivis,
procllvis, are more common than scmianlmus, Ac. Inanlmis, and bijUgis,
are scarcely used. ^
56
ADJECTIVES.
§23
§ 23. EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES.
1. Adjectives and Substantives to be declined together.
Patva casa, a small cottage.
CMrus poeta, a famous poet.
Pulcbra filia, a beautiful daughter.
Dulce pomum, a sweet apple.
DocQis puer, a docile boy.
BrSve sevum, a short life.
CSpaz antrum, d capacious den.
Magnum opus, a great work.
Serenus dies, a clear day.
Densa nubes, a thick cloud.
Rdus pastor, a faithful shepherd.
Alta arbor, a high tree.
Friscus mos, an ancient custom,
Callida aestas, a warm summer.
Tutus portus, a safe harbor.
Nobile carmen, a noble poem.
Antlqua urbs, an ancient city.
Magna dos, a great dowry.
Cava n&vis, a hollow ship.
Culpatus PSris, wicked Paris.
Miser Tros, a miserable Trojan.
Infelix Dido, unhappy Dido.
2. Translate the following tnnrds into JEnglish, according to
their number and case :
OpSris magni,
Claro pogtse,
DiSi serSno,
Diei sereni,
Densis nubibus,
lidi pastdris,
jEvo brgvi.
Urbem antlquam,
Pogtis clgris,.
Pugri docileB,
Dote magn&,
Morum priscorum,
Carminis nobQis,
Callida sstate.
IJrbis antiqua^
Paridi culpSto,
Arbores altae,
Trois misgri.
Dido infelici,
Portibus tutis,
Dulcium pomgrum.
3, Translate the following phrases into Latin., observing to
put the adjective in the same gender, number,and case, with the
substantive. The words will be found in the list above :
To a small cottage.
Of a capacious den.
From lofty trees.
For unhappy Dido,
In a hoUow ship,
A wretched Trojan,
With thick cloiids.
From a clear day.
Of sweet apples.
High trees.
With great dowries.
Of ancient customs.
Of an ancient city.
To a great work,
0 wicked Paris,
Faithful shepherds.
In a short life.
With a sweet apple.
With clear days.
Noble poems,
Of ancient cities.
In small cottages.
In a great work.
With wicked Paris,
A harbor safe.
In a clear day,
* Of small cottages.
To a thick cloud.
With high trees.
Beautiful daughters,
In a warm siunmer
Of a short life.
With docile boya
§ 24 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 57
§ 24. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
102.—Numeral adjectives are those which signify number.
In Latin, they are divided into four classes; viz:
1. Cardinal, which express number simply, or how many;
as, one, two, three, four, &c.
2. Ordinal, denoting which one of a number; SiS, first,
second, third, fourth, 6ic.
3. Distributive, denoting how many to each; as, Mni, two
by two, or two to each.
• 4. Multiplicative, denoting how many fold.
L CARDINAL NUMBERS.
103. The Cardinal or Principal numbers are:
UnuB,
L
one.
Duo,
11
two.
Tres,
ni
three.
Quatuor,
im, or IV.
four.
Quinque,
V.
Jive.
Sex,
VI
six.
Septem,
vn.
seven.
Octo,
vm
eight.
Nfivem,
vmi OP EX.
nine
Deceu\,
X
ten
Und^cim,
XL
eleven
Duoddcim,
XIL
twelve
Tredgcim,
xin
thirteen
QuatuordScim,
xim, or xrv.
fourteen
QuindScim,
XV.
Jifteen
SedScim, or SexdScim,
XVL
sixteen
Septemdecin^
XVII
seventeen
Octodgeim, '
XVIII
eighteen
Novemdecim,
XVim, or XIX.
ninetee%
Viginti,
XX
twenty
Viginti Onus, or )
Unus et viginti, f
XXT.
twenty-one
Viginti duo, or )
Duo et viginti, Ac. )
xxn.
twenty-two
Triginta,
XXX.
thirty
Quadraginta,
XXXX or XL.
• 3*
forty
58
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
Quiaquaginta,
Sexagiuta,
Septuagiota,
Octoginta,
Nonaginta,
CeDtum,
Centum Onus, or )
Centum et Onus, &c^ )
Ducenti, -se, -a,
Trecenti,
Quadringenti,
Quingenti,
Sexcenti,
Septingenti,
Octingenti,
Nongenti,
MiUe,
Duo millia, or )
Bis mille, )
Quinque millia, or )
Qumquies mille, )
Deeem millia, or )
Decies mille, J
Quinquaginta millia, or )
Qumquagies mille, )
Centum millia, or )
Centies mille, f
104.—OBSERVATIONS.
1. Eighteen and nineteen are more properly expressed by
duodeviginti, and undeviginti; from which Ordinals, Distri¬
butives and Adverbs are likewise formed. The same form is
also used in the corresponding numbers of each of the other
decades ; as, duodetriginta, twenty-eight; undetriginta, twenty-
nine, &c.
2. The Cardinal numbers, except unus ^d mille, want the
singular.
3. Unus, as a numeral, is not used in the plural, except
when joined with a substantive that wants the singular; as,
una mcenia, one wall; or when several particulars are con¬
sidered as one whole; as, una vestimenta, one suit of clothes.
Unus is declined like tolus (98-4).
L.
fifiy
LX.
sixty.
LXX
seventy.
LXXX.
eighty
T.XXXX, or XC.
ninety
C.
a hundred
CL
a hundred and one, die.
. CO.
two hundred.
, COG.
three hundred
COCO.
four hundred
10, or D.
jive hundred
IOC, or DC.
six hundred
lOCC, or DCC.
seven hundred.
lOCCC, or DCCC.
eight hundred
lOCCCC, or DCCCC.
nine hundred
CIO, or M.
a thousand
CIOCIO, or MM.
two thousand
100, or V.
five thousand
CCIOO, or X.
ten thousand
1000, or L.
fifty-thousand
CCCIOOO, or C.
a hundred thousand
NUSIEKAL ADJECTIVES.
59
Deo, two, and Tees, three, are thus declined:
Plural.
Plural.
Mase.
Fern. Neut.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
N. duo.
duse, duo.
N. tres.
tres.
tria.
G. duorum.
duarum, duorum.
G. tri'um.
trium.
trium.
D. duobus.
duabus, duobus.
D. tribus.
tribus.
tribus.
Ac. duos, -0,
duas, duo.
Ac. tres.
tres.
tria.
V. duo.
duae, duo,
V. tres.
tres.
tria.
Ab. duobus.
duabus, duobus.
Ab. tribus.
tribus,
tribus.
Amho, both, is declined like duo.
4. All the cardinal numbers, from quatvor to centum' in¬
clusive, are indeclinable; and from centum to mllle, they are
declined like the plural of hUnus (98-1).
5. Mille, when placed before a genitive plural, is a sub¬
stantive indeclinable in the singular; in the plural, it is de¬
clined like the plural of sedlle (83-8); thus, millla, millium,
millibus, &c. When it has a substantive in any other case
than the genitive plural joined to it, it is a plural adjective
indeclinable; as, mille homines, a thousand men; bis mille
hominibus, with two thousand men,
ROMAN METHOD OF NOTATION BY LETTERS.
6. The capital letters used by the Komans to denote num¬
bers, were C, 1, L, V, X, which are therefore called Numeral
Letters. I, denotes one; V, five; X, ten; Y., fifty, and C, a
hundred. By the various combinations of these letters, all
numbers were expressed as follows:
The repetition of a letter repeats its value; thus, II signifies
two; III, three; XX, twenty; XXX, thirty; CC, two hundred;
CCC, three hundred, &c. V and L are never repeated.
When a letter of less value is placed before another of
greater value, the value of the less is taken from the greater.
When placed after it, the value of the less is added to the
greater; thus,
IV. Four, V. Five, VI. Six.
IX. Nine, X. Ten, XI. Eleven.
XL. Forty, L. Fifty, LX. Sixty.
XC.-Ninety, C. A hundred, OX. A hundred and ten.
60
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
A thousand-was marked CIO, which was afterwards expressed
by M, the initial of milk. Five hundred is marked 10, after¬
wards changed into D.
The annexing of 0 to 10 makes its value ten times greater;
thus, 100 denotes five thousand; 1000, fifty thousand.
In like manner, a C prefixed, together with another 0 an¬
nexed to the numerals CIO, always increases the value ten¬
fold ; thus, CIO, a thousand; CCIOO, ten thousand; CCCIOOO,
a hundred thousand. Any higher number than this, according
to Pliny, was expressed by repetition; thus, CCCIOOO,
CCCIOOO, two hundred thousand.
Thousands are sometime^xpressed by a line drawn_over
the numeral letters; thus, III denotes three thousand; X, ten
thousand, &c.
IL ORDINAL NUMBERS.
105.—The Ordinal Numerals are formed from the cardinal;
they all end in us, and are declined like hinus (98-1); as,
primus, first; secundus, second; (kc. (See the following table.)
m. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS.
106.—Distributive numerals distribute an equal number to
each individual of several objects, or an equal number at dif^
ferent times. They answer the question. How many to each?
or. How many each time 1 as, ^ni, two each, or two at a
time, two by two. They are all plural, and declined like the
plural of bonus (98-1); but usually have wm instead of orum
in the genitive; as, singuli, ce, a ; &c.
The following table contains the ordinal and distributive
numbers, and the corresponding numeral adverbs:
Ordinal.
1. Primus,
2. Secundus, second,
8, Tertius, third,
4^ Quartus, &c.,
5 Quintus,
6 Sextus,
1. Septimus,
8. Octavus,
9. Nonus,
10. Dec&nus,
Distributive.
Singuli, one by one,
Bini, two by two,
Temi, or trini, <fec,
Quatemi,
Quini,
Seni,
Septeni,
Octoni,
Noveni,
Dgni,
Numeral Adverbs.
Semel, once.
Bis, twice.
^ Ter, thrice.
Qu3ter,/our times.
Quinquies, Ac.
Sexies.
Septies.
Octies.
Novies.
Decies.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
61
Ordinal.
11. Undecimus,
12. Duodeclmug,
13. Tertius decimuB,
14. Quartus declmus,
15. Quintus declmus,
16. Sextus declmus,
11. Septimus declmus,
18. Oetavus declmus,
19. Nonus declmus,
20. Viceslmus, or )
yigeslmus, J
21. Viceslmvis primus.
22. yieeslmus secundus.
80. Trieeslmus, or )
trigesimus, J
40. Quadrageaunus,
60. Quiuquagesunus,
60. Sexageslmus,
10. Septuageslmus,
80. Oetogeslmus,
90. Nonageslmus,
100. Centeslmus,
200. Ducenteslmus,
300. Trecenteslmus,
400. Quadringente- )
slmus. )
600. Quiugenteslmus,
600. Sexeenteslmus,
100. Septingenteslmus,
800. Oetiugenteslmus,
900. Nongenteslmus,
1000. Milleslmus, |
2000. Bis milleslmus,
i,&c.,|
Butributive.
Undeni,
DuodSni,
Temi dOni,
Quarterni dSni,
Quiui deni,
SOni deni,
Septeui deni,
Oetoni deni,
Noveni deni,.
Viceni,
Viceni sing&li,
Vieeni bini,
Trieeni,
Quadrageni,
Quinquageni,
Scxageui,
Scptageni,
Oetogeni,
Nonageni,
Centeni,
Duceni,
Trcceni, or trcccnteni,
Quadringeni, or )
quadrmgcnteni, )
Quingeni,
Sexeenij or Scxccnteni,
Septingeni,
Octingeni,
Nongeni,
Milleni, or )
singOla millia, f
Bis milleni, or
Numeral Adverbt.
Undecies.
Duodecies.
Terdecies.
Quaterdecieu.
Quindeeies.
Sedecies.
Decies et septies.
Decies et oeties.
Decies et nonies.
Vicies.
Semel et yicies.
Bis et vicies, dee.
Tricies.
Quadragies.
Quinquagies.
blna mUlia, Ac.
. }
Septuagies.
Octogies.
Nonagies.
Centies.
Ducenties.
Trecenties.
Quadringenties.
Quingenties.
Sexcenties.
Septingenties.
Octingenties.
Noningenties.
Millies.
Bis millies, Ao.
of.
Instead of primus, prior is used, if only two are spoken
Alter is often used for secundus.
Twenty-first, thirty-fiist, &c., are often expressed by mumi
et vicestmus, unus et trieeslmus, &c.; and twenty-second, &c.,
by duo, or alter et vicslMus, in which duo is indeclinable. In
62
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
§24
the other compound numbers, the larger precedes without et,
or the smaller with et; as, vicestmus quartus, or quartus et
viceslmus.
8. Distributives are used in a variety of ways, as Jst. In
multiplication, with adverbial numerals; as, bis bina, twice
two, i e. four; bis smos, twice six, i. e. twelve. 2d. Instead
of cardinals, with words which have no singular; as, bini
codicilli, two writings; or with nouns in the plural naving the
meaning of a singular, but still different from the meaning of
the same word in the singular number (§ 18, 24, or 96-24);
as, bUna castra, hince cedes, blnce literce; two camps, two houses,
two epistles. Duo, duce, with these nouns, would mean two
forts or castles; two temples; two letters of the alphabet.
3d. Dlni is used for duo, to denote things which exist in pairs;
as, blni boves, a pair of oxen ; blnce aures, two ears. In ordi¬
nary language, distributives occur only in the plural—among
the poets sometimes in the singular in the sense of multipli-
cativgs; aS, centena arbore {^=centum arboribus), literally " with
a tree a hundred fold." See also No. 11.
9. The singular-of some distributives, is sometimes used in
the sense of a multiplicative; as, binus, two-fold, &c.
IV. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS.
107.—Multiplicatives denote how many fold; they all end
in ex, and are declined like felix (99-1). They are as follows:
Simplex, single. Quadruplex,/oM)/oW.
Duplex, dotMe. Quintuplex,_/Js;(^of(i
Triplex,' threefold. Centuplex, a hundredfold, Ac., Ac.
10. To these classes may be added:
1st. Proportionals, which denote how many times one thing
is greater than another; as, duplus, twice as great.
2d. Temporals, which denote time; as, blmus, two years old;
biennis, of two years' continuance*
3d. Those which denote how many parts a thing contains;
as, binarius, of two parts.
4th. Interrogatives ; as, qnot, how many ? qnotvs, of what num¬
ber? qu'Jeni, how many each? quoties~ how many
times? which have for theit correlatives, tot, totu
dem, &c.
COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES.
63
11. The learner should carefully notice the distinction be¬
tween the cardinal and distributive numerals in their ordinary
use. Thus, for example, Dw conmles viginti naves habebani,
means, " the two consuls together had twenty ships," i. e.
twenty in all, or ten each; but Duo consules vicenas naves
habebant, means, "the two consuls had twenty ships each" or
forty in all.
§ 25. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
108.—Adjectives have three degrees of com¬
parison, the Positive^ Comjparatwe, and Super¬
lative.
109.—The Positive expresses a quality simply; as, bonus,
good The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher or
lower degree in one object than in another, or than in several
taken together. The Superlative expresses a quality in the
highest or lowest degree in one object compared with several
taken separately ; as, gold is heavier than silver; it is the most
precious of the metals. Hence, those adjectives only can be
compared whose signification admits the distinction of more
and less.
110.—The Superlative is often used to express a very high
or a very low degree of a quality, without implying com¬
parison ; as, vir doctissimus, " a very learned manhortus
amcenissimus, " a most delightful garden." Thus used, it is
called the superlative of eminence, and is commonly translated
with the article a, or an;—when comparison is implied, the
article the must be used.
111.—The Comparative is always of the third declension,
and declined like mitior (99-4). The Superlative is always
of the first and second, and declined like bonus (98-1).
112.—RULES OF COMPARISON.
1. The comparative is formed from the root of
the positive (56), ^hy adding ior for the. mas-
64
CO.MPABISON OP ADJECTIVES.
§ 25
culine and feminine, and ius for the neuter;
as,
Positive.
Durus, hard,
Brevis, shwt,
Audax, hold,
Boot.
Comparative.
Fern. ♦ Neut.
Masc.
dur- dur-ior, dur-ior, dur-ius, harder.
brev- brev-ior, brev-ior, brev-ius, shorter,
audac- audac-ior, audac-ior, audac-ius, holder.
2. The superlative is formed from the root of
the positive, by adding issvmus^ a, um; as.
Positive.
Boot.
Superlative.
Durus, hard, dur- dur-issimus, a, um, hardest,
Brevis, short, brev- brev-issimus, a, um, shortest.
Audax, hold, audac- audac-issimus, a, um, boldest.
Exc. K the positive end in er-, the superlative
is formed by adding rvmus, a, um, to the nomi¬
native masculine, i. e. to the root uncontracted: as,
Positive.
Pulcher, fair.
Pauper, poor.
Superlative.
pulchcr-rimus, a, um.
pauper-rimus, a, um.
Hence these adjectives are compared thus:
Durus,
Brfiyis,
Audax,
Pulcher,
Pauper,
durior,
brevier,
audacior,
pulchrior,
pauperior.
dtuissimus;
brevissimus;
audacis»[mus;
pulcbernmus;
pauperrunus;
Hard, harder.
Short, shorter
Bold, holder.
Fair, fairer.
Poor, poorer.
harden,
shortest
boldest,
fairest.
poor"t.
In the same manner compare:
Altus, high.
CJpaz, capacious.
Creber, frequent.
Dignus, worthy.
Doctus, learned
Fslix, happy.
Finnus, strong.
Fortis, brave.
Gravis, heavy.
Integer, entire.
Lentus, slow.
LSvis, light.
ISoer, free.
Piger, slow.
Prudens, prudent.
Sapiens, wise.
Vehemens, vehement
Velox. swift.
§ 26 COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES.
65
113.—§ 26. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARL
SONS.
Sap.
optimus;
Pos.
Bdnus,
Magnus,
Malus,
Multus,
Parvus,
Comp.
melior,
major,
pejor,
plus, n.
minor.
pessimus;
plurimus;
minimus;
Good,
Great,
Bad,
Much,
Little,
■ better,
greater,
worse,
more,
less.
Obs. Plus has only the neuter in the singular,
plural, it is regular, and is declined as 99-4.-Exc.
best.
greatest.
worst,
most.
least.
In the
1. The following adjectives form the superlative in Umus .
Pacliis, easy.
iacilior.
facilUmus.
OracBis, lean.
gracilior.
gracillimus.
Humllis, hm.
humilior.
hnmiilimns.
ImbeciUis, weak.
imbecillior, imbeciUImus.
Similis, like.
similior.
simillimus.
2. The following adjectives have the comparative regular,
but the superlative irregular.
Citer, near.
citerior.
ciflmus.
Dexter, right.
dexterior,
dextlmus.
Exter, outward.
exterior,
extrSmus, or extlmus.
lufgrus, low.
inferior.
inf imus, or imus.
Interns, inward.
interior.
intimus.
Maturus, ripe.
maturior.
maturrimus, or maturissunus.
PostSrus, behind.
posterior.
postremus, or postOmus.
Sinister, \eft.
sinisterior.
sinistunus.
Supdrus, high.
superior.
supremus, or summus.
Vgtus, old.
veterior.
veterrimus.
Note.—Dives, rich, has commonly diUor, ditissimus, for its comparative
and superlative; contracted for divitior and dimtmvmms.
3. Compounds in dlcus, fieus, Ibquus, and volus, form the
comparative in entior, and the superlative in entissimus.
Beneficus, henejieent, beneflcentior, beheficentissimus.
"BeiievoXva,'benevolent, benevolentior, benevolentisslmus,
Magnildquus, boasting, mitgniloquentior, magniloquentissimua.
Maledicus, railing, maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
Mirificus, wonderful, % nurificentior, mirificentisajnua.
66
COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES.
NbU.—Miri/iaus has also mirijicissinw.» in the superlative. The com-
pouuiis of loguu) are not found in the superlative.
4. The following adjectives want the positive;
Deterior, isorsa, deterrunus. Propior, naorer, prozimuB.
Oeior, mifter, ocisslmus. Ulterior,/artAar, ultimus.
Prior,/ormar, primus. -
5. The following adjectives want the comparative :
Incljtus, renowned, inclytisslmus. Nup5rus, late, nupenimus.
Invictus, invincible, invictisslmus. Par, equal, parissimus.
Meritus, deserving, meritissimus. Persuasus, persuouied, persuasissimua
Novus, new, novisslmus. Silcer, sacred, sacernmus.
6. The following adjectives want the superlative :
Adoleseens, young, adolescentior. Opimus, rich, opimior.
Diutumus, lasting, diutumior. Pronus, bending down, pronior.
Ingens, huge, ingentior. Satur,/uW, saturior.
JuvSnis, young, junior. SSnez, old, senior.
Note.—The superlative of juv'enis, or adoleseens, is supplied by minimus
ndtu, the youugest; senez takes maxim/us ndtu, the oldest.
7. Almost all adjectives in ills (penult long), alis, and bUis,
want the superlative; as, civilis, civil, civilior; regalis, regal,
regalior; flebilis, lamentable, Jlebilior.
Note.—Some adjectives of these terminations have the superlative also;
as aqudlis,frugalis, hospitalis, Uberdlis, vocdlis—affabilis, amdbilis, habilis,
ignobdis, mirabilis, tnobilis, mutabilis, nobilis, stabais.
Some adjectives of other terminations also want the superlative; as, arcd-
nus, ior, secret; declivis, ior, bending downwards; longinquus, lar off, ior;
propinqaus, near, ior; salutdris, healthful, salutarior.
Anterior, former, and sequior, worse, are found only in the comparative.
Nequam, worthless (indeclinable), has nequior, nequisshnus.
8. Many adjectives have no degrees of comparison at all,
because they denote invariable qualities. They are such as
denote substance, origin, possession, or definite time ; as, aureus,
adamantinus;—Grcecus, Romanus, peregrlnus;—paternus, equl-
nus;—cestivus, hibernus, vlvus, Ac.
' 9. Many adjectives which do not denote invariable qualities,
are yet without comparative and superlative forms. They are—
1st. Adjectives ending in imus, inus, orus, and most adjectives in Ivus;
as, legiftinus, matutlnus, canorus, fugitlvus: also adjectives in us after a
vowel; as, dubius, idoneus, ardaus, &o.; except adjectives in quus, in which,
however, the first u does not form a syllable (8-2); and sometimes assidaus,
egrcgius, pius, strenuus aud vacuus, which are also regularly compared.
DERIVATION OP ADJECTIVES.
67
2d. Compound adjectives, one of whose component parts is a noun or a
verb; as,versicolor,pestlfer, deginer, magnarHmus, cons6nus,fwdi/rSgus,iie,,
and such as have the derivative terminations icus, idus, iilus, alls. His,
bundus; as, modlciis, trepidus, gurrulus, mortdlis, hostllis, furibundus, Ac. .
3d. Diminutives, which in themselves imply a sort of comparison; as,
tenellus, somewhat tender; majusculus, somewhat big.
4th. Many adjectives which cannot be classed under distinct heads; as,
odbus, white; abnus, gracious; egSnus, needy; lucer, torn; mUmor, mindful;
mlrus, wonderful; prceeox, early ripe; sospes, safe; and many others noted
in the dictionaries.
In most, or in all adjectives of these classes, and sometimes
in others also, the comparative is made by prefixing magis,
more; and the superlative by prefixing valde or maxtme, most,
to the positive; as, archlus, high; magis arduus, higher; valde,,
or maxims arduus, highest, or very high. Sallust has maxime
tutos.
10. Comparison is sometimes made by means of the pre¬
positions pra, ante, proeter, or supra, with the positive; as,
Prce nobis beatus, happier than we, Cic.; Ante alias insignis,
most distinguished, Liv. A high degree of quality without
comparison is expressed by prefixing valde,.imprimis, apprtme,
adrtiddum, &c., or by the preposition per or proe prefixed in
composition.
11. The force of the comparative is increased by prefixing
etiam, even, yet, and of both comparative and superlative, by
prefixing longe or mwZto, far, much; as, multo melior, much
better; longe nobilissimus, far the noblest. Quam with the
superlative renders it emphatic; as, quam doctissimus, extremely
learned; quam celerrime, as speedily as possible.
§ 27. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES.
114.—Derivative adjectives are formed chiefly from nouns,
from other adjectives, and from, verbs.
1. Those derived from nouns are called Denominatives,
They are such as aureus, golden; capitalis, capital, relating to
the life; puerilis, boyish; animbsus, full of courage, &c., from
aurum, caput, puer, animus, &c.
2. Those derived from adjecUves are also called denominaf
68
PRONOUNS.
§ 28
tives; they are chiefly diminutives; as, dulciculus, sweetish j
duriusculus, somewhat hard, &c.,' from dulcis, durus, &c.
3. Adjectives derived from verbs are called Verbal adjec¬
tives. They commonly end in bundue, idus, bilis, His, itius,
and ax; as errabundus, ^ven to wandering; rapldus,T&pid •,
credibilis, credible; Jlexibllis, easy to be bent; Jiciitius, feigned;
c&pax, capacious, &c., from erro, rapio, credo, Jlecto, jinga,
eapvo, &C.
4. Participles divested of the idea of time, and expressing
merely a quality, become adjectives, and are capable of com¬
parison; as, amana, fond oi\ amantior, amantissvmus; doctus,
learned; doctior, doctisslmus. These are called Participial
adjectives.
Adjectives are also derived from adverbs and prepositions;
as, h^iernus, contrarius, &c., from hodie, contra, &c.
§ 28. PRONOUNS,
115.—Pronoun is a word used instead of a
noun.
116.—In Latin, there are eighteen simple pronouns, namely.
Ego, tu, sui; ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui; mens, tuus, suus,
noster, vester; nostras, vestras and cujas.
Of these. Ego, tu, sui, are substantive or personal pronouns,
the rest are adjectives.
SUBSTANTIVE OR PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
117.—The Substantive or Personal pronouns have the same
accidents as nouns (34); in construction, they take the gender
and number of the nouns for which they stand, and are thus
declined :
Ego, I, First Person, Masc. or Fem.
Singular.
Plural.
E. ego,
G. mei.
N. nos, •
we,
me,
G. nostrhm, or nostri,* of
us,
J), mihi.
to
me.
D. nobis, to
us,
Ac. me.
me.
Ac. nos.
us.
F.
V.
Ab. me,,
with, &c..
me.
Ab. nobis, with, &c..
us.
• Soatrum, vettrum, G. subjective; nostri, veslri, G. objective. 884.
§28 * PRONOUNS. 69
Tr, thou, Second Person, Masc. or Fem.
Singular.
N. tu, thou, or you,
G. tui, of thee, or of you,
D. tibi, to thee, or to yme,
Ac. te, thee, or you,
V. tu, 0 thou, or 0 you.
Ah. te, with, &c., thee, or you.
Plural.
vos, ■ ye, or you,
G. vestrAm, or vestri, of you,
D. vobis, to you,
Ac. vos, you,
V. vos, 0 ye, or you.
Ah. vObis, with, &c., you.
Sui, of himself, of herself, of itself. Third Person,
■ Masc., Fem., Neut. Reflexive.
Singular.
N.
G. sui, ■ of himself, &c.,
D. sibi, ■ to himself &c.,
Ac. se, himself, &c.,
V.
Ah. se, with, &c., himself, &c..
PluraL
N.
G. sui, of themselves,
D. sibi, to themselves,
Ac. se, themselves,
V. .
Ah. se, with, &c., themselves.
118.—OBSERVATIONS.
1. In all speech, three things are implied, the person speak¬
ing, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of.
These are called, in Grammar, the First, Second, and Third
persons; and the pronouns representing them are called Per¬
sonal Pronouns.
2. The pronoun of the first person is Fyo, I; of the second,
Tu, thou or you; of the third, Sui, of himself, of herself, of
itself. Also the adjective pronouns, ipse, ille, iste, is, and hie,
without a substantive, in the gender of the nouns represented
by them, and with the general meaning of he, she, it, may be
called Substantive or Personal Pronouns.
Note 1.—The plural of the first person is often used for the singular, i. e.
nna for ego; so also noeter for meva; and the verb, without the pronoun ex¬
pressed, is sometimes used in the first person plural for the first person
singular; but the plural of the second person is not used for the singiuar, as
in English.
Note 2.—"Thou " and " thee," are used.as the rendering of tu and its oases
in the singular, only in solemn addresses, or to mark special emphasis or
contempt. In ordinary discourse, it is translated by "you." See Eng.
Gram., 114. 4. An., and Pr. 6r., 244 and 245.
3. The personal priftnouns of the third person, though all
70
PRONOUNS.
translated by one term in English,* differ from one another
in meaning and use, {is follows:
1st 8ui, the substantiye pronoun of the third person, is without the
nominative, as the third person (in English he, she, it, they) is not usually
expressed in Latin in the nominative, but is implied in the thiid person of
the verb. But if it is to be expressed, a demonstrative pronoun, commonly
ille, is used. The other cases of the English pronouns of the third person,
not reflexive, are expressed by the oblique cases of is, ea, id, the nomina¬
tive of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns, Sai, sVn, se, are
used in a reflexive sense referring, as a substitute, to the main subject of
the sentencef in which they occur; as, Laudal se, "He praises himself;"
C&to se -oeeldit," Cato killed himself" C&to dixit se esse Caesdre felicidrem,
" Cato said that he (Cato) was happier than Caesar." Pver pulat hoe sibi
noeere, " The boy thinks that this hurts him " (the boy). Proculus Jidins
dixisse fertur a se visum esse PomUlum, " Proculus Julius is reported to
have said that Romulus was seen by Aim"(Juliu6). But when the pro¬
noun refers to another word, and there is a transition from the principal
to a subordinate subject, the oblique cases of is, ea, id, must be used.
Thus, if the words that he, him, by Mm, in the last three propositions, re¬
ferred to any other than Cato, or the boy, or Proculus Julius, they would
have to be made, in the first sentence, by eum ; in the second, by ei ; and
in the third, by 06 eo.
Exc. Sui, and its corresponding possessive pronoun suus, are sometimes
used when the reference is not to the primary, but to a subordinate sub¬
ject ; but this is never done by good writers when it would cause ambiguity.
The most common cases of this usage are:—1st When the primary sub¬
ject is in the first or second person, to which, of course, sui, being the third,
cannot refer ;jis, ilium occldi sua gladio, " I slew him with his own sword."
2d. Alter quisque or unusquisque; as, suunt culque " they give
every man his own." 8d. When the word to which swts refers stands im¬
mediately or almost immediately before it; as, hunc elves sui ex urbe ye-
* The want of different pronouns of the third person, in English, is
frequently the cause of ambiguity, which never can occur in Latin or Greek.
Tims, if we say; " Lysias promised his fether nevei'^o abandon his friends;"
it is impossible to tell, from this sentence, whose friends are meant,—whether
those of Lysias or of his father. If the former, "his," in Latin, would be
suos; if the latter, " ejus," and if the latter in a special manner, " ipsius."
t The main subject is generally the nominative to the leading verb, as in
the above examples. Sometimes, however, the construction requires it to
be in a different case; as, Ab Antonio admonitus sum ut mane sibi adessemf
here, the leading subject is Antonio in the Ablative, and to this, of course,
sibi refers; so in the following : Est IQndo hommi suo animo obsequi, the
principal subject is homini.
PRONOUNS,
71
clrunt, " his fellow citizens banished him from the city." 4th. "When the
noun with which sums agrees is coupled with another by cum; as, enm
cum suis rebus dimislrunt, " they dismissed bim with his effects."
2d. Ipse is applicable to any of the three persons, and, in the nominative
case, is used when either the primary or the subordinate subject is again
introduced with emphasis in a subsequent or subordinate clause, or in the
next sentence; as, Ji^curgus nihil ulla llge in alios sanxit, cujus non ipse
primus in se documenta dSret, " Lycui^^ bound nothing by any law upon
others, of which he did not first give an instance in himself;" here ipse
refers to Lycurgus, the primary subject In the following sentence, ipsi
refers to the subordinate, and ipse to the principal subject: Caesar ad
prcefectos—mittit qui nuneidrent ne hastes preelio lacessirent; et si ipsi
. (prcefeeti) lacesserentur, sustinerent quoad ipse (Caesar) accessissei. Csesar,
B. G. IV, 11.
In the oblique cases, ipse hardly ever refers- to the main subject (this
being the proper office of sui), but to the subordinate, when that is to be
expressed with emphasis, and distinguished from the primary or any
other subject previously expressed; as, Sen&tus dixit non sua negligeniia
sed ipsius (Pompeji) sublto adventu factum, " The senate said that it hap
pened not through any negligence on their part, but owing to his (Pom
pey's) sudden arrival" Instances, however, occur in which the oblique
cases refer to the principal subject; but these are rare, and such as to
create no ambiguity.
Note,—When joined with the personal pronouns ego, tu, <feo., used in a
reflexive sense, and in an oblique case, ipse commonly agrees with the subject
of the verb in the nominative or accusative, but is always to be translated
with the oblique case, to which it adds the force of the word " self," or
simply emphasis : thus (the subject being in the nominative), se ipse (not
ipsum) interficit, "he slew himself;" mxhi ipse (not ipsi) favea, "Iifavor
myself;" virtus est per se ipsa (not ipsam) laudabilis,—with the accusative as
a subject; oredis mxhi ipsum (not ipsi)favere. Yet, when, for the word in
the oblique 'case, special emphasis is required by antithesis or other canse,
ipse is put in the case of the pronoun; as, Alios amas, te ipsum (not apse)
odisti, " Others thou lovest, thts£I.f thou hatcst." 282.
3d. Is, hie, iste, ills, without a substantive, in all genders, are used as
pronotms of the third person, and are all rendered he, she, or it, as the
word which they represent may require. In the nominative, they are
applicable equally to the main or to the subordinate subject; but in the
oblique cases, with few exceptions, they refer to the subordinate only.
It must be carefully noticed, however, that though often rendered by the
same term in English, still each word has its own specific meaning and
use, as follows:
Is simply refers to some person or thing mentioned before, and is less
72
ADJECXrVB PBONOUNS.
emphatic and distinctive than any of the other terms. Before qui {U qui,
he who), it refers to the person or thing described in the relative clause,
and, in this construction, is often understood.
Hie is used in reference to objects which are nearest to the speaker
Hence, as nothing is nearer to the speaker than himself hie hSmo, "this
man," is often the same as igo. Hie is therefore called the demonstrative
pronoun of the first person.
Iste refers to the person spoken to, or to the things pertaining to, or'
connected with him. Thus, iste Uber, means " that book of thine," or " thy
book." Hence it is called the demonstrative of the seeond person. It is
often used, like the English thou, as an expression of worthlessness or con¬
tempt ' An. and Fr. Or., 244.
llUj in opposition to hie, refers to objects at a distance from the speaker,
or to that about which he is speaking to another, and is called the demon¬
strative of the third person. As substantive pronouns, then, these three
words may be thus distinguished:
Hie means " he," namely, this man near me, or just spoken of
Iste means " he," namely, that man by you, or of whom you spoke.
Ille means " he," namely, that man at a distance, or formerly spoken of
In the use of these pronouns, however, these distinctions are not always
strictly observed; ille and is especially, are often used indiscriminately,
and in the same sentence, apparently for the sake of euphony or variety
of expression.
4. The personal pronouns are rendered emphatic by an¬
nexing the definite ipse, or the syllable met or te, separately or
variously combined; as, ego ipse, eg6m,et, tuie, tutemet, nosmet-
ipsi, 6ic. Se, the accusative and ablative of sui, is often
doubled, as sese. When the preposition cum is used with the
ablative of the personal pronouns, it is commonly annexed;
as, mecum, tecum, secum, nobisciim, dsc. *
6. In the accusative plural with inter, or after a transitive active verb,
with invleem, se is used as a reeiproeal pronoim; as, Fratres inter se shniles,
" Brothers like each other." BrUtus et Aruns se invleem oeeidSrunt,
" Brutus and Aruns slew each other." *
§ 29. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
119.—Adjective Pronouns are words used
dometimes like adjectives, to qualify a substantive;
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
73
and sometimes like pronouns, to stand instead of
nouns. They are declined with three genders, to
agree with substantives in these accidents.
120.—Adjective Pronouns may be divided
\nio Pos-'S-essive^ Demonstrative, Dtfinite, Relative,
Interrogative, Indefinite, and Patrial.
§ 30. I. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
121—The Possessive Pronouns denote posses¬
sion, and are derived from the substantive pro¬
nouns as follows: 0
Meus, a, um, my, my own, from me.
Tuus, , a, um, thy, thy own, " tu.
Suus, a, um, his, her, its, his own, die., " sui.
Noster, tra, trum, -our, our own, " uos.
Vester, tra, trum, your, your own, " vos.
Obs. 1. In signification, possessive pronouns correspond to
the genitive of their primitives, for which they may be con¬
sidered as a substitute; thus, frater mei, •' the brother of
me," and rneus frater, " my brother," mean the same thing,
and hence they are often connected with, and may be rendered
as, the genitive; as, suo popnllque Romani beneficio, " by the
kindness ©/"/.mse;//", and of the Roman people." Cses. Hence,
also, the genitive of the adjective is often put with the posses¬
sive pronoun in any case qualifying the substantive implied
in it; as, tuo ipsius amico, " with thine own friend." Mea
unius opera, " through the agency of me alone." Vestra ipso-
ruiH causa hoc feci, (fee.;—and .hence, also, a substantive iit
apposition with the possessive pronoun is put in tdie genitive;
as, tuum hominis siinplicis pectus vidimus.
Obs. 2. In form, possessive pronouns are regular adjectives
of the first and the second declension. Meus, tuus, and suus,
are declined like bonus, 98-1 ; except that meus has mi,
seldom meus, in the vocative singular masculine. Noster and
vester are declmed like ater, 98-3.
Obs. 3. Suus, like its priiaitiTe sui (118-3, Exc.), is used in a reflexive
4
74
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
sense, reterring to the main subject of the sentence, and must be rendered
into English in the gender and number of that subject, -withe at regard to
the noun with which it stands; thus, s:uam rem familidrem perdidcrunt,
" they squandered their property here nuam, though singoJaV, to agree
with rem, must be rendered " their," because it refers to the plurai,subject
of pcrdiderunt. Ilia sues fratres dilexit, " she loved her brothers."
When the reference is not to the main subject, but to some other person
or thing, the possessive is expressed in Latin, not by suux, but by the
genitives of ille, ipxe, iste, in, and hie ; thus, ejus rem fandliunm rapmermit,
" tliey plundered his property." Suos amlcos dniat,^ means " he loves his
own fi'iendsejta amlcos iimat, is " he loves his fiicnds," ujeauing (not Lis
own, but) the friends of some other person to whom ejus refers.
Obs. 4. The ablative singular of the possessive pronouns, especially suo
and sua, frequently take the suffix pte, equivalent to the English word
ovm ; as, suapte munu, t' with his o-wn hand ;" and, in tlie same sense, all
the cases of suns take the suffix met, usually follo-wed by ipse; as, Han¬
nibal, suamet ipse frauds eaptus, abiit, " Hannibal, being foiled by his own
device, departed."
§ 31. II. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
122.—Demonstrative Pronouns are such as
jioint out with precision a person or thiug already
known.
They are /itc, this; ille, isle, is, that,
follows:
They are declined as
1. Hic, H.EC, HOC, Ihis; Plural, i/iese.
Plural.
Ifase Fern. Neut.
N. hi, Rffi, haec,
6. horum, harum, hOrum,
D. his, his, his,
Ac. hos, * has, haec,
F. hi, hae, hajc,
Ab. his, ■■ his, liis.
Note.—Some suppose that the original form of this pronoun wa.s hiee, hcece,
hoce^ some cases of which still remain ; tliat the present form was attained by
dropping final and that this, and not hicce^ n<jecce^ &e., is the proper em¬
phatic form of tlie word. It is certain, however, that most writers and
grainmarianis prefer the double c, as hicce^ &e. See Obs. 3.
Singular.
Masc.
Fern.
Neut.
N. hic,
hose,
hujus,
hoc,
G. hujus.
hujus.
D. huio,
huio
huio.
Ac. hunc.
hanc.
hoc
F. hic,
hasc,
hoc.
Ab. hoc,
hae.
hoc,
§ 31
DEMONSTKATIVE PR0N0UN3.
75
2. Ills, illa, illud.
ihact; Plural, those.
Singular.
Plural.
Mate
Fern.
Neat.
Mate.
Fern,
Neat.
N. ille.
illa.
illud.
N. illi.
illae.
illa.
G. illius.
illius.
illius,*
G. illorum,
illarum.
illorum,
Z». illi.
illi.
il li.
D. illis.
illis.
illis.
Ac. ilium,
illam.
illud.
Ac. illos.
illas.
illa.
V. ille.
illa.
illud.
V. illi.
ill®.
illa.
^i.illo.
illa.
illo.
Ab. illis.
illis.
illis.
3. Is,
ea, id,
Singular.
Mate.
Fern.
Neat.
N. is.
ea.
id.
G. ejus.
ejus.
ejus.
D. ei.
ei.
ei.
Ac. eum.
earn.
id.
V. —
—
Ab. eo.
ea.
eo.
Note.—Virgil has oUi, as a dative singular, and nominative plural; and
(lioero, in an antique formula, has olla aad of cos, from an ancient form
, Iste, " that," is declined like ilk.
, Plural.
Masc. Fern. . Neut.
N. ii, eae, ea,
G. eorum, earum, eorum,
D. lis or eis, iis or eis, iis or eis,
^c. ejos, eas, ea,
■Ab. iis or eis, iis or eis, iis or eis. \
4. From is, and the syllable dent, is formed idem, mdem,
idem, " the same," which is thus declined :
Singular.
Mase. Fern, Kent,
N. idem, eadem, idem,
G. ejusdem, ejusdcm, ejusdem,
D. ejdem, eidern, eidem,
Ac. eundem, eandem, idem,
V. idem, eadem, idem,
Ab. eodem, eadem, eodem.
Plural.
N. iidem, ' eaedem, eadem,
G. eorundem, , earundem, eorundem,
D. eisdem, or iisdem, &c.,
.Ac. eosdem, easdem, eftdem,
V. iidem, erndem, eadem,
Ab. eindem, or iisdem, &c.
*ti6ce 08, Note 2.
76
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
123,—OBSERVATIONS.
1. When two persons or things are spoken of, ille refers to
the former, and hie to the latter. This order, however, is
sometimes reversed. When three are spoken of, ille refers to
the first; iste, to the intermediate; and /tie, to the last.
2. Hie means " this," referring to something near the speaker
or just, spoken of. Ille, " that," refers to something at a dis¬
tance or before spoken of; sometimes to what is well known
and celebrated, and therefore regarded as present; as, Medea
ilia, " the well known Medea:" Alexander ille, " the illustrious
Alexander." Jste, " that," refers to something near, or belong¬
ing to, or some way connected with the person spoken to.
a. Is, " that," is less precise in its reference than the other
demonstratives. It commonly refers simply to a person or
thing as mentioned before.—Sometimes it points out that
which is to be further described in a relative clause; as, ea
legione quam seeum Jiahehat, " with that legion which he had
with him."—Sometimes after et, atque, que, and in a negative
clause after nee, it is used to show that the noun referred to
receives an additional predicate; as, in una domo, et ea quldem
angusta, " in one house, and that, too, a small one Adoles-
rentes aliquot, nee ii tenui loco orti, " some young men, and
these not of humble origin." The neuter [et id, idque) is
used when the proposition itself receives an addition, and may
be rendered " and that too," " especially," equivalent to the
Greek x«« xaita.
b. Is (and sometimes hie and ille), before ut or qui, has the
sense of talis, " suchas, neque tu is es qui (or ut) quid sis
nescias, " neither art thou such a one as not to know what
thou art."
c. Idem, agreeing with the subject, but without a substan¬
tive, connects emphatically two predicates which belong to
the same subject, and, when the predicates are similar, may
be rendered " also," " and alsoas, Cicet% orator erat idemque
phllosophus, " Qcero was an orator and also a philosopher;"
Viros fortes eosdem bonos esse volumus, " we wish brave men
to be also good." When the predicates are opposite, %dem is
translated by " yet," " and yet;" as, hoe dleit, negat idem i'lud,
" he affirms this, yet (or, and yet) he denies that."
3. Hie, and some cases of the other demonstratives, are
§ 3g
EEL ATI VE PEONOUN.
77
rendered emphatic by adding ce; as, kicce, kujusce, huncce, &c.
When ne interrogative is also added, ce is changed into ci; as,
kic<Ane, hosciiie, &c. 122. JVofe.
4. From ille and iste with hie, are formed the compounds
illic and isthic or istic, used in some of the cases for ille and
isle, but with greater emphasis. Those parts only are in use
which end in c, as follows :
Istic is thus declined :
ifase.
JV. istic,
Ac. istunc,
Ab. istoc.
Siogular.
Fern,
istaec,
istanc,
istac.
Neut.
istoc, or istuc,
istoc, or istuc,
istoc,
N.
Ac.
Plural.
Neut.
istffic.
Ulic is declined in the same manner.
§ 32. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN.
124.—The Definite Pronoun ipse is used to
give a closer or more definite signification of a
person or thing; as, ad ipsam portam accessit.,
" he came up to the gate itselfor " to the very
gate." It is thus declined:
Plural.
Mase.
N. ipse,
G. ipslus,
D. ipsi,
Ac. ipsum,
V.
Ah. ipso.
Singular.
Fern.
Neut.
ipsa.
ipsum.
ipsius.
ipsius.
ipsi.
ipsi.
ipsam,
ipsum.
ipsa,
ipso,
Neut.
Mate. Fern.
N. ipsi, ipsae,
G. ipsorum, ipsarum, ipsdrum,
J), ipsis, ipsis, ipsis,
Ac. ipsos, ipsas, ipsA ,
F.
Ab. ipsis, ipsis, ipsis.
§ 33. IV. RELATIVE PRONOUN.
125.—A Relative Peonoun is one that re¬
lates to, and connects its clause with, a noun or
pronoun before it,* called the antecedent.
78
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
The simple relative qui is thus declined :
Qui, quie, quod, who^ which, that.
Afasc.
N. qui,
G. cujus,
D. cui,
Ac. quem,
V.
Ab. quo, qua.
Singular,
Fern.
quie,
cujus,
cui,
quam,
Neut.
quod,
cujus,
cui,
quod.
quo.
Plural.
Afaie. Fern. Feut.
If. qui, quae, quae,
G. quorum, quarum, quorum,
D. queis, or quibus, &;c.,
Ac. quos, quas, quae,
V.
Ab. queis, or quibus, &c.
Fot€.—Qu\e and quels are eometimes used in the dative and ablative, instead
of quibus. Cui is commonly regarded as one long syllable, but is sometimes
used as two short ones (ciici); so also the dative singular hulc, or hma. 122-1.
(For the construction of the relative, see § 99.)
Obs. 1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular in
all genders, seldom for the plural. To all forms of the abla¬
tive, cum is frequently annexed; as, quocum, quibuscum, &c.
Ohs. 2. Quicunqve, or quicumque, and qulvis, also used as
relatives (293, Obs. 7), are declined like qui.
§ 34. V. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
126.—^The Interrogative Pronoun is used in
nsking a question; as, Quis fkit? "Who did it?"
The interrogatives are:
£:r'
Qui ?
Qulnam?
which ? what f
11 is
Ecquis ?
Ecquisnam ? is any one f
Nuuiquis I
Cujus! whose ?
Cujas! of what country!
The simple interrogative quis is thus declined :
Quis, qu^, quod, or quid? Who, which, what?
Alasc.
If. quis or qui,
G. eujus,
D. eui,
Ac. quem,
V.
Ab. quo,
Singular.
Fern.
quae,
cujus,
cui,
quam.
•
Neut.
quid or quod,
cujus,
cui,
quid or quod,
qua.
quo.
IlfTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.
79
iV. qui,
O. quorum,
Masc.
Plural.
Fern.
qute.
Feat.
quiB,
quOium,
quarum,
D. quels or quibus, &c.,
Ac. quos, qu
quas,
quae,
V.
Ab. queis or quibus, &c.
(For the iofleetioa of the compound interrogatives, see 131-1 and 2.)
1. All interrogative pronouns used in a dependent clause,
and without a question, are indejinites {128); a.s, nescio quis
sit, " 1 know not who he is." In this sense, qui is often used
for guis.for the sake of euphony, when the following word
begins with an s; as, qui sit aperit, " he shews who he is."
So also such adjectives as quantus, qudlis, &c.
2. The interrogative quis is commonly used as a substantive
without a noun following it; qui, as an adjective before a
noun. Quis means " what man ?" or " Who'?" and applies to
both sexes;—qui means " which man," and has its feminine
qua. This distinction, however, is often disregarded, especially
as mentioned in Obs. 1. But, in the neuter gender, quid is
alwaj's used as a substantive, and governs its noun in, the
genitive; as. Quid faciuoris comrtusit? —What crime has he
committed ?" Whereas, quod is alw ays used as an adjective,
and agrees with its noun ; as. Quod facinits comniisit?
Fate.—Quid is often used elliptically thus: Quid fV k ior propter
quid?—As an interrogative iiiter|ection at the beginning of a sentence, Quid?
IS for Quid ais? Quid censes? iso also the expressions Quid viro? Quid
igitur ? Quid inim ? &c., are to be supplied. After Quid yustea ? Quid turn ?
supply sequitur. Quid quod may be supplied thus : Quia dieam de eo quod ?
"What shall 1 say about this, that, &e.2" VVitli Quid multa? Quid pla-
ta ? &e., supply dtcam, " Why should 1 say much ?" &c.
3. Uiijus, a, um? "whose?" used instead of the genitive of
quis, is defective. The parts in use are as follows :
127. OBSERVATIONS.
Singular.
Maso. Fern. Feut.
N. eujus, euja, cujum.
Plural.
Ac. cujum, cujam,
Ab. cuja, •
Masc.
N. cuji,
Ac,
Fern,
cujse,
cujas.
80
COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
4. Cvjas, " of what country," is declined like an adjective
, of one termination (99-1). Nom. czyas, gen. ciya/is, &C.
§ 35. VI. INDEFINITE PEONOUNS.
128.—^Tlie Indefinite Pronouns are such as
denote persons or things indefinitely. Besides the
interrogatives used indefinitely (127-1), they are:
Aliquis, some one. Quispiam, some one.
Slquis, if any one. Unusquisque, each one.
Nequis, lest any, no one. Quidam, a certain one.
Quisque, each one, every one. Quilibet, ) ,
_ . ' . r any one you please.
Quisquam, any one. Quivis, )
(For the inflection of these, see 130-1, 2, 3.)
§ 36. VII. PATRIAE PRONOUNS.
129.—^The Patrial Pronouns are those which have reference
to one's country. They are nostras, " of our country;" veslras,
" of your country." They are both adjectives of one terminiv-
tion. Nom. nostras, gen. nostratis, &c. (99-1.)
§ 37. COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
130.—The Compound Pronouns all belong to some of the
classes enumerated above.
131.—In the compounds of qui and qtitf, qui is always the
first part of the word compounded; quis is sometimes the first
part, and sometimes the last.
1. The compounds of qxn are quicumqve, " whoever," " who¬
soever ;" qmdam, " ^ome;" quilibet, qinvis, " any one," "whom
you please." They arc declined by adding the terminaiion
to the different cases and numbers of qui.
§ 37
COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
81
Ma»c.
N". quicunque,
G. cujuscunque,
N. quicunque,
G. quorumcunque,
Neut.
quodcunque,
cujuscunque, &c.
quaecunque,
quorumcunque, &&
Quicunque, whoever, whosoever, whatsoever.
Singular.
Fern.
quaecunque,
cujuscunque.
Plural,
quaecunque,
quarumcunque.
So, ■
Quldam, quaedam, quiddam, or quoddam.
Quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet, or quodlibet.
Quivis, quaevis, quidvis, or quodvis.
Note.—Before dam, m Is changed into n; as, guendam, qvorundam, <&c.
2. The compounds of quis, when quis is put first, are quis-
nam? " who?" quispiam, quisquam, "any onequisque, "every
oneand quisquis, " whoever, whosoever."
Mase.
N. quisnam,
G. cujusnam,
D. cuinam,
Ac. quemnam,
V.
Ab. quonam,
Quisnam, who, which, what?
Singular.
Fern,
quaenam,
cujusnam,
cuinam,
quamnam.
Neut.
quidnam, or quodnam,
cujusnam,
cuinam,
quidnam, or quodnam.
N. quinam,
G. quorumnam,
D. quibusnam,
Ac. quosnam,
V.
A6. quibusnam.
quanam.
Plural.
quaenam,
quarumnam,
quibusnam,
quasnam.
quonam.
quaenam,
quorumnam,
quibusnam,
quaenam.
quibusnam.
So decline:
quibusnam.
Quispiam,
Quisquam,
Quisque,
Quisquis,
quaepiam,
quaequam,
quaeque,
quidpiam, or quodpi.am.
quidquam, or quodquam.
quidque, or quodque.
quidquid, or quicquid.
06s. 1. Quisquam has qtienquam in the accusative, without
4*
82
COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
§ 37
the feminine. ITie plural is scarcely used; quicque is also
used for quidqite. Quisquis, "whoever," has no feminine ter¬
mination except in the ablative; and the neuter, only in the
nominative and accusative. It is used as an indefinite adjec¬
tive pronoun; and also instead of qulqui, not in use, as a
double relative of the same meaning as qnicunque. 131—1.
The following are the. parts in use :
Masc.
N. quisquis,
Ac. quemquem,
Ab. quoquo.
Singular.
Fern.
Nexit.
quidquid, or quicquid,
quidquid, or quicquid,
quoquo.
quaqua.
The plural has the nominative masculine qulqui, and the
dative quibusqulbus. Quisquis is sometimes used for the femi¬
nine.
3. The compounds of quis, when quis is put last, have qua
in the nominative singular feminine, and in the nominative
and accusative plural neuter. These are :
Aliquis, some. Numquis, whether any!
Ecquis, whether any ! Slquis, if any.
NCquis, lest any.
The last three are often written separately; as, ne quis, num.
quis, si quis. These pronouns are thus declined :
Singular.
Masc. Fern.
iV". aliquis, aliqua^
G. alicujus, alicujus,
D. alicui, alicui,
Ac. aliquem, aliquam,
V. aliquis, aliqua,
Ab. aliquo, aliqua.
Plural.
Neul.
aliquid, or aliquod,
alicujus,
alicui,
aliquid, or aliquod,
aliquid, or aliquod,
aliquo.
N. aliqui,
G. aliquorum,
D. aliquibus,
Ac. aliquos,
F. aliqui,
Ab. aliquibus.
alicjuae,
aliquarum,
aliquibus,
aliquas,
aliquaef,
aliquibus.
aliqua,
ali^orum,
aliquibus,
aliqua,
aliqua,
aliquibus.
Fate.—Ecquis and slquis have sometimes quae in the nominative singular
%minme.
THE VERB.
83
Obs. 2. Some of these are twice compounded; as, ecquis-
nam, ecquainam, ecquidnam, or ecquodnam, " who V unusquis-
qtie, unatquceque, ununiquidque, or unumquodque^ " every one
genitive nniusmjitsque, &c. The former is scarcely declined
beyond the nominative singular, and the latter wants the
plural.
Obs. 3. All these compounds want the vocative, except quis-
que, ahquis; quiUbet, and quicunque. They have seldom, if
3ver, queis, but qutbus in the datiye and the ablative plural
§ 38. THE VERB.
132.—A- Verb is a word used to express the
act, being, or state, of its subject.
Obs. 1. The uSe of the verb, in simple propo"sitions, is to
affirm. ■ That of which it affirms, is called its subject, and, if a
noun or pronoun, it is usually in the nominative case. But
when the verb is in the infinitive, its subject is put in the
accusative.
1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive, and In¬
transitive.
Note.—These two classes comprehend all the verbs in any lan^age. Ac¬
cording to this division, Transitive verbs include those only which denote
transitive action ; i. e. action passing over from, or done by, one person or
thing to another; and Intransitive verbs, those which have nothing transitive
in their meaning, but which represent their subject in a certain state or con¬
dition, and hotliing more. For this purpose, not only are the terms Transi¬
tive and Intransitive more expressive and appropriate than Active nod Neuter,
but their use relieves the term " Active," to be emplojed solely as the name
of the form called the Active Voice; and the term "Neuter," to be appro¬
priated to the gender of nouns.
- 2. A Transitive verb expresses an act done
by one pei*son or thing to another. It has
two forms, called the Active, dindi the Passive
voice. 135.
3. An Intransitive verb expresses being, or a
state of being, or action confined to the actvr. It
is commonly without the passive form.
84
THE VEKB.
Obs. 2. The verbs that express being simply, in Latin, are
sum, ^0, existo, signifying, in general, "to be," orexist,"
The stale of being expressed by intransitive verbs may be a
state of rest, as dormio, " I sleepor of motion, as cado, " I
fallor of action, as curro, " I run."
Obs. 3, The action expressed by an intransitive verb does
not, like the action expressed by a transitive verb, pass over
from the agent or actor to an object. • It has no immediate
relation to any thing beyond its subject, which it represents in
a certain state or condition, and. nothing more; and hence
they may always be distinguished thus :—A transitive verb
always requires an object to complete the sense; as, amo te,
" I love thee;"—the intransitive verb does not, but the sense is
complete without such an object; as, sedeo," 1 sitcurro," I run."
Obs. 4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Latin, are
translated by verbs considered transitive in English; &s,placeo,
" I pleaseobedio, " I obeycredo, " I believe;" &c.
Obs. 5. Many verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and
s'linetimes in an intransitive sense. Such are fugio, inchno,
timeo, &c.; a,s,fuge dextruni littus (tr.), "avoid the right hand
shoretempus fugit (intr.), .'•* time fliestimeo Danaos (tr.),
" I dread the Greekstimeo (intr.), " I am afraid."—In some,
tne transitive and intransitive are distinguished by a difference
in form and conjugation; thus, jado, jaceo; pendo, pendeo; albo,
albeo; fugo, fugio; placo, placeo; sedo, sedeo; &c.
Obs. 6. Verbs usually intransitive assume a transitive sense,
when a word of signification similar to that of the verb itself
is introduced as its object; as, vivere vltam, " to live a life
jurare jusjurandum, "to swear an oath."
Obs. 7. When we wish to direct the attention, not so much
to any particular act of the subject of discourse, as to the em¬
ployment or state of that subject, the object of the act—not
being important—is omitted, and the transitive verb assumes
the character of an intransitive; thus, in the sentence, puer
legit, "the boy reads," nothing more is indicated than the
present state or employment of puer, " thej^ioy," and the verb
has obviously an intransitive sense : still, an object is ne>es-
sarily implied, as he who reads must read something. But
when we -say puer legit Homerum, " the boy reads Homer,"
the attention is directed to a particular act, terminating on a
certain object, " Homerum," and the verb has its proper
transitive sense.
§ 89 the verb. 85
§ 39. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS.
133.—Though the division of verbs into Transitive and
Intransitive comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet,
from something peculiar in their form or signification, they
are charactej'ized by different names, expressive of this pecu
liaiity. The most common of these are the following, viz;
Regular, Irregular, Deponent, Common, Defective, Impersonal,
Redundant, Frequentative, Inceptive, and Desiderative.
1. Regular Verbs are tliose in which the se¬
condary parts are formed from the primary,
according to certain rules. 184.
Note.—^Under these are included Transitive, Intransitive, Deponent, and
Common verbs belonging to the four conjugations.
2. Irregular Verbs are those in which some
of the secondary parts are not formed from the
primary, according to rule. 221.
3. Deponent Verbs under a passive form have
an active signification. 207-1.
4. Common Verbs under a passive form have
an active or passive signification. 207-2.
5. Defective Verbs are those in which some
of the parts are wanting. 222.
6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the
third person singular. 223.
7. Redundant Verbs have more than one form
of the same part. 225.
8. Frequentative Verbs express repeated ac¬
tion. 227-1.
9. Inceptive Verbs inark the beginning or
continued increase of an action. 227-2.
10. Desiderative Verbs denote desire or in¬
tention of doing. 227-3. The three last are al¬
ways derivatives. 226.
86
the verb.—voice.
§41
§ 40. INFLECTION OF VERBS.
134.—^To the inflection of Verbs belong Voices,
Moods^ Tenses^ Numbers^ and Persons.
1. The Voices, in Latin, are itwo, Actwe and
Passive.
2. The Moods are four, the Indicative., Subjunc¬
tive., Imperative., and Infinitive.
8. The Texses are six, the Present., Imperfect,
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Future-Perfect.
4. The Numbers are two. Singular and Plural.
5. The Persons are three. First, Second, and
Third.
6. Besides these, to the Verb belong. Partici¬
ples, Gerunds, and Supines.
7. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange¬
ment of its different moods, tenses, &c., according
to a certain order. Of these, in Latin, there are
fjur, called the First, Second, Third, and Fotirth
Oonjugations. 184-1—3.
Obs. A few verbs in Latin are of more than one conjuga
tion, and a few have some of their parts belonging to one
conjugation, and others to another.
§ 41. VOICE.
135.—^VoiCE is a particular form of the veib
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb.
The transitive verb, in Latin, has two voices,
called the Active and the Passive.
1 The Active Voice represents the subject of
THE VERK—VOICE.
87
the verb as acting on some object; as, amo fe, " I
love thee."
2. The Passive Voice represents the subject of
the verb as acted upon; as, amdtur^ " he is loved."
136.—OBSERVATIONS.
1- In both voices, the act expressed by the verb is the same,
but differently related to the subject of the verb. In the
active voice, the subject is the actor; in the passive, it is acted
upon, as in the above examples. Hence, the same idea may
be expressed with equal propriety in either voice, by simply
chanpfing the object of the active voice hito the subject of the
passive; thus, by the active voice, Ccesar vlcit Galliam, " Caesar
conquered Gaulby the passive, Gallia victa est a Ccesare,
" Gaul was conquered by Caesar."
This property of the transitive verb, enables the speaker or
writer not only to vary his form of expression at pleasure,
but also, by means of the passive form, to direct the attention
to the act and the object acted upon, when the actor either is
unknown, or, it may be, unimportant or improper to be men¬
tioned : thus, " America was discovered and inhabited before
the days of Columbus." So also the attention may be directed
by means of the active voice to the act and the actor, without
regard to the object. See 132, Obs. 7.
2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, do not admit a dis¬
tinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the ac¬
tive voice, but are frequently used in the third person singular,
passive form, as impersonal verbs. 223-3. Deponent in-
transitives, however, have the form of the passive.
3. The passive voice, in Latin, is often used in a sense simi¬
lar to the middle voice in Greek, to- express actively what its
subject does to, or for itself; as, donee pauci, qui prcelio super-
fuerant, paludtbiis abderentub, "till the few who had sur¬
vived the battle, concealed themselves in the marshes." Tao.
The following are examples of the same kind : Columha—fer-
tur in arva vdlans. Virg.—J^unc spicula vertunt infensi; factd
pariter nunc pace fercntjjr. Id;—£ scopulo. rnulid vix arte
REVULSus—rutem Sergestus agebat. Id.— Quis ignbrat, ii, qui
mathematlci vocantur, in quanta obscuritdte rerum—vebsentur.
Cio.—Cum igitur vehementius inveheretur in causam princX-
88 THE VERB.—MOODS. § 42
punt consul Philippus. Id.—Cum omnes in omni genere seels-
rum volutentue. Id.
Circumdat nequidquam humSris, et inutile femun
CiNciTUE, ac densos fektvr moriturus in hostes. Viro.
In all such constructions, the words " a se " may be under
stood after the verb.
§ 42. MOODS.
137.—^Mood is the mode or manner of express-
iDg the signification of the verb.
138.—^The moods, in Latin, are four; namely,
the Indicative^ Subjunctive^ Imperative., and In-
finitive.
139.—I. The Indicative Mood asserts the ac¬
tion or state expressed by the verb, simply as a
fact, and generally in an independent clause; as,
scribe, " I writetempusfugit, " time flies."
140.— Obs. 1. The indicative mood is sometimes used in
dependent clauses with si, nisi, etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, to assert
a fact as a condition or supposition; as, si quid melius kabes,
arcesse. Or with ut or quum, " when," signifying time past;
as, Tempus fait quum homines vagabantur. Ut inquinavit cere
tempus aureum. Hoe.
141.— Obs. 2. The indicative followed by si non, ni, nisi, is
sometimes used potentially, to express, not what did take
place, but what would have taken place if something else had
not happened; as, Tenus ^gyptum penetravit, nisi exercitus
s'equi recusasset, " He would have penetrated as far as .(Egypt,
if the army had not refused to follow hiin.'^624.
142.—II. The Subjunctive Mood represents
the action or state expressed by the verb, not as
a fact, but only as a conception formed by the
mind. It is generally used in dependent clauses
in various ways, as follows:
§ 42 THE TERB.—MOODS. 89
1st. It represents tlie action or state expressed
by it as conditional or contingent.
Thus used, it corresponds to the English suhjiinctive, or to
the indicative used suhjunctively (An. and Pr. Gr., 386); as,
64 redtat, videhirmis, " if he return, we shall see him."
2d. It' represents an action or state, as what
may, can, will; might, could, woidd, ox should,
take place in certain circumstances.
Thus used, it corresponds to the English potential (An. and
Pr. Gr., 380); as, fdimns ut vivamus, non vivitnus ut edamus,
" we eat that we may live—not live that we may eatsig-
num datum crederes, " you would suppose that the signal had
been given."
3d; It is used to express a fact in a dependent
proposition, connected with the leading verb by
an adverb, conjunction, relative, or indefinite
term.
Thus used, it is commonly rendered by the indicative in
English; as, nescit qui sim, " he knows not who I am."
143.— Obs. 3. The subjunctive mood is sometimes used in
an independent proposition, in order to soften the assertion
made; as, Nemo istud Mi c&ncedat, " nobody probably would
concede that to you." (625).
144.— Obs. 4. The subjunctive is used also in independent
propositions, to express a wish, desire, or command ; as, utl
nam saperes, •" O that thou wert wisequod bene vertat, " may
it turn out well;" sic col, " thus let her gofacias, " do it."
See Obs. 5.
145.—Ohs. 5. When this mood is used in independent propositions, in
a potential, optative, or imperative sense, still it ought to he regarded as
strictly subjunctive, having the primary or leading clause evidently un¬
derstood, on which the meaning of the mood in each case depends. Thus
" I may write," hcet mihi ut, or est ut scrlbam; " I shall, or will WTite."
fututum est, or irit ut scrlbam; " I should write," oportet, cequum est ut, or
est cur scribiretn; " I should have written," oportlbat, <tc., ut scripshscni;
" O that they were wise," pero^o utvnccm sapirent; " may it turn out weU,"
THE VERB.—MOODS.
precor quod bene vertat; "do it," fae ut facias; "let me do it," sineut
faciam, (fee.
Hence, it follows that the particular English auxiliary by which this
mood should be translated, depends, not upon the foi-m of the Latin verb,
seeing scrihirem for example, means equally, " I might, could, would, or
should write," but upon the ellipsis to be supplied. MTiat this is, must
always be gathered from the connection and sense of the passage.
14G.— Obs. 6. From these observations, it-will be manifest that the
Latin subjunctive is in much more extensive use than either the subjunctive
and potential mood in English, or the subjunctive and optative mood in
Greek. Indeed, the proper use and management of this mood, constitute
one of the greatest difficulties in this language. For the construction of
this mood, see § 139.
147.'— Ohs. 7. When the ideas of liberty, power, will, obligation,
duty, &c., involved in the. auxiliaries may; can, will, shall,
might, could, would, should, &c., are to be expressed in an
absolute, independent, and emphatic manner, the subjunctive
mood is not used, but separate verbs expressing these ideas in
the indicative mood. These are such as licet, volo, nolo,
possum, debeo, &c., thus :
148.— Obs. 8. The future indicative is frequently used in
dependent and hypothetical clauses, and consequently in a
subjunctive sense; as, si jubebis faciam, " if you order me, I
will do it;" equivalent to sijubeas, &c. •
149.—III. The Imperative ]\Iood commands,
exhorts, entreats, or permits; as, scribe, " write
thouito, " let him go."
150.— Obs. 9. The present subjunctive is very often used
instead of th> imperative, especially in forbidding, after ne
We will go.
They will not go.
I may come,
I can read.
It might have been done,
(absolutely and sometimes
contingently^)
Ire volumus.
Ire nolunt.
Mild venire licet.
Legire possum.
Legere debes.
T\bi legendum est.
Te legire oportet.
I Fieri pot uit.
THE VEBB.—TENSES.
91
nemo, nullus, &:c.; as, valeas, "farewell;" ne noceas puero,
" hurt not the boy." Obs. 4 and 5. Besides this, the future
and future perfect indicative, a".id the perfect subjunctive, are
also used imperatively. See 167-1, 169-3, and 173-4.
151.—Ohs. 10. The imperative mood has two forms in the
second person, both singular and plural, distinguished in theii
meaning as present and future. The first, or shorter form
commands to do presently; as, scribe, " write now—the se-
. cond, or longer form commands to do afterwards, or when
something else shall have been done; as, scribtto, " write here¬
after." This distinction, however, is not always observed.
152.—IV. The Infinitive Mood expresses the
meaning of the verb in a general manner, without
any distinction of person or number; as, scribere^
"to write;" scripsisse, "to have written;" so-ibi,
" to be written." .
■ § 43. TENSES.
153.—^Tenses are certain forms of the verb
which serve to point out the distinctions of time.
154.—Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and
Future; and an action may be represented either as incom¬
plete and continuing, or as completed at the time spoken of.
This gives rise to six tenses, which are expressed in Latin by
distinct forms of the verb; thus,
Present i contiipiing; seribo, " I write, I am writing." Present.
' j Action completeu; as, scripsi, "I have written." Perfect.
Past ( Action continuing: as, scriieAaTTi, " I was writing." Imperfect.
1 Action completed; as, scripseram, "I had written." Pluperfect.
p J Action continuing; as, ecriham, " I shall or will write." Future.
' ( Action completed; as, gcnpsero, "I shall have written." Ftd.-Perf.
155.—In order better to express the time and the state
of the action by one designation, these tenses, arranged in this
order, might properly be denominated the Present, the Present-
perfect; the Past, the Past-verfect; the Future, s.\\A the Future-
perfect. An. and Pr. Gr. 400.
92
the verb.—tenses.
§ 44. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
156.—TLe tenses of the indicative mood, in
Latin, are six: the Present^ the Imperfect^ the
Perfect^ the Phipeifect^ the Future^ and the Fu-
tureperfect.
157.—I. Tlie Present tense expresses what is
going on at the present time; as, scribo," I write,"
or "I am writing;" domus cedificdtur^ "the house
is building."
This tense is rendered with all the variety of the present
tense in English; 1 write, 'do write, am writing;—interro¬
gatively, do I write? am I writing? Like the English present
also it is used;
1. To express what is habitual or always true; as, qui cito
dat, bis dat, " he who gives promptly, gives twice."
2. To express a general custom, if still existing; as, apad
Parthos sigiium datur tympdno, "among the Parthians, the
signal is given by the drum."
3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the
past tense, to represent a past event as if it were present be¬
fore us; thus (Livy), dicto paruere, desilivnt ex equis, provolant
in prtnuim, &c., " they obeyed, they dismount, they fly for¬
ward to the front," Ac.
4. To denote an action which has continued for some time,
and which still exists ; as, tot annos hella gero^ "for so many
years I have waged, and am still waging war." Also after
durn it is .used to express a past event which had some con¬
tinuance; as, dvm in Sicilia sum,, nulla statua dejecta est, "so
long as I was in Sicily," Ac.
5. With certain adverbs of time, it is^ometimes used, as
in English, to denote what is yet future; as, qnam mox navigo
Pphesum, " as soon as I sail, or shall sail, for Ephesus."
6. In the passive voice, the present tense represents its
subject as at present acted upon, or as the object of an action
present and continuing, and is usualiy rendered into English
by the verb to be, and the perfect participle, as amdtur, " he is
loved," and this rendering will always be correct when tha
THE VERB.—TENSES.
93
English verb in the present passive expresses continuame; as,
he his loved, feared, hated, respected, &c.
158.—Obs. But there are many verbs in 'which this rendering of the
present would be incorrect, as it does not express the present receiving of
an action, but rather the present end continuing effect of an act, which act
itself is now past. In all such coses, it is more properly the rendering of
the perfect than of the present, and it is often so used. Thus, dimus oedijicula
est; opus peractum est; epistdla scripta est, may be properly rendered,
*' the house is bijilt" the work is finished"the letter is writtenbe¬
cause in the English, as well as in Latin, the building of the house, the
finishing of the work, and the writing of the letter, are represented as
acts now past, and which are present only in their. effects. The proper
rendering of such verbs in the present passive, in English, is by the verb
to be, and the present participle in ing in the passive sense; thus, ddmus
oedificatur," the house is buildingopus peragXtur," the work is finishing
episttHa scribXtur, " the letter is writing." When this mode of expression
is not authorized, and when the other would be improper, it wUl be
necessary to express the precise idea of the present by some other form
of expression. See An. and Pr. Eng. Gr., App. V, I and II, p. 235.—Prin¬
ciples of Eng. Or., App. XIX, p. 211.
159.—11. The Imperfect tense represents an
action or event as passing and still unfinished at
a certain time past, expressed or implied; as,
ddmvm cedijicahat, "he was (then) building a
house dtam J'orte via sacra, " I was accidentally
^ (viz. at the time spoken of,) going along the via
sacral
160.—This tense, strictly speaking, corresponds to the past-
progressive in English (An. and Pr. Eng. Gr., 474-2.—Prin¬
ciples of Eng. Gr., 199-2), It is often rendered^, however, by
the past tense in its ordinary form, and should always be so,
when the verb expresses a continued act or state ; as, amahat,
" he lovedtimebat, " he feared." It is used in a variety of
ways, as follows:
1. It is used to denote what was usual or customary at
some past time; as, scribebam, " I was accustomed to write."
2. It is used to denote an action which had existed for some
time, and was still existin|f at a certain past time; as, tot an-
94
the vekb.—tenses.
§44
nos bella gerebam, " for so many years I had been, and then
still was waging war."
o o
3. Sometimes it denotes an action desired, mtended, or at-,
tempted, but not accomplished; as, Forsena eum terreb^t,
" Porsena attempted to frighten him."
4. It is sometimes used hypothetically, instead of the ira
perfect or pluperfect subjunctive ; as, anceps certamen erat, nhi
eqmtes superveninisent, " the battle would have been doubtful,
unless, &c." 141, and 624-5.
5. The same observations made in 158, in reference to the
present passive, are applicable in all their extent to the im¬
perfect; as, amabatur, "he was loved;" dbmus cedijicalatur,
" the house was building," not " was built," nor " was being
built;" opus peragebdtur, " the work was finishing," «fec.
161!—III. The Perfect tense is used in two
different senses, Definite and Indefimite.
162.—^The Perfect-definite represents an action
or event as completed at the present time, or in
a period of time of w^hich the present forms a
part; as, scripsi^ "I have written Imjus ad me-
moriam, nostram ononumenta mansb'unt duo^ " tw"»
monuments of him have remained to our time."
163.—The Perfect-indefinite represents an ac¬
tion or' event simply as past; as, scripsi^ "I
wrote."
164.—The first, or Perfect-dejinite, corresponds to the English present
perfect (An. and Pr. Gr., 401);—the oeconA, or Perfect-indefnite, corres¬
ponds to the English past tense (An. and Pr. Gr., 415). In this sense, it
is commonly used in historical narratives like the Greek aorist; thus, Ccexar
exercitum fnibus Italice adniovit, Pubicon tramiit, Romam occup&vit,
" C<Bsar marched his army," &c. • ,
1. This tense, used indefinitely, is sometimes coupled with
the imperfect, the former denoting a transitory, the latter a
continued action ; thus, Con'Acuere omnes, intentlque bra tene-
bant, " All were silent, and with eager attention kept their
lyes fxed him." Virg. , |
2. It is sometimes used like the present, to express what is
the verb.—tense3.
95
true at any time; thus, Felix qui potuit rerum co^noscere
caueas, " Happy that man -who was able to investigate the
causes of tilings!" Vibg.
3. It is sometimes used in the sense of the pluperfect, vi^ .
in narratives afler such conjunctions as postquam, uli, ubi
primtim, vt (when), ut prlmuni, quum, quum pnmum, simul
ut, sniiul ac, &c., having the general meaning of the English
" as soon as," when followed by a verb denoting past time;
as, Quce postquam evolvit—ligavit, " After he had separated
these things,—he bound them," &c. Ovid.
4. It is also used poetically for the imperfect and the plu
Ferfect of the subjunctive; as, nec vmi, nisi, &c., "nor would
have come, unless," &c. (141, and 624-5.)
5. In the passive form, this tense is compound, consisting
of the perfect participle of the verb, and the present or perfect
tense of sum as an auxiliary; as, amatus sum, or amaius fui,
" I have been loved."
Note.—In ail compound tenses, tlie participle must be in the same gender
and number with the nominative to the verb.
165.—IV. The Pluperfect tense represents an
action as completed at, or before, a certain past
time ex])ressed or implied; as, scripsemm, " I had
written."
166.—This tense corresponds to the past-perfeot in English,
and is rendered by it. It bears the same relation to the per
feet, that the imperfect does to the present.
1. The pluperfect is sometimes used, especially by the
poets, for the perfect indicative, and also for the pluperfect
subjunctive; as, dixeram a principio, ut de repnblica sileretur,
Cic., " I have said from the beginning," &c.; Si mens non Iceva
fuisset, impulerat, &c., virg., " he would have impelled" (141,
& 624-5.) The same idiom is found in English, " he had im-
pelledf' for " he would have impelled."
2. In the passive form, this tense, like the perfect, is com¬
pound, consisting of the perfect participle, and the imperfect
or pluperfect of sum used as an auxiliary; as, amdtus eram, or
amatus fueram,I had been loved."
^oU.—^In these compound forms, the participle seems to be considered
sometimes as little ditiereiit from an adjective. In such cases, eum become&
the verb, and is rendered by its own tense ; as, opus per actum est, the work
is finished \''' Jinltus jam lahor er4^, " the labor was now finished."
96
the verb.—^tenses.
167.—Y. The Future tense expresses what will
take place in future time; as, scr^am^ " I shall,
or will write."
1. This tense is sometimes nsed in the sense of the impe¬
rative ; as, hques vlna, " filtrate the wine." Hon.
2. The participle in rus, with the verb sum, is frequently
used instead of the future, especially if purpose or intention is
signified; as, scripturus sum, " I am going to write." (214-8.)
3. In the passive voice, the future tense expresses the future
enduring of an act that will be going on hereafter; as, domus
adificalMur, " the house will be building."
168.—^VI. The Future-perfect intimates that
an action or event will be completed at, or before,
a certain time yet future; as, scripsei^o, " I shall
have writtenviz, at, or before, some future time
or event.
1. This tense, sometimes called the future subjunctive,
properly belongs to the indicative mood, both in signification
and construction. For the future subjunctive, see 170-1.
2. Though the proper rendering of this tense be shall have,
yet, generally, the have, or the shall, and frequently both, are
omitted ; as, qui Antonium oppresserit, is helium confecerit, "he
who shall cut off Antony, shall put an end to the war."
3. This tense is also used imperatively; as, memineris tu,
" remember thouille viderit, "let him see to it."
4. The future perfect, in the passive voice, has two forms,
made up of the perfect participle, and ero, or fuero. The first
denotes the enduring of an act that will be completed in future
time indefinitely; as, domus oedijic&ta erit, " the house will be
built;" the second denotes the enduring of an act to be com¬
pleted at, or before, a certain future time; as, dhmus aedificata
fuerit, " the house will have been built."
§ 45. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
169.—The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the Present,
the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect.
the verb.—tenses.
97
170—1. There is no distinct form of a future in the sub¬
junctive ; all the tenses of this mood sometimes incline to a
future signification. But, when a future subjunctive is required,
the future participle in rus, with the verb sum in the subjunc¬
tive present, is used; as, haud dublto quin facturus sit, "I
doubt not that he will do it."
2. The tenses of the subjunctive mood, in Latin, like those
of the potential, in English, are much less definite, in respect
of time, than the tenses of the indicative, being modified by
the time and meaning of the verbs,^ with which they stand
connected.
3. All the tenses of the subjunctive mood, are often render¬
ed like the corresponding tenses of the indicative, 142, 1st.
and 8d. ,
171.—I. The Present subjunctive is generally
rendered by inay or can,, expressing present
liberty, or ability; as, scream, "I may write."
But,
1. This tense is often used in the sense of the imperative
mood, to express a command, entreaty, or exhortation; as,
dmem, " let me love." This use is commonly elliptical, 144,
and 145.
2. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes ren¬
dered as the imperfect, or perfect indefinite of the indicative;
as, quasi intelhgant, " as if they understood."
3. When a question is asked, it is frequently rendered as
the indicative; as, Elbquar an sileam? " shall I speak, or be
silent ?" Sometimes by should; as, singula qxiid referam,
" why should 1 relate e^ry thing 1" Sometimes by would; as,
In factnus jurdsse putes, " you would thmk they had sworn to
commit wickedness." -
172.—^11. The Imperfect subjunctive is com¬
monly rendered by the signs might, could, would,
or should, expressing past libert/y, power, will, or
obligation; as, scriberem, "I might, could, would,
or should write."
1. This tense may relate either to what is past, or present,
or future; as, si fata fuissent ut caderem, " if my destiny had
been that I should fellsijpossetn., sanior essem, " If I could, 1
93
THE VERB.—TENSES.
would be wiserpost hose praciptUm darem, " afterwards, I
would throw him down headlong."
3. Sometimes, the imperfect is rendered as the jduperfect;
AS, si quis diceret, nunquam ptitdrem, &c., " if any one had
Said it, I never would have thought," &c.
