NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY EVANSTON, ILLINOIS ■t r ■f \ -/ FIRST ANNUAL PUBLICATION. COLORADO COLLEGE STODIES. Papers read before the Colorado College Scientific Society. CQLORADO SPRINGS, COLO., 1890. y s.-vr-' /*■: 'Vj .lmI FIRST ANNUAL PUBLICATION. Papers read before the Colorado College Scientific Society. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO., 1890. C'll^ d V l-'O REGISTER PUBLISHING COMPANY, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN. OFFICERS, 1890-1891. President, .... Peofessor Frank H. Loud. Vice-Presidents, Professors William Strieby and Eloise Wickard. Secretary, .... Professor Florian Cajori. Treasurer, ..... Mr. O. H. Richardson. PLACE OF MEETING. PALMER HALL, COLORADO COLLEGE. TABLE OF CONTENTS. faqei Announcement 5 A Rigorous Elementary Proof of the Binomial Theorem. F. H. Loud 7 On Certain Cubic Curves. F. H. Loud 16 A Study of the Inductive Theories of Bacon, Whewell, and Mill. Benj. Ives Gillman 17 A Mathematical Text-book of the Last Century. F. Cajori 27 Horace, Od. III. 1. 34. George L. Hendrickson 34 Quinti Ciceronis Commentariolum Petitionis XI, § 43. (B. et K. vol. IX, p. 487.) George L. Hendrickson 36 ANNOUNCEMENT. The Colorado College Scientific Society was organized on the 22nd of January, 1890. The five regular meetings, thus far held, have shown on the part of its members a gratifying zeal for the welfare of the Society, and earnest interest in science. Though only five months old, the Society ventures to send forth a small volume containing six of the papers read at its meet¬ ings; and requests of associations of like nature the favor of an exchange of publications, hoping that subsequent volumes will, more fully than the present pamphlet, substantiate a claim to attention. Among the papers read before the Society there were others not inferior to those included in this publication, in point of originality or of interest of topic or treatment. For one reason or another, it has not been practicable to present them here. The following is a complete list of the papers and " reports " read before the Society: February 11, '90. A Rigorous Elementary Proof of the Binomial Theorem. F. H. Loud. The American School of Archaeology at Athens. W. D. Sheldon. Herr Tarchenofif's Experiments upon the Effect of Mental Stimulation on Electric Currents in the Human Skin. F. Cajori. March 10, '90. Socialism. O. H. Richardson. On Certain Cubic Curves. F. H. Loud. Lanciani's Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Excava¬ tions. G. L. Hendrickson. 6 Colorado College Studies. April 15, '90. Theories of Inductive Inference. Benj. Ives Gilman. A Mathematical Text-book of the Last Century. F. Cajori. The Geologic Features of Eifle Creek Valley. W. L. Wilder. May 13, '90. On the Method of Lighting Greek Temples. W. D. Sheldon. Horace, Od. Ill, 1, 84. G. L. Hendrickson. Quinti Ciceronis Commentariolum Petitionis XI, § 43, (B. et K., Vol. IX, p. 487). G. L. Hendrickson. June 10, '90. The Single Tax Theory of Henry George. J. D. Dillen- back. A RIGOROUS ELEMENTARY PROOF OF THE BINO¬ MIAL THEOREM. BY FRANK H. LOUD. The text-books of Algebra in general use in the colleges of this country employ, as a means of treating some of the subjects presented, a few well-known infinite series, of which the most necessary are the binomial formula, the logarithmic and the exponential series. Taylor's or McLaurin's theorem, or both, are often added, or sometimes made the basis of the proof given for the others. Or the binomial formula may be used as the fundamental theorem, and from it may be deduced by rigorous proofs whatever series are required in the treatment of logar¬ ithms or of higher equations, in so far as these subjects are usually discussed in elementary works. A chapter on the theory of infinite series necessarily accompanies the foregoing, in which the student is made acquainted with the idea of convergence, and furnished with the more simple tests, by which the conver¬ gence of series may in many cases be proved. But the discussion of infinite series in these text-books is not only elementary (as a matter of course), but also to such a degree incomplete, that in almost every case it fails to warrant the use made in the text-book itself of the series employed; so that it is not too inuch to say that all our text-books, except a very few which are so difficult as to be seldom used, offer inac¬ curate proofs of the fundamental theorems above mentioned, thus offering to the student in lieu of a demonstration an argu¬ ment that is part fallacious.* •To the general prevalence of this defect in our college Algebras, the attention of the writer was called by Prof. F. Cajori, to whose suggestions and criticisms, in aid of the present attempt to suppiy that defect, a debt is due which it is a pleasure to acknowl - edge. 8 Colorado College Studies. The form which the fallacy usually takes is the assumption that when two infinite series are multiplied together, if the factor series are both convergent, the product series will also converge, and that to a sum which is the product of the sums of the factor series. This proposition is not only unproved but false; but though it is not explicitly stated, the student is led to assume it, which of course he does without hesitation. The distinction here required is that between merely con-, vergent and (so-called) absolutely convergent series, under¬ standing by the latter such a series as remains convergent when all of its negative terms are made positive without change of numerical value, so that in the transformed series all the terms are of like sign. Abel furnished a rigorous proof of the binomial formula, by establishing that when two absolutely convergent series are multiplied the product is a convergent series;'and that whenever the multiplication of two convergent series yields a convergent result, the sum which the product-series approaches is the product of the sums approached by the factor-series. But Abel's proof has generally been regarded as too abstruse for an elementary work. The development of {x y)'^ when n is of the form — m ± P) or (m, p, and q being positive integers), may be obtained 2 by the following method, which is believed to be both rigorous and elementary, and involves the demonstration of a theorem which forms a special case only of that of Abel. I assume that the case in which n is a positive integer has been proved by either of the usual rigorous methods (e. g., that of induction), and that the ordinary definitions and theorems concerning con¬ vergence have been given. From one of these, viz.; that " a series whose successive terms diminish indefinitely is conver¬ gent," (and I would add, absolutely convergent) "when the ratio of the m th term to the term preceding, as m is indefin¬ itely increased, approaches a constant value which is numer- Proof of Binomial Theorem. 9 ically less than unity," may be deduced the conclusion that a series in the form n n n—1 n n—\ n—2, 1 + — a? H . x' H . . + 1 12 12 3 is absolutely convergent without regard to the value of n, pro¬ vided X has a value numerically less than one. •I require to establish the following definitions and the¬ orems : Definition—"By the product of two series (whether finite or convergent or divergent), is meant a new series formed by mul¬ tiplying the several terms of the one series by those of the other, and grouping the partial products as in the example below; viz.: so that any term (the rrath) of the product-series consists of the sum of m partial products (monomials), being all of those partial products wherein the sum of the term-num¬ bers of the two factors is m -|- 1. (By "term-number " I mean the number of the term formed by the factor in question in the series from which it is taken. Thus the third term of the mul¬ tiplier has the term-number 3, and the second term of the mul¬ tiplier has 2, and the product of these two factors, as the sum of the term-numbers is 5, will form a part of the 4th term of the product. In the example the term-numbers appear as sub¬ scripts). For example, multiply + <^2 +03 + <^3 + by &i + \ + ^>3 + + O161 -|- afil + 0361 -|- afii + + ®2^2 "b ®3^2 "b .• + O-fis "b ®2^3 "b + + 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, term of the product. As a second example, the first four terms of the product of the series ft-bfe + c-bd+ bym-bTC-bp + 9+ are {am) -b {ctn + hm) + (op + hn + cm) + (og + &p+ cn + dm). Theorem. If the product of two absolutely convergent series 10 Colorado College Studies. be convergent, the sum which it approaches is the product of the sums approached by the two series which are its factors. Consider first the case in which all the terms of both series are positive. If we denote by r some definite number, and sup¬ pose each factor-series extended to and indefinitely beyond the rth term, the first r terms in the product will contain all the partial products in which the sum of the term-numbers does not exceed r -j- 1. The aggregate of these partial products we will denote by A. The complete product of the first r terms of the first series by the first r terms of the second contains, in addi¬ tion to the foregoing, those partial products in which, although the sum of the two term-numbers exceeds r -\- 1, yet neither of them separately exceeds r. The aggregate of these additional partial products we will call B. And finally, the complete pro¬ duct of the two series contains in addition to both A and B, those partial products (the limit of whose sum we will call C) in which the term-number of either factor exceeds r. Now let us suppose the number r to be increased. Since the product is a convergent series, the sum A of the first r terms approaches the whole sum of the series. Hence B C approaches zero. But since both B and O consist of positive terms only, if B -j- C approaches zero, B and C must each approach zero as r is increased. Hence the sum A -f- B approaches the same sum as A. But A -f- B contains the entire product of the first r terms of the two series, and as r is increased the sum of the first r terms approaches in each series the sum of that series. Hence the sum which the product-series approaches is identi¬ cal with the product of the sums of the separate series. Next, if either series or both contains negative terms, some of the partial products will be negative, but if B approaches zero when all the partial products which compose it are posi¬ tive, it will certainly do so when some of them are negative, for the sum of a number of quantities of two opposite signs must always be nearer zero than the sum of the positive values of the same quantities. Therefore, as before, the sum which A and B approaches is the same as that which A approaches, and the same conclusion follows as in the previous case. Proof of Binomial Theorem. 11 Corollary. If, instead of absolutely convergent series, any of the three series mentioned in the foregoing theorem, as fac¬ tors or product, should consist of a finite number of terms, the theorem will still apply, for a finite series may be regarded as a convergent one in which all the terms beyond a certain number vanish. Theorem. In an equation containing several literal quanti¬ ties, when each member is reducible to a finite number of rational terms, if the equation be true for an unlimited number of values for each literal quantity, while the selection of partic¬ ular values for one or more of the latter does not affect the pos¬ sible values assignable to the others, the numbers of the equa¬ tion must be identically equal.* For when we have chosen particular values of all the letters but one, the equation, if it were not an identity, would deter¬ mine the value of the remaining letter, so that it could not have an indefinite number of values. By selecting successively sev¬ eral different sets of values for all but one of the letters we may obtain as many different equations as we please for the remain¬ ing letter, say as many as there are different powers of that let¬ ter in the equation, and this group of equations must by the terms of the hypothesis be satisfied by any one of an indefinite number of values of that letter, whereas if the original equa¬ tion were not identical, such a group of equations would de¬ termine linearly each power of the quantity to a single value. Definition. By "a series in the form n u n—1 1 -I- — x -I- —. -1- ... I 1 2 is meant any series derived from this by assigning to n some particular value, whether positive or negative, integral or frac¬ tional. Theorem. If two series, each in the form II n n—1 1 H a? H • + * Note that the hypothesis is not that each quantity may take any value whatever, (which would make the theorem tautological) but that it may take any one of an indefinite number of values. 12 CoLOEADO College Studies. and having as values of n the numbers s and /, be multiplied together, the product will be a series in the form n n 71—1 1 _| X -\ . + , 1 1 2 having for the value of n the number s t The actual multiplication, through the first few terms, may be written out as follows: s s s—1 s s—1 s—2 1 _| X -{ . H . . ai" +.... I 12 12 3 t t t—1 t t—1 t—2 1 H X . x' H . . a? +— 1 12 12 3 s s s—1 s s—1 s—2 1 H X . x^ -\ . . a:® + 1 12 12 3 t s t s s—1 t — X -\ . — x' H . . — a:® + 1 11 12 1 t t—1 s t t—1 —. a;® H . —. X? + 12 112 t t-\ t—2 —. . + 1 2 3 Here it is obvious that that which must be shown, in order to prove the theorem, is that the coefficients of the successive powers of x, found by adding the above columns, are identical with the coefficients of corresponding powers in the series S t S "f- t s t — 1 1 H X H . a;® +.... 1 1 2 It is apparent that 1 is identical with 1, and s t 5 + i 1 with ; 1 1 1 and it may be proved by trial, (with successively greater diffi¬ culty in the necessary reductions) that s s—1 s t t t—1 l' 2 1' 1 1" 2 s + t s + i—1 is identical with . , etc., etc., as far as we please to 1 2 trouble, for any of these identities may be established by thi application of the foregoing theorem. For they are known t( hold true for an infinite number of values of s and t, viz., fo all their positive integral values, since, the binomial theoren having been proved for such values of the exponent, we kno\ that the factor-series are equal to (1 + £cand ( 1 + a;)' re spectively, and the product-series to(l-f-£c)® + '. Hence th coefficients of the first r powers of x in the product of the twi series s s s—1 t t t—1 1 H X . X* -f etc., and 1 H x -\ . x^ + etc., 112 112 are identical with the coefficients of the like powers of x in thi series 1 -|- X H . -f- 1 1 2 however great r may be. Theorem.—The limit of the sum of the series n n n—1 H x-\ . a? 4- 1 1 2 in which n is any negative integer and x is numerically les than unity, is (1 + ar)". For a series in this form, being multiplied by another serie in the same form m m in—1 1-1 33 H . x' 4- , 1 1 2 in which m is any positive integer numerically greater than r will yield as a product the series m n m n m + n—1 1 4 X . x' + 1 1 2 which, since m 4- " is a positive integer, is a series of a finit number of terms, and known to be equal to (1 4* x)"^ + No^ since in the given series n n n—l 1 H .T -| . x^ etc., 1 1 2 the value of x is numerically less than one, this series is absc lutely convergent; but the series by which it is multiplied an 14 CoLOEADO College Studies. the product-series are both finite. Hence the sum approached by the given series, multiplied by the sum of the other factor- series [which is (1 + a;)""] will be equal to the sum of the product series, which is (1 + a:)'" + ". Therefore, the limit required is (1 a?)™ + n ^ (1 + or (1 + «)". Theorem.—The limit of the sum of the series n n n—i 1-1 X -\ . + 1 1 2 p in which n has any fractional value —, (when p and q are in- tegers and q is positive), and in which x is numerically less than _p unity, is a value of the radical (l-|-a;)® or(l-|- a;)". From the form of this series, and the fact that in it x is numerically less than unity, it is known that the series is abso¬ lutely convergent. Let y represent its limit, and let the given series be multiplied by itself. The resulting series is in the form n 11 11—\ Id 33-1 . a3' 1 1 2 2p (?i having the value —) and, in consideration of the value of x <1 is known to be absolutely convergent. Hence its sum ap¬ proaches the limit Let the operation of multiplying by the given series be repeated until that series has been used q times as a factor. It is proved as at the first multiplication that the sum of each product-series approaches as a limit one of the suc¬ cessive powers of y, the last being y'i ; also that the last series is in the form n 11 n—1 1-1 X -\ . x^ , 1 1 2 IP where n has the value — or p. But by the previous theorem I the limit of this series is (1 + x)f. Hence 2/' = (l + a:)23or P y — (1 -f- a;) —, as was to be shown. 1 Peoof of Binomial Theokem. 15 It has now been shown that the limit of the series n 11 n—1 11 n—1 n—2 1 h X . X' ^ . . X' + . . . . 1 12 12 3 is (1 + x)^ for all negative and fractional values of n, provided X be numerically less than one. For values of x greater than one, it is easy to show that the series is not convergent. In an elementary treatise it is not necessary to consider the case aj = 1, since the only result would be to establish certain expressions for 0 " and 2 " no use for which need arise in such a work. ON CERTAIN CUBIC CURVES. BY F. H. LODD, When a curve of the third order has three inflectional tan¬ gents which converge at a point, the curve belongs always to that non-singular genus called simplex or unipartUe, and has accordingly six more inflectional tangents, and these will also converge by three to two other points. As only three of the nine tangents are real, there will be two distinct cases, either the three real tangents may converge, when there will be two imaginary points, each the meeting-point of three imaginary tangents, or two of the imaginary tangents may meet upon a point of a real stationary tangent, and then each of the other real inflectional tangents will have a point in which it is met by two that are imaginary. The harmonic polars of three points of inflection whose tangents converge, all pass through the point of convergence of the three tangents. Through the same point, pass also the two lines which join by threes the points of con¬ tact of the six remaining tangents. When two of the points of convergence are imaginary, the special case may arise that these two should be the circular points at inflnity. The real inflectional tangents are then asymptotes, and meet at equal angles, which are bisected by the harmonic polars. The curve consists of three equal branches lying alternately in three of the six angles formed by the asym¬ ptotes, and within each branch is a focus, the foci forming ver¬ tices of an equilateral triangle. In a system of tangential co¬ ordinates, wherein the coordinates of a line are its perpendicu¬ lar distances from these three foci, if we put the sum of these coordinates ^ r) Z ~ 33 C V. Zy printed and bound AT THE OFFICE OF The Register Publishing Company. Ube Inlanb pres6. ann arbor, michigan. OFFICERS, 1891-1892. President, . . , Peofessoe William Steieby Vice-Presidents, Me. Louis B. Eheich and Miss M. B. Mann Secretary, . . . Peofessoe Floeian Cajoei Treasurer, . . Peofessoe Geoeqe L. Hendeickson PLACE OF MEETING. PALMEB HALL, COLOBADO COLLEGE. TABLE OF CONTENTS. page Announcement 7 witchokaft Among the hindus Dr. H. W. Magoun. 9 Protection of Congressional Minorities. .. W. 31. Hall. 20 Pulsations in the Aortic Arches of the Earthworm. .. 3Iiss 31. B. 3fann. 20 Dialectical Studies in West Virginia Dr. Sylvester Primer. 28 The Study of Diophantine Analysis in the United States F. Caiori. 39 The Elliptic Functions Defined Independently of the Calculus F. H. Loud. 48 On Two Passages in the Crito Dr. H. W. 3£agoun 82 Calibration of Burettes D. J. Carnegie. 87 On a Passage in the Frogs Dr. H. W. 3Iagoun. 91 Note on the Had ley-Allen Grammar Dr. H. W. 3Iagoun. 93 Historical Note on the Differentiation of a Logarithm. F. Cajori. 90 A Mathematical Error in the Century Dictionary F. Cajori. 97 ANNOUNCEMENT. During the past year the Colorado College Scientific Society secured a considerable number of exchanges from other associa¬ tions of similar character. It is hoped that this year the pres¬ ent list of exchanges may be greatly enlarged. The past year has been a prosperous one for the Society. Its meetings have proved to be of great mutual benefit to its members. The following is a complete list offpapers and re¬ ports presented to the society: October 14, '90— The Abandonment of Children in Ancient Greece and Rome. George L. Hendrickson. Recent Researches in Magnetism. Florian Cajori. November 14, '90— Witchcraft Among the Hindus. Dr. H. W. Magoun. December 11, '90— Protection of Congressional Minorities. W. M. Hall. Pulsations in the Aortic Arches of the Earthworm. Miss M. R. Mann. Solidarity of the Race. J. M. Dickey. January 13, '91— Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. Dr. Sylvester Primer. Men for the Hour. H. J. Barber. February 10, '91— Germ Theory of Disease. Miss M. R. Mann. On Two Passages in the Crito. Dr. H. W. Magoun. \ Announcement, March 24, '91— On van't Hoff's Law of Osmotic Pressure. (Published in the Chemicl News April 10, '91). D. J. Carnegie. The Aryan Question. Dr. Sylvester Primer. April 21, '91— An Interpretation of the Pourth Gospel in the Light of Gnostic Philosophy. President William P. Slocum. The Elliptic Punctions Defined Independently of the Cal¬ culus. P. H. Loud. The Study of Diophantine Analysis in the United States. P. Cajori. May 12, '91— Cross Katio. B. E. Carter, Jr. Calibration of Burettes. D. J. Carnegie. June 9, '91— On a Passage in the Progs. Dr. H. W. Magoun. Note on the Hadley-Allen Grammar. Dr. H. W. Magoun. Historical Note on the Differentiation of a Logarithm. P. , Cajori. A Mathematical Error in the Century Dictionary. P. Cajori. WITCHCRAFT AMONG THE HINDUS. BY H. W. MAGOUN. The mysterious always arouses curiosity, and the mysterious is no small element in magical practices. Witchcraft has never lacked its devotees. Its stronghold has always been among the ignorant and superstitious; but men of learning, and even emi¬ nence, for their time, have firmly believed in its reality, and have felt it a duty to search out and punish those who had dealings with the evil one. Even at the present time, in some parts of the world, people of intelligence still cling to a belief in the existence and power of witchcraft; its literature still flourishes among them, and its teachings are accepted as containing things which are true and worthy of respect. While at the Johns Hopkins University, three MSS. wero put into my hands which contained a practice called the A s u r i- K a 1 p a h. The MSS. all belonged to the A t h a r v a-Y e d a and were known as parigistas, or supplementary writings. Their contents were as yet unknown. Two of the MSS. con¬ tained each a very brief outline of a rite which began with a spell; the third contained three versions of the same thing, one of them being much fuller than any of the others and partaking of the nature of a commentary. This MS. was really the key to the entire practice; but it presented enormous difficulties at the start, for the writing was something astonishing. Diligent comparisons of similar passages gradually established the sense of the greater part of the document, and an outline of it will be given below. The results of my work were published in the American Journal of Philology for July, 1889, under the title. The Asuri-Kalpa; a Witchcraft Prac- 2 10 ('oloradd CoJIt'tjr Sfiidiri^. tice o£ the A t li ar va-V e d a. lu the preparation of the above pa])er various items of interest had to be passed over. They will form the chief part of the present article. Born in a country where the excessive heat makes clear those words of the psalmist, "The sun shall not smite thee by day nor the moon by night," subject to many disorders of the digest¬ ive organs incidental to a hot country, surrounded by dangers from re2)tiles of which we know next to nothing, suffering from long continued drought, followed by terrific thunder and hail storms, and without revelation, the Hindus were j)articularly adapted to fall into the bonds of sujjerstition. In its iron grasp they seem to have harbored no thought of inquiring into natural phenomena; and, while develojjing abstruse and subtle i)hiloso- phical doctrines, keen grammatical insight, and a system of phonetics which is the basis of the science to-day, they remained utterly unscientific in all matters ijertaining to the material world, and were perfectly heljjless to explain coiTectly even the most simple process of nature. They looked upon the wonders of creation as children might, and in each new phenomenon they saw a living sentient being manifesting himself for the good or harm of the beholder. The cloud was a huge serpent keeping back the rain, the lightning was the weapon of Indra smiting "the serpent and compelling him to allow the rain to fall, and an •eclipse was an attempt by the demon R a h u to swallow the sun •or moon. A g n i or fire was a god born of two sticks. Rubbing the sticks together, they prayed earnestly for his appearance, and the resulting fire was regarded as an answer to prayer. If some doubter muttered spells instead, the spells were the cause of A g n i' s coming in his eyes and the step to the practice of witchcraft was a short one. The use of spells or imprecations was accepted by the orthodox Hindus as proper in certain cases, and the M a n a v a- Dharmagastra states definitely that the hymns 'of the A t h a r V a-V e d a are to be used by a Brahman as a weapon against his enemies. The hymns of this Veda were also used WiffJicraff Aijioiig fJic HIikIiik. 11 ill the practice of medicine and were muttered over the patient while certain rites were performed with such materials as mud, gravel, curds, sour-milk, melted butter, and cow-dung. As Sir Alfred Lyall puts it, "We talk of a dose actiug 'like a charm,' while the Hindu employs a charm to act like a dose." Brah- mans were forbidden to practice medicine, unless compelled by necessity, however, so that even they recognized the uncanny element in it. The faith in .spells finally became so great that it was be¬ lieved that even the gods must heed them when properly used. .In the Laws of M a n u, however, which were cited above, occurs the statement that witchcraft or abhicara practices are secondary crimes; so that, while their outward forms, to our eyes at least, are so near alike that it is almost impossible to distinguish between them, the Hindus recognized a clear and sharp difference in the two. When the rites are used for harm, independent of, or in spite of, the gods, the practitioner is an enemy of the gods and a worker of black magic. Anything wrong in the community lies at his door and he must be pun¬ ished, for he is desti'oying the power of the Brahmans' prayers by his arts. If two sticks, with the help of a few spells would produce fire, the inference was that two knives crossed on a threshold or a red rag put over a door must harm the occupant of the house when imprecations were added. If the strange signs caused the person to tremble or turn pale, the concealed sorcerer was convinced that his intended victim was feeling his power and he believed in his charms accordingly. The religious Hindus, while accepting these things as true, felt bound to propitiate their gods by an austerity painful to think of; but this asceticism was supposed to compel the gods to reward them nolens volens, so that the difference looks small to us in point of fact. The theosophic speculations of this class reached their culminating point in the teaching of the Tedantas which hold that there is one ultimate and only god, 12 Colorado College Studies. unknown and unknowable, by whom they are finally to be ab¬ sorbed. The sceptical Hindus naturally drifted into witchcraft, and the pretentions of the professional wizards are by no means modest. It is not an uncommon thing for a Hindu, when his own prayers and those of the Brahmans, hired for the purpose, are unavailing, to go to some practitioner of magic who rarely fails to promise all he wishes and does not scruple sometimes to even administer poison, if need be. There are stories of those who invoked genii; but did not know how to control them and were torn to pieces in consequence. That, however, matters little. The popular belief in witchcraft is so general that there is scarcely a town in central India of any size, says Lyall,* that has not a hereditary servant whose duty it is to ward off impending hail-storms by watching the motion of water in certain pots, muttering incantations and dancing about with a sword. This, however, is white magic, not black. The sorcerer has an enemy in the witch-finder who volun¬ teers, for so much money, to tell who has bewitched any sick or unfortunate person. The method called S a t a n e is as follows: The witch-finder sits on the ground with a branch of the Bale- tree opposite. Eice is handed him which he eats in the name of each village. When the name of the right village is men¬ tioned, he throws up the rice. The families of the village are then treated in the same way; and, lastly, the individuals of the family which has been chosen as guilty. A sufficient sum will induce him to doubt the result and try it again. Charreen is a similar process. A stone is hung on a string with the vil¬ lages, families, and individuals marked on it; the names are mentioned and the guilty one is selected by the vibrations of the suspended rock. The sorcerer who was thus detected had to put his tongue to red-hot iron nine times unless sooner burnt. InGobereen, water, oil, and cow-dung are mixed and brought * Sir Alfred Lyall, Asiatic Studies, from which many of these facts were gathered. Witchcraft Among the Hindus. 13 to the boiling point; a ring is then dropped in which must be found and brought out by the hand, while the person invokes the deity for protection from burning. The use of fire has been believed in by nearly all races as a test for witchcraft, the supposition being that the deity protects the innocent by a miracle. The Hindus are no exception to the rule. One fire-test was to require the magician to carry two pounds and three-quarters of red-hot iron in the hands across seven circles, each sixteen finger-breadths broader than the pre¬ ceding, and then throw it into a ninth, where it must burn some grass. If he is burned he is guilty of causing the sickness and must cure the person or die. The Manava-Dharma- gastra (VII, 108), says that when a witness falls sick or has a loss from fire within a week, it is because he has perjured himself in his testimony. The same law-book (VIII, 114-16, 190) says: 'Let the judge cause him who is under trial to take fire in his hand, or plunge into water, or touch separately the heads of his children and his wife, and he whom the fire burns not, whom the water does not reject from its depths, whom mis¬ fortune does not speedily overtake, shall have his oath received undoubted.' The common water-test is to fix a bamboo rod in a pond, send the person to it, and require him to descend to the bottom while an arrow is shot and brought back by a runner. If he emerges before the arrow is returned, he is guilty. Another test is to put the accused into one sack, a stone in another, and throw the two tied together into running water. If the stone rises while he sinks, he is guilty. The simple original method which corresponds to the European, is to see whether the accused will float or sink, the latter indicating guilt. The pun¬ ishment, especially as a result of the first method, is very severe. If the guilty person is a woman, she may be roped up to a tree, have a bandage of red-pepper tied over her eyes, and then be swung to and fro in the air, or she may even be beaten to death with rods from the castor-oil tree, which is supposed to be excel- 14 Colorado Cidlcijc tSfadicH. lent for purging witchcraft, simply because auy slight indisposi¬ tion that could be removed by the use of the oil, was attributed ' to the power of witches. Smallpox or cholera are due, they think, to the spells of witches also, since the gods do not stoop to these things, though tliey have them in their poweis. It is the producing of evil residts which makes the witches; for so long as magic is used for good ends and the gods are still served, the practitioners are not witches. The literature of witchcraft in India has increased enorm¬ ously, especially in the vernacular, and it is to-day the favorite reading of the people. The Asuri-Kalpa may perhaps be taken as a fair s[)ecimen of this literature, and a brief outline of its contents may be of interest. In preparing for the fi s u r i-spell, a small, square piece of ground is first cleared, then a triangular hole, measuring about a span each way, is dug in the center, and the person puts on a red gar¬ ment and adorns himself with garlands of the red oleander, and * an ornament of sandal-wood, supposed to represent the feet of Visnu resting on a lotus. He then lies down on a woolen blanket with his face to the east, toward which one angle of his three-cornered fire-pot points, and offers an oblation of sugar and melted butter, after which he mutters: " Om, obeisance to End ra, om, O pungent one, thou of the pungent leaf, blessed Asuri, reddish one, thou of the reddish garment, O daughter of A t h a r V a n, non-terrific one, non-terrific wonder-worker, so-and-so smite, smite, burn, burn, cook, cook, crush, crush, so long burn, so long cook, until thou hast brought [him] into my power. Amen.* *om iiamo riidraya, om katuke katukajiattre sahhaga asvri rakte raktavasase, atliarcancmja duliite 'ghore 'ghorakarmakarike, amukain kana liana dalia dalia pai.u paca mantlia mantha tavad dalia tavat paca yavan me vaijani anayali svalta. The whisper-spell which is an extension of the first part of this formula, and consists mostly of mysterious particles, reads as follows: —o?h kliin liriin qrim ksaum Witchcraft Aihoikj the Hindai^. 15 For a woman the spell was somewhat longer, and a second brief one is added: 'For her not a lunar-day, not a lunar- mansion, not the kindling of a holy fire is decreed.' Nest in order comes a nijasd ceremony, which is a sort of consecration service, giving obeisance to each pair of thuynbs, fore-fingers, etc., and to the two palms and backs of the hands- It seems to be intended in this case as a propitiation of Brudra. * Durgais then invoked, and mention is made of kmum qrim hrim Mini om, katiqiattre siibliana amiri raktavamse Hharvanasya dnhite 'yhore 'yJinre scalai, oni hlini hrim, etc., as at the beginning. The Durga Puja l)y Pratapachandra Ghosha, contains a long list of these particles used in pouring water into a conch-shell as an act of worship. Keeping his s}'stem of transliteration, it is as fol¬ lows:—Ksham, Lam, Ham, Sam, Sham, Sam, Vam, Lam, Earn, Yam, Mam, Bham, Bam, Pham, Pam, Nam, Dham, Dam. Th im, Tam. Nam, Dham, Dam, Tham, Tam, Nam, Jham, Jam, Chham, Cham, Nam, Gham, Gam, Kham, Kam, Ah, Am, Aum, Om, Aim, Em, Ltn, Lm, Em, Em, Um, Um, Irn, Im, Am, Am, Mam, * The Durga Puja, which is a book giving an account of the religious worship of Durga, contains such a ceremony, called the External Miitrika Nyiisa. Using the method of transliteration, etc., which is employed, it reads as follows:—The rshi of this Matrika mantra is Brahma, its metre is Gayatri, the deity Matrika sarasvati [Indus Eiver], the consonants are the roots, the vowels are the Saktis [powers], these are used in the Matrika Nyasa. With a flower Om obeisance to Brahma Eshi in the head, Om obeisance to Gayatri Metre in the mouth, Om to Matrika Sarasvati Devi in the heart, Om to the consonant roots in the muladhara [root-holder], Om to the vowel Saktis in the feet. Then meditate on Matrika: Help me, O ! goddess of speech, whose lips are parted by fifty characters [the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet], whose arms extend to the knees, whose bosom is well formed, whose forehead is emblazoned by the moon with all the phases, whose breasts are as compact as they are lofty, and whose hands hold the mudra [seal], the beadstring, a nectar-pot, and gift of knowl¬ edge, and who is white in appearance, and three-eyed. Am to the forehead. Am to the mouth, Im to the right eye, Im to the left eye, Um to the right ear, Um to the left ear, Km to the right nose [nostrils], Em to the left nose, lm to the right cheek, Im to the left • 16 Colorado College Studies. her ninety million bodily forms. The person now indulges in a religious meditation (dhydna), in which he worships the dsM?i-plant as a goddess called the fearless wish-granter. There are three parts of this meditation to be used in the morning, at noon, and at night respectively. In the first, he thinks of the goddess as having a hook in her hand, as adorned with all ornaments, having a gracious countenance, and as seated on a serpent in the padmdsana position, i. e., with the legs crossed, one hand on the hearth with the thumb up, the other on the left thigh, and the eyes fixed on a point near the end of the nose. The second is similar, but she has a sword in the hand and a half moon crest. In the third, she has a ' red-stone' in the hand, sits on a dead man, and wears garlands of mundd- plant. A second version, given elsewhere in the MS., puts in a discus, a trident, a white serpent, a white bull, etc., etc., and describes the goddess as having three eyes, four mouths, a string of pearls in the nose, and so on. * cheek, Em to the upper lip, Aim to the lower lip, Om to the upper teeth, Aumto the lower teeth. Am to the cerebrum. Ah to the right shoulder- blade, Kam to the elbow, Kham to the wrist. Gam to the roots of the phalanges, Gham to the phalanges, Xam to the nails, Cham to the left shoulder-blade, Chham to the left elbow. Jam to the left wrist, Jham to the roots of the left phalanges, Xam to the left nails. Tarn to the right heels, Tham to the right knee-bone. Dam to the right ankle, Dham to the roots of the phalanges. Lam to the tarsals. Similarly Tam, Tham, Dam, Dham and Xam to the several parts of the left leg. Pam to the right side, Pham to the left. Bam to the back, Bham to the navel. Mam to the stomach. Yam to the heart, Kam to the right shoulders, Lam to the neck bone. Vara to the left shoulders, Sam from the heart to the right hand, Sham from the heart to the left hand, Sam from the heart to the right leg. Ham from the heart to the left leg. Lam from the heart to the belly Ksham from the heart to the mouth. * A meditation or prayer of the Durga Puja may be compared, with this, whidh reads as follows:—Om with locks of hair, braided and flowing, and the forehead ornamented by the crescent moon, with three eyes, with a face equal to the full moon in brightness, with a com¬ plexion of molten gold, well-formed and lovely eyed, full of the fresh- Witchcraft Among the Hindus. 17 After this contemplation comes the chief practice of the ceremony, the object of which, in the wotds of the MS., is the desire to destroy, the destruction of an enemy, the slaying, stupefying, making submissive and fixing like a post. The person takes leaves and seeds of the dsurl* plant (black mus¬ tard) and grinds them into meal. An image of the person to be subdued was then made from this meal with melted butter, sour- milk, sugar (or honey), salt, or mustard-oil, according to the caste of the victim—the mustard-oil was for an enemy—after which the image was chopped up with some kind of a weapon and burned in the fire-pot with kindlings of different woods according to caste. This practice was repeated one hundred and eight times— eighteen per day—beginning with six in the morning, continuing with six at noon, and ending with six at about sundown. The proper meditation was used in each case. The morning form helped in making submissive; that used at noon, in " fixing like ness of youth, decorated with all kinds of ornaments, with a set of pearly teeth, Devi, with a breast compact and full, gracefully bent at three places, Destroyer of the Buffalo Demon, with ten arms as soft and well rounded as the stalks of lotus, holding a trident on the right, a sword and a discus from upwards, a sharp arrow, and a dart in the right hand, a shield, a bent bow, a noose, a goad, and a bell or an axe. Under her lies a headless Buffalo carcass, whence rises the demon with a sword in hand, pierced in his heart by the Devi's trident, his lungs drawn out, his body besmeared with blood, and eye-balls distended encircled by the serpent noose, presenting a face made terrific by contracted eyes, brows, and frowns, the noose with the forelocks of the demon held by Durga, in her left hand, while the Devi's lion is described with a mouth tainted with red, the right foot of the Goddess resting evenly on the back of the lion, and the toe of the left foot a little higher on the shoulders of the demon. Om serene-faced Goddess, subduer of the pride of Daityas and Danavas I Om this representation of the Goddess is worshipped and prayed [to ?] by the immortals. * * * Om contemplate the mother of the world for the attainment of virtue, all wishes, and beautitude. *asuri literally means pertaining to demons and the pungency of the plant probably accounts for the name. 18 Colomdo College Sfiidies. a post"; and the third and last, in slaying the foe. It will be seen that it took jnst six days to complete the task, and at the - end of that time the person was supposed to succumb. This use of an image for such a purpose is to be found with some modifications among all peoples who have practiced witch¬ craft. Among the Komans it was an image of wax slowly melted, and in some parts of Europe to-day such an image is still used stuck full of pins. The Ojibway Indian medicine-men make a wooden image, put powders of some sort in a hole in the breast, mutter imprecations over it, and pretend by this means to trans¬ fer diseases from one person to another. The negroes of Vir¬ ginia when suffering from rheumatism, or any malady that draws up the limbs, go to or send after a " Conjur Doctor," who is always a very old man. The "doctor" draws a picture of the supposed witch, pins it to an oak tree, loads his carbine with hair from the afflicted person's head, frog's legs, broken glass, meal, pepper, salt, and divers other things, and finally shoots the picture through the heart. This is supposed to kill the witch and at the same time heal the sick person. There are said to be cases in which the suspected witch has really died from fright, knowing that the picture was intended for her. A trick somewhat similar to those already given was even tried on Henry VI, of England, and early in the present century on the Nizam of the Deccan. The fact that images have been so universally used in witch¬ craft practices is no more remarkable than the fact that all nations have used them in religious worship. There is no dis¬ coverable connection between the Ojibway's wooden image and the Hindu's effigy of dough, other than the mere fact that each is the outcome of a desire to injure. Nature teaches both to think of what is practically the same expedient. The usuri rites do not end with this main, practice, but there are several other similar ones with various objects, such as the production of epilepsy, boils, loss of sense, family discord, fever, eye-twitching, foolish or ridiculous action, a running behind the Wifclicraft Among the Hindus. 19 witch's back by the person conjured, a running after senseless people, invincibleness, success in love, power to charm with a glance of the eye, also to obtain great treasure, to secure the growing up of one's sons, to make a kingdom submissive, to release A person from certain of the ill-effects already mentioned as obtained by the rites, also from obstacles, ill-luck, and the seeing of ominous portents. The MS. ends with the words: ' He is neither devoid of power nor destitute of children in whose house the divine (the goddess) A s u r i is.' It is a deep and interesting problem to determine the rela¬ tion between religion and superstition in its various manifesta¬ tions. The A s u r l-K a 1 p a shows that, in some cases at least, witchcraft borrows the outward forms and symbols of religious practices, though it must be admitted that in India, certainly, the religious rites cannot claim to be much above the practices copied from them in the matter of superstition. Witchcraft also bears testimony to the universal belief of mankind in powers outside of and above ourselves, though it tacitly denies any divinity to them and seeks to conti-ol and use them for evil ends. It will perhaps be unnecessary to go further into a descrip¬ tion of the rites practiced by these charlatans of the East. Suf¬ fice it to say that, like the fortune-tellers and spiritualists of America, their own personal gain enters largely into the account in every case, and, furthermore, that they take advantage of the universal belief of mankind in sojne supernatural power to induce skeptics in religious matters to come to them and pay them for gaining by magic blessings for their patrons, which others get by prayers, or for producing evils to their fellows which their religion would not countenance, save as a means to do good for theii^ods or the Brahmans. PROTECTION OF CONGRESSIONAL MINORITIES. (Abstract of a Paper read before the Society.) BY W. M. HALL. I. Abuse of the technical powers of majority and of minority has not in any state legislature gone permanently beyond the control of public opinion. But the House of Representatives at Washington is notorious for frequent straining of such powers, and there is little reason to expect a return to moderation with¬ out material changes in parliamentary law. Blame of one party or the other is useless towards finding a remedy. The trouble is old, and its marked increase in the present Congress is due chiefly to the possession by one party of all three legislative ele¬ ments. Before, when the President or the Senate was hostile, the majority in the House had less temptation to ride rough¬ shod, and the minority could leave the defense of its interests to its allies beyond; repressive or obstructive abuses, when they did occur, were often caused by the formation, on particular measures not strictly partisan, of temporary majorities alike in both houses, either in sympathy with the President or thinking themselves strong enough to over-ride his veto. But now the motives for parliamentary misbehavior on both sides are kept permanently alive, and the descent is rapid. When troublesome obstruction has become frequent, the majority always does something to preserve its right to legis¬ late; but always hitherto by partial destruction of rights val¬ uable to the country—the minority rights to debate, to offer amendments and have them put to vote, to make a conspicuous Protection of Congressional Minorities. 21 protest, and sometimes to delay action till public opinion can be roused. Unquestionably the majority right to legislate is still more valuable. Is there no way to save it but by cutting down the other set of rights? The present agitation over breaking and counting quorums is important only in so far as the minority has been driven from other fields of dilatory action, and that subject may be neglected if means can be found of restoring the more legitimate minority rights. II. The demoralization of the House, extending through many years, has been accomplished by a series of retaliations. Whether it be held that the minority first abused its rights of debate or of using parliamentary motions, (even dilatory use is fair, when not too frequent), or that the majority began to shut off debate and motions not meant to be dilatory, each development of ob¬ struction has been met by new repressive rules or by more mer¬ ciless use of old ones, and this in turn by more frequent exercise of such powers of obstruction as remained. The result is that the minority is disabled from giving the valuable services of a minority; for the more doubtful the merits of the legislation in ' hand, the more eagerly the majority uses its silencing powers, which are now great and effectual. We have the absurdity of a system that makes an important right impossible when it is most needed; and the absurdity will doubtless last as long as the majority can decide, from day to day, how often and on what subjects the minority can use its nominal privileges. It is pointless to say that the minority deserves its punish¬ ment. The minority is not continuous. In each Congress it suffers for the deeds of former minorities of both parties. It is not the right of the minority as such, but the right of the whole people to have tlje proper services of a minority, that needs pro¬ tection. It is good for the state that the minority should in some principal cases (1) make a conspicuous protest, and rouse public opinion for expression at the next election; or, (2) gain 22 Colorado College Studies. time for contemporary opinion to work upon tlie majority and perhaps check its action. It is no small matter to lose these benefits. .Yet under the present system the incompatibility of majority and minority rights is real, in a demoralized House. There must be some limit of frequency to the obstructive powers of the minority; and if the limit is applied by the majority, it will be used too often, and most Sharply used at just the times when it ought not to be used at all. The root of the trouble is that the majority controls the limit of frequency. If the control can be lodged elsewhere, the minority can perhaps be restored to usefulness without recover¬ ing power for mischief. To give control to the Speaker is a mere formal change, unless the speakership were made non-partisan. To create a separate officer of the House, to decide when the minority can properly ,use dilatory powers, is similarly imprac¬ ticable. But thei'e is another resource—the rules themselves. If the minority can be given some effectual right, to be used only a certain number of times, the limit is assured, and the minority itself can be left to choose the critical moments for using the right. HI. Suppose a rule of the House giving to six or seven members of the minority each an absolute right to demand, twice during his term, four hours' speaking for his own side, with the privi¬ lege of naming the members to use the time, while the Speaker retains power to lengthen the debate by recognizing other mem¬ bers. A right to propose three amendments and require a vote on them might well be added. The members to be armed with these exceptional rights could be chosen by mere written' nomi¬ nation, (any twenty members naming one), or they could be oflScers of the House elected under a minority-representation rule of ballot. In either case the majority would have the same privilege, in name, without motive to use it. The minority would then have half a dozen responsible men, chosen by their own caucus, able to secure in all, during the two Protection of Congrexuonal Minoritiex. 23 years, about fifty hours of debate at the most useful times; an allowance small enough to discourage waste of it, and large enough to give opportunity for a conspicuous protest against a dozen of the bills most objectionable to the minority. Each use of such a power would itself call public attention to the protest. At other times the majority would retain its present powers of forcing business forward rapidly. The right to legislate and the right to protest would no longer be incompatible. It remains to provide means for saving the other function of a minority, of forcing the majority sometimes to halt long enough for adverse public opinion to act. Most of the bills beaten in that way are really bad. Mere tiring out the majority has no like claim to approval, and we need not regret seeing it made difficult. But most of the true virtue of delay by obstruc¬ tion can be kept when general obstruction is abolished. Suppose, again, that each member who carries the special right to claim debate is further privileged once in his term to postpone arbi¬ trarily for two weeks the final vote on passage of a bill (or of a resolution changing the rules or unseating a member); no repe¬ tition of the postponement admissible. The chance of an exer¬ cise of this right in the last two weeks of a session would put no unjust hardship on the majority; they must bring partisan measures to a vote, before the last fortnight, or obtain a two- thirds vote to suspend the rules afterwards. The postponed bill could meanwhile (by a slight change of Senate rules) be considered by the Senate, go through conference committee, be passed by the Senate, and return to the House to await its fate on the postponed vote. But this is not an essential change; the bill could be left absolutely suspended through the fort¬ night. The minority could thus take a fortnight's grace on six or seven important measures within two years, for the sake of bringing outside plessure to bear on the majority; and would do it without wasting any time of the House. 24 Colorado College Studies. IV. Such innovations need careful adjustment to the existing rules of the House; but they seem to carry no inherent contra¬ diction such as has been developed into mischief by the work¬ ing of the present system. One considerable objection is visible: the majority might divide into several short bills any measure on which they expected resistance, or bring in several entire bills with minor variations, hoping thus to exhaust rapidly the lim¬ ited minority privileges of debate and postponement. There is perhaps no direct preventive of that trick, but in practice it might disappoint the majority. They would be crowding their own calendar and obstructing their own business; foreseeing that, they would usually bring in these families of bills early in the session, to insure their progress through committee. The plan being thus exposed, the minority could choose one bill, the worst of the group or the first one coming to a vote, and make their stand on that. The privileged debate would, as protest, be effectual in the public mind on the whole series, and if the privileged postponement killed the bill selected for protest, the same public opinion which drove the majority to retreat would go far towards stopping the other fractional bills. It is not claimed that these changes in the .rules would create a perfect relation between majority and minority. Hut the present system is full of abuses; abuses so connected that the abatement of one aggravates another. A new principle is needed, and apparently the only one that can loosen the dead¬ lock is one which gives the minority some privilege, far-reaching when used, that can be used only a fixed number of times, the times being chosen by the minority. There is more reason to look for a good working device, because the comparatively healthful condition of the Senate will not last if the House becomes a quick-cutting tool of the major¬ ity. Obstruction will be habitually transferred to the Senate; restraint of debate there will follow, and the downward course of Protection of Congressional Minorities. 25 the House will be imitated. The process will doubtless be sus¬ pended when the President and majorities of both Houses are not of the same party; it may even be reversed, and the House itself brought back to moderation by some unexpected force of public opinion. But it is not prudent to stake the future of minority rights on such a chance. 2 PULSATIONS IN THE AORTIC ARCHES OF THE EARTHWORM. BY M. B. MANN. Anyone working with the common earthworm has probably noticed the extreme irritability of the animal at the touch of the hand, due to the rapid evaporation from the delicate cuticle surrounding the'worm. Observing also that the pulsations in the aortic arches increased with the irritability, a few experi¬ ments were tried to note the effect of temperature upon the pul¬ sating arches of the common worm. In the lowest animals the nutrient material resulting from digestion is distributed in the same manner as in the cell. The simplest form of a vascular system is found in the Coelenterates, in which the digestive cavity occupies nearly the entire space of the animal, and thus distributes the nutrient material. When a distinct alimentary tract is developed, the nutrient fluid passes through the walls of the tract. Into the coelum, and thus gives rise to the fluid, the blood. In this space the blood circulates, the movement being effected chiefly by the muscular actions of the body walls. At a higher stage, a rudimentary central organ of circulation appears, and the nutrient fluid is confined in special pulsating -vascular trunks, by means of which the fluid is forced through the system. In the common earthworm a completely closed vascular system is present, provided with pulsating trunks. A dorsal longitudinal trunk, and a central longitudinal trunk can be dis¬ tinguished, the two being connected in the anterior end by Pulsations in Aortic Arches of the Earthworm. 27 large pulsating aortic arches. These arches are sometimes called " primitive hearts." These experiments were performed with large strong worms designated as A. B. C. The temperature was raised or lowered as seen by the table with the following results: 1. Change of temperature causes great irritability. 2. After a short time the worm becomes accustomed to change of temperature, and the aortic arches tend to revert to the original beat. See specimen A, temperature 19°; beats 14 16 14. A, " 10°; " 8 11 8. B, " 10"; " 8 10 9^. 3. The pulse beats with greater force at a low tempearture. 4. Tendency to same rate of beat in same temperature. 5. The upper limit is reached at 35°, when the pulsations cease. Table Showing Pulsations in the Aortic Arches of the Earthworm. Time. Tempera¬ ture C. Beats per minute. A. B. C. a. m. 10.40 19' 14 18 20 10.45 19° 16 16 14 10.52 19° 14 14 14 11.15 10° 8 8 10 11.20 10° 11 10 9 11.30 10° 8 9J 9J 11.45 5° 7 6 6 11.50 5° 7 6 6 11.55 5° 7 6 6 12.15 12° 11+ 12 10 12.35 22° 26 22 19 12.50 29° 28 26 30 p. >r. 1.07 35° 0 0 0 DIALECTICAL STUDIES IN WEST VIRGINIA. BY SYLVESTER PRIMER. In studying the language or pronunciation of any section of the country, it is necessary first of all to trace back the history of the people inhabiting it to the earliest beginnings in order to explain understandingly the dialectical peculiarities of its grammar or pronunciation. I shall, therefore, preface my remarks on the linguistical peculiarities of this region with a brief sketch of its earliest settlement and later development. The early history of Western Virginia, now known as West Virginia, begins a century later than that of Eastern Virginia, or Virginia proper. In 1710 Alexander Spotswood, a Scotch¬ man, was the deputy-governor of the Colony of Virginia. In 1716 he " gathered a party of the choice spirits of the Old Dominion, and set out on an exploration of the country beyond the Blue Ridge and Alleghanies, advancing as far as the fertile fields of Kentucky." As far as we know, he was " the first white man to enter the Great Valley, which was soon thereafter occupied by large numbers of Scottish, and some German and English settlers." In 1774 Virginia purchased from the Indians the right to make settlements to the Ohio, and built a fort where Pittsburg now stands. In 1752 Robert Dinwiddle, then deputy-governor of Virginia, began active relations with the great western country. " He encouraged trade and exploration with this region, and the Virginia traders swarmed across the mountains to traffic with the Indians, and there met with the French, which finally led, as you remember, to the attack on Fori Duquesne (now Pittsburg) and Braddock's defeat. At about this time the Ohio Company of Virginia began to take Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 29 steps to settle the western region, and encouragement was given both before and after the revolutionary war to settlers in this region." In 1738 Augusta was the frontier county, and then extended westward indefinitely. To the north lie Bockingham, Shenandoah and Frederick counties. Nearly all this region was settled by Germans and Swedes. "A Swedish congregation was here collected, and the Bev. Peter Muhlenburg, son of the Bev. Mr. Muhlenburg, father of the Lutheran Church in America, was sent to take charge of it." To the south lie Bockbridge, Botetourt and Montgomery counties. Botetourt became in 1769 the western frontier. From here the emigrants pushed forward to the westward, and soon settled the whole of what is now West Virginia. History tells us that the Presbyterians were first in this field, and the fact that the people are of Scotch and Scotch-Irish descent would lead to the same conclusion. But it must not be forgotten that a greater part of the population of West Virginia were emigrants from Maryland and Virginia. A comparison of the names also will indicate in a general way the national charac¬ teristics of the inhabitants, and show whether there has been an intermixture of outside.elements with the original settlers. However, too great stress should not be placed on mere names, as they might not always show the true nationality of the section from which their bearers came. Yet they are not to be dis¬ carded altogether, but must be taken into account in dialectical studies. They will show approximately whether the population has remained pure from the earliest times. On examining the names of the vestrymen of the earliest Episcopalian churches of this region, my only source of information, 1 find among the settlers from Eastern Virginia such names as Ballenger, Maury, Burton, Scott, Bucker, Godwin, Taliafero, Cabell, etc. Among the Scotch and Sicotch-lrish names can be mentioned Bal- maire, Quarrier, Dunlap, etc., while Bittenger, Swearingen, Muhlenburg, show a sprinkling of German and Swedish names. The names of the present day afford the same testimony and 30 Colorado College Studies. show that the earliest settler^ are fairly well represented by the present inhabitants. I am well aware, as above remarked, that this is not always a safe guide, but may, like tradition, some¬ times mislead; still, in lieu of a better one it renders tolerably efficient service. In the earlier days of these settlements the educational advan¬ tages were naturally slight, but later the conditions for educa¬ tion were about the same as those described in my article on the Pronunciation of Fredericksburg, Va., printed in the Publi¬ cations of the Modern Language Association of Ameiuca, Vol. 5, p. 188ff. In the same article (pp. 192-195) I have compiled two Vowel Tables, one representing the vowel sounds of the Vir¬ ginia English of the seventeenth century, and the other the vowel sounds of to-day. In the present article I shall con¬ stantly refer to them. I will here begin with the vowel a as heard in father (Sweet's mid-back-wide).* Here, as in Fredericksburg, Va., we find the clearer, lighter sound of a as in calm, psalm, palm, half, etc. The other sound of these words (?'. e., kcecem, soeoem, poeoem, hcecef, etc., that is. Sweet's low-front-wide) is heard, though less frequently than in Fredericksburg, Va., or in Charleston, S. C. This sound of a in father (mid-back-wide) is also very common in words like ask, demand, pass, trespass, etc., though the ten¬ dency to the palatal a is strong. The two words ant and aunt are both generally pronounced (cent, that is, low-front-wide), though the latter is often pronounced (aant, that is, mid-back- wide). The same remark applies to words like gaunt, haunt, jatint, etc., where Sweet's low-front-wide ( = a in man) is commonly heard, thus (goeoent, Hoeoent, Dzhceoent, etc). Oc¬ casionally one hears the mid-back-wide {—a in father)-, that is phonetically represented (gaant, Haant, Dzhaant), but I have never heard Sweet's low-back-narrow-round (= a in law, * The signs of Sweet's Primer of Phonetics are used in this article, except in quotations. Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 31 gAAnt, HAAnt, DzhAAnt, etc.) Among all classes here, and especially among the uneducated, the mid-back-wide sound of a is retained in a large class of words where it either reflects the older pronunciation or shows the influence of the negro ele¬ ment. The negro is very fond of this a-sound, but I am in doubt whether it is natural to him or whether he may not have acquired it in early times from the whites themselves and re¬ tained it pure and uninfluenced by the change which this vowel has undergone in the progress of the language, just as the Irish have retained the older pronunciation of English. According to Elllis, E. E. P., this was the usual sound of the vowel a in the sixteenth century. In this list we flnd words like clear, pair, there, where, fair, learn, prepare, queer, bear, square, were, rearguard, search, swear, etc., in all of which the mid- back-wide is heard (klaar, paar, dhaar, whaar, etc.); we sel¬ dom hear the low-front-narrow (dhser, etc.) as in Charleston, S. C., but more usually the low-front-wide (= a in man). I am inclined to think that this sound is midway between the low-front-wide and the low-front-narrow. The negro pronunciation of here is (^Hj'ar). Among the white popu¬ lation two pronunciations obtain; both ('ji'r) and ('ja'r) are common. Under Sweet's mid-front-wide (our e in mei, either long or short) we must class one peculiarity not yet noticed elsewhere, though found in England, viz., the pronunciation of the word make as mek, that is, mid-front-wide instead of mid-front- narrow. In the 17th century we find the same sound in Eng¬ land in the words main (meen), major (meedzhar), mayor (meer), naked (necked), nature (neetwr). Dryden has pains of hell (peenz of Hel) and (mee) for may. Garth has distress rhyming with place (plees). In the 16th century this word make was pronounced (maak), that is. Sweet's mid-back-wide 32 Colorado College Studies. as we see in Shakespeare's Henry VIII., in the speech of Car¬ dinal Woolsey to Cromwell: Neglect him not; make use now and provide For thine own future safety. which according to Ellis, E. E. P., 3,991, is to be pronounced Neglekt Him not; maak yys nau and provaid For dhain oouii fyytyyr saafti. The Anglo-Saxon form is macian where this vowel has the short sound of a in father, that is, Sweet's mid-back-wide. In Mid. Eng. the form is still makien and retains this mid-back- wide sound. But in 1766 Buchanan in his conjectured pronun¬ ciation of Shakespeare has: " Meed tu Hi'z m/stri's aibrau, and Kenrick, 1773, giving the pronunciation of the same passage has: " Meed too Hiz mistris aibrau." Both agree in the pro¬ nunciation of (meed) for made, so that this mid-front-wide sound of a in the verb make must have obtained in England to some extent in the 18th century. Benjamin Franklin, also, in his remarks on pronunciation in 1768 indicates the pronuncia¬ tion of makes as (meeks). I am also informed that in at least two counties of England, Lancashire and Derby, the pronun¬ ciation (meek) is still heard. The character e in the word well has a sound between Sweet's mid-back-wide {father) and low-front-wide {man), but inclin¬ ing to the latter (w»l), possibly Sweet's low-back-wide, Swed. mat. The word ancient belongs also to this class as it is here often pronounced (anshent) Sweet's mid-back-wide again. In addition to the two pronunciations (agen, agenst) and (ageen, ageenst) we find the pronunciation (agm, aginst), though only as vulgarisms. Foment {fornenst, pr. frnent) may have led to the pronunciation of (bi-jent). Sweet's mid-back-narrow {but) is very common to this region. It is what Sweet and Ellis call the American sound of the u in but, not the English. Here belong words like took, look, cook, shook, book{^),put, and others, all of which have nearly the sound of our u in but. A sound between Sweet's mid-mixed- Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 33 ■wide-round (6, Fr. homme) and his high-mixed-wide-round (u. Swed. Mpp) is heard in could, would, should; in cool, good, school, who, though preceded by the i-umschlag (kittd, wiifd, shiud; kiwi, ski^ll, Hm). I hardly know whether this sound is to be attributed to the Scotch element among the early settlers or not. It certainly comes very near the Scotch sound as heard in guide (girtd). It is, however, possible that it developed on this soil independently of the Scotch influence. This pronun¬ ciation is also peculiar to Fredericksburg, Va., and is heard in various places in the state of South Carolina. In the Upland region we have also a Scotch influence to some extent, so that even here it .may be due to this element. I have noticed it more¬ over in other localities in the pronunciation of individual people. This sound of u in hut is often heard in the pronunciation of careless, thus (karles). Care itself is often pronounced either (ktr) but more often however (kear). Here belongs also that peculiar pronunciation of room (riztm) and tomh in rhyme with perfume (tium, parfiwm). . In studying the pronunciation of Fredericksburg, Va., I noticed two cases of the short (i) in the words (hill) and (mill). In West Virginia I found another example of the same sound in an individual pronunciation of the preposition In (iin). The word ear is often pronounced (jiir or even (jar). Mischief is accented on the ultima and pronounced (mistshiif). The past participle of hear is pronounced either (Hiirn or Harn; or Hiird -or Hard), according to the form used. The sound (i) and (e) are often interchangeable, as (led) for lid, (red) for rid, (ef) for if-, (git) for get, (jit) for yet, (jistardei) for yester¬ day, (kitl) for kettle. To these we may add (dzhinereshan) for generation, (sperit) for spirit, (resen'kshan) for reserection. The word muskmelon is here often pronounced (maskmiljan), which pronunciation gofts back as far as 1685; for Cooper, in his list of words like and unlike, gives melon, melo, million, 1,000,000 sive centum myriades, which would indicate that the two words were nearly alike in sound. In miracle the i-sound often follows the 34 Colorado College Studies. analogy of vowels before r and we hear not infrequently (marikl). I feel convinced that we hear the open o-sound (Sweet's mid- mixed-wide-round=0, Fr. encore) in the word poor (pr. poor), and we also hear the long o-sound (Sweet's mid-back-narrow- round=o, Germ, so; pr. poor). The former is the same sound we often hear in the last syllable of/eZZoio and/oZZomj, though the latter is the more common sound. The two words horn and borne are both pronounced alike (b£)rn). Forward is frequently pronounced (farard). The words only and onhilch (unhitch) belong here, as they are often pronounced (dn-li, dn-hitsh). I can here repeat my remarks on the diphthongs in my article on the pronunciation of Fredericksburg, Va. "The sound (au, as in German Haus) is heard among a select few in house, now, etc., though the usual pronunciation is here (eu), never (su). This latter diphthong (eu) is long (eeu) in town, coto and some other words, and short (eu) in most words, as house, out, about, south, pound, etc. Often (EEe) is heard in¬ stead of long (eeu), and (Ee) instead of short (eu). The diph¬ thong (iu) is very common and the first element is often length¬ ened (iiu). Sometimes, however, the vanish is prolonged (iu"). Instead of (iu), (iu) is often heard, especially among the lower classes. Fruit may be classed here also, or the sound often comes nearer the Swedish u in hus (frUt), or (yw). The same sound seems to be peculiar to people from the middle and upper parts of South Carolina." The diphthong (ai) is often changed to (oi), as in title (toitl). On the other hand (oi) often be¬ comes (ai), as boil (bail), joinZ (dzhaint), etc., but this is a vul¬ garism common to all parts of the country. The word ewe (jiu) has frequently the pronunciation (joo), a pronunciation very common in Western New York. We also find (rai-at) for (rait), that is, right. The consonants offer a few peculiarities. The h is often fol¬ lowed by the J-sound in the word here (Hjeer); in this case the h frequently becomes silent, or rather a mere breathing ('jeer). Dialectical Studies in West Virginia. 35 W is exchanged for v in very (weri) and a few other words^ The r is heard here more than in other parts of Virginia, but is often silent when final. We occasionally hear (kjart, gjardn,. etc.), but not so commonly as in Virginia proper or in Charles¬ ton, S. C. After s a f is often added, as close, pr. clost. The gr disappears in words like length, strength, etc., which are pro¬ nounced (lenth and strenth, etc.). The t between the s and I of words like apostle, epistle, etc., is sounded. The accent of words is often changed, either as a general rule or by individuals. Idea frequently has the accent on the first syllable (aidf, or aidie). Mischief often transfers the accent to the last syllable (mistschiif), though this is considered a vulgarism. Difficulty sometimes has the accent on the ante¬ penult (di-f/k-al-ti). Trespasses sometimes takes the accent on the penultimate (tres-paa-sez). Contrary, when it means per¬ verse, froward, wayward, always has the accent on the penulti¬ mate (k^ntre^ri). Elizabeth often has the principal accent on the ultima (IhzEb^TH). Gethsemane is often accented (Geth-se-m e6n). Turning to the grammatical peculiarities we find the great¬ est variety in the verb. The tendency here is to form peculiar past tenses and past participles. Often one is exchanged for the other without any apparent reason. This is especially the- case with the irregular verbs. The following list contains all those which I have observed: 1. Blow blowd blowd 2. Climb climm or clomb ciimm or clomb 3. Fight fit fit 4. Freeze frozed frozed 5. Hear (Hiird), (Hiirn), (Harn) (Hiird; heard 6. Heat het het 7. Help ^ helped (holp, pr. Hop) helped (holp) 8. Know knowd knowd 9. Hide rid rid 10. See saw (seen, see, seed) seen (seed, saw) 11. Take took (taken) taken (took) 36 Colorado College Studies. I find also a few lexicographical peculiarities which I shall give promiscuously, as it is not possible to arrange them in any definite order. Reverent is used in the sense of genuine, thorough, as a reverent scolding, that is a thorough scolding. Satisfactual is a vulgarism for satisfactory. Shoot is very com¬ mon for shot, as " he made a good shoot." Arter for after is <5ommon all over the land. Bold is used in the sense of strong, vigorous, as a bold spring is one whose waters bubble up strongly. A bunch of cattle, is the only proper expression here in the West, but I never heard it in the East except in West Virginia. Webster's International, and the other dictionaries ■do not give this meaning for the word, though the Century gives 0. Add 4ajB = 4ajB {R + o,y = + 2aR + a' > 4:aR. We may here assume a and R are taken in their positive values; hence, on the same supposition with regard to g, (which must be positive if a and R are so), g < R. Hence the centre of the third circle is within the first; there¬ fore the third circle either lies wholly within the first or inter¬ sects it; but the latter alternative is not admissable, since, the three circles having a common radical axis, if two intersect, the other must pass through the points of intersection, which would be contrary to the hypothesis; hence the tbird circle lies wholly within the first. It will accordingly be assumed in future that the circle whose radius is R is exterior to all other circles of the diagram which have a common radical axis with it: each of the latter forming a member of an infinite series of circles, the maximum of which coincides with the circle — R^, and each succeeding circle lies wholly within the preceding one, until the lower limit is reached in the point, or circle of zero radius. This point, marked G in Fig. 2, is there determined as the intersection of the arc RTQ with the axis CD-, and, by the application of the The Elliptic Functions Defined. 59 same principle then employed, would be similarly found on a circle described from any other point of DQ as a centre, with radius equal to the tangent to the outer circle from that point. It is in fact a point common to all the circles that cut orthogon¬ ally the system whose radical axis is DQ, and is fixed in posi¬ tion as soon as the circle PRM and the line DQ are given; or conversely, this circle and the point G will determine the line DQ. This circle, line, and point will be assumed as given in position in subsequent constructions, and are to be regarded as remaining unchanged in passing from one construction to another. When in addition we have given a chord, as PM in Fig. 1, in one of its positions, we are already able to construct the remain¬ der of the triangle PMN, and the circle which, in the successive positions of the triangle, is enveloped by 3IN. For we may first construct the circle TT'W as directed in the construction attached to Fig. 2; we may then locate Ton its circumference by making PT — PT'; the line PT produced determines Nand accordingly MN\ and finally a second application of the con¬ struction of Fig. 2 gives the circle to which 3IN must remain tangent. As we have to attend only to circles interior to the given circle, no ambiguity is encountered at any stage of the process. If on the other hand the chord MN is given, and it is required to complete the triangle by drawing P3I and PN, we may first construct, as above, the circle tangent to 3IN, — in the figure, V1SV2 — and then draw a tangent to this circle at either of the points F, or where it meets the axis. If ilfiWi is such a tangent, and Piilfi a line joining one of its extremities to an extremity of the diameter P1P2, we can construct that circle of the system which is tangent to Pjilfi; and the symmetry of the figure shows that the same circle will be tangent to PiiVj as well. Accordingly, if tangent lines are drawn to the circle from M and N, they must meet on the circumference of the given circle at a point P, and the triangle will have been constructed as required. / 60 Colorado College Studies. In this construction there is evidently an ambiguity. We may draw the tangent to the circle V-^SVi at either point Fj or Fa, and join its terminal points upon the given circle with either Pi or Pa. It is evident, however, that we do not thus obtain four results, but only two; since the two sides of the triangle PiM^N^ will, on the movement of P, envelope the same circle as those of PaiipWa, and those of PiJ/aWa tbe same as PaJ/jiVi. The analytical parallel to the geometrical construction just given consists in determining a and r, the elements of the circle TT'W, in terms of those of V1SV2, that is, in terms of g andjp. And the double solution of the geometrical problem answers to the ambiguity in the sign of p, of which, in equation (9), we fixed only the absolute value. We now notice that 771' is the abscissa of the point of contact of the base of that triangle whose vertex is at P,, where c = P; and m" corresponds in the same way to the vertex at P2, where c = — P. Hence if the base of the triangle is on the same side of the circle FjSFj as its vertex is,—as in the figure,—we obtain the radius of the circle with its positive sign by the formula p = ^ (m' — m"), but if the triangle were the radius would be of oppo¬ site sense and denoted by the formula p = ^ (m" — 771'). As¬ suming that the former is the case, we have p + g — — m" and p — g = m' whence, by equation (8), P + 9= ^E-ay and If we take from one of these the value of P and substitute it in the other we obtain for the unknown quantity a a quadratic equation, whose roots are a — ~[^R + p ± V(P+ pY — . (12 The Elliptic Functions Defined. 61 Here there appears to be a new ambiguity. Both of these roots are real, but one of them, as is obvious on inspection is greater than Rj that is, the circle to which it belongs has its centre outside the circle ifi = R^-, hence it is not a member of the series of circles to which our attention is at present restricted. But the other root, while of the same sign as g is less than gj whence the circle corresponding to it lies betweeen the circles whose radii are R and p, and so exterior to the latter. We learn accordingly, that starting from a given base UN we can always determine in one and only one way a triangle PMN whose vertex shall lie on the opposite side of MN from the circle to which the latter is tangent, and whose sides, meeting in P, shall touch a circle exterior to that touched by MN. We can now solve, both analytically and geometrically, the following problem: Within a given circle to determine the position of a second circle, having in common with the first a given line as radical axis, and such that a polygon of 2" sides may be at once inscribed in the first circle and circumscribed about the second. The process and the result are entirely independent of the position of the first vertex P of the polygon, which may be as¬ sumed arbitrarily upon the cir¬ cumference of the given circle. The first polygon to be con¬ structed is that of two sides, which consists of a chord ex¬ tending from P to some other point of the circumference and thence back to P. As the two sides coincide, the inscribed circle is of zero radius, hence con¬ sists of the point G, geometrically determined as in Fig. 2. The second vertex of the polygon is therefore fixed at the point P'^ where PG meets the circumference. fig. 3. Colorado College Studies. The analytical determination of the point G presents no difficulty. If the length of CD be denoted by d, that of a tan¬ gent from D to the given circle will be V d' — since such a tangent forms a right triangle with CD and the radius to the point of contact. Therefore the distance DG is Vd' — R', or CG is (Z — V d*' — R\ ' We now proceed to the construction of the quadrilateral, and its inscribed circle. The. construction has already been in substance given. A chord at right angles to AD is drawn through G, and through H, its extremity, a line AH is drawn, and extended to meet the radical axis at Q. The distance QG, laid off on this line from the point Q, fixes t, the point of contact, whence both the centre c and radius ct of the circle become known. Tangents to this circle are drawn from P and from P', and these tangents, meet¬ ing at Pi and P/, compose the quadrilateral. Analytically, we apply equation (12) to determine a, which is cC of the figure, having for g the known distance GC, and for_p the radius of the circle at G, which is zero. Having determined a, we find r from equation (11) in which we replace x by its known value, — d. The formula then is H a' — 2acZ. Each process,—the geometrical and the analytical,—may now be applied anew in the case of the octagon. A tangent at right angles to AD is drawn to the circle whose centre is c, and the chord AH' is drawn to the point where this tangent meets the outer circle, etc. For the analytical computation the equa¬ tions (12) and (11) are again employed, but now g and p have the values which were previously denoted by a and r, while a and r denote the elements of the new circle inscribed in the octagon. And thus the process may be carried on as many times as desired. A practical difficulty occurs in the geometrical construction, on account of the use made of the point in which AH' meets The Elliptic Functions Defined. 63 the radical axis, for as the number of sides of the polygon increases these lines approach parallelism. It is to be noted, however, that this part of the construction is merely the appli¬ cation of the method given for finding on a given line the point of-contact of a tangent circle which has in common with a given circle a given radical axis. A second method for solving this subsidiary problem will be given later, and thus the above-noted mechanical difficulty will be obviated. It seems well to notice here,—although it is aside from the immediate purpose,—that the equations thus far obtained serve also for the case of a triemgle inscribed in one circle and cir¬ cumscribed about another; and hence for the determination by the above process of the elements of the inscribed circle for a polygon of 3 X 2" sides. In Fig. 1, PMN will be such a triangle as just described, provided the circle touched by the side MN is identical with that touched by PM and PN, that is, if g and p are equal to a and r respectively. Applying this con¬ dition in the value of g given in equation (9) we have. 4:aPR' {P' — a'Y ' Dividing through by a and extracting the square root we obtain B' — cd = 2rB, (13 as the relation which must subsist between the radii of an ex¬ terior and an interior circle, and the distance between their cen¬ tres, in order that a triangle inscribed in one may be circum¬ scribed in the other. If B and a be regarded as known, r may be found geometrically by constructing the proposition 2B : B + a = B —a : r. When the circles have been determined, the radical axis may be found either geometrically, by well-known constructions, or analytically by equation (11); and thenceforward the work pro¬ ceeds as in the foregoing paragraph. The form of the above equation (13), (which is ascribed to 64 Colorado College Studies. Euler), is noteworthy as containing only the symbols R, r and a with no auxiliary quantities. The data of this and the preceding paragraph afford, of course, the material for writing similar equations for polygons of 2" or 3x2" sides, if, instead of introducing as known quantities in the equations the elements of previously solved problems, we should eliminate all such quantities. For polygons not belonging to these groups an in¬ dependent investigation would be necessary for every polygon in number than eight, and the general method indicated by Jacobi has since been applied to polygons of still higher num¬ bers of sides by F. J. Eichelot and others; but, so far as I know, without appending methods of geometrical construction. * It is especially to be noticed, in the problems of the two pro¬ ceeding paragraphs, that when an initial vertex has been chosen, the remaining vertices are thereby fixed, not only for that polygon, but for all that arq successively derived from it by doubling the number of sides; and so that if, in passing in a determinate direction around the polygon, the number of sides between the two vertices is to the whole number as m to n, this holds true for the same two points in all the polygons subse¬ quently derived. These two points, then, always have between • The memoirs of Klchelot are to be found in Crelle's Journal vols. 5 and 38; there is also an article in vol. 81 of the same Journal (1875), by Max Simon; the latter paper succeeding a Latin dissertation by the same author which appeared in 1867. These writers have made extensions of the problem in several directions. of k sides (where k is an odd num¬ ber) in order to apply the preced¬ ing method to extend the result to k X 2" sides. Equations between R, r and a had been obtained before the date of Jacobi's memoir, cited at the beginning of the present paper, by Nicolaus Fuss and by J. Steiner, the former of whom ob¬ tained formulae applicable to each of the polygons of sides not greater The Elliptic Functions Defined. 65 them of the whole perimeter of the polygon (when this is estimated by the number, not the length of the intervening sides,) however great the number of sides may be made. Let us now return to the consideration of the former of these last two problems—viz., that relating to the polygons of 2" sides, —and let us suppose that there is given, as in that and previous problems, the circle of radius R, also the right line which has heen previously used as a radical axis; and we will define the position of the latter a little more strictly than heretofore by requiring that the diameter to which it is perpendicular, which may be called the initial diameter, shall be placed horizontally, while the radical axis itself stands on the left side of the circle. This circle we will name the circle of the amp)litude. To avoid unnecessary repetitions of a statement already familiar, let it be understood in future that whenever a polygon is mentioned as inscribed in the circle of the amplitude, it is meant that the same polygon is also circumscribed about one of the circles which constitute what we shall henceforward call the interior system* i. e., those which are within the circle of the amplitude, and have with it the given line as radical axis—the particular circle touched by any polygon of 2" sides being always uniquely de¬ termined to each value of w, by the method already explained. Let us now suppose another circle to be drawn, exterior to the circle of the amplitude, and hence, of course, to the whole in¬ terior system, and not having with them the radical axis which they have in common, but being instead, concentric with the circle of the amplitude. We will call this new cii:(3le the circle of the argument. Its radius might, for our present purpose, be of any convenient length. If, after defining the elliptic func¬ tions, we pursue the consideration of them sufficiently far, we may discover a reason for choosing a particular length for this radius, but we will at present be content to regard it as arbitrar¬ ily taken of a length whose ratio to that of R we will denote by "^K ; TT. The right hand extremity of the initial diameter, in 66 Colorado Gollefje Studies. either of these circles, we will call the origin of arcs, for that circle. Suppose now, that a polygon of 2" sides, say a quadrilateral, is inscribed in the circle of the amplitude, having one vertex at the origin; and at the same time a regular polygon of the same number of sides—a square—is inscribed in the circle of the argument, this also havihg a vertex at the origin. All polygons inscribed in this circle are to be regular. In order to avoid con¬ fusing the diagram, the vertices only of either set of polygons tices are 6/, hf bf hf, and the corresponding new vertices in the other circle are Bf Bf B^, Bf Next, the polygon of sixteen sides may be constructed, adding the new vertices l>i", bf,... bf in one circle and Bf, Bf,... B^' in the other. And so the process may be continued as far as desired, with, the result of fixing—in a perfectly definite way in each case— as many points as we please on one circle, and the correspond¬ ing points on the other. We are now able to define, for any point on one circle, its- corresponding point on the other. Let a point be given at pleasure on the circle of the argument, and also let an arc of the circle of the amplitude be stated in magnitude but not in Ag- i B, • are noted in the figure. (Fig. 4.) The trapezium inscribed in the circle of the amplitude is Ab, Fb,, and the square in the circle of the argument is XB1EB2. Next let an octagon be inscribed in each circle. A new ver¬ tex is now inserted be¬ tween each of the former vertices and the succeed¬ ing. In the circle of the amplitude these new ver- The Elliptic Functions Defined. 67 position;—merely a definite fraction of the circumference. We may then continue bisecting the arcs of the fcircle of the argu¬ ment, at the same time fixing on the other circle the points which correspond to these points of bisection, until one of two things must take place. Either one of the points of bisection falls on the given point, in which case its corresponding point is un¬ equivocally determined, or else two points of bisection will be found, containing the given point between them, and such that the arc of the circle of the amplitude, contained between their corresponding points, is less than the assigned arc. But this will be true, how small soever the assigned arc may have been. There is then a limiting position on the circle of the amplitude, corresponding to the given point on the circle of the argument. It may be remarked that to fix approximately the point cor¬ responding to a given point, with sufficient accuracy for a geometrical illustration, will not in general require many bisec¬ tions, for the circles within the circle of the amplitude, inscribed in the successive polygons, rapidly approach coincidence with the latter circle,—as a result of which fact, a point within an arc of this circle soon comes to divide the arc in sensibly the same ratio in which the corresponding arc of the circle of the argu¬ ment is divided by the corresponding point. Now let a point move on the circle of the argument with a uniform velocity, and in a positive direction of rotation, starting from the origin of arcs; and let a second point move on the circle of the amplitude, starting from its origin, and moving so that it always occupies the point corresponding to that occupied at the same instant by the former moving point; whence it is evident that its motion cannot be uniform, but will be more rapid in the first part of the semi-circumference than in the latter part. Then to any arc of the circle of the argument, be¬ ginning at the origin, corresponds an arc of the circle of the amplitude, beginning at its origin; viz.: they are the arcs traversed by the two points in the same interval of time. These arcs are denoted by 2m and 2x respectively, and the halves of •68 Colorado College Studies. these arcs, viz., u and x, are named respectively the argument and the amplitude. So that to find the amplitude correspond¬ ing to any given argument, we have first to double the latter, then to find the point on the circle of the amplitude correspond¬ ing to the termination of the donbled arc, and finally to bisect the arc included between the point so found and the origin. It is to be remarked that the argument, for which the cor¬ responding amplitude is thus found, is given as an arc of a circle 2K. whose radius (if we make R unity) has been taken to be — hence its circumference is 4K. In other words, the argument is supposed to be given, not in absolute value, but by its ratio to a constant, isT; just as an arc of the circle of unit-radius is often most conveniently given by its ratio to -. When the point moving on the circle of the argument has described the whole circumference 4K, so that u = 2K, the point on the circle of amplitude has also completed its circuit, and the relations of position between these points for all greater arcs are the same as for the arcs by which these exceed this respective circumfer¬ ences, hence the amplitude of 2nK + u exceeds by m: the am¬ plitude of u. But as on the one hand it is totally unnecessary to the foregoing construction to know the value of .K'^so con- Fig. s versely, the construction affords no means of det er- mining K. The considera¬ tions by which a definite value is assigned, though external to the main purpose of the present paper, will be indicated in a concluding paragraph. The fixed parts of the fig¬ ure, whose relation of mag¬ nitude is material to the construction, are only the circle of the amplitude and the radi- The Elliptic Functions Defined. 69- cal axis of tlie system; and accordingly, when the scale of the diagram has been fixed by choosing a value of R, there is but one independent constant which is required to determine its proportions that, namely, which fixes the position of the radi¬ cal axis. It has been found most convenient to define this posi¬ tion by means of the ratio of the diameter of the circle of the amplitude to the distance of its origin from the radical axis. AF This ratio, which is —^ in the figure, is denoted by and the quantity k is called the modulus. To turn from the fixed to the variable elements of the figure it is manifest that whatever is dependent on the magnitude of (f may also be regarded as depending on that of u. Thus the trigonometric functions of

(27 1 — k' sn-u sn-v , . cnu C71V snu snv dnu dnv en (u±v)= q p;—5 ^ . (28 i — k' sn'u sn'v The extraction of the square root, both here and in the previous solution of a quadratic equation in x, yields a double- valued result. But we may remove all ambiguity by considering, in the first place, that these formulas cannot be affected in sign by a change in the value of kf, as by making it approach zero; while secondly, for k = 0, the foregoing equations reduce to the trigonometric formulas for sin (m + i") and cos (n + v). The radical axis is in that case at an infinite distance, and all the circles are concentric. But the above arrangement of signs is that which occurs in the special case of the trigonometric for¬ mulas, and is therefore the right one in general. The same con¬ clusion might of course be reached by an examination of the figures, in detail. The Elliptic Functions Defined. 79 In order to deduce the formula for dn {u + v), let us con¬ sider another diagram, (Fig. 7), in which, in so far as the same letters are used as in the preceding, they stand for ^ the same things; viz., the double arguments and 2v terminate at U and V respectively, and these points correspond to P and to J. Let us name the arcs AP and AJ, 2

-, and if from this be taken ACJ' or 24, the remainder, ACS, is f — 4-_ Now c'T is r', but 80 Colorado College Studies. c'T = c'l + IT, ^ c'l + OS. c'l = a' cos — + <^'); r' = a'(cos^«> cos^A + sin^c sin9'') + ^(cos^^> cosv'' — sinf sin^'O) = (i? + a') cos

