Iffiflr RBBll 1$ WfflBMImXiM mm*i SOCIOLOGICAL ! PROGRESS IN £ MISSION LANDS EDWARD WXKJtEN CAPM I m mM /2../JT. >ty . PRINCETON, N. J. l lf Purchased by the Hamill Missionary Fund. BV 2105 .C4 1914 Capen, Edward Warren, 1870 Sociological progress in mission lands Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Sociological Progress in Mission Lands By y EDWARD WARREN CAPEN, Ph. D. Secretary, Kennedy School of Missions, Hartford, Conn.; Author of "The Historical Devel- opment of the Connecticut Poor- Law." Introduction by JAMES A. KELSO, Ph. D., D. D. President Western Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, Pa. PFC 15 1914 New York Chicago Toronto Fleming H. Revell Company London and Edinburgh Copyright, 1914, by FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANt New York: 158 Fifth Avenue Chicago: 125 North Wabash Ave. Toronto: 25 Richmond Street, W. London: 21 Paterrtoster Square Edinburgh: 100 Princes Street To my Father Idol of my boyhood Companion of my manhood Always living in the spiritual world Passionately devoted to the Kingdom of God In advocacy of peace In civic reform In missionary leadership Who went home from the firing-line Introduction By James A. Kelso, Ph. D., JD. D. y President Western Theological Seminary ONLY a few interested observers are aware of the stupendous changes being wrought in heathen society by the leaven of Chris- tianity. It is common enough for supporters of foreign missions to use the arithmetical test as an index of the progress and influence of their faith in pagan lands, but only the very thoughtful take into consideration the social revolution which the preach- ing of the Gospel has effected in the ancient civili- zations of Asia and the rude tribes of Africa and the Islands of the Sea. A study of sociological progress in missionary lands constitutes a modern apologia, not only for foreign missions, but also for the social power of the Gospel. Our age has wit- nessed a singular spectacle — the denial of the social dynamic of Christianity, not only by the out-and- out socialist but also by those who are within the pale of the Church. It is not strange that Karl Marx and his followers wish to destroy the idea of God as the keystone of a perverted civilization and denounce Christianity as the bulwark of the present economic system. On the other hand, it is certainly startling to discover the defiant attitude of many earnest men and women, members of the Church or 7 8 Introduction standing in sympathetic relations with her, who are working for the amelioration of social conditions and the removal of the wrongs of our age. Dis- mayed by the apathy of the Church and a large proportion of Christian people, this class have been easily led to mistake this spirit of indifference to the social implications of the Gospel for the typical Christian attitude towards the problem of social welfare. Often in despair they claim that Christi- anity cares nothing for the ills of this existence but is lost in dreams of other-worldliness, hence as they face the inequalities and wrongs of the social order they fling their taunt : "Ah but, Eeligion, did we wait for thee 5J: * * * * * . . . . we should wait indeed ! " " Sociological Progress in Missionary Lands " not only refutes the materialistic contentions of the socialist, but also removes the misgivings and doubts of thoughtful Christians when they consider the failure of Christianity to remove many of the plague spots of our own social order. It is not necessary to hark back to the early history of the Church to learn that with the Christian religion was born a new force of ' immeasurable social significance,' or that the new religion, as Lecky puts it, aroused to a ' degree before unexampled in the world an en- thusiastic devotion to corporate welfare.' To realize the truth of these assertions one has but to turn to the annals of contemporary Christian mis- Introduction g sions all over the non-Christian world. The Chris- tian missionary has gone to these lands to proclaim the evangel of redemption through Christ ; to put it specifically — to save individual souls, and lo, there comes as a by-product, the infusion of a new leaven into the social order, which tends to remove evils that have been securely intrenched in heathen society not for centuries but for millenniums. We may cite a single example. The caste system of India has begun to fall before the social ethics of Christianity while Buddhism, which was to an extent a revolt against this feature of Hindu society, beat in vain against this adamantine rock. In this volume Mr. Capen has dealt with this sociological by-product of Christian missions. He is adequately equipped for the performance of this task as he is a scientifically trained sociologist and has investigated by travel and observation the problems with which he deals. He possesses the combined resources of a scientific investigator and an eye-witness. On account of his equipment for the performance of this task, he was selected to deliver these lectures at the Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, located at Pittsburgh, during the second semester of the aca- demic year 1911-1912, in connection with the L. H. Severance Foundation. This lectureship was endowed by the late Mr. Louis H. Severance, of Cleveland, Ohio, for the purpose of providing instruction on foreign mis- sionary themes. No layman of the Presbyterian io Introduction Church was more deeply interested in or more thoroughly acquainted with the work and problems of evangelizing the heathen world, and his aim in making the gift which rendered this course of lec- tures possible was to awaken among the theological students an abiding and intelligent interest in the spread of the Gospel in pagan lands. Preface THIS book consists of six lectures, somewhat changed and enlarged, which were de- livered in the winter of 1912 before the Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The theme was announced as Sociological Progress in Mission Lands. A fuller but too cumbersome phrasing would have been, An Examination of Sociological Progress in Mission Lands with Special Keference to the Influence of Christian Missions as a Factor in this Progress and with some Allusions to the Duty of the Church in the Face of these Mighty Social Movements. In many ways, it would be more satisfactory to speak of this book as a study of the sociological results of missions; but in that case it would be necessary to omit many interesting phenomena or to run the risk of claiming too much for the influence of the missionary. As a matter of fact, the process of social develop- ment is too complex for one to claim that the changes have been due to the operation of any single cause, however influential that may have been. In the early days, the changes in countries like India and Hawaii were due chiefly to mission- ary influence, as the missionaries exercised almost ii 12 Preface the only reformatory force at work. Of late years, however, many other influences have cooperated with that of Christian missions in producing these changes and it would be folly to claim for Chris- tianity a monopoly of the influence, except in the remote sense that these influences have come from the West and that the West has been largely moulded by Christianity. Again, many a reform which has been started by a missionary or native Christian has been adopted by others until the origin of the initial impulse has been forgotten, and any exclusive claim by Christians of the credit for the change might be regarded as insulting as well as false. Hence the book contents itself with the simpler task of sketching some of these social changes, the part the Christian missionary has played in their production, and the resulting chal- lenge to the Church of Jesus Christ. No worker in this field but is under the greatest obligation to Dr. James S. Dennis for the pioneer work which he has here done. His " Christian Missions and Social Progress" is a monumental work, which none but one possessed of ample re- sources and untiring patience could ever have pro- duced. I have freely used the materials found in this thesaurus of information on social subjects, wherever my subject has concerned those sections which Dr. Dennis so thoroughly explored. I wish also to express my personal obligation to Dr. Dennis for assistance most willingly granted me in past years. Preface 13 To those whose generosity made possible the personal investigations referred to in this book, I would at this time pay tribute ; and especially to frim who would eagerly have read these pages, and who in the other world awaits the consummation of the task to which he gave his life. I am also under obligation to the friends in Pittsburgh and Boston who have taken a kindly interest in these lectures, have urged their publication, and suggested impor- tant improvements. It has not seemed wise in a book of this char- acter and size to give in foot-notes the authority for each statement of fact. Instead, references have been given for some of the more significant facts and for most of the quotations, and in an ap- pendix are listed a few of the important works which have been used in collecting the material for these chapters. E. W. C. Hartford, Conn. Contents I. The Problem 17 47 II. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance Inefficiency, and Poverty III. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life and the Position of Woman . IV. Progress in Ethical Ideals . V. Progress in Social Reconstruction VI. Christianizing Tendencies in Non- Christian Religions Bibliography .... Index .... 95 138 189 232 280 285 *5 THE PEOBLEM BEFORE entering upon the discussion of the sociological progress that has been wit- nessed within the last hundred years in the countries where the Christian missionary has been labouring, it is necessary to set forth the problem. This includes an inquiry into the basis of social institutions and customs, the causes of social changes, and their limitations. It needs no profound investigation to realize that individuals are to a very large extent the product of their environment, material and human. Chil- dren are born into a family, the form of which is prescribed by the state. The home in which they are brought up conforms to certain standards pre- scribed by custom, if not by law. The food people eat and the clothing they wear have been produced by others, and have come to them through com- plicated industrial channels, which ramify through- out the world. The content of education is the re- sult of the strivings of men for knowledge through- out human history, and its provision and content are both prescribed by society. Even in the re- ligious life, the truths which are taught have been battled over and been achieved at a great cost of energy and of life itself, and this religion centres *7 18 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands in the Church, which is itself subject to human law and is a social institution. Social control is about men constantly, and those who violate social customs have to suffer the con- sequences, either in social ostracism or in the penal- ties of statute law. People are more or less con- sciously aware of their dependence upon those about them, less so of their dependence upon those who are more remotely serving them, and ordinarily city-dwellers are least of all conscious of their de- pendence upon nature. It is only when a coal famine threatens, or the supply of food partially fails, and men have to pay more for what they eat, that they are brought face to face with the funda- mental fact that everything of a material sort comes from nature. On the other hand, those who are engaged in the primary occupations of agri- culture and mining have no doubt regarding this fact, nor do the people in less highly developed civilizations than our own, where famines are of frequent occurrence, and millions never know what it is to have more than one meal a day, and even that barely sufficient to support life. Through the past ages men have learned by bitter experience how to extract from nature the means of satisfying their bodily needs, and how to live and work together for their best interests. Social institutions and customs are nothing more than the stereotyping of the adaptations to nature and to their fellow-men which men have found, or have thought they have found, to be conducive to The Problem 19 their well-being, and which they therefore impose upon individuals in the interests of society. They thus embody the ideals which men have held up before themselves and prescribe the lines within which the individual must walk. Change these ideals, or introduce new knowledge or new factors into the relations of men to one another or to nature, and the social institutions and customs change inevitably, though usually slowly. Law and custom tend to lag behind and they often embody ideals that are passing away. They may, however, express an ideal which the leaders in thought have been able to put into force and to use as a lever for bringing the rest of the people up to a new level. Illustrations of both possibilities are seen in our American life to-day. The present statutes for regulating industrial combinations were framed to meet a situation which was passed a decade and more ago. On the other hand, leaders in tenement house reform endeavour to secure the enactment of building regulations which are in advance of the opinion of the majority and by sheer force of character and influence are able to get a lever by which they raise the whole housing standard of the community. Institutions and cus- toms are thus not something mechanically im- posed from without but are the embodiment of the experience and ideals of a group of men living together in a given environment and under given conditions. The causes of social changes are the introduction 20 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands of new factors into these relationships. A natural calamity like the earthquake at Messina does more than throw down buildings ; it dislocates institu- tions, breaks up customs, and may lead to profound social changes. Introduce into a country like Japan a new industrial system, and the customs, laws, and institutions which have served feudal Japan for centuries become almost as unsuited to meet the new situation as the old armour of the samurai would have been to protect the Japanese troops in their assaults upon Port Arthur. The life of England in every department has been pro- foundly affected by the introduction of a single invention, the steam-engine. This produced the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century, and led naturally to the profound social and govern- mental changes now in progress. Not that this has been the only factor, but it helped to set in operation the forces which are transforming aristo- cratic England into a democracy. New relations to God and man are other factors that produce social changes. Nineteen centuries ago there appeared in Galilee a preacher of a new doctrine. The power of His divine personality, which impressed itself upon a group of obscure men, put before the world new ideals of life, and these at once began to transform a pagan world into a Christian world and to render obsolete, even hideous, institutions and customs which had em- bodied the lower ideals of the ancient civilization. Slavery was rendered unproductive by industrial The Problem 21 changes, but the preaching of the brotherhood of man cooperated with this economic force in abolish- ing the sale of human beings as things. These two causes of change, material and spiritual, have in all ages worked side by side in guiding men into new experiences, with their resulting modifications of custom and institution. At any single point in the process of social evolu- tion, the possibilities of change are limited by the environment and the character of the people. The effect of climate upon the life and character of a community is not fully understood, but that it has a definite effect is not a matter of doubt. The intense heat of the tropics reduces the energy of the inhabitants, and encourages social customs and habits of life which are quite different from those that prevail where there is need of more protection from the weather. Extreme cold and long winters are also unfavourable to economic progress, except where a complicated system of industry has been introduced and has made man partially independent of surrounding conditions. The health conditions are also of vital impor- tance. A population which is being decimated by cholera, bubonic plague, or the sleeping sickness, or which has its vitality lowered by malaria or the hook-worm, is incapable of as high a development as one which enjoys a greater certainty of life and greater strength for its tasks. At this point of health, the climatic conditions are relatively flex- ible. Through the scientific control of disease, the 22 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands enforcement of sanitary regulations, and the adop- tion of proper methods of living, a social and in- dustrial development is made possible which would otherwise be out of the question. A comparison of a classification of the land surface of the globe ac- cording to its healthfulness to-day with a similar one of a few decades ago would reveal the fact that the margin within which life is possible has been pushed up many per cent. Thus, the ravages of sleeping sickness have been checked in Busoga, British East Africa, cholera has been stamped out in the Philippines, and the Panama Canal Zone has been changed from a pest-hole into a sanitarium. The character and location of the soil also have a determining influence. They limit the density of population that may be supported on a given area, and condition the economic activities. These, in turn, affect the social life of the people. Here, too, science comes in to remove in part these limita- tions. By improvements in agriculture or by the utilization for other purposes of land which as graz- ing or as farming land could support but a small population on a relatively meagre scale, the number that can be supported on a given area may be greatly increased. The density of population upon Manhattan Island and upon the Hand in South Africa are typical illustrations of this fact. Much has been made in the past of the so-called "aspect of nature." In those regions where the natural phenomena inspire awe and man seems helpless in his contest with nature, the effect of The Problem 23 environment upon character is different from what it is where man is able as a rule to make nature his servant. The great religions have originated in the tropics, where man is forced to meditate upon the cause of the phenomena about him. The hopeless- ness of the struggle is typified in the pessimism which breathes through Hinduism and Buddhism. It is suggestive that the great religion of China, — or, rather, its ethical and social system, — which originated in the north, is agnostic. Confucius and his followers did not concern themselves with the other world, but left the people, who needed a religion, to content themselves with the pessimism that came with Buddhism from India, or with the crude speculations and superstitions that originated in their own primitive days when their command over nature was relatively small. Even in the aspect of nature there are possibili- ties of modifications from two sources. Science can control, or at least can mitigate, the results of natural phenomena or catastrophes, such as flood, tempest, and earthquake, and it can lessen the danger of famine. Japan's success in constructing buildings that resist earthquake shocks severer than those which ruined Messina ; the possibility of pre- venting by engineering works the famines that follow the frequent floods of the Yellow Kiver in China, and the beneficent results of the irrigation works in Egypt and India, indicate how science can reduce to a minimum the evil social results of such great natural catastrophes. Again, upon one who 24 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands sees behind nature a loving Father, the effect of all such events will be radically different from what it is upon one who sees in them the operation of evil spirits, who hate men and rejoice in human suf- fering. Finally, the present character and attainments of the people themselves, however they were pro- duced, limit the possibility of change. One cannot expect that a people, who have been kept in utter ignorance for generations, will at once rise to the intellectual level of a country like the United States, back of whose civilization are centuries of intellec- tual progress, and whose people are required to receive mental training. Likewise, on the ethical side, a people whose ancestors have for generations had low standards of honesty, truthfulness, and purity, cannot at once throw off this heredity. Even the Spirit of God does not immediately and forever overcome the influence of an evil ancestry and a bad social environment. The records of church discipline on the mission field bear mournful testimony to this fact. These are some of the factors which need to be taken into consideration in the discussion of the possibilities of social change and in an appraisal of the worth of the changes which one sees on every side in mission lands. The reformer needs to bear in mind that the millennium will not come in a day. It is a mistake to expect too much and so become discouraged. It is easy to overshoot the mark and be unduly disheartened because the The Problem 25 people are unwilling or unable to move rapidly enough. It is not necessary in these days to refute the ob- jection, formerly brought against the work of the missionary, namely, that it is worse than useless to introduce a new religion into the Orient, or to attempt to remove social abuses and modify social customs, for the reasons, forsooth, that the social organization and ideals of the East are better suited to the people than anything the West can offer, the people are satisfied to remain as they are, and any changes that occur must come exclusively from within and by a process of slow modification. The recent history of Japan is sufficient to answer this objection. This country, which centuries ago ac- cepted Buddhism as one of its religions and took over from China the culture and much of the social organization bearing the name of Confucius, has within a few decades adopted the material civiliza- tion of the West. Still more recently, the world has seen how these different Asiatic peoples, in whose supposed interest the Church was commanded to keep " hands off," are themselves making changes which are profoundly influencing the future of the world. It is important, however, to analyze this process, see its need, and discover the missionary's relation to this movement. This chapter cannot do more than outline these new factors and indicate their bearing. Five new factors may be mentioned as having entered into 26 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands the social life of the East : Western influence, a new- education, a new industry, new ethical and social ideals, and new political aspirations. The first new factor is that of Western influence. In a sense, this includes all the others, for the changes along educational, industrial, ethical, and political lines may be traced to Western influence. However, as all these latter movements have been taken over by the people themselves, and have come to express their own desires and ideals, one may rightly treat Western influence as an independent factor, at the same time recognizing its genetic re- lation to the others. It has been shown that men are affected and moulded more or less directly through their social relations with all the individ- uals and groups of persons who touch them. The chief reasons for the differences in social develop- ment between the Orient and the Occident have been their isolation and the contrasts in their en- vironments. Starting with different material sur- roundings and resources, and separated by natural barriers, the peoples of the East and West developed along independent lines. Until within a century or two the relations between East and West were so slight that their influence upon each other w r as negligible. In fact, it is within only a few r decades that, through the improvement of transportation, Orient and Occident have been brought into inti- mate relations. The development of the transcon- tinental railway system unified the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States. The railway The Problem 27 development in China has helped to break down the provincial spirit and thus has contributed to the unity of purpose recently witnessed in that country's change of government. So, on a larger scale, the whole world is becom- ing one. The men of the West carry their wares to the East. Even the introduction of so simple a product as a good quality of illuminating oil assists in the intellectual progress of the people of Asia. How many American youth would study even as hard as they now do, if the old tallow candle were their only means of illumination ? The literature of America, England, France, and Germany is read by the educated youth of Asia, either in translation or in the original, and this literature often reflects the worst side of Western life. Students from India, China, and Japan study in Europe or the United States. They become acquainted with Western ideals and learn how the West regards their mother countries. At the same time, they often see more of the worst elements in Western life than of the best. They get a new idea of the world and return home either to advocate social changes or to be more tenacious than ever in cling- ing to their ancestral customs. Thus, the thought and life of Asia are affected by this influence ema- nating from the West. Secondly, a new education is spreading all over mission lands, both that furnished by the mission- ary and, still more in certain countries, that pro- vided by government. This means that peoples 28 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands among whom the percentage of illiteracy has been nearly one hundred per cent, are becoming literate and intelligent. They are broadening their mental horizon, they are learning a new mastery over na- ture, they are becoming citizens of the world. No longer do the conditions that prevail around them satisfy the needs of their life. A third new factor is the new industry which has entered Asia. The factory system has been intro- duced into Japan, China, and India. It is leading to a massing of population in cities, and to a growth of problems of housing, sanitation, hours of labour, and morals with which the old institu- tions are unfitted to cope. It is introducing abuses, the removal of which will tax the intelligence of the leaders of these countries. On the other hand, the new industry has in itself the promise of a higher standard of living and the removal of the burden of abject poverty. It teaches how nature can be induced to furnish the means whereby life can be enriched on its material side; it makes possible the development of public undertakings in the interests of justice, public health, and happi- ness ; and it furnishes the basis upon which the pro- cess of social development can be carried on with greater efficiency and upon a higher plane. Fourthly, new ethical and social ideals have been acquired. Men who have become familiar with the thought of the West and who have learned to re- gard the life about them from a new standpoint inevitably acquire new ideals and become reform- The Problem 29 ers. The anti-opium movement in China, the vari- ous reform movements in India, which concern purity of worship and the position of woman, are instances of this new factor. These men become centres of influence which make for the uplift of their people and they use public opinion and law to enforce new standards. New political aspirations are a fifth characteris- tic of the Orient to-day. The four factors already mentioned have united to produce this fifth, which is the desire to emerge from political servitude or political tutelage into political independence. The nationalistic movement in China has transformed the political institutions of that old empire, while in India the kindred movement has already secured reforms, the possibility of which would never have been dreamed of a generation ago. These are some of the most obvious factors which are entering into the life of the East. They mean that the relations between men and their physical and human environments are changing, and that customs and institutions which were well adapted, it may be, to meet the needs of a former day are no longer satisfactory. Elements in the life about them that have been taken for granted in the past are now seen in their true light, and leaders are arising to give the lie to the assertion so frequently made in the past, that the life of the Orient is idyllic and should not be disturbed by the West. What, now, are some of the evils which the re- 3o Sociological Progress in Mission Lands formers are seeking to remove, or should seek to remove ? Eight points may be mentioned at which there is need of improvement : 1. Ignorance. Up to within a comparatively recent period the great mass of the people of the world were ignorant. Education and culture were the monopoly of a few. What was true of all Europe until a not very remote past, what is true even now of certain backward Western countries or of some sections of more progressive nations, was equally true of Asia and Africa. What learning existed belonged to some one class, or perhaps to several classes, social or more usually religious. The mass of the people, including in most cases all the women, were denied direct access to the best thought of their nation. It was not only ignorance in this sense which marked the intellectual activities of the East, but to this should be added the igno- rance of a narrow provincialism, both international and national, if one may use such terms. That is, the people of such countries as Japan and China believed their civilization to be the best in the world, and regarded all other peoples as barbarous. They were unwilling to make changes because they regarded their own institutions to be beyond re- proach. This may be called international provin- cialism. Within the limits of most countries, like- wise, there existed a national provincialism. The people were divided into sections by racial, linguis- tic, or religious barriers, which made impossible the free interchange of ideas and all united effort. The Problem 31 The first condition of progress is intelligence, and this must be supplemented by freedom of commu- nication for persons, commodities, and ideas within the region in question. These conditions were ab- sent in Asia until recently, and for the most part they are still wanting. Here is an obvious evil. 2. Physical suffering, due to ignorance of sani- tation and medical science. No one but a medical man or woman can fully appreciate what this means to the people of the East. The foolish or disgust- ing medicines and the cruel practices of the medi- cine-men need not be dwelt upon. In large sections of the non-Christian world half the population has to suffer practically without hope of relief, and until women can be relieved of this unnecessary burden, there is a social benefit to be conferred. Apart, however, from the consequences to individ- uals, the lack of an understanding of the principles of sanitation, hygiene, and medicine seriously af- fects the progress of society. Premature death de- prives society of the services of millions each year, while the results of disabling injuries and disease not only take from society possible contributors to its wealth but also impose upon it the burden of supporting a large class of dependents. Hence, in the interests of humanity and of social efficiency, this is another point at which progress is de- manded. 3. A third closely related evil is that of economic inefficiency. There are countries where the popula- tion is not given to overmuch exertion and the 32 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands charge of laziness might be sustained. Even here good reasons might often be given for holding that much of this apparent unwillingness to work pro- ductively is traceable to their system of the division of labour, by which war and the chase are the proper occupations for men. Other contributing causes are the lack of the spur of necessity and uncertainty as to the enjoyment of the fruits of toil. The greatest peoples of the Orient, however, contain a body of labourers whose patience, persistence, and endurance are most admirable, far surpassing that of Western artisans. At the same time, the output of their toil is pitifully small. They have so little command over natural forces that their labour is unproductive, and even after their long hours they have little to show for their toil, measured either in cash or in goods. Missionaries in India declare that the half-dozen or more servants they have to employ are less efficient than a single good servant of the old type in an American home. To be sure, these workmen often possess much artistic ability and even technical skill, but their tools are so crude, if ingenious, that their output is small. Some Indian tools have been declared by an expert to combine ingenuity and stupidity. If a high degree of civili- zation is to be enjoyed by the mass of the people, it needs for its basis an economic efficiency far sur- passing that which was prevalent in Africa or Asia before the advent of the present new industrial era. 4. As a result of these three evils, we have a fourth, the low standard of living. Nothing but The Problem 33 poverty, and poverty of an abject sort, can be ex- pected under the conditions already indicated, and that is what one finds. It is probable that in the slums of London or New York may be found many cases of greater degradation, even of greater suffer- ing, than exist in these great Eastern countries under normal conditions. At the same time, the poverty of the Orient must be seen and studied to be appre- ciated. A large percentage of the people of China and especially of India is never well nourished. A smaller percentage, but still a frightfully large one, is always on the verge of starvation, and needs only some calamity, like flood or famine, to put it in a starving condition. In India, competent authorities declare that from forty to sixty millions lie down hungry upon a mud floor every night, after but one or at most two scanty meals during the day. This is when famine conditions do not prevail. An Indian member of the British Parliament estimated that the average income per capita in India was only seven dollars a year ; Lord Cromer's estimate was nine dollars ; and the Hindu writer, Mr. R. C. Dutt, contrasts the average income in England of $210 a year with that in India of ten. In one district of South India the class of day labourers get but twenty dollars a year for themselves and their families. 1 Fifty-three per cent, of the population are dependents. Even this is not all. In many of these Eastern *Eddy, S., " India Awakening," p. 21. Cf. Jones, J. P., "India's Problem, Krishna or Christ," p. 19. 34 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands countries, even those who can manage to exist in a fairly vigorous manner live in homes which are inferior in many respects to the buildings in which we house animals. This is not to say that a tolerably rich and an entirely Christian life cannot be lived with fewer creature comforts than are to be found in the homes of the United States, or that our people are not in danger of over-emphasis upon the material side of life. It is, however, to main- tain that, from the standpoint of humanity or of Christianity, the standard of living of a great pro- portion of these people, often of a vast majority, is below that which can in any way be satisfactory to one who desires to see each child of God living the abundant life which Christ came to give to men. Privacy, decency, and something to minister to the aesthetic and intellectual, as well as to the ethical and spiritual side of man's nature, are elements in the minimum with which any broad-minded Chris- tian or social worker can be satisfied. Besides this, men and women must cease to be used as beasts of burden or mere machines and must have an occupa- tion that is worthy of a human being. 5. Again, we find that the status of woman constitutes another typical evil among these people. There are great variations here, but in general the women of Asia and Africa have been regarded as inferior to men both in ability and in character. They were denied the privilege of education on the grounds of incapacity and social inexpediency. They were often treated like chattels. Their chief The Problem 35 function was to satisfy the passions of men and bear children. They were too often the victims of cruelty and lust. It would be wrong to conclude from this that women were without influence. Ignorant and despised, they nevertheless were in many countries powerful factors in the life of society. The result was inevitable, for the higher degrees of civilization or culture are impossible when half of the population is kept in ignorance and denied the rights that belong to a humanity touched by the Spirit of God. From the disabilities of women have flowed consequences in the family life which are most serious from the social point of view. 6. Another evil was the low estimate put upon the individual. This was shown in the cheapness of human life. The individual counted for little. The killing of hundreds or even of thousands in constructing public works, in war, or as a con- sequence of some catastrophe or scourge, was re- garded as an event of no importance. The callous- ness to human suffering that is so prevalent outside the domain of a vital Christianity is akin to this view of the value of life. Another aspect of the same evil is the lack of a sense of individual respon- sibility, and the denial to the individual of the opportunity for development. As a member of a family, a guild, a caste, a clan, or a tribe, the in- dividual had his place and was cared for. As an individual, he counted for next to nothing. What his fathers had been for generations, he and his descendants had to remain. It was regarded as 36 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands impious for a man in India to attempt to change his social status. China, with its mixture of democracy and absolutism, did permit the man of ability to rise, but the value put upon the ordinary individual was low. This general position stunted the growth of individuality and prevented a full social development. 7. Another social evil, which was common, was that of the corruption and inefficiency of the gov- ernment. Justice, in our meaning of the term, was practically unknown, its place being taken by the decision of the personal ruler, who often followed his caprice or whim, or decided in favour of the one who could offer the largest bribe. Life and property were both subject to his will, and the lack of security here hindered economic and social de- velopment. The theory of government was that of exploitation in the interests of the ruling class, and the well-being of the people was a matter of very minor importance. 