3. After a verb or clause denoting hindrance, the subjuno
tive imperfect, and sometimes the present, with quomlnus, ne,
may often be rendered by from with the present participle;
as.
Si U tua infirmUas vahtudlnis tenuit, quo minus ad ludos vexiees, " If
your weak state of health has prevented you from coming to the games."
So, Ne quis impedlretur quo minus ejus rebus frueketue,"That no one might
be hindered from enjoying," <tc. Nep.—Impedltus ne port&ret, "Being
hindered from carrying." Sall. Jug., 39.—Me impediet quo minus—vestrum
jus defendam," Shall hinder me from defending your right" Cic.
4. In historical narration, after ut or quum {cum)," when,".or
other words denoting time, the imperfect subjunctive is trans¬
lated like the perfect indefinite or aorist; or, when it expresses
a continued action, like the perfect indicative; as, cum ah his
qucereret, " when he inquired of thesecum id ultro polli-
ceretur, " since of his own accord he promised thatcum
summus mons teneretur, " when the top of the mountain was
occupied."
173.—III. The Perfect subjunctive is used to
denote an act or event spoken of as already past,
or which will be past at some future time, but
about which there is at present some contingency
or uncertainty, in the mind of the speaker.
This tense is commonly rendered by the signs may have;
as, fortasse scripserim, " perhaps I may. have written," imply¬
ing, " if so, I have at present forgotten it."
This general idea is expressed with much variety in English,
according as the tense stands connected with other words in
the sentence. This will be best explained*by a few examples.
1. It is sometimes rendered like the present; as, ut sic
disterim, " that 1 may so speak." Sometimes like the imper
feet; as, iibi ego audiverim? "where should 1 have heard it?"
fortasse erraverim, "perhaps 1 might be in an error."
2. This tense sometimes inclines very much to a future
THE VERB.—TENSES.
99
signification, and is rendered" by should, would, could, can, will,
^shall; as, Citius crediderim, "I should sooner believe." Jo v.—
Libenter audierim, "I would gladly hear." Cio.— CicerCnem
cuicunque ebrum facile opposuerim, " I could easily {natch Cicero
with any of them —non facile dixlrim, " I cannot well tell
—mc tdmen excluserim alios, "and yet I will not exclude
others."—Si paululum modo quid te fugerit, ego perierim, "If
any thing however trifling escape you, I shall be undone."
Ter.
3. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes
rendered by had; as, quasi affuerim, " as if I had been present
periude ac si jam vicerinl, "just as if they had already con-:
quered."
4. It is sometimes used in concessions; as, parta sit pecunia,
"suppose the money were gotten." Sometimes as the im¬
perative, with the idea of urgency; as, kcec dicta sint patribus,
" let these things be told quickly to the fathers."
174.—IV. The Pluperfect subjunctive denotes
an action or event contingent at some past time,
but regarded as to be perfected before another
action or time subsequent to it, and connected
Tvitli it; as,
Quodcunque jussisset me facturum esse dixi, " I said (then)
that 1 would do whatever he should order." Here his order¬
ing was contingent at the time referred to, (then); but it was
to take place before the doing connected with it. So, Id re-
sponderunt se facluros esse, cum ille vento Aquilone Lemnum
venisset, " They replied that they would do that, when he should
return to Lemnos with a north wind." In such constructions,
the leading verb is usually in the past tense, or in the present
used for the past. It is variously rendered by would, could,
might, had, might have, could have, toould have, should have, or
ought to have; as, sijussisset, paruissem, "ifhe had commanded,
I would have obeyed." Hence, observe :
1. That though the action or state is often future in respect
to the time of the leading verb, yet it is past with regard to
the action or state dependent on it.
2. After quum, it is used in the sense of the pluperfect, to
express an action antecedent to another past action connected
with it; as, Coesar quuv^ haec dixisset, profectus est, " when
100 THE TERB.—TENSES. § 47
Caesar had said these things, he departed." Thus used, fMwwi,
with the pluperfect, may be elegantly rendered by the perfect
participle in English; thus the above example may be rendered.
" Caesar, having said these things, departed."
§ 46. TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE.
175.—The Imperative mood, in Latin, has only one tense,
namely, the present. Still the act from the nature of this
mood is necessarily future; as, scribe, "write thou." The
command is present; the act commanded, future. Still the
two forms of the second person mark a distinction of time.
See 151, Obs. 10.
The other tenses used imperatively, are the future and
future-perfect indicative, and the present and perfect subjune
tive; which see.
§ 47. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.
176.—^The tenses of the Infinitive are four,
the Present, the Perfect, and the Puture, and, in
the active voice, the Puture-perfect.
In Latin, the tenses of the infinitive express its action as
past, present, or future, not with regard to the present time,
as in the other moods, but with regard to the time of the lead¬
ing verb, on which it is dependent.
177.—The infinitive is used in two different ways; viz :
without a subject, or with it.
178.—I. The infinitive without a subject, follows a verb, or
adjective, and is always translated in the same way, whether
the preceding verb be present, past, or future; thus :
ACTIVE VOICE. *
Present.
scriblre, He is said to write, or to be writing (now).
scripsisse, " to have written (now).
tcriptUrus esse, " to be about to write (now).
scriptHrusfuisse, " to have been about to write (before now)
DicUur
U
u
((
THE VEEB.—TENSES.
101
Past.
Dicebatur scrlblre, He was said to write, or.to be writing (thenjL
" scripsitse, " to have written, Ac.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Present.
Dbmus dicUur cedijicari, The house is said to be building"(now).
" ecdijicata esse, " to be built (now).
" cedificSia fuisse, " to have been built (before now^
" cedificatum iri. . " to be about to be built (now).
Past.
Vamus dicebatur oed\deari, The house was said to be building (then), Ac.
Kote.—When the participle in mg, of the English verb, has not a passive
sense, the present infinitive passive must be translated difierently; as,
amari, "to be loved."
179.—II. The infinitive, with a subject, is usually translated
by a distinct proposition, dependent on the preceding verb;
and the translation of the same tense of the infinitive must
differ according to- the tense of the verb'on which it depends,
as follows :
1. The Present Infinitive represents the action, or state,
expressed by the verb, as present and going on at the time of
the leading verb, and, consequently, must be rendered into
English, in the time of the leading verb; as, dicit se scribere,
"he says that he is writing;"—Pass., ddmum cedijicari, "that
the house is building;"—dixit se scribere, " he said that he was
writing;"—Pass., dorwum cedijicari, " that the house was build¬
ing." As an exception, see No. 5 below.
2. The Perfect Infinitive represents the action, or state,
expressed by the verb, as past at the time of the leading verb,
and must be rendered accordingly; i. e., after the present, by
the English present-perfect, or past; as, dicit se scripsisse, " he
says that he has written," or, " that he wrote;"—Pass., dbmum
cedijicatam esse, " that the house is built;—cedificatam fuisse,
" has been built:"—After a past tense (or the present used for
the past, 143-3), by the English pluperfect; as, dixit se
scripsisse, " he said that he had written."—Pass., by the im¬
perfect, or pluperfect; as, domum cedificatam esse, "that the
house was built;" cedificdtam fuisse, "Aod been built."
3. The Future Infinitive represents the action, or state,
expressed by the verb al future at the time of the leading
102
THE VERB.—TENSES,
verb, and must be rendered accordingly; as, dlcit se scripturum
esse, " he says that he will write—Pass., domum cedijicdtum
Iri, " that the house will be built—dixit se scripturum esse,
" he said that he would write—Pass., domum adijicatum iri,
" that the house would be built." For all these, see 180.
4. The future infinitive active is compound, being made up
of esse, or fuisse, and the participle in rus, agreeing in gender,
number, and case, with the accusative before it, or with the
nominative of the leading verb. With esse, it corresponds to
the future indicative; with fuisse, to the future-perfect; as.
Dicit eos script uros esse.
Dixit se scriptUrum esse,
Dlcit se scripturum fuisse.
Dixit earn scripturum fuisse,
Dicltur scripturus esse.
He says that they will write.
He said that he would write.
He says that he would have writtea
He said that she would have writtea
He is said to be about to writa
Jlofe 1.—Esse smdfuisse, in the future infinitive, are generally understood;
thus, dixit se scripturum ; and so of others.
5. When the leading verb is in the future tense, the infini¬
tive mood will be properly translated in its own tense, not in
that of the leading verb; as, dlcet se scribere, " he will say that
he is writing," dlcet se scripsisse, "he will say that he has
written;" dlcet se scripturum esse, " he will say that he will
write;" se scriptiirum fuisse, " that he would have written." So
also in the passive voice.
6. The perfect infinitive passive is made up of esse or fuisse,
and the perfect participle in us, agreeing in gender, number
and case with the accusative before it, or with the nominative
of the leading verb, when that is in the passive voice; as, dlcit
literas scriptas esse, " he says that letters were writtenliterte
dicuntur scriptce esse, " letters are said to have been writ¬
ten," &c. fisse and fuisse are sometimes understood. See
Note 1 above.
7. The future infinitive passive is also a compound tense,
consisting of the former supine, and iri, tlj^ present infinitive
passive of eo; as, scriptum iri, " to be about to be written."
8. The future infinitive of deponent verbs (207) is made
with esse or fuisse, and the participle in rus, as in the active
voice (No. 4 above), and not like the future infinitive passive.
9. When the verb in the active voice has no supine, and
consequently no participle in rus, there can, of course, be no
future infinitive. In this case, the want of it is supplied by
THE VERB.—TENSES.
103
the future infinitive of' sum; viz. futurum esse, or fire fol¬
lowed by ut, and the subjunctive in the present or imperfect,
as the leading verb may require. Thus, dixit fore ut lugwet,
" he said that he would mourndldt fore ut lugeat, " he says
that he will mourn." 678.
Note 2.—This forni of expression is often used in both the active and
the passive voice, even when the verb has the regular form of the future
infinitive.
10. Fore, the infinitive of sum, is used with all participles
inws; as, Commissum cum equitatu proelio fore vidibat, C.es.—
Feinde addis, fore venturum. Cic.—Mittendos fore legatos.
Liv.
11. The infinitive mood with a subject, i. e. with an accusa¬
tive before it, is usually rendered as the indicative, the par¬
ticle. that being commonly placed before it. The following
examples will illustrate the method of translating the different
tenses of the infinitive, when preceded by the leading verb in
present, past, or future time.
180.—INFINITIVE ACTIVE.
1 Dlcit me scribire, He says that I write, or am writing.
2 Dixit me scribtre, He said that I wrote, or was writing.
3 Dlcet me scribbre. He will say that I am writing.
4 Dlcit me scripsisse, He says that I wrote, or did write.
5 Dixit me scripsisse, He said that I had writtea
- 6 Dlcet me scripsisse, He will say that I have written, or did write.
*7 Dlcit me scripturum esse. He says that I will write.
8 Dixit me scripturum esse, He said that I would write.
9 Dlcet me scripturum esse. He will say that I will write.
10 Dleit me scripturum fuisse. He says that I would have written.
11 Dixit me scripturum fuisse. He said that I would have written.
12 Dlcet me scripturum fuisse. He will say that I would have written.
INFINITIVE PASSIVE.
13 Dlcit litSras serlbi. He says that letters are written, or writing.
14 Jlixit literas serlbi. He said that letters were written, or writing.
15 Dlcet litiras serlbi. He will say that, letters are written, or writing.
16 Dlcit litiras scriptas esse. He says that letters are, or were written.
11 Dixit litiras scriptas esse. He said that letters were, or had been written.
18 Dlcet litiras scriptas esse, will say that letters are, or were writtea
104
THE VERB.—TENSES.
19 DieitliUrasicriptasfuisse. He says that letters have leen written.
90 Dixit litlras scriplasfuisse, He said that letters had been written
21 Dlcet litiras scriptasfuisse,'He will say that letters have been writtea
22 Dlcit litlras seriptum iri. He says that letters Vill be writtea
23 Dixit litlras scriptm.s Iri, He said that letters would be writtea
24 Dlcet litlras seriptum iri. He will say that letters would be writtea
Note 8.—When the preceding verb is of the imperfect, or pluperfect tense,
the English of the infinitive is the same as when it is gf the perfect indefinite,
i. e. is the same as the infinitive after dixit, in the preceding table.
Note 4.—As the perfect definite (162) connects the action completed with
the present time, the infinitive after it, in this sense, will generally be
translated as it is after the present; as, dixit me scrihere,—scripsisse,—scriptu-
rvm esse, " he has said that I am writing,—was writing,—will write," i. e. as
it is in Examples Nos. 1, 4, and 7. With dixit used indejinitely, the infini¬
tive would be rendered as in Examples Nos. 2, 5, and 8.
Note 5.—Because memory always refers to something past, the infinitive
present after memini, " I remember," is translated by the pa-st tense; as,
memini me dicere, "I remember that I said,)' (not "that I say"). Memini
me dixisse is also a proper formula to express the same thing.
Exc. 1. When the present infinitive expresses that which is always true,
it must be translated in the present, after any tense (157-1); as, doctus
Irat Deum gubernare mundum, "he had been taught that God governs
the world."
Exc. 2. When the present infinitive expresses an act subsequent to the
time of the governing verb, it is translated, after any tense, by the poten¬
tial, with should, would; as, necesse est (fuit, fulrat) te ire, "it is (was.
had been) necessary that you should go."
181.—§ 48. NUMBER AND PERSON.
1. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the singular,
and the plural, corresponding to the singular, and the plural
of nouns and pronouns.
2. In each number, the verb has three persons, called Jirst,
second, and third. The first asserts of the person speaking;
the second, of the person spoken to ; and the third, of the per¬
son or thing spoken of. In the Imperative, there are only
two persoifs, the second, and the third.
TABLE OF PERSONAL ENDINGS.
The following table shows the personal endings, both sin¬
gular and nlural, of all regular verbs, in all coniugations in
THE VERB.—^TENSES.
105
all the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, e.xcept
the perfect indicative active, and the compound tenseS in the
passive voice:
Active Voice.
Singular. Plural.
1. —, m, mus,
2. s, tis,
3. t, nt.
Passive Voice.
Singular. Plural.
1. r, mur,
2. ris, or re, mini,
3. tur, ntur.
3. The subject or nominative of the verb in the first person
singular, is always ego; in the plural, nos;—in the second per-
son singular, tu; in the plural, vos. ITiese are seldom ex¬
pressed, being sufficiently indicated by the termination of the
verb; as, scrlbo, " I writescribimus, " we writescribis,
" thou writest;" scribitis, " you write."
Obs. V erbs in the first person plural, or in the second per¬
son singular, are sometimes used instead of the third person
with an indefinite subject; as, quam multa fouAmus causa ami-
cbrum, " how many things we do (i. e. men do) for the sake
of friends!"—cerneres, " you would see," i. e. " one, a person,
or any person, would see." Sall.
The subject of the verb in the third person, is any person
or thing spoken of, whether it be expressed by a noun, pro¬
noun, infinitive, gerund, or clause of a sentence; as, vir scribit,
" the man writesilli legtint, " they readludere jucundum
est, " to play is pleasantincerlum est quam, longa vita futura
sit, " how long our life will be, is uncertain."
4. Two or more nouns or pronouns together may be the
subject of one verb. If these happen to be of different per¬
sons, the verb takes the first person, rather than the second or
third, and the second rather than the third ; as, ego, et tu, ei
ills scribimus, " I, and thou, and he write."
5. Pronouns, participles, or adjectives used substantively,
or having nouns understood to them, are of the third person.
Qui takes the person of the antecedent. Ipse may be joined
to any person, according to the sense.
6. To verbs also belong Participles, Gerunds, and Supines,
6*
106
THE VERB.—PARTICIPLES. § 49
182.—§ 49. PARTICIPLES.
. 1. Participles are parts of the verb which contain no
affirmation, but express the meaning of the verb considered as
a general quality or condition of an object; as, dmans, " lov¬
ing doctus, " learned."
2. Participles belong partly to the yerb, and partly to the
adjective. From the former, they have signification, voice,
and tense; from the latter, declension; those in ns are of the
third declension, and declined like prudens (99-2): all others
are of the first and second, and declined like bonus (98-1). In
construction, they have the government of the yerb, and the
concord, or agreement of the adjective (§ 98).
3. When the idea of time is separated from the participle,
it becomes a participial or verbal adjective, and is capable of
comparison; as, doctits, doctior, doctissimus, "learned, more
learned, most learned."
4. To the same class, also, belong participles whose mean¬
ing is reversed or modified by composition with words, or
participles never combined with other parts of the same verb;
as, innocens, indoctus, impransus, nefandus, &c. The perfect
participle with the negative prefix in, frequently denotes a pas¬
sive impossibility, usually expressed in Latin by adjectives in
tlis or btlis; as, invictus miles, " an invincible soldier;" incor-
ruptus clvis, " an incorruptible citizen."
5. The time of the participle, like that of the infinitive, is
estimated from the time of the leading verb; i. e. the accom¬
panying action or state expressed by the participle is present,
past, or future, at the time indicated by the leading verb,
with which it is connected; thus, vldi cum venientem, " 1 saw
him comingNuma, Curtbm natus, rex credtus est, " Numa,
born at Cures, was made kingelephantes amiiern transituri
minimos prcemittunt, " elephants, about to cross a river, send
the smallest first."
Note 1.—The perfect participle, both of deponent a^ common verbs, often
expresses an action nearly, or entirely, contemporaneous with that of the
leading verb. In such cases, it is better rendered, into English, by the pres¬
ent participle in vng, than by its ordinary rendering; as, boc /actnve rex
miraivs j-uvhiem dimisit, "The king, admiring this act, dismissed the
youtfl." Liv.—Arbitr atus id beUum eeleriter conflci poese, e6 exercitom
addaxit. Cas.—Mac arte PoUttx—enieue, arces attigit igri^. Hoe.—Coiumha
Jixamqtte refert delapea eagittam. Viro.—Puimbiteiniguemque eeciiti,
agmlne partUo, fulgent. So also the perfect participle of the active verb, sea
No. 8, Note f.
THE VERB.—PARTICIPLES.
107
6. The future passive participle in dus, sometimes expresses
bare futurity; as, his (scil. ventis) quoque habendum aera
permisit, " to these also, he gave the region of the air to be
possessed." But, in conjunction with the verb swm, and fre¬
quently also in other constructions, it denotes necessity, pro¬
priety, or obligation, and hence, by inference, futurity; as,
Delenda est Carthago, " Carthage must be destroyed." Facta
narrabas dissimulanda (ibi, " you were relating facts which you
should have concealed."
7. The participle in dus, .of transitive verbs, is often used in
the oblique cases, in the sense of the gerund. Thus used, it is
called a Gerundive participle, and agrees with its substantive
in gender and number, and both take the case which the
gerund would have in the same place; thus, tempus petendae
pads, by the gerund, is petendi pdcem, " time of seeking
peacererum repetundarum causa, " for the sake of demand¬
ing redressby the gerund, repetundi res.
Note 2.—Gerunds and gerundives of the third and fourth conjugations,
often have undue, &c., instead of endue, as in the preceding exatnplcs.
8. The Latin language has no perfect participle in the ac
tive voice, nor present participle in the passive. The want of
the former is made up in two ways: First, by the perfect
participle passive, in the case absolute; as, Casar, his dictis,
profectus est, " Caesar (these things being said, i. e.), having
said these things, departed;" and Secondly, by quum, with the
pluperfect subjunctive; as, Ccesar, quum hcec dixisset, profectus
est, " Caesar (when he had said, i. e.), having said these things,
departed."
Note 8.—The want of the present participle passive, is made up either by
the perfect participle, or by the future participle in due, both of wliich appeal
to be sometimes used in a present sense; as, Itotue evolatmced tectue caligine,
" Notus flies forth (being) covered with pitchy darkness.'^' Ovid.— Volvenda
diee en, attulit ultro, " Lo ! revolving time (lit. time being rolled on) hath of
itself brought about." Vieo.—Or by the gerundive form of expression, as in
No. 7 ; see also No. 5, Note 1.
9. Transitive verbs have four participles, of which the pres¬
ent in ns, and the future in rus, belong to the active voice;
the perfect in tus,. sus, or xus, and the future in dus, to the
passive.
10. Intransitive verbs have two participles, namely, the
present in ns, and the future in rus; frequently also the ftiture
passive in dus, and also Ihe perfect passive.
108
THE VEBB.—GEEUNDS AND SUPINES. § 50
11. Neuter passive verbs have commonly three participles;
namely, the present, perfect, and future in rus. 213.
12. Deponent verbs of a transitive signification, have
generally four participles; those of an intransitive significa¬
tion commonly want the future in dws, except that the neuter
in dam is sometimes used impersonally.
13. Common verbs have generally four participles, of which
the perfect only is used both in an active and passive sense;
as, odepfMS victoriawi, " having obtained the victoryricforid
adeptd. " the victory being obtained." The rest are active.
207, Obs. 2.
14. Some intransitive verbs, though they have no passive,
yet have participles of the perfect passive form, but still with
an intransitive signification; such are, coendtm, " having sup¬
ped pransus, " having dinedjur&tus, " having sworn."
183.—§ 50. GERUNDS AND SUPINES.
1. The Gerund is a kind of verbal noun, used only in the
singular number. It represents the action or state expressed
by the verb as a thing now going on, and at the same time, if
in the nominative, or in the accusative before the infinitive, as
the subject of discourse; and if in the oblique cases, as the
object of some action or relation. They are construed in all
respects as nouns, and also govern the case of their verbs.
§ 147.
In meaning and use, the gerund resembles the English pres¬
ent participle, used as a noun (see Eng. Gr., 195; An. and
Pr. Eng. Gr., 402), and the Greek infinitive with the article
prefixed. See Gr. Gr., § 173.
2. Supines are defective verbal nouns o^the fourth declen
Bion, having only the accusative and the ablative singular.
The supine in urn has an active signification, and governs
the case of the verb. 682.
The supine in u has usually a passive signification, and
governs no case.
THE VERB.—CONJUGATION.
109
184.—§ 51. CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS.
1. Regular Verbs are those in which the secondary parts
are formed from the primary, according to certain rules, 185.
2. The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination
and arrangement of its several voices, moods, tenses, numbers,
and persons.
3. Of regular verbs, in Latin, there are four conjugations,
called the First, Second, Third, and Fourth. These are dis¬
tinguished from each other, by the vowel before re, in the
present infinitive active; thus.
The First Conjugation has d long before re of the infinitive.
The Second " has e long before re of the infinitive.
The Third " has I short before re of the infinitive.
The Fourth " has l Jong before re of the infinitive.
Fxc. Dare, and its compounds of the first conjugation, have
a short.
4. The primary tenses, or parts of the verb in the active
voice, from which all the other parts are formed, are four;
namely, o of the present indicative, re of the present infinitive,
i of the perfect indicative, and um of the supine. The giving
of these parts, in the order just mentioned, is called conjugat¬
ing the verb; thus,.
Pres. Ind,
Pres. Inf.
Conj.
Amo,
Moneo,
amare.
'Hd
monere.
M
U
Rggo,
regere.
4ith
U
Audio,
audire.
Perf. Ind.
amavi,
monui,
rexi,
audivi.
-1«<. Supine.
amatum.
monitum.
rectum.
■ auditum.
The manner of conjugating each verb being accurately as¬
certained from the Dictionary, the other tenses may be formed
with certainty by the rules laid down in the next section.*
• Though general rules may be, and have been, laid down, to form the
primary tenses from the general root, or stem of the verb, yet there is such
a multitude of exceptions in the third conjugation, (and some in the others
also,) which it is impossible to bring under any rule, that it will be found in¬
dispensable, after alt, to learn the conjugation "of each verb from the diction¬
ary, or from the table of irregular conjugations (§ 81). For this rea.son, they
are here omitted in the text as useless for any practical purpose. The prin¬
cipal methods proposed are in siAstance the two following:
audi-0, audi-ebam,
110" THE VERB.— rORMATION OF TENSES. § 62
185.—§ 52. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE
ACTIVE VOICE.
I. Indicatwe Mood.
1. The Present is a primary tense.
2. The Imperfect is formed from the present by changing:
In the 1st Conjugation, o into abam; as, &m-o, am-abam,
" 2d " eo into ebam; as," mon-eo, mon-ebam,
" 3d and 4th " o into ebam; as, |
3. The Perfect is a primary tense.
4. The Pluperfect, in all conjugations, is formed from the
First. The general root or stem that runs through the whole verb, consists
of the letters preceding the inliuitive terminations, -are, -ere, -ire, -ire.
To form the primary tenses, there is added to the general root as follows:
Pr. Ind. Pr. Inf. Perf. Ind. \st. Supine.
In the 1st Conj. -o, -are, -avi, -atum.
" 2d " -eo, -ere, -ui, -itum.
" 8d " -o, t6 -io, -ere, -i, -si, -turn, tfc -sum.
" 4th " -io, -ire, -Ivi, -Itum.
In the perfect tense of the third conjugation, observe:
1. If the root of the verb ends with a vowel, the termination added is i;
as, acuo, root acu, perfect acui.
2. If the root of the verb ends with a consonant, the usual termination is
si, which, in uniting with the root, causes the following changes, viz:
1st. If the letter preceding si be e, g, Ti, or qu, it unites with the «, and forms
xj as, duco {due-si), duxi; Jingo {fng-si),fnxi;jtraJio {trah-si), traxi;
ooquo (coqu-si), co.n.
2d. The letter, b before si is changed iutoy)/ as, scriio, seripsi.
8d. M'hen d precedes si, either the d or the s is rejected; as, defendo, defendi,
elaudo, clausi.
4th. The s is dropped in many verbs which cannot be brought under any de¬
finite rule ; as, lego, Ugi; emo, emi.
In the supine of the third conjugation, observe: ^
1. When the root of the verb ends in a vowel, the supine adds turn, and
lengthens the vowel preceding it; as, acuo, acutum.
2. When the root ends with a consonant, the supine adds turn, sometimes
sum. In uniting with the root, the following changes for the sake of euphony
take place, viz:
1st. The letter h before turn is changed into p; as, scribo, scriptum.
2d. The letters g, h, and qu, before turn, are changed into e; as, rego, rectum;
traho, tractum; cbquo, coctum.
§ 52 THE VEEB.—FORMATION OF TENSES. Ill
perfect, by changing i into eram; as, amdv-i, amav-eram; mo-
nu-i, m&nu-eram, &c.
/
5. The Future is formed from the present by chaniging—
In the 1st Conjugation, « into aba; as, &m-o, am-abo.
" 2d " eo into ibo/ as, mon-eo, tnon-ebo.
" ^fl nnd 4th " o into am • as i Teg-am.
^dana4tli 0 mto om, as, audi-am.
6. The Future-perfect, in all conjugations, is formed from
the perfect, by changing i into ero; as, amdv-i, amav-erc, mo-
nu-i, monu-ero, &c.
II. The Sfuhjunctwe Mood.
' 7. The Present Subjunctive is formed from the present in-
8d. The letter g before sum, when a vowel precedes, unites with the s, and •
forms x; a»,flgo {fig-sum), fixum; when r precedes, the g is rejected;
as, Urgo, tersum.
4th. The letter d before sum is rejectedas, dffiendo, defensum.
Secondly. The general root being found as before; then, to form the second
root, in the first, second, and fourth conjugations, (i. e. the root of the perfect
tense,) add a® for the first, u for the second, and i® for the fourth; as, am,
dmav ; mon, monu; aud, audiv.
To form the third root, (i. e. the root of the supine,) in the same conjuga¬
tions, add to the general root the syllables dtu, Uu, and Uu / as, am, amdtu;
mon, monitu; aud, auditu.
The three roots being thus found, the primary tenses are formed us fol¬
lows, viz:
1. From the first root, the present indicative is formed.
In the 1st Conjugation, by adding -o, as, am, dm-o.
" 2d " " -eo, as, mon, mon-eo.
"3d " " -0, or -do, as, reg, reg-o.
" 4th " " -do, as, aud, aud-io.
2. From the same root, the present infinitive is formed.
In the Ist Conjugation, by adding -are, as, am, am-S/re.
" 2d " " -ere, as, mon, mon-ire*
" 3d " " -ere, as, reg, reg-ere.
" 4th • " " -ire, as, aud, aud-lre.
8. From the second root, in all conjugations, the perfect is formed by add¬
ing i; as, arndv-i, monur-i, audlv-i.
4. From the third root in all conjugations, the first supine is formed by
adding m; as, amatu-m, monilvrm, &c.
The third conjugation is so irregular in the formation of its roots, that no
rules are attempted.
The first of these methods is substantially that ofiered in the Grammar of
Zumpt. The second is the plan of Andrews and Stoddard, which they carry
out by applying it to all the tensls, secondary as well as primary.
112 THE VEEB,—FOEMATION OF TENSES. § 52
dicative,—in the first conjugation, by changing o into em; as,
am-o, &m-em;—in the second, third, and fourth, by changing o
' uito am; as, mone-o, mone-am; reff-o, reg-am; audi-o, audi^m.
8. The Imperfect Subjunctive, in all conjugations, is formed
from the present infinitive, by adding m; as, amare, amarem;
monere, monirem; regere, regerem, &c.' ,
9. The Perfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect indic¬
ative, by changing i into erim; as, amdv-i, amav-erim; memu-i,
monu-erim, &c.
10. The Pluperfect Subjunctive is formed from th€ perfect
indicative by changing i into issem; as, amdv-i, amav-issem;
monu-i, monu-issem, &c.
III. The Imperative Mood.
11. Present Imperative'\% formed from the present in¬
finitive, by taking away re; as, amdre, amd; monere, mdni;
regere, rege; avdlre, audi.
IV. The Infinitive Mood.
12. The Present Infinitive is a primary tense.
13. The Perfect Infinitive is formed from the perfect indic¬
ative, by changing i into isse; as, amdv-i, amdv-isse; nu>nu-i,
monu-isse, &c.
14. The Future Infinitive is a compound tense, made up of
esse or fuisse, and the future participle in rus; as, essi or fuisse
amaturus, -a, -um; esse or fuisse moniturus, -a, -um, &c.
v. Participles., Gerunds, and Supines.
15. The Present Participle is formed from the present in
dicative by changing,
o, in the 1st Conjugation, into ans; as, *am-o, dm-ans.
eo, " 2d " into ens; as, mon-eo, mdn-etis.
0, " 3d and 4th " into ens; as, -j
{ audi-o, audi-ens.
16. The Future Participle is formed from the former supine
by changing um into drus; as, arndt-um, amaUurus; monXt-um,
monit-urus, &c.
§ 53 THE VERB.—^FORMATION OP TENSES. 118
17. The Gerund is formed from the present indicative by
changing,
o, in the 1st Conjugation, into andwrn; as, am-o, am-andum/
eo, " 2d " into endum; as, mon-eo, mon-endum.
0, " 3d and 4th " into endum; as, i
' (audi-o, audt-endum.
18. The Former Supine is a primary part of the verb.
19. The Latter Supinf is formed from the former by drop¬
ping m; as, amdtum, amdtu; monltum, monltu.
186.—§ 53. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE
PASSIVE VOICE.
1. In the Indicative mood, the present passive is formed
from the present active by adding r; as, dmo, dmor; moneo,
moneor, &5c.;—the imperfect and the future passive, from the
same tenses in the active voice, by changing m into r; as,
amdbam, amdbar;—or adding r to bo; as, mon^o, moneor, &c.
2. In the Subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfeet
passive are formed from the same tenses in the active voice,
by changing m into r; as, dmem, dmer; moneam, monear, &c.
3. The perfect, pluperfect, and future-perfect indicative, and
the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, are compound tenses,
made up of the perfect participle passive, and the verb sum
as an auxiliary, as exhibited in the paradigm of these tenses.
4. The Imperative passive, in all verbs, is formed by adding
re to-the imperative active; as, dmd, amdre; mone, monere, &c.
Hence, the imperative passive is like the present infinitive
active. ■
5. The Present Infinitive passive is formed from the present
infinitive active, by changing re in the first, second, and fourth
conjugations, into ri; as, amd-re, amdr-ri; mone-re, mone-ri;
audl-re, auduri ; and by changing ere in the third conjugation
into i ; as, reg-ere, reg-i. But arcesso has arcesslri.
The Perfect Infinitive is a compound tense, made up of the
perfect participle, and esse or fuisse prefixed; as, esse or fuisse
amdtus, a, um, &c. *
114 THE VEEB.—SUM. § 54
The Future Infinitive is also a compound tense, made up
of the former supine and iri, the present infinitive passive of
eo; as, amatum iri, monitum iri, &c.
6. The Perfect Participle is formed from the former supine,
by changing um into us; as, amdt-um, amdt-us; monlt-um,
monit-us, &c.
The Future Participle is formed as the active gerund (185-17),
oy putting dus instead of duin; as, gerund, amandum, participle,
amandus; gerund, monendum, participle, monendus, &c.
187.—§ 54. THE IRREGULAR VERB SUM.*
The irregular verb sum is sometimes called a substantive
verb, as it denotes being, or simple existence; as, sum, " 1
am," " I exist." Sometimes it is called auxiliary, because it
is used as an auxiliary verb in the inflection of the passive
voice. It is conjugated thus;
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Ind.
Sum, esse, fui.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, am.
3ing. 1. Fgo Sum,| I am,
2. Tu Es, Thou\ art, or you are, V .
3. Ille Est, He is;
Plur. 1. Nos Sumus, We are,
2. Vos Estis, Ye, or you are,
3. Illi Sunt, They are.
* This verb being irregular, properly belongs 83, but is inserted here,
because, as an auxiliary, it is much used in the inflection of regular verbs.
+ In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative moods, every part of the
verb must have its nominative expressed or understood. Sec"l81-8. The
nominatives ego, tu, ille, of the singular, and tws, vos, ill), of the plural, are
here prefixed in the present tense, to show their place and their use: but in
the following tenses, and in the following conjugations, they are omitted.
Still they are to be regarded as understood, and may be supplied at pleasure.
t See 118, KoU2. In the plural, "you" is much more common than "ye,"
which is now seldom used.
THE VERB.—SUM.
115
Imperfect, wa$.
Sing. 1. Eram, I was,
2. Eras, Thou wast, or you were,
3. Erat, He was;
Plur. 1. Eraraus. We were,
2. Eralis, Ye, or you were,
3. Erant, They were.
Perfect Definite, have been; Indefinite, was.
Sing. 1. Fui, I have been,
2. Fuisti, Thou hast been,
3. Fuiti He has been;
Plur. 1. Fuimus, We have been,
2. Fuistis, Ye have been,
3. Fuerunt, or fuere, They have been.
Pluperfect, had been.
Sing. 1. Fueram, I had been,
2. Fueras, Thou hadst been,
3. Fuerat, He had been;
Plur. 1. Fueramtts, ' We had been,
2. Fueratis, Ye had been,
3. FuSrant, They had been.
Future, shall, or will.
Sing. 1. Ero, I shall, or will be,
2. Eris, Thou shalt, or wilt be,
3.- Erit, He shall, or will be;
Plur. 1. Erimus, We shall, or will be,
2. Eritis, Ye shall, or will be,
3. Erunt, They shall, or will be.
Future-Perfect, shall, or will have been.
I '
Sing. 1. FuSro, . I shall, ov'twill have been,
2. Fueris, Thou shalt, or wilt have been,
3. Fuerit, He shall, or will have been;
Plur. 1. Fuerimus, We shall, or wild have been,
2. Fueritis, ^ Ye shall, or will have been,
3. Fuerint, They shall, o: %oill have been.
116
THB. VEEB.—SUM.
§54
SUBJUNCTIVE MOJOD.
Present Tense, »noy, or can.
Sing. 1. Sim, I may, or can be,
S. Sis, Thou mayst, or canst be
3. Sit, Me may, or can be;
Plur. 1. Simus, We may, or can be,
2. Sitis, Ye may, or can be,
3. Sint, They may, or can be.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should.' ,
Sing. 1. Essem, I might, &c., be,
2. Esses, Thou mightst, &c., be,
3. Esset, He might, &c., be;
Plur. 1. Ess6mus, Wemight, &L(i.,be,
2. Essetis, Ye might, &c., be,
3. Essent, They might, &c., be.
Perfect, may have.
Sing. 1. Euerim, I may have been,
2. Fueris, Thou mayst have been,
3. Fuerit, He may have been;
Plur. 1. Fuerimus, We may have been,
2. Fueritis, Ye may have been,
3. Fuerint, . They may have been.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should havi
Sing. 1. Fuissem, I might, 6zc., have been,
2. Fuisses, Thou mightst, (fee., have been^
3. Fuisset, He might, <fec., have been;
Plur. 1. Fuissemus, We might, <fec., have been,
2. Fuissetis, Ye might, (fee., have been,
3. Fuissent, They mig/kt, <fec., have been.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. 2. Es, or Esto, Be thou,
3. Esto, Let him be;
Plur. 2. Este, or estote, Be ye,
3. Sunto, Let them be.
§ 55
THE VEKB.—SUM.
117
INFINrnVE MOOD,
Pres. Esse, To he (177).
Perf. Fuisse, To have been.
Fut. Esse futurus, a, um, To be about to be.
F. Perf. Fuisse futurus, a, um, To have been about to be.
PARTICIPLE.
Future. Futurus, a, um, About to be.
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Pees.
Inf.
Peef.
Plup.
Fut.
F.-Peef.
Indicative. Subjunctive. Imperative.
es, or esto.
Infinitive. Participle
sum,
£ram,
fui,
fugram,
gro,
fugro.
sun,
essem,
fugrim
fuissem.
fuisse,
esse futurus,
fuisse futurus.
futOrus.
Obs. 1. T^e compounds of sum; namely^absum,
desum, insum, intersum, obsum, prcesum, subsum, supersum, are
conjugated like the simple verb; but insum, and subsum, tvant
the perfect, and the tenses formed from it. Prosum, and
possum from pbtis and sum, are very irregular. 221-1,
Obs. 2. Instead of Essem, forem is sometimes used, and also
fore, instead of fuisse.
Obs. 3. The partieiple ens is not in use, but appears in two
compounds, absens, and prcesens. Also, the supine and gerund
are wanting, but the inflection in the persons and numbers is
regular.
Note.—^The great irregularity of this verb arises from the different parts
being formed from different themes or roots, viz; the parts beginning with e
from eo, the root of the Greek tijii, and those beginning withy from fuo, the
same as the Greek <pvia. In ancient times, this verb was conjugated fuo,
fuere, fui (^mi ), futum. Fviere was contracted fore, and fvirem, ffrrem ;
and from futum, was formed fviiirue. Hence, also, the ancient forms
&o.
188.—§ 55. EXERCISES ON THE VERB SUM.
1. Give the designation of the verb,—conjugate it;—give the tense, niood,
person, number, and translation of the following words, always observing
the same order; thus,—Sum, wb intransitive, irregular, found in (be
118
THE VERB.—SUM.
present indicative, active, first person singular, " I am—Fuit, verb in¬
transitive, irregular, ibund in the perfect indicative, active, thirtf-perswi
singular: definite, " he has beenindefinite, " he was."*
Est, erat, erit, fuSram, fuerim, fuero, sit, esset, iuisti, fiii-
mus, fuerunt, fuere, erunt, sint, s&mus, erant, essent, fuisscnt,
esse, esto, ^nto, fuisse, es, eras, fu6ras, fiiistis, futltrus esse,
futurus, sint, &c., ad libitum.
2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the part of
the verb used; thtig,—" I will be," iro, in the future indicative, active, first
person singular. The Latin word for J, thou, he, we, you, they, to be omitted
or inserted at pleasure.-J
We are, they were, you have been, thou hast been, they
will be, he may be, I shall have been, to be, be thou, let them
be, about to be, to be about to be, we should be, we should
have been, I may have been, they will have been, they may
have been, they have been, you were, thou wast, he is, they
are, &c., ad libitum.
3. The verb suit forms the copula connecting the subject and the pre¬
dicate in a simple proposition, the predicate of which is not a verb. Thus
in the proposition: "Man is mortal" man is the subject - mortal, the pre¬
dicate ; and is, the copula. With the verb sum as a copula in different
tenses, and the exercises § 23-1, form simple sentences; thus, est (£rat,
fuit, <fec.) parva, " the cottage is, (was, has been, <tc.) smallplural, cSsa
sunt parvce, " the cottages are small."
In this way, translate into English the following propositions (see p. 66)
Poeta erat claims,—opus magnum erit,—nubes densae sunt,
—88stas callida fuit,—urbs antiqua fuit,—&c.
Translate the following English sentences into Latin ;
Life is short,—the day was clear.—the boys are docile,—
the shepherd will be faithful,—the apples are sweet,—&c.
* In these and all following exercises on the verb, it will be of great im
portance, in order to form habits of accuracy, and as a preparation for future
exercises in translating and parsing, to require the pupil, in this manner, to
state every thing belonging to a verb, in the ord^here indicated, or in any
other the teacher maj[ direct, always, however, observing the same: and
also, for the saving of time and unnecessary lahor, to state them in the fewest
words possible, and without waiting to have every word drawn from him by
questions. Let it be observed, also, that the term active here has no reference
to the class of the verb, but only to its form, being that of the active voice. 186-2.
t E. B. It will be a profitable exercise to require each pupil to write out
the Latin for these and other English words that may be dietated,-:-carefully
to mark the quantity of long and short vowels, and to pronounce them cor¬
rectly after they are written. »
THE VERB.—FIRST CONJUGATION. fl9
189.—§ 56. FIRST CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine.
Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, To love.
INDICATIVE MOOD. *
Present Tense, love, do love, am loving. 157.
Sing. 1. Am-o, I love, do love, am loving,
2. Am-as, Thou lovest, dost love, art loving,
3. Am-at, He loves, does love, is loving;
Plur. 1. Am-amus, We love, do hve, are lovin^g,
2. Am-atis, Ye, or gou love, do love, are loving,
3. Am-ant, They love, do love, are loving
Imperfect, loved, did love, was loving. 159.
Sing. 1. Am-abam, Iloved, did love, ■^s loving,
2. Am-abas, Thou lovedst, didst love, wast loving,
3. Am-abat, He loved, did love, was loving;
Plur. 1. Am-abamus, TFis loved, did love, were loving,
2. Am-abatis, Ye loved, did love, were loving,
^ 3. Am-abant, They loved, did love, were loving.
Perfect Def., have loved; Indef., loved, did love. 161.
Sing. 1. Am-avi, I have loved, loved, did love,
2. Am-avisti, Thou hast loved, lovedst, didstdove,
3. Am-avit, He has loved, loved, did love;
Plural. Am-avimus, We have loved, loved, did love,
^m-avistis. Ye have loved, loved, did love,
^ av§re'^*' | They have loved, loved, dtd love.
Pluperfect, had loved. 165,
1. Airf-averam, I had loved,
2. Am-averas, Thou hadst loved,
3. Am-averat, He had loved;
Plur. 1. Am-ayeramus, We had hved,
2. Am-averatis, Ye had loved,
3. Am-averant, They had loved.
120
THE VERB.—FIRST CONJtJGATTON.
^ Futdre, shaU, or will love. 167.
Sing. 1. Am-abo, I shall, or will love,
2. Am-abis, Thou shall, or wilt love,
3. Am-abit, Me shall, or will love;
Plur. 1. Am-abimus, We shall, or will love,
2. Am-abitis, Ye shall, or will love,
% 3. Am-abunt, They shall, or will love.
Fdturk-perfect, shall, or will have loved. 168.
Sing. 1. Am-avfiro, I shall, or will have hved,
2. Am-avdris, Thou shall, or will have loved,
3. Am-averity He shall, or will have loved;
Plur. 1. Am-averimus, We shall, or will have hved,
2. Am-averitis, Ye shall, or will have hved,
3. Am-averint, They shall, or will have hved,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PrbSent Tense, may, or can hve. 171.
Sing. 1. Am-em, I may, or can hve,
2. Am-es, Thou maysl, or canst hve,
3. Am-et, He may, or can hve;
Plur. 1. Ain-§mnsi, We may, or can love,
2. Am-gtis, Ye may, or can hve, ,
3. Am--ent, They may, or can love.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should love. 172.
Sing. 1. Am-arem, I might hve,
2. Am-ares, Thou mightst hve,
3. Am-aret, He might hve;
Plur. 1. Am-ar§mus, We might hve,
' 2. Am-aretis, Ye might hve,
3. Am-arent, They might hve. '
' Perfect, may have hved. 173.
Sing. 1. Am-avgrim, I ikay have hved,
2. Am-averiaf Thou mayst have hved,
3. Ain-avgrit, He may have hved;
Plur. 1. Am-averimus, We may have hved,
2. Am-averitis, Ye may have hved,
3. Am-avgrint, They may have hved.
§ 56
THE VERB.—FIRST CONJUGATION.
121
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have. 174.
Sing. 1. AmTavissem, I might have loved,
' 2. Am.avisses, Thou mightst have loved,
3. Am-avisset, . He might have loved;
Plur. 1. Am-avissemus, We might have loved,
2. Am-avissetis, Ye might have loved,
3. Am-avissent, They might have loved •
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. 2. Am-a, or am-S.to, Love thou, 149.
3. Am-ato, Let him love;
Plur. 2. Am-ate, or am-atOte, . Love ye,
3. Am-anto, Let them love.
INFDnnVE MOOD.
Pres. Am-are, To love 178 and 180.
Perf. Am-avisse, To have loved.
Put. Esse am-aturus, a, um, To be about to love,
F.-Perf. Fuisse am-aturus, a, um. To have been about to love,
PARTICIPLEa
. Pres. Am-ans,
Fut. Am-aturus, a, um,
GERUNDS.
Norn. Am-andum,
Gen. Am-andi,
Lat. Am-ando,
Acc. Am-andum,
Abl. Am-ando,
Loving.
About to love.
Loving,
Of loving.
To loving.
Loving,
With,jrom, &c., loving.
SUPINES.
Former, Am-atum, To love.
Latter, Am-atu, To be loved, to love.
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Pres.
Imp. .
Pkiif.
Pujp.
■ For.
F.-PEEr.
Indicative.
Amo,
Amabam,
AmSvi,
AmavSram,
AmSbo,
AmavSro.
w
Sulyunetive.
Amem,
Amarem,
Amaygrim,
Amayiesem.
Imp.
AmA
Infinitive.
A mare,
Amayisse,
Esse amatOrus,
Fuisse amatQrus.
Participlee.
AmatOrus
122
Cre-o,
R6g-o,
V6c-o,
D6m-o,
THE VERB.—FIRST CONJUGATION.
After the same maimer, inflect:
cre-are,
rog-are,
voc-are,
dom-are,
cre-avi,
rog-avi,
voc-avi,
dom-iii,
cre-atum,
rog-atum,
voc-atum,
dom-itum,
I 57
To create^
To ask.
To call.
To tame.
190.—§ 57. EXERaSES ON THE FIRST CONJUGA
TION; ACTIVE VOICE.
1. Give the desigrmlum of the verb, conjugate it; give the tense,■—-mood,—
voice,—g>erson,—number, and translation of the following words, always observ¬
ing the same order; thus,—Amo, a verb transitive, first conjugation, Smo,
amire, amavi, amatum. It is found in the present indicative active, first
person singular, " I love," " I do love," " I am loving."
Amabat, amav^rat, amet, amaveritis, amabunt, creavimus,
creaverat, domuSrat, domuisset, amavero, domu^ro, vocaverim,
voca, vocare, doma, creavisse, domuisse, amaturus, domiturus,
amans, amandum, amatu, domitum, domabam, domabo,—
creat, crearet, amaret, amavisti, amavere, -domuistis, amato,
amando, amaverunt, creare, vocaverunt, vocaverint, vocabunt,
vocaretis, domabitis, <kc., &c., ad libitum.
2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the part of
the verb used; thus,—" I was loving," amSham, in the imperfect indicative
active, first person singular.
He will love, I might love, I had loved, I might have loved,
he shall love, I may love, he created, I called, I may have
called, he will tame, he has tamed, he would have tamed, love
thou, let them love, to love, about to love, of loving, to have
loved, they were loving, they have loved, thou hast created,
thou hast tamed, &c., ad libitum.
3. The Infinitive with a subject. The infinitive, after another verb, and
with an accusative before it as its subject, is tra^lated, into English, in
the indicative or potential mood; and thelfecusative in Latin is made the
nominative in English; as, dlcit me amSre, "he says that I love." The
accusatives are thus translated :
Me, that I ; nos, that we; hominem, that the man.
Te, that thou: vos, that you; homines, that the men.
Ilium, that he; iUos, that they; femlnas, that the women.
§ 57 THE VEEB.—^FIEST CONJUGATION.
123
InfinitiTeB, alter verbs of the present, past, and future tenses, are
rendered as in the examples, 180, or' according to the following
rules; viz.:
Bule I. When the preceding verb is of the present or future
tense, the present infinitive is translated as the present indicative ;
the perfect infinitive, as the perfect indicative ; and the future in¬
finitive, as the future indicative. 180, l^os. 1,4,7; also 3, 6,9.
Bule. II. When the preceding verb is in past time (i. e. in
the imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect tense), the present infinitive
is translated as the imperfect, or perfect indicative; the perfect
infinitive, as the pluperfect indicative ; and the future infinitive,
as the imperfect subjunctive. ISO, Jfi^os. 2, 5, 8. '
• Bule III. The future perfect of the infinitive with a subject,
is always translated as the pluperfect subjunctive, whatever be the
tense of the preceding verb. 180, Nos. 10, 11, 12.
4. According to the preceding ndes, and the examples referred to, trans¬
late the foUoteing sentences into English—observing that die it, "he sajs,"
is present time; dixit, "he said," past; and dlcet, "he will saj,"
future.
IHcit me vocare,—te amare,—nos amavisse,—^vos amaturos
esse,—nos amaturos fuisse,—illos domare,—te amaturum
esse,—^illos rogatiiros esse,—homines rogaturos fuisse.
Dixit me vocare,—te amare,—nos amavisse,—nos amaturos
esse,—nos amaturos fuisse,—vos domare,—te amaturum
esse,—ilium rogavisse,—vos rogare,—illam rogaturam esse.
Dixit nos vocare;—dicet ilium creare;—dicit te creaturum
esse;—dixit se amaturum (179, Note 1); didt illos creatu-
ros,—ilium vocaturum,—vos domituros esse,—domituros
fuisse,—me rogare,—te rogavisse,—vos rogaturos, &c.
6. Translate the foUomng English into Latin, taking care to put the
participle of the future infinitive in the same gender, number, and ease, as
the accusative preceding it
He said that I loved,—that I was calling. He says that
they will tame—that I would have created,—that they will
call,—that he loves. He will say that I love,—that I have
loved,—that I will love. He said that I had called,—that
they would have called,—that they tamec.—that they would
tame,—that he would have tamed. He says that I am asking,
—that they are asking,—that they are calling,—that we did
call,—that they do ask,—^tl^^t we will ask, &o.
124
THE VERB.—^PIRST CONJUGjLTION.
§58
191.—§ 58. PASSIVE VOICE.
Pre$. Jnd. Pres. Inf. Per/. Part.
Amor, am&ri, amatus, To be loved
INDICATIVE MOOD.
«
Prbseni*Tensb, am loved. 157-6.
S. 1. Am-or, . I am loved,
2. Am-aris, or -are, Thou art laved,
3. Am-atur, He is loved;
P. 1. Am-amur, We are laved,
2. Am-amuii, Ye are loved,
3. Am-aatur, They are hved.
Imperfect, was loved. 160-5.
S. 1. Am-abar, I was loved,
2. Am-abaris, or-abare. Thou wast loved,
3. Am-abatur, He was loved;
P. 1. Am-abamur, We were loved,
2. Am-abammi, Ye were loved,
3. Am-abantur, They were loved.
Perfect, have been loved, was loved, am loved. 164-5.
S. 1. Am-atus*sum, or fui, I have been loved, &c.,
2. Am-atus es, or fuisti. Thou hast been loved,
3. Am-atus est, or iuit. He has been laved;
P. 1. Am-ati sumus, or fmmus. We have been hved,
2. Am-ati estis, or fuistis, Ye have been loved,
3. Am-atisunt,fuerunt, or f\i§re,2%ey have been hved.
Pluperfect, had been loved. 166-2
S. 1. Am-atus eram, or fueram, I had been loved,
2. Am-atus eras, or fueras. Thou hadst been loved.
3. Am-atus erat, or fiierat. He had b^ hved;
P. 1. Am-ati eramus, or fueramus, We had been loved,
2. Am-ati eratis, or fueratis. Ye had been hved,
3. Am-ati erant, or fuerant. They had been hved.
• See 164-5. jyote.—Fui &nd/uisU, are very eeldom found -with the perfect
,iarti<aple. Fro, as well aofuero, is used in the future-perfeot. 168-4.
§ 58 THE VERB.—FIRST CONJUGATION. 125
Futckb, thall, or will be loved. 167-3.
S. 1. Am-abor, I shall, or vnll he loved,
2. Am-ab6ris, or-abere, Tkou shall, or will be loved,
3. Am-abitur, . Me shall, or will be loved;
P. 1. Am-abimur, We shall, or will be loved,
2. Am-abimini, Ye shall, or will be loved,
3. Am-abuntur, They shall, or will be loved.
Future-pbkfect, shall, or mil have been loved. 168-4.
S. 1. Am-atus fbero, I shall have been loved,
2. Am-atus fueris, Thmi wilt have been loved,
3. Am-atus fuerit, He will have been loved;
P. 1. Am-ati fuerimus, We shall have been loved,
2. Am-ati fueritis, Ye will have been loved,
3. Am-ati fueriut, They will have been loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, may, or can be loved.
(S. 1. Am-er, J may, or can be loved,
2. Am-eris, or -ere, Thou mayst, or canst be loved,
3. Am-etur, He may, or can be loved;
P. 1. Am-€mur, We may, or can be hved,
2. Am-emini, Ye may, or can be loved,
3. Am-entur, They may, or can be hved.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be hved.
S. 1. Am-arer, I might be hved,
2. Am-areris, or -arere, Thoti mightst be loved,
3. Am-aretur, He might be hved;
P. 1. Am-aremur, We might be hved,
2. Am-aremini, Ye might be hved,
3. Am-arentur, They might be hvtd.
Perfect, may have been hved.
S. 1. Am-atus sim, or fu^rim, I may have been loved,
2. Am-atus sis, or fuSris, Thou mayst have been hved,
3. Am-atus sit, or fugrit. He may have been loved;
P. 1. Am-ati simus, or fiierimus. We may have been loved,
2. Am-ati sitis, or fueritis. Ye may have been hved,
3. Am-ati sint, or fueruij^ They may have been hved.
126 THE VERB.—FIRSr CONJUGATION. § 58
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been loved.
S. 1. Am-atus essem, or |uissem,. I might have been loved,
2. Am-atus esses, or fuisses. Thou mightst have been loved,
3. Am-atus esset, or iuisset. He might have been loved;
P. 1. Am-ati essamus, or fuissSmus, We might have been loved,
2. Am-ati essatis, or^ fuissatis. Ye might have been loved,
3. Am-ati essent, or Aiissent, They might have been loved
mPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. 2. Am-are, or-ator,
3. Am-ator,
Plur. 2. Am-amini,
3. Am-antor,
Be thou loved.
Let him be loved;.
Be ye loved.
Let them be hved.
Pres.
Perf.
Fut.
Perf.
Fut.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Am-ari, To be hved. 178, and 180.
Esse, or fuisse am-atus. To have been hved.
Am-atum iri. To be about to be loved.
PARTICIPLEa
Am-atus, a, um,
Am-andus, a, um,
j Loved, being hved, having been
I hved.
I To be hved, proper, or neces¬
sary to be hved.
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Infinitive.
Amari,
Indicative.
Subjunctive.
Imper.
Pres.
Amor,
Amer,
Amare.
Imp.
Amabar,
Amarer,
Perf.
Amatus sum.
Amatus sim,
Plcp.
Amatus €ram.
Amatus essem.
Fut.
Amabor,
F.-Perf.
Amatus fu€ro.
PartieipUe.
j Esse, or
{ Fuisse amatus,
ATwatyjpn
in.
j. Amatus,
After the same manner, inflect:
Creor,
Rogor,
Vocor,
Diimor,
creari,
rogari,
vocari,
domari.
creatus,
rogatus,
vocatus,
domitus.
To be created.
To he asked.
To be called.
To be tamed.
THE VEEB.—FIEST CONJUGATION.
127
192.—§ 59. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Give the designatioti of the verb,—cor^gate it;—give the tenee, n^ood^
voice, person,-number, and translation, of the following words, always follow¬
ing the same order; thus,—^Amor, verb transitive, first coojugation; amo
antSre, amavi, amStum,—found in the present indicative passive, first per
son singular, " I am loved."
Amabfitur, amantur, amatus est, amabltur, amabar, amare
tur, amentur, amatus sim, amatus fu6ro, amfiti fuerunt, amati
essemus, amabamlni, amaris, amatus esset, amati fuissent,
amabuntur, amantor, amare, amatus esse, amatus, amatum Iri,
amandus, amemlni, amaremini, amantur, creatur, crearetur,
vocabitur, domantur, vocatus sum; &c.
% Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the part of
the verb used; thus, " I am loved," Snior, in the present indicative passive,
. first person singular.
He is loved, they are loved, I have been loved, they were
created, he had been called, they will be tamed, I might be
loved, they may have been loved, to be loved, to have been
called, I had been called, being called, they are tamed, they
have been tamed, he will be lOved, they will have been loved,
they may be called, I may be called, he might have been
created, they will be loved, &c.
3. Translate the following sentences into English, according io the
rules 190.
Dlcit eum amari,—illos vocatos esse,—me vocatum iri,—te
amatum iri,—me creari,—eos domSri,—ilium amatum fuisse,
—nos domitos esse,—nos domitum iri,—illos amari,—illos
vocatum iri.
Dixit eum amari,—illos vocatos esse,—me vocatum iri,—te
amatum iri,—me creari,—eos domari,—ilium amatum fuisse,
—nos domitos esse,—nos domitum iri,—illos amari,—illos
vocatum iri,—te amari.
Dlcet eum amari, &c., as in the preceding.
4. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care that the par-
tunple of the perfect infinitive be put in the same gender, number, and case,
IS the accusative before it
He says that I am loved,—that he was loved,—that he will
oe called,—that they wre ftreated,—that we were tamed. He
128
THE VEBB.—SECOND CONJUGATION.
§60
said that I was called,—that we were created,—that they had
been created. He will say that .1 was loved,—that I will be
loved,—that they will be called,—that you are called,—that
he will be called. He said that they had been tamed, &c.
Promiscuous Exercises on the Active and the Passive
Voice.
5. Give the designation, &c., as directed No. 1. Am^bo,
amSrem, amaretur, amatus sim, Jimant, vocatur, crearentur,
domantur, ddmitum iri, cre^i, imant, amabuntur, amarent,
amavissent, amaverat, amdtis, amMis, amabatis, amaveris,
ama, amavisse, amandum, amatur, vocMum iri, vocatus es,
vocati erant, vocatus esset {dicit se, "he says that"he"), ama-
turum esse, {dixit se, " he said that he,") amare, amari, {nos,
" that we,") vocatos esse, amanto, amabunt, amavistis, ama-
vere, amaretis, (vos, " that you,") rogare, rogavisse, rogatds
esse, rogaturos fuisse, rogS.bunt.
Conjugate and inflect the following verbs like Amo; viz:
i AccOso,/ochwe. Certo, / Rep^o, / r^oir.
Mf&cao, I value. Co^to, I think. Rdgo,
Ambulo,/wa/A FesUno,/Aa«I«n. Servo,
COro, I care. Navigo, I sail. Vito, I shun.
193.—§ 60. SECOND CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Bupine,
Moneo, monere, monui, monltum. To advise,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, I advise, do advise, am advising. 15?
S, 1. Mon-eo, I advise,
2. Mon-es, Thou advisest,
3. Mon-et, He advises;
P. 1. Mon-emus, We advise,
2. Mon-etis, Ye advise,
3. Mon-ent, They advise, /
§ 60 THE VERB.—SECOND CONJUGATION. 129
Imperfect, advi$ed, did advise, was advising, 159.
S. 1. Mon-ebam, I advised,
2. Mon-gbas, Thou advisedst,
3. Mon-ebat, He advised;
P. 1. Mon-eb9.inus, We advised,
2. Mon-ebatis, Ye advised,
3. Mon-ebant, They advised.
Perfect Def., have advised; Indef., advised, did advise. 161
s.
1.
Monu-i,
I have advised.
2.
Monu-isti,
Thou hast advised.
3.
Monu-it,
He has advised;
p.
1.
Monu-imus,
We have advised.
2.
Monu-istis,
Ye have advised.
3.
Monu-grunt, or-gre.
They have advised.
Pluperfect, had advised. 165.
S. 1. Monu-eram, I had advised.
2. Monu-gras, Thou hadst advised,
3. Monu-erat, He had advised;
P. 1. Monu-eramus, We had advised,
2. Monu-eratis, Ye had advised,
3. Menu-grant, They had advised.
Future, shall, or will advise. 167.
S. 1. Mon-ebo, J shall, or will advise,
2. Mon-ebis, Thou shall, or wilt advise
3. Mon-ebit, He shall, or ivill advise;
P. 1. Mon-ebimus, We shall, or will advise,
2. Mon-ebitis, Ye shall, or will advise,
3. Mon-gbunt, They shall, or will advise
Future-Perfect, shall, or will have advised. 168.
S. 1. Monu-gro, I shall, or will have advised,
2. Monu-gris, Thou shall, or wilt have advised,
3. Monu-grit, He shall, or will have advised;
P. 1. Monu-erimus, We shall, or will have advised,
2. Monu-eritis, Ye shall, or will have advised,
3. Monu-grint, . They shall, or will have advised.
• 7*
180
THB VEKB.r-SECOND CONJDGATION.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. '
Present Tense, may, or can advice. 171.
S. 1. Mon-eam, I may, or can advise,
2. Mon-eas, Thou mayst, or camt advise,
3. Mon-eat, He may, or can advise;
P. 1. Mon-eSmus, We may, or can advise,
2. Mon-eatis, Ye may, or can advise,
3. Mon-eant, They may, or can advise.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should advise. 172.
S. 1. Mon-§rem, I might advise, ,
2. Mon-§res, Thou mightst advise,
3. Mon-eret, He might advise ;
P. 1. Mon-eremus, . We might advise,
2. Mon-eretis, Ye might advise,
3. Mon-grent, They might advise.
1^ * Perfect, may have advised. 173.
S. 1. Monu-erim, I may have advised,
2. Monu-eris, Thou mayst have advised,
3. Monu-erit, He may have advised;
P. 1. Monu-erimus, We may have advised,
2. Monu-eritis, Ye may have advised,
3. Monu-erint, They may have advised.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have advised. 174,
S. 1. Monu-issem, I might have advised,
2. Monu-isses, Thou mightst have advised,
3. Monu-isset, He might have advised;
P. 1. Monu-issemus, We might have advised,
2. Monu-issetis, Ye might have advised,
3. Monu-issent, They might ^ve advised.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
8. 2. Mon-e, or -eto. Advise thou (149),
3. Mon-eto, Let him advise;
P. 2. Mon-ete, or etdte. Advise ye or you,
3. Mon-ento, Let them advise.
§ 61
THE VERB.—SECOND CONJUGATION.
181
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. Mon-gre,
Pebf. Monu-isse,
Put. Esse moniturus,
F.-Peef. Fuisse moniturus,
To advise (178 and 180),
To have advised.
To he about to advise,
To have been about to advise.
Pres.
Fur.
M6n-ens,
Mon-iturus,
PARTICIPLES.
Advising,
About to advise.
GERUNDa
Nom. Mon-endum,
Gen. Mon-endi,
Dat. Mon-endo,
Acc. Mon-endum,
Abl. Mon-endo,
Former, Mon-itum,
Latter, Mon-itu,
Advising,
Of advising.
To advising.
Advising,
With, &c., advising.
SUPINES.,
To advise, •
To be advised, or to advise.^
Stnopsis of the Moons ahd Tenses.
Indicative.
Subjunctive. Imper.
Infinitive.
Participles.
Pees.
Moneo,
Moneam,
Mone.
MonSre,
Monens,
Imp.
Monebam,
MonSrem,
Monugrim,
Peep.
MoDui,
Monuisse,
Plup.
MoDiigram,
Monuissem.
Fur.-
Monebo,
Esse monitQrus,
Monituim
F.-Peef.
Monugro.
Fuisse monitQim
Doo-eo,
Jub-eo,
Vid-eo,
After the same manner, inflect •
doc-ere,
jub-ere,
vid-ere.
docu-i,
juss-i,
Tid-i,
doc-tum,
jus-sum,
vi-sum.
To teach.
To order
To see.
194._§ 61. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE
1. Give the designation, &c., as directed 190-1.—MonSbo,
monuit, noneret, monuerit, mone, monuisse, monens, mo
nendum, monebat, moneijJ, monento, monuisti, monuere.
132
THE VEEB.—SECOND CONJUOATION. § 62
monueratis, monuissent.—D^icen^ jubebat, jusserat, viderel,
videat, videbit, docueris, doce, docturus, jusstirus, \1sum, jussu,
docens, &c.
' w
2. Translate the following into Latin, &c., as directed 190-2.
—I have advised, 1 will advise, he may advise, I might advise,
he will have advised, they advisej they had advised, they
mig^ have advised,^ thou hast advised, ye have advised, I did
advise, he was advising.—He teaches, they taught, we had
ordered, we would have ordered, I saw, I have seen, thou wilt
see, he may see, they would have ordered, &c.
3. Translate according to the rules 190-3,4.—Dlcit (he says)
me monere,—nos monuisse,—illos inonere,—-vos monituros
esse,—me monitQrum fuisse.—Dixit (he said) se monere,—nos
videre,—eum vidisse,—nos visuros esse,—^mevisurum esse,—
me visurum fuisse,—vos vidisse,—se docere,—nos docuisse,—
vos docturos esse,—illam (that she) visuram esse,—ilium
docturum esse, &c.
4. As directed 190-3 and 5. He says that I advised; he
sa^ that I advised,—that I had advised,—that I would advise.
says that T will advise,—that I would have advised. He
said that he (se) saw,—had seen,—would see,—would have
seen. I advise that you should order. He says that I am
advising,—that we will order, &c.
195.—§ 62. PASSIVE VOICE.
• »
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
Moneor, moneri, moiutus. To be advised.
Present Tense, am advised. 157-6.
k *
S. 1. Mon-eor, lam advised,
2. Mon-eris, or -ere, Thou art advised,
3. Mon-etur, He is advised;
P. 1. Mon-emur, We are advised,
2. Mon-emini, Ye are advised,
3. Mon-entur, They are advised.
THE VEBB.—SECOND CONJUGATION. 188
Thou wast advised,
He was advised;
We were advised.
Ye were advised.
They were advised.
Impebfsct, waf advised. 160-5.
S. 1. Mon-gbar, I was advised,
2. Mon-ebaris, or -ebare,
3, Mon-ebatur,
P. 1. Mon-ebainur,
2. Mon-ebamini,
3. Mon-ebantur,
Perfect, have been, was, am advised. 164-5.
S. 1. Mon-itus sum, or fui, I have been advised,
2. Mon-itus es, or fuisti. Thou hast been advised,
3. Mon-itus est, or fuit. He has been advised;
P. 1. Mon-iti siimus, or fuimus. We have been advised,
2. Mon-iti estis, or fuistis. Ye have been advised,
3. Mon-iti sunt, fuerunt, &c.. They have been advised.
Pluperfect, had been advised. 166-2.
S. 1. Mon-itus gram, or fueram, I had been advised,
2. Mon-itus gras, or fugras. Thou hadst been advised,
3. Mon-itUs g'rat, or fiigrat. He had been advised;
P. 1. Mon-iti eramus, or fueramus, TFe Aarf Jem
2. Mon-iti eratis, or fueratis. Ye had been advised,
3. Mon-iti grant, or fugrant. They had been advised.
Future, shall, or will be advised. 167-3.
8. 1. Mon-gbor,
2, Mon-ebgris, or -ebgre,
3. Mon-ebitur,
P. 1. Mon-ebimur,
2. Mon-ebimini,
3. Mop-ebuntur,
I shall, or will be advised.
Thou shall, or wilt be advised.
He shall, or will be advised,
We shall, or will be advised
Ye shall, or will be advised.
They shall, or will be advised
Future-Perfect, shall, or will have been advised. 168-4.
8. 1. Mon-itus fogro,
2. Mon-itus fugris,
3. Mon-itus fugrit,
P. 1. Mon-iti fuerimus,
2. Mon-iti-fueritis,
3. Mon-iti iiigrint.
J shall have been advised.
Thou wilt have been advised.
He will have been advised;
We shall have been advised.
Ye will have been advised.
They will have been advised.
184
THE VEKB.—SECOND CONJUGATION. § 62
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, may, or can be advised.
S, 1 Mon-ear,
2 Mon-earis, or -eare,
3. Mon-eatur,
P. 1. Mon-eamur,
2. Mon-eamini,
3. Mon-eantur,
I may he advised,
Thou mayst be advised,
He may be advised;
We may be advised.
Ye may be advised.
They may be advised.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be advised.
8. 1. Mon-erer,
2. Mon-ergris, or -erere,
3. Mon-eretur,
P. 1. Mon-ergmur,
2. Mon-eremini,
3. Mon-erentur,
I might be advised.
Thou mightst be advised.
He might be advised;
We might be advised.
Ye might be advised,
They might be advised.
Perfect, may have been advised.
S. Monitus sim, or luerim,
Monitus sis, or fueris,
Monitus sit, or fiigrit,
P. Monlti simus, or fiierimus,
Moniti sitis, or fueritis,
Mordti sint, or fuerint.
I may have bten advised.
Thou mayst have been advised.
He may have been advised;
We may have been advised.
Ye may have been advised.
They may have been advised.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been advised.
S. Monitus essem, or fiiissem, I might have been advised,
Monitus esses, or fuisses. Thou mightst have been advised,
Monitus esset, or fuisset, He might have been advised;
P. Moniti essgmus, or fiiissgmus, We might have been advised,
Moniti essgtis, or fuissgtis. Ye might have been advised,
Moniti essent, or fuissent. They might^ave been advised.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. Mon-gre, or -gtor,
3. Mon-gtor,
P. 2. Mon-emini,
3 Mon-entor,
Be thou advised.
Let him be advised;
Be ye advised.
Let them be advised.
63
THE VERB.—SECOND CONJUGATION.
185
INPINrnVE MOOD.
Pres. Mon-6ri, To he advised (178-180),
Perf. Esse, or fuisse monitus, To have been advised,
Fut. Mon-ituo in. To he about to he advised.
PARTICIPLEa
Perf. Mon-itus, a, um,
Fut. Mon-endus, a, um.
Advised, being advised, or hav¬
ing been advised,
To be advised, pro/per, or neces¬
sary to be advised.
Pres.
Imp.
Perf.
Plop.
Pot.
Strofsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Indicative. Subjimctive. Imper. Infinitive,
Participles.
Moneor,
MonSbar,
Monitus sum,
Monitus Sram,
Mouebor,
Monear,
MonSrer,
Monitus sim,
Monitus essem.
MonSre. MonSri,
( Esse, or
( Puisse monitus,
Moiutum Ii-L
P.-Perf. Monitus fuSro.
After the same manner, inflect:
j. Monitus,
Monendus.
Doceor,
Jubeor,
Videor,
doceri,
juberi,
videri.
doctus,
jussus,
visus.
To be taught.
To be ordered.
To be seen.
196.—§ 63. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Oive the designation, &c., as directed 192-1. Moneor,
monetur, monebatur, monebitur, monitus est, moniti estis,
moneamur, moneretur, momtus fuero, monere, moneri, mo¬
nitus, monitus esse, monendus. Videretur, visus, visum iri,
docerentur, doceantur, docemini, doceamini, jubebitur, jussi
fuerunt, juberentur, jubetor, &c.
2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 192-2; |
was advised, be has been advised;—be may be advised, we
will be advised, we were advised, I am advised, tbey might
have b<!en advised. Be ye advised, to be about to be advised,
to be advised, be may have been seen;—tbey should be ordered,
we will be seen, tbey uill be taught, having been taught, ne¬
cessary to be taught, let ^lem be taught; tbey have been
186
THE VEKB.—THIBD CONJUGATION.
ordered, we might have been ordered, to be about to be
ordered, being ordered, they may have l^en ordered, &c.
Prquiscuocs Exercises ok the Second Cokjcoatiok.
3. Qive the designation, &c., as directed 190-1, 192-1. Mo-
nebam, monuSrat, monuerit, monebunt, moneam, mone, mo-
Dfebiir, monitus es, monuit, moneri, doctus sum, docear,
docerer, docebitur, docento, docentor, docentur, jfibet, jus-
serunt, jusserint, jub§bo, juberentur, jussus esse, jube, video,
vident, videretur, vide, vidistis, videratis, viderent, videro,
videndum, videns, visurus, vidisse, visum iri, videri, mone-
buntur, moneantur, viderentur, juss6rim, jubebam, juberer,
videntur, docueruul^ doce, docens.
4. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 190-i^
192-2: I am advised, he advises, they will advise, ye have
advised, they will have advised, he will be, advised, he is
taught, he has taught, they will teach, I will see, they may
see, they are seen, he has been seen, to order, to have been
ordered, ordering, about to order, to have seen, I might see,
I might have been seen, they will not (non) see, he will not
see, 1 do not advise, he is teaching, he is not teaching, he will
not order, I will order, &c.
5. As directed 190-3,192-4. Dvcit se monSre,—nos monu-
isse,—eum moniturum esse,—vos videre,—eum visum iri.
Dixit se monere,—nos monuisse,—eum moniturum esse,—
vos videre,—eum visum iri. i)?ce< se monere, &c.,—vos mo¬
nuisse,—homines monituros esse,—fen^am monituram esse,
vos jubere.
6. As directed 190-5. He says that he advises,—that 1^ will
advise,—that we have advised. He said that I advised^—that
he had advised,—that they would have advised,—that I would
order,—would have ordered,—would have been ordered,—^was
taught,—had been taught,—would have been taught, &c.
197.—§ 64. THIRD CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
JVcs. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine.
R£g-o, re^r-ere, rex-i. rect-um. To rule.
§ 64 l-HE VERB.—THIRD CONJUGATION. 137
INDICATIVE MOOD.
. Present Tense, rule, do rule, am ruling. 157.
S. 1. Reg-o, I rule, do rule, am ruling,
2. 's * Thou rulest, dost rule, art ruling,
3. Re^^-Ci, He rules, does rule, is ruling;
P. 1. Re^-imus, We rule, do rule, are ruling,
2. Re^'-itis, Ye rule, do rule, are ruling,
3. Reg-unt, They rule, do rule, are ruling.
Imperfect, ruled, did rule, was ruling. 159.
S. I. Re^-ebam, I ruled, did rule, was ruling,
2. Re^-ebas, . Thou ruledst, didst rule, wast ruling,
3. Re^r-ebat, He ruled, did rule, was ruling ;
P. 1. Re^r-ebamus, We ruled, did rule, were ruling,
. 2. Re^f-ebatis, Ye ruled, did rule, were ruling,
3. Re^-ebant, They ruled, did rule, were ruling.
Perfect Def., have ruled; Indef., ruled, did rule. 161.
S. 1. Rex-i, I have ruled, ruled, did rule,
2. Rex-isti, • Thou hast ruled, ruledst, didst rule.
3. Rex-it, He has ruled, ruled, did rule;
P. 1. Rex-imus, We have ruled, ruled, did rule,
2. Rex-istis, Ye have ruled, ruled, did rule,
3. Rex-emnt, or -ere. They have ruled, ruled, did rule.
Pluperfect, had ruled. 165.
S. 1. Rex-eram, Ihad ruled,
2. Rex-eras, Thou hadst ruled,
3. Rex-erat, He had ruled;
P. 1. Rex-eramus, We had ruled,
2. Rex-eratis, Ye had ruled,
3. Rex-^rant, They had ruled.
Future, shall, or will rule. 167.
S. 1. Reg-am, . I shall, or will rule,
2. Rg^r-es, Thou shalt, or wilt rule,
3. Re^'-et, He shall, or will rule;
P. i. Re^-emus, , We shall, or will rule,
2. Re^-6tis, Ye shall, or will rule,
3. Re^-ent, They shall, or will rule.
* Uand are hard before a, o, «, and soft like « and^' before « and i. 17-8.
Soft g is here marked in Italics, «Dd sounds like j.
138
THE VERB.—THIRD CONJUGATION,
Future-perfect, sJudl^ or will have ruled, 168.
S. I. Rex-ero, I shall, or will have ruled,
2. Re}i-Sris, Thou shall, or wilt have ruled,
,3. Rex-Srit, He shall, or will have ruled;
P. 1. Rex-erimus, We shall, or loill have ruled,
2. Rex-eritis, Ye shall, or will have ruled,
3. Rex-6riiit, Thet/ shall, or teill have ruled.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, may, or can rule. 171.
S. 1. Reg-am, I may, or can rule,
2. Reg-as, Thou rmyst, or canst rule,
3.. Reg-at, He may, or can rule;
P. 1. Reg-amus, We may, .or can rule,
2. Reg-atis, Ye may, or can rule,
3. Reg-ant, They may, or can rule.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should rule. 172,
S. 1. Rey-erem, I might rule,
2. Rey-ercs, Thou mightst rule,
3. Rey-eret, He might rule;
P. 1. Rey-er§mus, We might rule,
2. Rey-eretis, Ye might rule,
3. Rey-erent, They might rule.
Perfect, may have ruled. 173.
S. 1. Rex-erim, I may have ruled,
2. Rex-eris, Thou mayst have ruled
3. Rex-erit, He may have ruled;
P. 1. Rex-erimus, We may have ruled,
2. Rex-eritis, Ye may have ruled,
3. Rex-erint, They may have ruled.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or shomld have ruled. 174.
<Si. 1. Rex-issem, I might have ruled,
2. Rex-isses, Thou mightst have ruled,
3. Rex-issetj He might have ruled;
P. 1. Rex-issemus, We might have ruled,
2. Rex-issetisj Ye might have ruled,
3. Rex-issent, They might have ruled.
§ 64
THE VERB.—THIED CONJUGATION.
189
IMPEBATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. Re^-e, or -ito,
'3. Re^-ito,
P. 2. Re^-fte, or itdte,
3. Reg-unto,
Pule ihou, (149,)
Let him rule;
Pule ye,
' Let them, rule.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres.
Perf.
Put.
Re^-ere,
Rex-isse,
Esse recturus,
F.-Perf. Fuisse recturus,
To rule (178-180),
To have ruled,
To be about to rule.
To have been aho\^ to rule.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
Fut.
R^^-ens,.
Rect-urus, a, um.
Puling.
About to rule.
GERUNDS.
Nom. Re^-endum,
Gen. Re^r-endi,
Pat. Re^r-endo,
. Acc. Re^'-endum,
Abl. Re^-endo,
Puling, .
Of ruling, '
To ruling.
Puling,
With^ &c., ruling.
SUPINES.
Former, Rect-um,
Latter, Rect-u,
To rule.
To be ruled, or to rule.
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Indicative. Subjunctive. Imp.
Pres.
Imp.
Peef.
Pldp.
Fut.
F.-PEaF.
Rggo,
Rejrebam,
Rezi,
RexSram,
RSgam,
Rex^ro.
RSgam,
Re^^rem,
RexSrim,
Rexissem.
"Bige.
Infinitive.
Rejrgre,
Rexisse,
Esse rectQrus,
Fuisse rectQrus.
Pariiciplet,
Begem,
RectQrus.
After the same manner,-inflect:
L5go, leggre, legi, lectum,
Scribo, scribgre, scripM, scfiptum,
Caedo, caedere, cecidl, caesum,
To read.
To write.
To slay.
140 THE VEKB,—THIRD CONJUGATION. § 64
198.—EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -10, ACTIVE VOICE
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine.
Capio, Capere, cepi, captum, To take
Singvlar.
Pres. Cap-io, -is, -it; .
Imp. Capi-6bam, -ebas, -ebat;
Perp. Cep-i,
Plup. Cep-erara, -eras, -erat;
Put. Capi-am, -es, -et;
F. P. Cep-ero,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Plural.
-imus, -itis,
-ebamus, -ebatis.
-isti, -it; -imus.
-istis, . I
-eramus, -eratis,
-emus, -6tis,
-eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Capi-am,
Imp. Cap-erem,
Perf. Cep-erim,
-as, -at;
-eres, -eret;
-eris, -erit;
-amus,
-eremus,
-erimus.
-Mis,
-eretis,
•eritis,
-iunt.
-6baut.
-eruiit,«
-fere,
-ferant.
-ent.
-erint.
-ant.
-ferent.
-erint.
-issent
Plup. Cep-issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis,
IMPERATIVE MOOD. "
Pres. CSpe, or -ito, -ito; -ite, or -itote, -iunto.
INFINITIVE
Perf.
Cap-fere,
Cep-isse,
Fct. Esse capturus,
F. Perf. Fuisse capturus.
Pres. Cap^ens,
GERUNDS.
PARTICIPLES,
Fut.
Norn. Capi-endum,
Gen. Capi-endi, &c.
Captarus, a, um.
SUPINES.
Former, Captum,
Latter, Captu.
Bapio,
Fugio,
rapere,
fugfere.
So also;
rapui.
raptum,
fugitum.
To Seize.
To flee.
§ 66 THE VERB.—^THIED CONJUGATION.
141
199.—§ 65. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE.
1. Give the designation, &c., as directed 199-1.—Begebam,
rexisti, rex^ram, r^gam, regerem, rexSro, rexisset, rege,
rexisse, rggens. Scribit, scribebat, scripsit, scribemus, scriba-
mus, legunt, leg€ret, ISget, lege, legerunt, leggrant. Capiunt,
capiebat, capiunto, caperem, cepit, ceperim, ceperam, cepissem,
capit, capSre, capiendum, &c.