— (-R — a') sin f sin ;j.axd/jte^ TZoDAy.iz IJ-oi liy(ov Tov abzuv Xuyav^ <0? xpij ivdivoe dxdyztuv 'A{^ryyaiu)V ifxe diziiyai" : luTtfu." This explanation might help to make clear the voc. sing., which in the third declension is prevailingly like the stem; but it must fail to account for the nom., since the ques¬ tion arises at once how it happens that the nom. did not take the regular ending precisely as other iota-stems do, such as T:6kt-<;, d(>vap.:-(;, etc., which it will be observed are also feminines, and it further produces the grave difficulty of accounting for the dropping of both the digamma and the iota in the oblique cases where such a stem ought to give us a diphthong -oT-. It seems very likely that the real explanation may be found in supposing that these are really " yod"-stemsi that is, that the real final letter is the so-called iota which appears under a changed form in the so-called iota class of Greek Verbs, where the old Greek -iw appears in Sanskrit as -yd-. If this is the case, it may be possible to explain the whole paradigm. In the oblique cases this " yod " simply dropped, exactly as it did in Tjoe??,* Sanskrit trdy-as, and contraction took place precisely as *See Brugmann, Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indogermanischen Spraehen, Erster Band, §§129 and 130 Of. also §§ 117> 118, 119, etc. For verb forms see Muller's Handhuch der Klassisehen Altertums-Wissenschaft, Zwelter Band, §§ 123 and 124. 94 Colorado College Studies. in similar cases. For the voc. the following equation may be ventured upon: Voc. aaiztfoX : stem of aa-^'th : : voc. -j3od : stem of pou-<; that is, in each case the stem form is used for the voc. according to the regular rule; but the final elements (digamma* and " yod") are forced to pass into the corresponding vowels and so become part of a diphthong by the Greek law which prevents any consonant from being final, save v, p, ?. This rule is plain for the digamma: it may not be so clear for the "yod," as will be shown below. However, analogy is quite sufficient to estab¬ lish the equation and make this explanation hold good. The accent in both cases can be readily accounted for by the well- known Indogermanic law that the accent of vocatives is reces- sive.f The nom. remains te be accounted for. Professor Allen mentions the fact that the old form ended in -w. That this was the original form has been made clear by certain inscriptions, for example, those of the Corinthian dialect, of which a few have been found. In these inscriptions names of women appear in the nom., ending, as Cauer J writes them in -6 with t- subscript, which means of course that they were written in the old alphabet and ended in 01. Just here it may be noted that all other nouns of the third declension in Greek, except neuters, end in a consonant, either the regular ending -? or the final consonant of the stem with a lengthening of the stem vowel. If, then, the final iota of these old nominatives can be shown to be a " yod " or y, the form is a perfectly normal one ending in the consonant of the stem with the regular vowel lengthening to -u)-. This would account for the missing -? and make the form * That the stem of pov-^ is fiof-, in spite of Sanskrit gdu-s, appears from Lat. ho-s, gen. bov-is. Cf. Mailer's Handbuch, Zweiter Band § 24'. The fact that the dialects show lepvi for Upevc may be taken as evidence that ^aailevQ, etc., ought also possibly to be classed as digamma stems. See Gustav Meyer, Qriechische Grrammatik, Zweite Auflage, § 323. t See American Journal of Philology, Vol. IX, p. 16, Bloomfield, The Recessive Accent in Greek. t See Cauer, Pelectus Inscriptionum Grcecarum, p. 52. Note on the Handley-Allen Orammar. 95 plain. Later on, when -««! became -v in dative forms, etc., this "yod" would naturally drop altogether; for, while graphically the two endings were the same, phonetically they may be repre¬ sented as follows: Final -(i)l of final -wt of dat. oHuj ; : final 01 of olxoi : final of w is probably the weaker of the two,* being about equivalent to an English -y, while in the second case the -t is really a vowel. This explanation is sug¬ gested merely as a possible one which seems to meet the pecular difficulties of the case. These nouns were treated a few years ago in one of the German periodicals; but the writer of this note has never seen the article and it is not at present available. It only remains to be said that while such nouns as Sanskrit s6nd, voc. s6ne may throw some light on these formations, it seems rather doubtful on the whole. * See American Journal of Philoloyy, IX, 25. If it be true that the final -Ot of oiKoi is really -03', the reason for its being short in determining accent becomes clear at once. Moreover, in such lines as Horn. II. B. 136 at (5f nov yfieTcpai r' d?MXOC Kal vr/TTta TtKva it will not be necessary to fall back upon the ictus as a reason for the long final -at'? and-ot; but the final -t plus the following consonant being equal to -y plus a consonant will make position and so cause a long syllable. HISTORICAL NOTE ON THE DIFFERENTIATION OF A LOGARITHM. BY FLOKIAN CAJOEI. The preface of Olney's Calculus contains the following pass¬ age: "In conclusion I must do myself the pleasure to acknowl¬ edge my indebtedness to my accomplished colleague and friend, Prof. J. C. Watson, Ph. D., for the original, direct, and simple method for demonstrating the rule for differentiating a logar¬ ithm .... which banishes from the Calculus the last necessity for resort to series to establish any of its fundamental operations" Statements to this effect are also found in a few more recent American works on the Calculus. Dr. E. W. Davis has called my attention to the fact that a method of proving the rule for differentiating logarithmic expressions without resorting to infinite series is given in De Morgan's Calculus. I see that such a method is found also in John Eowe's "Introduction to the Doctrine of Fluxions," Fourth Edition, London, 1809. The first edition was printed in 1751. Doubtless other old books with similar methods of demonstration which do not involve infinite series can be found. The credit of first banishing from the Calculus " the last neces¬ sity of resort to series to establish any of its fundamental oper¬ ations " can, therefore, not be ascribed to Watson. A MATHEMATICAL ERROR IN THE CENTURY DICTIONARY. BY FLORIAN CAJOEI. The Century Dictionary, under the head of "Logarithm," gives a table in which are found the two left hand columns of numbers given below. The second column is wrong, all the numbers being too small by 61180956. The relation between Napier's and natural logarithms is expressed by the well- known formula, logjv « = 10' ^ • Calculating by this formula the logarithms of .1, 1, etc., we get the numbers in the columns on the right, which are the true Napier's logarithms. Napier's original publication, the Descrip- tio canonis of 1614, contained only logarithms of sines. The logarithms of the particular numbers given below can therefore not be found in the table. But by our formula we are able to reproduce the logarithms in Napier's tables, and we are, there¬ fore, sure that our calculated logarithmic figures in the column on the right are correct. For example, the sine of 44° 19' is given in Napier's table as 6986235 and its logarithm, 8586432. Quite the same logarithm is obtained by calculation by our formula. Again, the Century Dictionary gives a minus logar¬ ithm for 10\ while Napier's logarithms of all numbers below 10' are positive. Natural Napier's Logarithms, The true Napier's Numbers as given in 0. D. Logarithms. 0.1 123025851 184206807 1 100000000 161180956 IP 76974149 138155105 100 53948298 115129254 1000 30922447 92103403 10000 7896596 69077552 100000 —15129255 46051701 qOliOl^i^L)© (^OLitiEGE V^lorado 5prii}$S, Qolo. * I The College offers two courses, leading, respectively, to the degrees •of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Philosophy. In the Ph. B. Course, Greek is omitted and more attention is given to the science, and modern languages. The College has a good library and well equipped labora¬ tories. The various courses of study have now been so arranged and the faculty so enlarged that Colorado College offers the same educational facilities as the Eastern Colleges. For catalogues, address WILLIAM F. SLOCUM, Pees. The Cutler Academy, Under the auspices of the Colorado College, gives students a thorough preperation for admission to the Freshman class of any college in the country. Correspondence concerning the Cutler Academy should be addressed to the Assistant Principal, GEORGE L. HENDRICKSON. The location of the College is unsurpassed. Col¬ orado Springs has a ivorld-ivide reputation as a Students forced by pulmonary or malarial troubles to discontinue their studies in*the East, pursue college courses here successfully and at the same time make a permanent gain in health. A recent number of the Colorado School Journal speaks of this college town in the follow¬ ing words:" No point in our State ever combined as many advantages for the establishment, growth and greatness of a college as does Colorado Springs: It is manifestly the point about which scholars and students, men and women of culture, wealth, and leisure will reasonably gather." THIRD ANNUAL PUBLICATION. Colorado College h Studies. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. 1892. THIRD ANNUAL PUBLICATION. Colorado College Studies. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. 1892. Slil CT\^ t v/,3- Officers, 1892. President, William Stuieby Vice-Presidents, . Dr. A. T. Murray and Dr. W. P. Mustard Secretary, Florian Cajori Treasurer, Frank H. Loud PLACE OF MEETING, Palmer Hall, Colorado College Table of Contents. page The Etymologies in the Servian Commentary to Vergil, .... 1 Dr. W. p. Mdstard. Notes on Jefferson's Draft of the Ordinance of 1784, 38 W. M. Hall. Some Notes on Blaydes' Nubes, 42 Dr. a. T. Murray. On a Passage in Euripides' Iphigenia Taurica, 50 Dr. a. T. Murray. Draper's Barograph, 52 Florian Cajori. The Conditional in German, .55 Dr. S. Primer. ANNOUNCEMENT. The Colorado College Scientific Society has entered upon the third year of its existence, and hereby issues its third annual publication. It is the intention of the Society to in¬ clude in the publication for next year meteorological records obtained from self-registering instruments in the Physical Laboratory of Colorado College. The following is a complete list of the papers read at the monthly meetings of the Society during the past year. Sev¬ eral of the papers are printed in full in this pamphlet, while others have been or will be published elsewhere. October 13, 1891— The German Conditional, Dr. Sylvester Primer. Historical Sketch of the Study of Mathe¬ matics in the United States (published in Bibliotheca Mathematica, No. 3, 1891, Stockholm, Sweden) .... Florian Cajori. November 10, 1891— Notes on Jefferson's Draft of the Ordinance of 1784, W. M. Hall, , The Delphin Classics Dr. W. P. Mustard. December .5,1891— Dust, Douglas J. Carnegie. The Australian Ballot System, . . W. M. Hall. January 19,1892— A Review of Weissman's Theory of He¬ redity, Pres. Wm. F. Slocum. February 15,1892— Some Notes on Blaydes' Nubes, Dr. A. T. Murray. Helmholtz's and Koenig's Theories of Har¬ mony, Douglas J. Carnegie. March 29, 1892— Cold Winds of the Plains (Extract from a Paper prepared for the U. S. Weather Bureau), Frank H. Loud. Multiplication of Series (published in the Bulletin of the N. Y. Mathematical Society), Florian Cajori. Draper's Barograph, Florian Cajori. April 26,1892— Hypnotism, Marion M. Noyes. The Detection of Gas Leakage in House Plumbing, William Strieby. On a Passage in Euripides' Iphigenia Taurica, Dr. A. T. Murray. The Etymologies in the Servian Com¬ mentary to Vergil Dr. W. P. Mustard. May 16, 1892— The Rise of the New Psychology, . . F. R. Hastings. Actinomycosis or Lumpy Jaw, . H. C. Crouch, M. D. The Evolution of Criteria of Convergency (to be published in the Bulletin of the « N. Y. Mathematical Society), . . . Florian Cajori. THE ETYMOLOGIES IN THE SERVIAN COMMENTARY TO VERGIL. By- WILFEED P. MUSTABD. I.—Servius the Etymologist. The Roman philologists, from Aelius Stilo down,were much given to etymologizing. Some interesting specimens of early effort in this line are cited by Quintilian, Inst. or. I 6, 32-38, where some of the results of the principles recognized and employed by his predecessors are characterized in the words Hnde pravis ingeniis ad foedissima usque ludibria labuntur.' The vast number of etymological notes in the commentary to Vergil shows what a charm this fascinating study had for the grammarians of a later day.* In one or two points Servius shows a distinct improvement upon the methods of his prede¬ cessors, but he has not escaped all the faults of his age. His character as an etymologist may be inferred from the following summary. I. He makes free use of the principle that objects may be named from their contraries, xar av-itppaav^, applying it to the explanation of the following words: ardea, A. 7, 412; helium, A. 1,22; Charon, A. 6,299; Eumenides, A. 3,63; 6,250; 6, 375; G. 1, 278; lucus, A. 1, 22; 1, 441; lustrum, A. 1, 607; mactare, A. 4,57; manes, A. 1, 139; 3, 63; Parcae, A. 1, 22; G. 1, 278. This convenient principle, which Voss in his Ety- mologicon, v. lucus] called 'inane Orammaticorum commen- tum,^ had long been employed by the Greeks. Thsrt it was recognized from an early period at Rome is evident from Paulus, p. 88t: Militem Aelius a mollitia y-ara wj-i too Oecou) led to the spell¬ ing 'thus'. Cases of perverted meaning due to mistaken analogy are more numerous: see especially the notes on gur- gulio, indigetes, latrones, orichalcum, and postumus, quoted in the following pages. For the words indigetes and latrones Servius himself distinctly mentions popular etymologies; with these may be compared the comment on Aen 6, 392; sane Alciden volunt quidam a-d akxi;? dictum, id est a vir- tute: quod non procedit, quia a prima aetate hoc nomen habuit abAlcaeo,patreAmphitryonis. et scimus agnomina ab accidentibus dari. Adoeea, Aen. 10, 677, ' Turnus adoro' id est juxta veteres, qui adorare adloqui dicebant: nam ideo et adorea laus bellica, quo(tomnes eum cum gratulatione adloquebantur, qui in bellis fortiter fecit. •Corssen, Vol. I p. 102, u CoLOBADO College Studies. Aesculus, G. 2, 291, ab esu dicta. Amellus, G. 4, 278, Mella fluvius Galliae est, juxta quern haec herba plurima nascitur; unde et amella dicitur. Servius' explanation seems to have been suggested by Vergil's line, 'et curva legunt prope flumina Mellae'. See Wharton, Etyma Latina,p. 4, "amellus starwort: Gaulish for *ampellos ' loved by bees', fr. *ampis bee ( M spelt am, and p disappearing in Celtic: see Stokes, B. B. 9,194), cf. OHG. impi and gnat?" Aminneum, G. 2,97, aminneum vinum dictum est quasi sine minio, id est rubore; nam album est. et aliter: Amineos Aristoteles in politiis hoc scrihit Thessalos fuisse, qui suae^ reyionis vites in lialiam transtulerint, atque illis inde nomen inpositum. Amoenus, Aen. 6, 638, amoena autem quae solum amorem praestant, vel ut supra (ad Aen. 5, 374, sc.) diximus, quasi amunia, hoc est sine fructu, ut Varro et Carminius decent. Paulus, p. 2, says 'amoena dicta sunt loca, quae ad se amanda adliciant'. Isidore makes Verrius Flaccus derive« ' amoenus' from' munus', Varro from' amare'; orig. XIV 9,33: 'amoena loca dicta Varro ait eo quod solum amorem praestent et ad amanda adliciant: Verrius Flaccus, quod sine munere sint, nec quicquam in his ofl&cii, quasi amunia, id est sine fructu etc'. Ancile, Aen. 8, 664, ancile autem dicitur aut quasi undique circumcisum, aut quasi dn^iysiXov, id est undique labrum habens. Annus, Aen. 1, 269, annus autem dictus quasi anus, id est anulus, quod in se redeat, . . . vel d-o rou dvaveouaOat, id est ab innovatione. Antaeium, Aen. 11,156, sane hoc bellum 'antarium' vocari solitum, quod sit ante urbem, quasi ante aras. Apeicus, Aen. 6, 312, quasi drtp ^pixTj?, id est sine frigore ut diximus supra (ad Aen. 5, 128, sc.) cf. Paul. p. 2, apricum locum a sole apertum a Graeco vocabulo p. Fuecillae, G. 2, 389, nam 'cillere' est movere, unde et fur- cillae dictae sunt, quibus frumenta cillentur. Haeena, a. 1,172, quaeritur, habeat necne nomen hoc adspi- rationem. Et Varro sic definit si ab ariditate dicitur non habet, si ab haerendo, ut in fabricis videmus, habet. melior tamen est superior etymologia. Heeoas, B. 4, 35, quidam a terra dictos volunt, quod terra spa dicta sit, unde initio nati creduntur homines, qui nomen a matre traxerunt. Etymologies. 23 Inclita, a. 6, 781, inclita Graecum est: nam gloriosum dicunt. cf. Paul. p. 39, clutum Graeci -/dorow dicunt. Unde accepta praepositione fit inclitus. Indigenae, a. 8, 814; 8, 328, id est inde geniti, auzoxOovs?. iNDlGExfes, A. 12, 794, indigetes dii duplici ratione dicuntur: vel secundum Lucretium, quod nullius rei egeant, qui ait (11, 650 sc.) ' nihil indiga curae' . . . vel certe indigetes sunt dii ex hominibus facti, et dicti indigetes quasi in diis agentes. The fuller version adds: vel quod nos deorum indigeamus . . . , alii patrios decs indigetes did debere tradunt, alii ab invocatione indigetes dictos volunt, quod 'indigeto' estprecor et invoco. G. 1, 498, indigetes proprie sunt dii ex hominibus facti, quasi in diis agentes, abusive omnes generaliter, quasi nullius rei egentes. An incorrect form Indigens appears in a Pompeian in¬ scription, C. I. Ll. Vol. 1, p. 283, upon which the editor remarks: ' Indigens pro indiges hoc solo loco reperitur, ni fallor ex fabrili errato'. Infeeiae, a. 10, 519; 11, 81, inferiae sunt sacra mortuorum, quod inferis solvuntur. Insertas, a. 3,152, aut clatratas; aut non seratas, ut sit quasi insertas id est non clausas, et dictum quomodo . . . 'con- postus' pro 'conpositus' . . . vel 'insertas fenestras'' quas lumine sua luna inseruerat, ab inserendo, quod se per rimas insereret. Instaueata, a. 2, 15, 'instar' autem est ad similitudinem: unde non restaurata sed instaurata dicuntur aedificia ad antiquam similitudinem facta. cf. Paul. p. 79, instaurari ab instar dictum, cum aliquid ad pristinam similitudinem reficitur. Macrob. Sat^I 11, 5, . . . isque instauratitius dictus est, ... a rediutegratione, ut Varroni placet, qui instaurare ait esse instar novare. 24 CoLOKADO College Studies. 'Instaurare' may be cognate with 'instar', but is hardly derived from it. Involaee, a. 3, 233; G. 2, 88, involare dicimus intra volam tenere. See Volando. Ieeitum, a. 7, 421, in cassum id est in irritum: incassum autem tractum est a cassibus, id est a retibus. JuBAE, A. 4, 130, proprie 'jubar' lucifer dicitur, quod jubas lucis effundit: est autem lucifer interdum lovis: nam et antiqui 'juhar' quasi ^jtivar^ dicebant. JuNiPEE, B. 7,53, Verrius Flaccus juniperum juvenem pirum ait. A AO I, G. 1, 63, nam et Graece jiopuli/«'/( dicuntur a lapidi- bus. The resemblance between people and xaa? stone is implied in Hom. II. XXIV 611, Aaoo9 0£ AiOouv, id est a montibus. vates, a. 3, 443, vates a vi mentis appellatos, Varro auctor est. cf. Varr. L.L. VII 36, antiqui poetas Vates appellabanta versibus viendis. Venenum, a. 1, 688, venenum dictum quod per venas eat. a. 4, 2, quia per venas amor currit . . . sicut venenum. Vekbenae, a. 12, 120, qnidam sane veris proximi herbas verbenas dicunt. Bug. 8, 65, a viriditate verbenae appellantur. Vestibulum, a. 2, 469, vel quod ianuam vestiat, . . . vel quoniam Vestae consecratum est. A. 6, 273, vestibulum ut Varro dicit, etymologiae non habet proprietatem, sed fit pro captu ingenii: nam vestibulum, ut supra diximus, dictum ab eo, quod ianuam vestiat. alii dicunt a Vesta dictum per inmi- nutionem: nam Vestae limen est consecratum. alii dicunt ab eo, quod nullus illic stet; in limine enim solus est transitus: quomodo vesanus dicitur non sanus, sic vestibulum quasi non stabulum. Sulpicius Apollinaris, quoted with approval by Gellius XVI 5, derives vestibulum from ve stabulum, but gives a different force to the prefix. Nonius, p. 53, prefers this explanation to that from Vesta. victima, Aen. I, 334, victimae . . . sacrificia quae post vic- toriam fiunt. cf. Fest. Qu. XVI 25, p.*562, victimam Aelius Stilo ait esse vitulum ob eius vigorem. alii aut quae vincta ad- ducatur ad altare aut quae ob hostis victos immoletur. vipeea, G. 3, 4I6»quae vi parit. viega, A. 4, 242, dicta quod vi regat. viego, Buc. 3, 30; 6, 47, a viridiore aetate. 32 CoLOKADo College Studies. ViEOSA, G. 1, 58, dicta ab eo, quod est virus; alii fortia ac- cipiunt a viribus. vitula, Bug. 8, 30, a viridiore aetata dicta. A. 1, 533. Oraeci hoves hahw?, nos vitulos dicimus. VoLANDO, A. 6, 198, alii 'volando' ambulando dicunt: vela enim dicitur media pars pedis sive manus. cf. Non. Marc. p. 32, 31 M., involare est inruere, insilire, aut a volatu,aut a vela, id est media manu, dictum. PROPER NAMES. No part of a language allows freer play to popular etymol¬ ogizing than its proper names, for no part of a language is more difficult to explain. Servius himself appreciated in some measure the difficulty of this part of his task. On Aen. 7, 678, he says that it is not surprising that many conflicting explanations are offered for ancient Italian names, 'nam an- tiquitas ipsa creavit errorem'. On Aen. 1, 273, Daniel's Ser¬ vius quotes a great many explanations of the name 'Eoma'. These are prefaced by the remark: sed deorigine et conditore urhis diversa a diversis traduntur. Accordingly, many such words as Argiletum (Aen. 8, 345); Aventinus (Aen. 7, 657); Palatinus (Aen. 8, 51) are provided with several etymologies each. No attempt is here made to pronounce upon all Servius' explanations of proper names, but the following brief list will show most of the phases of popular etymologizing which are to be expected in an ancient commentary upon words of this class. "False etymologies are of themselves the fruitful causes of myths" (Sayce, Science of Language, Vol. II, p. 259). "The eponymous heroes from whom tribes and nations have been supposed to derive their names owe their existence to the same popular etymologizing etc." Ilbid.p. 247.'\ In our commentary myths are recounted ad nauseam, and the hero eponymous appears on almost every page. Sometimes these ancient tales are rejected as fabulous, and rational ex¬ planations inserted to replace them. Thus Servius explains I Etymologies. 33 away the stories of the origin of the Myrmidones (Aen. 2, 7), the strange birth of Orion (Aen. 1, 535), and of Minotaurus (Aen. 6, 14), the she-wolf that suckled Romulus and Remus (Aen. 1, 273), etc. In any language foreign words are especially liable to cor¬ ruption. cf. Paul. p. 13, ' Alumento pro Laumedonte a vete- ribus Romanis necdum adsuetis Graecae linguae dictum est. sic Melo pro Nilo, Catamitus pro Ganymede, Alphius pro Alpheo dicebatur'. See also Paul. p. 6 (v. Alcedo); p. 31 (v. Catamitum); p. 89 (v. Melo). If a language could repre¬ sent ravu,arjd7j? by Catamitus, -e/zdAij by Stimula, it is not sur¬ prising to find its ancient commentators offering numerous popular etymologies for its proper names—and especially for names of foreign origin—as they manfully tried to assign meanings to these unintelligible words by deriving them from words of similar sound. Many of these explanations are obviously suggested by well known peculiarities of climate, product, or character. Finally may be mentioned one or two examples of a ' per¬ verse ingenuity', which discovers a certain appropriateness in the names of some of the actors in the Aeneid. Not con¬ tent with the statement on Aen. 12, 391, "lapix, aptum nomen medico; nam iaaOai Graeci dicunt curare," Servius has two curious comments on Achates' name, on Aen. 1, 174 and 1, 312. For these see the first word in the following list. Achates, Aen. 1, 312, diximus quaeri, cur Achates Aeneae sit comes. Varia quidem dicuntur, melius tamen hoc fingi- tur, ut tractum nomen sit a Graeca etymologia. enim dicitur sollicitudo, quae regum semper est comes. Aen. 1, 174, adlusit ad nomen. nam achates lapidis spe¬ cies est: bene ergo ipsum dicit ignem excussisse. unde etiam Achatem eius comitem dixit. Acheeon, Aen. 6, 107, quasi sine gaudio. Acidalia, Aen. 720, Acidalia Venus dicitur vel quia inicit curas, quas Graeci axtda? dicunt, vel certe a fonte Acidalio qui est in Orchomeno 34 Colorado College Studies. Africa, Aen. 6, 812, . . . apricis, quasi arep "? finis vocatur. Hecate, Aen. 4, 511, quidam Hecaten dictam esse tradunt, quod eadem et Diana sit et Proserpina, and rwv ixazipwv: vel quod Apollinis soror sit, qui est ixarrjiSolos. Hyades, Aen. 1, 744, hyades stellae sunt in fronte tauri, quae quotiens nascuntur pluvias creant: unde et Graece Oddes dictae sunt and zou uecv, Latine suculae a suco . . . alii Etymologies. 35 dicTint hyadas dictas vel ab T littera vel drcd too id est sue, in cuius formatae sunt faciem. The same three ex- planations are given on G. 1, 188. Daniel's Servius adds on Aen. 1, 744, quidam hyadas ah Hyante fratre etc. of. Cic. N. D. II48, § 111; Tullius Tiro ap. Gell. XIII 9,4; Plin. N. H. XVIII 26, § 247. Ieis, Aen. 5, 606; 9, 2; Iris dicta quasi epi<;. Ianus, Aen. 7, 610, quidam lanum Eanum dicunt ah eundo. cf. Cic. N. D. II 27, 67, lanum . . . , quod ab eundo nomen est ductum. lovEM, Aen. 1, 47, lovem autem a iuvando dixerunt. See luppitee. luno, Aen. 1, 4, cum a iuvandp dicta sit luno etc. cf. Varr. L.L. Y 67, dicta quod una cum love iuvat, luno. Cic. N. D. II 26, 66, Sed lunonem a iuvando credo nomi- natam. luPPiTEE, Aen. 4, 688, 'luppiter' iuvans pater. cf. Cic. N. D. II 25, 64, sed ipse luppiter id est 'iuvans paterquern conversis casibus appellamus a iuvando lovem. Gell. V 12, 4, lovem Latini veteres a iuvando appellavere, eundemque alio vocabulo iuncto 'patrem' dixerunt. Nam quod est elisis aut inmutatis quibusdam litteris ' lupiter', id plenum atque integrum est' lovispater'. Kponos, Aen. 8,104, quasi Xpovo?. cf. Cic. N. D. II 25, 64, Kpovo? enim dicitur, qui est idem id est spatium temporis. Lenaeus, Aen. 4, 207; G. 2, 4, d-nd rod Itjvod. In each passage Servius rejects Donatus' explanation, mentioning him by name in the second: nam quod Donatus dicit ab eo, quod mentem deleniat, non procedit; nec enim potest Graecum nomen Latinam etymologiam recipere. Libee, Aen. 4, 688, a libertate. G. 1, 166, ab eo, quod liberet, dictus. 36 Colorado College Studies. G. 1, 7, quamvis Sahini Cererem Pandam appellent, Liberum Loehasium, didum autem, quia graece koifiij diciiur res divina. Libya, Aen. 1, 22, dicta autem Libya vel quod inde libs flat, hoc est africus, vel, ut Varro ait, quasi AIIIITIA, id est egens pluviae. Lupeboal, Aen. 8, 343, sub monte Palatino est quaedam spelunca, in qua de capro luebatur, id est sacrificabatur: unde et lupercal non nulli dictum putant. alii quod illic lupa Remum et Romulum nutrierit: alii, quod et Ver- gilius, . . . ergo ideo et Evander deo gentis suae sacravit locum et nominavit lupercal, quod praesidio ipsius nu- minis lupi a pecudibus arcerentur. Maenala, G. 1, 17, mons Arcadiae, dictus 'i~o twv iJ.rpMv^ id est ab ovibus, quibus plenus est. Meecueids, Aen. 4, 638, quod mercibus praeest. Aen. 8,138, alii Mercurium quasi Alediciirrium a Latinis didum volunt, quod inter caelum et inferos semper intercurrat. hie etiam mercimonii deus est. cf. Arnob. Ill 32, Mercurius etiam quasi quidam Medi- currius dictus est. « For a curious explanation of this word see Wilmanns, De Terent.Varr. Libris, pj. 175: 'Mium et commir- cium per I antiquis relinquamus, apud quos aeque et Mircurius per I dicebatur, quod mirandarum esset rerum inventor, ut Varro dicit'. ntlus, Aen. 9, 30; G. 4, 291, dictus quasi viav iUov, hoc est novum limum trahfens. Pan, Buc. 2, 31, deus rusticus, in naturae similitudinem for- matus, unde et Pan dictus est, id est .omne etc. cf. Hom. Hymn. XVIII 47, Ilava 3i jxtv xakisaxov, vTC (ppiva Ttaaw ersptl's. Poeninae, Aen. 10,13, loca quae rupit (Hannibal sc.) Poeni- nae Alpes vocantur. quamvis legatur a Poenina dea etc. Peaeneste, Aen. 7, 678, locus dictus a-o rSxv T.pivwv, id est ab ilicibus. Aen. 7, 682, Cato dicit quia is locus montibus praestet. Etymologies. 37 PeOMETHEUS, Buc. 6, 42, ai:d t^9 T:poii-qOetavyeiai^ did not come from the easy Nothing is gained by Blaydes' adoption of (toI? r.oaC) and he will find no followers. Kaehler's 4'^yj'^'^oii (proleptic) is worth noting. It is characteristic that while Blaydes gives in his text, we read in the commentary "■ 4''jxsiraT()i i^sarai, deupo tov vouv ~p(>ai)rste. So the MSS. and TeufiP. (Kaehler). Kock and Mein. follow Bentley in reading Tcpoa'^sTs. Dindorf and Blaydes -pdaa'/sTs^ in order to avoid the tribrach in the fourth dipody. Blaydes brings forward a number of passages to show that the verb is not exclusively in the present tense. These are worth examining; what he does not tell us is, that in every case cited from Aristoph. the best MSS. have the present. Of the sixteen passages he cites, Nub. 685, Eq. 1014, Pax 174, Thesm. 25, 881, Plut. 118, Pherecrat. II 840, Cratin. II 189, Antiph. Ill 29, Alex. Ill 508, may be dismissed off hand as giving simply npuas'/e rdv vouv, generally in trimeter, and without a variant. In Nub. 1122 (Trochaic tetram.), Eq. 508 (anapaestic tetram.), Vesp. 1015 (anapaestic tetram.), Av. 688 (anapaes¬ tic tetram.) and in the present passage, the MSS. agree in giving(In Vesp.1015 /'^have'r/}ov «■£ dijtrw tw SbXw. Eq. 1049 is interesting; there the MSS., (R. excepted, which has ^xiX,£uae) have, TOOTOVt drjfTat G TZt^xirtGopiyYia The preposition is found in the quotation in the Etym. Mag. p. 346, 18. Evidently the scribes mistook IxlUo iv for ixiXsusv, and then the v was lost before the consonant. From this analogy may be expected in our phrase; so Sauppe, Dind., Kock, Mein. and Elmsley on Ach. 343. I am inclined, however, with Teuff. and Kaehler, to regard the dative as causal. Vss. 743 ff.— ey' dTpip.a xav dizopfji ti twv vorjpATwv^ d~sXde x-aza zrjv yvwprjv rtdXiv xivrjaov avdi^ auzb xai Zoywdpirrov. The variants*are dzpipa?, many MSS., and ndXac for TzdXiv R.S.V. R. has also xaza for xaza. The passage can hardly be sound as it stands, although it is kept by Bergk, Dind., Mein., Teuff. Bergk suggested xai 48 CoLOEADO College Studies. xara for xara^ but that does uot satisfy, for the phrase xivsiv rd v6rj!J.a xard TY/v yi/w/xr/v is strange enough. Blaydes quotes the suggestion with approval. Meineke proposes rfj yxd'/j.rj or a5 au, (for auro), of which the latter is certainly not to be accepted, as there is no stress upon the pronoun. The former, t&d. already been suggested by Keiske and is, I think rightly, accepted by Kock and Kaehler. vuvj/ia tj" yxm/xyj xtveXv is not tautological. Blaydes objects, "quum xivuv ty^'x yvmixY^v bene dicatur, non item xi>£r» voYjrxa" after which it is strange to read in the commentary "ty/v yvmixYfj xAvY^aov—nisi corrigendum rj yvmiiri—xivY/trov^-mente id (to voYj/xa) agita"! Blaydes further adopts y^v d" for xdv to avoid a difficulty which is only apparent, as d-£)M refers to a different activity and does not contradict the e/ drpi/xa. Again in vs. 745 he reads auzu re, assigning to xvxy/ito-x and Zuywf^piauv different objects. The sense is good but the change is needless, and the re solitarium should not needlessly be foisted into trimeters. Not satisfied with this, he offers the choice between auro re, xai rdya^ xai Ytdhv, xwjrixa, aurixa re, elra de. Accepting Reiske's tj yvmpYj^ I think the passage is sound without further change. Vs. 823.—xai (Tin s, and para¬ phrases thus: "Infelices, qui ipsi aliquando felices fuerunt, felicioribus se non bene volunt." He is followed by Dindorf, Nauck, Paley, and Jerram, (of the editions I have at hand). Schoene and Flagg keep the zaztS?, which Schoene explains as causal,—"weil sie unglilcklich geworden sind." That seems, however, impossible. Nor will many follow Wecklein in reading roXat SuirTu.xsirripotg and zazd)?, and interpreting, "Die Unglucklichen meinen es nicht gut mit den noch Ungluck- licheren wenn sie selber Leid erfahren haben." The objection to Seidler's rendering is, to my mind, two¬ fold. In the first place, we need a -ori or Tzddai-, so that Dindorf's nd?.at xa/.wr et> npd^av-sr, and secondly, in what respect are Orestes and Pylades more fortunate than Iphigenia? They had been, it is true, but now that they are brought face to face with death, their lot is not an enviable one. If in Iphigenia's eyes death was preferable to her state, it was an alternative she could at any time have chosen. The reference must*be to those who have been more fortu¬ nate but who have fallen into adversity, (as have Orestes and Pylades). The envy and bitterness caused by their for¬ mer good fortune steel the hearts of the dLxrruxsXi against them. On Eurip. Iph. Taur. Vss. 351 If. 51 Hence KirchofF, (followed by England), would read aunn? xazto? Tzpd^aiTtv. But why the abroi referring to the has its proper force, but a'^ror? is more than super¬ fluous with Tirt(nv ebTU}(e(Trif>o'.?. I feel certain, therefore, that we are nearer the truth in reading; (>l SufTTfj^et'^ yap roliTtv ebrw/^efTTipoi'^ dray xaxw^ Tzpd^axTtv od tppoyoTxriv ey. The abzoi may have been added by some scribe who mis¬ took the subject of Ttpdztuatv and wished to make the reference clearer. When once abzoi had crowded out ozav the subj. would naturally be changed to the participle. DRAPER'S BAROGRAPH. By FLORIAN CAJOHI. The description of Draper's Barograph in the Scientific American Supplement, No. 209, 1880, contains the following passage: "Heat has a slight effect on them (the springs), causing them to lengthen about iV of an inch for 90 degrees Fahr.; .... Other wise this instrument gives the correction for temjjerature (or reduction to 32 degrees) from the fact that it iveighs the mercury instead of measuring its length, tvhich is affected by heat."''' This statement appears to be considered correct, for we are told that in the use of Draper's Barograph no corrections are made for variations in tempera¬ ture of the mercury. It is the object of this paper to point out that the state¬ ment quoted in italics is erroneous. The instrument in question consists of a tube 36 inches long, the upper portion being of larger diameter than the lower. The tube is held firmly in a fixed position and filled with mercury. Its lower end dips into a movable cistern which is suspended on two spiral springs. When the atmospheric pressure diminishes, part of the mercury flows from the tube intodhe cistern; this becoming heavier, stretches the steel springs, causing the ink pencil fastened to them to mark downwards. If the pressure increases, the opposite movement takes place. The error referred to can be established by the following reductio ad absurdum: All the mercury in the instrument is supported by the movable cistern except that which is in the fixed tube above the surface of the mercury in the cistern. Now, if we suppose the atmospheric pressure to be constant, but the temperature of the mercury to vary (the temperature of the springs remaining the same), then, if the quoted state¬ ment is correct, the cistern should neither rise nor fall, else Draper's Barograph. 53 the instrument would wrongly indicate a change of atmos¬ pheric pressure. If the cistern does not move, it supports the same weight as it did before the change of temperature. Hence the mercury in the fixed barometric tube extending from the surface of the mercury in the cistern upwards, must have the same weight as it had before. This weight is in part balanced by the atmospheric pressure and in part rests upon the fixed tube at the place near its upper end where it be¬ comes suddenly broader. The atmospheric pressure, being assumed constant, supports the same weight of mercury as before; hence the fixed tube likewise supports the same weight as before. But the tube supports always a definite and constant percentage of the entire mass of mercury in the broad part. Hence mercury cannot pass in either direction between the broad and narrow parts of the tube, for such a passage would alter the total amount of mercury in the broad end. and also the portion upheld by the tube. If these de¬ ductions are true, then mercury in the narrow part of the tube cannot expand when the temperature rises, since it is impossible for the mercury to pass either into the wider part of the tube above or into the cistern below. The statement quoted at the beginning must therefore be wrong, for it leads to an absurdity. A change of temperature in the mer¬ cury, the pressure of the atmosphere remaining constant, does affect the reading of the instrument. What actually takes place during a rise of temperature, at constant pressure, may be briefly indicated as follows: The mercury in the narrow tube begins to expand down wards as well as upwards, causing a small amount to escape into the cistern. The increase in the mass of the liquid in the cistern, together with the lengthening of the steel springs, due to the rise in temperature, will thereupon cause the cistern to fall. By the several readjustments the mercury column supported by the atmospheric pressure is lengthened to such an extent as to make the weight qf the new column supported by the atmos¬ pheric pressure equal to the weight of the old one, which was shorter on account of the greater density of the mercury at a lower temperature. There is now less mercury than be- 54 Colorado College Studies. fore in the wide part of the fixed tube and more of it in the cistern. Hence, a rise in temperature of the mercury tends to make the instrument read too low. With the aid of somewhat elaborate equations the writer has calculated that for a rise of 45 degrees Fahr. in the mercury (at constant atmospheric pressure) the cistern will fall about .174 inches. According to the figures in the S. A. S. No. 209, the springs will stretch about .03 inches, making an aggregate depression of .204 inches for 45 degrees, and thereby causing the atmospheric pressure to appear .048 inches lower than it actually is. An experiment with the barograph at Colorado College caused the cistern to fall .211 inches for a rise of 45 degrees Fahr. The experimental and the calculated figures are in fairly close agreement. The conclusion then is that Draper's Barograph reads too low for temperatures above the standard temperature and too high for temperatures below the standard. It is not ■uf- ficient to make corrections for the stretching of the springs, for the errors arising from variations of temperature in the mercury are over five times greater. It has been the practice to compare the barograph, from time to time, with a standard barometer, but the results are not satisfactory. Suppose comparisons are made at 12 m. It is easy to adjust the barograph so that it will indicate very nearly the same atmospheric pressure as does the barometer at noon, except on days when the temperature varies widely from the average noon temperature. But what about the barograph readings in the morning before sunrise, when the temperature is much lower? Will the barograph then not in¬ dicate a pressure altogether too high? Suppose the tempera¬ ture in the early morning be 10 degrees less in the barograph case than it is at noon, then if the barograph reads correctly at noon, it will read nearly .02 of an inch too high in the morning. This is a serious error. If tables be constructed for temperature corrections in Draper's Barograph, it will not be difficult to use the barograph independently of a standard barometer and to secure results of much greater accuracy than those obtained at present. THE CONDITIONAL IN GERMAN. By SYLVESTER PRIMER. Two opinions obtain in regard to the origin of the two so-called conditional modes in German, ich wuerde loben, ich wuerde gelobt haben, the one advanced by Jacob Grimm in his Deutsche Grammatik, 4,183 fif., the other first proposed by Vernalaken, Deutsche Syntax, II, 283 ff., which soon found favor with others. However, these two opinions are not so opposed that they cannot be considered complements to each other. In O.H.G. the Latin Imperfect, Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctives were expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive (wari, etc.); the Latin Perfect Subjunctive was also expressed by the Present Subjunctive. The M.H.G. added a Perfect form (Compound of the Present), but the Imperfect was not limited to the expression of the Latin Imperfect Indicative or Subjunctive, for it still retained its old Perfect force. Thus the Imperfect finally expressed the Latin Imperfect proper and the Aorist Perfect, while the Compound of the Present (bin gewesen) expressed absolute past time. The result was a loss in the differentiation of the Imperfect and Aorist, but a gain in that of the Aorist and Perfect. Right here the Ro¬ mance Languages excel the German and Latin, for they have three tenses (j'6tais, je fus, j'ai etc.). If, then, for the Indicative the differentiation between the Aorist and Perfect was more important and essential than that of the Imperfect and Perfect, the exact opposite was true with regard to the Subjunctive, where there is little to narrate, but a clearer dif¬ ferentiation of incomplete and complete past time is essential. Grimm therefore argues that the Imperfect Subjunctive could not suffice for the Imperfect tense, since there were un¬ avoidable encroachments of the simple Preterite (Aorist) upon the Present on account of the wearing away of the form of 56 CoLOKADo College Studies. the Present Subjunctive. The result of this was a new peri¬ phrasis, by means of which all modern German Languages have enlarged their Subjunctive by one more tense than the Indicative. This is called the Conditional, in imitation of the Romance Grammarians. The auxiliaries forming the future also serve in the German Languages for this Periphrastic Conditional, and its signification is just the same as in the Romance Languages. It cannot, according to Grimm, have arisen earlier than the Periphrastic Future. This conditional idea, says Grimm further, was at first ex¬ pressed by soUen, and still is in dialects where sollen is'used for the future (cf. Netherl. zaiide, Engl, should and would, Swed. skulle, Dan. skulde). Mid.H.G. also uses solde and icolde in the same sense. A Mid.H.G. wuerde with the Infini¬ tive is just as unheard of in the poets of the 13th cent, as the present tense-form loirde as periphrastic future. In the llth and 15th cent, isolated examples are found: louerdent schacizen {aestimarent), Ls. 1,15, and in the 16th cent, wuerde sagen is as common in the language as iverde sagen. The Subjunc¬ tive forms sollte and wollte, which had become less clear be¬ cause they lacked the umlaut, is easily recognizable in imierde; it must therefore be considered a Subjunctive tense and not Indicative. Furthermore this periphrastic form coincides with the sim¬ ple Preterite Subjunctive in its signification. The Mid.H.G. disiu zuht gienge billicher ueber mich,lw. 1678, nor im genaese niemen, Ben. 380, corresponds to a Mod.H.G. wuerde ergehen, wuerde genesen, though the simple tense may still be used, as in Mid.H.G. might have been said, solde gan. Both tenses, the simple and periphrastic, thus compete according to cir¬ cumstances, as in the Indicative gieng and ist gegangen. But gienge has a broader field and in many-cases cannot be re¬ placed by wuerde gehen, while gienge can almost always re¬ place wuerde gehen. Wuerde gehen, wuerde lieben never have optative force, and are thus differentiated from the passive periphrastic form of the Preterite Subjunctive, which is not to be placed on the same footing with it and was present much earlier in the language. Wuerde uf getan (aperire- The Conditional in German. 57 tur), Iw. 12B4, and similar expressions are found everywhere in the 13lh cent, and earlier, never nnicrde tif tiion (aperiret), and the orij^in of the perixjhrasis of the two is different. Wucrde aufgcthan fills quite the role of the Preterite Sub¬ junctive and has optative force. A passive conditional ac¬ quires further periphrasis by inierde aufr. Elimination gives x=p cos +¥ sin j''—2S{x^+ij-)+2rp.x+{p-—i'')y=0, x^+xy-+2rj (x''+y'} + {p'—r^)x—2rp.y=0-, (and from these as general forms the special cases already considered are derived by making p or r equal to zero.) All the comitants of a series pass through the origin, and have there a common tangent. This tangent, however, for the aj-series, is no longer the real axis, but has a slope of 21* p — i' so that in the loci in which p=±r, the common r"— p' tangent coincides with the imaginary axis. The infinite branches of the comitants are not conchoidal, but serpen¬ tine, crossing their asymptote (which is still parallel to the real axis, and at a distance 2? therefrom) at a point distant by ———— from the imaginary axis. In the case of the comitant zero, this crossing is at the origin, and the serpentine curve is symmetrical to that point as a center, thus belonging to the Newtonian species numbered 38. But as ? increases from the value 0, the successive comitants, no longer possessing any kind of symmetry, belong at first to the species 37, as they have no oval and no singularity. There is, however, the same gradual closing into the form of a narrow-necked purse, already observed in the case r=0, and the comitant p is again nodate, so belonging to the 34th species. For still greater values of f, the curve is( of species 33, having an oval, which, as in all cases, shrinks to a point at the origin as ? becomes infinite, the serpentine branch in the meantime straightening toward coincidence with its asymptote. The node on the a:-comitant p is at that point of the locus for which y=0; and it may be re¬ marked, as true of all forms of the locus, that the four points characterized by zero values of one or the other co¬ ordinate are double points of the comitants of opposite name on which they fall. Very slight and obvious modifications are alone required > to adapt the first method given in the present paper for the construction of comitants, to use with any given values of r and p. ON THE EIGHT LINES USUALLY PREFIXED TO HORAT. SERM. I. 10/ By WILFEED P. MUSTAED. The eight lines usually prefixed to Horace, Satires, I. 10 are found only in some of the mss. of Keller and Holder's third class. They are unknown to the mss. of classes I and II, and to z and the whole Btt family of class III. They were apparently unknown to the Scholiasts, who would surely have considered them obscure enough to require some explanation. Mavortius did not know them. In Fl' and some other mss. they appear as the be¬ ginning of satire 10, while in /S/^np they form a continua¬ tion of satire 9. On this external evidence almost all the editors have condemned the lines as an interpolation, and either marked them off by brackets or omitted them altogether.^ They appear as part of the text in Zarotto's Milan edition, in the first and second Aldine editions, and in the Paris edition by R. Stephanus. But even in the fifteenth cen¬ tury Landino rejected them, and most of the older editors followed his example. Some editors have separated them from the text but prefixed them to the satire, others have printed them separately in their commentaries, while many have omitted them altogether. Thus they do not appear in ten of the Venice editions (for the omission in the first eight Landino was responsible), in Bentley's,Wake- field's and some twenty others. Lambin ascribes them to some ' semidoctus nebulo' who wished to explain the open- ^ This paper offers no new theory as to the meaning, authorship or date of these obscure lines. It is%ierely an attempt to collect and arrange the various opinions that have been expressed with regard to them. 21 owe the greater part of the facts presented in this and the following para¬ graph to Kirchner's edition of the first book of the Satires (Leipzig, 1854), p. 142. 32 CoLOEADo College Studies. ing word 'nempe.' Jacobus Cruquius barely mentions them in his commentary as the words of a 'simius Hora- tianus.' Bentley omits them without mention. Others have defended the lines. Gesner restored them. Valart thought they were the work of Horace. Heindorf, followed by Bothe and others, thought that Horace had written them as an introduction to this satire but after¬ wards threw them aside and commenced in a different tone; or that they were an unfinished introduction to some satire discovered after his death and, with the addition of the expletive words 'ut redeam illuc,' prefixed to Sat. I. 10, on account of the similarity of subject. Jo; Val. Francke proposed to insert them after verse 51 of this satire, Reisig after verse 71. Morgenstern held that Horace had written the lines, but afterwards rejected them. Schmid' virtually said that they were the work of Horace. Apitz^ ascribed them to Horace, but bracketed verse 8. Urlichs® said that the old question is really one of sub¬ jective feeling as to what is worthy or unworthy of Horace. He thought the lines genuine, though he admitted their obscurity and considered the text corrupt. Doderlein found nothing seriously objectionable in the lines, and was quite certain of their genuineness. He maintained that the fact that they are not found in many mss. does not prove them spurious; this might be the result of chance, or even of a recension by Horace himself. W. Teuffel's® verdict was similar to Morgenstern's. The text of these obscure lines is very corrupt. The mss. of most importance for determining the original reading are FA'/?'. F, the principal representative of the large third class, is the assumed common source of the ^ gemelU Parisini,'

7971; A' the archetype of a similar pair, I Leidensis and 1 Parisinusj /S' that of /? Bernensis and f Franckeranus (now Leeuwardensts). ^Philol. XI. pp. 54-59. ^Coniectan. in Q. H. F, Satiras (Berlin, 1856), p. 86. ^ Rkein. Mns. XI. p. 602. ^Rhein. Mus. XXX. p. 621. Horat. Serm. I. 10 (1-8). 33 These mss. agree very closely, and establish the text as follows: Lucili, quam sis mendosus, teste Catone defensors tuo pervincam, qui male factos emendare parat versus, hoc lenius ille quo melior vir est, longe subtilior illo qui multum puer et loris et funibus udis exoratus, ut esset opem qui ferre poetis antiquis posset contra fastidia nostra, grammaticorum equitum doctissimus. ut redeam illuc, " How full of faults you are, Lucilius, I shall clearly prove from the testimony of Cato, your champion, who is preparing to revise your ill made verses. He will deal more gently with them inasmuch as he is a better man, of far finer tastes, than the scholar who in his boyhood felt the vigorous persuasion of moistened thong and rope, in order that there might be one who could lend a helping hand to the poets of old against the carping criticism of our day, the cleverest of aristocratic grammarians. To re¬ turn to that point," notes on the text. Vs.l. ^quod sis' {codd.plerique ap. Lamb.). Some of the abbreviated forms of 'quam' and 'quod' in minuscular writing are very much alike.' Unless very carefully written these words might be readily confused, and so 'quod' may have appeared here. When once it had appeared in a ms. it might easily be retained because of its use in late Latin to introduce substantival clauses after 'verba dicendi et sentiendi.® Vs. 2. 'convincam' {edfLandini ex mss.) for 'pervin¬ cam,' which as the more difficult reading should be re¬ tained. One ms. {Kirchneri cod. L in Dresd. III.) gives 'devincam.' Peerlkamp suggested 'prope vincam.' Fs. 4. 'quo melior vir est.' This is the reading of the most important mss. The false quantity in 'vir' has 'Chassant, Dictionnaire des abreviations^ latines et francaises, Paris. 1876, p. 77. sDraeger, Hist. Syntax der latein. Sprache^ Vol, xl, p. 229. 34 CoLOEADO College Studies. given rise to many attempts at improving the line. Thus one ms. has 'quo vir melior est,' another 'quo vir est melior,' a third 'quo est vir melior,' while several read 'est quo vir melior.' The last arrangement of the words gives undue emphasis to 'est.' Lambin conjectured 'quo melior is est,' and the Mariinius of Cruquius, the only one of his mss. that contained these eight lines, had 'quo melior hie est.' But there are pronouns enough already in 'ille . . . illo.' Several mss. had 'quo melior vir et est longe subtilior.' Meineke defended this hyperbaton for 'quo melior vir est et longe subtilior,' appealing to Sat. I. 8, 68; I. 4, 68; I. 9, 51. This, however, gives the impossible combination 'quo longe subtilior.' Heindorf found 'adest' in Berol. 5 and accepted it. Fs. 5. 'puer et.' The obscurity of this line has given rise to several emendations: 'puer est' (Gesner); 'pueros' (Urlichs); 'puerum est' (Reisig); 'nuper' (Rutgers); 'fuerit' (Praedicow, who also read 'quem' and 'exhorta- tus'); 'pueros' (Nipperdey®). W. TeuffeP" suggested 'me olim' for 'multum' and defended 'olim' by a reference to Sat. I. 4, 105. T's. 6. ' exoratus' is confirmed by the number and im¬ portance of the mss. in which it is found. The other mss. readings 'exortatus' and 'exhortatus' are only pos¬ sible with ' puerum' in the preceding line, for there is very little authority for the active form or passive meaning of 'exhortor.' In any case the omission of 'est' is a diffi¬ culty, and hence, apparently, Peerlkamp's conjecture 'est hortatus.' The conjectures 'exornatus' (Glareanus) and 'est ornatus' (Valart) are obviously suggested by such ex¬ pressions as ' adeo exornatum dabo, adeo depexum, ut dum vivat, meminerit mei.'" Horkel apparently wanted a good strong word after 'loris et funibus,' and settled upon 'ex- coriatus,' which Meineke and Schutz approve. " Opusc. 493. ^"Bhein. Mus. XXX. p. 622. " Ter. Heaut. 5,1, 77. Hoe at. Seem. I. 10 (1-8). 35 Fss. 4-6. In the Rheimsches Museum fur Philologie, XLI. pp. 552-556, F. Marx offered the following emen¬ dation: • —hoc leniuB ille, quo melior veisu est, longe eubtilior illo qui multum puerum et loris et funibus ussit exoratus,— His explanation and defense of these changes are given below. COMHEENTAKY. In the very first verse there is evidence of the spurious nature of this fragment, for (1) the promise 'quam sis mendosus, teste Catone, pervincam' is not fulfilled, and (2) the sentiment is unlike Horace. In the tenth satire he defends the opinion he had pronounced upon Lucilius in Sat. I. 4, but with full recognition of his peculiar merits, and elsewhere he very modestly claims for himself a lower place than for his predecessor.'® "To Lucilius he pays also the sincerer tribute of frequent imitation. He made him his model, in regard both to form and substance, in his satires; and even in his epistles he still acknowledges the guidance of his earliest master." " 'Teste Catone.' The Cato here referred to is the gram¬ marian Valerius Cato, who is mentioned in Suetonius" as 'poetam simul grammaticumque notissimum,' 'summum grammaticum optimum poetam,'' Cato grammaticus, latina Siren.' Another section of Suetonius tells of Cato's in¬ terest in the works of Lucilius, 'quas (sc. Lucili saturas) legisse se apud Archelaum Pompeius Lenaeus, apud Philo- comum Valerius Cato praedicant.'" Those who see in the person here compared with Cato the 'plagosum Orbilium' of Horace, Epp. II. 1, 70, assume that the writer of these lines knew that epistle, which is 12 Sat. II. 1, 29, *me pedibus delectat claudere verba, Lucili ritu, nostrum melioris utroque.' Mid. 74, *quicquid sum ego, quamvis infra Lucili censum ingeniumque.' 13 Seller, The Roman Poets of the Republic^ 3d ed., 1889, p. 249. 1^ Dc G^ramm. 4 and 11. 13 De Gramm. 2. 36 Colorado College Studies. assigned by Vahlen to B. C. 14. Suetonius, de gramm. 11, says of Cato, 'vixit ad extremam senectutem,' so that ' emendare parat' might be literally true if the lines were genuine. Marx claims that the words need mean only 'emendare studet, emendationi operam dat, emendaturus est,' comparing Juv. 8, 130, 'per oppida curvis unguibus ire parat nummos raptura Calaeno.' Moreover, he main¬ tains, the author of these lines pronounces upon the whole recension of Cato, implying that it was already finished, so that they were not necessarily composed in the time of Horace. Keller objects even to the sentiment of 'teste Catone' that (1) Horace required no one's authority to confirm his opinion of Lucilius, and (2), in view of Epp. I. 19, 39-40, it is not likely that he would have appealed to the author¬ ity of any grammarian.'® This he regards as another evi¬ dence of interpolation. Fs. 3. Some editors punctuate with a period after 'versus,' and another after 'doctissimus,' verse 8. With this punctuation 'hoc' would most naturally be taken as accusative after a finite verb understood. It seems better to point with commas and supply such a participle as 'facturus,' taking 'hoc' as the ablative corresponding to 'quo.' Fs. 4 is certainly corrupt. (a) It is strange that 'melior' should be given as a reason for 'lenius.' It must have been this diflBculty that gave rise to the variant 'lenior.' Cato's moral character is not at all concerned. All that is required of him is ability to correct metrical errors and halting sense in Lucilius' verses, defects which had probably been multiplied even in his day by mistakes of the copyists. Nor does 'sub- tilior' suit 'lenius,' for Lucilius' verses are 'male facti.' (h) There is a false quantity in 'vir.'" '"'non ego, nobilium scrjptorum auditor et ultor, grammaticas ambire tribus et pulpita dignor.' . "The Italian dialects show that the 'i' in 'vir' was once long (eeir): cp. Buecheler, Lex. Ital. p. 30. Horat. Serm. 1.10 (1-8), 37 (c) ' Longe subtilior' is irregular. " Cicero and the older writers did not use ' longe' to strengthen the comparative, though it appears in poets of a later age and in the more recent historians."" Wolflinn" says that Horace kept strictly to the old rule of 'multo' with the comparative, using 'longe' only in one anomalous case. He would therefore not have written 'longe' here instead of its met¬ rical equivalent 'multo,' and its use is one proof of the spurious nature of these eight lines. (d) ' Hie' and ' illo,' ending consecutive lines and refer¬ ring to different persons, are strange and confusing as to meaning. Suetonius rejected a certain prose epistle which purported to have been written by Horace, 'epistula etiam obscura, quo vitio minime tenebatur'.™ He would scarcely have found the transparency of genuineness in verses 3-4. To avoid the difficulties in 'lenius' and 'ille . . . illo' Schiitz would strike out the two half-lines and read 'emendare parat versus subtilior illo." Vs. 5. If the genuineness of verse 4 may be questioned on the ground of obscurity, still more objectionable is verse 5. It seems impossible to explain this and the fol¬ lowing lines in their best attested form. For example, who is the person compared with Cato? (а) Because Horace says, Epp. II. 1, 70, that he studied the poems of Livius Andronicus in his boyhood under the ' plagosus Orbilius,' many editors have made ' qui puer . . . exoratus' refer to the poet himself. It may be doubted whether Horace would have thus spoken of himself, but a greater difficulty awaits us inverse 8, 'equitum doctissimus.' These words most naturally refer to the same person as 'qui . . . exoratus,' and Horace was not an 'eques.' (б) Eeisig, who reads 'puerum . . . exhortatus,' makes 'puerum' refer to Horace, 'qui' to Orbilius. But to this Schtitz objects that 'puerum' would be too indefinite with¬ out ' istum' or iillum.' i^Hand, Tursellinusy III. p. 551. Comparationy p. 40. ^Horatii Poetae Vita. 38 CoiiOEADO College Studies. Schmid" also read 'qui . . . puerum . . . exhortatus,' re¬ ferring ' qui' to Orbilius. W. TeufifeP refers' puerum' to Scribonius Aphrodisius, 'qui' to Orbilius. To this also Schutz objects that Scri¬ bonius was 'Orbili servus atque discipulus,"® and that 'puerum' would not imply all this. He might more rea¬ sonably have repeated his objection to Eeisig's explanation, that the unmodified 'puerum' is too indefinite. These three interpretations are obviously based upon the mention of the 'plagosus Orbilius,' Epp. II. 1, 70, and they receive some support from the words ' grammaticorum equitum doctissimus,' in verse 8. These words naturally refer to the same person as the clause 'qui ... puerum ... exhortatus,' and Orbilius might, at least ironically, be called a knight." There is, however, no evidence that he revised Lucilius' ' ill made verses,' or that he paid special attention to them. (c) J. Becker''® thought that either Florus or Titius is meant. Very little is known of these men except from Horace, Epp. I. 8, and II. 2. Horace merely says that Florus has ability enough to win distinction in oratory, in law, or in poetry.®' Porphyrio says 'hie Florus [scriba] fuit satirarum scriptor, cuius sunt electae ex Ennio, Lucilio, Varrone.' Kiessling hints that the old commen¬ tator inferred all this from Epp. I. 3, 21, 'quae circum- volitas agilis thyma ?' Whether right or not, Porphyrio apparently means that Florus rewrote some of the poems of these earlier authors, adapting them for the readers of his own day. Even if this be accepted, it is hard to s,up- pose that Horace would refer to Florus in the language of these eight lines, and yet address him fifteen years later as a young man who had not written much," Of Titius still less is known. Horace asks Florus whether he is still ^Philol. XI. pp. 54^59. ^Rhein. Mus. XXX p. 622. ^ Sueton. De Gramm. 19. 2*Sueton. De Gramm. 9, ' deinde in Macedonia comieulo, mox equo meruit.' ^Philol. IV. p. 490. 26 Epp. i. 3, 23-25. « Epp. 1.3, 22-25. Horat. Seem. I. 10 (1-8). 39 writing odes or trying his hand at tragedy, 'Titius Eomana brevi venturus in ora.'^ All that the scholiasts have to say about him may very well have been derived from the text. Thus Becker's theory seems to have very little support, except Porphyrio's statement that Florus was a writer of satires, and the fact that Titius and Florus were both noblemen of a literary turn, and might be called ' equitum doctissimi.' That either of them could be called ' gram- maticorum equitum doctissimus' is by no means apparent. ' Loris et funibus udis.' The mention of 'lora' and 'funes' suggests a rather savage treatment of the un¬ known youth referred to in this line. References to the use of 'funes' for the purpose of punishment are not very numerous. Horace, however, has ' Hibericis peruste funi- bus latus,'® on which Orelli remarks that 'funes' made from the Spanish broom were used for flogging the ma¬ rines. No very satisfactory explanation of the word 'udis' has ever been offered. It is not clear that savage masters sometimes used a moistened lash, or that a lash so treated would cause the victim more pain. Marx'" quotes Petro- nius, 134 B, 'lorum in aqua,' as inconsistent with such ex¬ planations. It is unfortunate that the wisdom of the scholiasts was not brought to bear upon this word; their comments would certainly have been interesting. Fas. 3-6. The changes in these three lines suggested by F. Marx have been mentioned on page 35. First he empha¬ sizes the importance of the word' exoratus' in the interpreta¬ tion of this fragment, a word which is preserved by all the best mss. of the third class. This word, he says, may here be equivalent to 'though vainly implored for mercy,' like 'exorata' in Juvenal, 6, 415, ' vicinos humiles rapere et con- cidere loris exorata solet.'" Then reading 'puerum' for 'puer,"^ as many earlier scholars have done, he looks about 28Epp. I. 3,9. ^Epod. 4, 3. • ^Rhein. Mus. XLI. p. 552. ^ A similar use 'exorare,' which he might have quoted, is found in Hor. Epp. 1.1,6, * latet abditus agro, ne populum extrema toties exoret harena.' With this meaning of ' exoret,' ' toties ' may be taken literally. An easy change paleographically. 40 Colorado College Studies. for a finite verb of ' striking' or ' cutting.' This, he thinks, is lurking in ' udis,' which is certainly very weak and has never been well explained. The verb is probably ' ussit.' It should be noticed that the word 'udis' appears'm ras. /?,' and that very often in mss. the termination '-it' shows a medial'd.' '^ For similar uses of the verb 'urere' cp. Horace, Epp. I. 16, 47, 'loris non ureris'; Epod. 4, 3, 'Hibericis peruste funibus'; Sat. II. 7, 58, 'virgis uri.' The conjec¬ ture 'quo melior versu est' in the fourth line he puts for¬ ward with less confidence. Marx then refers his new reading, 'qui multum puerum . . . ussit exoratus,' to Vettius Philocomus, Cato's teacher, who was one of the first to revise the work of Lucilius.^' This man, as being 'Lucilii familiaris,' and possibly the same person who was censured by the poet 'propter sermonem parum urbanum,"® may have been like Aelius Stilo and Servius Clodius, a Eoman knight. His name, however, suggests a Greek origin, and in the absence of any special statement as to his rank, it is not easy to assume that he was an 'eques.' T's. 8. The words 'grammaticorum equitum doctissi- mus' are very difficult both in reference and in meaning. They would most naturally refer to the same person as 'qui . . . exoratus,' but they can hardly apply to the per¬ son who is so unfavorably compared with Cato. Schiitz claims that such irony as this is quite impossible here, and failing to find any other person to whom the epithet could easily be referred, would strike out the words altogether. Apitz"" bracketed the whole of verse 8. Kirchner and Doderlein would refer 'doctissimus' to the same person as 'melior' and 'subtilior,' i. e., to Cato. ^Examples of this interchange in Horatian mss. are cited by Keller and Holder, Epilegom. III. p. 8.53. A similar list is given in Mayor's The Latin Hepta¬ teuch, p. 251. ^Sueton. De Gramm. 2. ® Quint. Inst. Or. I. 5, 56, taceo de tuscis et sabinis et praenestinis quoque: nam et eomm sermone utentem Vettium (Vectium?) Lucilius insectatur, quem- admodum Pollio reprfihendit in Livio Patavinitatem, licet omnia italics pro romanis habeam. Coniectan. in Q. H. F. Satiras, 1856, p. 86. Horat. Serm. I. 10 (1-8). 41 The long separation is decidedly against this, and, besides, Cato could hardly be called an 'eques.' According to Suetonius, De Gramm., 11, his social position was doubtful in his manhood and he probably never had a knight's in¬ come in his old age. To meet this last difficulty Kirchner proposed to read 'equidem' for 'equitum.' The reading 'doctissime' has been proposed, but this is obviously suggested by the knowledge that Lucilius was a knight, and the objectionable interval is only in¬ creased. The words 'grammaticorum equitum' are especially obscure. As they stand they would seem to imply a class of knights who were grammarians, or of grammarians who were knights," but such guilds are quite unknown. Doderlein punctuated with a comma after'grammati¬ corum.' As has been mentioned above, he considered these eight verses the genuine introduction to Sat. I. 10, so that in trying to avoid one difficulty he created another almost as serious, by making Horace class himself among the grammarians—'fastidia nostra grammaticorum."® Badius Ascensis thought Maecenas was the 'eques'; another old scholar thought of Laberius. Orelli came to the conclusion that the writer of these vei'ses, whoever he was, knew no more who the 'eques' was than we do. 'Ut redeam illuc.' Cp. Sat. 1.1, 108, 'illuc, unde abii, redeo,' and Nepos, Dion., A, 'sed illuc reverter'; Agesil. 4, 'sed illuc redeam us.' It is hard to find anything in the preceding lines to which 'illuc' can well be referred. As Kruger®* remarks, it cannot refer to the promised proof that Lucilius is full of faults, for this promise is not fulfilled, or to the proof of his faults on Cato's evidence, for Horace does not return to this at all. Voss and Francke made 'illuc' refer in a gen¬ eral way to Sat. I. 4, or its subject. " Like Juvenal, ^11. 49, nobilis Indoctl,' a nobleman who is an ignoramus.' ^This is contrary to the sentiment of Epp. 1.19, 40,' non egro . . . grammati- cas arabire trlbus at pulpita dignor.' '^Drei Satiren fuer den Schulzweck erklaert, 1850, p. 17. 42 Colorado College Studies. It seems almost certain that these three words were in¬ serted on account of the abrupt opening, 'Nempe etc.'" The preceding lines were probably written with the text of Sat. I. 10 on account of the similarity of subject, and some later scribe, mistaking them for the introduction to this satire, would add the words ' ut redeam illuc' to serve as a bridge to the lively opening 'Nempe incomposito dixi etc.,' though, as Schtitz remarks, they would serve better to connect the verses with verse 2, 'quis tarn Lucili fautor inepte est?' The long introduction to Sat. 1.7 (followed by 'ad Regem redeo,' vs. 9) may have suggested the expletive words that were felt necessary. Keller and Holder cite as similar interpolations the four lines once prefixed to the Aeneid and the ten lines at the beginning of Hesiod's Works and Days. It is incontestable, they add, that the satire is complete without these eight verses, and that nothing is wanting at the beginning. On the contrary, the fact that Persius, the deliberate imitator of Horace, begins one of his satires (the third) with 'nempe' speaks for the genuineness of the introductory 'nempe' here. The external evidence that these eight verses are an interpolation to Sat. I. 10 is given in the first paragraph of this paper; a-careful examination of them can only re¬ sult in the conclusion that they are not the work of Horace at all. They have been assigned to different writers and to different periods. Kirchner ascribed them to Furius Bibaculus (circ. 700 A. U. C.), arguing from Sueton. De Oramm.ll, that Valerius Cato, if still alive when Horace wrote this satire (A. U. C. 720), must haye been over seventy years old, too old to be contemplating a revision of Lucilius. This argument was soon afterwards disposed of by Schmid," who proved from the same section of Suetonius that Cato could not have been more than sixty-two years old in A. U. C. 720, and ^' Scil. ut transitus ad Horatium sit.' Baehrens, Fragm. Poet, Roman., 1886, p. 329. XI. p. 54. HOB AT. SEEM. I. 10 (1-8). 43 was probably alive several years later." C. Fr. Hermann ascribed them to Fannius. Lucian Mtlller, in his edition of Lucilius, 1872, says they were undoubtedly composed in the time of Horace, though their authorship is uncertain. These three scholars insisted on taking 'emendare parat' literally. Schtitz says that the writer of the fifth verse appar¬ ently knew not only Epod. 4, 8,' Hibericis peruste funibus' and 4, 11, 'sectus flagellis . . . praeconis ad fastidium,' but also Epp. II. 1, 70, 'plagosum . . . Orbilium, etc.' This epistle is assigned by Vahlen to B. C. 14, so that these verses could not have been written by Fannius or by Furius Bibaculus. He would put the composition of the fragment as late at least as the beginning of the second century A. D. Just as Tacitus^' says that there are men in his day who prefer Lucilius to Horace, and Quintilian" insists that Horace's criticism is unfair, so the unknown writer of these lines objects to Horace's treatment of his own model, appealing to the authority of Cato, who was of course not satisfied with the work of Lucilius as he found it, but still thought it worth revising.*^ The third verse, Schutz maintains, is not necessarily older than Sueton. De Gramm. 2. The writer may have known Suetonius' account of Cato and yet made him an editor not merely a student of Cato in his younger days, either by mistake or because he knew or thought he knew better. Orelli remarks that the passage has ' antiquum colorem,' and assigns it to the time of Fronto. Keller would put it as late as Ausonius (circ. 850 A. D.), hinting at Tetra- dius who is addressed in Anson. Ep. 15, 9, as rivalling Lucilius.*® F. Marx, whose beautiful emendation of these lines is often referred to in this paper, says that they are impor¬ tant for the history of grammar at Rome and for our *3* vixit ad extremam senectutem.' ^Dial. de Or at. 23> Or. X. 1, 93. ^ It would be hard to show that Horace's estimate of Lucilius was any lower than this. rudes Camenas qui Suessae praevenis aevoque cedis, non stilo.' 44 Colorado College Studies. knowledge of the fate of Lucilius' poems. The whole pass¬ age, he insists, suggests the philologist and reviewer, who prefers Cato's edition of Lucilius to his master's earlier one. There is a vast difference between the points of view of Horace and the author of these interpolated lines; the former speaks of Lucilius himself and his works, the latter of editors and editions. If it once be assumed that the words 'emendare parat' do not necessarily imply that these lines were written in Cato's lifetime, it is hard to say how late they may have been composed. Whatever their age, it is quite impossible to name their author. The fragment—and it is only a flagment, for the promise in the first verse is not fulfilled—seems to have been trans¬ ferred to this satire from some source rather than composed as an introduction to it, to explain and complete it. Apart from the fact that the general sentiment of the lines (so far as this can be discovered) is not in accord with that of the satire to which they are unnecessarily prefixed, it is hard to see what Horace had to do with Cato's alleged re¬ vision of Lucilius or with the savage treatment of the un¬ fortunate youth referred to in verse 5. Keller and Holder say that the 'Urhandschrift' of their third class of mss. was older than Priscian, and so also this interpolation, adding, however, that while Priscian quotes the spurious lines prefixed to the Aeneid, these eight verses are not mentioned by any of the ancient commentators. STATE BANK NOTES. By W. M. HABL. The proposal to restore the privilege of note-circulation to banks outside of the national bank system, by removing the practically prohibitory ten per cent, tax, is supported chiefly by the following doctrines: I. That the probable extinction of the national bank circulation will leave a gap in the money-supply that must be filled by notes of some kind. II. That a well-guarded system of state bank notes would give us an "elastic" circulation, i. e., one that would increase with each high tide of business, and con¬ tract when business slackened. III. That state bank notes would give a larger perma¬ nent money-circulation to parts of the country that are now scantily supplied with money. IV. That the present prohibitory tax on state bank notes violates the spirit of the Constitution if not its letter, and is a dangerous encroachment upon State powers or individual liberty or both. I.—NOTES TO FILL A VACANCY. The first of these doctrines could be summarily dis¬ missed, in view of the well-known habits of the interna¬ tional flow of gold, except so far as the shrinkage of the whole money-supply of the world would affect the scale of prices a little; a shrinkage that can be avoided by other means than bank notes. Yet the recent experience of the United States with money is not only an illustration of the international flow, but it is worth examination because it offers striking and encouraging proof that the substitu¬ tion of coin for national bank notes is not likely to be a painful process. 46 Colorado College Studies. From the monthly estimates made by the Treasury Department are taken the following figures, showing the amount of each kind of money in circulation on July 1 of the year named. Money held by the banks is included, for the stock they keep does not far exceed (though it does in July somewhat exceed) a reasonable reserve, which is as much a part of the needs of ordinary business as is the reserve of five dollars or fifty below which the head of a family does not permit his cash in hand to fall. Money in the Treasury is not included, because much of it is held merely to redeem certificates that are circulating outside; and because there has been a widely varying amount there, the variations of which had an unbusinesslike origin. There would be no material difference in results, so far as the pur¬ pose of this paper is concerned, if the money in the Treas¬ ury, less the backing of certificates, were included. The figures in parentheses for the true amount of national bank notes are round numbers, estimated from the reports of the Comptroller of the Currency; this needs to be distinguished from the nominal amount, because notes of surrendered circulation, being no longer an obligation upon the banks that issued them, are really certificates payable by the United States. MONEY IN CIRCULATION. (Millions of dollars.) 1879 1882 1885 1888 1890 1892 Gold* (including Gold Certificates).. 126 363 468 512 505 550 Silver Dollars (including Certificates) 9 87 141 256 360 384 Greenbacks and Legal Tender Certif. 302 325 331 308 335 342 Notes of 1890 98 National Bank Notes, nominally 321 352 309 245 182 167 (National Bank Notes, really) (310) (315) (270) (153) (125) (140) Subsidiary Silver 67 52 44 50 54 62 Totals 825 1,179 1,293 . 1,371 1,436 1,603 [Copper and nickel coins are disregarded; so is paper fractional currency, which was reckoned about 16 millions in 1879 and only about 7 millions since, including the amount in the Treasury. The figures of subsidiary silver for 1879 and 1882 are too large, through including trade dollars.] * The figures for gold, after 1879, are often disputed as too large; and prob¬ ably with good reason. But it will be seen (page 56) that allowance for a smaller amount does not vitiate the conclusions of this paper. State Bank Notes. 47 It may here be seen clearly how the whole volume of money has responded to the needs of increased business; the growth was rapid in the revival of business following 1879, and then fell to a much lower rate, averaging little over 30 millions annually from 1882 to 1890. But the fact which now most concerns us is that the needs of business were not provided for by the creation of bank notes, nor of any kind of notes, except the note-element in the silver dollars and the notes of 1890, and a small increase in the greenbacks outside of the Treasury. More than that, the nominal bank-note circulation was reduced in the thirteen years by 154 millions, and the true bank-note circulation by about 170 millions. If 1882 and 1892 be compared, the reduction in the ten years is 185 or 175 millions; a reduc¬ tion greater than the amount now outstanding. That is, we have only to do once more just what we have done since 1882, and the whole of the national bank notes will be re¬ placed by other money. But the matter is not quite so simple, because we shall not do just what we have done since 1882. The effect of the Act of 1890 needs to be considered, and the effect of a possible repeal of that Act. Before weighing these, it is desirable to look closely at the nature of the past additions to the money-supply, in respect to their real cost. Their cost to the country is measured approximately by the export value which the gold and silver would have had if not used for money purposes here. The cost of coinage and storage, and other such minor corrections, may be disregarded, in view of the wide allowance for error that will be used in the inquiry, and of the unequivocal result. Of course the government purchases have steadily "bulled" the silver market; how much, it is not possible to know. Against whatever such enhancement of the price of silver there has been, acting as a diminution of the cost to the country (not the government only) of the silver used for money, there is a partial offset in the increase of cost to the country of all its money-metal, through the necessity of making slightly lower average prices for exported goods in order 48 Colorado College Studies. to send them out in place of the metal withheld and thus maintain the equilibrium of foreign trade. But to put the result of the inquiry beyond suspicion, it may be prudent to allow for the one conspicuous effect through enhance¬ ment of price of silver; and figures taken both with and without that allowance will be limits between which the truth lies. Evidently we must include in the cost not only the im¬ ported metal, but the metal produced here, so far as either has been used for money. And for this purpose we may better allow for the Treasury holdings also, because if there is an increase of metal there the country has bought it by exporting goods or by abstaining from importing them. The increase in gold used for money, either out¬ right or through certificates, represents one large part of our expenditure to procure new money. The other large part is represented by the gold-value for export* of the silver in the added silver dollars, pZws the silver bought by notes of 1890. The supply of silver dollars in the middle of 1879, including the Treasury stock, was 41 millions; in 1882, 123 millions; in 1892, 414 millions. In the figures for 1879 and 1882 are counted several millions of silver bullion, destined soon to become dollars; the much larger amount of silver bullion in 1892, and the much wider divergence of its coinage-value and cost-price, are cause for consider¬ ing it separately below. The increase from 1879 to 1882 was 82 millions, which cost the government as bullion about 72 millions; the international market value was a little less, but we may neglect the error. The silver that made the increase of 291 millions of silver dollars, 1882 to 1892, was substantially all bought by the middle of 1891; it cost the government about 230 millions. Using this purchase-cost as the upper limit of what the silver really cost the country, we have yet to fix the lower limit sug¬ gested above. Higher price of silver, caused by govern¬ ment buying, affects for this purpose not only the silver thus withheld from export, but the silver still exported. * This is the export-value from time to time; not the present export-value of the accumulated mass. State Bank Notes. 49 The change of price in silver that would in any case have been used at home does not sensibly affect the cost, being a mere readjustment of domestic exchanges. The correc¬ tion applies, then, to the silver bought by government, added to the net silver-export still remaining (which may be a positive or negative quantity; the latter representing an import and consequent loss by the raised price). The net export of silver from 1879 to 1892 was worth about $100,000,000; from 1882 to 1892, about $80,000,000. The government purchases from 1879 to 1890 were about a quarter of the world's product, and since 1890 more than a third, and their effect on the price must have been con¬ siderable; but it seems liberal to set three-quarters of the actual price as the lower limit of the price as it might have been with no government purchases except for subsidiary coinage. On that scale, the goods received in exchange for the exported silver* of 1879-92 may, at the lower limit, have cost the country $25,000,000 less than their apparent cost; for the exported silver of 1882-92, $20,000,000 less. Any such gain diminishes the cost of our use of silver for money, and corresponding deductions are incorporated in the following table, where the cost of the silver bought by the Treasury appears separately, with the same three- quarters rule used to deduce a lower limit of true cost. COST TO THE COUNTRY, IN GOLD. (Millions ot dollars.) 1879-92 1882-92 Lower limit. Upper 'limit. Lower limit. Upper limit. 226 302 172 58 —20 157 230 77 58 —25 418 77 418 157 677 52 797 61 367 37 464 46*4 Increase of Silver Dollars, 373 millions Increase of Silver Dollars, 291 millions Silver bought with 1890 notes, and not coined Deduction for enhanced value of silver exported. Increase of Goldf Whole cost Average cost per year. » * It would be a needless refinement of the question to take account of the diminished home production and export, due to lower price. t Including gold coin and bullion held by the Treasury. The official estimate is 246 millions in 1879, 507 in 1882, 664 in 1892. 50 • CoLOEADO College Studies. That is to say, the country has given full value in goods and labor for somewhere between 677 and 797 millions of its increase of money-supply since 1879; and for between 367 and 464 millions of the increase since 1882. The money-supply itself, outside of the Treasury, in¬ creased by 778 millions from 1879 to 1892 (see table, p. 46); but the decrease of national bank notes caused the increase of the other elements of the currency to be still larger. Gold increased 424 millions, silver dollars 375 millions, "greenbacks" 40 millions, and 98 millions of 1890 notes were added; making an increase, aside from national bank notes and pieces less than one dollar (which last would have shown about the same behavior under any system of major currency), of 937 millions. This last is the amount of money that has been added in thirteen years past to meet the needs of increased business and take the place of the declining bank note circulation. But we have seen that the country earned meanwhile, i. e., bought with goods and labor for which it received nothing else in exchange, between 677 and 797 millions.* That is, the note-elementf in the addition of 937 millions was between 140 and 260 millions. If 1882 and 1892 be compared, the whole addition of money other than national bank notes and small pieces will appear as 599 millions, and the note- * This comparison of increase of money-supply outside the Treasury with increase of money-metal both within and without the Treasury may seem irra¬ tional. But the former is the true measure of past additions to the money-supply and the better basis for judging what future additions are probable, and hence what the strain of making them will be; while the sacrifice in former acquisi¬ tions is better measured by the addition of metal in Treasury and outside circu¬ lation together. If any one nevertheless prefers to compare outside circulation in both cases, he wUl find the increase of silver dollars (table, p. 46) from 1879 to 1892 to be 375 millions, 1890 notes 98 millions, gold 424 millions, and the resulting " lower and upper limits " about 700 and 825 millions; difforipg from the 677 and 797 millions, reckoned above, in the direction of decreasing the note-element in past acquisitions, and therefore of decreasing the sacrifice needed in future acqui¬ sitions that may contain a less note-element or none at all. That is, it would strengthen the conclusion that in the text above is based upon a less favorable supposition. tNot the note-element reckoned upon the present bullion value of silver, but the unearned part of the issues of silver dollars and 1890 notes as they were made. State Bank Notes. 51 element as between 135 and 282 millions. The following figures show, accordingly, the average annual addition: Whole addition. Note-element. (Millions.) Annually, 1879 to 1892 72 Between 11 and 20 Annually, 1882 to 1892 60 Between 1354 and 23 And the country has earned (see, also, the table on p. 49) between 52 and 61 millions annually through the longer period, and between 87 and 46^ millions annually through the shorter. It may safely be said that our probable dealing with silver in the next few years (omitting free coinage as too improbable in the immediate future to justify the discus¬ sion, necessarily long, of its bearing on the present ques¬ tion) will lie within a range bounded by— (1) Continuance of the Act of 1890. (2) Revival of the Act of 1878. (8) Purchase of silver, and issue of notes whose silver backing, reckoned as bullion, is kept equal to the face value of the notes; kept equal by subsequent purchase of silver, if necessary, without issue of notes against the supplementary silver. (4) Suspension of silver purchases, except for small coins. It is quite possible that silver legislation may combine two of these methods, or change the amount of silver to be bought under (1) or (2). But the present object is to discover whether the national sacrifice in obtaining addi¬ tional money will be greater hereafter than it has been for a few years past, and that object will be sufiiciently attained by taking each method separately and noting the effect in (1),'(2) and (8) of different amounts of silver- purchase ; for any combination will be more favorable than the least favorable method standing alone. (1.) Continuance of the Act of 1890. If this happens, the addition of money will be wholly earned, except for the "lower limit" purpose a note-element due to the higher price of the silver bought and the silver exported. The 52 Colorado College Studies. silver bought is 54 million ounces annually, which is sub¬ stantially the whole amount available for Treasury pur¬ chase or export.* The domestic production of silver is increasing by about 4 million ounces per year; but sup¬ posing (to keep on the less favorable side of probabilityf) that the amount exported in the next dozen years should average only 6 million ounces, while 54 millions were still bought, the amount through which the higher price could operate to diminish the true cost would be about 60 million ounces annually; worth $60,000,000 at one dollar, $45,000,000 at 75 cents. Accordingly the note-element, on the three-quarters scale, lies between zero and 15 millions in the improbable event of a rise of silver that carried it to average $1 an ounce, between zero and 11 millions if silver averaged 75 cents. A smaller government purchase would not change the quantity of silver affected, but it would of course bring the note-element nearer to the zero limit through affecting the price less. (2.) Revival of the Act of 1878. Taking its minimum purchase of $24,000,000 worth of silver annually, the dol¬ lars coined would be, with silver at $1 an ounce, 31 mil¬ lions; with silver at 75 cents, 41 millions. The seigniorage would thus be 7 and 17 millions at those prices respectively. The other part of the note-element, by the three-quarters rule, would be (as under the Act of 1890) between zero and 15 millions at the former price, between zero and 11 mil¬ lions at the latter. The whole note-element is thus between 7 and 22 millions when silver is at one dollar an ounce, between 17 and 28 millions at 75 cents. Evidently the note-eleilient is enlarged by increased purchases or by a fall of silver. (B.) Issue of notes with a constantly equivalent silver backing; a backing kept equivalent, when the price of silver declines, by purchase of more silver without issue of notes * The net import was about 3 millions in the fiscal year 1891; net export 6 millions in 1892. t A larger supposed export would increase the note-element and decrease the sacrifice. State Bank Notes. 53 against it. The question, highly important for other pur¬ poses, whether the notes are redeemable in gold or in a gold dollar's worth of silver, has no bearing on this discussion. In either case the note-element is between zero and a quarter of the export-price of 60 million ounces, minus the cost of silver bought in case of falling price to keep up the backing of notes issued earlier—that kind of purchase being cost without addition to the money-supply. It would be an extreme supposition that silver should fall to 60 cents an ounce in the next ten years; that would be about 2^ cents annually. Such a fall would require, if the annual pur¬ chase for note-issue were $24,000,000, a purchase of sup¬ plementary silver amounting to less than a million dollars in the first year, to 10 millions in the last year, but averag¬ ing about 5 millions annually through the ten years; while the note-element due to upholding the price of silver would average (with silver at an average of 72 cents) between zero and 11 millions. Deducting the 5 millions of cost for supplements, we have minus 5 and plus 6 millions as the limits of the note-element; that is, it might possibly be a more expensive way of obtaining new money than import¬ ing- gold would be.* On the less extreme supposition of a fall of silver to 70 cents in ten years, the average annual supplementary purchase (the principal purchase being still 24 millions) would be something less than 3 millions, mak¬ ing the note-element somewhere between minus 3 and. plus 9 millions.f The increased expense, in the later years, of maintaining such a note-system in case of a progressive fall of silver is of course a serious objection to the system, unless it is believed that silver will not continue to fall. If silver does not change in price, the note-element is the same as under the Act of 1890; with silver at 84 cents, it is between zero and 12| millions. Greater purchases would *A loss of this kind, payable in future, has already been incurred by the country through its large purchase of silver, if silvjer does not rise again, and if the notes of 1890 or lilver dollars are ever given a 100 per cent, backing or are withdrawn and the silver sold. t Silver then averages about 77 cents, and the note-element, aside from cost of supplements, is between zero and IVA millions. 54 Colorado College Studies. probably increase the note-element unless silver declined 2 cents or more yearly. (4.) Suspension of silver purchases, except for small coins. This would leave the natural movement of gold to make the necessary increase of money, and would provide no note-element. Tabulating the effects of these methods of dealing with silver, we have the note-element appearing as follows: Method (1) ,with Act of '90 unchanged; silver at 100 Method (1), with Act of '90 unchanged; silver at 75 Method (2), with annual purchase $24,(^,000; silver at 100 Method (2), with annual purchase $24,000,000; sUver at 75 Method (3), with annual purchase (for note issue) $24,000,000; silver declining 2H cents yearly Method (3), with purchase 24 mill.; silver declining 1)4 cents Method (3), with purchase 24 mill.; no decline of silver Method (4) NOTE-ELEMENT LIES EFFECT UPON THE BETWEEN— NOTE-ELEMENT— of increased of cheaper and 15 mill.) purchases. silver. 0 [ Increase. Decrease. 0 and 11 mill. ^ 7 and 22 mill.) ( Increase. Increase. 17 and 28 mill.) -5 and +6 mill.* Uncertain. Decrease. -3 and +9 mill.* Uncertain. Decrease. 0 and 12)4 mill. Increase. Decrease. No note-element. The past annual increase of the whole money-supply, together with the money that replaced bank notes, has in¬ cluded a note-element lying somewhere between 11 and 23 millions (see page 51). If we continue to extinguish bank notes at the same rate, make no change in the amount of greenbacks, and increase the whole money-supply at the same rate as before, it appears from the table above that Method (2) would involve no appreciable decrease, per¬ haps an increase, in the note-element; that is, the money to serve the growing needs of trade and to take the place of disappearing notes would cost us not appreciably more, perhaps less, than it has in the recent past. Under Method (1) the national expense on this score would be say 8 to 12 millions more, annually, than it has been in the recent past. *For ten years only, and as an average; the note-element being less than zero in the later years, and going further below after the ten years, if the faU of silver continued at anything like the same rate. State Bank Notes. 55 Under Method (4) it would be between 10 and 20 millions more. Under Method (3) it might in a very unfavorable case be 20 millions more, but with a slower decline of silver the added expense would be nearer the 12 millions or so (between 10 and 15) which would accompany a stationary price of silver. Under Method (8) this average cost through ten years represents a smaller cost in the earlier years and a heavier one in the later years, if silver falls. It is only under Method (8) that we have to anticipate a cost, for the average annual addition of money and extinction of bank notes, exceeding by more than about 15 millions the cost that has already become habitual. Method (8), if silver should fall rapidly, would be burdensome after a few years, particularly if the annual issue of notes were much more than the 24 millions reckoned in the table; but no one wishes to see that method adopted if silver is to fall rapidly; and in any case, the extinction of bank notes within a dozen years would contribute only 12 or 14 mil¬ lions annually to the burden. Under any of the more prob¬ able forms of dealing with silver the sacrifice of the country, in extinguishing the bank notes while it increased the whole circulation as usual, would not exceed by more than about 15 millions the sacrifice that is already customary; and it might not exceed that at all. Remembering that in place of an annual cost of between 40 and 60 millions for the near future, which has been the implied basis of the present reckoning because it was the average cost for the past few years (see page 49), we might have for a part of the time, as in 1879-82, a cost of 100 millions attended by great commercial prosperity—remembering, too, that it takes more than an occasional waste of 20 or 80 millions by Congress to make an appreciable difference in the course of business—it seems unlikely that the withdrawal of all the national bank notes within ten years can give a sensi¬ ble check to business. Indeed, the greatest expense for new money comes just at the time when the country can best afford it, in times of rapid growth of business; and just at the time when there is need of a check upon excessive speculation. 56 Colorado College Studies. The conclusion just reached has so wide a margin of safety that it excuses the omission, for simplicity's sake, of a number of corrections; some offset each other, some are mere differences of degree of an element common to all the years {e.g. a deduction from the probably excessive Treasury estimate of gold coin in private hands), and the aggregate of the corrections can scarcely swell the difference between past and future sacrifice in the enlargement of the money- supply so as to call for the retention of national bank notes, or for the provision of any other notes to take their place. If there is any need for state bank notes, it is to be found elsewhere. ii.—elasticity. In popular discussion of the repeal of the bank-note tax it is often assumed, as something near an axiom, that a bank note system may readily be made " elastic," and it seems to be implied that the easier it is for banks to issue notes the more elastic the resulting currency will be. But amon^ economists this is so far from being a generally accepted truth that some reputable writers deny the pos¬ sibility of bank notes following the needs of trade, either in expansion or contraction (except in the same way that coin would have done), so long as the bank notes are really convertible, i. e. are promptly and willingly redeemed by the bank. If nevertheless we grant that an expansion is possible, it is reckless to assume, without careful examina¬ tion, that the bank-note currency would contract again when trade slackened. And unless it does so contract, what we have is not elasticity but a wholly inelastic distensibility. Entering first a protest against another too easy assump¬ tion, that elasticity is an unmixed good (for much may be said for the doctrine that the evil in it exceeds the good, through removing one of the barriers against speculative excitement), we have to inquire what are the causes that may limit a note-circulation,and whether any action of the State governments upon those causes can give an increase State Bank Notes. 57 or an elasticity that the National government cannot give by similar action. A bank issues notes in order to increase its receipts of interest. In a country where notes are familiar, it can usually carry notes with a reserve smaller than that which it needs to carry deposits*; and accordingly, unless taxes' or other expenses intervene, its loans that can be made through notes are more profitable than its loans through book-credits of deposit. But in the United States most borrowers prefer book-credits, and the practicable note- issue is restricted to so much as can be paid out, whether in loans or in other money-payments (e.ff.npon checks pre¬ sented), without coming back for redemption faster than it is reissued. Within that limit (beyond it, if bank notes were not convertible) the bank has a motive for keeping its circulation as large as possible, unless other expenses or hindrances appear. In the United States the limit so set would be narrow for the individual bank, on account of the large proportion of credit-transactions, except for the habitually long life of the circulating notes; in fact it is so wide that a limit for the whole note-circulation, drawn on the same scale, would be impossibly large. The real limit for the whole note-circulation is of course much lower, because as the whole amount approached a point consid¬ ered to be dangerous, redemptions would become more fre¬ quent, i. e. the limit for individual banks would shrink. Banks do not grow weary of making a profit, nor stop issu¬ ing notes without a reason for stopping. Where the note- circulation falls short of the limit (usually wide, when banks are well managed) set by the return of notes for re¬ demption, it is certain that there are definite causes for it, either prohibiting the increase of circulation or offsetting the profit by some expense, inconvenience or dread of in¬ jury. Including redemption, we may name the following restraints upon the issue of notes, some of which are » * Strictly speaking, deposits which are caused directly or indirectly by the bank's loans. Other deposits have no bearing on the question whether loans by book-credit or by notes are more profitable. 58 Colorado College Studies. found at work in every bank-note system, no matter how bad: checks upon the issue of bank notes. 1. Return of notes for redemption. The effect of this important restraint has been outlined above. It is thor¬ oughly effectual only when redemption is enforced by law and not discouraged by public opinion or by bank pressure (e. g. refusing discounts and other bank services to persons who have presented notes for redemption). But as we shall see hereafter, unless certain artificial means are used to compel the return of the notes within a given time, the action of this check does not prevent an increase from year to year till the issue is very large, if public confidence in the soundness of the banks prevails. 2. Fear of discredit. That is, a belief of the bank managers that further issue of its notes would impair the bank's credit, and either directly fail of its purpose by bringing back for redemption notes equal to the new issue, or injure the deposits and other business of the bank. 3. Fear of general injury to business. This may in¬ clude one or more of the following elements: Fear of the effect on the bank's own business of a general derangement of business caused by bad currency; fear of the effect of such derangement on the interests of the managers outside the bank; and a sense of responsibility and trusteeship towards the business community. This check is seen at its best where a single large bank issues most of the bank notes of a country (the circulation of notes of other banks being prevented or kept within narrow limits bylaw); the Bank of England, for instance, would doubtless be tem¬ perate in the issue of notes, even if it were not hindered by law from making any profit by an increase of circula¬ tion. The Bank of France is influenced by a similar com¬ bined responsibility and prudence. But when there are many banks, each knows that its own note-issue will be only a small part of the whole note-circulation, and that its own abstention from new issues will have little effect State Bank Notes. 59 towards reducing the whole; perhaps no effect at all, be¬ cause other banks will issue more instead before the more rapid return for redemption comes into play, or the legal maximum, if any, is reached. And if some banks are still conservative when the motive to be so is thus diminished, other banks will surely, in such a country as the United States, be more tempted by the profit than deterred by the possible future evil, which is made scarcely more probable by their venture; unless, indeed, the number and character of the banks be so limited by law that a joint agreement is practicable (a case which will be mentioned below). The point is, that we cannot look to this check, unless supple¬ mented by an agreement among the banks, to prevent an im¬ mediate increase of bank circulation if the latter were made otherwise profitable; for some banks would surely grasp at the profit. 4. Legal limitation of the number of note-issuing banks, either by requiring a sp'ecial legislative charter for each, or by imposing onerous conditions for going into business under general law. This check acts upon a part of the field only, of course; leaving the banks which come within the privilege free to increase circulation, except so far as other checks interfere. 