8. Lastly, we may mention the low ethical standards. There is great danger of misrepresenta- tion at this point ; but in general it may be said that in such matters as purity, honesty, and truth- fulness the conditions were far from satisfactory, except in certain isolated cases. Out of people whose life is honeycombed by lust, fraud, and du- plicity cannot be formed a social life which shall make for the enrichment and uplift of human life. In the light of these statements regarding the The Problem 07 need of social progress, its causes, and its limita- tions, what shall be said as to the question of the relation of the missionary to this whole subject ? In general, the missionary has been the pioneer social reformer in mission lands. Whether pur- posely or not is not the question, but as a matter of fact the missionary has taken the lead. Of the five new factors, just enumerated, which have entered into the life of the Orient, three were introduced by the missionary, and upon the remaining two his work has had a distinct bearing. In the matter of Western influence, the mission- ary was the pioneer. He was the first Westerner who brought the Western point of view to these mission lands. Usually the traders touched only a few points on the coast, and their influence was not continuous or usually in favour of higher ideals. The missionary was the one who went into the in- terior, who lived with and was trusted by the peo- ple, and whose point of view became known to them. Even trade followed the missionary, and it was in those regions where the missionary intro- duced Western wares for his own use, and accus- tomed the people to them, that the trader found a market for his goods. As to the new education, there is no disputing the claim of the missionary to the credit for its intro- duction into most mission lands. Western schools were introduced into China, India, Persia, Turkey, Africa, and the other great fields of Christian work by the missionary. Missionaries have done a no- 38 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands table educational work in Japan. In India and in China the best education is still in the hands of the missionaries, and in certain fields they have a prac- tical or even an absolute monopoly. A similar statement may be made regarding the new ethical and social ideals. It was the mission- ary who first inaugurated the agitation against foot-binding in China. It was the missionary who protested against the obscene elements in the Hindu religion, against sati and the evils connected with the marriage system. It was the missionary who inspired the Christian community with higher ethical and social ideals and thus set a new stand- ard for the whole community. In the matter of the new industry, the mission- ary was not in the same sense the pioneer, although early missionary efforts in some fields included training in agriculture and the mechanic arts. In India and in Africa the missionary has made a real contribution to the economic progress of the people through industrial and manual training classes and schools. Indirectly, through inspiring the people with new ideals and by making them dissatisfied with the plane upon which they had existed, he aroused the people to desire new and more reward- ing industries. The political movements towards national inde- pendence cannot be attributed directly to the mis- sionary who is. everywhere scrupulous in teaching loyalty to government. At the same time, it was through the education given by the missionary and The Problem 39 through the information received from him regard- ing the conditions in Europe and America that the first steps were taken towards preparing the people to desire and to be fitted for a larger share in the government. A Christian college trained the lead- ers for the new Bulgaria. Members of the Young Turk party publicly declared that they would never have dared to strike the blow for liberty and con- stitutionalism had they not been sure of the intelli- gent and hearty support of the young men scattered throughout the country who had been trained in the Christian schools and colleges and had become firm believers in Western political institutions. Again, take the eight typical evils enumerated above, and the result is even more interesting and conclusive. Missionaries have done much to remove the evil of ignorance. They have introduced into the East modern medicine and are treating yearly millions of patients who would otherwise be beyond the possibility of relief. Where the need is the greatest, they have undertaken to increase the in- dustrial efficiency of the Christian community, and to prepare Christian leaders for the new industry. In various ways they have raised the standard of living among the native Christians and those who are under Christian influence. Under the impulse of Christianity, woman has been coming to her own. Education has been provided for her, and in Christian homes the wife is becoming the companion and helpmeet of her husband and the intelligent guide and teacher of her children. Christianity 40 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands has emphasized the infinite worth of the individual before God, and the Christian has come to have a new sense of self-respect, and he stands before the community as a free man in Christ. The mission- ary has ever preached and exemplified new stand- ards of justice, honour, truthfulness, and purity, and thus personally and through those whom he has influenced and trained he has helped to solve both the political and the ethical problems of the people among whom he has lived. The missionary body has been the mightiest single social force in the changes which are taking place to-day in Africa and Asia, even though other factors have now entered into the movements, and the missionary's own influence has become in some ways relatively less important than at first. This is the inevitable result of missionary work. Even the missionary who is most conservative in his conception of the purpose of his undertaking, who would carry on a purely spiritual work, and who would keep clear of all that he would call outside and secular, cannot avoid setting in motion forces that will transform the social environment in which he works. Whether he will or not, he is introducing new factors into society, and this inevitably means changes in the structure and functions of the social group. Society, as already explained, is nothing more than the stereotyping of the experience of a people in adapting themselves to their environment, material, human, and divine. It is the embodiment of their ideals of life and The Problem 41 relationship. The mere acceptance of the Christian view of God as a being of perfect holiness and of love, of the Christian view of man as a child of the loving heavenly Father, and of the Christian view of human relationships as those of brothers, makes at once impossible the toleration of customs and institutions which have been handed down from the past. Slavery must be abolished, justice must be done, and men must be permitted to live a self- respecting, decent life upon a higher plane. The Christian will not willingly endure the oppression from which he has suffered and which he accepted when he believed that his nature was inferior to that of his ruler. Give a man knowl- edge of medicine and the old acceptance of sickness as inevitable, with its frequent result in callousness or indifference, ends and an efficient sympathy takes its place. Add education, and with it comes a greater power over nature and a greater industrial efficiency. The whole aspect of nature and of life is changed, the power of the old superstitions has been broken, the influence of the medicine-man and priestly class has been shattered, and inevitably a new day has dawned, a day which will witness pro- found social changes. And all this has been set in motion by the simple proclamation and acceptance of the Gospel. Thus, the missionary cannot, if he would, escape being a social reformer, indirectly if not directly. At the same time, few missionary leaders to-day would limit the work of the missionary so narrowly. 42 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands There prevails now a broader conception of the aim of the missionary than was accepted a generation ago. It is an interesting fact that this is a return, though on a higher plane, to the purpose which actuated the great leaders of the movement of foreign mis- sions a century ago. The instructions given to the first band of missionaries who sailed for Hawaii in 1827 declared that the people of the islands must be formed " into a reading, thinking, cultivated state of society with all its schools and seminaries, its arts and institutions." The social aim of Christian missions was not overlooked then, even though the interpretation of Christianity was individualistic, and the great motive urged was the salvation of individual souls. The change in the emphasis at home is nowhere better exhibited than in the five-fold programme of the Men and Keligion Forward Movement which swept the country in the winter of 1911-1912. The theology of the leaders was conservative ; so were their views of Biblical questions ; but the social note was marked. For almost the first time the men of the Church had brought home to their attention the facts that social service, missions, and work for boys cannot be separated from the duty of evangel- ism and Bible study, and that the effects of these last are not complete until the message of the Bible is applied to men in all their relations, or until the men who have been saved by the evangelistic mes- sage are set to the task of realizing in actual every- day life the principles of Jesus Christ. The Church The Problem 43 has come to see that its duty does not end with changing the life of individuals ; that, in fact, this result cannot be either perfect or permanent, so long as the environment is characterized by conditions which are out of harmony with the teachings of the Sermon on the Mount. Men now believe that saved individuals must in turn Christianize society and make sure that customs and institutions help men to attain to the likeness of Christ Himself. This new social note in Christianity at home is only an echo of the social note which the foreign missionaries were long ago forced to sound because of the conditions around them. A recent writer has strikingly illustrated this change of emphasis by a figure which he himself admits is inaccurate in details. In the old days, he says, the world was likened to a sinking ship, and the work of the mis- sionary was to rescue a few individuals and land them on the shore. The modern missionary, how- ever, has gone on board the vessel, has sounded the water in the hold, and has decided that it is possible to bring the ship safely into port ; besides which, the majority of the passengers resolutely refuse to leave the ship. What, then, is the aim of the missionary ? At the Student Volunteer Convention in 1906, one of the leading missionary secretaries declared in a public address that the missionary must preach and propagate the following ideas : — " The Gospel of physical cleanliness, . . of physical perfection, . . of industry, . . of a sane, safe and pure 44 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands society, . . of brotherly love, . . of good works, . . of intellectual development, . . of justice, equality, and common rights, . . of human sin, . . and of redemption for the entire man." * No gospel less comprehensive than this will satisfy the needs of the present day. The Church has come to realize that the gospel has a message for man in all his relationships and is not satisfied until a man has realized all his divine possibilities. This means that the great nations of the East must be thoroughly Christianized so that the social environ- ment will cooperate with the Spirit of God in trans- forming men and women into the likeness of God. More specifically, the primary work of the mission- ary will always remain what it has always been, that of transforming individuals ; for no society exists apart from the individuals that compose it ; and a nation can be Christian only as the dominant influence in it is that of Christian men and women. But his work will not stop there. Beyond this, the missionary seeks the naturaliza- tion of Christianity in each mission field. This in- cludes the making of Christians, their gathering into Christian churches, able to support, direct, and propagate themselves, and the planting of all the institutions which embody the spirit and perform the multiform work of Christ in that community. There must be a Christian educational system, a Christian home, an industrial system based upon 1 Rev. J. L. Barton, D. D. Vid. " Students and the Modern Missionary Crusade," p. Ill et aeq. The Problem 45 the principles of Christ, a government that in all its activities is in harmony with the same principles, and a public opinion that will support every move- ment for the realization by each individual of the ideals of Christ. To be sure, much of this is the work of the Christian community more than of the missionary as such, but it is for the missionary to lay the foundations and to make all his work count in this direction. The mission educational system can be used to train Christians for leadership in every phase of activity, educational, industrial, ethical, even political. The missionary can stand for Christian ideals at all times, and can inspire and guide in the Christianizing of society without neglecting his task of reaching individuals. In all this he can have a realizing sense that, apart from the influence of Christianity, all these social movements will fail of their purpose. As one examines more closely these new factors which have entered into the development of the Orient, one is struck by a lack. The Western influence, apart from the missionary, is largely materialistic, agnostic, or even anti-religious. The new educa- tion, except as it is Christian, is weaning the future leaders of Japan, China, and India from their old superstitious beliefs. They are losing their old standards, the old sanctions of conduct, but they are getting nothing in their place. Leaders of Japan are alarmed at the moral tone of their coun- try. The new industry is for the most part actu- ated by the spirit of materialism, and there is 46 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands danger that, without the restraints of a Christian public sentiment and the Christian sense of the value of the individual, the worst instances of ex- ploitation the world has yet known will be wit- nessed. A godless industry may prove a curse to East and West alike. Likewise, in the realm of social and political reform there are not enough leaders of absolute integrity and unselfishness, men of broad vision and utter devotion to the best interests of all the people and not of a single class or section. These na- tions are waiting for the appearance of a new type, a type which can be produced only by Christianity with its adequate doctrines of God, sin, and salva- tion ; with Christ as the ideal of the new manhood of the East ; and with the mightiest dynamic in the world, which can send men out into the service of others in the spirit of Jesus. Mere reform is not enough. Patriotism will never answer. The ethnic religions have had free reign for centuries and have produced or tolerated the evils from which relief is now sought. It is for the followers of Christ to prove that the religion of the Carpen- ter of Nazareth, of the risen and glorified Redeemer is able to cope with all these social evils and trans- form the nations of the East and the West alike into the Kingdom of His Father and their Father. n PEOGEESS IN THE EEMOVAL OF IGNO- EANCE, INEFFICIENCY, AND POVEETY THE degree to which men have a command over the forces of nature determines the scale of their living, and to a large degree the possibilities of their social development. It is a truism to say that every material thing men pos- sess they have obtained from nature. Men have never been able to create a particle of matter. They can do two things. They can make the mat- ter more useful by changing its form, and they can induce nature to produce what they need in the way of food and clothing. Every one knows this, and yet men take it so much for granted that they tend to overlook its significance. For instance, in these days of social and indus- trial betterment people are apt to assume the exist- ence of unlimited wealth for improving conditions. Cities issue bonds in large amounts in payment for great public works and improvements, but they sometimes appear to forget that these must be paid for out of what men extract from nature or manu- facture out of the materials which others extract or produce. Only a nation that is rich in the products of its soil or its toil can afford those luxuries or necessities which the apostles of social betterment 47 48 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands demand. Likewise, labour leaders, in their attempt to secure a larger share of the products of their toil, cannot safely reduce the total output. When- ever they do, they forget that their income depends just as truly upon how much there is to divide as it does upon what proportions shall go to capital and labour. Keal industrial progress is assured only when the amount of product per unit of labour is increasing. Because of the natural richness of our soil and the efficiency of our machinery and labour, we in the United States are comparatively free from the restraints imposed upon a people by lack of a com- mand over nature. Not so in most mission lands. Even a rich country like Japan finds itself almost staggering under the burdens it has assumed by entering fully into partnership with the great na- tions. The Japanese are unable to develop their school system fast enough to meet the increasing demand for higher education. In matters of sani- tation, housing, and the like they are hampered by the fact that their present command over nature is not sufficient to make possible the realization of their schemes for social development. India also illustrates the same point. The peo- ple cannot pay increased taxes because of their lack of industrial efficiency, which limits the prod- uct out of which they have to support their fam- ilies and pay their taxes. With the present taxes, the government cannot put into effect those com- prehensive schemes for universal, free, and com- Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 49 pulsory education in which the leaders see the hope of realizing their dreams of self-government. Again, take the Christian community in these countries. All missionary leaders desire and work for the day when the Christians shall be able to support their churches and schools and all the philanthropic institutions that go with a Christian civilization. Even if all the Christians gave as much as they could reasonably be expected to give, — and in general they come nearer to this standard than the Christians in the home-lands, — it would yet be a long time in many of these communities before they could be self-supporting on any adequate scale. A few years ago a secre- tary of a great mission board was making his first tour of the field. He was in India and was visit- ing a group of Christians who had been gathered out of a community of outcastes. As he saw their homes, their manner of life, and their crude in- dustries, he exclaimed, " Now I understand why there is not more self-support in this mission." It was simply impossible for these men, with their slight power over natural forces, to produce much more than enough to keep soul and body together. Only as their economic efficiency can be increased, can they rise gradually to a greater measure of self- support. The difficulty in such cases is not so much moral as it is industrial. These illustrations make clear the fact that the realization of the social ideals which the Christian desires for the peoples of mission lands must rest 50 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands upon a sound economic basis, and that apart from economic progress there can be relatively too little progress in the higher realms. Hence, progress in the removal of ignorance, inefficiency, and poverty is logically the first step towards an improvement of social conditions. This is not to maintain, how- ever, that this economic progress must, in point of time, precede ethical and spiritual progress. It is often the case that, only as man's whole nature is touched by the Spirit of God, is he aroused to de- sire and to seek those material aids by which he can realize the Christian ideals for his daily life. From this point of view one sees the significance of those elements in the situation confronting the missionary to which attention has already been called, namely, ignorance, inefficiency, and poverty. Taking the mission field as a whole, the mission- ary, when he entered upon his work, found himself throwing in his lot with people who were extremely poor. Americans think they know something of poverty at home. People here and in England speak of " the submerged tenth " and there are other tenths of the population whose income is be- low what we regard as a proper minimum living wage. Abroad, however, in many a mission field one might more justly have spoken of the sub- merged nine-tenths, or even ninety-nine-one-hun- dredths, for the amount of wealth per capita was far below that of a progressive industrial country in the West, and the wealth that existed was in the hands of a very small fraction of the population. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 51 Among the causes of this poverty may be specified ignorance, with its resulting inefficiency, and the lack of medical and sanitary science, which in- creased needlessly the burdens of sickness, physical incapacitation, and premature death. Among other contributing causes were unjust government, inse- curity of life and property, and, in certain coun- tries, the existence of a large class of dependents, who lived out of the offerings of the rest of the population, although most of these had not enough for their own support upon a proper standard of living. In India even to-day this class is numbered by the million. What has the Christian missionary done to re- move these evils ? It is only fair to say that, ex- cept in the limited field of industrial training, he has not aimed to increase the people's command over nature. He has taken up medical work in order to relieve suffering and gain access for the Gospel. He has engaged in educational work, both for the sake of getting a hearing for the Gospel, and for the purpose of securing an intelligent Chris- tian community, capable of reading and under- standing the Bible. Other reasons have been largely incidental, but the result of the work has been to make a real contribution to social progress. The modern missionary has been an educational pioneer. In most countries there was little educa- tion before the advent of the missionary, and this, except in China, was not usually open to the people 52 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands as a whole, but was the prerogative of certain classes, social or religious. The content of the edu- cation had no relation to modern thought and did not prepare the scholar for leadership in the indus- trial sphere or fit him to guide his people in com- petition with the Western nations. There was no science and no history worthy of the name. The students became familiar with their religious books, or, in a country like China, with their classical lit- erature. They cultivated a certain literary style. In its day this education was the best these peoples could devise and fitted the student for life, but it had no relation to present-day problems. When William Carey entered India and opened the modern missionary epoch, one of his first thoughts was to begin the work of Christian educa- tion, and to-day there still stands at Serampore one of the most impressive educational buildings ever erected for the spreading of a knowledge of Chris- tian truth. From that day to this, the missionary has been an educator, and as a rule the missions which have the greatest results to show for their work have made large use of the Christian school as a means of Christianizing the nations. The work of Christian education has grown from the humblest beginnings until to-day it numbers its pupils by the million, the grand total being more than 1,520,000. The sun never sets upon these students, Christian and non-Christian, boys and girls, children and adults, of all colours and social position, who study in a variety of buildings, ranging all the way from Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 53 thatched-roof huts, with or without sides, or thatch stockades, up through simple native buildings to structures that are as impressive as most that our colleges and universities at home possess. The grade of these schools ranges from kinder- gartens and the most elementary village schools up to colleges and advanced theological, medical, and technical institutions. Even as a mere matter of statistics, the mission education makes an impress- ive showing. The latest statistics, contained in the " World Atlas of Christian Missions," " give the following facts : There are 86 universities or colleges, with 8,628 pupils in college classes. While the grade of these classes is in most instances below that of our col- leges, yet it means that they are offering more than high school work and are relatively as ad- vanced as our colleges were a generation or so ago. Of theological and normal schools and training classes there are 522, with 12,761 pupils, who are in training for immediate leadership in the work of the Church and the Christian community. There are 1,714 boarding and high schools, with an enrollment of 166,447, from which number will be selected those who will pass on to college or professional school. There are 292 industrial institutions or classes, with an enrollment of 16,292. These last figures are impressive but are smaller than they should be. It should be added, however, that they do not in- 1 Dennis, et cd., " World Atlas of Christian Missions," p. 84. 54 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands elude the ordinary schools that provide industrial courses as a part of their regular curriculum. Of elementary and village schools there are 30,185, instructing 1,290,357 pupils. This number of pupils is practically the same as the school en- rollment for the state of Pennsylvania. These schools lay the foundations for all the higher edu- cational work, and in some countries they furnish nearly all the missionary education. The remaining institutions may be tabulated as follows : Kindergartens . . . . 115. . 271 . . 25. .111 . . 98. 5,597 pnpils 20,383 " 844 " 830 " 663 " Orphanages Institutions for blind and deaf Medical schools Nurses' training schools . . . This makes a grand total of 33,419 schools and 1,522,802 pupils. By way of comparison, it may be stated that in the New England States and New Jersey, according to the census of 1910, the number attending school was 1,652,506. The distribution of these schools is significant as indicating where the emphasis has been put on education and where the higher education has been furthest developed. The mission fields that con- tain the largest number of colleges and universities are as follows : India 37, with 4.982 students China 18, " 919 Turkey 11, " 1,419 " Japan (including Korea) .... 8, " 517 " Other countries 12, " 791 " Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 55 India has 43% of the colleges and 58% of the college students. Of the theological and similar classes, the dis- tribution is wider, and every mission field, with but few exceptions, has at least a few such classes. Here again we find India in the lead, and the countries which contain the largest numbers are as follows : India 141, with 3,755 pupils China 129, " 2,544 " Africa (with Madagascar) . . . 116, " 2,747 " Japan 42, " 1,479 " It will be noted that Africa has more pupils in such classes than any other field save India. The distribution of boarding and high schools is similar to that of these professional schools. India is the great home of mission industrial work, containing, as it does, 148 out of 292 schools, or 50 %, with 8,999 pupils, while Africa has 70 of the remainder, with 3,485 pupils. A somewhat similar situation is revealed in the matter of elementary education, although, like the theological and normal school, the day school is found in every mission field. Japan proper drops out here, because the government has practically the monopoly of elementary education, except for night schools or special classes. India has 11,503 of the 30,185 schools, or 34%, containing 361,726 of the 1,290,357 pupils, or 28%. Africa comes next with 8,271 schools, or 27%, with 447,196 pupils, or 35%. 56 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands In the matters of support and influence these mission schools differ from country to country. The Indian government gives grants-in-aid to all schools that conform to the prescribed standards, and these grants, added to the fees of the pupils, are almost, if not quite, sufficient to support the schools, except for the salaries of the missionaries. Most mission schools in India are thus aided or supported. A similar system prevails in parts of South Africa and in a few other British colonies. On the other hand, no government grants are available in Turkey, China, or Japan ; and full recognition has not yet been accorded to mission schools in the two great nations of Eastern Asia. In fact, Japan expressly refuses to accord full recognition to any school that gives religious in- struction within the school buildings, even outside of school hours. In some parts of Africa, for example in Uganda and Khodesia, the mission schools have a practical monopoly of the field. The same has been true of Turkey, for the mission schools have been so far superior to other schools that they have dominated the situation. In India, the mission schools are now meeting the competition of an increasing number of non- Christian and government schools, but they still set the standard in the matter of character building and moral tone, and many of them are without peers in efficiency. In China, the Christian school for a long time had a monopoly. Eecently, however, the govern- Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 57 ment and wealthy individuals have been starting new schools and the enrollment in these already greatly exceeds that in mission schools. In one province, where Christian education is well organ- ized and the government education has existed for but five years, the enrollment in the government schools is one hundred times that in mission schools. Peking alone has two hundred schools with seven- teen thousand pupils, while the total enrollment in the mission schools of the whole nation is less than eighty thousand. As yet the mission schools are superior to all but a few of the best government schools in pedagogical standards if not in equip- ment, but this lead will be lost unless they are further developed. In Japan, the Christian schools exerted a great influence upon the generation now in active life because of the high quality of their teaching and the superior results obtained. Now, however, they are relatively weaker than they were. The ab- sence of a Christian university and the government regulations make it impossible for the Christian school to attract or retain the most ambitious pupils. Christian education was never more needed in Japan than at the present time, but it will be necessary either to move forward or to move out. A system of inferior Christian schools means that Christianity itself is brought under reproach. It would be difficult to exaggerate the influence of these Christian schools, and especially of the higher education furnished by the Christians of the West to 58 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Turkey, Japan, and India. Kobert College in Con- stantinople, the Syrian Protestant College at Beirut, and the other less famous Christian colleges in Asia Minor, have had a large share in making the new- Turkey a possibility. It is a well-known fact that Kobert College trained the leaders who made the Bulgarians' dream of freedom a reality. The lead- ers of the convention which framed the Bulgarian constitution were with few exceptions graduates of Robert College. Resolutions of thanks were even passed expressing appreciation of what Robert Col- lege had done for Bulgaria. This was in 1879. During many years, the majority of the college students were from Bulgaria. None of the leaders of the Young Turk party were trained in Christian schools, but, as has been mentioned, some of the leaders have not hesitated to declare that they would never have dared to undertake at that time the regeneration of Turkey, had they not known that there were scattered throughout the empire hundreds of young men who had been so trained in these Christian institutions as to understand the meaning and responsibility of constitutional liberty. The graduates of the college at Beirut and of its younger sister at Assiut, Egypt, are found in re- sponsible positions, political, educational, and com- mercial, all through the Levant, and they exem- plify those high ideals of character and service which they learned in college. Those in a position to know declare that no force has had a greater Christianizing influence in Japan Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 59 than the education conducted by the missionary. The literature of Japan has within a generation be- come Christian in its ideals and atmosphere. The Christian schools have produced a well-known novelist, Tokutomi Kenjiro, a poet, Shimasaki Toson, and writers on history and education. Twenty or more of the leading journals of the em- pire, including some of the most influential, have editors who were trained in Christian schools. Magazine literature in Japan was started by grad- uates of these schools. From them have come also the holders of important posts under the govern- ment as well as the leaders of the Japanese Chris- tian community. No one who has read the re- markable tribute to the influence of Christianity in Japan that was written by a non-Christian Japanese and published in The Century Magazine for Sep- tember, 191 1, 1 needs to be reminded of the great impression made upon Japan by that pioneer of Christian education, Joseph Neesima, and of the in- fluence exerted by his own work and that of his successors. The Doshisha University, founded by Neesima, reported a few years since two thousand baptisms among its six thousand students. Four other schools estimated their baptisms as about 1 " Niishima and his fellow- workers, notably Prof. J. D. Davis, upon whom Mr. Niishima was wont to lean as upon the very staff of life, gave Japan a new national ideal. No achieve- ments of man can be greater, more ambitious than this. In this the missionaries succeeded. Here, then, is the great fruit of Christian missions in Japan." — Adachi Kinnosuke, "Century Magazine, 1 '' September, 1911, p. 747. 60 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands twelve hundred. Five years ago statistics showed that of the actual graduates of the middle or higher Christian schools, nearly one-half were dead, unknown, or still studying, that Christian work had claimed three per cent, of the total number, teach- ing twelve per cent., official life five per cent., and business, including farming, etc., the remainder, twenty-eight per cent. Turning to India, one naturally thinks of a noted college which has often been severely criticized be- cause of its alleged lack of a positive Christian in- fluence. Yet a leading missionary of that district, connected with another mission and passionately devoted to evangelistic work, declared to me that he believed this same college, the Madras Christian Col- lege, was to-day one of the mightiest forces for the Christianization of South India. Much progressive legislation has been put through abolishing or miti- gating social evils, and in these efforts, which aim at approaching more nearly to Christian ideals in social life, the leaders have been the graduates of this college, men who had never become avowed Christians but who had nevertheless imbibed the principles of Jesus and had applied them to the problems of their life. The best of the colleges in India are equal or even superior to the best govern- ment institutions from the educational point of view, and in moral influence they are far superior. Because of this fact, the sons of an Indian gentle- man, who was officially connected with a govern- ment institution, were a few years ago attending a Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 61 Christian college in North India. The father so highly valued the ethical influence of this Chris- tian school that he preferred to run the risk of having his boys become interested in Christianity rather than send them to a non-religious government school. The Christian colleges in such great centres as Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Lahore, and Alla- habad, — to mention only a few, — are institutions in which every non-Christian student learns something of the Bible and of the teachings of Christianity. What is of equal importance, he studies each sub- ject from a Christian view-point, and learns how the Christian regards the world, and the problems of thought and life. Like the government school, its teaching is destructive of old superstitions, but, unlike the non-Christian school, it does not stop there, but builds constructively upon a Christian basis, thus leaving the student with an intelligent, sane, and sound view of life. The influence of the lower education has been equally marked. It is a matter of observation that by education and the impulse upward that comes from Christianity, the Christian communities at once begin to move up in the scale of intelligence and self-respect, and their ideals and manner of life im- prove. Nothing has made a deeper impression upon India than the utter revolution which Chris- tianity has wrought in the lives of the outcastes who have been regarded by Hindus as hardly human and as incapable of being raised to anything ap- proaching equality with the caste people. Not far 62 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands from Cape Comorin, there is a professor in a Chris- tian college, who, in spite of his humble origin, is an educational leader in his section and who is so highly respected by the Brahmans that a few years ago, when I was in India, one of these men put his wife in charge of this Christian gentleman for a short railway journey. The first Indian bishop un- der the Church of England comes from a family of similar origin. Teachers from the lowest castes are daily teaching classes that include pupils of all castes from Brahmans down. The effect of all this upon the thought of Indian leaders has been profound. An educated gentle- man is reported as having said publicly at Allaha- bad, " I am a Brahman of the Brahmans and be- long, as you all know, to the most orthodox school ; and I am an Indian and love my country, and I must confess that the way in which Christianity has raised the pariahs of Madras is beyond all praise and puts me to shame as a Hindu." A lead- ing nationalist is thus quoted : " After all, when it comes to practice, Christianity alone is effecting what we nationalists are crying out for, namely, the elevation of the masses." * Some Hindus have even advised the depressed classes to embrace Chris- tianity as the only means of escaping from the dis- abilities inherent in orthodox Hinduism. The government of India does not prefer to em- ploy Christian teachers, but the schools for girls have a large proportion of Christian women on 1 Edin. Conf. Rep., Vol. Ill, p. 258. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 63 their teaching staff, simply for the reason that the Christian community has women capable of teach- ing while the non-Christian community has not. The influence of the Christian school in India has been a real contribution to social progress. It has raised the status of large numbers of individ- uals, who have found in Christianity the only avenue for realizing their inborn capacities. At the same time, it has demonstrated to the Hindus the possibility of raising the submerged classes and has shamed them into emulating Christian efforts. Similar accounts may be given of the results in Africa. In British South Africa there has been a considerable agitation by colonists who claimed that mission-trained natives were filling jails and were a menace to society. At least, they were spoiled for the employer. A few years since two careful investigations were made. It was discov- ered that in Johannesburg every native employee who was occupying a position of trust or was earn- ing an unusually large salary had been educated in a mission school. In 1906, Rev. A. E. Le Eoy of Amanzimtote Seminary, in Natal, carefully investi- gated the records of the young men who had been connected with this school, even though they might have remained but a few weeks. Of the more than eight hundred pupils whose record could be traced, but eleven had ever been convicted of crime. Ten per cent, of the total number had turned out badly, twenty per cent, were good workmen merely, but not Christians, and seventy per cent, were reliable 64 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands men, a credit to school and to church. It must be remembered that in these numbers were included those who had not attended the school long enough to receive a lasting impression. In particular, Mr. Le Koy investigated each former pupil employed at that time in Durban and Johannesburg. Of the forty-seven in Durban, their employers gave un- qualified approval to forty-four and not one com- plained that the boys were disrespectful, which is the stock charge. In Johannesburg, which is five hundred miles away from their homes, the boys had a similar record. Of forty-four boys, thirty- eight merited unqualified approval ; three were satisfactory though they showed symptoms of lazi- ness, and two were such though they occasionally indulged too freely in native beer ; only one had been discharged and that for drunkenness. In not a single case was education charged with " spoil- ing " a good workman. 1 The educated Africans are more than good work- men ; many of them become useful preachers, teachers, and leaders of their race. One in Natal has even secured government recognition for his school. Even those who do not go into the so- called Christian professions oftentimes become earnest Christian workers. For instance, a few young men attended a Christian night school while working in a mine at Johannesburg. When they returned to their homes, they gathered their people around them, opened schools, organized churches, 1 Le Roy, Rev. A. E., " The Educated Native." Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 65 and started the people of the vicinity upon the up- ward path intellectually, religiously, and socially. This is typical. The missionary has also faced manfully the prob- lem of industrial inefficiency, and by means of in- dustrial training he has endeavoured to make pos- sible a higher standard of living in the Christian community. In the early days, many pioneer missionaries believed that industrial development should go on side by side with the preaching of the Gospel. The missions to the North American In- dians were largely industrial, and the first mission- aries went to Hawaii with the idea of following that model. However, the present industrial work is of more recent origin. The most uniformly suc- cessful industrial undertakings conducted by mis- sionaries have been those designed to make orphans and others, rendered destitute by famine or massacre, self-supporting. In Turkey and India, the thou- sands of people whom the missionaries have rescued from starvation have thus helped to support them- selves, and at the same time have been trained for independent and productive lives. Somewhat similar in its origin is the best known industrial mission work, namely, that of the Basel Mission in South India. In the early days of this mission, which was opened at Mangalore in 1834, the early converts were mostly from castes whose occupations were either incompatible with a Chris- tian profession or dangerous for the converts and 66 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands the Church. It was a question of keeping them from acknowledging their faith in Christ, permit- ting them to starve, or caring for them. The mis- sion naturally chose the last, and was thus driven into devising means of making these Christians self-sup- porting. This was done by starting mission indus- tries in which the Christians were set to work. The Basel Mission is one of the strong missions in south- west India and carries on all branches of missionary work. Its industrial centres are three : Mangalore, Cannanore and Calicut, with branch factories in seven other places. Here they conduct a large press. They also manufacture tiles for floors and roofs, make underclothing, towels, and the like, weave cloth, and make some of it up into garments. Master-weaver Haller, of Mangalore, invented the colour khaki and khaki cloth was first made in this mission. Coir-weaving, mat-making, knitting and embroidery are combined with some of the other factories. Since 1874 there has been an engineer- ing workshop at Mangalore. 1 Formerly, there was also a carpentering and furniture shop, but this has now been taken over by an Indian Christian. Commercially these industries have been very successful ; the goods are of the highest quality and are sold all over India and abroad, and the profits are used for the furtherance of missionary work. The workmen are able to sup- port themselves in comfort and to work under Christian conditions. There are dangers in such 1 Int. Rev. of Missions, January, 1913, p. 165 et seq. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 67 work, chiefly lest the mingling of business and evangelism shall hamper the spiritual influence of the mission, and lest the tendency shall be to in- duce individuals to profess Christianity for the sake of securing a lucrative position. Even those who for these reasons believe that only neces- sity will justify the starting of mission industries have to admit, however, that this Basel work has made a real contribution to economic progress and to the dignifying of labour as worthy of a Christian. Three other main lines of industrial work are be- ing carried on in India with the approval and as- sistance of the government. The first of these is the maintenance of technical schools of different grades. Some of these teach the boys to use native tools in a more efficient manner, others train fore- men for machine shops and factories, while the highest technical college in India is said to be the Allahabad Christian College, which is under the Presbyterian Board. These schools are making a real contribution to industrial progress in two ways. They train men for leadership in the industrial de- velopment of India, and they furnish for such posi- tions those who are loyal to Christ and will apply the principles of the Gospel to the new industrial problems of the country. The second of these lines of industrial work is the development of institutions which are less utili- tarian in their purpose. These include the manual training high schools, which teach the usual 68 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands branches and in addition the principles of wood- and metal-working. Among these should be in- cluded classes where boys learn to do artistic work in the precious metals or in weaving rugs. The third line of work concerns the great indus- trial problem of India, the raising of the industrial efficiency of the villager. The magnitude of this problem is realized when one recalls that ninety per cent, of the population of India live in towns of less than five thousand, and eighty per cent, in villages of less than one thousand. How can these millions be assisted ? One American missionary introduced into India the sisal plant, and invented an inexpensive but effective machine for making from the fibre of this plant, or of the native aloe, the rope which every Indian uses. Much attention has been devoted also to the improvement of weav- ing machinery. Thousands of Indians have earned their living by making cotton cloth on hand looms. The competition of the cotton mills of England has driven many of these to the wall and missionaries have been coming to their rescue. In particular, one American missionary has succeeded in invent- ing a hand loom which is simple, cheap, and at the same time so efficient that for the present at least the weaver who uses it can make a good living, much better than had ever been possible with the cruder machine. The development of agriculture has also attracted the attention both of government and of a few missionaries, and it is hoped that thus something will be done to improve the condition of Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 69 the village-Christian and make it possible for him to support his family and the Church. In all this work in India, especially in the south, one great obstacle has been encountered, namely, the opposition of caste, which prescribes the occu- pation of a man and proscribes any man who takes up any line of work into which he was not born. Besides this there has been the difficulty of the expensiveness of industrial or technical education which keeps the pedagogical aim in the foreground. In Africa, the need of this industrial work is even greater and its difficulties less serious. It is strange that among people who tend to regard manual labour as beneath the dignity of one with a smat- tering of education, who leave the bulk of produc- tive work to women, and whose standard of living is of the very lowest, the missionaries have not seen that all education should have an industrial basis. While a few of the leaders may not need to support themselves by their hands, every graduate of a Christian school, it would seem, should be given, with higher ideals, the means of realizing them. The fact is, however, that much of the mission education here has neglected industrial training so that there is more than twice as much in India as in all Africa. Of course in population also India exceeds Africa. Now, however, the government officials and the educators are awaking to the neces- sity, and before many years the few centres for in- dustrial work will no longer be peculiar. Among the chief centres for such work may be mentioned 70 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Lovedale, the industrial high school at Adams Mis- sion Station, Natal, known as Amanzimtote Semi- nary, the work in Uganda, now carried on inde- pendently by a stock company whose members are friends of the mission, and, above all, the Living- stonia Mission, in which all the education has an industrial basis. In China and Japan, practically nothing has been done by the missionaries along industrial lines. The government is active in this department, and most missionaries feel that they are excused from undertaking this work. At the same time, it is coming to be seen that in all education there should be the manual element, both to dignify labour, to develop the pupil intellectually, and to make him feel that mere book learning is not sufficient prep- aration for efficient service. Another incubus upon the development of peo- ples in mission lands arose from their ignorance of sanitation, hygiene, medicine, and surgery. The great epidemics, which swept away vast populations and left behind a trail of desolation and physical weakness, worked against economic efficiency. Likewise, the more ordinary physical ills reduced the vitality of the working force and lessened the number of workers. The missionary at an early day began the task of ministering to the bodies of the people in his field, and while the dominant motive was and still is the prevention and relief of suffering, the result has been that and more. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 71 Modern medicine was introduced into Asia and Africa by the medical missionary. The beginnings were small and insignificant, but the outcome is most impressive. The total number of medical missionaries in the world is not large, numbering only 1,015, or one in twenty of the total mission- ary force. Of this number China has 365, India, 278, and all of Africa, including Madagascar, 113. In India, the women outnumber the men 163 to 115, but in all the world they furnish just about one-third of the medical workers. This is not a very large force to minister to the physical wants of almost a billion people. Yet the work which they are doing is impressive in itself and still more so in its outreach. Under their supervision are nearly six hundred hospitals and more than one thousand dispensaries. It is difficult to secure ac- curate medical statistics, especially as regards the distinction between the number of individual patients and the number of treatments. Hence the figures must be regarded as only approximate. According to the tabulated reports, the number of in-patients received into the hospitals during a re- cent year was more than 164,000 ; the out-patients visited were 145,000 ; the number of dispensary treatments was nearly 4,250,000 a year ; the num- ber of individual patients more than 4,300,000 ; and the total number of treatments, 7,500,000/ The quality of work done by these devoted physicians is extraordinary. Some of the great 1 Dennis et al, " World Atlas of Christian Missions, " p. 83 et seq. 72 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands surgeons of the world are medical missionaries, who could command a princely income at home, but choose to live on a missionary's salary of not more than three or four dollars a day and devote themselves to the relief of suffering. In fighting the dread tropical diseases and in surgery they excel. Sometimes, in the midst of surroundings which the home practitioner would pronounce im- possible, and usually, it must be confessed, without adequate equipment, these surgeons perform opera- tions day after day. Merely from the view-point of medical and surgical science, visiting physicians have pronounced these missionary physicians an honour to the profession. Under these circum- stances, they perform the most difficult operations, and succeed, too. In fact, they must succeed, for a few failures might shut the door for years against the foreign practitioner of strange medicine. If the entrance of the Gospel has had the effect of raising people socially, as it has, then the means by which access for the Gospel was obtained should be credited with some of these results. Such has often been the function of medical missions. Dr. Peter Parker is declared to have opened China to Christian influence at the point of the lancet, and he was but one of these pioneers. Among Moslems especially, the success of the physician in curing supposedly incurable diseases commends him and his spiritual message. Another social service of the medical missionary has been the breaking down of the power of the Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 73 medicine-man, who is always one of the greatest obstacles in the path of progress. Whatever des- troys his influence contributes vitally to the prog- ress of the Kingdom. Again, the medical missionary has done much in the way of preventive medicine, through sanitary and hygienic measures, to check epidemics. It was a medical missionary, Dr. D. B. Bradley, who in- troduced vaccination into Siam and personally vaccinated thousands. What he did there others have done in other parts of the mission field, and have thus checked the scourge of smallpox. It was the medical missionaries who were among the leaders in the task of halting the progress of the pneumonic plague, which threatened China in the winter of 1910-1911. The sanitary conditions in the East are indescrib- able and are often almost incredible to one who has not seen them with his own eyes. No wonder that cholera and plague are ever-present scourges in India and cannot be eradicated until the people are taught to understand the cause of their spread and become willing to take the proper measures to stamp them out. The Christian community has thus been made intelligent and the results are really startling. In the year 1896 there was a bad outbreak of plague in Bombay. The Christians did not with- draw themselves but ministered to those in need. Yet even so, the number attacked was very small. The plague continued for a long period, and we have the mortality tables for one week in June, 1898. 74 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands The comparative mortality of the different races and castes was in part as follows : ' Low caste Hindus 52. 95 per thousand Moslems 45.93 " Jains 45.35 " Europeans 27.63 " Caste Hindus 26.37 " Parsees 24.10 " Eurasians 24.01 " Brahmans 9.58 " Native Christians 8.75 " The low percentage for the Brahmans is accounted for by the facts that they are the most cleanly about their person and their homes, and that they kept themselves away from contagion. This is not an isolated case. Cleanliness is a natural accompaniment of a vital Christianity. A Turkish official in Cilicia in a time of plague ex- claimed, — " How is it, O ye Protestants ; has God spread His tent over you that ye are so spared ? " The Chinese are not given to overmuch cleanliness, partly due perhaps to the scarcity of water away from the rivers and canals. When plague prevailed in Hong Kong, heathen Chinese asked, " How is it that you Christians do not take the plague ? We have had processions and firecrackers, and made presents to our gods, but all in vain ; we are dying by hundreds." 3 1 Vid. Dennis, "Christian Missions and Social Progress," Vol. II, p. 464, foot-note. 2 Ibid., p. 465 et seq. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 75 The medical missionaries have thus directly done much to relieve suffering and promote health. They are doing perhaps more in accustoming the people of these countries to a belief in the efficacy of medical science and in training native physicians and nurses. Attention has already been called to the number of classes which are conducted by mis- sionaries for the training of doctors and nurses. Many of these give only an elementary training but even this is of some service. The poor over- worked medical missionary has neither time nor strength to do more than he is doing. The general education of his assistants is insufficient to serve as the basis for the highest grade of medical course, proper facilities are lacking in the way of books and laboratories, and in China it has not been per- missible to dissect the human body. In spite of these difficulties, much is being ac- complished in this line. For instance, in Foochow and vicinity there are many Chinese practitioners who are proud to proclaim upon their signs that they have studied under one of the beloved medical missionaries of that city, Dr. Kinnear. In fact, it is difficult in these days, in most mission fields, to get far beyond the reach either of a medical mis- sionary or of some native doctor trained in Western medicine and often by the missionary. This is true in Syria and Asia Minor, where one finds the graduates of the medical college at Beirut scattered over a large territory. China is the country in which authorities claim there is more unnecessary 76 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands physical suffering than anywhere else on the globe. In that country, there are few trained physicians apart from missions, and this is the land in which Western Christians are doing the most to develop medical training of the highest order. The Union Medical School in Peking is the largest now in operation, but similar schools have been developed or are planned for other great centres, like Canton, Foochow, Shanghai, Hankow, and Chentu. All these lines of activity tend to relieve the dis- tress caused by poverty, for they aim at removing such poverty as is caused by ignorance, industrial inefficiency, and disease. At the same time, the missionary is not deaf to the appeals of present suffering, and through orphanages and in other less institutional ways is trying to relieve the suffering which presses upon him on every side. The latest statistics ' indicate the existence of nearly 275 orphanages, containing over 20,000 inmates, more than one-half of whom are girls. Of these institutions, two-thirds are in India and the others are widely scattered. But one other country has more than twenty and that is Japan, with twenty- one. Here the Japanese Christians have taken the lead in caring for destitute children. One has a very imperfect idea of what Chris- tianity has meant to Asia and Africa in the re- moval of ignorance and its allied intellectual and tennis et al. t "World Atlas of Christian Missions," p. 85. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 77 economic evils if one stops at this point. The peoples themselves have girded themselves for this task and are rendering the work of the missionary not absolutely but relatively less essential. Japan has within a generation created a compre- hensive educational system, which extends from the elementary day school, which every boy and girl must attend for six years, up through the high school and college to the university, with its schools of medicine, law, engineering, science, literature, and agriculture. To these should be added special technical schools of less than uni- versity grade and normal schools for the training of teachers. Children enter the elementary school when six years old, and the boys and girls receive the same education. Those who fail to enter the next higher school, the middle school or Chu Gakko, may attend a higher elementary school for two or three years. Here they are prepared to pass the selective examination which is ordinarily required for entrance into the middle school. This examination is made necessary by the fact that the middle schools cannot accommodate all who desire to continue their studies. The middle school course is for boys and covers six additional years and in- cludes the usual subjects for such a grade of school, to which is added English. In fact, three lan- guages, Japanese, Chinese, which bears to Japan a much more intimate relation than Latin bears to England or the United States, and English, take nearly one-half of the entire time of the student. 78 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands The number of middle schools in the year 1909- 1910 was 305, with 118,133 pupils. From here the successful boy passes into the Koto Gakko, or high school, which is really a fitting-school for the uni- versity, and includes perhaps two years of what would be regarded in the United States as college work. Here, too, much of the time has to be de- voted to language, each pupil studying two Western languages besides his own Japanese and the Chinese classics. The eight high schools contained in the year 1909-1910 6,029 pupils, the percentage of applicants who could be admitted being only 23.52. The percentage of successful applicants for the departments of law and literature was 36.38, for science, 25.24, and for medicine, only 11.02. As the goal of the ambitious student stand the imperial universities. Those at Tokyo and Kyoto are thoroughly organized. Two others are now being developed, namely, The Imperial North- Eastern University, which includes the Sapporo Agricultural College and the Science College at Sendai, and the Imperial Kyushu University, with colleges of medicine and engineering. These uni- versities are groups of professional schools, and con- tained by the last report 7,559 students. 1 Parallel to these schools for boys and young men are the schools for girls. The higher school for girls takes those who have passed through the six years of the elementary school and carries them on from three to iive years longer, according to cir- 141 Japan Year Book, 1912," p. 175 et seq. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 79 curnstances. The curriculum includes Japanese, English, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, drawing, housekeeping, sewing, music, and gymnastics. The number of such schools in 1909-1910 was 178, with 51,781 pupils. 1 There is no government provision for further education for girls, except normal schools, but private munifi- cence has started in Tokyo the Woman's University which will doubtless ultimately be worthy of the name. The Japanese Government controls the normal training of the empire. Each locality is required to maintain normal schools with a four years' course for young men, and a three years' course for young women. According to the statistics for 1909-1910, there were seventy-eight of these schools with 23,422 students, of whom one-quarter were women. The higher normal schools, four in number, enrolled 1,528, with a slightly higher proportion of women. The entire course extends for five years or more, with opportunity for advanced work and fellowships abroad. 2 The Japanese have not only created their educa- tional system, but they are seeing that it is used. The percentage of children under obligation to at- tend school who are actually in attendance is 98.1, 3 or 14.5 per cent, of the population. The chief weaknesses of the Japanese education are its technical character, with little attention paid 1 " Japan Year Book, 1912," p. 175 et seq. 2 Ibid. 80 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands to mere culture ; its overcrowded curriculum, which can hardly develop great originality in the pupil ; and its failure to give sufficient moral training, though moral instruction is prescribed. The policy of the British Government in India has been to subsidize schools under private manage- ment rather than to multiply government schools. Such private schools, of course, must conform to the regulations of the Department of Education. At the head of the education of India have stood the five universities, Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Alla- habad, Punjab (Lahore), which are examining bodies with affiliated colleges. Other universities, both teaching and examining, are to be created. Normal, technical, medical, and art schools are found, and the movement to-day is in the direction of greater activity by the government in the field of elementary education, looking to the day when it shall be free and compulsory. The efforts of the Christians have stimulated the non-Christians to improve existing schools and to establish new ones of different grades up to colleges. Moslems and Hindus are alike engaged in this work of provid- ing educational facilities for their respective con- stituents. The educational statistics for 1911 ' showed 172,292 schools, of which 15,038 were for females, and 6,354,772 scholars, of whom 873,553 were females. It is estimated that in British India only 28.1 per cent, of the boys of school age are in school, and 4.6 per cent, of the girls. All of this 1 "Statesmen's Year Book, 1913," p. 131. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 81 shows that much remains to be done before India will have sufficient educational facilities. It is also true that the native leaders of India are aware of the need and are urging great forward steps. China has followed Japan in its plans for educa- tional development. By an Imperial decree of January 13, 1903, the Manchu Government pro- vided for the creation of a comprehensive system of schools, which was to include the following : ' 1. Kindergartens for children from three to seven, which were to be located near orphanages or the homes of virtuous widows. 2. Lower primary schools of the first grade. Large sub-prefectures were to open at least three such schools, smaller ones two, and large towns one. Furthermore, each village of one hundred families was to have its school for the children living within half a li, about one-sixth of a mile. This standard was to be reached by degrees. Thus, within five years each group of four hundred families was to open such a school. In addition to official schools opened by local authorities, there were to be public schools maintained by the public funds of a city, market-town, country-town, or hamlet, and for this purpose they might use the revenues of certain landed property primarily given for works of benevolence or charity, for theatricals, and for superstitious festivities. So-called public schools could be maintained by subscriptions from private gentlemen or persons of good moral standing. 1 "China Mission Year Book, 1911," p. 80 et seq. 82 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Schools opened by private gentlemen in their homes for their own children or for the neighbour- hood, or schools opened by teachers in their own homes might be called private primary schools. These schools were to be open to children of seven years. The course of study was to be for five years, thirteen hours a week, with attendance optional for the present, but free. The curriculum was to include morals, Chinese classics and language, arithmetic, history, geography, physical science, and gymnastics. 3. Higher primary schools. There was to be at least one in each sub-prefecture and they might be opened in market towns and in the suburbs of towns and cities. Provision was made for official, public, and private schools of this grade. The course was to be thirty-six hours a week and extend over four years. The curriculum was to include the studies of the lower primary with the addition of drawing. Instruction in these schools was not to be gratuitous. 4. Middle schools. These schools were to be a combination of a finishing school for those who would go no further, and a preparatory school for those who would go on to a higher education. Each prefecture was to have one, and the sub-prefectures might open them if they so chose. Schools were offi- cial if opened by Mandarins, public if opened by the gentry and associated persons, or private if the cost was defrayed by a private gentleman. The course in these schools was to be for five years, Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 83 thirty-six hours a week, and include instruction in morals, Chinese classics, Chinese language and literature, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, physics and chemistry, administration and political economy, drawing, and gymnastics. There was also to be instruction in foreign languages Japanese or English compulsory, French, German' or Kussian optional. Public and private schools of these three grades could be opened or closed only with the approval of the local authorities and were to be subject to the same regulations as the official schools. 5. High schools. There was to be one high school in each province with a three years' course of six hours a day. As these high schools were to prepare for the university, they were to be divided into three divisions, corresponding to the three groups of faculties in the university. The first di- vision would fit for the faculties of classics, law, arts, and commerce ; the second for science, engi- neering, and agronomy ; and the third for medicine. Ethics, law, Chinese literature, foreign languages, and gymnastics were to be included in the curric- ulum of each division. Students in the first divi- sion were to study, in addition, history, geography, elocution, law, political economy, English, and French or German. In the second section, the ad- ditional studies were to be mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, mineralogy and drawing, with the same foreign languages. In the third division, these supplementary studies were to include Latin, 84 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands mathematics, physics, chemistry, zoology, botany, German, and French or English. 6. The university. This was to be located at Peking, with eight faculties and forty-six courses or specialties. Three courses were to extend four years, the remainder for three years, with from two to four hours a day in the class room. If a province wished to establish a university, it might do so on condition that at least three faculties be included. 7. The college for higher studies. This was to be an annex to the university, and provide for post- graduate work. The courses were to extend over five years without charge to the students, and with the privilege of travel. In addition to this series of educational institu- tions, there was provision for lower and higher normal schools. Each sub-prefecture was to main- tain one of the former. It was to offer a five years' course of thirty-six hours a week, and be open to persons from eighteen to twenty-five years of age, who were graduates of at least the lower primary grade and who possessed a good reputation, a strong physique, and a good knowledge of Chinese liter- ature. Students who accepted free tuition were to teach for at least six years. The higher normal schools were to be located in each provincial capi- tal, with a three years' course of thirty-six hours a week, and with the same provision in regard to the acceptance of free tuition. The students were to hold the diploma of a lower normal or middle school or prove that they had the equivalent. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 85 For girls there were to be two grades of primary school. The first was to offer a four years' course for girls between the ages of seven and ten, of from twenty-four to twenty-eight hours a week, and the second a course of the same length for girls eleven to fourteen, of from twenty-eight to thirty-two hours a week. In addition to these there were to be girls' normal schools. The provisions of this decree were never fully carried out. Some schools were opened only to find that there were no pupils fitted to pursue the prescribed course, and the teachers had to set to work to prepare them for it. Still, much progress had been made. A report submitted at the close of 1910 for the two years preceding showed that there were in Peking 252 schools with 15,774 students, and in the provinces 42,444 schools with 1,284,965 students. 1 This was an increase in two years of more than twenty per cent. The report showed that the public and private schools had passed the official schools in number. The strong- est educational work is found in certain centres, es- pecially in Chi-H, the imperial province. The latest educational scheme of the Eepublican department of education includes the following schools : primary schools with a course of four years ; higher primary schools, with three additional years ; middle schools, four years ; university, with from Hve to seven years. Technical schools of three grades are also called for: a three years' course 1 ll China Mission Year Book, 1911," p. 79. 86 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands parallel to the higher primary schools, a higher course parallel to the first three years of the mid- dle school; and the highest professional schools, parallel to the university, with one preparatory year and a regular course of from three to four ad- ditional years. Normal training of two grades is also provided. The lower is parallel to the middle school, and includes one year of preparatory study and four years of regular work. The higher normal training is parallel to the university and consists of a four years' course, one year being preparatory. For scholars who are not going on to the higher schools, supplementary courses of two years each are to be provided for those who have gone through the primary and higher primary schools. 1 In the countries of the nearer East the move- ments are in the same direction, and if the present rate of progress is maintained, within a compara- tively short time educational facilities should be at the disposal of every child. In the field of industrial training, the progress has been less marked. The British Government is committed to this line of work in India, and public- spirited Indian gentlemen of wealth have aided in its development. In China, the government and local officials have taken up the matter with vigour, and in large centres one finds industrial schools where boys are being taught trades along modified Western lines. Shrewdly enough, the Chinese are careful not to go too fast. They recognize that for 1 " China Year Book, 1913," p. 388. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 87 a long time to come there will be room for hand- work, and so the boys who are being taught to weave cloth do not use power looms, which have not yet invaded China to any considerable extent, but use a hand-loom invented by the Japanese, which is more efficient than the ordinary Chinese loom. In Japan, the government is developing the economic life of the country, is encouraging new industries, and is increasing the productivity of the individual labourer and of the country as a whole. The standard of living is rapidly rising in Japan, China, India, and wherever Western influence has gone, even though it is far below that of the United States or of England. The provision of proper medical facilities has attracted much attention in Japan. The medical missionary helped to introduce modern medical science to the Japanese people, but now there is little call for such work. To-day there are but eleven medical missionaries in Japan, including Formosa but excluding Chosen (Korea). At least three of these are in Formosa and another is one of the pioneer physicians, who is permitted by his board to remain in the country, but whose place will not be filled when he drops out. Years ago, there was a medical department connected with the Doshisha, but now part of the buildings have been taken over by the city and are used for a nurses' training home, while the medical practice formerly 88 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands carried on by the missionary physicians is in the hands of a Japanese doctor. Missionaries who maintain dispensaries in con- nection with work along the lines of social settle- ments find no difficulty in securing the assistance of Japanese physicians, who give their services gratuitously, after the American fashion, and who are fully as efficient as any medical missionaries could possibly be. The medical schools, with their hospitals attached, are as well equipped as those of the West and have Japanese and European pro- fessors. Hospitals are found all through the em- pire. The missionaries themselves often employ Japanese physicians, and dentists as well, and there is really little place left for the work of the medical missionary as such, this work having passed from foreign into Japanese hands. JSTow that Japan has annexed Korea, she is doing the same thing there, and is introducing hospitals for Japanese and Koreans alike. In fact, in Seoul, we were told, the Japanese had to pay more for treatment in the hospital than did the Koreans. The Japanese are likewise improving the sanitary conditions of the empire, and while they are hampered by lack of funds, the habits of the people, and the construction of their cities, yet they are rapidly securing a good water supply and proper drainage for their cities, and they are making the ravages of diseases next to impossible. Their ability in such matters was con- spicuous in the war with Russia, when their success in coping with such problems was in marked con- Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 89 trast with the failure of the United States at this point during the Spanish war. Naturally China is far behind Japan in this regard. Yet the Manchu Government recognized the need. They started medical schools, chiefly for the army, planned for a medical faculty in their proposed university, and patronized the Union Medical School in Peking, under the direc- tion of the London Mission. Then, too, the number of Western-trained Chinese physicians is increasing, both in connection with mission hospitals and in- dependently. Some of these have only a smatter- ing of medical knowledge, while a few are at the very top of their profession. I met one of these last in Soochow. He had given up a lucrative practice in order to live on the small salary paid by a mission hospital, because he thought he could do more good in that position. He got all the latest medical books and instruments from Europe and America, was an expert with the microscope, and was feeling very happy at the time of our visit be- cause he had recently isolated a germ which is very rare and which few physicians of the West have ever seen. Another physician in another part of the country with somewhat less training goes out over every Sunday, preaches and teaches and also gives medical attention, and turns into the treasury of the hospital every cent of the comparatively large sums he receives from patients. Siam has developed medical schools, but here the standards are too low. The Siamese physicians are 90 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands not trusted by missionaries and are unable to cope with any serious situation. In India, the British Government has been alive to the need and has made what provision it could for medical attention. Through the government, through private generosity, and through funds set apart for that purpose, physicians are located in different sections, and hospitals and dispensaries are also provided. A few of these physicians are for- eigners, but most of them are Indians, a large pro- portion being Eurasians. These men do not always bear a good reputation either for medical skill or for character. Bribery is not unknown in the en- forcement of sanitary regulations against plague and cholera, as I know from personal experience. Some of these doctors, however, are at the top of their profession, and while they do not command the confidence of the people like the medical mis- sionary, yet they are doing a good work in reliev- ing suffering and preventing the spread of disease. The British Government has a very fine sanitary code, but it is difficult of enforcement because of the prejudices of the people and the impossibility of entering homes to discover and remove sick per- sons, or to enforce sanitary measures. With the spread of education, this difficulty will disappear, until finally the situation in India will be similar to that in Japan. Wherever the British Govern- ment goes, it seeks to care for the health of the peo- ple and this is one of the blessings which flow from the British colonial policy. Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 91 Closely allied to this work of medical relief is that of providing relief in times of public calamity. Here, again, Japan leads. Since 1899, every pre- fecture has been required to create a fund for relief purposes, and the state adds to this an amount pro- portionate to that set aside by the locality. This entire fund amounted in 1908-1909 to nearly $19,- 500,000, the yearly income standing at over $1,000,- 000. The disbursements naturally vary. In 1905- 1906 the amount was $327,000, but in 1908-1909 it was less than $22,000. Besides this, the general gov- ernment expended in that same year, 1908, over $95,000 for the relief of paupers not cared for by their relatives or the local communities, and the state and communities together expended $25,000 for foundlings. 1 The forerunner of the Ked Cross Society was started in 1877, and in 1886 Japan joined the Geneva Convention. At the end of 1909, the number of members connected with the society was 1,525,822, while the total assets came to a grand total of $7,940,000. 2 The people of Japan have also taken up the various lines of phil- anthropic work for the care of the dependent classes. The Japan Year Book for 1912 listed ninety orphanages, blind asylums, leper hospitals, maternity hospitals, and the like. 3 Such, in brief, is an outline of what the mission- aries and the people in mission lands are doing for 1 "Japan Year Book, 1912," p. 233. 8 Ibid. , p. 235. 3 Ibid. , p. 245 f . 92 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands the removal of ignorance, inefficiency, and poverty. If these were the only results of missionary work, it would not have been in vain, and yet this is but the beginning. At the same time, it is proper for the Church to recognize the need there is for still greater activity in this field. The spread of educa- tion and of the philanthropic spirit is most encour- aging, but there are serious weaknesses in this movement which only Christianity can remove. The government education is, at its best, neutral in matters of religion, and it tends to become di- rectly and positively anti-Christian and anti-relig- ious. The result is that the leaders of these new movements have not the moral stamina they need, they are not absolutely incorruptible, and they lack Christian ideals. Unless these elements can be furnished, these movements will be sterile of perma- nent results and may even become a curse. This means that it is for the Christian forces at home and abroad to develop Christian education to such a degree and along such lines as shall create more and more of a Christian atmosphere in these great nations, and send out Christian men to be leaders in the development of the intellectual and mate- rial resources of the great nations of Asia and of the peoples of Africa. The Christian schools are a force that has been used for the conversion of individuals. They are also a force for the Christianization of these coun- tries. There is a tendency in some quarters to be- lieve that the function of the Christian school is Progress in the Removal of Ignorance 93 exclusively to train men and women as pastors, preachers, teachers, catechists, and Bible women, and to regard any one who enters into secular education, into business life, or into government service as almost guilty of a breach of trust. It is true that the force of Christian workers is piti- fully small. It is sadly true, also, that oftentimes graduates of these schools, who do not remain in the employ of the mission, or in distinctive Chris- tian work, are lost to the Church and cease to exert a positive Christian influence. This is due in part to the temptations to which they are subjected, which will naturally become less powerful with the increase in the number of Christians in these call- ings, and with the development of a Christian atmosphere. May it not also be due in part to the fact that the missionary and the Church regard these men as having been false to their trust, and hence the men themselves lose the support and en- couragement which would come from the sympathy and active cooperation of the Christian leaders ? It is time for the Church and for the Christian forces to see that there is a call for Christian men to become leaders in every department of the social life of the rapidly changing East, and that unless this call is heeded, the Church will have lost an op- portunity that may never return. Such a failure to rise to the situation occurred in Japan twenty years ago, and it may never be possible for the Church there to occupy the position in the work of education which it might now be holding had the 94 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands missionaries had the foresight and the ability to seize the opportunity at that time. In these days, the mission boards and the missionaries are awake to the possibilities in China, and it is to be hoped that before the crystallization that will follow the inauguration of the new regime takes place, the mis- sionaries will be able to secure such a recognition for Christianity in relation to the development of education that the new school system of China shall not necessarily be positively anti- Christian. This is a time for statesmanship of the highest order, as well as for the most earnest prayer that the Church may be able to enter the open doors all through the Orient, and thus aid in putting a permanently Christian impress upon the new nations now devel- oping under the eyes of the missionary and under the impulse which originally came from Christianity. ni PEOGEESS IN THE IDEALS OF FAMILY LIFE AND THE POSITION OF WOMAN NEXT to the problems of securing intellec- tual and industrial ability, in fundamental importance, may be ranked the problems that centre in the ideals of family life and the posi- tion of woman. The former concern primarily the individual ; the latter affect the primary social unit, genetically considered, namely, the family. The family is the institution by which the race is propa- gated, and in which every human being, with the exception of a few abnormal cases, receives his earliest training, intellectual and religious. Here he learns the lessons of obedience and of adjustment to a social environment. In the home lies a centre of influence upon social development which can hardly be overestimated. Some of the serious social problems in our cities arise from the changes in the character of the home life which have come about within the last generation, and even within the last decade. The boy problem of the present day has arisen from a change in living arrange- ments by which the home has ceased to be what it formerly was, the centre of all the activities of the children, and the place where they learned to take an active part in the economic life of the household. 