2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 190-2.—
He rules, we are ruling, he has ruled, we will rule, they will
have ruled, ye might rule, they may rule, we will rule, they
were ruling, he had ruled, they might have ruled. He has
read, they will read, we shall read, to have read, to have
written, to write, writing, write thou, let them write.
3. Translate according to the Rules 190-3,4. {Licit, "he
says,") me regSre,—me scribere,—se rexisse,—nos recturos
esse,—ilium scripsisse,—me soripturum fuisse,—vos lectures
esse,—me capSre,—vos cepisse,—vos capturos esse,—vos
capturos fuisse. {Dixit, "he said,") me regere,—me rexiss^~
■—me recturum esse, die.
4. As directed 190-5.—He says that I rule,—that he ruled,
—that we write,—that they will write,—that he is about to
write. He writes that he rules,—that you are reading,—that
you will write. He said that he was writing,—that you had
written,—that we would write,—would have written. He will
say that I am ruling,—was ruling,—will rule, die.
200.—§ 66. PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
Eeg-or, re^r-i, rectus, To be ruled.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, cm ruled. 157-6.
S. 1. Reg-or, lam ruled,
2. Re^r-dris, or .fire, Thou art ruled,
3. Re^-itur, He is ruled;
P. 1. Rc^-imur, We are ruled,
2. Re^r-imini, Ye are ruled,
3. Reg-untur, « They are ruled.
142
THE VEEB.—THIRD CONJUGATION.
Imperfect, wa$ ruled. 160-5.
s.
•
1.
Re^-ebar,
I was ruled.
2.
R^-ebaris, or -ebare.
Thou wast ruled.
3.
Re^-ebatur,
He was ruled;.
p.
1.
Re^i-ebamur,
We were ruled.
2.
Re^^-ebamini,
Ye were ruled.
3.
Re^-ebantur,
They were ruled.
Perfect, have been ruled, woe ruled, am ruled. 164-5
S. 1. Rectus sum, or fui, I have been ruled,
2. Rectus es, or fuisti. Thou hast been ruled,
3. Rectus est, or fuit. He has been ruled;
P. 1. Recti s5mus, or fuimus. We have been ruled,
2. Recti estis, or fuistis. Ye have been ruled,
3. Recti sunt, fiierunt, or &i»t6,They have been ruled.
Pluperfect, had been ruled. 166-2.
S. 1. Rectus eram, or fii^ram, T had been ruled,
2. Rectus gras, or fugras. Thou hadst been ruled^
3. Rectus erat, or fu6rat. He had been ruled;
P. 1. Recti eramus, or fueramu«. We. had been ruled,
2. Recti eratis, or fueratis. Ye had been ruled,
3. Recti erant, or iiierant. They had been ruled.
Fctcrb, shall, or will be ruled. 167-3. -
S. 1. R(5g-ar, I shall, or will be ruled,
2. Re^-eris, or -ere. Thou shalt, or wilt be ruled
3. Re^i-etur, He shall, or will be ruled;
P. I. Re^-emur, We shall, or will he ruled,
2. Re^r-emmi, Ye shall, or will be ruled,
3. Re^r-entur, They shall, or will be ruled.
Future-Perfect, shall. Or will have been ruled. 168-1
S. 1. Rectus fiiero, I shall, or will have been ruled,
2. Rectus fueris. Thou shalt, or wilt have been ruUa
3. Rectus fuerit. He shall, or will have been ruled;
P. 1. Recti fuerimus. We shall, or will have been ruled_
2. Recti fueritis. Ye shall, or will have been ruled,
3. Recti fuerint. They shall, or will have been ruled
THE VERB,—THIRD CONJUGATION. 143
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
PsESENT Tense, may, or can he ruled.
S. 1. Rdg-ar, I may, or can be ruled,
2. Reg-aris, or-are. Thou rmystor canst he ruled,
3. Reg-atur, _ He may, vv can he .ruled;
P. 1. Reg-amur, We may, or can he ruled,
2. Reg-anuni, Ye may, or can he ruled,
3. Reg-antur, They may, or can be ruled.
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should he ruled.
S. 1. Rey-Srer, _ T might he ruled,
2. Rey-ereris, or erere. Thou mightst he ruled
3. Rey-erStur, He might he ruled;
P. 1. Rey-eremur, We might he ruled,
2. Rey-eremini, Ye might he ruled,
3. Rey-erentiir, They might he ruled.
Perfect, may have been ruled.
S. 1. Rectus sim, or fuerim, I may have been ruled,
2. Rectus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst have been ruled.
3. Rectus sit, or fuerit, He may have been ruled;
P. 1. Recti simus, or fiierimus. We may have been ruled,
2. Recti sitis, or fueritis. Ye may have been ruled,
3. Recti sint, or fuerint. They may have been ruled.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been ruled.
S. 1. Rectus essem, or tuissem, I might have been ruled,
2. Rectus esses, or fuisses. Thou mightsthave been ruled,
3. Rectus esset, or fuisset, He might have been ruled ;
P. 1. Recti essemus, or fuissemus, We miyAi Aave Seen mferf,
2. Recti essetis, or fuissetis. Ye might have been ruled,
3. Recti essent, or fuissent. They might have been ruled
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. Rey-ere, or -Iter, Be thou ruled,
3. Rey-itor, Let him be ruled ;
P. 2. Rey-imini, Be ye ruled',
3. Reg-untor, ^ Let them be ruled.
144:
THE VBBB.—THIRD CONJUGATIOK.
Pres. Re^-i,
Perf. Esse, or iiiisse rectus,
Put. Rectum iri,
INFINITIVE MOOD.
•uTo be ruled (178 and 180),
To have been ruled,
To he about to be ruled.
PARTICIPLES.
Ruled, being ruled, having
been ruled.
To be ruled, proper, or ne¬
cessary. to be ruled.
Perf. Rectus, a, um,
Fut. Re^endus, a, um,
Stnofsis of the Moods and Tenses.
InSecUive.
1
1
I-
Infinitive.
Part.
Pees.
Rggor,
RSgar,
RegrSre.
RSgi,
Imp.
R^ebar,
Re^f^rer,
Esse, or fuisse rectus,
Peek.
Rectus sum,
Rectus mm.
Rectus,
Plup.
Rectus aram.
Rectus essem.
-
For.
R6gar,
Rectum iri
Re^eudna
F -Peef.
Rectus fuSro.
After the same manner, inflect:
L^gor,
Scribor,
Caedor,
legi,
scribi,
caedi.
lectus,
scriptus,
caesus.
To be read.
To be written.
To be slain.
201.—EXAMPLE OF VERBS DI -70.—PASSIVE VOICE
Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
capi, captus. To be taken,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
2. 3. 1. 2. 8.
^ -Itur; -imu|| -mmii, -iqntur.
Of* ^
-ebare' r-ebatur; -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebanto*
Peef. Captus sum, or fui; captus es, or fiiisti, <lcc.
Pldf. Captus aram, or fudram; captus ^ras, or fuSras, t&c.
Fur. Cap-iar, | ^ -etur; -Smur, .emlni, -entor
F.-P. Captus fudro, captus fudris, captus fu^riti &c.
Pres. Ind.
Capior,
Pees. Cap-ior, |
§ 67 THE VERB —THIRD COxVJUGATIOIf. 145
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. S. 0
Psiia Cap-iar, | ^ -atur, -amur, -amini, -antur.
Imp. Oap-6rer, j -ergtur; -ergmur, -eremini, -erentur.
Perk. Captus sim, or fugrim; captue sis, or fugris, Jcc.
Plop. Captus essem, or fuissem; captus esses, or fuisses, Ac.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
2. 3. 2. 3.
Pres. Cap-€re, or -itor, -itor; -imini, -ivintor.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
Pres. C^ip-i, Perp. Captus, a, um.
Perf. Esse, or fjisse captus, Fut. Capiendus, a, um.
Fut. Captum iri.
So also : Eapior, rapi, raptus, To be seized.
202.—§ 67. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Give the designation, &c., as directed 192-1.—Regitur,
regetur, regiinini, rectus est, rectus fuerit, regerer, regar,
regor, regere, reguntor, rectus, rectum ifi, rectus esse, regi,
regebatur, reguiitur, regentur, rectus sim, rectus esset. Capiar,
capiuntur, capiuntor, capiebatur, captus sum, &c.
2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 192-2.—
He is ruled, I was ruled, they will be ruled, they have been
ruled, we might be ruled, he might have been ruled, they
were ruled, ye had been ruled, to have been ruled, being
ruled, to be ruled, let them be ru^ed. They are taken, they
will be taken, let them be taken, they have been taken, he wiE
be taken, they might be taken, be thou taken, &c.
Promiscuous Exercises on the Third Conjugation.
3. Give the designation, &c., as directed 190-1 and 192-1.
—Regebat, rexerunt, rexerat^reget, rexit, rexSrint, ISgit, ISgit,
140 THE VERB.—FOURTH CONJUGATION. § 68
leget, l^gat, legerit, scripscrit, scripsisse, scribltur, scriptus est,
scriptum iri, legi, legere, legisse, rexisse, lectus esse, legitor,
rectus, regcns, scripturUs, scribendus, lectu, scribere, scripsere,
legere, legere, legimini, eapiunt, capiuntor, captus sum, capitur,
capitor, ceperunt, ceperint, scriptum %sse, rexi, rfgi, regain,
regbret, &c.
4. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 190-2,
192-2.—I rule, I am ruled, he rules, they are ruled, they have
ruled, they have been ruled, they will rule, he might rule,
they might be ruled, we will read, he may have been taken,
they will have been ruled, he might have written, to be ruled;
rule thou, let him be ruled, they were writing, they might
write, to have written, to have read, to have ruled, to have
taken, they had written, had ruled, had read, had taken.
203.—§ 68. FOURTH CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine.
Audio, audire, audi\n, auditum. To hear
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, hear, do hear, am hearing. 157.
S. 1. Aud-io, I hear, do hear, am hearing,
2. Aud-is, Thou hearest, dost hear, art hearing,
3. Aud-it, He hears, does hear, is hearing;
P. 1. Aud-Imus, We hear, do hear, are hearing,
2. Aud-itis, Ye hear, do hear, are hearing,
3. Aud-iunt, They hear, do hear^ are hearing.
Imperfect, heard, did hear, was hearing. 159.
S. 1. Audi-bbam, I heard, did hear, was hearing,
2. Audi-ebas, Thou heardst, didst hear, wast hearing,
3. Audi-ebat, He heard, did hear, was hearing;
P. 1. Audi-ebSmus, We heard, did hear, were hearing,
2. Audi-ebatis, Ye heard, did hear, were hearing,
3. Audi-ebant, They heard, did hear, were hearing
§ 68 THE VERB.—FOURTH CONJUGATION. 147
Perfect Def., have heard; Indef., heard, did hear. 161.
S. 1. Audiv-i, J have heard, heard, did hear,
2. Audiv-isti, Thou hast heard, heardst, didst hear,
3. Audiv-it, He has heard, heard, did hear;
P. 1. Audiv-imus, We have heard, heard, did hear,
2. Audiv-istis, Ye have heard, heard, did hear,
3. Audiv-erunt, or, ) ^7,^^ ]iave heard, heard, did hear.
-ere, )
Pluperfect, had heard. 165.
S. 1. Audiv-Sram, I had heard,
2. Audiv-gras, Thou hadst heard,
3. Audiv-erat, He had heard;
P. 1. Audiv-eramus, We had heard,
2. Audiv-eratis, Ye had heard,
3. Audiv-grant, They had heard.
Future, shall, or will hear. 167.
S. 1. Audi-am, I shall, or will hear,
2. Audi-es, Thou shalt, or wilt hear,
3. Audi-et, He shall, or will hear;
P. 1. Audi-emus, We shall, or will hear,
2. Audi-gtis, ^ Ye shall, or will hear,
3. Audi-ent, They shall, or will hear.
Future-perfect, shall, or will have heard. 168.
S. 1. Audiv-ero, I shall or will have heard,
2. Audiv-eris, Thou shalt, or wilt have heard,
3. Audiv-erit, He shall, or will have heard;
P. 1. Audiv-erimus, We shall, or will have heard,
2. Audiv-eritis, Ye shall, or will have heard,
3. Audiv-erint, They shall, ov will have heard.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, may, or can hear. 171.
S. 1. Audi-am, I may; ov can hear,
2. Audi-as, Thou mayst, or canst hear,
3. Audi-at, He may, or can hear;
P. 1. Audi-amus, We may, or can hear,
2. Audi-atis, ' Ye may, or can hear,
3. Audi-ant, * They may, or can, hear.
148
THE VERB.—FOURTH COKJUGATION. § 68
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should hear, 172
S. 1. Aud-irem, I might hear,
2. Aud-ires, Thou mightst hear,
3. Aud-iret, He might hear;
P. 1. Aud-iremus, We might hear,
2. Aud-iretis, Ye might hear,
3. Aud-irent, Theg might hear.
Perfect, may have heard. 173.
S. 1. Audiv-Srim, _ I may have heard,
2. Audiv-Sris, Thou mayst have heard,
3. Audiv-erit, He may have heard;
P. 1. Audiv-erimus, We may have heard,
2. Audiv-eritis, Ye may have heard,
3. Audiv-erint, They may have heard.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should hear. 174.
S. 1. Audiv-issem, I might have heard,
2. Audiv-isses, Thou mightst have heard,
3. Audiv-isset, He might have heard;
P. 1. Audiv-issemus, We might have heard,
2. Audiv-Usetis, Ye might have heard,
3. Audiv-issent, They might have heard.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. Aud-i, or -ito. Hear thou (149),
3. Aud-Ito, Let him hear;
P. 2.. Aud-ite, or -itote. Hear ye, or you,
3. Aud-iunto, Let them hear.
iNFHUnVE MOOD.
Pres. Aud-ire, To hear (17^180),
Perf. Audiv-isse, To have heard,
Fot. Esse auditurus. To be about to hear,
F.-Perf. Fuisse auditurus. To have been about to hear.
PARTICIPLEa
Pres. Audiens, Hearing,
Fut. Aud-it&rus, a, um. About to hear.
69 THE VERB,—FpURTH CONJUGATION.
GERUNDS.
149
KTom. Aud-iendum,
Oen. Aud-iendi,
Dat. Aud-iendo,
Acc. Aud-iendum,
Abl. Aud-iendo,
Former, Audit-um,
Latter, Audit-u,
Hearing,
Of hearing, ^
To hearing.
Hearing,
With, &c., hearing.
SUPINES.
To hear.
To be heard, or to Aear*.
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Indicative.
Svijunetive. Imper.
Infinitive.
Fees.
Audio,
Audiam,
Audi.
Audire,
Imp.
Audiebam,
Audlrem,
Peek
Audivi,
AudiT^rim,
Audivisse,
PlUP.
AudivSram,
Audivissem.
Put.
Audiam,
Esse auditQrus,
F.-Peef.
Audiv§ro.
Fuisse auditurus.
After the same manner, inflect;
Munio,
Venio,
Vindo,
mumre,
venire,
vincire.
mumvi,
veni.
vmxi.
munltum,
ventum,
vinctum,
Partieiple*
Audiens^
AuditOrua
To fortify.
To come.
To bind.
204.-r§ 69. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE.
1. Give the designation, &c., as directed 190-1.—Audio,
audiunt, audivit, audiet, audirent, audi, audivisse, audivgrant,
audiverunt, muniant, munient, muniverunt, munivSrint, mu-
niunto, muniunt, venerat, venisset, vinxisti, vinxisse, vinciet,
vincirent, vinciebam, veniens, ventum, venturus, &c.
2. Translate the following into Latin, &c., as directed 190-2.
—I have heard, he heard, they were hearing, we will hear,
you might hear, they could have heard, hear thou, let them
hear, to have heard, hearing, to be about to hear, he shall have
come, they will bind, let them bind, to have bound, binding,
of binding, with binding, he had come, he had bound, they
will fortify, I was heariflg, they would have heard, the men
150
THE VERB.—FOURTH CONJUGATION'.
{homines) may have heard, about to hear, of hearing, they
had bound—may have bound—Will have bound; bind ye, I
have bound, to bind, to have bound, about to bind, binding,
to have been abt)ut to fortify, to have fortified. &c.
3. Translate according to the rule 190-3, 4.—Dtcit {he says)
me audire,—vos audire,—eos audivisse,—hominem auditurum
esse,—hommem auditurum fiiisse,—homines audituros esse,
—feminam, f., {that the woman) venturam esse,—venturam
fuisse. Dixit {he said) se {that he himself) ventfirum esse
—eum {that he, viz. some other person, not himself) ventu-
rum fuisse,—nos ventures esse,—&c.
4. As directed 190-5.—He says that I hear,—that we hear,
—that they have heard.—that they will hear,—that he {him¬
self) will come,—that he {some other) will come,—that the
men will come,—that the women will come. /Ttf said that
he {himself) came,—that he {another) came,^that they had
come,—that they would come,—that they would have come,
—that the women would come,—would have come, &c. ■ He
will say that I hear,—that I heard,—that I will hear
205.—I 70. PASSIVE VOICE.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
Audior, audiri, auditus. To be heard.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, am heard. 157-6.
1. Aud-ior, I am heard.
2. Aud-iris, or -ire,
3. Aud-Itur,
P. 1. Aud-!mur,
2. Aud-imini,
3, Aud-iuntur,
Thou art heard.
He is heard I
We are heard.
Ye are heard.
They are heard.
Imperfect, was heard. 16025.
S. 1. Audi-§bar, I was heard,
2. Audi-ebaris, or -ebare,
3. Audi-ebatur,
P. 1. Audi-ebamur,
2. Audi-ebamini,
3. Audi-ebantur,
Thou wast heard,-
He was heard;
We were heard.
Ye were heard.
They were heard.
§ 70 THE VEBB.—FOURTH CONJUGATION.
151
S. 1.
2.
3.
P. 1.
2.
Perfect, have been heard, was heard, am htard. 164-5.
Auditus* sum, or fui,
Audltus es, or fuisti,
Auditus est, or fuit,
Auditi sumus, or fiiimus,
Auditi estis, or fuistis,
Auditi sunt, fuerunt, or fuere.
3.
I have been heard,
Thou hast been heard.
He has been heard;
We have been heard,
' Ye have been heard,
They have been heard.
S.
P.
s.
s.
p.
Pluperfect, had been heard, 166-2.
Auditus* eram, or fueram, I had been heard,
Auditus eras, or fugras,
Auditus erat, or fuerat,
Auditi eramus, or fueramus,
Auditi eratis, or fueratis,
Auditi erant, or fuerant,
Thou hadst been heard.
He had been heard; '
We had been heard.
Ye had been heard.
They had been heard.
Future, shall, tr will be heard. 167-3.
Andi-ar,
Audi-eris, or -ere,
Audi-etur,
Audi-emur,
Audi-emini,
Audi-en tur.
I shall, or will be heard.
Thou shall, or wilt be heard.
He shall, or will be heard;
We shall, or will be heard.
Ye shall, or will be heard.
They shall, or will be heard.
Future-Perfect, shall, or will have been heard. 168-4.
1. Auditus fuero,
2. Auditus fueris,
3. Auditus fuerit,
1. Auditi fuerimus,
2. Auditi fueritis,
3. Auditi fuerint.
I shall or will have been heard.
Thou shall, or wilt have been heard.
He shall, or will have been heard;
We shall, or will have been heard.
Ye shall, or will have been heard.
They shall, or will have been heard.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, may, or can be heard.
S.
P.
1. Audi-ar,
2. Audi-ar is, or -are,
3. Audi-atur,
1. Audi-amur,
2. Audi-amini,
3. Audi-antur,
I may, or can be heard.
Thou mayst, or canst be heard,
He may, or can he heard;
We may, or can be heard.
Ye may, or can be heard.
They may, or can be heard.
• See*l64-o, and Note.
152
THE VERB.—FOURTH CONJUGATION. § 70
Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be heard.
S. 1. Aud-irer, I might be heard,
2. Aud-ireris, or -irgre, Thou mightst be heard,
3. Aud-irgtur, He might be heard;
P. 1. Aud-iremur, We might be heard,
2. Aud-iremini, Ye might be heard,
3. Aud-irentur, They might be heard.
Perfect, may have been heard.
S. 1. Auditus sim, or fuerim, I may have been heard,
2. Auditus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst have been heard,
3. Auditus sit, or fuerit, He may have been heard ;
P. 1. Auditi simus, or fuerimus. We may have been heard,
2. Auditi sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been heard,
3, Auditi sint, or fuerint. They may have been heard.
Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been heard.
S. 1. Auditus essem, or fuissem, I might have been heard,
2. Auditus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have been heard,
3. Auditus esset, or fuisset, He might have been heard;
P. 1. Auditi essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been heard,
2. Auditi essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been heard,
3, Auditi essent, or fuissent, They might have been heard.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
S. 2. Aud-ire, or -iter. Be thou heard,
3. Aud-itor, Let him be heard;
P. 2. Aud-imini, Be ye heard,
3. Aud-iuntor, Let them be heard.
INFINITrVE MOOD.
Pres. Aud-irij To be heard (178-180),
Perf. Esse, or fuisse auditus. To hav^een heard,
Eot. Auditum iri, To be about to be heard.
PARTICIPLES.
Perf. Auditus, a, urn, \
' ' ' ( been heard.
Eut. Audiendus, a, um, \
' ' ' ( cessary to be heard.
§^71
THE VERB.—FOURTH CONJUGATION.
153
Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses.
Prjs.
Imp.
Perf.
Plup.
For..
F.-Perp.
Indicative.
Audior,
Audiebar,
Auditus sum,
Auditus Sram,
Audiar,
Auditus fuSro.
Subjunctive. ' Imper. Infinitive, Participle*.
Audiar, ' AucUre.
Audirer,
Auditus sim,
Auditus essem.
Audiri,
Esse, or fuisse
auditus,
Auditum irL
I Auditus^
Audiendus,
After the same manner, inflect;
Munior,
Polior,
Vincior,
mumri,
poliri,
vinciri.
munitus,
politus,
vinctus,
To he fortified.
To he polished.
To he hound.
206.—§ 71. -EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Oive the designation, &c., as' directed 193-1.—Audior,
audiar, audiebaturAauditus sum, audietur, audimmi, audiemini,
audiamini, audireipmi, auditus fugris, audire, audiri, audiun-
tur, audiuntor, audientur, audiantur, auditi sunt, auditus grat,
muniebantur, munitus fugrit, munitus esse, munitus, munitur,
vincitur, vincietur, vinciatur, vineitor, venitur.
2. Translate the folloioing into Latin, as directed 192-2.—
He is heard, we were heard, he has been heard, they will be
heard, ye may be heard, he should be heard, hear ye, to be
heard, to be about to be heard, I was bound, he will be bound,
they would be bound, we may have been bound, to be forti¬
fied, being fortified, to be about to be fortified, to have been
fortified, &c.
Promiscuous Exercises on the Fourth, Conjugation.
3. Give the designation, &c., as directed 190-1, 192-1.—.
Audivit, audivere, audiebatur, audirgtur, audiuntur, audiuntor,
munient, muniverint, muni, munire, munitor, muniens; ve-
niat, ventum, veniendi, vmi, venere, ventum grat, vinciunt,
vinciuntor, vincirent, vinxisset, vinctus esset, vinctus fugrit,
venit, vgnit, &c.
4. Translate the foUowjgig words into Latin, as directed 190-2,
192-2.—I was heard, he heard, he has heard, we were heard.
7*
154
DEPONENT VERBS.
ye had been heard, they •will be heard, they may be heard,
they might have been heard, let them come, they should come,
they will come, they will have come, I might have been bound,
thou hast been bound, thou wilt be bound, thou art bound,
thou wast bound, to be about to be bound, being bound, ne¬
cessary to be bound, binding, &c.
5. As directed 190-3.—Dlcit {he says) se audire,—se audi-
visse,—eum auditurum esse,—eos audituros fuisse,—eum au-
ditum esse,—nos auditum iri. Dixit {ke said) nos audiri,—
vos auditos esse,—illos audituros esse,—feminas audituras
fuisse,—feminas auditum iri,—vos vincire, —vos vinciri, die.
6. Translate as directed 190-5.—He says {dlcit) that he was
heard,—that he will hear,—that he bound,—that he was bound,
—that he will come,—that we will not {non) come. He said
. {dixit) that he {himself) heard,—that he {some other) heard,—
—that "we would hear,—that they would have been heard,—
that we are bound,—that we have been bound,—that we would
be bound,—that he has polished,—has been polished,—might
have polished,—might have been polished;—to have been
polished,—bound,—fortified,—proper to be fortified. He will
say {dlcet) that^ we will hear,—will be heard,—would have
been bound,—polished, &c.
207.—§ 72. DEPONENT AND COMMON VERBS.
1. Deponent verbs* are those which, under a
passive form, have an active signification; as,
loquor, " I speakmorior^ " I die."
2. Common verbs are those which, under a pas¬
sive form, have an active or passive signification;
as, " I accuse," or " I am accused."
Ohs. 1. All deponent verbs' seem to have been originally
passives. Hence, there are many verbs which, though found
in the active voice, are used as deponents in the passive.
Ohs. 2. In common Verbs, the passive sense is generally
* So called from dtpono, " I lay aside," because, though iu the passive
form, thev have laid akds the passive sense.
DEPONENT VERBS.
155
confined to the perfect participle; thus, we can say adeptus
victoriam, " having obtained the victoryor, victoria adepta,
" the victory being obtained." Hence, adipiscor is called
common verb, though in all its parts, except the perfect par¬
ticiple, it is usually deponent, or has an active signification.
Obs. 3. Deponent verbs are conjugated and inflected like
the passive voice of the conjugations to which they belong;
except that they have also the participles, gerunds, supines
and future of the infinitive, like the active voice. 182-12, 13.
208.—§ 73. EXAMPLE OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Pari.
Miror, mirari, miratus, To admire.
[Inflected like Amor, 191.]
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Mir-or, -aris, or -are, &c., I admire, am admiring, (fee.
Imp. Mir-abar, -abaris, or-abare, I admired, was admiring.
Perf. MirMus sum, or fui, die., I have admired, I admired.
Plup. Miratus eram, or fueram, I had admired.
Fut. Mir-abor,-aberis, or-abere, I shall, or will admire.
F.-Pbrf. Miratus fuero, &c., I shall, or will have admired.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Mir-er, -erie, or -ere, &c., I may, or can admire.
Imp. Mir-arer, -areris, or -arere, I might admvl-e.
Perf. Miratus sim, or fuerim, &c., I may have admired.
Plup. Miratus essem, or fuissem^ I might, &c., have admired.
m
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Mir-are. or -ator, &c.,' Admire thou, &c. 149.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. Mirari,
Perf. Miratus esse, or fuisse,
Fut. Miraturus esse,
F.-Perf. Miraturus fuisse,*
To admire. 178-80.
To have admired.
To be about to admire.
To have been about to admire.
156
DEPONENT VEKBS:
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Mirans, • Admiring.
Pbrf. Miratus, Having admired.
P. Act. Miraturus, a, um, About to admire.
V, , \ To he admired, deserving,
P. Pass. Mirandas, a, um, -j admired.
GERUNDS. "
Nom. Mirandum, Admiring.
Gen. Mirandi, &c., Of admiring.
SUPINES.
PoRMER,Miratum, To admire.
Latter, Miratu, To he admired.
Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in Amor. 191.
209.-1 74. DEPONENT VERBS OP THE SECOND
CONJUGATION.
Deponents of the second conjugation are few in number.
Of these, medeor, " to heal," has no participle of its own. In¬
stead of the perfect participle, medicatus is used. Mereor has
merui, as well as merxtus sum, in the perfect indicative. JSeor
has no imperfect subjunctive.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
Polliceor, polliceri, pollicltus. To promise.
[Inflected like Moneor. 195.]
m
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Pollic-eor, -6ris, or -6re, &c., Tprmnise, &c.
Imp. Pollic-ebar,-ebaris, or-ebare,&c.,/j»ro»itscd, &c.
Perp. Pollicitus sum, or fui, &c., I hnve promised, &c.
Plup. Pollicitus eram, or fufiram, &:c., / had promised, &o.
P 0t. Pollic-ebor,,-eberis, or-ebere,&c., I shall, or will promise.
F.-Perp.Pollicitus iro, or fuero, &c., i ^
' ( promised.
I 75 DEPONENT VERBS. 157
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Pollice-ar, -aris, or-are, &c., I may, or can promise, &c.
Imp. Pollio-erer, -ereris, or-erere, I might, &c., promise.
Peef. Pollidtussim,orfuerim,&a,/»i«y have promised, &c.
Plup. Pollidtus essem, or fuissem, I might, &c., have promised,
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Pollic-ere, or -etor, &c., Promise thou, &o.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. PolHceri, To promise. 178-180.
Perf. Pollidtus esse, or fuisse, To have promised.
P0t. Pollidturus esse, To be about to promise.
F.-Perf. Polliciturus fuisse, To have been abmt topromise
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Pollicens, Promising.
Perf. Pollidtus, Having promised.
F. Act. Polliciturus, a, um, About to promise.
F. Pass. Pollicendus, a, um, Ta be promised, &c.
GERUNDS. SUPINES.
Norn. Pollicendum, Promising. l.-Pollidtum, Topromise.
Oen. Pollicendi, &c, 2. Pollicitu, To be promised.
Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in 195.
210.--§ 75, DEPONENT VERBS OF THE THIRD
CONJUGATION.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
Utor, uti, Qsus, To use.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Ut-or, -gris, or -gre, die., I use, do use, am using, &c.
Imp. Ut-ebar,-ebaris, or-ebare, lused, did use, was using,&,(>.
Perf. Usus sum, or fui, &c., I have used, used, did use,6zc.
Plup. Usus gram, or fugram, &c., I had used, &c.
Fur. Ut-ar, -eris, or -ere, &c., I shall, or will use, &c.
F.-Perf. Usus gro. or Ingrd? &c., I shall, orwill haveused, &c.
158
DEPONENT VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Ut-ar, -aris, or -are, &c., I may, or can use, &o.
Imp. Ut-erer,-er6ris,or-erere,&c.,/»»/^Af, could &c., use,
Perf. Usus sim, or foerim, &;c.,. / may have used, &,c.
Plup. Ususessem, orfuissem,<Sic.,AawMscrf, &c.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pees, Ut-ere, or -iter, &o., Use thou, &c.
INFINirrVE MOOD.
Pres. Uti, To use. 178—180,
Perf. Usus esse, or fuisse. To have used.
Put. Usurus esse. To be about to use.
F.-Perf. Usui'us fuisse, 7b have been about to use.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Utens, Using.
Perf. Usus, Having used.
F. Act. Usurus, a, um. About to use.
F. Pass. Utendus, a, uru. To be used, &c.
GERUNDS. SUPINES.
Nom. Utendum, Using. 1. Usum, To use.
Gen. Utendi, of using, dec. 2. Usu, To be used, to use.
Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in 200.
211.—§ 76. DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FOURTH
CONJUGATION.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part.
Metior, metiri, . mensus, Jb measure.
INDICATIVE MOOD.*
Pres. Met-ior, -iris, or -ire, &sc,., I measure, am rdeasuring.
Imp. " Meti-ebar, -ebaris, or-ebare, I measured, was measuring.
Perf. Mensus sum, or fui, &c., I have measured, measured.
Plup. Mensus eram, or fueram,&c.,/ had measured.
Fut. Meti-ar, -eris, or -ere, &c., I shall, or will measure.
F.-Perf. Mensus ero, or fuero, &c., Ishall,OT will have measured.
DEPONENT VERBS.
169
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Meti-ar, -aris, or -are, &c., I may, or can measure.
Imp. Meti-rer,-reris, or-rere, I might, izc., measure.
Perf. Mensus sim, or fiierim, I may have measured.
Plup. Mensus essem, or fuissem, I might, <kc., have measured.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Met-ire, or -iter, &c,, Measure thou, &c.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. Metiri, To measwe. 178-180.
Perf. Mensus esse, or fuisse, To have measured.
Put. Mensurus esse. To be about to measure,
P.-PERF.Mensurus fuisse.
To have been about to meet'
sure.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Metiens, Measuring.
Perf. Mensus, Having measured.
P. Act. Mensurus, a, unij About to measure.
P. Pass. Metiendus, a, um, To be measured, &;c.
GERUNDS. SUPINES.
Horn. Metiendum, Measuring. 1. Mensum, To measure.
Gen. Metiendi,0/'measMn'n^,&c. 2. Mensu, To be measured.
Synopsis of the moods and tenses, as in 205.
212.—§ 77. EXERCISES ON DEPONENT VERBS.
1. Mlror, 1 admire: 3. Utor,/wse.
• 2. Polliceor, I promise. 4. Metior, I measure.
1. Oive the designation.* of the verb,—conjugate it;—give the tense, movd,
person, number, and translation of the following words, always observing
the same order; thus,—Mlror, verb transitive, deponent, first conjugation
* In parsing deponent verbs, it is necessary, in giving the designation, to
state whether the verb, as there used, is transitive or intransitive. But in
stating the part of the verb used, it is unnecessary to mention the voice, because
deponent verbs have only the paesisK form.
160 NEUTER PASSIVE VERSa § 78
Mlror, mirari, mircUii* It is found in the present udicatiTe, first person
singular;" I admire, do admire, am admiring." '
Mirabatur, mirabitur, mirantur, mirabuntur, mirarentui,
pollicltus sum, pollidtus erat, pollicitus fuerit, pollicerentur,
utitur, usus est, uti, usurus, Qtens, utendum, uter6tur, utar,
metaris, metiuntur, m^iuntor, metimini, mensus erat, mensus
sit, mensi fuerunt, utere, utere, pollicere, pollicitus, pollicens.
2. TVanelate the following English words into Latin, naming the part of
the verb used; thus, " I have admired," mirStus sum, in the perfect indic¬
ative, first person singular.
They will use, we shall measure, let them measure, about
to use, we have used, they may have used, he will have used,
they will promise, they would have promised, we might ad-
.mlre, I would have used, use thou, let them use, promise ye,
lot us use (171-1), let us admire, they have promised, pro¬
mising, having promised, to measure, let us measure.
3. Translate the following into English^ according to the
rules and examples 190-3, 4.—Diicit (he says) me mirari,—vos
polliceri,—nos miratos esse,—eos poUicituros esse,—homines
mensuros esse,—feminas pollicituras esse,—te uti,—se mirari,
—eum mirari,—me mensurum esse,—vos usuros (179, Note 1).
Eicitur (he is said) pollicitus esse (179-6). Eixit (he said) se
mirari,—nos pollicitos esse,—eos pollicituros,—vos mensos
esse,—feminas rnensuras,—eum pollicitum.
4. Translate the following into Latin, according to direction
190-5.—He says (dicit) that I am using,—that thou admirest,
—that he has measured,—that we will promise,—that the
men will measure,—that the women will use,—that you will
measure,-^hat I would have used,—that they would have
admired,—that they admired. He said (dixit) that I was
using—had been using,—that you were measuring,—that he
measured,—that they had promised,—that they would use.
213.—§ 78. NEUTER PASSIVE VERBS.
1. Neuter Passive Verbs are those which, with an in
transitive meaning throughout, have a passive form in the
perfect, pluperfect, and future-perfect indicative, and in the
X
§ 78 "Vs NEUTEE PASSIVE VERBS. 161
perfect and pluperfect subjunctive; but an active form in the
other tenses. The^ are the following :
Second Conjugation.
Audeo, audere, ausus, To dare.
Gaudeo, gaud&re, gavisus, To r^oice.
Soleo, solere, solitus, To be wont.
Third - Conjugation.
Fido, fid^re, fisus, To trust.
So also the compounds of fldo, conftdo, " J trusl," and
diffido, " I distrust," which have also confidi, and diffidi, in
the perfect. Neuter-passives are inflected thus
SECOND CONJUGATION.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part. .
Audeo, audere, ausus. To dare.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Aud-eo, -es, -et, &c., I dare, do dare, am daring.
Imp. Aud-ebam, -ebas, ebat, &c., I dared, was daring, &c.
Perf. Ausus sum, or fui, &c., 1 havedared,dared,diddare
Plup. Ausus eraro, or fueram, I had dared.
Fut. Aud-ebo,-ebis,-ebit, &c., I shall, or will dare.
F.-Perf.Ausus fuero, &c., I shall have dared.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pres. Aud-eam, -eas, -eat, &c., / may, or can dare.
Imp. Aud-erem, -eres,-eret, &c., I might, could, &c., dare.
Perf. Ausus sim, or fuerim, &c., I may have dared.
Plup. Ausus essem, or luissem,&c.,/ might, &c., have dared.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Aud-oj or -eto, &c.. Dare thou, &c.
INFINITrV^E MOOD.
Pres. Audere, To dare. 178-180.
Perf. Ausus esse, or fuisse. To have dared.
Furl Ausurus esse, ^ To be about to dare.
F.-perf.Ausurus fuisse, To have been about io dare.
162
GENERAL REHABES.
PARTICIPLE&
Daring.
Having dared.
About to dare.
j To be dared, &o. (seldom
I used.)
SUPINES.
1. Ausum, To dare.
Gen. Audendi, &c., Of daring. K}is\x,Tobedared,todare
2. The following verbs are called Neutral Passives, namely,
JU), " I am made," or " I becomevapulo, " I am beaten
veneo, " I arn sold." They have an active form, but a passive
signification, and serve as passives to facio, verbero, and vendo.
Fio has the passive form in the preterite tenses. 221.
Pres. Audens,
Perf, Ausus, a. um,
P. Act. Ausurus, a, um,
P. PAss.Audendus, a, um,
GERUNDS.
Nom. Audendum, Daring.
214.—§ 79. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE CON-
JUGATIONS.
1. The perfect and pluperfect active, in both the indicative
and subjunctive, are often shortened by a syncope, as follows:
Ist In the first conjugation, avi and ave often drop vi and ve before s or
r, and circumfleet the a; thus, for amavisti, amavissem, amavirain, ama-
viro, amavirim, we often have amdsti, amdnsem, amdram, avidro, anid-
rim, Ac. Also in the second and third conjugations, evi drops vi in the
same situation; as complesti, for emnplwisti; delerain, for delevtram ; df
cressem, for decrevissem ; Ac. But ovi is syncopated only in the preterite,
verb navi, and the compounds of moveo ; as, ndrant, for noviraut; ndsie,
for novisst; commossem, for commovissem, Ac.
2d. In the fourth conjugation, ivi frequently loses vi before t; as, audiiti,
for audivinti ; audissem, for audivissem. Sometimes the ti only is dropped
between two vowels; as, audit, kr audlvi; aiftieram, for attdiviram; Ac.
And so also with other preterites of the same form, with the tenses derived
from them; as, petii, for petivi; Oram, for iveram ; Ac.
2. The perfect indicative active, third person plural, has two
forms, erunt, ere. Both forms have the same meaning; the
first is more common with the earlier, and the second, with
the later writers.
^79 , . GENERAL REMARKS. 163
» . 1
3. la the passive voice, there are two forms of the second
per$on singular, namely ris and re. The termination re is
rarely used in the present indicative; in the other tenses, re is
mor^ common than ris, especially in Cicero.
4. The imperatives of dUo, duco,facio, and fero, are usually
written die, duc,fae,fer; also in their compounds, except in
those of facio, which change a into i; as, con/ice, perfice, &c.
5. In the old forms of the language, the present infinitive
passive was lengthened, especially among the poets, by adding
er; as, amarier, for amari; legier, for legi; &c.
6. The terminations rimus and ritis in the future-perfect ,
indicative, and perfect subjunctive, have the i sometimes Jong,
and sometimes short. It is marked short in the preceding
•paradigms. The pupil may be accustomed to give it both
ways.
7. In the passive voice, the perfect and pluperfect have two
forms. Of these, the perfect participle with fui and fueram
expresses the completion of past action more -emphatically
than when joined with sum and eram. Thus, pransus sum,
means " I have dined, 1 have just dinedpransus fui, means
" 1 have dined some time ago." 1-82-14.
8. The verb sum, through all its tenses, with the future
participle in rus, is used to., express the intention, at the time
referred to, of doing a thing presently ; or that the action is,
or was, or will be, on the point of being done. When this
idea is to be conveyed, this form of expression is used in pre¬
ference to the future, which simply denotes that an acfwill be
effected in future time. This, which is inflected as follows, is
sometimes called the—
FIRST PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pees. Amaturus (a, um) sum, I a,fn about to love.
' Imp. Amaturus eram, I was about to love.
Perf. Amaturus fui, I have been, about to love.
Plcp. Amaturus fueram, I had been about to love,
■ Fur. Amaturus ero . I shall be about to love.
•
{Amaturus fulro is not used.) ■
164 OENEBAL BEMARES.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pees. Amaturus sim, I may be about to love.
Imp. Amaturus essem, . I might, &c., be about to love.
Perf. Amaturus fuerim, I may have been about to love.
Plop. Amaturus fuissem, I might, die., have been about to hve.
INPINITIYE MOOD.
Pres. Amaturus esse, To be about to love.
Perf. Amaturus fuisse. To have been about to love.
9. In like manner, the future participle in due, expressing
propriety or necessity of doing at the time referred to, is joined
with all the tenses of the verb sum, and thus forms what is
called the—
SECOND PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
Thus, Pres. Amandus sum, I deserve, or ought to be loved, die.
Imp. Amandus eram, I deserved, or ought to be loved, iiQ.
And so forth through all the other tenses, as with the parti¬
ciples in rus, No. 8. In analyzing such expressions, however,
it is better to parse each word of the compound separately,
and- combine them by the rules of syntax. A stronger ne¬
cessity is expressed by the gerund, with the verb est; thus,
scribendum est mihi epistolam, is " I must write a letter," i. e. I
am compelled to do it; whereas, scribenda est mihi epistola,
means simply, " I should write a letter." See Syntax, 700.
10. The future infinitive passive is a compound of Iri, the
present infinitive passive of eo, to go," used impersonally,
and the supine iri um ; so that amatum iri, literally is " to be
going to love."
11. The verbal adjective in lundus is rendered like the
present participle, but with increase!^ strength; thus, errows,
" wandering;" errabundus, " wandering to and fromoriens,
"dying-," moribundus, "in the agonies of death;'' &c.
12. The meaning and use of the gerundive participle al¬
ready mentioned 182-7, will be more fully explained in
Syntax, 707-711.
§ 80 COMPOUND VERBS, 165
§ 80. COMPOUND VERBS.
215.—Verbs are compounded chiefly with prepositions,
which modify the simple verb according to their respective
meanings; thus, «o, " I go," in composition with different pre¬
positions, is modified by them; as, adeo, " I go toabeo, " I
go fromexeo, " 1 go outineo, " I go in&c. In the for¬
mation of compounds, due regard must be paid to the follow¬
ing—
General Rules.
^1. Compound verbs form the perfect and supine in the same
manner as simple verbs; as, ttmo, amare, am&vi, amatum;
red-dmo, red-amare, redramd/vi, redramS,iuin.
2. Simple verbs which double the first syllable in the per
feet, drop the reduplication in the compounds; &s,pello,pe-
puli; re-pello, re-puli. Except prce-curro, re-pungo, and the
compounds of do, sto, disco, and posco.
3. Compound verbs which change a of the present into i,
have e- in the supine; as, Judo, per-Jido; supine, perfectum..
Except verbs ending in do, go; with the compounds of haheo,
placeo, salio, sapio, and statuo.
4. Verbs which are defective in the perfect, likewise want
the supine.
5. The following changes, which happen to the prepo.sition,
and to the simple verb, in a state of composition, merit atten¬
tion.
1st A is used in composition before m and r. Ah\s used before vowels,
and d,f, h,j, I, n, r, ». Before firo and fugio, it becomes au; as, aufiro,
aufugio. Abs is used before c and t; as, abseedo, abst&li.
2d. Ad changes d into the first letter of the simple verb beginning with e,
f, g, I, n, p,r,s,t; as, aceurro, affido, aggiro. In some, writers, it remains
unaltered; as, adjieio.
3d. Am (i. e. ambi, from eitcum), before c, q,f, h, is changed into an ;
as, anqulro, anhelo. Sometimes it assumes its own b; as, ambio.
4th. Circum remains unaltered. The m is sometimes changed; as, ctr-
cundo for drcumdo; or omitted; as, drctteo for drcumeo.
6th. Con, before a vowel or A, drops the n ; as, coaleo, cohibeo ; before I, its
n becomes I; and before 6, m, p, it becomes m ; and before r, it changes n
into r; as, colhgo, eombXbo, comme^ compSro, corripio. With flro, b is
inserted after eon, making combaro. •
166
LIST OP VERBS.
§81
6th. Bi is used before d, g, I, m, n, v; as, didUco, digladior. Bis and some¬
times di are used before r; as, disrumpo, dirumpo; likewise before^'; as,
disjudiico, dijudlco. Bis is used before e,p, q, s, t; as, discumbo, iisptUo,
Before sp and st, s is removed; and before /, it is cbanged into/; as, dis-
picio, disto, diffiteor. Before a vowel, it assumes r; as, dirimo, from
imo.
7tb. E is found before b, d, g, I, m, n, r, and before j and v ; as, ebibo, educo, '
yicio, eviho. Ex is used before vowels, and also before A, e,p, q, t, s; as,
exdro, exfiibeo, exculio ; before/ x becomes/; as, tfficio.
8tb. In sometimes changes n into the first letter of the simple verb; as,
illndo ; but before b, m, p, it changes n into m ; as, imbibo, immineo, itn-
pleo.-
9tb. Ob generally remains unaltered. The b is sometimes omitted, as in
ojnilto ; or cbanged into the first letter of the simple verb, as
lOtb. Re assumes d before d, also before a vowel, or A ; as, reddo, ndamo, •
redeo, redhibeo. Pro, Ukewise, sometimes inserts dl as in prodeo.
lltb. Sub changes b into the initial consonant of the simple word, before
c,f g, m,p, r; as, succldo, stiffiro, suggiro. Submitto and summitto, submovet
and summoveo, are both used.
12tb. Trans is generally contracted into tra, before d,j, n ; as, trado, traji
do, trdno ; and sometimes before I and m ; as, Iraluceo, trameo. Post be
comes po« mpostilli. Few if any changes take place in the other preposi
tions. Other prefixes consist of verbs, as in ealefado, of caleo; of adverbs,
as in benefado, from bine; of participles and adjectives, as in mansuefaeio
trom mansuiius, magni/ico from magnus; of substantives, as in siyw/Jco,
from signum ; of a preposition and norm, as in animadoerto, from ad and
animus, with verto.
§ 81. LIST OF VERBS IRREGULAR IN THE PER.
FECT AND SUPINE.
[Owing to the irregularity of many verbs in tife perfect and snpine in the
third conjugation, and of not a few in the other conjugations also, no rules
that could be given would be of much practical utility. The only effectual
way to attain accuracy and readiness in the conjugation of verbs, is, to com¬
mit the primary parts, or the conjugation accurately from the Dictionary. To
be able to do this, as soon as possible, is of great importance to every scholar;
and it is not a task of so great diflSculty as might be suppo^d. The follow¬
ing list contains all the simple verbs that vary, in the perfect aud supine,
§81
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
167
from the general rule. By committing a portion of these to memory everj
day, to be recited with the ordinary lesson, and repeating this exercise in
revisals till the whole is inwrought into the memory, much future labor will
be saved; and this can be done in a few weeks, without at all interfering
with the regular recitations. "When the composition of a verb changes its
form, it is noticed at the foot of the page, to which reference is made by
numbers.]
FIRST CONJUGATION.
216.—Rule. Verbs of the first conjugation have avi in the
perfect, and atum in the supine ; as,
Amo, amare, amavi, ainatum, To love.
Muto, mutare, mutavi, mutatum, To change.
Exceptions.
The tenses of some verbs included in the lists of Exceptions are also
found, especially in the earlier authors, conjugated according to the
General Rules. The form here given is that which is in common use
Pres
Do,>
Sto,2
Inf.
dJre,
stare,
Perf.
dedi,
stSti,
Lavo,
(lavSre,
J lavSre,
|lavi,
Poto,
potSre,
potavi,
Jiivo,'
Cubo,<
juvare,
cubare,
jfivi,
cubtii,
Sup.
datum,
stdtum,
f Idtum,
■< lautum,
(lavatum,
I potum, or
j 4>otatum,
jutum,
cubitum,
To give.
To stand.
• To wash.
■ To drink.
To assist.
To lie.
• Circvmdo, " to surround pessundo, " to ruinsatisdo, " to give surety
an<l venundo, " to sell," are conjugated like do. The other compounds belong
to .the third conjueation, and have didi in the perfect, and ditum in the
supine; as, abdo, abdere,abditum, abdidi, "to hide;" reddo, reddidi, redditum,
" to give .back."
2 The compounds of sto have stiti in the perfect, and stabum in the supine;
as, constOr constiti, constdtum, " to stand together." Some of the compounds
have occasionally stltum in the supine; as, pr(Ksto, prcestUi, preestitum, or
prcestdtum, " to stand before," " to excel." Adsto, " to stand by;" insto, " to
.urge on," and resto, " to remain over and above," have no supine. Antesto,
" to stand before ;" circumsto, " to stai;d round;" intersto, " to stand be¬
tween ;" and supersto, " to stand over," h ve stiti in the perfect; and the first
two, and probably the others also, want the supine. Ihsto, " to be distant,"
and substo, " to stand under," have neither perfect nor supine.
» The supine jutum is doubtful, as the future participle isjuvat&rus. Ad-
jimo has adjutum only, and adjuturus.
< In the same manner, those compounds lare conjugated which do nor
assume an m ; as, aeeitbo, " to lie next to;" excuio, " to watch;" inciiio, " to lie
upon ;" recubo, " to lie down again ;" seeubo, " to lie apart." The compounds
which assume an m belong to the third conjugation, and have and Uum
in the perfect and supine; as, incun^, inevbui, mcubitum, " to lie upon."
168
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
81
Pres.
Ddmo,
Bono,'
T6no,«
V6to,'
Crgpo,'
Mico,*
Frico,"
86 co,
N6co,"
Labo,
Nexo,
PlIoo,i>
Inf.
Perf.
Sup.
domfire.
domui.
domitum.
sonfire.
sonui.
Bonltum,
tunilre.
tonui.
tonitum, .
vetfire.
vetui.
vetitum.
crepfire.
crepui.
crepltum.
micare,
fricSre,
micui.
fricui.
frictum.
secSre,
secui.
sectum.
necfire.
( necavi, or
^ necatum.
( necui.
labare,
Dcxare,
plicare,
To subdw.
To sound.
To thunder.
To forbid. ,
To make a noise.
- To glitter.
To rub.
To cut.
To kiU.
/
To fall, or faint.
To bind
To fold
SECOND CONJUGATION.
217.—Rule. Verbs of the Second Conjugation have ui in
the perfect, and Hum in the supine; as,
Moneo, monere, monui, monitum, To advise.
Habeo,' habere, habui, habltum. To have.
Exceptions.
IntraDsitives wbieb have ui in the perfect, want the supine; as, splendeo,
splendui, " to shinemadeo, madui, " to be wet"
5 The future participle is sonaturus.
• Intono has intondtus in the perfect participle.
' Veto baa sometimea.in the perfect.
8 Discrepo, " to differ,'! and increpo, " to chide," have sometimes aci and
dtum, as well as u^ and itvm. Increpo seldom has the latter form.
» Emico, " to shine forth," has emicui, emicatum; and dimico, "tofight,"
has dimicdvi (rarely dimieui), dimicdtum.
le Some of the compounds of frico have the participles formed from the
regular supine in dtum ; as, confricdtus, infricdtue.
II Eneco, " to kill," and interneco, " to destroy" have also ui and ectum;
the participle of eneco is usually enectus. •
n Duplico, " to double multiplied, " to multiply;" replico, " to unfold
and supplico, " to entreat humbly," have dvi and dtum. The other com¬
pounds of plieo have either ui and itum, or doi and dtum; a>, applico,
" to apply, applicui, applicUum, or appUcdvi, applicdtum. Eiplico, in
the sense of explain^ has dvi and dtum; in the sense of unfold; it has iii
and itum.
I The compounds of habeo change a into i ; as, adhibeo, adhibui, adhibitum,
"to Sidmilf"prohibeo,prvhi6uij prohibUnim, " to forbid."
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
169
The following IntransitiTes have ui and itum, according to the general
rule:
Caleo, to be hot.
Careo, to want.
Jaceo, to lie.
Lateo,' to lie hid.
Liceo, to be valued.
Mereo, to deserve.
Coaleo, to grow together.
Doleo, to grieve.
Noceo, to hurt.
Pareo, to appear.
Placeo, to please.
Valeo, to be in health
Pres.
Kinf-
Perf.
Sup.
Ooceo,
docere.
docui.
doctum.
To teach.
Teneo,'
tenure.
tenui.
tentum.
To hold.
Misceo,
miscere.
miscui.
j mistum, or
(mixtum.
j. To mix.
Censeo,'
censSre,
censui.
censum.
To think, to judge.
Toitco,
torrere.
torrui.
tostum.
To roast.
Sorbeo,'
Borb€re,
sorbui.
sorptum.
To sup.
Timeo,
timfire,
timui.
To fear.
Sileo,
silSre,
silui.
To be silent.
Arceo,®
arcfire.
arcui.
"■
To drive away.
Taceo,'
tac6re,
prandere.
tacui.
taciturn.
To be silent.
Prandeo,'
prandi.
pransum.
To dine.
Video,
videre.
vidi.
visuin.
To see.
Sedeo,'
sedere.
sgdi.
sessum.
To sit.
Strideo,
stridere.
stildi.
To make a noise.
Frendeo,
frendgre.
frendl,
fressum.
To gnash the teeth.
Mordeo,'"
mordere.
momordi.
morsvun.
To bite.
Pendeo,
pendgre.
pependi.
pensum.
To hang.
' The compounds of lateo want the supine; as, deliteo, delitui, " to lurk
perlateo. perlatuiy " to lie hid." •
t The eompounds of teneo change e into i; as, contineo, continui, eontentm/m,
" to hold together." Attineo, " to hold and pertineo, " to belong to," have
no supine; and abstineo, " to abstain from," seldom.
4 Censeo has also census sum in the perfect, and censitum in the supine.
Accenseo, " to reckon with," and percenseo, " to recount," want the supine;
and recenseo, "to review," has recensum, and recensitum.
4 Absorbeo. " to sup up," and exsorbeo, " to sup out," have sometimes
abst/rpsi, and ejssorpss, in the perfect. The latter, with resorbeo, " to draw
back,"' has no supine.
8 The compounds of arceo have ibwm in the supine; as, exereeo, exercui,
eiercitum, " to exercise."
' The compounds of taeeo want the supine; as, conticeo, conticui, " to keep
silence;" reticeo, retieui, " to remain silent," " to conceal."
8 The participle is used in the active sense of having dined.
' Desideo, " to sit idledissideo, " to disagreepersideo, " to continue
proesideo, " to sit beforeresideo, " to sit down," " to rest;" and subsideo,
" to subside," want the supine.
to The compounds of mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, and tondeo, do not double
the first syllable of the perfect. Bee 815-S. Impendeo. " to overhang," has
no perfect or supine. •
170
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
§81
Pres.
Inf.
Perf.
Spondeo,
spondSre,
spopondi,
Tondeo,
tondere,
totoudi.
Moveo,"
movere,
mbvi,
Foveo,
fovgre.
fovi.
Voveo,
vovere,
vovi,'
Faveo,
favere,
fevi,
Caveo,
Paveo,
cavere,
cavi.
pavere.
pavi.
Ferveo,"
fervere.
ierbui,
Cotmiveo,
connivere.
connivi, or
Deleo,
delgre,
complSre,
delevi.
Compleo,"
complevi.
Fleo,
flere.
flgvi.
Neo,
nere.
n6vi.
Vieo,
viere,
vievi.
Cieo,i4
ciSre,
olere.
(civi,)
Oleo,"
cltii,-
Suadeo,
suadere,
Buasi,
Rideo,
ridere.
risi.
Maneo,
manere,
hserere.
mansi,
H»reo,
Ardeo,
baesi.
ardere.
arsi,
Tergeo,
tergere.
tersi,
Mulceo,
mulcere,
mulsi.
Mulgeo,
mulggre,
mulsi,
Jubeo,
jubere.
jussi,
indulsi,
Indulgeo,
indulgere.
Torqueo,
torquere.
torsi.
Augeo,
augere.
auxi.
Urgeo,
urgere.
ursi,
Fulgeo,
fulgere,
fulsi.
Turgeo,
turgere.
tursi.
Algeo,
algere.
alsi.
Sup.
epoDBum, To promUe.
toDSUin, To clip.
motum, To move.
fotum, To cherith.
votum, 7'o vow.
iautum, 7'o favor.
cautiuu, ' To beware of.
To be afraid.
— 7'o boil.
-ixi, To wink.
del€tum, 7'o destroy.
completum, To fill.
fletum, 7'o weep.
iietum, To spin.
▼ietum, To hoop a veesd.
citum, To stir up.
(olitum,) To smell.
Euasum, To advise.
risum, 7o laugh.
mansum, 7h stay.
hEesum, 7'o stick.
arsum, 7b bum.
tersum, To wipe.
mulsuin, To stroke.
<mul8uin.or
(mulctum, J
jussum, To order.
indultum, 7'o indulge.
tortum, . To twist.
auctum, 7b increase.
To press.
To shine.
7b swell.
To be cold.
11 Verbs in veo undergo a eontrnction in the snpine. Intransitive verbs
in veo want tlie supine; as, paveo, pavi, " to be afraid."
IS Fervo.fervi, anotlier form of tliia verb belonging to the third conjuga¬
tion, is used in a few persons, and in the present infinitive.
IS The other compounds of the obsolete verb pleo are conjugated in the
same way; as, 'expleo, impleo, repleo, suppleo.
14 Civi is the perfect of do of the fourth conjugation, having dtum or
dlsim in the supine. The compounds, in the sense of calling, are generally
conjugated according to this form; as, excio, excitum.
It The compounds of oleo, which retain the sense of the simple verb, have
Mt and itum; as, oboUo. obolvi, oho'Uum. " to smell strongly." The com¬
pounds wliich adopt a different signification, have evi and itum; as, eiii&o,
exoUvi, exoUtum, " to fadeobsoleo, obsolivi, obsoUtum, " to grow out of
use;" inoUo, inolivi, inolelum, or inolUum. " to come into nse." Abdeo, " to
abolish," has ahoUvi, abolUum; and idoleo, to grow up," " to burn " (as a
sacrifice), edoUxn, adulMem.
PEBFECTS AND SUPINES.
171
Pre>. Inf. Perf. Bup.
Lugeo, lugSre, Ivuci, To mourn.
Luceo, lucSre, luxi, To shine.
Fngeo, frigSre, fruri, To be cold
The following verbs want both perfect and si;piae:
Aveo. to desire. laveo, to be black and blue.
Denseo, to grow thick. Mcereo, to be sorrowful.
Flaveo, to be yellow. Reuideo, to shine.
Qi\si)Vio, to be smooth. VoVLOO,to be powerfd
' Hebeo, to be blunt. Scateo, to flow out.
Lacteo, to grow milky.
218.—THIRD CONJUGATION.
variously.
10.
Pres.
Inf.
Ptf.
Sup. .
Facio,"
facSre,
feci,
fecfum.
Jacio,'
jacSre,
jeci.
jactum.
Aspicio,'
aspic^re,
aluc€re,
aspexi,
allexi,
fedi.
aspectum.
Alucio,
allectum,
Fodio,
fodgre.
fossum.
Fugio,
fugSre,
fegi,
fu^tum.
Capio,'
cap5re.
cgpi.
captum.
Rapio,
rap€re.
rapui.
raptum.
Sapio,
sapSre,
sapui.
Oupio,
cupgre.
oupivi,
cupltum.
Pario,'
parSre,
pepSri,
( partum, or
( paritum.
To do, to make.
To throw.
To behold
To allure.
■ ■ To dig.
To fly.
To take.
To seize.
To taste, to be wise.
To desire.
I To bring forth.
1 Pado, when compounded with a preposition, changes a into i; as, aflicio,
aWid, affectum, " to afi'ect." In the other compounds, the a is retained. A
»w compounds end in fieo and ficor, and belong to the first conjugation ;
as, amplif ico, " to enlarge sacrifico, " to sacrifice, gratificor, " to gratify
andijwit/icor, "tomook.'>
s The compounds of jacio change a into i; as, abjuAo, edged, edgectum.
» The compounds of .the obsolete verbs specie and lado have em. and eelum;
except elido, " to draw out," which has elioui and etidtum.
'The compounds of patio have perui and pertum, and belong to the fourth
conjugation; as, aperio, aperire, aperm, apertum, " to open." So operio, " to
shut," " to cover?' But comperto (which also has a deponent form in the
present indicative and infinitive, comperior, comperiri), " to know a thing
for certain," has eomph-i, compertum; and reperio, "to find," has
172
PEKFECTS" AND SUPINES.
§81
Pre*.
Quatio,'
Acuo,
Arguo,
Batuo,
Exuo,
Irobuo,
luduo,
Minuo,
Spuo,'
Statuo,
Stemuo,
Suo,
Tribuo,
Fluo,
Struo,
Luo,* •
Ruo,'
Metuo,
Pluo,
Congruo,
Ingruo,
Annuo,"
Bibo,
Scdbo,
Lambo,
Scribo,
Nubo,"
Glubo,
Dico,
Duco,
Inf. Perf.
quat^re, (quassi),
Sup.
quassum.
acuSre,
arguSre,
batuSre,
exofire,
imbuSre,
induSre,
minuSre,
gpu€re,
etatuSre,
BtemuSre,
suSre,
tribufire,
flu€re,
strugre,
lugre,
rugre,
metugre,
plugre,
oongrugre,
ingrugre,
annugre,
bibgre, bibi,
Bcabgre, Bcabi.
lambgre, Iambi,
Bcribgre, Bcripgi,
nubgre, nupsi,
glubgre,
UO.
acm,
argui,
batui,
exvii,
imbui,
indui,
minui,
Bpui,
Btatui,
Btemui,
sui,
tribui,
flmd,
Btnud,
lui,
rui,
metul,
plui,
congrui,
ingrui,
annul.
acQtmn,
arg&tum,
batQtum,
exQtum,
imbutum,
indutum,
minutiun,
Bpfitum,
Btatatum,
sternQtum,
BQtum,
tribbtum,
fluzum,
Btructum,
luitum,
ruitum.
BO.
bibitum.
Bcriptum,
nuptum.
CO.
dicgre,
ducgre.
dud,
duzi.
-dictum,
ductum.
To »kake.
To tharpen.
To »hou>, to prove.
To beat.
To put off elothee.
To moielen, to uiet
To put on elothee^
To lessen. .
To spit. ■
To set, to place.
To sneeze.
To sea, to stitch.
To give, to divide.
To flow.
To build.
To pay, to wash.
To rush, to fall
To fear.
To rain.
To agree.
To assail.
To assent.
To drink.
To scratch.
To lick.
To write.
To veil, to be marriei
To strip, to flay.
To say.
To lead.
I The compounds of quatio take the form eutio, and have eussi and cussum;
as, concutio, " to shake violently," coticussi, concussum.
1 Sespuo, " to spit out," " to reject," has no supine.
> The compounds of luo have iitum in the supine; as, abluo, aMui, dHutum,
•' to wash away," " to purify." «
• The compounds of ruo have utum in the supine; as, diruo, dirui, dirutum,
"to overthrow." Corruo," to fall together," and irruo," to rush in furiously,"
have no supine.
w The other compounds of the obsolete nuo, as ahnuo, " to refuse;" »n»«o,
" to nod with the headand renuo, " to deny," likewise want the supine.
Abnuitwrus, future participle from abnuo, is tbund.
" Supta sum, another form of Oie perfect, is sometimes used instead of
PEEFECTS AND SUPINES.
173
Pre».
Vinco,
Parco,"
Ico,
Cresco,
Nosoo,"
Quiesco,
Scisco,
Suesco,
Pasco,'*
Disco,
Posco,
Qlisco,"
Inf. Perf. Sup.
vincSre, vici, Tictnm, To jvereome.
IpS."'" IPST
ieSre,
ici.
ictum.
SCO.
orescSre,. cr6vi,
Doscgre, novi,
quiescSre, quigvi,
sciscgre, scivi,
Buescgre, suSyi,
pascgre, pavi.
aisc£re, didici,
poscfire, poposci,
gUscere,
Accendo,
Cudo,
Defendo,
Edo," ,
Mando,
Prehendo,
Scaudo,
Divido,
Rado,
Claudo,"
Plaiido,"
Ludo,
TrOdo,
L»do,"
acceod^re,
cudfire,
defead^re,
edere,
mand£re,
prehcDdSre,
scaudare,
dividSre,
radgre,
claudare,
plaudSre,
ludSre,
ti-udSre,
Iffidare,
crStum,
Ddtum,
quietum,
Bcitum,
suetum,
pastum,
DO.
accendi,
cQdi,
defendi,
adi,
mandi,
prebendi,
scandi,
diyisi,
rasi,
clausi,
plausi,
lusi,
trusi,
Isesi,
accensum, .
cusum,
dcfensum,
asum,
mansum,
preheosum,
ecansum,
di visum,
rasum,
clausum,
plausum,
lusum,
tinisum,
Isesum,
To tirike.
To grow.
To know.
To rest.
To ordain.
To be accustomed.
To feed.
To learn.
To demand.
To glitter, to grow.
To kindle.
To forge.
To defend.
To eat.
To chew.
To take hold of.
To climb.
To divide.
To shave.
To close.
To applaud.
To play.
To thrust.
To hurt.
" The forms sadparcUstm are seldom used.
" The future participle is nosciturus, from noscitum, the old form of the
supine. Agnosco, " to own," has agndvi, agniium; and cognoscOf.^' to know,"
has cogndvi, cognitum.
'* Compesco, " to teed together," "to restrainand dispesco, "to separate,"
have compescui, and dispescui, without the supine.
I* Fatisco, " to be weary," likewise wants both perfect and supine; and
also all inceptive verbs, unless when they adopt the tenses of their primitives;
as, ardesco, " to grow hot," arsi, arsum. 227, Obs. 4.
" All the compounds of edo are conjugated in the same manner, except
comedo, " to eat up," which has comesum, or comestum, in the supine. See
§ 83, 9.
" The compounds of claudo change au into u ; as, concludo, conelusi, con-
dusum, " to conclude." Circumclavdo is found in Csssar.
18 The compounds of plaudo, except ap-plaudo and drcvm-plemdo, change
uu into o / as, eeplddo, explosi, expUsum, " to reject."
i> The compounds of latdo change cs into i/ as, aVAdo, allisi, aMsum, " t«
dash against.'' ^
174
PERFECTS
Pres.
Inf.
Perf. -
Kodo,
rodSre,
rbsi.
Vado,M
vadere.
Cedo,
cedere.
cessi.
Pando,
pand^re.
pandi.
Fundo,
fundere.
ftldi.
Scindo,
Bcindere,
scidi.
Findo,
findere.
fidi.
Tvmdo,«
tundSre,
tutfidi,.
Cado,'»
cadere.
cecidi.
Csedo,"
caedSre,
cecidi.
Tendo,"
tendere.
tetendi.
Pendo,
pendSre,
pependi.
Credo,"
credere.
credldi.
Vendo,
vendere,
vendidi, '
Abscondo
abscondere, abscondi.
Strido,
stridere.
stndi.
RQdo,
rudere.
rudi.
Sido,"
sidere.
sidi.
Cingo,
FUgo,"
Jungo,
Lingo,
Mungo,
Flango,
cingSre, cinxi,
fligdre, fibd,
junggre,. junxi,
linggre, linxi,
mungSre, I miuud,
plangSre, plamd,
Sup.
rSsvim,
cessum,
( passvim, or )
(p^sum, )
rasvun,
seissom,
fissum,
j tunsum, or )
(tusum, j
casum,
csesum,
{tensum, or j
\ tentum, j
pensum,
creditum,
Tenditum,
absconditum,
GO.
cinctum,
flictum,
junctum,
linctum,
munctiun,
planctum,
§81
To gn»u).
Togo.
To yield.
To open.-
To pour forth.
To cut.
To cleave.
I
To beat.
To fall.
To cut, to kill.
To etretch.
To hang.
To believe.
To eell.
To hide.
To creak.
To bray (as an ass)^
To tink down.
To surround.
To dash.
To join.
To lick.
To wipe the nose.
To beat.
<0 The compounds of vddo have the perfect and supine; as, evddo, evasi,
evdsum, "to escape."
>1 The compounds of tundo have tudi and tusum ; as, eontundo, " to bruise,"
contudi, contusum. See 215, Rule 2. Some of the compounds have also a
}>erfect participle formed from tunsum; ohtunsus icairetunsue,itom db-
tundo aud retundo.
n The compounds of cado want the supine: as, accido, acddi, "tohappen
except incido, incidi, incdeum, " to fall in occido, occidi, ocedsum, "to fall
down and rec'tdo, recidi, recdsum, " to fall back."
The compounds of cado change a into i; as, accido, accidi, accisum, "to.
cut aboutdecido, decidi, decisum, " to cut oflf."
M The compounds of tendo have generally terdum in the supine, except
extendo, "to stretch out," and oetendo, " to show," which have mso tensum;
the latter, almost always.
s' The other compounds of do which belong to the third conjugation have
also didi, and dUum; as, condo, condidi, conditum, " to build." Abscondo
has sometimes abacondidi. See page 167, Note 1.
" The compounds of sido adopt the perfect and supine of eedeo; as, con-
sido, conaedi, consesaum, " to sit down."
n The compounds oifllgo are conjugated in the same way, ex<xgXprq/llgo,
<< to dash down," which is a regular verb of the first coiijugation.
§ 81
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
175
Fret.
Rggo.'s
Stiuguo,-'
Sugo,
Tego,
TiDguo,
Unguo,
Surgo,
Pergo,
StriDgo,
Fingo,
Pingo,
FraDgo,®"
Ago,^'
Tango,
L6go,'®
Pungo,"
Pango,^
Spaigo.2^
Merge,
Tergo,
Figo,
Frige,
Verge,
Inf.
regfire,
atinguSre,
BugSre,
tegSre,
tinguSre,
uogudre,
surggre,
petgfire,
stringSre,
finggre,
pingfire,
i'rangere,
agere,
t^ggre,
legere.
punggre,
pangere,
sparggre,
merggre,
tergere,
figere,
frigSre,
verggre.
Perf.
rezi,
etinxi,
Buxi,
texi,
tioodj
UQXi,
fiurrexi,
perrexi,
strinxi,
pinxi^
fregi,
egi, .
tetigi,
legi,
pupugi,
pauxi,
eparsi,
mersi,
tersi,
fixi,
frud.
Sup.
rectum,
Btinctuin,
Buctum,
tectum,
tinctum,
unctum,
Burrectum,
perrectum,
Btrictum,
fictum,
pictum,
fractum,
actum,
tactum,
lectum,
punctum,
pactum,
Bparsum,
merBum,
tersum,
fixum,
( frixiun, or
( frictiim.
To rule.
To daeh out.
To euck.
To cover.
To dip.
To anoint.
To rise.
To go forward.
To bind.
To feign.
To paint.
To break.
To do, to drive.
To touch.
To gather, to read
To prick.
To drive in.
Ih i^read.
2'o dp, to plunge.
To wipe.
To fix.
\ To fry. J
To lie toward
28 The oompouiids of rego change e into i ; as, dirigo, direxi, directum, " to
directaorrigo, correxi, correctum, " to correct."
28 atinguo, tinguo, and ungual 8'"® written stingo, tingo, ungo.
88 The eompounds of frango and tango change a into i,* as, confrimgo, eon-
fregi, confractum, "to break to piecesattingo, attigi, attactum, " to touch
gently."
31 Circumago, "to drive round;" ^leraj'o, "to finish;" and coago (con¬
tracted cogo), " to collect," retain the a ; the other eompounds change a into
i; as, abigo, abegi, abactum, " to drive away." Fego (for deago)^ " to live,"
"to dwell;" prMigo, "to lavish" or "squander;" and satago, "to be busy,"
want the supine. Ambigo, " to doubt," has neither perfect nor supine.
32 Lego, when compounded with ad, per, pros, re, and suh, retains the e;
OS, altego, "to choose." The other compounds change e into i; as,eolligo,
"to collect." JJUigo, "to love;" intelligo, "to understand," and n^ligo,
"to neglect," have exi and ectum. Jsegligo has sometimes negUgi in the
perfect.
33 The compounds of pungo have punri in the perfect; as, compungo, " to
Bting," compunxi, compunctum. Mepungo, " to prick again," has repvpugi
and repunxi.
88 Pango, in the sense of " to bargain," has pepigi; the present is rarely
used in this meaning: but instead of it, paciscor is commonly employed..
The eompounds which change a into i have^fyi and pactum ; as, compimgo,
'to fasten together," compegi, compactum. Oppango, '-to fasten to," has
i\»o pigi and pactum. Of the other compounds which retain a, the perfect
and supine are not found.
33 The compounds of spaxgo clt^ge a into e; as, aspergo, aspersi, asper-
sum, " to besprinkle."
176
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
Pre».
Clango,
Ningo,
Ango,
TrSho,
vao,
Mejo,'*
Inf. Per/.
clangSre^ claiud,
ninggre,. nimd,
anggre, aiud.
Sup.
HO.'
trahgre,
vehSre,
mej€re,
traxi,
vexi,
minzi.
tractum,
vectvun,
mictum.
LO.
Cdlo,"
coldre.
oolui.
cultum.
ConsQlo,
cthisuldre.
coDsului,
consulloir
Alo,
aldre.
alui.
( alitum, 0/
'1 altum.
Molo,
moldre.
molui.
molitum.
Antecello," antecelldre, antecellui.
Pello,
pelldre.
pepuli,
fefelli.
pulsum.
FaUo,8» •
mlldre.
' falsum.
Velio,*'
velldre.
vein, pr vulsi, vulsum.
SaUo,
salldre.
saUi,
salsum.
Psallo,
psallere.
psalli.
Toll<s4i
tollSre,
sustuli.
sublatuir.
MO.
Frgmo,
OSmo,
V6mo,
TrSmo,
Demo,
Promo,
Sumo,
Como,
Emo,^®
fremSre,
gemSre,
TomSre,
tremere,
demSre,
promSre
sumere,
comSre,
emSre,
fremui,
gemui,
yomui,
tremui,
dempsi,
prompsi,
Bumpsi,
compsi,
emi.
fremitum,
gemitum,
yomitum.
demptum,
promptum,
sumptum,
comptum,
emptum.
To sound a trumpet.
To snom.
To vex.
To draw.
To carry.
To malu uater.
To till, to inhabi
To consult.
- To nourish.
To grind.
To excel.
To drive away.
To deceive.
To pull.
To salt.
To play on an instru
To lift up. [tnent
To rage, to roar.
To groan.
To votnit.
To tremble.
To take away.
To bring out.
To take up.
To deck, to dress.
To buy.
" Mingo is also used as the present of mirvxi.
^ Colo, when compounded with ob, changes o into u; as, oceulo, "to hide."
Accolo, " to dwell near," and ciroumcolo, " to dwell round," have no supine.
38 The other compounds of the obsolete cdlo likewise want the supine;
except percello, perculi, pereulsum, " to strike," " to astonish." ReceVa, like¬
wise, wants the perfect. ^
33 Befello, refeUi, "to confute," wants the supine.
w Velio, when compounded with de, di, or per, has usually veUi in the per¬
fect. The other compounds take either form indifferently.
41 Attollo and extollo," to raise up," have no perfect or supine of their own;
but those of aff'ero and effero, which agree with them in meaning, are some¬
times assigned to them.
43 Demo, promo, and sumo, are compounds of emo. The other compounds
change e into i, and are conjugated Uke the simple verb; as, adimo, ademt,
ademptum, " to take away."
§ 81
PEEFECTS AND SUPINES.
177
Pret. Inf. ^ Perf.
Prfimo,^ premSre, pressi,
Pono,
Gigno,
Cano,^
Temno,^
Sperno,
Stemo,*'
Siuo,
Lido,
Gemo,*'
Carpo,^
Clgpo,
Eepo,
Scalpo,
Sculpo,
SerjK),
Strepo,
Kumpo,
Coquo,
Linquo,'"
Sup.
pressum,
NO.
ponSre,
gignSre,
caD^re,
temnSre,
spernfire,
stemfire,
singre,
lingre,
cemSre,
carpfire,
cle^re,
repgre,
scalpSre,
sculpere,
serpgre,
strepfire,
rump^re,
coqugre,
linquSre,
posui,
geaui,
cecini,
positum,
genitum,
caotum,
sprevi, sprStum,
stravi, stiatum,
sivi, or sii, eitum,
Ixvi, or ISvi, litum,
crevi, cretiuD,
PC, QUO.
carpsi,
cle^i,
repsi,
ecalpsi,
Bculpsi,
Berpsi,
Btrepui,
rupi,
coxi,
liqui,
carptum,
cleptum,
reptum,
scalptum,
Bculptum,
serptum,
strepitum,
ruptum,
coctum,
RO.
Quaere,®' quaergre, quaeslvi,'
Tgro, tergre, trtvi,
Verro, yerrSre, verri,
Uro, urgre, ussi.
quaesitum,
tritum,
verBura,
ustnm.
To pres$.
To place.
To beget.
To sing.
To despise.
To disdain.
To lag flat.
To permit.
To anoint.
To see, to decree.
To pluck.
To steal.
To creep.
To engrave.
To carve.
To creep.
To make a noise.
To break.
To boil.
To leave.
To seek.
To wear.
To sweep.
To burn.
w The compounds of premo change e into i.; as, oomprimc, compressi, conv
pressum, " to press together."
The compounds of cano have eimui and centum; as, concino, concmui,
eoneenl/am, " to sing in concert." Of accino, " to sing to," and intereino, " to
Bing between or during," no perfect or supine is found;
<5 Contemnc, " to despise," has contempsi, contemptum.
« Consterno and externa, when they signify " to alarm," are regular verbs
of the first conjugation. The other compounds are conjugSittd fike sterna;
as, i/nsterno, instrdvi, instrdtum, " to spread upon."
The perfect crivi is used in the sense of " to declare one's self heir," or
" enter on an inheritance." In the sense of " seeing," cerno has properly
^ neither perfect nor supine.
<8 The compounds of carpo change a into as, discerpo, discerpsi, discerp-
turn, " to tear in pieces."
« The compounds of linguo have lictum in the supine; as, relinguo, reUqui,
relktam, " to forsakeso delinquo, " to fail."
®> The compounds of qucero cl^^nge <s into i; as, acgwiro, acquisivi, aequisi-
tum, " to acquire."
8*
178
PERFECTS AND SUPINES.
§81
Pret.
Curro,'!
G6ro,
Furo,"
Sfiro,"
Arcesso,
Capesso,
Facesso,
Lacesao,
Viso,
Incesso,
Depso,
Pinso,
Ftecto,
Plecto,
Necto,
Pecto,
Meto,
P6to,
Mitto,
Verto,'*
Sterto,
Sisto,®'
Vivo,
Solvo,
Inf. Perf.
currSre, cucurri,
ger£re, gessi,
furSre,
serSre, aSvi,.
arcessSre,
capessgre,
facess6re,
lacessSro,
visgre,
incess^re,
depsSre,
pinsSre, |
Sup.
cursum,
gestum,
sStum,
SO.
arcessivi,
capessivi,
iacesslvi,
lacessivi,
visi,
incessi,
depsui,
piosui, or
piusi,
arcessitum,
capessltum,
facessitum,
lacessitum,
depstum,
f pinsum,
< pistura, or
( pinsitum,^
TO.
flecWre,
plectSre,
nectSre,
peotSre, "
metgre,
petSre,
^ttSre,
vertSre,
etertSre,
sistAre,
vivSre,
aolvfire,'
flexi,
plexi & plexui,
uexi & nexui,
pexi & pexui,
messui,
petivi,
misi,
verti,
etertui,
atiti,
flezum,
plexum,
nexum,
pexum,
meesum,
petltum,
missum,
versum,
statum.
VO, XO.
BOlvl,
victmn,
eolatum,
To run.
To carry.
To be mad.
To SOK
To call, or tend for.
To take.
To do, go away..
To provoke.
To go to visit.
To attack.
To knead.
• To hake.
To bend
To plait.
To tie, or knit.
To dress, or comb.
To reap.
To seek.
To send
To turn.
To snore.
To stop.
To live.
To loose.
51 CurrOj when compounded with cireum, re, sub, and trans, seldom takes
the reduplication. The Other compounds sometimes take the reduplication,
and sometimes not. '
6J See 222-4.
55 The compounds of aero which retain the sense of " planting " and " sow¬
ing," have sevi and sitwm,-, as consero, conshn, consitum, " to plant together."
Those which adopt a dilferent signification have semi and sertum; as, assero,
asserui, assertum, " to claim." The latter class of compounds properly he-
longs to the old verh sero, "to knit," " to plait."
55 The compounds of verto are conjugated in the same manner, except re-
vertor, " to return," which is often used as a deponent verb; and tUvertor,
" to turn aside," and prmertor, " to outrun," which are likewise deponent,
but want the perfect participle.
55 Sisto, "to stand still" (an intransitive verb), has neither perfect nor
supine. The compounds have stUi and stUum ; as, assisto, astUi, astUum,
" to stand by." But these are seldom found in the supine.
§ 81
PERFECTS
AND SUPINES.
179
Pres.
Jnf. Perf.
Sup.
Volvo,
volvSre, volvi,
volOtum, To roll.
Texo,
texSre, texui.
textum. To vieavt.
219.—FOURTH CONJUGATION.