5. A legal maximum of bank note circulation. This, if set low enough, is perfect insurance against an undesir¬ able enlargement. Evidently,however, it allows no "elas¬ ticity " beyond the maximum, and does nothing to prevent the circulation rising to near the maximum, so that further elasticity is impossible unless that begins by decrease; and the decrease must then be due to other checks, and not to this, unless the maximum itself is made different for different times of year. 6. A legal minimum of reserve or of securities. So far as this minimum is greater than the amount of reserve or of securities which the banks would hold of their own accord, it is a check upon circulation by reducing the profit. In our national banks it takes the form of an amount of 60 Colorado College Studies. bonds costing much more than the reserve that the banks would voluntarily hold, with only partial compensation for the difference in the low interest received on the bonds. 7. Taxes on circulation; another mode of reducing the profit. Under the present national bank law, not only does the tax on the notes of outside banks extinguish the profit and prevent their issue, but the tax upon national banks of one per cent, on circulation contributes materially to the well-known unprofitableness to many of them of their notes. 8. Legal requirements hampering the ready circula¬ tion of notes. For instance, that they shall be of large denominations only, that they shall bear interest (this cuts into the profit also), or that they shall be of cumbrous size. Requirements that they should be indorsed on pass¬ ing, that they should be on some easily damaged kind of paper, that they should be presented for redemption within a certain time or lose part of their face value, would have similar effect. 9. Agreement among banks to set limits similar to 5, 6 and 8. In view of the number of American banks and the difficulty of making and enforcing such an agreement, it would be a waste of time to discuss this as a possible check upon future issues here; at least till it is seriously proposed to have a few large banks monopolize the bank-note issue. Depreciation may in times of inconvertibility act as a check upon issue, but no one now proposes to have a sys¬ tem subject to enough depreciation to come within the range of that check. Another check, now practically out of the field, probably acted upon the bank-note circulation in America early in the century: scarcity of capital and high rewards for its use in other ways than banking. Some men who might have been attracted by the high returns of bank-note issue were still more attracted by other enter¬ prises that would employ their time so fully as to make inconvenient the attempt to conduct a bank. Turning back now to see what are the checks that keep our national bank note circulation comparatively small. State Bank Notes. 61 we observe at once that the checks numbered 2, 3, 5 and 9 have no effect upon it. There is no fear by any bank that its credit would suffer by issuing notes up to the amount permitted by law in view of its capital, no fear of general injury to business by the issue of another hundred millions or two*, no legal maximum of circulation, no agreement among the banks. Under No. 8 the omission to make the notes a general legal tender does not in practice restrict their circulation, nor would the banks issue any more notes if they were still permitted to use denominations less than five dollars; the exclusion of bank notes from the legal reserve of national banks acts towards encouraging the return of the notes for redemption, thus setting at work check No. 1. Contrariwise, the law has by its assimilation of bank notes to government notes, in size and general aspect, done a little towards promoting their ready circula- . tion. No. 4, legal limitation of the tiumber of note-issuing banks, appears in the form of "onerous conditions," such as a minimum of capital, government inspection, prohibi¬ tion of real-estate loans and of all loans beyond a certain multiple of the reserve held; but this is more than off¬ set, on the whole, by the advantage which national banks receive in public opinion of their probable soundness, and it would not prevent an increase of note-circulation if such circulation offei-ed a profit. We have left, therefore, the checks numbered 1, 6 and 7; deducting No. 1, which is not a limit but a drag upon increase (making it slower without stopping it), the true causes of the smallness of the circulation are in Nos. 6 and 7, i. e., (a) the require¬ ment of deposit of bonds whose market value is much higher than the amount of notes issued against them, bonds which bear a lower interest than the bank's ordi¬ nary business yields and most of which depreciate (through the effect of the approach of maturity upon their premium) * Provided it were gradual, and the annual purchases of silver by the Treasury were small. If brought face to face with the possibility of a large increase of bank notes not so guarded, hanks would doubtless recognize the danger; but, as suggested under No. 3 above, only a part of the banks would probably hold back from issue. 62 CoLOEADO College Studies. before the bank can sell them, (b) the small deposit of cash for redemption purposes at Washington, (c) the one per cent, tax on the average note-circulation of the bank.* From many banks these take more than the whole profit of the notes, and the banks tolerate the loss as a sort of advertising expense, in order to keep the advantage of being known to be under government inspection. The decline of the note-circulation before 1890 shows that on the average the loss exceeded all the gains, including the advertisement, and the slight increasef since 1890 shows that for two years past the gains have by a very narrow margin exceeded the loss, taking all banks together. The failure of the note-circulation to be elastic is due to the expense and trouble of buying and depositing bonds to secure the temporary addition, and withdrawing and sell¬ ing the bonds when the time for contraction comes. Unless the bonds are withdrawn, the bank has no motive to with- • draw the added notes. Since our note-circulation is now kept small by the un¬ profitableness to the banks of further increase (except the trifling present increase, which may at any time fade out by disappearance of the narrow margin of gain which causes it) the way to make room for either elasticity or permanent increase is to remove part at least of the causes of the unprofitableness; to relax the checks called 6 and 7 above. Public attention seems to be given to the proposal to abolish the ten per cent national tax on state bank cir¬ culation; but room for increase may be had just as cer¬ tainly, though not for so great an increase, by reducing or removing the one per cent tax on national bank circulation, or reducing the required deposit of bonds, or permitting the substitution of other securities bearing higher interest. ♦Minor expenses (like examiner's fees), so far as they are independent of the amount of circulation, may better be included under No. 4; and some which vary, with the amount, such as the cost of redemption and reissue, are small enough to be neglected in this article. t Increase in the true circulation. Notes of abandoned circulation, awaiting redemption by the Treasury, have no place in such a comparison as this; though the government reports of circulating money include them in the figures of bank notes, which thus deceptively show a decrease since 1890. State Bank Notes. 63 It would take little change of these restraints to cause a marked acceleration of the increase of national bank notes that is even now visible. National banks are as ready as any others to increase their circulation when the increase pays. IMPERFECT contraction. Now let us postpone all the difficulties of securing a sound state bank currency, and suppose that either by adopting a system of lightly taxed state bank notes or by loosening the restrictions upon national banks we make possible the issue of 100 millions more of secure bank notes. There is no way of making the issue possible but by making it profitable. If the checks were so lessened as to let the profit exceed them before the harvest-season * came, there is good reason to believe that a part of the extra notes thus made possible would not only be sent out but kept out without waiting for the crop-season, unless certain legal requirements, hitherto unusual, were imposed upon the banks or certain new conditions attached to the notes. If this occurred long enough before the crop-season to permit the swelling of the currency to affect the amount of coin (either by increasing export or diminishing import of money-metal), it would to that extent merely substitute notes for coin lost; the remainder of the "slack" would be taken up by the growth of business at the crop-season, and this remainder only would have any value towards giving elasticity, the former part being a needless and (if extensive or often repeated) an injurious enlargement of the bank¬ note circulation. But we will take a case more favorable to the proposal of a bank note elasticity, and suppose no such wasted ele¬ ment in the new issue; suppose the checks to be so skill¬ fully balanced against the profit that the latter does not emerge superior till the rate of short-time interest rises at harvest-time. The new notes then go out, and the first half of elasticity is thus displayed. But what assurance ♦ For simplicity, the autumnal moving of the crops is spoken of alone, here and later in the discussion; but the same arguments apply to the spring trade and to sporadic maxima of business. 64 Colorado College Studies. have we that when the crop-season is past the excess of notes will be redeemed and disappear? The apparent answer is that with slackening of business the currency will be redundant, bank reserves will be overstocked, and the banks will have no profitable use for the excess of notes, so that redemptions will exceed reissues till the whole redundancy is withdrawn. But this is only an apparent answer. The redundancy after the crop season is not identical with the preceding increase of notes; it may be far less; it usually would be far less in the United States. The growth of use for money at crop-moving time is in this country a mere wave in an ascending slope, a slope ascending so rapidly that we seldom add less than 20 millions a year to our stock of money, and sometimes 100 millions; the use is never, except through unusual business depression, so low after the wave as before it. Almost always, there¬ fore, if we provided elasticity by means of bank notes unattended by special appliances for forcing their sub¬ sequent withdrawal, and if the elasticity were wholly by bank notes and no increase of coin shared in it, the re¬ dundancy of money after the crop-season would be less than the increase of notes during the crop-season. Uon- ceding that notes equivalent to the whole redundancy were redeemed and retired, what motive would the banks have for retiring the rest of the recently added notes? Reserves have sunk to their normal size, for that is what the disap¬ pearance of redundancy means; the banks have no more money than they want to use. As fast as notes are re¬ deemed, it is then the bank's interest to reissue them, i. e. to use the notes in place of the money paid out in redeem¬ ing them. There is thus a part of the recently added note-supply that will remain in circulation. This process would be repeated at each maximum of business, and ac¬ cordingly, without such special devices as will presently be mentioned, an elasticity provided by bank notes alone would cause an increase of the bank note currency from year to year. But it may be that a part of the increase of money at crop-moving time is in coin. By taking the effect of the State Bank Notes. 65 mixture upon a period of several years as a whole, we may eliminate the causes of complication and find a practical certainty that the note-circulation would show a progres¬ sive increase. For all the effects upon the coin-supply that the occasional presence of more notes can have are upon one side, in the direction of making the coin-supply less than it would otherwise have been. The issue of more notes at the crop-season will check the rise of short-time interest and make money easier; in fact, that is what it is intended for. Easier money means a better maintenance of prices of goods, and consequently less encouragement of purchases here by foreign buyers and less tendency to start an import of gold or a diminution of its export. In short, the pressure at the crop-season, so far as it is now relieved by any retention or import of gold, would force less relief of that kind because the pressure itself would be less. This, in turn, is only a part of the more general statement that whenever there is any change in our money- stock of gold, the presence of recently added bank notes in the circulation tends to make the increase of gold less or the decrease more than it would otherwise have been; for if any given quantity of these bank notes had been ab¬ sent, the tightness of the money-market would have been increased or its plethora diminished. Taking any period of years, we may rely upon it that effects of this kind will have happened while the extra bank notes of the crop- season were afloat, in which case bank notes will have taken the place of the coin expelled. And these changes will be cumulative, because the presence of bank notes always acts on that side when it acts at all. means of enforcing contraction. The importance of this practical certainty that the bank note supply will increase from year to year if the checks are so balanced against profit as to permit an easy increase of notes at every jnaximum of business, and if no special devices are used to force all the new notes back when busi¬ ness slackens, lies in its strongly commending to us the use of such special devices if we undertake to make an % 66 CoLOEADO College Studies. elastic note-circulation. That a progressive increase of notes is, on the whole, an evil, most economists will agree. It is true that there is a gain by use of cheap money when it is good money; that is, by the less sacrifice of goods involved in obtaining it, the relative diminution of the earned part and increase of the note-part. But that seems to be more than offset by the risks that attend a steady increase of bank note money—sometimes a distant risk of an amount great enough to be depreciated, always a risk of corruption of popular judgment about money through suggestion of government paper as a resource at the first pinch, and usually an enhancement (through enlarging the number of issuing banks and spreading the habit of extra note-issues) of the greater risk of encourag¬ ing riotous speculation that attends all schemes for elas¬ ticity by bank notes. As a special device to keep an elastic note-circulation from increasing progressively, the ingenious suggestion of the late John Jay Knox * may be considered first: that the notes added at times of increase should be of a different color from the others, and should bear interest after a cer¬ tain date. This proposal takes advantage of the well known fact that notes bearing interest will not circulate as money except when money is very scarce; the holders naturally treat them as a sort of bond instead. Mr. Knox's species of notes would, accordingly, almost all drop out of circula¬ tion as money soon after the date when interest was to begin. If the notes bore a low rate of interest, they would find their way to the issuing bank before long; if a high rate, part of them would be kept by the holders as an in¬ vestment. In the case of a high rate, indeed, the disappear¬ ance from circulation would begin before the date arrived, and perhaps so soon as to impair the intended elasticity of the note-circulation. While trusting to the behavior of the note-holders is reasonably safe, it seems simpler and more certainly effect¬ ual in every case to provide a legal limit acting directly * See the Forum, February, 1892. State Bank Notes. 67 upon the banks. Suppose, for instance, that the increase of the ordinary note-circulation is prevented by fixing a maximum for it as nearly as possible at the point where it now is, admitting hereafter no new issue of notes on the ordinary terms, except in place of such circulation with¬ drawn;* and that extra circulation be permitted on some such terms as these—the extra notes to be issued only dur¬ ing two or three specified months just before and during the crop-season, and the whole circulation of the bank to be reduced to its former dimensions by, say, January 15 following. The reduction, or its equivalent, may be made certain by requiring from the bank a deposit of money on January 15 in place of any excess of notes still outstand¬ ing; the government either to undertake the subsequent redemption itself, or to return the money to the bank as fast as the redemption proceeded. The money being kept idle by the government meanwhile, the effect on the money- supply of the country is the same as if the excess of notes had been wholly retired before January 15; and the con¬ traction has begun some time before the date, as the bank, besides its actual redemption, began to accumulate money for the final alternative redemption or deposit with the government. The extra notes could then have precisely the same appearance as the ordinary notes, and have the same validity as between the bank and the holder; it would make no difference whether the notes redeemed and re¬ tired were the same individual notes that went out in the extra issue; all that is necessary is the retirement of a certain amount of the notes of that bank, drawn indiffer¬ ently from the old and the new ones. The whole matter would be settled between the government and the bank, and no one else would be troubled with any discrimination among the notes he handles. A second period of possible issue may be provided for the "spring trade"; but there should be at least one space of a month or two in each ♦Giving preference to newly organized,banks in allotting this substituted ordinary circulation; if any were left, old banks that wished to enlarge their ordinary circulation could have it. 68 Colorado College Studies. year, and better two such spaces, when the extra circula¬ tion is wholly absent, so that it may have no opportunity to become permanent circulation and displace coin.* The hard-and-fast limiting of the ordinary note-circulation need not exclude new banks from the privilege of note- issue, for if there are not enough old banks withdrawing* ordinary circulation to make room for them in the ordinary circulation, the new banks may nevertheless, by coming under the inspection-rules, be allowed to share in the extra issues. The question how the extra notes should be secured is of some importance. If deposit of securities is required, it will be found to impair the readiness of the banks to issue extra notes; the nearer the formality and expense of making the issue approached that of the ordinary issue, the less elasticity the system would give. On the other hand, if the original security were no more than enough for the ordinary issue, it would not be enough for a per¬ fect safeguard to the increased amount.f A first claim upon all the property of the bank, reinforced by a safety fund and perhaps by a personal liability of the stock¬ holders, would be very strong, but might imaginably fail in some one or two instances at last; though the govern¬ ment might protect the note-holder by assuming that risk itself through guarantying the notes, or transfer it to the other banks in the system through making- them respon¬ sible beyond their share of the safety fund. All these comments upon the mode of securing the notes apply equally to Mr. Knox's plan and to the second plan de¬ scribed. So do all the following questions: "What securi¬ ties should take the place of United States bonds when those are extinct; whether a maximum should be set to the */. e. displace coin progressively. There would doubtless be a slight dis¬ placement in the first year or two, and then the coin-supply would go on a little less than it would otherwise have been, but less by a nearly constant amount. t But the deposit of securities for the ordinary circulation might be made to exceed the face-value of the ordinary notes by a margin large enough to cover a considerable extra circulation. Just now, national banks whose deposited bonds are 4 per cents could issue 30 per cent, more circulation without exceeding the market value of their bonds plus their redemption-deposit of cash. State Bank Notes. 69 extra notes also; whether all banks in the system should have the extra-note privilege, or banks in certain cities only; what features of the law should be left subject to variation by the Comptroller of the Currency or some other executive officer. There ought to be an arbitrary maxi¬ mum of increase, lest in an occasional time of speculative temptation the note-issue should run wild; for serious harm might be done by a rapid increase long before it reached any automatic check by redemption. Both of the plans need free criticism and working out in detail by prac¬ tical bankers before either can be trusted; but the point I wish to urge is, that some such special provision must be made to insure a return of the note-circulation to its former volume, or it will probably increase. In any bank note system, the whole volume of notes below the lowest point reached in the duller times is dead and useless for purposes of elasticity. It is only the flow and ebb that give the elasticity; if the notes never fall be¬ low 100 millions, that 100 millions might as well be coin.* We may accordingly, if we please, rid ourselves of practi¬ cally all the present ordinary note-circulation, substitute coin for it, and still have the desired elasticity by using the extra notes of one of the two plans described above. Of course the reduction ought to be made gradually, and by the weight of conditions that do not affect the extra notes, e. g., by a higher tax. OBJECTIONS TO STATE BANK NOTES. It is hard to see why the national bank system, as such, should be blamed for its failure to be elastic. Any state bank system must be subject to the same natural laws. The transfer of supervision to the State governments makes no change whatever in the rule that the increase or de¬ crease of note-circulation will be determined by the excess of the profits over the checks or of the checks over the profits; that rulejs, from the nature of the case, unchange- ♦Except that the change might introduce some additional difficulty into the arrangements for putting good security behind the extra notes, and the notes might become imfamiliar enough to be a little less convenient as money. 70 CoLOEADO College Studies. able. All that can be done is to vary the nature of the checks; and wherever that can be done by the state gov¬ ernments it can be done by the national government. If it is desired to increase the note-circulation, that end is reached as certainly by removing taxes from national bank circulation as by removing them from state bank circula¬ tion. If it is desired to make temporary contractions easier, by reducing the expense and trouble of withdrawing de¬ posited bonds and redeeming the notes, or to adopt the Knox plan or the second plan described in this article, every detail of the improved process can be applied by the na¬ tional government as easily as by the state governments, and indeed with less expense. Anything that would be dangerous in a national bank note system would be as dangerous (and usually more dangerous) in a state bank note system. And any imaginable gain under state super¬ vision can be had as well or better under national super¬ vision. The diflBculty of framing a good system of bank note law and supervision by forty-four distinct legislatures needs no detailed discussion, unless by a competent humorist. There is no hope that a jumble of various state-systems would " average up" into a good bank-note circulation. If in ten states, five states, one state, the system is bad, there will appear bank notes imperfectly guarded by secu¬ rities or dependent upon too small a reserve, in which case it is only a question of time when some bank will let its notes go to protest; to say nothing of the moral certainty that the wish of the legislatures to see the new system well started would cause the checks upon profits to be set too low, so that (taking the country through) there would be a large unnecessary original issue of notes, coming before any need of trade called for them, and merely crowding out better money.* In whatever states the notes were insecure, those states would suffer annoyance and occa¬ sional loss by circulation of such notes; some of the notes * This point has not received the attention it deserves. Its practical impor¬ tance is great. State Bank Notes. 71 would pass into other states and carry annoyance with them; and the repute of good notes would be injured out¬ side of the state of their origin, because many men would not take the trouble to remember which states were sound, and would look with distrust upon any notes of a distant state, perhaps of any state but their own. Unless all the states agreed upon the same paper and similar printing, the detection of counterfeits would once more become a fine art, and the unskilled man and woman would be daily exposed to loss. It is not enough to answer that there is no danger of the return of the absurd and dangerous bank money of the first half of the century; if there is any failure to redeem notes, any discount upon some notes of distant origin or of tarnished fame, the opportunity of petty fraud upon the ignorant and careless is thrown wide open, and every man must choose between possible loss and the vexatious precaution of examining every note he receives. Moreover, the workman in taking wages, the retail dealer in taking payment from a customer he is anxious to retain, is often reluctant to give offense by ob¬ jecting to money on the mere chance that it is depreciated, and will sometimes take it when he knows there will be a small depreciation, rather than raise the objection. The presence in any money system of elements that are dis¬ trusted, that must be looked for and chaffered over or sub¬ ject the recipient to loss, is so wearisome an addition to the friction of trade that a clear case of beneficence in other directions (and no small beneficence) must be shown to give such kinds of money any claim to consideration. And when such beneficence as state bank notes are capa¬ ble of can be had without the friction and annoyance by using national bank notes instead, the attempt to substi¬ tute the former seems a ludicrous folly. Even if we im¬ agine the prodigy of wise concurrent action of all the states at first, what guaranty is there against the appear¬ ance from time time hereafter of those legislatures whose pride it is to despise experience, to brush aside the sophis¬ tries of prejudiced conservatives, and to open short cuts to 72 CoLOBADo College Studies. prosperity for the oppressed plain people? Many of the advocates of restoration of state bank notes see the diffi¬ culties distinctly enough to propose that there shall still be some national restriction and supervision. The best that can be said of such plans is that a safe built partly of iron and partly of v?ood will resist fire better than a safe built wholly of wood. The advocates of an admixture of wood may fairly be asked what good is expected from the change. If we are to attempt elasticity, then, common prudence requires the preference of national bank notes to state bank notes; for any tolerable system of so-called state bank notes must include national control so nearly complete that it is really a national bank note system. III.—mCEEASE OF SCANTY LOCAL CIECULATION. So far as it deals with the increased demand at crop- moving time, this argument for state bank notes is of course mere repetition of the argument from elasticity; but a separate place may be given to it because some persons have seriously urged that the permanent stock of money could thus be increased in the regions where a scarcity is now felt. Taken in this sense, even, it is completely an¬ swered by the answer to the elasticity argument; for if there is any way by which state bank notes could give a larger permanent money circulation to parts of the country, the same way can be provided for national bank notes by national law and supervision. And if this were not so, the proposed advantage of a larger local circulation is im¬ aginary. Money is sent away from districts where capital is scanty because goods are so valuable to the farmer, the trader and the manufacturer, that they prefer having more goods to keeping a comfortable cash reserve in hand or in bank; indeed they usually borrow besides. Double the money in such a district, and within two months there would be little more than at first, if it were money that could be used in outside payments; in the long run there State Bank Notes. 73 would scarcely be more, unless it depreciated, than if the addition had never been made. A district within a coun¬ try can no more enlarge its permanent circulation by issu¬ ing paper than the country itself can; whatever nominal enlargement may appear will be caused by depreciation. Even a nominal permanent enlargement could be had only through notes that were objectionable outside and were issued in such volume as to exceed * the formerly normal amount of money in the district; until they reached that volume they would merely displace other money. With a circulation thus enlarged, the district would enjoy all the blessings of a depreciated paper currency and a varying rate of exchange with the outside world; and unless the district had a well defined frontier line, which is improb¬ able, there would be a strip of country all around it where the notes would be the cause of daily disputes and frauds. If we want this state of things, we can have it; but we can give the local banks free rein just as easily by national law as by state law. IV.—EVILS OF THE TEH PER CENT. TAX. The objection to the tax on state bank circulation ap¬ pears in two forms. One of these, urging that individual liberty is unfairly dealt with by a prohibitory tax on bank notes that fail to conform to legally set rules, must be the product of hasty writing without second thought. Surely the creation of money is, like marriage, "affected by a public interest," and subject to the right of the whole community to protect its interest by prescribing conditions for every such transaction. Does any one (except those who follow their truth wherever it leads, with a Tolstoi¬ like disregard of consequences and of other truths) pro¬ pose that every mushroom bank or factory store shall be left free to circulate its notes or "orders" as money where it can? If not, some power must prohibit, and prac- * * Strictly, of course, allowance must be made for the scattered remains of the former money, and conversely for the increasing needs of trade. And to cause the inflation the notes must become practically inconvertible. 74 CoLOBADo College Studies. tically the power must be either the Nation or the State. Here rises the other form of the argument: that the pro¬ hibitory tax goes beyond the constitutional powers of Con¬ gress. Such a claim can be maintained only as a protest against the decision of the Supreme Court, like the still existing dissent from the Legal Tender decision. There is no room for the claim of "moral" unconstitutionality, such as there might have been if the Court had merely sustained the law in its formal aspect of laying a tax, for the decision was not reached by ignoring the prohibitory nature of the tax, but by affirming the power to prohibit. The words are: "Congress may restrain by suitable enact¬ ments the circulation as money of any notes not issued under its own authority." Ought Congress to retreat be¬ fore constitutional scruples which have (to state the case mildly) nothing near unanimity of legal opinion to sup¬ port them and have already been overruled by the Supreme Court, scruples which at best affect merely the question whether Congress or the State legislatures shall use a power that one or the other must use; when the abandonment of the field by Congress would expose the country to the in¬ evitable evils of disjointed management of note-circulation by the separate States? If any one holds that decision of the Supreme Court to be erroneous, he might better aim to cure the error by a constitutional amendruent than to put upon the country the needless and ridiculous embar¬ rassments that state bank paper would inflict. Between national bank notes and state bank notes, then, the choice seems too easy to be called a problem. The real bank-note question is whether we need any bank notes at all; and if we do, how, under national control, they can be kept secure and their volume can be made elastic. The latter part of the subject has had a fairly full public dis¬ cussion, but too little attention has been given to the pos¬ sibility of doing without bank notes. That the withdrawal of the present stock of bank notes would not probably be State Bank Notes. 75 a troublesome process, has been shown in the earlier part of this paper. And if it is thought necessary to secure for the money-supply an elasticity of volume, in addition to the existing virtual elasticity by change of speed in circu¬ lation and by additions of metal, it is possible to have ELASTICITY WITHOUT NOTES. Our choice of means is not restricted to notes. The Treasury itself is a ready-made apparatus. Whenever Treasury receipts exceed Treasury payments, the circula¬ tion outside contracts;* whenever the payments predomi¬ nate, the circulation enlarges. When such a change comes without any corresponding need of trade, the disparity is set right by the usual automatic methods, i. e. by a quick¬ ening of the average speed of circulation or an increase of bank reserves in the cases of needless contraction and ex¬ pansion respectively, followed (if the disparity is large enough and lasts long enough) by a change in the rate of short-time interest and ultimately by a change in the ex¬ port or import of metal. When the expansion or contrac¬ tion happens to fit a need of trade, we have a true elasticity imparted by the Treasury action. In fact, several impor¬ tant outpours and absorptions of money by the Treasury occur every year; if they could be made to fit the needs of trade better than they do now, the circulation would be made elastic pro tanto. For instance, nearly all the in¬ terest on the public debt is paid in April and the corre¬ sponding quarter months, now that the interest-bearing debt is mostly the 1907 four per cents. If the interest were made semi-annual, and payable in March and September, about 11 millions t of interest-money would be cast into the channels of business at crop-moving time, and another 11 millions in time for the spring trade, while there would be a corresponding contracting infiuence at work through ♦Contracts relatively; that is, if greater forces are just then expanding it, Treasury action merely diminishes the expansion. The word enlarges," in the next phrase, is used ift the same relative sense, though the enlargement is usually absolute also. t Instead of the present arrangement of 514 millions in October, and 514 more in January, when it is not wanted. 76 coloeado College Studies. the summer and the winter, when it is wanted. Again, the pensions are paid quarterly, but are distributed in groups upon different sets of quarter-days. These might be so grouped, probably without serious inconvenience to the pensioners,* that the payments in two months of spring should be about twice as large and in two months of autumn about three times as large as at other times. With pen¬ sions amounting to 160 or 180 millions annually, such an arrangement could be made to "plump" an extra 30 or 40 millions in the autumn and half of that in the spring. Without recommending these particular methods, one may take them as illustrating the possibility of such adjust¬ ments. Other means, some of which are applied by the Treasury, are the purchase of bonds at the end of summer, the increase of Treasury deposits with the banks, the ar¬ rangement of contracts so as to make the principal pay¬ ments for supplies in the autumn and spring. It is a fair question for debate whether this paternal- looking behavior of the Treasury would be good policy in the long run. The objection to it as government inter¬ ference is sound. But as compared with the present Treas¬ ury methods, it would be only a better arrangement of ebbs and flows that exist already in considerable degree and often at the wrong times.t Whatever evils it has, the Treasury method of obtaining elasticity is perhaps better than any known bank-note system, and is far better than any possible state bank system. In the long run, among fallible men, expensivp money is the most economical; money that cannot be duplicated without a liberal expense of labor; metal, or certiflcates known to have their full equivalent of metal behind them. In the sacriflce a coun¬ try necessarily makes to obtain such money, as compared ♦Crudely, by making a part of the pensions semi-annual, with the autumnal payment larger than the other; an inequality that fits tolerably well the needs of indigent pensioners. t See illustrative figures in Mr. Kinley's article on the Independent Treasury in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Septem¬ ber, 1892. The figures are for operations at New York, but are a suflBcient indica¬ tion of what happens in the whole country. State Bank Notes. 77 with watering it by a note-element, it is buying business security and a charm against popular delusions. Some¬ thing might be said, even if no project for elasticity through Treasury payments is accepted, for the belief that our best policy is to prefer safety to elasticity, to arrange the checks on profit sd as to insure the gradual extinction of the bank notes,* to substitute nothing for them, and so let coin fiow in; when that is done, to increase the coin reserve against greenbacks by 15 or 20 millions annually till it equals the whole volume of greenbacks and they can be converted into coin certificates. When a gen¬ eration has grown up that has never seen a bank note or a government note, the seed of many a folly will be dead in the popular mind. The principal conclusions we have reached may be summarized as follows: 1. The extinction of the national bank notes requires no creation of other money. The coin to take their place will come in without perceptibly greater national sacrifice than has attended the extinction of a still larger amount of notes in the past few years. 2. An elastic bank note system would probably cause progressive increase in the amount of note-circulation, unless restraints hitherto unusual were applied. Such re¬ straint might be given by causing the notes added in the temporary expansions to bear interest after a set time, or by expressly requiring the issuing banks to reduce their circulation within the old limits before a set time. 3. Nothing is to be gained, either towards elasticity pr towards permanent enlargement of local circulation, by substitution of state control for national control. The in¬ crease or diminution of bank notes is determined by the relation between the profits and certain well defined checks, and the state governments cannot apply the checks better than the national government can. * Which of course does not imply a disappearance of the national bank system. 78 Colorado College Studies. 4. The relegation of control to the states would almost certainly cause the checks to be set too low at first, and cause a large initial increase of notes. 5. Insecure notes from a single state would diminish the practical convenience ^f the whole note-circulation. 6. Security of all the notes under separate state man¬ agement is almost incredibly improbable; and if attained in one year, might easily fail in the next. 7. The prohibition, by tax or otherwise, of circulating notes that fail to conform with national law, is not an in¬ justice to individuals. The objection on constitutional grounds touches only the question whether state or na¬ tional legislatures shall impose the necessary restrictions; and if sound at all, is rather an argument for a constitu¬ tional amendment than for a bad money system. 8. A means of elasticity, probably safer than any bank note system, exists in the irregularity of Treasury expenses. (Colorado (^ollege, Colorado Sprit^gs^ Colo> College offers two courses, leading, respectively, to ^ tlie degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Philosophy. In the Ph. B. Course, Greek is omitted and more attention is given to the sciences and modern lan¬ guages. The College has a good library and well-equipped laboratories. The various courses of study have been so arranged and the faculty so enlarged that Colorado College offers the same educational facilities as the Eastern colleges. For catalogues, address t-. „ ® ' Wm. F. Slocum, President. The Cutler Academy, Under the auspices of the Colorado College, gives students a thorough preparation for admission to the Freshman class of any college in the country. Correspondence con¬ cerning the Cutler Academy should be addressed to the Assistant Principal, ^ Gile The Location of the College is unsurpassed. Colorado Springs has a world-wide reputation as a Health Resort. Students forced by pulmonary or malarial troubles to discontinue their studies in the East, pursue college courses here successfully and at the same time make a permanent gain in health. THE COBURN LIBRARY. FIFTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION. Colorado College Studies. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. 1894, OFFICERS, 1894. President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, William Stkieby. {W. M. Hall. / Louis R. Ehrich. Plorian Cajori. Treasurer, Frank H. Loud. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAfiE The Ethical Problem op the Public School System. By TV. F. Slocum, Jr., 1 The Origin and Use of the Natural Gas at Manitou, Colorado. By William Strichy, ------ 14 Herpetolooical Notes from Kansas and Te.xas. By F. TT^ Crag in, - - - 37 The Choctaw and Grayson Terranes of the Arietina, By F. TV. Crugiii, 40 Descriptions op New Species of Invertebrata from the Comanche Series in Texas, Indian Territory, and Kansas; with Definition of two Comanche Terranes. By F. TT'. Crag in, ------- 49 Vertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas. -By F. TV. Cragin, --------- 09 THE GAZETTE PRfNTtNG CO. COLORADO SPRINGS. THE ETHICAL PROBLEM OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS * BY WILLIAM FREDERICK SLOCUM, JR. The political instincts of the people of the United States have led them to seek the best possible system of public schools, and the supreme motive for the expenditure of the vast sums of money that have been voted with great willing¬ ness for their foundation and their continued support has been the education of the youth of the country for citizenship. The final test of all citizenship must be an ethical one; and especially is this true in a democracy where the stability of its life depends upon the character of its citizens. With this fact in view, it is pertinent to ask whether the public schools are fulfilling the mission for which they were founded. There has been for some time an increasing interest in the moral aspect of the public school problem. One indica¬ tion of this is seen in the appearance during the last two years of seven rather notable text-books upon ethics, especially designed for schools of lower grade. The question that is now asked, however, does not find its answer in any reply given to the query raised as to the wisdom of publishing these books, for it seeks to go behind the inquiry. Should ethics be taught at all to boys and girls of the age of those in the public schools ? It asks whether the problem of public morals is involved in the very nature of the system as such. No one denies that the education of the thirteen million children in these schools has much to do with the destiny of the republic, nor that the country has placed its future, for good or evil, in tlie hands of the public school teacher. The church inay have the capacity for the moral training of the youth of the country; but, great as is its influence, the ethico-religious movement is not at present far reaching * Reprinted from The Atlantic Monthly, May, 1894. 2 COLOKADO COLLEGE STUDIES. enough to fashion even the majority of these thirteen million pupils into citizens in whom righteousne.ss shall be the con¬ trolling element; and there is no reason for thinking that it will be in the immediate future. The home comes much nearer meeting the need; but doubtless Mr. G. H. Palmer's statement is correct, in his article Can Moral Conduct be Taught in Schools? "The home," he says, " which has hitherto been the fundamental agency for fostering morality in the young, is just now in sore need of repair. We can no longer depend upon it alone for moral guardianship. It must be supplemented, possibly reconstructed." It still does, and always will, train the choice few for leadership; but after enumerating the homes in which the best that was in Puritanism still is the controlling ele¬ ment, and those that develop morality by means of the self- respect engendered by intellectual and aesthetic culture,—in fact, all those in which high ideals predominate,— there is still left a vast number where self-seeking is the main principle of life. If to the number of children in these latter homes are added the thousands who exist with scarcely any trace of home life to shelter them, we shall be forced to admit that there would be a moral crisis if the public school were not doing its beneficent work. The question still awaits us, however. What is the public school system achieving for public morals? Just at present there is a movement in various quarters to introduce instruction in the theory of morals into even the lower grades of the schools; but no one seems to be sure that this will not produce self-conscious prigs, or encourage morbid introspection rather than sturdy morality. But all are agreed that it is the function of the public schools—not to say of all schools, for that matter—to produce what some one calls " unconscious rectitude " in these thirteen million children. All appear to believe that development of morality is essen¬ tial, and few that the teaching of mere ethical theories will be of much value. The problem involves, then, the study of the system as a system from the standpoint of practical morality, to see if it V THE ETHICAL PROBLEM OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 3 is a moral force in and of itself. Its power for righteousness depends upon what it is by virtue of its plan, purpose, and scope; upon its spirit, genius, and the manner in which it is realizing the ideal that has brought it into existence. It is not possible at present to make a comprehensive and accurate study of the moral value of the public school system. The method of examination must be inductive, and the con¬ ditions vary so greatly in different communities that it is exceedingly diflBcult to reach conclusions that are drawn from a sufficiently large number of facts to make one's deductions satisfactory. The literature upon the subject, and in fact upon the general subject of the public schools, especially from a sociological and economic point of view, is exceedingly meagre. A good illustration of this point is the article in the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, where, in over one hundred of its large and closely printed pages upon the United States, less than quarter of a page is devoted to this institution, and even what is written is of no special value. Such papers as the articles of Dr. Bice which have lately appeared in The Forum will furnish the basis of other work, and encouragement should be given to such critical examinations of the system; but much more work of this nature must be done before a comprehensive and discrimi¬ nating thesis can be written upon the real influence of the public schools upon the morals of the country. Certain conclusions, however, in regard to their power can be reached, and these ought to be stated in an article attempting to give a judicial opinion of their ethical merits. First there should be indicated the points both of direct and of indirect ethical value, and then the lines of weakness or of positive failure. Modern psychology, leading to the study of the objective manifestations of mind, tells us that " habit covers a very large part of life;" that instincts are simply habits to which there is an innate tendency; and that these habits are due to what is characterized as the "plasticity" of brain matter to outward influences. Whether, for example, as one of our distinguished writers upon psycho-physics has told us, the 4 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. habit of putting one's hands into one's pockets is mechanically nothing but the reflex discharge, or not, the fact remains that " the walking bundle of habits of later years " does spin his fate for good or evil in that plastic state which covers the time when the child is usually a pupil in the public schools. If this is true, there is reason for saying that there is ethical value in the systematic order and discipline that are found in the majority of these schools. The constant and punctual attendance, the orderly arrangement of pupils, together with strict requirements in connection with these matters, fit one for successful business life, and create a sense of responsibility in regard to the use of time. The system of the public schools tends to make the pupil systematic, and helps to produce the accurate and methodical man or woman of later years. The testimony in regard to this is incontrovertible. More than this, however, there is ethical value in the very conception from which the movement started, and the idea along which it has developed. The notion of self-improve¬ ment for a high end has in itself moral worth; for it demands that the youth of the country shall be upright not only be¬ cause excellence of character is a good in itself, but because ' it promotes the good of the state. The expenditure of such a large proportion of the public revenues, the erection of so many buildings, the employment of such large numbers of high-minded persons, the creation and constant support of such an elaborate scheme, for the one purpose of producing good citizens, are object lessons that must have great influence upon the public. What has been said indicates some of the lines in which the schools exert a direct moral influence; but in addition to this a large amount of testimony shows that, especially where there is a compulsory school law, a sense of responsibility has been developed in parents, making them recognize their own obligations. This, the reflex influence of the public schools upon the communities in which the system is at its best, is shown in many ways. Parents whose education has been meagre and faulty have become learners themselves, and have been led for the first time to consider seriously the THE ETHICAL PROBLEM OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 5 duties and future of their children; and this thought for the welfare of others has had a wholesome reaction upon their own lives. In naming the elements that give moral value to the public schools mention should be made of the indirect good accomplished by keeping large numbers of children from the haphazard companionship of the streets, and from idleness and degrading influences. Especially in the larger towns and cities has this been true. To this negative protective good should be added the positive advantage derived from the acquisition of habits of neatness, personal cleanliness, and, in many schools, good manners. After enumerating these things, which are more or less incidental to the system, and others that might and ought to be considered, it still remains to be said that the greatest ethical value in the public school system is, and must ever be, the intellectual work that is accomplished by it. There can be no doubt that there is a great amount of teaching that is not only unmoral, but positively immoral, in its direct or indirect influence. Recent publications demonstrate this fact, and show that the public schools will be at their best as a moral force when their work is thoroughly scientific. Their success, then, in achieving the purpose for which they have been created depends primarily upon the character of the instruction that is given in them. It may be true that " pupils will not learn their lessons in arithmetic if they have not already made some progress in concentration, in self- forgetfulness, in acceptance of duty;" but it is equally true that mental exactitude and thoroughness of work, under the influence of a teacher whose method is scientific and whose spirit is earnest, will develop the elements that produce con¬ centration, self-forgetfulness, and dutifulness. The tendency of mechanical, unscientific instruction is towards immorality. Schools that are^mder the control of selfish officials, with in¬ competent supervision and antiquated methods of teaching, have no power to quicken those springs of action which are the sources of morality. On the other hand, ethical capacity and moral strength can and ought to be produced by a high- 6 COLOBADO COLLEGE STUDIES. minded instructor in and through the very process of teaching arithmetic, grammar, and geography. Mental activity and intellectual self-respect are important factors in the truest morality. Habits of attention and observation may be de¬ veloped into self-control, and the power of judgment into capacity for distinguishing between right and wrong. The ability to hold one's self uninterruptedly to any task may be power for resisting wrong or for the performance of duty. In this connection mention should be made of a certain force of character which may be produced by the element of continuity in the courses of study through which the pupils are required to pass. So far as these are fitted to the nor¬ mal, natural method of mental growth in the pupil they have ethical value. Obedience to the laws of mental development is essential to the highest type of manhood, and abnormal, restricted, unnatural mental growth is apt to produce im¬ morality. The things that have been mentioned lie on the hopeful side of this problem, and on the whole they make the outlook encouraging. They lead, however, to the question. How can an institution that is fraught with so much good, and which is necessary to the life of the state, be still further improved, and how can certain evils within it be eradicated? To do a little in the effort to answer this question, and also that this statement of the moral problem of the public schools may not be one-sided, an examination must be made of the evils that at least modify their usefulness. Dr. Rice says, in his last article on Our Public School System: "One half the work of placing the schools upon a healthful foundation has been accomplished when the mem¬ bers of the boards of education become endowed with the desire to improve the schools." To accept as final the opinion that they are perfect always results in the evil elements be¬ coming conspicuous. The most dangerous official is the one who regards no criticism as valid simply because it is uttered against the public schools. Neglect of such an essential institution is not worse than bigoted satisfaction with it and all that pertains to it. THE ETHICAL PROBLEM OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 7 The pride of its friends is that it is a great system of education. Mention has already been made of the value of the element of continuity in a course of study, but there is also a difficulty connected with it that cannot be ignored. The fixed schedule of study is fixed for all; the long courses are, with few exceptions, unmodified for the slow or the quick minds. The only reply the writer has been able to secure to the question, "What can he done to remedy this?" has been, " There is no escape from it, except in a few cases where very unusually bright children are promoted more rapidly than the others." The time taken for many children of more than average ability to complete a subject is unreasonably long; but the nature of the child must bend to the system, the system little or not at all to the peculiarities of the pupil. Now, nothing is more important, in creating and preserving " unconscious rectitude," than the element of spontaneity, and there can be no doubt that many children who pass through the long years spent in the public schools lose in this respect rather than gain. The kindergarten is obviating this danger somewhat; but wherever there is a suppressed mental life there must exist, in some degree at least, a sup¬ pressed moral nature: there is a logical connection between the inflexible system that holds a responsive, sensitive child in its grasp for years, and mental reactions that too often develop into moral weakness, and occasionally into vice. This tendency is, no doubt, not entirely the fault of the system,-as a hard-and-fast system, but in a large degree of those unscientific methods which merely tax the memory, stunt rather than develop the reasoning faculty, and usually make the child unhappy, and sometimes morbid. President Eliot has shown that there is a waste of time in the student life by keeping pupils too long on subjects that should be covered in a much shorter period. But this loss of time has a more important bearing than the one which he considers. The attempt to *ave time is important; the attempt to save the moral nature is far more important. The destruction of interest and enthusiasm in a child has more than an intel¬ lectual significance; it interferes as well with his moral de¬ velopment. If one believes that there are certain definite 8 COLOEADO COLLEGE STUDIES. laws for the growth of the soul, which have been discovered by the world's great teachers, he ought also to believe that the violation of these laws in the training of children must react on the moral as well as on the mental life of those who can least afford to pay the penalty. The destruction of in¬ dividuality" brutalizes a nature, and there is constant danger of this where mere system is conspicuous and becomes the controlling element. It is exceedingly difficult for an in¬ structor to hold the interest and develop the enthusiasm of a pupil after an appropriate amount of time has been given to any one subject; and although it is true that the teacher is the most important factor in connection with the system, and that sing-song recitations and pure memorizing will, under any condition of affairs, produce unscientific results, yet the best teacher is influenced by the system under which he teaches. There can be no doubt that many children who pass through the long years of continuous school life lose in some degree the quality of spontaneity, and that the loss of it is accountable for the lack of some of those finer sentiments that have always been the glory and the beauty of human life. No discussion of thq moral problems of the public school system would be satisfactory if reference were not made to what has, perhaps somewhat exaggeratedly, been called " the pauperizing tendency of the public school system." Free tuition has led to free text-books, until the principle has been clearly laid down that the state must furnish, without charge, to all its children whatever education they desire. Especially in the West has this been carried to its logical extreme, and the state university is asked to provide the highest special education not only without charge for tuition, use of build¬ ings and apparatus, but in some cases with free rooms that are furnished and warmed at the expense of the state. In other words, it is claimed that no money equivalent should be given for the benefit received and the service rendered. Parent and pupil can take from the state, but, except what the pupil may return through his better preparation for citizenship, nothing is to be given for that which has been bestowed; and with large numbers of persons there is no THE ETHICAL PROBLEM OP THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 9 sense of obligation whatever in the matter. It is said by those who oppose the extreme form which this theory has taken that it carries the paternal feature of government to a dangerous extent; that it makes the citizen selfish and grasp¬ ing; that it may, and in many cases undoubtedly does, minis¬ ter to that spirit which characterizes much of our American life,— the spirit that ever asks. What shall we have? and seldom. What shall we give? and which is the bane of our present social order. It is further claimed that the results of this are already apparent in our national life; that the spirit which made our pension system is encouraged and developed by the " pauperizing tendency in the public school system." • Although it has been difficult to secure accurate informa¬ tion in regard to the results of this " free element " in educa¬ tion, it has become only too evident that many parents look upon the teachers as if they were servants; demanding every¬ thing from the school without any idea that they owe anything in return. Such facts as these—and there are many others which might be cited—indicate some of the evil results of the plan, and make it very clear that here is an actual danger to the higher ethical conditions. We should carefully guard our national life at this point. There seems to be no escape from this free element and its logical results. All that can be done is to ward off the possible danger by constantly holding before the pupils the idea that they must repay the state in good citizenship. Impurity may not be a greater evil in public than in private schools; but there are certain conditions in the demo¬ cratic commingling of children in the former which make it more than a possible evil. There can be little or no social distinction except that growing out of the location of the school buildings. There is the "uptown" and the "down town" school; but if a pupil is admitted into the schools at all, there can be*no law requiring him to be in one building rather than in another, except the regulation that arises from residence in a particular locality; and even this is not enforced in some cities and towns. The very idea of the public school makes any classification upon social and ethical grounds an 10 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. impossibility. There are localities where this evil of impurity is nothing more than a potential danger; but there are very many others where it is a real evil. On the part of teachers there is a growing intelligence concerning it, and a greater vigilance in guarding against it. Those who do realize its enormity, and meet it aright, have secured results that ought to encourage all others; but there should be a most stringent requirement in this matter in defining the teacher's duties. In some of the best normal schools the students have the plainest and clearest instruction upon this subject. They are told the habits for which they are to watch, and the best ways to meet the evil of impurity in whatever form it is present among children. But such preparation is far from universal. Not many years ago, a graduate of one of these schools said that the teacher who gave her class instruction on this subject asked its members how many of them had not known of at least the existence of a vile vocabulary among their schoolmates. All but two of the large class re¬ plied that during their early life in the public schools they had heard what they could never forget, though no words could express the longing they felt to blot it from their memories; and in looking back from their more mature stand¬ point, it seemed to them that the teachers must have felt no special duty in the matter. These were young women from the public schools of one of the older States. There is no doubt, however, that each year our public school teachers have an increasing sense of responsibility for purity in thought and word of the children under their care. The difficulties with which they have to contend are very great. The two or three children who, with an air of mys¬ tery, bring information in regard to forms of impurity have great power for mischief, especially when they put a base interpretation upon things that are in themselves pure; and the quick imagination of a child, together with the fact that this information is not guarded, as it would be if it came from an older and a wise person, makes it doubly dangerous. The testimony of one teacher, which has been repeated by many, is to the effect that the large majority of children in THE ETHICAL PEOBLEM OP THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 11 the public schools know, theoretically, as much about the forms of impurity at twelve and fourteen as they ever will. Thus the situation calls for teachers wise in heart and head, watchful in regard to this danger, and skillful in meeting it; for the sense of disgrace that comes to many children from the mere acquisition of this information is a blow to that peculiar' delicacy of feeling which exists with the highest morality. In many cases the inherent force of home training preserves the child from radical injury; but some children never escape the wrong that is done them, others are led into practices that seriously modify their usefulness, while still others are ruined. The public school is a normal outgrowth of our social and political order, and its tendencies are the logical outcome of this order. Its dangers are those that exist in this democratic state, but it lies in the power of the schools to eradicate much of the evil in the state. It is difficult to say how this is to be accomplished, but certainly the most effective method will be along the line of the general improvement of the system. This improvement will be brought about by the divorce of the control of the schools from partisan politics; by the ap¬ pointment of teachers for merit only, merit in which force of character should be regarded as a sine qua nonj by the introduction of scientific instruction to the exclusion of mechanical methods; and by constantly making prominent the idea that the pupils are being fitted for citizenship and actual service. Something could also be said in regard to the necessity of a larger number of teachers, in order that the element of personal influence may be greater and more immediate. As this paper is only a statement of the ethical problem of the public schools, and not an attempt to solve it, it is not within its province to discuss the many possible remedies that have been Suggested by teachers and others who are studying this question. Few hesitate to say that there are defects in the system, and possible moral dangers associated with it, against which our national life should be guarded with great wisdom and persistence. 12 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. The public school stands in close relationship to every moral problem in the republic. The problem of municipal government is pressing upon thoughtful citizens to-day, and many schemes are devised to make it impossible for dishonest politicians to practice their dishonesty and selfishness; but a radical cure of this and all other evils in the body politic can be effected only by the creation of upright citizens. A majority of the voters receive their only training in the public schools. If low and selfish aims rule their conduct; if they lack the possibility of enthusiasm or a high purpose; if, in short, their lives are wanting in principle, it is not enough to say that demoralizing influences overthrow the good wrought within the schools, because the business of the schools is so to establish morality that it cannot be ovet- thrown by evil circumstances in after life. For, as has already been pointed out, the church and the home of the present day are not able to perform this work, and therefore the schools, because of the very idea which underlies their foundation and secures their continued support, and because of the amount of time which the child necessarily spends in them, must be held largely responsible for the foundation of char¬ acter; in other words, for the training of upright and patriotic citizens. This, as has just been said, is their husitiess. School boards apd teachers are needed who realize this important fact, and who are willing and able to make the development of principle the central point in their work. No one who examines carefully the present political and social order can fail to notice that there is a spirit of self- seeking abroad that is destructive of the noblest virtues and the highest ethical conditions; that vast numbers of citizens are controlled by the passion for getting rather than for giving. This is the dangerous element in the social problem. It is the bane of that partisanship that is ever willing to sacrifice the state for party supremacy; it is the moral obliquity of the pauper and the criminal, who are ever seek¬ ing to get something without rendering a fair and just equiva¬ lent. Is the public school laying its foundation deep enough? Has it struck its roots into the moral nature of these thirteen THE ETHICAL PROBLEM OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 13 million children? These are the questions that serious and earnest people are asking. There is a striking similarity be¬ tween the excellencies in our national life and the excellencies in our public school system. There is also a striking simi¬ larity between the evils in both. Can it not then be said that the eradication of the evils in the public schools will have very much to do with their eradication in the life of the state? To touch the springs of action in these pupils is to touch the very sources of power in the national life; and there is no opportunity to be compared with that offered by the public schools. The institution is so sacred, so far-reaching in its influence, that it must be rescued from political strife and partisan narrowness. * THE ORIGIN AND USE OF THE NATURAL OAS AT MANITOU, COLORADO. BY WILLIAM STBIEBY. The waters of the mineral springs at Manitou owe their sparkle and piquancy to the carbonic acid with which they are naturally surcharged. The beautifully clear water as it issues from its subterranean channels is accompanied in several of the springs by a considerable flow of exceedingly pure carbon dioxide. When dipped from the springs it continues to effervesce for some little time, and the agreeable flavor of the gas makes the drink very palatable in spite of the large quantity of alkaline mineral matter which it holds in solution. For many years these springs have been locally esteemed as furnishing both a refreshing beverage and a valuable medicinal agent, but it is only within the last six or seven years that the bottled waters have been put upon the market to supply a wider circle of admirers. In order to give to the bottled waters the charm of the original effervescence, it was necessary to re-charge them with carbon dioxide; and this was done at first in the manner usually employed in bottling seltzer, and some other gassed beverages. This process, briefly, consisted in the preparation of carbon dioxide from sulphuric acid and marble-dust, and the absorption of it by the mineral water by agitation under pressure in strong iron cylinders. Then it was bottled in the common way, or sometimes was enriched by the addition of ginger syrup and flavorings, and put up as ginger-ale, or as the Manitou Mineral Water Company felicitously called it, "ginger champagne." About the year 1889 the desirability and feasibility of using the natural gas from the springs to re-charge the mineral water and champagne, was suggested to the Company, and this plan, proposed by the writer and carried out under his supervision, was soon put into practical operation. ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 15 It may be of interest to discuss the origin of this natural gas, and then to describe the means by which it is made to again impregnate the mineral water taken from the springs. In seeking to trace the sources of this abundant supply of natural gas, it will be helpful to consider certain of the prominent geological and topographical features of the dis¬ trict iu which the springs occur. Manitou lies in a mountain gulch or valley at the base of Pike's Peak, and just at the entrance to the Ute Pass. In fact the valley is but the eroded and widened outlet of the Pass—itself a narrow water- carved channel through which the drainage of an area some seventy-five to one hundred square miles in extent finds its way to the eastern base of the mountains. The stream which drains this tract obtained the name "Fontaine qui Bouille" from the bubbling or boiling springs on its banks at Manitou. On the south and west of the picturesque little city rise the granite slopes of Pike's Peak, while to the north are piled up the huge masses of stratified rock which flank the other side of the valley. Thus Manitou lies at the junction of the old archaean rocks, with more recent sedimentary formations. Just west of Manitou, however, the limestone beds are found for a short distance on both sides of the Ute Pass. The archaean rocks at Manitou consist almost exclusively of highly feldspathic red granite which disintegrates very readily under atmospheric agencies. Further up the Pass are found patches of syenitic gray granites containing soda feldspars. There are no igneus rocks in this neighborhood save a few narrow dikes, and on the south slope of Pike's Peak, about two miles from the summit, one exposure of phonolite, but not many miles distant at Cripple Creek, large areas of erup¬ tive rocks are exposed to view. A number of rock slips or faults in the granite are to be seen in the neighborhood of the Peak. At Manitou *and to the northwest, only the paleozoic series of sedimentary beds are exposed, e. g. silurian, carbon¬ iferous and juratriasic, and these are mainly represented by limestones and sandstones. The granite slopes of the Front Range, which extend in a generally north and south line, are 16 COLOEADO COLLEGE STUDIES. depressed in a sort of recess or bay at Manitou and to the northward, and these older sedimentary beds rest npon them, and outcrop in their regular order, showing themselves for several miles up the Ute Pass. To the northwest of the Ute Pass and continuing in the same direction, extends a long, narrow strip of the same series of sedimentary formations. Probably these two areas were once continuous ^ind have since been separated by erosion. At the lower end of the latter, or Manitou Park, area, a prominent fault having a slip of three or four hundred feet follows the junction of the granite with the southern side of the sedimentary beds,* and at Manitou, near the Rainbow Falls, there is also a fault with a slip of twenty feet or more, which takes about the same direction. It is probable that these faults form a continuous fissure over the short interval between the two areas, and quite possible that the infiuence of this fissure or slip de¬ termined the course of the stream which cut the Ute Pass so deeply in the rocks. From the prevailingly slight dip of the strata it is probable that the sedimentary beds at Manitou do not extend to very great depths beneath the surface, and the same observation applies also to those at Manitou Park. At Manitou the general inclination of the beds is to the southeast, though there are several folds which steeply incline some portions of them just west of the city. There are, how¬ ever, in the vicinity of the springs at Manitou, a couple of small flexures of strata, indicated mainly by rock exposures on the north side of the valley which should be noticed. They run transversely across the valley, and may be described as being only more abrupt or sudden inclinations of the southeastwardly dipping strata. It is at the crests of these low folds that the springs appear. The oldest limestones are very silicious, and in places just west of Manitou where they are shattered and bent, often contain cavities filled with argillaceous red oxide of iron. The " Caverns" so much visited at Manitou occur in the limestone, and show the re¬ sults of a former great chemical activity at that point. When first discovered, very considerable beds of the same ferrugin- * See the Pike's Peak Folio, edition of 1892, U. S. Geological Survey. ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 17 ous matter covered the floors and filled some of the passage¬ ways of the caves. The springs are found at three points in the valley, and these places are at the apices of a triangle roughly equilateral. The group including the Navajo, Mani- tou, Cheyenne and Shoshone, which lies in the center of the town, and forms the eastern end of the triangle, has the largest flow of water and gas. The eastern of the two trans¬ verse rock flexures occurs at this point. West of this group the valley widens and divides, and the Ute Iron spring is found in Engleman's Canon, a short distance above its mouth, and almost in the granite. The third position, that of the Hiawatha group, is in the general line of the valley, near the limestone rocks, and not far below the entrance to the Ute Pass. It is said by old residents that the largest spring was not many years ago found at this place, but that it was deeply covered and quite obliterated by deposits of gravel brought down the Pass during a severe freshet. In the neighborhood of each group of springs the gravel and wash has been cemented by a tufaceous substance'deposited from the waters and called locally "soda-rock." The Navajo group and the Ute Iron spring are near to the line of contact of the granite with the sedimentary beds; the Hiawatha group is near the line of the Ute Pass fault. In all cases the springs lie close to the streams, and in the creek bed near some of them, numerous small vents are shown by rising bubbles of gas. The rain and snow descending upon the earth bring with them matters washed from the air, and after reaching the ground the waters dissolve portions of all the soil and rocks over which and through which they make their way. It is therefore natural to seek in the waters of these springs for evidence concerning the rocks they have traversed, and thus, if possible, trace nearer to its origin the accompanying gas. The following aiJklyses of water from several of the more im¬ portant springs were made by Prof. Elwyn Waller, Ph. D., of New York, from samples taken from the springs by the writer in the summer of 1891. These results have been confirmed by analyses made in the laboratories of Colorado College on 18 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. several different occasionB, when the samples were also taken in the summer season. IN PARTS PER 100,000 OF WATER CONSTITUENTS POUND. Navajo Manitou Ute Iron spring. spring. spring. 53.959 52.176 41.370 Potassium 7.650 8.219 6.018 Lithium 0.201 0.230 O.OS) Calcium 47.560 47.382 21.747 Magnesium 7.859 8.173 3.939 0.032 0.028 0.326 Aluminium 0.092 0.069 0.140 Chlorine 24.625 24.781 17.520 Sulphuric anhydride 18.410 18.232 20.703 Carbon dioxide 195.366 193.545 104.159 4.230 4.280 6.200 Oxygen in bases 39.296 38.910 23.203 Water in bicarbonates 39.962 39.588 21.305 Totals 439.243 435.613 266.665 Totals in grains per gallon 256.157 254.041 155.514 The elements found in the Hiawatha group of springs are the same as those shown to be in the other groups. Below are tabulated the salts contained in the waters, calculated according to the conventional methods, from the preceding figures. IN PARTS PER 100,000 OP WATER. SALTS PROBABLY PRESENT. . Navajo Manitou Ute Iron spring. spring. spring. Sodium chloride 40.803 41.061 29.030 Potassium sulphate 17.067 18.335 13.425 Sodium sulphate 18.749 17.397 25.792 .Sodium bicarbonate. 115.804 110.518 78.540 Lithium bicarbonate 1.946 2.235 0.336 Calcium bicarbonate 192.613 191.900 88.076 Magnesium bicarbonate 47.812 49.719 23.965 Iron oxide (ferric) 0.046 0.040 1.037* Alumina 0.174 0.130 0.264 Silica 4.230 4.280 6.200 Totals 439.244 435.615 266.665 ♦Ferrous bicarbonate. ORIGIN AND USE OP NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 19 The temperature of the Navajo and Manitou springs was tested on two or three occasions and found to be about 15° C. In July, 1894, it was also the same. On December 31, 1894, after five days of quite cold weather (the thermometer regis¬ tering nightly —18° C. or lower), and again on January 10, 1895, after a continuous period of cold weather, the tempera¬ ture of several of the springs was tested, and samples of water from some of them also taken. The temperatures observed, and the residues obtained by evaporation of the samples of water, are given in the subjoined table. The residues are given in grains per gallon. DATE OP TEST. NAME OP SPRING. Navajo. Manitou. 1 Ute Iron. Ute Chief. Hiawatha. Hiawatha No. 2. Dec. 31 • Jan. 10 ' Temperatures C. 14°.5+ 178.40 14°.5t 177.57 14°. 5 12°.0 *109.52 7°.0 113.66 ir.o tll°.5t 119.16 tl2°.0 117.86 11°.5- 51.10 11°. 0 50.85 Temperatures C. 14°.5- 176.12 * A small precipitate of an iron compound had formed and settled before the analysis was begun—the result is therefore a little low. fThe Hiawatha spring is covered with an iron cap, cemented to the curbing, and the water tested on December 31 was obtained from the overflow and caught in a gallon measure, and as the vessel was cold the temperature obtained was probably too low. On January 10 the thermometer was held In the water escaping from the overflow pipe. This overflow pipe is buried under four or Ave feet of gravel and is some twenty or thirty feet in length. The gas emitted from all of these springs is pure carbon- dioxide. The quantity given off from the different springs is quite unlike, varying from a few hundred cubic centi¬ metres per hour to three or four hundred litres or more in the Navajo and Cheyenne. The flow from each spring is, generally, during the greater part of the year, very uniform in quantity, though it is said that after heavy rains or when snow is melting the quantity given off is increased. This increase may arise from greater hydrostatic pressure of the swollen stream upon small vents in the creek bed and unseen vents along the banks near the springs, thus forcing more gas 20 COLOEADO COLLEGE STUDIES. through the main channel. The foremen of the bottling de¬ partment of the Manitou Mineral Water Company's plant report that a diminution of the flow of both water and gas occurs in the Navajo group of springs during the coldest weather of winter. It is to be observed that the spring waters never become turbid or roily after storms and freshets, although the surface streams are especially affected in this way. One of the springs of the Hiawatha group (the covered one) is slightly turbid from insoluble salts which probably result from reactions occuring in close proximity to the spring. Some of the spring waters on standing, quickly de¬ posit a precipitate, while others, even from the same group of springs, remain clear for a much longer period. Con¬ siderable pressure is developed by the escaping gas when the waters are immediately bottled and hermetically sealed as soon as drawn from the springs. Large glass vessels are apt to be burst by the pressure of gas if filled quite full before sealing. The surface waters in the district under examination con¬ tain relatively very small quantities of mineral matters in solution; nor are there springs or pools in the area which drains through the Ute Pass that are known to be highly mineralized. In the upper part of the Pass between Cascade and Green Mountain Falls there are springs and small marshy spots where a notable quantity of hydrated sesqui- oxide of iron is liberated from ferruginous waters, and these waters come apparently from the granites on the south side of the Pass. No thermal springs are found in this vicinity other than those at Manitou. Taking the three analyses given above as a basis of dis¬ cussion, and using also the later results as data, certain points among the many possible inferences will here be noted. 1. All the springs hold the same salts in solution, a fact which seems to point to a common origin. 2. The waters of the Navajo and Manitou springs are almost identical in mineral contents, while the Ute Iron spring contains a much smaller quantity of dissolved salts. There is also a difference in the weight of the residues OBIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 21 from the Hiawatha springs. It is very probable that percolating waters from the streams or from local seepage channels, make their way into the springs— such influx being greater in some springs and smaller in others. In the Ute Iron spring calcium and mag¬ nesium are low, and silica, chlorine, iron, sulphuric- anhydride, soda and potash relatively high. The prox¬ imity of this spring to the silicate rocks on the south, and to the very broken silicious silurian limestone and Cambrian quartzites on the north and west, suggest reasons for a possible change in this spring water, on the supposition that its main source is the same as that yielding the waters of the other groups. 3. The presence of so large quantities of the bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium points to a prolonged contact of the waters with the limestones. 4. The almost total absence of iron salts indicates either a source quite free from ferruginous minerals, or more probably the oxidation of dissolved iron and its previous precipitation as hydrated sesquioxide by the carbonated alkaline matters with which it comes in contact as the waters move toward the springs. 5. The high percentage of chlorides may be derived from the silurian rocks or with less probability from the more distant juratriasic beds, since no saline deposits in them are known in this vicinity. 6. The large percentage of sodium bicarbonate probably in¬ dicates an origin among silicate rocks, whence the soda (and potash) may come as carbonates formed by the decomposition of the rocks by atmospheric waters con¬ taining carbonic acid, or as alkaline silicates, which react upon the limestones (calcium carbonate) before reaching the surface. 7. The sulphatfes may come from unseen gypsum beds such as are found two or three miles away, and lower down the Fountain creek, but it is more probable that they come in greater part at least from the oxidation of sulphides in granites, igneus rocks or even sedimentary 22 COLOEADO COLLEGE STUDIES. beds. The oxidation of ferrous sulphate, such as was described as occurring in the Ute Pass, gives rise to sulphuric acid, and by subsequent reaction with car¬ bonates to sulphates of the alkalies. The ferruginous deposits in the broken silurian limestone indicate such a reaction. 8. The concentration of the solutions—that is, the large quantity of mineral matters contained in the spring waters, comes evidently from prolonged contact with rocks, such as would arise from percolation, and prob¬ ably also from an increased solvent power of the water, due to heat or pressure, or both combined. 9. The difference in temperature of the several springs is remarkable as showing that either the waters come from different sources, or if coming from the same source have been cooled in an unequal degree by passing through diverse strata, or through the influx of cooler foreign waters. It was assumed under (2) above that the most probable view was that the same water is made to vary its content of dissolved mineral matters by the admixture of other waters; and the variation in tem¬ perature between the springs will be found on inspec¬ tion of the table above to be in striking harmony with this supposition. The temperature in general is lower when the mineral content is lower, but it should be remembered that the inflowing foreign waters may also pass through strata so deeply buried as to be much warmer than mere surface waters. 10. The variation of the springs between summer and winter, in their contents of mineral matters dissolved, in the quantity of water flowing from them, and in the volume of gas yielded, together with the remarkable uniformity of temperature throughout the year in some of them, are evidently significant phenomena. The causes pro¬ ducing them will be discussed in a subsequent para¬ graph. Before proceeding to deduce from the foregoing state¬ ments a theory of the derivation of the carbon dioxide of the ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 23 Manitou springs, it may be helpful to recall to mind some of the explanations most frequently given for the production of natural gas in large quantities beneath the surface of the ground. First, then, may be mentioned the slow, natural distillation of the buried or fossil organic matters that are found in many strata, notably in the shales. The volatile products evolved in this manner contain large quantities of marsh-gas and similar combinations of carbon and hydrogen, with but little carbon dioxide. The wide distribution of gas wells over the country attests a very general chemical action of this sort yielding combustible gases. At Colorado City, three miles distant from the Manitou springs, a small flow of combustible gas has been obtained from the two wells already bored. A Second cause, obviously a true one where the proper conditions exist, is found in the heat of lavas or igneus rocks where they come directly in contact with limestones. It may be doubted whether much gas is ever produced by actual rise of temperature in this way without the aid of moisture, but unquestionably superheated waters carrying dissolved mineral matters and accompanied by vapors and gases produced by such igneus rocks, would effect the liberation of this gas. Thirdly, limestones deeply buried under later deposits of rock will suffer an increase of temperature due to the rise of isogeotherms, and heated mineralized waters will then bring about chemical reactions with the limestones. Simple rise of temperature alone will not suffice in such enclosed zones to liberate the carbon dioxide, though with the aid of moisture it may metamorphose the limestones to marble. A last cause to be noticed here is the chemical decomposition of lime¬ stones effected, with or without high heat, by acid waters or by salts which react with the carbonates of lime and mag¬ nesia, forming a new series of salts and setting free carbonic acid gas. This last cause has been in part anticipated in the two preceding theories of the derivation of the gas. As the development of a theory of the formation of car¬ bon dioxide probably turns in no small degree upon the action of substances in solution derived from the rocks, it is appropriate here to consider some of the results of investiga- 24 COLOBADO COLLEGE STUDIES. tion along this line. The disintegration of surface rocks by atmosxjheric agencies is very apparent to the eye, and the products of this resolution of the rocks have been the sub¬ ject of careful study. Carbonic acid from the atmosphere, or that derived from the oxidation of decaying organic mat¬ ters in the soil, plays a very important part in the disintegra¬ tion of silicate as well as of carbonate rocks. It produces in the former class carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and these salts are carried away along with some silica and metallic carbonates, etc., in the percolating waters. It is believed that all rocks, at least to very great depths, are per¬ meated with water which has made its way from the surface downward, and which exerts an action like that shown on rocks near the surface of the ground. As these meteoric waters descend they gradually lose the more active elements, dissolved oxygen and carbonic acid, with which they began their journey—being exhausted in short distances when they percolate slowly through the rocks, and carrying them to great depths when they pass through porous or shattered rocks, especially when they find channels or fissures in which to flow; but as the waters reach more deeply buried zones a new resolvent power and chemical activity is developed in greater and greater degree by the increasing heat and pressure to which they are subjected. Under the influence of these stimuli the metamorphism of rocks proceeds at a vastly in¬ creased rate, kaolinization, solution, chemical combination and crystallization working a silent, ceaseless change in many kinds of deeply buried formations. Evidence of this heightened action of heated waters is afforded to us in the hot springs of all countries; as a rule, waters which issue from the earth at high temperatures bring with them excessive quantities of dissolved mineral matters. The modern theories of the filling of fissure veins is largely based upon the greater solubility of silicious and calcareous compounds, metallic sulphides and other vein matter, in the heated waters at the deeper parts of the earth's crust to which such crevices extend, or to waters heated by bodies of igneus rocks in process of cooling; although of course at any depth, small or great, the solvent action of water takes place, and solution ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 25 may proceed more rapidly in one kind of rock than in another. The application to be made of the foregoing observations depends upon the fact that" waters thus highly charged with mineral matterg in rock fissures would be well adapted to produce reactions upon limestones if they should chance to come in contact with them. It should not escape notice that the flow of gas at Manitou takes place within a very limited area, and that no other similar springs are found in this im¬ mediate region. It is a very local phenomenon. Whatever the causes which give rise to the gas, they can have no gen¬ eral application to the similar series of rocks extending for many miles along the mountain slopes, else the evidences of their action would be more widely distributed. Hence some local cause is to be sought at Manitou as the producer of the Sas. Having thus examined the situation at Manitou and briefly reviewed some theories of the evolution of carbonic acid gas from the earth, it is now possible to more definitely assign a reasonable cause and source of the flow of gas in question. It seems to be generally agreed that the carbonates formed through the decomposition of silicate rocks by atmospheric waters will not by any known reactions in those rocks alone account for a large flow of gas. Also the evolution of carbon dioxide by the slow, natural distillation of carbonaceous mat¬ ters deeply buried in strata, is an explanation not applicable to the present case, because of the great purity of the Manitou gas. The disengagement of the gas from limestones sub¬ jected to heat from rising isogeotherms appears improbable because the strata at Manitou seems not to be very deeply buried, and because the salts found in the water of the springs point to another class of rocks as a source, and also because the springs are confined to so limited an area. The presence of masses of igneus rocks near the limestones may be considered a possible explanation of the phenomenon, since though no*such eruptions outcrop near Manitou, there may yet be intrusive masses of them buried more or less deeply beneath the gravel or sedimentary beds. The waters of the springs would probably have a much higher tempera¬ ture than they now possess if masses of igneus rock retaining 26 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. still sufficient heat to cause the water to dissolve its large percentage of mineral matter, occurred in this immediate neighborhood. Altogether, in the absence of some positive evidence of the presence of such heated rocks this explana¬ tion must be quite doubtful. It remains then to discuss the probability of the formation of this gas by chemical reaction of dissolved substances in a flow of water which reaches the limestones of Manitou, and to examine whether there are at hand sources whence this saline solution might reasonably be expected to come. This explanation differs from the preceding one mainly in that the source of the reacting salts is more remote. Is there such a source of active chemical solutions present at Manitou, and if that be asserted, what evidence can be adduced in support of a theory of this sort? It must be admitted that positive proof is not now attainable, but there are some considera¬ tions which may be urged in favor of such a theory. Reference has already been made to the faults and rock- slips at Manitou, and to the probability of the presence of an extensive and profound rock-fissure extending from Manitou continuously along the general line of the Ute Pass up into Manitou Park. In view of the presence of an extensive out¬ flow of igneus rocks not many miles distant at Cripple Creek, and of an outcrop of phonolite nearer still on the south side of Pike's Peak, it is altogether likely that a deep fissure such as that at Manitou, if not in some way connected with those disturbances and the loss of interior liquid matter under this region, yet penetrates to depths strongly affected by these heated zones. If a fissure occurs at Manitou which penetrates the earth's crust sufficiently to reach highly heated rocks, the natural action observed in fissure-vein filling will be very actively induced, and highly mineralized solutions will result as before explained. And if further the fissure at Manitou extends to Manitou Park or communicates with fissures of the Cripple Creek district or with those in some other elevated region, the waters which everywhere find exit in such rock crevices, would, in seeking their level, according to physical laws, naturally emerge at the lower point where the ORIGIN AND USE OP NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 27 springs are found. Heated waters, or waters even slightly heated, on coming into contact with the superincumbent lime¬ stones of Manitou would promptly set up chemical reactions caused by the presence of soluble matters such as the silicates of the alkalies and other metals, silicic acid, sulphides, sul¬ phates, etc., derived from the heated rocks. The reactions which would take place need only be generally indicated here since they are not peculiar to this theory. Alkaline silicates would change to carbonates; alkaline bicarbonates, in so far as these reactions were possible, to sulphates, or,—if chlorine combinations of lime and magnesia exist in the silurian lime¬ stone—to chlorides, in both cases—at even a very moderately elevated temperature—with the evolution of carbon dioxide; iron salts would first become carbonates and then peroxidize, setting carbon dioxide free and forming a ferruginous pre¬ cipitate. If the waters were only slightly hot, silicic acid would form insoluble calcium silicate with the liberation of carbon dioxide. In the case of hot waters the basic carbonates of magnesia and probably also of calcium would be formed instead of normal or acid salts by reactions of the salts of the alkalies, etc. These, with other known and possible re¬ actions, account for the generation of the gas. The salts con¬ tained in the spring waters may also be fairly explained in part by these reactions, and in part by reactions produced, and other salts introduced, through the accession of seepage waters in the passage to the springs. The concentration of solutions, or the high percentage of salts in the water, is well explained by this derivation. A large fissure like the one assumed to exist at Manitou must receive meteoric waters by seepage along its whole course, and such additions bring with them each their small quantity of dissolved salts. The waters which emerge from the fissure at or above Manitou must also be considerably changed in mineral contents by the accession of seepage waters from the local rocks, and thesp changes are prot)ably greater at some points than at others. The difference in temperature between the various springs, and also their difference in mineral matters dissolved in the water, may thus be credibly explained. The surface waters do not readily make their way through the "soda-rock" into 28 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. the springs and hence the springs do not become roily, and the temperature of the water remains quite constant, retain¬ ing still enough heat to be designated as "thermal" in the U. S. Government Reports. The coincidence between the diminution of the salts and that of the water and gas during the coldest winter months, probably arises in this manner. The feeders of this fissure- flow are in large part the seams and cleavage cracks in the rocks adjacent to the main fault or its branches, and they in turn derive their supply from the surface waters which per¬ colate downward. In the very cold weather the seepage waters—as is well known in mining regions at high eleva¬ tions— are greatly diminished, being held in check by frost, so that the supply is lessened in the main fault. In like manner the slopes of the Ute Pass and the neighboring hills which may be supposed to furnish the seepage waters of the sedimentary beds at Manitou are restraining (by frost) their quota of the supply for the springs. Especially would this be true if, as appears probable, the more elevated and com¬ paratively shaded south side of the Pass furnishes the bulk of the seepage waters which make their way to the springs. Under these conditions the temperature of the springs would not generally greatly vary in summer or winter, since the colder surface waters of the latter season which mingle with the decreased fissure-waters would also be much diminished in volume. With the decrease in water would come a de¬ crease in salts, and so also of the gas produced by the re¬ actions previously outlined. The salts coming from the assumed fissure beneath the limestones naturally tend to follow the seams and bedding planes of the stratified rocks and thus to make their way down the easterly slopes without coming to the surface. The resistance to this flow resulting from friction and perhaps from sharp folds and faults east of Manitou, causes the waters to force an exit through the broken and folded strata at the western side of the city. The two small flexes of surface rock before mentioned appear to give in their crevices the oppor¬ tunity for a final escape to the surface of the water and gas. OEIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 29 All the circumstances, therefore, connected with the posi¬ tion and flow of the springs, and the mineral contents of the water, etc., etc., seem to be consistent with, if they do not favor this explanation. Briefly, then, the theory advanced of the origin of the natural gas at Manitou may thus be summarized: Water percolating through silicate rocks and becoming highly min¬ eralized under favorable conditions of temperature and pres¬ sure, makes its way through cracks and profound rock-fissures by the action of gravity and the ascensional power imparted by heat, to the limestones west and north of Manitou. It is here increased in volume and in dissolved salts by the numer¬ ous additions of seepage waters from the local rocks, and also lowered in temperature at the points where these influxes occur. By chemical reactions some of the dissolved salts are changed, and the carbon dioxide originally held (almost entirely) by the limestones is liberated from that combination but dis¬ solved in the water on account of the great hydrostatic pres¬ sure. As the waters rise through the irregular channels enlarged from cracks and seams, the pressure decreases, and more and more of the dissolved gas escapes from the water, until at last when the surface is reached at the various springs the gas emerges with the rythmic flow due to the irregulari¬ ties in the channels of exit. Of the many temptations to comparisons and generaliza¬ tions growing out of his study upon the origin of the natural gas at Manitou, the writer yields to the two following: (1) The caverns at Manitou mark the scene of a former considerable chemical activity, possibly induced by the same causes now at work in the lower strata in the manner mentioned above. If the theory advanced in this paper is true, caverns of like kind may now be in process of excavation which will in time rival or eclipse those so much admired in the now drained and fragmentary parts of strata on the west side of Williams' canon. (2) The data in the hands of the writer concerning the carbonated mineral springs of other localities are too meagre to permit of any very general comparisons or deduc¬ tions, but it would appear from published descriptions that 30 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. in some notable instances, at least, the flow of carbon dioxide, just as at Manitou, occurs where there are no igneus rocks, but at points where the older rocks have been faulted or fissured below overlying limestones. A case in illustration occurs at the Saratoga springs in New York. The silurian limestone is there faulted by a fissure which extends down into the archsean rocks below, and no other visible canse ap¬ pears for the generation of the gas. Also the conditions of the Canon City, Colo., carbonated springs seem, from an ex¬ amination of the geological maps, to be very similar to those at Manitou—but the writer has no positive knowledge as to whether or not the rock fissures in that region extend to the vicinity of the springs as is the case at Manitou. The pub¬ lished analyses of the water from the springs at Canon City show that in respect of both the kinds of salts and the quantity of them present, they very closely resemble the springs, at Manitou. The second part of this paper concerns the use made by the Manitou Mineral Water Co., of the natural gas which comes from the springs. A description of the steps taken and the apparatus devised to accomplish this end may be of interest. In the early days the Navajo group of springs bubbled and fizzled in a peaty morass, and could be approached with difficulty. The Navajo spring which gave the most gas and water was then curbed with cement and stone and the swamp filled up with earth. From this spring was drawn the water put up by the Company in 1889, at the time the proposition was made to use the escaping gas to recharge the bottled water. In the accomplishment of this plan three problems required solution, namely: (1) to ascertain the quantity of gas available for use: (2) to devise means for catching and storing the gas: (B) to obtain a gas-pump which would continuously and practically compress the gas to the degree obtained in the old gas-generators, i. e. some 60 to 80 lbs. per square inch. The measurement of the gas was effected as follows: A large tin funnel, stiffened at the wide opening with heavy wire, and made very short from large to small end, was sunk ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 31 mouth downward under the water of the spring as deeply as possible. The mouth of the funnel was bent after several trials to conform to the irregularities of the spring, and the funnel when thus fitted was held in place by wooden supports, because pressed upward with much force by the rising gas. A large bell-glass of a capacity of 7 or 8 litres was used to make the measurement. This bell-glass when filled with water by immersion in the spring was held mouth downward over the small opening of the funnel whence the gas now escaped, and as the gas entered it the water was displaced. The bell-glass was gradually raised out of the water as the gas accumulated, until when it was full of gas the mouth just dipped beneath the surface of the water. In this way the gas was measured at the then prevailing atmospheric pressure. Owing to the very rapid fiow of the gas, the time required to fill the bell-glass could not be very accurately determined, though by repeating the experiment many times and taking an average of the time records, the number of seconds re¬ quired to fill it was ascertained with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. The quantity of gas evolved daily was now easily computed, provided the fiow was constant as observation had seemed to indicate. With these figures it was possible to calculate the number of bottles of water that could be recharged with this natural gas per diem. Roughly speaking, water will absorb its own volume of carbon dioxide whatever be the pressure to which the water and gas are subjected. Assuming a pressure at which the company would bottle the waters, the reduction in volume of the gas was VT) obtained by the use of the formula The rise of tem- P . perature, due to compression, could practically be neglected since the water sufficiently cooled the gas. The number of bottles which could be filled from this supply of gassed water was ^ if A represented the capacity of each bottle. Thus the Company was assured that the supply would be much more than sufficient for the then daily output of the works. The second problem involving the construction of appa¬ ratus for catching and storing the gas was somewhat more 82 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. troublesoine. The conditions were (1) that the waters of the spring, which were used for bottling, must be preserved from contamination by metallic salts; (2) that the gas must be forced by its own pressure to an appropriate gas-holder; (8) that the spring must be accessible for cleaning and ad¬ justment of the overflow pipes which carry the water to the bottling works. Another point which had some influence in determining the character of the apparatus to be used, was the wish of the Company to have all parts of it open to in¬ spection by visitors to the works,—a policy the wisdom of which has been amply justified by subsequent experience. To meet these requirements it was decided to immerse a bell- shaped vessel in the spring to catch the gas. From this bell the gas could be carried in pipes to the works, two or three hundred feet distant. In order to give the gas sufficient pressure to force it through the conducting pipe, and send it into a receiver or gas-holder, it would be necessary to depress the bell in the spring water sufficiently to allow for the dif¬ ference in level between the surface of the water on the out¬ side and that of the water within. At the gas-holder this conducting pipe would have to dip into water several inches in order to make a water-seal connection, to prevent loss of gas in case of accident to the pipe or bell, and in the gas¬ holder itself, a slight pressure would be needed to send the gas to the pumps. In preparation for the reception of this bell the spring was cleared out and somewhat deepened, and upon the rocky bottom, a short distance above the vents whence issue the gas and water, a shelf of cement, circular in plan and about six inches wide, was built within the inclosing walls of the spring, which were also made cylindrical. On this shelf the bottom of the bell was to rest. An incident in the work of deepening the spring and constructing the shelf and walls is worthy of passing note. The volume of gas was so great that workmen could not remain a moment in the excavation without apparatus to supply fresh air. This was provided by the use of a dentist's gas-inhaler connected with a piece of common garden hose reaching above the curb of the spring. Even with this inhaler it was necessary to stop the nostrils of the men with plugs to keep out the gas. When, ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 33 as often happened, one of these nasal stoppers become dis¬ placed, the workman would precipitately bolt for the surface with a shout of pain from the sharp sting of the gas in the nose and air-passages. Tears would flow from the eyes of those engaged in working at the bottom of the spring. The material of which to make the bell was important from the fact that the water of the spring must be used for bottling. Iron rust would destroy the clearness of the water; lead, copper and zinc would add poisonous salts, which, although present in very minute quantities, would yet cause distrust in the minds of users of the water; silver was the ideal metal, but its then high value barred its use. Block-tin was accepted, though the difficulties in the way of its use were quite serious. The form of the bell adopted is shown in sectional elevation and plan in the annexed plate. It was built by The Hartt Manufacturing Co., of Chicago, after plans of the writer. The sheets of block-tin (No. 12 American wire- gauge thickness) were held in place and stiffened by a skele¬ ton frame made of heavy iron wire encased in tin pipes. The frame as thus made has been found in subsequent use to be too light, and the bell requires the most careful handling to prevent distortion and cracking; otherwise it has well fulfilled its purpose, and now (Jan. 1895) is almost as good as when first set in 1890. In order to show to the many visitors the flow of gas in the spring, the top of the bell was made of plate-glass, and just below the glass hung an electric incan¬ descent light. The bell is held firmly in place by iron stays fastened to the curbing.