95 96 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands In the home life of the countries of the Orient, one may find the key that unlocks many of the problems of social development there. JNo more fundamental changes in the social organization of these nations can be found than those which touch the home. All that affects the position and status of woman has an important bearing upon this genetic social unit, the family. As a preliminary to the discussion of the position of woman in typical mission lands and what has been done for her elevation, attention should be called to a fact that has often been overlooked. While woman has been despised and neglected, yet it is equally true in the East, as in the West, that the hand that rocks the cradle rules the world. Women have always exerted a mighty influence over men, and the ignorant women of the East are the last bulwark of superstition. If they can be induced to unite with the men in the advocacy of reform, the result is assured. Neither men nor women alone are able to bring about the necessary changes. Strangely enough, the social customs and abuses that primarily affect woman find their strongest supporters in the women who are their chief victims. Many a man in India would gladly reform his household and social relations, were it not for the influence of his unreformed mother, wife, and sisters-in-law. Woman holds the key to the situation in the Orient to-day. The men have come under progressive influences but they are held back by the conservatism of the women. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 97 Thus, a prominent Indian gentleman in Madras told me that he could not go to England or Amer- ica to study conditions with reference to the prob- lems of his own country, because his mother, a lady of the old school, had threatened to kill herself the moment she heard he had set foot on a steamer. He believed she would do it rather than endure the disgrace of her son's having committed the heinous sin of crossing the ocean. This is typical. Hence, one can appreciate the profound significance and importance of the movements that are affecting the status of woman and the family. A study of the position of woman among non- Christian peoples is not pleasant, and it affords lit- tle ground for pride in the inherent nobility of man's nature. Rather, it reveals the depths to which men may sink and the great debt which the world owes to Western Christianity and its ideal of woman. No detailed study of this subject is pos- sible at this point. All that can be attempted is a sketch of the situation as it presents itself in certain typical mission fields. It is not surprising to learn that among the less civilized tribes of Africa woman had no high posi- tion. She was regarded and, beyond the reach of Christian influence, is still regarded as a mere chat- tel ; polygamy was practiced by all who could afford to buy many wives ; and social standing depended upon their number. On the west coast every Bule man desired twenty or thirty wives, and some chiefs had from sixty to eighty. With many wives, 98 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands the husband was relieved from the necessity of do- ing any work. In parts of the Congo Valley, the chief with many wives would hire them out to others. African wives were compelled to act tem- porarily in that capacity for guests. The purchase price of women in some parts of Africa was five large blue glass beads, while ten were demanded in exchange for a cow. During a famine in central Africa, the natives of Ushashi were selling their wives and daughters for two large potatoes. Under these circumstances, the women were the servants of their lords. The story is told of an African who ordered his^wif e to carry him on her shoulders over the deep and perilous ford of a river. A white man remonstrated with him after he was safely across, but the worthy native asked in astonish- ment : " Then whose wife should carry me over, if my own does not ? " Similar facts are reported from the Pacific Islands. Dr. Paton remonstrated with a native of the New Hebrides for beating his wife savagely. He replied : " We must beat them or they would never obey us. When they quarrel and become bad to manage, we have to kill one, and feast on her. Then all the other wives of the whole tribe are quiet and obedient for a long time to come." Among the great peoples of Asia, India presents the darkest picture, which in certain aspects more nearly approaches that of Africa. In discussing the position of woman in India, one is confronted Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 99 by the difficulty that India is really a continent, not a homogeneous country, and that what is true of one section often does not hold in another. Even so, the population is so great that these different nationalities, castes, or language areas, contain so many people that, even if what is true of one sec- tion does not hold elsewhere, it yet affects a large number of individuals. In the early Vedic times, the position of women was apparently one of power coupled with honour. They had fully as much influence as had the women of Greece or of Home. They were equal to their husbands in the home ; they were their necessary partners in the performance of religious duties; and even in politics and administration they had influence. Child marriages were not known and girls could choose their own husbands. Yet even, so, women as such were held in little esteem, and it was only as wives that they were respected. "What a contrast this offers to the present situa- tion! A bland Hindu confessed that upon two doctrines all sects were agreed : " We all believe in the sanctity of the cow and in the depravity of woman." The Tamil proverbs indicate the gen- eral esteem in which woman is held. Take two : * ' What is the chief gate to hell ? Woman. " " What is cruel ? The heart of a viper. What is more cruel ? The heart of a woman. What is the most cruel of all ! The heart of a soulless, penniless widow. m 1 Jones, op. cit., p. 152. loo Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Under Hinduism woman suffers from serious dis- abilities. One injunction reads : " In childhood must a female be dependent on her father, in youth on her husband, her lord being dead, on her sons. A woman must never seek independence." The commentators thought this did not provide for every conceivable case ; hence they added : " If she have no sons, she must be dependent on and subject to the near kinsmen of her husband; if he have left no kinsmen, on those of her father ; or, if she have no paternal kinsmen, on the sovereign." x No woman is permitted to be taught the Yedas or other sacred books. This comprised all the education there was in the old days, and the illiteracy of woman has been decreased but slightly. In 1911 only a trifle more than one per cent, of the women of India could read and write, and, if one subtracts the Christian and Parsee women, the percentage for the women of Hinduism would be still farther reduced. Any high degree of education would be made difficult if not impossible by the early age at which girls are married. In the province of Mysore, which is regarded as a progressive state, the census of 1891 revealed the fact that one out of every five married women had been married under the age of nine. A census taken some thirty years ago in the state of Baroda, which had then a population of a little less than 2,000,000, showed that 558 females and 132 males had been married 1 Wilkins, " Modern Hinduism," p. 327. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 01 before they had completed their first year. By the census of 1891, among 222,000,000 out of the 287 - 000,000 of India, there were : ' Ages Married Boys Married Girls Below 4 years 89,051 223,560 5-9 nearly 602,000 more than 1,850,000 Below 14 2,725,124 6,871,999 Of course, in the most extreme cases, the marriage ceremony practically amounts to mere betrothal, and the girl does not go to her husband until later ; but the day is not long delayed when she must go to her husband and become the household drudge for the older women of the family. It is not nec- essary to enter into the reasons for this custom further than to remark that one of the reasons adduced is that an early marriage is necessary as a protection to the girls, since they mature at an earlier age than with us. Out of this marriage custom flow many evil con- sequences, both to the women of India and to Indian society. It propagates the unfit, as no one is relieved from the responsibility of having chil- dren. It makes impossible a high degree of educa- tion on the part of the young men, because, long before a full education can be completed, thev must withdraw from school and assume the responsibility for the support of a family. This early entrance into the marriage relationship also prematurely exhausts the boys and young men, and saps their vitality, so that they lack energy and push. ^hintamani, C. Y., "Indian Social Reform," p. 173. 102 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands The physical consequences to the girls are also serious. Many girls become mothers by the time they are twelve. Few are permitted to reach full development before they are compelled to bear children. Those in a position to know declare that, as a consequence of this pernicious custom, one-fourth of the women of India die prematurely, one-fourth become hopelessly invalided, and the majority of the remainder suffer in health. It is almost sure death for a girl of thirteen or fourteen to be married to a man of thirty-five, and yet hun- dreds of educated men of that age follow the custom and take girl- wives. Feeble-mindedness, hopeless idiocy, rickets, and scrofula result from this custom. Social reformers in India have de- clared publicly that, in consequence of the early marriages, the race has preserved the softer ele- ments of character but has lost patriotism, love of enterprise, energy, aspiration, devotion to duty, and the like. A native physician at a congress in 1897 attributed to this custom the fact that the Hindus had fallen easy victims to every invading tyrant. No baby-born race, declared another, — and the Indian people are baby-born, — or one brought up by illiterate mothers, can develop virile qualities. The fact that the wives are illiterate makes it im- possible for their husbands to regard them as rational companions, and the sexual relationship is without the elevating moral influence it should have. " Yery few people," declared a noted Pundit, " can justly apprehend the nature and depth of the social Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 03 degradation caused by the contemplation of women, not as a rational and moral companion, but as an ob- ject of selfish pleasure." * Among the Hindu population, there is, with two exceptions, little polygamy, though concubinage is tolerated. One of these exceptions is in the case of a man whose wife does not bear him a son within seven years. It is permissible for such a man to take another wife and this is almost certain to be done. The Kulin Brahmans, found mostly in Ben- gal, are the other exception. These are men who for a consideration will marry any number of girls. An investigation, made a little more than twenty years ago in 426 villages, showed 618 Kulin bigamists and 520 polygamists. One had 107 wives and others had 67, 52, and 50 each. Twenty-one had 25 or more wives, and 442 had from three to ten wives apiece. 2 Still another count in the indictment of India's treatment of her women concerns widows. By the census of 1891, among 262,300,000 people in India there were 13,878 widows not over four years old and 64,040 between five and nine inclusive. The total through the age of fourteen was 252,450 ; from fifteen to forty-nine, 11,157,140; and fifty or over, 11,224,933. 3 1 Murdoch, J., " Papers on Indian Social Reform : The Women of India," p. 25. 3 Dennis, J. S., "Christian Missions and Social Progress/' Vol. I, p. 122 note. *lbid n Vol.1, p. 124. 104 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands In the matter of the remarriage of widows, some of whom are married in infancy and have never lived with their husbands, there are differences of custom. Thus, in the North- West Provinces, out of a population of 40,000,000 Hindus, seventy-six per cent, permit and encourage the remarriage of widows. Of the more than 22,000,000 widows re- ported by the census, it is estimated that about two and a half millions are among the Brahmans and the Rajputs, and these strictly enforce the pro- hibition of remarriage. 1 As to the genera] attitude towards widows, this also varies somewhat ; yet a Hindu writer declares that the impression made upon his childish mind was that a widow " belonged not to the ranks of the two recognized sexes, that possibly she might be a being of a third sex, or else a member of a totally different species of the animal world." 2 Everywhere she is regarded as a person of ill omen. Until the practice was stopped by the British Gov- ernment, she was urged, often compelled, to permit herself to be burned alive upon the funeral pyre of her husband. Some people believe that this was less cruel than her present lot, which is that of a household drudge, the slave of all the family, often the common property of the men, denied all pleas- ures, and without any escape, save through death or entrance upon an evil life. There are regions and castes in which the treatment is less cruel, es- 1 Murdoch, J., op. cit., p. 116. 'Fuller, Mrs. M. B., "Wrongs of Indian Womanhood," p. 168. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 105 pecially if she is the mother of children and above all of sons. A child widow or a childless young widow is the one upon whom the abuse chiefly falls, and this is because she has nothing to set over against the fact that she is regarded as the murderer of her husband. JSTo marriage is arranged unless the astrologer declares that the horoscopes indicate long life for the parties. Hence, if the husband dies young, the Hindu concludes that it is due to some sin committed by the wife in a pre- vious existence. Hence, she is virtually his mur- derer. In addition to all these evils in the position of woman, we must mention still another, namely, their seclusion, which probably dates from the time of the Mohammedan conquest of India. This affects only a portion of the women of India. In the south and west, only the better classes are affected by it, and these only to a limited extent. In the north and north-west and in the Moslem native states, it is fully enforced among the higher classes, and the custom tends to filter down through so- ciety. It is a mark of social distinction if a man can afford to keep his wife and daughters behind the purdah. In a place like Hyderabad, the women and their slave attendants are practically prisoners. A husband killed his wife because a man by mere accident had seen her back through an open door, though she was unaware of it. The effect of this system is to injure the woman's health, make her constantly conscious of her sex, prevent her from 106 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands getting into touch with the world, and keep her horizon as narrow as possible. This is a mere sketch of some of the features of the treatment of women in India, but it is enough to indicate the need of change and the lines along which it should be made. China is the only country in the world with a female population exceeding that of India. The situation here is interesting. In general, woman in China is in bad odour. The radical which signifies " woman," when doubled, means " to wrangle " ; tripled, it means " to intrigue," also " seduction," " fornication," and " adultery." Of the one hun- dred and thirty-five more common characters which are written with this radical, fourteen have a good meaning and eighty-six may be said to be in different in meaning; but there are thirty-five that have a bad signification, and these include some of the most disreputable words. 1 Woman is proverbially the incarnation of jeal- ousy, and hence it strikes the Chinese as most irreverent to speak of God as a jealous God. An ancient verse of Chinese poetry has been rendered into English thus : " The serpent's mouth in the green bamboo, The yellow hornet's caudal dart ; Little injury these can do ; More venomous far is a woman's heart." * 1 Smith, A. H M "Chinese Characteristics, • ' p. 246. *Ibid., p. 245. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 107 There is a general feeling that woman cannot express filial piety, and hence, when a case occurs of a woman's sacrificing herself for her parents, great honour is paid her. The general attitude towards women is indicated by the sorrow which is felt when a girl is born into a family. She is regarded as a burden, not as a source of joy. The main object in marrying her off is to get rid of having to support her. The sale of girls and of women has been frequent, especially in times of famine. During such periods, the sale was carried on as openly as that of mules or donkeys. During the famine of 1878, the ex- port of women and girls from the three northern provinces was so great that in some places it was difficult to hire a cart for any purpose, as they were all being used to transport the human goods to the homes of the purchasers. Another method of securing a similar result was to lease a wife. An early inquirer at Emgpo had leased his wife for ten years. When he realized the wrong, he tried to redeem her, but the party in possession refused to release her. Before the expiration of the lease, the second husband died and the family or clan sublet her to a third party for the remainder of the term of ten years. Among officials a common and polite present used to be a favourite concubine. Among the common people, who could not afford an additional wife, a wife was often loaned. The poorer people devised a method of escaping the financial burden of a daughter's support. This 108 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands was known as the " rearing-marriage." By it the girl was made over to the family into which she was to marry, was reared by them, and married at their convenience. This was regarded as a con- fession of poverty. It was superior to the Indian custom of child-marriage, but such girls might have a hard lot. Mothers-in-law resented having to feed and clothe such children, often treated them cruelly, and sometimes murdered them. Christianity teaches that a man shall leave his father and mother and cleave to his wife. Chinese ethics teach that the man must cling to his father and mother and compel his wife to do the same. Before her marriage, she is a servant of her parents. The word in Chinese that is used like the English word " daughter " means " slave girl." Aiter mar- riage there is a change in masters. Her husband, whom she is to serve for time and for eternity, re- gards her as little more than a chattel. The power of a husband and the parents-in-law over the women of the household is almost unlimited. Yet even here human nature will assert itself, and the hen- pecked husband is ridiculed in Chinese literature as in that of America. One of the classic stories is that of ten husbands who felt themselves aggrieved by the attitude of their wives, and who decided to organize themselves into a society for the purpose of asserting their prerogatives. They had met for this purpose, when the wives, who had got wind of the plan, marched into the room, with the result that all but one of the men fled. With a con- Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 09 temptuous sniff, they marched out ; whereupon the nine timid husbands decided to elect the tenth, who had stood his ground, as their president. They went in to announce the election, only to find him dead from fright ! While China does not force the marriage of mere children, yet the marriage customs lead to great abuses. The matches are all arranged by the pro- fessional match-maker, and one who is unscrupulous may work great injustice. One missionary knew of two young men who found their wives to be idiots, while a young girl of a high family found herself married to a badly formed imbecile covered with loathsome sores. The Chinese family is supposed to be monogamous but the emperor set the example of polygamy. By law he was entitled to wives of three ranks. First was the empress, who was alone in her dignity. In rare cases two princesses shared the imperial throne. The secondary wives were unlimited in number, and one of them usually succeeded the empress in case of the latter's death. The third rank was filled to suit the taste and desire of the emperor. Earely did one of these attain the throne. When the Emperor Kuang Hsu was married in 1889, two secondary wives were chosen for him in addition to the empress. Those who have been able to afford such a family have fol- lowed the example of the emperor, but as a rule only one wife is married with the full ceremony. The second wife owes obedience to the first, unless lio Sociological Progress in Mission Lands she has children while the first has none. In that case, they are on an equal footing. While the in- troduction of an additional wife or concubine is sometimes resented, yet not infrequently the ladies of the household are pleased to have it done, be- cause it lends additional dignity to the household. Somewhat similar is the custom by which a Chinese merchant, who must spend much of his time in another city, away from home, may support there a second home with wife and children. Theoretically, divorce is easy in China. There are seven reasons for which it may be granted : dis- obedience to the parents-in-law, childlessness, im- proper conduct, jealousy, loathsome or contagious disease, stealing, and talking too much. 1 Practi- cally, divorce is not eas}^. The population of China presses very closely upon the margin of subsistence. The social system makes no provision for an un- married daughter, as the land is divided among the sons of the household. Hence, there is no way by which a divorced daughter, who returns to the parental home, can be supported, and the family will use every influence to prevent the breaking up of the marriage tie, unless there is a valid reason or they have a chance of marrying her to another. In China, the lot of widows is not so bad as it is in India, and yet suicide is encouraged. A woman is supposed to belong to her betrothed and to her husband, and, if he dies, the truly honourable thing for her to do is either to kill herself or to remain a 1 Dennis, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 117. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 1 1 widow throughout life. A widow may become a concubine and suffer less disgrace than if she be- comes a lawful wife. It has been customary to re- port the suicide of widows to the government, which has then publicly announced such cases in the official Peking Gazette. One finds in China many a monument erected in honour of widows who have shown their conjugal loyalty by following their husbands into the spirit world. The women of China have suffered from another disability, namely, foot-binding. In some parts of the country, practically all the women have had small feet. Elsewhere, the coolie women, but no others, have been exempt. The effect of this cus- tom has been to cause a terrible amount of needless suffering, to cut women off from the possibility of outdoor life, to reduce their vitality, to remove them from a position where they could exert a helpful influence in a broad way upon society, and in general to cramp them physically, intellectually, and socially. Family life in China has not been ideal. The Chinese make fond parents and the boys are under no real discipline. Only the ingrained feeling of filial piet}% which is enforced upon each individual by all his education and by the institutions and customs of society, prevents this lax family disci- pline from resulting in greater evil. In pleasant contrast to India and China, Japan is a country in which woman has occupied a rela- 112 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands tively high place. Of the one hundred and twenty- three Japanese sovereigns, nine have been women. The chief deity in their mythology is a woman. In the seventeenth century, Japanese women made brave martyrs. Their feet have never been bound. Among the middle and lower classes they are free to move about and visit their friends. Yet woman has been regarded as inferior, the plaything of man, rather than as his companion and equal. A Jap- anese gentleman is reported to have said to the American wife of a Japanese : " Woman is a fool. But if she will obey her husband, people won't laugh at her. Japanese women are much better than European women, though. The Western women rule everything ; they think they are great gods. Their husbands are very unwise and cowardly to let them behave in such proud style. The European wife, instead of waiting on her husband, makes him get everything for her." And the whole was uttered in a way that implied " disgusting and preposterous." The educated wife of a prominent Japanese offi- cial made a trip to America and Europe a few years ago. An American lady asked her what impressed her most during her first days in this country. She replied, " The way women are treated here. Now I understand what meant when he used to tell me, ' When we are with Europeans, you go first ; when we are with Japanese, I go first ' " ! Until very recently the pronoun used by all Jap- anese women in speaking of themselves was sho, the Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 13 primary meaning of which is " concubine," and in Japanese novels Western women are represented as speaking of themselves in the same way. The late emperor of Japan did much for the progressive development of the empire, and when the new con- stitution was promulgated in 1889, his wife rode by his side. Yet it should be added that his heir, the present ruler, was not the son of his empress, and when he celebrated his silver wedding anniversary, an addition was made to the royal household. A military officer once expressed the hope that the prince would set a better example. The seven causes for divorce mentioned under China hold in Japan also, and the seventh reason, that of talking too much, is the most common ground, or so it was alleged some years ago. The result of this laxity in the divorce laws was seen in 1891, when there were 345 divorces for every thou- sand marriages. 1 This proportion was nearly fif- teen times that in France for the same year, where it was only twenty-four per thousand. During the last twenty years the proportion has diminished to a marked degree. The new edition of the " Ency- clopaedia Britannica" gives it as 160 per 1,000. Even now, in Japan, a civil or religious ceremony is not required for marriage. All that is necessary is for a couple to begin to live together. If pregnancy ensues and the parties are satisfied with one another, before the child is born, the marriage is registered. Otherwise, they may separate, the girl is sent back 1 Dennis, J. S., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 117. 114 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands to her parents, and such a case does not enter into the statistics of divorce because there was never a marriage. About half the marriages, it is alleged, are begun in this informal way. Until recently, also, woman has been kept in ignorance. Thus, Count Okuma declared a few years ago, " Hereto- fore the education of women has been very much discouraged." This is now entirely changed, and six years of education are now prescribed for every girl equally with the boys. Such are some of the facts regarding the position which woman occupied in non-Christian lands be- fore it was modified by Christian and other Western influence. One of the first things the missionaries undertook was Christian education, and as soon as possible this was offered to girls a^ well as to boys. In the beginning, parents had to be hired to permit their children, and especially their daughters, to attend school, and one worthy gentleman of Calcutta exclaimed, " They will be educating our cows next, now that they are trying to teach our girls." From small beginnings the work of Christian education for women has spread until schools are found in all mission fields. They range all the way from kinder- gartens and primary day schools up to colleges and professional schools. This is not to claim that all the schools which are called colleges are doing true college work, and it is to be doubted whether any such institution on the mission field offers four years of what American educators would regard as col- Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 15 lege work. Nevertheless, these schools are work- ing up towards it as rapidly as funds permit and as their constituents are prepared for such education. The latest missionary statistics do not accurately differentiate the students between the sexes and do not specify the schools which admit girls or women. All that can be asserted is that at the present time, in all mission fields, there are at least the following numbers of girls and women under instruction : In college and university classes 427 In theological and normal schools and classes . 3,256 In boarding and high schools 41,313 In industrial training schools and classes .... 5,414 In elementary and village schools 259,639 In kindergartens 1,751 In medical classes 136 In nurses' classes 515 Total 312,451* From these schools are being graduated year by year the women who become teachers in the Chris- tian schools, Bible women, wives of native Christian workers, and, in short, those who are destined to be leaders in the emancipation of their sex. No one who has seen these schools in operation can fail to be impressed by their value. Not that they are above criticism, any more than are similar schools in England or the United States. In those countries or among those classes where cleanliness of person and modesty of costume are not common, 1 Dennis, et al., op. tit., p. 83. Ii6 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands neatness and decency are so thoroughly inculcated that they become a part of the girls in after life. The contrast between an African woman, whose costume consists chiefly of grease and dirt, and the Christian schoolgirl can hardly be imagined ; it must be seen to be understood. I well remember our journey across Batakland in Sumatra. On the east of the Toba Sea the Bataks, especially the women, looked more animal than human. Here no Christian schools had been established. Then, as we journeyed west, we began to note a change until, when we had reached Silindong, which is thoroughly evangelized, the whole appearance was that of intelligent men and women. This latter effect of education is universal. The uneducated non-Christian woman has few interests outside of the home. Her intellectual life is almost negligible. Her Christian-trained sister, on the other hand, while no less devoted to her home, takes an intelligent interest in life and is in consequence a more efficient wife and mother. The vacant ex- pression has given place to one of alert intelligence. Their aesthetic sense is developed, and above all they are aroused morally, and made to realize that they are not things but self-respecting individuals, who are. as precious in God's sight as their fathers, brothers, or husbands. All schools, even the primary schools, have something of this effect, and the higher schools and colleges, like the girls' colleges in Smyrna, Cairo, Lucknow, Peking, Kobe, and Tokyo, — not to mention others, — are training Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 1 7 girls who can be leaders of their sex in the ef- fort to realize their inherent God-given possi- bilities. Not in all countries are the girls permitted to attend the ordinary school, and in India, for instance, even those who are permitted to enter must soon leave in order to found new homes. To meet the needs of such women, there are a few schools which admit girls without compelling them to violate the time-honoured customs of society. The principal means, however, of helping such social prisoners is through the labours of the unmarried evangelistic women missionaries and Bible women, who visit them in their homes and teach them regarding Christ and His message for womanhood. Beside this work of Christian education must be placed the example of the Christian home. While the relations between the members of a Christian household at times excite the disgust of prejudiced gentlemen of the old school, who claim that the Indian home, for example, is the most nearly per- fect home in the world, yet the power of the Chris- tian home is marked everywhere. There are argu- ments that may be adduced for a celibate missionary force, and they are not to be dismissed without con- sideration. Indeed, there may be circumstances under which the single missionary is more efficient than a married man. This is true particularly in pioneer work and amid unhealthy surroundings. But when all due allowance has been made, it yet remains that the Christian home is one of the most 1 18 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands powerful Christianizing influences in mission lands. In its peace, in the beauty of the relationships be- tween husband and wife and between parent and child, and in the whole atmosphere, there are ele- ments of purity and of uplift that no country ever knows apart from the influence of Christianity. A missionary in Tokyo declared some years since that many who did not know English had come to un- derstand and use the phrase " Christian home " as an expression for an ideal household. A few years ago a cultivated Christian woman went to China as a bride. After a short period, and before she had begun to do any real missionary work, her health failed and for years she hardly left her home. Yet at her death, it transpired that she had exerted a mighty influence over the whole region. Her patience in suffering, the peace and beauty of the home life, even the attractiveness of the home itself, had so impressed the servants and all who had occasion to enter the home, that they had spread the story far and wide. People had even peeped through the shutters into the house after dark, although only the servants were aware of it, in order to see something of this Christian home. The shut-in invalid had through the home been making the appeal of a Christlike life known to persons who might never hear a sermon. In addition to these two lines of approach, the missionary has often taken the lead in the agitation against the worst abuses of which woman is the victim and has succeeded in many instances in mit- Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 119 igating, if not in abolishing, some of the sad features of her social treatment. The effect of Western influence, missionary and other, upon the position of woman, has been marked, in some places revolutionary. A few instances from Africa and the Pacific Islands will indicate the direction and the degree of the progress. In Uganda it was formerly a source of shame for a man not to have a large num- ber of women to cultivate his land. Now it is a cause for shame to have more than one wife, and this is the direct result of Christian influence. In Khama's country, likewise, Christianity has stopped polygamy. Khama's wife is a queenly woman with all the grace of a princess, while her face reflects her beautiful Christian character. Her home, which she built with her own hands, is in native style, but is attractively decorated and is scrupulously neat. In the South Seas, where women were formerly downtrodden, they have become able to hold their own. The wives of the two most remarkable native missionaries sent to New Guinea were able to con- duct the Sunday and week-day services, preach ac- ceptably, and carry on the schools whenever their husbands were prostrated with fever. At the same time, they were good housewives. The difference between the home of a heathen Zulu and a Christian Zulu is like that between light and darkness. The number of the Zulu's wives is indicated by the number of huts within the kraal. Inside the hut there is neither light nor air, save 120 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands what can get in through the low door, or the vent hole for the smoke, which blackens everything. All clothing is discarded inside and the ground serves for chairs. Dogs and small domestic animals have free access to everything and there is nothing to be damaged among the simple storage and cook- ing utensils. The Christian home, on the other hand, is open to light and air. Compared with the hut, it is cleanliness itself. A few books, perhaps a sewing-machine and portable organ, not to mention the ordinary furnishings of a Christian home, are in evidence. Another field which the Christian home has en- tered is Sumatra. No longer do Christians live as they used to in common houses. In the village of Purba Saribu, which had hardly been touched by the Gospel, we saw the old home life in full swing. From eight to twelve families lived in a single house, rectangular in shape, without partitions, each family being assigned to a certain section of the floor on either side of the open passageway, which extended from end to end. The four corners were the honourable places, in a certain fixed order. There was no chance for privacy save that furnished by the semi-darkness. The Christians, on the other hand, live in comfortable dwellings, one family to a house. The effect is the same whether in Sumatra, Zulu- land, Bechuanaland, or Uganda. The Christian home is unique and attests the power of Chris- tianity. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 2 1 The position of woman likewise changes. A traveller passing along the paths in parts of Africa is able not only to tell from the appearance whether a village is Christian or heathen, but often also to gauge accurately the religion of the passers-by. If one sees a family walking along the trail or road with the man carrying the bundles, one can safely conclude that he is a Christian, especially if his wife is with him and is treated as his equal. The non-Christian would naturally stalk on ahead and leave his wife, that is, his servant, to manage the baggage and supervise the children as best she could. Such an incident is typical of the new status which Christianity accords to woman. These are instances of the change in regions where Christianity has had an effect quantitatively greater than it has had in a country like India, where the vast majority are still beyond the direct and positive influence of the Gospel. Qualitatively, however, the change in India is equally great, per- haps even greater, and it has spread far beyond circles which are even remotely identified with Christianity. Take, for example, the matter of the creation of a public sentiment that demands a change. Such statements as these from influential native sources are indications of what Christian influences are doing : " Nor can a people who treat their women as if they were intended for no higher duties than the personal service of their husbands, and who heart- 122 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands lessly consign their unfortunate widows to a lot of perpetual privation, show much chivalry, generosity, sympathy with the weak, self-sacrifice, dignity of family life." ■ The Hindu is one of the most influential journals in South India. It is in no sense a Christian organ, and yet as long ago as September, 1888, it was publishing such statements as this : " There is one evil which is a standing hindrance to reforms of every kind, and if that is remedied the natural aptitudes of the nation will receive an unchecked stimulus towards development in all directions. We mean the present degraded condi- tion of our women. ... It will be no patriot- ism but foolish and ruinous vanity to assert that women in India are now in that condition which enables them in other countries to exert vast in- fluence on the character and life of the nation as well as of the individual. The hard and unreason- able marriage laws, their seclusion and their igno- rance have made them entirely unfit for the exercise of that elevating and chastening privilege which is theirs by nature. The character of the nation is formed by its youths, and the character of the youths is formed at home by their mothers. . . . If our country too should produce its patriots, warriors and statesmen, our mothers should receive a different training and should be given a different lot from what are deemed to be appropriate to them at present. The kitchen would cease to be their 1 Chintamani, op. cit. f p. 347. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 123 world, the priests should cease to be their moral preceptors; cruel marriage laws should cease to rob them of their youth, and their minds should be opened by a high and liberal education." ■ These reformers recognize the impossibility of raising a nation by improving the condition of only one-half of the population. A member of the Im- perial Legislative Council of Madras declared : " One serious drawback ... is that in these . . . matters the effort has been, almost solely, on the part of males ; and it is a feeling which I cannot get rid of, that, so long as this is the case, so long shall we be working as with a lever without the fulcrum. A good percentage or a strong contingent of self-reliant, self-respecting and — let me add — self-assertive womanhood is what I look upon as that fulcrum ; and it is my convic- tion that, with them for co-workers and — if I may say so — for active and belligerent malcontents, the rate and amount of success ought to astound the sceptic and sanguine alike." 