Rule.—Verbs of the fourth conjugation have Ivi in the
perfect, and Hum in the supine; as,
Pres. ' Inf. Per/. Sup.
Audio; audire, audivi, audltum, To hear.
Munio, muuire, munivi, mumtum, To fortify.
Exceptions.
Singultio, siugulilre, singultivi, singultum,
Sepelio, sepelire, sepelivi, sepultum,
venii-e, veni, ventum,
venire,
salire,
Venio,
V eneo.i
Salio,^
Amicio,
Vincio,
Sancio,
Cambio,
-Sepio,
Haurio,
Sentio,
Raucio,
Sarcio,
Farcio,'
Fulcio,
Ferio,
amicire,
vincire,
sanclre,
cambire,
eeplre,
haurire,
sentlre,
raucire,
earcire,
fercire,
fulcire,
ferire,
^ amictum,
vinctum,
vem,
venii,
salui, or ealii, saltum,
i amicui, or
[ amixi,
vinxi,
i sanxi, or
I sanclvi,
eampsi,
sepsi,
bausi,
eensi,
rausi,
earsi,
&rsi,
fulsi,
To sob.
To bury.
To come.
To be sold.
To leap.
To clothe.
To tie.
campsum, To change money.
septum, To enclose.
j haustum, or
( bauBum, )
seosum,
rausum,
sartum,
fartum,
fultum.
To feel.
To be hoarse.
To mend, or repair.
To cram.
To prop.
To strike.
The following verbs have the perfect formed regularly, but
want the,supine;
CfECutio, to be dim-sighted
Dementio, to be mad.
Ferocio, to be fierce.
Glooio, to cluck as a hen.
Gestio, to shoui one's joy by the gestures
of the body.
Ineptio, to play the fool.
(For desiderative verbs wbicb belong to this conjugation, see 227-3.)
> Veneo is a compound of venum and the irregular verb eo, the tenses of
which it follows iii its iiiflcctioii. 221-3.
s The compounds of salio have generally silui, sometimes silii, or siUvif
in the perfect, and sulMtm in the supine; as, traneilio, transihd, traneUii,
or transUivi, transuUum, " to leap over." AbsuUum, circumsutMim, and pro-
svltum, are scarcely used.
8 The'compounds of farcio chuge a into e/.as, refereio, refer si, rtfertum,
" to fill up."
180
DEPONEIIT PAKTICIPLES.
§ 82. LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS IRREGULAR IN
. THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
220.—Rule. Deponent and common verbs form the per
feet participle in the same manner as if the active voice
existed. 207, Obs. 3.
To this rule, there are no exceptions in the first conjugation.
EXCEPTIONS IN THE SECOND CONJUGATION.
Reor, rgri, • rStus, To think.
Misereor,' miserSri, misertus, To pity.
Fateor,' fateri, iassus, To confen
Medeor, medSri, To heal.
EXCEPTIONS IN THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
Labor, labi, lapsus, To slide.
Ulciscor, ulcisci, ultus. To revenge.
Utor, Oti, Osus, To use.
L6quor,» loqui, loquutus (locQtus), To speak.
SSquor, sSqui, sequutus (secutus), To follow.
Quiror, qulri, questus. To complain.
Nitor,* niti, uisus, or uixus. To strive.
Paeiscor, pacisci, pactus. To bargain.
Gradior, gi'adi, gressus. To go.
Proficiscor, proficisci, profectus. To go a journey.
Nanciscor, nancisci, nactus, obtain.
Patior, pSti, passus. To suffer.
Apiseor,' apisci, aptus. To get.
Commiriiscor, commiuisci, commentus. To devise.
Fruor, frui, fruitus, or fructus. To enjoy.
Obliviscor, oblivisci, oblltus, To forget.
Expergiscor, expergisci, experrectus. To awake.
Morior,® mdri, mortuus. To die.
1 Misereor has also miser itvs in the perfect participle,
s The compounds offateor change a into i, and have fessvs ; as, conftteor,
eon/essus, " to confess." Diffiteor, " to deny," wants the perfect participle.
' Lbquor and sequor have likewise hcuius and secutus in the perfect parti¬
ciple. ' •
® AWor, when compounded with cOra, in, oh, re, sub, has nixus oftener than
nisus. AdnUor, " to lean to," has either, indifferently. Enitor, in the sense
of " to bring forth," generally takes eniaa in the participle.-
' Adipiscor and indipiscor, " to obtain," have adeptus and indeptus.
« J/orior seems to have originally belonged to the fourth conjugation. The
infinitive moriri occurs in Plautus and Ovid ; and morimur, with the penult
long, is also found. The imperative is mm-ere. This verb, with nascor and
orior, has Aturus in the future participle; as, moriturve, nascUiirus, ori-
tHrus.
§ 83 IREEGULAR VERBS. 181
Nascor,' nasci, natus, To he bom.
Orior,* oriri, ortus, 2'o rieet
The following verbs want the perfect participle:
Defetisoor, -i, to be weary. Remimscor, -i, to remember.
Irascor, -i, to be angry. Ringor, -i, to grin like a dog.
Liquor, -1, to melt. Vescor, -i, to feed.
EXCEPTIONS IN THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.
Metior, metlri, mensus, To meamre.
Ordior, ordiri, orsus, To begin.
Experior, experiri, expertus, To try.
Opperior, oppeiiri, opertus, To wait.
§ 83. IRREGULAR VERBS.
221.—Irregular Verbs are those in which some of the
secondary parts are not formed from the primary, according
to the rules for regular verbs.
The irregular verbs are six; namely, sum., eo, queo, volo,
fero, andy?o. Their compounds are irregular, also.
Sum has been inflected already, 186. After the same man¬
ner are inflected its compounds, ad-, ah-, de-, inter-, oh-, pree-,
sub-, super-sum; as, adsum, adesse, ad/ui, <fec. Insum wants the
perfect.
1. Prosum, " to do good," inserts d where the simple verb
begins with e. It is inflected thus :
Prosum, prodesse, profui. To do good.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
pR. Prosum, pr6des,pr6dest;prosumus, prodestis, prdsunt.
Imp. Prod-eram, -dras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant.
Per. Profu-i, -isti, -it: -imus, -istis, I -erunt,or
Plu. Profu-eram,-eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant.
Fut. Prod-ero, -eris, \ -Srit; -erimus, -eritis, -erunt.
F.-P. Profu-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
' Kaecor is passive in signification. It has not the active voice.
> Orior has ortrer, and always oriretur in the imperfect subjunctive, ac¬
cording to the fourth conjugation. Likewise in the compounds adoriretur,
exorirUur; and not adoreretur, dStorerttur. The present follows the third,
though oririe and oritur, with the penult long, are also found.
182
IRREGULAR VERBS.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pr. Pro-sim, -sis, -sit; -simus, .«itis, -sint.
Imp. Prod-essem, -esses, -esset; -essemus, -essetis, -essent.
Per, Profu-erim, -^ris, -Srit; -erimus, -eritis, -grint.
Plu. Profu-issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pr. 2. Prod-es, or prod-esto, 2. Prod-este, or prod-esMte,
3. Prod-esto; 3. Pro-sunto.
INFINrnVE MOOD.
Pr. Prod-esse.
Per. Pro-fuisse.
Fut. Esse pro-futurus, a, um.
F.-P. Fuisse pro-futurus, a, um.
PARTICIPLES.
Pro-futurus, a, um.
2. Possum is compounded ofpUis," able," and sum, "I am."
It is thus inflected:
Possum,
Pr. Possum,
Imp. Pot-eram,
Per. Potu-i,
posse, potui, / can, I am able.
INDICATIVE MOOD,
potes, potest; possumus, potestis, possunt.
-eras,
-isti.
Plu. Potu-eram, -eras,
Fut. Pot-ero, -eris,
F.-P.Potu-ero,
-ens.
-erat;
-it;
-erat;
-erit;
-erit;
-eramus,
-imus,
-eramus,
-erimus,
-erimus,
-eratis, -erant.
-istis, •I-®'"™*'
' (or -ere.
-eratis, -erant.
-eritis, -^runt.
-eritis, -grint.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pr. Pos-sim,
Imp. Pos-sem,
Per. Potn-erim,
-sis,
-ses,
-eris.
-sit;
-s^t;
-erit;
-simus,
-semus,
-erimus.
-sitis,
-setis,
-eritis.
-sint.
-sent,
-erint.
Plu. Polu-issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pr. Posse. Per. Potuisse. (The rest wantinff.)
§ 83
IRREGULAK VERBS.
183
3. Eo,
Pb. Eo,
Imp. Ibam,
Per. Ivi,
Plu. Iveram,
Fut. Ibo,
F.-P. Ivero,
ire, ivi, itum,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
To go.
it;
ibat;
is,
ibas,
. ivisti, ivit;
iveras, iverat;
ibis, ibit;
o, iverit;
iveris,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
itis, eunt.
ibatis, ibant.
.-. ,. fcivgrunt,
ivistis, -T . . '
' ( or ivere.
iveramus, iveratis, iverant.
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt.
iverimus, iveritis, iverint.
imus,
ibamus,
ivimus.
Pb. Earn, eas, eat; eamus, eatis, eant.
Imp. Irem, ires, iret; iremus, iretis, irent.
Per. Iverim, iveris, iverit; iverimus, iveritis, iverint.
Plu. Ivissem, ivisses, ivisset; ivissemus, ivissetisjivisseut.
Pb,
Pb. Ire.
Pee. Ivisse.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
INEINrnVE MOOD.
Fut. Esse iturus, a, um.
F.-P.Fuisse iturus, a, um.
PARTICIPLEa GERUNDS. SUPINES.
Pr. lens, Oen. euntis. Eundupi. 1. Itum.
FirT. Iturus, a, um. Eundi, &c. 2. Itu.
The compounds of eo are conjugated after the same man¬
ner ; ad-, ah-, ex-, co-, in-, inter-, oh-, re-d-, suh-, per-, proe-, ante-,
pro-d-eo; only in the perfect, and the tenses formed from it,
they are usually contracted; thus, adeo, adire, adii (seldom
adlvi), a^tum, "to go to;" perf. adii, adiisti, or adisti, &c.,
adieram, adih-im, &c. So likewise veneo, venii, , " to be
sold" (compounded of venum and eo). But ambio,-ire,-iW,
-Itum, "to surround," is a regular verb of the fourth conjuga¬
tion.
Eo, like other intransitive verbs, is often rendered in En¬
glish under a passive form; thus, it, " he is going;" ivit, " he
is gone;" iverat, " he was gone;" ivh-it, " he may be gone," or
" shall be gone." So, venit, " he is coming;" vSnit, " he is
184
IBREGULAE VERBS.
comevenerat, " he was come&c. In the passive voice,
these verbs, for £he most "part, are used only impersonally;
as, Kur ab illo, " he is goingventum est ab illis, " they are
come." We find some of the compounds of eo, however, used
personally; as, perieula adeuntur, "—are undergone." Cic,
Libri sibylUni aditi sunt, "—were looked into." Liv. Flumen
pedtbus tran^ri potest. Ca:s. Inimicitice subeantur. Cic.
Queo, " I can," and nequeo, " I cannot," are conjugated in
the same way as eo; only they want the imperative and the
gerunds, and the participles are seldom used.
4. V61o, velle, volui. To will, to be willing, to wish.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pr. V61-0,
vis.
vult;
volumus, vultis.
volunt.
Imp. Vol-ebam,
-ebas.
-ebat;
-ebamus, -ebatis,
-ebant.
Per. Volu-i,
-isti.
-it;
-imus, -istis.
j -grunt,
7
( or-gre.
Plu. Volu-gram,
-gras.
-grat;
-eramus, -eratis.
-grant
Put. Vol-am,
-es.
-et;
-emus, -etis.
"-ent.
P.-P. Volu-gro,
-gris.
-grit;
-erimus, -eritis.
-grint.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pr. Velim, v^lis, velit; velTmus, velltis, velint.
Imp. Veil em, velles, vellet; vellemus, vellStis, vellent
Per. Volu-erim, -eris, -grit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
Plu. Volu-issem,-isses, *-isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent.
INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLE.
Pr, Velle. Per. Voluisse. Pr. Volens.
5. Nolo, nolle, nolui. To be unwilling (from non vblo).
INDICATIVE M0(jp.
Pr. Nolo, non-vis, non-vult;nolumus, non-vultis, nolunt
Imp. Nol-gham, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -gbant.
Per. Nolu-i, -isti, -it; -imus, -istis,
' ' ' ' 'I or-ere.
Plu. Nolu-eram,-eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant.
Put. Nol-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent.
F.-P.Nolugro, -gris, -grit; erimus, -eritis, -grint.
§ 83 IRBEGULAB TERBS. l85
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pe, Nolim, nolis, nolit; nolimus, nolltis, nSlint.
Imp. Nollem, nolles, nollet; nollemus, nolletis, nollent.
Per. Nolu-eriin, -€ris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
Plu. Nolu-issem,-isses, -isset; -issemus, -issStis. -issent.
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVR PARTICIPLE.
p j Noli, or ) nolite, or Pr. Nolle. Pr. Nolens.
I Nolito, J nolitote. Per. Noluisse.
6. Malo, malle, malui, To he more willing {magia vdlo).
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pr. Mal-a, mavis, mavult; malumus, mavultis, malunt.
Imp. Mal-ebam, -Sbas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant.
Per. Malu-i, -isti, -it'; -imus, -istis, ■<
' ' ' . ' (or-ere.
Plu. Malu-eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant.
Fut. Mal-am, -es, -et; ■ -emus, -etis, -ent.
F.-P. Malu-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pr. Malim, malis,' malit; mallmus, malitis, malint.
Imp. Mallem, 'malles, mallet; mallemus, malletis, mallenU
Per. Malu-erim, -eris, -Srit; -erimus, -eritis, -erint.
Plu. Malu-issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pr. Malle. Per. Maluisse. (The rest not used.)
7. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum. To carry, to bring, or suffer.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pr. FSro, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis, ferunt.
Imp. Fer-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant.
Per. Tul-i, -isti, -it; -imus, -istis, -I
' ' (or -ere.
Plu. Tul-gram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -grant.
Fut. Fer-am, -es, -et; -Smus, -etis, -ent.
F.-P.Tul-ero, -eris, -eftt; -erirnus, -eritis, -erint.
186
IRREGULAR VERBS.
§ 83
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD..
Pr.
Imp.
Per,
Plv.
Pr.
Fer-am,
Fer-rem,
Tul-6rim,
Tul-issem,
-as,"
-res,
-eris,
-at;
-ret;
-erit;
-isset;
-amus,
-remus,
-erimus,
-issemus.
-Stis,
-retis,
-eritis,
-issetis,
ant.
-rent,
-drint
-issent
-isses.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Fer, or ferto, ferto; ferte, or fertote, ferunto.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pr. Ferre. Fur. Esse laturus, a, um.
Per. Tulisses. F.-P. Fuisse laturus, a, um.
Pr.
Fut.
Pe.
Imp.
Per.
Plo.
For.
F.-P.
Pr.
Imp.
Per."
PLO.
Pr.
Pr.
Per.
Fut,
PARTICIPLES. GERUNDS.
Ferens. N. Ferendum.
Laturus, a, um. Q. Ferendi, &o.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Fdror, ferri, latus. To be brought.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
I fertur;
-ebatur
SUPINES.
1. Latum.
2. Latu.
j ferris,
( or ferre,
Ffiror,
Fer-6bar, j
feriinur, ferimuii, feruntur.
8, I
or -ebare, )
-ebanuir, -ebamuii, -ebantur.
Latus sum, or fui, latus es, or fuisti, latus est, or fuit, <Iec.
Latus aram, or fueram, latus Sras, or fueras, <&c.
Ffirar, ■< fergpg f fergtur; fergmur, ferenuni, ferentur.
Latus fuero, latus fugris, latus fugrit, Ac.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Fgrar, 1 ^ feraVe f > feramui', feramlui, ferautur.
or ferrgre f ferrgtm; ferrgmur, ferremini, ferrentur.
Latus sim, or fugrim, latus sis, or fugris, Ac.
Latus essem, or fuissem, latus esses, or fuisses, Aa
IMPERATIVE MOOB.
Ferre, or fertor, fertor;
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Ferri.
Esse, or fu'sse latus, a, um.
Latum iri.
ferimmi, feruntor.
PARTICIPLES.
Per. Latus, a, um.
Fut. Ferendus, a, um.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
187
In like manner are conjugated the compounds offero; as,
affero, atC&li, all&ium ; aufero, abstuli, ablatum ; differo, disticli,
dilatum; confh'o, contuli, collatum; infero, intuit, illdtum;
offiro, obt&li, oblatum ; effero, extuli, elatum. So, circum-, per-,
trans-, fife-, pro-, ante-, pree-, re-fero. In some writers, we find
ad/h-o, adtuli, adlatum; conlatum; inlatum; obfero, &c., for
affero, &c.
Obs. 1. The greater part of the preceding verbs are made
irregular by contraction, Thus, nolo is contracted for rion
volo; mdlo, for magis. v6lo; fero, fers, fert, &c., for fh-is,
■ ferit, &c. Feror,ferris or ferre,fertur, for ferreris, &c.
8. Fio, fieri, factus. To be made, or done; to become,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pk. Fio, fis, fit; fimus, fitis, fiunt.
Imp. Fiebam, fiebas,' fiebat; fiebamus, fiebatis, fiebant.
Per. Factus sum, or fui, factus es, or fuisti, &c.
Plu. Factus eram, or fiieram, factus 6ras, or fueras, &c.
Fur. Fiam, fies, fiet; fiemus, fietis, fient.
F.-P. Factus fuero, factus fueris, &c.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Pr. Fiam, fias, fiat; fiamus, fiatis, fiant.
Imp. Fierem, fieres, fieret; fieremus, fiergtis, fierent.
Per. Factus sim, or fuerim, factus sis, or fueris, &c.
Plu. Factus essem, or fuissem, factus esses, or fuisses, &c.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
' INPINITIVE MOOD.
Pr. Figri.
Per. Esse, or fuisse factus, a, um.
Fut. Factum iri.
PARTICIPLES. SUPINE.
Fut. Faciendus, a., um. 2. Factu.
Per. Factus, a, um.
Obs. 2. The third person singular of fio is often used im¬
personally, as, ft, "it happ^s ffebat, "it happened."
188
DEFECTIVE YEBBS.
§84
Obs. 3. Fio is used as the passive of facio, from which it
takes the participles. The compounds offacio which retain a
have fio in the passive; as, calefacio, " I warmcalefio, " I
become warm," " I am warmed," &c. But those compounds
which changefacio into ficio have the regular passive in fidor;
as, conficio, conficior, &c.
9. To irregular verbs may be added edo, " to eat." Though
this is a regular verb of the third conjugation, it has an irre¬
gular form resembling sum in the present indicative, imperfect
subjunctive, the imperative, and the present infinitive; thus,
Edo, edere, or esse, edi, §sum. To eat.
indicative mood.-^
Pe. Edo, ] \ I edimus, \ I edunt
'( or es, ( or est;) ' ( or estis, J
subjunctive mood.
j Ederem, ederes, ederet, ederemus, ederetis, ederent
' (or essem, esses, esset; essemus, essetis, essent.
mperattve mood.
p j Ede, or edito, edito; edite, or editote, )
I Es, or esto, esto; este, or estote, J
§ 84. DEFECrrVE VERBS.
222.—Defective . Veebs are those in which
some of the parts are wanting.
1. These three, 6di, ccepi, and memini, are used only in the
preterite tenses, that is, in the perfect, and the tenses derived
from it; and for this reason, they^are called Preterite
Verbs.
Obs. 1. Ccepi has a present, as well as a perfect significa¬
tion ; and hence caeperam has the sense of the imperfect, as
well as of the pluperfect; and coepero, of the future, as well as
of the future perfect; thus, ccepi, " 1 begin," or " 1 have begun;"
cceperam, " I began," or "I had begun ;" coepero, " I shall be¬
gin," or " I shall have begun;" and so of the subjunctive.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
189
Oh$. 2. Odi and memtni have the sense only of the present,
imperfect, and fhture; as, odi, " I hateoderam, " I hated
odiro, " I will hate."
2. The parts of these verbs in use are as follows, through
all their persons and numbers; viz :
Odi, odSram, odSro, odSrim, ^ odissem, odis^
Pabticipi.es, dsiis, osOnis.
Ccepi, coep^ram, ccep^ro, ccep^rim, coepisson, ccepisse.
Pabticiples, cceptus, coeptQnis.
Memiai, meminSram, meminSro, meminSrim, meminissem, menunissa
Impebauve, memento, mementote.
3. The verb nOvi is also used as a preterite, having like
odi and memini only the sense of the present, the imperfect,
and future. It differs from the others, however, in having a
present, nosco, which properly has an inceptive sense, mean¬
ing " I begin to know," " I leam;" hence nOvi, " I have
learned," that is, " I know."
The parts of nOvi in use are as follows; viz;
NCvi, novSram, novSro, novSrim, novissem, ' novisse;
Contracted, noram, ndrim, nossem, ' nosse.
4. There are many verbs, not usually considered "Smong
defectives, which want certain tenses, or numbers, or personk;
thus, do, " I give," has neither dor nor dev. Pari, " to speak,"
with' its compounds, is used only by the poets, and by them
chiefly in the third person, the imperative fctre; and the
participle f&tus. The ablative gerund, ^wdo, occurs in a pas¬
sive sense.
Furhre, " to be mad," wants the first person singular, and
the second person plural of the present, and probably all the
future of the indicative, the imperative, and also the perfect
and supine.
5. The following defective verbs are those which most
frequently occur. Aio, " I say —inquam, " I say," which is
used only between words quoted, and never stands at the
beginning ;—■forem, " I should bethe same as essem ;—dve,
and saloe, "l^il;"—Cedo, "tell thou," or "give me;"—quceso,
" I beseech," originally the same as qucero. It is used com¬
monly as an interjection. ^ '
190 IKPEBSOKAL VERBS. §85
The parts of these verbs remaining are the following :
1. Aio, I say, I affirm.
Ind. Pe. Aio, ais, ait; akmt.
Imp. Aiebam, aiSbas, aiebat; aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant
Pee. ' aisti, ait
Sxth. Pe. aias, aiat, aiant,
Imp Pe. ai.
Part. Pe. Aiens.
2, Inqdam,
Ind. Pe. Inquam, inquis, inquit; inqnunus, inqultb, inquiunt
Imp., inquiebat; uiquiebaot
Pee. inquisti, inquit
For. inquies, inquiet
Imp. Pe. inque, inquito; inqinte.
Part. Pe. Inquiens.
8. FSeem, I should be.
Stib. Imp. Forom, ibres, foret; —< ibrent
Inf. For. Fore, to be about to be, same asfutHrum esse.
4. Ave, hail.
Imp. Pe. Ave, or avSto; avbte, or avetbte. Inf. Pa. Av6rt
5. Salve, hail.
Ind. For. Salvebis.
Imp. Pe. Salve, or salvbto; salvete, or salvetbte.
Inf. Pe. Salvere.
6. Cedo, tell, give.
Imp. Pe. Cbdo; cbdo, or cedite,con<rae<«teette.
1. Quaeso, I beseech.
Ind. Pe. Quseso; qusesumus
6. Ausim,faxim, and faxo, sometimes called defective verbs, are proper¬
ly old forms of tenses; ausim being put for auslrim, fi-om audeo," to dare ;*
and faxim and faxo, for fecirim and feciro, from faeid. So also Sge and
agite, " come," are imperatives from Sgo, in a somewhat different sense,
just as Ave, "hail," is an imperative from aveo, "to be well"
223.—§ 85. IMPERSONAL VERBS.
1. Impersonal Verbs are those which are used
only in the third pei*son singular, and do not admit
of a personal svhject or nominative before them.
§ 85
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
191
2. Impersonal verbs, when translated literally into English,
have before them the neuter pronoun it; as, delectat, "it de¬
lights dicet, " it becomescontingit, " it happens evenit,
'' it comes to pass&c. They are inflected thus:
1st Conj.
Ind. Pe. Delectat,
Imp. Delectabat
Pee. Delectavit
Plu. DeleetavSrat
Fur. Deleetabit
F.-P. Delectavfirit
Sub. Pe. Deleetet
Imp. Delectaret,
Pee. Deleetavfirit
Ped. Deleetavisset
Inf. Pe. Delectare,
Pee. Delectayiese.
2d Conj.
DScet
Decebat
Decuit
Deeugrat,
Deoebit
Decuerit
Deeeat
"Deceret,
Deeugrit,
Deeuisset
Deeere,
Deeuisse.
3d Conj.
CoDtiagit,
Oontinggbat,
Contigit,
Contiggrat,
Continget
Contiggrit
Contingat
Continggret
Contiggrit
Contigisset
Continggre,
Oontigisse.
4tb Conj.
Eygnit
Evenigbat,
Evgnit
Evengrat
Eveniet
Evengrit
Eveniat
Eveniret
Evengrit
Evenisset
Evenire,
Evenisee.
3. Most Latin verbs may be used impersonally in the pas¬
sive voice, especially intransitive verbs, which otherwise have
no passive; as, ■pugn&tur, "it is fought;" favetur, "it is
favored;" curritur, " it is run ;" venltur, " it is come;" from
pugno, faveo, curro, and venio. Thus,
1st Conj.
Ind. Pe. Pugnatur,
Imp. Pugnabatur,
Pee. Pugnatum est'
Plu. Pugnatum grat'
Fut. Pugnabitur,
F.-P. Pugnatum grit'
2d Conj.
Favetur,
Favebatur,
Fautum est'
Fautum grat'
Favebitvff,
Fautiun grit'
3d Conj.
Curritur,
Ciu-rebatur,
Cursum est'
Cursum grat'
CurrCtur,
Cm'sum grit'
4tb Conj.
Venitur,
Veniebatur,
Ventum est'
Ventum grat'
Venietur,
Ventum grit'
Sub. Pe. Pugngtur, Faveatur, Curritur, Veniatur,
Imp. Pugnargtur, Favergtur, Currergtur, Venirgtur,
Pee. "Pugnatum sit,' Fautum sit,' Cursum sit,' Ventum sit'
Plu. Pugnatum esset' Fautiun esset^ Cursum esset* Ventum esset*
Inf. Pe. Pugnari, Favgri, Curri, . Veniri,
Pee. Pugnatum esse,' Fautum esse,' Cursum esse,' Ventum esse,'
Fur. Pugnatum In. Fautum Iri. Cursum IrL Ventum IrL
4. Grammarians reckon only ten real impersonal verbs, and
all in the second conjugation; namely,
Dgeet deeuit Ae.,
libet libuit or libitum est <bc..
It becomes, it became, Ac.
It pleases, it pleas td, Ac.
• or fuit
—
» or fugrat.
fugrit. ' or fuUset. ' or fbisse.
192
IMPEBSOKAL VERBS.
Ufcet, licnit or est, Ac., It is latrful, it was latrful, Ac.
Mis€ret, mis€ruit or miseritum est, Ac., It pities, it pitied, Ac.
Oportet, oportuit, Ac., It behooves, it was ineumbent on, Ac
Piget, piguit or pigitum est, Ac, It grieves, it grieved, ice.
Pcenitet, pcenituit, Ac., It reperUs, it repented, Ac.
Pudet, puduit or pudltvuu est^ Ac., It shames, it shamed, Ac.
Tsedet, tseduit or tsssum est, Ac, It wearies, it wearied, Ac.
Liquet, It appears. (This Terb has no pert)
But many other verbs are used impersonally in all the con¬
jugations.
5. Under impersonal verbs, may be comprehended those
which express the operations or appearances of nature; as,
fulgurat, " it lightensfulmlnat, Vanat, " it thundersgrandU
nat, "it hails;" so, gelat, pluit, nmgit, Iwxscit, advesperas
cit, dzc.
6. Impersonal verbs are applied to any person or number,
by putting that which stands before personal verbs, as their
nominative, after the impersonals, in the case which they
govern; as.
Placet mlhi. It pleases me, or I please.
Placet libi. It pleases thee, or thou pleasest.
Placet illi. It pleases him, or he pleases.'
Placet udbis. It pleases vs, or we please.
Placet yobis. It pleases you, or you please.
Placet illis. It pleases them, or they please.
So, pvgnatur a me,—a te,—ab illo, &c., " it is fought by me,"
—"by thee,"—"by him;" that is, I fight, thou fightest, he
fights, &c. Hence, as the meaning of a transitive verb may
be expressed by either the active or the passive voice, so, when
an intransitive verb is translated by a verb considered tran¬
sitive in English (132, Obs. 4), the English passive form of
that verb is expressed, in Latin, by the passive used im¬
personally : thus, actively, /aveo tibip" I favor you;" pas¬
sively, favetur fibi a me, " you are favored by me," and so of
others.
7. Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative, take
the subjunctive in its stead; as, delectet, " let it delight." In
the passive voice, their participles are used only in the neuter
gender. The gerund* and supines are but seldom used.
IMPERSONAL YEEBS.
193
224.—§ 86. EXERCISES ON IMPERSONALS.
(For the meaning of the impersonals used in the followmg
exercises, see 223, Nos. 2, 3, 4.)
1. Oive the designation, the place found, the translation ; thus, delectat,
a verb impersonal, first conjugation,found in the present indicative, active;
" it delights."
Delectabit, decebat, decebit, deceret, contingit, continget,
contigit, contigerit, evenit, evonit, eveniet, eveniat, pugnabatur,
pugnatum est, pugnfitur, pugnaretur, favetur, fautum sit,
fautum fuerit, ventum est, ventum erit;—libet, libuit, licltum
est, miseret, miseritum est, plget, pudet, fiilgurat, tonat,
grandinabat, grandinabit ninxit, &c.
2. Oive the designation, Ac., as in No. 1, and translate as the word fol¬
lowing the impersonal, requires, according to 223-6 -; thus, delectat me,
delectat, a verb impersonal, first conjugation, present indicative, active;
" it delights jne," or " I delight"
Delectabit me, te, ilium, nos, vos, illos; decet vos, dec6ret
vos; placet tibi; favetur vObis, favebitur nobis (a te, hy you)\
pugnabltur ab illis; venitur a te, ventum est ab illis,—a vobis,
—a nobis,—ab illo,—a te,—a me; piget me; licet mihi,
licebit vobis, licltum est illis; mis&et me, miseruit te; placuit
vobis,—nobis,—illis; miseret nos, &c.
8. Render the following English into Latin, by the impersonals; thus,
" I delight," delectat me, literally, " it delights me."—N. B. The noun or
pronoun, after misiret, poenitet, pildet, tadet, piget, dlcet, delectat, and opor-
tet, must be put in the accusative, 419 and 423. Other impersonals are
followed by the dative of the object, when they have one; and when they
express any thing done by another, the agent or doer, when expressed, is
put in the ablative preceded by a or ah, as in 223-6.
Exercises.—It becomes, it has repented, it is fought, it
pleases, it is favored; it becomes me, I repent (it repents
me), I fight (it is fought by me), you are favored (it is favored
to you), you are favored by me; I repented, they have
repented, you will repent; they are favored by us,—by you,
—by me, &c.; we are favored by them,—by you ; they come
(it is come by them), they have come, we will come; we run,
we will run; if (si) you please, if they please; it was allowed
to us, we were allowed; it delights us, or we are delighted,
they are delighted ; it thunSers, it lightens, it hailed, dec.
0
194 KEDUNDANT AND DERIVATIVE VERBS. § 87, 88
§ 87. REDUNDANT VERBS.
225.—Redukdant Verbs are those which have more than
one form of the same part, or which have different forms to
express the same sense; as, assentio and assentior, *' to assent
fabrtco or fahrlcor, " to framemereo and meteor^ " to de¬
serve Idis and cs, " thou eatestedit and est, " he eats
from edo, &c.
Redundant verbs, in Latin, are chiefly those which are used
in two different conjugations; for example,
1. Some are usually of the first conjugation, and sometimes
of the third; as, lavo, lavdre; and lavo, lavere, " to wash."
2. Some are usually of the second conjugation, and some¬
times of the third; as,
Eerveo, fervere; and fervo, fervere, to 6o(7.
Fulgeo, fulgere; " fulgo, fulgere, to sAme.
Strideo, stridere; " stride, stridere, to creak, &c.
3. Some are commonly of the third conjugation, and some¬
times of the fourth; as,
Fodio, fodere; and fodio, fodire, to dig.
Sallo, sallere; " sallio, sallire, to salt, &c.
4. Cieo, ciere is commonly of the second conjugation, but
sometimes it is cio, clre in the fourth, " to stir up."
§ 88. DERIVATIVE VERBS.
Verbs are derived either from nouns, or from other verbs.
226.—I.' Verbs derived from nouns are called Denomina¬
tives; as, cam), " to sup laudo, " to pfliise •" fraudo, " to de¬
fraud laptdo, " to throw stonesoperor, " to work," &c.,
from,cana, laus,fravs, lapis, opus, <fec.
But when they express imitation or resemblance, they are
called Imitatives; as, patrisco, Grcecor, bubulo, cornlcor, &c..
"I imitate," or "resemble my father,"—"a Grecian,"—"an
owl,"—" a crowfrom pater, Orcecus, bubo, cornix.
DERIVATIVE VERBS.
195
227.—II. Verbs derived from other verbs, are chiefly the
following; viz.:
1. Frkqubntatives. These express frequency of action, arid
are all of the first conjugation. They are formed from the
last supine, by' changing atu into Ito, in the verbs of the first
conjugation; and u into o, in verbs of the other three conjuga¬
tions; thus,
Lasi Sup. Freq.
1st. Cl5mo, <0 cry; clamatu, hence clamito, to cry frequently,
2'd. Tmeo, to frighten; temtu, " temia, to frighten of ten.
3d. Verto, to <«r»; vei'su, " •yerao, to turn frequently.
4th. Dormio, to sleep; dormltu, " dormito, to sleep often.
In like manner, deponent verbs form frequentatives in or;
as, minor, " to threatenof which in the active voice, the
latter supine would be mindtu, and hence minitor, " to threaten
frequently," "—ever and anon."
Obs. 1. Some frequentatives are formed in an irregular
manner; as, ndto, from no; nosdto, from nosco; scltor or rather
sciscilor, from scio; pavito, itom. paveo; sector, from ^equor;
loquitor, from Ibquor. So quoertto, fundito, agilo, Jimto, &c.,
which formed regularly would be qticesUo, fuso, aclo,Jluxo, &c.
Obs. 2. From frequentative verbs are also formed other
frequentatives; as, curro, curso, curstlo; pello, pulso, pulsito, or,
by contraction,capio, capto, capdto; cano, canto, canlilo;
defendo, defenso, defensito; dlco, dido, dvctito; &c.
Obs. 3. Frequentatives do not always express frequency of
action. Many of them have much the same sense with their
primitives, or express the meaning with greater force.
2. Inceptive Verbs. These mark the beginning or continued
increase of an action or state. They are formed by adding
CO to the second person singular of the present indicative;
thus,
1st Gonj. Labo, labas; Inceptive, labasco.
2d " Caleo,. cales; " calesco.
3d " Tremo, tremis; trernisco.
4th " Obdormio, obdormis; " obdormisco.
Note..—But all verbs in 9C0 are not inceptives. Inceptives are also t'ornied
from substantives and adjectives; as, puerasco, from dulcesco., liou,
dulcis ^ juveneseOy from Juvihiis,
Obs. 4. All inceptives are intransitives, and of the third
196
ADVERBS.
conjugation. They properly want both the perfect and the
supine, unless very rarely, when they borrow them from
their primitives.
3. Desiderative Verbs are those which signify a desire, or
intention of doing a thing. They are formed from the latter
supine by adding rio, and shortening «; as, coenaturio, "I
desire to sup," from coeno, last supine, coendtu. They are all
of the fourth conjugation, and want both perfect and supine,
except these three; viz.: esurio, esurtre, esurlvi, esurltum, " to
desire to eat;"parturio, parturlre, partuHvi, "to be in travail
and nupturio, napturire, nupturlvi, " to desire to be married,"
4. Diminutives, which represent an action as little or
insignificant. They are formed from the present by changing
0, eo, and io, into illo; and they are all of the first conjugation;
as, canto, cantillo, conscribo, conscribillo, sorbeo, sorbillo.
5. Some verbs in SSO are called Intensive; as, capesso,
" I take ;"/acesso," I dopetesso, or petisso, " I seek earnestly."
§ 89. ADVERBS.
228.—An Adveeb is a word joined to a verb,
an adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to
denote some circumstance respecting it.
229.—Adverbs may be considered in respect
of Signification, Derivation, and Comparison.
I. THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS.
230.—In respect of signification, adverbs may
be arranged, in Latin, under the following heads*
1. Adverbs or Place, comprehenduig those ^ich signify;
. 1st Motion or rest in a place; as, Ubi," wherehie," here illic," there f
intus, " within ■"/oris, " without tiblque, " every where f Ac.
2d. Motion to a place; as, ywo? "whither?" Auc, "hither;" illnc, iethue,
" thithered, " to that place;" alio, " to another place;" Ac.
8d. Motion from a place; as, unde, "whence;" hinc, "hence;" illine,ind»,
" thence;" supeme," from above f Ac.
ADVERBS.
197
4Ui. Motion through or by a place; as, "wUch way!" hi 'this
way f olid, " another way f Ac.
2. Advebbs of Time ; as, nunc, " nowhodie, " to-daytuir, ' then f
nt/per, " latelymox," by and bysemper, " alwaysAc.
3. AnvEEBS op Quantity; as, p&rum, "little;" mvltum,"m\i^f pine,
" ahnost;" quanto, " how much;" Ae.
4. Adveebs of Quality; as, "well;" ma/e, "ill;"/or<ifer, "braye-
ly;" and many others derived from adjectives or participles.
6. Adveebs of Mannee (viz. of action or condition), including those
which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, forbidding, in\
terrogation, doubt, contingency, Ac.; as, profecto, " truly;" non, hand, " not f
cur"why!" 5«are, "wherefore," Ac.
6. Adveebs of Relation, or such as express circumstances of eonu
parison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, Ac.; as, potius," rather f
Xta, sic, " so;" simul, " together;" seorsum, " apart;" Ac.
IL DERIVATION AND CGMPOSITIGN GF ADVERBS.
231.—^The Simple 'and Primitive adverbs are
but few in number; as, non, "not;" iM, "there;"
max, " presently;" tunc, " then;" <fec.
232.—^The Derivative adverbs are numerous,
and are formed in the following manner:
1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions,
generally end in «; as, afre, " highly," from aXtus; Ziierc, " freely," from
liber. Sometimes they end in o, um, or ter ; as, tuto, safely," from tutus;
tantum, " so much," from tanius ; dure and duriter, " hardly," from durus.
2. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension generally
end In ter; Bs,felicUer, "happily," from filix. Sometimes in e; as, facile,
"easily," from facUis; assd one ends in o, namely, omwireo, "altogether,"
from omnis.
The neuter, gender of adjectives is often used adverbially; as, rlcens,
"recently," for recenter;. torva, "sternly," for torve; dulce, "sweetly," for
dulciter ; thus, Horace, dulce ridens," sweetly smiling;" Aa
3. Adverbs derived from nouns generally end in im or itus ; as, virltim,
" man by man," from vir; fundUus," from the ground," from, fundus.
Many adverbs in im, however, are derived from participles; as, sensim,
" by degrees," from sensus (senti<^'' I perceive "). A few in Itus are de¬
rived from adjectives; as, antiquUus, from antlquus ; A&
198
ADVERBS,
4. Adverbs are formed by composition in various ways; two or more
words forming a phrase, or part of a sentence, and syntactically combined,
being fanned into one word; as, hodie, "to-day," from hoc die; scilicet,
"truly," from scire licet; quomido, "how," from quo mtido; quamobrem.,
"wherefore," from quam oh rem; Ac.
Obs. 1. The adverb is not an essential part of speech. It only serves to
express in one. word what would otherwise have required two or more; as,
sapienter, "wisely," for cum sapientia; semper, "always," for in omni
tempbre; Ac. Indeed, similar phrases, used to express circumstances of
time, place, manner, order, and the Uhe, constitute what may be called
adverbial phrases, or clauses, though the words of which they consist are
to be parsed separately, and combined according to the rules of syntax.
Obs. 2. Some adverbs are used to denote time, place, or order, according
as the connection requires; as, Ubi, " where," or " when;" inde, " from that
place," " from that tune," •' after thaV' " nexthactlnus, " hitherto," " thus
far," applied indifferently to place, time, or order. "■
Obs. 3. Some adverbs of time, apply indifferently to the past, the
present, or the future; as jam, " already," " now," " by and by5/i»n,
" long ago," " sometime hereafter." Some adverbs of place are equally
various in their Use; as, esse peregrS, " to be abroadire peregri," to go
abroadredlre peregti, " to return from abroad."
IIL COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
233.—Adverbs derived, from adjectives are
generally compared like their primitives. The
positive commonly ends in o, or terj the com¬
parative, in itbs^ and the superlative, in Ime; as.
Positive.
Comp.
Super.
Alte, highly;
altius.
altissime.
Fortiter, bravely;
fortius.
foi'tisslme.
Acrlter, sharply;
acrius.
acerrime.
Libgre,/reefy ;
liberius.
liberrime.
Tuto, safely ;
tutius.
tutissime.
.—The foUowing adverbs are conpared
irregularly, like the ad-
jectives from which they are derived; viz
Positive.
Cotnp.- *
Super,
Bgne, well;
melius.
optiume.
Facile, easily ;
facilius.
facillime.
Male," Jodfy ;
pejus.
pessime.
Multum, much
plus.
plurlmum.
PSrum, little ;
minus.
j minime.
"1 minimum.
Prope, near ;
propius.
proidme.
§ 90 PREPOSITIONS. 199
Positive wanting.
MSgis, more, maxime; ocius, more swiftly, ocissime; prius, sooner
primo ot pilmum; potius, rather, potissimnin.
Comparative wanting.
P6nej almost, penissime; nuper, lately, nupenime; n5ve or novlter,
newly, novisslme; merito, deservedly, meritisstme.
Superlative wanting.
Satis, erumgh, satius ; sficus, otherwise, secivis.
Two Adverbs not derived from adjectives are also compared; namely,
diu, " long," diutius, diutisdtnu ; and soepe, " oiten," septus, soepissime.
§ 90. PREPOSITIONS.
235.—A Preposition is a word whicli shows
the relation between a noun or pronoun following
it, and some other word in the sentence.
The preposition, as its name imports, stands before the noun or pronoun
which it governs.—In Latin,
1. Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the Accusative; viz:
Ad, to, at, towards. Inter, between, among, during.
Apud, at, near, with. Intra, within.
Ante, before (of time, place, Juxta, near, beside.
or rank). Oh, for, on account of before.
Adversus, ) ... , Penes, in the power of.
A J r against, towards. ^ i j • i
Adversum, ) ^ ' Per, through, during, by.
Circa, ) j i . Pone, behind,
f,. ' V around, about: t> i i ■ j a
Circum, J ' Post, behind, after, since.
Circiter, about (of time inde- Praster, besides (passing by),
finitely). beyond, besides, except.
9®' I on this side within Propter, near, on account of.
Citra, ( ' Secundum, along, according
Contra, against, opposite'. . to.
Erga, towards. Supra, above.
Extra, beyond, out of. ^ Trans, across, over, beyond.
Infra, beneath. Ultra, beyond.
200 PKEPOsmoNS. § 90
2. Fifteen Prepositions govern the ablative ; viz:
Ab, I from, by, after, &c. Ex, \
Abs, ) Palam, before, with the know-
Absque, without. ledge of.
Clam, without the know- Prse, before, in comparison With,
ledge of. an account of.
Coram, before, in presence of. Pro, before, for, according to.
Cum, M)ith. Sine, without.
De, concerning, of, over. TSnus, as far as, up to.
3. Four Prepositions govern the Accusative or Ablative; viz:
!With the Accusative : With the Ablative :
In, into, towards, against. In, upon, in, among.
Sub, under (motion to). Sub, under (motion or rest),
about. at, near.
Super, above, over, beyond. Super, upon, concerning.
Subter, under. Subter, under.
236.—OBSERVATIONS.
1. A is used before coDsonauts; ah, before vowels, and h, j, r, s, and
sometimes I; abs, before t and gu. E is used before consonants.
2. Tinus is placed after its case ; and also cum, when joined to me, te,
se, quo, qui, aoa qutbus ; as,mecum,&o. C/awi sometimes governs the ac¬
cusative ; as, clam patre, or patron.
3. The adverbspro^e, "nigh;" usque, "as far asf versus, "towards," are
often followed by an accusative governed by ad understood, and sometimes
expressed. So also procul, " fai-," is followed by the ablative governed by
a, understood.
-4. Prepositions not followed by their case, are to be regarded as ad¬
verbs.
5. Prepositions are sometimes combined; as, ex adoersus cum locum.
Cio. In ante diem, " till the day." Id. Ex ante diem, " from the day."
Bub prepositions compounded together, commonly become adverbs or con¬
junctions ; as, propalam, protinus, insUper, <fec.
6. A preposition with its case is often used as an adverbial phrase; as,
ex animo, " earnestly ;" ex adverse, " oppositeex improvise, " suddenly
externpore, " off-hand." Quamojbrem (quam oh rem), " whereforequa-
propter (quae propter); quocirca (quod circa), Ac.
7. Prepositions are either primitive; as, ad, dpud, ante, Ac.; or'deriva¬
tive ; as, adversum, from the adjective advenms ; secundum, from secundus.
They are either simple ; as, ad, ante, abs ; or compound; as, ex adversum,
absque; or inseparable ; as, am, di or dis, Ac. 239-2.
§,91 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 201
I 91. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.
237.—1. Prepositions are often prefixed to
other words, especially to verbs, the meaning of
which they generally modify by their own; thus,
238.—1. A, ab, abs, " fromas, duco," I leadabduco," I lead away,"
or " from f sometimes it denotes privation; as, ameni, " mad."
2. Ad, " to •" as, adduco, " 1 lead to." It is sometimes intensive; as
adiimo, " I love greatty"
3. De, in composition generally signifies " downwardas, descend/), " I
go down f decido, " I fall down." Sometimes it is intensive; as, de&mo,
" I love greatlysometimes it denotes privation; as, desplro, " I despair f
demens, " mad."
4. JE or ex, " out of," " fromas, exeo, " I go out" It is sometimes in¬
tensive ; as, exSro, " I beg earnestly;" sometimes privative; as, exsanpnis,
" pale ;" exspes, " hopeless."
5. /»,"into," "in," "against;" as, in/iro,''! bring in;" irruo, "I rush
against or upon." With adjectives it generally reverses the signification;
as, infldus, " unfaithful;" indignus, " imworthy." In some compounds, it
has contrary'significations, according'as they are participles or adjectives;
as, invoeatus, " called upon " not called upon;" immutatus, " changed,"
" unchanged."
6. Per, " through," is commonly intensive, especially with adjectives; as,
perfacilis, " very easy." With quam, it is strongly intensive; as, per quam
factiis, " exceedingly easy." In perfidus, " perfidious," it is negative.
1. Free, "before," with adjectives is intensive; as, prceclarus, "very
clear," " very renowned."
8. Pro denotes " forth;" as, produeo, " I lead forth."
9. Svb often diminishes the signification; as, rideo, " I laugh f subrideo,
"I smUe;" albus, "white;" subalbus, "whitish." Sometimes it denotes
motion upwards; as, sitbrigo, " 1 raise up;" sometimes concealment; as^
rapio, " I take;" subripio, " I take secretly," " I steal"
Note.—Prepositions frequently seem to add nothing to the words, with
which they are compounded.
Obs. 1. In combining with the simple word, some prepositions frequently
undergo a change of form, chiefly frr the sake of eupmony, for wmch see
215-6.
9*
202 INTERJECTIONS. § 92
INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS.
239.—2. The following syllables, am, di^ or dU^
re, se, con, are called Inseparable Prepositions,
because they ar6 never found, except in compound
words. Their general signification is as follows :
Am, about, around; as Ambio, to surround.
TA, or asunder; " Divello, to pull asunder.
Re, back, again; " Relfigo, to read again.
Se, ■ apart, or aside; " Sepoao, to lag aside.
Con, together; " Concresco, to grow together.
Obs. 1. Some of these syllables, in combining with the simple word, some¬
times vary their form (216-5), and, also, further modify its signification; as,
1st Am adds to the verb the general idea of round, round about
2d. J)is, or di, sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word; as,
facHis, " easy;" difficllis, "-difficultfldo, "I trust," diffxdo, "I dis¬
trust" Sometimes it increases it; as, cupio, " I desirediseupio,
" I desire much."
8d. Jle sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word; as, claudo,
" I shut;" reclsdo, " I open."
4th. Se has little variation of meaning. With adjectives, it denotes priva¬
tion ; as, securus, " free from care."
5th. Con (for cum) conveys the idea of joint or combined action, and some
times strengthens the meaning of the word with which it is com¬
pounded. '
Obs. 2. The syllables ne and ve are also prefixed to words, and have a
negative signification; as,/as, "justice;" ni/as, "injustice," "impiety;'—
srio, " I know;" nescio," I Imow not ■"r—senus," healthy;" vesSnus," sickly."
§ 92. INTERJECTIONS.
240.—An Interjection is a word used in ex¬
clamations, to express an emotion of tbe mind;
as. Oh ! hei ! heu ! " Ab!" " alas!"
Nouns and adjectives, in the neuter gender, are sometimes used as
interjections; as, pax ! " be still 1" malum I " with a mischief 1" infandum I
" 0 shame !" mislrum / " 0 wretched I" nlfas / " O the villany 1"
Abte.—The same' inteijection is often used to express different emotions,
according to its connection; thas, vah, is used to express wonder, grief, joy,
or anger.
conjunctions.
203
§ 93. CONJUNCTIONS.
241.—A Conjunction is a word whicli connects
words or sentences; as, et^ ac, atque^ " andsed^
" butetiam^ " also&c.
242.—Conjunctions, according to their different significations,
may be divided into the following classes:
1. Copulatives, or such as connect things that are to be considered
jointly; as, ac, atque, et, que, " andetiam, qtaque, " alsoand sometimes
the negative nec, nique, " nor," " and noti. e. when they stand for et, and
continue the negation.
2. DisjuNcrrvES, or such as connect things that are to be considered
separately; as, avt, seu, sive, ve, vel, " either," " orand the negative nlve,
neu, " neither," " nor."
3. CoNCESsrvEs, or such as express a concession; as, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi,
Ucet, quanquam, quamvis, " though," " although."
4. Adveksatives, or such as express a condition; as, at, atqui, autem,
ceterum, verum, "but;" tSmen, att&men, veruwtSmen, "yet," "although;"
aero," truly."
5. Causals, or such as express a cause or reason; as, inim, etenim, nam,
namque, " for;" quando, quandoquXdem, " whereas," " since;" quia, quippe,
quod, " because;" quoniam, quum (or cum)," since;" siquldem," if," " indeed."
6. Illatives, or such as express an inference; as, ergo, idcirco, proinde,
quapropter, quark, quamobrem, quocirca, " therefore."
7. Fikals, or $uch as denote a purpose, object or result; as, ne, "lest;"
quin, "but that;" quonHnue, " that not;" ut, Uti, " that."
^ 8. CoEDiTioNAis, or such as express a condition; as, «i, sin, "if;" nisi, or
fit, " unless;" dummSdo, or dum mSdo, " provided that"
9. SusPENSivES, or such as express doubt; as, an, anne, annon, ne, nccnt,
num, utrum, " whether," " whether or not"
Ohs. I. Some words, as, tfetfide, "thereafter "finally
"but" "moreover;" "to wit;" dtc-! maybe considered either as
adverbs or conjunctions, according as their modifying or connecting power
prevails.
Ohs. 2. Autem, Inim, vlro, quoque, quidem, are never put first, in a
clause or sentence. Que, ve, ne, are always annexed to another word.
They are called Enclitics, because, when placed after a long syllable, they
make the accent incline to that syllable; as, disci, trdchi; disclve, trochive,
Obs. 3. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded with other
parts of speech, and with each o&er; as, atque, idcirco, ideo, namque, nec, >
or nique, tScc.
204
syntax
PART THIRD.
§ 94. SYNTAX.
243.—Syntax is that part of Grammar which
treats of the proper arrangement and connection
of words in a sentence.
1. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense;
as, Man is mortal.
2. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not making
complete sense; as, in truth, in a word.
3. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound.
4. A simple sentence contains only a single afSrmatiou; as. Life is
short.
5. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences con¬
nected together; as, LAfe, which is short, should be well employed.
6. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the pre¬
dicate.
I. The subject is that of which something is affirmed. It is either in
the nominative case before a finite verb, or in the- accusative before the
infinitive. _
8. The predicate is that which' is affirmed of the subject. It is either
contained in the verb itself; as, John reads ; or it consists of an intransi¬
tive verb, with an adjective or noun following it; as. Time is short; they
became poor; he is a scholar. An and Pr. Gr, 594.
9. Both the subject and predicate may be attended by other words
called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify the meaning of the word
with which they-may stand connected; as, " An ^ordinate desire of admi¬
ration, often produces a contemptible levity of deportment"
10. When a compound sentence is so fi-amed that the meaning is sus¬
pended till the whole be finished, it is called & period.
II. The analysis of sentences is the same in Latin as jn
English. See § 152, and " Analytical and Practical English
Grammar," 591—657.
SYNTAX
205
244.—I 95. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX.
1. In every sentence there must be a verb in the indicative, subjunctive,
imperative, or infinitive mood; and a subject expressed or tmderstood.
2. Every adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must have a sub¬
stantive expressed or understood, with which it agrees. § 98 and 146.
8. Every relative must have an antecedent, or word to which it refers,
and with which it agrees. § 99.
4. Every siibject-nominative has its own verb expressed or understood.
§ 100, 101, 102. The predicate-nominative is usually placed after the
substantive verb. § 103.
5. Every finite verb, i e. every verb in the indicative, subjunctive, or
imperative mood, has its own nominative, expressed or imderstood (§ 101,
102 j, and when the infinitive has a subject, it is in the accusative. § 145. The
infinitive without a subject, does not form a sentence or proposition. § 143.
6. Every oblique case is governed by some word, expressed or under¬
stood, in the sentence of which it forms a part; or is used, without govern¬
ment, to express certain circumstances. § 127.
245.—SYNOPSIS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES.
7. The GENITIVE CASE is governed:
1st By substantives, § 106, Rules VI., VII., and VIIL
■2d. By adjectives, § 107. Namely, verbals, ic, R. IX;—partitives, R.X;
—of plenty, or want R- XL
Sd. By verbs, § 108. Namely, Sum, R. XIL—Misereor, Ac R. XIII.—
Recordor, memlni, Ac, R. XIV.;—of accusing, Ac, § 122, R. XXVII.;
—of valuing, R. XXVIIl—Passive verbs, § 126, R I and IL—
Impersonals, § 113, Exc. I and IL .
4th. By adverbs, § 135; and—
5th. It is used to express circumstances of place. § 130, R. XXXVI
and XXXIX. ^
8. liie DATIVE is governed :
let By substantives, § 110. ■
2d. By adjectives of profit or disprofit, Ac., § 111, R. XVI
Sd. By verbs, § 112. • Namely, Sum and its compounds, R. 1—Est, R. II
—Certain compound verbs, R. III. and IV.—Verbs signifying to
■ profit or hurt, Ac., R. V.—Impersonals, § 113.—Verbs with two
datives, § 114.—Verbs of comparing, Ac, § 123.—Passive' verbs,
§ 126, R. XXXIL and XXXIIL—Gerunds § 147.
4th. By adverbs, § 135.—Interjections, § 117
206
SYNTAX
9. The ACCUSATIVE is governed;
Ist. By transitive verbs signifying actively, § 116, R. XX.—To these
belong recorder, memKni, Ac, § 108.—Verbs governing two cases,
§ 122; namely, of accusing, R. XXVIL;—valuing, R. XXVIIL;—
comparing, Ac, § 123;—asking and teaching, § 124;—^loading,
binding, Ac, § 125.—By impersonal verbs, § 113, Exc. 11 and III
—By passive verbs, § 126, R. IV.
2d. By prepositions, § 136, R. XLVIII, L., LL, LII.
3d. It is used to express circumstances of limitation, § 128';—of place;
§ 130;—of time, § 181 ;-^f measme, § 132.
4th. It is put before the infinitive as its subject, § 146.
10. Tlie VOCATIVE is governed by the interjections 0,
heu, y>ro//,&c. (§ 117); or is used ■without government, to
denote the person addressed.
11. The ABLATIVE is governed;
let. By nouns, § 118.
2d. By adjectives; viz. of plenty or want, § lOl, R. XI—Dignw, in
dignus, Ac, § 119.—Hie comparative degree, § 120.
3d By verbs, § 121; viz. of plenty and scarceness, R. XXV.—Uior,
abator, Ac, R. XXVI—Lpading, binding, Ac, § 125.—Passive
verbs, § 126, R. V.
4th By prepositions, § 136, R. XLIX, LI, LII
5th. It is used without a governing word to express circumstances; viz.
of limitation, § 128;—of cause, manner, Ac., § 129;—of place, § 130;
namely, the place in which, R. XXXVI.',/row which, R. XXXVIII
and XXXIX.;—of time, § 131, R. XL. and XLI;—of measure,
§ 132, R. XLII, XLIII—Of price, § 133.
6tb. It is used as the case absolute, § 146, R. LX
246.—CONSTRUCTION OF MOOD&
12. The Indicative, and the Imperativ^mood. are used in¬
dependently, and without government.
13. The Subjunctive Mood is, for the most part; dependent,
and is used,
1st. After certain conjunctions, § 140.
2d. After the relative in certain connections, § 141, R. LV.
3d. In-oblique discourse, § 141, R. VI. '
§ 96, 97 SYNTAX.—SUBSTANTIVE. 207
14. The Infinitive Mood is used,
Istr Without a subject, or as a verbal noun, § 144, and R. LVI, LVIL
2d. With a subject in dependent and subordinate clauses, § 145, K, LVllL
15. Participles are construed as adjectives; Gerunds and
Supines, as nouns, §§ 146, 147, 148.
16. For the construction of adverbs and conjunctions, see
§ 134, and § 149.
§ 96. PARTS OF SYNTAX.
247.—^The-' Parts of Syntax are commonly
reckoned two : Concord^ or agreement, and Qov-
emment.
248.—Concord is tke agreement of one word
■with another, in gender^ numher, case, ovpehson.
249.—Government is that power which one
word has in determining the mood, tense, or case,
of another word.
1 CONCORD.
250.—Concord, or agreement, is fourfold; viz.:
1. Of a substantive with a substantive;
2. Of an adjective with a substantive;
3. Of a relative with its antecedent;
4. Of a verb with its nominative, or subject.
§ 97 A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE.
251.—^Rule I. Substantives denoting the same
person, or thing, agree in case; as,
Cielro orator, ' Cicero the orator.
. Ciceronu oratdris, Of Cicero the orator, <fec.
Urbs Athena, ■ The city Athens.
Urbi Athenis, To the city Athens.
252.—EXPLANATION.—Substantives thus used are said to be in
APPOSITION. The second substanAve is added, to express some aUritmte,
208
SYNTAX.—SUBSTAJITIVE.
description, or appellative, belonging to the first, and must always be in the
same member of the sentence; 1. e., they must be both in the subject, or
both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another, though denoting
the same thing, is not in apposition with it, and does not come under this
rule. § 103.
This rule applies to all substantive words, such as personal and relative
pronouns, adjectives used substantively, <&c.
Nouns in apposition are often connected, in English, by such particles as
as, being, for, lake, <feo.; as. Pater masit me eomitem, " My father sent me as
a companion," "for a companion," &o.
OBSERVATIONS.
253.—:Ohs. 1. It is not necessary that noims in apposition agree in
gender, number, or person. In these respects, they are often different; as.
Magnum pauperies opprobrium. Hob. Alexin delieias dumtnL Vieg.
254.—Obs. 2. Two or more notms in the singular, have a noun in ap¬
position in the plural; as, J/. Antonius, C. Oassius, tribuniplebis,''Maxc\a
Antonius, Gains Oassius, tribunes of the people." Also if the singular
nouns be of different genders, the plural in apposition wiU have the mas-,
euline rather than the feminine, if both forms exist; as, Ad Ptolemcmm et
Cleopatram rlges (not reglnas), legati missi. Liv.
255.—Obs 3. The substantive jpronoun, having a word in apposition,
is frequently omitted; as, Consul dixi (sciL igo), " (I) the consul said."
256.—Obs. 4. The possessive pronoun, being equivalent to the genitive
of the personal, has a noun in apposition with it in the genitive; as, pectus
tuum, ho minis sirnpllcis. ,
257.—Obs. 5. Sometimes the former noun denotes a of which
the noim in apposition expresses the parts; as, Onerarice, pars ad
uEgimurum,—a lice adversus urban ipsam delates sunt, " 2'he ships of
burden were carried, part to Algimurus,—others against the city itself"
So, Qui s que pro se queruntur, " Ihey complain each for himself."
258.—Obs. 6. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one of
the substantives ; as, Cogitet oratOrem institui, ran arduam, " Let him con¬
sider that an orator is training,.a difficult matter."
259.—Obs. 7. A demonstrative pronoun, in the neuter gender, some¬
times refers to a phrase, or a dependent clause in apposition, and, in con¬
struction, takes the place of that clause, Ac, either as the subject or the
object of a verb; as, VUus nobilltas, majorum fortia facta, cognatorum et
affinium 6pes, multoe clienteles, omnia h.«c preesidio admnt. Sau., Jug., 86.
Hoc tibi persuadeas vilim, me nihil omisisse. Px^citum supplicio cogire,
m est dominum, nem imperatorem esse. Sau,., Jug., 85.
Exceptions.
260.—Exc. 1. Sometimes the latter substantive is put in the genitive;
as,/on« TVotoot, "the fountain of Timavus;" amnis AVictem, "the river
EriUanus;" arbor fid, "the fig tree f nomen Mercurii est mihi. Words
tb Js construed may be referred to 832.
SYNTAX.—^ADJECTIVE.
209
261.—JKrc.2. A proper name after the generic term nSmen, or cog¬
nomen, sometimes elegantly takes the case of the person in the dative; as,
Nomen ArctUro est mt'Ai, "I have the name Ai'cturus." Plaut. So, Cut
nunc cognomen lulo addUur. Vino. Cut Egerio inditum nOmen. Liv
Mansit Hilviisposiea omnibus cognomen. Id. (433.)
262.—Eiic. 3. The name of a tovm in the genitive, denoting at a
place may have a noun of the third declension or plural number, in ap¬
position with it in the ablative, and vice versa; as, Corinthi Achaiee
urbe," At Corinth, a city of Achaia." This construction depends on the
rules, 648, 549. •
§ 98. AN ADJECrriVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE.
263.—^Rule II. AiP adjective agrees with its
substantive in gender, number, and case; as,
BOnus vir, a good man. BOnos vivos, good men.
BOna puella, a good girt Bonarum legum, of good laws.
Dulce pOmum, a sweet apple. Tuis donis, with thy gifts.
264.—EXPLANATION,—This rule applies to all acQectives, adjective
pronouns, and participles; and requires that they be in the same gender,
number, and case, with their substantives. 259-2. It applies also, when
the substantive is in the subject, and the adjective in the predicate. 822.
—The word " substantive," in this rule, includes personal and relative pro¬
nouns, and all words or phrases used as substantives.
OBSERVATIONS,
265.—Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless
taken separately, have an adjective plural; as,
Vir et puer terrlti lupo, A man and a boy terrified by a wol£
266.— Obs. 2. If all the substantives be of the same gender,
the adjectives will be of that gender, as in the example above.
But if the substantives are of different genders, the adjective
takes the masculine rather than the feminine, and the feminine
rather than the neuter; as.
Pater mild, et m&ter mortui sunt, . My father and mother are dead. Ter.
267.— Obs. 3. But if they denote things without life, the
adjective is commonly neuter. And, if some of the substantives
refer to things with life, and. others to things without life, the
adjective is either neuter, or takes the gender of the thing or
things with life ; as,
lAbor volupiasgite sunt dissimilia Toil and pleasure are unlike in na-
naturd, ture.
210 SYNTAX.—^ADJECTIVE. § 98
Navet et captlvi qt as ad Chiurn The ships and captives which were
capta sunt, taken at Chios.'
Numtdas atque m'ilitaria signa obs- The Numidians and their militarj
cur&ti sunt, standards were partially coaeea/ri
Also, the neuter is used frequently when the nouns denoting
things are of the same gender; as, Postquam Ira et avaritia
impefio potentiora erant. Liv.
268.— Obs. 4. Sometimes, however, the adjective agrees
with the nearest noun, and is understood to the rest; as,
sociis et rege recepto, Virg., "Our companions and king
being recoveredP
Note 1.—These observations may, and sometimes do, hold good, even
when one or more of the substantives are in the ablative, and connected
with the others by cum.; as, Filiam cum JUio accltos.
269.—Obs. 5. When the substantive to which the adjective,
or adjective pronoun, belongs may be easily supplied it is
frequently oniitted, and the adjective, assuming its gender,
number, and case, is often used as a substantive, and may
have an adjective agreeing with it; as,
Mortalis {htrmo'), a mortaL Ille (homo), he.
Suplri (dii), the gods above. Illi (hotnXncs), they.
Dextra (mSnus), the right hand. Hie (hSmo), he.
Sinistra (mSnus), the left hand. ' Heec (femina), she.
Omnia alia, all other (things). Familiaris meus (amicus), my in¬
timate fiiend.
270.— Obs. 6. The adjective, especially when used as a
predicate, without a substantive or definite object, is used in
the neuter gender; as,
Triste lupus stabUlis, The wolf is grievous to the folds.
Vacare culpa est suave, "To be free from blame is pleasant.
Labor vincit omnia. Labor overcomes all obstacles.
271.— Obs. 7. Imperatives, infinitiveJf adverbs,'clauses, and
words considered merely as such, when used substantively,
take an adjective in the neuter gender (30); as,
Supremum vale dixit, Ovid, He pronounced a last farewell.
Or as istud,quando vinii. Mart., When does that to-morrow eomet
Exceptb quad non slmul esses. That you were not present being
Hoe., excepted.
SYNTAX.—ADJECTIVE.
211
272.-—Oi,». 8. A substantive is sometimes used as an adjective; as,
popiUum late rSgem (for regnanteni), "a people of extensive sway;"
nemo (for nutlus) miles Romanus, "no Roman soldier." Sometimes
an adverb; as. Hi r i semper lenUas (probably for lenitas semper existens,
or the like). Ter. So also adjectives are sometimes used as substantives,
as, majores, " ancestors;" amicus, " a friend;" summum bonum," the chief
good" (thing); Ac.
27S.-=—06«. 9. These adjectives, primus, medius, ulilmus, extremus, in-
flmus, imus,'summus, supreinus, retlquus, ccetira, usnally signify the "first
part," the " middle part, Ac, of any thing, and are placed before the sub¬
stantive; aSj media nox, "the middle of the night;" summus mons, "the
top of the mountain."
274.—Obs. 10. Some adjectives denoting the time or circumstances
of an action are used in the sense of adverbs; as, prior venit, " he came
of the two;" prSnus cecldit," he fell forward;" abiit sublimis,"\xa
went on high"
275.— Obs. 11. Alius, though an adjective,' is often used as a pronoun,
and has this peculiarity of consti-uction, that, when repeated with a different
word in the same clause, it renders the one simple proposition to which
it belongs equivalent to two, and it is to be so rendered; thus, aliud
aliis videtur optimum,"one thing seems best to some, another seems best
to others" So, duo reges, alius a I id via, ille bello, hie pace, civitatem
auxerunt, " two kings, one in one way and another in anotherOr the
two simple sentences may be combined in a plural form; thus, " different
things seemed best to different pereons;" " two kings, each in a different
way;" Aa The same is true when a word derived from alius, such as
aliunde, allter, alio, is put with it in the same clause; aa, aliis aliunde
periculum est, " there is danger to one person from one source, and to an¬
other from another;" or combined, " there is danger to different persons
from different sources."
276.— Obs. 12. "When alius is repeated in a different clause, but in the
same construction, the first is to be rendered " one," the second," another;"
if plural, " some," " others;" ae, aliud est malediclrc, aliud accnsare, " it
is one thing to rail at, another to accuse." Cio. Proferebant alii pur-
pdram, thus ali i, " some brought forth purple, others incense." Instead
of alii—alii. Ac., in the plural, we have sometimes pars—alii ; partim—
alii; sometimes alii—pars, alii—partim, " some—others," Ac.; and some¬
times the first of the pair is omitted.
Tliis remark is applicable to alter, remembering only that alius signifies
OSE OP MAMT ; alter, one op two ; as, qudrum alter exercUum perdddit, alter
vcndldit.
277.—Obs. 13. Quisque, with the superlative, is equivalent to omnis m
the singular or plural, with the positive ; thus, opthnus quisque=omnis
bdnus, or omnes boni, " every good man," or, " all .good mea" With two
superlatives, it expresses a sort of reciprocal comparison; as, optimum
quidque rarisslmum, " every thin^is good in proportion as it is rare;" or
" the best things are the rarest"
212
SYNTAX.—^ADJECTIVE,
§98
Exceptions.
278.—Exc.. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender
or number from the substantive with which it is connected,
tacitly referring to its meaning rather than to its form,
or to some other word synonymous with it, or implieTi
in it; as,
Lalium CapuAque itgro mulctati, "Latimn and Capua were deprived
of their land," i. e., the people of Latium, Ac.; Capita conjuratiCnw virgit
cmsi,—" the heads (i e., the leading men) of the conspiracy, Ac."
279.—Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular, if its verb
is plural, has an adjective in the plural, and in the gender of
the individuals which form the collection; as,
Pars in Jlumen acti sunt, "A part were forced into the river."
Sometimes it takes the gender of the individual in the singular; as, pars
arduus fur it, Ac.
280.—Exe. 3. A plural noim or pronoun, used to denote one person, in
comic writers, sometimes has an adjective or participle in the singular; as,
Kobis presents, " I being present"
281.—Exc. 4. The adjective pronouns uterque, quisque, Ac., in the
singular, are often put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the
objects are spoken of individually and distributively; as, Uterque eorum
ex castris exercitum educunt, "They lead forth, each of them, his army
from the camp -'"Quisque pro se queruntur, " They complain, each one
for himself". Quisque, in the singular, not only distributes plural nouns,
but is in the nominative when the plm'al to be distributed is in the
ablative absolute; as, ilultis sibi quisque imperium petentibus.
Sall., Jug., 18; or in the accusative, as the subject of the infinitive;
as,. Affirmantes se ,... quisque patriam. relicturos. Alius and
alter are sometimes used in the same way; as, Multa conjecta sunt
aliud alio te-'npbre. Obs. 11. In this construction, there is a kind of
apposition. 257.
282.—Exc. 5. "When ipse qualifies a substantive pronoun in a reflexive
sense, in any oblique case governed by a verb or pi'eposition, it commonly
takes the case of the subject of the veib in the m)mmative or accusative,
instead of the case of the word which it qualifies; as, Se ipse inter-
/■(■fit, " He slew himself;" Mihi ipse faveo,^^^ favor myselfCredis
mi hi ipsum faverel "Do you believe that I favor myself P Ae.
See 118-3, Note.
283.—Exc. 6. The possessive pronoun, in any case, being equivalent
to, and used for, the genitive of the substantive pronoun (121, Obs. 1), an
adjective, qualifying the substantive pronoun implied in it, is put in the
genitive; as, nostro omnium flelu, " "Whilst all of us are in tears;"
Meum solius vitimn, "The fault of me alone;" Nostri ipsOrum
liberi, " Our own children ;" Mea scripta timentis.
SYNTAX.—KEIiATIVE.
213
§ 99. THE RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT.
284.—Rule IIL The relative gyd:; quoe, qvcd^
agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and
pei-son; as.
Ego qui acribo, I who write.
Tu qui ligis. Thou who readesi
Vir qui loquiiur. The man who speaks.
Viri qui loquuntur. The men who speak.
285.—EXPLANATION.—^The antecedent is the noun or pronoun going
bethre the relative to which it refers. Sometimes, however, the relative and
its clause are placed before the antecedent and its elause.
The infinitive mood or a, part of a sentence is sometimes the antecedent,
in which case the relative must be in the neuter gender.
OBSERVATIONS.
286.— Obs. 1. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree
with the antecedent^ but with the same word expressed or
understood after the relative, and with which, like the adjec¬
tive, it agrees in gender, number, and ca$e, as well as person;
thus, diem dicunt, qu& (die), &c., " they appoint a day, on
which (day)," &c. Hence, in connecting the antecedent and
relative clause, the following variety of usage occurs, viz:
1st. The word to which the relative refers, is commonly expressed in the
antecedent clause, and not with the relative; as, Vir sapit qui
pauca loquitur, " He is a wise man, who speaks little."
2d. It is often elegantly omitted in the antecedent clause, and expressed
with the relative, especially when the relative clause stands first;
as, In quernprlmum egressi mnt 15cum, Trcga voc&tur, L e, IScut
in quern, <fec.
3d. Sometimes, when greater precision is required, it is expressed in both;
aa,Erant oninlno itinira duo, quibut itineribus domo exlre
possent. Instead of the first substantive, the relative sometimes
takes with it a substantive explanatory of the first; as, Cum venis-
semad Amanum, qui mons,&c.—Nonlonge aTolosatiumfinibus
sunt„q uce ei vitas {Tolosatium) est in provineia; for, qui sunt, <Ste.
—Ante comitia, quod t em pus hand lortge ohlral; for, quee comi-
iia baud,
4 th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is no danger of
obscurity, the word to which the relative refers is understood in
both clauses; as, sitnt quos juvat collegisse, L e. sunt {homines) quos
(homines) juvat, <fec.;—non habeo quod te accusem, i. e. tion habeo
- id quod te accusem. 492.
iVbfe.—The place of the antece^nt is sometimes supplied by a demon
214
SYNTAX.—BELATIVB.
strative pronoun in the claNise following;- as, de qua r( audlvi, earn tibi
narrnbo. In the clause preceding the relative, the demonstrative has
sometimes the tbrce of talis, " suchand the relative, that of the corre¬
sponding qualis, " as—the two implying a sort of comparison; as, ItOque
igo i s sum in ilium, quern turns esse vis, " Therefore, 1 am towards him,
such as you -wish me to be.", Cic.
To this construction may be referred such expressions as, qui tuus ea
&mor, equivalent to, pro eo amore qui tuus est &mor, " such is your love,'
literally, " in accordance with such love as yours is—quoe tua est bene-
volentia, " such is "your benevolence," where the demonstrative is, ea, id,
in the sense of "such," (123-2, b), is supplied with the antecedent, un¬
derstood.
. 287.—Obs. 2. a. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding
word; as, omnes laudare fortunas me as qui haberem, Ac, "all were
praising my fortune i»/io had," <fcc., L e.fortwias mei qui; the possessive
meas being equivalent to the genitive of igo. 121, Obs. 1. Conjuravere
pauci contra rempubllcam, de qua (sciL conpiratidue, implied in conjura¬
vere) quam brevisslme polero dlcam, " a few entered into a conspiracy
against the republic, concerning which," <fec.
b. The relative sometimes refers, not to a particular word, but to the -whole
antecedent proposition, or the idea.expressed by it, in which case it takes
the neuter gender; as, Smas virtntem, quod (i. e. quam rem) valde laudo.
Postrimo, quod difficilllmum inter mortales, glorid invidiam vicisti. Sall,
Jug. Sometimes id is placed before quod referring to the same proposi¬
tion ; as, Slve, id quod constat, Platonis studiSsus audiendi fuit. Cic.
288.—Obs. 3. When a relative refers to one or two nouns, denoting
the same object, but of different gcndere, it may agree with either; as,
Flumen est Arar quod, <fec. Here quod agrees with flhrnen. Ad fiimen
Ossum perventum est, qui, Ac. Here qui agrees-with Ossum.
. 289.—Obs. 4. When a word of a preceding proposition, or the pro¬
position itself, is explained by a substantive after esse, dicire, voeare,
habere, Ac., the relative (or demonstrative) pronoun between them, often
takes, by attraction, tlie gender and number of the explanatory substantive
following; as, Thlbae ipsce quod Boeotiee cdput est. Lrv. Idem velle
et idem nolle, e a demum Jirma amicitia est. Sall. But if the latter
substantive is distinctive only, the relative follows the general rule; as,
ginus hominum quod vocatur Helotes;— ad eurn locum, quern Amam-
cas pylas vacant, pervinit.
Also the participles of such verbs, as well as the relative, take the
gender and number of the predicate substantive when near it, or imme¬
diately after it; as, non omnis error stultitia^st dicenda (for dicen-
dus) ;—gens universa VenSti app ell at i.
290.—-Obs. 5. An adjective which properly belongs to the antecedent,
is sometimes placed in the relative clause, agreeing -with the relative.
This is the case, especially if the adjective be a numeral, a comparative,
or superlative; as, inter Jbcos, quos inconditos jaciunt, for jocos incoudltos,
quos, Ac., " amidst the rude jests which they utter—nocte, quam in terris
ultlmam igit, for nocte ultimd, quam, &o., " the last night which he spent
upon earth."
SYNTAX.—BELATIVE.
215
'291.—Obs. 6. 'When a relative refers to two or more antecedents tahen
together, it agrees with them in gender and number, in all respects as the
adjective does with several substantives, as stated 265, 266. But,
If the antecedents are of different persons, the relative plural takes
the first person rather than the second, and the second person rather than
the third
292.—Exc. 1. The relative, sometimee, takes the gender and number,
not of the antecedent noun, but of some one synonymous with it or-implied
in it; as, earum rcrum guce mortales prima putant, " of those things which
men deem most important." Here oucb seems to agree with negotia, con¬
sidered synonymous with rerum.—haret ut catenis fatdle tnonslrum quae.
The antecedent is monstrum, but qua agrees with Cleopatra, the monster
intended.
293.—Ohn. 1. The relatives quicunque and quisquis are sometimes
used instead of qui, when a general or indefinite term is expressed or
tmderstood with the antecedent; as, qua sauuri polerunt, qudcunque
ratiOue sanabo, equivalent to onini ralione qudcunque (possum), "what
can be cured, I will cure by every means I can."
2&4.—This construction coiTcsponds to that of the Greek ootk (Gr.
Gram., § 136, 7), and, like it, these relatives often represent two eases; as,
quoseunque de te queri audivi, quacunque potui ratiOne placavi. Here,
quoseunque is both the object ot plae&vi, and the subject of quirt; and
quacunque is equivalent to omni ralione qua ralione.—Quidquid tetiglrat
aurum fiebat. Here quidquid stands both as the nominative to fiibat
and the accusative after Icligerat, and is equivalent to otnne quod teti-
girat, <Sic.
295.—Obs. 8. In the beginning of a sentence, or clause connected .with
what precedes, not by the 'relative itself, but by quum (cum), si, autem,
quoniarn, or other conjunctive term expressed or understood, the relative
assumes the character" of a personal or demonstrative pronoiin, and, as
such, refers to some word, clause, or circumstance, already expressed;
thus, ■
1st. 'When the relative thus used stands instead of its noun, it is equivalent
to et ille, et hie, et is, et illi, <fcc., and may be rendered "and he,"
" and she," " and they," <fec.; as, qui quum admitliret, "and when
/te admitted;"—ad quern quum »m»'«sen<, "and when they had
come to him—quem ui vldit, "as soon as he saw him/'
2tl When the relative thus used stands with its substantive, or has it
understood, it is to be translated, as a demonstrative, by this, that,
(Aese, commonly preceded by as, qui leg at i quum
missi essent, " and when these ambassadors had been sent;"—ad
qudrum initium silvdrum quum Casarperitenisset, "and when
Caesar had come to the beginning of these woods;"—quam quum
Romandrum dux dare noUet, " and when the Roman general would
not grant <Ais"(scil. pOcem, " peace "). •
296.—To this construction belongs quod, in the beginning of a sentence
(apparently for propter quod, or ad quod), referring to something pre
viously stated, and meaning " on ac^unt of," " with respect to,'' " as to, Ac,
216
SYNTAX.—RELATIVE.
this thingas, quod diit gralias habeo, " wherefore (L e. on account of
this thing), I give thanks to &e gods—q uod scrlbis (Cio.), " as to what
you •write."
CASE OF THE RELATIVE.
297.—Obs. 9. The relative, in respect of case, is always to
be considered as a noun and subject to the rules which de¬
termine the case of nouns.
298.—Hxe. 2. The relative, after the manner of the Greek, is some¬
times attracted into the case of its antecedent; as. Cum Sgas alXquid
edrum quorum consuisli, &Q., for eorum quce eonsuisti, " When you do
any cf these things which you have been accustomed to do;" Raptim
quXbus quisque potirat eldtis, for (iis) qu-e quisque, " Those things
which each one could, being hastily snatched up."
299.—Exe. 3. The antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case
of the relative; as, Urbem quam statuo vestra est, for urbs quam
statuo, <Sto., " The city which I am building is yours."
These are Greek constructions seldom used by Latin 'writers. See
Greek Gr., § 136, Exc. 9, 10.
300.— Obs. 10. The relative adjectives quot, quantm, qudlis,
used in comparisons, and -commonly rendered " as," are often
construed in a manner similar to the relative (286), having
their redditives, or corresponding adjectives tot, tantus, talis,
expressed or understood in the antecedent clause; as, Tandce
multitudinis quantqm cdpit urbs, " Of as a multitude as
the city contains;" Fades (talis), qu&lem decet esse sorOrum,
"The features, such as those of sisters ought to be." Virg.
a. The noun, as well as the redditive, is very often omitted
in the antecedent clause, and expressed in the relative clause
(286-2d); as, QnantA potuit celeritdte cucurrit, changed to the
common form, is Tantd. celeritatc quantd potuit, cucurrit,
" He ran with as much speed as he could." In this way, are to
be explained such clauses as Quantum importunitdtis habent,
"Such arrogance have they," in full form. Pro tan to im¬
portunitdtis quantum habent,
b. When the relative adjective and its redditive refer to
different substantives, each agrees witlf its own. But among
the poets, the relative sometimes agrees with the substantive
in the antecedent clause, and not with that in its own.