* The temperature of the springs (about 60° Fahr.) is so high that the gas is loaded with moisture, and condensation in the conducting pipe results, especially in cold weather. In order to prevent a stoppage of the pipe a drip-trap (see plate) made of gas pipe was inserted at the lowest point in the line, and an escape for the accumulating water provided. ■ ♦ Before closiDir the description of apparatus for catching the gas, it should be added that at one of the Hiawatha springs the owners have caught the gas by the use of an iron dome cemented upon the curbing of the spring. There is no way to get into the spring to repair pipes, etc., except by breaking the cement sealing. It would appear to be a wise measure to have provided a manhole with a movable cover in this dome to obviate that ditliculty. A couple of iron bells placed in other ' springs are rusting rapidly and render the waters turbid. 34 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. The conducting pipe was buried under ground to prevent freezing. The gas-holder is designed to hold twenty-four hours yield of gas from the springs. It contains no strikingly novel features. The bell or holder is supported by three chains which run over pulleys attached to heavy timbers set for this purpose in the Company's building, and bucket weights are loaded to give the required pressure to send the gas to the carbonating apparatus. The holder dips in water contained in a cemented cistern which can be conveniently drained and cleaned. A large manhole in the top of the holder provides access to the cistern and to the enclosed pipes. An electric incandescent lamp suspended just beneath the arched top of the holder permits inspection of the pipes for the ingress and exit of the gas; and for this purpose also a number of small glass plates are cemented in a perpendicular line on one side of the holder at intervals of about two feet. The pipe which brings the gas from the spring, and that which leads it to the carbonators, and that which provides for the escape of an excess of gas, rise from the cemented bottom of the cistern and are supported upon an iron tripod, as shown in the accompanying plate. The pipe for the entrance of the gas curves in the form of a goose¬ neck and dips under the water some five or six inches, to effect a water seal against back-flow. The overflow pipe is capped by a metal bell which dips into the water of the cis¬ tern so long as the holder is not yet full of gas, but when the holder is full the cap of the overflow pipe is raised from the water and gas is allowed to escape. This cap or gas-trap (see plate) is connected by a metal chain with the top of the holder, and is therefore raised from the water when the holder rises above a certain height. This apparatus has sometimes caused trouble by the kinking of the chain con¬ necting the holder with the metal cap. The chain should be made of small links so that it may readily coil in the little dish at the top of the metal cap, and uncoil again without kinks. A small rod suspended from the roof of the holder, which would lift the cap by an arm, would perhaps obviate any difficulty of this sort. ORIGIN AND USE OF NATURAL GAS AT MANITOU. 35 The problem of the compression of the gas in order to re-charge the water with it, was one of vexation and difficulty. The plan at first attempted was to pump the gas into the old iron gas-generator, whence it could be drawn and used in the same manner as was the artificially-made gas. It was not successful, because the pump bought for the company would not continuously, nor even for an hour, compress the gas without destroying the packing of the piston-head. The heat developed by the compression and the strain upon them, in a few moments reduced rubber washers to shreds, and leather ones lasted but little longer. About this time the writer, while in New York city, heard of a new form of carbonating apparatus invented by the Wittemann Brothers. Three of these machines were then employed in practical work, and an inspection of the one operating in New York left no room for doubt as to their merit. The principle of the machine was one to tickle the fancy of a man of science. The gas was pumped into a small cylinder of glass or metal and the water to be carbonated was also pumped into the same chamber by the action of the same piston-rod. The water entered the cylinder of compressed gas through a smaller interior cylin¬ der pierced by a great number of very small holes. The water was thus sprayed through the compressed gas, and was therefore most advantageously disposed for quickly absorbing the gas; in fact the absorption was instantaneous. The carbonated water now flowed to a balanced reservoir which operated to shut off the supply of gas or water or both, if necessary, to maintain a proper pressure and a constant supply for the bottling tables with which it was connected. Thus the machine was automatic and continuous-working in its operation. The success attending the use of this pump induced the Company to put in several larger machines of the same sort as their business increased. As a result of the experiences in the operation of the apparatus described in this part of the paper, several slight modiflcations might be made if new ones were to be constructed, but it is fair to observe that in practical working the results have been on the whole very satisfactory. The writer wishes to acknowledge the courtesy of the Manitou Mineral Water Company in assenting to the publi¬ cation of many details pertaining to the successful operation of their business. Plan of Tripod andPipes Sectional Elevation Elevation oi Tripod and on AJB. Pipes, of Gas-Sell. Scale. ;i£ = 1 . HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES FROM KANSAS AND TEXAS. BY F. W. CKAGIN. Terrapene ornata, Ag., var. nov. cimarronensis.—I would propose this name for'what appears to be merely a color variety of T. ornata in which the ordinarily yellow parts on the limbs and neck are replaced by bright red. This variety, with which I have been acquainted for some ten years, is common over most of the western half of Kansas and Okla¬ homa. In west-central and northwestern Kansas, it partly, and in the southern tier of Kansas counties from Barber westward almost if not quite supplants the typical variety. I have observed a single specimen in southeastern Colorado, about midway between Kansas and the mountains. The peculiar home of the variety is apparently the "Red beds" country of the Cimarron basin, upon whose red terranes it may possibly have had its origin, afterwards extending its range by migration. Apropos of the western range of Terrapane, it would seem that it falls a little short of the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado. Prof. Geo. H. Stone states that, in his twelve years of residence here, he has never observed it in the vicinity of Colorado Springs. Prof. William Strieby, who resided for two years at Santa F6, states that he has ob¬ served a single specimen of the box-tortoise in New Mexico, though he does not now remember the exact locality. The Three-toed Box-tortoise, Terrapene triunguis, Ag., seems not to have been recorded from Texas, though it is known from Indian Territory and Louisiana, so that its oc¬ currence in Texas is not unexpected. I am indebffed to Mr. G. H. Ragsdale for several speci¬ mens of this species which are now before me from Gaines¬ ville, Texas, which is apparently the most westerly locality known for its occurrence. That it will be found yet a little further west in the valley of the Red river, is not improbable. 38 COLOEADO COLLEGE STUDIES. At Gainesville, as doubtless in Indian Territory, the range of this species and that of T. ornata, Ag., overlap. The T. triunguis, however, keeps mainly to the more or less wooded bottom-lands, as Mr. Ragsdale informs me, while T. ornata, chiefly an open prairie species, is sometimes found in the timber also. The specimens of triunguis from Gainesville are larger than those of ornata from the same place; and the high, rounded carapace, with broad, flat, yet abruptly elevated carina on the third and fourth vertebral scutes and bones (usually seen also on the posterior part of the second), the much less transverse second to fourth vertebral scutes, the greyish olive-brown color, sometimes relieved by ornata-like, dark and yellow subradial markings especially upon the ex- centric place of origin of the concentric imbrications, the more depressed skull and orbit and consequently more ob¬ liquely placed jugal bone, the possession of three claws only on eacb posterior foot, and the essentially woodland habit, are all peculiarities which distinguish the former species, as from the latter. Both the fore and the hind limbs of the only present example in which the skeleton is preserved have the phalanges 2,3, 3, 2,1, those of the fourth and fifth digits of the hind limb being rudimentary and these digits without claws. I am also indebted to Mr. Ragsdale for a shell and skull of the Keeled Mud-turtle, GoniocJietys carinata, Gray, and the same of Chrysemys elegans, Wied., which he collected in Elm Fork of the Trinity river at Gainesville. Gerrhonotus infernalis, Baird.— Cope has recorded this species from Helotes creek, near San Antonio, and from Wichita county, Texas. It is common in Hays and in the western part of Travis county. In the summer of 1893, I observed it in the Cross-Timbers, between Roanoke and Lewisville, extending its known range somewhat eastward. The little burrowing snake, Stenostoma dulce, B. & G., almost the sole representative of the family Typhopidce in the United States, was also taken in the Cross-Timbers, at a HERPETOLOGICAL NOTES FROM KANSAS AND TEXAS. 39 point about five miles west of Lewisville, considerably north¬ east of the most northeastern record with which I am ac¬ quainted (Bexar and Erath counties: Cope). A red and black example of Contia episcopa isozona, Cope, was captured in the road a few miles west of Sun City, Kansas, on the point of the divide between Medicine Lodge river and Elk creek, and was sent to me several years since by Mr. Wm. A. Sherrill. Of the several phases described from western territories by Cope in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, this specimen most resembles, and indeed almost precisely tallies with that from Utah. I may remark in this connection that, of a small collection of reptiles which I received a few years ago, through Mr. John Pym, from southwestern Utah, all were, to my sur¬ prise, species common in Kansas. In September, 1886, coming down the valley of the Cim¬ arron river from New Mexico, I first noticed the little Sonoran toad, Bufo debilis, Girard, near the Z H ranch in the Public Lands (now Beaver county, Oklahoma), at a point thirty-five or forty miles west of the southwest corner of Kansas. The species was observed a few days later in great abundance and activity (during rainy weather) in Morton county, Kansas, and in the southern part of Hamilton county. I have collected a single specimen in the western part of Barber county, Kansas, also. THE CHOCTAW AND GRAYSON TERRANES OF THE ARIETINA. BY F. W. CBAGIN. The " ram's horn oyster," Exogyra arietina, F. Roemer, is the characteristic fossil of a column of sediments, the so-called Exogyra arietina marl, that in Hays, Travis and Williamson counties, Texas, consists mostly of calcareo- argillaceous, and more or less ferruginous marl, and attains a thickness of sixty to eighty feet, occupying the interval be¬ tween the top of the Washita limestone of Shumard and the base of the Shoal creek limestone of Hill. This column was recognized by Dr. Shumard as an important member of the Cretaceous section of Texas, and was named by him, the Exogyra arietina marl-, and this name, either as it originally stood or under such slight variations of form as " the Exogyra arietina clay," " the Arietina marl," etc., has been used for it by most later writers. The same formation outcrops, with more or less interruption by faulting, mantling, etc., and with more or less variation in thickness and lithological character southwestward to the region of El Paso. Its detail in this direction being less known than that of its northward exten¬ sion, will not here be discussed. From Austiu to the Red river valley in Cooke and Grayson counties, the Arietina be¬ comes, as TafiP has shown, gradually reduced in thickness and decidedly more calcareous. For this calcareous northern phase of the Arietina which, in the Red river valley, occupies the entire interval between the summit of the Pawpaw clays of Hill and the base of the Dakota sandstone. Hill has recently proposed the name. Main-street limestone.* The Main-street limestone, however, consists of two mem¬ bers. Its dual character has been independently determined in the field by tbe present writer. But the members that compose it were first recognized as terranes by Taff in his second Report on the Cretaceous Area North of the Colorado * BuUetin of the Geological Society of America, V., 330. CHOCTAW AND GRAYSON TERRANES OP THE ARIETINA. 41 River,* who correlated the upper member with the Shoal creek (Vola) limestone. THE CHOCTAW LIMESTONE. The lower of these two members, the Choctaw limestone., is the limestone that, in Cooke and Grayson counties, rests upon the Pawpaw clays (and sands) of Hill, and a typical locality of which is at the quarry owned by Mr. J. T. Munson et al., on the summit of the Pawpaw creek bluffs, southeast of the Union depot of Denison. Thence it extends alon^ the brow of the creek-bluff to the northeastward, to a point north of the Denison-Bonham road. It also outcrops exten¬ sively on Choctaw creek, from which it is named, and thence westward on most of the tributaries of Red river, and on the bluffs of the river itself to Gainesville, just west of the Cross Timbers, where it takes a southerly course. It is well devel¬ oped in Denton county also, on Denton creek, near Roanoke. Though softer and less durable than the so-called "quarry- limestone" of Denison (at base of the Pawpaw clays), it is a true quarry-limestone, and has been quarried for building purposes not only at the quarry above named, but also at many other localities. It is the same limestone that is called by Taff. " the Exogyra limestone," in the report above cited (pp. 281, 282, 283, etc.) The thickness of the Choctaw limestone in Grayson county is ordinarily about five feet, though locally it becomes a few feet greater. In Cooke county the same limestone attains a maximum thickness of ten or fifteen feet. The paleontologic aspect of this terrane may be seen in the following list, which includes most, if not all, of the fossils that have been obtained from it: FAUNA OF THE CHOCTAW LIMESTONE. Hemipedina charltoni, Cragin. Holectypus charltoni, Crag.t Enallaster texanua^ Roemer. Cucullcea recedens, Crag.j; Cardium sp. (distinct from texanum) Cardiuin{Protocard.)texanuni,Con. * Pages 275-283. t In the small peristome and posteriorly placed periproctt this species is closely related to Holectypus castilloi, Cotteau, from which it differs chiefly in the form of the periproct. t This species is apparently distinct from C. terminalis, Conrad, of the Glen Rose beds; but the question can perhaps hardly be settled till specimens of terminalis can be found showing the details of the hinge. 42 COLOEADO COLLEGE STUDIES. Terebratella wacoensis, Roem. Roudairia denisovensis, Crag. Ostrea franklini, Coquand. Pholadomya ragsdalei, Crag. Ostrea subovata, Shum. Pholadomya sancti-sabce, Roem. Ostrea quadruplieata, Shum. Homomya washita, Crag. Exogyra arietina, Roem. Paehymya austinensis, Shum.f Lima wacoensis, Roem. Turritella denisonensis, Crag. Vola texana, Roem. Turritella seriatim-granulata, R. Trigonia clavigera, Crag. (?)* All of the above-listed fossils were obtained by the writer in this limestone at Denison, excepting the Holectypus, which was recorded from the same limestone at Cedar Mills (Taff) in the writer's "Contribution to the Invertebrate Paleontology of the Texas Cretaceous." Perhaps the most marked paleontological characteristic of the Choctaw limestone is the plentiful occurrence of Tere¬ bratella wacoensis in association with Exogyra arietina. In Grayson and Cooke counties, a good guide-fossil is Phola¬ domya ragsdalei, whose peculiar ornamentation usually suf¬ fices, even in fragments of casts or moulds, for its recogni¬ tion. This fossil has hitherto been found in the Choctaw limestone only, and is by no means rare. In the Arietina marl of more southerly counties, as Wil¬ liamson, Travis, and Hays, the Choctaw terrane is repre¬ sented by the calcareous transition from the marl of the me¬ dial, culminating horizon of Exogyra arietina to the Wash¬ ita limestone below, and its fauna is poorer and less peculiar. There, as in northern Texas, Terebratella wacoensis and Exogyra arietina are the leading members of its fauna, the others being such as are common in the upper part (Denton beds J) of the Washita limestone, such as Vola texana, Tur- rilites brazosensis, etc.. ♦ The only specimen of Trigonia that I have seen in the Choctaw limestone is a cast of a smaU one, that does not show the character of the ornamentation, but agrees in size and form apparently with T. clavigera^ and is probably that species, T. clavigera is the common Trigonia of the Denton marls, and resembles T. emoryi^ with which Hill has apparently confused it, only in badly worn specimens. Com¬ paring, in numbers, finely preserved specimens of T. clavigera from the Denton marls of Cooke county, Texas, and the Chickasaw Nation, with such of T.emoryi from the Walnut clays, confusion of the two species is impossible. T' crenulata^ cited by Taff from the Denton marls, does not occur in rocks of the Comanche series. t Not *^''Pachyma" as it is often spelled and pronounced. t The Denton marl was clearly defined as to position, paleontology, and typical locality by Taff, by means of a detailed section, in the Fourth Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas, Part I, p. 272, and, though he failed to apply it elsewhere in the same report, this name has priority over the later name, "Marietta" proposed by Hill for the same terrane. CHOCTAW AND GRAYSON TERRANES OF THE ARIETINA. 43 THE GRAYSON MARLS. The Choctaw limestone is conformably succeeded by the Grayson marls, passing up into them through a horizon of sometimes quite abrupt, sometimes more gradual transition, the marls being unconformably overlaid by the Dakota sand¬ stone. In their northeasterly exposures, the Grayson are chiefly yellow, highly calcareous, sparingly arenaceous marls, of such consistency as to crumble readily under the hand or break into rough lumps under light blows of the hammer, but which contain, especially in the lower parts, irregular concretionary tracts of cement-like hardness and texture. They yield rapidly to the weather and are hence often absent or reduced in thickness by erosion, both Predakota and recent. Again they occur only as slopes, grass-grown or mantled with debris from the overlying Dakota. In Denton county the Grayson terrane consists of alternations of marl and limestone,* and attains a thickness of thirty to forty feet. In Travis county it contains, in the upper part, beds of hard limestone charged with Gryphma mucronata, and there, as elsewhere south of the Brazos, it is overlaid conformably by the Shoal creek limestone, into which it seems to graduate through the basal part of the latter. In Northern Texas, where the thickness of the Arietina is reduced, the Grayson marls have a thickness of fifteen to twenty-five or thirty feet. A typical locality of the calcareous yellow marl phase, showing its basal transition to the underlying limestone, may be seen at the cut and fill of the once projected D. B. & N. O. railway, between Pawpaw creek and a right-hand branch of the same immediately southeast of the quarry above cited as typical for the Choctaw limestone. The Grayson marls were considered by Tatf to be the equivalent of the Shoal creek, or Vola, limestone of the Austin district, %nd were referred to by him as the Vola limestone and marl in his second " Report on the Cretaceous Area North of the Colorado River," which was published in the Fourth Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas. * See Taff's Elm creek section, in Fourth Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. of Texas, Pt. I, p. 280. u COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. (See p. 277.) In the " Contribution to the Invertebrate Paleon¬ tology of the Texas Cretaceous," published in the same report, the present writer recorded a few fossils from beds referred to, in doubtful terms or in quotation-marks, as of Vola equiva¬ lency (I. c., p. 147, etc.). He there purposely implied doubt or placed the word, "Vola, " in quotation-marks, quoting from the labels accompanying the specimens collected by Mr. Tafif's field-party, feeling doubtful concerning the supposed dis¬ covery of the Vola in that region and never having examined the region personally. In the summer of 1893, however, after the publication of his " Contribution," he visited Denison, in the course of an extended expedition, and studied the matter in the field, and so independently arrived at the same opinion that has been announced by Hill in the Bulletin of the Geologi¬ cal Society of America (Vol. V) viz., that no sufiicient evi¬ dence of the existence of an equivalent of the Vola limestone in the Red river district has as yet been found. Palebntologically, the Grayson and the Shoal creek terranes have little in common. In his "Mesozoic Echinodermata of the United States" (Bui. 97 U. S. Geol. Surv.), Clark gives, presumably on Hill's authority, the Shoal creek limestone as the source of his Hemiaster calvini, the latter being appar¬ ently synonymous with the Epiaster hemiasterinus, nob., an echinoid common in the Grayson marls in northern Texas. It is possible that the Gryphcca mucronata of the Grayson limestone beds of Travis county may extend up into the basal part of the Shoal creek limestone; but to the best of the writer's recollection, he has never observed such an occur¬ rence.* The following list includes all of the fossils that the writer has identified from the Grayson terrane, nearly all of which have been collected by the writer in Grayson county: ♦ In a letter received from State Geologist Dumble of Texas, since this was written, and just as this. MS. is going to press, speaking of the ' Vola,' he writes that the Gryphcea extends up into the solid limestones to a height of four or five feet." But from his use of the word, "limestones" (in the plural), I am in doubt as to whether he here refers to the lower part of the main stratum of the Shoal creek limestone, or to the separate bed or beds of solid limestone underlying it. In either case, it would seem to indicate only a transitional horizon such as occurs at the limits of most of the terranes of the Comanche series. CHOCTAW AND GRAYSON TEBRANES OF THE AEIETINA. 45 FAUNA OF THE GRAYSON MARLS {AND MARLY LIMESTONES). Cyphosotna volanum, Crag. Modiola pedernalis, Roem. Holaster completus, Crag. Cardiuin{Protocard.)texanumfion. Holaster nanus. Crag. Roudairia denisonensis. Crag. Holaster supernus. Crag. Tapes dentonensis, Crag. Enallaster in flatus, Crag. Cyprimeria texana, Roem. Epiaster hemiasterinus. Crag.* Homomya washita. Crag. Ostrea perversa. Crag. Turritella seriatim-granulala, R. Oryphcea mucronata, Gabb. Turritella denisonensis. Crag. Exogyra arietina, Roem. Nautilus texanus, Shum. Exogyra drakei. Crag. Turrilites brazosensis, Roem. Lima wacoensis, Roem. Sphenodiscus pedernalis, Roem. Vola texana, Roem. Hoplites texanus. Crag. Avicula dispar. Crag. The Grayson fauna, like the Choctaw, is much poorer in southern Texas than in northern. The more common forms occurring in it in Travis county are, in the writer's experience, the following: Ostrea perversa, Vola texana, Gryphcea mucronata, Plicatula dentonensis. Crag. Exogyra arietina. Hill has recorded from the beds of this terrane at Austin, the following also: Terebatella wacoensis, Roem, Diplopodia texanum, Roem, Protocardium texanum, Con., Pachymya austinensis, Shum., and Asiarte robbinsi. White; in case of the first and last, only a single example of each. In both northern and southern Texas, the Grayson marl is especially characterized by that peculiar form of Gryphsea that, by Hill, Taff, and other recent authors, has usually been regarded as a variety of G. pitcheri, Morton, and has been called by Taff, "the Vola phase of G. pitcheri,''^ but has re¬ cently been recognized by Hill as the truly distinct G. mu¬ cronata, Gabb. * This name has priority over that of *' Hemiaster calvini" a name subsequently applied to the species by Clark, whose specimens are " from the Shoal creek lime¬ stone .... in Travis county." Owingtothe feebledevelopmentof the peripeta- lous fasciole, the writer referred this species to the genus Epiaster it being, in fact, intermediate between tj>at genus and Hemiaster in the one important character that distinguishes these genera. Since, however, the peripetalous fasciole is present,^ though imperfectly, and in some specimens very imperfectly, developed, it would probably be more consistent to refer the species to Hemiaster^ as Clark has done. But if this be done, it is questionable whether the same generic disposition should not also be made of the well known Epiaster " elegans, Shum, which, in the most perfectly preserved examples, is also seen to have a feebly developed peripeta¬ lous fasciole. 46 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. With others, the writer formerly supposed that this shell was a mere variety of G. pitcheri, but now fully confirms the original opinion of Gabb and the revised opinion of Hill that it is specifically distinct. While the Grayson Gryphaea often more or less nearly approaches the so-called "Kiamitia variety " of O. pitcheri, with respect to the elongated trian¬ gular outline of the shell, it presents important differences, such especially as the truncate anterior border, the sharp angulation of the sulcus, and the very prominent and com¬ pressed anterior and posterior folds of the left valve; and these features are so constant under all the variation in shape of the Grayson shell that, not only for stratigraphic purposes and convenience of expression, but even on the strictest bio¬ logical grounds, this shell must be regarded as distinct from G. pitcheri, while closely related to it.* Gabb's G. mucro- nata and Conrad's G. navia are not considered by the writer as synonymous, but the latter is regarded as merely an arched and imbricated example of G. pitcheri, lacking (as do all of the stratigraphically low-occurring Gryphseas of the Com¬ anche) the compressed folds (especially the anterior com¬ pressed fold) and truncate anterior border which are the fundamental characteristics of the left valve of G. mucronuta. At the above-given typical locality of the yellow marl phase of the Grayson, there is, in the lower part of the marl, a horizon of profuse occurrence of typical Exogyra arietina and, just below this, one of Turrilites brazosensis and Hol- aster completus. In the upper part of the marl at the same locality, the Exogyra arietina is small and not abundant, the Turrilites plentiful; hui Holaster completus has not been obtained, and, if it occurs there, must be rare.f The fauna of the Grayson marl presents some affinities to that of the Choctaw limestone, but far more is peculiar to either fauna than is common to both. * strong incurvature of the beaks and the conspicuous and intervalled margins of imbrication are also constant or nearly constaht features of G. mucronata, but as these are features exhibited by some examples of G. pitcheri, they are not of equal diagnostic value with the characteristics above mentioned. t It is to be noted, however, that the latter species, like Holaeter simplex Ire- quently occurs in groups, so that what has appeared rare or absent in a horizon may, by some fortunate find, become locally abundant. CHOCTAW AND GRAYSON TERRANES OF THE ARIETINA. 47 The relationships of the two faunae, as far as now known, may be seen in the following table: TABLE OF OCCURRENCE OF FOSSILS IN THE TERRANES^ OF THE MAIN-STREET ARIETINA, Diplopodia texanum.... Hemipedina eharltoni.. Orthopsis sp Cyphosoma volanum— Holectypus eharltoni... Holaster completus Holaster nanus Holaster supernus Enallaster in flatus Enallaster texanus 'Epiaster hemiasterinus. Terebratella wacoensis.. Ostrea franklini Ostrea perversa Ostrea quadruplicata... Ostrea subovata Gryphma mucronata ... Exogyra arietina Exogyra drakei Plicatula dentonensis... Lima wacoensis o Vola texana Avicula dispar Modiola pedernalis Cucullcea recedens Trigonia clavigera (?) .. Astarte robbinsi Cardium sp " (Protocard.) texanum Roudairia denisonensis... Tapes dentonensis Cyprimeria texana Pholadomya ragsdalei Pholadomya sancti-sabce.. Homomya washita Pachymya austinensis.... Turriiella denisonensis.... " seriatim-granulata •Nautilus texanus Turrilites brazosensis... Sphenodiscus pedernalis Hoplites texanus From this table it will be noted that, of forty-two species found in the two terranes, only ten, or less than one-fourth part, are common to them both, and that, of the eleven species of sea-urchins, not a single species is known to occur in both. The absence of Cephalopoda in the Choctaw terrane is also noteworthy. Of Turriiella denisonensis, common in the Choctaw, the Grayson has thus far yielded only a single example. The Gryphcea mucronata is not known in the Choctaw, nor d(*s Ostrea subovata seem to extend up into the Grayson terrane. The latter observation essentially ap¬ plies also to the association of Terebratella wacoensis with Exogyra arietina, although, as above noted, a single speci¬ men of the Terebratella has been found by Hill in the Gray- 48 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. son at Austin. If Ostrea quadruplicata extends up into the Grayson terrane, or beyond the basal transitional part of it, such occurrence is certainly rare. A few of the species now apparently confined to one of these terranes, will doubtless be found, sooner or later in the other; but, even so, many of the forms that occur in both are extremely rare in one while common in, and so, in a sense, characteristic of the other; and it is obvious that the faunal aspects of the two terranes, like the lithological, are—and are likely to remain—far more conspicuous for their differences than for their resemblances. DESCRIPTIONS OF INVERTEBRATE FOSSILS FROfl THE COHANCHE SERIES IN TEXAS, KANSAS AND INDIAN TERRITORY. BY P. W. CRAGIN. The material described in this paper has been derived chiefly from the Arietina beds of northern Texas, a small part of it coming from rocks of lower horizons and elsewhere, as noted under the "Occurrence" of the species. The specimens have been collected by the writer, except as otherwise stated below. The types of the Kansas specimens are in the paleonto- logical collections of the museum of Colorado College; those of the others, in the private collection of the writer. The designation, Kiowa shales, is proposed for the in¬ teriorly dark-colored and superiorly light-colored shales that outcrop in several of the counties of southwestern Kansas, resting upon the Cheyenne sandstone in their eastern, and upon the "Red-beds" in their middle and western exposures, and being overlaid by brown sandstones of middle Cretaceous age, or Tertiary or Pleistocene deposits, according to locality. The Kiowa shales are a locally modified northern exten¬ sion of part of Hill's Comanche series, cut off from the main part by erosion. They are named from the place of their typical occurrence, Kiowa county, Kansas; and in that county they outcrop only in those southern townships which once formed the northern part of Comanche county. The fossils of these shales are chiefly those which, in Texas, are most common in the Fredericksburg division; but a few of tbem are such as are tnost characteristic of the Bosque division, and a few others are such as either culminate in or are peculiar to rocks of the Denison beds. For explanation of the terms, Choctaw limestone, and Orayson marl, see the preceding article. 50 colorado college studies. Asteoecenia nidieormis, sp. nov. Stock massive, broad and low, its breadth increasing more or less from the base upward, its summit excavated, the prom¬ inent, narrowly-rounded border-region of the summit being irregularly lobed; cells united by rather thicks walls, calyces small, irregularly polygonal or slightly rounded-polygonal; columella short; septa rather stout, their free margins appar¬ ently a little uneven, their'summits moderately depressed below the level of the calyx-borders, the primary and sec¬ ondary septa six each, short septa of the third order also appearing. Measurements.—'M.aximvLva breadth of polyp-stock 102, breadth at right angle to line of maximum breadth 95, height 29; average diameter of calyces, including half of the inter- calycular walls 2, thickness of inter-calycular substance .4-.7 (average about .5) mm. Occurrence.—The type was collected, several years since, from the platform of arenaceous shell-conglomerate that caps the Cheyenne sandstone and forms the base of the Kiowa shales at Belvidere, Kansas. (No. 5 of the writer's Belvidere section.) A second specimen was recently collected by the writer, but was so poorly preserved as to be of little use for purposes of study. Hemipedina chaeltoni, sp. nov. Test small, ronnd-pentagonal, arched above, concave be¬ low; apical disc and periproct moderately broad; peristome considerably smaller in proportion to the test than in Pseudo- diadema texanum, Roemer; pore-belts straight, the pores somewhat elongated in the direction of the belt, the pore- pairs simple throughout and somewhat oblique; ambulacral arese half as broad as the interambulacral, each ornamented with two rows of primary tubercles that are somewhat smaller than those of the row of largest tubercles on the interambu¬ lacral arese, each primary tubercle being subtended by an irregularly polygonal string of smaller (secondary) ones; interambulacral arese with six rows of primary tubercles, these being much larger in the middle row of each semiambu- desceiptions of invertebrate fossils. 51 lacrum than in the others, the primaries subtended by secondaries for the most part in polygonal strings; surface of test closely granulated in the intervals between tubercles on both ambulacral and interambulacral arese. Measurements.—Height of test 11, breadth 25, greatest breadth of periproct 3.5, breadth of peristome (about) 7 or 8 mm. Occurrence.—The type of this species was obtained from the Choctaw limestone, south of the Denison-Bonham road, near the lime-kiln about a mile east of Denison, Texas. It was associated with Exogyra arietina, Ostrea quadruplicata, O. subovata, Lima wacoensis, Pholadomya sancti-sabce, P. ragsdalei, etc. The writer takes pleasure in naming this interesting echinoid after his friend and sometime fellow-traveller, Prof. O. C. Charlton. Besides Orthopsis occidentalis, nob., this is the only rep¬ resentative of the section of Diadematidce with perforated and non-crenulated tubercles known from North American rocks. Although a single recent species of Hemipedina is known (H. cubensis, A. Ag.), this genus is known as a fossil, from Jurassic and lower Cretaceous rocks only; and its occurrence in the upper part of the Washita division therefore confirms the conclusion which the writer has previously drawn from the similar occurrence of Holectypus, that the Washita division should be referred to an epoch not later than late Neocomian.* Pecten inconspicuus, sp. nov. Shell small, thin, subcircular, a trifle higher than long, slightly truncated anteriorly and posteriorly, right valve gently convex, its outer surface smooth except for faint con¬ centric striae anc^ a few remote, subimbricate growth-lines; umbonal angle sharp at apex, nearly a right angle; anterior ear (imperfect in the type) reentrant below, as indicated by the direction of the striae upon it, outline of posterior ear *See " Contribution to the Invertebrate Paleontology of the Texas Cretaceous," in the Fourth Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Texas, Part II, p. 159. 52 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. making an obtuse angle, its posterior margin rather more than one and a half times as long as its dorsal. Left valve unknown. Measuremenis.—Height 9.5, length 8.75, convexity of left valve 1 mm. Occurrence.—On slope of Pawpaw creek, east of Denison, Texas, in red ochraceous shell-conglomerate of the Pawpaw clays. The associate fossils are Osfrea quadriiplicata, Tapes dentonensis, Yoldia microdonfa, Turritella seriatim-granu- - lata, Splienodiscus, Turrilites, etc. VOLA FREDEEICKSBUEGENSIS, Sp. nov. This name is proposed for the species of Vola described by Roemer from Fredericksburg,Texas, inhis Kreidebilduiigen von Texas, as " Pecten quadricostatus, var.," and is based on his description and illustrations (pp. 64, 65; PI. VIII, fig. 4 a, h, c). The species is the ordinary one of the Fredericksburg division of the Comanche Cretaceous series, being very com¬ mon in the Comanche Peak limestone of Texas and Indian Territory, and in the lower parts of the Kiowa shales of Kansas. It is easily distinguished from V. iexanus, Roemer, by its much narrower and more elevated ribs, more triangular form, and usually (in adult examples) by its larger size. It has been referred to by authors under various names; but it is distinct from any of the species to which it has hitherto been referred. It is, however, closely allied to V. alpina, D'Orb. Avicula dispae, sp. nov. Shell small, semicircular, radiately ribbed, compressed, very inequivalve, the left valve being feebly arched, its con¬ vexity greatest in the basal region and its basal margin more or less overhanging that of the smaller flat-concave right valve; anterior ears sharply delimited, nearly equilateral tri¬ angles; posterior ear feebly developed, narrow, rounded off above on the distal part, that of the left valve not abruptly separated from the body of the valve, that of the right valve descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 53 scarcely observable; beaks inconspicuous, the entire umbonal region strongly compressed, the beak of the left valve higher than that of the right; valves thin; ligament double, the outer part placed in an open groove, the inner in a triangular pit under the beaks; hinge-plate of left valve broader than that of the right; radial ribs of left valve large, broad, flat- convex, separated by narrow, abruptly impressed intervals, the intermediate ribs in the type-specimen not extending over the somewhat strongly convex basal region, which is smooth or finely concentrically striate and pearlaceous, but suddenly truncated; ribs of right valve feebly developed, narrow, irregularly tuberculated, obsolete on the ventral and anterior parts; radial groove separating anterior ear from body of valve, in the left valve, deeply impressed, and having its counterpart on the right valve in a low ridge. Measurements.—Height 20, length 33, breadth 5 mm. Occurrence.—The type of this species is a finely preserved shell found by the writer in the Grayson marl, on a draw of Pawpaw creek, half to three-quarters of a mile southeast of the Union depot at Denison, Texas, It was associated with Exogyra arietina, E. dralcei, Turrilites brazosensts, etc., in the lower part of the marl. The ribs of the body of the left valve are fourteen in number, and adjacent to either ear is a radially striated seg¬ ment about as wide as the widest rib. The anterior ear of the left valve shows two or three rather coarse ribs on the posterior part, the posterior ear being ornamented with radi¬ ating raised lines. In the narrow intervals between several of these lines and between several of the broad ribs of the posterior part of the body of the left valve, the hand-lens reveals more or less regularly arranged elements that present the appearance of cross-threads or obliquely compressed tubercles. I am not acqjiainted with any species that is closely anala- gous to Avicula dispar. Inoceramus comancheana, sp. nov. Shell equivalve, obliquely and broadly rhombic-ovate, more gibbous than that of I. labiatus, Schloth., the axis of 54 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. greatest dimension diverging from the hinge-line much more widely than in the latter species; alar outline rounded; an¬ terior margin descending steeply in a nearly straight line for a considerable distance in front of the beaks, then curving rather suddenly away toward the somewhat prominently con¬ vex distal part of the basal outline, anterior and posterior margins making nearly a right angle with each other; beaks placed opposite the anterior extremity of the hinge, moder¬ ately inflated, and moderately elevated above the hinge-line, anteriorly flattened, but not abruptly so; hinge-plate rather short, broad, the ligamental grooves crowded, more numerous and longer than in I. labiatus, though ample and shallow; valves thin, ornamented with numerous concentric rib-like folds, which, on the discal and ventral parts, are quite strongly elevated and much narrower than the intervals between them. Measurements.—Height.82, length 95, breadth 54, axis of greatest dimension 107 mm. In some examples, the species attains considerably larger dimensions. Occurrence.—This is the common Inoceramus of the Duck creek (lower Washita) limestone, or basal part of the Washita division of the Comanche series. The types were collected by Mr. J. T. Munson and the writer one to two miles northeast of Denison, Texas. The species occurs also in the Chickasaw nation, three miles north-northwest of Marietta, in the same limestone. At both localities it is associated with Pachydiscus marcianus,* Schloenbachia peruviana and S. serrtaescens, Hamites fremonti, Epiaster elegans, var. prcenuntius, etc. In the upper part of the Kiowa shales of southern Kansas, occur imperfect casts of an Inoceramus which I provisionally refer to this species. In Clark county, Kansas, these are associated with Ostrea quadruplicata and Ostrea franlclini. ^Ammonites [Pachydiscu8'\ brazoensis^ Shum. (1860), is a synonym of A. [F.] marciana, Shum. (1854); but I am somewhat doubtful about the propriety of using the older name, as the description and figure accompanyiDg it are those of a very young specimen. It seems a strange circumstance that Dr. Shumard failed to refer to the two names as synonymous. This circumstance, however, may indicate either that he did not recognize in '' brazoensie his " marciana " of 1854, or that he merely considered the older name invalid, as based on a young specimen and one that did not show the suture. descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 55 In Marcy's Red River Report (p. 193, PI. 6, fig. 2), Shumard describes and figures an Inoceramus that "occurs rather abundantly at Camp No. 4, Cross Timbers, Texas," referring it to I. confertim-annulatus, Roem. That his description and figure relate, not to the upper Cretaceous confertim- annulatus, but to the species which I have here named J. comancheana, is indicated not only by the figure that he gives but also by the fact that the stratigraphic source of all of the fossils that he described from " Cross Timbers, Texas," was evidently the middle part of the lower Cretaceous; i. e., the Comanche Peak limestone and the Duck creek (lower Washita) limestone. Nearly all of these fossils are com¬ mon in, and chiefly characteristic of, the Comanche Peak limestone; but the association of Schloenbachia peruviana. Von B., with Pachydiscus marcianus, Shum.,* which he men¬ tions, is a feature of the Duck creek horizon and indicates the presence of this horizon there also, and hence the prob¬ able presence there of the common Duck creek fossil, Inoce¬ ramus comancheana. Inoceramus munsoni, sp. nov. Shell (?inequivalve), elevated, obliquely triangular-ovate, of moderate convexity; hinge short; beak of left valve elevated high above the hinge-line, strongly flattened on its right (inner) anterior quarter, its apex incurved as in I. sulcatus. Park.; valves extremely thin, moulded with small, feebly ex¬ pressed, concentric undulations and striae and, on its anterior third, with three large and prominent, wave-like, radial folds, the foremost and shortest one of which forms a sort of shoul¬ der in advance of which the border of the shell is strongly inflected to form the flat ante-umbonal area, the part of the valve posterior to these three folds, presenting two broad, obsolescent, low-convex, radial segments, the posterior one of which mav be subdivided into two narrow folds. ♦ Measurements.—Of a left valve; height 57, length 53, convexity 23, axis of greatest dimension 67 mm.; of a smaller left valve, height 36, length 33, convexity 11 mm. ♦His Ammonites acuto-carinatus and Ammonites marciana. See 1. c., p. 197. 56 colorado college studies. 4 Occurrence.—In the Duck creek limestone, on Duck creek, between one and two miles northeast of Denison, Texas. This fossil is much less common than the I.comancheana.* The specimens occur as casts, with occasional remnants of the shell. The species is named after Mr. J. T. Munson, of Denison, in recognition of the generous aid which he has shown him¬ self every ready to lend to scientific research. Nucula chickasaensis, sp. nov. Shell small, of moderate convexity, though more convex than that of N. catherina nobis, ovate-triangular, the anterior side descending directly and subvertically from the low, nearly terminal beaks, giving the anterior part of the profile an obliquely truncate appearance, posterior cardinal side slightly convex, posterior extremity somewhat narrowly rounded, base long, gently convex, and suddenly curving upward at its anterior end; shell divaricately ornamented with fine and close raised lines and strise, each of which has the apex of its V-like angulation directed toward the beak, the anterior arms of the Vs being gently concave toward the anterior, or supero- anterior part of the shell, the posterior arms presenting a gentle concavity upward and backward, the angle of divarica¬ tion, at apex, somewhat less than a right angle. Measurements.—Height 11.5, length 14, breadth 8 mm. Occurrence.—The type of this species was collected by my wife from the Comanche Peak limestone, overlooking Little Hickory creek south of Overbrook in the Chickasaw ♦ The writer would here note that the species, ^^Inoceramus muUistriattis" which he published in his "Contribution to the Inyertebrate Paleontology of the Texas Creta¬ ceous," is invalid, having been based on a mutilated specimen of Avicula pedernalis^ as he discovered when, on his expedition of July to September, 1893, he collected specimens of the latter fossil, no specimen of which, sufficiently well preserved to be easily recognized by one not previously acquainted with the species, had been avail¬ able for his study in the museum of the State Geological Survey prior to his leaving Austin. Not suspecting the former presence of the large wing, which had been broken off, on the imperfect specimen examined, the writer was led to refer this specimen to the genus Inoceramus, in view of its transversely fibrous shell-structure and of its degree of resemblance in form to Inoceramns sublcevis, overlooking the fact that the shell of Axncula also has such structure. descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 57 Nation. It was associated with Holectypus planatus, Exogijra texana, Turritella seriatim-granulata, etc. The species belongs to the subgenus ^cj7a. Cardidm quinordinatum, sp. nov. Shell of rather small size for its genus, rounded-triangular, subequilateral, the anterior and posterior sides of the outline slightly concave in the upper and convex in the lower part, the basal margin being evenly rounded, the part of the out¬ line formed by the arched umbonal summit being very ob¬ tuse; beaks subcentral, large, arched strongly, the arch rising high above the hinge-line; surface ornamented with some¬ thing like twenty broad, prominent, rounded, spinigerous costse separated by narrow plain-bottomed intervals, the costal spines being of the squamous type, having the form of caret- shaped hoods, and being closely set in five radial ranks on the same number of slightly elevated rays on each costa, the rays being separated by striseform grooves. The intercostal valleys are a little less than two-fifths as wide as the cost®. Of the five spinigerous rays on each costa, the middle one is relatively larger and more coarsely spined than those adjacent to it, the two outermost being the smallest of all. Measurements.—Height 21, length 19, breadth 16 mm. Occurrence.—There is a little doubt as to the source of the two type-specimens of this species. They were, however, almost certainly collected at a ledge of the Washita limestone a little east of Georgetown, Texas, in association with Ostrea roanokensis, Pleurotomaria robusta, and SchloenbaShia ana- tina. Koudairia denisonensis, sp. nov. Shell among the larger representatives of its genus, ele¬ vated-triangular, the lateral profile of its cast approaching an isosceles triangle with convex base, but the supero-posterior part of that pr(tfile presenting, as in R. quadrans,* a low *See American Geologist, Vol. XIV, PI. I, fig. U. R. quadrans should be com¬ pared with the shell described in the writer's "Contribution to the Inrertebrate Paleontology of the Texas Cretaceous," as Trigonia securiforms, with which it is quite likely that it will prove to be identical. There can be little doubt that the latter species belongs to the genus Roudairia. 58 colorado college studies. shoulder (the angulated summit-line of the feeble keel made by the apposed edges of the valves) a short distance from the beaks; valves of quite moderate convexity; beaks placed a little in advance of the middle, narpow, their tangent apices curved inward and downward, but inclined forward in only a very slight degree; anterior and posterior slopes more or less flattened, the posterior separated from the discal slope, in the cast, by a faint angulation; discal and anterior slopes orna¬ mented with unequal concentric lines, and the posterior slope with 35 or more radial raised lines, which are relatively much finer than those of R. quadrans. Measurements.—Height 78, length 69, breadth 50 mm. A second specimen is relatively longer, measuring, height 71, length 67, breadth 46 mm. Occurrence.—The types of this species are several casts, two of which show the character of the ornamentation. They were Collected by Mrs. F. W. Cragin, Mr. J. T. Munson, and the writer, chiefly from the Grayson marl, at the old D. B. and N. O. railway cut about half a mile southeast of the Union depot of Denison, Texas. A single example, somewhat smaller than those from the marl, was obtained from the Main-street limestone on the summit of the creek-bluff adjoining. Among the considerable number of fossils found associated with the Roudairia denisonensis, are Exogyra arietina, E. drakei,Vola texana,Aviculadispar,Sphenodiscuspedernalis, Turrilites brazosensis, etc. Pholadomya eagsdalei, sp. nov. Shell large, triangular-ovate, compressed, multicostate; umbonal region somewhat elevated, but beaks not strongly arched; much the larger part of the shell ornamented with straight to slightly curved radial cost®, which are narrow like the intervals between them and more or less crossed and in¬ terrupted by raised, concentric growth-lines; anterior area of shell ornamented with a system of concentric, strongly curved, loop-like to more or less nearly quarter-circlet costse which are quite independent of the concentric, elevated growth-lines and are severally continuous at their attenuated posterior descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 59 ends with the similarly attenuated supero-anterior ends of the radial costse, forming with the latter, at the place of meet¬ ing, a series of beakward-pointed V-like angles. Measurements.—(Approximate.) Height 70, breadth 10, length 100-105 mm. Occurrence.— Several molds of this species were found by Mr. J. T. Munson and the writer in the Choctaw lime¬ stone, with Ostrea quadruplicata, Exogyra arieiina, Tere- bratella wacoensis, etc., on the Pawpaw creek bluffs east and southeast of Denison, Texas. For an example from Cooke county, Texas, showing the shell itself and the major part of both valves, the writer is indebted to Mr. G. H. Kagsdale, after whom the species is named, A loan-collection now in hand contains one example of this beautifully and uniquely marked species from a county in Texas south of the Red river tier, but it is not now pos¬ sible to ascertain its exact source. As all of the specimens of this fossil that the writer has seen are more or less imperfect, there remains some doubt as to the generic position. But the species is so striking and unique in the character of its ornamentation that there will rarely be difficulty in recognizing it, even in the imperfect specimens in which it commonly presents itself. Homomya washita, sp. nov. Shell large, curved-oblong, closed or nearly closed an¬ teriorly and closed along the dorsal margin back of the beaks, obliquely truncated and gaping posteriorly, the breadth usually a little greater than the vertical dimension from hinge-margin to ventral margin, the length equal to some¬ what more than one and a half times the breadth, the greatest breadth being about half way between the beaks and the mid- region; beaks nearly terminal, low, swollen, obtusely tangent, their bases long^n the direction of the length of the shell and rising at a very low angle from their posterior origin to their rather broadly rounded summits; surface marked only with concentric growth-lines and undulations, and sometimes showing distally two or three broad growth-zones or stages. 60 colorado college studies. Measuremenis.—Height (to summit of beaks) 92, vertical dimension from base to hinge-line 76, length 120, breadth 80 mm. Occurrence.—Cyphosomci volanum, Enallaster in- jlaius, Ostrea roanokensis, Exogyra arietina, E. drakei, numerous large Vola iexana, Roudciiria denisonensis, and many other fossils, in the Grayson marl in the abandoned D. B. and N. O. railway cut about half a mile southeast of the Union depot of Denison, Texas; also in the Choctaw limestone, with Ostrea quadruplicata, Exogyra arietina, Terebratella wacoensis, Pholadomya ragsdalei, etc., on sum¬ mit of Pawpaw creek bluff southeast and east of Denison. The species is apparently more common in the limestone than in the marl, but the specimens thus far observed from the former are usually smaller and more poorly preserved than those from the latter. Tellina sub^qualis, sp. nov. Shell subsequilateral, elongate-elliptical, the height con¬ tained twice in the length, the outline a little narrowed toward either extremity, slightly more toward the posterior than toward the anterior, the dorsal outline gently declivous and nearly straight for some distance on either side of the beaks, the anterior outline evenly rounded, angulation of the pos¬ terior slope scarcely appreciable in the cast, valves of moder¬ ate convexity, the curvature across the discs being remarkably uniform from a little below the umbonal summits to the basal margin and from the anterior to the posterior extremity; beaks low and obtuse; pallial sinus extending forward a little beyond the point directly opposite the beaks, its fundus rounded. Measurements.—Height of cast 14.5, length from anterior extremity to a point opposite the beaks 13.5, from posterior extremity to the same point (about) 15.5, convexity of cast of right valve about 3 mm. Occurrence.—On Pawpaw creek, east of Denison, Texas, in ochraceous shell-conglomerate of the Pawpaw clays; with Yoldia microdonta, Turritella seriatim-gramdata, etc. Oc¬ curs chiefly as casts with fragments of shell, and as molds. descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 61 This Tellina is closely related to T. equilateralis, M. and H., of the Fox Hills division of the upper Cretaceous; but comparison of the Denison specimens with Meek's figures of that species shows that they represent a decidedly more elongate form than the latter. CoRBULA CRASSICOSTATA, sp. nOV. Shell triangular-ovate, gibbous, nearly as broad as high, short; gaping posteriorly by a short, conically inflated, gently truncated rostrum, which is placed high above the base of the shell; umbones placed in advance of the middle, that of the right valve only moderately high arched, its summit ob¬ tuse; surface ornamented with very coarse, flattish-topped, concentric ribs, separated by abrupt, deep, narrow intervals. There are seven or eight of the ribs on the basal half of a right valve the same number of millimeters high. i Measurements.— Height 7.5, length 10, breadth about 7 mm. Occurrence.—In arenaceous limestone bands of the Kiowa shales, at Belvidere, Kansas; in Nos, 2-4 of the writer's "Belvidere Section." So far as the writer can judge from material now in hand, the similar Corhula that abounds in the condition of casts and molds in the ochraceous shell-conglomerate of the Deni¬ son beds, at Denison,Texas, presents no differences of specific value from the Kansas shell above described. The casts show that the pallial line is very sharply impressed. Margarita* brownii, sp. nov. Shell of moderate size and thickness, the postlabial region becoming thicker at maturity, depressed-conical, deeply um- bilicated; whorls four and a half, somewhat depressed, rounded, smooth, the body-whorl obtusely angulated below, becoming much thickened*and tumid on the part near the aperture, the tumid portion, however, flattened a little on the quarter be¬ tween base and umbilicus; aperture round, much smaller than the nearly oblong and sharpened peristome, the latter being continuous except on about one-fifth of the circuit, and 62 colorado college studies. the beveled zone between the aperture and the peristomial edge being continuous around the aperture, broadest where it rests against the whorl above, narrowest on the basicolu- mellar quarter; inner lip free opposite and below the umbili¬ cus, adnate above it, the free portion everted so as to encroach slightly upon the umbilicus and to overarch about one-third of it; umbilicus somewhat narrowed, but deep, striated or costellate, each costella terminating interiorly in a slight en¬ largement, the series of narrow tubercles thus produced giving the angulated border of the umbilicus a crenulated aspect; umbilico-basal angle not extending over the tumid labial region. The fine growth-lines of the shell are directed obliquely backward from the suture above, on the upper part of the whorls, becoming transverse on the lower part of the body-whorl. Measurements.—Height 10.5, breadth 14.5 mm.; diver¬ gence of slopes 109 degrees. Occurrence.—In the Caprina limestone of Travis county, Texas, in the south bluffs of the Colorado river, west of South Austin; associated with Requienia patagiata, Monopleura marcida, M. pinguiscula, Lucina acute-lineolata, Nerinea pellucida, and other fossils of the Barton creek and Deep Eddy bluff fauna. For the type-specimen, I am indebted to Prof. B. S. Brown, after whom the species is named. The specimen, like others of this fauna, is beautifully preserved in calcite, and has a bright red tinge, due to a thin incrustation of iron oxide. Neeitoma marcouana, sp. nov. Shell small, of moderate thickness, depressed-subglobose, oblique, consisting of apparently three and a half whorls; spire sublateral, small, eroded; body-whorl large, ventricose, evenly rounded, nearly smooth, its upper part with feebly elevated costellse, extending obliquely upward (that is, toward the suture and at the same time somewhat toward the aper¬ ture), and separated by round-bottomed, groove-like intervals of about the same breadth, that begin, in part abruptly, at or just above the periphery; periphery and base of body-whorl descbiptions of invertebrate fossils. 63 smooth, or marked only with ordinary growth-lines; aperture obliquely and rather narrowly ovate; inner lip with a callous, strongly flattened, and without teeth; outer lip with a moder¬ ate, shallow, broadly rounded excavation just below the peri¬ pheral line. No umbilicus. The uneroded portion of the spire rises but little above the body-whorl. Measurements.—Height 10, breadth 10.5 mm. Costellse of body-whorl, about 3 in 2 mm. A Belvidere example col¬ lected a few years ago, and not at hand for measurement, is somewhat larger than the type-specimen from which these dimensions are taken. Occurrence.—In the Kiowa shales of Kiowa county, Kansas, in No. 3 and the upper part of No. 4 of my Belvidere section. In the past ten years, the writer has collected several speci¬ mens of this shell, of which two or three were obtained at Belvidere; and one, of probably—though he cannot say posi¬ tively—the same species, in limestone-bands in these shales, just west of Windom, McPherson county, Kansas. This adds another shell of Jurassic type to the fauna of the Pre-Washita part of Hill's Comanche series. The species is named in honor of Mr. Jules Marcou. Solarium chigkasaense, sp. nov. Shell rather small, discoidal, slightly concave above, more so below; whorls five, all exposed above and (probably all) below, in contact and slightly embracing, inequilaterally rounded-subquadrate in cross-section, broader than high, flattened above, the upper surface of each whorl dropping a little lower than that of the whorl next outside of it, the superior suture distinct, inferior surface of body-whorl raised into a somewhat prominent rounded shoulder, periphery of body-whorl rounded; cross-section of cavity near aperture oblique, inequilaterally ovate, or rounded-triangular, trans¬ verse (that is, broader than high), but far less so than in Koemer's Solarium planorhis, outline of the cavity and that of the exterior of the shell in the cross-section not parallel with each other, the shell being relatively much thickened at the corners; upper side of whorls marked with ordinary 64 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. growth-lines which are crossed by a series of subremote re¬ volving striae, the upper centripetal border of the whorls being puckered so as to give it a crenulated appearance; ornamentation of lower surface of shell unknown. Measurements.— Greatest breadth of shell 13.5, height (that of the body-whorl) 4.3, height of cross-section of cavity near aperture 2.5, breadth of same 3 mm. Occurrence.—A single siiecinien of this shell, in situ, was found by the writer in the Comanche Peak limestone on a south branch of Little Hickory creek, a few miles north and a little west of Marietta, Indian Territory. It was associated with.Enallastertejcamis,Volafrederic1csburgensis, Turritella seriatim-granulata, Tylostoma tumida, and Schloenbachia peruviana. Viewed from above, this shell bears close resemblance, even in the oblique and slightly wavy apertural border, to Solarium planorbis, Roemer, as figured in Palmontologische Abhandlungen, Band IV, Tafel XXXI; but in apertural view (a section immediately back of the aperture), the body-whorl is seen to be quite different from that species as figured, with respect to shape, thickness of different parts of the section of the shell, and form of the cavity. The apertural view of the present shell does not exhibit that very strongly and equi- laterally compressed form of whorl, with parallel-outlined and uniformly thick-walled cavity, that Roemer's figure rep¬ resents (fig. 14c, lac. cit). Indeed, that view of the present shell may be described as intermediate between the figure just cited and that of Euomphalus subquadratus, M. & W., given in Volume V of the Geological Survey of Illinois, PI. XXIX, fig. 13 b, so that it would seem not an unreasonable question to ask, whether the species could not be referred to the genus Straparollus (which survived till the Jurassic, ac¬ cording to Zittel), quite as well as to the genus Solarium. It may be of interest to know, in comparing Austin rocks with those of the Red river region, that in the same lime¬ stone, and not far away from the locality that yielded this close ally of Solarium planorbis, the writer has found one of the specific members of the peculiar Barton creek fauna of descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 65 the Caprina limestone that yielded the S. planorbis; viz., Natica avellana, Roem. Turritella denisonensis, sp. nov. This name is proposed for a large, tall-spired, species of Turritella that seems to bear considerable resemblance to T. leonensis, Con., and is possibly only a variety of that species, but which, instead of having all of the whorls convex and evenly rounded, as they are understood to be in leonensis, has only the spire-whorls so, the body-whorl being enlarged and angulated or shouldered, presenting a strongly flattened, sloping face on its upper (posterior) part, a broader flattened face on its middle part, and a less strongly flattened face on its lower part. The casts show weathered remnants of raised, narrow, cariniform lines, separated by broad, depressed inter¬ vals, in each of which is a similar but feebler line; lines of the body-whorl apparently irregularly turberculated, those of the spire-whorls not obviously so on the only shell-fragment observed. The shell has evidently consisted of not less than ten or eleven whorls. Measurements (of cast).—Height about 107, breadth of body-whorl 40 mm.; angle of spire-slopes 21 to 24 degrees. Occurrence.—The casts of this shell abound in the Choc¬ taw limestone, at the top of the bluff of Pawpaw creek east and southeast of Denison, Texas. A single example was found in the Grayson marl, in the cut of the abandoned D. B. and N. O. railway, southeast of the Denison Union depot. Vanikoro propinqua, sp. nov. Shell rather small, depressed-subglobose, thin or of moder¬ ate thickness; whorls four, convex, those of the spire not prominently so; body-whorl greatly enlarged, rounded, some¬ what narrower and more elevated than in V. amhigua, M. & H.; spire rather low, proportioned almost exactly as in V. amhigua; suture not dee^y impressed; axis (? perforate); aperture rhomboidal-ovate, angular above, obtuse below; ornamenta¬ tion unknown. Dimensions.—Somewhat smaller than V. amhigua, M.& H., the exact dimensions not mensurable owing to the imperfec- 66 colorado college studies. tion of the labial region. Angle of slopes of spire a little less than 90 degrees. Occurrence.—In Nos. 3-4 of the Belvidere section of the Kiowa shales, near Belvidere, Kansas. I have seen but one specimen. This shell bears a striking resemblance in form to that of V. ambigua as figured by Meek in Vol. IX of the Hayden U. S. Geological Survey, differing from it chiefly by the rela¬ tively somewhat more elevated body-whorl and aperture and the smaller size. The surface of the shell is somewhat weather¬ worn in the type and does not reveal its original sculpture. Anchura kiowana, sp. nov. Shell small, consisting of six convex whorls; spire elevated; suture impressed; wing of moderate size, consisting of a proxi¬ mal flange-like part, continued posteriorly across half or more of the first spire-whorl, and a carinated falciform process; carina gradually arising at the base of the falciform process and traversing the latter to the extremity; falciform process much shorter and less upturned distally than that of the somewhat similar species, A. ruida, White, not rising to the lowest level of the suture between the body-whorl and the first spire-whorl, but having its point directed outward and somewhat upward, so as to make a large angle with the axis of the spire, extero-inferior outline of wing rounded and the border between this and the canal sinuous, margin of upper (flange) part of wing describing a slightly concave to sigmoid outline and more or less thickened and reflexed; inner lip provided with a moderately broad and prominent callous; canal short and obliquely truncated; spire-whorls and posterior half to two-thirds of body-whorl ornamented with narrow, curved, subvertical ribs, or folds, of which there are about twenty-four on the first spire-whorl, and with numerous re¬ volving striae, the latter ornamentation gradually becoming prominent and superseding the ribs on the lower third to half of the body-whorl. Measurements.—Height 19, breadth of body-whorl, in¬ cluding excursion of wing, 15 mm.; angle of spire-slopes about as in A. ruida, White. descriptions of invertebrate fossils. 67 Occurrence.—This handsome little shell is common in the Kiowa shales of Kiowa county, Kansas, especially in the lower part of No. 8 and the upper part of No. 4 of the writer's "Belvidere Section." (See Nos. 9 and 11 of the B^llletin of the Washburn College Laboratory of Natural History, and American Geologist of January, 1891.) Some of the commonest of the many fossils associated with it are Gryphcea pitcheri, Ca7-dium kansasense, Cyprimeria texana,* Tapes belviderensis, Turritella seriaiim-granulata, and Schloenbachia peruviana. The Anchura also occurs in the arenaceous platform of shell-conglomerate forming No. 5 of the same section, the ex¬ amples from this horizon, like the Turritellce from the same, being larger and more coarsely ornamented than those from Nos. 8 and 4. The flange of the wing also extends further upward in specimens from No. 5, sometimes reaching to the lower part of the second spire-whorl. The writer has also collected this fossil in the lower third of the Kiowa shales in Clark county, Kansas, in a draw of Bluff creek nearly opposite the mouth of Hackberry creek. The species is distinguished from Anchura ruida, White, by the vertically costate body-whorl, by the shorter, differ¬ ently directed falciform process, and by having the alar carina confined strictly to the wing and nearly to the falciform process, instead of being common to the wing and part of the body-whorl. Nautilus washitanus, sp. nov. Shell large, compressed nearly as much as in Nautilus neocomiensis, D'Orb., the size, form and ornamentation being essentially as described by Shumard for his Nautilus texanus,'\ the siphuncle, however, placed between the middle and the dorsal (outer) side of the septum and (sometimes, if not always) nearer to the latter side than to the middle. Occurrence.—Common in the Washita limestone of Texas. * Cyprimeria gradata, Cragin, which will probably prove to be the same as C, texana^ Roemer, when the hinge-details and form-variations of the latter shall be fully discovered. t Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of Scieoce, 1, 590. 68 COLOKADO COLLEGE STUDIES. Two species of Nautilus are common in the rocks of the Washita division, viz., N. texanus, Shumard, and N. washi- tanus, nobis, which have hitherto been confounded, owing to their general external resemblance and the fact that, occur¬ ring more commonly as fragments than as complete speci¬ mens, they often cannot be easily distinguished except by the position of the siphuncle, which is frequently not shown. All of the critically available specimens of Nautilus that the writer had observed from rocks of the Washita division, be¬ fore the publication of his " Contribution to the Invertebrate Paleontology of the Texas Cretaceous," had the siphuncle in the dorsal (outer) half of the septum, and the writer there¬ fore stated in that report that Shumard was in error in alleging its position to be ventral. The writer is now ac¬ quainted with two types of Nautilus from the Washita division and now admits the accuracy of Shumard's descrip¬ tion. So far as observed, however, the common species of the Washita limestone is N. ivashitanus, the Nautilus of the Denison beds being ordinarily N. texanus, as shown by its having the siphuncle nearly at the limit between the ventral (inner) and the middle third of the septum. The latter species has been found by the writer in the Denison beds of Denton and Grayson counties, Texas, and ranges up into the highest terrane of these beds, viz., the Grayson marl. VERTEBRATA FROM THE NEOCOMIAN 'OF KANSAS.* BY p. W. CRAGIN. The "Belvidere section," "Blue Cut Mound section," and "Blnfif Creek section," mentioned below are the geological sections which the writer published several years ago in the Bulletin of the Washburn College Laboratory of Natural History (]No. 11), and in Vol. VII of the American Geologist. The first and second are in the southeastern part of Kiowa county, Kansas, the third in the northeastern part of Clark county. The shales in which all of the described fossils were found belong clearly to the Fredericksburg division of the Comanche series, as shown by the occurrence in them of Sphenodiscus pedernalis, Roem., Schloenbachia peruviana, Yon B., Holec- typus planatiis, Roem., Exogyra texana, Roem., and many other invertebrate fossils of that division. That the Fredericksburg division corresponds to a part of the European Neocomian, is clearly shown by its echinoderm fauna, which, barely represented in Kansas, is well developed in Texas. Plesiosaurus mudgei, sp. nov. Plate I, figs. 1-3 (? and also fig. 4). About the size of P. neocomiensis, Campiche, as tested by comparison of the type (Kiowa county) and Clark county dorsal vertebrae with the measurements which Lydekker gives of the casts of dorsal vertebrae of that species presented to the British Museum by M. Campiche, but differing from P. neocomiensis in the form of the vertebrae; dorsal vertebrae moderately cupped, their centra having the three dimensions (length, height,«and breadth across ends) nearly equal; con¬ striction as shown in figs. 2 and 3 of the plate. * A private edition of this article, without the plates and with a different pagi¬ nation, was published May 12th, 1894. The shales herein referred to are the Kiowa shales of the later-written articles on geology and invertebrate paleontology of the Comanche series, published herewith. 70 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. Femur and humerus (as indicated by a Belvidere, Kansas, specimen belonging with little doubt to this species) proxi- mally enlarged so as to form a sort of head, slightly deflected, or asymmetrical, but without any distinct neck and trochanter such as are seen in Trinacromerum bentonianum, Crag.; flat¬ tened and laterally expanded at the distal extremity, and pro¬ vided with two distal facets. Measurements.—Dorsal vertebra of type-specimen from the Blue Cut hill; length of centrum 45, height of same 44, height of vertebra to floor of neural canal 46, breadth of cen¬ trum at either extremity 45 mm. Humerus (or femur) from about one mile south of the Belvidere railway station, pro¬ visionally referred to the same species: length (minus epiphyses) 167 (as restored 171), girth at point of greatest constriction 120, breadth at same point 41, greatest distal breadth (estimated) about 70, thickness at distal part about 35 mm. Occurrence., etc.— Remains of Plesiosaurus mudgei are common in the Fredericksburg (Neocomian) shale of Kiowa and Clark county, Kansas. My announcement, several years since, of the occurrence of Plesiosaurid remains in the Neocomian of southern Kansas was based upon the discovery of two vertebrse of Plesiosaurus in No. 5 of my " Blue Cut Mound section," one of which vertebrae, attached to a specimen of Gryphcea pitcheri (the vertebra illustrated on Plate I of the present article and con¬ stituting the type of P. mudgei) was turned over to the writer by the collector, Mr. A. L. Diamond. A year or two later, I examined a vertebra, then in the possession of Mr. Henry Fares, which agreed closely with the former one and which had been obtained with others in cen¬ tral Clark county. Last autumn, fragmentary remains of what is probably the same species were found by the writer at several points near Belvidere, Kansas, in No. 3 of the "Belvidere section." The best of the last-mentioned remains, a femur or humerus, is figured on Plate I with the type-vertebra, and in¬ dicates paddles whose size is quite consistent with that of the animal indicated by the Kiowa and Clark county vertebrae. vertebrata from the neocomian of kansas. 71 Plesiochelys belviderensis, sp. nov. Plate II, figs. 1-8. Shell of moderate size, that of the type-specimen consider¬ ably smaller than that of P. solodurensis, Rut., anterior costal bones spearhead-shaped, or triangular, pointed at the distal end, their breadth contained twice or a little more than twice in their length, the articulation for the first marginal bone being relatively much shorter than in P. solodurensis—that is, equal to one-fifth of the length of the costal itself; neural bones narrow and elongate, the posterior lateral articulation for the costal bone much longer than the anterior and nearly straight (at least not distinctly of exteriorly concave outline in the one well-preserved neural of the type-specimen), an¬ teriorly emarginate, the emargination in the type-neural being ample, deep and trilateral; vertebral isthmus of type-neural expanded beneath the middle of the bone so as to form a thick, nearly rhombic, plate-like structure; upper surface of shell (costal bones) ornamented with delicate vermicular grooving and pitting. Measurements.—Length of anterior costal bone 82, its greatest breadth 38; minimum breadth of narrowest preserved costal bone 24, maximum breadth of broadest 40; length of one of the largest costals (nearly entire) 111; length of neural bone 85, greatest breadth of same 24, posterior breadth of same 14; length of a dorsal vertebra 82, anterior breadth of same 28, posterior breadth of same 17 mm. If proportioned to the anterior costal bone as in P. solodurensis, the carapace of the type-specimen would have a length of some 800 milli¬ meters, or about a foot. Occurrence.—The type of this species, consisting of the two figured anterior costal bones, several other more or less complete costals, the figured neural bone, and the figured (in figs. 6 and 7 inverted) vertebra, were found by the writer with the vertebra of {? Lamna) quinquelateralis about half a mile south of the railway station at Belvidere, Kansas, at the upper limit of the black shale that constitutes No. 4 of the " Belvidere section." 72 colorado college studies. Mesodon abeasus, sp. nov. Plate II, figs. 18 and 20. This name is proposed for certain pycnodont teeth of low, rhomboidal form and feebly convex upper surface which occur in No. 3 of the "Belvidere section," southwest of the Belvidere railway station, and seem to agree with the larger mandibular teeth of Mesodon. The specific name refers to the occurrence in the type-specimen (see fig. 18) of two small oblique facets produced at one end by attrition. Measurements.—The type has a height (above root) of 3, a length of 13, and a breadth of 6 mm. To the vomerine set of the same species may belong the rotund-oval, or nearly hemispherical teeth of similar height but smaller size which occur not uncommonly at the same locality and horizon, the largest now available example of which (see figs. 15-17) measures about 6 and 7 mm. in minor and major horizontal diameters. ( ? Lamna) quinquelateralis, sp. nov. ^late lly figs. 9 and 10. The specific name, quinquelateralis, is applied to a species of shark whose vertebrae differ from all others of which I have any knowledge. The type-vertebra is short, much broader than high, shallow-cupped, and more or less sharply pentago¬ nal ended. Measurements.—Height 20, length 12, breadth 28 mm. The two upper angles measure each about 130 degrees; either lateral angle about 105 degrees. The lower angle is broad and rounded. Occurrence.—A single vertebra of this form was found by the writer at Belvidere, Kansas, with the above-described remains of Plesiochelys, in the upper part of No. 4 of the " Belvidere section." Hybodus claekensis, sp. nov. Plate ii, figs. 11-U. Fin-spine large, gently recurved, laterally compressed, the sides being nearly flat, the anterior border subacute, or form¬ ing a sort of keel, the posterior part beveled on either side VERTEBRATA FROM THE NEOCOMIAN OF KANSAS. 73 of the plate which bears the denticles, its general surface minutely and unevenly striate and punctate-striate, there being on the anterior part, a little back of the border (on one side only as preserved in the type-specimen) one or two nar¬ row, low, longitudinal folds, or carina-Kke ridges; the greatest breadth of the cross-section of the spine in the posterior part of the denticuliferous portion contained twice in the length of that section; denticles proportioned, arranged, and recurved somewhat as in H. reticulatus, Ag., as figured by Zittel, their compressed convex border with delicate but salient carina, their broader, concave border rounded. For minor details, see illustrations, of which figs. 11-13 are in part restored, and fig. 14 is a cross-section. The smaller and more compressed denticles in fig. 12 represent the average size of the denticles more accurately than the large ones. Measurements.— Greatest breadth of the preserved part of spine 13 mm. The entire length of the spine (of which a length of a little more than 60 mm. is preserved) cannot have been much less than a foot. Occurrence.—The type-spine of this species was found and presented to the writer by a member of the family of Mr. W. E. Brown, in Clark county, Kansas, in the area of the outcrop of the Fredericksburg Cretaceous shale, at the south end of the "Amphitheatre" mentioned in connection with the above-cited " Bluff Creek section." Colorado College Studies. VOLUME VI. inIVERSITY PAPERS READ BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. •COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. MARCH, 1896. \ cT v. ^ THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. BY F. W. CRAGIN. North and east of the Arkansas river, Permian rocks occupy a comparatively narrow tract and represent only the lower and middle parts of the system; but south of that river they rapidly widen both their area and the strati- graphic range of their outcrops. They are finely displayed in the southern tier of Kansas counties,* from the eastern border of Cowley to that of Meade, where they present a section that is excelled nowhere east of the Rocky mount¬ ains save possibly in northern Texas. The work of the earlier writers on the Permian of Kansas, Swallow and Hawn, Meek and Hayden, New¬ berry, Mudge, etc., has been reviewed quite recently by Prof. Prosser, in his "Classification of the Upper Paleozoic Rocks of Central Kansas,"f but (in so far as concerns Kansas) both those early authors and Prof. Prosser have confined their attention to the lower and middle parts of the system, as exposed in central and northern Kansas.;}; Meek and Hayden, Marcou and Geinitz, the earliest students of the Permian ("Dyas") of Nebraska, had in that State only lower and middle outcrops of the Permian available for study. In 1854 and '55, Shumard, Hitchcock and Marcou§ treated of rocks in the Canadian-Red river district that belong to the herein-described Cimarron series Marcou referring them to Permian ("Dyas") and Triassic, Shumard and Hitchcock calling them Carboniferous. The highest known terranes of the mid-plains Permian were *Somewhat less fully in Oklahoma. fC. S. Prosser, Journal of Geology, Vol. Ill, Nos. 6 and 7, 1895. JProf. Mudge once visited Harper, Kansas, and there saw the Harper sandstones, but referred them to the Dakota, an identification which was at one time accepted by the present writer and some others. §In Marcy's Red River Report, 1854; and in Rep. Secy, of War, 1855. 2 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. not Studied till 1886, when Prof. St. John observed them, describing them the following year in his "Notes on the Geolog}'^ of Southwestern Kansas,"* and referring them doubtfully to theTriassic. In the past four decades geologists have repeatedly shown that the passage from the Carboniferous to the Per¬ mian system in Kansas is gradual and includes an interval of so-called Permo-Carboniferous rocks which combine the faunae of both systems. The evidence of continuity and the question of the proper disposal of these intermediate rocks have led to much difference of opinion, some even having gone to the extreme of abandoning the Permian as a system or age, merging it in the Carboniferous, in attempting to avoid the difficulty of the situation.^ The Permian in America is, however, a great and widely dis¬ tributed system, difficult of diagnosis though it often be, from paucity of paleontological data. It is finely devel¬ oped in Texas, where it has great thickness and has been foundij: to have occasional fossilferous horizons to within less than 300 feet of its summit. The Permian of the Kansas-Oklahoma basin un-. doubtedly has many similarities to that of Texas, but it is probably in only one or two of the terranes of the upper Permian, especially in the Medicine Lodge gypsum, that ♦Fifth Biennial Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture. tThe upper part of what is commonly called the Devonian sys¬ tem in America has so many of the characteristics of the Carboni¬ ferous that so high an authority as the late Dr. Newberry treated it as part of the latter system. But to place the entire Devonian in the Carboniferous, or vice ^'erm, on account of "its transitional relation and the difficulty of assigning the intermediate rocks to either system, would seem of questionable wisdom. The mutila¬ tion of the standard geological column by the transfer of the Per¬ mian to a lower than systemic rank, seems to be equally unneces¬ sary and to serve no useful purpose, while the retention of the Per¬ mian as a system and age in the majority of the leading geological text-books and its degradation in others, is a confusion of terms of which untechnical readers and students of elementary geology have just cause for complaint. JBy the labors of Mr. W. F. Cummins. See especially his "Notes on the Geology of Northwest Texas" in the Fourth Annual Report of the State Geological Survey of Texas. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 3 stratigraphic continuity or even parallelism of physico- geographic conditions can be traced between them. It therefore seems necessary to treat the Permian north and south of the Ouachita mountain system as belonging to two distinct basins, and profitless to attempt divisional correlation between them. The following schedule represents the writer's pro¬ visional section and CLASSIFICATION OF THE ROCKS OF THE SYSTEM IN KANSAS. The Cimarron Series. FORMATIONS. Big Baein sandstone.* Hackberry shales. Day Creek dolomite. Bed Bluff sandstones. Dog Creek shales. Cave Creek gypsums. Flower-pot shales. Cedar Hills sandstones. Salt Plain, measures. Harper sandstones. The Big Blue Series. FORMATIONS. Wellington shales. Geuda salt-measures. Chase limestones. (Prosser.) Neosho shales. (Prosser.) In round numbers, the thickness of the Permian rocks of Kansas is estimated at 2,200 feet, which may be roughly apportioned among the leading subdivisions as follows, it being borne in mind that there is great geographical variation in the thickness of most of the formations above the Chase and below the Medicine Lodge: In th^ Big Blue series, 900 to 1,100 feet; in ♦The Day Creek and the Big Basin are the only formations of the Kansas Permian that seem to be absolutely simple terranes, or to consist each of a single bed. PERMIAN II. DIVISIONS. Kiger. Salt Fork. L DIVISIONS. Sumner. Flint Hills. 4 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. the Cimarron series, i,ioo to 1,250; in the Flint Hills di¬ vision, 400, based oh 130 for the Neosho and 265 for the Chase, as given by Prosser; in the Sumner division, 550 to 800, of which the Geuda measures occupy 300 to 400 and the Wellington shales, 250 to 450; in the Salt Fork divis¬ ion, 900 to 1,000; and in the Kiger division, about 250. For rocks near the base of the Permian as here rec¬ ognized, Prof. Broadhead records a southwesterly dip of over 26 feet to the mile in the vicinity of the Elk-Cowley county line;* and Prof. Wooster gives 20 feet per mile as the westerly dip in the vicinity of the Greenwood-Butler county line.