2 With such a change in public sentiment, it naturally follows that there has been progress in the removal of disabilities. Woman in the old days was kept in utter ignorance. To-day the leaders are seeing the importance, yes, the necessity, of giving her an education. Statistics for 1911, al- ready quoted, gave the number of schools for females as 15,038 and the number of female scholars 1 Murdoch, op. cit., p. 1 et seq. * Chintamanij op. cit. } p. 29. 124 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands as 873,53s. 1 These figures indicate to what extent India is beginning to move in the direction of education for all her women. Even the Moslems in India are awaking to this necessity, and they are securing schools for their daughters. To be sure, the motive may not always be the highest. Thus, in a city of north India there was an Indian gentleman of the highest social standing whom I met in 1908. He had been a leader in an agitation which resulted in the city's opening a high grade school for girls. A most excellent step this was, but after the school was running and was being patronized by the best families, the gentle- man gave away the secret. He had held advanced ideas concerning the education of girls and had been scored by his less progressive friends for sending his daughters to school. He resolved to get his revenge. He knew that if the municipality should open a school, all these men would patronize it. Hence, as a member of the municipal government, he put the measure through, largely in order that he might have the satisfaction of sitting in his home and watching the daughters of his detractors pass by on their way to school. Thus do various motives cooperate in bringing in the new day. Another evil which has been attacked by re- formers, missionary and Indian, has been that of the marriage age and the age of consent. In this mat- ter the native Christian community has been a standing protest against too early marriages, for Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 125 they have not married their daughters so early as the non-Christians. All progress in the education of woman tends to postpone the date of marriage. A Hindu reformer stated some years since that in the peninsula of India the age at which the Brahmans married their daughters thirty years be- fore had been from seven to eight ; within that period it had been pushed up to from ten to twelve ; and some had even delayed the marriage beyond the age of twelve and done it without in- curring any reproach. In 1889, the Bombay Social Conference recommended that the penal code be ameuded so as to protect all girls, whether married or unmarried, until they reached the age of twelve, a violation to be punishable as a felony. This be- came the law two years later. The Maharajah of Mysore, the second in importance among the native states, had a law enacted in 1893 that a girl below eight or a boy below fourteen was to be regarded as an infant, and any person who caused, aided, or abetted the marriage of such an infant was to be imprisoned for not more than six months or fined not more than Bs. 500, or both. The same penalty was prescribed for a man above eighteen who should marry an infant girl. A man over fifty who mar- ried a girl under fourteen was to be liable to two years' imprisonment. From that day to this, the agitation has been kept up, and progress has been made in the direction of raising the marriage age to a decent point. How slow it has been may be surmised from the 126 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands reception given two bills introduced in 1898 into the legislative council of the Madras Presidency. One made a man liable to criminal prosecution for violating an age of ten for girls ; the other pre- scribed imprisonment or fine as a penalty for violat- ing an age limit of eight. These were strenuously opposed because they were thought to be too far in advance of public sentiment. The Parsees have secured special legislation, mak- ing fourteen the legal age for them. The Brahma- Sainaj, in 1872, secured a law establishing the ages of eighteen and fourteen as the marriage age, and requiring the written consent of the parents for the marriage of any person under twenty-one. This whole agitation was started in 1856 by Dr. Che vers, who showed the inadequacy of the protec- tion afforded child wives. Matters came to a crisis in 1890, when a little girl of twelve died in hor- rible agony because of the treatment given her by her husband, who was imprisoned for a year. The abolition of sati was due to the efforts initiated by William Carey. As early as 1799, he entered an energetic protest against its farther toleration by the government. Had there not been a change in governors, sati would have been abolished in 1808. The first regulations restricting the practice were passed in 1812 and 1817, but it was not until 1829 that Lord Bentinck issued an order which declared sati to be culpable homicide, and threatened severe penalties on all who encour- aged it or in any way assisted at the ceremony. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 1 27 Carey absented himself from church one Sunday morning in order the sooner to translate Lord Ben- tinck's order and have it issued, lest any delay might sacrifice a widow's life. This act of 1829 applied only to British India. As late as 1880 isolated cases of sati were heard of. ISTo sooner was the abolition regulation of 1829 promulgated than in Bengal a monster petition, representing some of the best families and containing 18,000 names, was presented for its withdrawal. In all this agitation Carey and the missionaries had the active assist- ance of natives, especially of the pioneer Hindu religious reformer, a Brahman, Kaja Earn Mohan Koy. The next object of attack was the prohibition of widow remarriage. Under the lead of a native re- former, this agitation was maintained until, in 1856, the Widow Marriage Act was passed, which legalized the status of Hindu widows who had con- tracted a second marriage and declared their chil- dren legitimate. At the same time, the law did not protect them in their civil rights. They still forfeited all property inherited from the husband and were not afforded sufficient protection for their own private property. The first public widow marriage ceremony in Bengal was performed in Calcutta in 1865. Four years later came the first such marriage in Bombay. Since that day progress has been made, but even now the cases are rare enough to excite much attention. Thus, along these various lines, there has been 128 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands marked improvement in public sentiment and in the legal status of women in India. The women of China are coming to the front. The impression made by the Christian home has been profound. The Christians are not permitted to marry their daughters to men of bad character, to dispose of them as second wives or concubines, or to force them upon men to whom for moral reasons the girls feel an antipathy. A Christian who abuses his wife, divorces her for more than one cause, or takes a second wife, incurs church discipline. Non-Christians have been impressed with the desirability of securing Christian girls for wives. The influence of the Christian family in purifying and elevating social life has been ac- knowledged, for instance, by non-Christians in Hong Kong. A missionary in Shantung testified, long before the present movements began, that it was common to hear outsiders comment admiringly upon the improvement in the Christian women. As a result, native ideas regarding the rights and capabilities of women steadily changed. Some years ago, a man in Hankow came to a missionary and brought him his idol, the god of riches, with the explanation : " We never have any peace in our house. I am told if I give up idols and be- lieve on Jesus my home will become a little heaven on earth. Here is my idol." Christian women have come to the front as lead- ers. There are several fine Christian women Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 129 physicians, the first of whom was graduated in New York at the head of her class in 1885. The example of the Christians in securing education for their daughters has influenced leading women in China. One sister of Prince Su some years ago opened the first school for girls in Mongolia, while the other sister started the first purely Chinese school for girls in Peking, which soon had nearly one hundred pupils from the highest families. She undertook the work in spite of opposition and ridicule, and declared to the missionary ladies that but for them this school would never have been. The first woman's daily paper in the world was started by a Chinese woman of means in Peking, and was published until funds failed. Women's clubs have been opened. One of these, in Ningpo, has had a flourishing existence and has discussed such weighty and knotty problems as that of foreign loans for railway development. In Peking, under the lead of lady missionaries, lectures were given for the benefit of the women of the aristocracy, and this did much to open them to Christian in- fluence as well as prepare them for the part they were destined to play in the New China. In the revolution which overthrew the Manchus, and which was so largely the work of the young men who had studied in Japan or in the United States or Europe, the young women were actively interested. The students in the Girls' College at Ponasang, Foochow, were on fire with zeal. Several of them joined the " Dare-to-Die Society," 130 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands and started for the north to die for their country. "When they were urged to return home, they de- clared : " We are Christians. Jesus died to save His people, and we will die for China." In these last few years, there has appeared in China, and to a less extent in other Oriental countries, the New Woman, who is even more outre in China than in America. Women have come to a new conscious- ness of their power. They have been given greater liberty and have tasted the sweets of it, and a few have desired to follow in the footsteps of their Western sisters and live an independent life. Unfortunately, they have not grown into this liberty gradually and so they tend to confuse it with license. Friends in China have given me in- stances that fell under their own observation of the boldness of these new women, which would be marked and would excite unfavourable comment even in one of our cities. Judge of the impression produced by such actions in the midst of a most conservative civilization, in which for generations women have been kept in the background as in- feriors. Such tendencies are apt to bring into re- proach the whole cause of progress along Western lines, and the work of education to which such re- sults are attributed. Needless to add, these ex- treme cases are not Christian women. The change in Japan with regard to the position of woman has been very marked. We have already noted that Miss Japan is being educated alongside of her brother. Women are beginning to assert Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 131 their rights as women. In 1902, they began to pro- test against the use of the humiliating word sho, concubine. Partly because foreigners are begin- ning to read and interpret Japanese books, the word was purposely omitted from the statute entitled " Family Law." The difficulty is that this word is rooted in Japanese customs so firmly that, as writers declare, " really there is no other way for a woman to talk of herself." Even the abuse of men, which is indulged in by a certain type of the New Woman, has spread to Japan. Last year a woman's magazine was started by discontented women, the contents of which are of this nature. This is but one sign of the revolt of the women of Japan, which will have serious consequences unless Christian standards can be enforced. 1 1 " It is a statement heard again and again that the influence of the new life has been detrimental for women morally and spiri- tually. People who remember the old regime are unanimous in deploring the lowering effects of the present conditions on both men and women, the change being shown perhaps in women more conspicuously of late than in men. The criticisms made are that women have grown less refined, less faithful to duty, that they are selfish, luxurious, vain and fond of display. The simple Spartan life of the past has vanished, and nothing of true worth has taken its place. But the careful thinker will add, no doubt, that the present apparent retrograde condition is probably temporary. Women who in the past were kept from contact with the world are now meeting all its allurements ; whereas little power was in their hands, and they were fully protected from temptation, they are now obliged through circumstances to act for themselves. The old-time conservative training and teaching do not touch the new conditions of life. . . . Im- pulses are now being set free which were held in check in the 132 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands During the war between Japan and China, the value of the Christian home was impressed upon the nation. For nearly three years the soldiers were separated from their wives and families. Many wives, it was reported, brought disgrace upon their families, and even used the savings sent them for abominable purposes. During this period, the Christian wives of the Christian soldiers kept their homes pure, performed their duties towards their husbands' parents, and attended to the education of their children. Regarding not a single one was there any report of misconduct. Concubinage used to be respectable. Now it is coming to hide itself. Formerly husband and wife were never seen to- gether. Now they may be observed walking and past by external forces, while there is yet lacking judgment and knowledge of true values, and restraint from within, to guide the awakened mind. . . . "Theoretically, the ordinary woman not under Christian teachings is now taught, in schools and by masters and parents, ethical standards not greatly changed from past ones. She is more or less all her life to be under the guidance of others, she is not to be given the freedom of thought or action which Western women take for granted, her life is to be in the home and for the family ; but in reality the life she often has to lead, through new conditions or from financial neoessity, calls for more recog- nition of her worth and individuality. The old teachings alone are not sufficient for the future Japanese woman,!; there must be more acknowledgment of her place and true value. ******* "What part has Christianity among these conditions ? The answer is almost too apparent to need statement. The restraints formed under the feudal days, together with many of the teach- ings of the past, are going rapidly by with the changing times. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 133 talking together and even riding in the same jin- ricksha, so it is declared. In all this movement, the sane leadership has been largely in the hands of the Christian women of these lands, who have revealed to the world both the beauty and the power of an educated and con- secrated womanhood. Take India as an example. The Christian community has produced a group of women who have shown the possibilities of develop- ment inherent in Indian womanhood. The In- dian Christian Messenger, a few years ago, printed the following paragraph : " Who was the first Indian lady that graduated in Arts ? Miss Chundra M. Bose, a Christian. "Who was the first Indian lady that graduated in medicine ? They will mostly pass away with the older generation, of whom few remain. The old religions have little ethical influence and only a feeble hold at best on modern men and women. Chris- tianity will not replace them but rather fill a void. Japan is singularly ready for all the ethical ideals of Christianity in all points, with the exception perhaps of those concerning patriotism and filial duty. Christianity especially fills the needs of women at this time of awakening. The glamour of Western life and the freedom of the women of the West attract them. They seek it without a knowledge of those deeper things that make freedom a blessing. Buddhism gave to woman humility, but at the price of self-effacement and degradation, not by the teaching of lofty ideals for her. It took away her individuality, even her soul. . . . Christianity places woman on a level with man ; her individuality and worth in herself is recognized and full scope is given to her powers. At the same time by teaching self-sacrifice and service founded on the higher, broader ideal of love for others, it replaces the narrow old standard of self-sacrifice for the 134 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Miss Mary Mitter (now Mrs. Nundy), a Christian. Who was the first Indian lady that graduated in law ? Miss Cornelia Sorabji, a Christian. Who was the first Indian lady that encompassed the wide, wide world, both old and new, in search of knowledge and means for the amelioration of the condition of millions of Indian widows ? Pundita Ramabai, a Christian. Who are as yet the only Indian ladies whose writings have earned the approbation of European critics ? Miss Toru Dutt and Mrs. S. Satthianadhan, Christian ladies. Who have rendered signal help towards making an ac- complished fact that eminently Christian movement for which millions of Indian females bless the honoured name of Lady Dufferin ? The Indian Christian girls. Confining ourselves to our own North-West Provinces and Oudh, we may well con- tinue : Who was the lady that first graduated as M. A. ? Miss S. Chuckerbutty, a Christian. Who was the lady that attained a position hitherto un- surpassed by any lady candidate amongst M. A. candidates of the Allahabad University? Miss Lilavati Rapheal Singh, a Christian. Who was the first lady in Bengal that graduated in two subjects good of one's family. While not laying such stress on efforts for family, olan or country, it inculcates, with a higher motive and on broader lines, the efforts to be made for humanity in general. Through its ethical and philanthropic side, Christianity makes the strongest appeal to our women, an appeal which meets a wonder- ful response in the hearts of sensitive natures, made singularly receptive by the discipline of the past." — Miss Ume Tsuda, " Int. Rev. of Missions," April, 1913, p. 295 et seq. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 135 with the degree of M. A. ? Mrs. Nirmala Shome, a Christian." 4 A word or two may well be added about a few of the Indian Christian women, to make clearer the significance of their work. The first Mrs. Satthi- anadhan was the daughter of an early Brahman convert to Christianity. When the Madras Medical School opened its doors to women, she left her home in the Bombay Presidency to take up this work as the pioneer Indian woman in the study of medicine. In spite of the difficulty of facing the prejudices of Indian society, she entered the school and was ^enthusiastically welcomed by the men students. On account of her health, she had to stop her course before graduation. She married and produced well- known writings in which she gave brilliant de- scriptions of the life of Indian women. She was also prominent in philanthropic work. The hymn, " In the secret of His presence how my soul delights to hide," is the production of an Indian Christian, Miss Goreh. The Sorabji family is one of the most famous of the Christian fam lies in India. The father was one of the few Christian Parsees. A useful minister of the Gospel, he is best known as the father of his brilliant daughters. One of these married an Englishman and used to delight Queen Yictoria by her rendering of Persian songs. Another was the only woman of the Orient in the Parliament of Ee- ligions. Another became a distinguished surgeon ; tennis, J. S., op. cit., Vol. II, p. 188. 136 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands a fourth became an artist who exhibited at Paris and London ; while the most famous of all, Miss Cornelia, is a prominent legal light. At the age of twenty-one, she had graduated from college and was lecturing to a class of men at the Gujarat College, Ahmedabad, on English literature and language, and later was Acting Professor of English. Her success in teaching men marked an epoch in the history of women in India. She graduated in law at Oxford and was admitted as a barrister. The greatest modern Indian woman is Pundita Ramabai, whose noble work for the widows of India and now, also, for thousands of orphans, is too well known to require description. At one time neutral in her work as regards Christianity, she is now aggressively Christian and is respected by all classes. A Christian community that can produce such women as these is to be reckoned with in the days to come. The large majority of the Japanese women in their prime who are prominent in Christian work were educated in Christian schools. Even some women, not themselves Christians, who are promi- nent in public work, were thus trained. The mission schools were the pioneers in the education of the girls of Japan, but they no longer take the lead. This is not due to any decrease in their efficiency, but to the remarkable improvements in the government schools. The result is that the next generation of leading women will not come from Christian schools in any such proportions. Progress in the Ideals of Family Life 137 What the effect of this diminution in the number of Christian-trained women will be no one can forecast. The leading woman educator of Japan, Miss Tsuda, quoted above, who has the highest grade Japanese school for girls in the country, a school with gov- ernment recognitiou, is herself an earnest Christian. Any one who has visited the Orient and seen the difference between the Christian and the non-Chris- tian homes, who has contrasted the expression upon the faces of the women whom Christ has made free with that upon the faces of those who are still without Him, will need no further argument to prove the success of the work of Christian missions. Had there been no other effect, the undertaking would have paid for itself. As it is, the women, who hold the key to the Orient, are being reached, and if the Church at home will do its part, more than half the women of the world will before many generations cease to be a drag upon social progress and will become a force speeding on the emancipation of their sisters and the uplift of the great nations on the continents of Africa and Asia. IV PEOGEESS IN ETHICAL IDEALS AFAIE-MIISTDED man approaches the sub- ject of ethical progress in mission lands with hesitation, because he realizes how great is the danger of misrepresentation. It is so easy for the outsider to misunderstand what he sees. It is so easy for the best observer to look at but one side of the picture. The general method in the past has too often been to describe the darkei phases of life in non-Christian lands, their crue\ customs, or their lack of such virtues as honesty and purity, and then to contrast with these the ideals of Christian nations. This is unfair for two reasons : it overlooks the brighter and better side of non-Christian life ; and at the same time it forgets that in our own civilization the Christian ideals are but imperfectly realized. On the other hand, one who is prejudiced against missionary work dwells upon all the attractiveness, to him, of the Orient, the beautiful thoughts that here and there find ex- pression in their sacred writings, and the charm of life in the East. He contrasts with these the cru- dity and cruelty of Western life, and then concludes that the West has nothing to teach the East. Similarly, the Oriental traveller or student comes 138 Progress in Ethical Ideals 139 to this country, sees the industrial and moral con- ditions in our cities, the openness of vice, the cor- rupting influence of some of our amusements, and he returns convinced that their own customs and institutions need only minor modifications. What shall one say as between these two dia- metrically opposed conclusions ? Neither is just. It is not fair to compare the best of one country or civilization with the worst of another country or civilization. For instance, I had a friend in India whose acquaintance with Americans had been confined to missionaries and to such travellers as Dr. Charles Cuthbert Hall and President Henry Churchill King, while the Englishmen he had known had been army officers and civilians. Needless to say, the erroneous conclusion he drew was that Americans are far superior in every re- spect to the British. The best of the East should be compared with the best of the West, the worst of the Orient with the worst of the Occident, or, better still, the general level of the standards in the two parts of the world should be set over against one another. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that, while the vice in our cities should make Chris- tians ashamed of their failure to eradicate this evil, yet it exists in spite of our Christian public senti- ment, which is constantly striving to suppress it. On the other hand, this same evil in India is sanc- tified by religion, and its worst phases are con- nected with the religious life and worship of certain 140 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands sections of the people. The Western nations are constantly struggling to suppress thievery, but graft has been taken for granted in China. Stealing is a recognized profession in India, and it is only under the spur of Christian and Western influence that any very earnest attempt has been made to eradi- cate it. Hence, while scrupulous fairness must be shown towards these peoples, and while it must be admitted with shame that Christianity has not yet succeeded in raising the ethical ideals of Europe and America to a truly Christian level, yet it is still true, as this chapter and the last should show, that the nations which have gone the farthest in adopting the principles of Jesus are, ethically speaking, immeasurably ahead of those that have not followed Him. The ethical precepts and ideals of a nation like China are high. The same may be said of the best portions of the literature of a country like India, although much of the literature of India would never be tolerated in an English translation. The real difference in ethical level is seen in the social and individual standards as embodied in actual life. One glaring instance is the position accorded to woman, as set forth in the last chapter. The root of the difficulty is the fact that under the non-Christian religions, — and even, it must be confessed, under a dead and formal Christianity, — there is a divorce between religion and ethics. This does not mean that these religions do not enforce a certain moral code. They do. For example, the Progress in Ethical Ideals 141 belief, prevalent in China, that the spirit of a mur- dered man returns to plague the murderer, deters many a man from making way with one whom he dislikes. In such matters as sex relations, certain rules may be enforced with great rigour, even though the standard, as Westerners regard it, may be very low. At the same time, these religions are relatively powerless to transform lives, and in many cases there is an absolute divorce between ethics and religion, the most religious persons being the most corrupt. Even under Roman Catholic Chris- tianity, where it has lost its vitality, as it so largely has in the countries of South America, this is true, and the priests have at times been a stench in the nostrils of all decent people. The open violation by many Buddhist priests in Japan of their vow of chastity, even their frequenting of houses of prosti- tution, has been notorious. A famous Buddhist priest whom I met personally in Burma was not ashamed to confess himself guilty of such deeds. Similar oifenses occur in India. Some of the holy men are sincerely desirous of attaining the higher life, and live pure, though selfish, lives. But others are unspeakably corrupt and have reached the point where it is believed that they are guilty of no sin when they violate every rule of purity or decency. What else could be expected in a coun- try where the amours of the gods are portrayed in sculpture, painting, and story, and are familiar to the very children in the street ? Prostitution is the handmaid of religion in India. 142 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands To be sure, one finds in both India and Japan the doctrine of salvation by faith, but it is radically different from the Christian belief bearing the same name. Not only is faith regarded as a meritorious work, but, according to some schools, it makes no difference what content the faith has. Believe in any god or in any formula, and that faith will save you, no matter what your life may be. Some of the Japanese have been driven to take refuge in faith as the means of salvation by their belief that their sins are ineradicable, and in the hope that they may thus attain future happiness without hav- ing to rid themselves of their sinful practices. It would be unfair to say that Islam teaches no ethical standards, but it is not unfair to claim that it not only tolerates but caters to ethical standards for which no enlightened religion can stand. The distinctive glory of Christianity is that it contains a dynamic which can transform the man who loves sin into the man who loathes sin, and still more into the man who has broken with sin and is living a new life. It also proclaims and maintains that any religion is unworthy of the name, unless it manifests itself in a changed life, which is constantly rising ethically. It is sometimes claimed by the critics of missions that the acceptance of Christianity means an ethical deterioration and that the only natives one can trust are the raw heathen. This criticism is espe- cially frequent in Africa. There are reasons, which might be given, that would explain why this Progress in Ethical Ideals 143 criticism may at times seem to have some justifica- tion. They do not, however, disprove the claim that the members of the Christian community, as a rule, have higher ethical standards than the same class of people among the non-Christians, and that usually this standard is the highest that can be found anywhere in the country. This is in spite of the fact that these Christians have often come from the lower ranks of society, whose standards may be lower than those of the higher classes. There is everywhere evidence of the ethical progress that has been made under the influence of Christianity, a progress that is now extending far beyond the Christian community and is produc- ing a real ethical revival in the countries of Asia. Intemperance has been a serious vice among the peoples of Africa and the South Seas. Most of the primitive races have their own intoxicating liquors for use at social gatherings, but the effect of these, bad as it is, does not compare for a moment with the demoralization produced among such races by the strongest distilled liquors. These were practi- cally forced by Western traders upon these people. Against this vice the native Christian rulers and the Christian communities have taken a decided stand. Khama, the great chief of Bechuanaland, South Africa, used all his influence to exclude im- ported liquors from his territory. In an address delivered in London, he declared : " It were better for me that I should lose my country than that it 144 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands should be flooded with drink. ... I dread the white man's drink more than all the assegais of the Matabele, which kill men's bodies, and it is quickly over ; but drink puts devils into men and destroys both bodies and souls forever. ... I pray your Honour never to ask me to open even a little door to drink." * The result is that, except at the rail- way stations, no such liquors can be obtained. He attempted with equal earnestness to stop the mak- ing and drinking of the native beer. His reasons were that it debauched the people, led them to waste their time, and kept the children out of school. The intervention of British officials, which was probably due to some misunderstanding, forced him to stop these efforts or run the risk of the with- drawal from under his dominion of all the beer- loving people. The very Sunday I spent at his capital, Serowe, he initiated a new attempt to curb 'this evil, with what success I have never learned. In New Zealand a young Maori chief was a leader in urging that " no intoxicating liquor be sold or given to any man of the native race, and that no license be renewed or fresh license be granted within a mile of Maori-land." Thirty chiefs and sixty representative men supported this petition. In the Zulu Mission in South Africa every church- member is expected to take the pledge of total abstinence. The Christians around Lake Nyasa agreed together, "we will neither make beer nor drink it." In twelve villages in Formosa, where 1 Vid. Dennis, J. S., op. tit., Vol. II, p. 107. Progress in Ethical Ideals 145 churches had been planted, the change was so great that the heathen Chinese declared, " The aborigines are now men and women." In Assam and Burma nearly every Christian is a total abstainer. In a country like Japan, also, Christians have been leaders in fighting intemperance, although now the work is by no means confined to them. There are about seventy-five temperance societies in Japan, including Korea, and nearly twenty more among Japanese elsewhere. The active membership is about eight thousand. The Japanese branch of the World's Women's Christian Temperance Union has some three thousand members in more than seventy branches. 1 Again, take such a matter as human sacrifice. For the purpose of averting calamity or securing good harvests, victory in war, or success in any new undertaking, it has been customary among some peoples to offer human sacrifices. Closely connected with the animistic beliefs so prevalent among all primitive peoples is the custom of killing human beings to serve as attendants to deceased persons of dignity and station. This degenerated until, among some savage tribes, human sacrifices became a part of their ceremonial etiquette. The Yedas and other sources reveal the fact that in the early days of India such sacrifices were com- mon. The particular kind of human being re- quired was specified in the case of no less than one 1 "Japan Year Book, 1912," p. 232. 146 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands hundred and seventy-nine different gods. In Assam, not long since, children were offered as a sacrifice for the forgiveness of sins. The Shans in upper Burma believe that human sacrifices bring good harvests and that certain spirits can be ap- peased in no other way. The guardian spirit of one of their ferries required such a sacrifice an- nually, and a Chinaman was preferred. Yery con- veniently, the spirit used to capsize the boat at the proper moment and thus secure his victim. Before 1837, in a single city in east central India, one hundred and fifty human sacrifices were annually offered. In 1892 the head man of a village came to the missionary, requesting him to intercede with the government for permission to offer a living child in sacrifice for the purpose of removing dis- ease from their homes and bringing rain. During thirty years, a king in the Society Islands sacrificed as many as two thousand such victims. Most public occasions, even the launching of a new canoe, required such offerings. Africa is the scene of some of the worst of such atrocities. The resting place of the body of a chief was often a bed of living women. Forty victims were killed within two days after the death of one king. When King M'tesa of Uganda rebuilt his father's tomb, the throats of two thousand victims were cut at the grave. A chief in the Congo region, whose hand was diseased, killed thirty of his subjects because he thought they were eating it. The brother of another king lay unburied for Progress in Ethical Ideals 147 two months because they could not capture and kill enough people to satisfy their superstitions. One hundred had been killed, and another hundred were required. One beast in Africa killed four hundred virgins and mixed their blood with the mortar in order to get the right shade for the painted stucco of his palace. A whole quarter of his city was assigned to his executioners. Against such barbarous customs the Christian forces have waged relentless warfare. The British troops destroyed the shambles of the last named king and took him prisoner. The British Govern- ment has entirely suppressed such sacrifices in India, unless there is an occasional secret offering in spite of the vigilance of the police. The native leaders of Uganda are dominated by Christian principles, and under their influence human sacri- fices are a thing of the past in that country. In Old Calabar, the missionaries fought the custom with all their might and finally won the day. In 1850 two chiefs had died and several wives and slaves had been killed. Then a missionary ap- pealed to the king, and he and his chiefs were in- duced to consent to the passage of a law abolishing all executions except for crime. The people were rallied to the support of this law and organized themselves into a " Society for the Suppression of Human Sacrifices in Old Calabar." The law was passed and its enforcement gradually improved until human sacrifices became unknown. The great French missionary Coil lard induoed 148 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands the notorious King Lewanika in Zambesia to abol- ish, the rite of human sacrifice. In the Yoruba Mission of the Church Missionary Society the progress was gradual. First, the public parading of the victims was discontinued. Then public opinion came to regard it as wanton cruelty to sacrifice men and women, since no beneficial re- sults were secured. This drove the practice under cover, until it finally ceased, unless in rare in- stances. Thus, wherever Christian influence is dominant, human sacrifices have disappeared. Cannibalism is another evil that has prevailed widely among primitive peoples. The chief basis of this custom was the animistic belief that by eating the bodies of slain enemies the victors ac- quired the strength and courage of the victims. Dr. Warneck instances cases where triumphant warriors, as a matter of principle, devoured human bodies, even though they so disliked the taste that it caused nausea. Again, the lack of animal flesh for food may have helped to establish this custom, which, in not a few cases, degenerated until it be- came a matter of mere beastly enjoyment. In Fiji the people ate human flesh from the love of it, to express vengeance, and to excite terror. Human flesh was regarded as an essential part of any feast for the entertainment of visiting chiefs. One chief used to return from his tributary islands with the bodies of infants hanging from the yard- arms of his boat. Another registered the number Progress in Ethical Ideals 149 of bodies he had eaten by setting up a stone on end for each body. A missionary counted eight hun- dred and seventy-two such stones. It is to the credit of North and South Africa that there has been little cannibalism in those parts. Not so in the Congo region. One fortified city there with four gates had the approach to each paved with human skulls, most of them the relics of cannibalism. In one pavement there were more than two thousand skulls. In this country, that of the Batelas, every person who became old was killed and eaten by his children. A missionary in Old Calabar reported one region where slaves were sold for food in a regular cannibal market. Cannibalism has rapidly disappeared before Christian influence. Earatonga, one of the Hervey Islands, was transformed by two native teachers within the two years 1823-1825. Fiji has been Christianized. Lifu, one of the Loyalty Islands, was converted by a native evangelist from Eara- tonga. He was condemned to be eaten by his hear- ers, but within ten years cannibalism had been stamped out. The Maoris of New Zealand have been transformed and, within the range of Chris- tian influence, no cannibal Maori can be found, if there are any survivors anywhere. Yet these peo- ple in the old days not only feasted on slain enemies but specially fattened slaves for such feasts. In Africa the progress has been in the same direction. For example, Bishop Crowther reported a tribal war in which one hundred and fifty prisoners were 150 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands taken. The heathen chiefs received one hundred and thirty-nine, and these were all eaten. The re- mainder were assigned to Christian chiefs, and their lives were spared. Infanticide is another heathen custom that has taken its toll of human life. This is true of Africa. In one town in East Africa the missionaries knew of at least forty children who had been killed at or shortly after birth within a single year, 1895. In extenuation of some of these murders in Africa may be cited the belief that, unless a child about whom there is some untoward circumstance is killed, the father will die. Some people regard the cutting of a lower tooth first as such an evil omen, while other tribes regard the cutting of an upper tooth as rightly punishable with death. On the West Coast the mother of twins is disgraced for life. In other regions their birth is a cause of great rejoicing. In Old Calabar the king of Creek Town was in- duced in 1851 by missionary influence to pass a law pronouncing the murder of twins or their mother a capital crime. It was added, however, that since such mothers and children could not be permitted to live in the town, a place outside should be found for them. By 1878 these women were given full liberty of visiting the town and trading there with- out molestation. In the same region, twins were born to a Christian couple in 1894, and, thanks to the influence of Christianity, were regarded as a source of great delight. Infanticide used to be prev- Progress in Ethical Ideals 151 alent in Madagascar; the Christian communities have blotted it out from their midst. In the Fiji Islands infanticide was added to cannibalism. Mothers themselves often strangled their children, especially the girls, and the early missionaries testi- fied that no less than two-thirds of the children were killed. Now these islands are one of the most law-abiding communities in the world. On the island of Mbau the stone, now hollowed out and used as a baptismal font, was formerly the place of slaughter for those who were to be eaten. Except in the Samoan Islands, infanticide was practiced throughout the small Pacific islands. Now, among all the Christians in these islands, the old custom is abhorred, and even where