Sometimes the redditive is understood, and sometimes the
relative. ,
Note 1. Instead of. the relative adjective? quot, quantus, qudlis, the con-
junctions ac, atque, u<,and the relative qui, quae, quod, in the sense of "as,"
§ 100, 101 SYNTAX.—NOMINATIVE CASE.
217
are sometimes used in comparative expressions; as, HUnot tali popUli
Rmnani voluntaie, pawis est delains ae mihi. Cio.
Note 2.—When guot, quantus, quolis are used as interrogatiTes, they
have no corresponding antecedent term.
301.—Exc. 4. Instead of the ordinary construction, the
relative adjective, with its noun, is sometimes attracted into
the case of the relative pronoun understood, as in the follow¬
ing sentence : Si hominibus bonarum rerum tanta cura esset,
quanto studio petunt, Sall., Jug.; instead of quantum est
studium quo aliena petunt:—unless this be a case of anaco-
luthon, the latter part of the sentence being expressed as if
the former, had been. Si homines bonas res peterent, quanto
studio, &c., i. e., tanto studio quanto, &c. 300, a.
§ 100. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE.
302. The nominative case is used,
1. To express the subject of a proposition;
2. In apposition with another substantive in the nominative
(§ 97), or predicated of it (§ 103);
3. In exclamations; as, 0 vir fort is atque amicus!
§ 101. THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE.
303.—^Rule IV. A Verb agrees witli its nomi¬
native in number and person; as,
JSgo ligo, I read. Nos legXmus, We read.
Tu scribia, Thouwritest Voa acribitia. Ye write.
llle loquitur. He speaks. llli loquuntur. They speak.
804.—EXPLANATION.—The subject of a finite verb, being a nonn, a
pronoun, an adjective used as a noun, or a gerund, is put in the nominative
case. The subject may also be an Infinitive mood or part of a sentence. To all
of these the rule applies, and requires that the verb be in tbe same number
and person as the subject, or nominative. For person, see 85, and 118-1, 2.
OBSERVATIONS.
,305.— Oha. I. The nominatives Igo, noa, of the first person; and tu,
voa, of the second, are generally dtnitted being obvious from the termims-
10
218
syntax.—observations.
tion of the verb; also the nominative of the third person, when it is an in¬
definite word, or may be easily supplied from the context; as, firunt,
" they sayic.
30(5.—Obs. 2. The subject is also omitted when the verb expresses
the state of the weather, or an operation of nature ; a.B, fulff&rat, "it light¬
ens pluit, " it rainsningit, " it snows."
307.—Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as without a
nominative. Still, they will generally be found to bear a relation to some
circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, or infinitive mood, similar to
tliat between a verb and its nominative; as, delectat me stwUre," it delights
me to study," i. e. " to study delights me—mislret me tui, " I pity you,"
i. e. conditio, or fortuna tui misiret me, " your condition ei^cites my pity."
662.
308.— Obs. 4. The verb, is sometimes omitted when the nominative is
expressed, and sometimes when it is ijnderstood; as, nam Igo Polydirus
(sc " for I am Polydorus;"—omnia'prceclara rara (sc. «««<)>""(!
excellent things are rare;"—turn ille (sc. respondit),"' then he re^ed;"
—verurn hactinus hoee (sc. dixXmus).
309.—Obs. 5. When the subject is An infinitive, or a clause of a sen
tence, the verb is in the third person singular; and, if a compound tense
the participle is put in the neuter gender ■,as,incertum est quarn longa
noslruin cujusgue vita futura sit, " how long any of us shall live is uncer¬
tain "
310.— Obs. 6. The nominative is sometimes found with the infinitive,
in which case ccepit or ccepirunt, or some other verb, according to the
sense, is understood ; as, omnes invidire mihi, " every one envied
The infinitive with the nominative before it, is so common in historical
narrative, that it is called the historical in finitive. Thus used, it is trans¬
lated as the imperfect or the perfect indefinite, for which tenses it seems
to be used, aud with which it is sometimes connected. 669.
311.— Obs. 7. Vidxor, in the sense of "1 seem," is used throughout a»
a personal verb, but is often rendered impersonally, as, videor esse liber,
" it seems that I am free," literally, " I seem to be free."—Followed by the
dative of a person, it means to thinh, fancy, suppose, with reference to the
word in the dative, as the subject in English; as, videor tibi esse,"you
think that I am" literally, " I seem to yon to be;"—tu videris mihi,"l
think that you —vi.deor ilti, "he thinks that 1;" <Sta In the third person
singular, followed by an infinitive mood or connected clause, it is rendered
impei'sonally, but still has the infinitive or clause for its subject See 413.
§ 102. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS.
I. Of agreement in Number and Person. .
312.—Rule I. Two or more substantives sin¬
gular, taken together, have a verb in the
SrNTAX.—OBSERVATIONS.
219
plural; taken separately, the verb is usually
singular; as,
(Taken together,)
FUror ir&qw mentem proKipitant, Fury and rage buny on my mind.
(Taken aeparately,)
Si SoerStes auf Antisthlnes diciret. If Soei-ates or Antisthenes should say,
313.—Obs. 1. To both parts of this rule, however, and especially to
the first, there are many exceptions. If one of the nominatives is plural,
the verb is commonly plural But sometimes the verb agrees with the
nominative nearest i^ and is understood to the rest, especially when each
of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, or when they denote things
without life; as, Men» Inim, et ratio, et consilium, in senibus est.
When the nominatives are disjunctively connected by avt, neque, <fec.,
the verb is sometimes plural; and it is always so, when the substantives
are of different persons; as. Quod niqu/e igo, nlque Ccesar hablti essi-
mus. Cia Hoe si nlque igo, nlque tu feclmus. Ter.*
314.—Obs. 2. A substantive in the nominative singular, connected
with another in the ablative by cum, may have a plural verb; as, Jilmo
cum fratre Quirlnus jSra dSbunt.
315.—Obs. 3. When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb
is commonly plural and takes the first person rather than the second, and
the second rather than the third; as. Si tu et Tullia valitis, Igo et
Ciclro Valemus, "If you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are weU."
But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative, and is un¬
derstood to the rest, and always so, when the verb has different modifica^
tions with each nominative; as. Ego mislre, tu felicUer vlvis.
316.—Rule 11. 1. A collective noun expressing
many as one wbole, bas a verb in the singular; as,
Populus me sibilat. The people hiss at me.
Sen At us in curiam venit. The Senate came into the Senate-
house.
2. But when it expresses many as individuals,
the verb must be plural; as.
Pars epulis onirant mensas, Part foad the tables with food.
Turba ruunt. The crowd rush.
Veniunt live vulgus euntque. The fickle populace come and yo.
317.— Obs.i. To both parts of this rule, there are also exceptions;
and in some cases, it seems indifferent whether the verb be in the singular
or plural; sometimes both are joined with the same word; as, Turba ex
eo lOco dilabebatur, refraeiurosque carclrem minabantur.
318.— Obs. 6. Uterque, quisque, pars pars, alius alius, and
alter.... alter, on account of the id A of plurality involved, frequently have
220 SYNTAX—PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. § 103
the yerb in the plural This construction may be explained on the prin
ciple mentioned 281, -where see examples; or 267.
§ 103. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE.
819.—Rule V. The predicate substantive or
adjective, after a verb, is put in the s^e case as
the subject before it; as.
320.—EXPLANATION.—Under this rule, the nominative before the
verb is thftsu^Vct or thing spoken of; the nominative after it, is thepredicatt,
or the thing asserted of the subject. The verb is the copula connecting the
one with the other, and is usually a substantive verb (187), an intransitive
verb, or a passive verb of naming, judging, appointing, &c., which, from its
use, is called a copulative verb.
This rule applies to the accusative and dative before, and after, the infinidve
of copulative verbs. See Obe. 5, 6, 7, 8, below.
321.—Ob». 1. Any copulative verb between two nominatives of dif¬
ferent numbers, commonly agrees in ntunber with the former, or subject;
as, Doe est decern talenta, " Her dowry is ten talents." Tee. Omnia
pontus jranf, "All was sea." Ovin. But sometimes-with the latter oi
predicate; as, Amantium Iree, am'Oris integratio est, "The quarrels
of lovers is a renewal of love."
a. So also, when the nouns are of different genders, an adjective, adjec¬
tive pronoun, or a participle, in the predicate, commonly agrees -with the
subject of the verb; as, OppKdum appell&tum est Fossidonia;—
but sometimes -with the predicate; as, Non omnis error stultitia
dicenda est. Cia
b. The verb esse sometimes takes an adverb in the predicate, where, in
English, an adjective is commonly used; as, omnia m&la abunde irant,
"—were ahundant;"—Romanos laxius futuros, "that the Romans
would be more negligent;"—ea res frustrm fuit, "that was of no
avail."
322.—Obs. 2. When the predicate is an adjective, adjective pronoun,
or participle without a substantive, it agrees with the subject before the
ven> according to Rule II (263); except as noticed in the same section,
Obs. 6 (270).
323.—Obs. 8.- When the subject is of the second person, and the voca¬
tive stands before the verb, the adjective or participle will usually be in
JEgo sum discipvdus,
Tu voc&ris Joannes,
Ilia incedit reglna.
I am a scholar. '
Thou art called John.
She walks (as) a queen.
OBSERVATIONS.
SYNTAX.—GOVERNMENT.
221
the Dominative, according to the rule; as, etto tu, Ccesar, amicus; but
sometimes it is put iu the vocative; as, Qulius, Hector, ab Sris ezpec-
tatevinis (VniG.), for expectatus. Hence the phrase, Macte virtute esto,
for macttts.
324.—Obs. 4. The noun Hpus, commonly rendered " needful," is often
used as a predicate after sum; as, dttx nSbis Opus est, "a leader is
wanted by us."
Note 1.—Such expressions as audlvi hoc puer,—rempubllcam defends
adolescens,—sapiens nil facit invltus, belong more properly to Rules I. and
IL than to this (251 and 263).
325.—Obs. 5. The accusative or dative before the infinitive under this
Rule, requires the same case after it in the predicate; as,
Novlmus t e esse fort em. We know that thou art brave.
Mi hi negligenli non esse tlcet, 1 am not allowed to be negligent.
Note 2.—In this construction, the infinitive is. sometimes omitted; as.
novlmus te fortem, for esse fortem.
326.—Obs. 6. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the
subject of the preceding verb, it is often omitted, in which case the pre¬
dicate after the infinitive is in the nominative agreeing with the precediup
subject, or in the accusative agreeing with the subject of the infimtive
understood ; as, cupio did doctus, or cupio did doctum, i. e. me did doctum,
" I desire to be called learned." The wst of these is a Greek construction,
and seldom used by Latin prose writers. See Gr. Gram., § 176, 3.
327.—Obs. 7. When the infinitive of such verbs has a dative before it,
it may be followed either by a dative or an accusative; as, licet m i,h i esse
beat o; or, licet mihi esse beOtum,"! may be happy." In the fiist case,
bedto agrees with mihi; in the second, beOtum agrees with me, to be sup¬
plied as the subject of esse. Sometimes, when the sentence is indefinite,
the dative also is understood; as, licet esse bedtum (sc. ahcui), " one may
be happy." The first of these forms also is a Greek construction. See
Gr. Gram., § 176, Obs. 5.
328.—Obs. 8. This variety of case after the infinitive, is admissible
only with the nominative, dative, and accusative. The other cases before
the infinitive have the accusative after it, agreeing with the subject of the
infinitive understood; as, inilrest omnium (as) esse bOnos
329.—§ 104. GOVERNMENT.
1. Government is the power which one word has over another depend
ing upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain case, mood, or tense.
2. The words subject to government are nouns and verbs.
8. The words governing or affecting these in their case, mood, or tense,
are nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and words indeclinable.
222
SYNTAX.—GENITIVE.
4. To the Syntax of nouns, belongs all that part of Syntax relating to
the government of cose. Every thing else in government belongs to the
Svntax of ^e verb, § 137, et seq.
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN.
330.—In this part of Grammar, under the term noun or fubitantive, it
comprehended every thing used as such; namely, nouns, personal pronouns,
adjective pronouns used personally, adjectives without substantives, ge¬
runds, together with infinitives, and substantive clauses used as nouns.
The construetion of the oblique cases depends, in general, upon the
. particular ideas expressed by the cases themselves, as they are stated
No. 50, or as they are mentioned hereafter, under each casck
"I 105. CGNSTRUOriON OF THE GENITIVE.
331.—The Genitive, as its name imports, with the meaning of the
word, connects the idea of origin, and hence that of property or possession
It is used, in general, to limit the signification of another word, with
which it is joined, by representing it as something originating with,
possessed by, or relating to, that which the genitive or limiting word ex¬
presses ; and it is said to be governed by the word so limited, i e., the
word limited requires the word limiting it to be put in the Genitive case.
The Genitive is governed by Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs; and also is
used to express circumstances oi place, quantity, or degree.
§ 106. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY NOUNS.
332.—Rule VI. One substantive governs an¬
other in the genitive, when the latter substantive
limits the signification of the former; as,
Amor glories. The love of gloiy.
Lex natures. The law of natm-e.
333.—explanation.—Under this rule, the two substantives must
be of different signiJUaiion, and the one used to restrict the meaning of the
SYNTAX.—GENITIVE.
223
other. Thus, in the first example, amor, alone, means " love," in general,
but the term gloricE, joined with it, restricts its meaning here to a particular
object, "glory," and so of other examples.
N. B. When a noun is limited by another of the tame tignijieatu>n, it is
put in the same case by Bule I (251).
OBSERVATIONa
334.—Obs. 1. When the governing noun expresses a feeling or aCt, <fee,
inherent in, or exercised by, the noun governed in the genitive, the genitive
is said to be subjective or active. But when the goveniing noun denotes
something of which the noun governed is the object, the genitive is then
said to be objective or passive. Thus, in the phrase providentia Dei, the
genitive is necessarily subjective or active, because providentia expresses
an act or operation of which God is the subject, and of which he cannot be
the object. On the other hand, in the phrase tlmor Dei, " the fear of God,"
the genitive Dei is necessarily objective or passive, because tvnor denotes
a feeling in some other subject of which God is the object, and cannot be
the subject. Sometimes the meaning of both substantives is such, that the
genitive may be either active or passive; thus, when the expressioB amor
Dei means the love which God has to us, Dei is active or subjective; but
when it means the love which we have to God, Dei is passive or objective.
In such cases, the sense in which the genitive is used must be determined
by the author's meaning.
335.—Obs. 2. Hence it often happens that a noun governs two sub¬
stantives, one of which limits it subjectively, and the other objectively ; as,
Agamemndnis belli gloria, ' Agamemnon's glory, in war." Nep. Here,
Againemnonis limits gloria subjectively, and belli limits it objectively
So, lllius adminislratio provincice. CiG
336.—Obs. 3; The governing noun is often omitted, but only, however,
when the expression itself readily suggests the noun to be supplied; as,
ad Dianoe, sc. mdem ; or when it can be readily supplied from the preced¬
ing or following words.
337.—Obs. 4. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun governed
by the noun, it is more common to use the possessive adjective pronoun
agreeing with it; as, meus piUer, rather than pdter mei. So also, instead
of the genitive of a noun, a possessive adjective is sometimes used; as,
causa regia, for regis causa ; herllis jilius, tor Jilius hiri.
338.—Obs. 5. The dative is often used instead of the genitive, to limit
a noun as to its object; v»,fratri cedes, for fratris, "iho house of my
brother—presidium reis, " a defence to the accused." For this construc¬
tion, see 380 and 381.
339.—^Rule VII. A substantive added to an-
otiier, to express a property or quality belonging
to it, is put in tbe genitive or ablative; as,
Vir fummce prudeniioe, or summdprudentid, A man of great wisdom.
Puer prihoe indbl is, or prSbd indme, A boy of a good dispositioa
224
SYNTAX.—GENITITE.
340.—EXPLANATION.—Under this rule, the latter substantive in the
genitive or ablative must denote apart ox property of the former, otherwise
it does not belong to this rule. The latter substantive, also, has Oommonly
an adjective joined with it as in the preceding examples, though this is not
essential to the rule; and sometimes it is found without it; as, Himm nihili.
341.—Obs. 6. There is no certain inle by which to determine whep
the genitive is to be used, or when the ablative, though in some phrases
we find the genitive only is used; as, vir imi subsellii, " a person of tlie
lowest rank—hStno nulliits stipendii,a man of no experience in war "
(Sall.) ;—magni formica laboris, Ac. In others, the ablative only; as, Es
■ bbno anlmo, " Bo of good courage." Sometimes both are used in the same
sentence; as, adohscens eximid spe, gumma virtutis. In prose, the ablative
is more coirmon than the genitive.
342.— Obs. 1. Sometimes, instead of the construction under this rule,
the adjective is put with the former substantive; as. Vir gravitate et prvc
dentid prastans. Cia So, Vir prastantis ingenii,—prastanii ingenio,—pta-
stans ingenio, and (poetically)—prastans ingenii, are all used. And some¬
times, when the adjective takes the case of the former substantive, the
latter Substantive, especially by the poets, is, by a Greek construction,
put in the accusative instead of the genitive or ablative; as, miles fractus
membra, instead of membris;—os humerosgue simVis deo, instead
of ore humerisque simtiis deo. For this use of the accusative, see 638.
Adjectwes takm as Substantives.
343.—Rule VIII. An adjective in the neuter
gender, without a substantive, governs the geni¬
tive; as,
Mvltum peeunia. Much money.
Id negotii. That business.
344.—EXPLANATION.—Under this rule, the adjective, without a
substantive expressed, is regarded as a substantive, and so, capable of being
limited by the genitive, as under Rule VI (882).
345.— Obs. 8. The adjectives thus used have a partitive character,
and are generally such as signify quantity; mvitum, plus, plurlmum, tan-
tum, quantum;—the pronouns hoc, id, illud, istud, quod, quid, with its
compounds ;—also sunimum, ulflmum, extremum, dimidium, medium,
cdiud, Ac. To these may be added nihil, " niAing," which is always a
substantive; and the adverbs satis, parum, abunde, affatim, and sometimes
largiter, in a substantive sense; as, nihil pretii, s&tis eloquentia, sapientia
partem. 595.
This rule applies also to several neuter adjectives in the plural, used in
a partitive sense; as, angusta viarum, " the narrow parts of the road
opaca locorum; antlqua fadlrum ; cuneta camporum ; Ac.
Note.—Such adjectives, followed by a genitive, are always either in the
SYNTAX,—GENITIVE.
225
nominative or accusative; and, when in the accusative^ are not dependent
on a preposition.
346.—Obi. 9. Most of these adjectives may have their substantives
with which they agree ; but. the more common construction is with the
genitive; as, tanlum spei,"so much hope;"—quid muliiris? "what kind
of a woman ?"—atlquid fomue; quid hoe rei est f And sometimes the
genitive after these neuters is the genitive of an adjective used as a sub¬
stantive ; as, aliquid nSvi, tantum bdni, <kc.
347.— Obs. 10. Qitod and qtriequid, followed by a genitive, include
the idea of universality; as, quod agri, " what of land," i. e. " all the land;"
quicquid civium, " whatever of citizens," L e. " all the citizens;" quicquid
deorum, " all the gods."
348.—06s. 11. Opus and Hsus, signifying " need," sometimes govern
the genitive; as, Argenti Spue /uit, " There was need money." Lrv.
Prooemii non semper Hsus est, "There is not always need of an intro-
ductioa" Quinct. In general, these words govern the ablative. 466.
§ 107. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES.
349.—^Rule IX, Verbal adjectives, or sucli as
imply an operation of mind, govern the genitive;
as,
Avidus glories, 'Desirous of glory.
Ignarus fraudis. Ignorant of fraud.
Minior benejicidrum. Mindful of &vors.
350.—EXPLANATION.—The genitive in this construction, as in § 106,
is used to limit the application of the general term or adjective by which it is
governed, and may he rendered \>yof, or, in respect of, prefixed; thus, in the
first example, avidus expresses the possession of desire generally; the genitive
glorict limits it to a certain object," gloryand so of the other examples.
OBSERVATIONS.
351.—Obs. 1. Adjectives governing the genitive uhder this
rule, are;
1st. Veebais in AX; as, c&pax, ldax,firax,f&gax,perv'ieax, tinax, <fec.
2d. Paeticiples in NS and TUS; as,Smans, appitens, eupienS, paiiens,
impatiens, sitiens, cSlens, fugiens,. intelligens, metuens, templrans,
, intemplrans; considtus.ekictus, expertus, inexpertus, inssiltus, in-
solUus, &e. •
10*
226
SYNTAX—6ENITITE.
§ 107
8d. Adjectives denotiogvarious affections of the mind; such as, 1. Desdu
and Disgust ; as, avSrtiS, avvdus, cupldus, studiOsus, /aiitidi6»u», Ac,,
with many other verbals in idus and 6su>. '1. Knowledge and
lonobance; as, coltldiu, certus, conitcius, irndnit,p€nius, prSdens, Ac.;
—igndrus, ineertus, inscius, imprudewr, imperlttts, rudis, Ac. 3. Me-
mobt or Fobgetvulness ; as, mimor, immimor, Ac. 4. Cabe and
Negligence; as, anxius, curidsus, solicUus, provldus, diligens;—1»-
curiSsus, secunis, negtlgens, Aa 6. Feab and Confidence ; as, pa-
vidua, timXdua, trepldua;—impavldua, interrUita, die. 6. Guilt and
Innocence; as, nonius, reus, suspectus, compertua;—innoxiua, in-
noeena, inaona, Aa
4th. To these, may be added many other adjectives of similar signification,
which are limited by, or govern such genitives as animi, ingenii,
mentis, vrat, militiee, belli, Moris, rlrum, cevi, morum, and Jidei.
352.—Oba. 2. Verbals in NS are used both as adjectives and parti¬
ciples, but usually with some difference of meaning; as, patiena algdria,
" capable of bearing cold;" patiena algOrem, " actually bearing cold;"
dmana " loving virtue,"—spoken of the disposition; dmans virts-
tem, "loving virtue,"—spoken of the act. So also, doctua grammatUce,
" skilled in grammar;" doctua grammatleam, "one who has studied gram-
353.—Obs. 3. Many of these adjectives vary their construc¬
tion ; so that, instead of the genitive, they sometimes take
after them,
1st. An infinitive clause; as, Certua ire, " determined to go." Ovid. Can-
tdre perUi. Vibg. Anxius quid 6pua facto ait. Sall.
2d. An accusative with a preposition; as, avidior ad rem ; animus cSpax
adprcecepta; ad fraudem caltldua ; potena in res bellicoaaa, Ac.
3d. An ablative with a preposition; as, avldus in pecuniia, " eager in
regard to money;" anxius de famd ; super acelire suspectus; Ac.
4th. An ablative without a preposition; as, arte r&dis, "rude in art;"
regni crimlne inaona^ prceatana ingenio. 535.
354.—Ohs. 4. Some adjectives usually governing the dative, sometimes
govern the genitive; such as simllia, dissimllia, Ac. See 885.
355.—Rule X. Partitives and words placed
partitively, comparatives, superlatives, interro-
gatives, and some numerals, govern tlie genitive
plural; as.
mar.
»
Atlquia philosopliSrum,
Senior fratrum,
Ifoctiaslmus Romanorum,
Some one of theers.
The elder of the
The most learned of the Romans
Which of us ?
Oi i of the muses.
The eighth of the wise men.
Quia nostrum ?
Una muadrum.
Octdvua aapientium.
§ 107 SYNTAX—GENITIVE. 227
356.—EXPLANATION.—A partiti/ee is a word which signifies a part
of any nnmber of persons or things, in contradistinction to the whoie. A
word y\a.<xA.pariiti/vely is one which, though it does not signify apart, yet
is sometimes used to distinyuieh a part from the whole; as, expediti militjm,
" the light armed (of the) soldiers." The partitive, when an adjective, takes
the gender of the whole, and governs it in the genitive plural; or, if a col¬
lective noun, in the genitive singular; and in this case, the partitive takes
the gender of the noun understood; as, doctiuimm sua atdtis,
357.—Obs. 5. Partitives are such words as, ulluti, nullus, solus, alius,
tiler, uifgue, nettter, alter, atlquis, quldmn, quisquis, quicuuque, quis?
qui? quol? tot, aliquot, nonnulli, plerique, multi, pauci, niedius, <S:c.
Words are used partitively in such expressions as the following: suplri
deSrurn ; sancte de^um; degenires cditum ; .pixciuni fetnliKe. To which
omuis, cunctus, uimo; as, omnes Macedouurn; nemo nostrum.
358.—Obs. 6. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two;
the superlative denotes a part of a number greater than two; as, major
fratrum, "the elder of two brothers;" maxlrnus fratrum, "the eldest of
(three or more) brothers." So also, titer, alter, and neuter, generally refer
to two; quis, oilius, and nullus, to more than two; as, titer nostrum ? " which
of us (two) ?" quis nostrum ? " which of us (three or more) 1" Nostrum
and vestrum are used after partitives ; seldom nostri and vestri.
359.—Obs.1. The partitive is sometimes understood; as, Fies nobi-
lium tu quoque fontium (sc. unus) HolK*
360.— Obs. 8. Instead of the genitive after the partitives, the ablative
is often,found governed by de, e, ex. or in ; or the accusative with inter or
ante;as,unus e stolcis; ante omnes pulcherrimus; inter reges
opulentisstmus.
861.—Eule XI. Adjectives of plenty or want
govern the genitive or ablative; as,
Plenus tree or xrd. Full of anger.
Inops rationis or ratidne. Void of reason.
EXPLANATION.--AS in Eule IX, the adjective here is a general term,
but limited in its application. by the genitive or ablative following it.
362.—Obs. 9. Among adjectives denoting plenty or want, a considerable
variety of construction is found.
a. Some govern the genitive only; as, benignus, exsors, impos, impbtens,
irritus, liberdlis, muuiflcus, <fec.
b. Some govern the ablative only; as, bedtus, mutllus, tumidus, turgX-
dus.
c. Some,govern the genitive more frequently; as, compos, consors, egl-
nus, exhieres, expers. ferttlis, indlgus, parous, pauper, prodlgus, stertlis,
prosper, insatidtns, insatiabXlis.
d. Some govern the .ablati»e more frequently; as, abundans, alienus,
228 SYNTAX.—GENITIVE. § 108
cassuB, extorris, flrmUt, foetus, friquens, gr&vis, gravidus, jejanus, infirmus,
liber, loctiph'S, Iwtus; mactus, nudus, onustus, orbus, pollens, saiiStus, tenuis,
truntus, viduus.
e. Some govern the genitive or ablative indiflferently; as, eopiosus, dives,
fecundus, firax, immunis, inanis, inops, largus, modicus, itnmodlcus,
nimius, opulentus, plenus, pbtens, purus, referius, s&tur, vacuus, uber.
363.—Ohs. 10. Many of these adjectives are sometimes limited by a
preposition and its case; as, Ldcus eopiosus a frumento. Cio. Ab omni re
paratus. Id. Parous in victu. Pun. In affectibus potentissimus. Quihct
Pdtens in res bellvcas, Liv. <&a
§ 108. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS.
364.—Rule XII. Sum governs the genitive of
a person or thing to which its subject belongs as a
possession, property, or duty; as.
Est regis. It belongs to the king.
HomXnis est errSre, It is characteristic of man to err.
365.—EXPLANATION.—The genitive in this constniction is supposed
to be governed by the adjective proprius, or the substantive oficium, minus,
res, negotmm, opus, &c., understood. (When it is expressed,,the genitive is
governed by it according to Eule VI.) The verb is in tlie third person,—
often has an infinitive or clause for its nominative, and may be rendered in
any way by which the sense is expressed; such as, it belongs to;—it is the
property—the part—the duty—the peculiarity—the character of, <fec. The fob
lowing ai'e examples:
Insipientis est didre rum putdram. It is the part of a fool, <fec.
MilUum est suo did parlre. It is the duty of soldiers, <feo.
Laudare se vani est, It is the mark of a vain man, <kc.
So the following—jdrrograreiii est negligire quid de se quisque sentiat.
Cia Picas est Meliboei. Vino Hcec sunt hominis. Tee. Paupiris est
nurnerare picas. Ovid. TemerUas est florentis oe^is, prudentia senectiiis.
Cia Antiqui mbris fuit. Pun.
366.—Obs. 1. Sometimes the genitive, in the predicate of a sentence,
is governed by the preceding word repeated after the verb; as. Hoc pecus
est (pious) Meliboei; Hie Uber est (liber) fratris. Sometimes the
genitive depends on some general word understood, but easily s^plied in
Sie mind; as, Thucydldes, qui ejusdem oetatis fuit, sc. homo. The same
construction is sometimes used after fio, and some other verbs; as, Asia
SYNTAX.—GENITIVE.
229
RomanSrum facta est, sc. provincia, " Asia became (a possession or
province) of the Romans."
367.—Obs. 2. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the
nominative neuter of the possessive is commonly used, agreeing with
cium, munvs, Ac., understood; as, tuum est, " it is your duty," instead of
tui; mcum est, " it is my parti," instead of mei. So also, instead of a geni¬
tive of a noun, an adjective derived from it may be used; aa, humdnutn
est; regium eat; etfacire et piXti fortia Rom&num est.
868.—Ohs. 3. If the verb be in the infinitive, the possessive pronoun
must be in the accusative; as, scio tuum esse, " I know it is your duty
and if a substantive be expressed, the possessive must agree with it in
gender, number, and ease; thus, hoe paries futrunl tuoe is equivalent to tuum
fait, or tuarum partium fuil, '"it Jvas your part."
369.—^Rule XIII. Misereor.^ mis&resco^ and so-
tago., govern the genitive; as,
Miserere civium tuorum. Pity your countrymen.
Satagit rerum sudrum, He is busy with his own hfifaira
370.—EXPLANATION.—The genitive, in this construction, has been
supposed to be governed by such a noun as negotio, causa, re, <feo., under¬
stood ; governed by the prepositions de, a, in, or the like; as, miurere de
causd civium, &a. We consider it better, however, to regard these genitives
as governed directly by the verb, and expressing, as in Greek, the cause or
origin of the feeling which the verb expresses. See Gr. Gram., § 144,
Rule XIV.
371.—Obs. 4. Many other verbs denoting some affection bf the mind
are sometimes followed by a genitive, denoting that with regard to which,
or on account of which, the affection exists. These are ango, decipior,
deaipio, discrucior, fallo, fallor, fastidio, invideo, lector, mlror, pendeo,
studeo, vereor, Ac. Thus, Absurde fitcis qui angas te animi. Plaot. Dis¬
crucior anXmi. Tee. Fallebar senndnis. Plaut. Lector maldrum. Vieq.
These verbs have commonly a different constructioa JVote 2. See iVb. 540.
Rote 1.—^The first and second of these examples resemble the peculiar
Greek construction, explained Gr. Gram., § 148, Obs. 2.
. 372.—Obs. 5. Several verbs, especially among the poets, arc found
with the genitive, in imitotion of the Greek construction (Gr. Gram., § 144,
Rules XVL and XVII.). These are abstineo, desXno, desisto, quiesco, regno ;
also, adipiscor, condlco, credo, frustror, faro, laudo, libtro, Itvo, particlpo,
prohibeo ; thus, Abstineto irdrum. Hoe. DesXne quereldrum. Id. Regnd-
vit populsrum. Id. Llvas me labdrum. Plaut.
Note 2-—All these verbs, however, in Obs. 4 and 5, have, for the most
part, a different construction, being followed sometimes, as active transi¬
tive verbs, by the accusative, %od more frequently, by the accusative or
ablative with a preposition.
230 SYNTAX—DATIVE. § 109
373.—Rule XIV. JRecordor^ memlni^ remmis-
eor, and obliviscor^ govern the genitive or ac¬
cusative; as,
Reeordo'f lectionia, or lecU'onem, I remember the lesson.
Obliviscor injurioa, or injuriam, I forget an injury.
374.—explanation.—When these verbs are followed by an ao-
cusative, they are considered transitive, and fall under Bale xx-. But when
a genitive follows them, they are regarded as intransitive; and the genitive
denotes that in regard to which the memory, <&c., is exercised.
375.—06.1.6. These verbs are often construed with an infinitive or
some part of a sentence, instead of the genitive or accusative; as, Alemlni
videre virglnem. Ter.
376.— Oha.1. Recordor and memXni, signifying "to remember," are
sometimes followed by an ablative with de. Memlni, signifying " to malte
mention of," lias a genitive or an ablative with de. Ei vlnit in mentem,
being equivalent to reeordstur, has a genitive after it; as, Ei vitiit in men-
ton potestatia tuoe.
N. B. For the genitive with verbs of accusing, see § 122;—
with verbs of valuing, § 122, R. XXVIII.;—with Passive verbs,
§ 126;—with Impersonal verbs, § 113;—with Adverbs, § 135;
denoting place, § 130, 548 and 558.
377.—§ 109. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE.
1. The Dative is used to express the remote object to which any quality or
action, or any state or condition of things tends, or to which they refer. This
tendency is usually expressed in English by the words TO or FOR. Hence,
2. The dative, in Latin, is governed by nouna, adjective^ and verba; or
denotes the object to which they refer.
2. A use of the dative of the personal pronouns, common in Greek, and
usually called the dative redundant, has also been imitated in Latin. See
Or. Gram., b\1. Rem. The following are exi^ples: Quo tantum mihi
dexter abia? Vieg. Eur mm ea. Plaut. TongUium inm eduxit. Gig
Ubi nunc nobis deua ille magister? Vieg. Ecce tibi Sebovta. Cic. Suo
siBi gladio huncjugulo.—But, though the dative thus used is said to be
redundant, still it adds something to the meaning or emphasis of the ex¬
pression, or shows that the person expressed in the dative has some rela
tion to, or participation in, the fact expressed; thus. Fur mihi ea,"(in
mg opinion,) you arc a thief."
§ 110, 111 SYNTAX—DATIVE.
231
§ 110.—DATIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES.
378.—Rule XV. Substantives frequently go¬
vern tbe dative of tbeir object; as,
379.—EXPLANATION.—Under this rule, the governing substantive
generally denotes .an affection, or some advantage, or disadvantage, or act,
which is limited, as to its object, by the dative following it, as in the pre¬
ceding examples.
380—Obs. 1. Enle. The dative of the possessor is governed
by substantives denoting the thing possessed; as,
£!i vinit in men tern. It came into hie mind.
Cui corpue porrigitur, Whoee body is extended.
381.—Obs. 2. The dative in this construction is said to be used for, or
instead ofi the genitive, as in Rule VL There are but few instauces, how¬
ever, in which the genitive under that rule could, with propriety, be
changed for the dative. On the other hand, when, the dative is used, the
genitive would fail to express so precisely the idea intended. In this con¬
struction, the noun governing the dative is connected with a verb in such
a way as clearly to show, that the dative is rather the object of that which
is expressed by the verb and noun together, than under the government
of the noun alone Thus, in the first example, ei denotes the person to
whom that which is expressed by venii in mentem, occurred. Sd, corpue
porrigltur states what was done to the person represented by cui. The
principle of this construction will be more manifest from what is stated 5U2.
§ 111. J-HE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES.
382.—Rule XVI. Adjectives signifying profit
or disprofit, likeness . or unlikeness, govern the
dative; as,
383.—EXPLANATION.—^The dative under this rule, like the genitive
under Rule IX, is used to limit the meaning of tbe adjective to a particular
object or end, to which the quality expressed by it is directed. Thus, in the
first example, sMie means " usMul" in a general sense; beUo limits the use
Hostis virtutibue,
Exiiinm pecori, .
Obtemperantia legibue,
An enemy to virtue.
Destruction to the fiock.
Obedience to the laws.
imiis bello,
Similie patri,
Useful for war.
Like his father.
232 SYNTAX.—DATIVE. §111.
fulness intended to a particular object, " war." The dative, thus used is
rendered by its ordinary signs to or for, but sometimes by other prepositions,
or without a preposition, as in the last example.
OBSERVATIONS.
384.—Obs. 1. To this rule belong adjectives signifying:
IsL Profit, or disprofit; as, benigtms, bdnus, commUdut, fllix ;—damnSttu,
dXrm, exitiomis, funesl-us, Ac.
2d. Pleasure, or pain; as, acceptus, dulcis, grdtus,jttcundu», leetut, suOvit;
—acerbus, am&rus, ingratus, molestus, &c.
Sd. Friendship, or hatred; as, ceguus, amicus, blandus, carus, dedttus,
fldus;—adversus, asper, crudelis, in/eslus, Ac.
4th. Perspicuity, or obscurity; as, apertus, cerius, compertus, eonspicuut,
notus ;—ambiguus, dubius, igndtus, obscurus, Ac.
6th. Propinquity; as, Jinitlmus, propior, proxlmus, propinquus, socius,
vicinus, afflnis, Ac.
6th. Fitness, or unfitness; as, aptus, apposlius, habHis, idoncus, opportHnus;
—ineptus, iuhabllis, importunus, Ac.
7th. Ease, or difSculty; as,/acXlis, levia, obvius, pervius;—difficUia, arduua,
gravis. Also those denoting propensity or readiness; as, pronus,
procllvis, propenaus, Ac.
8th. Equality; or inequality; likeness, or tmlikeness; as, aquOlia, agues-
vus, par, compar;—inagu&lis, impar, dispar, diacora;—aimilia,
cemulua ;—dissimHia, alienus, Ac.
9th. Several' adjectives compounded with CON; as, cognatua, otmgruta,
consunus, conveniens, continens, Ac.
10th. Verbal adjectives in BILIS; as, amabilia, terribllia, opteUrUit, and
the like.
385.— Oba. 2.—JExc. The following adjectives have sometimes the
dative after them, and sometimes the genitive; viz: afflnis, simllia, com¬
munis, par, proprius, finitlmua, fldus, contermlnus, auperatea, conseiut,
agualis, contrarius, and adversus ; as, sirtCdis tlbi, or lui.
Consdua and some other adjectives, govern the dative according to this
rule, and, at the same time, a genitive by Rule IX.; as. Mens albi conaHa
recti, "a mind conscious to itself of rectitude." Vies.
386—Obs. 8. Adjectives signifying motion or tendency to a thing,
take after them the accusative with ad, rather than the dative; as, pro-
cllvua, pronus, propenaus, vilox, ciler, tardus, pXger, Ac.; thus, Plger ad
poenas. Ovin. •
387.—Oba. 4. Adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and the con¬
trary, often take the accusative with ad; as, utllis ad nullam rem, " good
for nothing."
888—Obs. 5. Propior and proxlmus take after them sometimes the
genitive, sometimes- the dative, or the accusative governed by ad under¬
stood; as, propior caliglnis aer ; propius veto ; proxlmus (ad) Fompeium.
389.—Oba. 6. Some adjectives that govern the dative, sometimes,
SYNTAX.—DATIVE.
238
instead of the dative, have an ablative 'with a preposition expressed or un¬
derstood ; as, discors secum; alienum nostrd mnicitid.
390.— Obs. 1. Idem is sometimes followed by th^ dative, chiefly in the
poets; as, Jupiter idem omnibus; InvUum gui servat, idem fdcit
oeeidenti.. In prose, idem is followed commonly by qui, ae, atque, ut, or
quam, 728.
§ 112. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS.
391.—^Kule XVII. All verbs govern the dative
of the object or end, to which the action, or state
expressed by them, is directed; as.
Finis vlnit imperio, An end has come to the empire.
Animus rldit hostibus, Courage returns to the enemy.
Tijbi siris, tibi mitis. You sow for yourself, you reap for yourself
392.—EXPLANATION.—This rule may be considered as general, ap¬
plying to all cases in which a verb is followed by a dative. When the verb
is transitive active, it governs its remote object in the dative, not as that
upon which the action is exerted, but as that to which it is directed, while, at
the same time, it governs also its immediate object in the accusative (501).
If intransitive, it will be followed by a dative only.
This rule^ being applicable to all cases in which a dative follows a verb, is
too general to be useful, as it could be applied correctly without much discri¬
mination. It will therefore be of more advantage, when it can be done, to
apply the special rules comprehended under it as follows:
SPECIAL RULES.
893.—1. /Sum, and its compounds, govern the
dative (except possum) ] asj
Preefuit exereitui. He commanded the army.
Debemus omnibus prodesse. We ought to do good to all.
394.—II. The verb ^st, signifying to he, or to
belong to, governs the dative of the possessor; as.
Est mihi liber, A book is to me, i. e. I have a book.
Sunt mihi libri. Books are to me, i. e. I have books.
Scio libros esse mihi, I know that books are to me, i. e.—that I have, <fec.
395.—EXPLANATION.—In this construction, the dative expresses the
person or thing, to or for which the subject spoken of, is, or exists. The
verb will always be in the third person singular, or plural, in any tense, or
234
SYNTAX,—DATIVE.
§ 112
in the infinitive.—This very common Latin construction will be rendered
correctly into English, by the verb " have," instead of " is," &c., of which
the word in the dative^ in Latin, becomes the subject or nominative in En¬
glish, and the Latin nominative, the object, as is shown in the above
examples.—For the verb e»t with the gerund, see 699.
396.—Ohs. 1. The dative ij used in a similar maimer after pirem,
guppito ; degum, dejicio, &c.; as, Pauper non eat cui rerum a upp it it
Hxaa," He is not poor to whom the use of property ie supplied," L e. who
has the use of property. Hob. So, si mi hi cauda foret.—Ahest and
deest mihi. as opposed to est mihi,me&n, "I have not."—So, dcfuit are
V obi a,—lac m i hi non defi t,—n\ai vlnum nobis defecisse t,—&c.
Note.—An adjective, or participle, denoting willingness or unwillingness,
agreeing with the dative after est, is sometimes put for a verb of like
signification, having the word in the dative for its subject; thus, Mihi
volenti est=volo; tlbi invito fuit=noluisti, <fec".; as, Ahqnid mihi volenti
est, •' I like (or wish) a thingAftgairf mihi invito est," 1 dislike a,
thing." So, Qui bus bellam volentibua irai, "Who wished for
war," Tac., Agr, 18;—Neque plebi militia volenti esse pntabatur,
" It was thought the Common people did not wish for war," or," That war
would not bd agreeable to the common people."—This is a Greek con¬
struction, for which see Greek Grammar, ^ 148, Obs. 3.
397.—IIL Verbs compounded of sdtiSy bene,
and male, govern the dative \ as,
398.—Obs. 2. These compounds are often written separately, and the
dative is governed by the combined force of the two words.
399.—IV. Many verbs compounded with these
ten prepositions ad, ante, con,—in, inter, oh,—
post, prcB, sub, and super, govern the dative; as,
400.—Verbs governing the dative under this rule are such
as the following;-viz.
1. Aecldo, accresco, aecumbo, acquiesco, adno,^dn&to, adequlto, adheereo,
adsto, adstipulor, advolvor, affulgeo, allabor, allabOro, annuo, appareo,
applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, asplro, assentior, assideo, assisto, assMSCO,
assurgo.
2. Antecello, anteeo, antesto, anteverto,
3. Colludo, concXno, consono, convlvo.
4. Incumbo, indormio, indublto, inhio, ingemisco, inhoereo, insideo, inst-
dear, insto, insisto, insUdo, inaulto, invigUo, illacrymo, illwdo, itnmineo,
immorior, immOror, imptndeo. ■
Legthus satisficit,
Benefackre reipubHcce,
He satisfied the laws.
To benefit the state.
Annue coeptis,
Favor our undertakings.
§ 112 SYNTAX.—^DATIVE. 235
6. hiervenio, ii temiico, inlercedo, intercXdo, itUeryaceo.
6. Obrepo, oblucto, obtrecto, obstrlpo, obmurmUro, occumho, occfurro, oe-
eurso, obslo, obsisto, obvenio.
1. Post/iro, postAabeo, postpoTW, postp&to, postscribo, with an accusative.
8. Proeeedo, prvecurro, pr<eeo, ptcmdeo, produceo, prceniteo, proesto, prat-
valeo, pratverto.
9. Succcdo, suceumbo, sufficio, mffrAgor, tubcresco, suholeo, subjaceo,
subrepo.
10. Supervenio, aupercttrro, supersto. But most verbs compounded with
SUPER govern the accusative.
401.— Obs. 8. Some verbs compounded witb ab. de, ex, circum, and
contra ; also compoimds of di aud dia, meaning generally " to differ," are
sometimes followed by the dative. These, however, chiefly fall under
Rule XXXI., § 125.
402.—Ob*. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of
the dative, take the case of the preposition, which is sometimes repeated.
Some intransitive vei'bs so compounded, either take the dative, or, acquir¬
ing a transitive signification by the force of the preposition, govern the
accusative by Rule XX.; as, Heheiii rehguos Gal lot virtute praci-
dunt, "The Helvetii surpa-is the other Gauls in bravery."
403.—V, Verbs govern tbe dative which signi¬
fy to profit or hurt;—to favor or assist, and the
contrary;—to command-and obey, to serve and
resist;—to threaten and to be angry; to trust.
404.—EXPLANATION.—Verbs governing the dative, under this and
the preceding rule, are always intransitives or transitives used intransitively,
and consequently it is applicable to the active voice only. The dative after
passive verbs, does not come under these rules, but belongs to § 126,
Rule XXXIII.
405.— Obs. 5. The verbs under this rule are such as the fol¬
lowing ;
1st. To profit or hurt; as,
Proficio, promm, placeo, commido, prospicio, caveo, metuo, timeo, cons&lo,
{or prospicio. Likewise, noceo, officio, incommbdo, displiceo, &c.
2d. To favor or assist, and the contrary; as,
Paveo, gratulor, grati/ieor, grator, ignosco, indidgeo, parco, aditlor,
plaudo, blandior, lenoclnor, palpor, assentor, subparasltor Likewise,
auxilior, adminiddor, subvenio, succurro, patrocinor, medeor, medlcor,
opitiilor. Likewise, derbgo, delraho, invideo, cemulor.
3d. To command and obey, to serve and resist; as,
bnpiro, prcecipio, mando ; m^dlror, for mSdum adhibeo. Likewise, pareo,
ausculto, obedio, obsiquor, obiempero, iM/rem giro, morigbror, obsecundo.
236
SYNTAX.—DATIVE.
Likewise,/amiilor, servio, inservio, ministro, ancillor. Likewise, repugnc
obsto, reluetoT, renltor, resisto, refragor, adversor.
4th. To threaten and to be angry; as,
JJlnor, commlnor, irascor, suecenseo.
5th. To trust; as, J^ido, confido, credo, diffldo.
To these, add, nUbo, exeello, hcereo, suppffco, cSdo, detplro, optror, proe-
ftolor, prcevaricor; recipio, "to promise;" renuncio; reitpondeo, "to
answer," or " satisfytemplro, Uitdeo ; vaco," to be at leisure forconvicior.
Exc.—Jubeo,jiivo, lado, and offendo, govern the accusative.
406.—Obi. 6. Many of these verbs, however, are variously construed,
the same verb sometimes governing the dative aecording to this rule; and
sometimes, taken in a transitive sense, governing the accusative by Rule XX.
Sometimes they are followed by an accusative with a preposition, and
sometimes by an ablative with a preposition. I1ius, impendere atUui, or
ahquem, or in allguem, " to hang overcongruire atlcui, cum atlgua re,
inter se, " to agree."
407.—Obs. 1. Many verbs, when they vary their construction, vary
their meaning also; as, Timeo fibi,—de te,—pro te, signifies, " I fear for
you," i e. " for your safetybut timeo te, means, " I fear you," " I dread
you," Cons&lo tibi, is " I consult for you," i. e." for your safety." ConsSlo
te, means " I consult you, I ask your adviceand so of others.
408.—Obs. 8. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, instead
of the dative, have usually the preposition ad or in with the accusative;
as, clamor it ad caelum; seldom, and chiefly with the poets, coeLo.
§ 113. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONALS.
409.—^Eule XVIII. ^ impersonal verb governs
the dative; as,
Expidit reipubUca, It is profitable for the stata
410.—EXPLANATION.—This rule applies to the dative governed by
the passive of all those verbs which, in the active voice, govern the dative
only, according to Nos. 897, 399 and 403,—t^g passive of all intransi-
tives being used only impersonally (223-3); favUur mihi, " 1 am favored,"
not egofaveoT. When the passives of such verbs are used personally, then
the verb is to be considered as used in a transitive sense. 406.
OBSERVATIONS.
411.—06s. 1. These verbs, potest, caepit, incXpit, desXnit, debet, and
sblet, before , the infinitive of impersonals, become impersonal also; as, non
pbtest crldi tibi, " you cannot be believed"
§ 113 * SYNTAX.—^DATIVE.
237
412.—Obs. 2. Some verbs are used both personally tnd impersonally
as, doleo," I grieveddlet mihi, " it grieves me," L e. " I grieve." So also
verbs commonly used impersonally sometimes have a subject in the
nominative, and are, of coui'se, used personally. This is the case especially
with such nominatives as these—id, hoc, illud, quid, quod, nihil, &a.; as,
Nonm hcec te pudentl " Are you not ashamed of these things
413.—Obs. 3. An infinitive mood or part of a sentence is commonly
joined to an impersonal verb, which, in fact, may be regarded as its sub
ject; as, delectat me studere, "it delights me to study," Le. "to study
delights me " 307 and 662.
414.— Obs. 4. The dative after impersonals is sometimes understood;
a.B, faciat quod libet (sc. sibi).
415.—Exo. I. Befert and Interest govern the
genitive; as,
416.—But, instead of tlie genitives rfiei.^ tm,
sui, <fec., the possessives mea^ hia, sita, nostra^
vestm, are used; as.
417.—Obs. 6. The case and construction of these possessives are in
much doubt. Some regard them as the accusative plural neuter agreeing
with negotia or commSda governed hy ad; as, non {gd negotia) mea refert.
But as the final a, in this construction, is found in Terence to bat long,
others consider it in the ablative singular, feminine, agreeing with re or
causa governed by in; as, in mea re non rifert; while others suppose that
mea, tua, <Stc, are abbreviations from meam, tuam, a&a, agreeing with rem,
and hence the final a long. Non nostrum tantas componbre lUes. It is
more manifest that rSfert, in which i is long, is not from rifiro, but from
res and/(^ro, and means, impersonally, "it profits," "it befits," "it con¬
cerns," Ac. Sometimes it is used personally with hoc, id, or an infinitive,
for its subject. It is equally obvious that if mea or tua, or sna, &o., agrees
with some word understood, then the genitive under the rule may be
governed by the same word, according to Rule VL; i, e. if mea refert is
for mea negotia, Ac., refert, then refert patris may be for rifert negotia
patn's, whether negotia m the accusative, or re in the ablative, be governed
directly by the verb, or by a preposition understood.
418.—Obs. 6. Instead of the genitive, these verbs sometimes take the
accusative with a preposition; as, rifert ad me, for refert mea, i. e. met.
Sometimes they are used absolutely, without a case expressed.
419.—Exc. II. These five Mish'et.^ pcemtet.,
pudet^ t(Bde% and ]^et^ govern the accusative of
Refert patris,
Intirest omnium.
It concerns my father.
It is the interest of all
Non mea refert.
It does not concern me.
288
SYNTAX.—^DATIVE.
the immediate, with the genitive of the remote
object; as,
420.—EXPLANATION.—^These examples may be rendered literally
thus: " It grieves me on account of you," 1. e. ergo, or causa tui" It
repents me of my sin;"—"It wearies me of life;"—"It shames me of my
&ult" For the method of rendering Impersonal verbs in a personal form, as
in the above examples, see 223-6.
421.—Obs. 7. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence may supply
the place of the genitive; as, jxxnitet me peccdsse, or quod peccavirim.
Nan paeriUel me quantum profecirim. is found with an
accusative instead of the genitive; as, Menedemi vie em misiret me.
The accusative of the immediate object is sometimes omitted; as, Scelg-
rum si bine pes nit et (sciL nos). Hon.
422.—Obs. 8. The preterites of these verbs, in the passive form, go¬
vern the same cases as the active; as, iliseritum est me tuarum for-
tun&rum. Ter. Miserescit and miseritur are sometimes used imper¬
sonally; as, A/iseresct< me tui. Ter. Misereatur te fratrum; Hequ*
me tui, neque tuSrum liber drum miseriri potest, Cia
423.—^Exc. III. Decet, ddectat., juvat., and opor-
tet., govern the accusative of a person with the
infinitive; as.
424.—Obs. 9. These verbs are sometimes used personally; as, Par-
vum parva dtcent. Hor. JDicet sometimes govenis the dative; as, lla
nobis dlcet. Ter.
425.—Obs. 10. Oportet, instead of the infinitive, elegantly takes the
subjunctive with ut, " that," understood; as, Sibi (ut) quisque consHlat
oportet. Cia When followed by the perfect participle, esse or fuisse is
ui.derstood, which, being supplied, makes the perfect infinitive.
426.—Obs. II. Fallit, fugit, prcetirit, l&tet, when used impersonally,
are construed with the accusative and infinitiv^ as, fugit me adte seri-
hire. Cia
§ 114. VERBS GOVERNING TWO DATIVES.
42V.—^Kule XIX. The verbs sum, do, \abeo,
and some others, with the dative of the ck^ed,
Misiret me tui,
Paenitet me pecedii.
Taedet me vUce,
P6det me evlpce.
I pity you.
I repent of my sia
I am weary of life.
I am ashamed of my fault
Belectat me studire,
Non dicet te rixdri.
It delights me to study.
It does not become you to scold.
SYNTAX.—DATIVE.
239
govern also the dative of the end^ or design;
as,
1 zt. 1 (It is to me for a pleasure, L e.
1. Ea mthi volupmi, I ^ aWsur; to me.
2. Hoc mlsit mihi muniri. This he sent as a present to me.
3. DucUur honsri Mi, ^ It is reckoned to you for an honor, Le.
' J It IS reckoned an honor to you.
428.—EXPLANATION.—In these examples, it is manifest that the
■words vohiftdti, Tumori, and nvuneri, each express the end or design for which
the thing spoken of, or referred to, is, if reckoned, is sent, to the object ex¬
pressed by the other datives, mihi and tibi. See also 431.
The verb sum, with th^ dative of the end, may be variously rendered, ac¬
cording to the sense, by such words as, brings, affords, serves, &c. For, the
sign of the dative, is often omitted, especially after sum.
OBSERVATIONS.
429.—Obs. 1. Verbs governing two datives tmder this rule, are chiefly,
sum, fire, fio, habeo, do, verio, relinquo, tribiM, duco; and a few othera
430.—Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the end, the nominative after
est, &c., or the accusative in apposition with the object of the preceding
verb, expresses the same thing; as. Amor est exitium pecSri, for exitio;
Se Aehilli c omit em essed&tum duit, for comiti. In the first example,
exitium is the nominative after est, by Rule V. In the second, coniUetn is
in apposition with se, by Rule I.
431.—Obs. 3. Intransitive verbs, such as sum, fore, Jio, eo, curro.pro-
ficiscor, venio, cedo, suppedito, are followed by two datives, as in the first
example; transitive verbs in the active voice, besides the two datives,
have an accusative expressed or understood by Rule XX., as in the second
example; and in the passive voice, two datives, as in the third example,
the one by Rule. XXIX, and the other by this rule.
432.—Obs. 4. The dative of the object (commonly a person) is often to
be supplied; as, est exemplo, indicio, preesidio, usui, <Stc., sciL mihi, allcui,
homiiilbus, or some such word. So, ponire, opponire, pignbri, scil. alicui,
" to pledgecanire receptui, scil. suis militibus, " to sound a retreat
habere euros, questui, odio, voluptdti, studio, &c., scil. sibi.
433.—Obs. 5. To this rule is sometimes referred the forms of naming,
so common in Latin.; such as. Est mihi nomen Alexandro; Cui cog¬
nomen lulo addltur. The construction 261 is much better.
434.—Obs. 6. From constructions under this rule, should be distin¬
guished those in which, the second dative may be governed by another
noun in the dative, according to 318.
N. B. For the dative with the accusative, see § 123.
For the dative after the passive voice, see § 126.
For the dative after particles, see 598 and 600.—After
Hei and Fee, 453h
240
SYNTAX—^ACCUSATIVE. § 115, 116
435.—§ 115. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE.
1. The accusatire, in Latin, is used to express the immediate object of
a transitive active verb,—or, in other words, that on which its action is
exerted, and which is afiected by it
2 It is used to express the object to which something tends or relates,
in u'hich sense it is governed by a preposition, expressed or understood.
When used to express the remote object of a transitive verb, or certain
relations of measure, distance, time, and place, the preposition is usually
omitted.
§ 116. ACCUSATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS.
436.—^Rule XX. A transitive verb in the active
voice, governs the accusative; as,
Ama Dmm, Love GkxL
SPECIAL RULES.
487.—I. A transitive deponent verb governs
tbe accusative; as,
Reverire parentea. Reverence your parents.
438.—II. An intransitive verb may govern a
noun of kindred signification, in the accusative; as,
Pugnire ptignam, To fight a battle.
439.—EXPLANATION.—These rules apply to all verbs which have an
accusative as their immediate object; and that accusative may he any thing
used substantively, whether it be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or
elavoe of a eentence. Intransitives under Rule II. are often followed by the
ablative, with a preposition expressed or. understood; as. Ire (in) Umere,
gmidere (cum) gaudio, &c. *
440.—Obs. 1. Verbs signifying to name, choose, reckon, constitute, and
the like, besides the accusative of the object, take also the accusative of
Hfio name, office, character, <fcc., ascribed to it; Ba,urbem Rem am wed
vit, " he called the city Rotne." All such verbs, in the passive, have the
same case after as before them. (320).
441.—Obs. 2. Verbs commonly intransitive, are sometimes used in a
§ 116 SYNTAX.—^ACCUSATIVE. 2-il
transitive sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative uutler tliis
rule; thus,
TEAJiSIIIVE.
AbltorrSre fdmam, to dread infamy.
Abolere monmnenta, to abolish, <tc.
Declindre ictum, to avoid a blow.
Labordre arma, to forge arma.
Mordri iter, to stop.
Inteansiiive.
Abhorrlre a liCibus, to be averse, <fec;
Memoria abolevit, memory failed.
Declindre liko, to remove from, <tc.
Labordre morbo, to be ill
Mordri in urbe, to stay in the city.
To these may be added horrSre, fur ire, vivire, liuUre; and verbs signi¬
fying to taste of, to smell of, <fec.; as, horrere allquid ; furire bpus ccedis ;
Bacchanalia vlvunt; ludire plla; redulire vlnUm ; pastillos Rujillus diet,
Oorgonius hircum ; mella herbam sapiunt; unguenta terrain sapiunt.
442.—Obs. 3. The accusative, after many intransitive verbs, depends
on a preposition understood; as, Morientem nomine cldviat; Meas
queror fortunas; Num. i d lacrymat virgo ; Quioquid dellrant reges,
plectuntur Achlvi; Stygias juravlmus undas; Maria ambulavisset, ter¬
rain navigdsset, Pascuntur vero sy I vas, Id.-Ire exsequias;
Ibo ami cam me am, Piabt. ; Ac. In these, and similar sentences, the
prepositions ob, propter, circa, per, ad, in, &c., may be supplied.
This construction of intransitive verbs is most common with the neuter
accusatives id, quid, allquid, quicquid, nihil, Idem, illud, tanium, quantum,
hoc, multa, alia, pauca, &c.
443.— Obs. 4. The accusative, after many verbs, depends on
a preposition with which they are compounded. This is the
case,
1st With intransitive verbs; as, Oentcs quae m&re illud adjacent,
" the nations which border upon that sea." So; ineuiit prcelium,
adire provinciam, transcurrere mdre, alldquor te, <fec. Thus com¬
pounded. many verbs seem to become transitive in sense, and so
govern the accusative by this rule. In general, however, they fall
under Rule LIL
2d. With transitive verbs, in which case two accusatives follow—one go¬
verned by the verb, and another by the preposition; as, Omnetn
equitdtum pontem transducit, "He leads all the cavalry
over the bridge;"—Hellespontum copias trajecit. Here
also the second accusative falls under Rule Ltl.
Mote 1.—After most verbs, however, compounded with prepositions go¬
verning the accusative, the preposition is repeated before it; as, Ccesar se
ad neminem adjunxit.
444.— Obs. 5. a. The accusative after a transitive verb, especially if
a reflexive pronoun, or something indefinite or easily supplied, is some¬
times understood; as, turn prora avertit, seil. se ; fumlna prcecipltant, scih
»e; faciam vitiild, Bcil. sacra; hineficit Silius, scil. hoc,
b. Sometimes the verb which governs the accusative is omitted, espe¬
cially in rapid or animated disc^rse; thus, the interrogative quid often
stands alone for quid ais ? quia censes ? or the like. So also, quid vero I
quid igtturf quid ergot qwM inirn? Quid quod, commonly rendered
SYNTAX.—VOCATIV E.
"nay," "nay even," "but now," "moreover," may b'. recoive'' tbus, Quid
dlcam de eo quod. With quid multa? quid plura? ne multa, tie plura,
sell, verba, supply dlcam ; as, Quid dlcam multa (verba) But, quid poslea /
quid turn ? aud the like, may be regarded as the nominative to eeqallur
uuderstood; and the phrase quid V.a ? may be resolved by supplying the
preceding verb or some part of facia.
445.—Obs. 6. Rule. The infinitive mood, or part of a
sentence (439), is often used as the object of a transitive verb,
instead of the accusative (665 and 670,. Note); as.
Da mihi fall ere, <Jive me to deceive.
Cupio me eexe clementem, I desire to be gentle.
Statuerunt ut naves conscen- They determined that they would
dirent. embark.
Note 2.—In such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes,
by a Greek idiom, put in the accusative as the object of the verb; as,
Nbsti Marcellum, quam tardus sit; instead of Nosti quam tardus ilareellus
sit. So, ilium ut vivat optant, instead of ut ille vlvat dptant; or ilium
vtvire optant. 6r. Gram., § 160, Obs. 4.
446.—Obs. 1. A few cases occur in which the accusafive is put after
a noun derived from a verb, or the verba-l adjectives in bundus ; as. Quid
tibi hue receptio ad te est meum vlrum? ' Wherefore do you re¬
ceive my husband hither to you ?" Plaut. Quid tibi ha tic additio est.
Id. Vitabandus castra. Lrv.
447.— Obs. 8. Many verbs considered transitive in Latin, are intransi¬
tive in English, and.must have a preposition supplied in translating; as,
Ut caver et tne," That he should beware of me." On the other hand,
many intransitive verbs in Latin, i. e. verbs Which do not take an accusa
tive after them, are rendered into English by transitive verbs; as. For-
tuna f& vet f o rtibus," Fortune favors the brave"
N. B. For the Accusative governed by Recordor, &c., see
373 ;—with another accusative, 508 ;—governed by preposi¬
tions, 602, 607, 608, 613;—denoting time, 565, R. XLI.;—
place, 553;—measure or distance, 573; in exclamations, 451.
§ 117. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ^VOCATIVE.
448.—The vocative is used to designate the person or thing addressed,
but forms no part of the proposition with which it stands; and it is used
either with, or without, an interjectioa
449.—Rule XXI. The inteijections O, heU', and
prdh, are construed with the vocative; as,
0 formbse puer I O feir boy I
§ 118
SYNTAX — -ABLATIVE.
243
450.—To these, may be added other interjeetions of calling or ad¬
dressing ; as, ah, au, ehem, eheu,, eho, eja, hem, heus, hui, io. ohe, and vah,
which are often followed by the vocative : as, Hem Syre, Ohe libelle.
451.—Obs. L In exclamations, the person or thing wondered at, is put
in the accusative, either with or without an interjection; as. Me misirum,
or, Heu me misbrum, " Ah, wretch that I am!"—sometimes in the nomina¬
tive ; as, 0 sir fortis atque amlcui. Tee. ; Audi tu, popidm Rumduus, Liv.
452.—Obt. 2. The vocative is sometimes omitted, while a genitive de¬
pending upon it remains; as, 0 mieSrce gentis, sc. homines, Lucan.
453.-06.?. 3. The interjections Hei and Fes,govern the dative; aa,Hci
mihi, " Ah me 1" Fes vobis, " Woe to you!" """
454.—Obs. 4: Ecce and en, usually take the nominative; as, Ecce
nbva turba atque rixa. En Igo.
§ 118. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABLATIVE,
455.—The ablative .is used in Latin generally, to express that from
which something is separated or taken; or, as that by or with which, some¬
thing is done, or exists. It is governed by nouns, adjectives, verbs, and
prepositions, and also is used to express various relations of measure,
distance, time, and place, die.
THE ABLATIVE AFTER nouns.
456.—Rule XXII. Opus and 'us^t,s., signifying
need., require the ablative; as,
Est opus pecuni d. There is need of money. .
Nunc usus virlbus. Now, there is need o/"Kfrcny<7i.
457.—EXPLANATION.—The ablative,, alter tlie.<c nouns, is probably
governed by a prepo>ition; siicb as pro, understood. In this sense, they are
used only with the verb sum, of which opus is sometimes the subject, and
sometimes the predicate ; usus, the subject only.
OBSERVATIONS.
458.—Obs. 1. Opus, in the predicate, is commonly used as an inde¬
clinable adjective, in which case it rarely has the ablative ; as, Dux nobis
ofius "We need a general,''Oic. So, Dices nummns mihi opus esse
Cic.; Nobis rxempla opus sunt, Cic. In these examples, opus, as an in
declinable adjective, agrees with dux, nummos, exernpla, by Rule II. This
construction is most common with neuter adjectives and pronouns, and is
always used with those denoting quantity; as, Quod non opus est, asse
cdruin est. Cato apud Sen.
d.'iO.—Obs. 2. Opus and Usus are often joined with the perfect paiti-
ciple; as, Spus maturalo, " uwd of hasteop^ts consul.lo, '■ need of de¬
liberation usus facto, " need of action." The participle has sometimes a
244
SYNTAX—^ABLATIVE.
§ 119, 120
Bubatantive joined with it after as, Mihi Spu* fuit Hiriio eon-
V en to, "It behoved me to meet with Hirtius" Cic. Sometimes the supine
is joined with it ■, as, Ita dietu 6pua eat, Teb.
460.—Oba. 3. Opua is often followed by the infinitive, or by the sub¬
junctive with ut; as, ISiquid forte, quod 6pua aitaciri, Cic. ■ Nunc tlbi
bpua eat,<Bgram ut te adaimilea, Plaut. Sometimes it is absolutely
without a case, or with a case understood; as, Sic dpua est a Si opua. eat.
461 .—Exc. Opus and ilaua are sometimes followed by the genitive, by
Rule VL; as,Argenti 6pus fuit, "There was need of money;" sometimes
by an accusative, in which case an infinitive is probably understood; as,
Nulro 6pus est clbum; scU. habere, ptact.
§ 119. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES.
[For the ablative governed by adjectives of plenty or want, see 361.]
462.—^Kule XXIII. These adjectives dignus,
indignus., contentibs., proedUus,, captus., and fretus;
also the participles ndtus., -satus., ortus, edltu-s, and
the like, denoting origin, govern the ablative; as,
Bignus honore, Worthy of honor.
Contentus parvo. Content with bttle.
Prcedllus virtuie, Endued with virtue.
Captus ocUlis, Blind (injured in his eyes).
Fretus viribus. Trusting in his strength.
Ortus regibus. Descended from kings.
463.—EXPLANATION.—The ablative, after these adjectives and par-
tici pies, is governed by some preposition uuderstood; as, cum,'de, e, ex, in, &e.
Sometimes it is expressed ; as, Ortus ex concublnd, Sallost.
464.— Obs. 1. Instead of the ablative, these adjectives often take an
infinitive, or a subjunctive claitse with qui, or ut; as, Bignus amdri,
ViRG.; Bignus qui imperet. Ore.; Non sum dignus, ut flgam pdr
lum in pariUem, Plaut.
46.5.—Exc. Bignus, indignus, and conientus, are sometimes followed
by the genitive; as, Bignus avorum, ViRO. For the ablative governed by
adjectives of plenty or want, see 361. m
g 120.—THE ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARATIVE
DEGREE.
466.—Rem. When two objects are compared by means of the compa¬
rative degree, a conjunction, such as, quam, ac, atque, Ac., signifying
" than," is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted. In the first, the
§120
SYKTAX.—^ABIiATIVB.
245
construction of the case falls under other rules; in the second, it falls
under the following; viz.
467.—lKule XXIV. The comparative degree,
without a conj unction, governs the ablative; as.
468.—EXPLANATION.—The ablative,, under this rule, is supposed tc
oe governed more properly by^r<B understood, which is sometimes expressed;
as, Unwprm ecUeris fortior.
469.—Obs. 1. Of these two modes of comparison, the ablative without
a conjunction is commonjy used, when the object is compared with the
subject of a proposition, or with a word> in the vocative or nominative,
addressed; as, ^id m&gis est durum saxo, quid mollius undd?
Nenttnem liomanOrum eloquentiorem fuisse vetires judicdrunt Ci-
cerOne; O fans Bandusiee, splendidior vitro, Hon. But when,
in such a comparison, quam is used, the second substantive will be in the
same case with the first, because, in the same construction; as, Melior est
certa pax, quam spereUa victoria (est); JUeliorem esse certain p&cem
putabat, quam sperdlam p etc em (esse).
Note 1.—The construction of the ablative without quam, is sometimes
used, especially by the poets, when the first substantive is not the subject
of a verb; as, Exlgi monumentum cere perennius. Hoe.; Cur oil-
vum sanguine viperlno cautius vliat? Hoe. This is always so,
when the second object of comparison is expressed by a relative; as. Hie
Attdlo, quo graviorem inimlcum non habui, sororem in matrimonium
dedit, " He gave his sister in marriage to Attains, tAan whom, die."
470.—Obs. 2. When the object is compared with the predicate of a
proposition, the conjunction quam is commonly used, and then there are
two cases.
1st. If the verb after quam is not expressed, but may easily be supplied
from the preceding clause, and if the first substantive is in the
accusative, the second is put by attraction in the accusative also;
as. Ego homlnem callidiorem vldi nemlnem quam PhormiOnem,
instead of quam Phormio est.
2d. But if the verb after quam cannot be supplied from the preceding
clause, the substantive must be in the nominative with est, fuit, <tc.,
expressed; as, Meliorem quani ego sum, suppono tlbi; Hcec sunt
verba M. Varronis, quam fuit Clodius, doclioris; Argentum
reddidisti L. Carridio, homlni non gratiosiSri quam Cn. Clodius
est, Cio.
471.— Obs. 3. Quam is freguently understood after plus, minus, and
amplius, and sometimes after major, minor, and some other comparatives
without a change of case ; as, Capta plus (quam) quinque millia liomlnum,
Bulcior melle,
Proestantior auro,
Perennius xsre.
Sweeter than honey.
More precious'than gold.
More durable than brass.
OBSERVATIONS.
246
SYNTAX.—^ABLATIVE.
" More than five thousand men were taken;" OBildes ne minSres {quam)
octdnum denum annOrwn.
Note.—^These words are also followed by the ablative without qxuim,
according to the rule. ' ■
472.—06s. 4. When the second member of a comparison is an infi¬
nitive mood, or a part of a sentence, quam is always expressed; as, Nihil
turpius est quam mentlri.
473.—Obs. 6. The comparative is often followed by the ablative of
the following nouns, adjectives, and participles; viz. qpinione. spe, expecta-
tione, flde,-^icto, gotUo,—tequo, crediblli, Justo ; as, citius die to, tum-
\da eequSra pi Heat, Yma. These ablatives often supply the place of a
clause; as, ^ravius se g u o, equivalent to ^ravitss quam cequum est.
These ablatives are sometimes omitted; as, Liberius vivebat, as. cequo,
"He lived more freely than vias proper i" i. e. "He lived too freely" ov,
" rather freely."
474.—Obs. 6. When one quality is compared with another, in the same
subject, the adjectives expressing them are both put in the positive degree
with mdgis quam, or in the comparative connected by quam; as, ars
magis magna quam difficilis. Tiiumphtis clarior quam gra-
tior, "a triumph tnorefamous than aeeeptableP Gr. 6r. 393-3.
475.—Obs. 7. The prepositions pros, ante, prater, and supra, are some¬
times used with a comparative; as, scelire ante alios immanior omnes:
also with a superlative; as, a'nte alios carissimus. Pro is used after
quam, to express proportion; as, Pralium atrocius quam pro numiro
pugnanlium.
47G.—Obs. 8. Magis and minus joined to the positive degree, are
equivalent to the comparative; as, 0 luce m&gis dilecta. Mdgis and
plus joined with a comparative, only strengthen it; as. Nihil invenies
mdgis hoe certius,
477.—Obs. 9. Inferior, sometimes governs the dative; as, vir nulld
arte cuiquam inferior; the ablative also is found, but it is usually
followed by quam.
478.—06s 10. Alius is sometimes construed like comparatives, and
sometimes, though rarely, is followed by the ablative; as, mm pules
alium sapienle bonoque beatum.
479.—Obs. 11. The conjunction ac, or atque, in the sense of than, is
sometimes used after the comparative degree (728), instead of quam; as,
Arctius atque hed&ra procera adstringltur,ilex, Hon.
§ 121. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS.
480.—Rule XXV. Verbs of plenty and scarce¬
ness, f< r the most part govern tbe ablative; as,
bundat divitiis. He abounds in riches.
dret omni eulpd, He has no fault.
§122 syntax.—^accusative and genitive. 247
481.—EXPLANATION.—The ablative after such verbs, may bo go¬
verned by a preposition understood ;—semetimes it is expressed ; as, eaccrf
a culpi. Or it may be used to limit the verb, by showing in what respect
its meaning is to be taken; as, abounds in bespeqt of eiches." (See
K. XXXIV.) Instances of this construction, however, are so common as to
warrant the rule here given.
482.— Obs. 1. Verbs of plenty are such as, Abundo, affluo, exubbro.
rediindo, suppedUo, scallop <fec, of want, eareo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, dejieior,
destituor, <tc.
483.—Exc. 1. Egeo, and indigeo, sometimes govern the genitive; as,
Eget aeris, "He needs money," Hoe. ; Aon tarn, art is indigent, quam
labor is, Cio. So, also, some verbs denoting to Jill, to abound, such as,
abundo, eareo, saiS.ro, scatlo.
484.—Rule XXVL Utor,, ahutor, fruor,, fungor^
potior,, v€S<xn\ govern the ablative; as,
J TJntur frauds. He uses deceit.
AbutUur libris. He abuses books.
485.—Obs. 2. To these, add gaudeo, creor, nascor, fldo, vivo, victlto,
consto, labOro (" to be ill"); pascor, epydor, riUor, <Stc.
486.—Exc. 2. Potior often governs the genitive; as, 'Potlri urbis,
" To get possession of the cityPotlri rerum (never rebus), "To possess
the chief command." In such cases, the genitive may be governed by im-
perio, imderstood.
487.—Exc. 3. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor, and pascor, sometimes
govern the accusative; as, Potlri urbem, Cic.; Officio fungi, &o.; and also,
in ancient writers, utor, abutor, and fruor. Eepasco and d^pascor have the
accusative always.
N. B. For the ablative of the adjunct, see § 106, R.' "VII.
—For the ablative governed by adjectives of plenty, or want,
§ 107, Rule XL ;—by verbs of loading, binding, &c., § 125;—
by passive verbs, § 126, Rule V;—by a preposition, § 136,
R. XLIX., LI., LU.
For the ablative of limitation, see § 128;—of cause, man¬
ner, &e., § 129;—of Xh& place where, § 130, Exc.;—-from
which, § 130, 3 ;—of time when, § 131, R. XL.;—How long,
R. XLI.;—of measure, § 132, R. XLII.;—of excess, R. XLIIL;
—of price, § 133;—iu the case absolute, § 146, R. LX.
8 122. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND
GENITIVE.
488.—Many transitive vejbs, with the accusative of the direct object,
govern also another word, to which the action has an indirect or remote
248 SYNTAX.—ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. § 122
reference, in the genitive, dative, accusative, or ablative, as the nature of
that reference may require. All verbs under these rules, are transitive
Verbs in the active voice, or transitive deponents.
489.—lluLE XXVII.—^Verbs of accusing,, con¬
demning^ acquitting,, asd admonishing,, govern the
accusative of a person, with the genitive of a
thing; as,
490.—To this rule belong verbs of—
1. Accusing ; as, accvso, &go, appello, arcesso, anguiro, arguo, eoarguo
eapto, ineripo, increpito, urgeo, incuso, insimulo, interrbgo, posttdo, cdllgo,
astringo, dej'ero, cmnpelio,
2. Condemning ; as, damno, condemno, infamo, n6io, convinco, prehendo,
deprehendo, judteo, pleetor,
3. Acquitting ; as, absolvo, liblro, purgo, and perhaps solvo,
4. Admonishing ; as, monea, admoneo, eommoneo, commonefacio,
491.—Obs. 1. With many of these verbs, instead of the genitive of
the crime or punishment, the ablative is used with, or without, a preposi¬
tion; as, Aceusare de negligent id, Cic.; Liberdre culpa. Id. The
ablatives criniine and nomine are often inserted before the genitive,
which may be regarded as the full fonn of the construction; as, Arcesslre
aliguem erimine ambitus, Liv. Sometimes the punishment is put
in the accusative after nd or in; as, DamnSre ad poenam,—in metal-
lum, rarely in the dative; as, damnatus morti, Multo has always
the ablative; &s,multare poena, pecunid, exiliis, Sx,
492.— Obs, 2. Accuso, incuso, insimulo, together with verbs of ad¬
monishing, instead of the genitive, are sometimes followed by the accusative,
especially of the neuter pronouns hoc, id, illud, quod, &.C., and their plui-als;
as. Si id me non accusas,. Plaut.; Eos hoc moneo, Cic.; rarely by the
accusative of nouns; as. Sic me insimularefalsum faclnus, Plaut.
493.—Obs. 3. Many verbs signifying to accuse, and among them some
of the verbs enumerated under this rule, do not govem the genitive of the
crime, but, as transitive active verbs, govern it in the accusative by Rule
XX; as, argno culpam; ejus avaritiam p^Jidi amque accusd-
rat. When thus construed, the immediate object of condemnation is the
crime; in the other construction, it is the person,
494.— Obs. 4. Verbs of admonishing, instead of the genitive, are some¬
times followed by the ablative with a preposition; as, Oro ut Tereutiam
monediis de testamento; sometimes by an infinitive or clause; as,
Sdror mCtiet succurrire Lauso 2mrnw/j, Virg. ; Monet uf suspi-
ci tines vitet, C.es.; Immort alia ue speres monet annus. Hob.
Arguit me furti,
Meipsum inertice condemno,
Itlum homicidii absolvunt,
Monet me officii.
He accuses me of theft.
I condemn myself of laziness.
They acquit him of manslaughter
He admonishes me of my duty. ■
§ 123 syntax.—accusative and dative. 219
495.—^Rule XXVIII. Verbs of valuing^ with
their own case, and sometimes without a case, go¬
vern such genitives of degree as magni^ parviy
niMli / as,
uEHlmo ie magni, I yalue you much
Mihi stUit pluris, It cost me more.
£st parvi, ^ It is of little value.
496.—EXPLANATION.—By its own case is meant the case which the
verb usually governs. Verbs without case, as sum,Jw, exUto, &c., have the
geuitive only. The adjectives magni, parvi, &c., may agree with pretli,-
mornenii, or the like, understood, and the construction perhaps come under
E. VII. If so, it would account for the ablative sometimes used after the
same verbs. See 500.
497.—Verbs of valuing are such as ovsdmo, existimo, duco,facio, haheo
pendxo, puto, taxo, sum,Jlo, consto, &c. j also refert and intireU.
498.—Among the genitives of degree governed by such verbs, are the
adjectives tanti, quanti, plaris, mindris, magni, plurimi, minimi, parvi,
quctntillbet, and the substantives aHiiis,Jlocci,nauci,pili,teruneii,hu-
jus, &Q. For the genitive of price, see 682.
499.— Obs. 5. ^qui and boni are put in the genitive after facio and
eonsUlo ; as, as qui bonl que facio, " I take this in good part"
500.—Obs. 6. Instead of the genitive, cesHmo, and a few others, some¬
times take the ablative. After habeo, puto, dUco, the ablative with pro
is common ; as, p r o n,i hit o put are. Refert and intlrest, with their own
case (415), often take nihit, or a neuter accusative, or an adverb, instesd
of the genitive, to express degree; as, me a nihil refert;'multum
intlrest. So also nihil is used with astimo and mbror.
§ 123. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND
DATIVE.
501.—Rule XXIX. Verbs oi comparing., giv¬
ing., declaring, and taking away, govern the ac¬
cusative and dative; as,.
CampO/ro Virgilium Homero, i compare Virgil to Homer.
Suum culque tribuXto, Give every man his own.
Karros fabulam surdo. You tell a story to a deaf man.
Eripuit me morti. He rescued me from death.
502.—explanation.-jThis is a rule of very extensive application.
When, together with the thing done (expressed by the transitive active verb
250
SYNTAX.—TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 124
and its accusative), we express also the remote object to vMch it is done,
that object will be put in the dative; thus, in the above examples, the verb
and the accusative tbllowing it, express the whole of that which is representeij
as done to, or with reference to, the object expressed in the dative; i. e. Com-
piiro Virffilium, expresses all here said to be done (Horriero) to Homer, " 1
compare Virgil to him.". Narras foitndam expresses all hero said to be done
(surdo) to the deaf man, " yon tell a story to him and so eripuU me, to¬
gether, express what is here done {morti) to death, " he rescued me from
itaud so of other examples. See this more fully illustrated, Gr. Gram.,
S 152, Obs. 8.