-j- If the limestones pierced in the first few hundred feet below the rock-salt at Caldwell and Anthony belong, as supposed, to the Flint Hills division, it would seem that the westward element of dip in the lower part of the Kansas Permian continues with little change at least so far west as Anthony, where the summit of these limestones passes below sea-level. The summit of the limestones of this division, on the Walnut creek bluffs, east of Arkansas City, is a little more than 1,100 feet above sea-level; that of the infra-salt-measure limestones at Anthony is 37 feet below sea-level. Calling the difference of elevation of these points 1,140 feet and their distance apart 56 miles, the west element of dip of the summit-limestone of the Flint Hills division for this distance averages about 20 feet per mile, agreeing remarkably with the westing of dip observed by Broadhead and Wooster in basal rocks of this division fur¬ ther eastward. While the dip of the 7oiwr Permian rocks of southern Kansas is south of west, that of the upper Permian, as *G. C. Broadhead, in Transao. St. Louis Acad. Sol., Vol. IV, Part 3, p. 188. fL. C. Wooster, in American Geologist, July, 1890. In his ar¬ ticle, "The Permo-Carboniferous of Greenwood and Butler Counties, Kansas," he refers to the dip as "west" in his diagrammatic section, and as "west by south" in his text. It is inferred from this that the dip determined by him was in a direction nearly west, but a little south of a true west line. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 5 indicated further westward in southern Kansas and north¬ ern Oklahoma by the Medicine Lodge gypsum, is chiefly south with an easterl}'^ element. Thus the dip of the upper Permian is nearly transverse to that of the lower. Whether unconformity, or a quaquaversal flexure, or disparity of sedimentation is the main cause of this discordant relation, remains to be proven. But it is believed that if it be un¬ conformity, it is a succession of minor uncomformities rather than a single large one, a supposition to which the oc¬ currence of conglomerates at several horizons in the middle Permian possibly lends weight; while disparity of sedimen¬ tation must apparently be taken into account in solving the problem. Along the western edge of the area of their outcrop, the Permian Rocks of Kansas are unconformably succeeded by Cretaceous and Neocene sediments: or specifically by the Cheyenne sandstone,* the Kiowa shales,* and the Mentor beds* of the older Cretaceous (perhaps in part by Dakota sandstone of the later Cretaceous also), and by Loup Fork and later fresh-water sediments of the Neo¬ cene. THE BIG BLUE SERIES. The Kansas Permian presents itself in two series, the lower of which is known to belong to the Permian by its fossils and the upper of which is apparently connected by a bond of stratigraphic continuity with the demon¬ strated Permian of Texas, as above indicated. The lower series includes the strictly so-called Permo-Carboni- *On tbeee formations, see "A Study of the Belvidere Beds," in American Geologist, Vol. XVI, pp. 357-385; "The Mentor Beds," in same volume, pp. 152-165; "Descriptions of Invertebrate Fossils from the Comanche series in Kansas, Texas, and Indian Territory," in Colorado College Studies, Vol. 5; and earlier papers by the writer in Nos. 9 and 11 of tfce Bulletin of the Washburn College Laboratory of Natural History, Vols. 6 and 7 of the American Geologist, etc. Also "Outlying Areas of the Comanche Series in Kansas, Oklahoma and New Mexico," by R. T. Hill, in American Journal of Science, September 1895. 6 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. ferous, together with several hundred feet of the un¬ mixed Permian, having its base a few feet above the Cot¬ tonwood limestone of Prosser (Fusulina limestone of Swal¬ low) and its upper limit at the summit of the Wellington shales. It may be called the Big Blue series, from the Big Blue river, which in northern Kansas crosses the some¬ what narrowed northern extension of its area of outcrop, cutting both of its divisions. Its rocks include variously colored, in part gypseous and saline shales, limestones many of which are either siliceous or marly, rock-salt, gypsum, and occasional beds of conglomerate. The shales are drab, yellow, greenish, chocolate, maroon, red, white, gray, blue, and dark slate-colored; but other than red in the greater part. The series contains the extensive rock- salt deposits of central and southern Kansas that have be¬ come of so great commercial importance within the past few years, and whose products have been manufactured at Hutchinson, Kingman, Kanopolis, Lyons, Anthony, and other towns of that region. In its lower portion, the Big Blue series is charac¬ terized by both Carboniferous and Permian fossils; in higher horizons, by Permian fossils only; and in its upper portion, is devoid of organic remains, so far as at present known. It embraces two divisions; the lower, or Flint Hills; and the upper, or Sumner. THE FLINT HILLS DIVISION. This division of the Big Blue series takes its name from the great monoclinal ridge, called the Flint hills, that extends from the northern part of the Osage Nation northward along the eastern border of Cowley and But¬ ler counties, Kansas, its rocks forming an important part of the ridge and the highlands that constitute in Chase, Morris, Riley and other counties, its dissected northern and northeastern extension. Of these "Permian mount- THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 7 ains" as the Flint, hills were called by Prof. Broadhead in his geological studies of eastern Kansas,* the rocks of the Flint Hills division occupy the summits, a narrow up¬ per zone of the steep eastern slope, and all of the gentler western slope, extending westward along the south line of the State to the Arkansas river. In the brow of the bluffs of the latter river and its affluent, Walnut creek, at Arkansas City, certain limestones charged with Athyris subtilita Hall, Derby a crassa M. and H.?"!* Productus semi- reticulatus Martin, Septopora biserialis Swallow, Schizodus wheeleri Swallow (?), spines of Archeeocidaris, fragments of small crinoid-stems, and other fossils characteristic of the division, being the highest horizons that present a largely brachiopod fauna of Carboniferous affinities, approximately mark the summit of the division. Stratigraphically, the Flint Hills division includes the true Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Kansas, or more definitely, the Neosho and Chase formations of Prof. Prosser's recent paper, "The Classifica¬ tion of the Upper Palaeozoic rocks of Central Kansas.";}; The Neosho formation consists chiefly of shales, with some limestones which are for the most part of no great thickness, and frequently marly. The Chase consists also partly of shales, but is more conspicuous for its massive limestones, which include three flint-bearing limestones, or so-called flints, that have been named, in ascending order, the Wreford, (JAay), the Florence (Prosser), and the Marion (Prosser). Prof. Prosser, the most recent authority on the Car¬ boniferous and Permian paleontology of Kansas, lists from *'J'he Carboniferous Rocks of Southeast Kansas. Am. Jour. Sol., Vol. XXI, pp. 55-57; 1881,—and. Carboniferous Rocks of Eastern Kan¬ sas. Tran. St. Louis Acad., Sci., Vol. IV, Part 3, pp 481-492; 1884. '\Derbya multisWiata M. and H. ? JCharles S. Prosser, Journal of Geology, Vol. Ill, No. 6, pp. 682-70.5, and No. 7, pp. 764-800. See latter No., pp. 764-786 and pp. 797-800. October November, 1895. 8 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. the Neosho and Chase formations the following fossils, which doubtless constitute the greater part of the FAUNA OF THE FLINT HILLS DIVISION. *Chsetetes carbonarius Worthen. 'fChseletes sp. *Zaphrentis Bp. t*Crinoid stems. "fArchseoddaris plates and spines. lEchinoid spine. *Spirorbis sp. "fSpirortia orbiculostoma Swallow. "fSpirorbis cf. permianus King. "fPolypora submarginata Meek. '\*Septopora biserialis Swall. . fFeneslella ahumardi Prout. "f*Rhombopora lepidodendroidea Mk. '\*Aihyria aubiilila Hall. '\*Chonetea granulifera Owen. ■\*Produclua aemireticulatua Martin. tSame, var. calliounianua Swall. '\Productua coatatua Sowerby. i'*Productua nebraacenaia Owen. ■\*Derbya craaaa M. and H. "fDerbya muUistriata M. and H. '\*Meekella atriato-coatata Cox. '\Meekella (?) ahumardiana Swall. '\Entelelea hemiplicaiua Hall. "fSpirifera plano-convexa Shumard- '\*Pinna peracvda Shum. ^Avicalopecten carboniferua Stevens "fAviculopecten maccoyi M. and H. 'f*Aviculopecten oceidentalia Shum. '\*Paeudomonotia hawni M. and H. *Same, var. ova'a M. and H. *Pkurophorm oblongua Mk. *Pleurophorua aubcoalaiua M. and W. Pleuroplwrus aubcuneatua M. and H. ■\*Myalina perattenmta M. and H. ■f*Myalina kanaaaenaia Shum. *Myalina awallovi McChesney. '\Myalina recurviroatria M. and W. (?) '\Edmondia calhouni M. and H. *Edmondia cf. nebraacenaia Geinitz 'f*Alloriama aubcuneaia M. and H. *Schizodua cf. curtiforme Walcott. "fScMzodua cf. wheeleri Swall. fMacrodon aangamonenaia Worth. '\Bakevellia parva M. and H. ]Chvenornya minnehaha Swall. fSedgwickia altiroatrata M. and H. tStructure like Stylolites. *Diacina sp. *AcUa robuata, Stevens. f*Aclia awalloviana Geinitz. *Bellerophon cf. aublxvia Hall. *BeneTophon cf. montfortianua N. and P. *MacrocMl'ma angulifera White(?) t(?) Ghtuconome sp. t(?) Orthonema sp. fStraparoUua aubquadratua M. and W. fStraparoUua aubrugoava M. and W. ^StraparoUua cf.pemodoaua'M.. and W. tOf. Loxonema geinitziana King. fNaiitihia eccentricua M. and H. \Phillipaia aangamonenaia M. and W. In this list the asterisk denotes occurrence in the Ne¬ osho formation, and the dagger denotes occurrence in the Chase. For details of the stratigraphy and paleontology of the THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 9 division, reference should be made to the account of the Neosho and Chase formations in Professor Prosser's paper above cited. Reptilian foot-prints are said to have been found on flagstone of this division (in the Chase formation) at Winfleld.* THE SUMNER DIVISION. Succeeding the Flint Hills division is the Sumner. The rocks of this division are largely shales. The lime¬ stones are thinner, less frequent, and more impure than those of the Flint Hills division, and as they pass more and- more deeply below the surface to the westward, they give place gradually and at length almost wholly to argillaceous shales and rock-salt. The division includes many local beds of gypsum and some of dolomite. The records of the prospector's drill show for the Sumner division a thickness of about 600 feet at Caldwell and of about 800 at Anthony. In this division, just before the disappearance of all fossils from the Paleozoic rocks of Kansas, a strictly Permian fauna makes its appearance. THE GEUDA SALT MEASURES. In the vicinity of Arkansas City, the southwesterly- dipping, brachiopod-charged limestones and shales of the Chase formation disappear beneath a salt-bearing formation of great commercial importance. The Permian rocks of Kansas and Oklahoma include two extensive rock-salt-bearing formations, the lower and the upper salt-measures, belonging, one in the Big Blue, *The proprietor of one of the quarries at Winfleld once informed the writer that, in^quarrying flagstone for paving, his workmen re¬ moved a large slab covered with reptilian footprints. The slab was cut into pavement-blocks and shipped, contrary to orders, and so lost sight of, it having been the owner's intention to preserve it in the interest of science. lo COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. and the other in the Cimarron series. Elsewhere in this article, the upper formation is described as the Salt Plain measures; the lower formation, which is the basis of the great salt industry of Kansas, is here called the Geuda salt- measures, from the town of Geuda Springs, which is located in the area of its outcrop. At a quarry to which the writer was conducted by the favor of Prof. A. W. Jones of Salina, and which is near the right bank of the Smoky Hill river two or three miles S. S. E. of Salina, is an exposure ef perhaps about 30 feet of carbonaceous shales and more or less shaly limestones having rather a pronounced westerly dip and including a fossiliferous horizon in which one lamina of rather hard limestone bears numetous indifferently preserved examples of Myalina permiana and smaller undetermined bivalves. This ledge is apparently but little below the summit of the Geuda and overlies a bed of gypsum, which {fide A. W. J.) outcrops in the bed of the river near by and is also pierced by a shallow shaft in the vicinity of the quarry. Prof. Jones states that the most southerly appearance of these limestones and shales on the Smoky is about four and a half miles south of Salina. He also states that the gypsum at this quarry is supposed to be the same as that which is worked at Gypsum City; but it seems to the writer, from a consideration of the dip of that gypsum between Hope and Gypsum City, that the gypsum south of Salina, which may be called the Greeley gypsum from its occurrence in Greeley township, is higher by not less than a hundred feet than the Hope gypsum, as that at Hope and Gypsum City may be called. The lower limit of the Geuda in north-central Kansas is drawn at the summit of the Marion concretionary lime¬ stone of Prof. Prosser, which the latter seems with good reason to regard as the "first cherty limestone" of Prof. Swallow. The Geuda formation is very complex in its com- THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. II position. It consists primarily of clay-shales, but these are of many colors and sorts, frequently passing into saline, gypseous, and calcareous varieties, or even giving place to limestone, gypsum, or rock-salt. The composition of the formation in and near its area of outcrop is quite different from that revealed by the drill in deep-lying parts remote from that area. Its area of outcrop, doubtless somewhat narrowed by the leaching out of rock-salt and the settling of sup¬ erincumbent strata, is in part occupied by a belt of more or less gypseous and saline shales interspersed with beds of massive gypsum and impure limestone, and which has as additional manifestations of its mineralized character, occasional salt-marshes, saline springs, bitter waters, and wells which (where not dug in the superficial deposits of the Neocene) are not infrequently brackish or saline. Near the south line of Kansas, this belt occupies a breadth of some 12 to 18 miles in adjoining portions of Sumner and Cowley counties, the greater portion of which is in Sumner, and with variable breadth extends thence nearly northward through the eastern parts of Sedgwick, Harvey, McPherson and Saline counties, and western parts of Mar¬ ion and Dickinson, to the region between Salina and Hope, from which region it continues in a nearly northeasterly course through portions of Clay, Riley, Washington and Marshall counties. The so-called "Wellington marble," described by the writer in 1885,* and which comes from the eastern part of Sumner county, and the gypsum used in the manufacture of plaster of Paris, stucco, and cement in Dickinson and Marshall counties, as well as many unused beds of gypsum, belong to this belt. There are, however, in the belt at least two distinct horizons of gypsum, and it is the lower, or Hope, gypsum, that has been hitherto most used in the nftinufacture of plaster of Paris. The salt- *Bulletin of the Washburn College Laboratory of Natural His¬ tory, No. 3, page 87. 12 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. springs and salt-marshes at and north of Geuda Springs in Sumner county, and southwest of Arkansas City in Cowley county, are also within this belt. Various geographic names in this belt have been taken from its geological peculiarities. Thus there are several streams called Gyp¬ sum creek, a Gypsum township, and even a Gypsum City; the two Slate creeks of Sumner county take their name from slate-colored shales which belong, in the case of the larger stream partly and in the case of the smaller one wholly, to the Geuda measures; Bitter creek, in adjoining parts of Sumner county, Kansas, and K county, Oklahoma, and intermediately the Bitter Creek postofiice, Geuda Springs, and its now abandoned neighbor. Salt City, are all named or, in the case of Geuda Springs, best known from peculiarities of these measures. At Geuda Springs, are several mineral springs differing in the analyses of their several waters, but all belonging to the saline class. These and the salt-marsh of the same locality and the beds of gypsum and limestone not far away, present a fair epitome of the characteristics of the Geuda outcrop. The shales of the Geuda outcrop are blue, gray, slate- colored, drab, buff, red and various shades of bluish and brownish red. In the deepest known parts ef the Geuda the three first-named colors prevail. The limestones of the Geuda are in part unfossilferous, but those in the lower and sometimes those in the upper part of the formation contain a fauna from which brachiopods and essentially Carboniferous fossils are all but wholly excluded, and which, indeed, consists almost entirely of Lamellibranchia of recognized Per¬ mian affinities. The writer has personally identified only a few of the fossils of these limestones, and some of the determinations recorded by the earlier writers on this part of the Kansas section have need of verification or require revision of synonymy. We therefore present here the list of fossils recently recorded from these limestones by THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 13 Prof. Prosser,* as embracing a substantial part of the FA VNA OF THE GEUDA MEASURES. Septopora buerialis Swallow. Bakevellia parva M. &H. Derbya muUistriata M. & H. Schizodus curtus M. & W. Pseudomonotis hawni M. & H. Schizodus ovatus M & H. Same, var. ovata M. & H. Nuculana bellistriata Stevens, var. Pseudomonotis cf. variabilis Swall. attenuata Meek. Myalinapermiana Swall. Nucula cf. beyrichi Scbauroth. Yoldia subicitula M. & H. Nucula cf. parva McChesney. Aviculopecten occidentalis Shumard. Dentalium meekianum Geinitz. Pleurophorus subeostatus M. & W. Macrochilina cf. angulifera White. Pleurophorus subcuneaius M. & H. Cf. Aclis swaUoviana Geinitz. Edmondia calhouni M. & H. Nautilus eccentricus M. & H. Observations recorded by Messrs. Swallow and Hawn and Meek and Hayden in northern Kansas, and others made by the writer in southern Kansas, indicate that Athyris subtilita and several other Carboniferous species of fossils may occasionally range up into the basal part of the Geuda; but the fossils thus referred to should perhaps be regarded as more or less varietal representatives of their types. Several years ago, Mr. E. F. Osborne informed the writer of an early discovery of reptilian footprints near Salina in rocks which must be referred to this division. About four miles east of Salina, at a point about half a mile south of the Smoky Hill river and west of north of Iron mound, is an abandoned quarry. The upper stratum is a ten-inch ledge of so-called "bastard limestone" that was used by the settlers in the earlier days of Salina's history for walling wells, etc.f It is upon this stratum that the footprints were found. It is possible that the reptilian footprints discovered many years ago by Prof. Mudge on rocks of the bluffs of the Republican river in northern Kan¬ sas should also be referred to this formation. Fragments of a charcoal-like sort of fossil wood that oc¬ cur in the salt mines at Kingman, in rock-salt-bearing shale *Loc. cit., pages 787 and 788. tWells on the old Osborne place and on the Snyder place were walled with this stone, and some of the stone probably remains in foun¬ dations of old buildings in the vicinity. 14 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. above the main beds of rock-salt, are the only vestiges of plant-life known by the writer to have been found in the Geuda measures. In the limestones of the Geuda, geodes of celestite are frequent. Traced by the prospector's drill-records away from its outcrop to its deepest known extensions, the Geuda grad¬ ually changes its composition, the variegated shales and the gypsum and limestone gradually disappearing and their place being taken at first partly and at length wholly by more decidedly saliferous shales of almost constantly blue- gray to slate-color and massive beds of more or less nearly pure rock-salt, which constitute the "salt-measures" of cur¬ rent parlance. It is rot positively known that these salt- measures everywhere come, in their entire thickness, with¬ in limits that correspond with those of the Geuda outcrop; but their dip and po.sition with reference to higher and lower formations are such as to indicate their substantial equiva¬ lency to part or (as in the case of Anthony, at least) to practically all of that outcrop. The gradual disappearance of limestones and gypsum with depth, implies a progressive change of physico-geographic conditions in the region be¬ tween the outcrop and the deep parts of the Geuda, showing that the leaching out of the salt in and near the outcrop—to the probability of which Prof. Hay has called attention in his "Geology of Kansas Salt" and elsewhere—is not the sole (though doubtless a partial) cause of the comparative ab¬ sence of salt from the Geuda outcrop, and that this absence is partly due to local differences in the physical conditions under which the Geuda sediments were originally laid down. The salt is present in every grade of occurrence from that of minute particles impregnating the shale, through that of rock-salt and shale intermingled in about equal pro¬ portion, to that of massive beds in which cla}' appears only as sparsely scattered flecks. As may be inferred from what has been already said, the proportion of salt in the THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 15 shale and the number and thickness of the rock-salt beds increase with distance from the outcrop. In strata of shale associated with some of the principal beds of rock-salt, occur iron-red pseudomorphs of halite after selenite. In the deep-lying part of the formation, remote from the outcrop, the greatest known thickness of these salt-meas¬ ures is 420 feet, which was obtained in a boring at Anthony. The thickness of the outcrops probably varies from 300 to 400 feet. The dip of the Geuda measures in southern Kansas is southward and westward; in northern Kansas, it appears from various observations to be northward and westward. From these data it may be inferred that the salt has the form of an anticlinal whose summit-line dips nearly westward. It seems probable that Arlington is located somewhere nearly over the crest of this anticlinal, since the salt-beds de¬ cline in either direction (northward and southward) from their position beneath that town. The northward descent is, however, small as compared with that to the southward. Thus, at Arlington, the summit of the salt-beds is reached at an elevation of approximately 910 feet above sea-level,whence it descends (gradually,as shown by the Ster¬ ling and Lyons drillings) to about 815 feet above sea-level at Ellsworth and to only about 383 feet above sea-level at Anthony. The name here given to this formation is one that has been applied to it in the writer's manuscripts for many months. In a reccent article,* Professor Prosser has called nearly the same formation "the Marion formation;" but aside from the fact that he includes in such formation a zone of "variously colored shales and marls" which is above the zone of gypsum-horizons, and therefore belongs to the lower Wellington, the name, Marion, as a strati- graphic term, is preoccupied, having been previously es- *Loc. cit., p. 786. 16 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. tablished by Professor Prosser in the same article for another quite different stratigraphic value, the Marion flint and concretionary limestone, a member of the Chase forma¬ tion.* THE WELLINGTON SHALES. It has been established by numerous borings in the region underlaid by rock-salt in Kansas that there is above the salt-measures a body of clay-shales with a thickness of 250 to nearly 450 feet, and having for the most part the same and darker and lighter shades of the bluish-gray color that prevails in the clays of the rock-salt deposits themselves. This fact, though here stated from the writer's early and independent observations, was recognized by the late Prof. Robert Hay, who called this zone "the gray shales" and "the gray beds,"f apparently in contrast with the "red-beds" of the Cimarron series. It is for this zone of gray beds, which must be distinguished strati- graphically from the underlying and similar gray beds of clay-shale in the Geuda salt-measures, and which is not everywhere gray through its entire thickness, that the formational name, Wellington shales, is here proposed. These shales are thicker in southern than in northern Kansas, attaining their greatest known development be¬ neath the town of Caldwell, where the drill has shown them to have a thickness of 445 feet. They contain satin-spar veins and infrequent and limited saline impregnations, but no rock-salt. Within the area of their outcrop and as reached by borings near it, as respectively at Wellington and Caldwell, the Wellington formation often includes beds of impure limestone and calcareous shales and occasional beds of gypsum and dolomite. Beneath Ellsworth, the Wellington is 255 feet thick *Loc. cit., p. 772. tGeology of Kansas Salt. Seventh Biennial Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, Part II, pp. 83 to 96.1891. (See page 87.) THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 17 and has a 20-foot zone of red shale 60 feet below its sum¬ mit. Of the 395 feet of Wellington pierced by the drill at Anthony, 365 feet is the typical blue shale, the remaining 30 feet being a nearly basal zone of red shale.* At Wellington itself, from which, as a locality within the area of its outcrop, the formation is named, and in whose vicinity are exposed some of the shales that have suggested the term "gray beds," and, together with similar shales of the Geuda, have given provincial but not very accurate name to the Big Slate creek of Sumner county, a considerable part of the more than two hundred feet of shale passed through by the drill before reaching the rock- salt, is alternately red and greenish (or bluish) gray.'j- This red and gray mottled and banded character appears also in the lower Wellington shale that outcrops in central and western parts of McPherson county and at intervals in the foot of the bluffs of Spring creek from Salina to a point in the southwest vicinity of Bavaria, occupying in the latter situation the interval between the Mentor beds and the zone of shale, gypsum, and Mj'alina-bearing shaly limestone that forms the summit of the Geuda along the Smoky Hill river south of Salina. But while the red colors so prevalent in the rocks of the Cimarron series, invade the gray in certain quarters of the Wellington, they affect but a small pro¬ portion of the whole, and the Wellington is, notwith¬ standing these and its calcareous inclusions, essentially a thick body of blue-gray and slate-colored shales.;}; The massive ledge of hard, cellular, gray dolomite on the Little Arkansas river at the eastern border of Rice *Only 25 feet of the blue shale intervenes between this red zone and the summit of the rock-salt. fThis statement of the drill-record at Wellington is made on the authority of Mr. E. W. Davis, driller. JAt Pratt, salt has been found in drilling without first passing through any large body of blue-gray shales such as must be pierced to reach the salt at Hutchinson, Kingman, Anthony, etc.; but, as else¬ where indicated, the salt that was there so reached does not belong to the Geuda. (On a succeeding page, see account of the Salt Plain measures.) i8 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. county, west o£ south from Windom, is provisionally referred to the Wellington formation. THE CIMARRON SERIES. With the Wellington formation, ends the Big Blue, lower, or limestone-bearing, series of the Permian. Succeeding it without break, but possibly with a gradually introduced an¬ gular unconformity, are the Harper sandstones and higher prevailingly red formations that comprise the remainder of the Kansas Permian, and constitute the- Cimarron series, which, for Kansas, is nearly the same as the "red beds."* So far as known, the series is destitute of any trace of organic remains. THE SALT FORK DIVISION. The Salt Fork division is so named because all of its formations are found within the drainage-basin of the Salt fork. It includes the Harper, Salt Plain, Cedar Hills, Flower-pot, and Cave Creek formations, and has a maxi¬ mum thickness of about i,ooo feet. THE HARPER SANDSTONES. These constitute the lowest and thickest formation of the Cimarron series. They comprise several hundred feet of more or less mottled, but prevailingly dull-red, or brown¬ ish-red, argillaceous and arenaceous shales and sandstones, above the Wellington shales and below the Salt Plain measures. The word, sandstones, as applied to this for¬ mation, is intended to imply, not that its rocks consist mainly of sandstone throughout their thickness, but that the frequent low ledges of rock which accentuate the forma¬ tion are of sandstone. Much of the latter is of the sort quarried at Harper—a reddish-brown or roan-colored sand¬ stone, sometimes mottled and streaked, soft enough to be easily quarried and dressed, but becoming harder by seas- *Some authors, however, may have included the limestone-bear¬ ing Wellington and possibly even the rock-salt-bearing Geuda in their use of the term "red-beds," as applied to Kansas rocks THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 19 oning, and constituting an excellent dimension-stone. As this stone first became well known as a building-material from its use at Harper, and as the outcrops of the forma¬ tion which includes it occupy a large portion of Harper county, the name. Harper, seems doubly appropriate for the formation. The term. Harper beds, may be found more convenient, in some cases, in referring to the formation, than that of Harper sandstones. As one travels westward from Wellington, the red shales and sandstones of the Harper outcrop are first met with near Milan. They occur thence westward to the vicinity of Sharon; but in their western extent are seen only in the lower parts of the country. They occur on middle regions of the two Ninnescahs and of the Chikaskia river. On Bluff creek the sandstone has been largely quarried and employed for business buildings at Anthony, where the Bennett House and the Anthony Roller Mills, both three-story buildings, are constructed of it, and where, as at Harper, it has given excellent satisfaction. Similar stone, most if not all of which belongs to the Harper forma¬ tion, is used from quarries in the vicinity of Kiowa, Hazel- ton, Attica, Milan, Spivey, Arlington, and other towns of this region., No observations have yet been made as to the dip of the Harper sandstones. The prospector's drill has shown that the Wellington shales and the rock-salt-bearing hor¬ izons of the Geuda, in a considerable part of southern Kansas, descend and thicken both southward and from their outcrop westward. While the same can not be as¬ serted of the Harper, certain similar facts are known of the latter also. Thus, we find that the base of the Harper descends to the southward and to the westward within cer¬ tain known limits* The base of its outcrop at Caldwell is a rough hundred feet lower than it is some fifteen miles further north, in the eastern neighborhood of Milan; and at Anthony, some" twenty-five miles west of the Caldwell- 20 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. Milan base-line, the base, as reached by the drill, is appar¬ ently some 300 feet lower than at Caldwell. Taking the latter town as the base and Sharon or Attica as the approx¬ imate summit of the Harper beds, and making no allowance for dip, the difference of elevation of these places would . give about 350 feet as the thickness of the Harper, a figure that would be reduced to about 250 feet, if the base as out¬ cropping near Milan be taken as bench-mark. But that dip or accession of sediments westward, or both, must be reckoned with, is indicated by the fact that at Anthony, which is at least 100 feet below the summit of the forma¬ tion, (and where the Sumner division has at least its full average thickness), the prospector's drill descended about 550 feet before reaching the apparent summit of the Well¬ ington, making the thickness of the Harper, as thus meas¬ ured, about 650 feet. Carbonate of copper, including both azurite and mala¬ chite, occurs in the Harper formation, chiefly as stain in calcareous shales in the basal part of the formation* (as at Caldwell) and more rarely in sandstone concretions at higher horizons (as west of Harper); but the occurrences are lim¬ ited and promise nothing of value from a mining point of view. Some of the earthy brownish-red and gray shales of the Harper formation, occurring a short distance east of Kingman, form the basis of the "Cherokee Brown Mineral" and "Silver Gray" manufactured by the Kingman Paint Company, and which has had considerable demand in the paint-trade of Topeka, Kansas Cit}'^ and other markets. THE SALT PLAIN MEASURES. Occupying an interval between the Harper and the Cedar Hills sandstones, in southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma, is a zone of red shales (? with some sand- *Really in transitional beds which might perhaps be reckoned equally well as constituting the summit of the Wellington. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 21 stones) in which saline impregnations are common, giving rise to salt springs, salt creeks, salt or brackish wells and other saline waters within and near the area of their out¬ crop, and resulting in a topography characterized by vari¬ ous closely allied features termed salt-plains, salt-marshes, salt-draws, salt-bars, salt-licks, salines, etc., in which the chloride of sodium is often practically pure, but sometimes associated with other salts. These salt-impregnated shales constitute what may be regarded as upper, or secondary salt-measures. Compara¬ tively little use has been made of these measures as a salt supply hitherto, owing to the undeveloped condition of this part of the country and to the vast supplies of salt found to the eastward in the Geuda measures. But much use has been been made of the salt of the Great Salt plain, within distances to which it can conveniently be hauled in wagons, as in dry seasons it forms on the "plain" a crust of pure, coarsely crystallized salt several inches in thickness, which is easily removed and available, as taken, for " stock-salt" or, with simple crushing, for all of the domestic uses to which salt is put. This salt-crust is composed in part of pyramidal and intersecting turkey-foot groups of cubical crystals and, as viewed from the brow of the bluffs which overlook it, appears like a field of glistening snow. In the early days of the settlement of western Kansas, the salt was hauled over the old Nescatunga, or Kinsley, trail to Kinsley and other points on the A. T. & S. F. railway. Salt derived from the Salt Plain measures is now manufactured at one point, if not more, in Oklahoma, in which common¬ wealth it is probable that these upper measures will ulti¬ mately become of considerable commercial importance. Rock-salt is alleged to crop out in a ravine near the Salt plain ;* but no examination as to the accuracy of this report has been made.* *0n the north side of the Cimarron, in a canyon a few miles below the entrance of Buffalo creek. 22 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. As local saline impregnations occur to some extent in most of the terranes of the Kansas-Oklahoma Permian, it is possible that it may not always be easy to distinguish the limits of the Salt Plain measures; but the salt-zone which is here especially designated as the Salt Plain meas¬ ures is of considerable extent and is that from which is de¬ rived the salt of the Salt plain of the Cimarron river (called often the Great Salt plain), which is the saline usually referred to in the literature of this region when the un¬ qualified expression, "the Salt plain," is'employed. The stratigraphic position of this salt-zone may be seen in Kansas on the east slope of the Cedar hills of Harper county and on the south side of the Salt fork, a few miles below .^tna, where, in each case, beginning immediately below the bright red Cedar Hills sand¬ stones, are the saliferous clay-shales which are the source of the salt that at the one locality gives character and name to the Little Salt creek that traverses adjoining parts of Barber and Harper counties, and at the other has given rise to one of the peculiar flats, or base-levels, so frequent in salt- shale topography, and which are evidently produced through the agency of the salt itself. Little Salt creek, though having the highest source of its salt in a horizon of saline impregnation immediately below the base of the Cedar Hills sandstones, apparently cuts other saline horizons at somewhat lower levels, and its lower portion may inter- graduate with and be only arbitrarily separable fiom the upper of the Harper sandstones. At Pratt, salt deposits were encountered a few years since, in drilling, without first passing through any thick body of gray shales like the Wellington; and the relation of these to not far distant outcrops of the Cimarron series and to sea-level, indicates that they belong to the upper, or Salt Plain, measures. The following is a condensed record of the boring at Pratt: THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 23 Thickness. Depth. Neocene marl, sand and gravel 89 89 Red eandstone and clay, with veins of water at inter¬ vals. (A vein of salt water was cased out at 150 feet) 537 626 Shales, almost wholly red, more or less saline 89 715 Rock-salt, with small admixture of shale 30 745 Salty red and blue shale (mostly red) 13 758 Rock-salt, with small admixture of shale 22 780 Shaly salt gradually becoming red and blue shale 20 800 Red shale with eome blue spots 50 850 Rock-salt, with small admixture of shale 20 870 Dark red shale, blue mottled i.l34 1004 This section affords the only data here available with which to indicate the thickness of the Salt Plain measures, giving for the vertical range of the rock-salt 155 feet, which, with a few feet added for transitional sediments above and below, probably approximates the thickness of these measures as developed at and near their outcrops in Kansas. On another page of this article it is shown that if a line be drawn between Ashland and a point about six miles southwest of Medicine Lodge, the Medicine Lodge gypsum dips in both directions (more or less nearly southward and more or less nearly northward) from that line. A similar relation to about the same line apparently obtains in the Salt Plain measures, as these certainly dip from about this line far southward into Oklahoma, and they have an appar¬ ent dip of about 8 feet per mile from the same line to the latitude of Pratt. The saline springs on the upper part of Little Mule creek, in Barber county, Kansas; the great salt spring at the head of Salt creek in Blaine county, Oklahoma, from the brine of which several tons of table-salt are now made daily, and which is said to furnish brine enough for the man¬ ufacture of 160 tons a day; and (with less confidence) the Salt plain of t]je Salt fork in Woods county, Oklahoma (sometimes known as the Little Salt plain) are provision¬ ally referred to the Salt Plain measures. 24 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. THE CEDAR HILLS SANDSTONES. The Salt Plain measures are succeeded by a zone of rocks in which unevenly hard, in part massive concretion¬ ary, fine-grained, bright-red sandstones, having some re¬ semblance to those of the Red Bluff terrane of the Kiger division, constitute the leading feature. This may be seen a few miles northwest of Hazelton, Kansas, below the Neocene sands which there form the summit of the Cedar hills. From this occurrence, the terrane takes its name. It is finely displayed in the canyon-cut basal incline of the Gypsum hills, southwest of Medicine Lodge, and in the same southeast of ^tna. The bright-red sandstone in the low bluff north of Sharon and that outcropping on the south fork of the Ninnescah river west of Kingman are provision¬ ally referred to the Cedar Hills formation. This formation has nowhere been measured. From memory, it is roughly guessed at 50 to 75 feet as seen in the basal incline of the Gypsum hills of the Medicine Lodge river and the Salt fork. THE FLOWER-POT SHALES. Next in order above the Cedar Hills sandstones, but entirely eroded from the summit of the Cedar hills, while seen in full thickness a little farther west in the escarpments of the Gypsum hills, southwest of Medicine Lodge, and tak¬ ing their name from the well-known Flower-pot mound which has been carved out of them by erosion at the point of the divide between East Cedar and West Cedar creeks, are the Flower-pot shales. These, for the most part, are highly gypsiferous clays. Flower-pot mound has been named by the residents of Barber county in allusion to the fact that its top is plumed with several small cedars which, outlined against the sky at a short distance, present a fancied resemblance to plants growing from a flower-pot. It is necessary to consider only the top of the mound to see the flower-pot, since other- THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 25 wise the pot were inverted. But to the geologist, the flower-pot is the mound itself; for the slopes of the latter, like most exposures of these clays elsewhere, are strewn with mineral blossoms of divers colors and constitute a very respectable geological bouquet. Light-red, dark-red, bluish- red, pink, greenish-white, bluish-white and gray, mixed in confusion with red in the ascendancy, give much of the out¬ crop of this terrane a variegated aspect; or as viewed at some distance, a hue approaching the late fashionable color known as "crushed strawberry." The surface is often strewn with fragments of white, pink, red or water-clear satin-spar flecked with green or red clay, and is sometimes also setoff with sparkling crystals of selenite. For such a member of the Salt Fork division, a geological posey-bed in appearance, the designation, "Flower-pot," seems very natural, and it is doubtful if a more appropriate name of local geographic origin could be found. As seen in canyon walls or other vertical exposures, the satin-spar forms a network with irregular rhomboidal meshes. It lies, in fact, in a trestle-work of warped plates traversing the clay in all directions, but chiefly in oblique positions tending toward horizontal. The clay is thus in¬ closed, sometimes between tortuous subhorizontal and sub- parallel seams, sometimes in spacious sublenzitoid compart¬ ments subject to partition in various directions by intersect¬ ing veins. The seams vary from mere paper-seams to plates several inches in thickness. A noticeable and picturesque feature of the Flower¬ pot clays is the manner in which their outcrops are carved by the elements. They are, in fact, a theater of rapid ero¬ sion, and many weird spectacles present themselves in their relief-forms. In localities where their protective covering of Medicine Lodge gypsum has been removed by erosion, as for example, near the head of Little Mule creek and in the district between Eldred and .^tna, they are frequently cut into rather steeply sloped faces having that peculiar pat- 26 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. tern of sculpture that is best designated as cone-and-gully erosion, consisting of alternate cones (more strictly semi- cones) and rain-gullies. The cones are sometimes arranged in a close and remarkably uniform palisade-like series on the face of a rampart-like or amphitheater-like bluff, and in such instances are calculated to arrest the attention even of those most indifferent to natural phenomena. Such a pali¬ sade of cones may conveniently be called a conarium. When viewed at a moderate distance, it recalls the arrange¬ ment of points on a backgammon-board. Occasionally the adjacent conaria of two parallel ravines meet, producing a sharp serriform spur running out upon a base-level of eros¬ ion. An example of the latter sort (doubtless short-lived in its destiny) is seen near the road from the old Eldred postoffice to .^tna. On the whole, the outcrop of the Flower-pot clays, with its conaria and occasional pinnacles and buttresses, presents a type of erosion similar in many respects to that of the northern Tertiary "Bad Lands." Its mineral-surcharged character renders its occasional smoother tracts little less barren than the ruggeder portions, so that the Flower-pot lands are generally waste-lands. From the eastern escarpment of the Gypsum hills northwestward in the bluffs of the Medicine Lodge river and its tributaries, the Flower-pot formation may be seen in diminishing exposures, as it gradually descends below the river-valley. It disappears under the latter a few miles below Belvidere. It appears in the divide between East Cedar and Little Mule creeks; on the upper branches of the latter; and on the Salt fork drainage, from the Eldred district on the north and the eastern promontory of the Cimarron-Salt fork divide on the south, northwestward to a point above the mouth of Cave creek. It extends up Big Mule creek at least seven or eight miles from its mouth. It is well displayed in both bluffs of the Cimarron river at the Great Salt plain, and thence down that stream to an unknown distance beyond the bridge of the Panhandle THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 27 branch of the Santa Fe railwa}-. It appears again, if re¬ membered correctly, in the lower part of the bluffs that border the Beaver on its south side at the locality where the Panhandle line crosses. It is not seen from that line on the Canadian, though the sections given by Shumard in Marcy's Red River Report make it clear that lower down on the Canadian, and on both forks of Red river as well, a body of similar clays lies beneath the gypsum. The thickness of the Flower-pot shales on the Salt fork, southeast of JEtna, is in the neighborhood of 150 feet. THE CAVE CREEK FORMATION. Above the Flower-pot marls is an important gypsum- bearing formation, consisting usually of either a single stratum of massive gypsum or two such strata separated by an interval of red clay-shale. It may be called the Cave Creek gypsums, or formation, because well displayed in its fuller development on Cave creek, in Comanche county, Kansas. The formation appears with a similar tripartite character on the north branch of Red river, as indicated by Dr. George G. Shumard on Plate V of Marcy's Red River Report. The lower gypsum horizon (below named and described as the Medicine Lodge) is the heavier and persists throughout the present known extent of the forma¬ tion; while the upper, or Shimer (so named after the town¬ ship through which Cave creek flows), is less constantly developed as a distinct bed of massive gypsum, not appear¬ ing at all on the valley of the Medicine Lodge river, so far as observed. At the only locality at which it has been measured, viz., on Cave creek at the Comanche cave,* the formation has a thickness of not less than 50 feet, of which the Medi¬ cine Lodge gypsum occupies a thickness of 25 to 30 feet, the Shimer gypsum about a third as much, and the interval *Named and described below, in the account of the Medicine Lodge gypsum. 28 colorado college studies. of red clay, the Jenkins clay (named after the former Jenkins postoffice, near Cave creek), 7 to lo feet. The Medicine Lodge Gypsum.—While the Shimer gypsum and the Jenkins clay require merely brief notice here, the former resembling the Medicine Lodge gypsum and the latter the commoner gypsiferous red clay-.shales of the Salt Fork division, the Medicine Lodge gypsum calls for a special description, on account of its stratigraphic im¬ portance and its more than ordinarily interesting general character. If, on the road from Harper to Medicine Lodge, the traveller finds himself looking westward across the valley of the Medicine Lodge river on one of those enchanting days for which southern Kansas yields the palm to no other locality, the autumn air being tinged with just enough of haze to purple the remoter vistas of the ruddy landscape, "The splendor falls on castle walls " which rear themselves seemingly as low mountains or buttressed escarpments of a table-land crowning the further incline of the valley and bounding a considerable part of the western horizon. These are the Gypsum hills. They are a northern extension of those on the Red and Canadian rivers, observed by Marcy in his Red river expedition of 1852 and earlier reconnaissance, and illustrated in the report of that expedi¬ tion in 1854. The earliest geological study of the Gypsum hills of Kansas was made in 1884 by the writer, who gave an informal description of them before the '84 meeting of the Kansas Academy of Science at Lawrence, publishing a sketch of their physical geology a few months later in the Bulletin of the Washburn College Laboratory of Natural History.* *No. 3; published about May 1, 1885. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 29 As seen at their eastern border about six miles south¬ west o£ Medicine Lodge, the foundations of the Gypsum hills are laid in Cedar Hills sandstone, their walls are reared in the variegated sediments of the Flower-pot shales, and they have, as coping, a massive bed of gypsum to which the stratigraphic name. Medicine Lodge gypsum, is here given, in double allusion to its overlooking the valley of the Medicine Lodge river for many miles and to its prominent position opposite the picturesque county-seat of Medicine Lodge, in which was established the first mill to make large commercial use of this gypsum. For a considerable distance along the Medicine Lodge river, the Salt fork. Big Mule creek, and the Cimarron river, the outcrop of the Medicine Lodge gypsum is promi¬ nent and practically continuous. It is usually best displayed on the south side, owing to the fact that here, as generally on the Plains, easterly-flowing streams, while planing down to base-level, are shifting to the south, their valleys conse¬ quently having a short and steep slope with bold bluffs and deep canyons as prevailing topographic features on the south side, and a long, more or less alluvium-laden slope with less rugged relief on the north. The Medicine Lodge gypsum, however, is itself conducive to rugged surface- features, and even on the north side of these streams the exposures of the gypsum are sometimes conspicuous. The best of these north-side exposures are seen on southward- running branches, such as Mulberry creek of the Medicine Lodge river drainage east of Sun City, and Cave creek of the Salt fork drainage west of Evansville. The Medicine Lodge gypsum is seen on the Medicine Lodge river from the eastern border of the Gypsum hills to a point about four miles southeast of Belvidere, where it disappears beneath the Dog Creek and Red Bluff formations of the Kiger division in the floor of the river-valley. On the Salt fork, it extends from the eastern extremity of the high bluffs capped by it a few miles southeast of u®tna. 30 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. westward beyond Cave creek, and to a limit not observed by the writer, but stated by Prof. St. John to be at "Cotton¬ wood creek". On the Cimarron river it forms the brow of the bluffs along the south side of the river at the bridge of the Panhandle branch of the A. T. & S. F. railway and e.xtends thence to the southeastern part of Clark county, Kansas. At Ashland, in the latter county, clay-charged gypsum, probably representing this or the Shimer hori¬ zon, was pierced in a well at a depth of about 125 feet by Dr. W. J. Workman. The outcrop of the Medicine Lodge gypsum on the Cimarron river has not been ex¬ plored by the writer below West creek in the western edge of Woods county, Oklahoma; but according to Mr. H. C. Chapman, Editor of the Okeene Eagle, it gradually recedes from the river south of the Glass mountains, passing the head of Salt creek in Blaine county, where it is tunneled into a remarkable park-like system of natural bridges, and thence extends southeastward to Darlington (a few miles from El Reno), on the North Canadian. On the latter stream the greater portion of the outcrop of this gypsum is doubtless east of the crossing of the Panhandle line, but a few miles southeast of Beaver City there is a bed of gyp¬ sum which may belong to either of the Cave Creek hori¬ zons or to a higher one. A section of this bed on lower Clear creek presents a lenticular outline, and the weathered rocks at the foot of the bluff contain salmon-colored nodules in a whitish ground-mass, like plums in a pudding, a feature which is only a phase of the mottled or semi-crys¬ talline character seen in the Medicine Lodge gypsum on the Cimarron and elsewhere. The principal stratum of gypsum described and illus¬ trated in their Red River Report by Capt. Marcy and Dr. Shumard as occurring on the Canadian and on the forks of the Red river, can scarcely be other than the Medicine Lodge gypsum. North of the river of its name, the Medicine Lodge THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 31 horizon has not been identified. Gypsum is said to occur in Stafford county, Kansas; but this may refer partly or wholly to the so-called "native lime" of the fresh-water Ter¬ tiary, which also passes under the misnomer of "gypsum" in western Kansas. The full thickness of the Medicine Lodge gypsum is not always shown at the immediate outcrop, owing to the solvent effect of meteoric water upon it. On the .Medicine Lodge river it is usually between 12 and 25 feet thick. On the Cimarron and Salt fork it is considerably thicker. On Cave creek, a small tributar}' of the latter stream near Evansville, it has a thickness of 25 to 30 feet. The prevailing dip of the Medicine Lodge gypsum in northern Oklahoma and an adjacent strip of Kansas is nearly south, apparently a little east of south; but a small area at the north seems to dip in a northerly direction. This attitude of the stratum may readily be seen by a com¬ parison of its elevations at a few leading points. The ele¬ vations of the summit of the gypsum referred to sea-level at the points here selected are more or less nearly as fol¬ lows; (A) at Ashland, as indicated in Dr. Workman's well,* 1840 feet; (B) at point of disappearance of the gyp¬ sum in floor of the Medicine Lodge river valley, about four miles southeast of Belvidere, 1744 feet; (M) at brow of the wall of the mesa-like hills between the Medicine Lodge river and East Cedar creek, southwest of Medicine Lodge, 1800 feet; (H) at Heman station, Oklahoma, near the Cim¬ arron river bridge of the Panhandle branch of the A. T. & S. F. railway (roughly) 1500 feet; (G) at disappearance of gypsum below valley of Big Mule creek near the former post office of Gallagher, a point not far from the intersec¬ tion of the lines AM and BH (and which may here be con- *The gypsum IJjat was encountered at this depth in Dr. Work¬ man's well may possibly represent the Shimer horizon; hut as no other zone of gypsum was mentioned as having been met with in the deeper part of this well, it is inferred that it was the Medicine Lodge, and that the Shimer bed was not there developed. 32 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. sidered as coinciding with it), 1812 feet. From these ele¬ vations we find, in the direction from A to M, a dip of 40 feet in 61 miles, or only about ^ of a foot to the mile;from G to H, one of 312 feet in 48 miles, or 6.5 feet per mile; ffom A to H, one of 340 feet in 67 miles, or about 5 feet per mile; from M to H, one of 300 feet in 50 miles, or 6 feet per mile; from G to B, one of 68 feet in 14.5 miles, or about 4.7 feet per mile; from A to B, one of 96 feet in 46 miles, or 2.1 feet per mile; and from M to B, one of 56 feet in 22.3 miles, or 2.5 feet per mile, the distances, like the elevations, being subject to some correction, but sufficiently exact for our present purpose. In minor parts, the Medicine Lodge gypsum is nearly pure white; in others it is suffused with leaden-gray or dusky-brownish shades; most commonly it is greyish-white, mottled with feebly defined dark spots. The latter are generally the expiession of a tendency that existed in the gypsum, under the original conditions of precipitation, to form crystals, as is shown by the occurrence of the spots in every gradation from ill-defined spot-like segregations to well-formed crystals of selenite. Some of the crystals are of the common rhomboidal patterns, others are of the stellar type. Even the perfect crystals present the appear¬ ance of dark spots, as transparent inclusions in an opaque white matrix (comparable with cavities in such a matrix) would naturally appear. Distinct crystals are far more abundant in the gypsum on the Salt fork and Cimarron river than on the Medicine Lodge. The uneven color and more or less saccharoidal tex¬ ture of the Medicine Lodge gypsum give to its freshly ex¬ posed surfaces, as seen in the quarries of Barber county, an aspect not unlike that of marble, and the resemblance to marble is further increased by the fact that the gypsum takes a fine polish. Hence originated the erroneous names, "Sun City marble," "Kansas onyx," etc., that have some¬ times been applied to this gypsum. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 33 With a strength due to the character of its consolida¬ tion and to its massiveness, the Medicine Lodge gypsum combines the weakness due to its solubility. Owing to that strength, it is among its fellow-terranes a piece de resist¬ ance, and is, like the Loup Fork sandstone, responsible for some of the highest bluffs and deepest canyons seen in the central portion of the Plains. Owing to that weakness, it is essentially a cave formation. Indeed the gypsum in some localities is fairly hone)'^combed with earth-filled or empty galleries and spaces. Its caves are formed in two ways, and may accordingly be classified as rift-caves and arch-caves. The gypsum is parted into large blocks by vertical master-joints which often persist for long distances, and which become the conduits of meteoric waters. Enlarged at first by solution and later perhaps in part by mechanical erosion, the joint-fissure becomes a narrow and at length somewhat wider gallery, or rift-cave. It may remain open or, if it come to be traversed by an intermittent or variable current carrying sediment, it may become wholly or partly filled with the latter, and so be either a potential cave or an actual one with earthen floor, as the case may be. In forming the arch-caves, water descending through joints or other crevices in the gypsum, is arrested at the summit of the Flower-pot shales and finds its way as a vein along the base of the gypsum, excavating the lower part of the latter and sometimes also a portion of the underlying gypsiferous clay by a corrasion in which solution plays the leading part. In the case of the clay, its fine particles, set free by the solution of the associated gypsum, may be car¬ ried off by even a feeble current, the readiness with which these and other red clay sediments of the Cimarron series are held in mecl\pnical suspension in water being frequently attested on the Cimarron outcrop by the slow settling of these sediments in rain-pools. The rift-cave is doubly typified in what may be called 34 COI.ORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. Sarcophagus cave, at the Natural bridge on Bear creek, south of Sun City. This cave has been opened along two master-joints which intersect at an angle of about 'jo de¬ grees, and it accordingly has two entrances, one about five rods south, the other immediately north of the Natural bridge, and neither far above the bed of the creek. In cross -section, and as well seen at the north eptrance, the cave has nearly the form of an upright sarcophagus, widen¬ ing gradually upward to a shoulder-region of maximum breadth, contracting suddenly above the shoulder to a crested head-part, and narrowing to a simple fissure both above and below. The present open portion of the cave extends only from the two entrances to the intersection of the joint-planes, distances of about 55 and 180 feet from the north and south entrances respectively; but both gal¬ leries formerly extended in to an unknown distance beyond this point, the continuation being now filled with compact cave-earth. It seems probable that the entire cave was once so filled and that the portion now open was subse¬ quently re-excavated by the water of Bear creek, a portion of which is diverted from the main channel and traverses the cave during ordinary freshets. The north gallery has also an outward extension of its roof for 11 feet in the over¬ hanging wall at its entrance, the lower part of the gypsum having been here cut away and the cave thus much short¬ ened by the creek's erosion. The breadth of the "Sar¬ cophagus," across shoulders, in this gallery is 4 feet and 8 inches at the entrance, gradually increasing in the inner half to 7 feet near the junction of the galleries. The height of this gallery is over 9 feet above the narrow earth-floor at its entrance and gradually diminishes inward. The south gallery has a nearly uniform breadth of 4 feet and 6 inches across shoulders and, containing more earth than the north gallery, has a broader floor and a height only about equal to its breadth. A fine example of an arch-cave is seen on Cave creek. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 35 a north-side tributary of the Salt fork, not far from Evans- ville. It is supposed to be the largest of the gypsum-caves of Kansas, and may be called the Comanche cave, from being located in Comancbe county.* The east and main entrance is picturesquely located a short distance back from the creek in a deep right-hand ravine through which flows a perennial brooklet of limpid but gypsum-tainted water, issuing from the cave itself; it is a broadly-arched portal about 14 feet in height in a wall of gypsum. Near the latter, and a little south of the entrance, a straight and re¬ markably tall-trunked tree stands sentinel. The cave covers a little less than 150 yards of the course of the brooklet, which, from a small gypsum-walled canyon, en¬ ters it through a west portal somewhat like the east one, but smaller. The cave is slightly sinuous and consists of three rooms separated by two low arches. The east room is 14 feet high, 20 to 25 wide, and 123 long. This is fol¬ lowed by an arch, which for 13 feet has a height of only about 6 feet. The middle room is 12 feet high, 36 wide, and 50 long, and is lighted in the south side of its roof through a 6 X 12-foot shaft-like opening that broadens into a funnel in the high ground above the cave.-j* Through a second arch, this middle room connects with the west room, which is lower and much longer than the others and " is flooded with the waters of the brooklet, here expanded into a long pool upon which a small boat has sometimes been used by visitors. The floor of the cave is more or less strewn with blocks of gypsum that have fallen from the roof. A bloom of snowy gypsum covers some parts of the walls and roof, and brown cauliflower-like masses and concretionary layers of clay-impregnated gypsum are forming on the floor in shallow pools along the course of the streamlet. • *The best railroad-point from which to visit the Comanche cave is Coldwater, a convenient approach being via Nescatunga and the John Duckworth place (formerly the post-village of Duckworth). tTill recently, a cottonwood tree flourished on the slope of this funnel. 36 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. A modilication of the arch-cave is seen where a veii of water reaches an outcrop of the gypsum and of the up per part of the Flower-pot shales in some ravine and, trick ling down over the outcrop of the gypseous clays, cause; the latter to soften and fall away in more or less vertical sections, excavating a clay-walled room with a gypsum roof. This may be regarded as a special case of head¬ water erosion, where the excavating done by the streamlel follows the latter back into a yielding terrane beneath one that is more resistant, and in so doing changes its work from that of trenching to that of undermining. A good example of a cave of this sort is seen in what may be called the Green room, a cave in the west bluff of Bear creek, some distance below the Natural bridge and in the imme¬ diate vicinity of an older, partly fallen cave formerly much visited by picnicking parties from Sun City. It consists of a single spacious room partly walled up in front by a ridge of talus from which it is necessary to descend into it as into a cellar, and is called "the Green room" in allusion to the fact that its roof is largely incrusted with a beautiful pale- green layer of stalactitic gypsum studded with capitate pro¬ tuberances like miniature cauliflowers. The latter, formed by the evaporation of dripping water, are more stipitate and have a lighter and more open structure than the large cauliflower-topped masses forming in the pools of the Com¬ anche cave. The color of this roof-crust is only superficial, however, being due to conditions that favor the culture of an undetermined alga, supposed to be one of the Cyano- phycese. The roof of the Green room is traversed by a channel whose sinuous course marks the former continua¬ tion of the vein that has produced the cave and is still con¬ tinuing it inward. An interesting topographic feature of the Medicine Lodge gypsum is its natural bridges. These are merely remnants of caves that have for the most part fallen in. Sometimes, as near Havard creek, in Barber county, Kan- THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 37 sas, the same channel may be alternately canyon and tun¬ nel, or bridge. The best known of these bridges in Kansas is the Nat¬ ural bridge of Bear creek, south of Sun City. This spans the canyon of the creek, here about 55 feet from wall to wall. The height of the bridge above the bed of the creek is at the highest point 47 feet, at lowest 31, and at middle 38. The width of the bridge at middle is 35 feet. The upper surface of the bridge declines toward the down¬ stream side, but not so much that a wagon drawn by a steady team could not be driven across it. The thickness of the arch is therefore greater on the up-stream side, where it measures 26 feet, than on the down-stream. The relief of the vicinity seems to indicate that at ^geologically recent time Bear creek here flowed to the east of its present course and that its waters, becoming partially diverted by an incipient cave, enlarged the latter and finally were wholly stolen by it, the cave at length collapsing save in the portion now constituting the Natural bridge. Nor is it impossible that this piracy may be repeated in a minor way by Sarcophagus cave, which at times already draws a portion of the Bear creek waters to the west of its proper course. Reference has been made to a district especially char¬ acterized by natural bridges of the Medicine Lodge gypsum in Blaine county, Oklahoma. For his knowledge of this, the writer is indebted to Mr. Chapman. The district is at the head of Salt creek, a few miles southwest of Okeene and north of Watonga. The bridges are numerous and in some instances are said to be sufficiently large to permit the pass¬ age of a load of hay beneath them. The scenery in this district is so remarkable that Mr. Chapman states that he is preparing a bill which he hopes to have passed by Con¬ gress, establishing a "Natural Bridge park" containing about a hundred i^tural bridges. While following down the Cimarron valley to the Great Salt Plain some years ago, the writer discovered 38 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. an interesting deposit of selenite in the Medicine Lodge gypsum. It was a mass of several tons' weight forming the roof of one of the small caves that open upon the river valley a few miles west of the " plain," where the gypsum- ledge occupies a position but little above the level of the "bottom." The mass consisted of an interlocking and partly interpenetrating group of huge crystals. It was found that the latter, though readily cut, could only with great diffi¬ culty be removed entire, owing to their toughness and their interlocking relation. Chisels were driven into the mass with difficulty. Prying with iron bars was little more effectual and attended with similar results, the bending of the crystals causing them to cleave into slabs and sections or producing an intermolecular fracture that rendered them opaque. By the destruction of perhaps an equal amount, some 800 pounds' weight was obtained by two assistants and myself as the result of several hours of hard work, and was sent to the museum of Washburn College. The largest crystal (now split into halves) measures a little over three feet in length, is two feet wide and a foot thick, and in part clear enough to read through. It is obliquely penetrated by a comparatively small crystal at one extremity. It is the largest crystal of selenite that the writer has ever seen; but still larger masses are said to have been observed in the Glass mountains. Some local use has been made of the Medicine Lodge gypsum almost since the founding of the towns of Medicine Lodge and Sun City; but within the last few years two mills* have been built for th^ manufacture of plaster from it on a commercial scale, and this is doubtless but. the begin¬ ning of a vast industry that will ultimately be built up in this great gypsum-belt in southern Kansas, Oklahoma and *That of Best Brothers at Medicine Lodge, making Keene's cement as one of its specialties; and the Standard Cement Company, whose headquarters are at St. Joseph, Mo., and whose mill is on the north side of the Medicine Lodge river, in the west part of Barber county, shipping from Croft. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 39 Texas, a belt which is far greater than the discontinuous one of the Geuda, and is, indeed, one of the greatest gypsum deposits in the world. THE KIGER DIVISION. The upper division of the Cimarron series is the Kiger division, so named from Kiger creek in Clark county, Kansas, a stream that traverses all of the terranes of this division except the lowest. On the central plains north of the Ouachita mountains, this division includes all of the rocks of the so-called "red-beds" that lie above the Medicine Lodge gypsum. In southern Kansas, it includes the following suc¬ cessive members, beginning with the lowest: the Dog Creek shales, the Red Bluff sandstones, the Day Creek dolomite, the Hackberry shales, and the Big Basin sandstone. The lower part of this division (including the Dog Creek and Red Bluff terranes as exposed on the Medicine Lodge river drainage) was reconnoitred by the writer in 1884, '85 and '86, but the first knowledge of it as a whole was obtained by Prof. Orestes St. John in his reconnaissance of 1886, and set forth in 1887 in his "Notes on the Geology of Southwestern Kansas."* In addition to, other facts given under the heads of the several formations, relative to the westward extension of the Kiger, it may here be noted that an outcrop of this div¬ ision, but of undetermined terrane, occurs on the Beaver, six miles west of Beaver City. THE DOG CREEK SHALES. The lowest rhember, or Dog Creek terrane, of the Ki¬ ger consists of some thirty feet, or locally of a less or greater thickness, of dull-red argillaceous shales, with laminae of gypsum in the basal part and one or two ledges of unevenly lithified dolomite in the upper. The color of ♦Fifth Biennial Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, pp. 132 to 152. 40 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. these shales resembles that which prevails in most of the terranes of the Salt Fork division below, more than that of the Kiger terranes above the Dog Creek. The dolomite varies from light-gray to dark-gray, and clay-impregnated portions may partake of the red color of the including shales. In lithological character, it varies from solid stone which serves a fair purpose as a building-stone for the rougher uses, to that which is so contaminated with clay as to be soft and worthless. It is often cellular or cancellated. A dark and cellular variety occurs at the top of a remnantal mound of the Dog Creek at the highest point of the range of lofty tables that forms the eastern front-line of the Gypsum hills southwest of Medicine Lodge, this mound being the most easterly outlier of the Dog Creek formation in Kansas. The thickness and stratigraphic relations of the Dog Creek formation are well displayed south of Lake City on Dog creek, from which the formation is named, and on Lit¬ tle Bear creek, and thence westward in Barber and Coman¬ che counties and the southeastern part of Clark county, on various branches of the Medicine Lodge river. Salt fork, and Cimarron river. In Oklahoma, it is seen on the bluffs of the latter river in the immediate vicinity of the Great Salt plain. THE RED BLUFF BEDS. While the rocks of the Kiger bear certain general resemblances to those of the Salt Fork division, they yet present in the main a different aspect. This prevailing difference is especially due to the thick body of bright- red rocks that constitutes at once the second member of the Kiger division and the major part of the Kiger sedimenta¬ tion, viz., the Red Bluff beds. This formation consists of seme 175 or 200 feet of light- red sandstones and shales. Its thickness is not fully shown in the valley of the Medicine Lodge river, having there been reduced by pre-Cheyenne and later erosion, but is THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 41 exhibited in the valley of the Cimarron river in Clark county, Kansas, and in the slope north of the Great Salt plain. Viewed as a whole, it is very irregularly stratified, the component beds, while consisting of nearly parallel laminje, being in some cases considerably inclined, in others curved, and this oblique and irregular bedding, being on a much larger scale than that of ordinary cross- bedding, at first glance gives the impression of dips, anti¬ clines and synclines that have been produced by lateral pressure, the dips being, however, in various directions, as north, east, etc., etc. It is certain that these older formations of the Plains must have been subjected to even more of the dynamic strain due to oscillatory movements of the earth's crust than the much-fractured Cretaceous rocks of western Kansas, and it is also probable that minor inflections and accidents of the strata have been wrought by the leaching and undermining agencies of solution in ages past, as they are seen in operation to-day producing the numerous basins of western Kansas; but it seems to the writer that neither leaching, which has been suggested by the late Prof. Hay as the cause of similar irregular bedding in lower beds at Caldwell,* nor lateral pressure, nor both of these, should be held wholly responsible for the phe¬ nomena, but that these are partly due to the conditions under which the sediments were originally laid down. The Red Bluff beds exhibit the most intense colora¬ tion of any of the rocks of the Cimarron series, being ap¬ proached in this respect only by the Cedar Hills sandstones. When the outcrops are wet with recent rains, their vivid¬ ness of color is still greater, and the contrasts of their al¬ most Vermillion redness with the other colors of the land¬ scape is most striking. Spots and streaks of bluish or greenish-gray sometimes occur in the red of these rocks, but not to nearty the same extent as in the Salt Fork division. •Geology of Kansas Salt, p. 5. 42 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. The sandstones of the Red Bluff are generally too friable for building-stone ; but in some instances selected portions have proved bard enough for such use and fairly durable. A marked characteristic of most of these sandstones is their unusually fine texture. When pulverized, or as seen in soils that have been derived from them, they sometimes seem like brick-dust. So light are some of their soils that, walking over them, one may sink shoe-deep, as if walking on the mellow ground of a well cultivated field. The sandstones are also porous and, especially where overlaid not far away by Neocene sands, are often a source of water. Their springs are rarely strong, being usually seepage-springs, but their spring-waters are in some in¬ stances nearly as sweet and soft as those coming directly out of the Neocene sands themselves. Examples of perma¬ nent springs of this sort are seen in Red Bluff sandstone at the head of a north-side canyon of North Elk creek, on the Medicine-Elk divide about five miles west of Sun City. Wells dug in Red Bluff sandstone and which at first are failures, or yield only a scanty supply of water, sometimes become valuable wells after the lapse of a few years. The water of such wells is liable to be more or less saline or gypsum-tainted, but is frequently fresh enough to be palata¬ ble and available for ordinary uses. The shales of the Red Bluff are rarely without some admixture of fine arenaceous matter. The Red Bluff beds, once uncovered, yield rapidly to subaerial erosion and their outcrops generally show a rugged, canyon-cut relief which, in connection with their bright-red color and their frequent setting-off with dark- green cedars, makes some of their landscapes exceedingly picturesque. The sandstones are frequently trimmed off by stream-erosion in a long, straight, vertical wall that re¬ sembles the face of a quarry. These and less regularly cut exposures, where rendered conspicuous, have given rise THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 43 to many such local names as "the Red bank," "the Red bluff," etc. Thus, for example, we have the so-called "Red bank" on North Elk creek in the northeastern part of Comanche county, southeast of Stokes hill; and on Bluff creek, above Protection, is the "Red. bluff "* which gave name to the former postoffice of Red Bluff, after which in turn the Red Bluff beds are named. On the Medicine Lodge river, the Red Bluff beds con¬ stitute the highest surviving formation of the Cimarron series and occur as far west as Belvidere. At the latter place, they are unconformably overlaid by the Cheyenne sandstone, only the lower part, about lOO feet, of their thick¬ ness being represented. On the Salt fork drainage, they are seen in ravines of the upland slope a few miles south of Deerhead, underlying sandy soils of probably Loup Fork Tertiary origin. Thence they extend up the valley of Big Mule creek to within a few miles of Wilmore, and that of the Salt fork itself to the vicinity of Avilla. On the Cimar¬ ron river, the location of the eastern border of the Red Bluff outcrop is unknown to the writer, but it is at least considerably southeast of the Panhandle line of the A. T. & S. F. railway, since the formation is beautifully exposed along that line on the slope south of the river. Westward on the Cimarron drainage, exposures of this formation ex¬ tend to the lower part of Crooked creek in Meade county, ascending the creek-valley to Odee. They are also seen in the lower bluffs of Tainter's creek (also known as Cot¬ tonwood canyon), a beautiful brook heading in the Neocene sands south of the Cimarron, and entering the river a little west of the mouth of Crooked creek. The Red Bluff beds are seen again at intervals on the Beaver in Oklahoma, but in Beaver county, they are largely mantled with fresh-water Neocene sediments. They are probably well developed on » ♦This bluff is illustrated in fig. 18 of Professor Hay's Geological Reconnaissance in Southwestern Kansas. Bulletin No. 57 of the United States Geological Survey. 44 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. the Canadian river and southward, but their extension there has not been seen by the writer, unless certain limited ex¬ posures seen low down in the valley of that stream beneath a mantling of Neocene near Canadian, Texas, are part of them. THE DAY CREEK DOLOMITE. Upon the latest of the Red Bluff beds rests a persist¬ ent stratum of dolomite, varying from less than a foot to five feet or more in thickness. This is the same as the "gray, cherty, sometimes gypsiferous limestone" noticed by Professor St. John* as occuring in Clark county at the head of Day creek. It is a true dolomite, containing with the carbonate of lime an equal or even greater percentage of carbonate of magnesia, as indicated by a qualitative an¬ alysis kindly made for the writer by Prof. William Strieby of Colorado College. Though not of great thickness, it is an important member of the upper Permian of southern Kansas and northern Oklahoma owing to its persistence, which makes it a convenient horizon of reference. It may therefore be considered a formation by itself and, to dis¬ tinguish it from other and less important dolomites of the Cimarron series, be called the Day Creek dolomite, after the above-named locality of its occurrence. The stone is nearly white in fresh fracture, weathers gray, and often has a streaked and gnarly grain crudely resembling that of fossil wood. It is more or less cellular and, in places, cancellated. Irregular nodules of limonite are here and there imbedded in it. Its cherty hardness and fracture are not due to the presence of silica, as one is tempted to infer, but are characters belonging to it as a dolomite. It is a durable building-stone, as shown by the old buildings and corral-walls of the Fares ranch on West Bear creek, which are built of it; but it is somewhat diffi¬ cult to trim to desired shapes owing to its erratic fracture. *Notes on the Geology of Southwestern Kansas, i. c., page 141. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 45 and Mr. Fares informed the writer that when fires were made in a fire-place that was built of it, the stone began to "pop" and crack in pieces, showing its unfitness for use where it would be subjected to much heat. From the skirt of Mount Prospect and the region of the junction of Hack- berry and Bluff creeks, the exposures of the Day Creek dolomite extend almost uninterruptedly westward, past East and West Bear creeks, including the vicinity of the Fares place, to Little Sand creek, west of which they are less continuous. The formation appears, however, in the ravine that heads just west of Little basin, and it seems probable that the ledges recorded (I.e., page 142) by Professor St. John "on Gypsum creek a few miles above Cash City, on the borders of Clark and Meade counties," as well as a less characteristic ledge which the writer recently observed on Crooked creek near the present location of Odee postoffice, should be referred to the Day Creek formation. A num¬ ber of years ago, the writer observed a stratum of dolomite capping the so-called Centennial mound* on the old trail from Kinsley to the Salt plain, in what is now Woodward county, Oklahoma. Some of the field-notes of that reconnaissance have been lost; but if it be remembered correctly, this Centennial mound dolomite was correlated with that which'is here'called the Day Creek. At one locality in Clark county, a point on the Little Sand creek drainage passed by the road from the Fares ranch to "St. Jacob's well," the Day Creek stratum presents a peculiar variation. It there becomes a homogeneous, semi- translucent white rock of remarkably pure aspect, unlike any other rock with which the writer is acquainted, but bearing more or less resemblance to fine-grained mar¬ ble, or to onyx or chalcedony. In honor of Mr. Henry Fares, formerly of the Fares ranch, to whom the writer is indebted for most enthusiastic and valuable assistance in *Forinerly called Sentinel mound? 46 COI.ORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. several of his earlier geological reconnaissances of Clark county and the formerly so-called Public Lands, it is pro¬ posed to call this interesting lithologic occurrence, or rock- variety, Faredte. THE HACKBERRY SHALES. In Clark county, Kansas, the Day Creek dolomite is overlaid by 1$ to 20 feet of crumbling, chiefly maroon-col¬ ored shales, including some moderately hard laminae that in weathering check into small cakes and dice-like chips. They are well shown in the region of the junction of Hackberry and Bluff creeks, from the former of which they derive the name of Hackberry shales. They follow thence the irregular westerly course of the Day Creek outcrop to the western part of the county. The most westerly occur¬ rence of the Hackberry formation that has been satisfactor¬ ily identified by the writer is in the southeastern wall of Big basin; but the writer has observed what he is inclined to con¬ sider as remnants of it on lower Crooked creek, at and above Odee, while the dolomite of Gj'psum Creek on the Clark- Meade county border, if referable to the Day Creek terrane, involves the not unlikely occurrence of the Hackberry shales with it. THE BIG BASIN SANDSTONE. The western, northern and northeastern parts of the bluffy walls of Big basin are formed largely by the calcar¬ eous sandstonv of the Loup Fork; but on the easterly to southeasterly quarter the rim of the basin is chiefly of Kiger sediments, in which the Hackberry shales appear with a coping of rather massive, blocky, red and grayish-white sandstone. The latter, from this locality of its typical oc¬ currence, may appropriately be known as the Big Basin sandstone. It is also seen on Kiger creek, at ihe Fares ranch on West Bear creek, and elsewhere in Clark county. Its maximum thickness probabl}' does not anywhere exceed 12 feet. While particolored, it has less of the "poi^^ilitic" char- THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 47 acter than is seen In most of the particolored rocks of the Cimarron series, the two colors being arranged in two (lo¬ cally three) broad bands, of which one is almost uniformly red, and one almost uniformly grayish-white with occasional flecks of red. At one locality on the eastern rim of the Big basin, where it is overlaid by, and not abruptl}'^ separated from an incoherent sandstone of the lower Cretaceous,* the Big /Basin sandstone is clearly also the highest surviving terrane of the Cimarron series, and therefore of the Permian, if all of the Cimarron series be really of Permian age as here assumed. Moreover, the Big Basin sandstone is the.highest terrane of the Cimarron series whose occurrence in any part of Kansas or Oklahoma can here be positively assert¬ ed. Were it also the highest terrane of that series ever deposited in this region, it would need be accredited as record of the final shallowing of the great "Dead sea" of the Plains, marking, as nearly as any terrane could, the close of the Paleozoic era in this region. But the writer has an impression (not positive enough to be called a recol¬ lection) that he once observed a narrow remnant of red Cimairon shale above the Big Basin sandstone at some point in Clark county; and if this impression be correct, it confirms what might reasonably be inferred on other grounds, namely, that terranes higher than the Big Basin sandstone originally formed a part of the Cimarron series in this region, and that these, with possibly one or two minor exceptions, do not outcrop in Kansas, having been partly removed by erosion in the time-interval indicated by the great post-Cimarron unconformity and partly preserved *Tbe soft, gray, ferruginous-stained sandstone that here overlies the Big Basin sandstone is a remnant of the Belvidere beds. In the immediate vicinity ^t also underlies a decomposed remnant of the Kiowa shales, and may be either a western recurrence of the Cheyenne or a sandstone member of the lower part of the Kiowa itself. Its relation to a part of the Kiowa shales is fairly well shown in the west wall of Little Basin, a little way to the eastward. 48 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. concealed beneath a blanket of Cretaceous and later deposits. It might naturally be considered by some that the transitional character of the horizon of passage from the Big Basin sandstone to the Cretaceous sandstone rein¬ forced the earlier generally accepted view that the "red- beds" were Jura-Trias, or at least partly so; but the bond of continuity which has already been referred to as appar¬ ently existing between the Cimarron series of Kansas and the paleontologically proven Permian of northern Texas outweights any argument of that sort, and indicates rather that the upper and here lighter-colored zone of the Big Basin sandstone was softened by the invading waters of the Belviderean sea, and its sediments partially and then wholly rearranged as the (for this point) initial deposits of the latter, only gradually becoming supplanted by sedi¬ ments conveyed from other sources. Supplementary Note.—The Sumner division is named after Sumner county, which includes nearly the entire breadth of the area of its outcrop in southern Kansas. The Cimarron series is named from the Cimarron river, in whose basin the rocks of both of its divi¬ sions are so extensively displayed. ON THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE PLATTE SERIES, OR UPPER CRETACEOUS OF THE PLAINS. BY F. W. CRAGIN. THE PLATTE SERIES. The rocks of the North American Interior Cretaceous belong to two great series. The lower of these, consisting chiefly of limestones, with subordinate terranes of shale, marl, and sandstone, and having its fullest development in Texas and Mexico, has been named the Comanche series. The upper series, into which shales and sandstones more largely enter, but which has important limestone formations also, may most appropriately be called the Platte series, after the Platte river, which, in Colorado and Nebraska, cuts all of the divisions of the series and all of the formations recog¬ nized as belonging to it in the typical area of its occurrence, viz., that segment of the North American Interior plateau which extends from the Rocky Mountains eastward, and constitutes the higher portion of the Plains. The Platte series includes the following divisions: Dakota, Benton, Niobrara, Fort Pierre, Fox Hills, and Laramie. Following are brief preliminary notices of some of the formations that compose that portion of the Platte series which is included within the limits of Kansas. THE-RUSSELL FORMATION. The lower formation of the Benton in Kansas. Named from Russell, Kansas, around which it outcrops in ravines. 50 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. Consisting of alternating limestones and shales. The shales carbonaceous (bluish) to calcareous (light gray). The limestones including at least two courses that are used as dimension-stone, the more important of which (commonly, 6 to 12 inches thick) is the Downs limestone (named from Downs, Kansas, near which are quarries of it,) and which might also be appropriately called the Fence-post limestone, as it is extensively used for posts of wire fences. Buildings and posts from the Downs limestone having a characteristic and rather neat, striped appearance due to a median yellow, brown or reddish rusty band in the rock. Outcrops from valley of Crooked creek in southern Gray county to that of Republican river in western part of Republic county, thence crossing Republican-Little Blue divide and passing into Nebraska. Formation includes the Globigerina bul- loides "Lincoln marble." Characteristic fossils: Trinacrom- erum bentonianum, Inoceramus labiatus, I. fragilis (small phase), Prionocyclws ivoolgari (small phase), etc. THE VICTORIA FORMATION, Or Victoria clays. The upper formation of the Ben¬ ton in Kansas. Named from Victoria, Kansas, which is on the outcrop, the clays being also cut largely by Victoria creek. Highly carbonaceous, almost black, sticky clay-shale, with a zone of frequently large "cannon-ball" septaria in the lower part, the Cannon-ball zone, supposed to be the same as that of Cannon-ball crossing on the Missouri river, illus¬ trated in Hayden's reports. Outcrops extend from Walnut creek, Ness county, Kansas, (fromnorth branch of Pawnee river in Hodgeman?) to Whiterock creek and Republican river in northwestern Republic county, and thence through Nebraska, etc. Fossils: immense Prionocyclus woolgari, Scaphites warreni, Scaphites vermijormis, Inoceramus labiatus, Plesiochelys lovii, etc. THE PERMIAN SYSTEM IN KANSAS. 51 THE OSBORNE LIMESTONE. Named from occurence at Osborne and in Osborne county, Kansas. Crowning the Victoria shale and consituting the lower formation of the Niobrara. Limestone in rather thick courses. "Devil's Gap," in southeastern Rooks county, is in this limestone. Courses thicker than in Rus¬ sell formation; some thin ones, especially at summit. Lime¬ stone harder and better for building than Smoky Hill chalk, but softer than and inferior to the Downs limestone. Formation forms bluffs in forks of Walnut creek in Ness county; of Solomon river in Osborne county; occurs at Ft. Hays, forming upper member of the "Ft. Hays" (lower Niobrara and Benton) of Prof. B. F. Mudge; and forms bluffs on Whiterock creek, from above Lovewell to near Whiterock, passing thence into Nebraska through Whiterock-Republic divide. Fossils: Inoceramus deformis, I. brownii, Radiolites austinensis, etc. THE SMOKY HILL CHALK. Upper formation of the Niobrara. Named from the Smoky Hill river, on which it is magnificently developed. Chalky and marly limestones and chalk. Bluish and marly in the lower or Trego zone, (named from its conspicuousness in Trego county, Kansas,) and yellow (to white, red, etc.) and more chalky in the Norton zone (named from occur¬ rence at Norton and in Norton county, Kansas). A horizon of jasper, the Graham jasper (named from its occurrence in Graham county, Kansas) near the upper limit. Lenses of hard, so-called "Bell-rock" in base or transition to Osborne limestone. On Smoky Hill river from western Ellis county to vicinity of Ft. Wallace; thence chiefly northward and northeastward. Includes "Castle Rock" in Gove county, and many similar monumental forms. Fossils: Inoceram%s {Haploscapha) grandis, Uintacrinus socialis, the huge fish, Portheus molossus, many large reptiles, Cimoliosaurus snovii and other enaliosaurs, with mosasaurs. 52 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. pterosaurs, turtles, etc.; toothed birds, etc.: a rich and unique fauna of unusual importance and interest, described by Cope, Marsh, Williston, etc. THE LISBON SHALES. Named from Lisbon, Kansas, near which they outcrop. Dark-bluish and brownish shales. Seen above the Smoky Hill chalk in Logan and Wallace counties, Kansas, and Elbert county, Colorado. Contain concretions of yellow phosphate of iron. (Fide Prof. G. H. Failyer.) Sup¬ posed to be lower Ft. Pierre. Fossils: Inoceramus barabini, Baculites, limpets, etc. THE ARICKAREE SHALES. Named from Arickaree river, on which they occur in Cheyenne county, Kansas, and an adjoining part of Colo¬ rado. Light-colored, olive, yellowish and brownish-gray shales. Referred to the lower part of the Fox Hills divis¬ ion. Fossils: Pteria fibrosa, Scaphites nicollettti, etc. PRELIMINARY NOTICE OF THREE LATE NEOCENE TERRANES OF KANSAS. BY F. W. CRAG IN. At several localities in Kansas, typically on Bluff creek, in Clark county, in the immediate vicinity of the old Van- hem postofiice, occurs a succession of three terranes: (i) the lowest, consisting of gravels and sands laid down in deep and broad valleys; (2) the middle, consisting of a wide-spread horizon of white to brownish (rarely greenish) volcanic ash; and (3) the highest, consisting of yellowish-brown lacustrine or slack-water marls, contain¬ ing variously shaped concretions of carbonate and silicate of lime (the former called "native plaster"). THE MEADE GRAVELS. For the ancient (supposed late Pliocene) gravels, the name Meade gravels is proposed, after Meade Center, where they constitute the artesian-water-holding formation. They contain abundant remains of horses, llamas, elephants, turtles, etc., and rarer remains of Megalonyx and Felidse, the species of which will be listed elsewhere, but which include Elephas imperator (f), Megalonyx leidyi, Equus complicatus. Equus curvidens, Auchenia huerfanensis, etc., indicating the fauna of the Equus beds. These gravels are mostly un¬ consolidated, but frequently contain hard ledges in Meade county and elsewhere. They are generally 10 to 30 or 40 feet in thickness and frequently grade into the Pearlette. 54 COLORADO COLLEGE STUDIES. THE PEARLETTE ASH. The volcanic ash may be called the Pearlette ash, from the old postoffice of Pearlette, in Meade county, where the writer studied an ash-bed of this terrane in 1884. The Pearlette rarely contains fossils. These do not differ from those of the underlying Meade formation. The ash attains a thickness of 13 feet in a bed southwest of Meade Center, considerably less in Clark and the many other counties of Kansas (especially western Kansas), Nebraska, etc., in which the ash has been found. It occurs west at least to Huerfano Park, Colorado (Hills), and east to Sioux City, Nebraska (Todd), and Galena, Kansas (Williston). Ii frequently passes into the Kingsdown by imperceptible gradations. THE KINGSDOWN MARLS. For the marls, the name Kingsdown marls is proposed, after the station of that name west of Bucklin on the Rock Island railway, between which and the upper part of Bluff creek, Clark county, they are finely exposed in deep ra¬ vines. They are very rarely fossilferous. Elephas was found by the writer in them nearVanhem. They are typically de¬ veloped in Meade county also. They are apparently not less than 100 feet in thickness in Clark county, and more than twice that thickness at certain localities on the divides further westward. All three of the terranes here described are supposed to be formations of the Tule division of Cummins (Equus beds of Cope), and to represent late Pliocene time. They are conformable with each other, and unconformably over¬ laid with local beds of marl, sand, diatomaceous earth, etc., of supposed Quaternary age. Colorado College® Studies. VOLUME VII. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. tOLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. November, 1898. CONTENTS. - ' f' I Page. (1) Literature for Children, 1-15 Prof. E. S. Parsons. (2) AVarniing Up, 16-29 Dr. E. G. Lancaster. (5) E]quations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid— Part I, 30-48 Mr. p. E. Doudna. THE OUT WEST PRIHTINQ AND STATIONERY CO., COLORADO SPRINOS. LITERATURE FOR CHILDREN * Prop. E. S. Parsons. What children are meant by our subject? Though the honor of speaking in this presence has been given me by you who are kindergarten teachers, I have not interpreted your request as limiting me to the discussion of literature suited to children of the kindergarten age. If I had so interpreted it, I should have been compelled at once to decline the invita¬ tion, for I feel myself wholly unqualified to speak upon a sub¬ ject requiring technical knowledge and experience of a sort which I do not possess. I shall try to unfold the thought of literature for children of all ages, those who are just able to understand what is read to them, and every grade up to that which has just crossed the invisible line beyond which is youth. Five and sixteen are good theoretical limits. What is literature? A second question more important than the first. We ought to resent the loose use of the term, for it has a definite meaning, and one which ought to be kept sacred. All writing is not literature. Intellect cannot make literature; so writing that seeks simply to inform, to instruct, is not literature. Into writing which can be called by this high name, intellect will enter, but it must be intellect, aerated by imagination, to use Lowell's favorite phrase. The wind of the spirit must blow through the essay or the poem if it is to win the right to be called literature. And this quality of im¬ agination must have given to the writing an emotional and an artistic value, the two being closely linked together, before it can take its place in the list of the immortals. Imagination and feeling, then, are the final tests of litei-ature: imagination, which apprehends the deeper significance of life and embodies it in forms of beauty, and feeling, which is the response of the soul to the vision. *An address delivered before the tweaty-second anaual sessioD of the Colorado Teachers' Association. 