Christianity has only a partial hold, it has been much reduced. Cannibalism and human sacrifices are marks chiefly of savage society, but female infanticide has been common in many countries where in other re- spects there existed a high degree of civilization. The facts set forth in the third chapter go far to explain some of the reasons for this custom. Mothers who had come to loathe their own lot were unwilling that their daughters should suffer the same disabilities, while the great expense of bring- ing up and marrying a daughter led fathers to de- sire to escape this financial burden. A pagan woman in China expressed it thus : " A daughter is a troublesome and expensive thing anyway. Not only has she to be fed, but there is all the trouble of binding her feet, and of getting her betrothed, 152 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands and of making up her wedding garments ; and even after she is married off she must have presents made to her when she has children. Really, it is no won- der that so many baby girls are slain at their birth ! " ■ On the other hand, the necessity of having a son to perform the sacrifices and rites after the death of the father, confined the killing of in- fants to those of one sex. These statements apply to such countries as China and India. "Whatever the reasons, the facts are indisputable. One of the early missionaries in Foochow learned from the statements of natives that fifty and more years ago about sixty or seventy per cent, of the female infants in that region were drowned at birth, or destroyed in some other way. Special in- quiries for the province of Fukien gave an average of forty per cent, for the girls that were murdered. For the vicinity of Amoy, it varied from ten to eighty per cent. Even if we make a large allow- ance for exaggeration, the result is sufficiently ap- palling. A Christian woman in the adjoining province of Cheh-kiang confessed that before she became a Christian she had had five daughters, all of whom she had drowned, because she could not afford to bring them up. It is suggestive that in this region foot-binding is carried to an extreme, beyond that in most of the other provinces. This may account in part for the unusually high per- centage. Parents who did not kill their children might leave them in an exposed place, or they 1 Dennis, J. S., op. cit, Vol. I, p. 129. Progress in Ethical Ideals 153 might be cast into the baby tower. Such towers still exist, though they are supposedly used only for the disposition of the bodies of dead babies. I have myself visited one in the vicinity of Foochow, and a friend saw it when it was so full that little bun- dles were lying around outside. Christians have taken the lead in checking infanticide in China. The old pond in the centre of the city of Amoy, into which babies were thrown, gradually ceased to receive these deposits, and the pond long ago dried up. Some thirty-five years ago the protests of missionaries in Foochow led to the issuing of a proclamation that "the drowning of female infants is forever forbidden." Later edicts threatened severe punishment for those guilty of such murders. The result was a great diminution in this practice. At a later date, the imperial government issued edicts forbidding such murders, and opened foundling hospitals for girl babies. It must be said, however, that until recently some of these institutions were anything but well managed. Little attention was paid to cleanliness and sanitation. The children were at least horribly neglected and even worse charges have been brought against these hospitals. Others were fairly well conducted and the girls were trained for marriage. Now, however, a new day has dawned and, under Christian leadership, im- provements are being made. There was six years ago an admirable institution in Tientsin in charge of a Christian Chinese woman doctor. Mean- 154 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands time, this lack of care by the Chinese gave the missionaries an opportunity to supply the de- ficiency. Still more important, perhaps, has been a change in public sentiment. The example of the Chris- tians, among whom the practice of infanticide, of course, entirely disappeared, affected the out- siders. Some twenty years ago, a missionary in Hankow was surprised to find several baby girls in Chinese homes, and was told, "We see that the Christians are keeping their girls, and we think perhaps we might be able to do the same." Every- where the influence of Christian missions has tended to heighten the regard paid to women, to make more sacred the life of girls, and thus to lessen the evil of infanticide. In some parts of India, chiefly in the north, infanticide used to be most shockingly common. The Rajputs and other tribes were sinners above all others. In 1843, in one clan, the Chauhans, there was not a single female child. In 1836, a Eajput chief estimated that the annual slaughter of infant girls in the two provinces of Malwa and Rajputana amounted to not less than 20,000, and this in spite of an order of the British Government, issued in 1802, declaring infanticide murder, punish- able with death. An army officer, writing in 1818, stated that, among the children of eight thousand Rajputs, probably not more than thirty were girls. Ten years after the government had begun to sup- press the custom in Gujarat, only sixty-three girls Progress in Ethical Ideals 155 were known to have been saved. One Deputy- Inspector of Police was asked if he had any chil- dren. He replied, " Yes, I had the misfortune to have two daughters, but I have dispatched both of them. May God now bless me with a son ! " In one district, some years since, several hundred chil- dren were returned as having been carried off by wolves. Strangely enough, all of these were girls ! ■ In many sections, there has been no con- science in the matter ; the custom has been a matter of course. When Kathiawar, the peninsula west of Bombay, came under British rule, the Jains ex- pressly stipulated that no cattle should be killed for the use of British troops, but they had been practicing female infanticide for ages. The result of all this is seen in the proportion of the sexes. Thus, several years ago, in upper Burma, where woman is highly honoured, there were 102.79 girls to every 100 boys, practically the same as in Europe. Contrast with this the Indian aver- ages : for Quetta, in British Baluchistan, 69.78 ; Sindh, 83.17 ; Kajputana, 87.48 ; all India, 92.00. 2 In addition to this cold-blooded infanticide, there used to be another, a sacrificial infanticide, to ap- pease the deities. Thousands of children were cast into the Ganges to be devoured by crocodiles and sharks, while another method was discovered by William Carey, in 1794. A mother, who was too poor to go on a pilgrimage to a sacred river spot, 1 Fuller, Mrs. M. B., op. cti., p. 155 et seq. 2 Dennis, J. S., op. cit. f Vol. I, p. 133. 156 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands left her child in a basket, hanging from a tree, to be devoured by white ants. Against all jsuch practices the Christian forces, backed by the British Government, has waged de- termined warfare. The Christians themselves re- gard the custom with horror. The efforts of the government are hampered by the secrecy and inviolability of the Indian zenana, which make very difficult the detection and punishment of the murderers of children at home, and also by the fact that the father has from time immemorial possessed the power of life and death over his children. Mere neglect and exposure will accomplish the purpose, and an overt, positive act is almost neces- sary for action. As early as 1802, infanticide was declared murder, and the penal code of 1860 made it a crime. Meantime, government had succeeded in preventing the exposure of children at such festival spots as the mouth of the Ganges, where so many children and older people, too, had per- ished. This was done soon after Carey's gruesome discovery of the baby's bones in the basket. 1 Even these measures were not sufficient, and the Female Infanticide Act of 1870 required the regis- tration of all births. It went still further, and laid down the principle that the number of girls born must bear a certain proportion to that of the boys ! Thus, a tribe in which there were eighty boys un- der twelve and only eight girls would be at once suspected and put under strict surveillance. This 1 Vid. Smith, G., "Life of William Carey," p. 281 ct seq. Progress in Ethical Ideals 157 is no imaginary instance. In this effort to prohibit female infanticide, the British Government has had the support of the feudatory states, which have made similar prohibitions. In spite of these ef- forts, in 1897, a census of the Thakur villages in the North-West Provinces showed that eighty-five per cent, of the children were boys. Within a re- cent period of fifteen years, 12,542 cases of infanti- cide were officially reported, and in 1895 it was de- clared in the Indian Social Reformer that the cus- tom seemed largely on the increase in the Madras Presidency. All of which goes to show that a cus- tom that has prevailed for centuries is not often eradicated within a generation. Suicide is another evil of non-Christian society which Christianity has opposed. This practice is associated with the old ethical standards of the samurai class in feudal Japan, among whom loy- alty was regarded as the preeminent virtue, in com- parison with which life itself was of relatively lit- tle account. Out of loyalty to a leader, as a method of testifying to loyalty to one's beliefs, or even as a means of escaping the disgrace of failure, it was customary to commit suicide. The samurai, as all know, used their short sword for committing Kara- Jciri. This is one of the most painful of deaths, but they were trained to commit it without moving a muscle of the face. In these days suicide is com- mitted by others than the descendants of the sam- urai. Women commit it more frequently than 158 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands men. Students especially are given to ending life thus when they fail in their examinations ; and cer- tain beautiful spots in Japan, which are favourites with such visitors, have to be guarded to prevent their being used for such a purpose. The recent suicide of General Count Nogi and his wife is proof that the old standards of the samurai have not passed into oblivion, as is testified to, also, by the acclaim with which this deed was hailed by many. Suicide is not unknown in India, where a native journal declared that eighty per cent, of the suicides are married women. Suicide has also been com- mon in China. Here the object has been not merely to escape from the pains of this life, but to secure revenge. The Chinese believe that one who thus leaves this world may return as a spirit to haunt the life of the oppresser or betrayer. Many of the suicides have been women. Some of them have been driven to this by the betrayal of their virtue. Others have done it in order to escape cruel treatment or to avoid the necessity of being married. Favourite methods have been by the use of opium, by drowning, or by eating matches. As it is believed that any mutilation of the person re- ceived during this life must be retained in any fu- ture existence, these methods are favoured because they leave no mark. Christian missionaries rescue many suicides in China every year. The pessi- mism of heathenism, especially where Buddhist and Hindu views regarding transmigration have had influence, accounts for much of this, added to which Progress in Ethical Ideals 159 is the cruelty with which women are often treated. Then, too, there is the low estimate put upon life. Suicide is too common in the so-called Christian West for us to be too censorious upon this point. At the same time, the whole influence of Chris- tianity is against it, whether in America or in Japan. Christianity teaches the sacredness of hu- man life and the responsibility of each individual before his Creator, which cannot be avoided by self-destruction. Christianity teaches that there is a future life. It inculcates a spirit of faith and joy. It opposes the spirit of revenge. It does not reject loyalty, but it teaches that this should be loyalty to the highest ideals and should be exhibited by a life of service. The result is that Christians on the mission field rarely if ever commit suicide unless insane. Moreover, the Christian view of suicide is coming to prevail among non-Christians. Thus, Japan is seeking to prevent suicide and the second, sober thought of the nation disapproved of the act of General Count Nogi, even though it was strictly in accord with the old standards, which would have been accepted by all as proper two generations ago. Self-torture is another evil to be mentioned here. This is very common in connection with religious rites, especially in India and China. In India, there are bodies of ascetics who always remain standing ; others who keep their hands uplifted above their heads until they cannot be taken down ; others who hang head down from the bough of a tree ; and 160 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands others who are at all seasons surrounded by five fires, or who remain immersed in water, or under a jet of water from sunset to sunrise, etc. In con- nection with festivals in honour of the god Shiva, hook-swinging used to be in great vogue, the hooks being thrust through the muscles over the shoulder blades. Walking upon live charcoal, rolling upon " cushions " of thorns, lying upon beds of spikes, piercing the tongue and sides with heavy javelins, are other methods of self-torture. In China, the mutilation may be from religious motives, as in these examples from India; or it may be due to filial piety or even to the hope of gain. Dutiful sons and daughters cut off pieces of flesh to make soup for aged or sick parents. One famous case, which received the approbation of the government, was that of a Miss Wang. When she was thirteen and her betrothal was hinted at, she retired to her room, drew blood from her arm, and with it wrote a sentence declaring that she would remain single and care for her parents. Her father and second brother were killed in battle in 1852. As she could not leave her mother's side to follow her father's body to the grave, she gashed her arm and let the stream of blood mingle with the lacquer on the coffin. Ten years later she cut a piece of flesh from her left thigh to be administered to her mother during a serious illness. The mother re- covered. In less than a year the mother was sick again, and she repeated the operation with the right thigh. Later, when her mother was slightly Progress in Ethical Ideals 161 ill, she applied burning incense sticks to her arms and put the burned flesh with the medicine. Such conduct was regarded as most commendable and very unusual on the part of a mere woman. This whole practice of self-torture is contrary to the teachings of Christianity. No Christians ever indulge in it. As Christian influence spreads, it is seen that this is not the avenue of approach to God or a means of securing either peace or pardon. Keligion must be on an entirely different basis from this. Thus, Christianity cuts out the very basis on which religious self-torture rests. Some asceticism and torture have been for the sake of gain. Here the Christian doctrine, that every man should seek to support himself and those for whom he is responsible, and do it in a manner worthy of a child of God, takes away the basis for such asceticism. The whole Christian idea of the worth of the body as a temple of the Spirit makes its mutilation not only useless but sinful. Wherever Christian influence has gone, and through preach- ing or through education has dispelled the old superstitions, the practice of self-torture ceases. Even the agnosticism, which is invading these mis- sion lands, tends in the same direction. Asceticism and self-torture are losing their hold in the East. Cruel ordeals have been characteristic of savagery and even of more advanced civilizations. Certain primitive tribes of India used boiling oil. If any of the Kois died a natural death, it was thought to 162 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands be due to the machinations of an enemy. The most likely person was settled upon, the corpse was carried into his presence, and the accused was made to thrust his hand into boiling water or oil. Siam and neighbouring countries used such tests, some of them in an exceptionally cruel form. Poison was used in Madagascar. A well-known missionary of the early days declared that at that time three thousand perished thus every year. It was computed that one-tenth of the people were subjected to it at some time during their life, and that of these one-half perished. On the continent of Africa, the ordeal has been common and has persisted to the present day. Old Calabar used as the poison a powdered bean. A different poisonous drink was used in Nyasaland, and cases of its use were reported as late as 1893 by the Livingstonia missionaries. In one tribe several hundreds of persons have been compelled to take the poison at one time, of whom from thirty to forty died. In such cases, the rule was that the wives and children of those who died passed to the accuser. This may account for the willingness of the people to accuse others of witch- craft. This practice has played an important role in Africa. Upon witchcraft and ordeals rested the whole legal system of many African tribes. The basis of all such ordeals lies partly in igno- rance of the laws of evidence. Still more it rests upon the belief that all calamities are due to the action of spirits or of men, who have caused them Progress in Ethical Ideals 163 out of revenge. Then, too, there is a belief that if a person is innocent no harm can result. Supersti- tion and ignorance thus lie at the root of such customs. Both of these bases disappear under the influence of education and the Christian view of the world. Wherever the missionary has gone, he has striven to put down such needless cruelty. The missionaries of the Old Calabar Mission in Africa had a long and hard struggle to suppress the custom. It lasted for nearly thirty years, but finally resulted in victory. In 1878, the British consul and the men of the country drew up and signed articles of agreement by which any one who administered the poisonous esere-bean was to be executed as a murderer, whether the victim suc- cumbed or not, and any one willfully partaking of the poison was to be fined and banished as guilty of attempted murder. It was the testimony of the consul that such an agreement could never have been secured but for the persistent efforts of the missionaries to suppress the custom. On the Gold Coast, natives have been known to declare themselves Christians in order to escape the perils of witchcraft and poison ordeals, because it was generally understood that Christians would not tolerate any such customs. An American mission- ary in the Congo Valley secured an agreement from all the neighbouring chiefs, pledging themselves to prevent any further administration of the poison. In Nyasaland, the result of missionary effort was the gradual disappearance of the custom, under a 164 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands growing public opinion against it. Pastor Coillard with brave audacity preached before the cruel Lewanika against his use of the poison ordeal and in this way and by private interviews began the abolition of the entire system there. In Mada- gascar, where the poison cup was in constant use, the fatal draught is never mixed, and this was true before the French took the island. In India this savagery has been suppressed by government. Slavery is an evil which has been all but uni- versal. In Africa and in Asia slavery has gener- ally prevailed. Slavery has always prevailed in Mohammedan countries. It has existed in China, Korea, Siam, Assam, some of the native states of India, etc. Japan appears to be an important ex- ception, for here slavery, in the proper sense of the word, has not existed, although there used to be many serfs and a class of outcastes, as will appear later. It has been universal in Africa and still per- sists beyond the range of European influence. It has not been banished from the Philippines even to-day. In some of these countries the slavery is of the milder domestic type. In others, the only slavery is that due to the selling of children or the taking of a person in payment of debt. Wherever slavery exists on a large scale, there must of necessity be a trade in slaves. The slave- trade in Africa and the South Seas annually took its toll of human lives. A generation or more ago, it was estimated that the number of lives annually Progress in Ethical Ideals 165 sacrificed through the African slave-trade was not less than half a million, and that the number ac- tually transported, added to those who were exiled by the burning of villages, would bring the yearly toll of sufferers up to two million. Some twenty years ago, nearly every important town in Hausa- land had its slave market. In one of these the average daily offering was five hundred slaves. A missionary estimated that one-third of the popula- tion of that region in the western Sudan were slaves. From the Sultanate of Zanzibar, in 1895, some eleven thousand were being shipped an- nually to Arabia, while the maintenance of the number of slaves within the Sultanate, who com- prised two-thirds of the population of 400,000, re- quired an additional importation of six thousand a year. Against these twin evils the Christian forces have waged a generally successful warfare. For three centuries the subjects of Christian nations carried on the slave-trade until an aroused public sentiment, originating in and sustained by Christian principle and feeling, could tolerate it no more. The traffic in slaves was abolished throughout the British Em- pire in 1807, after a struggle which had lasted for twenty years. The United States acted simulta- neously with Great Britain and these two nations were quickly followed by others. The refusal of the United States, however, until 1862, to grant the Eight of Search, made it difficult actually to abolish the trade. The American importation was 166 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands estimated in 1837 at as high as 200,000 annually. From about this time, a new crusade began, in which the British played the leading role, and which resulted in the suppression of the slave-trade. Ships of war were stationed along the African coast to prevent native boats from carrying slaves from the continent, especially to Arabia. Missionaries co- operated by caring for the rescued slaves. In all this period, one heroic figure stands out prominently, that of a Christian missionary, David Livingstone. From soon after his first journey, in 1852, until his death in 1873, his life was devoted to the exposure of the horrors of the African slave- trade and to arousing the powers to the need of its suppression. His biographer Blaikie thus summa- rizes his influence : " From the worn-out figure kneeling at the bedside in the hut in Ilala an elec- tric spark seemed to fly, quickening hearts on every side. The statesman felt it ; it put new vigour into the despatches he wrote and the measures he de- vised with regard to the slave-trade. The mer- chant felt it, and began to plan in earnest how to traverse the continent with roads and railways, and open it to commerce from shore to centre. The explorer felt it, and started with high purpose on new scenes of unknown danger. The missionary felt it, — felt it a reproof of past languor and unbe- lief, and found himself lifted up to a higher level of faith and devotion. No parliament of philan- thropy was held ; but the verdict was as unanimous and as hearty as if the Christian world had met and Progress in Ethical Ideals 167 passed the resolution — ' Livingstone's work shall not die : Africa shall live f 9ni The great authority on British Central Africa is Sir Harry H. Johnston. His testimony to the in- fluence of Livingstone is unequivocal. He writes : " Dr. Livingstone, however, appeared on the scene, and his appeals to the British public gradually drew our attention to the slave-trade in Eastern Central Africa, until, as the direct result of Livingstone's work, slavery and the slave-trade are now at an end within the British Central Africa Protectorate, and are fast disappearing in the regions beyond under the South Africa Company; and the abolition of slavery in Zanzibar will shortly be decreed as a final triumph to Livingstone's appeal." 2 The status of slavery was abolished in Zanzibar in 1897, shortly after Sir Harry H. Johnston had pub- lished this statement. The Universities' Mission to Central Africa has had for one of its chief objects " the ultimate ex- tinction of the slave-trade." Bishop Mackenzie in- duced chiefs to agree not to permit the slave-trade or to buy or sell slaves. In Lewanika's country, traffic in slaves was stopped under the influence of Coillard. The internal slave-trade has also been abolished within the sphere of European influence, except for isolated instances under Portuguese or Belgian rule. It was the Christian queen of Mada- gascar who, in 1877, declared that any slave im- 1 Blaikie, " Personal Life of David Livingstone," p. 480. 9 Johnston, " British Central Africa," p. 157. 168 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands ported into the island should be set free, and thus stamped out the slave-trade there, the suppression of which had been provided for in a treaty with Great Britain half a century before. Equally important have been the efforts to sup- press the institution of slavery itself. One of the most notable victories of missionaries at this point did not occur in the East, but in the West. This was the fight that was waged in the West Indies, centering in Jamaica. It was maintained in spite of the most determined opposition. The slave owners went so far as to foment a slave insurrec- tion and then charged it against the missionaries. The fight, however, was won in 1834 and resulted in the total abolition of slavery. Some of the freed slaves wished to return as missionaries to West Africa, to the very region from which they had been kidnapped. They declared their willing- ness to do this at the risk of reenslavement. " We have been made slaves for men," they said, " we can be made slaves for Christ." Christian influence abolished slavery from the Christian community in Old Calabar. The law recognized but two classes of persons, slaveholders and slaves; free servants had no legal status. Under Christian teaching, public sentiment changed until, in 1854, a declaration was drawn up, which all Christian slaveholders were compelled to sign when they united with the church. According to this, they solemnly promised to regard their slaves as servants, not as property; pay them Progress in Ethical Ideals 169 just wages; encourage them to obtain education for themselves and their children, and to attend religious worship; sell no slave unless he was liable to suffer death and could not be other- wise banished ; endeavour to secure the abolition of slavery ; set the slaves free as soon as it should be legally possible ; and treat them in accordance with the Golden Kule. 1 In 1893, forty native chiefs in Uganda, who had become Protestant Christians, freed all their slaves. The status of slavery was abolished in the territory of the Koyal Niger Company in 1897. The first step towards this notable achievement on the West Coast was taken by the missionaries, by whose aid the govern- ment officials made their first approaches into the territory affected. It is not only in the suppression of such cruel customs as the foregoing that there has been ethical progress among Christians and under the influence of Christianity. Similar results may be cited in such matters as truthfulness and honesty. The situation here is one which the people of the West can hardly appreciate. We regard truthfulness as the very corner-stone of all virtue, beside which most of the other virtues are of minor importance. Courtesy, politeness, and the like are all right enough in themselves, but a lack of these may easily be condoned. Not so in the Orient. Here the order is reversed, and truthfulness tends to be 1 Dennis, J. S., op. cit., Vol. II, p. 325. 170 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands regarded either as no virtue at all, or at best as a rather minor one. Even native Christians in India have been known to declare to a missionary to whom they were devoted that they would lie in order to please or help him. I have been credibly informed of a case in China, where Christians con- fessed sins of which they were not conscious out of loyalty to a dearly beloved missionary. When such statements as this are true, one can imagine that truthfulness is not to be expected to mark the non-Christian community. An authority on China, like Douglas, declared that " a universal dishonesty of mind poisons the sap of the nation and produces all the cancers and evils which have made China a byword for deceit and corruption." An educated native Christian in India declared to a missionary, "You who have been born in Christian families and have been trained from infancy to speak the truth and to hate lying, can have no idea of the difficulty we Bengalis have in overcoming the natural tendency in us to lying and deceit. You are taught that it is dishonourable and evil to lie ; we are taught that the dishonour is not in lying, but in being discovered." In spite of these handicaps, the Christian com- munity has made marked progress in the direction of greater reliability. A few illustrations must suffice at this point. When the Japanese invaded For- mosa, they used as guides, wherever possible, the native Christians ; for these, they knew, could be trusted. On reaching a village, they inquired Progress in Ethical Ideals 171 whether there were any native Christians, and then they compelled these to assist them. On the other hand, the " Black Flags " killed the Christians, be- cause of the certainty that they would not play false. Again, a Buddhist orange merchant in Japan praised his oranges and added, " I don't lie ; I am a Christian." This statement was itself a lie, but the incident illustrates the reputation of the Chris- tians. Similar testimony comes from China and India. A non-Christian Chinese in Shensi was asked whether he saw any good points about the Christians. He replied, " Yes, there are three things I am bound to admire. (1) There is no need to watch our crops around their villages. (2) They neither sow, sell, nor swallow opium. (3) They cause little trouble in paying their taxes." A law case in a district in India, where the fruits of Christian work had proved discouraging, is also to the point. A group of men were called as wit- nesses in a trial which involved their landlord, who was in a position to injure them. It was supposed that their testimony would, therefore, be favourable to him ; but no, their statements were against him. They had heard the Bible, had learned that a lie was wrong, and hence refused to utter the lie that would have helped them financially. In an- other place, a company of shopkeepers formed a combination of a strange sort. Their agree- ment was not to keep up prices, or to increase their profits, but to carry on their trade without lying. 172 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands The introducton, in and through the Christian community, of these higher standards of conduct is not the only sign of ethical progress. Christianity is also producing a new type of personality, that of the incorruptible, public-spirited Christian, who is seeking not his own salvation but the welfare of others. In Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism there is little public spirit. All is selfish. The officials in the Old China were in office for what they could make out of it. The roads were neg- lected because any one repairing them would bene- fit others more than himself. Temples and such buildings were erected, but as works of merit and in order to advance the spiritual interests of the builders or to increase their reputation. Only in Japan does there seem to have been any great feeling of patriotism and of willingness to serve and to die for one's country. Buddhism and Hinduism embody many high ideals and aim at union with the divine. But salvation is a personal matter, and does not in- clude the service of others. Mozumdar was a great theistic reformer of Hinduism, and was regarded by many as almost, if not quite, a Christian. He showed his deep appreciation of the Saviour in his remarkable book, "The Oriental Christ." Yet even this man could not get away from the ideals of his old religion, and towards the end of his life he retired to the solitudes of the Himalayas. He left in explanation of this course a pathetic state- ment, which is worth quoting : " Age and sickness get the better of me in these Progress in Ethical Ideals 173 surroundings. I cannot work as I would— contem- plation is distracted, concentration disturbed, though I struggle ever so much. These solitudes are hos- pitable ; these breadths, heights and depths are always suggestive. I acquire more spirit with less struggle, hence I retire. " My thirst for the higher life is growing so un- quenchable that I need the time and the grace to reexamine and purify and reform every part of my existence. The Spirit of God promises me that grace if I am alone. So let me alone. " The rich are so vain and selfish, the poor are so insolent and mean, that having respect for both I prefer to go away from them. " The learned think so highly of themselves, the ignorant are so full of hatred and uncharitableness, that having good-will for both I prefer to hide my- self from all. " The religious are so exclusive, the skeptical are so self-sufficient, that it is better to be away from both. "What are the dead? Have they not too re- tired? I wish my acquaintance with the dead should grow, that my communion with them should be spontaneous, perpetual, unceasing. I will in- voke them and wait for them in my hermitage. " What is life ? Is it not a fleeting shadow, the graveyard of dead hopes, the battle-field of ghastly competitions, the playground of delusions, separa- tions, cruel changes and disappointments ? I have had enough of these. And now with the kindliest 174 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands love for all, I must prepare and sanctify myself for the great Beyond where there is solution for so many problems and consolation for so many troubles." J Contrast with this the type of personality created by Christianity in various mission fields. Consider a man like Chief Khama of Bechuanaland. From those days when, as a young man, he dared the anger of his father and his chief and risked death for disobedience rather than enter into a polyga- mous marriage, through all the days of his own rule, he has sought to enforce Christian standards among his people. There has recently passed away in Natal a simple Zulu preacher, who as a young man went out into a region of rank heathenism. The people did not want him and threatened to kill him, but he stuck to his post and to-day that whole region is Christianized ; and all this was achieved without the aid of a missionary or of for- eign money. Or take the leaders of the Christian Church in India, like Mr. Tilak, the Maratha Chris- tian poet, or Bishop Azariah whose heritage is of the lowliest but who has been a power among In- dian students and who is now the first Indian bishop of the Anglican Church in India. Go to China and what higher type of Christian can one find anywhere in the world than that simple pas- tor-evangelist, Kev. Ding Li Mei ? Through his efforts hundreds, yes thousands, of the Christian youth of China have turned deliberately away from 1 Jones, J. P., "India's Problem, Krishna or Christ," p. 350. Progress in Ethical Ideals 1 75 the hope of lucrative positions in order to prepare themselves for leadership in the Christian commu- nity. In Japan there are scores of Christian leaders who have revealed to the Japanese people the possi- bilities of a Christian character. The report of Commission IV to the Edinburgh Conference, which treated of the missionary mes- sage, is suggestive at this point. No reader of this remarkable book can help being struck with the statement again and again that one of the most powerful forces attracting persons to Christianity is the life of the Christians. Because of the demon- stration in the lives of individuals of the ability of Christianity to create a new type of manhood and womanhood, others are compelled to believe that Christianity has a power of which they have not dreamed. Such evidence cannot be gainsaid. Take India, for instance. What is the greatest apologetic that Christianity can present ? What it has done for the outcastes. Hinduism believes these submerged millions to be less than human. Such people used to be treated worse than the cow or even the monkey, who might be sacred. They were doomed to this existence because of sins com- mitted in some previous existence, and there was absolutely no hope for them. And then the Chris- tian missionary appeared, reached out to these de- spised ones, educated them, made them men and women, until the second generation, if not the first, has produced men of culture and influence. They teach schools in which Brahmans are pupils. A 176 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands Christian in South India, who came from the car- rion-eaters, the lowest of the low, is mayor of a city, and this Christian pastor is treated in his official capacity by the Brahmans as their equal. Such miracles were unheard of before, and men have seen that even these lowest, when touched by Christ, can be made ethically and intellectually equal or even superior to those whom Hinduism pronounced of finer stuff. Christianity is, indeed, creating a new type of personality, and such a re- ligion commends itself to open-minded men. The effect of this rising standard of morals and this new type of character is to produce ethical changes beyond the ranks of the Christians. This is seen in all the great countries of Asia, such as China, Japan, and India. The twin evils of China have been opium and gambling among men, with foot-binding as a cruel and disabling custom affecting women. Years ago China was a nation of heavy drinkers, but sub- sequently threw that vice completely off. JSTow it is engaged in a life-and-death struggle to throw off the opium habit, with the purpose of making China strong. There is no need of dwelling upon the earlier struggles of China against this evil, but it is interesting to call attention to the connection which missionaries have had with the present attempt. In May, 1906, Dr. DuBose of Soochow, President of the Anti-Opium League, had an interview with the Governor-General of Progress in Ethical Ideals 177 the River Provinces, who promised to forward to Peking a memorial signed by missionaries of ail nationalities. This promise was at once taken up, and in August there arrived at Nanking a petition of sheets from 450 cities, with 1,333 signatures. It is claimed that the result of this petition was the issuing of the edict of September 20, 1906, which urged the speedy suppression of the opium habit. In January, 1907, the Chinese Government ordered the viceroys to reduce poppy growing by one-half before the spring of 1908. By May, the opium dens in Foochow and Peking were closed, and the next month the edict was issued prohibit- ing opium smoking and planting. Other more stringent edicts followed ; and then came the inter- national opium conference in 1909, with a second conference three years later. In March, 1909, Viceroy Tuan Fang reported that 3,000,000 people had given up the opium habit since the issuing of the decrees, that opium smokers had been reduced sixty-five per cent., and that the cultivation of the poppy and the revenue from opium had been de- creased one-half. The government has sacrificed from 100,000,000 to 150,000,000 taels of revenue. Some opium smokers have died as the result of breaking off the habit. Substitutes are coming in, and the fight may not be won for a generation ; but the progress has been marvellous and far be- yond the expectations of the most sanguine. 1 The new penal code of China prescribes severe 1 " China Mission Year Book, 1910," pp. 11, 12, 398 et seq. 1 78 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands penalties for manufacturing, dealing in, storing for later sale, or importing opium ; for making, selling, storing for later sale, or importing opium-smoking instruments; for smuggling or permitting the smuggling of opium or the smoking instruments; for opening opium dens; for planting the poppy for the manufacture of opium ; for smoking opium or failing to enforce these regulations. 1 There is such solidarity in the Chinese people that when they make up their mind to do a thing, especially if it has an ethical bearing and is designed to benefit their country, they carry it through. The need of the reform may be judged from the state- ment that in certain of the remoter provinces as many as eighty per cent, of the men and fifty per cent, of the women were addicted to the use of the drug. It is the poor man's vice. A few cash are sufficient to enable a man to forget his miseries, his poor home, scanty clothing, and insufficient food. Gambling has been the other evil in China, and has been indulged in by people in all ranks of so- ciety. The moral interest aroused in the crusade against opium has, in certain quarters, resulted in a movement to suppress gambling, or at least to separate the government from connection with it. For some years there has been growing in Canton a feeling that the government should not exploit this vice for the purpose of gain. In this city the licenses from gambling establishments have pro- duced no inconsiderable part of the provincial 1 " China Mission Year Book, 1911," p. 445 et seq. Progress in Ethical Ideals 179 revenue. The provincial assembly passed a resolu- tion urging the viceroy to abolish the system. Be- cause of the revenue difficulty which would result, he temporized. The gentry came to the support of the assembly and carried the matter to Peking, with the result that finally in March, 1911, the revenue from gambling was abolished, and strict regulations were issued against public gambling. 