OBSERVATIONS.
503.—Obs. 1. Verbs of comparing and taking away, and some others,
instead of the dative, often take a preposition and its case; as, Compar&re
unam rem cum alid,—ad aliam,—res inter se. Eripuit me
morti,—morte,—o, or ex morte, Ac.
504.—Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative, these verbs ^lave frequently
an infinitive mood or a part of a sentence; as, Da mihi f alii re, Reddes
tnihi dulce Idqui, &c., Hon.; Perfaeile factu esse illis prS-
bat; Itemque Eumnorigi, ut Idem conaretur persuadet.Csa. This
construction is especially common with such verbs as aio, dlco, inqnam,
persuadeo, responMo, Ac., when the thing said, replied, Ac., though a sen¬
tence or a paragraph, is to, be regarded as the accusative, and the word
denoting the person or persons to whom said, is put in the dative.
505.—Obs. 8. Several verbs governing the accusative and dative are
often construed differently; as, cireumddre mocnia e^pldo, or oppldum
mceiilbus, " to surround a city with wallsintercludire commedtum atlcui,
or allquem commeatu, "to intercept one's provisionsinduire, exulre vestem
stbi, or, se-vesti. So the following, Universos frumento donavit, Nep.; and
Proedam militihus ddnat, C.aa.; Aspcrgire s&le carnes, or, aspcrgire sdlem.
carnibus. Pun.
506.— OAs. 4. The accusative is sometimes understood; as, Nublre
atlcui (sc. sc.), Ccdcre atlcui (sc. locum), detrahire atlcui {sc. laudem), Ac.
507. — OAs. 6. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, instead,
of the dative, have an accusative after them, with the preposition ad; as.
Ad prcetorem homlnem traxit.
§ 124. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES.
508.—^Rule XXX. , Verbs of ctsking, and teach'
ing, govern two accusatives, the one of a person,
and tbe otber of a thing; as,
Posclmus te pOcem, We beg peace of thee.
Docuit me grammatlcam, He taught me grammar
§ 125 SYNTAX.—ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE.
251
509.—EXPLANATION.—The first accusative, under this rule, belongs
to Eule XX., the second may be governed by a preposition understood; or
the reason of this rule may be, that most of the verbs under it, admit either
of the nouns after them, as their immediate object.
OBSERVATIONS.
510.—Ob». 1. Verbs of asking, which govern two accusatives, are
rSgo, Sro, exoro, obsecro, prlcor, posco, reposeo, flagUo, <fec.; of teaching,
doceo, ed,oceo, dedoceo, erudio. To these, may be added, cllo, to conceal; as,
Antigbnus iter omnes celat, Nep. For two accusatives after verbs of
naming, choosing, &c., see 440. *
511.—Obs. 2. Verbs of asking, instead of the accusative of the person,
often take the ablative with a6 or ea:; as, Veniam oremns ab ipso. So,
also, instead of the accusative of the thing, many verbs, both of asking and
teaching, sometimes take the ablative with de ; as, De it in ire hostium
senaium edocet, Sall.; Sic igo te eisdem de rib us interrogem.
512.—Obs. S. Some verbs .of asking and teaching, are never followed
by two accnsatives, bnt by the ablative of the person, with a preposition;
such as, exigo, pito, qticero, seitor, sciscitor, and the following verbs of
teaching, viz.: imbuo, institm, insiruo, and some others, are followed by
the ablative of the thing, sometimes with, and sometimes without, a pre¬
position ; and sometimes they are otherwise construed.
513.—06s. 4. Many other transitive active verbs, frequently, besides
the accusative of a person, take also an accusative of nihil, or of the neuter
pronouns, hoc, id, quid, or of adjectives of quantity; as, Fabius ea me
monuit, Cia; Fee te i d consUlo, Id. These verbs, however, in their
signification, generally resemble verbs under this rule; or the accusative
of the thing may be governed by a preposition imderstood.
§ 125. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND
ABLATIVE.
514.—Eule XXXI. Verbs of loading, hinding,,
clotldng,, depriving,, and their contraries, govern
the accusative and ablative; as,
Onirat naves aura, He loads the ships with gold.
515.—EXPLANATION.—The accusative under this rule belongs to
Kule XX. The ablative may be governed by a preposition understood
OBSERVATIONS.
516.— Obs. 1. Verbs of loading are oniro, cumulo, prime, opprimo,
obruo, impleo, expleo, compleo unloading, livo, exoniro, Ac.;—of bind¬
ing, astringo, Ugo, altigo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaqueo, Ac.;—of loog.
252
SYNTAX.—PASSIVE VERBS.
§ 126
in|;, tolvo, exsolvo, libiro, laxo, expedio, <Stc.;—of depriving, pHvo, nidn
orbo, upolio, fraudo, emungoof clothing, vestio, amicio, induo, cingo,
tigo, veto, corOno ;—ot unclothing, exuo, discingo, Ac.
To these may be added many other vei bs, such as mUto, dOno, munirg
remunlro, commu7Aco, pasco, bio, impertior, dignor, officio, proKiquor, assb
q^tor, spargo, oblecto, Ac., with which, however, in many cases, the ablative
may come under Rules XXXIV. and XXXV.
517.—Obs. 2. These verbs are sometimes followed by the ablative
with a preposition expressed; as. Solvere ahquem ex cat in is, Cia The
ablative is sometimes understood; as, complet naves, sc. vXris, Viao.
518.—Obs. 3. Several of these vei-bs denoting to fill, likewise govern
the genitive; as, Adolescentem suae iemerit atis implet, " He fills the
youth with his own rashness" Some of them also vary their construction;
as, induit se vestlbus, or, vestes sXbi; Abdicare magistralum, Sall. ; AbdieSre
se magistratu, Cic. See 505.
§ -126. CONSTRUCTION WITH PASSIVE VERBS.
519.—Kule XXXII. Verbs that govern two
cases in the active voice, govern the latter of
these in the passive; as,
AccUsor furti. I am accused o/</(«/<.
Virgilijts comparatur Homero. Virgil is compared to Homer.
Doctor graenmatXcam, I am taught grammar.
.Navis oneratur aura. The ship is loaded with gold.
This rule may be subdivided into the five following, which wUl be much
more convenient in practice, than the general rule.
520.—I. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and ad¬
monishing, in the passive, govern the Genitive.
521.—II. Verbs of valuing, in the passive, govern such
genitives as magni, parvi, nihili, djc.
522.—III. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring and talcing
away, in the passive, govern the dative.
523.—IV. Verbs of asking, and teaching, in the passive,
govern the accusative. *
524.—V. Verbs of loading, binding, clothing, depriving, and
their contraries, in the passive, govern the ablative.
525.—EXPLANATION.—This rule applies to the pa-ssives of all verbs
under Rules XXVII to XXXI. inclusive. In all of these, the " latter case"
is that which, with the active v )ice, expresses the remote, and never the ins-
mediate object of the verb. In all constructions under this rule, it must be
§ 126 SYNTAX.—PASSIVE VEBBS. 253
noticed, that that which was, or would be, the accusative after the verb in
the active voice, must be its nominative in the passive, otherwise the cou-
Btruction does not belong to this rule. Thus, active, Narras fa bill am
turdo; passive, Sarrdtur fab iila surdo. fabulam, the direct object
of narras, is changed into the nominative or subject of narraiur; and surdo
remains the same in both sentences. The " latter case," in other words, the
remote otjeet of the active voice is never, in Latin, converted into the
subject of the passive, except in a few instances, which are manifest Grae-
cisms. See Greek Gram., § 154, Obs. 2. In English, however, there are
some expressions in which this is allowed. See An. & Pr. Eng. 6r., 814.
Hence, where, in some cases, the Greek and the English idioms admit
of two forms of expression, the Latin admits of only one, e. g. " This was
told to me," or, " I was told this," is rendered into Latin by the first form:
thus. Hoc mihi dictum est. But we cannot say, according to the second
form. Hoc dictus sum.
526.—Exc. to R. V. In poetical language, with the passive verbs in-
duor, amicior, cingor, accingor, exuor, discingor, the accusative of the
article of dress, <tc., is often used, instead of the ablative. Thus, instead
oiinduor ves/e, the poets frequently say, intiuor vest em. Hence the
expressions,/ndwifur fad em cultumque Di&noe, .Ovu> •, InduUurgue
aures aselli, Id.^ Inutile ferrum cingltur, Yme.-, Pubri lavo suspensi
loculos t abut am que lacerto, Hor. This resembles the Greek ac¬
cusative, 638, 5.39.
527.—Obs. 1. When the active voice is followed by three cases (431),
the passive has the two last; as, Aoc missum'est mihi " this
was sent as a present to me." Here muniri is the dative of the end.
R.XIX.
528.—^Kule XXXIII. Passive verbs frequently
govern the dative of the doer; as,
Vix audior ulli, I am scarcely heard by any one.
Scriblris Vario, You shall be described by Varius.
II • 1 • - V None of your sisters have been
Hulla audita mthi soronm, j J
529.—EXPLANATION.—This construction is used chiefly by the poets,
and by them, as a substitute for another still more common; namely, that the
voluntary agent, after the passive voice, is put in the ablative with a, or a J,
and so comes under Rule XLIX. as (in the active voice), Olodius me diligit,
"Clodius loves me;" (in the passive), A Clodio diligor, "I am loved by
Clodius." The preposition is sometimes omitted ; ss, colltur Uniger A turbA.
53().—Obs. 2. After passive verbs, the principal agent or actor is
usually expressed in the ablative with the preposition a or ab ; as, lauds-
tur ab his, culpstur ab ill is, "he ia praised it/fAese, he is blamed
by those." But,
The secondary agent, raeaas, or instrument, after transitive verbs in ths
active or passive voice, or after intransitive verbs, is put in the accusativs
254 SYNTAX.—CIRCCMSTANCES.—LIMITATION. §127-8
■with;«t; as, P«r Thrasyhulum Xyci ^!ium,ab exercUu recipihtr,
Nep. ; but oftener in the ablative, by Rule XXXV.
531.—Obs. 3. TTie passive participle in dus has the agent or doer al¬
most always in the dative; and besides, when it agrees with the subject
of a sentence, conveys the idea of obligation or necessity; as, Simel
omnibus calcanda est via liti, " The way of death (is to be, i e.)
must once be trod by all," Hoa.; A dh ibenda est ndbis diligentia,
"Diligence must be used by us" (i. e. we must use diligence), Cic.; Cees&ri
omnia Una tempdre irant agenda, "AH things had to be done by
Caesar at one time." 182-6.
532.—06s. 4. The accusative of place or time, after intransitives in
the passive voice, is not governed by the verb, but by a preposition under¬
stood, or comes under other rules; as, iiur Athinas, Rule XXXVIL ■
pugnatum est.biduum, R. XLI.; dormltur totam noctem, R. XLI.
We find, however. Tola mihi dormltur hyems; Nodes vigilantur am&rce;
Oceanus odilur. Tag.
§ 127. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES.
533.—In order to express some circdmstance connected with the idea
of the simple sentence, words and phrases are often thrown in between
the parts of a sentence in an adverbial manner, and which do not depend
for their ease on any word in the sentence to which they belong, but on a
preposition, or adverb, or other word, imderstood; or are, by common
usage, put in a particular case in certain circumstances, without govern¬
ment or dependence on any words either expi-essed or understood.
To this may be referred circumstances: 1. Of limitation ;—2. Of cause,
manner, <fec.;—3. Of place ;—i. Of time ;—6. Of measure ;—6. Of price ;
as follows.
§ 128. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION.
534.—A particular qualification of a general expression, made in
English by the phrase " in respect of," " with regard to," is expressed in
Latin by the ablative, or, more briefly as follows:
535.—Rule XXXIV. Respect wJferein,, and the
part affected are expressed in the ablative; as,
Pietite Jilius, In affection a son.
Jure perltus. Skilled in law.
PedXbus ceger, laxao in his feet.
536.—EXPLANATION.—The ablative, under tnis rule, is used, to limit
the signification of notr s, adjectives, and verbs puA may be variously
§ 129 SYNTAX.—CIRCUMSTANCES.—CAUSE, &C. 255
rendered to express the nature of the limitation intended; as, in, in uipai
of, with respect to, with regard, to, <&c.
537.—Ohs. 1. The part affected, after adjectives and verbs, belongs to
this rule, containing, as it does, a similar limitation of a general expres¬
sion, as in the last of the examples above. The following are of a similar
character: Anxius anim.^, Tac.; Orine rUber; ore niger, Maet.;
Contremisco totd mente et omnibus arlQbus, Gib.\ AnimOque et
eorpbre torpet, Hoa.
538.—Exc. 1. The part affected, in imitation of a Greek cpnstruction,
is sometimes expressed in the accusative; as, Nudus membra, "Bare
as to his limbs" Viao. So, si bit a coll a tumentem. Id; expleri
mentem nequit. Id; fractus membra, Hoa.; tempSra dnetus,
Viao. This construction is in imitation of the Greek. See Gr. Gram.,
§ 167, Obs. 1.
539.—'Exc. 2. In like manner, a noun or pronoun, denoting
that in regard to which, or with respect to which, any thing is,
is said, or is done, is sometimes put in the accusative; as,
Nunc illos qui in urbe remanserunt, "Now, in regard to those
who remained in the city;" Quod reliquum est, "As to that
which remains."
This construction is quite common with such accusatives as id, hoc,
atiquid, rellqua, ceetira, magnam partem, maximum partem, and the like;
as, reliqua similis; ceetira egregium; meos libros magnam par¬
tem amlsi, <ta In such consti'uctions, ad, meaning " in regard to," " in
respect o^" ?' as to," (Andrews' Lexicon, D. 1), is probably understood.
540.—Exc. 3. After certain adjectives and verbs denoting
an affection or state of mind, respect wherein, or the part
affected, is, in imitation of the Greek, expressed in the genitive;
as, integer vl toe; diversus mbrum; discrucior animi; animi
pendeo; recreahar animi. See also 371.
541.— Obs. 2. To this rule may be referred the matter of which any
thing is made; as, eere cavo clypeus, " a shield of hollow brass." But here
the preposition is commonly expressed; as, templum de marmdre. In
imitation of the Greeks, the matter is sometimes put in the genitive; as,
cruteres argenti, " goblets of silver." Gr. Gram., § 166, Obs. S.
§ 129. THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNER, &c.
542.—^Rule XXXV. The cause, manner, means,
and instrument, are put in the ablative; as,
Palleo mttu, I am pale for fear.
Fecit suomGre, He did it after his own way.
Auro ostro que decSri, Decked with gold and purple.
Bcrlbo cat d mo, I write with a pen.
256 SYNTAX.—CIRCUMSTANCES.—^PLACE. § 130
543.—EXPLANATION.—The ablative, in this rnle, is probably goveni-
ed by a preposition understood,—as there are numerous instances in which
the preposition is expressed. The caute will be known by putting the ques¬
tion, "Why?" or "Wherefore?" the manner, by "How?" the means, by
"By what means?" the instrument, by " Wherewith ?"
544.—Ohs. 1. The cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, prop¬
ter, ob, with the accusative; or de, e, ex, pros, with the ablative; as, de
pulsus per. invidiam ; fessus de vi^,
545.—Obs. 2. The manner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum, de,
ex, per ; as, de more mo;—the means frequently by per, and cum ; as, cum
meis copiis omnibus vexavi Amanienses. See 530.
546.—Obs. 3. The instrument, properly so called, seldom admits a
preposition, though, among the poets, a, ab, de, sub, are sometimes used,
aa,pectbra trajectus ab ense; exercere sblum sub vomers.
§ 130. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE.
547.—The circumstances of place may be reduced to four particulars:
1. The place where, or in which;—2. The place whither, or to which;—
3. The place whence, or frwn which4. The plaee by, or through which.
JY B. The following rules respeeting place, refer chiefly to the narnes
of towns. Sometimes, though very seldom, the names of countries, pro¬
vinces, islands, <fec., are construed in the same way. With these, however,
the preposition is commonly added.
1. The place -vyheee, or in -which.
548.—Rule XXXVI. The name of a town, de¬
noting the place where., or, in which., is put in the
genitive; as,
Vixit RSmae, He lived at Rome.
Mortuus est Militi. He died at Miletus.
549.—Exo. But if the name of the town where.,
or in which, is of the third declension, or plural
number, it is expressed in the abl^ive; as.
Habitat CarthagXne, He dwells at Carthage.
Studuit Athinis, He studied at Athens.
550.—Obs. 1. When the name of a town is joined with an adjective,
or common noun in apposition, a preposition is commonly added; as. Roma
in celebri urbe; or, in R&ma celebri urbe; or, in Roma celebri urbe; or
sometimes, Roma celebri urbe. 262.
Nnte.—\u this construction, the name of a town, in the third declension.
§ 180 STNTAX.T—CIRCUMSTANCES.—PLACE. 257
froquently has the ablative singular in i; as, Habitat Carthaglni. FuSre
Sicyoni jarndiu Dionysia, Plaut.; Tiburi geHllia, Sdet.
551.— Ohx. 2. The naire of the town where, or in which, is sometimes,
though rarely, put iu the ablative when it is of the first or second declen¬
sion ; as, Tyro rex decessit, for Tyri, " The king died at Tyre" Josi.; Hujui
exemplar It 6m. A nullum habemus, Vimuv.
552.—Obs. 3. The preposition in is sometimes expressed before the
ablative; as. In .'Philippii quidam nunciavit. Suet. At, or near a.
place is expressed by ad, or Apud with the accusative; as, ad, or Aprud
Trtgam, " a^ or near Troy."
2. The place whither, ^or to which.
553.—^Rule XXXVII. The name of a town
denoting the place whither,, or to which,, is put in
the accusative; as,
Vihit Rom am, He came to ifome
Profectus est Athenas, He went to Athens,
554.— 06s. 4. Among the poets, the town to w6irA is sometimes put
in the dative; as, Carthaglni nuncios mittam. Hob.
555.—Obs. 5. After verbs of telling, and giving, when motion to is
implied, the name of a town is sometimes put in the accusative •, as, R 6-
m a m erat nunciatum, " The report was carried to Rome MessAnam
litiras didit.
3. The place whence, or from which.
556.—^Rule XXXVIII. The name of a town
whence or from which, hy or through which, is
put in the ablative; as,
Discessit Corintho, He departed from Corinth.
LaodiceA Iter fecit. He went through Laodicea.
557.—Obs. 6. The place by or through which, however, is commonly
put in the accusative with per ; &s,Per Thsbas Iter fecit, Jdzr.
4. Domus and rus.
558.—Rule XXXIX. Domus and rus are
construed in the same way as names of towns; as,
Manet d6mi (548), He stays at//onie.
Dbmum revertxtur (bbZ), He returns 6o(ne.
Dbmo areessltus sum (566), 1 a.m cuUed from home.
So also
Vlvit rure or ruri (548), He lives in the country.
Abut r«s (553), He is gone to t/ie c<wmtry.
Rediit rure (556), He has retmnedfrom the country.
258
syntax.—circumstances.—time.
559.—06s. ?. HUmi, militiae, and belli, ar6 likewise constilied in the
genitive like names of towns; as, jtlcet hUmi, " he lies on the gi-ound
diimi et militio! (or belli), " at home or abroad."
560.—Obs. 8. When dSrrnis is joined with an adjective, the preposition
is commonly used; as, in d6mo paternd. So, ad dumum paternam, ex
domo paternd.—Except with meue, tuue, mus, noster, vester, regius, and
alienas; then it follows the rule. When damns has another substantive
after it in the genitive, it may be with, or without, a preposition; as, de-
prehenstts est ddmi, d6mo, or in domo Ccesdris.
561.—Obs. 9. Itus, and rure, in the singular, joined with an adjective
are used with, or without, a preposition. But rura, in the plural, is nevei
without it.
562.—Obs. 10. The names of countries, provinces, and all other places
except towns, are commonly construed with a preposition; as, ndtus i n
Italia; abiil in Italiam; rediit ex Italia; transit per Itor
Ham, Ac. A few cases occur, however, in which names of countries, pro¬
vinces, Ac., are construed like the names of towns, without a preposition
as, Pompeius Cgpri visus est, Ac., 0.es.
563.—Pito, " i seek," or " go to," always governs the accusative as a
ti-ansitive active verb, without a preposition; as, Petlvit IIgyptum,"]i.e
went to Egypt."
564.—Obs. 11. The word containing an answer to- the question
whither? is often put by the poets in the accusative without a preposition;
as, Speluncam Dido dux et Trojanus candcm deveniunt. Viae. Likewise, the
answer to the question where ? or whence ? in the ablative, without a pre¬
position; as, Silvisque agrisque viisque corpora fceda Jdcent. So,
cadere nubXbus; descendere c eel o ; currus c ar c e ribu s missi. See611.
§ 131. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME.
565.—Rule XIa Time when, is put in tlie
aUlative; as,
Venit hord tertid. He came at the third hour.
Rule XLI. Time how long, is put in the accu¬
sative, or ablative; as,
hlansit paucos dies. He staid a few days.
Sex me 71 sib us abfuit. He was absent six months.
566.:—EXPLANATION.—A precise period or point of time, is usually
put in the ablative,—continuance of time, not marked with precision, for the
most part, in the accusative.
567.—Kote.—It must be observed here, that the point of thne under
this rule, must- coincide with the time of the verb with which it is connect
§132 SYNTAX.— CIRCUMSTANCES.—MEASURE. 259
ed; otherwise, the rule does not hold good;—^thus, " He invited me to dine
with him next day," is properly rendered under this rule : Serum postiro
die ut prandirem invitavit; because postiro die and prattderem are
ootemporary. But, if we change the verb prandirem for a noun, postero
die will not do in the ablative, but must be changed thus; ad prandium
me invitavit in postirum diem. Postiro die, in this sentence, would
mean that the invitation was given next day, and would be rendered, in
EngUsh, " Next day, he invited me to dinner."
• _ OBSERVATIONS.
568.—Obs. 1. All the circumstances of time are often expressed with
a preposition; such as, in, de, ad, ante, circa, per, Ac. Sometimes ad, or
circa, is understood before hoc, illud, id, isthuc, with cetaiie, tempdris,
horof, Aa, following in the genitive; as, {ad) id temporis, for eo tempore, &e.
569.— Obs. 2. Precise time, before or after another fixed time, is ex¬
pressed by ante, or post, regarded as adverbs, either with the accusative
or ablative; as, aliquot ante annos ; paucis ante diibus; paucos post dies, Ac.
570.—Sometimes quam, with a verb, is added ia ante, or post; as,
Paucis post diebus quam Luca discessirat, "A few days after he had
departed from Luca." Sometimes post is omitted before j'uant;. as,
vigesXmd quam credtus irat.
571.—Obs.Z. Instead of postquam, we sometimes find ex quo, or
quum, or a relative agreeing with the preceding ablative; as, Octo diebus
quibus has literas dabam, "Eight days after I gave these letters."
572.—Obs. 4. The adverb abhinc is used to express past time, joined
with the accusative or ablative, without a preposition; as. Factum est a b
hinc biennis, or biennium, "It was done two yeai'S ago"
§ 132. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE.
573.—Rule XLII. Measure or distance is put
in tlie accusative, and sometimes in tlie abla¬
tive; as,
M&rus est decern pides altus. The wall is ten feet high.'
Urbs distal triginta millia, or > distant thirW mfrs.
triginta millibns passuum, J .
Iter, or itinere uuius diei. One day's journey.
OBSERVATIONS.
574.—Obs. 1. The accusative or ablative of measure, is put after such
adjectives, and verbs of dimension, as longus, latus, crassus, profundus,
alius; Patet, pdrrigXtur, eniinet, Ac. The names of measure are pes,
cubitus, ulnus, digitus, palmus, mille passuum, a mile, Ac.
575.—Obs. 2. The aceusat^e or ablative of distance, is used only
after verbs which express motion or distance; as, eo, curro, duco, absum.
260
syntax.—circumstances.—price. § 133
dhto, &e. The accusative, under this rule, may be governed by ad or per,
understood, and the ablative by a, or ab.
576.— Obn. 3. When the measure of more things than one is expressed,
the distributive numeral is commonly used; as, Aluri sunt denos pedes
a!ti, " The walls are each ten feet high." Sometimes denum pedum, for
denorum, is used in the genitive, governed by ad menstiram, understood
But the genitive is used to express the measure of things in the plural only.
577.—Obs. i. The distance of the place where any thing is said to be
done, is usually expressed in the ablative or in tlie accusative with a prepo¬
sition ; as, Sea; mi I lib us passman ab urbe consedit; or ad sex mi Hi a
passuum. Cxs.
578.—Obs. 5. Sometimes the place from which distance is estimated
is not expressed, though the preposition governing it is, and.^ay be ren¬
dered ojf', distant, <!ic., as, Ab sex millibus passuum abfuit; '^e was six
miles off, or distant" (sell. Romd, fi-om Rome).
579.—Kule XLIII. The measure of excess or
deficiencyis put in the ablative; as,
Sesquipide longior. Taller by a foot and a half.
Novem pedibus manor. Less by nine feet.
Qnanto doetior, tanto submis- The more learned, the more humble,
sior,
580.—Obs. 6. To this rule are to be referred the ablatives tanto, quanta,
quo, eo, hoc, aliqnanto, multo, panto, nihilo, &c., frequently joined to com¬
paratives, and sometimes to superlatives.
§ 133. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PRICE.
581.—Kule XLIV. The price of a thing is put
in the ablative; as,
Constilit t a ten to. It cost a talent.
Vendldit hft auro patriam. This man sold his country for gold.
582.—Exc. But tanti, quanti, pluris, minSris, are used in the
genitive; as,
Quanti constitit ? IIow much cost it ?
Non vendo pluris quam ccetM, I do not s^ for more than others.
583.—Obs. 1. When joined with a noun, tanti, quanti, <tc., are put in
the ablative; as, Quam tanto pretio menatns est. Tanto, qnanto, and
plur'. are sometimes, though rarely, found without a noun; as, plure
vtuit, " it is sold for more. '
584.—Obs. 1. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a
noun; e.s,,mngno, permagno, parvo, panlnlo, minimo, plurimo, vili, nimio.
■ These refer, however, to some such noun as pretio, vere, Ac., understood
Valeo is found with an accusative.
§134
syntax.—adverbs.
261
§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.
585.—Rule XLY. Adverbs are joined to verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs, to modify and limit
their signification; as.
Bine eeribit. He writes welL
Forttter pugnane, Figbtlog bravely.
Egregie JUUlis, Remarkably ialtbfuL
Satis bine. Well enough.
OBSERVATION?.
586.—Obs. 1. Adverbs are sometimes joined witb nouns; as, Hominis
plane orator, " Homer evidently an orator."
587.—Obs. 2. Tbe adverb is usually placed near tbe word modified or
limited by it
Negatives.
588.— Obs. 3. Two negatives in Latin, as well as in English, destroy
each other, or are equivalent to an afiirmative; as. Wee non senserunt,
" nor did they not perceivei..e. et senserunt, " and they did perceive."
So, Non potiram non exanimari mitu. Cio. Non sum nescius, i. e. scio;
hand nihil est, " it is not nothing." i. e. " it is somethingnonnulli, " not
none," i. e. " some f nonnunquam," not never," i. e. " sometimes;" Hon nemo,
" not nobody," L e. " somebody," io.
589.—Obs. 4. Exe. In imitation of the Greeks, however, two negatives
in Latin, as well as in English, sometimes make a stronger negative; as,
Nique ille hand olgiciet mihi, "He wiU not by any means object to.
mo-" Jura, te non nocitUrum homini nemini, <fec. and ner, and
sometimes non, are especially thus used after a negative; as, Non me
carminlbus vincet, nec Orpheus, nee LXnus.
590.—Obs. 5. Non is sometimes omitted after non mSdo, or non sblum,
when followed in a subsequent clause by ne quXdem ; as, Mihi non mbdo
irasci, (i. e. non irasci,) sed ne dollre quXdem impHne licet. Sometimes, but
rarely, it is omitted after sed, or verum, with etiam ; as, Non mSdo /u-
tara timet (i. e. non timet,) verum etiani fert sustinetque prcesentia. For
lee, and ut, with timeo, <fec., see 633.
591.— Obs. 6. Certain adverbs are joined to adjectives, and also to ad¬
verbs, in all the degrees of comparison, for the purpose of imparting greater
force to their signification; as,
1st. To the positive are joined such adverbs as, apprime, admUdum, ve-
hanenter, maxirne, perquam, valde, oppAdb, and per, in composition ; as, gra-
turn admSdum, " very agreeableperquam puerile, " very childish
Ac. In like manner, parum, mulium, nimium, tantum, quantum, aliquan-
turn; as, p&rum firmus; multum bOnus.
2d. To the comparative are joined, paulo, nimio, aliquanto, eo, quo, hoe,
impendio, nihilo; as, Eo gravUmest dSlor quo culpa major.—Cio. See
680. Sometimes, also, pdrum, multum, Ac., as with the positive.
262
syntax.V-ad verbs.
§185
8A To the superlative are joined, longe, quam, /aetie, meaning " certain¬
ly," " undoubtedlyalso tanto, quanta, mutto, &a.; as, fa die doctiselmut,
" certainly the most learned;" longe bellicosissima {&e. gene), " by far tihe
most warlike;" qnam maximae potest capias amiot, "he arms as
great forces as possible^
4th. Quam, (and also ut,) is also used as an intensive word with the
positive, but in a sense somewhat different, resembling an exclamation; as,
Quam difficile est / " how difficult it is 1" quam, or ut crudelis ! "how
eiue\l"Flens quam familiarlter,"-weeping how affectionately," i, e.
very affectionately; quam severe, "how severelye. very seterely.
§ 135. CASES GOVERNED BY ADVERBS.
592.—Rule XLVI. Some adverlbs of tim€,,place^
and quantity,, goveri^ the genitive ; as,
Pridie ^us diei. The day before that day.
Ublque gentium. Every where.
S&tis est verbsrum. There is enough of words.
593.—1. Adverbs of time governing the genitive are, interea, postea,
inde, tunc ; as, Interea loci, " in the mean time;" postea l6ci, " afterwards;"
inde loci, " then;" tune temporis, " at that time."
. 594.—2.. Of place, Vbi, and quo, with their compounds, ublque, ubi-
cunque, ubiUbi, quOvis, <fcc. Also, eo, hue, huccine, unde, usquam, nusquam,
longe, ibidem, Ac.; as, unde terrdrum or gentium; longe gentium ; ibidem
Itki. Also, hux, eo, and quo, expressing degree; as, £o audacia,—vecor-
dice—miseridrum, Ac., " to that pitch of boldness—madness—^misery," Ac.
595.—3. Of quantity, abunde, affdtim, larglter, nlmis, satis, p&ruin,
minlrne; as, abunde glories; affdtim divitidrum ; larglter auri ; satis elo-
quentioe ; sapientice pdrum est ilti, or hdbet," He has enough of glory ^riches,"
Ac. minimi gentium, " by no means."
596.—Obs. 1. Ergo (for the sake of), instar, and partim, also govern
the genitive; as, donari virtutis ergd.
597.—Obs. 2. Pridie and postridie, govern the genitive or accusative;
as, Pridie Kalenddrum, or pridie Kalendas, sup. ante; Postridie Kalendd-
rum, or Kalendas, sup. post. •
598.—Obs. 8. En and Ecce govern the nominative or accusative; as.
En causa ; Ecce homo or homlnem, siAietimes a dative is added; as, Ecce
duas dras tlbi. Vmo. In such constructions, a verb may be understood.
The dative may be referred to, 877-8.
599.—Obs. 4. Certain prepositions used adverbially by the poets, are
followed by the dative; as, Mihi clam est, " it is unknown to me." Contra
nobis.
§136
syntax.—prepositions.
263
600—Eule XLVIL Some derivative adverbs
govern the case of their primitives; as,
Omnium optime loguttur, He speaks the best of all.
Convewienter naturce. Agreeably to nature. ,
Venit obviam ei, He came to meet him.
ProxXme castris or castra, Next the camp.
601.—EXPLANATION.—In the first example, optime is derived from
optimus, which governs the genitive by Rule X. 355. Convenienier and obvi¬
am, are derived from conveniens,-and. ohvius, which govern the dative by
Rule XVI. 882; and proxvme is derived from proximus, which governs the
dative or sceusative. (388.)
§ 136. CASES GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS.
602.—Rfle XLVIII. Twenty-eight preposi¬
tions, ady a^pud^ ante., &c., govern the accusative;
as.
Ad patrem. To the father.
603.—Kule XLIX. Fifteen prepositions a, ab^
abs, &c., govern the ablative; as,
A patre, From the father.
604.—EXPLANATION.—The twenty-eight prepositions which govern
the accusative are those contained in the list 220-1, and the fiReen govern¬
ing the ablative are those in 220-2.
OBSERVATIONS.
605.— Obs. 1. Clam, one of these fifteen, is sometimes followed by
the accusative; as, clam vos," without your knowledge." When followed by
a genitive or dative, a substantive may be understood, or it may be re
garded as an adverb; as, clam patris. Tee. mihi clam est. Puirr.
606.— Obs. 2. Tenus after a plural notm, commonly governs it in the
genitive; as, crurum tenus. Viao.
607.—Rule L. The prepositions in, sub, super,
and subter, denoting motion to, or tendency towoA'ds,
govern the accusative; as,
Vinit in Urbem, He came into the city.
Amor in te, Love towards thee.
Sub jugujm missus t st, • He was sent under the yoke.
Incidit super agmXna, It fell upon the troops.
264
6 YNTA X.-^PREPOSITIONS.
186
608.—Eule LI. The prepositions in and svh
denoting situation^ govern the ablative; super and
svhter either the accusative or ablative; as,
609.—Ob). 3. To both of these rules there are some exceptions. In¬
stances occur in which in and sub denoting motion to, or tendency toward),
instead of the accusative, govern the ablative; as, In con)pectu meo
audet ventre; )ub jago dictator hostem mUit. Others are found in which
they govern the accusative when they denote situation; as, Mihi in
men tern fuit. Hoste) )ub mo n tern con)edis)e, &e.
610.—Ob). 4. The preposition in with the accusative, usually signifies
into, toward), until, for, against; with the ablative in, upon, among.
With both these cases, however, considerable variety of translation is
necessary to convey correctly the idea of the original. The following
are instances, " In the case of," talis in hoste fuit Priamo. Virg. " On
account of," in quo facto dimum revocatus;—In sex menslbus, "within
six monthsin dies, " from day to day." So, in hdras, " from hour tc
hourin capita, " per headin pueritia, " during boyhoodin hoc tern-
p6re, " at this time," &c.
611.—Ob). 5. The preposition is frequently understood before its case •
as, devenlre locos. Vieg. hbmo id oetatis. Cio. propior montem. Salu
in which ad is understood. Soj Nunc id prodeo, sc. ob;—Tee. Maria
asplra jaro, sa per. 8e l6co movere, sc. e, or de. Quid illo facias ? sc. in ot
tfe, " what can you do in this case t" Ut patrid expelleritur, sc. ex. Nkp.
612—Obs- 6. Sometimes, but much more rarely, the case is omitted
after the preposition; as, circum Concordias, sc. cedem. Sall. multU post
annis, L e. post id tempus.
613.—^EtJLE LIT. A preposition in composition
often governs its own case; as,
614.—^EXPLANATION.—By "its own case" is meant the case it gov¬
erns when not in composition. This rule only talies place when the prepo¬
sition may be separated from the verb, and placed before the case without
altering the sense. Thus, adeamus urbem, and eamus ad urbem, express
the same thing.
615.—Obs. 1. The preposition is often repeated after the compound
word; the case is then governed by the preposition repeated; as, ex na-
vibus expositi. Caes. Nunquam accedo ad te, quin obs te abeam doctior. Te&
Afotc.—Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after them; such
as, Affdris, allbquor, allatro, alluo, accblo ; circum with venio, to, sto, sedo,
JScet in terrd,
Medid in urbe.
In poitis,
8ub mcenibus.
He lies upon the ground.
In the middle of the city.
Among the poets.
Under the walls.
Adeamus urbem,
Exedmus urbe.
Let us go to the city.
Let us go out of the city.
§137
SYNTAX OF THE VERB.—TENSES.
265
v6lo ; abeo. prtxlereo, abdtco, effiro, everto, &<i. Some compounds with infer,
and prater, commonly omit the preposition. The compounds of in, ob, and
sub, generally take the dative; those of super, generally the accusative.
G16.—06's.' 8. Some verbs compounded with e, or ex, are followed by
an accusative or ablative ; as, exlre IVnien. Tee. exlre septis. V ieg. Some
words compounded with pra, take an accusative; as, Tlbur aqua pra-
fiuimt. Hoa. In some of these cases, however, the accusative may be
governed by prater or <a:<ra, vmderstood.
617.—Obs. 9. The case governed by the preposition in composition is
sometimes omitted; as, EinitUre senium, sc. manu. Plaitt. EvonUre virus,
61' ore. Cio. Educire capias, sc. castris. Gjsa.
•For the construction of interjections, see § 111. .
SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
§ 137. CONNECTION OF TENSES.
618.—The tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, so far as
relates to their construction, may be divided into two classes. Primary and
brcondary, as follows.
Primary. Secondary.
Present. Imperfect.
Perfect definite. 162. Perfect indefinite. 163.
Futures. Pluperfect
With the primary tenses may be classed, the Impei'hiive Mood.
Of these tenses,, the Primary are used to express actions, <&c., as present
or future; the Secondary, in the recital of these actions as past.
In the construction of sentences consisting of different members, the
subjunctive moqd, in the subordinate or secondary parts, usually corre¬
sponds, in time, to the tense in the primary, or leading part^ Hence the fol¬
lowing Rule.
619.—Rule LIII. Any tense of the subjunctive
moOd, may follow a tense of the same class in
the indicative; as,
Pees. LSgo, I I read, 1
Peek. Def. Legi, > ut discam, I have read, >• that I mo,y learn.
Fut. Ligam, ) I will read, )
Impee. Lige, ut discas. Read, that you may learn.
Impeef. Legebam, 1 I was reading, 1
Pee Indef. Llgi, v ut disq^em, I read, >• that I might learu.
Plop. Legiram, 1 I had read, )
12
260
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
§138
620.—EXPLANATION.—In clauses connected, the present, the perfect,
and periphrastic future with Kim or /uirim, 214-8, in the subjunctive mood,
may follow either the present, or the perfect definite, or the futures, of the
indicative, or the imperative mood. In like nmnner, the imperfect, the
pUiperfect, and the periphrastic future with essem or fuissem, in the suhjuuo-
tive mood, may follow either the imperfect, or the perfect indefinite, or the
pluperfect in the indicative.
' 621.—tOI*. 1. When the present tense of the indicative is used in nar- •
ration for the past, 157-3, it may be followed by the secondary tenses of
the subjunctive, as Legalos mitlunt at p&cem iiapetr&rent.-
622.—06». 2. Primary tenses are soinctimes followed by secondary,
and secondary by primary, in order to express actions whose time is dif¬
ferent.
623.—05s, 3. Wlien the subjunctive follows an infinitive or participle
in the primary clause, the class of tenses employed, usually eorrespoudo
to the tune of the verb on which the iutiuitive or pai-tieiple depends.
N. B. This rule and the obsei-vations under it, are to be regaixled as
stating only general principles, the deviations fiom which, in e.vpressing
the endless variety of i-elations among actions witli reference to time, de¬
pendence, &c., can be learned only by pz-actice and close zittention to classic
usage.
h'or the interchange of tenses in the same and in different moods, see
observations on the tenses, §§ 44 and 45.
624.—§ 138. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INDICATIVE
MOOD.
«
1. The indicative mood is used in Latin, to express what is
actual and certain,'in an absolute and independent manner;
as, tzcat, tzzf/j, fict, 1' I came, saw, and conquered." It is also
used in direct and independent interrogations; as, Quid agis?
" what are you doing V
2. The indicative mood is used in conditional and dependent
elauses, to denote, not what is contingent or uncertain, but
what is supposed, or admitted as fact; as, zSi vales, bene est,
"if you are in health, it is well," i. ^ "since you are in
health." ^
3. independent assertion's made in English by shall, will, can,
may, ought, and the like, are made in Latin by the indicative
of verbs expressing these ideas; as, volumus Ire, " we will
go," debes facere, " you ought to do it," -147. In gonerzil, the
verbs opurtet, nccesse est, debeo, convenit, possum, hcet;—also,
the expressions par, fas, cequum, justum, consentaneum est;—
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
267
and <equi«s, melius, utilius, optabilius est, are put in the past
tenses of the indicative, though translated by the imperfect or
pluperfect subjunctive. Hence,
4. The indicative is used in the sense of the subjunctive,
and translated by the potential in English, when an act, &c.,
though not performed, is expressed as what would have been
proper, practicable,or advantageous; as,Milbni optabilius
f u i t ddre jugulum P. Clodio ; " it would have been more de¬
sirable" (kc., 164-4.
5. The past tenses of the indicative, are sometimes used
for the imperfecfor pluperfect subjunctive, in the conclusion
of a conditional clause^-tjr which the description is rendered
more animated ; s,%,pons subliduslter hosttbus dedit, ni, &c.-
" the wooden bridge would' have afforded a passage to the
enemy, unless" dsc; so, actum erat depulcherrimoimperio,
nisi, &o., 140 and 625-4th.
The signification and use of this mood, in its several tenses, are specified,
§44. '
§ 139. CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
MOOD.
[For the character and meaning of this mood, in its several tenses, sea
§ 42. IL and § 46.]
The subjunctive mood is used sometimes in in¬
dependent, but, for the most part, in. dependent
propositions. ,
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN INDEPENDENT PROPO¬
SITIONS.
625. The subjunctive mood is used, apparently at least, in
independent propositions;—
1st To soften an assertion or statement; as, rusno Utud tibi concedat,
" no one would grant that to youforSUan temire fecSrim," per¬
haps / may Aave acted rashly," quis duhXtetl "who con doubt
itr
2d. To express a wish or desire, like the Greek Optative; as, ectm.us,
"hi us go;" moriamur, "let us die;" nunc revertamur, "let us now
return." In the second, and the third person, it is used to exhort or
. command; and, with a negative, to forbid; as, facial, "let him
do it;" ipse vidirit, "let him see to it himself" Cio. Perns
attingas, "do not touch me." Ter. Emas quod necesse est,
(171-1). SsN. ♦
268
SYNTAX,—MOODS.
Sd. To ezprese a doubtful question; as, qm earn? "whitber thall 1
gor quid aliud facireti "-vphat else couW Ae (171-2). Cia
4th. After the imperfect, and pluperfect subjunctive, in a conditional
clause with ai, etui, quasi, etiamsi, tameisi, ni, nisi, the subjunctive
is used independently in the apddusis, or conclusion, in the same
tenses, when the thmg supposed did not exist. Also, after the
present, and perfect in the sense of the imperfect or pluperfect;
as, si hie sis, atUer senfias,"if yen were here, you would think
otherwise." Teb. Quos ni mea cura resistat, jam fanimce tuli-
rint. vntg. In this construction, the conditional clause is some
times omitted; as, magna metcentur Atridae (sipossint). Vibg.
Note.—But, though in these and many similar expressions, the subjunc¬
tive appears to be used independently, it is easy to see, that in most cases,
if not m all, it depends on an indicative or imperative understood, and
which has been omitted for the sake of brevity (145).
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN DEPENDENT PKOPOSITIONS.
626.—The subjunctive mood is used, for the
most part, in dependent clauses, and is preceded
by another verb in the. indicative, imperative, or
infinitive mood, expressed or understood, with'
which it is. connected by a conjunction, a rela¬
tive, or an indefinite term, and may generally be
rendered by the potential in English (142-2d, and
143).
Obs.—The construction of the subjunctive mood, in Latin
agrees, generally, with its construction in English and in
Greek. Its use, however, is much more extensive in Latin,
being employed in many cases in which the indicative is used
in these languages. Its construction in dependent propositions,
is subject to the following Rules.
§ 140. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER CONJUNCTIONS, &c.
62*7—Rule LI V. The conjunct?ons, quo., licet.,
ne, utinam^ and dummodo, &c., and words used
indefinitely in dependent clauses, for the most
part, require the subjunctive mood; as,
Ltgo ut discam, I read that I may team.
Nescit qui sim, ' He louowB not who I am.
§ uo
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
269
EXPLANATION.—The ooDjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, are
those which imply doubt, contmgmcy, tmcertainUf, and the like, as follows:
1. Ut, quo, " that," ne, quomtnus, " that not," referring to
the result, end, or design, take the subjunctive; thus,
1st. Vt, " that," denoting a result, after such words as sic, Va, adeo, tarn,
talis, tantus, is, gwsmodi, is followed by the subjunctive.
2cL Ul, " that," and ne,"" that not," denoting purpose or design ; or when ■
" that" is equivalent to " in order tJiat," " so that," take the sub¬
junctive.
• 8d. After verbs signifying to request, admonish, advise, commission, en¬
courage, command, and the like; or to endeavor, aim at, or no
complish ; as, facia, officio, ; and sometimes to permit, to wish,
to be necessary, <kc., ut and ne usually take the subjunctive.
4th. Ut, with the subjunctive, usually follows such impersonals as Jit,
JieH non potest, accldit, incldit, occurrit, contingit, evenit, usu vlnit,
rdrum est, sequltur, futurum est, retlquum est, relinqultur, restat,
supirest, opus est, est signifying it happens, it occurs, it remains, <fec.
2. Si " ifut si, quasi, ac si, oeque ac si, perinde ut si, aUter
ac si, velut si, tanquam, ceu, " as if," expressing a condition or
supposition, commonly take the subjunctive.
3. TJt, Ucet, etiam si, quamvis, " althoughquin for qui non,
or ut non, or quommus, take the subjunctive.
4. Antequam, priusquam, " beforedum, ddnec, quoad,
"until," modo; dum, dummMo, "provided," and the particles
of wishing, utinam, 0 si, ut or uti, for uHnam, commonly take
the subjunctive.
5. Interrogative words used indefinitely in dependent clAuses^
or containing an indirect question, take the subjunctive.
The words thus used are, the particles an, ne, num, utrum, anne, an-
non ;—^the adverbs iibi, quo, unde, quorsum, quamdiu, qwoties, cur, qudre,
quamobrem, quemadmbdum, quombdo, ut, quam, quantopire;—the adjec¬
tives quantus, qualis, quot, quotas, titer; quis, qui, cujas, ikc.
Sfote.—In double questions, direct or indirect, expressed in English by
' whether—or," the first is commonly made by utrum, or the enclitic ne,
and the second by an, or anne. The first particle, however, is often omit¬
ted, but must be supplied in translating; as, idfrustra an ob rem faeiam,
(" whether) I shall do this to no purpose or successfully." The English " or
not" is made, in the second part, by necne ; as, dii utrum sint necne sint
qiueritur. Posset lege agi necne pauci quondam sciebant. It is used
also in direct questions: as. sunt hcec tua verba necne I
628.:—Obs. 1. Many of these conjunctions are used also with the in¬
dicative mood. In such cases, they are to be regarded merely as con¬
nectives. or used adverbially, denoting circumstances of time, manner, Ac.
621).—Obs. 2. Many other conjunctions are used, sometimes with the
indicative, and sometime,s \^tb the. subjunctive.mood; such as, quum (or
270
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
ei,m), etsi, tametsi {tamenetsi), quanquam, si, sin, ne, nisi, siquidnn, quoi,
quia, &0. Qiioniam, quando, and quandoquldem, usually have the indica¬
tive.
630.— Obs. 3. Quum (or dm), when it signifies time, merely, takes tlic
indicative,and is translated when; as, tempusfait quum homines vapa-
ban I ur. When it denotes a'connection of thoupht, implying dependence,
it takes the subjunctive, and may be translated variously, according to the
nature of the connection, since, although, as soon Us, seeing that, <kc.; as,
cUm ealta sint, " sitice these things are so."
631.—Obs,4i. In narration, quum is joined with the imperfect and
the pluperfect subjunctive,, even when it relates to time, but the event de¬
noted by the subjunctive, usually relates to that expressed in the clause
on which the subjunctive depends, not only in regard to time, but also, in
some sense, as a cause; as, cum sciret Clodius iter necessarium MilOui
esse Lanuvium, Romd sublto ipse profectus est.
632.—Obs. 6. The conjunction ut, is elegantly omitted after ildlo, nolo,
rSgo, pricor, censeo, suadeo, licet, oportet, necesse est, and the like. Also,
after the imperatives sine,fac,oT farito; as, pricor venias, "J beg (that)
you would comefac facias, " see (that) you do it" So also ne is omitted
after the imperative cave; as, cave facias, " See thou do it not"
633.—Obs. 6. After the verbs timeo, vereor, and the like, ut is used in
a negative sense," that not," and ne, in an afiirmative sense," thatas, timeo
ut faciat, " I fear that he will not do it" limeo nefadat, " I fear that he
will do it." In a few examples, however, ut seems to have an affirmative,
and ne, a negative meaning. Ne non, after timeo, vereor, is equivalent to
v< non after other verbs; as, timeo ne non impetrem, "I fear that 1
shall not obtain it"
634;—6. In oblique discourse (651 Exp.), the verb, in de¬
pendent clauses, takes the subjunctive after any conjunctive
term.
§ 141. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER THE RELATIVE.
635.—^Rule LV. The relative qui., quw, quod.,
requires the subjunctive, when it refers to an in-
definite., negative, or interrogative word,-—to words
implying comparisan,—or assigns Ae reason, cause,
or end of that which precedes,—and also in all
cases of oblique narration.
This General Rule may be subdivided mto the following
SPECIAL RULES.
636.—Rule 1. When the relative qui, quae, quod refers tc
§ 141 STNTAX.—MOODS, 271
an indefinite, negative, or interrogative word, it requires the
euhjunetive mood; as,
Hunt (Jiomtnei) q u i dlcant,, Some people say.
Nemo est qui haud intetllgat. There is Jio onf Wto does not understand.
Quia est qui utiliafugial? TiVio is there shuns ■what is useful I
637.—EXPLANATION.—This rule takes efl'ect only when the antece¬
dent is something indefinite, aud when the relative clause is the predicate of
the sentence, i. e. wlien it e.vpresses what is affirmed or denied respecting
thesnbject of the verb, and has for its antecedent, the indefinite, negative,
or interrogative itself, and not any intervening word. These are indispen¬
sable cernditions of this rule.
638.—Obs. 1. The indefinites referred to in this rule are the indefinite
pronouns (127-1, and 1-8, except qutdam), aud the periphrastic expres¬
sions, est qui, " some one," sunt qui, fuerunt qui, " some to •which may
be added the verbs reperio, iuvenio, hnbeo, adsvm, desvm, veuio, and some
others, used in a similar manner, by -which indefinite expressions are formed
nearly of the same import with est qui, sunt qui, die.; as, omnis atas quod
dgat inveuiet,
639.—The negative antecedents most common under this rule are
such as netno estj uullus est, unus non est, alius non est, or extat, nihil est,
tiec est, or non quisqnam est, vi-x ullus est, nee ullus est, vix dcctmus quisque
est, (or any other ordinal used in a similar manner.) non mulli susd, mm
multum est; also, «o)i est, or nihil est, meaning "there is no cause, or
reason whyand also after non or nihil habeo. After these last, quod
"whicli," must follow, governed hy propter understood; as,noit est quod
scrlbas ; " there is no reason why you should write."
640.-1—The interrogative expressions in the antecedent clause under
this rule are chiefly these: Quis est t qtiantus est I uter est? eeqnis est?
numquts est? an quisquam est ? an est aliquis? quotusqni.sque est? qttS-
tusest? quot sunt? qtiam mulii sunt? And also, yuid est? numquidest?
" what cause f as, num quid est quod tirneas ? " why should you fear 'f
Note—Interrogatives under this rule-are of a general character, and
usually imply a negation ; as, quis est qui faciat ? " who is there that does
it ?" i. e. " nobody does it."
641.—Rule II. The relative is followed by the subjunctive,
when the relative and antecedent clauses involve a comparison,
or when the latter expresses the purpose, object, or design, of
something expressed by the fo-rmer; as,
Digntis qtti ametnr, "worthy to be loved." Quis tarn esset Omens qui
semper viveret ? " who would be so foolish as to live always V
642.—EXPLANATION.—In all cases under this rule, the relative is
equivalent to vt, with the personal pronoun representing the antecedent; i. €.
it is u-ed for ui igo, ut iu, ut ille, ut nos, vt vns, vt illi. In such cases, ut
with the personal pronoun, is frequently used instead of the relative. Here,
also, the relative clause must^elong, not to the subject, but to the predicate
of the sentence, for iu such cases only can it be resolved into ut ego, &o.
272
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
643.— Ob$. 2. The relative is used in this sense, and requires
the subjunctive.
1st. When it comes after dignua, indignus, idoneui, and the like in the
predicate; as, patres, si dignum qui {ut ille) secundus ab Romilo
numeretur, crearUis, auctSresfient.
2d. When it follows tam, tantus, adeo; as. quis est tarn Lgnceus, qui in
iantis tenebris nihil offendat ? i. e. ut in tantis, Ac, " who is so
quick-sighted that he would not stumble in such darkness V—In
like manner when it follows talis, fjusmbdi, hujusmbdi, the sub¬
junctive is commonly used; as, est innocentia affeclio talis ant-
mi qui ndceat nemlni. Also, after is, ille, and hie, in the sense
of talis (123-2,b.); as, nontu is es qui nescias, "you are
not sueh a one as not to know." Sometimes, in such cases, ui takes
the place of qui; as, nlque inim is es, CatUlna, ut te pudor
» revocdrit, Ac.
Sd. When it follows a comparative with quam; as, major sum quam
cui possit fortuna nocere.
4th. When the relative clause expresses the purpose, object, or desigrt, for
which the person mentioned in the antecedent clause is appointed,
or the thing spoken of is possessed, or done; as, Lacedoemonii le-
gatos Athenas miserunt qui (i. e. ut illi) eum absentem a ecu
sarents. In such sentences the relative and subjunctive may be
properly rendered, to, in order to; thus, "the Lacedemonians sent
ambassadors to Athens, to accuse (or in order to accuse) him in his
absence." Sometimes here also, ut takes the place of the relative;
as, missus sum ut (L e. qui) te adducSrem.
644.—Obs. 3. When qui combines with its signification as a relative,
or when the preceding clause implies, a force equal to so that, such that,
the man to, such a man as, it requires the subjunctive; a's, stultum est
timers quod vitdre non possis, "it is foolish to fear that which (i. e.-
such a thing as) you cannot avoid." In all such cases, the antecedent clause
conveys a vague and general idea, i. e. the person or things referred to are
regarded as a species or class, rather than as individuals.
645.—Rule III. When the relative with its clause assigns
the cause or reason of the action or event announced by the
antecedent clause, it requires the subjunctive; as,
Peccavisse mihi videor qui a te decesserim, " I think that I have erred
in having (or, because I) left you."
646.—EXPLANATION.—In all constructions of this kind, the relative
is equivalent to quum, quod, quia, or quoniam ego,^, is,'noSj Ac., signifying
" because," or "seeing that I," " thou," &c.
647.—Obs. 4. The relative has this force in the expressions quippe
qui, ut qui, utpbte qui, and consequently is foUowed by the subjunctive;
as, libros non contemno, equidem, quippe qui nunqaam legirim,"!
do not, indeed, despise the books, for (or because) I have never read them."
648.—Rule IV. When qui possesses a power equal to quart-
quam^ or etsi is, or-to si, modo, or dummodo, " although—if—
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
27S
provided that he, she, it," &c., it requires the subjunctiva
mood; as,
Tu dquam pimilce postdlas^q u i ipse sitiat," you demand water fi-on:
a pumice stone, though itself is parched with thirst." Ldco, con.iilii quam-
vis egregii quod non ipse afferret tnimlcus, " Laco was the enemy of
any measure, however excellent, if (i. e. provided that) he himself did not
propose it"
649.—Rule V. The relative qui takes the subjunctive after
uuus and solus ; when they restrict the affirmation to a particu¬
lar subject; as, • -
Hcec est una contentio quce adhue permansSrit, " iids is the only dis¬
pute which has remained till this time."
650.—Rule VI. In oblique or indirect discourse, the relative
requires the subjunctive mood; as,
Socrates dicire solebat^ omnes in eo quod sclrent satis esse eloquentes,
" Socrates was accustomed to say, that all were eloquent enough in that
which they knew,"
651.—EXPLANATION.—Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer
or speaker delivers his own sentiments,—oblique, when a person relates in
his own language, what another speaker or writer said; an example will best
illustrate this distinction.—Tacitus introduces Galgacns, addressing the Cale¬
donian army as follows : " When I contemplate the causes of the war, and
the necessity to which we are reduced, great is my coniidence that this day,
and this union of yours, will prove the beginning of universal liberty to
Britain." This is the direct discourse.' If, instead of introducing Galgacus
himself, to speak his own speech, the historian had only told us what he said,
he would have used the oblique or indirect style, thus ; Galgacus said, " that
when he contemplated the causes of the war, and the necessity to which they
(the Boman army) were reduced, his confidence wts great, that that day,
and that uniou of theirs, would prove the beginning of universal liberty to
Britain."
In the first of these, or the diced discourse, it will be observed that when
the speaker refers to himself, he uses the first person, " I," " we." When
he refers'to those addressed, he uses the second person, " thou," " you,"—
and that the leading verbs in Latin are all in the indicative mgod, and inde¬
pendent of any previous word. But in the second or oblique discourse, the
third person only is used, whether the speaker is said to refer to himself, or
his hearers, or a third person. And the leading verbs in Latin, are in tno
infinitive mood, or in the subjunctive with.t«<, and, in either case, dependent
on the verb with which the account is introduced such as, "he said,"
"slated," "replied," or the like. It is evident, therefore, that while in both
forms, the same idea is expressed in nearly the same language, the construc¬
tion of the sentence in each is entirely dififerent; thus, in direct discourse:
Antonmslmquit, "Ars edrum rerum est quae sciumlwr." Cio. QuinctiUan re¬
lates the same thing In the oblique form; thus, " Antonius ait, artem edrum
12«
274
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
r'erum e«se qua tciantur" Here, the leading verb in the direct form, is ett,
ill tlie indicative mood, having no dependence on any previous word, and
liaving its subject in the nominative case. In the oblique form, the same
verb is in the infinitive, esse; it is dependent'on ait, and has its subject in
the accusative. In the first, the verb in the subordinate clause, is in the
indicative, sciumtur ; in the last, it is in the subjunctive mood, scianiur.
Hence, the following general principle.
652.—In every unmixed example of oblique narration, two
moods only are admissible, the infinitive and subjunctive, and
consequently, as the relative is never employed but in the
secondary, and subordinate members of a sentence, it must
always, in oblique statements, be followed by the subjunctive.
653.—Obs. 5. In connection with this general principle, however, two
things must be noticed : ''
1st. In oblique discourse, the narrator frequently introduces a remark of
his own, for the purpose of explanation, but yet so closely interwoven
with the discourse he is reporting, as to seem to be a part of it Such
remark is usually introduced with the relative, and the indicative, and
may be detected by this construction : Thus, Disseruit Cvesar, non qnldem
sibi igndra quoe de Hildno vulgabantur, sed uon ex rumore slatuen-
dum, " Caesar replied ' that those things, indeed,' viz.: which were rumored
eoncerning Silanus,' were not unknown to him,'" <fcc. Tac. Here, the-clause,
qua de Silano vulgabaniur, is not to be regarded as a part of what Caesar
said, but as a clause thrown in by the historian to inform his readers what,
things they were which Caesar meant But if the verb had been vulgd-
rentur, it would have shown that it was a part of what Caisar said.
2d. In animated oblique narration, the historian sometimes suddenly
passes from the oblique to the direct discourse, and, instead of reporting
the remarks of the speaker, introduces him. as it were, to speak for him¬
self. This is always manifest by the transition, from the use of the infini¬
tive and subjunctive, to that of the indicative, and from the use of the
third person to denote the speaker, and the person addressed, to that of
the first and second. The following is often quoted as an appropriate
example of this. (Oblique) " Sablnce muHeres dirimbre infestas acies,
hinc patres, hinc v\ros orantes!' ne se sanguine nefando, socbri, generlque
respergirent; ne parricidio maculdrent partus suos, nepotum illi, libbrum
hi progemem. (Direct) Si piget affinitatis inter vos, si connubii piget, in
nos verilte Iras, nos causa belli, nos vnlnerum ac ccedium vXris ac parentlbus
sumus, melius periblnius, quam sine altbris oestrum viduce aut orbce vivemus.
Liv I. 13.
654.—Obs. 6. A verb in the Future-perfect indicative, in direct dis
course, will always take the pluperfect subjunctive, when the same sen¬
tence is thrown into the oblique form, whatever be the tense of the intro¬
ductory verb; thus, Dabilur quodcunque optdris. Ov.; in direct discourse,
is thus related by Cicero, in the oblique form; Sol Fheetlsonti filio fae-
turum esse dixit quidquid opt asset.
655.—Obs. 1. To this construction may be referred the subjunctive
ccomected by a relative or casual conjunction with the preceding verb in
§ 142-3
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
275
any of its parts, for the purpose of expressing, not ■what the ■writer asserti
himself, but what is alleged by othera ; as, Socrates accusatus est gaod cor-
rumpiret juventutnn, " Socrates was accused, because (as was alleged) he
corrupted the youth." Tlie indicative here would asseit, on the part of
the writer, that Socrates did corrupt the youth.
Kote.—The verbs ptitp, dlco, arbitror, and the like, are sometimes used,
especially by Cicero, in the subjunctive, with the verb following in the
infinitive, when properly they should be in the indicative, (mcaniug,'■ as
they said, thought, <tc.") and the verb, iu the clauses dependent on them,
in the subjunctive; as, Rcdiil paulo post, quod se obiltum nescio quid
diciret, Cio., '• He (Hannibal) returned soon after, because, as be said, he
had forgotten somethingfor quod, ut dicebat, oblltus esset nescio quid.
Enientiundo quce se . . . audisse dicereut, Sail., " By forging stories which,
as they said, they had heard for quce, ut dicebant, audivisseut.
C56.— Ohs. 8. When an infinitive or subjuiTctive mood has
a clause connected with it by a relative or other connecting
word, tor the purpose of restricting the predicate, otherwise
indefinite, the verb of the latter clause is put in the subjunc
tive mood ; as, ^
Quid inim pttest esse tarn perspicuum, gvam esse attquod niimcn quo
heec re g antur, "For what can be so clear, as that there is some diviuit^v
bp whpm these things are governed?"
657.—§ 142. CONSTRUC^TION OF THE IMPERATIVE. •
1. The Imperative mood is used to command, exliort, <tc., 149. Its sub¬
ject, with which it agrees by Rule IV.. is the person or persons addressed
.in the command, <fcc,, and hence, it is properly used only iu the second per¬
son. In Latin, as well as in Gieek, the imperative' mood has a distinct
form for the third peison ; it is, however, but seldom used, aud chiefly in.
the enacting of laws, having the force of. a command on those tor whom
they are designed.
2. With the imperative, not is expressed by ne, and nor by nice ; as,
Ne crSde colori. Viao. Homincm inortuum in urbe ne sepellto,
neve urito. Cic.
3. Instead of the simple imperative, sometimes /ac or cave, ■with the
subjunctive, are used, and noii with the infinitive ; a&.fac venias, " come
ctive existlmes, "do not think;" iioli timire, "do not fear." For other
tenses, used imperatively, see 150.
~§ 143. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE.
[For the tenses of the infinitive mood, in connection with different tenses
of the verb, see § 47.]
658.—The injultive mood, in Latin, is used in two ways ; First, as a
verbal noun, and Second, dl a veib. Asa verbal no^cn, it has no subject-
ns a verb, it always has. Without a sulyect, it cannot form a pioposition,
276 SYNTAX.—MOODS. § 144
or express an affirmation; with a subject, it always does. In the first
case, it comes under the regimen of the verb, either alone as a verbal
noun, or with the wwds depending upon it, as a substantive phrase. In
the second, it comes under its regimen, only in connection with its subject,
as a distinct, though dependent proposition, or substantive clause. Hence,
all that belongs to the construction of this mood, may be comprised in
what relates to the use of it, in these two ways.
§ 144. J. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT.
659.—The infinitive without a suhject, may be regarded as a
verbal noun in the singular number, neuter gender (271), and
in form indeclinable, but differing from all other nouns, inas¬
much as it involves the idea of time, and has all the power of
governing that belongs to the verb. The character of the in¬
finitive as a noun, is manifest from its being used in almost
every way th^t a noun is.' It is used,
L As the nominative to a verb; as, invidere (invidia) noncSdit in
Sapientem. Didicisse Jidehter artes emollit mBres. Ov. UCinam embri
fortunis meis honestus exltus esset; or as the nominative after the
verb; as, slve itlud er at sine funire ferri ; bene viv ere est bis vivlre.
2. As a case in apposition to a preceding nominative; as, res irat spec
taculo dig7ia, vide re Xerxem, <fec.; " it was a thing worthy of being seen,
to see Xerxes," dec.
8. It is used as a genitive after substances and adjectives; as, tern pus
est ablre, for abeutidi;—soli can tare perlti Arcddes, equivalent to
eantandi or cantus. Rules VII. IX.
4. As a dative after adjectives, Ac.; thus, et vos servXre mSgis quam
imperclrepardtiestis.'RxiieXyL
5. As an accusative after an active verb; as, da mihi f all ere, Hos.;
terram cum prlmmn drant, proscindere appellant; cum iterum,
off ring er e dicunt. Vakr.—After a preposition; as, nihil interest
inter d&re et accipbre. Sen. Procter plordre. Hor. Procter
Ibqui. Lrv.
6. As a .vocative; as, Ovivbre nostrum, for Ovlta nostra.
1. As an ablative in various constructions; as^dignus amdri; as the
case absolute; thus. Audita regem in Siciliatn Andbre. This example,
however, has a subject regem. Rule XXIIl
8. It has an adjective or pronoun agreeing with it; &s, sclr e tuum
nihil est; ipsum die ere nunquam non ineptnm est. &e. Cic. In this
way, we may account for the poetic " dulce Idqui," " ridere decorum," Ac.
9. It governs the genitive like a noun ■, as, cuj us non dimicare fuit
vincere.
Note.—It is however, chiefly as the subject or the object of a verb, in
the nominative or accusative, that it is used as a noun.. The examples
§144
syntax.—moods.
277
Abjve (3, 4,1,) in •which it is used, where a noun or pronoim would be put
in the genitive, or dative, or ablative, are of rare occurrence, and in some
cases may be otherwise explained. The infinitive as a noun, in the nomi¬
native or accusative, is subject to the following Kules:
660.—Kule LVI. One verb being the subject
of another, is put in the infinitive; • as,
Facile est quiri. To complain is easy.
Mentlri turpe est, To lie is base.
661.—^explanation.—In the first example the subject or thing
spoken of is expressed by the infinitive queri, which is therefore the nomi¬
native to the verb est. A noun used instead of qneri would have to be in the
nominative case. In such sentences, it is manifestly improper to say that en
governs quh-i, just as it would be improper to say the verb governs its nomi¬
native. This rule applies also to the infinitive with a subject.
662.—06s..l. A proper attention to this rule will show that many
verbs considered impersonal, or thought to be used impersonally, are not
really so, but have an infinitive or a clause of a sentence for their subject
or nominative ;■ thus, nee profuit Hifdroe crescere per damnum, " nor did it
profit the Hydra to grow by his woimds." Ovin. Here, instead of saying
that profuit is used impersonally, and governs erescire in the infinitive;
the true construction is, that profuit is used personally, and has crescire
for its nominative. So, the following, cUdit in eundem misereri et invidere.
Cic. Vacare' culpd magnum est solatium; neque est te fallire quidquam,
.(Sic., 307.
663.—Kule LVII. One verb governs another,
as its object, in the infinitive; as,
Cupio disc ire, I desire <o learn.
664.—EXPLANATION.—The infinitive mood under this rule is equiva¬
lent to a noun in the case which the preceding verb usually governs : Thus,
in the example, cupio is a transitive active verb and governs discere, as if it
were a noun in the accusative. The meaning is, that a verb, used as the ob¬
ject of another, without a conjunction or connective word, must be put in
the infiuitive. This Eule also applies to the infinitive with a subject.
Note.—In all cases of the infinitive without a subject, vmder this rule,
the infinitive expresses an act, or state, of the subject of the preceding
verb.
. 665.— Obs. 2. The infinitive without a subject, is used only after cer¬
tain verbs, especially such as denote desire, ability, intention or endeavor ;
such as, cupio, opto, vblo, nolo, malo;—possum, queo, nequeo, valeo, cogito,
cOnor, tendo, disco, doceo, debeo, <fec. By the poets it is used after fuge,
parce for ndli, and sometimes after caveo, fvgio, gaudeo, <tc. In a few in
stances it is used after verbs of motion, to denote a purpose ; as, introilt
videre, "he came to seif Tra. Jniit consilia tollire reges,"h% de¬
vised a plan to destroy the kings."
278
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
666.—Obs. 3. Id maoj cases, tbe infinitive after such verbs may be.
changed for the infinitive with a subject; as, cuj)io m e esse clement em,
Cio.; for esse, clemens, or clementem. 326. Or, for the subjunctive with ut,
or ne; as, sententiauL ne diciret recusavit, for sententiam dicire.
667.—Obs. 4. The infinitive without a subject is also used after adjec¬
tives, and nouns. So used, it is equivalent to a noun in the case governed
by such adjective or noun. See examples, 659-3, 4,7.
668.—Obs. 6. Sometimes the infinitive is imderstood; as,-«i proiin
tiam Numidiam populus jussit; si. ddri.
Note 1.—^When the verbs possum, volo, nolo, malo, in the indieative or
subjunctive, are translated by the English auxiliaries can, will, wilt not,
will ratlrer ; or in the past teuse by could, would, <fec., the infinitive follow¬
ing is translated without to before it; as, potest fieri, " it can be done
rblo Ire, " I will gomOlo facire, " I would rather do itnolUe timere,
" do not fear."
Note 2.—The present infinitive is generally translated as the perfect,
without to, when it comes after the imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect, of
possum, vUo, nolo, malo, translated could, would, would not, would rather ;
and with to after the same tenses of deb'eo and oportet, translated ought;
as, melius fieri non potuit, " it could not have been done bettervolui
dicere, "J would have saidsumlre anna noluit, " he would not have
taken arms dividi oportuit, " it ought to have been divided." Ac.
Note 3.—After verbs denoting to see, hear, feel, and the like, the present
infinitive is sometimes rendered by the English present participle; as,
audivi eum dieire, " I heard him saying." Also when the infinitive is tlie
subject of another verb; as, mordri periculosum est," delaying (to delay) is
dangerous." "5 *
The Historical Infinitive,
6611.— Obs. 6. The verb governing the infinitive is sometimes omitted,
especially is this the ease in historical narration, when the infinitive fol¬
lows a nominative case in the sense of the imperfect indicative, or the
perfect indefinite; as, invidere omnes mihi, "all envied me." Tee.
At Roinani, dbmi militiceque intenti, festinare, par&re, alius
alium hortari. Sall. When thus used, it is supposed to be govemed-
by coepit or cceperunt understood. Cases occm, however, in which this
supplement cannot be made; as, verum ingenium ejus hand absurdurn
posse facire ver.ms, jocum movers, <Stc., (310.) Sall, The historical infini¬
tive and the imperfect, are often connected "in the same construction; as,
Alblnus .... sendtum defeeders eonsulebat; et tdmen intlrim exerAtui
supplementum scriblre .... auxilia ar ce ssli^, deritque mddis omni^
bus f estinare. S.all, Jug. 39.
670.—§ 145. II. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT.
The infinitive with a subject possesses the character of the verb, and
affirms of its subject as in the indicative or the subjunctive mood; but
§ 145
syntax.—moods. >
279
only in subordinate and dependent propositions. These propositioiiS them¬
selves have a substantive character, and generally stand in the relation of
substantives to a vei b, or phrase, on which they depend; sometimes as a
nominative to, or the subject of the verb, but generally as an object or an
accusative after it Thus used, they may be called substantive clauses—
and as such, they fall under the two preceding rules. Thus:
1st. The infinitive with a subject must be considered as the nominative
when it is the subject of a sentence, i. e. when anything is declared of it;
as, te non istud audlvisse mirumest, "that you have not heard that
is wonderful" Here, te non istud audlvisse stands as the nominative to
est. Rule LVL See 661.
2d. The infinitive with its subject is the accusative or object after a
verb, when it has for its direct object, the idea expressed by a dependent
infinitive clause, or when such clause takes the place of a noun or pronoun
governed by the verb; as, mlror te non serihSre, "1 wonder that
you do not write" Here, te non scrihire stands as the object of mlror,
which governs it as an accusative by Rule LVII, or XX. See 664.
Note.—The verbs which admit an infinitive with its subject as their
direct object, are those which denote an action of our senses, or internal
faculties, or such as denote feeling, knowing, thinking, or sayingas, audio,
video, sentio, cognoseo, intelllgo, menilni, puto, duco, dlco, prodo serlbo, piro-
mitto, and the like. These seldom take a conjunction (ut or quod) with the
indicative or subjunctive as their object See Obs. 5, et seq.
671.—Kule LVIII. The subject of the infini¬
tive is put in the accusative; as,
Gaudeo te vallre, I am glad that you are well.
672.—EXPLANATION.—The subject of the infinitive is the person or
tiling spoken of in the dependent clause, and may be, as in Rule IV., a noun,
a pronoun, &c., and is always to be in the accusative case; except us in 669.
Under this Kule, the infinitive with its subject forms a distinct propo¬
sition, and is equivalent to the indicative, or subjunctive mood in English,
together with the connective "that." Thus, in the example, te vaUre con¬
tains the simple proposition, " You are well." The equivalent of the Eng¬
lish " that," connecting it as a subordinate clause with the preceding verb,
is implied in the infinitive form. If the infinitive stand after an accusa¬
tive which does not form with it a distinct proposition, i. e. which is not its
subject, it does not belong to this Kule, but the accusative is governed by
Kule XX.; as, Proteus pecus igU alios vi^e montes. Hoe. Hence,
OBSERVATIONS.
673.—Ohs. 1. The English particle "that" may be called the sign ol
the accusative before the infinitive, being used to connect the infinitive
clause with the preceding. It may often be omitted, however, in transla-
.ting, as it frequently is in English; thus, aiunt regem adventdre, " they say
the idng is coming, or, " that the Ung is coming.
280
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
674.—Obs. 2. The accusative subject, in Latin, is translaietl by the
nominative in English. Hence, the accusative of the relative jirououu,
referring to persons must be rendered Wm, not whom ; a^ quern confec-
tum vulneribus dixtmus, " who, we said, was exhausted with his wounda'"
Xbte.—The infinitive with its subject in the accusative is sometimes
translated in the same form in English; as, cupio te venire, "I wish
you to come;" quos discord&re novlrat, " whom he had known to (fi/'-
/er;" eum vocdri jussit, "he ordered him to be called"
N. B.—For the various ways of rendering the different
tenses of the infinitive after difi'erent tenses of the indicative
or subjunctive, see at length, 180. "
675.— Obs. 3. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the
subject of the preceding verb, it is seldom expressed, unless reqpiired to
be emphatic; as, polllcitus sum scripturum (esse) sc. me, " I promised thai
I would write." After verbs signifying to be accustomed, to dare, I can, I
ought, the infinitives esse, judicuri, videri, <tc., having the same subject with
the preceding verb, have an adjective or noun after them in the nomina¬
tive case, indicating that the subject of the infinitive understood is re¬
garded as a nominative according to the Greek construction. Gr. Gr. § 175.
Exc. Th\)S, sblet tristis videri; aude sapiens esse; debes esse'diligens. See
also, 325-328, and 733-3, 3d.
676.—Obs. 4. When the preceding verb is in the passive voice, the
subject of the infinitive may be changed into the subject of that verb, or
remain unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being used imper¬
sonally, or rather having the infinitive elause for its subject; thus, m a-
trem Pausanice eo tempbre vixisse dicitur, or, mdter Pausanioe eo ton-
pore vixisse dicltur, " it is said that the mother of Pausanias was living at
that time," or, " the mother of Pausanias is said to have been living," <fec.
Gr. Gr., § 175, Obs. 3.
Note.—When a relative clause has the same verb as the proposition
with the infinitive on which the relative clause depends, but without the
repetition of the verb, the subject of the verb in the relative clause is put
by attraction in the accusative; as, Platonem femnt idem sensisse quod
Pythagoram, " They feay that Plato thought as Pythagoras did." But,
if the verb of. the relative clause is expressed, its subject must be in the
nominative; as, Platonem ferunt.... idem sensisse quod Pythagoras
sens it.
The same analogy is observed with the conjunction quam aft^r a com
parative. See 470, 1st and 2d.
677.—Obs. 5. The accusative with the infitftive, in a subordinate
clause, is in some cases equivalent to the subjunctive with ut or quoa,
" that," preceding; as, Optavit ut in cur rum p atr is toller etur,or,
Optdvit se in currum patris tolli, "He (Phasthon) desired
should be taken up into his father's chariot." Gaudeo te v al ire, ox gau-
deo quod v ale as, "I am glad that you are well" But though, in a few
cases, the one expression may be changed for the other, usage has given
so decided a prefereuce in some cases to the one form, and in others to the
other, that such change would be improper; thus.
SYNTAX.—MOODS.
281
1st. When the dependent clause expresses purpose or design, or when
" that" is equivalent to " in order that" " so that" ut with the subjunctive is
used. 627-1. 2d.
2d. After verbs of endeavoring, aiming, accomplishing, such as facio,
efficio, perficio, Ac., the subjunctive with wi is always used. Hence arises
the use of facire ut, instead of the indicative, to denote a fact; thus, fecit
ut dimittiret mihtes, is equivalent to dimisit milites.
8d. Verbs signifying to request, demand, admonish, advise, commissiot\
encourage, command, and the like, usually take the subjunctive with ui,
which may generally be rendered as the infinitive ; as,praecepit ut Irem,
" He commanded me. to go."
Note.—Jh narrative, dependent clauses, expressing obliquely the wish,
command, or message of another, whether the verb be in the subjunctive
with ut or ne, or in the infinitive with a subject, or both in connection,
often depend oi. a word denoting to sag, saying, understood, or implied in
the leading verb; as, .Ad Bocchum nuntios mittit (.qui dicirent ut]
quampnmum copias adduclret; prcelii faciundi tempos adesse. Sall. Jug.,
97. Verba f&cit (dlcens) se arma cepisse. Id. 102.
4th. Ut with the subjunctive follows verbs signifying to happen, to occur,
<Stc., as, ft, incidit, oceurrit, contingit; est, restat, supSrest, <fec. 627-1. 4th.
6th. Verbs signifying willingness, unwillingness, permission, necessity,
Ac., commonly take the accusative with the infinitive. Also, generally,
verbs denoting seeing, hearing, knowing, feeling, thinking, saying, Ac., but
sometimes they take the subjunctive.
6th. When the dependent clause expresses, not a thought or conception
only,but a fact, the verb is put in the indicative or subjunctive with quod;
as. Inter eausas malorom nostrbrum est quod vivimus ad exempla.
7th. After verbs denoting a feeling of pain or pleasure, and the out¬
ward expression of those feelings, such as, gaudeo, detector, angwr, doleo,
and the like, quod, " that," in the sense of"' because," with the indicative or
subjunctive is used, or the accusative with the infinitive; as. Quod
spiralis (or vos spir dre) indignaniur. Whether the indicative or sub¬
junctive is to be used, depends on whether the proposition expresses a
fact, or only a conception of the mind.
678.—Obs. 6. After such verbs as existltno, piUo, spiro, affirmo, sus-
picor, Ac., the place of the future infinitive is, elegantly supplied hy fOre,
or futurum esse, followed by ut with the subjunctive; as, Nunquam pro-
Idvi fdre ut supplex ad te venirem; for (me) venturmn esse.
This construction is necessary when the verb has no supine, and conse¬
quently no future infinitive active. See 179-9. Nbre is sometimes used
with the perfect participle, to denote a future action in the passive voice;
as, -Quod videret nomiyte pads bellum involutum fore.
679.—Obs. 7. The verb on which the infinitive depends is sometimes
,)mitted, especially in interrogations, or exclamations, expressive of indig¬
nation; as, Mme incepto desistire nee posse, Ac. —Viao. In such
cases, some such expression as credibtle est is understood.
680.—Exc. The historical infinitive has its subject in the nominative
(310 and 669); as,Fama prikclara esse," His /awie was illustrious." Sau,,
282
SYNTAX.—PARTICIPLES.
§ 146. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLES.
[For the tenses, and the use of the participles in certain connections,
see § 49.]
681.—^Rule LIX. Participles, like adjectives^
agree with their substantives in gender, number,
and case; as,
H5mo cSreng frauds, A man wanting guile.
Pax tantum amdta. Peace so greatly loved.
682.—Rem. Participles together with gerunds and supines being psrts-
of tlie verb, govern the oase of their own verbs ; so that no separate rule for
tlie government of cases by these, is at all necessary.
OBSERVATIONS.
683.—Obs. 1. The verbs do, reddo, vSfo, euro, facio, habeo, comperio,
with the perfect participle, form a periphrasis similar to the compound
tenses in English, and other modern languages; thus, Habeo compertmn,
for comperi, " I have foundMissam Iram faciei, for Iram mittet, <fec.
684.—Obs. 2. The perfect passive participle is often used, to supply
the place of a verbal noun, when such a noun is wanting, or but seldom
used; as. Hoe literoe r ecitdtoe magnum Inchon feccrnnt, "The read¬
ing of thie letter, (not " this letter being read") caused great mourning."