2 CoLOBADO College Studies. Judged by these high standards, there is not much which can be called literature. Our question to-day is, to what part of this body of writing shall children be introduced? This involves the larger question, are children capable of appreciat¬ ing literature at all? Shall we give literature to children? Children will read—that is, most children will. This fact may be taken for granted. The child who will not read under right conditions is an anomaly. The mind in childhood is as hungry as the body, and those of us who are parents know that our boys, as some one has put it, are hollow to their boots. The mental digestion of the child is as strong as his appetite, and he reads and digests with marvelous rapidity. Harriet Martineau once told a story that well illustrates the point. " I' have seen a schoolboy of ten," she says, "lay himself down, back uppermost, with a quarto edition of 'Thalaba' beforehim, on the first day of the Easter holidays, and turn over the leaves, notwithstanding his inconvenient position, as fast as if he was looking for something, till in a few hours it was done, and he was off with it to the public library, bringing back ' The Curse of Kehama.' Thus he went on with all of Southey's poems and some others through his short holidays, scarcely moving through all those days except to run to the library." And Miss Martineau adds: " He came out of the process so changed that none of his family could help being struck by it. The expression of his eye, the cast of his countenance, his use of words, and his very gait were changed. In ten days he had advanced ten years in intelligence; and I have always thought that this was the turning point of his life. His parents wisely and kindly let him alone, aware that school would presently put an end to all excess in this new indulgence." Children will read, and read voraciously. Publishers are more and more recognizing this fact. The law of demand and supply is finding new proof in the rapid accumulation of juve¬ nile literature. Every publisher's list contains large numbers of new books for the young. Library tables swarm with maga¬ zines and weekly papers—good, bad and indifferent—designed to supply this voracious appetite. Children will read, and the publishers are giving them reading. Litebature fob Children. 3 But is this printed matter, which is every year pouring out in a stream of huge volume from the presses of the world, what we want our children to read? Is it enough to turn them loose in a library of such books and papers? If so, then there is no need of my saying anything more. Nothing more can be said except to suggest a classification of the books by which children may be taught to gobble them down system¬ atically, and so more exhaustively—taught to scrape the plat¬ ter clean, as it were, at the literary banquet. Children have strong digestions, but such a process, I fear, would justify the words of the " Fable for Critics:" " Reading new books is like eating new bread, One can bear it at first, but by gradual steps he Is brought to death's door of a mental dyspepsy." Is such a process safe for our children? Is it desirable? There are great authorities who have given no uncertain answer to these questions. Charlotte Yonge has said: "We have little liking for books for boys," and she goes on to say in conclusion of a somewhat extended treatment of the sub¬ ject: " Our conclusion as to children's literature is a some¬ what Irish one, for it is, use it as little as possible, and then only what is substantially clean and good. Bring children as soon as possible to stretch up to books above them, pi-ovided those books are noble and good." Charles Dudley Warner speaks with still greater emphasis: "As a general thing, I do not believe in books written for children. * * * * j am not sure but it would be a gain if all so-called children's books were destroyed and the children depended altogether on what we call adult literature. I know of a family of young children who read, or had read to them, a translation of the ' Iliad.' They were perfectly captivated by it, and they got more out of it, even though not able to read it themselves, than they would have got from a whole library of the stuff children now commonly read." You remember Emerson's dictum, the first of his three rules of reading; "Never read any book that is not a year old," implying that if you wait a year before reading a book, in a vast majority of cases you will not read it at all. 4 Colorado College Studies. Nowhere does this rule apply so well as in the case of children's books. If we do not accept in its entirety the position which the first two writers quoted above have taken, we can at least accept it with Emerson's qualification. If at the end of a year the book has proved it has a right to live, then let the child read it. Only most of us, after having thoroughly studied the subject, would desire a still longer period of probation. If the child should not read so-called children's books, what should he read? Miss Yonge and Charles Dudley Warner have already answered the question. Let them read adult literature—the books their elders read. This statement needs at least one limitation. Let the children read, not what their elders read, but what their elders ought to read, for the grown¬ up members of the family, as often as the children, read the latest and the trashiest books. In fact, what the children read is largely determined by what their elders read. Trash on the library table means trash in the nursery. But the question rises at once in many of your minds, is the child capable of understanding adult literature? Is there not the danger of shooting above the heads of the children in seeking to limit them to such books? It would not do before such an assemblage as this to base our answer to such a question on anything less than child study. This is now the fashionable subject of research, and one of our good fashions it is, too, though it has its absurdi¬ ties, like most other fashions. What are the characteristics of the child mind which has this voracious literary appetite? Theories have no weight in this age unless they are theories that have developed out of facts. " Children are indeed treated and written about sometimes," said a very wise writer on our general theme more than thirty years ago, " Children are indeed treated and written about as though they were little fools, and any baby talk or twaddle were good enough for them; but we are in the main inclined to believe that they are great fools who make this mistake, and so sadly libel God's handiwork." " The great human mind is in the little child as in the gray-headed sage," but the intellect—what we Liteeatuee foe Childeen. 5 mean in our formal use of the word—is not the faculty most early developed. We who are parents often find our children startlingly good reasoners, but that is not the aspect of the mind which stands out in them most prominently. Any one who knows children knows that the affections and the imagina¬ tion are what chiefly characterize the child nature. " Give a child a little love and you will get a great deal in return," some one has said. Give a child a glimpse into the imagina¬ tive world, and he will build castles and people them, fight battles and win them, create a new world and live in it, far from the madding crowd of life's cares and pain. " The supreme endowment of human nature is the gift of imagination," and it is given to the child at the beginning of life. Oftentimes the imagination atrophies for want of use. But it need not have this fate. The poet, the seer, is he who does not let it die, but who, through ' all his life, looks out upon nature and men with the eyes of a child, seeing not merely what is at the surface, but what is underneath, not merely the hard, apparent reality, but the blessed and more real ideality. Many persons, hard and fast realists, grow angry at the suggestion that there is any value in the fancies of childhood and in the power which calls them into being. They would, if they dared, criticise the Creator for mingling this ingre¬ dient in the human composition, and they seek to eliminate it by denying the child mind its natural food of fairy story and myth, by strapping it about with the intellectual bands of the alphabet and the spelling book and the prosaic primer and arithmetic, much as the Chinese mother of high caste binds and dwarfs the foot of her little baby girl. To the an- nointed eye'such realists have the grotesque — the pitiful — hobble of the fine Chinese lady of mature years. But the satisfaction of the imagination and the afPectionsin early life does not mean the crippling and dwarfing of the intellectual powers. They will unfold soon enough. They are simply latent. And Vhen they begin to develop, and after they have grown to maturity, nothing will aid them so much in doing their work as " the witch, imagination." 6 Colorado College Studies. The affections and the imagination, then, are the powers which dominate the child nature. Let us revert to what we said about literature: "Imagination and feeling are the final tests of literature." Imagination and emotion, the chief traits of childhood; imagination and emotion, the chief tests of literature—the two were evidently made for one another. It is singularly interesting that three of the greatest classics of childhood were not written for children at all. "Pilgrim's Progress" was a new type of sermon written by the tinker preacher in his prison cell at Bedford; " Robinson Crusoe " was a pseudo-history from the pen of one of the first great English realists; " Gulliver's Travels " was a political satire by the greatest of English satirists. The same thing is true of the stories of the Bible, of the " Arabian Nights," of the folk lore which strikes a sympathetic chord at once in the child's nature. The truth is that the childlike is the eternal. Goethe said at the close of his " Faust" that the Eternal Womanly is to lead us on. Has not our age, by rea¬ son of its more intimate knowledge of human life, come to the profounder truth that it is the Eternal Childlike which is to lead the world to its final perfection? At this season the Christ from His manger cradle sways the world, and the heart of child is always the best standard of religion, charac¬ ter, art, literature. Except ye be converted and become as little children ye cannot enter the kingdom of painting or of books any more than the kingdom of God and His Christ. Child study, then, reveals the fact that the child nature is the counterpart of what is best in books, that children can appreciate literature. But do the conclusions of the psycho¬ logical laboratory find themselves sustained in the practical experience of those who have had to deal with children? You remember that beautiful story from the pen of Laura E. Richards, " Captain January " — one of those books of recent times which at once reveal the fact that they are literature. The red dory was just about to set out for the lighthouse home when the captain was hailed by an old friend with the same title. The conversation drifted straight to the topic always uppermost in the lighthouse keeper's mind, his " little Literature for Children. 7 gal." "'She's learnin!' he added proudly; ' learnin' well! I'll bet there ain't no gal in your school knows more nor that little un does. Won'erful, the way she walks ahead.' ' Get the school readers, hey, and teach her yourself, do you?' queried Captain Nazro. 'No, sir!' replied the old man; 'I don't have no school readers. The child learns out o' the two best books in the world—the Bible and William Shakespeare's book; them's all the books she ever seed—saio, I should say.' 'William Shak—' began Captain Nazro, and then he broke off in sheer amazement, and said simply,' Well, I'm blowed!'" Then follows the charming story of the little ten-year-old child with " her cloud of pale-gold hair " and her soft, deep, shadowy blue eyes, to whom Samson and Imogen and Ariel were as real as the cold waves that washed her to the rocky shore and to the warmth of the old sailor's heart. " An ideal picture," you tell me. Is it merely ideal, or was it drawn from life? Last May I received a letter from an Omaha lady in which, writing about another subject, she spoke of her little girl, then nine years old: " M is very fond of her father's library. * * # * The books she is simply devoted to are the plays of Shakespeare and the Bible." Was Captain January so far wrong in taking the advice of his minister and bringing up the " little gal" on those, the two best books in the world? Harriet Martineau, after relating the story I have quoted, tells of her own childhood-reading: "I devoured all of Shakespeare, sitting on a footstool and reading by firelight. * * * * I made shirts with due diligence, being fond of sewing; but it was with Goldsmith, or Thomson, or Milton, open in my lap, under my work, or hidden by the table." One of our own State teachers, one whom we all delight to honor, told me a few weeks ago that he had read all of Goethe's "Faust" with his little thirteen-year-old girl, to her great enjoyment, and that last summer she read alone all of Chaucer's " Canterbury T^es." Many teachers have found young chil¬ dren delighted with Dante. I have to my own satisfaction discovered that little children, not yet able to read, will be deeply interested in the stories of the Bible read to them from 8 Colorado College Studies. the Book itself, where they turn to their plays from the read¬ ing of a paraphrase of the stories written expressly for chil¬ dren. The truth is, as Miss Burt has stated it in her book, which contains so many wise words: "Age has little to do with the ability of children to receive classic thought." Illus¬ trations of this fact could be given by almost any teacher who has enough of the literary spirit in himself to be competent to teach literature. It has been wisely said that a taste of a great thought is worth far more than the full comprehension of a small one. No teacher ought to expect, or to desire, the full comprehen¬ sion on the part of a child of a great work of the imagination. Nothing is so inimical to the development of a genuine literary appreciation as the insincerity which a teacher will invariably foster by such expectations. But in literature it is not true that a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. A little glimpse into a large and generous world is far better than the full understanding of a mean and paltry one. The child needs something that will expand his nature, something he can grow to, not leave behind. One would hardly think of citing Dr. Johnson as an authority on the education of children, espec¬ ially when it is remembered that it was he who had the most to do with making our English orthography such a terror to young and old alike, but no one ever said a truer word on the subject than this: " Babies do not want to hear about babies; they like to be told about giants and castles, and of somewhat which can stretch and stimulate their little minds." Of course, what has just been said does not mean that all pieces of great literature are equally fitted to a child's mind at any period in its life. But it does mean that it is not nec¬ essary to go outside the world's great literature for fit mental food for a child's imaginative and emotional nature. The problem, then, as Mr. Horace E. Scudder has put it, is not one of creation, but one of selection. " The task is to find literature for the child, not to make it. The permanent in literature springs from the necessity of the writer to create, not from the attempt to fit the creation to the needs of the reader." Liteeature for Children. 9 Literature is a spontaneous product; it cannot be made to order; it makes itself. He who attempts to make it to order fails before he begins. Genius is unconscious, and builds better than it knows; it jjroduces because it must; and its readers, usually a later generation, recognize the full meaning of what has been written. The work of him who is to guide a child's reading is to select out of the works which bear the unmistakable stamp of genius—a stamp which the test of time always reveals—those which are best suited to the child at the particular stage of his development. But can anything more definite be said? I have no desire to give lists of books suited to children. Such manuals as Miss Burt's "Literary Landmarks" and Hewin's "Books for the Young" will supply such lists for those who need them. But a word or two of more detailed suggestion will not be amiss. Poetry will find its place early in a child's reading, if not at the beginning. It is concentrated emotion and im¬ agination, and much of it is as simple literature as there is in the language. Mi\ Scudder is of the opinion that the poetry which children should first read by themselves should be, not Whittier, nor Longfellow, nor Wordsworth, but "Mother Goose." His reasons are well worth repeating: "'Mother Goose' helps the child to make a passage from the known to the unknown. The cat he knows, the boy he knows; but the cat in the well, little Johnny Green, big Johnny Stout, the bell with its swinging, resounding note — all these are in the region of the just not known; and when he reads, half sings, the ditty, his mind is given wings with which to soar a little way. Again, ' Mother Goose' is cheerful, and the task of reading literature is lightened. Further, ' Mother Goose' is full of human associations, and entering literature by these passages, the child is treading steps worn by generations of use. There is no waste. He is becoming familiar with the permanent in literature; he is not conning that which will be left behind witti childhood. Rather, he is acquiring a cur¬ rency which will, in later days, be drawn forth for use in the exchange when ' we that are children have children.' " 10 Colorado College Studies. After " Mother Goose " Mr. Scudder suggests simple poems of Whittier, Longfellow, Blake, Wordsworth. In prose every teacher, as well as every parent, knows there is no book for young, as well as old, students of literature like the Bible. In the Bible we have imagination and emotion; we have sim¬ plicity combined with exquisite purity of thought and style; we are dealing with what has endured the test of time; we are introducing the child to what is of permanent value, to that which alone can unlock much of what is best in English literature. Macaulay's remark that he who aspires to be a critic of English literature must have the Bible at his finger's ends has received another iteration in a recently published utterance of the professor of the English language and litera¬ ture in Tale University (in a paper upon Nineteenth Century literature) that "it would be worth while to read the Bible carefully and repeatedly if only as a key to modern culture, for to those who are unfamiliar with its teachings and diction much that is best in the English literature of the present century is as a sealed book." Mrs. Wesley, it will be remembered, the day her children were five years old, set them to learning the alphabet. The second day she put them to reading in the first chapter of Genesis, and made the Bible thereafter their text-book. Such training produced not merely the superb energy of John Wesley, but also the rare poetic power of his equally gifted brother, Charles. It is almost a truism to quote John Buskin's experience, but to omit his testimony is to fail to call to the stand the best witness of the influence of the Bible as literature. He tells the story in the early part of "Prseterita": "I have next with deeper gratitude to chronicle what I owed to my mother for the resolutely consistent lessons which so exercised me in the Scriptures as to make every word of them familiar to my ear in habitual music,—yet in that familiarity reverenced, as trans¬ cending all thought, and ordaining all conduct. This she effected, not by her own sayings or personal authority, but simply by compelling me to read the book thoroughly, for myself. As soon as I was able to read with fluency, she be¬ gan a course of Bible work with me, which never ceased till Literature for Children. 11 I went to Oxford. She read alternate verses with me, watch¬ ing, at first, every intonation of my voice, and correcting the false ones, till she made me understand the verse, if within my reach, rightly and energetically. It might be beyond me alto¬ gether—that she did not care about—but she made sure that as soon as I got hold of it at all, I should get hold of it by the right end. In this way she began with the first verse of Genesis, and went straight through to the last verse of the Apocalypse— hard names, numbers, Levitical law, and all—and began at Genesis the next day. * * * * After our chapters (from two to three a day, according to their length, the first thing after breakfast, and no interruption # * * * allowed) I had to learn a few verses by heart, or repeat, to make sure I had not lost, something of what was already known; and with the chapters thus gradually possessed from the first word to the last, I had to learn the whole body of the fine old Scottish paraphrases, which are good, melodious and forceful verse, and to which, together with the Bible itself, I owe the first cultivation of my ear in sound." And concluding his dis¬ cussion of the whole matter, he says: " Thongh I have picked up the elements of a little further knowledge—in mathemat¬ ics, meteorology and the like, in after life — and owe not a little to the teaching of many people, this maternal installa¬ tion of my mind in that property of chapters I count very confidently the most precious, and, on the whole, the one essential part of all my education." It was this which gave him the place accorded him without any reservation by the latest authoritative historian of nineteenth century liter¬ ature, that of the greatest of English prose writers. Such readings in the Bible, and in simple poetry, with a large intermingling of fairy stories and folk lore, will make up the bulk of a child's early reading. What shall follow? Some say, after such a beginning turn a child loose in a well selected library and let him browse. Such an experience is of the utmost value to the child. It leads him into familiarity with books. 5e tastes many, and is led into fascinating re¬ gions before unknown. The delight of the explorer is added to the delight of the reader. Lowell began in such away the extensive browsings which made him what he called himself. 12 Colorado College Studies. the last of the great readers. Led by his own inclination, John Fiske had read at seven Rollin, Josephus, Goldsmith's "Greece," Shakespeare, Bunyan and Milton. As some one said of this reading of his, " I dare say he skipped to get the stories, but they were great stories." At eleven he had read Gibbon, Robertson, Prescott, Froissart. This was his reading for pleasure, and was wholly apart from the intense study going on at the same time. But objections have been and can be brought against this habit of reading. One, which is directed not merely against this, but against much of what has already been said, is that it means the overcrowding of the child's brain. In an article published during the summer in one of our best weeklies, a writer discussed this objection under the question, "Are Our Children Precocious or Infantile?" and she concluded that, while naturally quick, our American children are in reality infantile in their acquirements. Part of the fault must be laid at the door of the necessity we are under of educating children in regiments, but part also must be answered for by the foolish notion that it is a severer tax on the brain " to learn that a certain combination of three letters means cat than that a certain furry creature, having a long tail and catching mice, is a cat," that it breaks down the brain power to read Southey's "Life of Nelson," but builds it up to read Oliver Optic's "Soldier Boy" and "Sailor Boy." The opposite is the truth. The book full of unreality and sentimentality without genuine emotion and high imagination is what breaks down the mind, and with it the body, while the good book is a tonic, " as refreshing and strengthening as the sunshine and the sea water." But a more definite objection is urged to this habit of library browsing. It is said that if the library is at all inclu¬ sive of great literature there will be much in it which will pol¬ lute the child's imagination. But is this true? Has any one a grain of evidence to support the theory that a child, early taught to love the best literature and drawn to it of its own accord, will be polluted by the coarseness which is here and there a blot upon it? The little girl who last year read through the "Canterbury Tales" expressed to her father her delight, Literature for Children. 13 but said there were some things in them which Chaucer ought to have been ashamed to write. Did it hurt the child to read those things and let her purity condemn them? Harriet Martineau, to whose wisdom I have already appealed, says: " The last thing that parents need fear is that the young reader will be hurt by passages in really good authors, which might raise a blush a few years later. Whatever children do not understand slips through the mind and leaves no trace; and whatever they do understand of matters of passion is to them divested of mischief. Purified editions of noble books are monuments of wasted labor; for it ought to be with adults as it is with childreu—their purity should be an all-sufficient purifier." But, believing as I do that, where it is possible, this brows¬ ing habit should form a part of every child's education, it is not everywhere, or in every case, possible. It is a rare excep¬ tion to find a home with such a well-selected library. Most homes have nothing worth the name. The public library in most places does not permit free entrance to the shelves. The book stall, which meant so much to a browser like Dr. Johnson, has not become much domesticated in America. The child cannot be taught to browse, because there is no pasturage. And more than this, such reading, while valuable as an adjunct, is too desultory to give a full and rounded introduc¬ tion to literature. It is the opinion of those who have most carefully studied this subject that " between the ages of six and sixteen a large part of the best literature of the world may be read if taken up systematically at school," and the writer who makes this statement adds, " that the man or woman who fails to become acquainted with great literature in some form in that time is little likely to have a taste formed later." Such a wide acquaintance with literature cannot be obtained by bi'owsing; browsing must be accompanied by systematic, developing courses of reading. At the risk of wearing out your patience, I must say a few words about still another subject. What end shall we set be¬ fore the child to be gained by i-eading? No end at all, we can say at once. Reading to the child ought to be an end in itself. " We get no good by being ungenerous even unto books, And calculating profits, so mucli good by so much reading." 14 CoLOEADO College Studies. But what end shall we set before ourselves that the child shall gain from the reading? " Many teachers have felt," as Mr. Scudder has so pithily put it, " that Pegasus ought to be hitched to a tip cart," that reading should teach history, geog¬ raphy, biography, science — in other words, that literature should be made to help the child to obtain information, a purely intellectual achievement. But the writer of literature did not write to give information. He wrote because he had to, because it was the great joy of his life to make the product of his imagination live in the written word. And the spirit in which he wrote the book is the spirit in which it should be read. To teach geography by it is to make it tasteless and insipid; to make it a medium of criticism is to make it dead and joyless. The child should learn to delight in it, to read it only for the delight it can inspire. If the child does not like what is given him to read, let his choice prevail, and let the teacher, or parent, study to find what will delight him. Those who persist in trying to harness up Pegasus to practi¬ cal things may find it necessary to insert in the newspaper the kind of advertisement which Lowell suggests John Bull will some day have to put into the London Times: " Lost, strayed or stolen, from the farmyard of the subscriber, the valuable horse Pegasus. Probably has on him part of a new plough harness, as that is also missing. A suitable reward, etc. "J. Bull." What has been said at once answers the objection that the use of great literature in the schoolroom will kill it for the scholars for all the future. Certainly it will be so killed if the teacher does not know what literature is, and treats it as he would a dry-as-dust text-book. But the teacher who, in¬ stead, leaves criticism alone, explains only enough to stimu¬ late the child's interest, and seeks to lead him out into the perennial delights of the great creations—he will never have to bear the accusation of killing a good book. " The great end of literature is not to inform, but to inspire." Let us thoroughly grasp this truth and we shall never again teach literature as it has so often been taught. To accomplish what has been set forth will require a wise planning of a child's time. We must remember that a child's Literature for Children. 15 early years are in many respects the most precious of its life. A wise mother told me a few days ago that, hard as it seemed to some of her friends, she had never allowed that most ex¬ cellent boy's and girl's paper, the Youth's Companion, to enter the house. Not that she objected to a single word printed in it, but she felt that it had a too dissipating influ¬ ence upon her children's reading. Coming week after week, it gave her children no time for the reading of great books— books which have stood the test of time, and have been a fountain of literary inspiration. The wisdom of her choice for her children is illustrated by the fact that a few weeks ago her first born was elected to write the ode for the gradu¬ ating exercises of his class at Harvard next June. It would be well for us all to ask ourselves the question, does it pay for us, or for our children, to give to the reading of current books so much of the time we might give to what has proved itself to be the world's greatest literature? The results upon the child of such reading as I have been advocating are too evident to detain us. A child, after his earliest years, talks like those with whom he associates. "Live with wolves and you will learn to howl," runs the proverb. Live with the great masters of the English speech, and if there is any literary instinct in you, you will learn to use clearly, simply and musically the greatest of all languages. But this is by no means the most important result to be gained. This is an age full of unconscious, if not conscious, materialism. Aspiration fades more quickly to-day than ever before from the human soul. Imagination and the higher powers of the soul tend to die in the suffocating atmosphere of mere fact. But in him who has been taught in youth to wander in the green pastures and beside the still waters of our great Eng¬ lish literature the soul will not die. For him there will always be open what the poet Spenser so beautifully called "the world's sweet inn," where he can ever find rest and re¬ freshment, and in which there is always to be found a large upper chamber called Peace, whose windows open toward the sun's rising. WARMING UP. DB. E. G. LANCASTER. It is a common and generally observed phenomenon that when one starts for a long walk there comes a period of fatigue, which, with many people, passes away after continued walking. The same phenomenon may be noticed with most people in any kind of mental or physical activity. A student sits down for a long period of study or writing. There may be at first a feeling of fatigue or awkwardness of that he has not yet " found the combination " which, after a time, gives place to a growing facility that increases until exhaustion demands a rest. The same thing may be noticed in animals. Dogs on the chase, the animals pursued, and especially race-horses show the etfect of warming up. It is said of two famous trotters, each of which has reduced the world's record within a few years, that the period of warming up was very character¬ istic. One was driven two miles at a 2:30 gait, rested, rub¬ bed, taken out for his fast mile but driven a full mile at about the same pace as before, until approaching the wire, when he was driven at full speed and the record was taken thus on the fourth mile. So much warming up was necessary. The other was jogged one mile, rubbed, then taken to the quarter pole and gradually urged to her highest speed and the record was taken on this the second mile. Athletes, especially ball-players, realize the importance of practice just before the games, to be followed by a slight rest. A pitcher would hardly enter the box till he had got his arm in working order by a few minutes' practice. Orators often are dull at first but warm up. It is said that Wendell Phillips was often hissed for his slow, uninteresting speech but rallied to the occasion at such times with his masterly oratory. We need not multiply instances. It can be seen and felt almost anywhere or any time, in one way or another, Warming Up. 17 It fell to my lot in the psychological laboratory, at Clark University, to determine if possible exactly what hap¬ pens in this warming up process and whether the cause is located in the brain, muscle, or elsewhere. The results ob¬ tained were certainly suggestive. Having in mind the work done by Mosso, and especially the closely related work of Lombard, we began in a similar way with the ergograph, which is a machine for measuring work done by registering the height to which the weight is lifted each time. We used the middle finger of the right hand. The muscles are so closely related in the forearm, and in some persons probably grown together to such an extent that the experiment there was valueless. When one combination of muscle fibers fa¬ tigued, another took its place and the finger could be worked with considerable power, though variable, all the time. We then arranged a thimble for the index finger and a hand rest, to which the hand was bound so that it could not be tilted to allow a bending of the finger, thus having but one motion possible—that of separating the index from the other fingers by the use of the abductor indicis, which is a y-shaped muscle between the first joints of the thumb and index. Being separate from all others, this muscle can be used for an exact record. The marks in the curve represent the height to which the weight was pulled each time. Ten or twelve subjects were tried, though most of the results were gained from four or five. The others were used to verify the work. Some of the experiments were so painful that they were not often repeated. The two curves (see Plate 3), No. 3 taken January 19 and No. 35 taken May 9, show the general effect of warming up on one subject whom we may call G. They show, too, the value of exercising a muscle regularly, since 530 grams at first fatigued the muscle in about 95 seconds while in May 795 grams produced the same effect in 115 seconds. The weight was pulled once every second at the swinging of a pendulum. (These curves have been reduced but the general character remains.) Warming Up. 19 In the first curve (No. 3) it is seen that with G. the curve falls quite steadily to the end. With G. and with others it is found that this curve is as characteristic and uni¬ form as their signatures. After the muscle was completely tired the weight was removed (at line marked X) and a very light one put in its place merely to keep the muscle active, for five minutes. Then the same weight as used at first was replaced and the second curve taken. In both of these cases, all of them in fact that were tried on most of the subjects, there was not room enough on the drum of the kymograph to record the second curve and they were broken off before there was any evidence of fatigue. In one instance G.'s warmed up curve with 600 grams was continued a long time and then additions made until he was pulling 1,075 grams, which he raised to a good height till stopped by the operator. He could not move more than 800 grams before the warming up occurred. With this subject there was a feeling of muscular exaltation that made it a pleasure to lift the weight after the warming up occurred. It was found that this was true after he said that he was tired out and did not feel able to go through the ex¬ periment. He noticed the same thing with studying. Others have spoken of sitting down to study with a tired feeling that almost persuaded them to give up the attempt, but be¬ ginning to work that feeling disappeared and the best work followed without fatigue for two hours or more. That looks as if the first feeling of fatigue is a ruse of nature to get out of work. It only indicates that the system is still building up or in the anabolic state. One cannot, however, judge by his feeling what his warmed up curve may be. All but one of the subjects showed this warming np phenomenon. After marking the fact of warming up we attempted to locate this increase of power. The first interesting point noticed was that a general warming np, such as sparring, running or g^eral active exercise in the gymnasium pro¬ duced the same warmed up condition of this small mnscle, which was not used at all or very slightly in the general 20 Colorado College Studies. warming. The curve is almost a reproduction of the second part of No. 3. Next electric stimulus was tried. At first the electrodes were placed over marked points on the muscle. The results were unsatisfactory. Since the current in such a case seems to stimulate only a part of the muscle fibres, the slightest moving of the hand or even a change in the position of the body or feet would move the instrument or muscle enough to get a large in¬ crease of power at once, which at first seemed like a recovery of power. Then we located the branch of the radial nerve which supplies the motor power to this muscle and applied the elec¬ trodes to it. The result was a much larger amount of work done and much more uniform results. The same attempt was made to work the muscle a time, then give it five minutes' warming up and then apply again the same stimulus to the nerve as before. The results were not always the same and varied much in different subjects. In no case, however, did the curve after the warming up show a decided improvement. In a few cases and in the subject G., who showed the most constant improvement in the warmed up curve, there was sometimes a slight improvement. This seemed, however, to be entirely due to peripheral conditions. The flexibility of the skin in the palm of the hand and about the index, the natural stiffness or resistance about the joints that have not been used in a certain way for a long time, might explain the slight rise in the curve after these resisting elements had been lessened or relaxed by use. This looked as if there was nothing more than a slight improvement at most in the muscle itself and the end plates of the nerves. See curve No. 5, Plate 3. Then there were many instances where the curve after the electric warming up was less than before. In a few cases, the same stimulus, applied to the nerve, could not raise as large a weight after the first curve had been taken and a period of five minutes had been given for rest and warming up. On removing 150 grams the subject raised it to a good height. The 150 were put back after a few successful pulls of the lighter weight and the same condition prevailed as at Warming Up. 21 first. The heavier weight, which in the first curve, before the warming up, had been raised as high as the lighter weight after it, could not be raised at all. This was done until we were satisfied that the same stimulus to the nerve produced less work after a time than at first and that the warming up did not improve it. This is in line with another experiment where the weight was pulled by electric stimulus applied to the nerve every two seconds during a long period of time—15 to 16 minutes. The current was on one second and off one second. That result may be seen on curve No. 13, Plate 1. The weight was 525 grams and the current as strong as the subject could endure. The pain decreased until the sensory nerves were nearly or quite fatigued and failed to report any pain to the brain, for after 10 minutes or so the current was scarcely appreciable. In the curve there may be noticed an almost rhythmical rise and fall. At first this would seem to contra¬ dict Lombard's work and give a " recovery" by electric stimu¬ lation. It would look as if there was a change caused by fatigue in the muscle or nerve endings. It might be due to a clogging of the contractile substances which worked them¬ selves clear again, or it might be due to an unconscious assistance by voluntary effort. The curve is suggestive but not decisive. There is no warming up but rather a loss of power. Lombard's experiment was repeated here and his results obtained. After voluntary fatigue the electric power was used and then the voluntary, alternating, when it was found that the power had returned though the muscle had been worked all the time. To compare with that another curve is shown. No. 16 (Plate 2), in which the same weight was pulled voluntarily every other second and a distinct gain of power or warming up appears. There was no fatigue but a feeling of muscular exaltation in this abductor indicis at the finish. This also shows that the warming up may be gained without fatigue if moderate work is done at first. An attempfwas made next to shut off the effect of in¬ creased circulation, thinking that the warming up might be caused by an extra blood supply to the muscle. An Esmarch's PLAT£ /. CURi^C /$. ss I 24 Colorado College Studies. bandage was used to wind the arm, beginning with the fingers, so that the blood was all driven back to a point near the shoulder. A lighter weight was then used, 175 grams at first, since the hand was rendered partially numb by the ex¬ periment. The effect was not all that we hoped but showed one or two noteworthy results. Since the winding occupied one or two minutes, the hand was. rapidly cooling before the curve began. It was interesting, therefore, to note that the first curve with each subject, taken with a bloodless arm, was a facsimile of his normal curve taken with the blood in the muscle. This was especially noticeable with one subject whose curve was very characteristic, always having a rally at a certain point near the finish. This rally appeared just the same when the blood was shut off. Knowing one's curve before, the curve with the bloodless arm could be identified easily. After the first curve was taken and the weight could not be moved again, the weight was taken off and three minutes given for exercise of the muscle and warming up. Then the same weight was attached. At first in each case it could not be moved. Then with G. the power came back and the weight was raised, and for a time his characteristic warmed-up curve was recorded, which curve always differed from the curve taken before the warming up. The pain in the arm and hand became so severe that he begged to be released. See curve No. 18, Plate 4. A recovery of power was found with other subjects but not very marked except in one case where a nearly normal power was gained for a few sec¬ onds, but the violent pain and numbness rendered the hand useless. Sometimes after the first curve and five minutes' attempt at warming up the hand could not be opened or shut and no motion of the index was possible. After one experiment with G., when the bloodless' hand had become useless and no curve was possible after the five-minute rest following the first curve, the bandage was removed and in one minute the curve was taken and the usual warmed up curve was the result. This shows that the warming had occurred but the hand was stiff and cold so that the effect could not be registered. Warming Up. 25 One fact came out here in conflict with the teaching of physiology in some colleges. The rate of fatigue was just the same, with the circulation entirely shut off, as it was before. Other experiments were made in this line but noth¬ ing valuable resulted. The next experiment seemed to be more decisive. Sub¬ ject G. had been a subject for an hour or more in another room learning nonsense syllables, where he had shown a dis¬ tinct warming up toward the end of the hour. His curve was taken very soon after learning syllables and it was found to be his warmed up curve, though he had been quiet physi¬ cally all the afternoon. The curve showed no flagging at all. It was continued with no fatigue except the characteristic rise and fall of a few centimeters seen on all of his warmed up curves. This clue was followed. The subject was set to adding for twenty minutes, at his most intense mental effort and immediately afterward his curve was taken. It resulted always the same way. The warming up was apparent and his characteristic curve was registered. Learning of syllables was tried again and proved to give a somewhat more com¬ plete warming up than the adding. See Plate 4, curve No. 45 for adding effect and No. 50 for memorizing effect. In later tests a record was also taken of the respiration and pulse. It was found in every case that the respiration did not change much in rate and the changes in height are due somewhat to motions of the body other than respiratory. The pulse regularly falls from 4 to 6 beats a minute in this experiment. It would seem thus that increased respira¬ tion or pulse has no share in the phenomenon of warming up. It has been noticeable, too, in other experiments con¬ ducted in this laboratory where the subject was adding for forty minutes or learning syllables, or alternately learning and adding, that the pulse falls though there is a gain in the time required to add or learn the syllables. This experiment shows the following: 1. Warming up is general but not universal. One subject always did his best work first. He shows no warming up in mental work either. He can do his best studying the first half hour and regularly decreases. Warming Up. 27 2. Warming up is not gained with electric stimulation, while it is gained, in those who show the phenomenon, by voluntary effort. 3. A bloodless arm fatigues at the same rate as a normal arm, and some recovery or warming up is possible even then. 4. This warming up may be gained from mental activity and the effect of it shown in a muscle. It seems justifiable, then, to locate the warming up in the brain cells. Now, what happens in the cortex to produce this phenome¬ non? Four causes are suggested. 1. The use of a center may react on the local arteries and increase the blood supply and nourishment of the nerve cells. This is called hyperemia. 2. The stimulus may spread and involve a much larger area. The automatic motor impulses which may be seen to accompany any vigorous effort or new motion, may be gathered and sent along these active channels. 8. The nerve cells may discharge more vigorously when excited by products caused by the previous activity. That is, it may be a case of auto-intoxication. 4. The amoeboid motion of the nerve cells as explained by Golgi, Ramon y Cajal, Krapotkin and others, best explains this warming up. According to them the dendrites, or tree¬ like branches of the nerves, which arise from the central end of the nerve cell, tend to ball up or contract, when at rest, in sleep, etc. When some stimulus is given, these expand and make connections with their neighbors, and whole areas are thus harnessed for activity which do not respond ordinarily. In conclusion a few observations might be suggested. Orators, athletes, students and working men often are aware of this effect and practice mental or physical gymnastics, or both, when about to make an unusual effort. Some orators always excite themselves by recitation of thrilling literature and by physical efforts before meeting an audience. The effect is important on those who are influenced thus. It means, if we take the fourth explanation above, that larger areas of the brain are brought into activity. The question 28 Colorado College Studies. of " second wind " is closely allied though not the same as warming up. It is manifest that generally when people speak of getting their second wind they mean they are warmed up. This would apply always in all cases except violent exercise, like running, where both phenomena are present. There is no doubt that warming up gives better control of the muscular system in running and other violent exercise. The difficulty in breathing which passes away may be merely an adjustment of the breathing to the increased quantity of blood in the lungs caused by rapid muscular activity. Second wind, when spoken of in connection with study, speaking, and muscular activity involving only a part or few of the muscles, and in slow movements, is a misnomer. There is no such thing. It is warming up. The subject who shows no warming up in the above experiments, gets his " second wind " in running. His physical system probably can exert more power at fii'st than later, but he adjusts his breathing to the demand. The importance of warming up is greatly underestimated. If one is properly trained so that he can warm up at will he is able to use a tremendous power, even that of the insane or frightened person, and then relax to rest and recruit the ex¬ hausted nerve cells. Every one has great power, both mental and physical, that he has never used. The insane laborer may become a poet or musician of high order. What he can do at all, is in his power any time, if he were so trained as to use it. Lombroso, in his book "Genius and Insanity," tells of various things which men of genius do to get their inspira¬ tion. A great crisis, national or individual, develops, as in the case of the Polish boy, the latent possibilities in one's character and makes the Lincoln or the Grant out of the country lawyer or the tanner. The person who cannot warm up can never meet a great occasion. The person who warms up greatly and yet controls his activity may do anything within human possibilities. Not only the large motor areas of the brain come to aid the part in central use, but the sensory Warming Up. 29 areas which coincide with the motor in location in the brain are also in active coSperation. Dr. Richard H. Storrs, who was wont to pound his own upholstered pulpit, in a grand burst of eloquence struck the marble desk where he was preaching and broke two bones in his hand, but was unconscious of the fact till the sermon was over. Napoleon referred to the same thing when he said that the fate of battles was the result of an instant of latent thought. " The decisive moment appeared, the spark burst forth and one was victorious." The deep desire in the child and adolescent and in grown people to such an extent as was shown last year by the thousands who gathered in all cities to get the news from Carson City, may be a natural hunger, perhaps depraved in adults, for such excitement as will push into function new and larger brain areas. Education should mean a culture of one's potential ener¬ gies that they may become actual when occasion demands. The great public schools in England have made men as per¬ haps no other schools have done in the past century. Why? May not one reason be that they have in peculiar ways taught their students to rise to the occasion and have furnished in¬ spiration which has made possible such men as Wellington and Gladstone. The application of this problem may be wide and important if carried into all educational work. In order to do a great work we must have a highly developed brain, which can be thrown into activity quickly and as a unit of power. « EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A VISCOUS LIQUID. PEARL EUGENE DOUDNA, B. A., M. A. Historical Introduction. Two and a half centuries B. C., Archimedes (287?-212) wrote a work entitled De lis Quae Vehuntur In Humido. He maintained that every particle of a fluid mass, when in equilibrium, is equally pressed in every direction. The laws and properties of liquids were investigated by this ancient mathematician sufiiciently to enable him to devise a hydro¬ static means of determining the purity of the precious metals. He made a further practical application of the results of his studies in this direction by the invention of the screw engine, or the Archimedean screw. The Alexandrian School is accredited with the construc¬ tion of a few hydraulic machines, such as the siphon and the force pump. However, fluid motion was probably first studied by a Roman, Sextus Julius Frontinus, inspector of the public fountains at Rome in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan, about the close of the first century A. D. In his work entitled De Aquaeductibus Urbis Romae Commentarius, is found a description of the great aqueducts at Rome. Frontinus con¬ structed five new aqueducts, making in all fourteen. He also describes the methods nsed in determining the amount of water discharged from ajutages and the methods of dis¬ tributing the water of the aqueducts and fountains. He observed that the amount of water discharged depends upon the height of the water in the reservoir above the orifice as well as the area of the orifice. Fifteen centuries later Castelli (1628) advanced the theory that the velocity of discharge is proportional to the height of water in the reservoir above the orifice. Torricelli, a con¬ temporary of Castelli, observing that a small jet of water rushing from an ajutage rises to a height almost equal to Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 31 that of the water in the reservoir, concluded that the velocity of discharge is equal to the velocity which the water would acquire by falling freely through a distance the same as the height of the water above the orifice. As a result of this observation he obtained the correct relation between the velocity of discharge and the head of water (1643). Mariotte (1620?-l684), the author of a posthumous work, entitled Traitd duMouvement des Eaux et des Autres Fluides (1686), made extensive use of the theorem of Torricelli. He seems to have been the first to attempt to reconcile theory and experiment by attributing the retardation to friction. The filaments sliding along the surface of the pipe were sup¬ posed to be retarded and other filaments having a greater velocity than those near the surface were retarded by rub¬ bing against the slower ones. The retardation was supposed to be proportional to the distance from the axis of the pipe. Guglielmini, a contemporary of Mariotte, devoted himself to the study of the motion of the water in rivers and canals. He assumed that every particle in a vertical section moves with a velocity equal to the velocity of discharge from an orifice at an equal depth below the surface of the water, and explained the discrepancy between theory and fact as due to transverse currents caused by the irregularities in the bed of the stream. Later, however, when Mariotte showed that the same retardation takes place in a glass tube, where it cannot be explained by cross-currents, Guglielmini accepted the ex¬ planation of the French philosopher, but also maintained that viscosity had considerable to do in retarding the motion. In the latter part of the seventeenth century Varignon (1654-1722) gave to the Academic des Sciences de Paris a very natural and plausible explanation of the relation existing between the velocity of discharge and the head of water. Having remarked that when water flows from a cylindrical vase (vessel) through a small orifice in the bottom the water in the vase moves with a very slow and sensibly uniform motion for all the particles, he concluded that there is no accelera¬ tion and that the portion of the fluid escaping each instant receives all its movement from the pressure produced by the 32 Colorado College SxuDiES. weight of the column of fluid having the area of the orifice as a base. Therefore its weight, which is proportional to the area of the orifice multiplied by the height of the fluid in the vessel, must be proportional to the quantity of motion engen¬ dered in the particles which escape through the orifice each instant. Continuing this analysis, he finally arrives at the theorem already established by Torricelli by an entirely dif¬ ferent method. The investigation of the flow of water in rivers attracted considerable attention in Italy, probably on account of the extensive landscape gardening. Besides Guglielmini, who was inspector of rivers in Milanese, Marquis Polini deserves men¬ tion in this connection. In 1(595 he wrote De Motu Aquae Mixta, and in 1718 another work concerning the flow of water through orifices and short tubes. Newton (1642-1727) investigated the effects of friction and viscosity in diminishing the velocity of running water. In book 2, § 9, of the Princtpia, he offers the following hypothesis: The resistance which arises from the viscosity of a fluid, other things being equal, is proportional to the velocity with which the particles separate from each other. This may be said to be the fundamental principle underlying all that part of hydrodynamics which deals with viscous fluids. The vena contracta as well as the oscillation of waves seems to have been considered first by Newton. Daniel Bernoulli published his Hydrodiinamica, Sive De Viribtts et Motihus Fluidorum Commentarii, in 1788, in which he bases his theory upon the suppositions that the surface of a fluid contained in a vessel which is being emptied by an orifice remains always horizontal and that the hori¬ zontal strata always remain contiguous to each other, and that the particles descend vertically with a velocity inversely proportional to the horizontal section of the reservoir. His principle was not acceptable to his contemporaries, conse¬ quently John Bernoulli and Maclaurin each attempted to solve the problem by independent methods but did so with¬ out marked success. Jean-le-Rond D'Alembert (1717-1788), aided by the dis¬ coveries of Euler (1707-1783), took the first great step in determining the general equations of motion of a perfect Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 33 fluid. " When generalizing James Bernoulli's theory of pendulums he discovered a principle of dynamics so simple and general that it reduced the laws of motion of bodies to that of their equilibrium. He applied this principle to the motion of fluids, and gave a specimen of its application at the end of his Dynamique in 1743. It was more fully developed in his Traits Des Fluides, which was published in 1744, where he resolves, in the most simple and elegant manner, all problems which relate to the equilibrium and motion of fluids. He makes use of the very same suppositions as Daniel Bernoulli, though his calculus is established in a very differ¬ ent manner. He considers, at every instant, the actual motion of a stratum as composed,of a motion which it had in the preceding instant and of a motion which it has lost. The laws of equilibrium between the motions lost furnish him with the equations which represent the motion of the fluid. Although the science of hydrodynamics had then made con¬ siderable progress, yet it was chiefly founded on hypothesis. It remained a desideratum to express by equations the motion of a particle of fluid in any assigned direction. These equa¬ tions were found by D'Alembert from two principles: first, that a rectangular canal, taken in a mass of fluid in equi¬ librium, is itself in equilibrium; second, and that a portion of fluid, in passing from one place to another, preserves the same volume when the fluid is incompressible, or dilates itself accord¬ ing toagiven law when the fluid is elastic. His very ingenious method was published in 1752, in his Essai Sur la Resistance Des Fluides. It was brought to perfection in his Opuscules Mathematiques, and was adopted by Euler." Philosophers had attempted in vain to determine the laws of fluid motion independent of all hypotheses. However, the method of fluxions proved inadequate to the purpose, and it was only after Euler had contributed to science his calculus of partial differences that the object was reached. D 'Alembert first applied the new calculus to the motion of water, and he and Euler both succeeded in obtaining equations of motion for a perfect fluid restricted by no particular hypothesis. Chevalier Dubuat, a French engineer, published in 1786 a very satisfactory theory of the motion of a fluid, based upon the experiments of himself and others. " He considered that if water were a perfect fluid, and the channels in which it 34 Colorado College Studies. flows inflnitely smooth, its motion would be continually ac¬ celerated, like that of bodies descending on inclined planes. But since the motion of rivers is not accelerated, and soon arrives at a state of uniformity, it is evident that the viscosity of the water and the friction of the channel in which it de¬ scends must equal the accelerating force. Dubuat, therefore, assumes it as a proposition of fundamental importance, when water flows in any channel or bed, that the accelerating force which obliges it to move is equal to all the resistances which it meets with, whether they arise from the viscosity or from the friction of the bed." In 1779 Abb6 Bossut conducted very extensive investiga¬ tions to determine the amount of retardation in pipes due to adhesion and friction. He reached the conclusion that with pipes of the same length the discharge is proportional to the diameter, and when the diameters are equal the discharge is inversely proportional to the square root of the length. The general equations of motion are so complex that little could be done with them. This resulted in the numerous efforts which were made by one class of investigators, such as Dubuat, Bossut and Prony, to develop by experiment sim¬ pler formulas for the velocity of running water. However, the more theoretical mathematicians, among whom were Lagrange, Laplace, and Poisson, endeavored to obtain solu¬ tions for the equations of D 'Alembert, and thus solve the various problems of hydrodynamics. These men, together with other eminent mathematicians of both France and Great Britain, devoted much time to the investigation of waves and tides. Navier (1785-1836) was probably the flrst to offer equa¬ tions of motion for a viscous fluid (1822). He bases his in¬ vestigation upon the following suppositions: The fluid is com¬ posed of ultimate molecules, acting upon each other with forces which, when the fluid is at rest, are functions simply of the distance, but when the molecules recede from or approach each other are modified by this circumstance so that two molecules repel each other less strongly when they are reced¬ ing and more strongly when they are approaching each other than when they are at rest; and the alteration in the attrac- Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 35 tion or repulsion is supposed to be proportional to the veloc¬ ity with which the molecules, separated by a given distance, are approaching or receding from each other. A second sup¬ position involves the symmetrical arrangement of the particles. Navier dealt only with an. incompressible fluid, and arrived at the following equations: If dp __ ^ /du' du^ didX \_Su P \da: \dx^ dy' dzy) 8t and the other two can be written by making similar changes in the corresponding equations for a perfect fluid. A is a coustaut, depending on the nature of the fluid. The other terms are the same as those used in the following pages. Poisson (1781-1840) derived equations not only for an incompressible fluid, but also for an elastic fluid in which the change in density is small. He treated the subject from the staudpoint of an elastic solid, supposing the fluid to be continually beginning to be displaced like an elastic solid, and continually rearranging itself so as to make the pressure equal in all directions, as is the case with a fluid at rest. His equations are written thus: ^ 1/dp ^fdv^ did dn\ d/du ^dv _^dw\\_Su /> \da; \dx^ dy^ dz') dx\dx dy dz) J H with the other two to correspond. For an incompressible fluid these agree with those ob¬ tained by Navier, since in that case the expression for cubical expansion disappears. It is to be noticed that both the fore¬ going methods involve a consideration of the ultimate mole¬ cules of the fluid. Barr6 de St. Venant (1797-1886) flrst succeeded in ob¬ taining the equations independent of any consideration of the' ultimate molecules. He attempted to connect the oblique pressures in different directions about a point with the differential coefficents etc., which express the rel- dx dy ative motion of the fluid particles in the immediate neighbor¬ hood of the pflint, by assuming the tangential force on a plane passing through the point to be in the direction of the prin¬ cipal sliding along that plane. He then employs theorems 86 Colorado College Studies. by Cauchy, connecting the pressures in diflferet directions in any fluid, to show that the tangential force in any direction along a plane is proportional to the sliding along the same plane resolved in the same direction. He published this theory in 1843. In 1845 G.G. Stokes derived the same equations as Poisson, but found that A=dB. He based his investigation upon three principal hypotheses: "First, that the difference between the pressures on a plane in a given direction passing through a given point P of a fluid in motion and the pressure which would exist in all directions about P if the fluid in its neigh¬ borhood were in a state of relative equilibrium depends only on the relative motion of the fluid immediately about P; that the relative motion due to any motion of rotation may be eliminated without affecting the differences of the pressures above mentioned." (Stokes.) He then arrives at the con¬ clusion that the stresses due to viscosity are functions of the rates of strain. After speculating as to the molecular consti¬ tution of the fluid, he arrives at the hypothesis that these are linear functions. This is his second hypothesis. For gases he introduces a third: " When a gas is expanding equally in all directions, the stresses P, Q and R are the same as if the fluid were frictionless." * # * * In his report to the British Association in 1846 "On Kecent Researches in Hy¬ drodynamics," Stokes claims that the principal feature of his investigation consists in eliminating from the relative motion of a fluid about any particular point the relative motion which corresponds to a certain motion of rotation and examining the nature of the relative motion which remains; and that the method employed does not necessarily require the con¬ sideration of the ultimate molecules. The second assumption of Stokes is not altogether satis¬ factory, since it rests upon the supposition that the velocity is small. In 1861 O. E. Meyer derived the ordinary equations if B=0, which, according to other investigators prior to this time, are true only for an incompressible fluid. Equations of Motion of, a Viscous Liquid. 37 He begins his investigation after some preliminary con¬ siderations with the following statement: "The internalfric- tion of a fluid takes place between the different strata of the same fluid, and is proportional to the differential coefficient of the velocity along the normal to the plane separating the strata." But this hypothesis explains only six of his nine initial expressions. For instance, if we take the three initial expressions for the retarding forces parallel to the x axis, viz., du , , —n — dij dz, dx dit , , —11 — dz dx, dy du , , —n — dx dy, dz the second and third readily follow from the hypothesis, but the first has no definite meaning, unless we extend his hy¬ pothesis, as W. M. Hicks has interpreted it in the British Association Report for 1881, so that it reads: " The friction on a small plane in a given direction in the plane is propor¬ tional to the rate of variation perpendicular to the plane of the component of the velocity in the given direction, whilst there is a normal part proportional to the rate of variation perpendicular to the plane of the component perpendicular to this plane." The subject has been investigated by Stefan (1862), and later by Maxwell, Levy, Klutz, and Butcher, without adding materially to what had been done already. However, the work of Maxwell resulted in the determina¬ tion of the constant called the coefficient of viscosity. Fol¬ lowing Maxwell, numerous experiments have been made for the purpose of determining the value of the coefficient of viscosity. Helmholtz, Piotrowski, Maxwell, Meyer, and Poissenille may be named as having made the most elaborate series of experiments. Lamb, in ^is Treatise on Fluids (1879), derives the equa. tions of motion for a viscous fluid by a method based on those of St. Venant and Stokes. Basset, in 1888, published 38 CoLOEADO College Studies. A Treatise on Hydrodynamics, in which he uses Stokes' method. Both authors accept the second hypothesis of Stokes, so that we have no assurance that their equations hold, except in the case of slow motion. Both fully realize this, and re¬ stricted the application of their results accordingly. Of all methods so far, that of Stokes has received the most general approval. In the following paper we have derived the equations for the motion of a perfect fluid in order that we might extend the same methods as far as possible in obtaining the equa¬ tions for a viscous liquid (the discussion is limited to an incompressible fluid, or liquid). The second section is devoted to the consideration of a viscous liquid. The dis¬ cussion is based upon the definition of the coetflcient of vis¬ cosity as agreed upon by experimental physicists. Then by comparing the motion of a viscous liquid with that of a perfect liquid we are enabled to give a deflnite meaning to all nine of the initial expressions obtained by Meyer. To obtain the equations referred to cylindrical and spherical coordinates we have not used the method of transformation, but have derived them by analysis similar to that used in determining the equations when referred to rectangular coordinates. By this method a deflnite meaning attaches to each term in the result¬ ing equations. This part of the subject is given in Sections 8 and 4, and will appear in a later issue of the Colorado Col¬ lege Studies. The essential features of Sections 1 and 2 were completed before April 1,1895; of Sections 3 and 4 before June 1, 1896. The notes at the end of Section 4 were added during the spring of 1897. Works consnlted in preparing this historical sketch: Encyclopaedia Britannica, ninth edition; subject. Hydromechanics. British Association Reports. Report on the Recent Researches in Hy¬ drodynamics, by Stokes, ISiti; by Hicks, 1881. Works on Hydrodynamics, by Lamb and by Basset. Pamphlets on Internal Friction of Fluids, by O. E. Meyer. Stokes' Papers. Newton's Principia. Penny Encyclopaedia; subject. Hydrodynamics. Cajori's History of Mathematics. Lagrange's Mechanique Analitique. Equations of Motion op a Viscous Liquid. 39 Derivation of Equations. Section I.—Equations of motion of a perfect fluid. D'Alembert's Principle: Since D'Alembert's Principle is used so frequently in what follows, it may be well to say by way of explanation of this principle that its use means the equating of Impressed Force—Pressure—Expressed Force to the forces lost through friction. An Ideal Fluid.—With this as with other problems, it is easier to consider first the ideal condition. An ideal fluid is one in which there is no friction; the particles move by one another without causing any mutual retardation; hence without any loss of energy. The Derivation of the Equations of Motion of a Perfect Fluid.—To derive the equations of motion of a perfect fluid is a comparatively easy matter. Let A D {Fig 1) represent an element of such fluid; x,y,z be the coordinates of the point A; AG, A B, and A H equal to dx, dy, and dz respectively; X, Y, and Z the impressed forces in directions x, y, and z-, and «, v, and w the velocities 40 Colorado College Studies. in the same directions; and finally let p represent the pres¬ sure at the point (x, y, z) and m the mass of the element. From the conditions of the problem u=f{x,ij,z,t) and it follows immediately that du fill , flu , flu , du , —=-- + u t-v—+2C—=Jx- St dt dx dy dz This last is an expression for the effective or expressed force dv in the direction of the x axis. In a similar notation —, orfy St and —, or fz represent the effective forces in the direction St of the y and z axes respectively. The total impressed forces are mX, mY, and mZ; the total effective forces mf^, mfy^ fnfz; the pressures on the faces AC, AE, and AF are p dy dz, p dy fix, and p dx dz respec¬ tively; on the faces opposite these the pressures are p dy dz-f — dx dy dz,pdy dx+^dz dy dx, andjp dxdz-\- — dydx dz. dx dz dy The excesses of pressure on the opposite faces are: ^ dx dy dz, — dx dy dz, and — dx dy dz. dx dz dy Since the hypothesis excludes the possibility of any loss through friction, we have now considered all the forces in¬ volved. Equating separately the forces acting in the direc¬ tion of each axis by D'Alembert's principle, we obtain the following equations: mX—mfx —— dx dy dz=0 dx niY—mfy — —- dx dy dz=0 dy mZ—mfz — — dx dy dz=0 dz Substituting for m its value p dx dy dz in which p repre¬ sents the density of the fiuid, and then dividing by dx dy dz, the resulting equations are: Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 41 Xp-U-^=0 ax Yp-fyP-^ = 0 dy Zp-f,p-^=0, dz or as usually written: „ dp Su ui. pdx H Y— pdy St Z— ^P pdz St So far we have obtained three relations between the five quantities u, v, w, p, and p. When these equations are used in application to an incompressible fluid, p is constant; but when gases are under consideration, a fourth equation is supplied by Boyle's Law, p=kp. Continuity.—The condition of continuity furnishes a fifth equation. If the fluid be continuous, then the increase within a given space during any given time must equal the excess of inflow over outflow across the boundaries in the given time. The mass of fluid contained by the element at any mo¬ ment, is p and its increase in the time dt is — dt dx dy dz. dt The flow over the surface dy dz in time dt is u p dt dy dz and the flow over the opposite face is u p dt dy dz+ dt dy dz dx, ^ dx giving an increase in the element of dt dx dy dz. dx 42 Colorado College Studies. Similarily the increments in the directions of the y and z axes are found to be ^ dt dx dy dz dy dt dx dy dz. dz ^ Equating the whole increment to the partial increments and dividing by dt dx dy dz, we obtain dp d{up) ^d{vp) ^d(iop) dt dx dy dz But for an incompressible fluid, p being constant, this becomes du_^dv_^dw_Q dx dy dz Section II.— The Equations of Motion of a Fiscoms Fliiid. Having determined the equations of motion of a perfect fluid when referred to rectangular coordinates, we will now consider a viscous fluid. This consideration will combine those forces already dealt with in the case of a perfect fluid and the forces lost through internal friction. The problem is to determine the relations existing between these lost forces and the velocities. Coefficient of Viscosity.—It is necessary at this point to It AE D It represents the initial position of an element Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 43 subjected to a shearing force exerted parallel to the planes of the strata, e. g. plane ATRB, such that the element takes the form AMG R, the coefficient of viscosity is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress to shear per unit of time. Putting this definition in the form of an equation, we have shearing stress _ shear per unit of time in which fi is the coefficient of viscosity; or shearing stress =fi X shear per unit of time. Let u be the velocity in the direc¬ tion of A Bj and the point A be located by x, y, z; the sides of the element be dx, dy, dz. Then u=f{x, y, z) du —=f^{x, y, 2:)=rate of normal displacement dy along y. This force acts upon the surface of the element dx dz. Hence the shearing force on this surface is F=ti—dx dz. dy The force on the opposite face is F^=!x— dx dz+fjt^^dx dz dy. dy dy' The difference of the forces on the opposite faces of the element considered is the retarding force due to the viscosity of the fluid. Derivation of the Equations.—Sufficient has now been said to proceed to the derivation of the equations. We shall take up this problem in much the same way that we did the prob¬ lem of a perfect fluid. But this new element of viscosity must be taken into account. It is evident that our equations, when derived, must be the same as those already obtained for a perfect flui^ with terms attached to account for the retardation due to viscosity. For if in our new equations be equated to zero the equations of a perfect fluid must remain. 44 Colorado College Studies. Forces to he Equated.—The forces to be equated are Impressed force, Pressure, Effective force, and Retarding force, or force lost, which give, when equated, impressed force—pressure—effective force= —retarding force, or, in the more usual form, impressed force—pressure+retarding force= effective force. It is to be noticed that the sense in which the retarding force is taken is opposite that in which the impressed force is taken. Rectangular Co-ordinates.—Take an element PB, the co¬ ordinates of the point R being x, y, z and the dimensions of the element being dx, dy, dz. Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 45 Suppose the velocity uniform in the direction of x. Then any parallelopiped, such as AB, would move as a solid; but the element is composed of a great many such parallelepipeds. If the velocity in the direction of x varies as we pass from R to K, the layers in slipping by each other will produce mutual retardation. The rate of change in u along the nor¬ mal to its direction is dti dy From the definition of viscosity it follows that the shearing force upon the face SB \& du , , ft — ax az, dy and that upon the opposite face is du , , , d^u , , , ft— dx dz+ft— dx dz dy, dy df indicating a loss of force within the element equal to d^u - - , ft dx dy dz. df In a similar manner we find the retardation upon the face dy dx to be du , , ft — dx dy, dz and on the opposite face to be du , , , d^u , , , ft— dx dy-\-u— dx dy dz, dz dz^ showing a loss within the element of d'u , , , ft — dx dy dz. dz^ All of the loss within the element is now accounted for, provided the v^ocity in the direction of x is uniform. It remains to examine the effect of an accelerating force along the axis x. To simplify the problem, suppose the motion two 46 CoLOKADO College Studies. dimensional. In this case it is necessary to consider only a section, such as .4C (Fig. 6). FIG. 6. Suppose under certain conditions a certain motion exists at B. If the fluid is perfect a certain amount will flow into the parallelogram .4C across the line AE, due to the accelera¬ tion of the velocity u. ED represents the whole increase of inflow at E over that at A. But ED=AB-DC. AB u DC u AB, and that across DC. AB-DC , u being the velocity across By composition u—u AB which represents the distance of inflow at E when a unit length of AB is considered. The time of inflow is di, hence AB—DC —u AB dt u^dt gives the rate of displacement in the direction of .v. dt\ J dt\ td) dt\ u + du) did \ u u' w _ 1 /du did ^did did did du u' i-slo.)] + etc dt\ii vd id id Since this series converges very rapidly, unless the in- ) Equations of Motion of a Viscous Liquid. 47 crease in motion is very great all of the terms except the first may be dropped. This gives 1 /;ion, 21 Dr. F. W. Cragin. (8) Buchiceras ( Sphenodiscus) Belviderensis and its Varieties, 27 Dr. F. W. Cragin. (4) The Number Concept, i>2 Dr. Florian Ca,tori. EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A PERFECT LIQUID AND A VISCOUS LIQUID, WHEN REFERRED TO CYLINDRICAL AND POLAR CO- ORDINATfisS X > S ^ -H-V v>F by p. e. doudna,* a. m. _ , rr- ^ . r < , At^-b-i-hN^SX. (Continued from Vol. VII, p. 48.) Equations of a Perfect Liquid. Cylindrical Co-ordinates: The equations of motion of a perfect fluid when referred to cylindrical coordinates may be derived from those already obtained for rectangular co¬ ordinates by transformation. The following, however, is a more satisfactory method in so much as it gives a definite interpretation to each term appearing in the resulting equa¬ tions. Moreover, the method to be applied in the derivation of the equations when referred to cylindrical coordinates and polar coordinates forms the basis of several important prin¬ ciples involved in the derivation of the equations of motion of a viscous fluid referred to the same systems of coordinates. The velocities u, v, w, and the impressed forces X, Y, Z have the directions of r, 0, and z, respectively; v is angular velocity. Xp r do dz (/r=impressed force in the direction,of r. * Died at Colorado Springs, January 6,1900. 2 Colorado College Studies. • • — pr do dz dr=effective force in same direction due to St an acceleration in the velocity u. The velocity v through centrifugal force contributes to the effective force in this direction , j j * —V p r do dz dr.* The velocity w can have no influence upon the forces in the direction of r. —— rdo dz dr dr is the difference in pressure on the two faces C K and D M. Equating by D'Alembert's Principle, we have Xp rdo dz dr—^^rdo dz dr -p rdO dz dr+v'p r'do dz dr=0. dr St Dividing by p rdo dz dr and transposing, this equation be¬ comes dp Su X —= uV. pdr St Similarly for the forces acting in the direction of 0 Yp rdo dz dr=impressed force, r—p rdo dz d?'=effective force St contributed by acceleration in v. dif} ——rdo dz dr=difference in the pressures on rdo the opposite faces. But there is still another resulting force acting in this direction due to the fact that while a particle * If there were no motion in the direction of r, a force directed toward the center would be necessary to maintain the configuration of the element. This force would be dp v'p r'do dz dr—~ rdO dz dr. dr Since motion along r is in a straight line, it follows from Newton's sec¬ ond law that, if the velocity in that direction is uniform, the above relation still holds. If the motion in this direction is accelerated, — P rdo dz dr=Xp rdO dz dr+ifp r^dO dz di—— rdO dz dr, St dr Su , J dp or —=X+vr— St rdr Equations of Motion. 8 is being carried in the direction 6 it is also being carried in the direction of r by the velocity u; consequently, at the end of the time dl it will have fallen behind by an amount equal to {r-\-dr) do—rdo or dr dO. From physics, s=\ fV ._2 s 7-y, where/= acceleration, s the space described, and t the time. Substituting, dr do f=z =2 iiv* dr which is the force due to this fall, multiplying by prdO dr dz we get for the total of this force 2 uv prdo dr dz. The velocity along 2 as before contributes no component to the forces in this direction. Equating the forces found and simplifying, we get T-, dp Ov , n ^ —r—\-2.uv. prdo ot Neither u nor v can contribute a component to the forces acting in the direction of the 2 axis, therefore the equation of these forces will be identical with the corresponding equa¬ tion for rectangular coordinates. * If from an elevation on a uniformly rotating body a particle falls towards the axis of rotation it constantly gains angular velocity with¬ out the application of any force in the direction of o- This is true of falling bodies on the surface of the earth. A rotating body, if contract¬ ing, would increase its angular velocity. To maintain the motion uniform under such conditions, a force must act in the direction op¬ posite to the direction of motion. This force is * dp 2 uvp rdo dz dr —rdO dr dz. rdo If such a force were acting the configuration of the element would be maintained. If the motion were from instead of toward the center an opposite force would be necessary to keep the velocity uniform or to maintain the configuration of the element. Colorado College Studies. Collecting the results just obtained, we have (Jp _ 'hi X- pdr 'U —vr, dp '5(J „ Y — = r 1-2 nv, prd 0 = dr the difference in pressure on the two opposite faces. Equating and transposing as before dp ^11 i ■ in 2 X —= rv—r s\n Ow . pdr St With reference to the direction of 0, we have E"m=impressed force, r—j?j=efifective force due to the acceleration St in angular velocity v. dt) />-^TO=difference in pressure on the opposite faces. rdO Since as a particle moves from to it is carried by u the distance ER, it falls behind by an amount equal to dr do, which, when expressed in terms of force, is equivalent to 2 uv (see note, p. 3). Multiplying by mass, 2 uv m represents the component of effective force contributed by the combined action of u and v; iv cannot exert an effective force such as this, since the particle always moves in the same parallel, but it does exert a centrifugal force in the direction of 6, or rather there is an effective component of the centri¬ fugal force acting in the direction of 0 due to w. We already know (see abov«) that the centrifugal force due to w along OD is —r sin 6 io\ Since the tangent to EF at E makes an angle 0 with OD, the component of — r sin 0 w' 6 Colorado College Studies. along the tangent is —r sin 0 cos 0 Multiplying by mass, we have —r sin 0 cos 0 vfm. Equating and simplifying, the resulting equation is Y—+ 2 uv—r sin 0 cos 0 vf. prd0 8t The forces along the

sin^) , d(r Bm0irp) . „ — sm 0=— sm 0^— —sm 0-, dt r^dr rd0 » r sin. 0d

.f(Vu 2du 2jA 2 . . 7 la ] (1) - — + ^ ) r' sin Od

I dihi , du coi 0 2dv 2v , , (2) -( 1 cot 0 r' sin Od

'■( ■ dx St' & ^ J F— 1 I pdy St' "s" i ^ dp _Sw an co < z t—4 Q « o I o O ■< P o s? c u pc3 { X- L pdz St ^ I 2 " o CO pdx dp St St) . f pdy St pdz St UP 11 d'li dz'J \ dx^ dy' 'd'v d'v 1 ^dx' df . dz'f ./d'w 1 d'w d'tv' dy' dz\ Viscons Liquid. Perfect Liquid. N to Si. .-V •*> S C3 CD -d CO + S" 5" CD a. + P* -i 03 5" C a Si . <35 s" Si. to -s. + 5* CO 5' o to to o o I cs CD p' lO Si. -s R- -s s^ S:~ to 5 Si. la- -i I « + Vs Si. + 03 5" Si. -s CO 1-^ • P I ^ I s + to CD ^ • P Sr to to sT + to o o CD a- Cs? ^S» I ^ + to CD P" O O CD <3i -i r; r •o CD B' Ki Viscous Liquid. Perfect Liquid. , ^ ^ ' — tSi N >- S I's -5 M "5" <5 rs a- c., I + to 5 I Si. ■e Si I g I's to ~ a. C fsi to II I aj I 1 to Si. Si I (s"' -l- to O o t-l o w > o o O o t-l Pd o H oo r! O HH H cc Equations of Motion. 15 Equations of Continuity for a Liquid. Kectangular co-ordinates, —+— + — =0, dx dy dz Cylindrical co-ordinates, ^ -fu——=0, dr do dz •D 1 T 1 d{u7-') . „ , d{vsmO) dw . ^ _ roiar co-ordinates, ^ sin d-\— H sin ^=0. Cdr do d