5 In all this, the Christians have been setting an ex- ample to the other Chinese. Every Christian has been required to give up gambling. Some of the most prominent Christian workers have been con- verted gamblers. One Christian in JNmgpo lapsed back into the habit, but when he came to himself, his repentance was so deep that, in Chinese fashion, he chopped off a finger so that it would remind him never to do it again. A missionary was once lamenting the little spiritual progress of the Chris- tians in a certain village. Thereupon one of the prominent church members replied, " Sir, you don't know. Formerly, before we knew the truth, gambling was common ; now it has been utterly abolished. Then we had feuds and lawsuits every month ; now harmony prevails." Foot-binding is, for China, a modern custom, dat- ing from long after the time of Confucius, but it has entailed untold suffering upon the part of women and has condemned them to lives of comparative idleness. The early missionaries so vividly realized the difficulties in the way of removing this custom 1 " China Mission Year Book, 1911," p. 47. 180 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands that they took no positive stand against it. About forty years ago, however, the attitude changed. Schools for girls began to require that all their pupils should unbind their feet as a condition of re- maining in the school. The first allusion to such a rule that Dr. Dennis was able to discover dated from 1870. At about this time, in 1877, it came to be understood in at least two missions in Foochow that no church member was to bind the feet of his daughters. About this time Dr. Macgowan and other missionaries in Amoy organized the Anti- Foot-Binding Association, with a membership of over forty. This was in 1874. The result of all these move- ments was that there gradually appeared a group of women with natural feet, who were neither slaves nor working people and entirely respectable. Twenty years later, the movement took on new life and enlisted the aggressive support, not only of the missionary ladies, but of the Chinese and civilians. A Natural-Foot Association was organized in 1894, at Shanghai, composed of these varied elements, and through publications and in other ways an ac- tive propaganda was carried on. To the leadership of this movement came Mrs. Archibald Little, who devoted years of time and much money to this re- form. Still more recently, this movement has been taken up by the Chinese, and whereas formerly the Chinese ladies made their feet look as small as possi- ble, it is declared that in some places women with small feet pretend to have natural feet. Progress in Ethical Ideals 181 A Chinese friend in Shansi remarked to me, when I called on him in 1908, that he believed that within ten years there would be no bound feet left in China. That is expecting too much, but the ethical revival in China, which is crushing out political corruption, the opium degradation, and the gambling mania, will help also this movement for relieving the women of China of one of their greatest disabilities, the cause of untold misery. Foot-binding has already been declared illegal. The ethical revivals in Japan and India centre chiefly around questions relating to purity. The moral standards in Japan are far below what they should be. To be sure, one might conclude from the fact that prostitution is licensed, that the situa- tion there is worse than it really is. Dr. Griffis es- timated that in the early days of the New Japan but five per cent, of the population actually prac- ticed concubinage, although this may have been twenty per cent, of the population financially able to afford such a luxury. 1 The licensed quarters are un- der strict control and are the first to be searched when a crime is committed. In many cases they are outside the city. Vice is never so open as in some cities of the West. Yet, when all possible al- lowance has been made for this, it yet remains true that illicit relations between the sexes are far too common. Facts could be adduced which would re- veal the extent to which this vice invades the pub- 1 Griffis, W. E., "Mikado's Empire," p. 557. / 182 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands lie educational institutions. All this is due largely to the fact that the Japanese, even more than Western people, have maintained two standards of morals, one for men and another for women. Bakin, the great teacher of Japan through fiction, taught this. Jealousy is regarded as a womanly sin, and is represented as a female demon. Chastity in Japanese signifies womanly duties, and one can- not express the idea of male chastity without a cir- cumlocution. A pure girl will, at the command of her father or for the sake of her parents, enter a brothel. An inmate may marry a relatively re- spectable man and have her past buried. Christians have waged relentless war against this institution. In 1890, the native Christians of Kyoto petitioned the government for the abolition of li- censed prostitution. Christian Japanese in Cali- fornia succeeded in stopping the traffic in Japanese girls in San Francisco. Some years ago, when much of the licensed quarter in Osaka was burned, the Christians, Japanese and missionary, succeeded in preventing its rebuilding in immediate proximity to the railway station. Similar action was taken in Tokyo after the recent conflagration there. In the city of Maebashi, the Christians have succeeded in preventing the licensing of prostitution in that city, even though many merchants desire it, at least during the time of a large county fair. These protests by Christians against impurity have had a far-reaching influence. A paper by a Japanese, published as long ago as 1896, paid Progress in Ethical Ideals 183 tribute to the impression made upon the Japanese mind by the Christians' insistence upon the doc- trines of monogamy and personal purity. " I do not mean to say that the Japanese people have been, as a rule, polygamous, or that womanhood among them, especially in the better classes, had not a very high ideal of faithfulness and chastity. But monogamy as the only true principle of social order, and purity as obligatory upon men as upon women, was never properly understood. If to-day our best ethical opinion has practically endorsed these truths, we must give a large measure of credit to the foreign missionaries who have been living among us for nearly forty years." ' A native paper about the same time declared that there was not a boy or girl in the empire who had not heard the one-man-one-woman doctrine, while their ideas of loyalty and obedience were higher than ever. And the paper declared that the cause of this advance wa» none other than the religion of Jesus. A similar awakening has been witnessed in all the ethical thinking of the empire. The spirit of the literature in the Tokugawa period was Bud- dhistic in its ethics and its philosophy. That of the Meiji period, just closed, is declared to have been Christian. Christian standards are held up before the people. The nation is so proud of its past and so sensitive of all criticism that it is setting itself earnestly to the task of reforming its customs and institutions until no one can point the finger of tennis, J. S., op. •&., Vol. II, p. 142. 184 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands scorn at Japan. The difficulty arises from the fact that in not one of the religions of Japan is there a moral dynamic equal to the task, and the educated youth of Japan find no sufficient moral sanction in their agnostic or positively atheistic position. In nothing short of Christianity will they find a power that can accomplish such a task. India has suffered from these same evils, only there they are even worse because they are but- tressed by the religion of the people. This renders them almost immune from attack by a government which is pledged to neutrality in all matters of religion. Apart from the question of the moral standards of the individual, the chief evils are three in number : indecency in art and literature, indecency in worship and religious festivals, and religious prostitution. It is a well-known fact that there is hardly a god in the Hindu pantheon who did not violate the laws of purity, some of them on a wholesale scale and in the most disgraceful manner. Temples are often ornamented with obscene representations of these gods. Especially in South India, there are temple cars on which the gods ride during festivals. These have been erected at public expense and have stood out in the open where the children in the neighbourhood have played around them. Usually these cars are ornamented with carvings of this char- acter. When the British Government attacked the obscenity of the land some years ago, it was neces- Progress in Ethical Ideals 185 sary to add this proviso : " This Section does not extend to any representation sculptured, engraved, painted, or otherwise represented on or in any temple or on any car used for the conveyance of idols, or kept or used for any religious purpose." This was added because the government was con- vinced, upon the testimony of British and native officials, that "native public opinion was (is) not yet sufficiently advanced to permit the destruction of such indecencies." ' At the same time, it is a sign of progress that, in at least some villages and cities of South India, the temple cars are no longer out in the open, but are under cover, bricked up, so that they are invisible except when in actual use. The more enlightened people are becoming ashamed of the obscene carvings and paintings. This was evident when, a few years since, a mis- sionary in North India purchased for me some photographs of the decorations in one of the most sacred temples, but one that is not open to the public. The man had the photographs but he was evidently ashamed to have them seen by foreigners. The native literature contains books and passages so vile that they cannot be published in English, and the government has punished men for attempt- ing it. For the same reason, the universities can- not use some of the literary classics. Then, too, the public religious festivals used to contain features of the most disgusting indecency. They were so vile that no detailed description may tennis, J. S., op. cit., Vol. I, p. 90. 186 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands be printed in English. The same is true of the worship of certain sects. The festival Holi is celebrated all over India, and this is one of the most unholy of all. In the old days no decent woman would be seen upon the streets at such times, and acts were performed publicly which are too bad even to hint at. JSTow public sentiment has arisen against these excesses and they have been appreciably toned down. Hindu teachers devise games to keep their pupils from participating in these demoralizing festivities. In this they but follow the example of the Christian teachers. Finally, in India the public woman has a recog- nized place in society. The dancing girl has been the only means by which an Indian gentleman could entertain his guests. Women of this char- acter are a necessary factor in every marriage cere- mony. The marriage necklace, which corresponds to our wedding ring, has to be tied by such a woman, for she can never become a widow, and hence her presence is a good omen. The leaders in social re- form in India have come out openly against this, and the anti-nautch movement has had a large growth. It was not until a comparatively recent period that the British officials began to take a stand against having their hosts entertain them by means of the nautch dances. This was the more natural, because their real significance is not appar- ent except to the initiated. The Indian Social Conference, in 1895, unanimously passed a resolu- tion which read: "The Conference records its Progress in Ethical Ideals 187 satisfaction that the anti-nautch movement has found such general support in all parts of India, and it recommends the various Social Keform As- sociations in the county to persevere in their adop- tion of this self-denying ordinance, and to supple- ment it by pledging their members to adhere to the cardinal principle of observing on all occasions, as a religious duty, purity of thought, speech, and action, so as to purge our society generally of the evils of low and immoral surroundings." " At this same time, influential citizens of Madras petitioned the British officials to discountenance such forms of entertainment. In 1896 Lord Elgin requested his host in Madras to stop a dance which had been pro- vided against the protests of the reform element. Of a similar character to the nautch-girls, and in some regions identical with them, are the temple girls. These women are known under various names in different parts of the country. They are married in young girlhood to some god or to the dagger of the god Khandoba. They sing and dance before the god and perform on festival occa- sions. Their real life, however, is that of religious prostitutes, and they are thus used by the priests and other worshippers. The number of these is not accurately known, but it goes up into the tens, if not into the hundreds, of thousands. The British Government has felt itself unable to remove this disgrace, but the agitation against it is bearing fruit, and within three years the government of the 1 Dennis, J. S., op. «*., Vol. II, p. 145. 1 88 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands progressive native state of Mysore, in South India, has prohibited the performance of the ceremony of dedication to such a life in any temple within the control of the government. It is to be hoped that this is but the beginning of an earnest movement upon the part of native rulers to end this sacrifice of low-caste Hindu girls to lives of shame. Then, perhaps, the British Government will dare to take similar action. Already, at the last session of the Supreme Legislative Council, one of the Indian members introduced some drastic bills dealing with this whole question. Thus, a new day is dawning in India and it can be traced to the influence of the Christian thought of the West, which has revealed to the leaders of India the real character of their age-old customs. The whole ethical atmosphere of Africa and Asia is being purified, and the time will come when the ethical standards of Christ will prevail. PEOGEESS IN SOCIAL EECONSTEUCTIOST SOCIAL organization is the stereotyping of the adjustments of men to their environment; it is the embodiment of the experiences and ideals of a people. For this reason it is natural that the increase in intelligence and in industrial effi- ciency, and the raising of the ethical standards, which have been outlined, should already have resulted in changes in social organization. While the social organization in the different lands of Africa and Asia varies widely, yet it is uniform in one respect, that until very recently, at least, the individual has counted for comparatively little. The unit has been the family, the tribe, the clan, the guild, the caste, or the feudal lord with his retainers. While in some instances the man of ability might rise, and while great influence at- tached to certain positions, social, political, or re- ligious, yet the ordinary individual counted for very little. In the civil societies which have devel- oped in the West, the government deals directly with the individual, who is responsible for his own deeds and who is more or less free to change his station in life in accordance with an agreement or contract mutually satisfactory to all concerned. 189 190 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands "Not so in the East. Here the individual has been born into his station in life, and he has had his standing, not as an individual, but as a member of a group. He has not been accustomed to inde- pendent action or even to independent thinking. He has thought and acted as his ancestors had thought and acted for generations. He has been responsible primarily to the head of that social group to which he belonged, and that group might be held responsible for its members. This description is not everywhere applicable in all its details, but, in general, it may be said that individuality and personal responsibility were little encouraged by any Oriental country, and that indi- viduals were accustomed to act, not as units, but only with others. The nearest to an exception was China, where the essential democracy of its local communities and its civil service system made it possible for a man of ability to work his way up to the top ; but even he could do this only with the permission and the assistance of his family, to whose authority he was subject. Westerners some- times wonder why it is that progress is slow in certain quarters, and why it is so hard for the individual who is intellectually convinced of the truth of Christianity to break with the past and come out as an avowed Christian. The explana- tion lies largely in this characteristic of the social organization, under which he has been brought up. It has discouraged the development of individual independence and initiative and has thus made it Progress in Social Reconstruction 191 difficult for the reformer to stand out against the members of his own social group. The outstanding feature of the old social organ- ization of India is caste ; of Japan, feudalism ; and of China, a combination of absolutism or theocracy with democracy, which had for its basis the family or clan. For the mass of the people of India, caste is synonymous with their entire social organization and even with their religion in its social aspects. Hinduism and caste are almost interchangeable terms. To be sure, the caste spirit is not confined to India. The class spirit is akin to caste. Make the class an absolutely closed body without inter- marriage or interdining with other classes ; make the membership a matter of heredity ; buttress it with the sanctions of religion ; and the result would practically be the caste system as it has been de- veloped in India. Men everywhere like to form themselves into groups, among whom there is a con- sciousness of likeness, and to develop this likeness both positively, by cementing the union among the members, and negative^, by emphasizing the dif- ferences between them and others. In the older days, especially, there was a very strong profes- sional feeling, and an instance of something very akin to caste survives, for example, in the refusal of an English club to admit a worthy gentleman to membership because his family had been " in trade." The attitude of superiority Americans tend to take 192 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands towards the immigrant and the feeling that they are of a finer stuff than he are other evidences of a spirit which is common among mankind, and which has been worked out to its logical conclusion by the Hindu. According to the Hindu tradition, all the mem- bers of their society fall into four castes : ' the Brahman, or priestly class ; the Kshatriyas, or war- rior class ; the Vaishyas, or agricultural class ; and the Sudras, or servile class. The first is said to have come from the mouth of Brahma, the second from his arms, the third from his thighs, and the fourth from his feet. Other castes originated from intermarriage between these. Another theory, equally untenable, is that the system was devised by the Brahmans for the purpose of retaining their control over the rest of the people, in accordance with the rule, divide and conquer. This purpose may have been active at some times, but it is not sufficient to explain the origin of the system. The present caste system is most complex. There are more than three thousand divisions, each of which is an independent community. The average membership is but 80,000. Such an organization is too complicated to have its origin and growth at- tributed to any one cause. In general, it may be said that caste is functional and racial in its essence and origin. When the Aryan tribes entered and conquered India, they needed different classes to l Vid. Bhattacharya, J. N., "Hindu Castes Chintamani, C. Y., " Indian Social Reform." Progress in Social Reconstruction 193 perform different functions. They had to have priests and civil rulers, and an agricultural popula- tion to support the other two. They needed sol- diers and scholars, and while the inducements to these pursuits are slight in an agricultural commu- nity, they were secured, it is suggested by an In- dian student of caste, by assigning to those who thus served the people a position of high honour. Just as in other parts of the world social organiza- tion and even civilization have been greatly de- veloped after the conquest and subjugation of other less vigorous peoples, so it was in India. There is little doubt that the Sudras, or servile class, are the descendants of aboriginal tribes, which were conquered and forced to serve the Aryan conquer- ors. Whatever its origin, its later development has had at least five sources : 1. Kace. India is a congeries of races. No fewer than seven distinct types of races were dis- tinguished by the census of 1901, and the number of languages in use is 147. The question of unify- ing such a heterogeneous population w-ould tax a statesman of to-day. The Hindu solved it by re- garding these miscellaneous peoples as castes, and assigning to each its place in society. This process has gone on until very recent times. In fact, it is still proceeding here and there. Aboriginal tribes, which have remained in isolated spots outside of the social organization, are being admitted to a definite position in Indian society as castes. 2. Locality. When sections of a caste have 194 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands migrated to another region, the bond between them and the main body has gradually weakened and they have become independent castes. 3. Trade. In one aspect, especially to-day, the caste is the Indian trade-union. As new occupa- tions are taken up by the members of a caste, who have lost their former work or who wish to improve their condition, these men gradually come to feel that their interests are different from those of their former fellow caste-men, and, with the cessation of intermarriage and dining, the new trade becomes a new caste. This process is going on to-day. 4. The elevation or degradation of a section of a caste. Some sections of castes have, by sheer force, pushed themselves up in the social scale. Others have for some reason been degraded, so that the other members of the caste regard them as un- worthy of treatment as equals. 5. Keligion. As each caste has its own relig- ious cultus, when a new religious movement arises, the tendency is for its members to become a sepa- rate caste. There are castes to-day whose origin can be traced to a break with the Brahmanic re- ligion. Far more important than the origin of caste are its rules, spirit, and social consequences. The chief characteristic of caste is exclusiveness, which covers three realms, business, hospitality, and marriage. In the matter of business, the re- strictions are the least binding. The law of Manu permitted persons, when necessary, to subsist by Progress in Social Reconstruction 195 occupations belonging to the lower castes, and the members of the lower castes might practice any profession but that of priest. Members of different castes may have business dealings with one another, and the tendency of education to-day is to break down the stringency that survives here. At the same time, a caste of manual labourers takes the position of a strong trade-union with reference to the outsider who seeks to become a competitor, but with an important difference. Whereas the " scab " labourer can usually avoid all trouble by joining the union, the Indian labourer cannot change his caste. Into it he was born, and in it he must die, unless he becomes a Christian. There is greater exclusiveness in the matter of hospitality and social intercourse. In general, no member of one caste will eat in the home of a member of another caste, or partake of food cooked by a member of a lower caste. So great is the de- mand for Brahmans as cooks by those who can afford such a luxury, that in some large towns the words " Brahman" and "cook" have become al- most synonymous. In certain prisons they also serve in this capacity. Curiously enough, it has been decided that bottled waters or crackers put up in tin boxes may be taken by caste people with- out fear of pollution. These restrictions and the seclusion of women seriously limit social intercourse between Indians and all foreigners. The greatest exclusiveness of all is in the matter of marriage. While it was not so in the earlier 196 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands days, yet to-day the rule is rigidly enforced among all orthodox Hindus, that the girl must marry a boy of the same caste. Their rank must also be equal and their horoscopes harmonious. The spirit of caste is the very opposite of demo- cratic. At its centre is the exaltation of the Brahman to the position of a deity. The laws of Manu declared : " Whatever exists in the universe is all the property of the Brahman ; for the Brah- man is entitled to all by his superiority and emi- nence of birth." ■ No greater wrong is to be found than that of killing a Brahman. No Brahman ever bows his head to make the salutation due to a superior, except to another Brahman. A Sudra addresses a Brahman as " venerable god." The more orthodox Sudras will not cross the shadow of a Brahman, and some vow to eat nothing in the morning before they drink water in which the toe of a Brahman has been dipped. The use of water is one of the matters most minutely regulated by caste. Thus, a high caste man may use water fetched or touched by a clean Sudra. Ganges River water is not rendered unfit if brought by an unclean Sudra. Even this sacred water, however, must be thrown away, if it has been touched by a non-Hindu, Moslem, Christian, or outcaste. Nine-tenths of the people of India are either Sudras or below them. Manu prescribed that servitude is innate in the Sudra, and, even if his master frees him, he is not released from servitude. 1 Murdoch, J., op. cit., "Caste," p. 16. Progress in Social Reconstruction 197 The Brahman " may take possession of the goods of a Sudra with perfect peace of mind, for, since nothing at all belongs to this (Sudra) as his own, he is one whose property may be taken away by his master." ' It was provided that the lowest peoples must live outside the village, be deprived of dishes, wear the garments of the dead, eat their food in broken dishes, and constantly wander about. If a Brahman talked with one of these outcastes, he had to be purified. The same penalty was exacted if he walked on a road with such a creature, touched one, drank water from a well sunk by one, or from a well which had been touched by the pot of one of these creatures. One who permitted an outcaste to live in his house, not knowing him to be such, had to burn his house. At the end of the eighteenth century, they could not cross a street where a Brahman lived, and they were either naked or clothed in hideous rags. On the Malabar Coast, they were not allowed huts, they could not walk along the highroad, or come within a hundred paces of another caste. If they were on a road and met a caste man, they had to utter a certain cry, and go a long way around to avoid him. Under the British rule, the situation has been improved, but even to-day there are out. castes who have no rights, who may not enter courts of law, whose only meat is carrion, and who may never, under the regime of caste, rise to a plane of living which can be called human. 1 Murdoch, J., op. cit. f "Caste," p. 17. 198 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands The penalties for violating the rules of caste are so severe that comparatively few are willing to run the risk. The chief of these are that friends, rela- tives, and fellow townsmen refuse all exchange of hospitality. The offender cannot obtain brides or grooms for his children. Even his married daugh- ters cannot visit him without risk of being excluded from caste. His priest, barber, and washerman will not serve him, although barbers and washer- men are less likely now to refuse their services. His fellow caste-men will not assist him at the funeral of a member of his household, and he may even be excluded from the public temples. Perhaps the most serious aspects of the caste system are the social results. It has condemned the mass of people to ignorance and to a standard of living below what progressive people accord to favoured animals. It ministers to an overweaning pride on the one side, and to a sense of inborn inferiority and servility upon the other. It divides society into water-tight compartments and deprives the members of society at large from having com- mon interests. It thus makes unity of thought and action next to impossible. It encourages utter in- difference to suffering ; for no caste person dares to help a stranger, for fear of pollution. It has enforced a closeness of intermarriage that has had serious consequences in physical deterioration, if not degeneracy. It has produced a civilization which is not progressive, which, in fact, stands like a rock in the pathway of progress. Most Progress in Social Reconstruction 199 serious of all is the effect upon the individual, who is held in the most rigorous control, and is not allowed to disobey the traditions of his caste in matters of religion, ethics, or social order. Social reformers generally regard caste, in its present form, as the greatest single obstacle to progress. The conviction is common that it must be either abolished or, at least, radically modified, before India can take her place as a unified, self- governing member of the family of nations. On the other hand, its critics ought to remember that in the early days caste probably served as a uni- fying force. A recent writer declares : " There is no doubt that it is the main cause of the funda- mental stability and contentment by which Indian society has been braced up for centuries against the shocks of politics and the cataclysms of Nature. It provides every man with his place, his career, his occupation, his circle of friends. It makes him at the outset a member of a corporate body ; it protects him through life from the canker of social jealousy and unfulfilled aspirations ; it ensures him companionship and a sense of community with others in like case with himself. The caste organi- zation is to the Hindu his club, his trade-union, his benefit society, his philanthropic society." ' Just as caste is the unique element in the social organization in India, so feudalism 2 was the char- 'Low, Sidney, " Vision of India," p. 263. Vid. "Enoyo. Brit," ed. 11, Vol. V, p. 465. 2 Vid. "Enoyc. Brit.," Vol. XV, p. 255 et seq. 200 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands acteristic of Japanese society before the advent of the new era. In the early historical period, be- ginning with the fifth century, there was a re- markable tendency to organize the nation into groups, based upon occupation or function. The heads of the great families had their titles, and the most renowned of these leaders administered the affairs of state, subject, however, to the will of the sovereign. The provinces were ruled by younger members of the imperial family, though they, too, were subject to the Throne. In the first legislative epoch, beginning in the middle of the seventh century, attempts were made to reform the social system, to check the abuses which had grown up with the system of forced labour, by commuting it for taxes, to stop the absorption of the land into great estates, and to parcel out the land into lots for each adult. Internecine warfare was also checked. These reforms were short-lived, how- ever, and, by the adoption of the Chinese adminis- trative system, the Emperor became the source, but not the wielder, of power. This function was relegated to a bureaucracy and a military class. Soon after this, the foundations of the feudal system were laid, by the granting of large tracts of tax-free land to the noblemen, who had wrested it from the aborigines or had re- claimed it by the labour of serfs. At the same time, the tax laws were such that the peasants moved off from government lands and took up land on the estates of these nobles. The develop- Progress in Social Reconstruction 201 ment of this dual form of government and the centuries of civil strife, which continued with brief intervals from the latter half of the twelfth century to the beginning of the seventeenth, firmly fastened feudalism upon Japan. During the Tokugawa era, which began in the last of the sixteenth century and extended until the beginning of the Meiji era, fifty odd years ago, the social organization of Japan included three groups : first, the Throne and the court nobles ; second, the military class or samurai ; third, the common people or Jieimin. The function of the Emperor or Mikado was to mediate between his heavenly ancestors and his subjects, while all the affairs of state were en- trusted to the Shogun and the samurai. The Mikado became what has been characterized as "a sacrosanct abstraction." The court nobility, comprising one hundred and fifty-five families, were the descendants of former mikados. They ranked above all the feudal chiefs, filled the court offices, lived lives of proud poverty, and devoted them- selves to literature and art. Below these came the samurai, military families that had hereditary revenues and filled the ad- ministrative posts, which were mostly hereditary. About fifty-five out of a thousand of the popula- tion belonged to this class. These families were the retainers for the holders of the great estates, which formed feudal kingdoms with their own laws and usages, subject to review by the Shogun's government. The produce of the peasants sup- 202 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands ported the chief and his retainers, half of the as- sessed income going to them and the other half to the peasants. The revenue of the richest dairnyo, or feudal chief, amounted to about $2,500,000 a year. In 1862, there were two hundred and fifty- five daimyos. The chiefs had their castles, occupy- ing commanding positions, within which lived their military retainers. The samurai lived frugally upon the rations of rice given them from the gran- aries of their chiefs. They despised money and all devices for making it. The right of wearing the sword of a samurai was to them the highest con- ceivable honour, and they were willing at any time to lay down life for their lord or their country. Their word was inviolable. Courage was to them the primary virtue and stoicism came next. No insult to their honour could be condoned. Courtesy to one another and contempt towards the com- moner were their rule. Martial exercises and book learning occupied their attention. Their greatest fault was faithlessness to women. The samurai women were equal to their husbands in courage. Below these classes were the great mass of the peo- ple, about fifteen-sixteenths, known as the heimin, or commoners. These were divided into three classes, the husbandmen, the artisans, and the traders. The farmer was honoured and one who cultivated his own estate might carry one sword but never two. The artisans, with whom were ranked the artists, swordsmiths, armourers, etc., were respected. Many of them were permanently in the Progress in Social Reconstruction 203 service of feudal chiefs at fixed salaries. Trades- men stood lowest of all. Below these, quite in the spirit of Hinduism, stood the eta (defiled folks) and the hinin (outcastes). The eta were probably de- scended from prisoners of war or the enslaved families of criminals. They tended tombs, disposed of the bodies of the dead, slaughtered animals, and tanned hides. They were not permitted to marry, eat, drink, or associate with those of higher classes ; they lived in segregated hamlets, and were governed by their own head-men under three chiefs. Some of them, however, were able to amass much wealth. The hinin were mendicants, and removed and buried the corpses of executed criminals. When the pro- scription was removed, and the members of these classes were admitted as commoners in 1871, there were 237,111 eta and 695,689 hinin. This organization of society was fairly efficient during the days when fighting was constantly go- ing on, but during the centuries of peace, which marked the Tokugawa era, it ceased to serve the needs of the public. The large hereditary fighting force maintained by public funds became an anomaly. The agricultural and commercial classes became more important but they acquired no new privileges or rights. The standard of living went up, luxury, the theatre, the dancing girl, and the brothel arose, wrestling became an important insti- tution, and plutocracy asserted itself against aris- tocracy. At the same time, the power of the Sho- gun and of the feudal chiefs passed into the hands 204 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands of retainers and subordinates, and the chiefs them- selves became voluptuaries or dilletanti. A mere recital of these facts shows that this social organization was out of harmony with Western ideals, that it was not conducive to unity of action or public efficiency, and that it paid no regard to the interests and rights of the majority of the people. It could not survive after Japan came into contact with Western thought and Western institu- tions. At the same time, one can see that in such a society as this the individual had little place. In every emergency the question was, How will my experience of danger or death affect my family or my nation ? Life, chastity, property were all held subject to the interests of the family. From this source, coupled with the deification of the Emperor, came the absolute loyalty to country and the desire to die for its upbuilding, which has been and still is characteristic of the Japanese people. Moreover, these military ideals, which filtered down through society, also resulted in a spirit of predatory pa- triotism that tends to seek the glory of Japan with- out reference to the interests of other peoples. This is based upon the belief that Japan is to be regarded as the leader of the world and her in- terests as paramount. When one passes from Japan to China, one passes into a radically different political and social atmos- phere. Here, also, we find the idea of filial piety, as in every country where Confucianism has had Progress in Social Reconstruction 205 influence. Here, too, the family is the unit ; but instead of a feudal organization of society, we find a strange combination of democracy and absol- utism. The unit of government in China is the listen, 1 which consists of one walled city, or part of one, with the villages surrounding it, the boundaries ex- tending until they reach the territory of the con- tiguous Hsien. In the eighteen provinces there are 1,443 Hsien, which, together with twenty-seven in Manchuria, make 1,470. Every Chinese is reg- istered in his Hsien, and this registration he clings to, no matter in what part of the world he lives. Here is his ancestral home ; here he passes his old age; and to this spot his bones will be sent for burial if he dies elsewhere. He is always identified by his fellow countrymen by his listen. The official head of this district may be called the mayor. From his small salary he has to provide for the maintenance of his subor- dinates and superiors. His associates often hold their positions by hereditary right or custom. This official has important judicial functions, is the agent of the provincial and imperial admin- istrations for collecting the land tax and the grain tribute, is registrar of land and famine com- missioner, and as such he is expected to keep the granaries full. He is responsible, save along the Yellow Eiver, for the prevention of floods and the 1 Morse, H. B., " The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire, " p. 46 et seq. 206 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands reparation of their damage. He has custody of official buildings, repairs the roads and bridges, sees that schools are maintained, preserves order, and is the guardian of the morals of his district. This is enough to tax the powers of the most paternalistic official, one would think. However, he comes into little contact with the people, eighty per cent, of whom, perhaps ninety per cent., ex- perience no evidence of government pressure. The people in China govern themselves according to their customs. These customs constitute the common law, and it is interpreted and executed by themselves. For this common-law administration the village is the unit. The fathers of the village, who really hold office with the approval, if not under the appointment, of the villagers, exercise this authority. The official head of the village is the land warden, who is nominated by the mayor from the village elders, but is dependent upon the good will of his constituents. He is constable and may have jurisdiction over more than one small village. The criminal law of China is national, but in civil matters the custom of each district is ob- served, and the constable, the mayor, and the higher officials have to fall in with this, or else they are bound to get into trouble, which may lead to re- bellion and removal. Even the governors of the provinces are not absolute masters but must con- form to local usages. Above the Hsien is the Fu or prefecture. Of these there were 183 within the empire, each com- Progress in Social Reconstruction 207 posed of from two to six Hsien. There are certain officials for groups of prefectures but for purposes of administration the province is next above the Hsien. These provinces have occupied a semi-autonomous position. They are like satrapies in some respects ; in others they are like the constituent states of a federation ; or still more like a territory of the American union, which has executive and judicial officers appointed by the central authority and re- movable at will, but with local autonomy for the levying of taxes and administration of law. To show how the authority filters down from the throne to the district magistrate, we may quote a part of a specimen proclamation : " The magistrate {Hsien) has had the honour to receive instructions from the prefect (Fu), who cites directions of the Taotai (group of Fus), moved by the Treasurer and the Judge (province), recipients of the commands of their excellencies the Viceroy and Governor, acting "at the instance of the Foreign Board, who has been honoured with his Majesty's command." ' The affairs of the province have been under a general board, consisting of the Viceroy, Governor, Treas- urer, Judge, Salt Officer, and Grain Official. The last four were the executive board of the provincial government. These officials were appointed for a three-year term, and, with the exception of gov- ernors and viceroys, were reappointed but once. No official ever held a post in the province of his birth, and the officials in each province represented 1 Morse, H. B., op. cit, p. 67. 