So, Captum Tarentum, " The taking of Tarentumreceptus Hannibal, " the
reception of Hannibal" Ab urbe condlta, " fi'om the building of the city."
685.—3. The future active participle is frequently used, to de¬
note the purpose or design of an action, and is in such case rendered to, in
order to ; as, ad Jdvem Hammdnem, pergit consulturus de origine end,
" he goes to Jupiter Ammon to (or in order to) consult him about his
origin." So also the present; pi tens veniam vdnit.
686.—Obs. 4. The future participle ■ in dus, also, denotes a purpose,
when joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver, to agree for, to have,
to receive, to undertake, &c.-, as, I'estamentmn tibi tradit legendum," he
delivers his will to you to be readf'So, his alra didit habendum.
687.— Obs. 5. The participle in dus, generally implies the idea of pro-
prieiy, necessity, or obligation. This is almost always the case when it
agrees with the subject of a sentence; as.Helenda est Carthago,'Car
thage must be destroyed. Sometimes, also, when it qgi-ees with words not
in the sub'eet; as. Facta narrubas dissimulate a tibi, "You were
relating (things which) ought to have been concealed by you." The doer
in such constructions, when expressed, must be in the dative. 531.
Note.—In some cases, the participle in dus, is used as a present parti
eiitle passive. 182, iVote 3.
688.—Obs. 6. Participles are often used instead of a dependent clause,
to express some condition or explanatory circumstance usually introduced,
in English, by a relative pronoim, or the particles as, when, although, since
SYNTAX.—THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
283
while, and the like; as, Caesar hostes in fugam conjectos ■perseeutus est,
" Caesar pursued the enemy who had been put to flight," Curio ad fbcum
sedenti, "ToCurius as he. was sitting by the flre" Dionysius, Syracusis
expulsus, Corinlhi pubros docibat, " Dionysius, when he was expelled from
Syracuse," Ac.
689.—Obs. 7 A participle is joined with another verb, and in the
same case with iU subject, fur the two following purposes, viz.:
1st. It is used simply to connect an accompanying with the main action,
whether simultaneous or autecedent. in the same subject. Thus used, the par¬
ticiple and verb may be rendered as two verbs connected by a conjunction;
as, venit ad me cI a mXt a n s, " he came to me and cried out,"lit., crying out,
Caesar hostes aggressus fugavit, "Caesar attacked and defeated the
enemy."
2d. Sometimes, as-in Greek, it is used to connect an accompanying with
the main action, in the same subject, as the cause, manner, or means of
effecting it; as, hoe fad ens vlvam melius," by doing this I will live
better." Hor. So used, it is equivalent to the ablative Gerund.
When a participle does not refer to some leading subject in the propo¬
sition, but to a new subject introduced, and not depending on ar..y word in
tlie sentence, the participle is put with that new subject, in wV is called—
THE CASE ABSOLUTE.
690.—^Rule LX. a substantive witb a partici¬
ple, wbose case depends on no other word, is put
in the ablative absolute; as,
„■ i e ■ t , I i The sun rising, or while the sun
bote orients fuqiunt tenebroe,i , , "A- „ _
^ ' ( rises, darkness flies away.
691.—EXPLANATION.—This- Eule properly affects the substantive
only, with which the participle then agrees by Kiile LIX.
692.—Ob's. 8. This construction is much more frequent in Latin, than
in other languages, partly, because there is no perfect participle in the
active voice. When, therefore, in connection with an active or deponent
verb, a past act of its subject is to be expressed by the participle, the per
feet participle passive must be used; and hence, the object of the aet must
ne introduced as a new subject, which, having no dependence on any word
in the sentence, must, under the rule, be put in the ablative absolute. Thus,
in English we say: Ciesar, having sent forward the cavalry, followed with
all his forces. There being no perfect participle in Latin corresponding to
" having sent," which would agree with Caesar, in the nominative case, this
clause must be changed into the passive form; thus, Caesar, e quit at u
p r ae m i s s o, subsequebatur, die., " literally, Csesar, the cavalry being sent be¬
fore, followed," Ac. Hence,
Rem.—When in this construction, the act expressed by the perfect parti¬
ciple passive, is an aet of the subject of the leading verb, it is better to
render it into English by the perfect participle active; thus. Cwsar, h i s
die lis, profectus est, " Csesar having said these things departed."
693.—As the perfect participle of de] onent verbs has an active sig
284
SYNTAX.—GERUNDS.
nification, it is not necessary to resort to such a change in the use of them.
Thus, Casar hcec locUtus concilium dimlsit, " C'cesar, having said these
things, dismissed the council." With the participle of a verb, not depo¬
nent, tlie passive form and the ablative would be used thus; Coesar his
dictis, concilium dimlsit, <!ic., " Caesar, these things being said, dismissed
the council."—The first of these expressions, besides being more direct, is
also much more definite; for here, there is no doubt as to who said the
things referred to, but in the second, it is left in doubt, whether the things
referred to were spoken by Caesar or by some other. This doubt can be
removed only by the context, or by express mention of the doer, which is
not often done. In the following sentence, the two forms are combined :
Coesar omnium rem Otis ignis, cohort at us Suos proetium coruml-
-M.—So, agros Retnorum depopuldti, omnibus vie is aidijiciis-
que in c en si s, C./ES.
Note.—A few instances occur in which this construction is used when
there is no change of subject, and where a different case would have ex¬
pressed the same thing; thus, legio ex castris Varronis, adstante et
inspectante ipso, for adstantis et inspectantis ipsius.
694.— Obs. 9. The ablative absolute, in the case of deponent, as well
as of other verbs, is used to indicate the order and connection of events
narrated, as in the above examples; or to mark the thne of action by refer¬
ence to that of another action; as, Pythagoras, Tarquinio 8uperbo
regn ante, in Italiam vinit, "Pythagoras came into Italy in the reign of
Idrquin the Proud!' In all such cases, it is equivalent to the subjunctive
with a connective word. Thus, his dictis, in the foi-mer example, is equi¬
valent to qutim hcec dixisset—Tarquinio Superbo regnante, to quum 2ar-
guinius Superbus regnaret; and so of others.
695.— Obs. 10. The verb sum having no present participle, two nouns,
or a noim and adjective, are used in the case absolute without a participle,
which is supplied in English by the word being ; thus, se duce, " he (being)
leader;" se consule," he (being) consul," or " in his consulshipso, C. Buil-
lio et Cn. Cornelio Aslnd cemsutlbus.
696.—-Obs. 11. Some word, phrase, or clause of a sentence, sometimes
supplies the place of the substantive, and has a participle with it in the
ablative; as, nondum comperto quam regiOnem hostes petis-
sent;—audlto Barium appropinquare;—vale dicto, &<i.
697.—Obs. 12. Sometimes the noun is understood; aB,parto quod
avebas. Sometimes a plural substantive is joined with a singular participle •
as, nobis proesente. For the construction of Gerundives, see next section.
698.—§ 147.. GERUNDS* AND GERUNDIVES. '
The Gerund is a verbal noun, in the singular number, governed in the
oblique cases as other nouns, and having the same power of government as
* Some Grammarians, who regard the gerund as a verbal noun, speak of
it as such only in the oblique cases. They think that the nominative of the
verbal is supplied by the infinitive mood, and that which is called the nomi
§ 147 SYNTAX.—GERUNDS. 285
the verb. As, therefore, the rules which apply to the construct ion of nouns
and verbs, apply to the gerund, it is unnecessary to repeat them here.
All that is peculiar to the construction of the gerimd, is comprised in the
following Rules and Observations.
699.—^Rule LXI.—^The verb Est v itb the ge¬
rund for its subject, implies jiecessity, and governs
the dative of the doer; as,
Nom. Legendum est mihi, I must read, lit. reading is to me.
Nom. Muriendum est omnibus, All must die, lit. dying is to all.
Acc. Scio moriendum esse mihi, 1 know that I must die, lit. that dying
is to me.
700.—EXPLANATION. The dative here is governed by,erf, according
to B. II (894.) In the first and second examples, the gerund in the nomina¬
tive is the subject of est, which agrees with it by E. IV. (803.) In the third
example, the gerund is in the accusative, and the subject of esse, by E. LVIIl.
(671.) The necessity implied in this construction is stronger than that ex¬
pressed by the participle in dus, the latter implying only that a thing is to be
done, or should be done,—^the former that it must be done. See 214f-9.
701.—Obs. 1. The dative of the doer in this construction is often un¬
derstood ; as, Orandum est (t i b i) ut sit Sana mens in corpdre sSno.
702.— Obs. 2. The gerund in di, of the genitive case, is
governed by substantives or adjectives; as,
Tempus legendi. Time of reading, 332.
Cupvdus discendi. Desirous of learning, 349.
703.— Obs. 3. The gerund in do, of the dative case, is gov
erned by adjectives, signifying usefulness or fitness; as,
Charta vMis scribendo. Paper used for writing, 382.
Sometimes it is governed by verbs; as, adesse scribendo. Cm Ap"
tat habendo ensem. vieg. Is finis censendofactus est.
704.— Obs. 4. The gerund in dum, of the accusative case.
native of the gerund, is really the neuter of the participle in dus, in a passive
sense, joined with the verb est used impersonally. Thus, studendum est
mihi, they think should be literally rendered " it is to be studied by me."
■ Though this solution is plausible, and would seem to answer in many cases,
there are others in which we, at least, cannot see how it eould be applied.
It cannot be applied unless the participle in dus in all cases has, or may have,
a passive sense ; but of this there is no evidence, and facts are opposed to it.
Thus, it will hardly be admitted as a literal rendering of moriendum est om-
nibus, to say " it is to be died by all," and it certainly cannot be so used in those
examples in which it governs the same case that it does in its aetive seiise;
thus, vtrum pace nobis an bello esset utendum. Cic. Quvm sua culque
jv dido utendum sit. Indeed, the fact that gerunds, in all cases, do gov¬
ern the case of their own verb, seems to be opposed to their being considered
as parts of the passive partHiple in dus.
286
SYNTA3:.-^EBUNDS.
§147
when not the subject of the infinitive, is governed by the pre¬
positions, ad, inter, <kc.; as.
Inter doeendum. In time of teaching.
705.—Obs. 5. The gerund in do, of the ablative case, is gov¬
erned by the prepositions a, ah, de, e, ex, or in ; as,
Pana a peccando absterret, Punishment frightens from sinning.
Or, without a preposition, as the ablative of* manner, or
cause; as,
Memoria excolendo augUur, The memory is improved by exercising it.
Defessua sum ambulando, I am wearied with walking.
706.—Obs. 6. The gerund, as a verbal noun, resembles the infinitive,
and is often put for it; as, £st tempus legendi, or legire. The geruud,
however, is never joined with an adjective, and is sometimes taken in a
passive sense; as. Cum Tisidiurn vocarStur ad imper andum—"<o re¬
ceive ordersurit vidend o,—" by being seen," i. e. dam videtur.
CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDIVES.
707.—^LXII. Gerunds governing the accusative,
are elegantly turned into gerundives in du-s, which,
with the sense of the gerund, instead of govern¬
ing, agree with their substantive in gender, num¬
ber, and case; as.
Gerund, Tempus petendi pScem, 1 - geekW neace.
Gerundive, Tempus peiendm pdcis, j P
Gerund, Ad petendum pOsem, ) „ geguj--
Gerundive, Ad petendam pd^em^ J ^ P
Gerund, A petendo pOcem, ) „ geekino. neaee.
Gerundive, A petendd pdce, J P
708.—EXPLANATION.—This rule applies only to the oblique cases.
In the first of these examples, the Gexxmdi petendi is governed in the genitive
by tempus according to Rule VI., 882, and then governs pacem in the accusa¬
tive by Rule XX., 486. In the gerundive form, the genitive pads is gov¬
erned by tempus, by Rule VI., 882, and the gerundive petendes agrees with it
by Rule II., 268. In the gerund form, the gerund is governed, and then
governs the noun. In the gerundive form, the noun is governed, and then,
the gerundive agrees with it by R. II. In order to eitange from the gerund
to the gerundive, it is necessary only to change the accusative of the noun,
into the case of the gerund, and then make the gerundive agree with it; and
from the gerundive to the gerund, change the noun into the accusative, and
the gerundive into the gerund, in the same case as before,
The following are examples to be ehanged:
Gen. Consilia urbis delendce;—civium truddandOrum ;~^mom1nis Rosnata
sxtinguendi
§148
SYNTAX.—SUPINES.
287
D^t. Perpetiendo labOri idoneus ;—capessendos reipubtlcce habtlii;—na^^a
miserias ferendo ;—ad miseriaa ferendas ;—oniri fereitdo aptus,
Acc. aiid Ab. Ad defendendam RSmam ;—ab oppugnando Capuam ;—ad
collocandum sigua ;—in diripiendis castris,
'<09.—Obs. 7. Instead of the genindive in the genitive plural, to agree
with a noun in that ease, the gerund in the genitive singular is often re¬
tained, probably for the sake of Euphony; as, Fuit exempldrum eli-
gendi pitUnlait. Cic. Facultas agr or um condonandi ; sui {p\.)con-
(bmaHdi, instead of eligendorum, condouandiirum. Also, sometimes when
the noun is singular and feminine ; as, eg u s (fern.) videndi cupldtis. Teb.
710.— Obs, 8. The gerunds of verbs, which do not govern the accu-
jative, are never changed into the gerundive, except those of medeor, Utor,
abator, fi uor,futigor, and potior; as, spes potiundi urbe, or potiundcB urbis ;
but we always say, Cupldas subveniendi tibi, never tui.
711.— Obs. 9. After esse, fdre, the gerund and the gerundive in the
genitive (364), are used, to express tendency to a thing, or serving a cer¬
tain purpose; as, Etgium hnperium initio conservandee libertdtis, atque
avgendte Veipublicce fuerat. Sall., Cat. VI., "The regal government at
first had served the purpose of preserving liberty, and increasing the state,"
[Aiebant] ea prodendi imperii Romdni, tradendts Hnnnibuli vic¬
tories e.we, ■' They said that these things had a tendency to betray the Bo-
man government, and to give the victory to Hannibal." Liv. Quum ani-
madvertisset plerdque dissolvenddrum religidnum esse, " When he had
perceived that most of them tended to destroy religion." Lrv.
§ 148. CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES.
1. The Svpine in um,
712.—^Kule LXIII. The supine in nm is put
after a verb of motion; as,
Abiit deambaldtum. He hath gone to walk.
So, Ducire cohortes preedalum. Lrv. Nunc vSnis irrlsum dominumf
Quod in rem ttiam optimum facta arbltror, te id admonXtum venio. Plaut.
713.— Obs. 1. The supine in um is elegantly joined with the verb eo,
to express the signification of any verb more strongly; as, it se perditum,
the same with id agit, or operam dat, at se perdat, "he is bent on his own
destruction." Tee. So, nt perdUum edtis=ut perddtis ^ ereptum ennt,^
eripiunt. Sail. This supine with Iri, taken impersonally, supplies the
place of the future infinitive passive'; as, an credehas illam sine tiid
opira iri dcductnm dtnnmn I Which maybe thus resolved; an crtdlbas
Iri (a te, or ab all quo) dcductum (i. e. ad deducenduni) i/lam dS-
muni. Tee- The supine here may be considered as a verbal substantivs
governing the accusative, lite the genmd.
288
SYNTAX.—CONJUNCTIONS.
§149
714.—Obs. 2. The supine in um is put after ether verbs besides those
of motion; as,diditjiliam nuptum; cantatum provoclmus.'T^. Re-
vocatus defensuni patriam; divlsit capiat hiemdtum. Nep.
715.—Obt. S. The meaning of this supine may be expressed by several
other parts of the verb; as, vcnit or a turn opem: or 1. Vinit bpem
orandi cautd, or Bpis a r and<e, 2. Venit ad orandum 6pem, or
ad orandarn Bpem.
2. The Orpine in f.
T16.—^Rule LXIV. The supine in m is put after
an adjective noun; as,
Facile dictu. Easy to tell, or to be told.
So, nihil dictu fcedum, visHque, hxee limina tangat, intra quoe puer eet.
Juv. Difficilit res est inventu virus amicus ;—fas est, or nifas est dictu;—
bpus est sdtu. Cic.
717.—Obs. 4. The supine in u, being used in a passive sense, hardly
ever governs any case. It is sometimes, especially in old writers, put
after verbs of motion; as, nunc obsonStu redeo,—"from getting provi¬
sions." Plaot. Primus cubltu surgcU (villicus), postremus cubit urn
eat, " let the overseer be the first to rise, and the last to go to bed" Cato.
718.— Obs. 6. This supine may be rendered by the infinitive or gerund
with the preposition ad; as, difficile cognitu, cognosci, or ad cognoscendum;
res facllis ad credendum'. Cic.
719.— Obs. 6. The supines being nothing else but verbal nouns of the
fourth declension, used only in the accusative and ablative singular, are
governed in these cases by prepositions understood;—the supine in um,bj
the preposition ad; and Ihe supine in a, by the preposition in.
§ 149. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS.
. 720.—Rule LXV. The conjunctions ef, ac, atqv£.,
nee., neque, ant, Del, and some others, couple simi¬
lar cases and moods; as,
Hondra patrem et matrem. Honor fathei^nd mother.
Net llgit nec scrlbit. He neither reads nor writes.
721.—explanation.—Words coupled by a conjunction under this
Bule, are in the same construction, i. e. two nominatives coupled together are
the subject of the same verb, or predicates of the same subject; and nouns
coupled together in the oblique cases are governed by the same word, as in
the first example. Verbs thus coupled have the same subject or nominative,
as in the second example.
§149
SYNTAX.—CONJ UNCTIONS.
289
722.—Obs. 1. The copulative conjuDctions xinder this Rule are such
as et, ac, atque, etiam, que; the disjuuctives nec, tilque, aut, vel, eeu, sioe,
ve,itioe, neu; also quam^ pratterquam, nisi, an, nernpe, qnamvis, necdum, sed,
autem, vSrum, and, in general, such cunuectives as do not imply a depend¬
ence of the following, on the preceding clause.
723.— Obs. 2. These conjunctions connect not only words, but also
clauses whose construction is the same, i. e. whose subjects are in the same
case, and their verbs in the same mood; as, coneidunt venti, fagiuntque
nubss. .
724.—06s. 3. Words in the same construction are sometimes in a dif¬
ferent case: still they are connected by the copulative conjunctions; thus,
mea el reipubliece interest. Here, mea and reipstblicoe, though in different
cases, are in the same construction by R. XVIII. (416). So, constitit asse
et pluris. Rule XLIV. (581). Vir magni ingenii, summdque indiistrid,
Rule VII. (339), Ac. The subjunctive being often used for the imperative
is sometimes coupled with it; as, disce nec invideas.
725.—Obs. 4. The indicative and subjunctive may be connected in this
manner, if the latter does not depend on the former.
726.—Obs. 6. When two words coupled together have each a conjunc¬
tion such as, et, aut, vel, sine, nec, Ac., without being connected with a pre¬
ceding word, the first et is rendered both or likewise; the first aut or vel,
by either ; the first sine, by whether; and the first nec or nique, by neither.
So, also, turn.... t urn.' and cum.... turn, " not only.... but also" or " both
.. .. and;" and so of others ; as, nunc. .. .nunc; jam,.. . .jam, Ac. In
such cases, the conjunctive before the first word renders it more emphatic:
turn.... turn often mean, " at one time, at another time."
727.—Note. AflSrmative and negative sentences are connected by con¬
junctions in p&irs, as follows:
Affirmative. Negative.
et—et very common. neque—neque, nec—rvec,
et—que, not unfrequently. neque—nec, not unfrequently.
que—et, connecting single words. . nec—neque, seldom.
que—que, only in poetry A Sall.
Affirmative and negativei
et—neque, nec, very frequent.
neque, nec—et, very frequent.
nec, neque—que, occasionaUy.
728.—Obs. 6. After words expressing similarity or dissimilarity, ac
and atepie signify "as;" and "than;" aa,fdcis ac sintf rSges, "you do «»
if you should ask me—me edlit cequh atque patronum swum, "he
shows me much attention as," Ac.;—si aliter scrlbo ac sentio, "if I
write otherwise than I think."
729—Obs. 1. Conjunctions that do not imply doubt and contingency,
are usually joined with the indicative mood ; those which do imply doubt,
contingency and dependencepwire, for the most part, joined with me sub¬
junctive (628).
la
290 SYNTAX.—FIGUKES. ' § 150
§ 150. FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
A Fjgvbe is a maooer of speaking different from the regular and or¬
dinary construction, used for the sake of beauty or force.
730.—-.The figures of Syntax, or, construction, may be reduced to four:
Ellipsis, Pleoruxxm, Enalluge, and HyperbHton. Of these, the Jirfl, and
iei-ond, and third, respect the constituent parts of a sentence; the fourth
respects only the arrangement of words.
731.—1. Ellipsis, is the omission of one or more -words
necessary to complete the sense; as,
Aiiint, ferunt, <kc., sc., homines. Aberant bidui, se. Iter, or itinire. Quid
multa P &c., dlcam. Under this, may be comprehended,
1st. Asyndetox, or the omission of a conjunction; as, vPni, vidi, vlci.
J)eus optlmus, maj^lmus, sc., et.
2d. Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns or infinitives to a verb which
is applicable only to one of them; as, pacem an bellum girene,
Sall., where geiens is applicable to bettum only. In. this way,
nego is sometimes used with two propositions, one of which Is
afiii-mative; as, Kigaut Cafiurem mansuruin, pontulatdque inter-
posila eese ; i. e. dicun tq uepostulata.
3d. Sgl/epsia is when an adjective or a veih, belonging to two or more
nouns of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees with one
rather than another. See examples 266, 267.
4th. Synecdoche is the use of an accusative of the part affected instead
of an ablative ; as, Expleri mentem nequit, 638. Virg.
732.—2. Pleonasm, is using a greater number of words
than is necessary, to-express the meaning; as.
Sic ore locuta est, "thus she spoke with her mouth" Viag. Under this
are included,
1st. Polysyndeton, or, a redundancy of conjunctions; as, und Eurus
que Eotus que runnt. V ikg.
2d. HendiSdys, or the expression of an idea, by two nouns connected by
a conjunction, instead of a noun limited by an adjective or genitive;
as, P uteris libdmus et awro, "We offer a hbation from cups
and from gold," instead of patcris aureis, " from golden cups."
3d. Periphrasis, or a circuitous mode of expression; as, tencri foetus
ovium, " the tender young of the sheep," instead of agni, " lambs."
733.—3. Enallage, is a change of wqjds, or a change of
one gender, numjper, case, person, tense, mood, or voice, of
the same word, for another. It includes,
1st. Antimeria, or the using of one part of speech for another; as, nos¬
trum vivire, for nostra vita; eonjugium vidcbit, for con-
jugem, &c.
2d. Heterosis, or the using of one form of a noun, pronoun, or verb, for
another; as, «in dn«spreelio victor, forRomdni victdres. Trun
cus me su s tulir a t, for sustulisset. Hoa.
SYNTAX.—LATIN ARRANGEMENT.
291
8d, Antiptdsis, or the using of one case for another; as, ctii nunc cog-
Hotnen lUlo, for Jiilus. (261 and 433). Vmo. Uxor invicli Jovit
es!<t nescis, for te esue uxirem. Hob. See 675.
4th. Sgnisri, or Synthisis, is adapting the construction to the sense of a
■word, rather than to its gender or number; as, Concursns popiili
mirantium ;—Par t in crucem acti;—scilut qui,&c. 278
and 292.
6&. Anacoluthon, or a departure in the end of a sentence, from the
construction with which it commenced. Thus, A'am nos omne s,
guibus eat alicunde aliguia objectua Idboa lucro eat. Here
the wi'iter began as if he intended to say lucro habemua, and ended
as if he had said nobis omnibus. As it is, the nominative nos has
no verb, and eat, which, in such sentences, requires the dative of a
person, is without it.
734.-4. Hypeebaton, is a transgression of the usual order of
words or clauses. It includes,
1st Anastrophe, or an inversion of the order of two words; as Transtra
per et rluios, for per transtra, <fec.;—Collo ddre brachia circum, for
circumdare, ic.
2d. Ilystiron protiron, or reversing the natural order of the sense; as,
Morimnur et in media arma ruatnus. ViRG. Valet atque vlvit
Tee.
3d. Hypall&ge, or an interchange of constructions; as. In nova fert anl
mua mutdtas dicere formaa corpbra; for corpbra mutctta in novas
formas. D&re classibus Austros, for dare classes Austria.
4th. Tmesis, or separating the parts of a compound word; as, Septem
srdijecta tribni gens, for Septenlribni. Vmo. Quce me cunque vbcanl
terrce, for qtusrunque, &o.
5th. Parenthesis, or the insertion of a word or clause in a sentence,
which inteiTupts the natural connection; as, Tityre, dam redeo,
{brbvis est V i a) pasce capetlas. Vieg.
To these may be added,
735.—Akchaism, -which in Syntax means the use of ancient
forms of construction ; as, Operam abuhiur, for operA. Tee.
Quid Itbi hanc curaiio est rem ^
736.—Hellenism, or the use of Greek constructions j as,
Absliheto irarnm, for Iris. Hoe. Tempus desistSre pugnee, foi
pugnA. Vieg.
§ 151. LATIN'ARRANGEMENT.
737.—In all languages, the arrangement of words in a sentence is .i!f-
ferent; and all, it is probable, consider the order.of arrangement in their
own language the most nati^al, being that to which they have themselves
been most aceust<^med. In a language like the English, however, the
words of which have but few changes of form or termination, much mors
292
SYNTAX.—LATIN ARRANGEMENT. § 161
depends on their position in a sentence than in those languages which are
able, by the changes of form only, to indicate the relation of words to
each other, however they may be arranged. Thus, when we say in Eng
lish, " Alexander conqitered Darius" if we change the order of the words,
we necessarily change the meaning also ; as, Darius conquered Alexander.
But whether we say in Latin, Alexander vtcit Darium, or Darium vlcit
Alexander, or Alexander Darium vlcit, or Darium Alexander vlcit, or place
these words in any other possible order of arrangement, the meaning is
the same, and cannot be mistaken; because it depends, not on the position,
but on the form of the words. Ihis gave the Latin writer much more
scope to arrange his words in that order which would best promote the
strength or euphony of the sentence, without endangering its perspicuity.
Still, even in Latin, custom has established a certain order of arrangement
which is considered the best And, though no certain rules can be given
on this subject which are applicable to every instance, the following
general principles and Rules may be noticed.
738.—General principles of Latin Arrangement.
1. The word governed is placed before the word which
governs it.
2. The word agreeing is placed after the word with which
it agrees. More particularly, '
739.—Rule I. The subject is generally putTjefore the verb j
as, Deus mundum gubernat. "
Exe. 1. When the subject is closely connected wifti a clause following '
the verb, it is placed after the verb; as, irant omnlno duo itinera, qui-
bus, Ac.
Exc. 2. When the subject is emphatic, it usually follows the verb and
concludes the sentence.
740.—Rule n.-The adjective or participle most commonly
follows the substantive with which it agrees.
With few exceptions, however, the place of the adjective or
participle is entirely arbitrary. The following usages may
be noticed:
1st. The adjectives, primus, medius, vltlmus, extrSmus, summus, inflmus,
Imus, supremus, reliquus, ccetirus, denoting the first part, the mid¬
dle part, Ac., are generally put before the substantive; as, summus
mons; extremo libro, "the top of the mountain," Ac.
2d. When the substantive governs another in the genitive, the adjective
generally precedes both; as. Dud PlalOnis preeepta.
3d. When the substantive is governed by a preposition, the adjective is
frequently put before the substantive; as, Hae in quesHSne; mag-
nd in parte.
4th. The adjective is often put before the substantive for the sake
Euphony.
§151 SYNTAX.—LATIN ARKANGEMENT. 298
6th. is, ille, hie, iste, are generally placed before the substantive, and, if
used substantively, are placed before the participle.
741.—Rule III. The relative is commonly placed after, and
as near as possible to its antecedent.
Obs. 1. The relative is conunonly the first word of its own clause, and
when it stands for et ille, et hie, el is, or for these pronouns without el, (296,
1st,) it is always first Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause,
precede the antecedent and its clause.
742.—Rule IV. The governing word is generally placed
after the word governed; as', Carthaginiensium dux—laudis
avidus—Romanorum dit'mimus—hostem fudit, &c. Hence,
Obs. 2. The finite verb is commonly the last in its own clause. To this,
however, there are many exceptions.
743.—Rule V. Adverbs are generally introduced before the-
word which they are intended to modify; as, Leviler cegro-
tanles, leniter curant. Cic.
744.—Rule VI. Conjunctions generally introduce the clause
to which they belong; as, at si dmes ;—sed profecto in omni re
forluna dominatur.
Exe. 1. The enclitics que, ve, ne, are always annexed—^the two first, to
the latter of the two words which they serve to connect; as, albus aterve.
Cia £dni mallque-;—and the last, tc the subject which the question
chiefly regards; thus, loquarne? "shall I speak 1" egbne liquarl " shall I
speak r
Exe. 2. The conjunctions autem, inim, vera, quSque, quXdem, are always
placed after the introductory word of the clause, generally in the second
place, and sometimes in the &ird; etiam, igltur, and tamen, more frequently
m the second and the third place than in -the first.
745.—Rule YII. Words connected in sense, should be as
close as possible to each other, and the words of one clause
should never be mixed with those of another.
746.—Rule VIII. Circumstances, viz: the cause,—the man¬
ner,—the instrument,—the time,—the place, &c., are put before
the predicate; as,
Eum ferra occidi;—Ego te ob egregiam virtiUem semper amavi. »
747.—Rule IX. The proper name should precede the name
of rank or profession; as, Cicero ordtor.
748.—Rule X. The vocative should either introduce the
sentence, or be placed among the first words; as, Credo vos,
judices.
749.—Rule XI. When there is an antithesis, the words
chiefly opposed to each other, should be as close together as
possible; as, Appltis pecunium, virtdtem ahfieis.
294
SYNTAX.—ANALYSIS.
§152
750.—Bule XII. Dependent clauses, as well as single words,
are placed before the principal finite verb, upon which they
chiefly depend.
751.—Hule XIII..'As a general rule, where the case will ad¬
mit, it is proper to proceed from shorter to longer words, and
from shorter to longer clauses and members of a sentence, as
we advance towards the close.
Hence, it will follow, that a sentence should not conclude
with a monosyllable, when it can be avoided.
KEMABX.—These are to bo considered only as general Bules, subject to
many modifications and exceptions, according to the taste'of different writers.
However, as a general guide, with close attention to classical usage and
■euphony, they may be of use to enable the student to avoid errors on this
subject
752.—§ 152. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense;
as, hOrno mortaiis est, "man is mortal"
All sentences are either simple or compound.
A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation; as, vUa hrlvis est.
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con¬
nected together; as, bis dot, qui cUo dat.
153.—SIMPLE SENTENCES.
A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts—the subject and
the predicate.
The subject is that of which something is affirmed.
The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject.
The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun, but may be anything, how
ever expressed, about which we can speak or think. '
The predicate properly consists of two parts,—the attribute affirmed
of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is made; thus,
in the sentence, vUa brhiis est, the subject is vita; the predicate is
brbvis est, of which brivts is the attribute, and es^^e copula. In most
cases, the attribute and copula are expressed by one word; as, Iquus
currit, " the horse runs "-= Squtis currens est, " the borse is running."
The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of a sentence.
The predicate may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a preposition
with its case, an adverb, a participle, an infinitive mood, or clause of a
sentence, as an attribute, connected with the subject by a substantive verb
as a copula; or it may be a verb which includes in itself both attribute
and eopala, and is therefore called an attributive veib.
§152
SYNTAX.—ANALYSIS.
295
754.—TH? SUBJECT.
The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or logical.
L The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, unlimitea
hj other words.
The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with al]
the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined ; thus, in the sen¬
tence, vir 6dnus sui timllem qua!rit,t)ie grammatical subject isvtr; the
logical, vir bonus. Again:
II. The subject of a proposition may be either simple or compound.
A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlimited, as
the grammatical, or limited, as the logical subject.
A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to which
belongs but one predicate; as, SomUlus et It emus fratres erant.
755.—MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT.
A grammatical subject may be modified, limited, or described in Tarious
ways; as,—
• 1. By a noun in apposition; as, Ciclro oratorfactus est consul.
2. By a noun in the genitive ; as, Ira Dei lenta est. *
8. By an adjunct; as, De viciorid Catsdrisfamaperfertur.
4. By an adjective word, i. e. an adjective, adjective pronoun, or partici¬
ple ; as, Justitid gaudent vlri bSn i.—Suus culqueirat Idcusdejin%
tus.— Vox missa nescit reverti.
5. By a relative and its clause; as, Vir sSpit, qui pane a lo qtittur.
Each grammatical subject may have several modifications;. and if. it
has none, the grammatical and logical subject are the same. ^
756.—MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS.
Modifying, or limiting words, may themselves be modified.
1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the ways in
which a noun, as a grammatical subject, is modified.
2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified—
1st. By an adjunct; as, eampi ad proelium bBni: liber a de¬
licti s.
2d. By a noun; as. Major pietate:—oiger pcdlbus.
3d. By an infinitive' mood or clause of a sentence, a gerund, or a
supine; as. Homo dignus canldri—dignus qui impB-
ret—dignus ut fig at p&lam in p a r i e t e.—Charta
uCilis s crib end o.—Monstrum mirablle dictu.
4th. By an adverb; as, Ilbmo Ion ye dissimllis;—-facile prin-
ceps.
3. An adverb may be modified—
1st. By another adverb; as, mult 6 rnagis.
2d By a substantive in an oblique case; as, convenienter natures,
optima ort^iumf proxlme castris.
296 SYNTAX.—ANALYSIS. § 152
757.—The subject of a proposition may be an infinitive moo<l, with or
without a subject; or a clause of a sentence; aa, humSnum est err Are.
Incerta pjr.o certis hablre stuUissimum est. Nunc 6pus est, te
anlmo valire. Rehquum est, ut officiis eeriimus inter nos.
168.—THE PREDICATE.
L The Predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical
The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, not
modified by other words.
The logical predicate is the grammatical wijth all the words or phrases
that modify it; thus,vir bdnus sui similem qucerit; the grammatical
predicate is qucerit; the logical qucerit simllem sui. '
When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms, the logical
and grammatical are the same.
II. The predicate, like the'subject, is either simple or compound.
A simple predicate afiirms but one thing of its subject; as, vita brlvis
est; ignis Urit.
A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates affirmed
of one subject; as, Ccesar venit, vidit, vie it. Probltas laudAtur
et alget.
159.—MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATR
The grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different waya
1. When the attribute in the predicate is a noun, it is modified—
I. By a noim or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute; as, hbnor
est prcemium virtutis. ■ Invidia est suppticium suum.
'% By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute; as, ira fUror
bnvis est.
II. When the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is modi
fied—
1. By a noun or pronoun as its object; as, res amicus invlnit. Laus
debetur virtuti. Sapiens imperal cupiditatlbus. Venter
caret auribus.
2. By an adverb; as, bis dat qui olto dat; bine scrlbit.
3. By an adjunct; aa,vlnit in urbem; ex urbe venit.
4. By an infinitive; as, cupio discire.
6. By a dependent clause; as, porta dlcit Iram esse brlvem insa-
niam.—Constituit ut ludi jilrent.
760.—Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and other %ords modifying the
predicate, may themselves be modified, as similar words are when modi¬
fying the subject
Infiuitives and participles modifying the predicate, may themselves be
modified in all respects, as the attributive verb is modified
COMPOUND SENTENCES.
761.—A Compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentenced
§ 152 SYNTAX.—^ANALYSIS. 297
or propositions connected together. The propositions which make up a
compound sentence, are called member» or claustt.
762.—The propositions or clauses of a compound sentence, are either
independent or dependent; in other words, coordinate, or subordinate.
An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself.
A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in connection
with another clause.
The clause on which another depends, is called the leading clause; its
subject is the leading subject; and its predicate, the leading predicate.
763.—Clauses of the same kind, whether independent or dependent,
are connected by such conjunctions as et, ac, atque, nee, nique, out, vel, Ac.
764.—Dependent clauses having finite verbs, are connected with their
leading clauses in three different ways.
. 1. By a relative; as, vir s&pit, qui pauca loquHur.
2. By a conjunction; as, loquOces, si sapiat, vUet.
8. By an adverb; as, u6t quid dtUur otii, illado chartis; rogSbat cur
unquam fugisset,
765.—A subordinate clause, consisting of an infinitive with its sub¬
ject, is joined to a leading clause without a connecting word; as, gaudeo
te vallre.
ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS.
766.—A compound sentence is sometimes converted into a simple One,
by rejecting the connective, and changing the verb of the dependent clause
into a participle. A simple sentence thus formed is called an abridged
proposition ; "as, bello confecto difcessit, for quum bellum confectum esset,
discessit. Ccesar, hate loeutus, profectus est, for quum Ccesar hoc locittus
esset, profectus est.
167.—EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS.
1. Vita brbvis est.
This is a simple sentence, of which
The logical subject, and also the grammatical, is vit»
The logical predicate, and also the grammatical, is brivis est, in which
brivis is the atti'ibute, and est the copula.
2. Labuntur anni.
This is a simple sentence, of which
The logical subject, and also the grammatical, is annt.
The logical predicate, and also the grammatical, is labuntur, an attribo-
tive verb including both the attribute and copula.
3. VSrum dlcus in virtute podttum est.
This is a simple sentence, of which
The logical subject ia ve^unjiScus.
The logical predicate is, in virtUte poiUum est,
13*
298 SYNTAX.—^ANALYSIS. § 152
The grammatical eui ject is dicu$, qualified by the adjective virum.
The grammatical predica^ is positum est, modified by the adjunct in
virtute.
4. Romidus et Remus fraires irant.
This is a simple sentence, having a compound subject
Ti e logical subject is Romulus et Remus, compound, consisting of two
subjects connected by et.
The logical predicate is fraires frant.
The grammatic^ subject and predicate are the same as the logicaL
5. ProbUas luudotur et alget.
This is a simple sentence with* a compound predicate.
The logical "subject is probUas.
The logical predicate is lavdstur et alget, compound, the parts of whict
are connected by et.
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logicaL
6. Video meliora proboque; deteriora siquor.
This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent or codrdi
nate clauses in juxta position.
The first clause is a simple proposition with a compoimd predicate, of
which ■
The logical subject is Igo, understood.
The logical predicate is video meliSra prohSque.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.
The grammatical predicate is video prdbo que, compound, consisting of
two predicates connected by que, both modified by their object, .n<
gotia, understood, and that qualified by the adjective meliora.
The second clause, deteridra siquor, is a simple proposition, of which
The logical subject is Igo, tmderstood.
The logical predicate is deteriora siquor.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logicaL
The grammatical predicate is siquor, modified by its object, negotia, nn
derstood, qualified by the adjective, deteriSra.
1. Qace in terra glgnuntiir, ad Usum homXnis omnia ereantur.
• This is a compound sentence, consisting of oi# leading, and one de
pendent clause, connected by quae.
The leading clause, ad Qsum kominis omnia ereantur, is a simple sen-,
tenoe, or proposition, of which
The logical subject is omnia (negotia), restricted by the relative clause,
quce in terrd gignuntur.
The logical predicate is, ad Usum homlnis ereantur.
The grammatical subject is negotia understood, qualified by the adjec¬
tive o-nnia, and restricted by the relative clause.
§152
SYNTAX.—ANALYSIS.
299
The grammatical predicate is creantur, modified by the adjimet ad uswn-
imd that modified by homlnif.
The dependent clame is quae in terrd gignuntur, of which
The logical subject is the quae, which, being a relative, connects the de¬
pendent with the leading clause. (126.)
The logical predicate is, in terrd gignuntur.
The grammatical subject is quae, the same as the logical
The grammatical predicate is gignuntur, modified by the adjunct in
terrd.
CONSTRUING.
768.—In Latin and English, the general arrangement of a sentence is
the sanie, I e. the sentence commonly begins with the subject and ends
with the predicate. But the order of the words in each of these parts is
usually so different in Latin, from what it is in Eoglish, that one of the
first difiSeulties a beginner has to encounter with a Latin sentence, is to
know how " to take it in," or to arrange it in the order of the English.
This is technically called construing or giving the order. To assist in this,
some advantage may be fotmd by carefuUy attending to the following
DIRECTIONS FOR BEGINNERS.
769.—Dieection 1. As aU the other parts of a sentence depend upon the
two leading parts, namely, the subject or NOMINATIVE, and the predicate
or VERB ; the first thing to be done with every sentenee, is to find out
these. In order to this.
First. Look for the leading verb, which is always in the present, imper¬
fect, perfect, pluperfect, or future, of the indicative, or in the imperative
mood,^ and usually at or near the end of the sentence.
Second. Having found the verb, observe its number and person; this
will aid in finding its nominative, which is commonly a noun or pronoun
in the same number and person with the verb, commonly before it, and
near the beginning of the sentence, though not always so, 139, R. L with
exceptions.
770.—Dieection 2. Having thus found the nominative and verb, and
ascertained their meaning, the sentence may be re'solved from the Latin
into the English order, as follows:
1st. Take the Vocative, Exciting, Introductory, or connecting words, if
there are any.
2d. The NOMlNATIVa
3d. Words limiting ov explaining it, i. e. words agreeing with it, or gov¬
erned by it, or by one anotier, where they are found, till you come to the
verb.
4th. The VERB.
5th. Words limiting or explaining it, i. e. words which modify it, are
governed by it, or depend ujwn it 769, II.
* All the other parts of the verb are generally used in subordinate elanses.
So. also, is the pluperfect Indicative. In oblique discourse, the leading verb
is in the infinitive. 652.
soo
SYNTAX.—ANALYSIS.
§162
6th. Supply everywhere the words understood.
Ith. If the seuteuce be compound, take the parts of it severally as they
depend one upon another, proceeding with each of them as above.
771.—Dikection 8. In arranging the words for translation, in the sub
ordinate parts of a sentence, observe the following
lla.—RULES FOR CONSTRUING.
L An oblique case, or the infinitive mood, is put after the word that
goveins it.
Exc. The relative and interrogative are usually put before the govern¬
ing word, unless that be a preposition; if it is, then after it
II. An adjective, if no other word depend upon it, or be coupled with
it, is put before its, substantive; but if another word depend upon it^ or
be governed by it, it is usually placed after it
III. The participle is usuaUy construed after its substantive, or the
word with which it agrees.
IV. The relative and its clause should, if possible, come immediately
after the antecedent
V. When a question is asked, the nominative comes after the Verb (in
English, between the auxiliary and the verb). Interrogative words, how¬
ever, such as quis, guotus, quautus, uter, Ac., come before the verb..
VI. After a transitive active verb, look for an accusative;—and after a
preposition, for an accusative, or ablative; and arrange the words accord¬
ingly
YII. Words in apposition must be construed as near together as
possible;
VUI. Adverbs, adverbial phrases, prepositions with their cases, circum¬
stances of time^ place, cause, manner, instrument, Ac,, should be placed, in
general, after the words which they modify. The case absolute commonly
before them, and often first in the sentence.
IX. The words of different clauses must not be mixed together, but
each clause translated by itself, in its order, according to its connection
with, or dependence upon, those to which it is related.
X Conjunctions are to be placed before the last of two words, or sentences
connected. " •
• *773.—Examples of Eesohition.
First. Etinim omnes artes, quae ad hunftnitatem pertinent
habent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione quA-
dam inter se continentur. Cic.
1. In looking over this sentence, according to Pirection first, we find the
first leading verb to be habent, which must have a plural nominative.
This leads us at once to artes, as the nominative. The nominative and
verb being thus found on which the other parts depend, then
2. By direction 2, the general arrangement wiU be~
§153
SYNTAX—^ANALYSIS.
301
1. Connective word, etlnim.
2. NOMINATIVE, artes.
5. Words limiting and explaining, omnes, quce ad humanitatem
pertinent.
4. The VERB, leabent.
6. Words governed by it, quoddam commune vinculum. ■
3. Then by the rules in direction 3, the words in each of these divisions,
will b<! arranged thus: 1. Etenim; 2..and 3. omnes ar<e«, (R. IL) quce(^
IIL) pertinent ad humanitatem, (R. VIIL) 4. hObent, 5. quoddam commUne
vinculum. (R. II.)
By proceeding in the same manner with the next clause, the whole' will
then stand thus:
Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitSteni, habent quoddam
commOne vinculum, et contincntur inter se quasi quidam cognatione;—
and may be translated as follows:
" For all the arts which pertain to liberal knowledge (civilization), have
a certain common bond, and are connected together as if by a certain
affinity between them."
The pupil will now see, that in the first clause, or simple sentence, the
grammatical subject is arte.i; the logical—omnes artes qtur. ad humanita¬
tem pertinent.—T'he grammatical predicate is hubent; the logical—hObent
quoddam commune vinculum (768-1); and so with the next clause.
In like manner proceed with every new simple sentence, or with every
succeeding clause of a compound sentence..
774._R 153. ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL
PARSING^
Having arranged and translated a sentence, the next thing is to parse
it, in doing which, every word should be fully described by its accidents,
traced to its primitive, if a derivative,—analyzed into its parts if com¬
pound, and its concord or government pointed out. The following scheme,
with each part of speech, may be useful to the hcginner.
1. Nock.—1. Kind; 2. Gender; 3. Declension; 4. Decline; 6. Derived
from (if derived); 6. It is found in case; 7. Number; 8. is the nomi¬
native to , or the pitedicate nominative after (if the nominative);
is governed by—(if governed); 9. Rule.
2. AniEcrrvE.—1. Declension; 2. Decline it; 3. Compare it (if com
pared); 4. It "is found in—case; 5. Nmnber; 6. Gender; 7. agrees with
—; 8. Rule.
3. PaoNOON.—1. Kind (i. e. personal, relative or adjective,); 2. Decline
it; then—
If personal, 3. Person; 4. found in—case; 6. Number; 6. Reascm of
the case; 7. Rule; 8. stands for—
' If a Relative pronoun, 9l found in—case; 4. Number; 6. Reason of the
case; 6. Rule; 7. Its antecedent; 8. Rule.
302
SYNTAX.—PAESING.
§163
If an Adjective pronoun; then, 3. Kind (L e. possessive, indefinite, de-
• monstrative, Ac.), 4. it is found in—case; 5. Number; 6. Gender-
7. Agrees with; 8. Rule.
4. Verb.—1. Kind, viz: Transitive, or Intransitive. 2. Conjugation (or
Irregular, if it is so); 8. Conjugate it; 4. Derived from (if derived); 6
Compounded of (if compounded); 6. It is found in—^tense; 7. Mood; 8
Voice; 9. Person; 10. Number; 11. agrees with—as.its subject; 12. Rule;
13. give a Synopsis.
5. Adverb.—1. Derived from (if derived); 2. Compounded of (if com
pounded); 3. Compared (if compared); 4. It modifies ; 5. Rule.
6. Preposition.—1. Governs case; 2. Rule; 3. It points out the re
lation between and .
7. Interjection.—1. Kind; 2. Governs, or is put with the case; 3
Rule. ,
8. Conjunction.—1. Kind; 2. Connects ; 3. Rule.
775.—Example of Parsing hy the foregoing
Scheme.
The sentence construed (773) may serve as an example of Etymological
and Syntactical parsing, and for this purpose we arrange it in the order
of translation, es above.
" Etenim omnes artes, qu® pertinent ad humanitatem, habent quoddam
commune vinculum, et coutinentur inter se quasi qu&dam cognatione."
Etenim, . Conjunction, casual, connecting the following sentence with the
preceding, as containing the cause or reason of what is there
stated.
omnes... An adjective, third declension, omnis, -is, -e, A&; not compared,
because incapable of increase,—in the nominative, plural, fem¬
inine, and agrees with artes, (Rule,) "An adjective agrees," Ac
artes... A noun (or substantive), feminine, third declension, ore,* artis,
Ac.—in the nominative plural,—the nominative to, (or subject
of,) habent.
quce .... Relative pronoun,—in the nominative plural, feminine, nomina¬
tive to pertinent, agrees with its antecedent artes. Rule IIL, and
connects its clause with artes which it restricts.
pertlnerd. Verb intransitive, second conjugation, pertinlo, -ere, -ui, perten-
tum ; compounded of per, and ienlo,—in the present indicative,
active, third person plural, and agrees with quce. Rule IV.
" A verb agreesj" Ac.
• As all nouns are common except proper nouns; to save time in parsing,
this may always be taken for granted, mentioning, however, when the noun
b proper. Eor the same reason, the words " gender," " number," " mood,"
" tense," may be omitted, these being sufficiently indicated by the words
masculine, singular, indicative, &o.
§168
SYNTAX—PARSING.
803
ad Preposition, gorems the accnsatiTe, and shonrs the relation be¬
tween pertinent and humanitotem.
humanit&tem. Noun, feminine, third declension, humanitai,—atis, &e. Ab-
' stract, derived from hum&nus (33-2), in the accusative, singu¬
lar, governed by ad. Rule XLVIlt " Twenty-eight preposi¬
tions," <ta
Aiienf,., Verb transitive, second conjugation, habeo, -Ire, -ui, -Itum,—in
the present indicative active, third person plural—and agrees
with artes. Rule IV. " A verb agrees," Ac. Synopsis.
grtoddam. Indefinite adjective pronoun, quldam, gucedam, Ac., compounded
of guis and the syllable dam.—in the accusative, singular,
neuter, and agrees with vinculum. Rule IL "An adjective
agrees,""Ac.
vinculum, Noun, neuter, second declension, vinculum, -f, Ac;—in the accu¬
sative singular, governed by hUbent. Rule XX " A transitive
verb in the active voice," Ac.
ef,...... A conjunction, copulative, connecting continentur with hiibent,
which are consequently in the same construction (121), and
have the same nominative, artes.
continentur, A verb transitive, second conjugation; contineo, continere, con-
' tinui, contentum; compounded of con and teneo,—in the present
indicative passive, third person, plural, and agrees with artes.
Rule IV. " A verb agrees," Ac. Synopsis.
inter,... A preposition which governs the accusative, and here points out
the relation of reciprocity between the individuals represented
> by se. 118-6.
se, Substantive pronoun, third person, in the accusative plural, femi¬
nine, governed by inter. Rule XLVIIL " Twenty-eight pre¬
positions," Ac., refers to artes, the subject of continentur, and
IS here taken reciprocaWy. 118-5.
guSsi, ..An adverb of manner modifying continrnfur. Rule XL V. "Ad¬
verbs are joined," Ac.'
gy^dam. Indefinite adjective pronoun, quldam, gucedam, Ac., compounded
of guis and the syllable dam,—in the ablative singidar, and
agrees with eognatione. Rule IL " An adjective agrees," Ac.
cognatione, A noun, feminine, third declension, cognatio, -onis, Ac., from
cognolm, " related by birth," (from con and mascor)—in the ab¬
lative of manner, relating to continentur inter se. Rule XXXV.
" The cause, manner," Ac.
Note.—In this way, by stating everything respecting a word in the
shortest manner, and without waiting to be questioned, parsing may be
done rapidly, and much time saved; and then such questions may be put
as wiU draw attention to anything not included in the above scheme. By
a little attention, on the part of the teacher, in leading the pupil to under¬
stand and apply the preceding rules for arranging a sentence in the order
of translation, he will save much time and labor to himself afterwards;
and teach the learner to form the important habit of reasoning out a diffi¬
cult sentiCnce, and so, b^repea^id victories, to gain (confidence in his own
powers
804
PEOSODT.—QUANTITY. § 154r-5
PART FOURTH.
PROSODY.
77^.—Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the
quantity of syllables, and the construction of verses; in other
words, of Quantity and Metre.
§ 154. OF QUANTITY.
777.—Quantity means the relative length of time taken
up in pronouncing a syllable.
1. In respect of quantity, every syllable is either long or
short. When a syllable is sometimes long, and sometimes
short, it is said to be common.
2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain es¬
tablished rules; or, when no rule applies,—^by the authority
of the poets.
3. The rules of quantity are either general or special; the
former apply alike to all the syllables of a word; the latter,
to particular syllables.
§ 155. GENERAL RULES. -
778.—Rule 1. A vowel before another vowel is short; as,
dhis, alius, nihil.
779.—EXPLANATION.—This rule applies to a vowel before another
vowel or diphthong in a different syllable, whether it be in the same, or in
a different word. The letter h, in verse, being considered as only a breathing,
is wholly disregarded; hence, such words as, nihil, miM, She, &c., come under
this rule. A diphthong before a vowel does not come under this rule, except
as in Rule V., £xe. 1.
780. EXCEPTIONS.
1. A is long in der, CSi, avlSi, terrSi, and the like.
% E is long after i in the genitive and dative pf the fifth declension
as, specili; not after tVit is conuuon.
E is long in ihexi, PompH.
§ 155 PKOSODY.—QUANTITT. 806
8. I not before «r, is long in Jio; as, flo, fleham. Also in allia, the
genitive of alim.
I is common in Dimia (D-drta or DiSna), and genitives in iun; but
is short in allerlus. Genitives in las, in prose, have I long.
4. 0 is common in 0)ie.
5. Greek words vaiy. As a general rule, when the vowel before another
represents a long vowel or diphthong in the Greek word, it is long; other¬
wise it is short.
781.—Rule II. A vowel before two consonants, or a double
consonant, is long by position j asj
Sxma, fallo, axis, gOza, major,
782.—EXPLANATION.—When a final syllable is long by another rule,
this rule docs not apply; the double consonants under this rulcare, the same
consonant doubled; as, II, tt, rr, &c., and the letters, j, x, and a, equivalent
to (Ig, is, ds.
1 ss^exceptions.
1. A short vowel in the end of a word, before two consonants in the
next, is common; before sc, Tp, sq, st, it is usually long; before a double
Consonant, it is short
2. A vowel before j, is short in compounds of jUgum; as, Injugus,
784.—Rule III. A vowel before a mute and a liquid, is
common ; as, volucris, or volucris.
785.—EXPLANATION.—tinder this rule, the vowel must be naturally
short, and the mute must come before the liquid, and be in the same syllable
with it. • But if the vowel is naturally long, it remains so; as, matris (from
(jiirijfi), salubris, &c. If the mute and the liquid are in different syllables,
the vowel preceding is long by position ; as, dbluo, obrtto. In Latin words,
the liquids are I and r only. In Greek words, I, r, m, n.
786.—Obs. 1. This rule is properly an exception to Rule II. A short
vowel in the end of a word, is seldom affected by a mute and a liquid in
the next.
787.—Rule IV. A contracted syllable is always long; as.
Nil, for nihil; ml, for mihi; alius, for aliius; It, for iit; sSdes, for st
audes ; nolo, for non vOlo ; blgce, for bijUgoe ; scilicet, for scire licet, Ac.
788.—Rule V. A diphthong is long; as, Casar, Aurum,
Evh&a.
189.—exceptions. ,
1. Prae, in composition, before a vowel, is commonly short; as, praUrt
piceustus, Ac.
2. Also, oe is sometimes short in the end of a word, when the nCxt be¬
gins with a vowel; as, Insula lonio, Ac.
Note.— U, after q and g, does not form a diphthong with a vowel fol¬
lowing it, but has a force similar to the English v>; as, lingua, quOror, Ac.,
pronounced lingwa, hweror. 8-2.
806 PROSODY.—QUAKTITY. § 156-7
SPECIAL RULES.
§ 156. FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES.
790.—Rule VI. Preterites of two syllables lengthen the
former; as. veni, vldi, vlci.
791.—Exc. 1. Those which are short by Rule I; as, rui, lui, ifec.
Ere. 2. Seven have the first syllable short; viz: bibi, didi, fldi (frou!
fitido), soldi, stiti, stiti, and Mi.
792.—Rule VII. Preterites which double the first syllable,
shorten the first and second; as, cendi, teUgi, pepuli, &c., from
cddo, tango, pello.
Exc. Clcldi, from ccedo; and pepldi, have the second long.
793.—Rule VIII. Supines of two syllables lengthen the
former; as, cdsum, motum, visum, from cado, mdveo, video.
794.—Exc. Ten have the first syllable short; viz: elturm (from ciio),
datum, Itum, tUum,—gultum, raturn, rutum, s&tum,—sltum, and siulum.
795.—Rule IX. In polysyllables, ix, e, and u, are long be¬
fore turn, of the Supine; as, amdtum, deletum, indutum.
79(5.—Rule X. In polysyllables, i is short before turn, of
the Supine; as, monitum. I is long in divlsum.
797.—Exc. But Supines in Itum, from preterites in Ivi, have i long
as, cuplvi, cupUum ; audlvi, audUum, ifec.
798.—Obs. Eecensio has recensltum, from ui in the preterite, because
originally from censio, censivi. Eo and its compounds have i short; as,
Hum, redltum, <fec. Except ambio, ambltum, fourth conjugation.
799.—Rule XI. Participles in rus have u long in the penult;
as, amaturus, &c.
800.—§ 157. INCREMENT OF NOUNS.
1. A noun is said to increase, when any of its cases has more
syllables than the nominative singular; as, rex, regis ; semio.
sermonis.
2. With only few exceptions, nouns have but one increase in the singular
number: Her, supellex, and compounds of cUpiU ending in ps, have two;
as, illnlris, supetlictllis, prceclplXis, from prcecepXti
3. The increment, or increasing syllable, to which the following rules
apply, is never the lasfsyllable, but the one preceding it, if there is only
one increment; or the two preceding it, if there are two.
4. The rules for the increase- of nouns, apply to adjectives and parti¬
ciples.
5. Nouns of the fourth declension have no increment in the singular;
those of the frst and fflh, have none but what come under Rule 1. (778).
§ 157 PROSODY.—QUANTITY. 807
and its exceptions. (ISO.) In tbe tecond declension, those only increase in
the singular which end in r, according to the following—
801.—Rule. The increment of the second declension is
short; as—
Pulri, vXri, satUri, <fec, from puer, vir, tiUur.
Ext. But Iher and Celdber, have Iberi and Celtiblri.
INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
802.—XII. Increments of the third declension, have a and o
long; e, i, and u, short; as—
Pietati), honoris, muUMs, lapidis, murmHris.
Rules with Exceptions. ^
A.
803.—1. Increments in a, of the third declension, are long.
Ext. let. The increment in a, from masculines in al and ar is short, also
from par and its compoundsfrom anas, mas, vas {y&dis\
baccar, hepar, jubar, tar, nectar, and sal.
Exe. 2d. The increment in a, from nouns in s, with a consonant before it,
is short; as, Arolbs, Arhbis.
Exe. 3d. The increment in a, from Greek nouns in a, Stis; and as, -Sdis,
is short; as, poema, poem&tis; lampas, lamphdis.
Eie.4th. Also the following in ax; viz: abax, anthrax, Atax, Atrax,
climax, colax, corax, dropax.fax, harpax, panax, phylax, smi-
lax, and styrax, increase with & short.
o. ,
804.—2. Increments in o, of the third declension, are long.
Exc'. 1st. The increment in o, from neuter nouns is short; as, marmor,
marmCris; corpus, corporis. But os, 6ris, and neuter com¬
paratives increase in 5 long; ador has adbris, or addris.
Exc. 2d. The increment in o, from norms in s with a consonant before it, is
short; as, scrobs, scrdbis; inops, inBpis. But Cecrops, Cyclops,
and Hydrops, have o long.
Exe. Sd. Generally from Gentile and Greek nouns in o and on, the incre¬
ment is short; as, Macldo, Maceddnis; but some are long,
and some are common.
Exe. 4th. Greek nouns in tor, shorten the increment; as. Hector—bris.
Exe. 6th. Greek nouns in pus {novs); as, tripus. Polypus; also, arbor,
mimor, bos, compos, impos, and Upus, have o short in the in.
crement; as, tripus, tripSdis, <to.
E. •
805.—3. Increments%i e, of the third declension, are short.
308 PROSODY.—QXTANTITY. § 157
Exe Ist The increment in -inii from en and o is long; as, Siren, Sirlnit;
Anio, Anienis.
Exc. 2d. The increment in « is long, from h<eres, locuplee, mansvee, mercet,
and quies. Also, from Jber and ver—from lex, rex, and vervex
■ —plebs, seps, and halec.
Exe. 3d. Greek nouns in er and e> increase e long; as, crater, ereUiris;
magnes, magnllis.
I. •
806.—4. Increments in i, of the third declension, are short.
Exc. 1st. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in have i long; as victrix,
victrlcis; felix,/elicit.
Also, cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, matrix, perdix,
phoenix, radix, and vibex.
Exc. 2d. Greek nouns in it and in, with the genitive in init, increase
long; as, Salamit, Salamlnit.
Exc. 3d. Die, glis, and lis, with Eesis, Quiris, and Satnnit, increase long.
u.
807.—5. Increments in u, of the third declension, are short.
Exc. 1st. Genitives in udi.i, uris, and iiiis, from nominatives in tM,'have
tlie increase long; as, paint, paludit, Ac. But Eigus, itUercut,
and pecus, increase with u short
Exc. 2d. Fur,frux, lux, and Pollux, have fi long.
Y.
808.—>6. Increments in y are short.
Exc. Greek noims, with the genitive in ynis, have the increase long.
Also, Bombyx, Ceyx, and gryps, which increase long.
INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER.
809.—A noun in the plural number, is said to increase, when
it has more syllables in any case, than in the nominative plural.
810.—An increment in the plural, can occur only in the genitive,
dative, and ablative; and in these, it is the syllable next to the last
Vhen any of these cases has no more syllables than the nominative, it
has no plural iucement Thus, sermonmn, puiris, capilum, have no plural
increase, because they have no more syllables thflk termSnet, pneri, capita ;
still, they all have the increment of the singular, because they have more
syllables than sertiio, puer. and caput. But termonlbus, puiromm, and
capillbut, have both the singular and plural increment
811.—Rule XIII. Plural increments in a, e, and o, are long;
in i and u, short; as,
Musarum, rerum, virSmm, partlbus, lacubus.
from Musai, res, viri, partes, locus.
§158
PROSODY.—QUANTITY.
809
■812.—EXPLANATION.—All the increments of the sidgnlar remain in
the plnral, and to these the plural increment is added. The rule here given,
. applies to the plural iucrements only, and not to the increments of the sin¬
gular in the plural. Thus, in itmeribut from iter, the second and third syl¬
lables are iucrements of the singular, to ^ found in itiniris; the fourth is
the plnral increment, -which comes under this rule.
§ 158. INCREMENT OF VERBS.
813.—A verb is said to increase when it has more syllables in any
part, .than in the second person singular, of the present indicative, active;
as, Smas, am&tis, amdbStis, Ac.—A verb in the active voice may have three
increments, and in the passive four. If there is but one increment it is
the syllable next, the last If there are two, the second increment is the
syllable next the last, and the first the syllable preceding that, Ac.; thus,
1 12 123
a-mas,—am-a-mus,—am-a-ba-mus,—am-av-Sr-a-mtts, Ac.
The iucrements of deponent verbs, are determined in the same maimer
as if they had an active form.
814.—RtjLE XIV. In the increments of verbs, a, e, and o
are long; i and u, short; as,
Amarlmut, amOtote; legimtis, jposs&mua.
. 815.—Exceptions in A.
1. The first increment of do is short; as, dSmvs, dUbOmus, dUrlmus, Ao.
Exceptions in E.
2. E is short before,ram, rim, and ro.
But when contracted by syncope, it is long; aa,Jleram, for Jliviram. .
3. In the third conjugation, e is short before r in the first in¬
crease of the present and imperfect; as,
Legire, leglrem, Act Zeglrlris, legirere, leglre. Pass.
4. In the first and second conjugations, e is short in—berk
and—bere. •
Note.—irunt and -ire in the perfect come under the general rqle; some¬
times they are shortened 867-5.
Exceptions in I.
5. In preterite tens^, i is long before v; as—
Audlvi, amdlviram, aadlvirim, A».
310 PROSODT.—QUANTITY § 159
6. In the first increase of the fourth conjugation, except
4mm of the perfect, i not before a vowel is always long; as,
P.-ea. venimu$ ( Pert veniinus. So, also, liam, and ibo, from eo.
7. lis long in simus, sltis, velimus, velitis; and their com¬
pounds ; as, posslmm, notlrnus, &c.
8. In rimus and ritis of the future perfect indicative, and
perfect subjunctive, i is common; as,
DixSrlmus, or dixirlmus; vidh Xlia OTviderltU.
Note.— U long before turn of the supine comes under Rules VIII. and
IX. It is long also in the penult of the perfect participle hy the same
rules, because the perfect participle is always derived from the supine.
§ 159. QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES..
816.—For the quantity of penult syllables, no definite rule can be
given which is not rendered nearly useless by the number of exceptions
occurring imder it. The following observations are usually given rather
as a general guide, than certain rules; and they might be easily extended,
were it of any practical advantage. ,
1. Patronymics in IDES or ADES usually shorten the
penult; as,
PriamUdes, AtlantiBdes, &e. Unless they eome from nouns in eu$; as,
Pelides, Tydides, Ac.
2. Patronymics, and similar words, in. AIS, EIS^ ITIS,
OIS, 0 TIS, INE, and ONE commonly lengthen the penult;
as,
Acha^, Ptdlemacis, Cliryseis, ..A^ncis, MemphUit, LatSis, Jcarioiit, Nerlne,
icrisione. Except Thebais, and PhocSis short; and NereU, which is
common.—NeriU or Nereis.
3. Adjectives in ACUS, ICUS, IDUS, and IMXIS, for the
most part shorten the penultf; as,
uSgyptiacas, academicus, leptdus, legitimxis: also superlatives; as, for-
tisslmus, Ac. Except opdcus, amicus, aprlcus, pvltkcus, mendlcus, antleus,
posticus, fldxis, iufldusiimm fldoi), blmus,guadrlmus, patrlmus,nmtrlmus,
oplmus; and the two superlatives, Imus, and primus: but perfldus, from
per and fides, has the penult sb^rb
4. Adjectives in ALIS, ANUS, ARUS, IVUS, OR US,
OS US, lengthen the penult ; as,
. Potalis, urbdnus, avdrus, astlinis, decdrus, arenSsus. Except barltdrus,
opipSrus.
§159
PROSODY.—QUANTITY.
811
5. Verbal adjectives in /iZS shorten the penult; as aglUs,
factlis. &c. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen it; as,
Anllis, civllis, herllis, Ac. To the»e add exllit, sublllis; and names of
months, ApriUs,. Quinctllis, SextUu: Except humllis, parilis; and also
timllix. But all adjectives in aUtis, are short; as, versatilit, volalilis, urn-
bratilU, plicatilif, flimiatUh; aaxatUis, Ac.
.. 6. Adjectives in INUS, derived from words denotjng inani¬
mate things, as plants, stones, (fee., also from adverbs of time,
commonly shorten the penult; as,
Amaraxinus, croclnus, ce<lr\nu$, faginu», oleag\nu»; adamanUnus, cry»
taltliius, craslXnus, pristlnus, perendlnus, carinus, annotinus, Ac.
Other adjectives in INUS are long; as,
Agnlnu.i, caninns, leporinns, blnus, trlnus, qulnus, augtrlnus, clandestlnut
Latlniix, marinus, mplniiS, vespertlnus, Ac.
7. Diminutives in OLUS, OLA, GLUM; and ULUS,
ULA, always shorten the penult; as,
Urcebhis, fiUola, imisKblum ; lectulus, raliuncula, corculum, Ac.
8. Adverbs in TIM lengthen the penult; as,
Oppidatim, mrltim, tributim. Except affdtim, perpetim, and slatim.
9. Desideratives in UBIO shorten the antepenult, which,
in the second and third persons, is the penult; as,
Esurio, esurin, tsUrit. But other verbs in urio lengthen that syllable;
as, ligurio, liguris; scaturio, scaturis, Ac.
817.—PENULT OF PROPER NAMES.
1. The following proper names lengthen the penult: Abdera, Abydus,
Adonis, .(Esopus. Aitolus, Ahala, Alaricus, Alcides, Amyclse, Andronicus,
Anubis, Archimedes, Ariarathes, Ariobarzanes, Aristides, Aristobulus,
Aristogiton, Arplnum, Artabanus; Bracbmaues, Busiris, Buthrotus; Ce-
thcgus, Chalcedon, Cleobulus, Gyrene, Cythera, Curetes; Darici, Demonl-
cus, Diomedes, Diores, Dioscuri; Ebudes, Eriphylo, Eubulus, EucUdeSr
Euphrates, Eumedes, Euripus, Euxlnus; G-arganus, GaetQlus, Granicus;
Heliogabalus, Henrlcus. Heraelides, Heraclitus, Hippdnax, Hispanus; Irene;
Latona, Leucata, Lugdunum, Lycoi-as; Mandane, Mausolus, Maximinus,
Meleagcr, Messala, Messana, Miletus ; Nasica, Nicanor, Nicetas; Pachynus,
Pandora, Peloris -us, Pharsalus, PhcEnlce, Polites, Polycletus, Polynlces,
Priapus; Sardanapalus, Sarpedon, Serapis, Sinope, Stratonice, SuflStes;
Tigranes, Thessalonica; Verona, Veronica.
2. The following are short: AmSthus, Amphipolisi AnabSsis, Antic^a,
Antigonus, A -ne, Antilochus. Antiochus, Antidpa, Antlpas, Antipater, An-
tiphknes, Antiphates, Antiphila, Antiphon, An^tus, Aptilus, Areopagus
Arinnnum, Armdnus, Athdsis, Attains, Attica; Biturix, Bructdri; Caldber
CallicrStes, Callistratus, Candice, Cantaber, Carneades, Oherflus, Chrysos-
(omus, Cleombrdtus, Cleomenes, Cory cos, Constantinopdlis, Craterus, Cra-
ttlus, Crem6ra, Crustumdri Cybele, Cyelades, Cyzlcus; Dalmatse, Damo¬
cles, Dardanus, Dejoees, Dejotarus, Democritus, Denlipho, Didymus, Dio-
812
PROSODY.—QUANTITY.
§160
gSues, DrepSnum. Dumnoriz; Empeddcles, Ephfisus, EvergStes, Emn&^
Eurymedou, Euripylus ; Fucidus ; Geiyones, Gjai-us; Hecyra, Helip^lis,
HermioDe, Herodotus, Hesi6dus, Hesione, HippociAtes, Hippotiinos, Hy-
pSta, HypSnis; IcSrus, IcStas, Illyris, Iphltus, iemSrus, ItMca; Laodice,
Laom^don, Lampsacus, Lainynis, Lapithas, Lucretilis, Libiuus, LipSre. or
-a, Lysimichus, LouginiSnus ;' Marathon, MsenSlus, Mannai-ica, MassagStse,
Matroua, Megara, Melitus, d; -ta. Metropolis, Mutina, MicSnus; Neocles,
Neritos, NoricumOmphSle; Patera, Peg^us, PbamSces, Pisisti'dtus,
Polyddmus; Polyxfina, Porsena, or Porsenna, Praxiteles, Puteoli, Pylides,
IVtoagdras; Sarm^tss, Sarsina, Semele, SemirSmis, Sequel, tk -a, Sisy
phus, Sicdris, Socrates, Soddma, Sotades, Sparticus, SporSdes, Strongyle,
Stymphdlus, Sybdris; Taygdtus, Telegdnus, TelemSchus, Tenddos, Tariaco,
Tbeophdnes, Theophilus, TomJ^ris; Urbicus; Veneti, Vologdsus, Volusus;
Xenocr^tes; Zollus, 2^pyrus.
S. The penult of several words is doubtful; thus, SafSvi. Lucan. So-
tavi. Jirv. and Mart. Fortultus. Hor. Fortultut. Martiai.. Some make
fortmtus of three syllables, but it may be shortened like gratultm. Stat.
Patrimus, matrimus, prcestolor, (fee., are by some lengthened, and by some
shortened; but for their quantity there is no certain authority.
1160. FINAL SYLLABLES.
A final.
818.—Kule XV. in the end of a word, declined by cases,
is short; as, Musa, templd, &c.
Exc. 1. The ablative of the first declension is long; as, Musa, &e.
Exc. 2. The vocative of Greek novms in a», is long; as, 0 ./EniO, 0
PallcL
819.—Rule XVI. A, in the end of a word not declined by
cases, is long; as, amd, Jrustrd, ergd, intrd, dec.
820.—Exc. Its, quiS, yS, posted, puts (adv.), are diort; sometimes,
also, the prepositions, contrS and vXtrS; and the compounds of ytnfo, as
trigintS, Ac. But, contrS and ultrS, as adverbs, are always long.
E final.'
821.—Rule XVII. H in the end of a word is short; as,
nate, sedile, ipse, posse, nempe, ante.
822.—Special Mules and Inceptions.
Rule 1. Monosyllables in e are long; as, me, te, sS.
Exc. The enclitics qui, vl, nl, lire short; also, ptl, ci, tl.
Rule 2. Nouns of the first and fifth declensions have final
e long ; as. Calliope, Anchisi, die, &c.
Also Greek neater plurals as, Celt, melt, Tempi, An.
§160 PKOSODY.—QUANTITY. 813
Rule 3. Verbs of the second conjugation have e long in the
second person singular of the imperative active; ■ as, <^oce,
mam, &c. But cave^ vale, and vide, are sometimes short.
Rule 4. Adverbs, from adjectives of the first and second
declensions, have final e long; as, placide, pulchre, valde (con
tracted for valtde). So, also, ferme, fere^ and ohe.
Exc. But, henS, mali, infernS, and euperni, are short.
I final.
823.—Rule XVIII. I final is long; as, domml,fili, &o.
Exc. 1. /final is common in mihi, tibi, sibi; also in ibi, ubi, nisi, quast.
Sometimes uti, and cui as a dissyllable, have i short Sicufi, sicubl, and
necubi, are always short
Exc. 2. I final is short in Greek vocatives and datives; as, AlexX, JDapk-
nl; Palladl, IVoast, and TroaiUn.
0 final.
824.—Rule XIX. 0 final is common; as, Virgo, dmo,
quando.
. Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long; as, 0, do, sto,pro.
Exc. 2. The dative and ablative in o are long; as, libro,
domino. Also Greek nouns in o ; as. Dido, SapphCi.
Exc.Z. Ablatives used as adverbs have o long; as, oerto,falso,pauld;
quo, CO, and their compounds; illo, idcirco, citrd, retro, ultra, ergo (for the
sake of).
Exc. 4. Ego, scio, the defective verb cedo ; also homo, citd, illicS, immS,
duo, ambd, modd, and its compounds; quombdo,- dummbdb, postmUdS, are
almost always short ,
Exc. 5. In Virgil, the gerund in do is long; in other poets, mostly short
■ U, and Y, final.
825.—Rule XX. U final is long; Y final is short; as, vttllQ,
Moly.
B, D, L, M, R, T, final.
826.—Rule XXI. B, D, L, R, and T, in the end of a word,
are short; as, ab, apud, semel, consul, pater, caput.
827.—explanation!—This rule does not apply, if any of these final
letters are preceded by a diphthong, or if the syllabic is contracted, or made
Vong by position : as, ailt, dhit for atnit, amnitt.
14
' 314 PROSODY.—QUANTITY, § 160
828.—EXCEPTIONS. .
Exe. 1. Bdl, s6l, and nil are long.
Exc. 2. Aer and celher, have the final syllable loi.g. Also nouns in ef
which have iris in the genitive ; as, Crater^ Ibir, Ac.
. Exc. 3. Far, lat, Ear, par, cur, and fur, are long.
Exc. 4. The Hebrew names Job, Daniel, are long; but David and Bogud
are common.
829.— Obs. M final anciently made the preoe<ling vowel short; as,
Militum. octo. By later poets it is usually cut of, by Echtblipsis (§ 166-
2.), when the next word begins with a vowel When not so cut off, it is
short.
^ C, N, final.
830.—Rulb XXII. C and N in the end of a word are long;
as, ac, sic, illuc, en, n^n, &c.
Exc. 1. Nec and donee are short; hic and/«c, common.
Exc. 2. Forsitan, in, forsan, tamen, an, viden, are short.
Exc. 3. En having Inis in the genitive is short; as, earmin, carmlms.
Also Greek nouns in on, on, in, yn, originally short, and the dative plural
in tin, have the final syllable short; as, llion, Eration, Maian, Alexin,
chelyn, 2'roasln, Ac.
As, Es, Os, final.
831.—Rule XXIII. A.s, es, os, in the end of a word are
long,; as, mas. quics, bonOs.
Exc. 1. As is short in anas, and Greek nouns which have adis or ados
in the genitive ; as. Areas, tamp&s, Ac.
Exc. 2. Es is short, 1st, in nouus and adjectives which increase short in
the genitive; as, hospis, limes, hebes. But Ceres, paries, arils, abies, and
pes, with its compounds, ai-e long. 2d. Es from sum, and penis are short.
3d. Greek neuters in es, and nominatives and vocatives of the third declen¬
sion which increase in the genitive otheiwise than in eos, have es short; as
Arcadis, 'J'rois, Ac.
Exc. 3. Os is short in compos, impBs, bs.[ossi.s),—in Greek words of the
second declension, and in neuters and genitives of the third; as, Ilids, Ty¬
ros, chads, epOs, Palladus, Ac.
Is, Us, Ya,Jinal.^
8.32.—Rule XXIV. Is. us. and ys, in the end of a word are
ahort; as, Turris, leg'is, hg.nms, Capys.
Exc. 1. Plural cases in is and us are long; but the dative
and ablative ni bus are short.
Exc. 2. Nouns in f.? with the genitive in Ills, Inis, or enlis are long; as,
Samuis, Salamls, Bimols.
Exc, S. Is is long in glu, vis, gratis, forlt. And in the seeond person
§161
PROSODY.—QUANTITY.
315
singular, present indicative, active, uf the fourth conjugation; as, auiM,
Also in fls, 18, sl8, vis, veils, and their compounds poss.s, guamvls, mails,
noils, <S[c.
Exc. 4. Monosyllables in us are long; as, grus, sus, dec.
Also those which have uris, udis, utis, untis, or Sdis, in the genitive; as
tellus, incus, virtus, Amathus, tripus. To these add Greek genitives in
us; as, Didus, Sapphus, Ac.
Exc. 5. Tethys is sometimes long, likewise nouns in ys, which- have also
yn in the nominative; as, Ehorcys or Phorcgn.
§ 161. QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES AND COM¬
POUNDS.
833.—Rule XXV. Derivatives follow the quantity of their
primitives; as,
Amicus, from Smo.
Auctionor, auctio, -dnis.
Auctoro,
Auditor,
Auspicor, -
Cauponor,
Competitor,
Cornicor,
Custodio,
Decorus,
auctor, -oris,
auditum.
auspez, -Icis.
caupo, -onis.
compStitum.
comiz, -icis.
custos, -odis.
decor, -oris.
Dec3ro,
Exfilo,
Pavidus,
Quirito,
Radicitus,
Sosplto,
Natura,
Matenius,
L3gebam, <kc.
Leg3ram, Ac.
from decus, -oris,
exul, -hlis
paveo.
. Quiris, -itis
radix, -icis.
sospes, -itis
natus.
mater.
13go.
legL
834.—EXCEPTIONS.
1. Long from Short.
Deni, from dScem. ^
Fomes, loveo. Sedes, sfideo.
Humanus, homo. SScius, secus.
Rggilla, rdgo. Penuria, p3nus.
MobOis, from mbveo.
Humor, humus.
Jumentum, jSvo.
Vox, vocis, v3co, Ac.
Lhcema, from lOceo.
Dux, -ucis, duco.
StabUis, stabam.
Ditio, dis, ditis.
Quasillus, qualus, Ac.
2. Short from Long.
ArSna and arista, frotn areo.
Nota and noto, notus.
Vadum, vado. ■
Fides, fido.
Sopor, Bopio.
835.—EXPLANATION.—This rule-applies to all those parts of the
verb derived or formed from the primary parts, |§ 51 aud 62, h-e. the quan¬
tity of the primary part remains inall the parts formed from it.
836.—Rule XXVI. Compounds follow the quantity of the
simple words which compose them ; as,
id&mo, from Sd and &mo; dedOco, from di and dOxo,
316 PROSODY.—QUANTITY.
§161
837.—OJj. 1. The change of a vowel or diphthong, m forming the
compound, does not alter its quantity; as, cSdo, conMo; ccedo, concldo;
elaudo, recludo ; cequus, inlquus, <fec.
838.—Obs. 2. When a short syllable in the first part of the compound
ends with a consonant, it becomes long by position wnen joined to another
word beginning with a consonant; as, plrmaneo, from pir and maneo ; but
if the second word begin with a vowel, the first retauM its quantity; as,
pirambulo, from pir and ambiUo,
839.—Obs. 3. When the second part of a compound word begins with
a vowel, the vowel ending the first part is short by Rule L When it
begins with two consonants, or a double consonant, the vowel preceding is
long by Rule II. But if it begins with a simple consonant, followed by a
vowel or diphthong, the vowel preceding is sometimes long, and some¬
times short) by the following—
/Special Rules for the first pa/rt of a compound.^
ending with a vowel.
840.—Rule 1. The first part of a compound, if a preposi¬
tion of one syllable, has the final vowel long; as, decido, prO-
tendo.
Exc. I. Pro is short in prScella, prbfanus, prSfari, prdfecto, prbfestus,
proficiscor, projiteor, profugio, prifugus, profundus, pronepos, prdneptis,
prSpero, and protervus. It is common in procuro, pro/undo, propago, pro-
pello, proplno, propiUso.
Exc. 2. The Greek pro (before), is always short; as, propheta, prdlogus.
Note.—The final vowel of a preposition of more than one syllable, re¬
tains its own quantity ; as, conlradico, anticedo.
841.—Rule 2. The inseparable prepositions, se and di, are
long ; re is short; as, Sepono, dzvello, repello.