— H—results from r coid (see page 11), rdf) r sin '^0 d'w dv results from r sin -Od\ rdoy disappearing, since u=0. disappearing, since this motion is two dimentional. Since the angular velocity of rotation is small, squares and products of the velocities may be omitted, hence — becomes 'U after the rotation has continued long enough for the mo- dt tion of the fluid to become steady, —=0, This last is on the dt supposition that the velocity of rotation is not accelerated; and since the motion is symmetrical to the axis of the cylin- (T^ V der, becomes 0. The final form for the motion, where rdo' 20 Colorado College Studies. angular velocity is constant, is „ d'c „(/c 0=r ho—. dd dr Solving 7'v=kr+ — r At an infinite distance ru is insensible, consequently /v-=0, c rv=-, r I c av = —, a c=(dv\ fdd r But if we consider the cylinder as filled with liquid and con¬ sider the motion of this inclosed liquid, c=0, av^=ka, k = 7-\ where is angular velocity of cylinder. Hence the inclosed fluid moves as a solid body.—(See Basset, p. 282, Vol. 2.) Colorado Collec^e Studies. Volume VIII, Plate II. Colorado College Studies. Volume VIII, Plate I. THE CAPRICORNS, MAMMALS OF AN ASIATIC TYPE, FORMER INHABITANTS OF THE PIKE'S PEAK REGION. [X popular lecture delivered before the Colorado College Scientific Society on the :i7th of October, I8fl9, and here reprinted with some revision from tlie Colorado Springs Gazette of November 12th, 1899.] By F. W. Cragin. As most of my audience are aware, the granite of the Rocky Mountains, though commonly building our highest peaks, has been raised to such elevated positions from an origin deep down in the earth's crust beneath the stratified rocks. These latter members of the earth-crust have been depos¬ ited almost wholly by water, largely oceanic, in small part fresh, as mechanical, chemical and organic sediments, long since consolidated into rock, that covered the granite like a series of thick, more or less nearly horizontal blankets. The upward movement is attested by a thousand basset edges of strata, of which the Gateway of the Garden of the Gods and the hog-backs north and south of Colorado City are conspicuous examples, upturned by the ascending portion of the granite, and which still are seen, though profoundly cut down and reduced to the merest remnants, the mountain- blanket having been almost wholly cut away in the case of Pike's Peak itself, by erosion. The granite and its burden of stratified rocks were thrown into mountain folds in the region of the Rockies chiefly at the close of the Cretaceous age, the last of the three ages of the great Mesozoic era; which means that, for the most part, the Rocky Mountains were born at the end of the ocean's sway over interior North America, though that sway, prior to that time, had tiot been uninterrupted, for the Pike's Peak region stood above the sea during parts of at least three earlier geological ages — the Devonian, the Carboniferous and the Jurassic — and probably during parts, also, of others, as is witnessed by the absence from it of Devonian rocks (sedi¬ ments), the presence near Manitou of thick Carboniferous 22 Colorado College Studies. • beach-deposits, and the fact that the Jurassic is represented here solely by a great fresh-water lake deposit in whose border-muds, near Canon City, Colorado City and Morrison and elsewhere, bones of huge walking reptiles, the Dinosaurs, including some, like Atlantosaurus and its allies, eighty or perhaps even one hundred feet long, the most ponderous land animals known ever to have trod the earth, have lain stranded to the present day. Of all the stratified rock-systems represented at the east¬ ern base of our front-range, the Manitou limestone, of Silurian age, is nearly the oldest, only one, the underlying formation of red sandstone, gravel and lime, which, from its deep-green glauconitic variegations and its typical occurrence about Rainbow Falls, may well be called the Rainbow formation, belonging to an earlier age, the Cambrian. The extensive system of caves found in the Manitou limestone, and of which the Pickett cave, or Cave of the Winds, and the Grand Cav¬ erns, besides several smaller caves, are a part, have been made primarily by the solvent and secondarily by the transporting action of carboiiic-acid-laden waters that formerly circulated through the joints and other fissures of the limestone. Sub¬ sequently, as happens to most caves sooner or later, those of the Manitou limestone have been to a greater or less extent filled with a reddish sediment, known as cave-earth, which it is necessary to remove in order to display the subterranean galleries and chambers in anything like their original dimen¬ sions. The cave-earth in many instances is barren, or con¬ tains only sparingly the remains of recent animals; but in others it yields the bones of extinct animals, throwing light on the history of both the cave and the surrounding region. In having the cave-earth removed from a cave in this lime¬ stone in Glen Eyrie a few years since. General Palmer saved, "with his usual foresight, the organic remains, consisting of a number of bones, thrown out with the earth by the workmen, and these he very kindly submitted to me for determination. Two of the specimens were at once recognized as proximal phalanges of an extinct species of Horse, whose remains occur abundantly elsewhere with those of Elephants, bulky, armored Ground-sloths,Llamas as large as Camels, Saber-toothed Tigers The Capkicobns, Mammals of an Asiatic Type. 23 and other extinct animals of late Pliocene to Pleistocene age. The other remains found in the cave at Glen Eyrie were iden¬ tified last summer, when I was first able to compare them with extensive series of skeletons in the United States National Museum. The smaller bones — a jaw and two femurs—were soon found to belong to a species of Woodchuck, different from the common one of eastern North America, and not im¬ probably so from the Yellow-bellied Woodchuck, which is the present sjiecies of the central Rocky Mountains. The large bones pertained to the right fore limb of a young ruminant, or two-toed ungulate, which some ancient beast of prey had doubtless dragged into the cave as a choice morsel to feed upon at leisure. They were humerus and cannon-bone (metacarpus), in which part of the epiphyses were missing, not yet having united with the shaft. It was at first thought that they might have pertained to a Rocky Mountain Sheep, or Big-horn. From the skeleton of this, however, they widely differed, as they also did from the Mountain Goat of North¬ western America, and from skeleton after skeleton with which they were compared, until the whole range of modern two- toed ungulates of North America had been gone over. Then Asiatic forms were tried, and it was soon found that the bones closely agreed with those of the Capricorns, or Goat-antelopes, a genus of animals technically known as Nemorhccdus, and represented to-day by several siiecies living in the Himalayas and other mountains of Asia, Japan and Formosa. They be¬ long to the family Bovidae, which includes also the Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Antelopes. They are intermediate in their characters between the Goats and Antelopes, whence the alternative name. Goat-antelopes; they are also sometimes called Mountain Antelopes. It is interesting to note that they range at altitudes of 3,000 to 8,000 feet, the cave at Glen Eyrie being within these limits. There are tw^ sections of the genus Nemorhozdus. One includes clumsier built animals, which, however, resemble the deer in having a tear-pit in the face, and which are solitary in habit; these are the Serows, of the sub-genus Cupricornis. The other, of the section or sub-genus Kemas, includes the graceful forms, the Gorals, which lack tear-pits, and go in 24 Colorado College Studies. small parties. It is impossible, in the absence of a skull from the Glen Eyrie material, to be quite sure whether the particular Capricorn that inhabited the Pike's Peak region was a Serow or a Goral. Of the Serows, the osteological col¬ lections of the National Museum included ^ skull, but no skeleton; but the agreement of the two limb-bones with the corresponding ones of the species of Goral in the museum {Nemorhcedtis cn'sjius, or Kemas crispiis, of Japan) is such that the slight differences can hardly be considered of more than specific value, and it seems probable that our Eocky Mountain Goat-antelope was a Goral. A glance, therefore, at the species of Goral that inhabits an interior mountain region of Asia corresponding with ours of North America may be of interest. The following account of the Goral of the Himalaya is derived in part from Jerdon's " Mammals of India " and in part from Lydekker's " Chapters on Hoofed Animals." The animal is very caprine in appearance, the back some¬ what arched, the limbs stout and moderately long. It is well adapted for both climbing and jumping. It stands some twenty-seven to thirty inches high at the shoulder, the head and body measuring fifty, the tail four, and the horns eight inches in length. The horns, which are present in both sexes, and only a little larger in the male than in the female, incline backward and slightly inward, and are a little re¬ curved; they are shorter than the skull, black in color, round in cross-section, and ornamented with twenty to twenty-five encircling raised folds. The fur is somewhat rough, of two kinds of hair, and there is a short, semi-erect mane in the male. The color is brown, with a more or less decided gray or ruddy tinge, a little lighter beneath. The throat is white. A dark line runs down the back from crown to tail, and the front surfaces of the legs are also marked with dark streaks. Though found considerably higher and lower, the Himalayan Gorals are commonest at elevations of 5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level. They inhabit rugged, grassy hills and rocky ground in the midst of forests, and are usually found in small family parties of three to eight. If one Goral is seen, you may be pretty sure that others are not far off. They rarely or never The Capeicorns, Mammals of an Asiatic Type, 25 forsake their own feeding grounds. In cloudy weather they feed at all hours of the day; in fair weather, only morning and evening. When one is alarmed it gives a short hissing sound, which is answered by all within hearing. Goral stalk¬ ing is with many a favorite sport in the middle ranges of the Himalaya. The illustration of the Himalayan Goral herewith given is enlarged from Lydekker's work above cited; for the use of it here I am indebted to the Colorado Springs Gazette. Himalayan Goral. If the range,of the Pike's Peak Capricorn corresponded nearly with that of the Himalayan, and the cave of the Cap¬ ricorn-eating carnivore was conveniently located within the zone of greatest abundance of the quarry—5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level—the Rocky Mountain plateau must have stood something like one or two thousand feet lower in its Capri- 26 CoLOKADO College Studies. corn epoch than to-day, as the present elevation of the cave approaches 7,000 feet. And as the two conditions above predicated are those most likely to have prevailed, it seems quite probable that Nemorhoedus as an element of the North American fauna, belonged to the Champlain phase of the Glacial epoch. Though the differences may be due to variant conditions of preservation in the cave-earth in which they were imbedded, and hence not significant of difference in age, the Horse phalanges from the cave at Glen Eyrie are darker, heavier, and much more thoroughly mineralized than the bones of the Capricorn, and are, seemingly, much older. They belong, however, to rather a slender-limbed type of Equus that occurs in Kansas in deposits which are probably late Pliocene or early Postpliocene, and thus tend to show that the caves in the Manitou limestone date back at least as far as the begin¬ ning of the Quaternary, and not improbably had their origin in the later part of the Tertiary age. The finding of Goat-Antelopes as members of the Pleisto¬ cene or earlier fauna of the Rocky Mountains was quite un¬ expected, but is no more remarkable than that Elephants, which, not only by present habitat but also by the very place of their origin from the Mastodon stock, are Asiatic types, abounded in Pleistocene times throughout North America, to which the Asiatic fauna doubtless had measurable access by way of lands now interrupted in the vicinity of Behring's Straits. The Asiatic Mammoth occurs in transsierran Amer¬ ica, and Elephant remains of an extinct species related to the Mammoth and to the Modern Asiatic, rather than the African Elephant, are common on the Great Plains, and not rare in the old river gravels which underlie Denver, Colorado Springs and Colorado City, and have been found as high in the Rocky Mountains at least as the bogs of Grassy Gulch, in the Cripple Creek district. It serves to show how imper¬ fect still is our knowledge of even the most recent chapters of the earth's history, to emphasize the interest of the great stone book of nature which too often we pass by without an attempt to read, and to show how the darkest cave, carefully studied, may prove a torch to illumine a page of that book as well as its own mystic interior. BUCHICERAS (SPHENODISCUS) BELVIDERENSIS AND ITS VARIETIES. By F. W. Cbagin. SpHENODISCUS BELVIDERENSIS. Crag. Shell of medium size, flattish-lenticular, the venter (per¬ iphery) truncate, narrowly so on the younger whorls, broadly and less sharply and less evenly so on the oldest one, particu¬ larly on the body-chamber; body-chamber occupying three- eighths to one-half of a volution; umbilicus narrow, the greater part of the height of the second whorl being embraced within one-third to one-half of that of the body-chamber; suture "■ ceratitic," much like that of Sphenodiscus pedernalis^ Von Buch, the part corresponding to the outer saddle of (strictly so-called) Buchiceras being divided into five saddles by means of four leaves, of which the very unequal outer two are much smaller than the subequal inner two; all of the saddles of the suture rounded to flattish or, in case of some of the inner ones, emarginate at fundus, some symmetrically, some ob¬ liquely so, and all much broader than the leaves, excepting the next to the outermost of those formed by the lobing of the outer buchiceran saddle; the leaves little cleft at the summit; ornamentation of the shell consisting usually of at least two revolving series of low tubercles on either side: one just outside of the umbilical shoulder, and consisting of few tubercles, one or two of the newer of which sometimes be¬ come more prominent than any other tubercles on the shell; the other, presented ventrally on the ventro-lateral margin, and consisting of numerous tubercles so compressed as to trend with that margin, and so arranged that those of the right alternate with those of the left margin, half (consisting of every other one) of these tubercles constituting the termini of broadly and feebly accentuated lateral ribs, which are con¬ fined to the outer part of the flank, and at whose inner ends (one at the end of each) the very low and diffuse tubercles of a third revolving series may be developed. 28 Colorado College Studies. Measurements.— The shell of this ammonite attains a height of at least 125 mm.; that of the body-chamber about half as much. Occurrence and History.—In Texas this is the common¬ est Sphenodiscus of the Comanche Peak limestone; and in Kansas it is, so far as the writer has observed, the only rep¬ resentative of its genus in the Champion shell-bed and the Kiowa shales, being associated there with the common Fred¬ ericksburg and Kiowa ammonite, Schloenbachia peruviana, Von Buch. All of the truncate Sphenodisci hitherto found either in the Comanche Peak limestone and Champion shell- bed, or in later rocks of the Comanche series, are here pro¬ visionally included under this species, though some of the supposed varieties may prove to be distinct, and some are doubtless of sti-atigraphic importance. Messrs. Stanton and Hill have recently* called attention to the fact that a Sphenodiscus differing from S. pedernalis. Von Buch, by its truncate venter, occurs in the Belvidere beds of Southern Kansas.f I had observed the same fact in 1889, as witnessed by figures 1, 2 of Plate I, here reproduced from rough lead-pencil sketches which I made at that time, of a Champion shell-bed specimen that I was once inclined to separate from S. pedernalis and describe as new. I after¬ ward gained the impression that the truncate character of the periphery was inconstant, and did not signify a species distinct from S. pedernalis, but only a variety. Hence the broad use that I have generally made of the name Sphenod¬ iscus pedernalis. I now agree fully with the above-cited statement of Messrs. Stanton and Hill, and confirm also my own former supposi¬ tion of the distinctness of these truncate Sphenodisci from S. pedernalis. The specific name, helviderei (afterward changed to bel- viderensis), was first applied to this species in 1890 in my article "On the Cheyenne Sandstone and the Neocomian Shalesof Kansas"J 'whexelWsiQd"'AmmonitesBelvidereV as ♦Except the two figures noted as sketched in 1889, the manuscript and drawings of the preseat article were prepared in the spring of 1897. t Am. Jour. Sci., Third Series, Vol. L, June, 1895. t Bui, Washburn Coll. Lab. Nat. Hist., No. 11, March, 1890. Buchiceras (Sphenodiscus) Belviderensis. 29 occurring in No. 5 of my Blue Cut Mound section (the Ful- lington horizon of the Kiowa shales). The specimens so recorded were small ones, of which the drawings were made in 1889, and published, without comment, in 1894.* They were assigned a specific name because smaller, plainer and simpler-sutured than those recorded in 1889 and 1890 as ^'Ammonites pedernalisfrom the Champion shell-bed; f but the Fullington and Champion forms are now regarded as belonging to one variable species, which must, therefore, take the name belviderei, or its modified form, belviderensis. Of this species there appear to be five varieties that call for notice. These may be described as follows: Var. mons-comancheanus. Plate I, fig. 5. Suture relatively complex for this species, having even the smaller leaves more or less cut at the summit, usually with two or three simple, obtuse lobules, and the larger leaves cleft into a larger number (4—6) of processes which are either simple and short (tooth-like) to somewhat longer (sub- digitiform), or show a tendency to secondary toothing, one or two of the processes being expanded at the extremity and abruptly truncated or notched. Of the saddles centripetally succeeding the five secondary saddles,^ the first three are simple and subrotund (the first one a little compressed), with rounded to truncate extremity, the next two (respectively just outside of and opposite the circum-umbilical tubercles) are broader than deep and strongly emarginate or bilobate, being parted into two lobes by a small and short clavate leaflet. The type is from the Comanche Peak limestone of Tarrant County, Texas; and to this variety the common Sphenodiscus of the Champion shell-bed (illustrated in figures 1 and 2 of Plate I) seems^to belong. ♦New and Little Known Invertebrata from the Neocomian of Kansas. Ameri¬ can Geologist, XIV, Plate I, figs. 3-5. July, 1894. t Geological Notes on the Region South of the Great Bend of the Arkansas. Rul. Washb. Coll. Lab. Nat. Hist., No. 9, February, 1889; and, On the Cheyenne Sandstone and the Neocomian Shales of Kansas. L. C. No. 11. t The term " secondary saddles " is used as a convenient designation for the five saddles into which, by foliolation, the external saddle of typical Buchiceras is sub¬ divided in Sphenodiscus. 80 Colorado College Studies. Var. clavatus. Plate II, figs. 1-3. Suture considerably less complex than in similarly sized specimens of mons-comancheanns, the leaves being capitate- clavate, the summits of the larger leaves departing less (or at most, not more) from a simple outline, in a specimen ex¬ ceeding 100 mm. in height, than do those ofthe little (27 mm.) specimen of Sphenodiscus belviderensis figured in Vol. XIV of the American Geologist, Plate I, figs. 4, 5. In a smaller specimen (which, if the missing portion of the body-chamber were restored, would have a height of about forty-seven or forty-eight mm.), the first four (all that the specimen shows) of those saddles that succeed the secondary, are not emarg- inate, the first and third of them being narrower (the first narrower than the third), and of rounded outline, the second and fourth being broader and truncate. The two type speci¬ mens were obtained, with the type of mons-comanclieaniis, from the Comanche Peak limestone of Tarrant County, Texas. Var. uddeni. Plate I, figs. 3 and 4. Suture relatively complex, the primary lateral and the larger secondary lateral and auxilliary leaves little different from those of var. mons-comancheanus, the leaves and saddles interior to the secondary ones being as follows: First and second lateral leaves irregularly and obtusely dentate, inclos¬ ing a large, simple, subrotund saddle; these followed in suc¬ cession by a deeply emarginate saddle; an intermediate-sized, asymmetrical, feebly denticulate leaf; three simple, subro¬ tund, subequal saddles, parted by two small, narrow, simple, clavate leaves; a small emarginate leaf; a small deeply emargi¬ nate saddle; a narrow emarginate leaf; a broad emarginate saddle (this in the line of the series of circum-umbilical tubercles); and finally, a small leaf and saddle, both emargi¬ nate. The type-specimen of this variety is in the museum of Augustana College, and was kindly loaned me for study by Prof. J. A. Udden, who collected it in the Kiowa shale, a few miles west of Lindsborg, Kansas, and for whom it is named. Buchiceras (Sphenodiscus) Belviderensis. 31 Var. MENTORIANUS. Plate I, figs. 6 and 7. This variety is distinguished by having the two simple, truncate saddles second and third exterior to that which is in the course of the circum-utnbilical tubercles, remarkably broad and shallow. The type is from the Mentor beds, near Brookville, Kansas. Var. SERPENTINES. Plate II, figs. 4-6. - Venter of entire body-chamber strongly and rather nar¬ rowly rounded and sinuous, the convexities of the sinuosity being correlated with pronounced, rounded or somewhat sud¬ denly flattish-crested ribs on the outer part of the body- chamber, the tubercles seen on the ventro-lateral margin of typical belviderensis being nearly lost in the ventro-lateral shoulders of tlie ribs; the ribs separated by broadly round- bottomed valleys of about their own breadth, and disappear¬ ing about midway between the venter and the umbilicus; a series of obliquely compressed tubercles encircling the um¬ bilicus. Of the septate portion of the shell, only the anterior part has well-developed ribs and tubercles, and a distinctly sinuous and rounded venter, the posterior part of the venter being abruptly truncate, as in typical belviderensis. This sub-species is common in and characteristic of the Denison division, though its occasional occurrence in the Washita division also is probable. The types are from the Pawpaw clays near Denison. THE NUMBER CONCEPT. by florian cajori. For the benefit of teachers who do not have access to a modern mathematical library it is proposed in this compila¬ tion to present the views of mathematicians of the present time relating to number, its origin and nature. We shall begin by giving what is considered to be the pi-imary num¬ ber concept; then we shall briefiy indicate how the original and primitive idea of number is extended so as to apply to measurement. Pbimaky Number. " Separateness or distinctness is a primary cognition, being neces¬ sary even to the cognition of things as individuals, as distinct from other things. The notion of number is based immediately on this primary cognition. " Number is that property of a group of distinct things which remains unchanged during any change to which the group may be subjected which does not destroy the distinctness of the individual things. Such changes are changes of the characteristics of the individual things or of their arrangement; for these do not cause one thing to split up into more than one, nor more than one to merge in one The number of things in any two groups of distinct things is the same, when for each thing in the first group there is one in the second, and recipro¬ cally, for each thing in the second group, one in the first. "Thus, the number of letters in the two groups. A, B, C; D, E, F, is the same. In the second group there is a letter which may be assigned to each of the letters in the first: as D to A, E to B, F to C: and recip¬ rocally, a letter in the first which may be assigned to each in the second; as A to D, B to E, C to F. " Two groups thus related are said to be in one-to-one (1—1) corre¬ spondence The fundamental operation of arithmetic is counting. To count a group is to set up a one-to-one correspondence between the individuals of this group and the individuals of some rep¬ resentative group. Counting leads to an expression for the number of things in any group in terms of the representative group: if the repre¬ sentative group be the fingers, to a group of fingers; if marks, to a group of marks; if the numeral words, or symbols in common use, to one of these words or symbols."—Prop. H. B. Fine, of Princeton, in The Num¬ ber-System of Algebra. 1891, pp. 3, 4, 5. The Number Concept. 33 " To count things means to consider them as alike, to take them together, and to associate with them, singly, other things which are also considered alike. Each of the things with which other things are associated in counting is called a unit; each of the things which in counting are associated with other things is called a one. The result of counting is called number. On account of the likeness (Gleichartigkeit) of the units among themselves and of the ones among themselves, the number is independent of the order in which the ones are associated with the units. "If in a number we specify to what extent the units were consid¬ ered as being alike, by assigning a collective name to the units, then we have a concrete number. By completely ignoring the nature of the things counted we pass from the notion of a concrete number to the notion of an abstract number. "By the word number, unqualified, we shall always understand an abstract number."—Bubkhardt and Meyer's Encyklopadie der Mathe- matischen Wissenscliaften. Part I, Vol. I, 1898, pp. 1-3. "To count distinct things means to make of them an artificial indi¬ vidual or group, and then to identify its elements with those of a familiar group."—Prof. G. B. Halsted, in Science. N. S., Vol. VIII, 1898, p. 909. " Counting presupposes the comparison of multitudes (Vielheiten). By multitudes we mean a group of objects alike among themselves; that is, we convey the notion of disjunctive things, the differences of which remain unnoticed, and the mode of arrangement of which is disregarded. Two multitudes are called equal when with each object of the first there is associated, singly, one of the second and none remain disassociated. Th*t multitude is called greater than another which has some objects left disassociated after every object of the second (smaller) multitude is associated singly with some object of the first. The com¬ mon mark (Merkmal) of all multitudes which are equal to a definite one is expressed by a numeral word The natural number is a multitude of units, that is of ones."—Otto Stolz, of the University of Innsbruck, in Vorlesungen uber Allgemeine Aritlimelik. 1885, pp. 9,10. 84 CoLOBADO College Studies. " In fine, we live. We are surrounded by objects; the idea of com¬ paring these objects, to consider the groups which they form with each other, is natural to man, and has, we are sure, presented itself to him since early times. Attentive observation reveals to us the fact that objects do not exist exactly equal to one another; but, through an opera¬ tion of the mind which demands no effort, although it involves the entire secret of mathematical abstraction, we consider as alike the bodies which seem to us to resemble each other, and we wave momen¬ tarily the examination of the differences which distinguish the one from the other. Hence arises the origin of calculation; the process of count¬ ing is in general quite simple, even to those who are the least mathe¬ matical. Thus, if we count the trees in a park, we know full well that the trees may be of different kind, that they are not the same in shape, that they have not the same age, nor the same number of branches and leaves. Some grains of wheat are placed on a table; we say, here are twenty-five grains of wheat, and if we set ourselves to examine them with a magnifying glass, we perceive that each has its special proper¬ ties which enable us, if necessary, to distinguish it from all the rest. But by a conventionality that is natural and even instinctive, we have created in the term " tree " or " grain of wheat " an abstraction which is indispensable in the act of counting."—C. A. Laisant, La MatMmat- iqiie, Philosophie-Enseignement. Paris, 1898, pp. 15-16. " Primary number is an abstraction from a group of objects which represents their individual oxiBtcncc."—A. Lefevre, Number and Its Algebra. 1896, p. 20. "The word which stands at the head of this chaper [ " number " ] contains six letters. In order to find out that there are six, we count them; n one, u two, m three, b four, e five, r six. In this process we have taken the letters one by one, and have put beside them six words which are the first six out of a series of words that we always carry about with us, the names of numbers. After putting these six words one to each of the letters of the word number, we found that the last of the words was six; and accordingly we called that set of letters by the name six. " If we counted the letters in the word ' chapter ' in the same way, we should find that the last of the numeral words thus used would be seven; and, accordingly, we say that there are seven letters. But now The Number Concept. 35 a question arises. Let us suppose that the letters of the word number are printed upon separate small pieces of wood belonging to a box of letters; that we put these into a bag and shake them up and bring them out, putting them down in any other order, and then count them again ; we shall still find that there are six of them. For example, if they come out in the alphabetical order, 6, e, m, n, r, u, and we put to each of these one of the names of numbers that we have before used, we shall still find that the last name will be six. In the assertion that any group of things consists of six things, it is implied that the word six will be the last of the ordinal words used, in whatever order we take up this group of things to count them. That is to say, the number of any set of things is the same in whatever order we count them. "Upon this fact, which we have observed with regard to the particular number six, and which is true of all numbers whatever, the whole of the science of number is based."—W. K. Clifford, Common Sense of the Exact Sciences. 1891, pp. 1, 2. " The oldest calculations were probably achieved by a certain ar¬ rangement, either of the objects themselves, which were the subject of calculation, or of other things more easily handled. Pebbles, small shells, may have served as representatives, as they still do at the pres¬ ent time among certain tribes, and these marks . . . , when brought into smaller or larger heaps, arranged in rows, will have facilitated materially the adding together or the division of a collection of objects. As long as only small numbers had to be dealt with, man carried the simplest mode of visualization with him; namely, the fingers of his hands and the toes of his feet. To be sure, he could not thereby advance very far without some new device. Certain tribes of South Africa still show us to-day how friendly cooperation may be used to overcome the difficulty of visualizing larger numbers by using the fingers only. ' In counting beyond one hundred the difficult task must, as a rule, be per¬ formed by three men. One of them counts the units on his fingers, by raising one finger after the other and pointing out the object counted or, if possible, touching it. The second man raises a finger (always beginning with the little finger of the left hand and proceeding continu¬ ously toward the little finger of the right hand) for every ten, as soon as it is completed. (Jhe third man counts the hundreds.' * " Whatever explanation may be offered for the fixed order of using the fingers, the fact of its existence remains, and in the course of our researches we shall repeatedly encounter this fixed order as the founda¬ tion of the so-called finger counting.'"—M. Cantor, of Heidelberg, in Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Mathematik. Vol. I, p. 6. 1894. *ScHKUMPF, in Zeitschrift d. deutsch. morgenldnd. Gesellschcfl XVI, 463. 30 Colorado College Studies. "But men did not arrive at this use of the fingers till they had already made some little progress in calculation without them. That this is the true history of the art of counting is evident, if we consider the following facts in order: " First, there is hardly any language in the world in which the first three or four numerals bear, on the face of them, any reference to the fingers. Secondly, there are many savage languages in which these numerals are obviously taken (not from the fingers, but) from small symmetrical groups of common objects. Thus, ' two' is, among the Chinese, ny and ceul, which also mean ' ears'; in Thibet, paksha, ' wing'; in Hottentot, VKoam, ' hand '; and so, also, among the Java¬ nese, Samoyeds, Sioux and other peoples. So, again, with the Abipones, \ ' four ' is geyenknati,' ostrich toes ':' five' is neenhalek, ' a hide spotted with five colours '; with the Marquesans 'four' is pona, a ' bunch of four fruits,' etc. Thirdly, there are also many savages who, having only a very few low numerals, count to much higher numbers dumbly by means of the fingers. " But just as, in the examples quoted above, the name of the pattern group (e. g. ears or hands) becomes the name of the number which that group contains, so with finger-counting, the savage, advancing in intel¬ ligence, begins to name the gesture with or without performing it, and this name becomes the symbol of the number which the gesture is meant to indicate. Hence, all the world over, in nearly every language under the sun where names for the higher units exist and show a clear etymology, the word for 'five' means 'hand,' and the other numbers, up to ten or twenty, as the case may be, are merely descriptive of finger- and-toe-counting."—J. Gow, History of Greek Mathematics. 1884, pp. 6 and 7. Bemarks. (1) From the above citations, copied from representative books of our time, it appears that the mathematicians of the present day are unanimous in describing the earliest notions of number as being free from ratio and measurement. It is worthy of notice, moreover, that the great historians of mathe¬ matics are led from archaeological and ethnological study to results in agreement with those of the mathematicians. (2) The only data which must be supplied to the mind through the senses for the cognition of number are the sepa- rateness or distinctness of objects. For the earliest cogni- The Number Concept. 37 tion of number, it is necessary and suflBcient to see, hear or feel things as differentiated one from the other. The child may, at the same time, be conscious of form, of the fact that one body is larger or smaller than another, but form and size are not necessary for the primitive number-concept. (3.) Counting is the simplest mathematical act. Yoi-meas¬ uring, the senses must supply to the mind more data than are needed in counting, and the data must be more accurate. For counting, the child only needs to see one object as sepa¬ rate from another; for measuring, he must also see one as greater than another. Take two rods, one twice as long as the other. For measurement, the child must not only see them as distinct rods of unequal length, but he must apply the smaller rod to the larger, either in imagination or by actual manipulation. The fact that the smaller rod can be mai'ked off twice on the larger conveys no idea of ratio, unless the child has, beforehand, the primitive number-idea. If this idea is present, then he may recognize the parts of the longer rod as " two," and may obtain the idea of ratio. But if the child has not the number-concept for " two," then it seems impossible for him to acquire an idea of the ratio be¬ tween the lengths of the rods. The child must know that the length of one rod is some number of times the length of the other, before he can find out how many. If the primary concept of number is a prerequisite to any attempt at meas¬ urement, then one cannot find the origin of number in measurement. Extension of the Number-Concept. (Katio, Fractions.) " The first extension of the concept of number is the identification of the ratio of any two magnitudes of the same kind, and without quali¬ tative distinction for the purposes of the comparison, as a number." "The measurement of any magnitude (concrete or abstract) is the process of finding its ratio to another magnitude of the same kind, arbi¬ trarily chosen as a unit. The measure of a magnitude is this ratio — a number."—A. Lefevke, Number and Its Algebra. 1896, pp. 61, 125. 38 CoLOKADO College Studies. "Measuring in the ordinary sense — the process which leads to the representation of continuous magnitudes as lines or surfaces, in terms of some unit of measure — deserves all the prominence which our au¬ thors [McLellan and Dewey] would give it in arithmetic. We do not mean measuring in the exact mathematical sense, of course, but the rough measuring of common life, in which the magnitude measured and the unit are always assumed to be commensurable. Compared with counting, or even addition and multiplication, an operation which in¬ volves the use of an arbitrary unit, and the comparison of magnitudes by its aid, is artificial. But this metrical use of number is of immense practical importance, and of great interest to any child mature enough to understand it. No doubt a child may use a twelve-inch rule to ad¬ vantage when practicing multiplication and division of integers. Cer¬ tainly, such an aid is almost indispensable in learning fractions. Without it, the fraction is more likely to be a mere symbol to him, without exact meaning of any kind. ' Two-thirds ' has a reality for the child who can interpret it as the measure of a line two inches long in terms of a unit three inches long, which it quite lacks for him who can only repeat that it is 'two times the third part of unity.' Mathematicians now define the fraction as the symbolic result of a division which cannot be actually effected, but that definition will not serve the purposes of elementary instruction. It is as certain that the fraction had a metrical origin as it is that the integer had not, and in learning fractions, as in learning integers, the child cannot do better than follow the experience of the race."—Prof. H. B. Fine, in Science. N. S. Vol. Ill, 1896, p. 136. The most ancient mathematical hand-book known to our time—the Ahmes papyrus, about 2000 B. C., which claims to be founded on much older Egyptian documents—begins with fractions. It was probably written for the advanced mathe¬ maticians of its day. The study of this document shows how difficult fractions were to the ancients. Ahmes confines him¬ self to unit-fraclions having unity for their numerators. If another fractional value was to be considered, it was al¬ ways expressed as the sum of two or more unit-fractions. Thus; A=ih+iV. And how did the necessity of the in¬ troduction of fractions arise? The document contains prob¬ lems like this, " Divide 2 by 3," and Ahmes solves this by means of his fractions. Thus dividing 5 by 21 gives V ih ih. That the idea of measurement was predominant in the use of these fractions follows from such problems in Ahmes as The Number Concept. 39 the computation of the average daily pi'oduce of fat, when the yearly produce is ten "besha," and from the geometrical examples dealing with areas of land. For instance, a trian¬ gular piece of land is computed as having half the area of the corresponding parallelogram. Apparently, number first suggests itself to the child in connection with discrete things. He sees three distinct ob¬ jects, and learns to count one, tico, three. In measurement (of lengths, for instance) the mind marks off some unit of length (the foot) along the length to be measured (a yard¬ stick, let us suppose), and thereby comes to imagine the yard as made up of parts; the measured length is thought of as composed of three equal parts; that is, by a mental act the continuous length is pictured as made up of discrete parts of a group of like objects. The original or primitive yard-stick is differentiated by the mind into an artificial group of three equal lengths. A pencil is found to be six inches long; the mind at once pictures a group of six equal lengths, which have become discrete objects of thought. In the counting of separate objects, we, by a process of abstraction, consider the objects as alike; in measuring, by a further mental process, we consider a continuous magnitude as made up of separate like parts.* In measurement we extend the number concept so that it is applicable not only to things that are discrete or discon¬ tinuous, but also to things which are continuous. We can now say that ratio is a number, but we are not allowed to say that number is always ratio. Number in general is a broader term than ratio. While in the crude measurements of every day life all magnitudes appear to us as commensurable with one another, mathematical reasoning shows that incommensurability may exist. The keen intellect of the Greeks first detected the fact that the si(^e of a square and its diagonal are incommen¬ surable with each other. Hence in the refined reasoning of the mathematician it is not sufficient for measurement to deal with ratios which are integers or ordinary fractions, but with numbers which are incommensurable to the measuring ♦ Consult an article by Prof. G. B. Halsted, in Science, N. S.,Vol. Ill, pp. 470, 471, to which I am indebted. See also Ceifford, loc. cit., p. 95. 40 Colorado College Studies. unit. Thus, the connotation of ratio (embracing both the rational and irrational) as number enables us to make num¬ ber continuous, so that, starting with a ratio as small as we please, we can conceive number to increase continuously, passing through all the stages of primary number and all the interspersed stages of irrational number, to a ratio as large as we please. But the notion of continuity is not as simple as it, at first, appeal's to be. Few notions in mathematics are more subtle. It is in considerations of this sort that the logical superiority of the reasoning based on numbers is asserting itself. In advanced mathematical research, the greatest rigor of treat¬ ment is secured, not by relying on intuition, not by depend¬ ing on geometrical figures, but by an entire separation from the world of our senses, and making mathematical demon¬ strations wholly arithmetical. Through reliance on their in¬ tuitions, mathematicians have been led to some erroneous results; for instance, that every continuous function must have a derivative at all points in a given interval. The tendency at the present time is to ariihmetise mathe¬ matics. The earlier explanation of irrational numbers, like that of fractions, involved the idea of measurement. Formerly an irrational number was defined as the expression of the incommensurable ratio of two geometrical quantities — that is, as the ratio between two quantities having no common measure. For the purpose of removing certain logical diflSi- culties, G. Cantor, K. Weierstrass, B. Dedekind and others have treated irrational number in a manner free of ratio and measurement and of all geometrical considerations. This arithmetical theory of the irrational is now about one quarter of a century old; but our college text-books contain nothing of these new ideas; the opinion strongly prevails among teachers everywhere that the arithmetical theories of the irrational are not suited for elementary instruction in the differential and integral calculus, or in analysis in general. To the teacher of elementary arithmetic the chief point of interest of these remarks on higher mathematics lies in the fact that the use of the number concept, which is free of ratio and measurement, is assuming a more and more central position in the rigorously logical exposition of the advanced branches. Colorado College (\ Studies. ' VOLUME IX. PAPERS HEAD BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. CCn.ORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO, MAY. 1901. s t)"' SJ. y CONTENTS. Pace. (1) Remarks upon Clifford's Proof of Miquel's Theo¬ rem, 1-5 Dr. F. H. Loud. ( 2) La Femriie dans les Chansons de Geste, . h-24 Prop. H. A. Smith. (5) A Story of Some Teleosts from the Russell Sub- stage of the Platte Cretaceous Series, Pis. I-III, 25-44 Dr. F. W. Cragin. THE OUT WEST PRINTING AND STATIONERY OO. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLO. I REMARKS UPON CLIFFORD'S PROOF OF MIQUEL'S THEOREM. By F. H. Loud. The name of Auguste Miquel, on the tongues or pens of geometers of the present day, occurs most frequently in con¬ nection with the remarkable theorem* which forms the con¬ cluding proposition of the following statement. Given five lines in a plane, they form ten triangles, whose circumcircles meet by fours in five points, and these points lie on a circle. For convenience of statement, I have combined with IMiquel's theorem proper an antecedent truth upon which it is based, relating to four lines. On examination it will be per¬ ceived that if we would build up the theorem from its ele¬ ments we must begin with two lines, in the following fashion; Given two lines, they have one point of intersection, P^. Given three lines, we may leave out one at a time, and thus form three pairs. Each pair has its point of intersec¬ tion, Pj, and the three points lie on a circle Cg. Given four lines, leaving out one at a time forms four sets of three, each with its circumcircle Og, and these four circles meet in a point P4. Given five lines, they form in the same way five sets of four, each determining one point P4, and these five points lie on a circle Cg. The interest of Miquel's theorem was much increased when it was shown by W. K. 01ifford,t and later, (though, it seems, independently) by S. Kantor,J that the series of propositions thus begun continues true in an indefinite pro¬ longation, defining, for every even number, 2n, of arbitrarily ♦ Liouville's Jour^l, vol. x, p. 349. t" Synthetic Proof of Miquel's Theorem," Mathematical Papers, p. 38. i " Ueberden Zusammenhang von n beliebigen Geradenin der Ebene," Sitzungs- berlchte, Wien, 1878, p. 789. 2 Colorado College Studies. given lines in a plane, a point Pzn, and for every odd number a circle C2n+j, with the property that always the point P^n is common to all the 2n circles C2n—i, and always the circle Cin+i passes through all the 2n+l points P^n. Clifford's method is indicated by Salmon,* but as the lat¬ ter author does not enter upon the above-mentioned extension to more lines than five, I take the liberty of summarizing the proof of Clifford, though his original paper, which no one of geometrical tastes should omit to read, is fairly accessible. An n-fold parabola is defined as a curve of class n-fl, touching the line infinity n times. Such a curve is rational and of order 2h, and is determined by 2n-t-2 finite tangents. It has only one focus; for from the circular point I there can be drawn only one tangent beside the line infinity, and this tangent meets its conjugate from in the single real point P. If the number of given finite tangents is only 2n-|-l, a single infinity of curves can be drawn, and the focus of each is the intersection of a ray from I by the projectively correspond¬ ing ray from Jj hence the locus of P is a conic through I and J; that is, it is a circle. Among the curves of the above pencilf there are 2ji-|-1 cases of disintegration, viz., an n-fold parabola may consist of the point in which one of the given lines meets the line infinity, together with the (n—l)-fold parabola touching the other 2n lines; and its focus is the focus of the latter parabola. Hence the 2n-|-l foci of these special curves lie on the one circle determined by the 2n-f 1 given lines; while, when2n-f-2 lines are given, we may from any 2n-|-l of them determine one circle as above, and all these circles will pass through one point, viz., the focus of the n-fold parabola determined by all the lines. Clifford does not consider, (as do Kantor and P. SerretJ) the condition under which Miquel's circle breaks up into a right line plus the line infinity, but a problem essentially similar is treated by Salmon .§ The statement for the general * Higher Plane Curves^ p. 128. t Curves forming a penctZ are usually understood to have in common a number of points, one less than suffices to determine the curve; here, however, and through¬ out this paper, substitute for common points in this dehnition, common tangents^ :|:Comptes Rendus, 189. § Higher Plarw Curves, § U5, p. 127. Clifford's Proof of Miquel's Theorem. 3 case may be shortly made as follows: The circle which is the locus of the foci of n-fold parabolas will break up in this way if the pencil of such parabolas contains one that has the circular points as two of its contacts with the line in¬ finity. For that parabola can have no finite focus. Thus the Miquel circle of five given lines is replaced by a right line if the five lines are all tangents to a curve of class three, order four, touching the line infinity at the circular points. This curve is the hypocycloid of three cusps, by some called the deltoid. A number of theorems may readily be rea'ched from the suggestion afforded by Clifford's demonstration. Thus we might discuss pencils of curves having two real foci, one of which is fixed, and seek the locus of the remain¬ ing one. A series of theorems would thus be derived where the locus found would in general be a circle; though in the first member of the series, namely, the case of the conic touching two lines and having a fixed focus, the locus is recti¬ linear.* Passing by such partial, though perfectly valid, applications of Clifford's method, I wish to notice a case which I regard as interesting, in which a true result is sug¬ gested rather than proved by an argument framed in imita¬ tion of Clifford's. Let us consider a curve of third class and fourth order, having a point of contact with the line infinity, and also meeting the same in the two circular points. It is rational, and has no inflection, one double tangent, three cusps and no other double point. No tangent which shall touch the curve elsewhere can be drawn through I or J, save the line IJ itself; there is therefore no simple focus analogous to that of the conic parabola, such as any n-fold parabola possesses, but there is one and only one focus, the meeting point of tangents at I and J, and thus of the type exempli¬ fied by the center of a circle. The number of conditions imposed by the definition of the curve is four,—two given points, one givem line as tangent, and an unspecified double tangent. Five more are required to determine a curve, or ♦ Salmon, Conies^ p. 320. Ex. 3. 4 CoLOBADo College Studies. rather, to reduce the problem of determining it to a finite number of solutions. Let four of these be supplied by assigning, in the finite region, lines which the curve must touch, and a fifth by requiring that the double tangent to the curve meet the line infinity in a specified point, K. Then a set of curves is determined, to each one of which one tangent, is drawn at I and one at J, meeting at a definite point. Now let K move along the line infinity. We may regard each curve of the set as undergoing a continuous dis¬ placement and distortion; and if the attention be fixed upon one such varying curve, we shall see its focus describing a locus, defined by the intersection of a tangent at I with a conjugate tangent at J. This separation of the tangents at I and J belonging to one curve from those belonging to any other affords an indication that the whole pencil of tangents through I is resolvable into partial pencils, in each of which a ray through I is met by a single ray through J projectively corresponding to it. If this be the case, the locus of each focus is a circle. But when the point K, in its motion along the line infinity, reaches the point at which that line is cut by one of the four given tangents, the curve has four contacts with lines through K, and being of third class only, it must break up into the point K and a curve of second class cutting the line at infinity at I and J, and touching the three remaing given lines. Such a curve, of course, is a circle, and its center is the focus of the disintegrating third-class curve. We have thus the theorem that, when five lines are given, the centers of the circles which touch three of these lines lie by fours upon circles which have a common point; that is, if four given lines be a, 6, c, d, the center of a circle touching a, b, c and those of one touching a, h, d, one touch¬ ing a, c, d and one touching b, c, d lie on a single circle; moreover, if a fifth line be added, and the proper single circle selected for each of the five sets of four lines formed by dropping one line from the given five, these five circles pass through a point. Clifford's Proof of Miquel's Theorem. 5 This theorem is true, as I have elsewhere shown analyti¬ cally;* and is, moreover, the first t'erm of a series of theorems which would be obtained by replacing the curve of third order in the foregoing argument by curves of higher order precisely according to the analogy of Clifford's demonstration. The argument here given is, however, incomplete as a proof, until it is shown that the pencils of J-tangents and J^-tangents break up, as indicated, into separate simple pencils whose rays have a one-to-one projective relation. To do this, by purely geometric reasoning would probably not be easy; at least it may be expected that the demonstra¬ tion would acquire a length and cumbersomeness which would render it entirely unlike the elegantly, simple argu¬ ment in which the analogous theorem was established by Clifford. ♦"Sundry Metrical Theorems concerning n Lines in a Plane;" a paper read before the Am. Math. See. April 28,1900, and subsequently published in the Trans¬ actions of that Society, Vol. I, No. 3. May 1, 1900. LA FEMME DANS LES CHANSONS DE GESTE By H. a. Smith. I.—Int roduction. Le temps qui est compris dans cette investigatian peut se placer, nous croyons, entre 1100 et 1250. Excepts La Chan¬ son de Roland il n'y a gu^re de chansons de geste qui remontent plus haut que 1100, et si nous donnons aux mots " chansons de geste " le vrai sens, nous n'en avons pas beau- coup apr^s la premiere moiti6 du XIII'' sibcle. A partir de cette date de 1250 la plupart de ces po^mes Merits en imita¬ tion de la vieille chanson de geste sont mieux compris sous le nom de romans d'aventures. Ce n'est pas done notre intention d'appuyer aucune assertion importante sur un texte evidemment compos6 depuis cette dernifere date, s'il n'est pas clair qu'un tel passage vient d'une 6poque plus ancienne. Sur ce point il faut peut-etre un pen d'explication. Le temps suppos6 de la plupart des chansons de geste est beaucoup plus ancien que la date de la composition. Pres- que toutes qui sont citi6s ici pr^tendent avoir pour temps le r^gne de Charlemagne on de son fils Louis. Mais il ne faut pas qu'on s'y trompe. Les ^crivains k cette 6poque ne saivaient pas ce que c'est la couleur locale et sauf la l^gende il n'y avait pas d'histoire. Les conditions et les ■ moeurs alors sont presque ton jours celles ~du temps de la composi¬ tion. Mais il y a des exceptions notables qui viennent du fait que les chansons de geste sont le plus souvent bashes sur des l^gendes, ou elles sont tout bonnement des remaniements des versions plus anciennes, et quand une coutume fait une partie n^cessaire de I'histoire, on pourrait s'attendre qu'une telle coutume se pr^serverait. Une preuve concluante de ceci se trouve dans le po^me Girart de Rossillon. II y en a deux versions, I'une beaucoup plus ancienne que I'autre. Maintenant tous les faits les plus utiles pour notre sujet, qui La Pemme dans les Chansons de Geste. 7 sent cit^s de la version la plus r^cente, se trouvent aussi dans la version la plus ancienne. Peut-6tre un mot d'explication est aussi n^cessaire sur la valeur de nos textes. II ne faut pas qu'on s'attende k trop grandes choses de ce titre. Les chansons de geste sont des po6mes guerriers par excellence, et naturellement on n'y trouve pas beaucoup de renseignements sur la femme et la vie domestique. Mais par cela meme, ce peu doit etre d'une valeur plus grande. Nous avons pr6par6 une petite bibliographie des po^mes, qui aura lieu k la fin. II.—La Jeune Fille. Si I'on commen^a avec la femme comme M. Gautier com¬ mence avec le chevalier dans cet ouvrage superbe " La Chevalerie," c'est a dire avec I'enfant dans son berceau, on serait tr6s embarass6 a tirer quelque chose sur la petite fille de nos vieilles chansons de geste. Plusieurs de nos cheva¬ liers les plus renomm6s parviennenf k avoir des enfances dans nos po^mes — cela est I'expression exact parceque Venfance est toujours la derni^re chose dans la vie d'un h6ros—mais il n'y a pas, que je sache, une seule enfance d'une femme. Meme, nous croyons que la petite fille n'^tait pas toujours le hote le plus bienvenu dans la famille d'un vieux baron. Ce qui'on voulait avant toute autre chose, c'^tait un fils, un h6ritier pour bien maintenir le fief et I'honneur de la famille; et chose triste pour notre sujet, c'est ce qui arrive toujours. II n'y a pas d'exceptions dans les chansons de geste. Cependant on peut deviner que la vie de la petite fille ne diff^rait pas beaucoup de la vie de ses f r^res. Pile 6tait baptis6e dans la meme manidre et nous savons aussi, plus tard, qu'ils 6taient instruits 6galement dans beaucoup de choses. Mais la petite fille devient interessante dans les chansons de geste seulement quand elle arrive a I'age du mariage. Si nos vieilles chansons de geste nous laissent dans une obscurity regrettable a I'^gard de la petite fille, en revanche elles nous disent beaucoup quand elle devient jeune femme. 8 Colorado College Studies. Mais avant que nous commencions k d^crire I'instruction d'une jeune fills, peufc-fetre serait-il bien a fairs son portrait. C'sst cs qu'on fait toujours dans Iss po6mss. Voici un pas- sags ds Doon ds Maisnce qui d6crit la bells Nicolstte, une jsiine fills qui ss fiait, comms toujours, trop volontisrs ii la bonne foi et I'amour ds I'homms, st qui Is suivit trop justement aux dangers st la mort, sn rsnon^ant a ses parents, k ses amis et h sa patris: "Une pucelle vit aus sa couche seant. La plus tr6s bale rien de chest sikcle vivant Vestue d'un samin k terre tralnant. Les iex ot amoreus et la bouche riant Le vis lone et traitis, bien fet et avenant: Blanche et vermeille fu et de si bel jouvent Qu'ele n'ot que .XI. ans et .1. mois seulement Longue fu et gresleite et de bel estement. Par ses espaulez sunt ses biaus chevaus gesant Qui plus sunt esmer^ que fin or qui resplent."' C'sst Ik un portrait d'une jeune fills caracteristiqus. Et il faut Is dire que les poktss smploisnt prssqus toujours les memes mots pour la psindrs. Ells est toujours grele st blanche " comms la nsigs " on " comms une flsur," st a des tresses comms "or esmerk," les ysux sont toujours vairs, comms dans Raoul ds Cambrai: "vairs ot les ex, ce samble toz jors ris."" La bouche est petite st les Ikvrss rouges. Nous ns savons trop pourquoi, mais c'est vrai qu'on ns trouvs pas psut-etrs une ssuls femms bruns dans toutss les chansons ds gests. Le mot vair, qui est employk toujours pour dkcrirs les ysux d'une femms, mkrits un paragraphs k lui-mems. Sa signification la plus ordinaire est de couleurs diffkrentes ou changeantes. II est employk pour une espkce de fourrure de couleur gris blanc melk.' Mais en dkcrivant les yeux, il sem- blerait certainement avoir un sens plus prkcis que changeant ou brillant, parse qu'on n'y emploie jamais un autre mot pour indiquer la couleur. Maintenant conime les femmes sont toujours des blondes on attenderait le plus naturelle- 1 Doon de Maience .V. 3623. 2 Raoul de Cambrai .V. .6568. 'Voy. Gautierp. 40L La Chevalerie. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 9 ment un oeil bleu, et nous croyons que ceci est son vrai sens. Peut-etre une autre cause pour employer un mot qui signifie de couleurs diff^rentes pour les yeux bleus, est que dans un tel oeil nous avons le bleu mel6 de petits points blancs, et si cette explication est la vraie ce semblerait indiquer plutCt un oeil bleu blanc.' II est digne de remarque que dans les chansons de geste les plus anciennes, on ne d^crit pas longuement les beaut^s physiques des femmes. On emploie Ih des epithStes homeri- ques comme "Aelis an clair visage"^ et quaiid on vent donner une id6e plus frappante de sa beaut6 on ditque "Tut le palais de sa bealt6 resplent.'" Nous n'avons trouv6 qu'une seule femme laide dans les chansons de geste. C'est dans Aymeri de Narbonne, et elle 6tait la femme de cet original Hernaut qui parlait toujours des choses qu'il ne ferait jamais et qu'il faisait tout de suite. Entre autres Hernaut dit, "Que fame rouse n'avroit en son a6,—puis en ot une, ainz lone terme pass6,—Qu'il n'ot plus laide en une grant cit6:—D'un pi6 clochait: s'ot .1. oil avugl6,—Si estoit rouse et il rous par vert6."* On entend beaucoup aujourd'hui des femmes qui devien- nent plus instruites que les hommes, mais il semble que c'6tait vrai aussi au XIP si^cle. Au moins c'est I'id^e que les chansons de geste nous donnent et on ne salt aucune raison a douter de leur t6moinage. On pent comprendre comment cela se pourrait. Le metier d'un homme au moyen age 6tait la guerre, et il y avait un si grand nombre de choses a appreudre pour etre guerrier et chevalier accompli, qu'on n'avait pas de temps pour apprendre a lire et a 6crire, des choses dont aprfes tout le chevalier ne faisait pas grand cas. Mais ces memes conditions ne tenaient pas pour la femme, et on trouve le plus souvent dans les descriptions des jeunes filles qu'elles savaient lire et 6crire romnn et quelque fois ^ Nous trouvons dans le proven^^al que le mot vair so dit du raisin qui se colore, et nous y avons la phrase: "A I'uei vaire comme uno pruno vairo." . (Mistral die. prov.) . 2Raoul de CainDrai .V. 115: ' A6lis au vis clair," et mille fois dans celui-ci et d'autres pofemps. ®Otinel, V. 343, et dans plusieurs autres po^mes. ^Aymeri de Narbonne, V. 4551. 10 CoLOEADO College Studies. latin. Tr^s souvent les pontes vont plus loin m6me et ajoutent des choses qui sent ^videmment des exa^f?6rations. II sera utile de citer quelques-uns de ces textes. Le po^te dit de Flordespine en Gaufrey: 0 " Bien sot parler latin et entendre romant Bien sot jouer as tables as esches ensement, Et du cours des estoilez, de la lune luisant Savait moult plus que fame de chest si6cle vivant.''^ Dans Aid: "Et des cours des estoiles, del remuer Del refait de la lune, del rafermer De chou par savoit il quant qu'il en est: Avisse la ducoise I'en ot moustr^e;^ et dans Berte aus Grans Pi6s: "Avolt une coustume ens el tiois pays, Que tout 11 grant seignor, li conte et 11 marchls Avolent entour aus gent frangolse tous dls. Pour aprendre fran§ols lor filles et lor fils."' Mais la plus remarquable est Mirabel, amie d'Aiol: Ele sut bien parler de XIIII latins: Ele savoit parler et grlgols et hermln, Flamenc et borgengon et tout le sarrasln, Poltevln et gascon, se 11 vlent a plalslr."^ Mais ce sent beaucoup de langues meme pour une femme. II faut se tenir compte des exaggerations, mais il y a ici beaucoup qui est evidemment vrai. Sans aucun doute savait-elle lire et ecrire, et peut-etre un pen de latin. Au moins elle pouvait comprendre des mots dans son psautier. Elle pouvait calculer et donner les noms des principales con¬ stellations. Sur ce dernier point il n'y a gufere de doute. II y a trop grand nombre de passages qui indiquent I'interet dans I'astronomie, si Ton pent la nommer ainsi a cette periods. Aussi etait-elle un pen medecin, parcequ'elle con- naissait des herbes qui donnaient des guerisons merveilleuses.® 'Gaufrey, V. 1793. 2Aiol, V. 268 ' Berte aus Grans Pi6s, V. 149. tAiol, V. 5420. ® Gaufrey, V. 3923. La Mort Aymjri de Narbonne, V. 1988, ou on fait mention d'un onguent, d'un vin blanc et de phrases rOligieuses et du signe de la croix, etc. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 11 Quant aux choses qui sent particuliferes k la femme, elle savait coudre, filer et broderd Elle taillait les vStements de la famille. Pour ses amusements elle jouait aux eschecs^ comme ses fr^res et aussi comme eux elle savait monter a cbeval et chasser avec le faucon. Alors il y avait la danse et le chant. La derni^re chose, et ce qu'elle savait le mieux, c'6tait sa religion. A croire les chansons de geste, il n'y a personne plus devote que la femme du XII" sifecle. Nous croyons que les jeunes filles 6taient le plus souvent instruites dans la maison par la mfere on par une institutrice. Mais meme ti cette 6poque quelques-unes 6taient Gev6es dans les convents.® Les devoirs de la jeune fille ^talent sans doute essez nom- breux. En outre de ceux que nous venous de citer, elle faisait de coutume beaucoup d'ouvrage de la maison. Avec sa m^re elle avait la tenue des lits,'' et des habits de la famille, et s'il y en avait besoin elle n'h^sitait pas d'6tendre ses soins jusqu'a lAcurie. Elle aidait ti armer et h d6sarmer son seigneur et les hbtes,® et meme a les d^shabiller et leur donner des bains.® A lAgard de ces derniers devoirs il ne faut pas juger des actions semblables par les memes regies que celles de notre soci6t6. La soci6t6 au XIP si6cle 6tait k certains 6gards plus libre que la nbtre. Mais surtout il ^En parlant de Berts devenue coutouri^re, on dit: De ce fairs en s'enfance avait 6t6 aprise Bien scut tailler et coudre et braies et chemise. S'elie sout tel mestier ce ne fut pas mervoille Quar Augustus C6sars fist bien le cas paroille II fut vaillans et saiges et regna moult grant pi^ce: Mas il n'out oncques tile ne cosine ne ni^jce; Qu'il ne f6ist aprendre quelque mestier fairs." (Girartde Kossillon, V. 2371). 2"J'ai une fills qui moult a de biaut6; Des eski^s set a moult grande plent6; Ainc ne le vi de nul homme mater." (Huon de Bordeaux, V. 7427). ^Dans Raoul de Cambrai une jeune fille d'un baron est brtiiee dans un convent. V. 1493. M. Gautier cite d'autres autorit6s. Uiol, V. 7306. ®" File " dit il, " ce paien te comant—Donez li armes trestout k son talent —Ces III puceles armerent Otinel " lOtinel, V. 344). De tels passages sont assez nom- breuz daos les poemes. 0 ".LX. furent filz de moult haute gent, Aprester font les bains tot main tenant Ni a si poure tant ait poi tenement N'ait sa pucelle devent lui enpresant Fills de conte ou de prince ansument Qui bien les servant et font h lor talent " (Les Enfance Vivien, V 5147). 12 CoLOBADO College Studies. n'y avait pas de pruderie, et nous croyons que ces choses-lk sent, pour la plupart, de bonne foi, quoique il soit possible qu'on en ait fait des abus. Au moins on les trouve dans les textes les plus irr^cusables. Sur plusieurs de ces points il sera utile de donner quelques passages d'Aiol, tir^s de la premiere partie, oeuvre du XIP si^cle, dont nous croyons l'autorit6 assez stabile. O'est oil Aiol est re^u dans la maison de sa tante par sa cousine, Luisane, qui ne sait pas qu'il est son parent; El le prist par I'estrier par grant amor: "Amis ost6s vostre elme, denes le nous," La bale Luisane al cors legier Un escuier commande le sien destrier Le maistre senescal a apel^; Se li fist le mangier bien conreer, Et vint a Marchegai par esgarder, S'aplanoie ses crins et ses cost^s; La Pueele s'en torne al cors gentil La sist le lit Aiol par grant delit; Aiol en apela, se li a dit: "Damoiseus, ven^s ent huimais dormir" Par le poin le mena dessi al lit. Puis le fist descauchier, nu devestir Et quant il se coucha bien le couvri: Douchement le tastone par endormir. Mais bele Luisane bien le servi; Douchement le tastone la demoisele;! Ces derniers vers font mention d'une coutume si singu- li^re qu'on pourrait en douter si les textes le permettaient. Pour faire endormir les hbtes les femmes les tatonnent ou les massent.^ II ne semble pas qu'il y avait aucune mauvaies intention dans cet usage, parceque nous y voyons des dames comme Guiborc qui sont audessus de tout soup^on, mais c'^tait aussi une coutume tr^s dangereuse, comme on voit dans le cas d'Aiol oil Luisane est Uprise d'amour et lui fait des avances qu'il repousse. Un des devoirs de la jeune fille que M. Gautier donne lAiol, V. 2044. 2"QaeQS Aimeris est ses Us aprest^s—en une cambre on molt avait biaut6s;— toute unit fa de Gaiborc tastones." (AUscans, V. 4261). C'est quelque fois fait par un homme comme on voit de ce passage dans Li Charrois de Nymes: " Looys, sire, dit Guiliaume li bers —moult t'ai servi par nuit tastoner." M. Gautier cite aussi un passage en Girart de Bossillon. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 13 dans "La Chevalerie" 6tait le service de la table. Pour des preuves il donne les memoirs de Sainte-Palaye. C'est I'oc- cupation qu'on attendrait le plus naturellement de la femme, maisuous n'avons pu en trouver des preuves convaincantes dans les chansons de geste. Dans Fierabras nous avons un passage qui dit que "Les pucieles les servent h joie et k bont6—k manger et h boire eurent & grant plenty."' Mais dans ce cas comme dans tons les autres qu'on trouve oil il est certain qu'une femme a servi k la table les circonstances sont telles qu'il 6tait n6cessaire. lis sont ici dans la prison et il n'y a pas d'autres personnes pour les servir. Ce n'est pas un r6pas ordinaire. De I'autre c6t6 il y a mille passages oil un jeune homme, un 6cuyer ou meme un chevalier d^coupe et sert ii manger. On sait de plus que c'est toujours une des choses cit6es pour I'instruction d'un page ou d'un aspirant ii la chevalerie, celle d'apprendre k d^jouper et k servir k la table. Aussi tons les cuisiniers que nous avons pus trouver sont des hommes.^ Que la chatelaine se chargeait du gouverne- ment de la cuisine et du menu, on ne pent douter, mais qu'elle et ses filles faisaient I'ouvrage ou qu'elle avait meme des servantes pour le faire, on ne pent trouver aucune indi¬ cation. Le contraire serait indiqu6. On sait que c'^tait du plus vieux temps un honneur k servir k la table d'un roi ou chef, et on voit de cette circonstance comment cette coutume se pr6serverait; et c'^tait au XIP sikcle toujours un service le plus honorable. Mais du fait que les femmes ne cusaient pas, si c'6tait un fait, nous ne voyons aucune explication suffisante. Si c'est vrai, il y avait aprks tout de petites choses qui feraient desirer aux femmes d'aujourd'hui de vivre au XIP sikcle. Avant que nous arrivons k la question du mariage de la jeune fille, il reste encore k parler d'elle comme amante;' et c'est ici qu'on voit une grande difference entre les femmes des plus vieilles chansons de geste et celles de la premikre moitie du XIIF sikcle, ou mkme de la dernikre partie du XIP. C'est ce qui paraitra plus tard. ' Kierabras, V. 2215. 2 Voy. Aiol, citfi audessus. 14 Colorado College Studies. D'abord nous n'entendons pas dire que les mariages 6taient toujours des mariages d'amour, ou meme que c'^tait la condition ordinaire. On pent voir que la n6cessit6 decide trfes souvent le mariage et que les volont^s des partis con- tractants comptent pour peu de chose. Cependant 11 est facile ^ voir dans les pennies que le mariage d'amour est I'id^al, s'il n'est pas toujours la pratique. La premiere question qui se pr^sente est sur quelles qualit^s est bas4 I'amour au XIP si^cle. Nous croyous qu'il est tout facile a r^pondre. Un homme aimait une femme pour sa beauts, mais certainement une femme aimait un homme a cause de son courage. On trouve cette id^e partout. Qu'un chevalier donne de bons coups, c'est I'essen- tiel. Par exemple, prenez le cas de la belle Beatrix, qui fut Uprise d'amour pour Bernier en Eaoul de Cambrai. Si Bernier avait des qualit^s exceptionnelles plus qu'un autre au commencement, nous n'en savons rien. Mais il aurait eu certainement des petits d^fauts selon les id^es de notre temps. D'abord il 6tait batard et avait 6t6 I'ennemi acharn6 de.p^re de Beatrix. II avait tu6 le cousin Raoul et les fr^res de la jeune fille. Aussi ses combats n'avaient pas 6t6 tels qui augmentent un bel ext^rieur. Sans compter ses nom- breuses blessures au corps et aux membres, pour commencer Raoul lui avait bris6 la tete d'un gros baton, Gueri avait perc6 son visage de I'os de la jambe d'un cerf, Gautelet avait Ot6 une partie g6n6reuse de son cuir chevelu, et pour finir avait d6coup6 son oreille droite avec la chair d'un "demi- pied" de son visage. Certainement des choses comme cela feraient penser deux fois a une belle d'aujourd'hui. Mais de I'autre cot6 il 6tait un des plus grands combat- tants du pays et quand lui et Gueri se reconciliarent, d^s que Beatrix a entendu son nom, elle dit " heureuse la dame qui sera sa mie car il a grand prix de chevalerie," et elle va I'embrasser dans la premiere entrevue. L'auteur ajoute une phrase qui dit tout en deux mots: "Ci s'entracolent nus n'en doit mervillier,— car ele est hele et il hons chevalier Voulez-vous un example plus fort! II n'en manque pas. * Raoul, V. 5666. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 15 Dans le po^me, Aid, le h^ros prend la jeune fille d'un roi paien et Temm^ne captive. Mais, chose pas ordinaire, elle ne vent pas devenir la femme du jeune chevalier, et cherche toujours k 6chapper. II y avait un roi paien dont elle 6tait amoureuse. Un jour tandis qu'Aiol fatigu6 dort sous un arbre elle voit approcher quatre de ses parents qui les poursuivent. Elle est joyeuse, elle va 6chapper, mais en vrai femme elle ne veut pas laisser Sgorger un chevalier en sommeil. Elle le secoue et lui dit de s'enfuir. Vous com- prendrez sans doute la consequence. Aid se Ikve terrible, monte sur son cheval et tue I'oncle, le frkre et les deux cousins devant les yeux de la belle captive. Vous croyez qu'elle pleurait de belles larmes. Sans doute, mais voici ses pens6es: "Dieu! quel bon chevalier! C'est mon avis s'ils avaient 6t6 vingt, il les aurait tu6s tous:" et elle ajoute: "Sire ven6s vous ent car je sui vostre drue." C'est une conversion soudaine et par explication le pokte nous dit: "Que feme aime tost home qui bien fiert en bataille.'" C'est done I'homme le plus brave qui a toujours la plus belle dame, et cela ne doit nous surprendre comme nous savons, plus tard, au moins au temps des chevaliers errants, que I'homme le plus brave s'6tait accoutum^ d'enforcer ce petit point avec la lance et I'ep^e, Aussi dans le douzikme sikcle la plus belle femme 6tait trks souvent k celui qui avait la force pour la prendre. Est-ce que la femme avait un vrai amour pour ce cheva¬ lier duquel elle pense principalement au renom ? Dans les plus vieux pokmes cela est sans doute. Voici une incident de la chanson de Roland, la plus vieille et la plus belle de tous. Aprks sept longues annkes de batailles, I'armke fran- gaise revena d'Espagne. Tristement, parcequ'ils out laissk en Roncevaux le plus grand chevalier du monde, Roland, le hkros de la France, et avec lui Olivier, tous les douze pairs et vingt mille hommes, la fleurde I'armke. L'empereur vient k sa capitale, "Muntet el palais, est venuz en la sale,—as li venue Aide, une bele dame,—go dist a I'rei: "U est Rollanz li catanies,—Ki me jurat cume sa per k prendre?"—Carles Uiol, v, 5597. 16 ■ Colorado College Studies. en ad e dulur et pesance,—Pluret des oilz, tiret sa barbe blanche;—"Soer, chere amie, d'hume mort me demandes,— jo Ten durrai mult esforciet escange:—c'est Loewis, mielz ne sai jo qu'en parle:—il est mis filz et si tiendrat mes marches," —Aide respunt: C'est moz mei est estranges,—ne placet Deu ne ses seinz ne ses angles—apres Kollant que jo vive remaigne!"—Pert la culur, chet as piez Carlemagne,— Sempres est morte, Deus ait mercit de I'anme! La douleur d'Heluis, la fianc6e de Raoul de Cambrai, quand elle le regarde pour la derni^re fois sur la bi^re est presque aussi grande. "Biax dox amis" dist la bele en plorant—" n'avrai signor en trestout mon vivant," voeu qu'elle tiendra toujours.'' Malheureusement il faut se tourner de ces beaux exemples au type de la jeune fille que les pontes du XIII° ou de la dernifere partie du XIP si^cle nous ont donn6. If faut com¬ parer Florete en Floovant avec Aude pour voir combien sont plus has les sentiments. Florete a 6t6 I'amie de Floovant mais il avait donn6 sa parole Maugalie, et Florete se plaint k son pfere en bons termes. "Elle n'aura jamais mari en trestot son vivant" sauf Floovant. Mais ce dernier s'avance au roi, all^gue son engagement avec Maugalie et demande la main de sa fille pour son 6cuyer. Le roi y consent et demande Florete son avis. "Sire," dit la pucelle, "je le voul ausimant;—Quant autre ne pout estre, Richier me commant."' C'est vrai que Richard n'6tait pas moins courageux que son maitre! Dans Elie de Saint Gilles on vois meme sc^ne rep6t6 dans tons les details oil Rosambnde la liberatrice d'Elie se console sans beaucoup de peine et imnibdiatement demande Galopin son bcuyer;* et on pourrait rbpbter ti plaisir des passages pareils. Quelle difference entre ces reponses et celle de la belle Aude! On voit qu'il n'6tait plus le mari voulu mais un mari quelquonque. ^La Chanson de Roland, V. 3705. 2 Raoul de Cambrai, V. 3713. « Floovant, V. 2348. *Elie de Saint-Gilles, V. 2689. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 17 Cependant si la l^g^ret^ 6tait la seule faute qu'on pour- rait reprocher k la classe des heroines cr66e h ce temps on serait bien heureux. Mais les pontes n'h^sitent point k les peindre d'une efPronterie et d'une impudicit6 horribles. II y a une ressemblance bien forte entre toutes ces jeunes filles, et Ton pent bien croire qu'elles 6taient copi6es aprfes quelque mauvais type qui jouissait d'une grande c6l6brit6. Elles sont on ne pent plus d6shonnetes et font ton jours des • avances k leurs amants. Elles n'h^sitent point h employer tout moyen pour ariiver h leur but. Floripas en Fierabras s'efforce a faire tuer son p6re parcequ'il ne se convertit pas, et sa m6chancet6 est tout-k-fait incroyable.' II y a une foule d'autres presque aussi m6chantes. Sans doute les pontes ont dit beaucoup de mensonges dans ces po^mes; mais s'il y a des exaggerations l&-dessus, nous croyons qu'il y en a aussi des raisons. Nous y reviendrons plus tard. III.—Le Mariage. Dans un des vieux poemes, I'auteur se fache beaucoup contre les manages prematures. Ses mots sont dignes d'etre cites: "Baron a icel tant dont V0U8 m'oes center Nus horn ne prendrait feme, s'avoit .XXX. ans pass^ Et la pucele encontre aussi de bel a^; Mais puis est avarisse et luxure months. On fait mais .II. enfens de .XII. ans asambler."® On est souvent en peine k dire dans les passages sem- blables si I'auteur parle rkelement d'un fait ou si ce n'est pas tout bonnement une expression du regret, qu'on trouve partout, pour " le bon vieux temps," mgme quand "le bon vieux temps" est le plus mauvais. Mais nous croyons qu'il dit ici, avec un pen d'exaggeration, une verite historique. La date du passage est a peu prks 1200, et a ce temps sous I'influence du systeme feodal beaucoup de mariages etaient sans doute d# trks bonne heure. L'amante de Doon de ^ Fierabras, V. 5955. » 2Aiol V. 1696. 18 Colorado College Studies. Maience, Nicolette "n'ot que XI. ans et .1. mois seulement."' Flordespine en Gaufrey avait ".XIII. ans et demi"^ L'h^roine de Parise la Duchesse n'avait que XV ans quand elle fut chass^e de son pays et elle 6tait marine peut-6tre une ann6e.' II y a une foule d'autres cas ou la femme est aussi jeune. On salt qu'il 6tait k I'int6r6t du roi ou du seigneur f6odal au moyen age, quand un de ses barons mourut et laissa une jeune fille heriti^re, de la donner en mariage aussitbt que possible, pour obtenir un homme pour d^fendre le fief et pour ses guerres. Et c'est cette circonstance qui faisait un si grand nombre de mariages pr6matur6s. Mais avant le XIP siade le fief n'^tait pas>b6r6ditaire. Nous croyons meme voir qu'il ne I'^tait pas tonjours au XIP siade. Alors il se pourrait tr^s bien qu'avant ce siade les mariages n'^taient pas de si bonne heure. De plus, un examen soigneux des textes les plus vieux, comme Roland et Aliscans, appuie cette id6e. Le r6le des femmes dans ces po^mes est plutbt le r6le d'une femme d'un age mur, que d'une jeune fille de douze ans. C'est vrai que les femmes a cette 6poque daient de bonne vigoureuses et cet age de douze. ans n'^tait pas du tout aussi jeune qu'il est a present. Nous avons daja vu que dfes que le fief devint har6ditaire on arrivait a se marier trfes jeune. Cela evoque la question de qui faisait le mariage; et en tli6orie au moins, si non toujours dans la pratique, c'est facile a r^pondre. C'^tait le roi ou le seigneur f^odal. La femme et le fief 6taient inseparables et c'6tait tout naturel que le seigneur eut ce pouvoir. Cetait son moyen de payer ses chevaliers comme on le voit dans tons les poames. Le passage ou Charlemagne dit qu'il donnerait un autre mari a Aude a ete deja cite, et dans le meme poeme I'emir incite les paiens a la bataille par la promesse de belles femmes et des fiefs.* Enfin toute cette ^ Doon de Maience V. ^630. 2 Gaufrey V. 1797, ' Parise la Duchesse. * ♦Roland V. 3397. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 19 histoire de batailles terribles et de brutality en Baoul de Cambrai se base sur ce droit du roi. Ce n'6tait pas seule- ment un droit mais c'6tait aussi le devoir du roi de donner des femmes k ses chevaliers et des maris aux jeunes filles h6riti6res, et on voit ces derni^res qui viennent a la cour " pour demander mari." C'est ainsi que la belle Ayglentine de Gui de Nanteuil est venue "pour querre mariage" et quand I'empereur allait la donner ii un homme qu'elle ne voulait pas—II eut re§u un petit cadeau de mille "mars d'or. Comment les historiens se sont sottement tromp6s en Charlemagne!—il s'§leva une guerre pour sa possession. Cependent il n'y a gu^re de doute que de bonne heure dans le XIIP si^cle ce droit n'^tait pas aussi rigoureusement enforce, et peut-etre ce vers trouv6 dans le passage que nous venous de citer 6tait k pen prks exact: "A moillier la prendra si le roi le consent.''''^ C'est Evident que le consente- ment du roi 6tait toujours suppos6 n^cessaire mais comme ici il ne pouvait trks souvent I'enforcer. Sur cette question du mariage la femme avait beaucoup de fois de petites prefer¬ ences et quelquefois elle savait les obtenir." Mais il y a plusieurs examples ou la femme etait forcee h se marier a un homme qu'elle haissait.' Trks souvent sans doute pouvait-elle se soustraire de la dure necessite d'un tel mariage, mais il semble que ce ne serait ordinalrement qu'avec la perte de son heritage. II fut ainsi qu'Ailis etait desheritee en Kaoul de Cambrai. Le droit du roi est evident. II parle d'Aiiis qu'il voulait donner h un chevalier: "Et s'ele i faut, trkstot par son outraige— S'irai saisir la terre et I'eritaige."* Comme on pourrait croire c'etait la cause la plus frequente des guerres feodales comme c'etait aussi un moyen de confirmer la paix. •Gui de NaQteuil V. 586. 2La demoiselle a par la main saisi,—Gui dist le rois, ceste aurez en baillie;— Lors elle respondi com fame courroucie" Par ma foi, Gui, toz pensez grant folie,— Qu ja n'aurez de moi seignorie,"—Dist I'empereres: "voz ditez grant folie,—(Ju'il voz convient faire ma commandie "—Mais uns proverbes noz aprent et chastie Engiens de fame maint saige home cunchie." C'6taitcela qui arriva ici et ce uAtait pas le seul exemple. (Gaydon V. 8569). 'Raoul de Cambrai V. 6836. ■•Daurel et Beton V. 644. Raoul de Cambrai V. 151. 20 Colorado College Studies. En dehors des conditions cit6es il faut de plus que les partis ne soient pas des parents, ni des parents du sang ni des parents spirituels,' parcequ'il semble que les parrains du bapt&me contract^rent une parents qui interdisait au mariage de meme qu'une parents du sang. Dans cette connection il faut mentionner qu'.un grand nombre de mariages 6tait entre des barons Chretiens et des princesses paiennes, et quelque fois entre une chretienne et •un paien. II va sans dire que dans ces ,cas les parens s'6taient convertis et baptises. L'id^e qu'il pouvait 6tre une union entre deux partis de religious diff6rentes n'entra jamais dans la tete d'un homme du moyen age. Quand une femme fut baptisee il 6tait la coutume de changer son nom. Dans la Prise d'Orenge le nom d'Orable est chang6 en Guiborc.' Au bapteme, la femme 4tait d^vetue et plong6e dans les fonts.' Elle avait des parrains et des marraines comme un enfant.' Selon les id6es de l'6glise il fallait le libre consentement des partis contractants pour faire mariage I6gal, mais sous un r6gne de la force les officiaux de I'^glise 6taient tr^s sou- vent forc6s a se plier,^ et il y avait des mariages tr^s centre la volenti de la femme. Mais au moins ce n'6tait pas I'id^al.' Enfin comme concession a la femme, on pent ajouter que les partis seront a peu pr^s de meme fiige. II y a beaucoup de passages ou la femme exprime son aversion ti un vieux homme.® 1 "(^ue je suis ses cousins mol ne pent avoir mie" (Aid V. 8120). Dans Elie de Saint-Gitles apr^s Rosamonde eut sauv6 Etie, et il 6tait sur point de finir leurs amours en I'^pousant il apprit que le mariage 6tait impossible parceque lui et sa famille eurent de ses parrains au baptOrae. '"Signor" che dist Elies A m'amie m'espous6s"—"vasal" dist archevesque, "de folie parJ6s"—che ne poroit soffrir sainte crestient6s,—voyant vos ieus trestous I'as aidiet a lever—et es saintismes fons beneir et sacrer " (Elie de Saint-Gilles V 2672). 2 " II la baptisent en Tenor Dame d6Li nom li otent de la paienet6—A nostre loi la fontGuibor nomer (Prise d'Orenge V. 1868). 3" Adonc s'est desvestue la bele o le chief blon:—En la cuve Tont mise li nobile baron.—L'archevesque Turpin commenche une lechon;—la bele batisa u nom Saint Symeon,—Garins fu son parrain et Do et Salemon-Onques au baptizier son nom n'y canja on—Que ne le vout souffrir Berart le gentis hom " (Gaufrey V. 9146). OtinelV. 626. Fierabras V. 5998. ^Raoul de Cambrai V. 6455. ® Mes une chose sachieg qu'est veritez—molt est li hom fox et musarz provez.— Qui feme prant outre-ses volentez." (Ayraeri de Narbonne V. 2392). ®"Car il est vieux, s'a la barbe florie-ne le prendroie por a perdre la vie." (Aymeri de Narbonne V. 2474). " N'ai cure de viellart qui le pel ait froncie" Elie de Saint-Gilles V. 1735. Prise d'Orenge V. 628. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 21 II reste encore k d^crire la fagon d'un mariage au XIP si6cle. Un bon example est le mariage d'Hermenjart dans Aymeri de Narbonne dent il n'y a aucun point important qui ne soit pas appuy6 par nos meilleurs po^mes. Aymeri envoya une ambassade des plus hauts barons de son pays.au roi, Boniface, fr^re d'Hermenjart. Les ambas- sadeurs firent la demande de la main de la soeur en lui promettant un riche douaire et en judicieusement menagant le fr^re de la guerre s'il refusa. Le roi acceda volontiers et demanda I'avis de sa soeur. Bien qu'elle ne d^sirait mieux elle dit que son amant devrait venir la prendre. Ce fut Ik une modestie qu'on ne voit pas chez beaucoup d'h^roines. Aymeri vint et ils furent fiances. Les fiangailles 6taient tout bonnement une promesse faite entre les deux partis de se prendre comme mari et 6pouse. Le plus souvent c'^tait en forme d'un serment fait sur les reliques des saints ou sacr6 par un pretre.' Quelquefois le pkre et I'amant s'engageaient mutuellement, I'un k donner et I'autre k prendre la femme comme 6pouse.^ M. Gautier fait une difference ici et nomme ce dernier cas une fois tandis que les fiangailles sont le libre engagement des amants ou entre la volont6 de la femme. Mais le plus souvent les deux etaient le meme, et oil le serment 6tait seulement entre les amants c'^tait presque toujours ou la femme n'avait pas de parents presents. Ordinairement le roi ou parent prenait la jeune fille par la main et la donnait au chevalier;' et quelque fois on ajoute que le pretre le.sacra, ou qu'ils "s'entrejurkrent." C'est possible que les fiangailles 6taient souvent faites dans I'^glise,* mais il faut garder de les ^Turpins li archevesque, h la chiere membrie A demand^ Berart si la dame li gr6e. Oil, chen dlst Berart, de cuer et de pens^e. Etvous? dist archevesque douche dame sen^e, Oil, dist Flordespine, bien me plest et agr^e. Adonques la 11 a Tarchevesque affile. (Qaufrey V. 7170). 2"Sor une table font les sains aporter; Ileuques font les sairement jurer,— Bernier del prendr#^et Gueri de donner" (Raoul de Cambrai V. 5838). '(Aymeri de Narbonne V. 3404). <"Sire R. dist la franche pucele,—vos me jurastes dedens une chapele." (Raoul de Cambrai V. 3683). 22 CoLOBADo College Studies. confondre avec le manage. C'6tait tout bonnement un engagement publique, et il n'y avait pas de temps fixe de jusqu'au manage. On parle quelque part de la coutume de donner un anneau aux fiangailles, mais nous n'avons pu en trouver des preuves suffisantes que c'6tait un usage commun. En Gay- don cit6 pour appuyer ce point, ce fut envoys par la dame au amant pour le reconnaitre,^ et en Girart de Rossillon oil la reine eut donn6 un anneau k Girart, ce n'^tait qu'un t^moinage d'amiti6. Dans les deux ou trois instances ou il 6tait r6element donn6 comme gage d'amour on ne voit aucune raison k le croire une cotltume g^n^rale plus qu'un autre cadeau dont nous avons beaucoup d'exemples; et nous croyons que I'usage g^n^ralS 6tait plus tard. Car s'il avait 6t6 ordinaire au XIP si^cle rien n'aurait fait une plus grande impression sur les esprits des podtes, comme on voit a I'^gard de I'anneau du mariage. Les mariages 6taient presque toujours dans I'^glise et Fheure ordinaire 6tait le matin. On allail k I'^glise k clieval avec nn cortege nombreux.' Les femmes montaient des mules qui 6taient presque universellement la monture de la dame.® Elles montaient une selle de femme comme aujourd'hui et on parle souvent de sa magnificence.* Dans l'6glise le mariage 6tait sacr6 par un pretre et le mari donnait un anneau k la femme. Ce semble avoir 6t6 une partie frappante de la c6r6monie puisque la phrase "dame 6pous6e de I'anneau" est un lieu commun. Apr^s le mariage il y avait une messe et le parti retour- nait au chateau. C'6tait pendant cette rentr^e de I'^glise que les jongleurs, toujours si nombreux aux mariages—des gens rus6s qui savaient cueillir les "deniers"—jouaient 1 Gaydon V. 8668. 2 Pour tous ces faits: Aymeri de Narbonne V. 4420. Baoul de Cambrai V. 6070. Aye d'Avignon V. 4100. sUne moult riche mule 11 ont apparellie—La sele fu d'ivoire, s'est & or eataillie" (Gaufrey V. 2021). Ele met le jamble outre par grant nobilit6; le piet met es estriers, esperous ot dor6s" (Aiol V. 7488). Sans doute ordinairement )a femme portait une robe differente pour monter & cheval: " Jehennete et Mai tine ont lor dame lev^e—come pour cbevaucher I'ont bleu atournOe " (Gui de Nanteull V. 1563). La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 23 leur plus belle musique. C'6tait alors que le jeune mari devenait si liberal et donnait quelquefois son clieval ou son manteau au chanteur/ Pour les graiides fetes apr^s le mariage qui duraient de huit jusqu' a quinze jours on avait la coutume de dresser des tables au milieu de la plaine. II va sans dire qu'il y avait des joutes, des danses, des chants et beaucoup de r^jouis- sances. La dernifere sc^ne 6tait tr^s belle. C'^tait ou le pr^tre venait b^nir le lit des nouveaux marife.'' Alors les femmes couchaient la jeune dame' et la journ6e 6tait finie. II n'y a gu6re des mesalliances dans les chansons de geste. Le cas de Bernier qui 6tait batard et qui se maria a la fille d'un comte a 6t6 d^jk cit6.* Aussi quand Aiol allait cher- cher fortune la cour de Louis un baron voula lui donner sa fille qu'il refusa parcequ'il 6tait pauvre.' Un exemple plus parfait est dans Hugues Capet. Le h^ros 6tait surnomm6 le boucher, parceque c'^tait le metier de sa famille. Le pofeme est une histoire des exploits merveilleux par lesquels un homme de si basse famille pouvait arriver fi se marier avec I'h6riti6re du trhne de la France.® Mais ce pofeme fut 6crit vers le milieu du XIV° si6cle quand 1 Raoul de Cambrai V. 6089. 2 L'evesque va Testole h son col afubler—Lor lit vint benelr le soir apr^s souper" (Aye d'Avignon V. 4115). ®Passe Rose couchiferent les dames du roion." (Gaufrey V. 7415). Dist B. vos savez bien que je sui de bas lin, Trop est haus bom 11 riches sors Gueri. D'avoir sa fille n'iert ja par moi requis." (Raoul de Cambrai V. 5704). ®" Sire che dist aiols, onques mais n'oi tel: Ja me douge forment que vos ne me gabes. Je n'ai en nule ters ne chastel ne chit6,— Trop povre mariage avis or esgard^" (Aiol V. 1781). ®Dans Hugues Capet il y a un point utiressant ^ I'egard des jeunes filles hlriti^res. Hugue Capet 6pousa I'hlriti^re du trOne et devint roi. L'auteur dit qu'apr^s son av^nement un parlement de tous les barons d^cida que dor^navant seulement les h^ritiers m&les pouvaient prendre la couronne. II y a un air histori- que dans le passage. Les 6diteurs out 6tabli que ce po6me fut 6crit apr^s 1312, et on trouve dans I'histoire qu'il y avait un 6tats g^nlraux en 1316 qui donna un tel arrOt. et que pen¬ dant les quatorze ann^es suivantes les femmes h6riti6res 6taient excludes trois fois de la couronne de France, les premieres examples oii la loi s'appliquait. II semblerait tr^s probable alors que le passage cit6 fut fondl sur I'histoire et que le po^me fut 6crit apr^s 1316 et puet-Otre plu sieurs ans plus tard. 24 Colorado College Studies. la condition de la bourgeoisie 6tait beaucoup plus 6lev6e. Un pareil sentiment aurait 6t6 impossible an XIP si^cle ou on voit un tel m^pris du petit peuple que les pontes avaient toujours soin de faire une naissance noble pour les h6ros vulgaires comme Kenouart en Aliscans. Nous n'avons pas trouv6 un seul texte honorable oil un homme noble se maria k une femme de basse naissance. (To be concluded in Vol, X of Colorado College Studies.) A STUDY OF SOME TELEOSTS FROM THE RUSSELL SUBSTAGE OF THE PLATTE CRETA¬ CEOUS SERIES. By F. W. Cragin. Science owes to the Reverend Mr. H. C. Bradbury the careful preservation of a specimen of Syllcemus latifrons from the Cretaceous of Kansas; and the writer is especially indebted to him for the use of it in paleontological research. It is but justice to Mr. Bradbury to say that it was submitted for study long ago, at a time when all that was known of this interesting fish-form was comprised in Cope's description and figures of the type-specimen, and that preliminary studies and drawings of Mr. Bradbury's specimen were made by the writer some years ago, but were not then published. Impor¬ tant supplementary knowledge has quite recently been added by Mr. Alban Stewart in his paper on Kansas Cretaceous Teleosts, in Volume VI. of the University Geological Survey of Kansas. As the Bradbury specimen throws still further light on both genus and species, as well as confirms in most respects Cope's and Stewart's studies, atfording together with these a fairly complete knowledge of this fish, the writer here presents revised generic and specific diagnoses in which the results of his own and renewed studies are incorporated with the data of the authors named. Family SYLL/EMID^. Type-genus, Syllcemus Cope. As regards the systematic position of the genus Syllsemus, Prof. Cope rightly considered it allied to the Mugilidae. Dr. Zittel* placed it in the "Familie. Mugiliformes. Harder''; but Mugilifor#aes is a group of higher than family rank and practically equivalent to the suborder Percesoces, since it ♦Handbuch der Paleeontologie, Vol. Ill, p. 312. 26 Colorado College Studies. was made to include the type-genera of the families Sphyrae- nidae, Mugilidae and Atherinidae. In studying the Cretaceous teleosts in the collection of the University of Kansas, Mr. Alban Stewart* has recently treated Syllaemus under the Mugilidae, but adds that its posi¬ tion in that family is very doubtful. The present writer believes that Syllaemus, though presenting relationships to the Mugilidae, can not be referred to that family, and should be made the type of a distinct family, Syllaemidae, differing from the Mugilidae and resembling the Sphyraenidae in hav¬ ing the body elongate and subcylindrical and the head long, pointed and pike-like, and in the presence of a lateral line, the latter extending along the middle of the sides; differing from the Mugilidae and resembling the Atherinidae in having the vertebrae considerably more than 24; differing from the usual condition in the suborder Percesoces by the subin- ferior position of the pectoral fins, and from that in the order Acanthopteri by the relatively posterior abdominal position of the ventrals, and apparently by having the anterior part only of the mouth border formed by the premaxillary. Genus SYLL^MUS. Syllc^mus Cope. Report U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, Vol. II, p. 180; 1875. Stewart, University Geological Survey of Kansas, Vol. VI, p. 383. Type, Syllcemus laiifrons Cope. Body subcylindrical or fusiform, not compressed; skull depressed, flattish-convex above from right to left, broad across the occipital region, in advance of which it is some¬ what contracted and produced to form a bill-like muzzle, tapering to a narrow, truncate extremity; cranial bones, for the most part, of subtriangular outlines as seen from above, those on the occipital region short, those of the muzzle elon¬ gate; inferior side of head contracted, the coracoid bones forming a keel and the lower borders of the dentaries and also those of the large opercular bones meeting at the infero- median line; mouth-cleft long, extending to two-thirds of the ♦University Geological Survey of Kansas, Vol. VI, p. 383. Teleosts from Russell Substage. 27 distance from tip of muzzle to occiput; maxillaries appar¬ ently toothless; premaxillaries armed with very small conical teeth; orbits large; vertebrae about 36 in number; dorsal fin having a long basis, consisting of an anterior triangular, more elevated, closely rayed lobe, which is at least for the most part soft-rayed, having not more than three or four of the anterior rays simple and regardable as slender spines, and of a posterior less elevated lobe in which the rays are few, widely interspaced, and much shorter and slenderer than those of the anterior lobe, the anterior and posterior lobes being connected by a portion in which the rays are obsoles¬ cent; pectoral fins subinferior, consisting of numerous small rays; pelvic fins abdominal, placed posterior to the front lobe of the dorsal; anal fin with short basis, its rays articulated and distally dissected, except the first, which is simple; caudal fin deeply forked; scales cycloid; lateral line extend¬ ing along the middle of the sides. syll.emus latifrons Cope. Plate I, figs. 1-6. Syllcenms latifrons Cope. Report (Hayden) U. S. Geological Sur¬ vey of the Territories, Vol. II, pp. 181 and 273; 1875. Report (Wheeler) U. S. Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridiap, Vol. IV, Ft. II, p. 27, Plate XXIII, figs. 1, la; 1877. Stewart, University Geological Survey of Kansas, Vol. VI, p. 384, Plate LXXII, fig. 2; 1900. Body relatively stout in the anterior and middle region, broadest a little in advance of the middle. The rostrum, viewed from above, has the form of an elevated, apically truncated isosceles triangle. As to length of basis, the dorsal fin equals at least nearly a fourth of the total length of the fish, and has the posterior rayed lobe about equal to the an¬ terior, the subrayless interval being somewhat less extended than either lobe. .There are about 13 or 14 rays in the an¬ terior and at least 7 in the posterior lobe, those of the latter lobe being placed (in the Lincoln county specimen) at inter¬ vals of about*5 mm. All but the anterior three or four of the rays of the anterior lobe are distally dissected, and all except the rudimentary first are cleft at base, each embracing 28 CoLOKADo College Studies. the posterior part of the ray in front of it by the basal cleft. Pectoral fin composed of 15 to 20 small rays which are strongly bent at the proximal ends. Caudal fin strongly and deeply forked, though much less widely so than in either of the species of Pelecorapis herein described, the lobes very long and narrow, the lower a little longer than the upper. The scales are large and moderately thick, subrhomboidal, their vertical extent about twice the longitudinal, smooth or exhibiting only delicate concentric line-sculpture, and are arranged in 13 longitudinal rows on either side, the lateral line occupying the eighth row below the dorsal fin. The in¬ termediate verterbrfe are nearly as deep as long. Measurements.—Those of the specimen studied by the writer are: total length about 370; length of skull, measured along median line to posterior limit of roof, 64; length of head to posterior limits of opercular apparatus 82; tip of snout to caudal peduncle 285; tip of snout to anterior limit of dorsal basis 123; same to posterior preserved limit of dor¬ sal 220; same to anterior insertion of anal fin about 250; length of longest ray of anterior lobe of dorsal about 34; greatest breadth of base of dorsal between exteriors of the right and left integumental grooves (being that of the anterior lobe) 4.5; average length of verterbrfe in mid-region about 7; height of scales on middle-posterior region about 9 mm. Occurrence.—The example studied by the writer is from the Benton stage of the Platte series, in the "Fencepost limestone" of the Russell substage, near Lincoln Center, Kansas. Professor Cope's example was given him as hailing from the "Summit of Pike's Peak"; but as that is granite, the Professor deemed the specimen more likely to have been derived "from the Cretaceous or possibly Jurassic beds" at the foot of the peak. Later, he ascribed it to the Niobrara or Fort Pierre ("Cretaceous No. 3 or 4, of Colorado"); and still later, he cites an, early, verbally expressed opinion of his, that it was "probably of the Niobrara", adding that "more full information leads to the belief that it was obtained from some point in New Mexico."* ♦ ttee above cited Report of Hayden Survey^ pp. 181, 182 and 273; and that of the Wheeler Survey, p. 28. Teleosts from Russell Substage. 29 In his table of stratigraphic range of genera, page 386 of University Survey VI, Mr. Stewart, apparently intending to use one of the above cited statements of Prof. Cope, and in¬ advertently substituting and for or in the latter's expression "Cretaceous No. 3 or 4", gives the range of Syllsemus as Niobrara and Fort Pierre; but on page 384 he states that the two specimens in the Kansas University collection are "from the Fort Benton Cretaceous, the exact locality of which is unknown". There seems to be no satisfactory evidence that Syllcemus latifrons has hitherto been found except in the Benton stage. Remarks.—All of the above stated characters that have not been previously recorded by Cope or Stewart (also not a few of those that have) are indicated by the Bradbury speci¬ men. The latter, though the torsus is somewhat flattened by pressure, so as to appear considerably wider than deep, is in a condition of preservation exceptionally favorable to show¬ ing a large number of characters. The head and the caudal fln are preserved practically entire. The greater part of the inferior surface, all of the left side, and half (at the front, all) of the superior surface are exposed, though the scales and lateral line are indicated only by their imprints, and these well defined on only a part of the posterior region, sev¬ eral scale-prints also appearing at one point on the nape. The nature of the dorsal fin is shown by the double inser¬ tions and anteriorly, some of the cleft basal remnants of the rays and, outside of these, by the basal groove for the inser¬ tion of the integument, this groove making the complete circuit of the fin and demonstrating the continuous character of the latter. The matrix over this fin is broken vertically and in such a manner as to display an imprint-elevation of the fore-lobe, showing that all but three or four of the an- tei'ior rays were flattened and dissected soft rays. Along the interval separating the two lobes, the rays appear at first glance to be lacking, but were probably present, at least as basal rudiments, as is indicated by a number of faintly im¬ pressed insertions, intervalled about as in the posterior lobe. The pectoral and pelvic fins have been broken away. An 30 Colorado College Studies. imprint of the middle and distal parts of five anterior rays of the anal fin, indicates that the spine as well as the rays fol¬ lowing? it were articulated, and preserves distally some of the fibres of four post-spinal dissected rays. The vertebrae have fallen to the ventral surface, the corrosion of which has dis¬ played their approximate form and size in molds. The pos¬ terior borders of the scale-prints usually present one or more shallow, rounded emarginations. On Plate I is given a diagram of the osteology of the skull, based on the Bradbury specimen. Both the arrange¬ ment of the bones and their morphological interpretation as indicated in this diagram, are to be regarded as provisional. The more or less weathered-off and broken or scaled-off con¬ dition of the cranial bones in the Bradbury specimen, is such that it is impossible to be sure that the arrangement indi¬ cated in the diagram is entirely correct; but it is believed to be at least nearly so. The position of the posterior part of the parieto-occipital suture is not satisfactorily shown on the specimen, but the surfaces of stone which were apparently covered with the parietals are feebly elevated, and the faintly defined inner-posterior boundaries of these slightly raised areas are indicated in the diagram by dotted lines, as probable approximate limits of the parietals. The bone called par- ethmoid should possibly be called the prefrontal. On the other hand, a prefrontal may perhaps be included as the an¬ terior part of the bone called sphenotic. The latter bone presents uncertain indications of being crossed by a jagged suture just anterior to the position represented on the dia¬ gram by the letters sph. If this suture is really present, the posterior and anterior bones into which the one here pro¬ visionally called sphenotic would so be divided, may be respectively either sphenotic and postfrontal or postfrontal and prefrontal. Family PELECORAPID.^. Type-genus, Pelecorapis Cope. Teleosts of a generalized type, combining characters of the families Exocoetidse, Clupeidse, Albulidm, etc.; gill-arches Teleosts from Russell Substage. 31 5; pelvic bones distinct, presenting considerable resemblance to those of Exoccetus, plate-like, in part concave below, bearing an anterior spine-like process; fins large, without rigid spines (unless in case of the dorsal, which is doubtful), subtended by large bony scales or scutes; the dorsal fin with long basis, placed midway of the length of the body, wholly anterior to the pelvic fin; pectoral fin subinferior; pelvic fin abdominal and very posterior; caudal forked; scales ctenoid; lateral line placed high on the sides in the anterior region when present. Genus PELECORAPIS. Pelecorapis Cope. Report (Hayden) U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, Vol. II, p. 182. 1875. Form compressed and elongate; head naked, orbit large, jaws toothed throughout, the lower jaw projecting beyond the upper; maxillary distinct from premaxillary, forming lateral margin of upper jaw; premaxillary short; pelvic bones consisting of a pair of irregular plates in contact at the median plane chiefly by the long edges of thin wing-like ex¬ pansions; anterior process of either bone long, tapering, acute, the two of the opposite bones convergent but not meeting; bases of median fins subtended on either side (and in front?) by a single row, those of the paired fins subtended at the lower side by a patch or two- to three-fold row of im¬ bricated bony gcutes; anterior ray of fins (including anal?) simple and, in case of the pectoral and pelvic at least, articu¬ lated; dorsal fin with moderately long basis, attaining a moderate height in the anterior part and considerably di¬ minished in the posterior, placed wholly anterior to the pelvic fin; the latter situated far back on the abdomen, re¬ mote from the large and long, interiorly placed pectoral; pectoral fin intermediate in length between that of Exoccetus and that of Albula; scales small, in numerous longitudinal rows; lateral line high on anterior region, apparently partial, (sometimes watiting?); vertebrm of the posterior to middle trunk region large, those of the anterior region becoming smaller and much shortened. 32 Colorado College Studies. Pelecorapis vabius Cope. Plate II, figs. 1 and 2. Pelecorapis varius Cope. Report (Hayden) U. S. Geological Sur¬ vey of the Territories, Vol. II, p. 182. 1875. Body rather elongate, tapered-elliptic, compressed, deep¬ est in the front-middle region near and in front of the dorsal fin and tapering thence slowly backward to caudal peduncle; head about 4^ in total length; muzzle not elongate; mouth- cleft reaching to about opposite posterior border of orbit; premaxillary extending backward a little more than half of the distance from tip of snout to below anterior border of orbit, apparently articulated so as to be movable with refer¬ ence to maxillary; premaxillaries and anterior portion of dentaries armed with moderately large, recurved, intervalled teeth, maxillaries with small and narrowly interspaced teeth; clavicle stout; pelvis of two broad, irregular, lamelliform bones, either of which presents toward the median plane, along which their edges are in contact, a large thin, longi¬ tudinally oblong, interiorly concave wing, or scoop-shaped portion, thickened posteriorly, the portion exterior to which is subquadrangular, thicker, and in part transversely convex on its under surface. The scoop-like portion extends con¬ siderably further backward than thd quadrangular, and from the angle formed by the outer border of the former and the posterior border of the latter a strong, anteroposteriorly trending articular process springs rather abruptly down¬ ward. A portion of the bone, chiefly of the thicker quad¬ rangular portion, is produced far forward as a sharp splinter¬ like process, or spine,'the inferior surface of which is trav¬ ersed near its inner margin by a shallow groove. The spine is directed as a radius' from the articular process, and a little obliquely, so that the two spines of the pelvic bones slightly converge. Dorsal fin consisting of about 20 rays, the first one of which is apparently simple or spinous, the others dis¬ sected, the 8 or 10 anterior dissected rays being moderately tall and strong and placed in rather close succession, while the posterior are small and well intervalled, the change from larger to smaller rays being apparently quite gradual. The Teleosts from Russell Substage. 33 base of the dorsal fin is subtended on either side by an im¬ bricated series of rather large smooth bony scutes. The ex¬ posed parts of these scutes are rhomboids whose two longer sides are directed obliquely forward and downward, as de¬ termined by the direction of the anterior scute-border, there being one scute on either side for each dorsal ray. The scutes slope outward and downward and their upper borders are in contact with the dorsal rays, while the lower are nearly on a level with the articulations between those rays and the blade-like interneurals. It is probable that these scutes con¬ stituted a sheath into which, in life, the dorsal fin was de- pressible. Pectoral fin elongate-triangular, reaching nearly half way to beginning of pelvic and to a point nearly under beginning of dorsal, composed of at least 16 rays, of which all are articulated and all, save the first, dissected; pelvic fin abdominal, placed well back of the middle of the torsus and beginning about under posterior limit of dorsal, consisting of one large simple distally articulated ray and 12 or 13 dis¬ sected soft rays; caudal fin large, strongly and widely forked; pectoral and pelvic fins subtended (apparently on lower side only, of insertion) by scutes similar to the dorsal ones, those of the pectoral arranged in a partly triseriate group. A double series of scutes, representing the fore-base of the anal fin, begins at a distance of about one and one-fifth times the pelvic fin-length back of the insertion of the first pelvic ray; vertebra} upward of 50, their length and depth subequal, gradually becoming relatively small and short in the anterior region; intermuscular bones numerous, especially above vertebral column; scales small, arranged in 50 or more rows, larger anteriorly than posteriorly, (a few especially large ones on nape?), minutely and closely concentric-striate on the anterior (concealed) part, radiately punctate-rugose on the exposed part, which is thickened with cementum, the posterior border toothed; lateral line short (?), very high up on the flank in the region anterior to the dorsal fln (where alone it has been seen), its distance from the summit there contained about four and a half times in the half girth of the body. 34 Colorado College Studies. Measurements.—Length (roughly) about two feet; height, exclusive of fins, 121 mm.; tip of snout to insertion of pelvic fin 351; distance between insertion of first ray of pectoral and that of pelvic fin 190 to 195; length of basis of dorsal about 80; length of pectoral, from insertion of first ray to tip of fin, about 95; same of pelvic fin about 52; length of verte¬ brae in posterior and middle region of body 8.5 to 9, diminish¬ ing in cervical region to 4.5 mm. or less. There are usually one and a half to two scales in 6 mm. in the oblique rows of the anterior, and two and a half to four in those of the posterior region. One completely exposed scale on the nape has a diameter of 6 mm. Occurrence.—Benton stage of the Platte series, in the Fencepost limestone of the Russell substage. All of the known specimens of this fish are from Kansas: those examined in this study being, one from near Bazine, in the eastern part of Ness county, one from near Lincoln Center, and one from an unknown locality probably in or near Russell county. The "Sibley," two miles west of which Prof. Mudge obtained Prof. Cope's type-specimen, is the old Cloud county post- village of Lake Sibley, near the lagoon of that name which is a former northern meander of the Republican river, north¬ west of Concordia, the present postoffice of Sibley, Kansas, being in Douglas county. Remarks.