208 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands different political parties. These rules are now being modified. At the head of the empire stood the Emperor, who was in theory an absolute monarch, but in practice was bound by the unwritten constitution, that is, by the customs that had been handed down and by the precedents of his predecessors as defined in their edicts. He was also bound by the opinions and decisions of his ministers. Next to him was the metropolitan administration, one of whose ob- jects was the registering and checking of the pro- vincial administration. Originally there were six boards, namely, the Boards of Civil Office, Keve- nue, Ceremonies, War, Punishments, and Works. Each board had two presidents and four vice-presi- dents, equally divided between Manchus and Chi- nese. Under foreign pressure, a Foreign Board was organized in 1861 and changed in 1901. The Boards of Commerce and Education were added in 1903. The Court of Investigation, the Office of Transmission (dealing with memorials to the Throne), the Court of Kevision (supervision of ad- ministration of criminal law), and the old College of Literature should be mentioned. A few things stand out prominently from this summary and from other facts not mentioned : 1. The provincial autonomy, emphasized in many cases by differences in dialect and even in language. This made unity of opinion and action difficult, if not impossible. 2. The insufficiency of the salaries. These had Progress in Social Reconstruction 209 to be supplemented by means of the graft which was all but universal. 3. The frequent rotation in office. This made any continuity of policy difficult, except as it was secured by following the local customs. 4. The lack of representation outside of the local community. 5. The general inefficiency, from the point of view of "Western political theory. 6. The domination of the whole system by the foreign Manchu dynasty. The paternalistic spirit pervaded this government, and this was due to the fact that, after all, the in- stitution at the basis of China and most affecting the individual is the patriarchal family. Backed up by the ancestor worship, the family is the real unit of Chinese society. And it is a family of a type that has long since ceased to exist among the peoples of the West. With us, when a son mar- ries, he usually sets up a new home. Not so in China. Not only do the parties have nothing to do with the selection of each other, but, with the marriage ceremony, the girl ceases to be a member of her own family, and becomes a member of her husband's. The typical Chinese family consists of the parents, their sons, who probably married young, their daughters-in-law, who have come as servants to their mother-in-law, and the grand- children. The daughters have all married and gone to other homes. They have no rights in the old family, and are seen only occasionally. The 210 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands property is held in common, though there may be a division before the death of the father. The fa- ther, and, after his death, the mother, may chastise, sell, or even kill a son. A wife has no wish that her husband is legally bound to respect. Further than this, the wider family, the clan, the members of which live together in villages and have a com- mon ancestral temple, can keep the young man or woman in hand. While a young man is supposed to become of age at sixteen, he is practically under the control of his father, uncles, and older brothers, and when the average man comes to the headship of a family, his powers of initiative have largely atrophied. Custom and morals become identified, and both of them have the sanction of religion. China has enforced corporate responsibility. Any official was held accountable for any offense within his jurisdiction, whether he was to blame for it or not, and whether he could have foreseen its occurrence or not. The same responsibility ex- tended to families and villages. A case was known where a man, aided by his wife, flogged his mother. The pair were flayed alive ; the grand-uncle, uncle, two elder brothers, and the head of the clan were executed ; the neighbours on either side, the father of the woman, and the head representative of the literary degree the man held were flogged and banished ; the prefect and the district ruler were temporarily degraded ; and the child of the offenders was given another name. While the Chinese have thus lost much of their Progress in Social Reconstruction 211 ability to take the initiative, they have developed cooperation to the full. In matters of religion, trade, amusement, and the like, they work to- gether. Societies, secret or open, are organized for every conceivable purpose, for burying the dead, for holding feasts, for making public improvements, for any or for no purpose. The guild is the power in the business world. The system of markets has ramifications all over the province and brings each individual within reach of a market on a larger or a smaller scale. It is in their proved ability to co- operate, in their inherent respect for orderliness, and in their habit of governing themselves, in ac- cordance with the customs which have for them all the sanctity of a moral law, that we have the promise of the success of the present republic. This is a sketch of the social organization of the three great peoples of Asia before the advent of Western influence. Within a generation great and radical changes have taken place. Caste has begun to weaken its hold in India. Two provisions of the British Government for the public welfare have had much to do with this ; namely, the building of railways and the introduction of a good water supply. The expense of railway travel in India is very low and the people travel in droves, from the Brahman to the coolie. The railway carriages are not built on the lines of caste, and this promiscuous intermingling of the different castes cannot fail to cause some relaxing of the stringency 212 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands of caste regulations. Then, too, when persons are away from home and among strangers, as those who travel are, they naturally — at least in India — tend to overlook those minute regulations of caste which hamper freedom of movement. Mention has al- ready been made of some of the restrictions that caste imposes upon the use of water. In the old days, the different castes would have separate wells, to which low caste people, and especially outcastes, could have no access. But the British Government does not permit such discrimination, and this, too, tends to break down the exclusive- ness. Among the educated young men of India, these restrictions upon the use of food have lost their compelling force. They may conform among their families and friends, but when away from home, they do not hesitate to eat with others, con- trary to the rules of caste. At a recent Social Con- gress, the delegates had a common meal together. The remarkable thing about it was, not that they thus broke the rules of caste, but that when they returned to their homes, not one of them was called to account by the heads of his caste. In the old days, any high caste Hindu who crossed the ocean was ipso facto thrown out of caste and could be restored only by a long, expen- sive, and disgusting process of purification. To-day this requirement is either greatly reduced or en- tirely waived. The party of reformers in India, who have come to realize the evil social consequences of caste, are Progress in Social Reconstruction 213 seeking earnestly to remove some of the worst fea- tures. One line of effort is the attempt to break down the barriers between the sub-eastes, in order to reunite the castes which were originally one. This would prevent the evil results of too close in- terbreeding and at the same time broaden the inter- ests of the individuals. Inter-caste marriages are by no means unknown, especially among the mem- bers of the reforming Hindu sects. I met in northern India a gentleman who had been devot- ing his time for years to arranging such marriages. The leaders in the movement for political prog- ress also recognize in caste one of the obstacles to the attainment of their desires. They see in the condition of the outcastes a lasting blot upon Indian society. Some of them have openly advised the members of these depressed classes to become Christians, as the only avenue of escape. Others deplore the movement towards Christianity upon the part of these people, and are summoning their co-religionists to missionary efforts, in order to prevent the Christianization of these millions, which would mean, they believe, " in no small measure the wiping out of the hoary Hindu civilization." Equally important with this social movement is the political agitation for a greater degree of self- government. The agitators range all the way from those who calmly, though vigorously, request a greater share in the government of India and the removal of some of the disabilities from which India has suffered, up to those who urge the ex- 214 Sociological Progress in Mission Lands pulsion of the British and are ready to use vio- lence in order to emphasize their demand. The de- mands are equally varied. In this connection, it should be remembered that as yet a very small fraction of the population of India is in the slightest degree affected by this agitation. The causes of the agitation are too many to be discussed fully here, but a few of the grievances should receive a bare mention : 1. Certain disabilities from which the Indians have suffered, such as their exclusion from some of the higher offices. 2. Until recently, the control by government rather than by the electorate of the majority in the legislative bodies. 3. Certain fiscal and tariff regulations which unduly sacrifice India to British interests. 4. The attitude of superiority assumed by many a Britisher towards the cultivated and educated Indian. 5. The acquaintance of the Indian student with the history and political philosophy of the Western nations, and his consequent desire to enjoy similar political rights and privileges. 6. The selfish wish to exploit the country, or at least to hold office. The educated Indian has be- lieved himself above everything but a position under government, in administrative or educational work, and the graduates have far outnumbered the positions. 7. The fear that Hindu institutions are being Progress in Social Reconstruction 215 undermined, and the consequent attempt to expel the British, in order that full control may revert to the Brahmans and other leaders of Hinduism. Whatever may be said of the justification or lack of justification of these reasons — and I am both an admirer and a critic of British rule in India — it should be stated that the Indians enjoy a far greater degree of self-government than was ever granted them under any former regime, and that the British Government is moving in the direction of satisfying the legitimate demands of the people and perhaps permitting India to become a self-governing mem- ber of the British Empire, with its own parlia- mentary institutions. Even before the recent reforms, less than 6,500 Englishmen were employed in the task of ruling India, backed up by less than 80,000 British troops. While of the 1,370 higher positions in India, those paying a salary of $4,000 and more, 1,263 were held by Europeans, fifteen by Eurasians, and ninety- two by natives of India ; in the lower appointments, paying from $4,000 down to $300 a year, there were but 5,205 Europeans, 5,420 Eurasians, and 16,283 natives. 1 As early as 1850, 2 provision was made for con- sultative committees in towns. In 1870, local com- mittees were given control over the funds for local improvements. In 1882, municipal committees and local boards were provided for ; the members were to be elected ; and the non-official members were , ' New York, 1880. Fuller, Mrs. M. B., op. cit. Griffis, W. E., "The Mikado's Empire." New York, 1876. Jones, J. P., op. cit. Chapter V Bhattacharya, J. N., "Hindu Castes and Sects." Calcutta, 1896. Chintamani, C. Y., op. cit. Low, Sidney, " A Vision of India." London, 1906. Morse, H. B., "The Trade and Administration of the Chinese Empire." Shanghai, 1908. Eichard, L., " Comprehensive Geography of the Chi- nese Empire," trans. M. Kennelly, S. J. Shanghai, 1908. Smith, A. H., op. cit. "China Mission Year Book," issues for 1910, 1911, 1912. M. E. M., New York. Bibliography 283 " Christian Movement in Japan," for 1910. Tokyo, 1910. M. E. M., New York. " Japan Year Book, 1912. " Tokyo, 1911. " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 11th ed. Articles, "Caste," "Japan, Domestic History. " Chapter VI Murdoch, Eev. John, "Papers on Indian Beligious Keform." Madras, 1894. Okuma, Count, Editor, "Fifty Years of Modern Japan." London, 1909. World Missionary Conference, 1910. Eeport of Commission IV. Edinburgh, 1910. Wherry, E. M., et al. editors, "Islam and Mis- sions." New York, 1911. Zwemer, S. M., et al. editors, "The Mohammedan World of To-day." New York, 1906. Contemporary Revieio, August, 1893. "Encyclopaedia Britannica," 11th ed. Articles, " Arya Samaj," " Brahma Samaj," " Keshub Chunder Sen," " Earn Mohan Boy." Index Adi-Samaj, 254 Africa : Cannibalism, 149 Christian leaders, 174 Education, Industrial, 69 Missionary, 37, 55 Human sacrifices, 1461". Legal system, 162 Medical Missions, 71 Ordeals, 162 Polygamy, 97, 119 Slavery, 164 f. Witchcraft, 162 Woman, 97, 119 Africa, British South : Education, Mission : Effect of, 63 Objections to, answered, 63, 64 Africa, Eastern Central, slave- trade suppressed, 167 Agha Khan, 243 Aligarh College, 242 Allahabad Christian College, 67 Amanzimtote Seminary, 63, 70 Amoy, Infanticide, 152 f Anglo- Mohammedan College, 242 Animist, 268 Anti-Opium League, 176 Arya Samaj, 256, 258 f. Assam : Human sacrifices, 146 Slavery, 164 Temperance, 145 Assiut College, 58 Attainments, limit change, 24 Azariah, Bishop, 174 Baby-towers, 153 Bakin, 182 Balkan War, 230 Baroda women, marriage age, 100 Basel Mission, 65 f. Bataks, Women of, 116 Batelas, Cannibalism, 149 Bechuanaland, Temperance in, Beirut, 58, 75 Bentinck, Lord, abolished sati, 126 Blaikie, quoted, re Livingstone and slave-trade, 166 Blind and Deaf, Missionary Schools for, 54 Boarding Schools, Missionary, 53»55 Bombay, Plague statistics, 74 Bombay Social Conference, 125 Bose, Miss C. M., 133 Brahman, 192, 196 Kulin, 103 Brahma-Samaj, 2486°. Marriage age, 126 Vid. Ravi Mohan Roy, Debetidra Nath Tagore, Keshub Chunder Sen Brahma-Samaj of India, 254 Brown, S. R., 222 Buddhism : Ethics of priests, 14 1, 262 Pessimism, 23 Sway of, 235 Buddhism, Reformed, 260 ff. Ceylon, 260 f. Japan, 261 ff. Bule women, 97 Bulgaria, Missionary influence on, 39 Robert College, influence of, 58 Burma, Temperance, 145 285 286 Index Burma, Upper, Human sacri- fices, 146 Busoga, Sleeping sickness, 22 Cannibalism, 148 f. Canton, Fight against gambling, 178 Carey, William : Educational work, 52 re female infanticide, 155 re sati, 126 Caste, 191 ff. B rah mans, position of, 1 96 Divisions, 192 Functions of, 193, 199 Multiplication, 192 f. Obstacle to industrial educa- tion, 69 Outcastes, 197, 213 Relations of castes, 195 ff. Results, 198 Rules, 194 ff., 212 f. Penalties for violating, 198, 212 Spirit of, 194 Statistics of, 192 Sudras, 197 Weakening of, 211 Ceylon, Buddhism, 260 f. Changes, Social : Causes of, 20 Extent in Orient, 25 ff. Limitations, 21 Slowness of, 24 Character : Limits change, 24 New types under Christian- ity, 174 ff. Relative permanence, 24 Chauhans, Infanticide, 154 Cheh-kiang, Infanticide, 152 China : Christians, 171, 174 Constitution, reformed Man- chu, 225 Provisional republican, 226 Cooperation, 211 Divorce, no Education, government, 57, 85 Industrial, 70, 86 Schools provided by de- cree of 1903, 81 ff. Education, Missionary, 54 f. Government and, 56 The missionary and, 37 Ethics, 140 Family, character and au- thority, 209 f. Family life, 108 ff., ill Foot-binding, III, 179, 180 ff. Fu, 206 f. Gambling, 178 f. Girls' orphan asylums, 153 Government, 205 ff. Changes in, 223 ff. listen, 205 Individual in, 36 Infanticide, female, 151 ff. Intemperance suppressed, 176 Marriage customs, 107 f. Among Christians, 128 Medical missions, 71, 75 Medical progress and train- ing, 89 Opium, 176 ff. Polygamy, 109 Railway development, effect of, 27 Reform, constitutional, 223 ff. Judicial, 227 Prison, 228 Religions of, 23 Responsibility, corporate, 2 10 Revolution, 224 Women in, 129 f. Selfishness in, 172 Self-torture, 160 Slavery, 164 Social organization, 204 ff. Standard of living, 87 Suicide, 158 Unity, increase in, 27 Index 287 Village, government of, 206 Widows, 110 Woman, 106 ff. Christian, 128 Clubs, 129 Daily paper, 129 Foot-binding, III Progress, 128 f. Sale of, 107 Schools for, 129 The new, 130 Wives, rights of, 108 Vid. Foot-binding Christ : Appeal of, 271 Social influence, 20 Christian community, effects of poverty, 49 Christianity : Ethics of, 142 f. Naturalization of, 278 Only hope of Orient, 266 ff. Strength, elements of, 267 ff. vs. advanced religions, 234 animistic religions, 233 f. Christians, Native : Africa, 174 China, 174 India, 133, 174 Japan, 222 New types of character, I74ff. Relative immunity from plague, 74 Attitude towards vices : Vid. Cannibalism, Infanti- cide, Truthfulness, etc. Chuckerbutty, Miss S., 134 Chu-Gakko, 77 Church, Duty of, 46, 231, 277 Cilicia, Christians and plague, 74 City problem, 28 Class spirit, 191 Climate effects, 21 Coillard, Pastor, 164, 167 Colleges, Missionary, 53 f. Combinations, Industrial, 19 Commerce, Social influence of, 26 f. Confucianism, 23 Congo Valley : Human sacrifices, 146 Ordeals, 163 Creek Town, Vid. Old Calabar Cromer, Lord, 33, 241 note Crowther, Bishop, 149 Dayanand Saraswati, 256 f. Debendra Nath Tagore, 250 Beliefs, 250 f. Dependence, 18 Ding Li Mei, 174 Divorce, no, 113 Doshisha students' record, 59 Du Bose, Dr., 176 Dutt, Miss Toru, 134 Dutt, R. C, 33 Economic Life, Relation to soil, 22 Education : Effect of, 27, 41 Relation of missionary to, 37,39 Education, Christian, 92 f. Education, Government, 77 ff. China, 81 ff. India, 80 Japan, 77 ff. Education, Industrial, 86 Vid. Africa, India, etc. Education, Mission : Elementary, 54, 55 Government, relation to, 56 f. High Schools, 53, 55 Industrial, 65 ff. Medical, 54, 75 f. Objections to, answered, 63 f. Statistics of, 536°. Women, 114 f. Education, Secular, 45, 52 Elgin, Lord, Anti-nautch action, 187 England, Industrial and social changes, 20 Environment, Influence of, 17 Eta, Vid. Japan 288 Index Ethical Ideals, Vid. Ideals, Eth- ical Ethical Standards, 36 Ethics : Difficulty of comparison, 138 Divorced from religion, 140 Effect of Christianity upon, 142 f. Vid. China , Japan, India, Islam, etc. Evils, Social, 30 ff., Chapters II-V Vid. Ignorance, Poverty, etc. Faith, in India and Japan, 142 Family, Importance of, 95 ff. Progress in Ideals of, Chap- ter III Female infanticide act, India, 156 Feudalism, Japan, 200 Fiji Islands : Cannibalism, 148 f. Infanticide, 151 Foochow : Infanticide, female, 152 f. Baby -tower, 153 Foot-binding, 180 Foot-binding, in, 179 f. Missionary and, 38, 180 Formosa : Temperance, 145 Truthfulness of Christians, 170 Gambling, 178 f. God, Christian Doctrine of, 267 Gold Coast, ordeals, 163 Goreh, Miss, 135 Gospel, effect and appeal, 41 f. Government, Corruption of, 36 Grants-in-aid, 56 Great Britain and slave trade, 165 Griffis, Dr. W. E., 181 Gujarat, Infanticide, 154 Hankow, Infanticide, 154 Hausaland slave-trade, 165 Hawaii : Industrial education, 65 Instructions to missionaries, 42 Health conditions, effect of, 21 Heimin, Vid. Japan Hervey Islands, Vid. Raratonga Hindu, The, re position of woman, 122 Hinduism : Change of views re poly- theism, 239 re idolatry, 239 Expansion, 235 Indebted to Christ, 239 Pessimism, 23 Hinduism, Reformed, 248 ff. Vid. Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj Hinin, Vid. Japan Holi, festival, 186 Holy men, 141 Home, Christian, 117 f. Honesty, lack of, 36 Hong Kong, Christians and plague, 74 Honour, Missionary influence on, 40 Hook-swinging, India, 160 Housing, Problem of, 28 Reform in United States, 1 9 Human sacrifice, 145 ff. Ideals, Ethical : Growth and influence, 28 Missionary and, 38 Ideals, Social, Missionary and, 38 Ignorance, 30 Removal of, Chapter II India : Ascetics, 159 Caste, 191 ff. Weakening of, 211 Christian leaders, 174 Christians, poverty, 49 Doctrine of faith, 142 Index 289 Economic inefficiency, 32 Education, 80 Hindu, 80 Moslem, 80 Education, Government, 80 Christian women teach- ers, 62 f. Industrial, 86 Education, Missionary, 54 f., 5 6 Effect of, 60 Government, relation to, 56 Influence of higher schools, 60 Standing of, 61 Education, Missionary In- dustrial, 65 ff. Ethics, 140 Government, 216 f. Municipal, 215 Representation in, 216 f. Holy men, 141 Human sacrifices, 145, 147 Impurity, 1846°. Infanticide, female, 154 ff. Act of 1870, 156 Sacrificial, 155 f. Islam, Vid. Islam, India Marriage, early, 100 f. Raising of age, 125 Medical missions, 71, 90 Ordeals, 161, 164 Outcastes, influence of Chris- tianity upon, 175 Education, 61 f. Political unrest, 105 f. Polygamy, 103 Poverty, 33 Social effects of, 48 Prostitution, 141, 186 Religious, 187 f. Purity, new standards, 185 Races, 193 Sati, abolished, 38, 126 f. Self-torture, 159 Slavery, 164 Suicide, 158 Truthfulness of Christians, 171 Widows, 103 f. Child-, 105 Marriage of, 127 Widow Marriage Act, 127 Woman, 99 ff. Christians, 133 ff. Conservative force, 96 f. Education, 123 New attitude towards, 122 Progress, 121 Vid. Caste Indian Social Conference, 187 Indian Social Reformer, 157 Indians, North American, indus- trial education, 65 Individual : Missionary influence on po- sition of", 40 Position in Japan, 204 Position of, in Orient, 35, 189 Type of, created by Chris- tianity, 172 Industrial Training, Missionary, T 3 3 ' 55 Industry ; Influence of new, 28 Missionary, relation of, to, 38 New dangers in, 45 f. Inefficiency, Economic, 31 f., 39, Chapter II Infanticide : Female, 151 ff. Prevalence of, 150 f. Influence, Western, 26, 45 Missionary's relation to, 37 Initiative, lack of, 190 Institutions, Social, i8f. Intemperance, 143 f. Irrigation, 23 Ishii, Mr., 222 Islam : Ethics of, 142 India, 241 ff. 290 Index Agha Khan, 243 Educational societies, 246 Mirza Shulam Ahmed, 246 Rational reinterpreta- tions of, 244 f. Sayed Ahmed Khan, 242 Social reforms, 243 Modifications of, 240 Slavery under, 1 64 Sway of, 235 Jains, Infanticide, 155 Jamaica, Slavery, 168 Janes, Capt., 222 Japan : Adopts achievements of others, 25 Buddhism, Vid. Buddhism, Reformed Christian influence in, 175, 222 Commoners, 202 Concubinage, 131, 181 Daimyos, 202, 218 Divorce, 113 Earthquake construction, 23 Education, Government, 77 ft Industrial schools, 70, 87 Education, Mission, 54 f., 57> 59 f- Missionary and, 37 Eta, 203 Faith, doctrine of, 142 Feudal organization, 200 ff. Government, 2196°. and mission education, 56 Reconstruction of, 2 1 7 ff. Heimin, 202 Hinin, 203 Individual, position of, 204 Industrial changes, 20, 87 Journalism, Christian influ- ence on, 59 Literature : Ethical tone, 264 Influence of Christian schools upon, 59 Marriage, forms of, 113 Medical progress and train- ing, 87 Monogamy in, 183 Moral tone, 45 Nobility, 201 Orphanages, Christian, 76 Patriotism, 172 Philanthropy, 91 Poverty, effects, 48 Prostitution, 181 Purity, 181 ff. Revolution of 1869, 217 ff. Samurai, laws re, 20 1 (., 218 Sanitation, 88 Slavery, 164 Suicide, 157 ff. Temperance, 145 Truthfulness of Christians, 171 Virtues, retention of, 221 Woman, 1 1 2 ff. Christian influence on, 136 Dangers for, 131 and note Progress, i3off. Johannesburg, record of mission education, 63 f. Johnston, Sir Harry H., 167 Justice : Absence of, 36 Effect of Gospel upon, 4 1 Kenjiro, Tokutomi, 59 Keshub Chunder Sen, 253 ff. Khama, Chief : Character, 174 Fight for temperance, 143 f. Polygamy suppressed, 119 Kindergartens, Missionary, 54 Kinnear, Dr., 75 Koran, New attitude towards, 244 f. Index 291 Korea : Medical progress, 88 Slavery, 164 Vid. Japan Kois, Ordeals among, 161 KotO-GakkO, 78 Kshatriyas, 192 Le Roy, Rev. W. E., 63 Lewanika : Human sacrifices suppressed by, 148 Ordeals under, 164 Life, Estimate upon, 35 Lifu, Cannibalism suppressed, 149 Literature, Western, 27 Little, Mrs. Archibald, 180 Living, Standard of, 33, 39 Livingstone, David and slave- trade, 166 Livingstonia Mission, 70 Lovedale, 70 Macgowan, Dr., 180 Madagascar : Infanticide, 151 Ordeals, 162, 164 Madras : Infanticide, female, 157 Marriage age, 126 Madras Christian College, 60 Maebashi, Prostitution in, 182 Malwa, Infanticide, female, 154 Maoris : Cannibalism, 149 Temperance, 144 Mazumdar, 172 Mbau Island, Infanticide, 151 Medical Missions, aim, 5 1 Vid. Missions, Medical Medical Schools, Missionary, 54 Medical work, need, 70 Medicine : Development of, 87 ff. China, 89 India, 90 Japan, 88 Siam, 89 Missionary and, 39 Social results of, 41 Men and Religion Movement, 42 Messina earthquake, 20 Mirza Ghulam Ahmed, 246 Missionaries, Medical, 72 Missionary : Scope of work of, 43 f. Social influence, 37 ff., 40 Influence on Bulgaria, 39 Influence vs. Foot-binding, 38 Ignorance, 39 Obscenity in Hinduism, 38 sail, 38 Influence on Turkey, 39 in suppressing social evils : Vid. Cannibalism, In- fanticide, Ordeals, etc. Missions : Aim of, 42 f. Crisis of, 275 f. Objections to, 25 Missions, Medical ; End of, in Japan, 87 Extent of, 7 1 Influence of, 72 Plague, work against, 73 Training natives, 75 Women physicians, 71 Mitter, Miss Mary, 134 Morals, Vid. Ethical Standards Mysore, marriage age, ioo, 125 Natural- Foot Association, 180 Nature : Aspect of, 22, 41 Dependence upon, 47 Nautch-girls, 186 f. Neesima, Joseph H., 59, 222 New Hebrides, Woman, posi- tion, 98 New Zealand, Temperance, 144 Nigeria, Slavery, 169 Ningpo, Woman's Club, 129 Nitobe, Dr., 222 Nogi, General Count, 158 f. 292 Index Normal Training, Missionary, 53 f. North-West Province, Infanti- cide, 157 Nurses' Training, Missionary, 54 Nyasaland : Ordeals, 162 f. Temperance, 144 Occident vs. Orient, 26 Okuma, Count, 222 Old Calabar : Cannibalism, 149 Human sacrifices, 147 Infanticide, 150 Ordeals, 162 f. Slavery, 168 Opium, Vid. China Opium Conference, International, 177 Ordeals, Cruel, 161 ff. Orient vs. Occident, 26 Orphanages, Christian, 59 Missionary, 54 Osaka, Prostitution, 182 Outcastes, Vid. India, Outcastes Pacific Islands : Vid. Infanticide, etc. Woman, 98, 119 Panama, Health conditions, 22 Parsees, Marriage law, 126 Patriotism, Lack of, 172 Peking : Government schools, 57 Union Medical school, 76, 89 Persia, Education, 37 Pessimism, 23 Philanthropy, Christian, Chapter II Philippines : Cholera, 22 Slavery, 164 Plague, Immunity, 73 f. Political, Ideals, 29 Missionary, relation of, 38 f. Reforms, weakness, 231 Polygamy, 97 f., 103, 109 Population, Density, 22 Poverty, Chapter II, 33, 50 f. Progress, Chapter I Hindered by poverty, 49 Missionary, relation to, 37 ff. Prostitution, Vid. India, japan, Purity Provincialism, 30 Purity, 36, 40 Vid. India, Japan Rajputs, Infanticide, 154 Ram Mohan Roy, Raja, 127, 248 ff. Ramabai, Pundita, 134, 136 Raratonga, Cannibalism, 149 Rearing-marriage, 108 Red Cross Society, Japan, 91 Reform, Lack of leaders, 46 Religions, non-Christian : Changes in, Chapter VI Characteristics of, 236 Disintegration of, 237 Weakness of, 265 f. Responsibility, personal, 189, 210 Rhodesia, Mission education, 56 Robert College, 58 Royal Niger Company, 169 Salvation, Christian doctrine, 274 Samurai, hara-kiri, 157 Vid. Japan Sanitation, 28, 73 Sati, 38, 104, 126 Satthianadhan, Mrs., 134 Sayed Ahmed Khan, Sir, 242 f. Selfishness, 172 Self-support, 49 Self-torture, 159 ff. Seoul, temple, 264 Serampore college, 52 Sexes, in India, 155 Shans, Human sacrifices, 146 Shensi, Christians, 171 Shintoism, 266, 272 Shome, Mrs. N., 135 Index 293 Siam, Slavery, 164 Sin, Christian Doctrine, 269 Singh, Miss L. R., 134 Slavery, 20, 41, 164 ff. Slave-trade, Work of Living- stone, 166 Sleeping-sickness, 22 Social Ideals, Vid. Ideals, Social Social Organization, Chapter V Society Islands, Human sacri- fices, 146 Soil, Influence of, 22 Sorabji family, 135 f. Standards, Ethical, compared, 138 ff. Standard of living, 41, 87 Steam engine, 20 Sudras, 192 f., 196 f. Suffering, Physical, 31 Suicide, 157 ft. Syrian Protestant College, 58, 75 Tamil proverbs, 99 Temple-girls, 187 f. Thakurs, Infanticide, 157 Theological training, 53, 55 Tientsin orphan asylum, 153 Tilak, Rev., 174 Tokyo, Religious census, 237 Torture, Self-, Vid. Self-torture Toson, Shimasaki, 59 Townsend, Meredith, 271 Trade, Relation of missionary to, 37 Transportation, Effect of, 26 Truthfulness, 36, 169 ff. Tsuda, Miss Ume, quoted, 131 ff., note Turkey : Constitutional reform, 229 Education, Missionary, 37, 54, 5 6 » 6 5 Missionary influence, 39 Religious disintegration, 238 Uganda : Education, 56, 70 Human sacrifices, 146L Polygamy, 119 Slavery, 169 United States, Slave-trade, 165 Universities' Mission to Central Africa, 167 Ushashi, Woman in, 98 Uyemura, Rev., 272 Vaccination, 73 Vaishyas, 192 Verbeck, Dr., 222 Warneck, Dr. J., 148 Watanabe, Judge, 222 West, Need of Christianizing, 231, 279 Widows, Vid. China, India Widow-Marriage Act, 127 Witchcraft, 162 Woman, Chapter III Vid. Africa, China, India, etc. Woman, Education, Christian, 39, H4ff. Influence, 96 Woman, The New, l3of. Vid. China, Japan Women, Christian, 128, I33ff., 136 Vid. China, India, Japan World's Women's Christian Tem- perance Union, 145 Yokoi, 222 Yoruba, Human sacrifices, 148 Young Turks, 39, 58 Zanzibar, Slave-trade, 165, 167 Zulu, Preacher, 174 Homes, 119 f. Zulu Mission, Temperance, 144 Printed in the United States of America HOME AND FOREIGN MISSIONS ROLAND ALLEN, M.A. Essential Missionary Principles i2mo, cloth, net $1.00. An author new to American readers has claimed attention of students of missions through his recent thought-compelling book, Missionary Methods — St. Paul's or Ours? This latter volume dealing with the principles of missions well supple- menting the volume on methods. ROLAND ALLEN, M.A. Library of Historic Theology Missionary Methods : St. Paul's or Ours ? With Introduction by Rt. Rev. Henry Whitehead, D.D., Lord Bishop of Madras. 8vo, cloth, net $1.50. Is this book the true answer to the question as to why Christian Missions do not progress to-day as rapidly as we should like to see them doing? Dr. Allen was formerly a missionary in North China and author of "The Siege of Peking Legations" and writes from large experience. His arguments for the application of truly Pauline methods of envangelization in foreign mission fields are startling. The reader may not agree with all of his criticisms and sugges- tions but the discussion which will be aroused cannot fail to be helpful. It is a vigorous presentation of a profoundly important subject. MISS MINNA G. COWAN The Education of the Women of India Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.25. The subject is treated historically, philosophically and suggestively. The contributions made by the government, the East Indians themselves and the missionaries, to solving the educational problems of the country are clearly shown. The book is an important and suggestive addition to the literature of education in foreign lands, being a worthy companion volume to Miss Burton's "The Education o* Women in China." LIVINGSTON F. IONES A Study of the Thlingets of Alaska i2mo, cloth, illustrated, net $1.50. For twenty-one years the author has labored as a mission- ary representing the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions among the people about which he writes. Probably no living man is better qualified to tell about this interesting race. Hon. James Wickersham says: "Contains much that is new and valuable in respect to the social life and ancient cus- toms of the Thlinget Indians. An interesting and valuable contribution to the ethnology of the Pacific Coast. FOREIGN MISSIONS M. WILMA STUBBS How Europe Was Won for Christianity Illustrated. i2mo, cloth, net $1.50. The story of the first seventeen centuries of Christianity is here told in the lives of the great missionaries of the church beginning with St. Paul. So far as we are aware no single volume containing so complete a collection of the lives of these pioneers in missionary work has before been published. Miss Stubbs has done # a very real and important service to the cause of missions in making the lives of these great men live for the inspiration of younger generations of to-day. R. FLETCHER MOORSHEAD, M.B., F.R.C.S. The Appeal of Medical Missions i2mo, cloth, net $1.00. The author is Secretary of the Medical Mission Auxiliary of the British Baptist Mission Society and Baptist Zenana Mission. He gives a general survey of the nxain consider- ations upon which the Medical Mission enterprise is based, presenting a true conception of the need, value and importance of this great work in the spread of the Gospel. Dr. Moore- head knows his subject well and he gives a wealth of inter- esting facts regarding The Character and Purpose of Medical Missions — The Origin and Authority, Justification, Need, Value — The Practice of Medical Missions, Woman's Sphere in lhem, Training for, Home Base, Failure, Appeal, etc. JAMES S. DENNIS, D. D. The Modern Call of Missions : Studies In Some of the Larger Aspects of a Great Enterprise. 8vo, cloth, net $1.50. "This is a magnificent presentation of the call of missions, showing their great and sweeping influence on human life and social progress. It is a logical and searching study of the power of the Gospel as it goes into other lands and there meets the facts and elements that make up the life of the people. Dr. Dennis has had the personal experiences and knowledge which enable him to speak with authority. An exceedingly valuable contribution to the missionary literature of the day." — Herald and Presbyter. ARCHIBALD McLEAN Epoch Makers of Modern Missions Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.00. The author of "Where the Book Speaks," has given in these "College of Missions Lectures" a series of sketches of modern missionary leaders which for clearness, brevity, directness of style and inspirational value, have rarely been surpassed. Each characterization is truly "much in little," and the bcok is a distinct and most acceptable addition to missionary biography. FOREIGN MISSIONS AND YOUNG PEOPLE BELLE M. BRAIN Love Stories of Great Missionaries Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net 50c. Miss Brain has made a distinct place for herself in mis- sionary literature. She is preeminently a story-teller, know- ing well how to invest her subject with charm and interest. In these love stories of the World's great missionaries she is at her best. It is evident from these romances of Judson and Gilmour and Livingstone and Moffat and Caillard and Martyn, which she portrays with such fascination, that love, courtship and marriage are very vital factors in the Mission- ary Enterprise. JULIA H. JOHNSTON Fifty Missionary Heroes Every Boy and Girl Should Know Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.00. The author of that popular Mission Study Text Book, IN- DIAN AND SPANISH NEIGHBORS, has supplied a real need in this volume for Junior readers and leaders. Miss Johnston gives living portraits of a large number of mission- ary heroes well adapted to interest and inspire young people. EMILY E. ENTWISTLE The Steep Ascent Missionary Talks With Young People. l2mo, cloth, net $1.00. Martha Tarbell savs of the book, "It is exceedingly well and interestingly written, adapted to the Junior and lower Intermediate grades for which so few books of this sort are written." BASIL MA THEWS, M.A. The Splendid Quest Stories of Knights on the Pilgrim Way. l2tno, cloth, net $1.00. ± , The Prologue, "The Pilgrim's Way," serves as a back- ground for the life stories of famous Knights of the Quest which follow. The stories are suitable for children of from 8 to 15. REV. W. MUNN Three Men on a Chinese Houseboat The Story of a River Voyage Told for Young Folks. Illustrated, iamo, cloth, net $1.00. The story of an actual trip up the Yang-tse river taken by three missionaries on the way to their stations. In breezy, easy-flowing narrative one of the three tells the very inter- esting story of their fifteen hundred mile journey. The book should be a very acceptible addition to missionary stenef and side-light reading. BIOGRAPHY— MISSIONARY JOHN T. FARIS Author of" Men Who Made Good" The Alaskan Pathfinder The Story of Sheldon Jackson for Boys. Illus- trated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.00. The story of Sheldon Jackson will appeal irresistibly to every boy. Action from the time he was, as an infant, rescued from a fire to his years' of strenuous rides through the Rockies and his long years' of service in Alaska, per- meate every page of the book. Mr. Faris, with a sure hand, tells the story of this apostle of the Western Indians in clear- cut, incisive chapters which will hold the boy's attention from first to last. G. L WHARTON Life of G. L. Wharton By Mrs. Emma Richardson Wharton. Illustrated, l2mo, gilt top, cloth, net $1.25. A biography of a pioneer missionary of the F. C. M. S., Written Dy a devoted wife who shared the experiences of her husband in a long service in India and Australia. It is a life of unusual interest and an important addition to the annals of modern missionary effort. MRS. LAURA DELANY GARST A West Pointer in the Land of the Mikado Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.25. The story of a great life given unreservedly to the aervic* ef God in Japan — a life story representative of the best the West sends the East and typical of that missionary spirit in America which is one of the marvelous things in the growth of the Christ life in man. The Christian world will be proud •f and wish to study such a record — coming generations will find here inspiration and incentive for yet greater ef- fort and larger sacrifice. HENRY OTIS DJFIGHT A Muslim Sir Galahad A Present Day Story of Islam In Turkey. Net $1.00. "The author of 'Constantinople and Its Problems,' has written an intensely interesting story of present-day Turkish life. A fascinating picture of the Mohammedan world. Recent events in the Near East make this book of unusual interest, and a better book, throwing sidelights on the Mo- hammedan question, could net be found."— -Pacific Prasby- iMB. FOREIGN MISSIONS— BIOGRAPHY DANIEL McGILVARY, P.P. A Half Century Among the Siamese and the Lao An Autobiography of Daniel McGilvary, D.D. With an Introduction by Arthur J. Brown, D.D. Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net $2.00. There is no more fascinating story in fiction, or in that truth which is stranger than fiction The years of toil and privation of loneliness and sometimes of danger; how the missionaries persevered with splendid faith and courage until the foundations of a prosperous mission were laid are por- traved with graphic power. It is a book of adventure and human interest and a notable contribution to American for- eign missionary literature." — Presbyterian Banner. WILLIAM ELLIOT GRTFFIS, P.P., L.H.P. A Modern Pioneer in Korea The Life Story of Henry G. Appenzeller. Illus- trated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.25. This life is another stirring chapter in the record of modern missionary heroism. The author's name is a guar- antee of its thoroughness, accuracy and interest. Dr. Griffis has woven a most picturesque and interesting background of Korean landscape, life and history. It is a book that will win interest in missionary effort. MARGARET E. BURTON Notable Women of Modern China, Illustrated, i2mo, cloth, net $1.25. Ihe author's earlier work on the general subject of Wbmen's Education in China, indicates her ability to treat with peculiar interest and discernment the characters making up this volume of striking biographies. If these women ar" types to be followed by a great company of like aspirations the future of the nation is assured. ROBERT McCHEYNE MATEER Character-Building in China The Life Story of Julia Brown Mateer. Illustra- ted, i2mo, cloth, net $1.00. "Gives a vivid, many-sided picture of missionary work. It is, in fact, an answer to such questions as, How is mis- sionary life practically lived? It is of engrossing interest alike to the advocates of missionary work and general readers who enjoy real glimpses of foreign and pagan civilization. — Presbyterian Advance. ESSAYS, GIFT BOOKS, ETC. NEWELL D WIGHT HILLIS, P.P. Lectures and Orations by Henry Ward Beecher Collected and with Introduction by Newell Dwight Hillis. i2mo, cloth, net $1.20. It is fitting that one who is noted for the grace, finish and eloquence of his own addresses should choose those of his predecessor which he deems worthy to be preserved, the most characteristic and the most dynamic utterances of America's greatest pulpit orator. PA VIP SWING The Message of David Swing to His CZt*Tl£±tr\+\r\T\ Addresses and Papers, together with a Study of OenerailOn David Swing and His Message b S Newell D. Hillit l2mo, cloth, net $1.20. A collection of some of David Swing's greatest orations and addresses, mostly patriotic, none of which have before been published in book form. Dr. Hillis, who has gathered them together, contributes an eloquent tribute to his dis- tinguished confrere in an Introductory "Memorial Address." WAYNE WHIPPLE The Story-Life of the Son of Man 8vo, illustrated, net $2.50. Nearly a thousand stories from sacred and secular sources woven into a continuous and complete chronicle of the life of the Saviour. Story by story, the author has built up from the best that has been written, mosaic like, a vivid and attractive narrative of the life of lives. Mr. Whipple's life stories of Washington and Lincoln in the same unique form, have both been conspicuously successful books. GAIUS GLENN ATKINS, P. P. Pilgrims of the Lonely Road i2mo, cloth, net $1.50. In nine chapters the author presents what he calls the "Great Books of the Spirit". Beginning with the Medita- tions of Marcus Aurelius, he interprets with spiritual in- sight and clarity of expression the Confessions of St. Augus- tine, Thomas a'Kempis' Imitation of Christ, the Iheologia Germanica, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, etc. ROSE PORTER A Gift Of LOVe *nd Loving Greetingi for 365 D«yt New Popular Edition. Long i6mo, net 50c. "All the texts chosen present some expressions of God's love to man, and this indicates the significance of the title." •— Tht Luthtron Qbserv&r. Princeton Theological Seminary, Libraries 1 1012 01234 9660 Rill mffm in H mm SSiiffil