Exc. 3. Di is short in dlrimo and disertus. Re is long in
refert.
842.—Rule 3. The first part of a compound, not a preposi¬
tion, has final a long ; e, i, o, u, and y, short; as,
MdiOf nifas, biceps, phildsophus, d&centi, Polydorus.
843.—EXCEPTIONS. •
Exc. 1. A—In qu&si, eadem, not in the ablative, and in some Greek com
pounds, a is short
Exc. 2. E—The e is long in nemo, nequam, nSquando, niquaquam, nequidr
quam, niquis, nequitia; meinet, mecum, tecum, secum, vecors, visanus, vetli-
ficus. Also in words compounded with se for sex, or semi; as, sedecim,
semestris, Ac. E is common in some compoimds of facio; as, liquefaci(\
patefacio, rarefacio, &o.
§162 PROSODY.—^VERSIFICATION. 317
Exc. 3. I.—When the first part of a compound is declined, i is long; as^
qnldam, qulUbet, relpublic(e, io, or when the first can be separated from
the last, and yet both retain their form and meaning; as, ludl-maghter,
lucrl-facio, H-quis, agrl-cultura, <iic.
I is sometimes made long by contraction; as, blgx, scilicet, blmus, <&c.,
for bljugoe, scire tUet, bis annus, or blennius. It is also long in idem (mas¬
culine), ublque, utroblque, ibidem, nimirum, and the compounds of dies,
such as, blduum, prldie; meridies, <&c. In vJbicunque and ubiuis, it is
common.
£xc. 4. 0—Contra, intra, retro, and quanda, in compounds, have the
final a long; as, controversia, introduca, retrocecto, qttandoque, (except qaan
itiquidem.)
0 is long in compounds of qua ; as, quamada, quScunque, quosnlnus, quo-
circa, quovis, quoque, (from quisque ;) but in qabque, the conjunction, it is
short.
Exc. 5. U—Jupiter, judex, and judicium, have u long; also usucapio and
usuvenio, being capable of separation, as in Exc. 3.
844.—Rule XXVII. The last syllable of every verse is
commoTi.
845.—EXPLANATION.—This means that a short syllable at the end
of a line, if the verse requires it, is considered long; and a long syllable, if
the verse requires it, is considered short.
846.—N. B. A syllable which does not come under any of
the preceding rules, is said to be long, or short, by " authority,"
viz.: of the poets.
§ 162. VERSIFICATION.
847.—A verse is a certain number of long and
short syUables, disposed according to rule. The
parts into which a verse is divided are called Feet.
FEET.
848.—A FOOT, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, strictly
regulated by time, and is either simple or compound. The simple feet
are twelve in number, of which four consist of two, and eight of three
syllables. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. These
varieties are as follows:
849.—Simple feet of txoo Syllahles.
Pyrrhic as D§us.
Spondee as fiindunt.
Iambus . w — as Srant.
Trochee • —^ as armA
818
PROSODY.—VERSIFICATION.
§162
850 —Simple feet of three Syllables.
Tribrach
Molossus
Dactyl
Bacchius
Aotibaccbius
Amphibrach
Amphimacer
as iac^r€.
as coDtendunt.
as corpoii.
as ddmint
as dOldrSs.
as Romauiia.
as boDorS.
as cbaritas.
851.—Compound feet of fov/r Syllahles.
Choriambus
Autispastus
Ionic a majore
I-«,V ^ iniuore
First PiEon
Second Pjeon
Third Pceon
Fourth Paeon
Firat Epitritc
Second Epitrite
Third Epitrite
Fourth Epitrite
Proceleusmaticus
Dispoudee
Diiambus
Ditrochee
pontlfices
Smabatis
calcarlbus
properabant
tempuribus
potentia
auiiuatus
celei-itas
voluptatds
couditores
dischrdlas
adduxistis
hdniinibus
oiatores
amaverant
Cantilena
Trochee and Iambus.
Iambus and Trochee.
Spondee and Pyrrhic.
Pyrrhic and Spondee.
Trochee and Pyrrhic.
Iambus and Pyrrhia
Pyrrhic and Trochee.
Pyrrhic and Iambus.
Iambus and Spondee.
Trochee and Spondee.
Spondee and Iambus.
Spondee and Trochee.
Two Pyrrhics.
Two Spondees.
Two Iambi.
Two Trochees.
8£S.—ISOCHRONOUS FEET.
1. In every foot, a long syllable is equal in time to two short ones. To
constitute feet Isochronous, two things are necessaiy: 1st. That they have
the same time: 2d. That they be interchangeable m metre.
2. Feet have the same time which are measured by an equal number
of short syllables; thus, the Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Proceleus¬
maticus, have the same time, each being equm to four short syllables.
3. Feet are interchangeable in metre, when the ictus or stress of the
voice falls, or may fall, on the same portion of the foot The part of the
foot that receives the ictus, is called arsis, or elevation; the rest of the
foot is termed thesis, or depression.
4. The natural place of the arsis, is the long syllable of tiie foot Hence,
in the Iambus, it fails on the second syllable, and the Trochee, on the
first. Its place in the Spondee and Tribrach cannot be determined by the
feet themselves, each syllable being of the same length.
6. In all kinds of verse, the fundamental foot determines the place of
the arsis for the other feet admitted into it; tlms, in Dactylic verse, and
Trochaic verse, the Spondee will have the arsis on the first syllable ;—in
Anapaestic and Iambic, on the last In Trochaic verse, the tribrach will
have the arsis on the first syllable, w'.-- in Iambic on the secund.
§163
PROSODY.—METRE.
819
6. Those feet, then, according to the ancients, ■were called isochronous,
which were capable of being divided into parts that were equal in time,
so that a short syllable should correspond to a short; and a long to a
long, or to two short; thus, in Iambic and Trochaic verse,
Iambus
Tribrach v
In Dactylic and Anapwstic; thus.
Dactyl —
Spondee —
Trochee —
Tribrach w ^
Anapaest
Spondee —
853.—But feet which cannot be divided in' this manner, are not iso¬
chronous, though they have the same time; thus, the Iambus and Trochee,
though equal in time, cannot be divided so as to have the corresponding
parts of equal length ; thus.
Iambus, v
Trochee,
854.—Hence these feet are not interchangeable, or isochronous; and
for this reason a Trochee is never admitted into Iambic verse nor an
Iambus into Trochaic. The same is true of the Spondee, ( ) and
Amphibrach (w —), and of the Amphibrach with the Dactyl or
855.—§ 1C3. OF METRE.
1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and
feet in verse, according to certain rules; and, in this sense, applies, not
only to an entire verse, but to part of a verse, or to any number of verses.
A metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet (sometimes
called a syzygy), and sometimes one foot only.
The distinction between rhythm and metre is this:—the former refers
to the time only, in regard to which, two short syllables are equivalent to
one long ; the latter refers both to the time and the order of the syllables.
The rhythm of an anapjest and dactyl is the same; the metre different.
The term rhythm, is also understood in a more comprehensive sense, and
IS applied to the harmonious construction and enunciation of feet and words
in connection ; thus, a line has rhythm when it contains any number of
metres of eq^tal time, without regard to their order. Metre requires a
certain number of metres, and these arranged in a certain older. Thus,
in this line,
Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olyrapi,
there is both rhythm, (as it contains six metres of equal value in respect
of time) and metre, as Aese metres are arranged according to the canoa
820
PROSODY.—METRE.
§163
for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl in the fifth, and a
spondee in the sixth place. Change the order thus,
Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus,
and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is destroyed;
it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line.
2. The principal metres used in Latin poetry are six; namely 1. lambia
2. Trooliaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic. 6. Ionic. These are
so called from the foot .which prevails in them.
These different kinds of verse, in certain varieties, are also designated
by the names of certain poets, who either invented them, or made special
use of them in their writings. Thus, we have Asclepiadic, Glyconian.
Alcaic, Sapphic, Pherecratian, &c., from Asclepiades, Glycon, Alcaeus,
Sappho, Phereerates, <fec.
3. In Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verse, a metre consists of two
feet (sometimes called a dipodia, or syzygy), in the other kinds, of one foot.
4. A verse consisting of one metre is called Monometer ; of two metres,
Ditneler; of three, Trimeter; of four. Tetrameter; of five. Pentameter;
of six, Hexameter; of seven, Heptameter; &c. .Hence, in Trochaic, Iambic,
and Anapaestic verse, a monometer will contain two feet; a dimeter,/o«r;
a trimeter, six ; &c. In the other kinds of verse, a monometer contains
one foot; a dimeter, two; a trimeter, three; &c.
5. A verse or line of any meti'c may be complete, having precisely the
number of feet or syllables that the canon requires; or, it may be defi¬
cient ; or it may be redimdant. To express this, a verse is variously
characterized as follows; viz:
(1.) Acatalectic, when complete.
(2.) Catalectie, if wanting one syllable.
(3.) Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables, or a foot.
(4.) Hypercatalectic, or hypermeter, when it has one or two syllables
more than the verse requires.
(6.) Acephalous, when a syllable is wanting at the beginning of the line.
(6.) Asynartete,'yih&a different measures are conjoined in one line.
Hence, in order fully to describe any verse, three terms are employed;
the first expressing the kind of verse; the second, the number of metres;
and the third, the character of the line; thus,
Kon vul- I tus in- | stSntis | tyrAn- | tu |
isdesciibed; 0.% lamhie, dimeter, hypercatalectic. ^
6. Verses, or parts of verses, are further designated by a term expres¬
sive of the number of feet, or parts of feet, which they centain. Thu%
a hue, or a part of a line, containing—
three half feet is called trimimer,
five half feet, " penthcmimer,
seven half feet, " ' hephthemimer.
Ihese are of use to point out the place of—
§164
peosody.—metre.
321
THE C2ESURAL PATJSR.
856.—Cmiura, in metre, is the separation, by the ending of a word,
of syllables rhythmically or metrically connected.
It is of three kinds,'!. Of the foot,- 2. of the rhythm; 3. of the verse.
1st. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot is com¬
pleted ; as in the second, third, fourth, and fifth feet of the following line:
SiIySs- I trSm t^nu-1 i MQ- | eSm mSdi- | tSris | ySnk.
2d. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from the ttiesis
by the ending of a word, as in the second, third, and fourth feet of the
preceding line.
This has sometimes the effect of making a final short syllable long, by
the force of the ictus; as,
Pectdn- I bus TnhT- | 8ns spi- | rantIS | cbnsulit | ezta.
Note.—^This effect is not produced by the Caesura of the foot, nor of the
verse, unless they happen to coincide with the caesura of the rhythm.
3d. The Caesura of the verse is such a division of the line into two
parts, as affords to the voice a pause or rest, at a proper or fixed place,
without injuring the sense by pausing in the middle of a word.
857.—The proper management of this pause is a great beauty in cer¬
tain kinds of verse, and shows the skill of the poet In pentameter verse,
its place is fixed; in hexameter and other metres, it is left to the poet.
'When it occurs at the end of the third half foot, it is called trimimeris
of the &ith, penthemimeris;—of the seventh, hephthemimerrs.
858.—The situation of each foot in a verse is called its place.
I 164. DIFFEEENT KINDS OF METRE.
The canons, or rules of the different kinds of metre used in Latin poetry,
are the following:
859.—1. IAMBIC METRE.
1. A pure iambic fine consists of iambic feet only ; as,
Phase- I bSs il- J li qu6m | vide- || lis hos- | pitSs. |
Here the single line marks the end of the foot; the double
line, the end of .the metre ; and the Italic syllable, the csesural
pause.
2. A mixed iambic line admits a spondee into the first,
third, and fifth places; and again in all these a dactyl or an
anapaest is sometimes admitted for a spondee, and a tribrach
for the iambus.
3. This verse occurs in all varieties of length, fi-om the
dimeter catalectic to the tetrameter.
14*
822
PBOSODY—METKE.
§164
4. The caesura commonly takes place at the fifth half foot.
5. Different varieties of this metre are denominated as
follows:
let Senarian, or Trimeter acatalectic, used in tragedy and comedy.
2cL Archilochian, or Trimeter catalectic.
Sd. Archilochian, or Dimeter hypermeter.
4th. Anacreontic, or Dimeter catalectic.
5tL Galliambus, or Dimeter catalectic, double; L e. two verses in oni
line.
* 6th. Hipponactic, or Tetrameter catalectic.
1th. Choliambue, or Trimeter Acatalectic. This is called, also, Scctzon
and Hipponactic trimeter, and has a spondee in the sixth place,
and generally an iambus in the fifth.
8th. Octonarius, or Teti-ameter acatalectic, called also quadratm.
9th. Acephalous, or Dimeter, wanting the first syllable of the first foot
This may be resplved into Trochaic dimeter catalectic.
860.—IL TROCHAIC METRE.
1. A pure trochaic line consists of trochees only. These,
Ji wever, are but seldom used. An acephalous trochaic be-
ci nes an iambic line; and an Acephalous iambic becomes a
tr chaic line.
I. A mixed trochaic line admits a spondee, a dactyl, an
an ipaest, and sometimes a proceleusmatic in even places, i. e.
in ihe 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. But in the odd places, a trochee, or a
triorach, and in the last place, a trochee only.
3. This verse may be used in all varieties, from the Mono-
meter hypercatalectic (two trochees and one syllable) to the
tetrameter, or octonarius catalectic. The varieties most used
by the Latin poets, are,
1st. The Trochaic tetrameter catalectic, rarely pure:
2d. The Sapphic, consisting of five feet, viz.: a trochee, a
spondee, a dactyl, and two trochees. It has the caesural
pause after the fifth half foot; thus,
lut^- 1 ger vi- I J scelfi- | risqufi | purOs. Hoe.
3d. The Phalwcian, or Phaleucian, consistitTg of five feet;
viz.; a spondee, a dactyl, and three trochees; thus.
Nod est vivSre | sed va- | lere | vita. Maet.
This verse neither requires nor rejects a cmsura.
4th. The Trochaic dimeter catalectic, or Acephalous iamhic
dimeter. See I. 9th.
§164
POSODY.—METRE. * 323
6th, Otbet varieties, hut seldom used, are i 1. The Pancratic, mouo-
meter hypercatalectic. 2. The ithyphalic, dimeter bracbycatalectie.
3. The Muripidean, dimeter catalectic, 4. The Alemanic, dimeter
acatalectic. 5. Anacreontic, dimeter acatalectic, with a pyrrhic is
the first place. 6. The Hipponaclic, tetrameter acatalectic.
861.—III.' AJ!IAP^TIC METRE.
1. A pure Anaprestic line consists of Anapaests only.
2. The mixed anapaestic line has a spondee (fir a dactyl, feet of equal
length, in any place.
8. The following varieties occur, viz.: 1st. The Anapceetic Monometer,
consisting of two anapaests. 2d. The Anapaestic dimeter, consisting of four
Anapaests.
Obs. Anapaestic verses are usually so constructed, that each measure
ends with a word, so that they may be read in lines of one, two, or more
measures.
4. Other varieties not much in use are the Simodian; monometer cata¬
lectic. The Parlkeniac; dimeter catalectic. The Archehulian; trimeter
brachycatalectic.
862.—IV. DACTYLIC METRE.
1. A pure dactylic verse consists of dactyls only, ■wliich
have the arsis on the first .syllable of the foot.
Of this verse, one foot constitutes a metre, and the lines rangedn length
from dimeter to hexameter. Of these, the most important are—
1. Hexameter or Heroic verse.
Hexameter or Heroic verse consists of six feet, of which
the fifth is a dactyl, the sixth a spondee, and each of the other
four, a dactyl or a spondee ; as,
Ludere | quae v6l- | ISm c313- | mo p6r- | misit S- | gi-esH. Vnte.
Respecting this verse the following things may be noticed
let. When a spondee occurs in the fifth place, the line is called spondaic.
Such lines are of a grave character, and but rarely occur.
2d. When the line consists of dactyls, the movement is brisk and rapid,
when of spi ndees. slow and heavy. Compare in this respect the two fol¬
lowing lines: the first expresses the rapid movement over the plain, of a
troop of horse eager for the combat ;—the other descrihes the slow and
toilsome movements of the Cyclops at the labors of the forge.
Qufidrupe- | dantS pu- | trem soni- | tu quatit | unguis | campQm.
Illi in- I ter se- | se mag- | n4 vi | brachlS | tdllQnt. Vieg.
3d. The beauty and harmony of a Hexameter verse de¬
pends on the proper man.Tgement of the ca.sura. The most
approved caesura] pause, in heroic j oetry, is that which occurs
after the arsis of the third foot. Sometimes called the heroic
cfESural pause ; thiis^j
At domus I IntSri- | or J re- | gali | splendidS | luxu. Vikg.
824
PEOSODT.—METRE.
§164
fn reading this line with due attention to q\iantity, we naturally pause
where the caisural pause is indicated by the double line, and the whole
movement is graceful and pleasing. Compare now with this, a line in
ivhich no attention is paid to the ctesura, or in which, if one is made, you
have to pause in the middle of a word, and the difference is manifest.
Roma I moeniS | ter-1| ruit | impfg£r | HanmbSl | Srmis.
Sometimes the csesura falls after the thesis of the third foot, or the arsis
of the fourth. In the last case, a secondary one often occurs in the second
foot The pause at the end of the third foot was the least approved
The following lines are examples of each of these:
1. Infan- | dum r6- 1 gini J ju- | bes rend- | vSrg d6- | 16r6m.
2. Prima t€- | net, J plau- | suqu^ v6- | lat J fremi- | tuqu€ sS- | cQnd&
8. Cui non | dicths Hy- | las ph^r | et La- | torna | Delda
2. A species of Hexameter is the Priapean. It is divisible
into two portions of three feet each, of which portions, the
first begins generally with a trochee, and ends with an amphi-
macer, and the second begins with a trochee ; as follows,
0 co- I Ionia | quae cupis | p6ntS | ludSrS | longo. Catull.
These parts, however, may very well be scanned, the first as a Olyconic,
and the second, as a Pherecratic verse, of which see under (V) Choriambic
verse.
3. Pentameter verse consists of five feet. It is commonly
arranged in two portions or hemistichs, of which the first
contains two feet, dactyls or spondees, followed by a long syl¬
lable which ought to end a word; and the second, two dactyls
followed by a long syllable; thus,
MSximfi I d6 nihi- | 16 | nSscitur | histoii- | a—Propert.
Pomaqug | non no- | <Ss | legit ab 1 arbori- | bus | Tmuix.
Where the first distich does not end a word, or, if there be an elision by
Synalaepha or Echthlipm, the verse is considered harsh.
This verse is commonly used alternately with a hexameter line, a
combination which is commonly called Elegiac verse.
4. Dactylic tetrameter, of which there are two kinds.
1st. Dactylic tetrameter a priore, called also Alcmanian dac¬
tylic tetrameter, which consists of the first four feet of a
hexameter line, the fourth being always a dactyl; as,
S6lvitur I acris hy- | Sms gra- | fa vicS. Hoe.
2d. Dactylic tetrameter a posieriore. called also Spondaie
tetrameter, which consists of the. last four feet of a hexameter
line; as,
Sic tris- 1 tSs af- 1 fatus 2- j mic6s. Hoe.
§ 164 PROSODY.—METRE. 825
5. Dactylic trimeter (or Choriamhic Trimeter Catalectie), con¬
sists of the last three feet of a hexameter line (See Choriamhic
verse); as,
Grate I Pyrrha sfib | antrO. Hoa.
6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, also called Archihchian pen-
themimeris^ consists of the first five half feet of a hexameter
line; as,
Arbdii-1 bCisquS c5-| mse. Hok.
7. Dactylic dimeter or Adonic—commonly used to conclude
a Sapphic Stanza—consists of a dactyl and spondee; thus,
Risit A-1 polio.
863.—V. CHORIAMBIC METRE.
In Choriamhic verse, the leading foot is % choriamhus; hut
in the varieties of this metre, different other feet are admitted,
chiefly at the beginning or end of the line, or hoth. The
principal varieties are the following:'
1. The Choriarribic tetrameter consists of a spondee, three
choriamhi, and an iamhus; as,
Tu nS I quKsiSns | scire nefas | quSm tnibi quSm | tiObi.
2. Choriamhic tetrameter^ consists of three choriamhi, or
feet equivalent in length, and a Bacchius; as,
Jang pater j Jang tugns | divg bicgps | biiormis.
Horace altered without improving this metre, by substituting a spondee
for the iambus in the first foot; as,
Te dgos 6- I ro Sybaiin | <fec.
Note.—Choriamhic tetrameter was originally called Phalaecian, from
Fhalsecus, who made great use of it
3. Asclepiadic tetrameterconsists Of a spondee, two cho¬
riamhi, and an iamhus ; thus,
Maece- | nas Stavis | gditg rg- | gibus. Hob.
This form is uniformly used by Horace. Other poets sometimes make
the first foot a dactyL
The caesural pause occiffs at the end of the first choriamhus.
This verse is sometimes scanned as a Dactylic pentameter catalectic;
thus,
Maecg- I nas ata- | vis | gditg | rggibua
4. Choriamhic trimeter, or Glyconic, consists of a spondee,
(sometimes an iamhus or trochee,) a choriamhus, and an iam¬
bus; as, •
Sic tg 1 diva pgtgns | C^ii Hob.
326 PROSODY.—^METRE, § 165
When the first foot is a spondee, it may be scanned as dactylic trimeter;
as,
Sic te I diva p6-1 tens C^pi%
5. Choriambic trimeter catalectic, or Pherecratie, consists of
a sj)ondee, choriambus, and a catalectic syllable; as,
Grato I Pyrrha sub an- | tro.
Here, also, the first foot is sometimes a trochee or an iambus. When a
spondee, it may be scanned as Dactylic trimeter. See IV. fi.
6. Choriambic dimeter^ consists of a cboriambus and a Bac-
cbius; as,
Lydia die | pgr omnes. Hor.
,864.—VI IONIC METRR
1. Tbe Ionic a majore, or Sotadic metre, consists of tbree
Ionics a majore, and a spondee; as,
Has cum gemi- | na compede | dedicat ca- | tenas.
Obs.—In this metre, an Ionic foot is often changed for a ditrochee, as in
the third foot of the preceding line; and a long syllable is often rewlved
into two short ones.
2. Tbe Ionic a minore, consists generally of tbree or four
feet, wbicb are all Ionics a minore ; as,
PQar ales I tibi talis | opgrosle-1 qua Mmarvih. Hob.
§ 165. COMPOUND METRES.
865.—A compound metre or Asynartete, is tbe union of
two kinds of metre in tbe same verse or line. Of tbese tbe
following are tbe cbief:
1. Greater Alcaic. Iambic mon. by per. + Cbor. dim. acat.
Thus, _ I ^ _
2. Lesser Alcaic. , Dactylic dim. + Trochaic mon.
Thus, — — O—II —
3. Archilochian Hept. or Dact. tetr. a priore + Trocb. dim, B. C.
tllus# —^ i — 'W i >w' i —— Vw' "W i i V,
4. Dactylico-Iambic. Dactylic trim. cat. + lanibic dim.
Thus, — —' -
5. lambico Dactylic. Iambic dim. Dactylic trim. cat.
^ 166 PROSODY.—METRE. 827
§ 166. SCANNING.
866 —Scannibg is the measuriDg of verse, or the resolving of a line
into the several fe<;t of which it is composed.
To do this properly, a previous acquaintance with the rules of quantity,
and the structure of each kind of verse, is indispensable,—and also wiui
the various ways by which syllables in certain situations are varied by
contraetion, ebsion, &o. ~ These are usually called Figures of Prosody,
and ai'e as follows:
867.—FIGURES OF PROSODY.
1. Synalcepha, cuts off a vowel or diphthong from the end
of a word, when the next word begins with, a vowel, or h with
a vowel following it, thus converting two syllables into one;
as.
Terra antlqua by Synalcepha, teri' anliqua; Dardanidai in/emi, Dar-
danii infermi ; vento hue, vent' w ; thus:
Quidve moror? si omnes uno ordine habetis Achivos. Vino.
Scanned thus,
Quidvg mo- I ror ? s' 6m-1 nes u- | n' or din' hS- | betis A- | chlvos.
The Synalcepha is .sometimes neglected, and seldom takes place in the
interjections, (J, heu, oh, proh, vce, vah, hei.
Long vowels and diphthongs, when not cut off are sometimes shortened;
as,
Insulse I Idnr | in mag- | no quas | dira C6- | Iteno. Viro.
Qredimus | an qui a- | mSnt ip- | si sibi | somnia | fingunt In.
2. Ecthlipsis cuts off m with a vowel preceding it, from
the end of a word, when the next Word begins with a vowel,
or h followed by a vowel; as,
Monstrum horrendum, informe, ingens, cui lumen ademptum.
Scanned thus,
Monstr' hor- | rend,' in- | form,' in- | gens cui | lumSn Sd- | emptOm.
This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets; as,
Corporum | offici- | um est quoni- | am preme- | re omnia de- | orsum.
Luce.
Oh*. A Syraloepha and Eclhlipxis are sometimes found at the end of a
line, where, after the completing of the metre, a syllable remains to be
joined to the next line, wlii«h of course must begin with a vowel; thus,
Stemitur | infe- | lix all- j one ) vulnere | coelum | que
Adspicit, &c.
Here the que and etdnpieil are joined ; as, qri ackpicit.
Jamque iter | emeu- | si, tur- | res ac | tecta La- | tino- | rum
Ardua, Ac, whei'c the -min and ardua are joined; as, r' ardua.
3. Synceresis, so|jietimes called Crasis, contracts two sylla¬
bles into one; as, Fhcethon, for Fhaethon; this is done by
828
. PROSODY.—METRE.
§167
forming two vowels into a diphthong; ae, e'i, o'i, into ce, ei, ai;
or, pionouncing the two syllables as one j thus, ea, in, as if ya,
yu, &c.; as, aurea, aurya ; Jilius, filyus; and ua, ui, &c., as
if wa, wi ; thus, genua, genwa; tenuis, tenwis.
4. Diceresis divides one syllable into two; as, auloCi, for
aula; Troim, for Trqjce; Per.sms, for Perseus; miluus, for
milvus ; soliiit, for solvit; voluit, for volvit; aquce, siietus, sua-
sit, Suevos, relanguit, reliquas, for aquce, suetus, &c.; as,
Aulai in medio libabant pocula BacchL Vieg.
Stamina non uUi dissoliienda Deo. Pentam. Tuullvs.
5. Systole makes a long syllable short; as, the penult in
tullrunt; thus,
Matri | longa de- | cem tnlg- ] runt fas- | tidia | menses. Vibo.
6. Diastole makes a short syllable dong; as, the last sylla¬
ble of amor in the following verse:
Consi-1 dant, si- | tantus a-1 mor, et | mcenia | condant. Ynta.
§ 167. STANZA.
868.—A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. When a
poem consists of one kind of verse, it is called monocolon ; of two, dicolon ;
of three, tricolon. ~ ■ ,
869.—The different kinds of verse in a poem are usually combined in
regular portions called stanzas, or strophes, each of which contains the
same number of lines, the same kinds of verse, and these arranged in the
same order.
870.—When a stanza or strophe consists of two lines, the poem is
called distrophon; of three lines, tri/ftrophon; of four, tetrastrophon.
Hence poems, according to the number of kinds of verse which they con¬
tain, and the number of lines in the stanza, are characterized as follows:
Monocolon, one kind of verse in the poem.
Dicolon distrophon, two kinds of verse, and two lines in the stanza.
Dicolon tristrophon, two kinds of vei"se, three lines in the stanza.
Dicolon tetrastrophon, two kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza.
Tricolon tristrophon, three kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza.
Tricolon tetrastrophon, three kinds of verse, four ^es in the stanza.
§ 168. COMBINATIONS OF METRES IN HORACE.
871.—Horace makes use of nineteen different species of metre com¬
bined in eighteen different ways. They are arranged as follows, according
to the order of preference given them by the poet The references here,
where not marked, are to § 164.
§169
PROSODY.—METRE.
329
No. 1. TVo lines Greater Alcaic. § 165. 1. One ArcUlochian dimeter
hypermeter, I. 2. 6. 8ii; and one Lesser Alcaic. § 166. 2.
No. 2. Tlireo lines Sapphic, IL 2. One Adonic, or Dactylic dim. IV. 7
No. 3. One line Choriambic trim, or Glyconic, V. 4. One choriambic
tetram. or Asclepiadic. V. 3.
No. 4. One line Iambic trim, or Senarian, L 3. 6. 1st. One Iambic dim,
L 2. 3.
No. 6. Three lines, Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One Chor. trim
or Glyconic, V. 4.
No. 6. Two bnes Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, Y. 3. One Chor. trim,
cat., or Pherecratic, Y. 5. One Chor. trim, or Glyconic, Y. 4.
No. 7. Choriambic tetrameter, or Asclepiadic alone, Y. 3i.
No. 8. One line Dactylic Hexameter, lY. 1. One Dactylic tetram. a
posteripre, lY. 4. 2d.
No. 9. Choriambic pentameter only, Y. 1.'
No. 10. One line Dactylic Hexameter, lY. 1. One Iambic dinn 1. 2. 8.
Na. 11. Iambic trimeter Senarian only, 1. 2. 5. 1st.
No. 12. One line Choriambic dim. Y. 6. One Chor. tetram. (altered) Y. 2.
No. 13. One line Daetylio Hexameter, lY. 1. One Iambic trim. sen. L 3.
5. 1st.
No. 14. One line Dactylic Hexameter, lY. 1. One Archilochian Dactylic
trimeter catalectic, lY. 6.
No. 15. One line Dactylic Hexameter, lY. 1. One lambico dactylic,
§ 165. 5.
No. 16. One line Iambic trim. Senarian, 1 3. 5. Ist One Dactylic Iam¬
bic. § 165, 4.
No. 17. One line Archilochian Heptameter. § 165. 3. One Ai'chilochian
Iambic trimeter, Catalectic, L 2. 5. 2d.
No. 18. One line Iambic dimeter Acephalous, L 5. 9th.; and one Iambic
trimeter catalectic, I. 5. 2d.
No. 19. Ionic a minore only, YL 2. The first line contains three feet,
the second, four. '
Note.—The Satires and Epistles are in Dactylic Hexameter, lY. 1.
§ 169. METRICAL KEY TO ODES OF HORACE.
872.—This key gives, in alphabetic order, the first words of each ode,
with a reference to the Nos. in the preceding section where the stanza is
described, and reference made to the place where each metre is explained.
iEli vetusto No. 1
Alquam memento 1
Albi ne doleas 5
Altera jam teritur 13
Angustam amici 1
At O Deorum 4
Audivere lyce ....... 6
Bacchum in remotis.
Beatus ille . . ' . .
Ccelo supinas . . .
Coelo tonantem . . ,
Cum tu Lydia. .
Cuf me querelis
jDelicta majorum.. .
No.
330
PROSODY.—METRE.
§169
Descende coelo . ....
Diuuam teuerse
Ditl'ugere nives.......
Dive quern proles ......
Divis orte buuis
Douarem pateras
Donee gratus eram . ...
Ebeu fugaces
Est milii Dunum
Et tbure et bdibus . ...
Exegi niouumentum .....
Extremum Tanaim
Fauue nympbarum
Festo quid potius die ....
Uereubs vitu . , ....
Horrida tenipestas
Ibis Liburiiis
Icci bealis
llle et nefusto
Impios parrse
luclusam Dauaen
lutactis opuleutior
Integer vitae
Interniissa Venus diu ....
Jam jam efficaci ......
Jam pauca aratro
Jam satis terris
Jam veris comites
Justmn et teuacem .....
Laudabuut alii
Lupis et agnis
Lydia die per omnes ....
Mteceuas atavis
Mala soliita
Martiis ccelebs
Mater sasva Cupidinum . . .
Mercuri facunde
'Mercuri nam te ..... .
Miserarum est
Mollis inertia
Montium custos
Motum ex Metello
Musis amicus
Natis in usum
Ne forte eredas. ......
Ne sit ancillae
Nolis longa ferte
Nondiim subacta . -
Non ebur neque aureum . . .
Non semper imbres
Non usitata
Non vides quanto ■
Nox erat
Nuiiam Tare sacra
NuUus argento 2
Nunc est bibendiun 1
O crudelis adbuc 9
O Diva gratum . ... 1
O funs Blandusise 6
O matre pulcbi-d 1
O nata niecum 1
O navis referent 6
O saspe mecum 1
O Venus regina 2
Odi profanum 1
Otium Divos . 2
Parcius junctas 2
Parous Deorum 1
Parentis olim 4
Pastor quum traberet .... 6
Persicos odi puer ....... 2
Petti nibil me ....... 16
Pboebe, silvarumque 2
Pboebus volentem . . . . .,^1
Pindarum quisquis , . . . . 2
Poscimur siquid 2
Quae cura patrum I
Qualem miuistrum 1
Quando repdstum ...... 4
Quantum distet ab Inacbo . . 3
Quern tu, Melpomene .... 3
Quern vinim aut beroa ... 2
Quid bellicosus 1
Quid dedicatum .... . 1
Quid fles Asterie 6
Quid immerentes 4
Quid obseratis . • 11
Quid tibi vis 8
Quis desiderio 6
Quis multa gracilis '6
Quo me, Baccbe 3
Quo, quo scelesti ruitis ... 4
Rectius vives 2
Rogare longo 4
Scriberis Vario P
Septimi Gades 2
Sic te Diva potens 3
Solvitur aeri^iems .... 17
Te maris et terrae 8
Tu ne quaesieris 'J
Tyrrbena regum I
Ulla si juris 2
Uxor pauperis Ibyci 3
V elox amoenum 1
Vides ut alta ....... 1
Vile potabis 2
Vitas hinnideo 6
LVixi choreis 1
1
6
14
2
6
7
3
1
2
3
7
6
2
3
2
15
4
1
1
2
5
3
2
3
11
1
2
5
1
8
4
12
7
4
2
3
2
2
19
10
2
1
1
1
1
2
5
1
18
1
1
2
10
9
831
APPENDIX.
1. ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME.
1. Divisiont of the Year.
873.—Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten months, as
follows: 1. Martiu*, from Mars, his supposed father; 2. Aprilis, from
Aperio, "to open;" 3. Mains, from Maia, the mother of Mercury; 4. Jur
nius, from the goddess .Jnno. The rest were named from their number, as
follows: 5. afterwards Julius, from Julius Coesar; Hextilis,
afterwards Augustus, from Augustus Ceesar; 7. September; 8. October;
9. November; and 10. December. Numa afterwards added two months;
viz: 11. Januarius, from the god Janus; 12. Februariu's, from fcbruo, "to
purify."
874.—As the months were regulated by the course of the moon, it
was soon found that the months and seasons did not always correspond,
and various expedients wei e adopted to correct this error. Much confu¬
sion however still remained till about A. ,U. 707, when Julius Caesar, assist¬
ed by Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, reformed the Calendar,
adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to each
of the twelve months the number of days which they still contain.
2. The Roman Month.
875.—The Romans divided their month into three parts, called Ka-
lends. Nones, and Ides*. The first day of every mouth was called the
Kalends ; the fifth was called the Nones; and the thirteenth was called
the Ides ; except in March, May, July, and October, when the Nones fell on
the seventh, and the Ides on the fifteenth; and the day was numbered ac¬
cording to its distance, (not after but) before each of these points; that is,
after the Kalends, they numbered the day according to its distance before
the Nones; after the Nones, according to its distance before the Ides;
and after the Ides, according to its distance before the Kalends—both
days being always included. The day before each of these points was
never numbered, bnt called Pridie, or ante diem Nonorum, or Iduum,
or Kalendarurn, as the case might be; the day before that was called
tertio, the day before that, quarto, Ac.; scil. Nonorum, Iduum, Kalendarum.
876.—Various expressions and constructions were used by the Romans
in the notation of the days of the months. Thus, for example, the 29th
December or the 4th of the Kalends of January, was expressed differently
as fyllows:
" 1st. Quarto Kalendarum JanuariL Abbreviated, IV. Kal. Jan., or
2d. Quarto Kalendas Januarii. " IV. KaL Jan, or
• The first day was named Kalends, from the Greek, saXtw, to call, because
when the month was regulated according to the course of the moon, the priest
announced the new moon, which was of course the first day of the month.
The Nones were so called because that day was always the nintli from the
Ides. The term Ides is derived from an obsolete Latiti verb iduare, to divide,
it is supposed, because ihsiday being about the middle -f the month, divided
it into two nearly equal parts
382
APPENDIX.
3d. Quarto Kalendas Januarias. Abbreviated. IV. KaL Jan., or
4th. Ante diem quartum KaL Jan. " a. d. IV. K. Jan.
In these expressions, quarto agrees with die understood ; and die governs
KalendHrum in the genitive. Kalendas is governed by ante understood.
In the first expression, Januarii is considered as a noun governed by Ka-
Itndarum ; in the second, as a noun governed by Kalendas ; in the third,
Januarias is regarded as an adjective agreeing with Kalendas; in the
fourth, ante diem quartum is a technical phrase for die quarto ante, and
frequently has a preposition before it; as, in ante diem, do,, or, ex ante
diem, do.
The notation of Nones and Ides was expressed in the same way, and
with the same^variety of expression.
The correspondence of the Roman notation of time with our own, may
be seen by inspection of the following
877.—TABLE.
• Days of
Mar. Mal
Jan. Aug.
Ape. Jun.
Febe.
our
Jul. Oct.
Dec.
Sept. Nov.
28 days.
Months.
31 days.
31 days.
30 days.
Bissex. 29.
1
Ealendre.
Kalendae.
Kalendas.
Kalendae.
2
VI. nonas.
IV. nonas.
IV. nonas.
IV. nonas.
3
V.
IIL "
IIL
"
IIL
4
IV. ''
Pridie "
Pridie
"
Pridie "
6
III "
Nonae.,
Nonas.
Nonae.
6
Pridie "
VIII. idus.
VIIL
idus.
VIIL idus.
7
■ Nouae.
VIL «
VIL
«
VIL "
8
VIII idus.
VL "
VL
((
VL
9
VII. "
V.
V.
(1
V.
10
VI. "
IV. "
IV.
«•
IV.
11
V.
IIL «
IIL
U
IIL
12
IV. "
Pridie "
Pridie
u
Paidie "
13
III. "
Idus.
Idus.
Idus.
14
Pridie "
XIX. kaL
XVIII. kaL
XVL kaL
15
Idus.
XVIII."
XVIL
It
XV. "
16
XVIL kal
XVIL «
XVL
tt
XIV. «
17
XVL «
XVL «
XV.
t(
XIIL "
18
XV. "
XV. "
XIV.
u
XIL «
19
XIV. «
XIV. «
XIIL
<(
XL
20
XIII. «
XIIL «
XIL
u
X.
21
' XIL «
XIL '■
XL
(4
IX.
22
XI. "
XL "
X.
It
VIIL "
23
X.
X.
tt
VIL «
24
ax. "
IX. "
tt
VL
25
VIIL "
VIIL "
VIL
tt
V.
26
VIL "
VIL "
VL
tt
IV.
27
VL "
VL "
V,
tt
IIL
28
V.
V.
IV.
tt
Pi-idie Mar
29
IV. "
IV. «
IIL
If
30
IIL "
IIL "
Pridie
•
31
Pridie "
Pridie "
ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME.
88S
3. Rvles for reducing Time.
As, however, this table cauDot be always at hand, the following simple
rules will enable a person to reduce time without a table.
L TO KEDUCE BOMAN TIME TO OUB OWX.
J'br reducing Kalends.
878.—Kalendoe are always the first day of the month:—Pridie Ka-
lendarum, always the last day of the mon^ preceding. For any other
notation, observe the following—
879.—Rule. Subtract the number of the Kalends given,
from the number of days in the preceding month; add 2, and
the result will be the day of the preceding month; thus,
X. KaL Jan.—Dec. has days 31—10 = 21 + 2=23d of Dec'r.
XVLKaL Dec.—^Nov. has days 30—16 = 14 + 2=16th of Noyr.
For reducing Nones and Ides.
880.—Rule. Subtract the number given, from the number
of the day on which the Nones or Ides fall, and add 1. The
result will be the day of the month named; thus,
IV. Non. Dec.—Nones on the 5—4=1 + 1=2, or 2d Dec'r.
VI. Id. Dec.—Ides on the 13—6=7 + 1=8, or 8th Dec'r.
IV. Non. Mar.—Nones on the 7—4=3+1=4, or 4th March.
VI. Id. Mar.—Ides on the 15—6=9 + 1 = 10, or 10th March.
IL FOB BEDCCING COB TIME TO BOMAN.
881.—If the day is that on which the Kalends, Nones, or Ides fall>
call it by these names. If the day before, call it Pridie KaL. (of the fol¬
lowing month), Prid. Non., Pridie Id. (of the same month). Other days
to be denominated according to their distance before the point next fol¬
lowing, viz.: those after the Kalends and before the Nones, to be called
Nones ; those after the Nones and before the Ides, to be called Ides, viz.:
of the month named; and those after the Ides and before the Kalends, to
be called Kalends, viz.; of the month following ; as follows:
For reducing to Kalends.
882.—Rule. Subtract the day of the month given, from
the number of days in the month, and add 2. The result will
be the number of the Kalends of the month following ; thus.
Dee. 23d.—Dec. has days 31—23~8 + 2=10, or X. KaL Jan.
Nov. 16th.—Nov.has days 30—16 = 14+2 = 16, or XVL Kal. Deo
For reducing to Nones and Ides.
88.3.—Rule. Subtract the day of the month given, from
the day of the Nones (if between the Kalends and Nones), or
from the day of theeldes (if between the Nones and Ides),
834
APPENDIX.
and add 1. The result will be the number of the Nones or
Ides respectively ; as,
Dec. 2d.—Day of the Nones 5—.2=3+1=4, or IV. Non. Dec.
Dec. 8th. " Ides 13—8=5 + 1 = 6, or VL Id. Dec.
March 4th. " Nones 1—4=3 + 1=4, or IV. Non. Mar.
March 10th. " Ides 15—10=5 + 1 = 6, or VI, Id. Mar.
' Division of the Roman Day.
884.—The Roman civil day extended, as with us, from midnight to
midnight, and its parts .were variously named; as, media nox, ga/liciuium
canticinium, dilueUlum, mane, antemeridiUnum, meridies, pomeridiSnum,
885.—The natural day extended from sunrise (sOlis ortus) till sunset
{solis oceSsns), and was divided into twelve equal pai-ts, called houis,
(horce); which were, of course, longer or shorter according to the length
of the day. At the equinox, their hour and ours would be of the same
length : but, as. they began to number at sunrise, the number would. be
different, i. e. their first hour would correspond to our 7 o'clock, their second
to our 8 o'clock, <fec.
886.—The night was divided by the Romans into four watches {vigi-
lice), each eqfial to three hours; iiho first and second extending from sunset
to midnight, and the third and fourth, from midnight to sunrise.
• II. OF ROMAN NAMES.
887.—The Romans at first seem to have bad but one name; as, Ror
mUdus, Rimus, Numitor; sometimes two; as, NUma Pompilius^Ancus
Marlins, <fec.; but when they began to be divided into tribes, or clans,
(gentes) they commonly had three names—the prcenomen, the nomen, and
the cognomen ; arranged as follows:
1. The Prcenbmen stood first, and distinguished the individual. It was
commonly written with one or two letters; as, A. for Aulus; C. for Caius ;
Cn. for Cneius, Ac. .
2. The Nomen, which distinguished the gens. This name commonly
ended in ius; as, Cornelius, Fabius, TuUius, Ae; and
3. The Cognomen, or surname, was put last, and marked the family; as,
Ciciro, Caesar, Ac.
Thus, in Publius Cornelius Scipio, Publius is the prcenomen, and de¬
notes the individual; Cornelius is the nomen, and denotes the gens; and
Scipio is the cognomen, and denotes the family.
4. Sometimes a fourth name, called the Agnomen, was added, as a me¬
morial of some illustrious action or remarkable #>ent. Thus, Scipio was
named Afric&nus, from the conquest of Caithage in Africa.
888.—The three names, however, were not always used—commonly
two, and sometimes only one. In speaking to any one, the praen^nen was
commonly used, which was peculiar to Roman citizens.
889.—When there was only one daughter in a family, she was called
by the name of the gens, with a feminine termination; as, TuUia, the
daughter of M. 2'ullius Ciciro; Julia, the daughter^of C.Julius Ccesar. If
DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. 385
there were two, the elder was called Major, and the younger Minor; aa,
TulHa Major, <fec. If more than two, they were distinguished by nu¬
merals ; as. Prima, Secunda, Terlia, <tc.
890.—Slaves had no pramSmen, but were anciently called by the prse-
nomen of their masters; as, Marcipor, as if Marci pner; Lucipor {Lucii
puer), (fee. Afterwards they came to be named either from their country
or from other cireumstances; as, Syrus, Psvwi, Geta, Tiro, Laurea; and
still more frequently from their employment; as, Medici, Chirurgi, Pceda-
gogi, Grammatici, Hcrlbee, Fabri, Ac.
891.—The most common abbreviations of Latin names, are the fol¬
lowing, viz.:
A., Avlut.
C., Caiue.
Cn., Cneitis. ■
D., Peclmus,
L., Lucius.
M., Marcus.
A. d.. Ante diem.
A. U., Anno Urbis.
A. U. C., Anno urbis
condttce.
Cal, or kal., KalencUe.
Cos., Consul. (Singu¬
lar.)
Cqss., Consules. (Plu¬
ral.) •
D., Dlvus.
£q. Rom., Eques Ro-
M. T. 0., Marcus TuLlius Q., or Qu., Quintus.
Ciciro.
M.', Manius.
Mam., Mamercus.
N., Numerius.
P., Publius.
Other Abbreviations.
Id., Idus.
Imp., Imperator.
Non., Nonae.
P. 0., Patres conscripti.
P. R., Populus Romcl-
nus.
Pont. Max, Pontifex max-
imvs.
Pr, Praetor.
Proc., Proconsul.
Resp., Respubtica.
Ser., Servius.
S., or Sex, Sextus.
Sp., Spurius.
T., Titus.
Ti, or Tib, Tiberius.
S, Salutem, Sacrum,
Senatus.
S.-D. P, Salutem di-
cit plurimam.
S. P. Q. R, Senatus
populusque Romdr-
nus.
8. 0, Senatus consul
turn.
Ill DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE.
892.T—The Roman people were originally divided as follows:
1. Patres. Fathers, or Senators, called also patrones, from their relation
to the plebeians, to whom they were the legal protectors.
2. Pllbes, or common people, called also clientes.
There were afterwards added— '
8. Equites, or Knights, persons of merit and distinction, selected from
the two orders, whose duty at first was to serve in war as cavalry,
but they were afterwards advanced to other important oflSees. It
was necessary for them to be over 18 years of age, and to possess
a fortune of four hundred thousand sesterces.
4. Liberti, or Idbertlni. Freedmen—persons-who had once been slaves, but
obtained their freedom, and radked as citizens. They were ealleo
liberti in relation to the person by whom they were set free, and
libertlni in relation to all others.
6. Bsrvi, Slaves. *
886
APPENDIX.
893.—When Romulus arranged the affairs of the new city, he ap¬
pointed a council of 100 Patres from the Romans, and afterwards added
to them 100 more from the Sabines. Tarquinius Prisons, the fifth king of
Rome, added 100 more, called Patres minoram gentium, in relation to
whom the former senators were called Patres majurum gentium, making
300 in alL A great part of these were slain by Tarquin the proud; and
after his expulsion, Brutus, the first consul, chose a number to supply their
place, who were called Patres conscripti, because they were enrolled with
the other senators. This title was afterwards applied to all the senators
in council assembled, and is supposed to be abbreviated for Patres et con¬
scripti.
894.—The sons of the Patres were called Patricii, or Patricians. Be¬
sides these distinctions among the Romans, there were also distinctions of
rank or party, as follows:
NoWles, whose ancestors or themselves held any curule oflSce, L e. had
been Consul, Praetor, Censor, or Curule u£dile.
IgnobUes, who neither themselves, nor their ancestors, held any curule
office.
Optimates, those who favored the senate.
Populares, those who favored the people.
IV. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN CIVIL OFFICERS.
895.—At first Rome was governed by kings for the space of 244 years.
rhe ordinary magistrates after that, till Die end of the republic, were,
1. Consuls, or chief magistrates, of whom there were two. .
2. Praetors, or judges, also two in number, next in dignity to the consuls,
3. Censors, who took charge of the census, and had a geneml supervision
of the morals of the people.
4. Tribunes of the people, the special guardians of the people against
the encroachments of the patricians, and who, by the word " Veto,"
I forbid, could prevent the passage of any law.
5. jEdiles, who took care of the city and had the inspection and regula¬
tion of its public buildings, temples, theatres, baths, (kc.
6. Quaestors, or Treasurers, who collected the public revenues.
896.—Under the emperors there were added,
1. Praefectus Urbi, or Vrbis, Governor of the city.
2. Praefectus Prcetorii, Commander of the body guards.
3. Praefectus AnnOnae, whose duty it was to procure and distribute grain
in times of scarcity. •
4. Praefectus militdris aerarii', who had charge of the military fund.
6. Praefectus Classis, Admiral of the fleet
6. Praefectus Vigllum, or captain of the watch.
V. THE ROMAN ARMY.
897.—The Romans were a nation of warriors. All within a certain
age (17 to 45), were obliged to go forth to war at the call of their country.
ROMAN MONEY—WEIGHTS—AND MEASURES. 337'
■ When an army was wanted for any purpose, a levy was made among the
people, of the number required. These were then arranged, officered, and
equipped for service.-
8118.—The Legion. The leading division of the Roman army was the
legion, which when full consisted of 6000 men, but varied from that to
4000.
899.—Each legion was divided into ten cohorts; each cohort, into
three maniples; and each maniple, into two centuries.
900.—The complement of cavalry (eguitatus), for each legion was
three b>mdred, called Ala, or Justus equitatus. These were divided into
ten turmos or troops; and each tarma into three deeuriee, or bodies of ten
men.
Division of the Soldiers.
901.—The Roman soldiers were divided into three classes, viz;
1. Hastati, or spearmen; young men who occupied the first line.
2. PrincXpes, or middle-aged men, who occupied the middle line.
3. Triarii; veterans of approved valor, who occupied the third line.
Besides these, there were,
4. VetUes, or light armed soldiers; distinguished for agility and swift¬
ness.
5. Funditores, or slingers.
6. Sagittarii, or bowmen.
902.—The Officers of the legion were,
1. Six Military tribunes, who commanded under the consul in turn,
usually a month.
2. The CenturiOnes, who commanded the centuries.
The OjJicers of the Cavalry were,
1. The Prcefectus Alee, or commander of the wing.
The Decuriones, or captains of ten.
903.—The whole army was under the command of the consul or pro¬
consul, who acted as commander-in-chief Under him were his Legati, or
lieutenants, who acted in his absence, or under his direction; or, as his
deputies, were sent by him on embassies, or on business of special im¬
portance.
VL ROMAN MONET—WEIGHTS—AND MEASURES.
Roman Money.
904.—The principal coins among the Romans were—Brass: the As
and its divisions; Silver: Sestertius, Quinarius; and Denarius, caUed hi'
gati and quadrigolti, from the impression of a chariot drawn by two or
four horses on one side; Gold: the Aureus or Sotldus.
905.—Before the coining of silver, the Romans reckoned by the As, a
brass coin, called also libra. This coin was originally the weight of tie
15
•338
APPENDIX
Soman libra or pondus, but was afterwards reduced at different times, till
at last it came to one twenty-fourth of a pound, and was called libella.
It was divided into twelve equal parts called Unciee, every number of
which had a distinct name, as follows;
or ^ Semis, sem-
hella.
Septunx.
sis.
x'a f Dodrans.
or Dextans.
Deunx.
5^2, XJncia,
or -J Sextans.
or ^ Quadrans.
A or ^ Triens.
Quincunx.
906.—After the use of silver money, accounts were kept in Sesterces
[Sestertii). This coin emphatically called nummus (money), was originally
equal to 2^ asses, as the name sestertius means. Its symbol was L. L. S.,
i. e. Libra Libra Semis, or the numeral letters, thus, IIS, or with a line
across HS. Other coins were multiples of this; thus, the denarius was
equal to 4 sesterces, or 10 asses, and the aureus, a gold coin, was equal to
9,0 denarii, or 100 sestertii. When the as was-reduced in weight after A.
IT. C. 536, the sestertius was worth 4 asses, and the denarius, 16.
907.—A thousand sestertii was called sestertium (not a coin but the
name of a sum), and was indicated by the mark ffs. This word was never
used in the singular; and any sum less than 2000 sesterces was called
so many sestertii; 2000 was called duo or bina sestertia; 10,000, dena
sestertia ; 20,000, vicena sestertia, <tc.. Up to a million of sesterces; which
was written decies centena millia sestertiorum, or nummSrum, ten times a
hundred thousand sesterces. This was commonly abbreviated into decies
sestertium, or decies nummum, in which expressions centena millia, or cere-
ties millia is always imderstood. ^
908.—The following table will show the value of the Koman as, in
federal money, both before, and after, the Punic war, and of the larger
coins at all times.
1. Table of Roman Money.
Before A. U.
After A. V
636.
536.
D. cts. m.
D. cts. m.
Teruncius,
or 3 UncisB
. 3.8
2.4
2
Teruncii
= 1 Sembella,. . .
1.1
4.8
2
Sembella
— 1 As, .
1 6.4
9.6
Before 536-2|
After 536-4
- Asses,
= 1 Sestertius, . .
• 3 8.6
3 8.6
2
Sestertii
= 1 Quinarius, or .
Victoriatus, .
• 1 1.%
7 7.3
2
Quinarii
= 1 Denarii,....
16 4.7
16 4.7
26
Denarii
= 1 Aureus, or So-
lidus, . . . .
3 86 8.4
3 86 8.4
10
Aurei
= 1 Sestertium,. .
38 68 4.6
38 68 4.6
ROMAN MONEY—^WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 839
The Siliqua (equal to 4 Cus),. .
3 Siliquse = 1 Obolun,
2 Oboii ' = 1 Scruptilum,
4 Scrupulae = 1 SextSla,
Sextula = 1 Siciliquus,
lJSieiliquus= 1 Duella,
3 Duellie = 1 Uncia
12 Uncia = 1 Libra 10
The Drachma was 3 ScrupQla.
2. Rmnan Weights.
Troy Weight,
Lbs. oz. dwt grs.
2.92
8.76
17.53
. . 2 22.13
4 9.19
6 20.26
17 12.79
10 9.63
Avoirdupois M"t.
Lbs. oz. (Irs.
0.106
0.320
0.641
2.564
3.847
6.129
15.389
— 11 8.668
3. Roman Liquid Measure.
Galls qts. pts.
I Ligula, or Cochleare,
is equal to
. . 0.019
4 Ligida,
= 1 Cyathus,
0.079
li Cyathi,
= 1 Acetabulum,
0.118
2 Acetabula,
= 1 Quartarius,
0.237
2 Quailarii,
= 1 Heimna,
0.475
2 Hemlna,
= 1 Sextarius,
0.950
6 Sextarii,
= 1 Congius,
2 1.704
4 Congii,
= 1 Uma,
2 3 0.819
2 Uma,
= 1 Amphora,
5 2 1.639
20 Amphora,
= 1 Culeus,
114 0 0.795
TTie Sextarius was divided into twelve Vhcice, one
of which was the
CyathuS, equal to a small wine glass.
1 Sextarius
8 Sextarii,
2 Semi-modii,
4. Roman Dry Measure.
as in liquid measure),
= 1 Semi-modius,
= 1 Modius,
Pks. galls, qts. pta
0.950
■ 3 1.606
— 1 3 1.213
Roman Measures of Length.
909.—The Roman foot {pes), like the as, was divided into 7 2 uneioe,
different numbers of which were sometimes called by the same 'lames as
those of the as ; viz.: Sextans, quadrans, <Jec. The measures less than the
uncia were. the digitus = J; the semiunria = .J; the siciliquus -- J; and
the sextula = l-6th of the uncia; i. e. the pes, or foot, contained 12 uncice,
or 16 digiti, or 24 semiuncioe, or 48 siciliqui, or 72 sextHlce.
6. Table of Measures above a Pes.
1 Pes
IJ- Pes
1^ Pes
2i Pedes
5 Pedes
125 Passus
8 .Stadia
= 12 Unci®, or 16 Dig.ts,
= 1 Palmipes
= 1 Cubitus . .
= 1 Pes Sestertius,....
= r Passus, ■
— 1 Stadium
^ 1 Milliare, or mUe,
Yds. ft.
.97
1.21
1.45
2.42
1 1.85
202 0.72
1617 2.75
840
APPENDIX.
6. Table of Land Measure.
A. rocds. poles, sq. ft
100 FSdes quadrSti,
4 Scrupula,
11-5 Sextulse,
5 Actus, or 6 SextQlse,
6 Uncise,
2 Actus quadrati,
2 Jug5ra, •
= 1 Sorupfilum,
= 1 Sextula,
= 1 Actus Simplex,
1 104.69
1 180.08
8 83.65
94.23
100 Hicredia,
4 Ceuturise,
!, =1 Uncia,
= 1 Actus quadratus,
= 1 JugSrum (As),
— 1 Hssredium,
= 1 Centuria,
= 1 Saltus,
1 9 229.67
2 19 187.09
1 0 39 101.83
124 2 17 109.79
498 1 29 166.91
The Roman Jugimm, or As, of land, was also dirided into 12 Uncis,
any number of which was denominated as before, 905.
VIL DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURK
910.—Of the Roman literature, previous to A U, 514, scarcely a ves¬
tige remains. The Roman writers, subsequent to that period, have been
arranged into four classes, with reference to the purity of the language at
the time in which they lived These are called me widen, age, the Silver
age, the Brazen age, and the Iron age.
911.—The Golden age extends from the time of the second Punic
war, A U., 514, to the death of Augustus, A D., 14, a period of about 250
years. In that period Facciolatus reckons up in all 62 writers, of many
of whose works, however, only fragments remain. The most distinguished
writers of that period are Terence, Catullus, Caesar, Nepos, Ciciro, Virgil,
Horace, Ovid, Livy, and Sallust.
912.—The Silver age extends from the death of Augustus to the death
of Trajan, A D, 118, a period of 104 years. The writers who flourished
in this age are about twenty-three in number, of whom the most distin¬
guished are Celsus, VUleius, Columella, the Senecas, the Plinys, Juvenal,
Quintilian, Tacitus, Suetonius, and Curtius.
913.—The writers of the Brazen age, extending from the death .of
Trajan till Rome was taken ly the Go^, A D, 410, were 35 ; the most
distinguished of whom Were Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lactantius, and
Claudian.
914.—From this period commenced the/ron age, during which the
Latin language was much adulterated by the admixture of foreign words,
and its purity, elegance, and strength, greatly declined
APPENDIX.
341
VIII, ENGLISH PRONUNaATION OF LATIN.
915.—For reasons stated in tbe note, § 2, the continental pronunciation
of the Latin language, as presented in that section, is considered the best,
But since there are many who prefer the English, or Walkerian pronunci¬
ation, a brief statement of the principles by which it is regulated is here
introduced. In doing this it is necessary to state, and for the learner al¬
ways to bear in mind, that the English accentuation and vowel sounds have
nothing to do with the quantity of the syllables as established by the rules
of Latin prosody. These indeed are often directly opposed to each other. A
vowel which by the rules of English orthoepy is long, having both the accent
and the long English sound, is short in Latin; as pti'-ter, Di'-us. On the other
band, a syllable that is short, being without the accent and having the short
English sound, is long in Latin; as, am"-a-bd-mus, m(ni"-l-bd-lu. When,
therefore, a vowel is said to have the long sound, or the short sound—to be
accented or unaccented, nothing is afiSrmed respecting the quantity of the
syllable, as long or short. Here indeed there is an incongruity, but it is
inseparable from the system.
916.—According to this mode of pronunciation, the sound of a vowel
or diphthong depends entirely on two things; viz, the accent and the place
of the vowel in the syllable. Again, the division of words into syllables
depends, in a great measure, on the place of the accents; and that again
on the quantity of the penult syllable. Hence to present this matter fullv
and properly, we must reverse this order, and consider,
I. The quantity of the penult syllables.
II. The accent.
III. The division of words into syllables; and
IV. The sounds of the letters in their combinations.
t^"For the division of letters into vowels and consonants, the combi¬
nation of the former into diphthongs, and the division of the latter into
mutes, liquids, Ac.; as also for the meaning of the terms monosyllable,
dissyllable, Ac., penult and antepenult, and the marks for long, short, and
accented syllables, see § 1.
I. THE QOAHTITT OF THE PENULT SYLLABLES.
917.—For quantity in general, see the Rules, §§ 154-161; and particu¬
larly for penult syllables, §§ 156-169. The following are general, being
applicable to other syllables as well as the penult, and are of extensive
application:
1. A'vowel before another vowel is short; as, via, deus.
2. A vowel before two consonants, or a double consonant
is long by position; as, arma, fallo, axis.
3. A vowel before a mute and a liquid (t and r), is common;
i. e. either long or short; as, volucris, or volucris.
4. A diphthong is always long; as, Ccesar, aurum.
Note.—When the quautity of the penult is determined by any of these
rules, it is not marked^ otherwise it is marked.
842 APPENDIX.
n. the accent.
918.—Accent is a particular stress of voice laid on a par¬
ticular syllable of a word, and marked thus ('); as, pa'-ter,
an'-i-mus. Its place is on the penult or antepenult.
919.—When a word has more accents than one, the last is called the
■primary accent, the one preceding it, the tecondary, marked ( "); pre¬
ceding that, is often a third, marked ( ); and sometimes even a fourth,
marked ( "" ); and tdl of them subject to the same rules. These are as
follows: ^'
920. rules.
1. "Words of two syllables have the accent on the, first, or
penult; as, pa'-ter, mu'-sa, aa'-rum,
2. Words of more than two syllables, when the penult is
long, have the accent on the penult; as, a-ml'cus: when the
penult is short they have the accent on the antepenult; as,
dom'-t-nus. ' •
3. When the enclitics que^ ve, ne, are added to a word, the
two words are considered as one, and it is accented according¬
ly ; as, pa-ter'-gue, am"-l-cus'-ne, dom"-i'nus'-ve.
4. If only two syllables precede the primary accent, the
secondary accent is placed on the first; as, dom"-i-n5'-rum.
5. If three or four syllables precede the primary accent, the
secondary is placed sometimes on the first and sometimes on
the second; as, tof'-e-ra-bil'-i-us, de-mon"strad>an'-tur.
6. Some words which have four syllables before the primary
accent, and all that have more than four have a third accent *,
and in longer words even & fourth; as, pab"'-u-la"-ti-6'-nis,
p>ab""-u-la"'-ti-on"-i-bus'-que.
iii. the division of words into 6tllables.
920.—In Latin, every word has as many syllables as there
are separate vowels or diphthongs. Hence the following—
rules.
1. Two vowels coming together and not forming a diph¬
thong, must be divided; as, De'-us, su'-us, au'-re-us.
2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid (I, r) between
the last two vowels of a word, or between any" two unaccented
vowels, are joined to the last; hs, pa'-TER, al'-a-CER, al'-a-CRis,
tol"-e-RK-bil'-i-us, per"'-e-GRi-nd"-ti-i'-ms.
Exc. But tihd and sii-i join it to the first
APPENDIX.
843
3. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid before an ac¬
cented vowel, are joined to that vowel, and so also is a single
consonant after it, except in the penult; as, i-rm'-e-ra, uou'-i-nes.
Exc. 1. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid, after a, e, o, accented,
and followed by e or » before a vowel, are joined to the latter; as, ed-ci-us,
rd-Dl-US, dtf-CE-0,Jt)d-TEI-M».
Exc. 2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid after u, accented, must
be joined to the following vowel; as, mii-u-er, tu-ri-or, lu-vui-cut.
4. Any two consonants, except a mute and a liquid coming
before or after an accented vowel, and also a mute and a liquid
after an accented vowel .(the penult and the exceptions to Rule
3 excepted), must be divided; as, tem-por'-i-hus, lec'-tum, tem'-
p6-rum, met'-r\-€ue.
Also gl, tl, and often cl, after the penultimate vowel, or before the vowel
of an accented syllable; as. At!-las. At lan'-ti-des, ec-lecf-ta.
5. If three consonants come between the vowels of any two
syllables, the last two, if a mute and a liquid, are joined to the ,
latter vowel; as, con'-tra, am"-pli-a'-vit; otherwise, the last
only; as, comp'-tus, re-demp'-4or.
6. A compound word is resolved into its constituent parts,
if the first part ends with a consonant; as, Ks-es'-se, sun'-l-if,
is'-i-tur, cikcum'-o-^o. But if the first part ends with a vowel,
it is divided like a simple word; as, nn/'-e-ro, j>il'-t-go, vuMs'-to.
921.—These rules are useful here, only as a guide to the pronunciation
in the Walkeiian mode, the vowel sounds being always different when they
end a syllable, and when followed by a consonant; thus, dil'-i-go andpras'-to
would be pronounced very differently if divided thus, di'-h-go and prcs'-slo,
though the quantity aud accent would be the same in both. It is therefore
manifest, that in order to correct pronunciation in this mode, it is necessary
to be familiar with, and ready in applying, the rules of syllabication.
IV. OF THE SOUNDS OP THE LETTERS.
922.—The sound of the Vowels.
i; Every accented vowel at the end of a syllable has the
long English sound; as in the words fate, me, pine, no, tube ;
thus, pa'-ter, de'-dit, vi'-vus, to'-tus, tu'-ba. Ty'-rus.'*
2. At the end of an unaccented syllable, e, o, and u, have
nearly the same sound as when aecented, but are sounded
shorter; as, re'-te, vo'-lo, ma'-nu ; a has the sound of a in fa¬
ther; as, mu'-sa, e-pis'-to-la.
I, ending an unaccented syllable, has always its long sound
in the following positions:
*y hat he Bound of i in the same situation.
344 APPENDIX.
1st. In the end of a word; as, dom'-i-ni. Except in tih-i
and sibri^ in which final i sounds like short e.
2d. In the first syllable of a word (the second of which is
accented), either when it stands alone before a consonant; as
i-rfo'-ne-Ms, or ends the syllable before a vowel; as, fi-e'-ham.
In all other situations at the end of an unaccented syllable
not final, % has an obscure sound resembling short e ; as, wo6'-
i-lis,.rap'-i-4us, Ti-de'-lis, die.
3. When a syllable ends with a consonant, its vowel has the
short English sound, as in fat, met, pin, not, tub, symbol; thus,
mag'-nus, reg'-num, fin'-go, hoc, sub, cyg'-nus.
Exc. Es at the end of a word, has the sound of the English word ease;
BS,Ji'-des, ig'-nes.
923.—2. The sound of the Diphthongs.
uE and oe are pronounced as e in the same situation; as,
. a'-tas, ccet'-e-ra, poe'-na, ces'-trum.
Au is pronounced like aw,—eu like long u,—and ei, not fol¬
lowed by another vowel, like long i; as, au'-di-o, eu'-ge, hei,
Exc. In Greek proper names, au are separated; as, Men"-e-la'-us.
Note.—ua, ue, ui, uo, and uu, in one syllable after y, g, s, are not properly
diphthongs, but the u takes the sound of w, 8-2.
After g and s these Towels are often pronounced separately, or in differ¬
ent syllables; as, ar'-gu-o, su'-a, su'-i, -us.
Exc. Ui in cui and huic, has the sound of t long.
924.—3. The sound of the Consonants.
The consonants are in general pronounced in Latin as in
English. The following may be noticed.
C before e, i, y, a, <£, has the sound of s ; as, ci-do, ci-vis, cyg'-nus, Cod-
sar, ccd-na; before a, o, u, t, r, and at the end of a syllable, it has the sound
of k; as, Ca to, con-ira, cur, Clo-di-us, Cri-to.
Ch, generally has the sound of k; as char'-ta chor'-da, chrd-ma.
G before e, i, y, oe, oe, has its soft sound like j; as, gd-nus, re'-gis; also
before another g soft; as; agger. In other situations it is hard;-as in the
English words, bag, go.
Ch and ph before th in the beginning of a woqi, are not sounded; as,
Chthonia, Phthia; also when a word begins with mn, gn, tm, ct, pt, ps,
the first letter is silent, or but slightly sounded; as, mne-mod-y-ne, gnd-vtts,
tmesis, Ctesi as, Ptols-mod-us, psal'-lo.
Other consonants hi their combinations resemble so closely their sounds
in English words, that farther illustration is unnecessary.
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though not essentially different from it. The arrangement (except in
syntax), the definitions and rules, are the same, bat with much greater
hilness in the illustrations and exercises, intended to lead the student into
a thorough and critical acquaintance with the structure and use of the
English Language.
IV.—EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
This little work consists of selections in prose and poetry fixim stand
ard writers, so arranged as to furnish a convenient and progressive courts
of Exercises in Analysis and Pareing, in every variety of style, with such
occasional references to the grammars as are deemed necessary to explain
peculiar or difficult constructions. To this is prefixed dii-ectiona for the
analysis of sentences and models both of analysis and parsing.
v.—THE PRINCIPLES OF LATIN GRAMMAR. .
This work is upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long
and favorably known as a text-book, and combines with all that is excel-
tent in that work many important corrections and improvements suggest¬
ed by subsequent writers, or the results of the author's own reflection anp^
ftbsei'vation, during many year's, as a classical-teacher.
VL-^ACOBS' LATIN READER.
Tliis work forms a sequel to the Grammar, and an introduction to the
•tudy of Latin classic authora It begins with a series of simple and
plain sentences mostly .selected from classic writei-s, to exem])lify and
ilustrate the leading constructions of the language, followed by Reading
lessons, of pure and simple. Latin, chiefly narrativc,«by which the pupif
« bile he becomes familiar with the construction of the language, is alst
made acquainted with many of the moat prominent characters and my tho-
1 ■gical fables of antiquity, as well as with the leading events of Roman
liistr.ry. Throughout the work, references are constantly made, at the
foot of the page, to the Grammar and Introduction, when necessai^ to
exidain tlie construction or assist the pupil in his pre];>ai*ationa.
9
VlL—FIRST LESSONS IN GREEK
This work is intended chiefly for those who begin the study of Gi-eek
at any early age; and for this reason contains only the outlines of Gram¬
mar, expressed in as clear and simple a manner as possible. It is com¬
plete in itself being a Grammar, Exercises, Reading Book, and Lexicon,
all in one; so that the pupil, while studying this, needs no other book
on the subject The knowledge acquired by the study of this work will
be an important prepai'ation to the young student for commencing the
study of Greek Grammar with ease and advantage.
■ VIII.—THE PRINCIPLES OF GREEK GRAMMAR
This work is intended ^o be a comprehensive manual of Greek Gram¬
mar, adapted to the use of the younger, as well as of the more advanced
Etudente, in schools and colleges. Both in Etymology and Syntax, the
leading' principles of Greek Grammar are exhibited in definitions and
rules, as few and as brief as possible, in order to be easily committed to
•nemoiy, and so comprehensive as to be of general and easy applicat on
This work is now more extensively used than any other of the kind in
the country.
IK—GREEK READER
This work, like the Latin Reader, is properly a sequel to the Greek
Grammar, and an introduction to the study of the Greek classic authora
It seeks to accomplish its object in the same way as the Latin Reader
(See above. So. YI.) With these are connected
SPENCER'S LATIN LESSONS, with exercises in paieing, introduc¬
tory to Bullions' Latin Grammar.
In this series of books, the thr-ee Grammars, English, Latin, and
Greek, are all on the same plan. The general arrangement, definitions,
rules, etc., are the same, and expressed in the same language, as nearly as
the nature of the case would admit. To those who study Latin and
Greek, much time and labor, it is believed, will be saved by this method,
both to teacher and pupil; the analogy and peculiarities of the different
languages being kept in view, will show what is common to aU, or pecu¬
liar to each; the confusion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the
use of elementary works, differing widely from each other in language
»nd structure, will be avoided; and the progress of the student rendered
much more rapid, easy, and satisfactory. ,
No series of Grammara having this object in view, has heretofore been
prepared, and the advantages which they offer cannot be obtained in an
equal degree by the study of any other Grammara now in use. They
form a complete course of elementary books, in which the substance of
the latest and best Grammara in each language has been compressed into
a volume of convenient size, beautifully printed on superior paper, neatly
and strongly bound, and are put at the lowest prices at which they can
be afibrded. _
4
.^e elemenlarj worka, intended to follow the Grammars, namely, the
Latin Reader, and the Greek Reader, are also on the sans plan—are pre¬
pared with special references to these works, and contain a course of
elementary insti action So unique and simple, as to furnish great tacQities
lo the student in these languages
BULLIONS' SERIES OF LATIN CLASSICS:
This series contains the following works, to which others, in course oi
preparation, wiU soon be added, viz:
, L—CHAR'S COMMENTARIES ON THE GALLIC WAR
In this work, the plan of the Latin Reader is carried on throughout.
The some introduction on the Latin idioms is prefixed for convenience of
reference, and the same mode of reference to the grammar and introduc¬
tion is continued. The Notes are neither too meagre nor too voluminous;
they re intended not to do the work of the student for him, but to
diret^ and assist liim in doing it himself. It is embellished with a beauti¬
ful » ip of Gaul, and several wood-cuts representing the engines of war
use 1 by Uie Romans.
II.—CICERO'S SELECT ORATIONS^
With notes, critical and explanatory; adapted to Bullions' Latin
Grammar, and also to the Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard. This
selection contains the four orations against Catiline.—^Tlie oration for the
Poet Archias,—for Marcellus,—for Q. Ligarius,—for king Deiotai-us,—for
the Manilian law,—and for Milo. The notes are more extended than
those in Caesaris Commentaries, especially in-historical and archaeological
notices, necessaiy to explain the allusions to persons and events in which
the orations abound, a knowledge of which is indispensable to a proper
understanding of the subject, and to enable the student to keep in view
the train of argument pui-sued.—In other respects, the proper medium
between too much, and too little assistance has oeen studied, and constant
reference made to the Grammar, for the explanation of tmcommon oi
iiflicult consli-uctions.
III.—SALLUST'S CATILINE AND JUGURTHA,
On the same plan.
Published also by the same—
THE WORKS OF VIRGIL, with copious notes, 4c., and also a taulc
of reference; by Rev. J. G. CooPBSt, A. IL
5
SEBIES OF ABITHMETICS.
1. SCHELL'S TNTRODUCTORY LESSONS IN ARmiMETIC —
Tliis work is peculiarly adapted to the wants of beginnei's. Tlie language
is simple, the definitions clear, the examples easy, and the tiunsition fi-oic
subjects gradual and natiu-aL Each succeeding page fiiimishes a neM
lesson, and each lesson contains four distinct kinds of Exercise; giving n
gi-eater, more pleasing, and useful vrniety tlian wiU be found ewewhere
in any work of the kind. >
2. INTELLECTUAL AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC; or. First
Lessons in ArithneticeU Anodysis, intended as an introduction to Dodd's
Ai'ithmetic. By J. L. Esos, Graduate of the N. Y. State Normal School
3. ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC, by Jamm B.
Dodd, a, M., Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Transyl¬
vania University, Lexington, Kentucky.—^This is a work of superior merit.
The arrangement is natural, the system complete, and the nomenclature
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oy its clear and concise statement of principles, the brevity and compre¬
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lectual discipline which it aifords.
Professor Dodd has prepared a more advanced Arithmetic for the
accommodation of those who desire a fuller course. Also an Algebra.
These three Arithmetics have been prepared by teachers of great pi-ao-
tical experience—each of them eminent in that department of instruction
for which his work is designed.
I
SCIENTIFIC SEBIES.
This valuable series for the use of schools Embraces the following au¬
thors and subjects:
1. Comstoek's Series of Books of tbe Seienees, Tiz.
INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, for children.
SYSTEM OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, revised and enlai^ed.
NEW ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY.
THE YOUNG BOTANIST, for beginners, with cuts.
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY with
outs.
8
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY, both comparatiTe and htunan.
(NEW) ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY.
ELEMENTS OF MINERALOGY.
N ATURAL HISTORY OF BEASTS AND BIRDS, showing th«ir com¬
parative size, and containing anecdotes illustrating their habits and
instincts.
Tlie immense sale of Dr. Comstock's bocks, renders it probable thai
they are familiar to most teachers. They ore so admirably adapted to
the school-room, that the "Philosophy" has been republished in sevei-aJ
European countriea Revised editions of several of these works have
been recently issued, including late discoveries and improvements.
Comstock's Natural Philosophy having been carefully examined by
the Edinburgh and London Editors, previous to its republication in
these cities, ^1 the corrections or additions which they found it advisable
to make have been incorporated in the original work—so far as they
were ascertained to be judicious and adapted to our system of instruc¬
tion. This philosophy now appears as in reality the work of three accom¬
plished authors, endoi-sed and sanctioned by the great majority of Amer¬
ican teachei-s, as well as those of England, Scotland and Prussia. Tlw
CiiXMisTRT has been entirely revised, and contains all the late discoveries^
togv;ther with the methods of analyzing minei-als and metals
2. BROCKLESBY'S ELEMENTS OF METEOROLOGY, with ques¬
tions for Examination, designed for Schools and Academies Of tail
work. Prof Olmstead, of Yale College, says:—:"No natural science is
more instructive, more attractive, and more practically useful, than Me¬
teorology, treated as you have treated it; where the-pliilosophical ex
planations of the various phenomena of the atmosphere are founded
upon an extensive induction of facts. This science is more particularly
interesting - to the young, because it explains so many things that are
daily occurring around them, and it thus inspires a taste for philosophical
observation, and what is more, for philosophical -reasoning. I tlnnk it
cannot fail to be received as a valuable addition to our Teirt Books."
3. BROCKLESBY'S VIEWS OF THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD.-
An elegantly illustrated work, exhibiting a variety of insects, animal
eules, sections of wood, crystalizations, <fec., as they appear when highly
magnified. This is one of the most interesting and useful books foi
Family and School Libraries ever published. It is the only distinct trea
tise on the subject, is admirably prepared for the use of classes, and
should be extensively taught in our schools.
•
4 WHITLOCK'S GEOMETRY AND SURVEYING.—This is s
highly original work: combining, in a connected and available form,
such analogous features of Arithmetic, Algebra and Geometry, as are ap
propriate to the subject, and wiU be found meful in the practical dutier
of hfe: giving the pupil, in a comparatively brief course of study, nol
only a full and close knowledge of ^ subject, but a comprehensive view
of Mathematical Science.
7
This work is well spoken of univei-sally, and is already in use
soiue of the best institutions in this country. It is recommended by Pro!
Pierce of Cambridge, Prot Smith of Middletown, Prot £>odd of ].iexiiig
ton, and mac j other eminent mathematicians.
OLNEY'S OEOGBAFHIC^ SEBIES.
1 OLNEY'S OUTLINE MAPS, AND PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY.-
These works are intended for young pupils and form an appropriate in
troduction to the larger works. ,
2. OLNEY'S QUARTO GEOGRAPHY.—The Maps in this work con¬
tain but httle besides what the pupil is requn-ed to learn, consequently it
facilitates the progress of the pupil, and saves labor oii the part of the
teacher. This Geography was prepared at the suggestion of many of the
teachers, and is ah-eady extensively introduced from freference. Few
books have proved so uniformly acceptable for common schooK Its sta¬
tistical information is very valuable.
3. OLNEY'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS.—This world
renowned book is not behind any of its competitors, in point of execution
and accuracy. The Atlas is probably superior to any other, and contains
« Map of the "World as known to the Ancients,, besides numerous impor¬
tant tables. The whole work is as complete and correct as a neis book,
and will continue to maintain its character though alteratioM will he
avoided as far as possible.
THE BEGHTHEE'S SEBIES.
BENTLEY'S PICTORIAL SPELLING BOOK.—A beautifully iUustratee
and highly attractive book for children.
G ALLAUDETS ILLUSTRATIVE DEFINER.—The best book for teach
ing the right use of words, and the art of composition.
IHE STUDENT'S PRIMER, by J. S. Denman ; being on a plan some
what new, this Primer has obtained great popularity.
rUR STUDENTS SPEAKER, for young pupils.
IHE STUDENTS SPELLING BOOK, on the Analytical plan, by the
author of the "Student's Primer." This new and greatly improved
text-book is just published, and destined, when known, to anpei'sede
all others, in public fhvor. Its classificatior of words and an'angeDw>«t
8
ot tables are euih, that, " by learning to spell and define Jive ihoutani
words, the pupil will obtain a knowledge of the spelling and significa
tion of about Jifleen ihottsand." This feature alone makes it two hun¬
dred per cent, clieaper, at the same price, than any other Spelling Cook
now in use.
A set of Readers, by the author of the Student's Series, is now in
»>urse of publication, which will much enhance the present great popu¬
larity of this series.
The publishers think it proper to add that. Bullions' Analytical and
Practical Grammar, besides being in extensive use in Academies, has been
introduced into the public schools of Boston, and several other large cities,
without solicitation ; and that the sale of the Student's Series has been
such that they have been quite unable to supply the demand. Readers
1, 2, 3, and 4, have been issued, and such is the simplicity and natural
order of the arrangement and the interest of the pieces, that pupils pro¬
gress with great rapidity and with little apparent effort.
The publications of F., B. A Co., are well printed, neatly and sub¬
stantially bound, are furnished at low prices, and for s^e by Booksellers
generally.
All visiting Kew-York, interested in the Book trade or Schools, are
requested to call on the publishers, who keep constantly on hand the
largest variety of School, Classical,- and Miscellaneous Books, Pens, Ink,
Blank Books, Memorandums, Paper, Folders, Bibles, ikc., Ac., especially
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FAKMEE, BEACE & CO.,
Ha 4 CooBTLAiiDT-eT, V. V
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