—The writer secured the Bazine specimen and that from Lincoln Center,—the former by purchase, the latter as a gift from Mr. W. S. and Mrs. A. C. Wait,—about 1888- 1890, for the Museum of Washburn College, to which he is indebted for the use of them. The-Russell (?) county example was of a collection personally purchased by the writer about 1895 from the late Mr. Martin Allen, a former State Forester of Kansas and for many years a resident of Hays City, interested in science and much esteemed by those who knew him. The Allen collection is part of the large collection purchased a few years ago by General William J. Palmer and the Colorado Springs Company and by them presented to the Museum of Colorado College. Teleosts from Eussell Substage. 35 The following are the parts shown in the three specimens. In the Bazine specimen: the body; a pectoral and a pelvic fin, both practically complete; part of the lower lobe of the caudal fin; an imprint of the dorsal fin; a series of scutes at origin of the anal fin. Faint traces of part of the dorsal scutes can be seen in this and the specimen next mentioned. In the Lincoln Center or Wait specimen: nearly all of the head and body; the pelvic bones, several pelvic scutes and most of a pelvic fin; numerous intermusculars. In the Martin Allen specimen: the entire body; in greater or less part, a dorsal fin, a pectoral fin, and both pelvic fins, with the basal scutes of the two former, and a pelvic bone supporting one of the latter; the clavicle; a part of a lateral line. Ribs, vertebrae and scales are shown more or less satis¬ factorily in all three of the specimens. In the dorsal fin, the number of rays preserved is 19; there are doubtful indica¬ tions of one or two smaller spines in front of the one men¬ tioned, and of an additional soft ray at the posterior end. The condition of preservation of most of the scales is such that their ctenoid character might be overlooked on a casual inspection. The lateral line is displayed, showing the tubes, in but one of the specimens, and in that for only the short distance covered by twelve consecutive scales. On this speci¬ men, its former presence is doubtfully indicated further forward, after an interruption, on two or three scales of the same row. Pelecoeapis microlepiS sp. nov. Plate II, fig. 3, and Plate III. Represented by a specimen which includes most of the trunk and the tail. Much smaller than Pelecorapis varins; the body more elongate and less deep than in that species, compressed, the ventral line and posterior half of dorsal line indicating a fusiform lateral profile; caudal isthmus rather contracted. Of the dorsal fin, only about 10 of the rays are preserved; these slender and apparently soft, representing the anterior part of the fin, which is anteriorly placed forward of the midway point between beginnings of pectoral and anal fins. 36 Colorado College Studies. and is well elevated, attaining a height equal to about two- thirds of that of the pectoral fin. The pectoral, which is preserved entire, is subinferiorly placed, large, and if in appressed position, would reach more than one-third of the distance from the insertion of its anterior ray to the begin¬ ning of the anal fin; it is composed of 16 strong and slender and of about 4 posterior short and feeble rays, of which both the first, which is simple, and the following or dissected rays are articulated. The pelvic fin is not preserved, nor its position indicated. The anal fin is represented by rather a long insertion at the front of which and preceding (or partly embracing?) it are preserved six (more, perhaps originally) overlapping pairs of bony scutes similar to those described as embracing the base of the dorsal fin in Pelecorapis varius. The caudal fin, which is large, is strongly forked, much more widely so than that of Syllcemus latifrons, its lobes long and narrow, lanceolate, though considerably less slender than those of the Syllcemus. Vertebrae estimated to exceed 50; ribs well developed. Scales ctenoid, very small, much smaller than those of Pelecorapis varius relatively to size of body, estimated to form about 60 longitudinal rows on either side of the body, there being about 6 scales in 6 mm. in any of the oblique rows on the middle of the flank, glistening, seen under the hand-lens to be ornamented each with three or four coarse, strongly accentuated, concentric undulations on the anterior part and with several less pronounced, longitudinal or subradiate grooves on the posterior part, the posterior margins being toothed. I am unable to detect any trace of a lateral line on the parts on which scales are preserved, but these represent but a small portion of the surface and do not include the region in which the lateral line is known to be developed in Pelecorapis varius. Measurements.—Length from insertion of anterior ray of pectoral to extremity of tail 338; from same to beginning of anal scutes 173; from same to point under insertion of first (or first preserved) ray of dorsal fin about 85; maximum height about 60; length of upper lobe of tail, measured from caudal isthmus, about 90; its breadth, midway of same length, Teleosts from Kussell Substage. 37 19; average length of vertebrae in mid-body 6.1 mm. (15 vertebrae included within 82 mm.) Occurrence. — Benton stage of the Platte Cretaceous series, in the Downs limestone ("Fencepost limestone", or "Postrock") of the Russell substage, near Bazine, Kansas. Remarks.—The type and only known specimen of this species was submitted to the writer late in the eighties by Mr. Samuel G. Sheaffer, for study and to be placed in the Museum of Washburn College, subject to return, if called for. It has since been recalled by Mr. Sheaffer. On the block containing it, is carved the locality record, "T. 19, R. 22, Sec. 8," together with the name of the probable former owner or collector, "J. C. Long." For the photograph, from which the illustrations have been made, the writer is indebted to the kindness of Mr. Albert A. Blackman. The species is readily distinguished from Pelecorapis varius, as well as from all other known teleosts of the Platte series, by the fineness of its scales, which is such as to give the surface of the body a seedy appearance, the exposed parts of the scales being only about as large as flax seeds, several of them together covering only the area of a single scale of the varius. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE I. Syllcemus latifrons Cope. Figure 1. Provisional diagram of head, natural size, showing approxi¬ mate arrangement of the bones visible from above. (See com¬ ments on same, under Remarks on the species, page 30.) Ex¬ planation of reference letters in the figure: so, supraoccipital; i-so, interparietal portion of supraoccipital; p, parietal; epo, epiotic;pfo, pterotic; sph, sphenotic; /, frontal; me,* mesethmoid; pe, parethmoid; mx, maxillary; pmx, premaxillary; op, upper part of opercular apparatus. Figure 2. Anterior border of premaxillaries, enlarged, showing three of the teeth. Figure 3. Plan of the dorsal fin, natural size. Figure 4. Elevation of the dorsal fin, natural size; the posterior part restored in supposed approximate outline, the anterior lobe drawn from an imprint which is practically complete in the specimen, lacking only a narrow zone at base. Figure 5. A group of scale-prints, across the lateral line, natural size. Figure 6. Caudal fin, natural size, the outline in part restored; made from a considerable part of the fin and an imprint of most of the remainder. *This lettering, which refers to the median shaded bone in advance of the frontals. has been accidentally omitted from the plate. PLATE II. Figure 1. Greater portion of lateral view of head of Pelecorapis varius Cope, natural size. This and the following figure have been drawn by Mrs. Dr. J. C. Shedd, after sketches by F. W. Cragin. Figure 2. Inferior side of left pelvic bone of Pelecorapis varius, re¬ stored, natural size; the restoration based on a right and left in the Wait specimen and a right in the Allen; with base of fin. Figure 3. Scales from mid-flank of Pelecorapis microlepis, sp. nov.; enlarged to natural size from the Blackman photograph. See Plate III. PLATE III. Type-specimen of Pelecorapis microlepis, sp. nov., one-half natural size. From a photograph by Mr. Albert A. Blackman. [Note. —The writer takes this opportunity to make an acknowledg¬ ment, omitted by oversight from Volume VIII of the Studies. The three figures of Sphenodiscus serpentinus in that volume (Plate II, figs. 4 to 6) are from drawings very kindly made in 1897 by Mr. Robert T. Walker, Ph. B., of the Colorado College class of 1900.] Colorado College Studies. Volume IX, Plate I. Colorado College Studies. Volume IX, Plate II. Colorado College Studies. Volume IX, Plate III. Colorado College Studies. VOLUME X. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE COLORADO COLLEGE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO. March, 1903. -115 ■ V/.\0 CONTENTS. page. (1) The Earliest Life of Milton, 1 Professor E. S. Parsons (2) La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste [continued from Vol. IX.], 24 Professor H. A. Smith. (3) An Interferometer Study of Radiations in a. Mag- ) Professor J. C. Shedd. netic Field , 41 PRESS OF tHE NEW ERA PRINTINQ COMPANY LANCASTER, PA. THE EARLIEST LIFE OF MILTON/ By Professor Edward S. ParsoSs."'^ The following life of Milton, now printed for the first time, was found in 1889 by the Rev. Andrew Clark, LL.D., in a volume of Anthony "Wood's papers in the Bodleian Library,^ but, owing to the pressure of other work, he had no time to examine it. To his suggestion I owe the privilege of bringing it to public notice. The manuscript consists of five sheets (12 by 7^ in.), written on both sides, except the last, which is three-quarters filled on one side and on the other has only five lines of writing, carefully crossed out, which contain a first draft of a passage in the manuscript itself.® The handwriting is of a type not uncommon in the latter part of the seventeenth century.* The corrections are of such a sort as make it evident that the penman was the composer, of the matter, or else that he was an amanuensis who, as he wrote, corrected according to the dictation of the one for whom he worked. It has not been possible as yet to discover the author.® The manuscript was evidently written ^Reprinted from The English Historical Review, January, 1902. ^ Wood MS. D. 4. ' See p. 19, note 92. * A facsimile of a page of the manuscript is given on p. 3. ' To relieve future students of this problem from unnecessary labour, the following list is given of contemporaries of Milton, known to be interested in him for one reason or another (with one or two others mentioned by Aubrey), who did not write the manuscript (according to the theory that penman and author are one) ; Aubrey, William Joyner (suggested by the antiquary Lovedale as Wood's 'friend': see Bliss's ed. of the Fasti, i. col. 480, note 5), Edward Phillips, Andrew Marvell, Daniel Skinner, Cyriack Skinner, Samuel Hartlib, Henry Olden¬ burg, Nathan ^aget, M.D., Bishop Samuel Parker, Thomas Ellwood, John Thurlow, Abraham Hill, Philip Meadows, Richard Jones (first earl of Ranelagh), Edward Millington, Moses Pitt, Andrew Allam. The 2 Colorado College Studies. Detween the death of Milton (1674) and the publication of Anthony Wood's 'Fasti Oxonienses,' appended to the 'Athenae Oxonienses' (1691). In the 'Fasti' appeared Wood's biography of Milton, the first printed account of the poet's life. For its composition Wood had at least three sources of information, but in the opening sentence he speaks particularly of one. "This year (1635) was incorporated Master of Arts John ]\Iilton; not that it appears so in the Eegister, for the reason I have told you in the Incorporations 1629,® but from his own mouth to my friend, who was well acquainted with, and had from him, and from his Relations after his death, most of this account of his life and writings following." Literary tradition, dating back well into the seventeenth century, asserts that his friend was John Aubrey.'' Wood seems to confirm this tradition when, in discussing Milton's 'Body of Divinity,' he designates it as the book 'which my friend calls "Idea Theologiae," ' the title Aubrey gives it in his own life of IMilton,® which Wood had before him in manuscript when he wrote the biography in question. But it seems strange, nevertheless, that Wood should have referred to Aubrey when the latter supplied him with less than ten per cent, of his material, while the manuscript now under discussion contributed about forty-five per cent.® Moreover editor has examined the numerous facsimiles in Sotheby's Ramblings in the Elucidation of the Autograph of Milton, the facsimile of the Cambridge manuscript, and also, by the courtesy of the British Museum authorities, Milton's Commonplace hook. There are great diflSculties in the theory that the manuscript was written by an amanuensis. If it is correct, Nathan Paget, M.D., was perhaps the author. ' The ' reason' was that the ' registrary of the university,' John French, though ' a good scholar,' was a ' careless man,' and during his term of office omitted to record the incorporations of the Cantabrigians, of whom Milton was one. ' For a sketch of his relations with Wood, see Clark's Aubrey's Brief Lives, introd. ® Ibid. ii. 71 f. ' The rest of Wood's biography is mostly made up of matter from the autobiographical passages in Milton's prose works, a careful list of his writings, and Wood's own interpretation of Milton's acts and of national events. The Earliest Life of ]\Iilton. 3 ■nt^tc7 /tfoJ 7^ /re /c rv^'^ filcLt Jul) jjhtKJO^ a fear TIC % ^erjon^ ajl} y Urjfun^\ :i-enlePKifij anJrnfimaf-fL'^n^^^^l^qvalo'Jiflio f fu' ^ameuj firafiai //xref: PYi'crt\ jaatiicitfAt ewifHit iicccm/JiHiiltTiq fwi ?r.iaj,]m. -J!.. ti:, LJ„,Mliln \ u,th>s7,.-t,(r' '"''I -P'-'j '}•<-'f u>n JixtrR il^Jx fcyx6 . ^fpoycf/c'r/q/er^ f>u /caj>pv bj fi^ h'c.ic/utc own inq'%2j^l.c(^qi^X S fiT'x hccdnl-n'fcn.t^f}^^,! a mj one.) cnqairu cccjJion wuj) a^Jrfb; Tiot clfic.) tpi,\c fpf ii^afh ^ cnfrtr uuou eMjc^ayjea at ^tfyaf flafaytL^ 9h}y J id (icc decline th ifrSaisx in if/e^f/fx circamatanco even im ^omx idoci on hp "ycluyn ihelfcr-lfpuaflec fufti l'iB~ah yxt5 d7>uikfffmh% (hal flc.7'nafidlIcpuih il^.ui^Tiii/f o do tnm Tuvifdaa/itfainccoirgf <^Jkfcrc %h 'flp//x.>/cc rcf-ur^^ff}0ay^ cLclncWioqcmcnf^ nf^ftu tjy^cit /a/ior.i tit an cfcQjnt' a!in '^shkcJ Pot>tiJ ^'>om 9\0)nc licc Ifr^^JpAoPx oj(luchatmLt \ a ,/^ wicraT>fry(nif)^ yPntUiee^'txJtii^ui^v /dcl.-nBtif'), (: \ a ' -y, I' yencrxnccyiniviin yonturneeHfyt^K'jppnuqutii /ttcL-aotu;, ()j tl7eyc;ci7i 0 {ric)iwyce<^ei,cd ivVc ni < <{ hrc utjh^fhcjfJismaj^ ?ij nil'rrnnj^anonci fhJfi ^ap!if'uPooni'ct.\dfion yytf/y fhcj^aynono fdwdaii.Sqf^ffdionczApyoufjk ffrapccpfeXuttidiowe^ hinnqyriH no dl piana.q<.itHnl pj fu }in>e_ Sinni alcut JiJtccn vioPcVfs uiifjah. ■ Jixx lajf.j flu innc fJPiia f^yVeflocPo(hpoyofcac nJicfPi^ll dci/ij!i(L qiotfne ypu rcfa.ic o/'liJea frK,p o ncitixt- infxViscb h ' ' ' ftpdJ al^iA^rpJoul^^i'V fj : dfavnyq 4'1 credoyc ^a^gjferJLat jfeSBafejcs® tdncn a. leuJCjipfcc .xJ! a/ ^trff cojc anl aodcn lu'i, (otic i/iuf'fi<^ hciPTit of xyjr t'lc diva If cdtncn if optfx. Gq m rn cup caff h ajd^ay k'"^- dih dv JaUuyp Jcerc vcviV9^sfiaj^iiq d-d/catch ts^vfaf fed iic ckuJa^ ifiice iiifiki aftcriicnp ap. mc fm nc smaP part afnd SiTtdu fh hry-.:...: / o' f jcyvicc 0 c ell a mp.-. 4 Colorado College Studies. Wood follows the chronological order of this manuscript, and very often its exact phraseology. IMay it not have been that Wood meant by his 'friend' the writer of the manuscript, but that, using his two main authorities together, he con¬ fused them for the moment when speaking of the 'Body of Divinity' ? The manuscript is certainly not the work cf Aubrey, for neither the handwriting nor the style is his. He may perhaps have secured it from some friend for Wood, but this seems unlikely, because Aubrey himself made no use of it, although it contains information concerning long periods of Milton's life which Aubrey passes over almost in silence. The autobiographical suggestions in the manuscript are few, but some traits of its author are more or less distinct. He was probably of Milton's own generation, an older man than Anthony Wood. He writes as one who had passed through the civil struggles, in which he was evidently an Independent, though one of Milton's type, sympathising deeply with real liberty but despising its counterfeit, be¬ lieving that some of the puritan leaders had been 'abusers of that specious name.'^" He was a well-educated though not altogether scholarly man, with good, though not carefully practised, literary ability. He was probably not a clergyman; perhaps he was a physician. He was either himself one of Milton's friends or he was well acquainted with seme who stood in close relations with the poet. He writes under the impulse of a deep personal interest in his subject, and Wood almost implicitly trusts his authority.^^ But whoever was its author, the biography is worthy of most careful study. It affords an illuminating glimpse into Wood's editorial methods. The way in which he uses the " See p. 19. " If Nathan Paget, M.D., is the author, the manuscript has a pecu¬ liar interpretative value. Dr. Paget was Milton's friend, perhaps, as early as 1640, and was his physician during the latter part of the poet's life. It was at Dr. Paget's suggestion that Milton married, as his third wife, Elizahetn Minshull, the doctor's cousin. The appointment of Dr. Paget in 1650 to the position of physician to the Tower is evidence as to his puritan sympathies. The Earliest Life of Milton. 5 manuscript, sometimes quoting it verbatim, then again quali¬ fying its assertions, omitting some passages and adding others of his own composition to make an impression opposite to that produced by the manuscript itself, is highly entertaining. But, more than this, the manuscript throws light upon several interesting questions in Milton's biography. It adds confir¬ mation to the theory of Joseph Hunter and Professor Masson that the poet's grandfather lived at Stanton St. John, in Oxfordshire—a conjecture which was proved to be correct by Hyde Clarke's examination of the records of the Scriveners' Company. By stating the amount of Richard Milton's in¬ come the manuscript makes it evident how he could pay the excessive fines imposed upon him for recusancy. The manu¬ script is closely related to Richardson's life of Milton. It confirms Richardson's report of Milton's relations with Sir William Davenant, and mentions, what Richardson also re¬ ports, the request of the government of Charles II that Mil¬ ton should become its Latin secretary, as he had been Crom¬ well's. Moreover the manuscript has the double distinction of being, first, the earliest biography of Milton ever, written,^^ and, secondly, the one seventeenth-century biography of the poet in which he is treated with entire sympathy. Edward S. Parsons. The Life of Mr^' John Milton. To write the Lives of Single Persons is then a commend¬ able Undertaking, when by it some Moral benefit is design'd to Mankind. Hee who has that in aim, will not imploy his time or Pen, to record the history of bad men, how successful or great soever, they may have bin; unless by relating thir Tragical ends (which, through the just Judgment of the Almighty, most commonly overtakes them) or by discrim¬ inating, with a due note of Infamy, whatever is criminal in thir actions, hee warn the Reader to flee thir example. " Aubrey's Sife of Milton (in the Brief Lives), even if written earlier, cannot be strictly called a biography; it is merely a collection of biographical jottings. "The title is alv ays used when the poet's name is mentioned in the manuscript. 6 Colorado College Studies. But to celebrate, whether the Guifts or Graces, the natural Endowments, or acquir'd laudable Hahitts of Persons emi¬ nent in thir Generations, while it gives glory to God, the hestower of all good things, and (by furnishing a Modell) tends to the edification of our Brethren, is little less than the duty of every Christian: Which seems acknowleg'd by the late Supervisors of our Common Prayer when they added to the Collect for the Church militant, a Clause commem¬ orating the Saints and Servants of God departed this life in his Fear. That Hee who is the subject of this discourse, made it his endeavor to hee thought worthy of that high Character, will, I make no doubt, appeer to the impartial Reader from the particulars, w^'^ I shall with all sincerity relate of his life and Works. The learned John Milton, horn about the year sixteen hundred and eight, is said to hee descended from an antient Knightly Family in Buckinghamshire,^^ that gave name to the chief place of thir abode. However that hee, his Father was entitled to a true Nobility in the Apostle Pauls Heraldry; having bin disinherited about ye beginning of Queen Eliza¬ beths reign^® by his Father a Romanist, who had an estate of five hundred pound®' a yeer at Stainton St. John in Ox¬ fordshire, for reading the Bible.®® Upon this occasion he "Revision of 1661-2. " Wood gives Aubrey's opinion and his own when he says the poet was ' descended from those of his name who had lived beyond all record at Milton, near Halton and Thame, in Oxfordshire.' Phillips's statement is: 'He is said to have been descended of an ancient family of Miltons of Milton, near Abingdon, in Oxfordshire, where they had been a long time seated.' Joseph Hunter discovered the record of a John de Milton in Buckinghamshire in 1428. (Milton: a Sheaf of Gleanings, p. 6.) " This would seem to make the life of Milton's father somewhat longer than Professor Masson conjectures. The latter supposes he was born about 1562 or 1563. However, the significance of about is elastic. " See the reference to this passage, above, p. 5. " Cf. Aubrey's ' Quaere—he found a Bible in English, in his cham¬ ber' (Clark's Audrey's Brief Lives, ii. 62). The Earliest Life op Milton. 7 came yong to London, and beeing taken care of by a relation^® of his a Scrivenor, bee became free of that profession; and was so prosperous in it, and the Consortship of a prudent virtuous Wife, as to bee able to breed up in a liberal manner, and provide a competency for two Sons, and a Daughter: After which, out of a moderation not usual with such as have tasted the sweets of gain, and perhaps naturally in- clin'd rather to a retir'd life by his addiction to Music (for his skill in which hee stands registred among the Composers of his time) hee gave over his trade, and went to live in the Country. This his eldest Son had his institution to learning both under public, and private Masters; under whom, through the pregnancy of his Parts, & his indefatigable industry (sitting up constantly at his Study till midnight) hee profited exceedingly; and early in that time wrote several grave and religious Poems, and paraphras'd some of Davids Psalms.®® At about eighteen yeers of age®^ hee went to Christs Col¬ lege in Cambridge; where for his diligent study, his per¬ formance of public exercises, and for choice Verses, written on the occasions usually solemniz'd by the Universities, as well for his yirtuous and sober life, hee was in high esteem w*^'^ the best of his time. After taking his degree of Master of Arts hee left the University, and, having no design to take upon him any of the particular learned Professions, apply'd himselfe for five "Aubrey says, 'brought up by a friend of his; was not an appren¬ tice.' (Hyde Clarke has shown that this latter statement is incorrect.) Phillips states that the poet's father took up the profession of a scrivener ' by the advice and assistance of an intimate friend of his, eminent in that calling.' " At this paragraph the dependence of Wood upon the manuscript begins. .He transfers its phraseology to the Cambridge period and says: ' By this his indefatigable study, he profited exceedingly, wrot then several poems, paraphras'd some of David's psalms '; and adds, using material taken from the next paragraph of the manuscript, ' performed the collegiate ffnd academical exercises to the admiration of all, and was esteemed to be a vertuous and sober person.' Wood says ' at fifteen years of age.' The poet was actually six¬ teen years and two months. 8 Colorado College Studies. yeers, at his Fathers house in the Country, to the diligent reading of the best Classic Authors, both Divine & Humane; sometimes repairing to London, from hee was not farr distant, for learning Music and the Mathematics.''® Beeing now become Master of what useful knowledge was to bee had in Books, and competently skill'd amongst others, in the Italian language, hee made choice of that Country to travel into; in order to polish his Conversation, & learn to know Men. And having receiv'd instructions how to demean himselfe with that wise observing Nation, as well as how to shape his Journy, from S" Henry "VVotton, whose esteem of him appeers in an elegant letter to him upon that Subject, hee took his way®® through France. In this®* Kingdom,®® the manners & Genius of which hee had in no admiration, hee made small stay, nor contracted any Acquaintance; save that, with the recommendation of Lord Scudamore,®® our®® Kings Ambassador at Paris, hee waited on Hugo Grotius, who was there under that Character from the Crown of Sweden. Hasting to Italy by the way of Nice, & passing through Genua Lighorn & Pisa hee arriv'd at Florence. Here hee liv'd®® two months in familiar & elegant conversation with the choice Witts of that Citty and was admitted by them to their private Academies; an Oeconomy much practis'd among the Virtuosi of those parts, for the communication of Polite literature, as well as for the cementing of friendships. The reputation hee had with them they express'd in several Com¬ mendatory Verses, w®'' are extant in his book of Poems.®® The manuscript and Wood draw their material for this and suc¬ ceeding paragraphs covering the period of travel from Milton's Defensio Secunda, but Wood very often adopts the phraseology of the manuscript in preference to Milton's own words. " Substituted for ' Journy.' Substituted for ' wch.' " ' hee made no stay, having ' crossed out. "' hee waited ' crossed out. " Perhaps it may be inferred from this that the writer had lived in the time of Charles I. ® Substituted for ' pass'd.' "The manuscript here closely follows the Defensio Secunda-, Wood follows the manusfeript. The Earliest Life of Milton. 9 From Florence hee went to Rome, where, as in all places, hee spent his time in the choicest company; and amongst others there, in that of Lucas Holstein.®" At Naples, which was his next remove, hee became ac¬ quainted w*^"^ Marquis IManso, a learned Person, and so aged as to have bin Contemporary and intimate w**^ Torquato Tasso, the famous Italian Heroic. This Nobleman oblig'd him by very particular civilities, accompanying him to see the rarities of the place, and paying him Visitts at his lodging; Also sent him the testimony of a great esteem in this Distich Ut Mens, Forma, Decor Facies, Mos, si Pietas sic, Non Anglus, verum herclfe Angelus ipse fores. Yet excus'd himselfe at parting for not having bin able to do him more honour, by reason of his resolute owning his Religion: This hee did whensoever by any ones enquiry occa¬ sion was oflred; not otherwise forward to enter upon dis¬ courses of that Nature. Nor. did hee decline its defense in the like circumstances even in Rome it self on his return thether; though hee had bin advis'd by letters from som friends to Naples, that the English Jesuits design'd to do him mischief on that account. Before his leaving Naples hee return'd the Marquis an®^ acknowlegement of his great favors in an elegant Copy of Verses entitl'd Mansus w'^^ is extant amongst his other latin Poems.®^ From Rome hee revisited Florence for the sake of his charming friends there; and then proceeded to Venice where he shipp'd what books he had bought®® & through the de¬ licious®^ country of Lombardy, and over the Alps to Geneva, " Following the name, but crossed out, is ' Library Keeper at the Vatican.' A letter above the line and before ' Library' refers to the margin, where are the words, also crossed out, ' For I am not certain that be was the library keeper.' tHolstein was the pope's librarian from 1636 to 1661.] " Substituted for ' a large.' " The last part of the sentence originally read ' an elegant Poem wch is amongst bis other latin Verses.' Wood borrows most of this paragraph verbatim. " The clause ' where . . . bought' is inserted above the line. " Substituted for ' pleasant.' 10 Colorado College Studies. where hee liv'd in familiar conversation with the famous Diodati. Thence through France hee returnd home, having, with no ill management of his time, spent about fifteen moneths abroad. Hee had by this time laid in a large stock of knowlege, which as he design'd not for the purchase of Wealth, so neither intended hee®® it, as a Misers hoard, to ly useless: Having therefore®* taken a house, to bee®' at full ease and quiet, & gotten his books about him, hee sett himselfe upon Compositions, tending either to the public benefit of I\Ian- kind, and especially his Countrymen, or to the advancement of the Commonwealth of Learning. And his first labours were very happily dedicated to, what had the chiefest place in his affections, and had bin no small part of his Study, the service of Keligion.®® It was now the Year. IGIO: And the Nation was much divided upon the Controversies about Church Government, between the Prelatical party, and the Dissenters, or, as they were commonly then calld, Puritans. Hee had study'd Ee- ligion in the Bible and the best Authors, had^ strictly liv'd up to it's®® Eules, and had no temporal concern depending upon any Hierarchy, to render him suspected, either to him¬ selfe, or others, as one that writt for Interest; and therefore*® with great boldness, & Zeal offer'd his Judgment," first in " ' that' crossed out. "' gotten his Books about him ' crossed out. " ' full' crossed out. Most of this paragraph is omitted by Wood. " Usually the apostrophe is not nsed in the manuscript, except to mark elision. " Substituted for ' thence.' " This passage is too eulogistic of Milton for Wood. He drops out the praises and inserts at the beginning a long section discussing Mil¬ ton's relation to the struggle. A part of it is worth quoting as showing Wood's attitude towards Milton's political views. 'Taking part with the Independents, he became a great Antimonarchist, a bitter enemy to K. Ch. I, and at length arrived to that monstrous and unparallel'd height of profligate impudence, as in print to justify the most execrable Murder of him the best of Kings . . . we find him a Commonwealths The Earliest Life of Milton. 11 two Books of Reformation*"^ by way of address to a friend, And then in answer to a Bishop hee writt of Prelatical Epis¬ copacy and The Reason of Church Governm*. After that*' Animadversions upon the Remonstrants defence (the work of Bishop Hall) against Smectymnyus** and Apology for those Animadversions. In this while, his manner of Settlement fitting him for the reception of a Wife, hee in a moneths time (according to his practice of not wasting that precious Talent) courted, marryed, and brought home from Forresthall*' near Oxford a Daughter of Powell. But shee, that was very Yong, & had bin bred in a family of plenty and freedom, being not well pleas'd with his reserv'd manner of life, within a few days left him, and went back*' into the Country with her Mother: Nor though hee sent sever all pressing invitations could hee prevayl w^"* her to return, till about foure yeers after, when Oxford was surrendr'd (the nighness of her. Fathers house to that Garrison having for the most part of the meantime hindred any communication between them) shee of her own accord came, & submitted to him; pleading that her Mother had bin the inciter of her, to that froward- ness.*'' Hee in the Interval,*' who had entred into that man, a hater of all things that looked towards a single person, a great reproacher of the Universities, scholastical degrees, decency, and uni¬ formity in the Church.' "'And then' crossea out. "Substituted for 'After that for a first and second.' "Wood has: 'Animadversions upon, the Remonstrants defence against Smeotymnuus. Lond. 1641. qu. Which Rem. defence was written (as 'tis said) by Dr. Jos. Hall, Bishop of Exeter.' "An error for Forest-hill; a mistake, as Mr. F. Madan of the Bodleian Library suggests, not likely to have been made by an Oxford man. " ' Went back ' substituted for ' return'd.' " Wood's use of this passage is a good example ot the literal way in which he borrowed much of the manuscript. ' It mus: now be known,' Wood says, ' tUat after his settlement, upon his return from his Travels, he in a month's time courted, married, and brought home to his house in London a Wife from Forsthill lying between Halton and Oxford, named Mary the Daughter of Mr. Powell of that place Gent. But 12 Colorado College Studes. State for the end design'd by God & Nature, and was then in the full vigor of his Manhood, could ill bear the disap¬ pointment bee mett with by her obstinate absenting: And therefore thought upon a Divorce, that bee might be free to marry another.; concerning which bee also was in treaty. The lawfulness and expedience of this, duly regulat in order to all those purposes, for which Marriage was at first instituted; had upon full consideration & reading good Authors bin formetly his Opinion: And the necessity of justifying him- selfe now concurring with the opportunity, acceptable to him, of instructing others in a point of so great concern*® to the peace and preservation of Families; and so likely to prevent temptations as well as mischiefs,®" bee first writt The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce, then Colasterion, and after Tetrachordon:^^ In these®® bee taught the right use and design of Marriage; then the Original & practise of Divorces amongst the Jews, and®" show'd that our Savior, in those foure places of the Evangelists,®* meant not the she, who was very young, and had been bred in a family of plenty and freedom, being not well pleased with her Husband's retired manner of life, did shortly after leave him and went back in the Country with her Mother. Whereupon, tho he sent divers pressing invitations, yet he could not prevail with her to come back, till about four years after when the Garrison of Oxon was surrendered (the nighness of her Father's house to which having for the most part of the meantime hindered any communication between them) she of her own accord re¬ turned and submitted to him, pleading that her Mother had been the chief promoter of her frowardness.' ® ' in the Interval' read originally ' in this meantime.' ' Interval' was substituted for ' meantime,' and ' this' changed to ' the.' " * of so great concern ' substituted for ' so necessary.' "' as well as mischiefs ' substituted for ' to Sin.' " Wood changes the order of the last two pamphlets; the two were in fact published the same day, March 4, 1644-5. " Substituted for ' which.' "' by expounding after other correct [ ? the word is illegible] di¬ vines the foure passages in the Evangelists' obliterated and * show'd' substituted. " It is not likely that a clergyman would be ignorant that three of the ' foure places ' were outside the Evangelists. Milton discusses (1) Genesis i. 27, 28, with ii. 18, 23, 24; (2) Deut. xxiv. 1, 2; (3) Matt. V. 31, 32, with xix. 3-11; (4) 1 Cor. vii. 10-16. The Earliest Life op Milton. 13 abrogating but rectifying the abuses of it;^® rendring to that purpose another Sense of the word Fornication (and is also the Opinion amongst others of M"" Selden in his Uxor Hebraea) then what is commonly received. Martin Bucers Judgment in this matter hee likewise translated into English. The Assembly of Divines then sitting at "Westminster, though formerly obliged by his learned Pen in the defense of Smec- tymnyus, and other thir controversies'® with the Bishops, now impatient of having the Clergies" Jurisdiction, as they reckoned'® it, invaded, instead of answering, or disproving what those books'® had asserted, caus'd him to be summon'd®" for them before the Lords. But that house, whether, approv¬ ing®^ the Doctrine, or not favoring his Accusers, soon dis¬ miss'd him.®® This was the mending of a decay in the Superstructure, and had for object onely the well beeing of private Persons, or at most of Families; His small Treatise of Education, address'd to M*" Hartlib, was the laying a Foundation also of Public Weale: In it hee prescrib'd an easy & delightful method for training up Gentry in such a manner to all sorts of Literature, as that they might at the same time by like degrees advance in Virtue, and Abilities to serve their Coun¬ try; subjoyning directions for their attayning other neces¬ sary, or. Ornamental accomplishments: And it seem'd hee design'd in some measure to put this in practise. Hee had from his first settling taken care of instructing his two Nephews by his Sister Phillips, and, as it happen'd, the Sonn of some friend: Now hee took a large house, where the Earle of Barrimore, sent by his Aunt the Lady Eanalagh, Thomas " ' among the Jews ' crossed out. " The phrase ' other thir controversies ' is quoted verbatim by Wood. " Originally written ' the Jurisdiction '; ' the' was changed to ' their,' and finally ' the Clergies ' substituted. ® Substituted for ' term'd.' ' Those books ' substituted for ' he.' " 'Caus'd®. . . summon'd' substituted for ' summon'd him.' " Substituted for ' not disliking.' Wood quotes this passage almost verbatim, as he does the next section after the words ' Public Weale.' 14 Colorado College Studies. Gardiner of Essex, and others were under his Tuition;®^ But whether it were that the tempers of our Gentry would not beare the strictness of his Discipline, or for what other reason, hee continued that Course but a while. His next public work, and which seem'd to bee his par¬ ticular Province, who was so jealous in promoting Knowledge, was Areopagitica, written in manner of an Oration, to vindi¬ cate the freedom of the Press from the Tyranny of Licensers; Who either inslav'd to the Dictates of those that put them into Office, or prejudic'd by thir own Ignorance,®^ are wont to hinder ye comming out of any thing®® which is not consonant to the common r.eceiv'd Opinions, and by that means deprive the public of the benefit of many usefull labours. Hitherto all his Writings had for subject the propagation of Keligion or®® Learning, or the bettering some more private concerns of Mankind: In Political matters hee had pnblish'd nothing.®^ And it was now the time of the King's coming upon his Trj-al, when some of the Presbiterian JMinisters, out of malignity to the Independent Party,®® who had sup¬ planted them, more than from any principles of Loyalty, as¬ serted clamorously in their Sermons & Writings the Privilege of Kings from all accountableness. Or (to speak in the Lan- Wood's rearrangement and punctuation of the sentence that he borrows from the manuscript here, as Professor Masson points out (Life of Milton, iii. 658), obscures the meaning: 'And to this end that he might put it in practice, he took a larger house, where the Earle of Barrimore sent by his Aunt the Lady Ratinelagh, Sir Thomas Gardiner of Essex, to be there with others (besides his two Nephews) under his Tuition.' The manuscript makes it clear that Sir Thomas Gardiner was one of Milton's pupils, as Professor Masson believes. " Wood groups tnese suggestions under the phrase ' for several reasons.' ' new or ' crossed out. Substituted for ' and.' Wood carelessly writes, ' Hitherto we find him only to have pub¬ lished political things.' ® Wood varies this, ' which he took to be only their malignity against the Independents,' &c. The Earliest Life of Milton. 15 guage of this"" time) Non-resistance & Passive Obedience to bee the Doctrine of all the Eeformed Churches. This gen¬ eral Thesis, which incourag'd all manner, of Tyranny,^" he opposed by good Arguments, and the Authorities of several eminently learned Protestants in a Book titled The Tenure of Kings, but without any particular application to the dis¬ pute then on foot in this Nation. Upon the change of Government which succeeded the King's death hee was, without any seeking of his, by the means of a private Acquaintance, who was a member of the new Council of State, chosen Latin Secretary. In this public Station his abilities & the acuteness of his parts, which had lyen hid in his privacy, were soon taken notice of, and hee was pitch'd upon to elude the Artifice'^ of 'Eikojv This hee had no sooner perform'd answerably to the expec¬ tation from his Witt & Pen, in 'EiKovoKXdzri<:, but another Ad¬ venture expected him.''® Salmasius a Professor in Holland, who had in a large Treatise, not long before, maintain'd the parity of Church Governors against Episcopacy, put out Defensio Caroli Regis, and in it, amongst other absurdities, justify'd (as indeed it was unavoidable in the defense of that Cause, which was '• Wood changes the word ' this' to ' that,' perhaps because the doctrine became antiquated with the Revolution of 1688. The manu¬ script is certainly accurate for the time it is written, as the doctrine was most prominent during the latter part of the reign of Charles II and during the reign of James II. Wood's version is, ' which as he conceiv'd did encourage all man¬ ner of Tyranny.' "Wood's version, 'the artifice (so it was then by the Faction called).' " The Greek words are thus pointed in the manuscript. "Wood's version, 'Whereupon he soon after published . . . Icono- clastes . . . which being published to the horror of all sober men, nay even to the Presbyterians, yet by the then dominant party it was es¬ teemed an excellent piece, & perform'd answerably to the expectation of his Wit and Pen.' Wood goes on to state the effect the book had on Milton's portion in the eyes of the crown at the Restoration, and the fact that, in company with a volume by John Goodwin, it was called in by proclamation in 1660. 16 Colorado College Studies. styl'd Belhim Episcopale) to the contradiction of his former Book, the pretensions of the Bishops.^* Him Mr. Milton by the order of his Masters answered in^® Defensio pro papula Anglicano both in more correct Latin, to the shame of the others Grammership, and by much better reasoning. For Salmasius beeing a Forrainer, & grossly ignorant of our Laws & Constitution (which in all Nations are the respective dis¬ tinguishing Principles of Government) either brought no arguments from thence, or such onely (and by him not sel¬ dom mistaken or misapply'd) as were partially suggested to him by those whose cause he had undertaken; and which, having^' during the many yeers of our divisions been often ventilated, receiv'd an easy solution. Nor had hee given proof of deeper learning in that which is properly call'd Politics, while hee made use of trite Instances, as that of the Government of Bees, & such like to prove the preeminency of Monarchy: and all along so confounded it with Tyranny (as also hee did the Episcopal with the Papal Government) that hee might better have pass'd for a Defender of the grand Signer, and the Council of Trent, then of a lawful King and a Reformed Church. For this and reneging his former Prin¬ ciples hee was by M"" Milton facetiously expos'd: Nor did he ever reply, though hee liv'd three years after.''® But what he wisely declin'd, the further provoking such an Adversary, or persisting to defend a Cause hee so ill under¬ stood, was attempted in Clamor Begij Sanguinis &c: in which " Wood tones down this passage, omitting some of the matter derogatory to Salmasius, and finishing with 'wherein (in the Defensio) he justified several matters, as Milton conceived, to the contradiction of his former book.' " Substituted for ' by.' "The manuscript usually gives the words of Latin titles in the English order. " ' been Ven,' crossed out. " A posthumous reply by Salmasius appeared in 1660, seven years after his death. Wood omits almost all of this paragraph after the name of Milton's book (the Defensio), and inserts a passage giving facts about the burning of the pamphlet at Toulouse, its seizure at the Eestoration, and the attacks upon Salmasius in the Mercurius Politicus. The Earliest Life of Milton. 17 Salmasius was hugely extoll'd, and M"" Milton as falsly de- fam'd.''® The Anonymous Author, M' Milton, who had hy his last book gain'd great esteem and many friends among the Learned abroad, by whom, and by the public Ministers comming hether bee was often visited, soon discover.'d to bee Morus, formerly a Professor & Minister at Geneva, then living in Holland. Him, in Secunda Defensio pro populo Anglicano he render'd ridiculous for his trivial and weak Treatise under so Tragical a title, conteyning little of Argument, which had not before suffr'd with Salmasius. And because it consisted most of Railing & false Reproches, bee, in no unpleasant man¬ ner, from very good testimonies retorted upon him the true his¬ tory of his notorious Impurities, both at Geneva, and Leyden. Himselfe bee also, by giving a particular ingenuous account of his whole life Vindicated from those scurrilous aspersions, with which that Book had indevor.'d to blemish him:®® Add¬ ing perhaps thereby also reputation to the cause bee defended, at least, with impartial Readers, when they should reflect upon the different qualiflcations of the respective Champions. And when Morus afterwards strove to deer himselfe of bee- ing the Author, and to represent M"" Milton as an injurious Defamer in that particular, bee in Defensio pro se by very good testimonies, and other circumstantial proofs justify'd his having flxd it there, and made good sport of the others shallow Evasions.®^ "While he was thus employ'd his Eysight totally faild him; not through any immediat or sudden Judgment, as his Adver¬ saries insultingly affirm'd; but from a weakness which his "Wood's version is, 'Salmasius was highly extol'd in it, and Mil¬ ton had his just Character given therein.' " Wood uses this passage in his description of Milton's Pro se Defensio. It belongs where the manuscript inserts it, with the Defensio Secunda, which contains the most famous of the autobiographical pas¬ sages. " The writer does not seem to be acquainted with the fact that the ■author of the Clamor Regit Sanguinis was Peter du Moulin, D.D., after¬ wards preben(fary of Canterbury Cathedral, who in 1670 acknowledged the authorship of the book. Aubrey, making his notes on the life of Milton about 1680, knew the fact; and Wood also states it. 18 Colorado College Studies. hard nightly study in his youth had first occasion'd, and which®" by degrees had for some time before depriv'd him of the use of one Ey: And the Issues and Seatons, made use of to save or retrieve that, were thought by drawing away the Spirits, which should have supply'd the Optic Vessells, to have hasten'd the loss of the other.®® Hee was indeed advis'd by his Physitians of the danger, in his condition, attending so great intentness as that work requir.'d. But hee, who was resolute in going through with what upon good consideration hee at any time design'd, and to whom the love of Truth and his Country was®* dearer then all things, would not for any danger decline thir defense. Nor did his Darkness discourage or disable him from prosecuting, with the help of Amanuenses,®® the former design of his calmer Studies. And hee had now more leisure, being dispens'd with, by having a Substitute aUowd him, and some¬ times Instructions sent home to him, from attending in his office®® of Secretary.®^ It was now that hee began that laborious work of amassing out of all the Classic Authors, both in Prose and Verse, a®® Latin Thesaurus to the emendation of that done by Stephanus; Also the composing Paradise Lost And the framing a Body of Divinity out of the Bible: AU which, notwithstanding the several Calamities befalling him in his fortunes, hee finish'd after the Restoration: As also the British history down to the Conquest, Paradise regaind, Samson Agonistes, a Tragedy Logica & Accedence commenc'd Grammer & had begun a Greek Thesaurus; having scarce left any part of learning unimprov'd by him: As in Paradise lost & Regained hee more especially taught all Virtue. "' had ' crossed out. " This somewhat technical discussion suggests that the author may have been a physician. Later he gives the technical name of the trouble, ' Gutta Serena' (p. 21). Dr. Paget was probably Milton's physician at this time. " Substituted for ' were.' " ' his ' crossed out. " Substituted for ' place.' From this and the next paragraph Wood borrows extensively. " ' that' crossed out. The Earliest Life op Milton. 19 In these "Works, and the instruction of some Youth or other at the intreaty of his friends, hee in great Serenity spent his time & expir'd no less calmly in the Yeare 1674. He had naturally a Sharp Witt, and steddy Judgment; which helps toward attaining Learning hee improv'd by an indefatigable attention to his Study; and was supported in that by a Temperance, all ways observ'd by him, but in his Youth even with great Nicety. Yet did hee not reckon this Talent but as intrusted with him; and therefore dedicated all his labours to the glory of God, & some public Good; Neither binding himselfe to any of the gainfull Professions, nor having any worldly Interest for aim in what he taught. Hee made no address or Court for that emploiment of Latin Secretary, though his eminent fitness for it appeers by his printed Letters of that time.®® And hee was so farr from whilst in his first and second Defensio pro populo Anglicano he was an Advocate for Liberty against Tyranny & Oppression (which to him seem'd the case, as well by the public Declara¬ tions on the one side [and hee was a Stranger to thir private Counsels®^] as by the Arguments on the other side, which run mainly upon the justifying of exorbitant & lawless power.) hee took care all along strictly to define, and persuade to true Liberty, and especially in very solemn Perorations at the close of those Books; where hee also, little less than Prophetically, denounc'd the Punishments due to the abusers of that Specious name. And as hee was not link'd to one Party by self Interest,®® so neither was hee divided from the Probably a reference to a pirated edition of Milton's State Letters, printed in 1676; or perhaps to the volume of Familiar Letters (Epis- tolarum Familiarum Liber Unus), printed in 1674. beeing concern'd in the corrupt designs of his Masters,®® that " There is evident sympathy here with the attitude which Milton took towards the puritan government in its later days, with the mood in which he wrote A Ready a/nd Easy Way to establish a Free Common¬ wealth. " An explicit statement of Milton's exclusion from the inner circle of the puritan government. " On the back of tbe last page are five lines of writing carefully crossed out, which were evidently the first draft of the passage,' Perora¬ tions . . . self Interest.' They are as follows:— 20 Colorado College Studies. other by Animosity; but was forward to do any of tbem good Offices, when their particular. Cases afforded him ground to appeer on thir behalf. And especially, if on the score of Witt or Learning, they could lay claim to bis peculiar Patron¬ age. Of which were instances, among others, the Grand child of the famous Spencer,®® a Papist suffering in his concerns in Ireland, and S"" William Davenant when taken Prisoner,®* for both whom he procur'd relief.®® This his Sincerity, and disentanglement of any private ends with his Sentiments relating to the Public, proceeded no doubt from a higher Principle, but was in great part sup¬ ported,®* and temptations to the contrary avoided by his con¬ stant Frugality; which enahl'd him at first to live within compass of the moderate Patrimony his Father left him, and afterwards to hear with patience, and no discomposure®^ of his way of living, the great losses which befell him in his For¬ tunes. Yett he was not sparing to buy good Books; of which bee left a fair Collection; and was generous in relieving the wants of his Friends. Of his®* Gentleness and Humanity bee ' Perorations at the close of those Books at the close of those so fermly & denounc'd Books where hee denounc'd little less then Prophetically the Punish- wch due to ments often befell the abusers of that Specious name whether by enlarging serve stretching it to licenciousness or by inverting it to ye corrupt ends of Amb[ition] And as hee was not link'd to one Party by selfe.' " A fact not mentioned elsewhere. "An interesting confirmation of the tradition related by Jonathan Richardson (Explanatory Notes on 'Paradise Lost,' pp. Ixxxix-xc). Richardson says he received the information from Thomas Betterton, through Alexander Pope, that at the Restoration, when Milton was in danger of losing his life, ''t was Sir William Davenant obtained his remission, in return for his ovra life procured by Milton's interest when himself was under condemnation, anno 1650. A life was owing to Mil¬ ton (Davenant's), and 't was paid nobly, Milton's for Davenant's at Davenant's intercession.' " Wood omits this and the preceding paragraph. ' by his Frugality ' crossed out. " ' no discomposure' substituted for ' small alteration.' " ' genero'[sity] crossed out. The Earliest Life of Milton. 21 likewise gave signal proof in receiving home, and living in good accord till her death with his first wife, after shee had so obstinately absented from him: During which time, as neither in any other Scene of his life, was hee blemish'd with the least Unchastity. From so Christian a Life, so great Learning, and so un- byass'd a search after Truth it is not probable any errors in Doctrine should spring. And therefore his Judgment in his Body of Divinity concerning some speculative points, differ¬ ing perhaps from that commonly receivd, (and which is thought to bee the reason that never was printed®*) neither ought rashly to bee condemned, and however himselfe not to bee uncharitably censur'd; who by beeing a constant^®" Champion for the liberty of Opining, expressd much Candor towards others. But that this Age is insensible of the great obligations it has to him, is too apparent in that hee has no better, a Pen to celebrate his Memory. Hee was of a moderate Stature, and well proportion'd, of a ruddy Complexion, light brown Hair, & handsome Fea¬ tures ; save that his Eyes were none of the quickest. But his blindness, which proceeded from a Gutta Serena,^®^ added no further blemish to them. His deportment was sweet and affable; and his Gate erect & Manly, bespeaking Courage and undauntedness (or, a Nil conscire) On which account hee wore a Sword while hee had his Sight, and was skill'd in using it. Hee had an excellent Ear, and could bear a part both in Vocal & Instrumental Music. His moderate Estate left him by his Father was through his good Oeconomy sufficient to main¬ tain him. Out of his Secretary's Salary hee had sav'd two thousand pounds, which being logd'd in the Excise, and that Bank failing upon the Restoration, hee utterly lost,^®* Be¬ sides which, and the ceasing of his Imploiment hee had no damage by that^®® change of Affairs.^®* For hee early sued '• The book was not printed until 1825. Kead originally ' so constant a.' This suggests the physician's technical knowledge. Richardson in 1734 gives the same name to the trouble (p. ill). ""Down to this point Wood quotes the paragraph almost verbatim. Substituted for ' the.' Substituted for ' Government.' 22 Colorado College Studies. out his Pardon;^"® and by means of that, when the Serjeant of the house of Commons had officiously seisd him, was quickly set at liberty. Hee had too at the first return of the Court in good manners^"® left his house in Petty France, which had a door into the Park;^"' and in all other things demeaning himselfe peaceably, was so farr from being reckon'd disaf¬ fected, that hee was visited at his house on Bun-hill by a Chief Officer of State, and desir'd to imploy his Pen on thir. behalfe.^"® And when the Subject of Divorce was under con¬ sideration with the Lords, upon the account of the Lord Ross, hee was consulted by an eminent^"® Member of that house.^^® By the great fire in 1666 hee had a house in Bread street burnt: w®'^ was all the Real Estate hee had. Hee rendred his Studies and various Works more easy & pleasant by allot¬ ting them thir several portions of the day. Of these the time friendly to the IMuses fell to his Poetry-, And hee waking early (as is the use of temperate men) had commonly a good Stock of Verses ready against his Amanuensis came; which if it happened to bee later then ordinary, hee would com¬ plain, Saying hee wanted to hee The Evenings hee likewise spent in reading some choice Poets, by way of re¬ freshment after, the days toyl, and to store his Fancy against Morning. Besides his ordinary lectures out of the Bible and the^^® best Commentators on the week day. That was his sole subject on Sundays. And Davids Psalms were in esteem Milton was set at liberty in 'December 1660. Professor Masson conjectures that he was arrested between 13 Sept. and 6 Nov. The poet must then have secured his pardon before the last-named date. Charles II came to the throne in May, and the order for Milton's arrest was issued 16 June. He was still at large 13 August (Masson, vi. 184-95). ' in good manners ' substituted for ' prudently.' The omission of the name of the park suggests that the writer was a Londoner. Richardson embodied this tradition in his introduction to Ex¬ planatory Notes on Paradise Lost, p. c.; Professor Masson rejects it. ' an eminent' substituted for ' no mean.' Wood inserts this passage earlier, in his discussion of Milton's Divorce tracts. A remark of Milton not found elsewhere. Substituted for ' its.' The Earliest Life op Milton. 23 with him above all Poetry, The Youths that hee instructed from time to time servd him often as Amanuenses, and some elderly persons were glad for the benefit of his learned Con¬ versation, to perform that Office.^" His first Wife dy'd a while after his blindness seizd him, leaving him three Daugh¬ ters, that liv'd to bee Women. Hee marry'd two more, whereof one surviv'd him. Hee dy'd in a fitt of the Gout, but with so little pain or Emotion, that the time of his ex¬ piring was not perceiv'd by those in the room.^^* And though hee had bin long troubl'd with that disease, insomuch that his Knuckles were all callous, yet was hee not ever observ'd to be very impatient. Hee had this Elogy in common with the Patriarchs and Kings of Israel that he was gather'd to his people for hee happen'd to bee bury'd in Cripple- gate where about thirty yeer before hee had by chance also interrd his Father. Perhaps the writer was one. Wood repeats this sentence. The interest of this part of the narrative will he greatly enhanced if the suggestion that the writer was the attending physician is found to be correct. ' that' crossed out. * was gather'd to his people' substituted for ' slept with his Fathers.' LA FEMME DANS LES CHANSONS DE GESTE. Br H. A. Smith. [Continued from Vol. /X.] IV.—L'Epouse. Les jeunes filles sont assez souvent calomniees par les poMes, au moins par ceux qui vinrent plus tard. Mais en revanche ils mettent ordinairement les femmes mariees dans une lumiere beaucoup meilleure. La position de I'epouse etait en theorie egale a celle du mari. C'est ce qu'atteste cette phrase de la belle Aude repetee mille fois par d'autres femmes: "Qui jurait me prendre comme son pair."^ Mais au XII® siecle elle n'etait pas son egale en reality. Sous quelques rapports la femme n'etait que la vassale du baron. Quels etaient par exemple les droits d'une epouse? On lui nommait un douaire a son mariage mais nous ne voyons nulle part qu'elle eut sur celui-ei des droits particuliers pen¬ dant la vie de son mari. C 'etait seulement apres sa mort que le douaire etait a elle.^ Elle tenait un fief de la meme maniere.® EUe etait toujours representee par son mari aux cours, et dans les affaires si elle en avait. Ceci etait necessaire ou la justice etait un arret d'armes. Le seigneur feodal pouvait executer sa femme pour des crimes, comme on voit dans Parise la Duchesse et Macaire, ou on allait la bruler pour des crimes honteux et ou elle etait a la fin divorcee et chassee du pays par I'arret de son • Voy. note audessus. 2"De son doiare ne doit estre oblige" (Aymeri de Narbonne, V. 4434). " De Eibemont iert ma feme douge" (Raoul de Cambrai, V. 5737.) ' II n'y a pas d'exemples otl ime femme soit investie d'lm fief sans lui donner en mgme temps un mari. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 25 mari.^ II est vrai que dans Macaire ce fut pour le crime d'adultere, pour lequel I'eglise permettait une peine pareille. Sans doute I'eglise y exer^ait une influence salutaire, mais dans Tine societe ou la force etait le droit, on ne pouvait tou- jours s'y fier." Le mauvais traitement des femmes est le sujet de plusieurs chansons de geste,® et c'etait un devoir du chevalier de redresser les torts des dames. II ne manque pas de proverbes malins contre I'epouse, quoiqu'on puisse les attribuer pour la plupart a la malice des poetes, parce que les epouses qui etaient vraiment me- chantes sont peu nombreuses.* Cependant les femmes avaient leurs petits defauts. Par exemple eUes n'etaient pas toujours assez discretes. Le pere de Doon, dans ce beau passage ou il donna des conseils a son flls, dit: "Et quant tu saras rien que celer tu vourras,—ne le dy a ta femme nulement, ce tu I'as:—car. ce elle le scet, tu t'en repentiras—au premier desplaisir que tu mais lui feras."® Mais il y a aussi des sentiments contraires et avec plus de raison. Ainsi quand Doon etait en prison il nomma toute sa grande lignee qui I'avait oublie, mais il ajouta: "mes de tous cbeus ne m'est vaiUant .1. oef peles,—forsque de ma mouillier, qui tant m'avoit ames."* De plus les beros les plus renommes n'besitent pas a prendre conseil a leurs femmes, qui le donnent souvent tres sagement.'' Sans doute Guillaume d'Orenge n'aurait pas ete un si grand bomme sans 1 Parise la Duchesse, V. 6013. Macaire, V. 382. ' Quand le roi avait enlevfi l'6pouse de Bernier et allait la donner a un autre, elle dit: "Biaus sine rois, merci.—n'encor gaires que B. li hardis —^m'a espousfie par vert6 le vos di;—^jugies en droit, li clerq de cest pais. Que la loi Deu aveis a maintenir. Laerfis vos dent crestientfi honir ?" Mais de peur du roi, " Trestuit se taissent li grant et li petit" (Baoul de Cambrai, V. 6185). ' Parise la Duchesse, Doon de maience, Berte aus Grans Pi6s, Ma¬ caire etc. * Un bourgeois prend piti6 d'Aiol et veut lui donner des habits, mais sa femme s'y oppose et dit du mal d'Aiol. Cest un passage auquel je n'ai gafere vu un semblable (Aiol, V. 1220). 5 Doon de Maience, V. 2471. sGaufrey, V. 1774. T Aymeri de Narbonne, V. 3782. 26 Colorado College Studies. Guibor.e.^ Que le bon chevalier aimait et honarait sa femme, niille passages nous le temoignent. Les manieres entre le niari et Tepouse etaient des plus respectueuses. II I'appellait toujoi;rs "ma belle soeur" ou "belle dame."^ Devaut son seigneur, c'etait le devoir de la femme d'obeir, et il y a beaucoup de passages qui attestent son humilite meme dans les circonstances les plus provocantes. Sa reponse ordinaire etait "tout a votre plaisir." L'influence des femmes sur leurs maris, souvent de moeurs trop sauvages, est bien evidente dans une scene touchante, et amusante en meme temps, dans Girart de Eossillon. Ce grand fier, Girart, qui avait ete chasse de son pays par le roi, fut exhorte par un saint hermite a renoncer a sa colere et a faire penitence. Mais, en vrai baron du moyen age, aux plus belles prieres il n'avait qu'une seule reponse obstinee: "Je veux tuer le roi." Ce ne fut qu'a la priere de Berte, sa femme, qu'il ceda.® La vie de I'epoque devait donner a la femme une immense influence morale. Pendant les longs bivers, le baron vivait au sein de sa famille, et on pent croire que la femme avait alors la meilleure pretention a I'egalite avec son mari, egalite jamais reconnue dans les droits on dans la vie ordinaire. Elle s'asseyait a son cote dans la salle ou a table.^ EUe avait des servantes, qui, si elle etait duchesse ou comtesse, etaient des jeunes filles nobles, comme les pages de son mari etaient des fils de chevaliers.® C'etait honteux a elle de sortir seule.® Les devoirs de la femme du baron etaient en general les memes que nous avons donnes pour "la jeune fiUe," en ajou- tant ceux de la maitresse d'une maison. Elle suveillait la ' Voy. la scSne devant Orenge cit^e plus loin. 2 Le titre ordinaire de la femme Stait " dame." Dans Macaire oil la reine Blanchefleur rtait d^guis^e comme femme du boucheron, le roi la salua comme " Commere" et aprfes qu'il eut appris sa vraie posi¬ tion, il disait toujours "dame" (Macaire, V. 1411). 3 Girart de Eossillon, V. 2207. * Gui de Nanteuil, V. 1877. 3 Macaire, V. 58. 5 Vos estes joine dame, et tote sole alez! Se li dus le savoit vos en sauroit malgr^ (Parise la Duchesse, V. 361). La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 27 maniere de placer les invites, et quand des hotes arrivaient au chateau la femme avec le chatelain descendait le perron pour les recevoir.^ C'etait en I'absence du seigneur dans les guerres ou les voyages que sa femme avait plus de soucis. Elle etait alors maitresse du chateau et avait beaucoup de devoirs qui appar- tenaient ordinairement au chatelain. Tons les gens de la maison et meme les hommes de guerre etaient a ses ordres, et on ne voit aucun poeme ou le baron se plaint de sa fidelite." Sans doute on dira que cette vie de la femme n'etait pas gaie, et cela est vrai. Ordinairement le chateau etait pour elle le monde. Elle n'avait pas beaucoup d'amusements. Comme son mari, elle jouait aux echecs, le jeu par excellence du moyen age. Puis elle avait toujours sa broderie,® et quel- quefois un jongleur r.ejouissait le chateau pendant deux ou trois journees. C 'etait pour elle, comme pour tous les autres, une fete.* Quant aux joutes pendant le douzieme siecle, nous ne croyons pas qu'elles fussent une grande source d'amusement comme plus tard. On ne les voit guere sauf aux celebrations d'un mariage ou de quelque chose de semblable. La vraie bataille etait trop frequente et trop rude au XII® siecle, pour qu'on aimat beaucoup a imiter. la bataille, excepte comme preparation au combat, ou pour se defaire des exuberances de la jeunesse. A "I'adoubement" d'un chevalier ou au mariage, il y avait toujours des exercices a I'escrime et au "behourd," mais il ne s'agit pas de mettre en scene des dames ou d '^changer des defis courtois. A ces joutes improvisees la femme etait souvent prfeente, mais elle n'y jouait aucun role. '" Li vint encontre ses genres Loeis, et la roi'ne qui moult ot cler le vis" (Aliscans, V. 2604). "Dame Aye d'Avignon a fet grant courtoisie: Les degrez avala, s'a chascune baisie" (Gui de Nanteuil, V. 2928). 2 Quand les sarrasins allaient brfller Aymeri devant son chateau, sa femme dit, "Que sain et sauf et vif le me rendez—je vos rendrai Nerbone la cit6 (M. Aymeri de Narbonne, V. 1496). E. Branumunde les turs li ad ^pndus " (Roland, V. 3655). 3 Voy. note sur la jeune fllle. * Pour le vrai type du jongleur, son metier et son accueil, voy. Huon de Bordeaux, V. 7331. 28 Colorado College Studies. La joute eomme jeu proprement dit, est evidemment plus recente. Pour donner une idee plus vive de Tepouse au moyen age, nous citerons deux ou trois incidents dans les vies de quelques femmes les plus renommees de nos chansons de geste. C'est Hermenjart, la femme d'Aymeri, au sujet de la- quelle on a deja vu des scenes charmantes. Un jour le vieux Aymeri fut blesse et fait captif par les paiens. lis le lierent a un poteau devant Narbonne, le battirent borriblement et menacerent de le bruler s'il ne rendait pas la ville. Mais en vrai pere de Guillaume et de Naimer, il implora sa femme de ne pas rendre le chateau. Ce ne fut qu'apres qu'on cut allume le feu, que cette femme beroique qui donna tout pour son mari, traita avec les paiens. Mais ce qu'elle fit pour Aymeri elle ne I'aurait pas fait pour elle-meme. Plus tard elle fut assiegee dans le donjon et elle ne se rendit point, meme quand il ne restait que trois femmes presque mortes de famine.^ Une autre est Berte, ce type de bonne femme cbretienne du moyen Sge. Quand son mari, Girart, fut cbasse de son pays, elle le suivit a I'exil et par sa bonte et sa piete apaisa la colere de ce fier guerrier. Pour gagner leur vie, cet bomme noble, recemment comte et seigneur de la moitie de la France, fut force a devenir cbarbonnier. et a porter son cbarbon de bois pour le vendre dans les villes—"ciel, quel fardeau il portait"—et Berte devint coutouriere: "Se seoit toute jour en la poudre—et gaaignait son vivre au tailler et au coudre- maul vestue et cbaucbiee et tout entorcbonnee-Couvroit sa grant biaute la gente fauconnee."® Enfin c'est Guibor.c, la femme beroique de Guillaume d'Orenge. Quand Guillaume a livre aux paiens cette bataille terrible d'Aliscans, ou son neveu Vivien, le Eoland de la maison de Narbonne, meurt dans ses bras, sept des plus grands combattants de sa famille sont pris, et ses vingt mille Fran§ais tues jusqu' au dernier bomme; alors ce geant guer¬ rier, terrible dans son desespoir, par ses seules forces rompt les rangs des sarrasins et s'en va a Orenge. Toute I'armee 1 Mort Aymeri de Narbonne, V. 1490. ' Girart de Rossillon, V. 2369. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 29 paienne le poursuit; mais il tue le plus brave et, habille comme un paien, il arrive devant la ville. Le portier, un pretre et Guiborc avec les femmes sont les seuls habitants de la ville. Tons les hommes restent sur le champs d'Aliseans. Epuise par ses soixante heures de bataille, ses quinze blessures et la douleur de sa defaite, il s'arrete a la grande porte et demande qu'on I'Guvre. Mais le portier ne reconnait pas ce chevalier, seul, convert de sang et arme en paien. Guiborc vient a la tour et demande son nom. "Je suis Guillaume" dit-il en pleurant, "Les paiens me suivent. Ouvrez la porte." "Jamais" repond cette femme sage, "juSqu' a ce que j'aie vu votre visage." II va oter son heaume lorsqu' un parti de sarrasins mene une troupe de prisonniers frangais pres de la ville. "Ah" dit elle. " Je vais voir si vous etes vraiment Guillaume. Jamais Guillaume ne permettrait une telle indignete." II ferme son heaume et se lance sur les paiens, qui fuient avec effroi ses coups terribles. Alors elle ouvre la porte d'Orenge. Mais lorsqu'elle va lui oter I'armure elle dit: "Pourquoi est-ce que je vous ai laisse entrer? Si vous etiez Guillaume vous seriez revenu vainqueur. Ou est,Vivien et I'armee frangaise"? "Morts," dit le comte en pleurant, "tons sont morts en Aliscans." Elle se pame de douleur mais lorsqu'elle apprend que ces sept comtes sont captifs, elle devient encore courageuse. "Pars" lui dit-elle. "Va en France chercher de I'aide chez le roi." Elle ne pense plus aux blessures de Guillaume, a sa fatigue, a sa douleur. En vain il y oppose de bonnes raisons. "Pars" dit-elle, "pars toujours. Moi et les femmes nous garderons les murs.'' Et Guillaume part. II fait le voyage dangereux jusqu'a la cour, et deux mois plus tard, lorsque I'armee frangaise arrive devant les murailles d'Orenge, la premiere chose qu 'on voit est Guiborc en armure et les femmes qui defendent encore la ville.^ Elle avait raison de lui dire: "Bienheureux doit etre I'homme qui a bonne femme—et s'il est bon il I'aimera de fin coeur."^ »Aliscans,, V. 3978. ' Aliscans, V. 1597, 2035, 8408. 30 Colorado College Studies. v.—La Mere. Nous devons parler de la mere, mais elle est raremenl trouvee dans les chansons de geste. Cependant les exemples que nous en avons indiquent que la mere n'etait pas moins veneree alors qu'elle Test aujourd'hui, qu'elle I'a ete toujours.^ II y a une question interessante et, semble-t-il difficile a resoudre: Les meres nobles—allaitaient-elles leurs enfants? M. Gautier dit: "II nous faut bien constater non sans quel que regret, que les meres de nos chevaliers ne nourrissaient pas volontiers leurs enfants, et que I'usage des nourrices etait des lors tres repandu."^ II parle le plus souvent des moeurs du XII® siecle. Nous ne voulons pas dire que cette assertion ne soit pas vraie, par.ce que nous n'avons pas toutes les preuves du con- traire, mais nous croyons que la phrase appliquee a la femme du XII® siecle dit trop, si I'on I'appuie seulement sur les pas¬ sages que cite M. Gautier, et aussi sur ceux que nous avons pu trouver. (I) D'abord il cite un passage dans Les Sept Sages, ecrit peut-etre au XV® siecle. IMais une autorite du XY® siecle pouvait ignorer aussi bien que nous le XII® siecle. (II) Un autre passage cite est de Brim de la Montaigne® on la mere dit "qu'elle n'avait pas de lait pour son enfant" et emploit une nourrice. ]\Iais ce passage etait necessaire a I'bistoire, pour y faire entrer la nourrice, qui etait fee et marraine de I'enfant, et qui jouait un role capital dans la vie du dernier. De plus, ce poeme est un roman du XY® siecle. (Ill) Dans Gui de Nanteuil, aussi cite par. M. Gautier, le poete dit, "11 norricJiez li baillent pour lever et haignier."^ On ne dit pas 1 Dans deux po&mes oR une femme fut condamn^e R mort la peine fut chang^e en exil parce qu'elle se declara enceinte. C'est un fait int4ressant consid^6 en rapport avec les droits plus rficents (P. la Duchesse, V. 616; Macaire, V. 680) : Dans le premier passage un pr6tre accusa une femme de sa confession et R cause de eela il fut mis R mort. C'est une confirmation frappante de la saintetS de la confession. 2 La Chevalerie, p. 118. 3 V. 1867. * Gui de Nanteuil, V. 116. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 31 qu'elles allaitassent I'enfant, et cette phrase souleve la ques¬ tion si le mot nourrice voulait dire necessairement une femme qui allaitait I'enfant. Nous croyons que non. Dans le pas¬ sage cite Des Sept Sages I'enfant avait "trois nourrices, I'une le baigna, I'autre le caucJia, et I'autre I'allaita." Dans Aiol les deux enfants jumeaux avaient quatre nourrices} N'est-ce pas done que le mot nourrice etait evidemment employe dans un sens plus etendu que celui d'allaiter?— S'il n'est pas vrai, on ne pourrait eoncilier aucunement ces vers dans Raoul de Cambrai: (IV) M. Gautier cite le vers suivant de 1 'enfant Raoul: " Et la nourrice qui moult ot cler le vis."^ Mais sa mere Ailis dit dans le meme poeme: "Ja I'ai je lase si doucement norri," et aussi: "Biax fix Raoul," dist Ailis la bele, "je te norri del lait de ma mamele."^ II semble ici que la nourrice etait tout bonnement la servante qui soignait 1 'enfant. (V) Dans Jourdains de Blaivies,^ ou il y avait deux en¬ fants, dont 1 'un n 'etait pas fils de la chatelaine, on ne dit pas que les nourrices allaitassent I'enfant, mais c'est probable. (VI) Dans Aiol ou il y a quatre nourrices, les enfants avaient ete enleves et n'avaient pas de mere.® (VII) Un des renvois est dans Godefroi de Bouillon, ou le beros etait allaite par sa mere, ce qui fut regarde comme ex¬ ception par le poete.® (VIII) Enfin le dernier passage cite par M. Gautier est dans Parise la Ducbesse, ou I'beroine, qui etait en exil et privee de son propre enfant, devint nourrice du fils d'un baron. 11 n'y a pas de doute a ce sujet. Elle dit: "Norice serai bone, car j'ai lait assez."^ Mais ici I'bis- toire avait besoin de cbercber une occupation pour la femme. Le dernier passage est le seul du XII® siecle qui indique avec certitude qu'une nourrice allaitait I'enfant quand la ' Aiol, V. 9369. ' Raoul de Cambrai, V. 86. 'V. 1147, 1001. * Parise la Ducbesse, V. 944. 5 Jourdains de tlaivies, V. 576. ® Godefroi de Bouillon, V. 639. 'Aiol, V. 9368. 32 Colorado College Studies. mere pouvait le faire, et on a une preuve du contraire toute aussi forte dans Raoul de Cambrai, une des meilleures a.u- torites. (IX) Dans IMacaire il y a un passage on il semblerait que la mere allaitat son enfant: "Mais la roine qui la nori souef— Qui de sa fille connoist cuer et pense."^ Enfin on pourrait dire beaucoup contre I'assertion que 1'usage des nourrices etait tres repandu, en alleguant les moeurs et la condition de la societe du XII® siecle. Mais c'est ime question qui merite une recherche a part, et nous en avons deja trop parle pour la portee de cette these. La mere avait ime part importante a 1'education de I'en- fant.^ Les premieres annees des fils etaient confiees a ses soins. Quant aux fiUes, on n'a pas besoin de le demander. Elles etaient confiees aux soins particuliers de leurs meres jusqu'au mariage, et meme ton jours. II y a une chose digne de remarque sous ce rapport. Dans ces poemes ou les jeunes filles jouent un role si effronte, on ne fait jamais mention d'une mere. Nous avons cherche dans I'histoire d'une dizaine des plus mechantes heroines et il n'y a pas un seul passage ou I'on trouve une mere. On pour¬ rait presque croire qu'eUes etaient toutes des orphelines de mere. Mais^qu'est-ce que tout cela veut dire? C'est, nous le croyons, que la mere aurait ete un empechement an role qu'on donnait aux jeunes filles. Si celles-ci avaient eu des meres, elles n'auraient pas ete si effrontees. Tout cela n'est pas naturel et on pent bien douter de ces poetes-la. Comme toujours une amitie la plus etroite liait ensemble la mere et les fils. La mere etait la mediatrice entre eux et leur pere, souvent trop emporte. Elle ne les oubliait jamais. Dans Renaud de IMontauban® les quatre fils d'Aimon, qui etaient poursuivis par le roi et chasses par leur pere, re- tournerent un jour en haillons an chateau et demanderent a manger, et pendant que la mere les servait, elle les reconnut en depit de la longue separation. Ah! quelle joie eUe en ' Macaire, V. 1784. 2 Aiol, V. 268, deja. cite. 3 P. 89. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 33 avait! Et comme elle les chargea de vivres et d 'habits quand lis partirent! Le fils etait respectueux envers sa mere. II y a une setile exception. C'est dans eette chanson des moeurs sauvages, Eaoul de Cambrai. Ailis cherchait en vain a decider Raoul k ne pas faire la guerre contre les fils d'Herbert. II se facha et lui repondit brutalement,^ et dans un moment d'exaltation elle le maudit. Mais elle s'en repentit: "Ainc en trois jors ne menga ne dormi,—Tout por son fil qu'elle avoit laidi."^ Et apres qu'il fut tue, dans toutes les scenes sanglantes qui suivent, on la voit de temps en temps passer, comme un spectre perpetuel de la vengeance. II y a surtout une scene superbe. C'est ceUe ou Bemier, meurtrier de Raoul, est porte sur un lit, blesse presque a mort. Ailis le voit, et saisit un gros baton pour I'assommer. Et Bernier, qu'elle avait nourri, se traine a ses pieds en lui criant merci. C'est le coeur d'une mere aux prises avec la pitie d'une femme.® La mere du XII® siecle etait courageuse. S'il le fallait elle pouvait tout sacrifier. En Daurel et Beton un traitre, qui avait tue son seigneur, voulait s'emparer du petit fils, heritier. du fief. L'enfant etait entre les mains d'un jongleur et de sa femme, fidMes sujets de leur seigneur. Le traitre attaquait leur maison et allait I'emporter. Qu'est-ce qu'ils feront? C'est la femme qui repondit. "Donnez-lui notre fils," dit elle, "ils sont de meme age. Notre fils mourra mais notre seigneur sera sauve." Le brutal traitre brisa la tete de leur enfant contre le perron. Le jongleur s'echappa sur la mer avec le petit heritier, et la femme heroique mourut de douleur. C'est le comble de la feodalite.* VI.—La Veuve. Peut-etre les veuves meritent-elles un paragraphe a part; sans doute il y en avait assez dans ces jours de batailles et de croisades. Leur sort certainement n'etait pas enviable. IV. 1100. • 2V. 3512. 3 Raoul de Cambrai, V. 5243. * Daurel et Beton, V. 1013. 34 Colorado College Studies. Pour maintenir leur fief il leur fallait presque toujours se remarier et quelque fois a un homme qu'elles haissaient, peut- etre a 1 'asssassin de leurs maris qui voulait s 'emparer de leurs fiefs.^ II semble que le parent ou le seigneur eut le meme droit sur les veuves qu'il avait sur la jeune fiUe.® Si les veuves n'avaient pas de fils d'un age a maintenir le fief leur seul moyen d'echapper a un mariage desagreable, etait de devenir religieuses et e'est ce que beaucoup faisaient.® Cette condition sans defense des veuves est partout recon- nue dans les chansons de geste. La principale recommanda- tion de Charlemagne a son fils Louis fut de ne rien oter aux veuves; * et 1 'homme qui maltraitait les veuves et les orphelins etait type d'un homme mauvais.® VII.—La Keligieuse. On pourrait ecrire toute une dissertation sur la religieuse du moyen age. Mais on ne voit pas que la femme du XII® siecle devint volontiers religieuse sauf pour quelque cause comme celle citee plus haut. C 'est ordinairement une femme qui n'etait plus jeune, et qui se retirait apr^ la perte de son mari. Pourtant on voit assez souvent des maisons religieuses pour les femmes.® Girart et Berte en fonderent.'' On en men- tionne deux dans Kaoul de Cambrai.® 1 C'est ce qu'on voulut fairs en Boon de Maience et qu'on accomplit en Daurel et Beton. 2 La femme de Bernier retourna chez son pfere et le roi la maria & I'ennemi de Bernier (Raoul de Cambrai, V. 6790). Daurel et Beton, V. 644. 'Hermenjart " nonain devint et servfi Damedfi" Mort Aymeri de Narbonne). C'est la menace ordinaire d'une femme qui s'oppose a un mariage. * Couronnement Looys, V. 84. ®" Les orfenins faisoit desireter—Les veuves dames lor rentes re- coper—Moult le maudient li home du ren€" (Huon de Bordeaux, V. 2465). ®Aye d'Avignon, p. 29. ' Girart de Rossillon, p. 228. 8V. 1394, 7315. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 35 VIII.—Conclusion. Nous avons deja parle de la grande difference entre les jeunes filles des poemes les plus anciens et celles des plus recents. Quoiqu'il n'y ait pas beaucoup de renseignements sur la femme dans les chansons de geste plus vieilles, le peu qu'on trouve la met dans une lumiere tres belle. Mais dans les poemes du XIII® siecle les jeunes filles sont souvent des monstres d'effronterie et d'impudicite. Quelle est 1'explica¬ tion de ce changement? M. Gautier, avec d'autres, dit que les poetes mentent tout bonnement.^ Sans doute il a raison jusqu' a un certain point. On ne pent pas croire les femmes aussi mechantes que quelques trouveres les out peintes. Et quand les choses depassent toute imagination, toute ressemblance au naturel, on pent, a juste titre, refuser de les croire. Mais si Ton accepte leur temoign- age en beaucoup de faits importants et quelquefois tres etranges, peut-on en douter entierement en d'autres choses sans en donner une explication suffisante? Et si les vieilles chansons de geste sont vraiment un reflet de la vie de leur temps, qu'est-ce que signifient ces caricatures de la jeune fille du XIII® siecle et de la fin du XII® ? Parce que s 'il est vrai qu 'elles soient principalement des caricatures et des men- songes il doit exister une raison pour que les gens les ecoutas- sent volontiers. Tout en acceptant les belles raisons qu'on donne au sujet de la malignite et de 1'ignorance des poetes a I'egard de la femme, nous croyons que ces portraits indiquent un changement notable dans la position de la femme et dans les moeurs du temps. On sait que les XI® et XII® siecles etaient la periode d'ime renaissance religieuse et morale au nord de la France,^ la region ou I'on croit que presque toutes les chansons de geste ont leur, origine. L'eglise en etait la cause, et les moeurs etaient tres auster.es. Mais au sud les conditions etaient tout-a-fait differentes. La societe etait plfls elegante et plus libre, mais moins simple et 1 La Chevalerie, p. 377. 2 Voy. Guizot et Martin. 36 Colorado College Studies. moins morale. On voit la les cours d'amours qui jugent '' que 1 'amour n 'est pas possible entre des maries," et d 'autres jugements pareils.^ Les moeurs etaient licencieuses et on salt que plus tard, au moins pendant le XIV® et XV® sieeles, les memes conditions arrivaient au nord, ee que temoignent les romans souvent tres immoraux de la periode decadante, aussi bien que les historiens. N'est-ce pas possible done que ces portraits dans les poemes indiquent 1'influence de la societe pen chaste du midi, qui influait de si bonne heure sur les moeurs du nord? C'etait au XII® siecle que les croi- sades et les diverses expeditions militaires commencerent cette amalgame des idees, des langues et des moeurs, qui faisaient la France unie. C'est alors que les barons rudes et guer- riers du nord voyaient, non seulement la civilisation du midi de 1'Europe, mais aussi le luxe et les vices de I'orient; et on doit noter ici, nous semble-t-il, que le plus grand nombre des heroines, qui jouent un si mauvais role dans les chansons, sont des sarrasines on des paiennes.^ De plus il parait vrai- semblable qu'il y ait dans plusieurs poemes des elements de deux societes bien differentes. On ne pent guere croire a une autre explication des deux parties d'Aiol, dont I'une a des moeurs si austeres tandis que I'autre renferme tout le mauvais gout, et toute I'immoralite de la periode deca¬ dante.® Le temps entre les dates de composition des deux parties semble une explication insuffisante pour un tel change- ment dans les moeurs. Aussi ne faut-il pas oublier qu'il y avait des poemes auxquels il n'y a rien de tel a reprocher, comme Aymeri de Narbonne, ecrit au XIII® siecle. lis sont des imitations, c'est possible, mais on voit qu'il y avait un pays on une societe ou on desirait de telles imitations. Mais si ces portraits des jeunes fllles donnent un tableau quelconque de la societe de I'epoque, quelle etait vraiment la 1 Le Roux de Lincy, " Les Femmes celSbres de I'ancienne France," p. 179. 2 Sur douze des plus m^chantes, neuf sont des palennes. Les deux les plus abominables sont Floripas en " Fierbras," et Sebille qui est mari^, en " La Chanson de Saisnes." 3 Aussi EHe de Saint-Gilles, Raoul de Cambrai, Gaydon etc. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 37 position de la femme au XIII® siecle en comparaison avec celle de la premiere partie du XII® ? Sans doute il ne serait pas possible de dire que sa position etait plus ou moins mau- vaise. Peut-etre, avait-elle plus de liberte, et plus de droits, dans la societe, et, en revanche, elle avait perdu quelque chose du respect, qu'elle inspirait autrefois aux esprits de ces hom- mes rudes qui la veneraient tout en la maltraitant. C'est possible qu'elle abusat un peu de sa nouvelle liberte—on le fait toujours—au moins les idees de quelques poetes les plus malins suggerent une telle interpretation. On a fait mention plus haut d'une institution qui merite ici un paragraphe. C'est les cours d'amour. De Lincy dans son livr.e, "Les femmes celebres de I'ancienne France" dit:^ "Ces assemblies paraissent s'etre formees des que la premiere moitie du douzieme siecle au midi, et dans le nord, vers 1140." Ces cours etaient des reunions des dames pour juger des querelles d'amants, des chansons d'amour etc., et De Lincy croit qu'eUes etaient de grande importance dans la societe de I'epoque. Pour la plupart ses examples sont bases sur le "Choix des poesies originales des troubadours" de Raynouard, ecrivain provengal. Quant au midi nous n'en disons rien, et il n'y a aucun doute qu'une telle institution jouat la un role, mais il nous semble bien etrange qu'au nord, pays des chansons de geste, une telle chose put exister et fleurir pendant un siecle, le plus fecond de nos epiques, sans que nous puissions en trouver. la moindre indication dans les poemes. De plus, lorsque nous pensons a la condition de la femme, au moins comme nous I'entendons, nous ne voyons pas comment une telle institution soit possible. Nous ne croyions pas les femmes du XII® siecle si independantes, si hardies: et I'idee d'un Raoul, d'un Guillaume ou d'un Roland qui paraisse devant une telle assemblee des dames, comme competiteur pour le prix dans une chanson d'amour, nous semble assez ridicule. Quoiqu'il nous manque des textes pour decider la question avec certitude, nous n'avons pu trouver aucunes preuves cer- taines que ces cours fussent en vogue dans le nord de la France ' Voy. note audessus. 38 Colorado College Studies. avant le milieu du XIII® siecle,^ et nous ne pouvons pas comprendre pourquoi les poemes ne les mentionnerait pas si elles y existaient. Si I'on pouvait determiner que ces cours etaient connues seulement au midi pendant cette periode, ce serait une autre preuve de la composition septentrionale de la chanson de geste. A regard done de la position de la femme en societe et en droit, elle s'appellait I'egale de I'homme; mais on a vu que cette egalite n'avait rien de vrai, parce que la force etait souvent la loi, et la femme etait la plus faible. Aussi dans quelques poemes, les plus vieux et les plus guerriers, la femme compte pour peu de chose. Roland meurt en pensant a son epee, a ses conquetes et a son seigneur, Charlemagne, mais de la fiancee qui I'aimait si eperduement, pas un mot dans cette belle oraison.^ On dit a la sage Ailis d'aller chez ses femmes, de manger et de boire et de laisser les affaires aux hommes.® Mais tons les poemes ne sont pas des moeurs aussi farouches et les droits de la femme etaient nombreux. Elle tenait des fiefs, et elle pourrait peut-etre rejeter un mariage desa- greable. EUe avait des missions importantes dans la religion et dans la societe. Meme elle exercait quelquefois ce droit le plus releve et le plus exclusif de la chevalerie, et elle adoubait des chevaliers.* Mais c'est dans la vie domestique qu'elle avait le pouvoir le plus grand. Elle adoucissait les moeurs de ces barons farouches et, aidee par I'eglise elle faisait beaucoup avancer le regne de la justice et de la pitie, dans ces chMeaux feodaux, pendant ces deux siecles de demi- obscurite. Enfin les poetes n'ont pas manque de nous don- 1 Martin: Histoire de la France. 2 Roland, V. 2259. 3Eaoul de Cambrai, V. 1100. < C'est ce qu'elle fait en Doon de Maience (V. 8261), Caufrey (V. 3678), Gui de Nanteuil (V. 942) et Hugues Capet (V. 2060). Un des meilleurs exemples est dans Li Covenans Vivien (V. 1270) oil Guiborc donna I'accolade & Guichardet. M. Gautier donne aussi Auberon et Jourdains de Blaivies. C'est clair que c'^tait assez commun pour ne pas exciter I'^tonnement, mais nous ne le croyons pas reprfisentatif. Cela n'etait pas un adouhement en rfegle. La Femme dans les Chansons de Geste. 39 ner des types dignes de se comparer avec les femmes celebres du monde entier. Ce sent Ailis la mere qui n'oubliait jamais son fils, la belle Aude qui aimait Eoland mieux que les Fran- gais de tous les siecles n'ont pu le faire. Ce sont la femme guerriere, Guiborc, et enfin Berte la comtesse coutouriere, type parfait de la chretienne du XII® siecle. II y a une question qu'on fait sans cesse quand on parle d'une periode quelconque de I'histoire. Quel fut le sort du peuple? Fut-il heureux? Comment repondre a cette ques¬ tion an sujet de la femme du XII® siecle? Si le progres de la civilisation du monde est tout bonnement une augmentation des conditions qui produisent le bonheur, quel besoin de le demander? Nous nous sommes certainement bien avances depuis le XII® siecle. Mais il y avait aussi des causes spe- ciales pourque le sort de la femme de cette epoque ne fut pas le plus digne d'envie. Ce siecle etait en general le regne de la force, et c'est toujours, aux epoques de violence, la femme, le sexe plus faible, qui souffre les plus grandes rigueurs. La femme du moyen age savait pleurer. C'etait son metier a elle, et quelquefois toute son histoire. Un baron dans Girart de Kossillon en priant un autre de quitter sa douleur, dit: "Plorer doivent li femmes," et nous savons qu'eUes n'en manquaient pas de causes et qu'elles pleuraient bien. C'est une chose peut-etre pen connue des admirateurs de 1 'antiquite, que nous avons des modeles de la douleur dignes de comparer a celle si renommee pour le heros de la Troie.^ Dans ces croisades immenses contre les Mahometans de 1'orient, dans ces guerres contre les Sarrasins an midi de 1'Europe et ces expeditions contre les Saxons du nord, et finalement, dans ces terribles luttes feodales entre des voisins, que de femmes qui aimaient si bien leurs maris, femmes a qui la vie avait commence si heureusement, devaient voir les corps sanglants de ces forts et vigor,eux guerriers portes dans la cour du cJjiMeau, ou, plus triste encore, attendre pendant ' Allis et la fiancee de Raoul, Hermenjart dans la ^dort Aymeri de Narbonne et surtout Aude a. la mort de Roland. 40 Colorado College Studies. longues annees les chevaliers qui ne retournaient plus! Que de vies de femmes finissaient alors, comme finissent les plus belles chansons de geste, sur un note monotone et triste.^ 1 Comme Aliscans, Raoul de Cambrai, mais surtout. La Cbanson de Roland. (On omet le biliographie A cause de T^tendue de la tb&se.) AN INTERFEROMETER STUDY OF RADIATIONS IN A MAGNETIC FIELD * By Pbofessok J. C. Shedd. In the historical development of this subject two well marked experimental methods have been developed. The first of these is the Spectrophotographic method used by Dr. P. Zeeman and the majority of those who have followed. This method is found to be limited, (1) in range by reason of the small resolving power of the ruled grating, so that good results are only obtained by using strong magnetic fields. It is also limited, (2) in accuracy, by reason of the wide mar¬ gin of error in the settings of the micrometer, especially when nebulous lines are to be measured. The second method is due to Professor A. A. Michelson and consists in the use of the interferential refractometer as devised by him. This method is found to have a resolving power greatly in excess of the photographic method, and hence is applicable to low values as well as to high values of magnetic field strength. The results so far accomplished may be briefly summarized as follows: I. By the Spectrophotographic Method. (1) A classification of spectral lines according to the type of line produced by the action of the magnetic field. (2) The measurement of the change in wave-length pro¬ duced by the magnetic field, and a determination of the ratio of ionic charge to ionic mass (e/m). II. With the interferometer method Professor Michelson has presented three well-marked types of lines with a possible fourth type. The experiments now to be briefly described have sought to determine: ' See also Physikalische Zeitschrift, Vol. 1, No. 24. 42 Colorado College Studies. I. The limiting conditions attending the observation of the phenomenon. II. A comparison of the ease of manipulation and range of the two methods. III. Whether at different temperatures the magnetic effect is radically different. IV. To measure the magnetic shift (i. e., change of wave¬ length) of the spectral lines examined, and to determine the ratio e/m. Also to observe the state of polarization of the components. In the study of parts I., II. and III. the sodium flame and sodium in a vacuum tube was made use of. The conclusions reached were as follows: I. (1) The magnetic shift of the sodium lines as given by a naked flame, cannot, with the spectro¬ scope method, be distinctly observed at the tempera¬ ture of the Bunsen flame, nor of the air-blast flame, nor at the temperature of the oxy-hydrogen flame, unless precautions are taken against spontaneous reversals. (2) The phenomena can he better observed parallel to the magnetic field than perpendicular to it, as the strength of field necessary to produce a pure (i. e., visual) triplet is twice that necessary to produce the doublet. (3) There is a very perceptible time lag both when the magnet is excited and when the current is broken, during which time the spectral lines show an inertia effect. The time lag does not seem to be wholly due to the self-induction of the magnet, but may be par¬ tially due to persistence of vision and partially to ionic inertia. (4) A field strength of at least 15,000 C.G.S. units seems to be necessary for satisfactory observation, and spectra above the second order are too faint for good effects. Interferometer Study of Radiations. 43 II. (1) The interferometer is capable of showing the mag¬ netic effect for field strengths below 1,000 C.G.S. units. (2) The visibility curves,^ even under unfavorable cir¬ cumstances, show clearly the general character of the magnetic action, and when checked through a long series by means of an harmonic analyzer^ fur¬ nish an incomparable method of analysis. (3) "When unaccompanied by such a check, and for quantitative measurements of change of wave-length another use of the interferometer furnishes a better method. III. (1) At the temperature of the Bunsen fiame there is a distinct ionic "lag" or constraint which is sud¬ denly overcome, at a field strength of 9,500 C.G.S. units. (2) This ionic lag becomes less as the temperature rises and is practically absent at the hottest tem¬ perature of the oxy-hydrogen fiame, or of the vacuum tube. (3) The change in wave-length reaches a maximum value, depending upon the temperature, at about ^11,000 C.G.S. units. For values of magnetic field above this the effect is to broaden the component lines and not to further separate them. This latter point may be peculiar to sodium and due to the simultaneous presence of the lines D^D^. No observations have yet been made upon these lines separately, the dispersion necessary to isolate them being too great. Measurements of Magnetic Shift. The equation expressing the relation of the change of wave-length (I — ^') to the strength of the magnetic field (H) producing it is 'Phil. Mag. (5), 44, pp. 109-115, 1897; (5), 45, pp. 348-356, 1898. 'Phil. Mag. (5), 45, p. 85, 1898. 44 Colorado College Studies. showing that for a given value of A the change of wave-length should be proportional to the value of H, provided no con¬ straint is present. It is found that a constraint is present at low temperatures, but disappears as the temperature rises. The conditions of high temperature and low pressure are best fulfilled by the vacuum tube and hence this was used as a source of illumination. The arrangement of apparatus is shown in Fig. 1. The difficulties encountered were such as to reduce the satisfactory observations to the lines of sodium, mercury, cadium and zinc. The results are summarised in Table I. and also shown graphically in Fig. 2. Table I. Magnetic sbift Substance. Line. for H = 10,000. Sodium'^ Yellow line. 0.414 A. U. Mercury Yellow line. 0.256 Mercury Green line. 0.310 Mercury Violet line. 0.240 Cadmium Red line. 0.262 Cadmium Green line. 0.240 Cadmium Blue line. 0.274 Zinc Blue line. 0.288 ^ The echelon spectroscope shows the separation of the com¬ ponents of P, to be about two thirds of that of P,. The value here given belongs to P,, the line having the greatest magnetic shift. Interferometer Study op Radutions. 45 Ratio of Ionic Charge to Ionic Mass. The relation of ionie charge to ionic mass is given by the equation: ejm = X — X' 2nv X' H' The numerical value of this ratio may now be determined from the values of magnetic shift, and the corresponding 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 MAGNETIC SHIFT A'A' IN A.U. Fig. 2. values of iff. For the lines given in Table I. the values are given in Table II. Table II. Substance. Line. Sodium Yellow. Mercury Violet. Cadmium Blue. Zinc Blue. Mercury * Green. Cadmium Green. Mercury Yellow. Cadmium Red. Type of Lnie elm (Michelson). 22.45 X 10' 23.81 X 10' 22.41 X 10' 23.46 X 10' 18.59 X 10' 17.48 X 10' 14.35 X 10' 11.93 X 10' Type II. j-Type III. jxype I. 46 Colorado College Studies. In the last column is added the corresponding grouping of the lines as determined by Professor Michelson.^ It is thus seen that the groupings made by Michelson according to the structure of the spectral line is the same as that given when the lines are grouped according to the value of the ratio e/m. A study of Tables I. and II. and Fig. 2 leads to the follow¬ ing conclusions: (1) A classification of lines according to the amount of magnetic shift is of little value; but a classification according to the value of e/m is significant. (2) The smaller the ratio e/m the less the broadening of the component lines and the simpler the structure; vice versa, the larger the ratio e/m the more the broad¬ ening and the more complex the structure. Professor J. J. Thomson has shown that there is reason to believe that the ionic charge is always a constant. If this be applicable to the present case, we may conclude from Table II. that the larger the ionic mass the simpler is the structure of the line; and the smaller this ionic mass the more complex the structure. We also conclude that the different spectral lines of a substance are due to distinct ions. ' Astrophys. Jr., 7, p. 136, 1898; Nature, March 9, 1899. jlUjlkJ I 3 5556 004 367 819 < t-iOCJ • -OJ-VJ »-'Oo I SO*